work_2ffhhcdw4nfovfpyso4tssfrwm	----	Corondel nº1 211 LA IMPORTANCIA DEL ESPAÑOL PARA LA EMIGRACIÓN A ESPAÑA: EL ESPAÑOL, LENGUA DE OPORTUNIDADES THE IMPORTANCE OF SPANISH FOR EMIGRATION TO SPAIN: SPANISH AS A LANGUAGE OF OPPORTUNITY MAIMOUNA SANKHÉ* msankhe@hotmail.com Universidad Cheikh Anta Diop, Dakar, Senegal Resumen: El aprendizaje del segundo idioma más hablado del mundo se hace necesario en un mundo globalizado y marcado por las migraciones internacio- nales y la comunicación. Como segundo idioma de comunicación internacio- nal, el español ofrece importantes oportunidades en todas partes del mundo. Por esta razón, numerosos son los investigadores que no dudan en hablar del valor económico del español; nos referimos, por ejemplo, al libro coordinado por García Delgado y titulado: El español lengua de comunicación científica (2013). El objetivo del presente estudio es abordar las ventajas del aprendizaje del espa- ñol y, para ello, se han seleccionado unos trabajos específicos que sirven de apoyo y son mencionados en el trabajo. Palabras clave: Español; emigración; lide- razgo; oportunidad; África. Abstract: Learning the second most spoken language in the world is necessary in a globalized world marked by international migration and communication. As second language of international communication, the Spanish offers signifi- cant opportunities in all parts of the world. For this reason, many researchers are not hesitant to talk about the economic value of Spanish; for example, the book edited by García Delgado, entitled: El español lengua de comunicación científica (2013). The aim of this study is to address the advantages of learning Spanish and for that, we have selected some specific texts that support and are mentioned in the work. Key words: Spanish; emigration; leadership; opportunity; Africa. index l comunicación | nº 4 (2) | 2014 | Páginas 211-216 | ISSN: 2174-1859 [*] Doctora en Literatura Hispanoamericana. xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx R ef er en ci ar c om o: S an kh é, M . ( 20 14 ). La im po rt an ci a de l e sp añ ol p ar a la em ig ra ci ón a E sp añ a: E l e sp añ ol le ng ua d e op or tu ni da de s. in de x. co m un ic ac ió n, 4 (2 ), 21 1- 21 6. R ec up er ad o de h tt p: // jo ur na ls .s fu .c a/ in de xc om un ic ac io n/ in de x. ph p/ in de xc om un ic ac io n/ ar tic le /v ie w /1 33 /1 29 1. Introducción A diferencia de otros países europeos, la inmigración africana a España es relativamente reciente. Esto se traduce en un cambio importante –y en poco tiempo– de la composición social, cultural y étnica de España. De repente, pueblos y culturas diferentes se ven en la obligación de coexistir. Lo cual con- vierte la integración y la inclusión en uno de los grandes desafíos del momen- to. Ya se sabe que algunos países receptores de inmigrantes han hecho del aprendizaje del idioma oficial del país de acogida una herramienta básica de integración. Aunque las barreras lingüísticas se acaben superando con el tiempo, el conocimiento del español incluso antes de emigrar a España no sólo agiliza la integración sino que dicha integración supondrá menores cos- tes para el país receptor. Si bien es cierto que hay muchos estudios que tratan de la importancia del español en el mundo y su valor económico, hay que reconocer que son escasos, por no decir inexistentes, los estudios que abordan la importancia de la presencia del español en África. Los estudios a los que se ha tenido acceso hablan de la necesidad de impulsar los estudios del español en Europa, Norteamérica y Asia. Por esta razón, el presente estudio abordará la importancia del español en África y girará en torno a dos ejes fundamentales: por un lado, el por qué la pre- sencia del español en África es una base fundamental para afianzar las relacio- nes económicas y culturales entre España y África y, por otro lado, las oportuni- dades que el español ofrece a nivel social, económico y cultural a los que lo hablamos en general y al emigrante en particular. Para la elaboración de este artículo, serán imprescindibles los valiosos estu- dios sobre el valor del español, coordinados por los investigadores José Luis García Delgado, José Antonio Alonso y Juan Carlos Jiménez. 2. Importancia del español en el mundo Para entender la importancia del español en el mundo basta con referirse al estudio de los investigadores García, Alonso y Jiménez (2013) para quienes: “el valor de un idioma aparece determinado primero por el número de personas que lo hablan” (García et al., 2013: 15) y, segundo, por el protagonismo que tiene la comunidad de dicha lengua en la “producción de riqueza material, tec- nológica, científica y cultural a escala global” (García et al., 2013: 16). Partiendo de estas premisas, es fácil entender la proyección del español en el mundo y las oportunidades que ofrece tanto dentro como fuera de los países de habla española. A las pruebas me remito, ya que según el último informe del Instituto Cervantes: “unos 500 millones de personas hablan español, convirtién- index.comunicación | nº 4 (2) | África con eñe 212 dose así en la segunda lengua del mundo por número de hablantes y el segundo idioma de comunicación internacional”. Debido a su constante expansión y al lugar privilegiado que ocupa en el mundo, el español es sin duda una de las lenguas que más oportunidades ofre- cen a quienes la hablan. Es la razón por la cual cada curso académico España recibe el 17% de los alumnos universitarios Erasmus, es decir, unos 35.000 alum- nos, convirtiéndose en el primer país de destino, entre los 32 países que partici- pan en este programa europeo. Esta importancia del español lo entendió temprano el francés René Durand quien llevó el hispanismo a Senegal y fundó el Centro de Altos Estudios Afro Ibero Americanos de la Universidad Cheikh Anta Diop de Dakar, además de dirigir el departamento de español desde 1957 hasta 1982. Desde entonces los hispanistas anhelaban tener un aula Cervantes y este esfuerzo fue premiado en el año 2009 durante el mandato de la catedrática Carmen Caffarel, como directora del Instituto Cervantes. A la inmensa riqueza humana se añade el liderazgo de España en muchos sectores tales como las energías renovables e infraestructuras del transporte, sin olvidar las humanidades que son el motivo de buena parte del éxito del español en el mundo. Lo que hace que su aprendizaje sea ineludible. No en vano se dice que el español es el ‘petróleo’ de España porque, ade- más de ser una herramienta que facilita la integración social, el español tam- bién tiene utilidades relacionadas con la economía. Por eso, la enseñanza del español es una inversión social que, a medio o largo plazo, da sus frutos. Todo parece indicar que la comunidad lingüística estimula más el comercio entre dos países que la pertenencia a un área de integración económica. Es, al menos, lo que opinan los investigadores García, Delgado y Alonso (2012) en su estudio sobre el valor del español. De modo que una fuerte presencia del español en el continente africano puede consolidar las relaciones comerciales entre España y los países africanos, facilitando la inversión por parte de empresas españolas en África. En apoyo a este punto cabe mencionar el planteamiento de Todorov quien arguye en Cruce de culturas (1988) que “el conocimiento de lo ajeno sirve para el enriqueci- miento propio: en este campo, dar es recibir” (Todorov, 1988: 25). El Banco Mundial publicó en 2010 un informe titulado Infrastructures afri- caines: une transformation impérative, en el que se manifiesta que la energía es el mayor desafío infraestructural de África. Según dicho estudio 48 países africa- nos, con unos 800 millones de habitantes, generaban más o menos la misma can- tidad de electricidad que España (que en el momento del estudio tenía 45 millo- nes de habitantes). Es enorme este déficit en materia de energías y transporte EL ESPAÑOL, LENGUA DE OPORTUNIDADES | MAIMOUNA SANKHÉ 213 cuyo corolario es el freno del desarrollo económico de África y el bienestar de las familias. La buena noticia es que África tiene grandes potencialidades para las energías renovables de las que España es obviamente líder. 3. Ventajas del aprendizaje del español Un estudio reciente titulado Lengua y emigración, coordinado por dos catedráti- cos españoles –José Antonio Alonso y Rodolfo Gutiérrez (2010)–ha demostrado que “la ventaja del buen aprendizaje del español entre quienes no lo tienen como lengua materna se refleja en que (…) tienen un porcentaje superior de permisos de residencia permanente, hay una frecuencia más alta de quienes han hecho inversiones, residen en zonas con menos problemas, y sobre todo, sus hijos han conseguido niveles educativos más altos, superiores incluso a los de los inmigran- tes hispanos” (Alonso y Gutiérrez, 2010: 26). Es decir, para estos investigadores: “todo parece indicar que los inmigrantes cuyos padres tienen mayor dominio de la lengua consiguen superiores niveles educativos” (Alonso y Gutiérrez, 2010: 29). El empoderamiento de las mujeres pasa por la educación, que es el motor del progreso y, ¡qué mejor que hacerlo en un idioma que es el segundo en comu- nicación internacional! La falta de oportunidades no sólo puede ser un caldo de cultivo de la violencia de género sino que puede favorecer la explotación sexual que es una de las grandes lacras de la globalización dado que, como bien afirma la política paraguaya Josefina Duarte en su artículo La educación, instrumento para la inserción laboral en un mercado global (2002), entre los actores de la glo- balización está desgraciadamente la mafia, es decir: “(todas las organizaciones dedicadas al narcotráfico, a la corrupción de todo tipo y al tráfico de personas), porque lamentablemente es la que con mayor agilidad y rapidez construye sus redes, extendiendo sus tentáculos por todo el mundo” (Duarte, 2002: 151).Tanto mujeres como hombres están siendo víctimas de estas mafias que abusan de la precaria situación de los candidatos a la inmigración irregular. La falta de conocimiento del español puede llevar a muchas mujeres inmigrantes a ignorar sus derechos como mujeres a la hora de enfrentarse a sus problemas. Es obvio que la mujer ha sido víctima y sigue siendo víctima de dis- criminación en muchas partes del mundo. En este sentido, la mujer inmi- grante africana necesita más que nadie aprender la lengua del país de acogida para romper los estigmas y estereotipos y para integrarse plenamente en la sociedad española. Como idioma de trabajo en la Unión Europea y en las Naciones Unidas, el español es una lengua práctica que ofrece oportunidades laborales en todas partes; basta con fijarse en el número creciente de demandas de profesores de español en las universidades de todo el mundo. Por lo tanto, invertir en la ense- index.comunicación | nº 4 (2) | África con eñe 214 ñanza del español en África es una inversión que da frutos en el ámbito eco- nómico, social y cultural. Imagínense para las escritoras africanas la traducción de sus obras al español. Estaríamos hablando de unos 500 millones de posibles lectores más y la posibilidad de difundir la cultura africana a través de los cinco continentes. 4. Conclusiones En resumen, África y España han tenido siempre un vínculo histórico que ha dejado sus huellas en la literatura y el arte. Recordemos el papel trascendental de Las señoritas de Aviñón (1907) de Pablo Picasso; un revolucionario cuadro ins- pirado en las máscaras africanas y que inaugura la primera de las vanguardias. El español es lengua de mestizaje entre africanos, americanos y europeos y, por eso, su aprendizaje por parte de los africanos es el primer eslabón para el reencuentro entre África y sus hijos de la Diáspora. Por lo tanto, el valor del español radica no sólo en la capacidad de liderazgo de la comunidad hispánica o en las numerosas oportunidades socio-económicas que ofrece sino también en su capacidad de unir a pueblos y continentes. Por esta razón, el querido profesor El Hadji Amadou Ndoye (2007), espe- cialista en literatura canaria y recientemente fallecido, afirmaba que aunque pueda parecer extraño que los africanos defendamos la lengua española, en rea- lidad no lo es tanto porque el español, además de ser idioma oficial en Guinea Ecuatorial, es la lengua en la que se expresa parte de nuestras raíces africanas que se encuentra en América. Aunque discrepo con el mexicano José Vasconcelos respecto al concepto de “raza cósmica” que él definía como una “quinta raza” donde negros e indí- genas, considerados como inferiores, serían absorbidos por los “tipos superiores” a través del mestizaje (Vasconcelos, 1925: 40), reconozco, sin embargo, que Salvador Lara (2007) acierta cuando alega que el español es la “lengua de la raza cósmica”. 5. Bibliografía � ALONSO, J. A. y GUTIÉRREZ, R.: ‘Lengua y emigración: España y el español en las migraciones internacionales’. Consultado el 30 de marzo de 2014 desde: http://eprints.ucm.es/10235/1/DT_14-10.pdf � DUARTE, J. et al. (2002): Globalización y mujer. Madrid: Pablo Iglesias. � GARCÍADELGADO, J. L. et al. (2013): El español, lengua de comunicación cien- tífica. Barcelona: Ariel. � GARCÍADELGADO, J. L.; ALONSO J. A. y JIMÉNEZ J. C.(2012): El valor econó- mico del español. Madrid: Ariel. EL ESPAÑOL, LENGUA DE OPORTUNIDADES | MAIMOUNA SANKHÉ 215 � Instituto Cervantes. Consultado el 25 de marzo de 2014 desde: http://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/anuario/anuario_12/i_cervantes/p01.htm � NDOYE, El H. A. (2007): ‘La enseñanza del español en África: una oportuni- dad y un reto’. Ponencia presentada en el IV° Congreso de la Lengua Española del 26 al 29 de marzo de 2007 en Cartagena de Indias, Colombia. � SALVADOR LARA, J. (2007): La lengua de la raza cósmica. Quito: Academia Ecuatoriana de la Lengua. � TODOROV,T. (1988) (coord.): Cruce de culturas y mestizaje cultural. Madrid: Júcar Universidad. � VASCONCELOS, J. (1983): La raza cósmica: misión de la raza iberoamericana (1ª ed. 1925). México: Asociación Nacional de Libreros. index.comunicación | nº 4 (2) | África con eñe 216 
work_2jdetzhswrah5gn7t7k6s65vuq	----	106호목차 Journal of the Korean Institute of Interior Design http://dx.doi.org/10.14774/JKIID.2014.23.5.058 Vol.23 No.5 Serial No.106 _ 2014. 10 한국실내디자인학회논문집 제23권 5호 통권106호 _ 2014.1058 사라짐의 미학과 현대건축공간의 관계성에 관한 연구 * Study on Relationship between the Aesthetics of Disappearance and Contemporary Architectural Space Author 이미경 Lee, Mi-Kyung / 정회원, 동양미래대학교 실내디자인과 부교수 이영수 Lee, Young-Soo / 정회원, 홍익대학교 건축대학 교수, 공학박사 Abstract A desire to lightness of architecture has continued from the past to today. As Paul Virilio mentioned “The aesthetics of disappearance starts from a desire”, the desire of architecture to lightness assumes the connection to hidden dimension of everything over the freedom of materials when it is related to the aesthetics of disappearance. This study assumes that the lightness of an architecture today can be interpreted by means of the aesthetics of disappearance. The lightness of an architecture is a concept for the potential possibility of an architecture. Therefore, it is to analyze the relationship by connecting the features of the lightness which is obtained from the examples of the Cartier foundation of Jean Nouvel and Seattle central library of Rem Koolhaas to the aesthetics of disappearance, that is, the disappearance of the materials, disappearance of the subjects, disappearance of the meaning and disappearance of physical. Based on these, it is also to prove the influence of the aesthetic of disappearance on the architecture as a social phenomenon of technology today. Keywords 사라짐, 가벼움, 비물성, 탈신체, 무의미, 탈주체, 폴 비릴리오, 장 보들리야르, 장누벨, 렘콜하스 Disappearance, Lightness, Immateriality, Deviating from Body, Meaningless, Paul Virilio, Jean Baudrillard, Jean Nouvel, Rem Koolhaas 1. 서론 1.1. 연구의 배경과 목적 오늘날의 공간은 테크놀로지의 가속화와 함께 그 위 상은 추락하였고 의미 또한 축소되었다. 이러한 문제에 대해 쉬뢰르(Markus Schroer)는 철도의 확산을 묵도한 하이네(Heinrich Heine)가 1843년에 말한 “공간이 죽고 시간만 남았다”고 말한 시점에서 공간의 지양 문제가 시 작되었다고 말한다. 본격적인 기술 사회가 도래한 시기 에 하이데거(Martin Heidegger) 또한 공간적 거리가 줄 고 있음을 통해 자신의 사유를 출발시켰다. 오늘날 공간 소멸에 관한 논의는 보드리야르(Jean Baudrillard), 비릴 리오(Paul Virilio), 바우만(Zygmunt Bauman)등으로 넘 어오면서 공간의 무게만 가벼워지는 것이 아닌 의식의 차원으로까지 확장되어 통찰된다. 이들은 공간의 소멸을 물질적 성질의 현실적 차원과 주체, 의미, 신체 등 의식  * 이 논문은 2012년도 홍익대학교 학술연구진흥비 지원에 의하여 연 구되었음. 적 성질의 잠재적 차원을 동시에 사라짐의 미학으로 성 찰한다.1) 한편 공간 소멸의 사유는 건축의 끊임없는 새로움의 추구와 맞물려 가벼움의 욕구로 이어진다. 건축의 이러 한 욕구는 사라짐의 미학과 연결될 때 질료적 자유로움 을 넘어 모든 것의 잠재적 차원으로까지 연결됨이 가정 된다. 본 연구는 오늘날 건축의 가벼움이 사라짐의 미학 으로 해석 가능함을 전제하였다. 건축의 가벼움이란 건 축의 잠재적 가능성을 지향하는 개념이다. 따라서 누벨 (Jean Nouvel)의 까르띠에재단이나 콜하스(Rem Koolhaas)의 시애틀중앙도서관 등의 사례들에서 지향하 는 잠재적 특징이 물질의 사라짐, 신체의 사라짐, 의미의 사라짐, 주체의 사라짐으로 분류 가능한 사라짐의 미학 1) 쉬뢰르와 하이데거의 공간 지양에 관한 언급은 다음의 저서 등에 나타났다. Markus Schroer, 공간·장소·경계, 정인모·배정희역, 에코 리브르, 서울, 2010, p.181 / Martin Heidegger, 강연과 논문, 이기 상외역, 이학사, 서울, 2008, pp.183-209 한국실내디자인학회논문집 제23권 5호 통권106호 _ 2014.10 59 과 관계됨을 증명하고 그 특성을 분석하고자 한다. 1.2. 연구 방법 및 범위 사라짐의 미학적 성찰은 비릴리오, 보드리야르, 바우만 등의 사고를 근간으로 하고 객관성 확보를 위해 베냐민 (Walter Benjamin), 밴험(Reyner Banham), 맥루한 (Marshall McLuhan), 누벨 등의 지원적 견해를 뒷받침하 였다. 사라짐의 미학에 관한 사유들을 근거로 그 현상들 을 추출한다. 추출된 사라짐의 미학적 현상과 건축에서 연결 가능한 사례들을 조사하여 관계성을 확보한다. 사라 짐의 미학과 연결 가능한 현대 건축 사례를 통해 특징들 을 분석함을 결론으로 제시한다. 사라짐의 원인이 속도라 는 이론적 배경을 근거로 논의하는 바 1900년 이후의 사 회 변화와 예술·건축의 영향을 중심으로 진행하였다. 2. 사라짐의 의미 성찰과 미학적 사유 사고(思考)는 곧 ‘보기’로부터 시작된다고 믿었던 플라 톤 기반으로 해석하면 사라짐은 곧 비가시성이다. 그러 나 ‘보기’가 기능적 과정을 넘어 좀 더 복잡하게 얽혀진 지적 요소들과 만나면 사라짐은 의식의 차원이 된다. 미 디어의 발달은 이러한 의식의 지각 구조에 커다란 영향 을 미치고 더욱 복잡한 차원으로 만들었다. 더 나아가 디지털 테크놀로지에서는 생리적 보기의 규칙은 완전히 해체되었고 시각을 벗어난 환영들은 더욱 복잡하고 미세 하게 사실화되어 현실로부터 사라지는 현상을 만들어내 었다. 즉 기술발달에 따라 의식의 지각구조가 복잡해질 수록 사라짐의 성찰은 불가피해진다. 사라짐의 성찰은 비릴리오나 보드리야르로부터 본격화되었다. 비릴리오는 사라짐을 연속적 시간의 흐름을 벗어난 상황, 사이의 시 간성2)이라고 말한다. 또 보드리야르는 “사라짐은 우리가 없는 세상(종말, 주체, 모든 것, 소실점 너머)이 어떠한지 를 알고 싶어 하는 욕구이며 세상에 현실성의 힘을 준 순간, 개념이 형성되는 순간 그리고 인간이 세상을 분석 하고 변형하고자하는 결심과 함께 사라짐은 시작된다.”3) 고 하였다. 이들의 성찰은 진화론적인 차원을 넘어 심리 학적인 의식의 차원으로 확장된다. 자동차의 동력사회로 부터 전자적 속도가 합류된 오늘날의 사회에서 사라짐은 의식의 관점에서 더욱 힘을 발휘한다. 2.1. 진화론적 사유와 사라짐 2) 폴 비릴리오는 순간 사라짐의 현상을 피크노렙시라는 의학용어를 사용한다. 피크노렙시는 영화에서 몽타주가 이에 속할 수 있다. Paul Virilio, 소멸의 미학_속도와 시간의 여행, 김경온역, 연세대학 교 출판부, 서울, 2008, p.9, p.28 3) Jean Baudrillard, 사라짐에 대하여, 하태환역, 민음사, 서울, 2012, p.15, p.27 보드리야르는 시뮬라크르(Simulacre)의 세계에서 실재 성의 과잉으로 극단적 가능성에 이르게 되면 역설적으로 죽음을 없애고자 하는 욕망 때문에 사라짐이 실현된다고 말한다. 이는 근원에서 종말로, 원인에서 결과로, 출현에 서 사라짐으로 바라보는 진화론적 성찰이다. 비릴리오 또 한 오늘날의 기술적 진화가 속도를 가속화 시켜 현실이 역설적으로 사라진다는 진화론적 관점을 내세운다. 진화 론적 사유에서 속도는 사라짐의 주요 원인이다. 비릴리오 는 현대 문명을 속도의 혁명이라 부르고 1차 혁명은 운송 수단의 진보, 2차 혁명은 통신기술의 가속화, 그리고 3차 혁명은 속도와 시간에 대한 지향이 궁극적으로 도달하는 지점으로 이식혁명 즉 인간의 신체와 기술을 구분 짖던 경계가 붕괴된 상황4)으로 사라짐의 결과를 예측한다. 비릴리오가 말하는 3차 혁명은 탈 신체로 연결된다. 기계를 신체 일부에 삽입함으로서 죽음을 초월하고자 하 는 욕구, 그리고 신체적 시각 범위를 벗어나 우주적 지 각을 확보하고자 하는 욕구 등은 탈 신체적 욕구의 실현 이라 할 수 있다. 진화론적 입장에서 탈 신체적 욕구는 전지전능함의 신체 확보이다. 이에 대해 메르쉬(Dieter Mersch)5)는 기계의 신체장악으로 인간의 직접적인 감각 이 쇠퇴하고 의지 없는 신체가 될 것을 예측하기도 하였 다. 반대로 맥루한은 <미디어의 이해>6)를 통해 청각과 촉각을 중심으로 인간의 감각과 신체가 확장된다고 반격 하였다. 그로스(Elizabeth Grosz) 또한 오늘날의 속도가 제공하는 것은 몸의 대체가 아니라 몸의 증대7)라며 탈 신체의 긍정적 입장을 주장한다. 상반된 양측의 입장과 상관없이 이러한 신체의 욕구는 물리적 신체로부터 사라 지는 탈현실의 주체가 된다. 이것은 지면 안의 원근법을 벗어나며 앙각(仰角), 궤도적(trajective)지각이 가능해지 는 원격 조정의 신체이며 이는 신체의 지각범위를 초월 한 거대함과 미세함8)을 동반할 수밖에 없게 된다. 한편 사라짐의 원인으로서 속도는 시선이 튕겨버리는 표피적 공간과도 연결된다. 증기기관차로부터 현재의 통 신 속도에 이르기까지 기술의 속도가 빨라질수록 거리는 좁혀지고 공간은 사라져 갔다. 거리가 없는 사회는 시간 차가 없이 동시적이어서 장소는 사라지고 깊이 없는 표 피적 공간이 된다. 이는 시선이 통과 가능한 거리를 가 4) 신성환, 폴비릴리오의 전쟁론과 시각 테크놀로지의 상관성, 영남대 학교 인문과학연구소, 인문연구66, 2012.12, p.258 5) Dieter Mersch, 매체이론, 문화학연구회역, 연세대학교 출판부, 서 울, 2009, p.188 6) Marshall Mcluhan, 미디어의 이해, 박정규역, 커뮤니케이션북스, 서울, 1999 7) Elizabeth Grosz, 건축 그 바깥에서, 강소영외역, 그린비, 서울, 2012, p.43 8) 장 누벨은 속도의 발달은 한없이 거대한 기계 괴물 속으로 사라지 기와 동시에 한없이 작은 것 속으로 사라지기의 현상을 낳게 된다 고 하였다. Paul Virilio, 시각 저 끝 너머의 예술, 이정하역, 열화 당, 경기, 2008, p.8 한국실내디자인학회논문집 제23권 5호 통권106호 _ 2014.1060 <그림 3> 사라짐의 미학적 특징 진 시각적 공간과는 다른 공간으로, 장소는 왜곡되며 의 미의 생산 없이 객관적 현실을 사라지게 한다. 따라서 진화론적 입장에서 공간은 표피적이며 무의미화 되는 것 이다. 반면 표피적 공간을 사라짐이 아닌 오히려 분리되 었던 장소들끼리 상호 접근 가능해진, 그리하여 공간이 비로소 생겨난다고 보는 사회학적 관점이 있다. 사회학 적 관점에서 미디어 기술은 부가적 공간을 열어주고 만 들어 내므로 지속적으로 공간이 오히려 생산9)된다는 것 이다. 따라서 사회학적 관점은 사라짐을 다루는 본 논문 의 취지와는 다른 입장이므로 논의에서 제외하였다. <그림 1> 진화론적 사유에서의 사라짐 이상의 문헌을 살펴본 결과 사라짐의 미학적 성찰로 서 진화론적 사유는 물질의 사라짐, 신체성의 사라짐, 의 미의 사라짐의 유형으로 정리된다. 2.2. 심리학적 성찰과 사라짐 보드리야르는 현실의 미장아빔을 넘어 의식의 사라짐, 즉 심리학적 관점에서 사라짐을 사유한다. 그는 사라짐 을 소멸의 최종차원이 아니라 의식이 널리 편재한, 그럼 으로써 주체가 무한히 분할된 차원으로 받아들여야 한다 고 말한다. 즉 사라짐이란 사물의 가상변형이나 현실의 미장아빔이 아닌 의식이 연쇄적으로 분쇄되어 주체는 분 산되고 연속이 부재되는 차원이라는 것이다. 보드리야르는 속도로 인한 현실의 과잉이 주체 분할 의 원인이라 말한다. 즉 현실이 극에 달하게 되면 반대 로 현실과 재현, 실재와 가상, 주체와 객체의 대립 항이 구별되지 않는 내파(Implosion)의 상태가 되며 이때 실 재는 완전히 사라지고 주체는 도리어 무한히 분할된다는 것이다. 의식이 분할된 주체는 역사로부터 떨어져 나오 게 되며 끊임없이 생성되는 세계 안에서 지속적으로 변 이함으로 자체가 제거된 주체가 된다. 이는 주체의 죽음 이 아니라 새로운 주체의 양태화10)로서 각각의 모나드들 로 분산되고 편집되는 주체로서 사라짐이 반복된다. 이 9) Markus Schroer, op. cit., p.182 10) 장용순, 현대건축의 철학적 모험3, 미메시스, 경기, 2011, pp.115-116 상의 문헌을 살펴 본 결과 심리학적 사유는 주체의 사라 짐 유형으로 정리된다. <그림 2> 심리학적 성찰에서의 사라짐 이상의 이론적 근거들을 정리하면 진화론적 입장과 심리학적 입장은 서로 상반 개념이 아니며 심리학적 사 유의 계기가 진화론적 성찰에 기인한다는 점을 알 수 있 다. 이들을 종합해 보면 사라짐의 미학은 탈현실·가상 등과 관련하는 물 질의 사라짐, 탈 신체·신체 확장과 관련하는 신체성의 사라짐, 표피화와 관련되는 의미의 사라짐, 주체의 유 동성·탈 주체와 관 련되는 주체의 사라짐 등의 특징으로 정리될 수 있다. 3. 기술 발달에 따른 예술과 건축의 변화 기술발달의 사회로부터 영향을 받은 예술·미학·건축 등의 변화가 속도를 원인으로 하는 사라짐의 미학과 관 계함을 전제로 하였을 때 이 시기에 나타난 예술과 건축 의 특징을 분석해 볼 필요가 있다. 기술발달의 시기는 증기기관차의 발명과 더불어 생겨난 동력기술, 대량생산 체제가 형성된 소비시대, 인터넷 네트워크가 탄생한 디 지털시대까지 연결 지어 특징들을 분석하였다. 3.1. 형태의 파편화와 탈 질료 증기기관차의 발명으로 사물 인지에 대한 변화를 겪은 후 풍경을 파편화하기 시작한 큐비즘과 미래파는 형태 안에 시간 이미지들을 결합시킴으로서 기존의 신화적 질 서를 해체하고자 하였다. 피카소(Pablo Picasso)와 보치 오니(Umberto Boccioni)의 회화에서 보여지 듯 분해된 형태와 색 면들의 과감한 부딪힘은 기술 속도가 만들어 한국실내디자인학회논문집 제23권 5호 통권106호 _ 2014.10 61 <그림 7, 8> ①말레비치, 하양 위의 하양, 1918, ②김아타, 온에어시리스, 타임스퀘어, 2005 <그림 9> NOX, D Tower, Netherlands, 2005 내는 풍경을 그대로 수용함으로서 질료 덩어리들을 사라 지게 하였다. 움직임의 궤적과 파편화된 면들은 속도의 힘이 만들어내는 탈 질료를 통해 가벼움을 실현하고 물 리적 사라짐의 징후를 보인다. <그림 4, 5, 6> ①피카소 L'Aficionado, ②보치오니, 마음의 상태, 1911, ③Josef Chochol, Hodek Apartment 큐비즘과 미래파 회화의 시간성 표현은 공간에 대한 새로운 의식이 생기도록 하는 계기가 되었으며 건축은 1912년 살롱 드 톤느에 출품된 <큐비스트의 집> 처럼 의도적인 형태 왜곡이 특징으로 나타났다. 건축에서의 이러한 파편화된 형태 왜곡은 큐비즘, 미래파의 회화가 시간성의 본질을 고민한 것과 달리 입방체의 집적과 변 환을 통한 장식을 벗어나지 못했다는 비판을 받았으나 기존 장식의 물성을 벗어나고자 한 특징은 분명하다. 속도에 대한 이상적 추구는 러시아의 말레비치 (Kazimir Malevich)가 이끄는 절대주의에서도 나타났다. 형태에 대한 집착으로부터 벗어나기 위해 극단적 속도로 서 구상적 재현의 흔적을 모두 제거하고자 하였다. 모든 형태와 색을 ‘무’로 인식하는 순수 추상은 오히려 자율적 이며 운동성을 가진다고 보았다. 극단적 속도를 통해 모 든 살아있는 것 을 사라지게 하 고자 했던 김아 타의 작업 또한 같은 맥락으로 연결할 수 있다. 그의 온에어 시 리즈 <타임스퀘 어>는 8시간의 카메라 노출을 통해 움직이는 피사체들을 모두 사라져버 리게 하고 에너지의 흔적만 남게 함으로서 속도와 사라 짐의 관계를 보여준다. 이러한 극단적 속도로 인한 사라 짐이 보드리야르가 말하는 ‘내파현상’이다. 인터넷 정보 통신망의 발달은 무게를 가지지 않는 것 들의 가능성을 실험하는 계기를 마련하였다. NOX의 D-Tower는 주민들이 자신의 감정을 웹사이트를 통해 입력을 하면 타원의 색이 변하도록 설계된 인터페이스 조형물로 질료적 특성에서 벗어나 사건을 만들어 내는 도시 네트워크의 구현 사례이다. 리오타르(Jean Francois Lyotard)가 비물질을 가능성의 상태11)라고 하였듯 이러 한 네트워크의 구현은 도시에 새로운 사건을 발생시키는 잠 재적 특성을 갖게 된다. 3.2. 궤도적 지각과 탈 원근 1900년대 동력시대에서 건축은 기계의 속도감과 역동성 의 표현을 통해 새로운 이상 세계에 대한 열망을 실천하 고자 하였다. 산텔리아(Antonio Sant’Elia)의 스케치에 나 타난 기계 도시 모습은 고전적 형태미가 아닌 기계적 속 도의 사회가 가지는 복잡성과 거대함의 미학을 수용함으 로서 원근법적 지각을 벗어나고 있음을 알 수 있다. 페브 스너(Nikolaus Pevsner)는 이러한 미래파 건축을 공상적이 며 환상적인 표현주의의 변형12)이라고 주장한다. 반면 밴 험은 전통미학을 벗어난 기계미학의 탈 원근적 인식 전환 으로 새로운 도시환경을 제시하였다13)고 대응한다. 페브스 너의 주장대로 마르키(Virgilio Marchi)와 같은 후기 미래 파 건축이 SF적 표현주의 성향을 부인할 수 없으나 기계 의 속도를 통해 원근법적 신체지각으로부터 벗어나 우주 적 지각이 등장하게 된 계기가 되었음을 부인할 수 없다. <그림 10, 11, 12> ①산텔리아, Citta Nuova, 1914, ②마르키, Citta' fantastica, 1919 ③젝슨 폴락의 작업 모습 이후 카메라의 등장과 인터넷 통신망의 원격 현시는 인간의 수평적 시각 범위를 완전히 벗어나 신체로부터 분리되는 지각을 얻게 된다. 오늘날 중심 없는 도시 구 축은 인터넷 기술에 의한 원격 통신과 인포메이션 네트 워크에 의해 생성되고 사라진다. 비릴리오가 말한 원격 현시가 물리적 현시를 대체하게 된 것이다. 그는 폴록 (Jackson Pollock)을 원격현시를 실행했던 최초의 화가 라 칭하고 폴록이 캔버스를 이젤이 아닌 바닥에 내려놓 음으로서 생긴 앙각이 서구문화의 지각사에 일대 혼란을 일으켰다고 하였다. 이러한 앙각은 인터넷 통신망에 의 해 완전히 소실점으로부터 벗어나게 되었으며 객관적 시 11) Jean Francois Lyotard, 지식인의 종언, 이현복역, 문예출판, 서울, 1993 12) Nikolaus Pevsner, Pioneers of Modern Design, Yale Univ Pr, New Haven, Conn., 2005, pp.37-39 13) Reyner Banham, 제1기계시대의 이론과 디자인, 윤재희 역, 세진 사, 서울, 1997 한국실내디자인학회논문집 제23권 5호 통권106호 _ 2014.1062 각의 확대 뿐 아니라 역사로부터 떨어져 나오는 주체의 잠재적 사라짐을 실현한다. 누벨은 이를 희생의 미학14) 이라는 용어를 사용하였는데 이는 신체의 사라짐으로 인 한 주체의 무한한 잠재성을 의미한다고 할 수 있다. 3.3. 공간 압축과 무의미 무선의 공급과 대량생산 체계가 형성된 1950년대 기술 발달은 단순한 동력기술이 아닌 생물학, 심리학, 생태학 등의 과학과 기술이 합쳐지면서 생산체계 혁신과 더불어 대중에게 넓게 확장된 시기이다. 당시에는 텔레비전, 라 디오, 광고 등의 폭발적인 정보가 생산되면서 팝문화라는 새로운 사회가 형성되었다. 이러한 팝문화는 그동안의 예 술작품의 위상을 전복시키며 뒤샹(Marcel Duchamp)과 워홀(Andy Warhol)의 작품 등을 빌어 초미학의 범주로 전환되는데 이는 현실풍자와 위트, 쓰이고 사라지는 소비 개념, 원본성의 부정 등으로 특징이 나타났다. 보드리야 르가 말하는‘예술의 내파 상태’인 것이다. 팝문화의 영향을 받은 아키그램(Archigram)은 모더니 즘 건축이 지향하는 구축에 대한 비판과 풍자, 그리고 건축의 소비성에 주목하였다. 이들에게 건축은 소비되어 사라지는 것으로 고정되지도 않으며 유일하지도 않은 무 의미한 것이다. 오직 행위자들 즉 소비하는 사람들에 의 해 그때마다 일어나는 사건들이 곧 건축이 된다. 쿡 (Peter Cook)의 플러그 인 시티(Plug in City)와 인스턴 트 시티(Instant City)는 고정된 장소나 의미가 아닌 그 때마다 다른 해석에 의한 체험으로서 내러티브가 없이 스펙터클이 강화15)된 건축 특성을 보이고 있다. 쓰이고 <그림 13, 14> ①walking city, Archigram, 1964, ② 피터 쿡, 인스턴트시티, 1968 버려지는 건축의 일회성과 행위에 의해 무의미해지거나 다시 생성되기도 하는 소비 건축은 무의미와 무가치를 지향하는 사라짐의 미학으로 해석된다. 소비건축과 함께 밴험이 집중한 자동차의 질주미학 또 한 무의미의 건축 실험과 연결된다. 속도의 경관을 최초 로 시도한 라르띠끄(Jacques Lartigue)의 사진처럼 고정 된 원근법적 시선이 아닌 자동차의 움직이는 시선으로 변모된 이미지 미학은 건축의 스크린화를 제시하게 되었 다. 사리넨(Eero Saarinen)은 제너럴 모터스 기술센터를 14) Jean Baudrillard,·Jean Nouvel, 특이한 대상_건축과 철학, 배영달 역, 동문선, 서울, 2003, p.57 15) 심혜련, 사이버스페이스 시대의 미학, 살림, 경기, 2011, p.80 통해 건축이 건축가의 고정된 시선이 아닌 자동차 속도 로 이동하는 운전자의 시선에 감지될 수 있는 거대규모 의 강렬한 미학에 근거해야 한다16)고 말하였다. 벤트리 (Robert Venturi)가 공간적 인지 보다는 속도의 시각적 이미지의 중요성을 통해 건축을 스크린화 하고 이미지의 쾌락성을 강조한 것과 동일하다. 표피화 된 건축은 공간 의 깊이보다는 소비사회의 쾌락성과 스펙터클 건축으로 서 무의미를 지향한다. <그림 15, 16, 17> ①Jacques H. Lartigue, 자동차여행, 1913, ②Eero Saarinen, General Motors Technical Center, Michigan, 1956, ③Studies of Billboards, Venturi Architects, Philadelphia, 1968 교통과 통신의 발달을 통해 얻어진 도시 간 접근 방식 은 더 이상 관문이나 단속을 필요로 하지 않는다. 다양 한 전자장치들을 통해 통과의례는 자연스러운 행위의 일 부가 되었다. 거대화된 도시 간 접근은 전자적 표피를 통해 인터페이스로 접근되고 있으며 길과 건축물의 내러 티브는 사라져 가고 있다. 이러한 도시의 네트워크에 대 해 비릴리오는 구축된 공간 조직에 의해 짜여 지는 것이 아니라 지속 불가능한 시간의 계획이 만들어내는 연속체 로 짜여 지는 것이라고 말하였다. <그림 18, 19, 20> 영화 매트릭스의 공간적 표피와 시간과 장소가 혼합된 할리우드의 표피화 된 공간 영화 매트릭스에서 보여주었던 시간표상의 공간적 표피 들이 열리고 닫히는 관문은 오늘날 도시의 볼륨 없는 표 피를 대변한다. 거리의 차이는 모호해지고 객관적 경계 가 무시된 도시의 모습은 오늘날의 도시 네트워크와 일 치한다. 비릴리오는 이러한 인터페이스 공간에 대해 미 국의 할리우드를 언급하였는데 그는 할리우드가 영화 속 가상의 세계를 거리 곳곳에 하나씩 만들어 나가며 형성 시킨 허구의 바벨론이라는 점을 상기시키며 오늘날 도시 의 무의미한 표피성이 필수적임을 예견하였다. 3.4. 주체의 분할과 공간의 불확정성 1950년 이후 카메라, 인쇄술의 발달 등을 통해 베냐민 은 파편적으로 꼴라주 되는 소비사회를 영화의 몽타주 16) 박혜천, 인터페이스연대기, 디자인플럭스, 서울, 2009, p.72 한국실내디자인학회논문집 제23권 5호 통권106호 _ 2014.10 63 <그림 23 ,24, 25> ①Giambattista Nolli의 로마 지도 ②애플사의 사이트 ③크리스토퍼 놀란, 인셉션, 2010 <그림 21, 22> ①전함포템킨, 에이젠슈타인, 1925, ②베르나르 추미, 맨하탄 트랜스크립트, 1981 <그림 27> Jean Nouvel, Cartier Foundation, Paris, 1997 이론으로 연결17) 시켰다. 디지털 이미지의 복제 대상은 매번 조 작과 변형을 통 해 다른 모습으 로 전환되어 스 스로 실재가 되 며 주체는 분산된다. 영화 <전함 포템킨>에서 오데사 계단 학살의 장면들이 충돌하면서 복제가 아닌 전혀 새 로운 실재가 되는 것처럼 원본이 사라진 몽타주는 주체 를 분산시키고 불확정한 실제들을 생성했다. 베르나르 추미 또한 이러한 몽타주 개념을 이용하여 건축의 장소, 역사, 맥락들을 해체하고 다양한 장르의 텍스트들을 중 첩, 충돌시킴으로서 블 확정한 공간을 만들어 내고자 하 였다. 1989년 버너스 리(Tim Berners Lee)가 제시한 월드 와이드 웹의 탄생은 지금까지의 미디어와는 전혀 다른 세계적 네트워크의 집합체로서 디지털의 폭발적 발전을 이끌었다. 기계적 속도는 디지털 속도로 변환되면서 물 질의 한계를 벗어나 공간적 점프가 가능해지고 지면의 공간적 접근은 표피적으로 인터페이스 역할을 담당하였 다. 1960년 린치(Kevin Lynch)가 제시한 5개의 도시이미 지18)와 다르게 인터넷 가상도시의 교차점은 모든 것이 랜드마크이며 무한적 점프가 가능해 졌다. 이렇게 구현 된 가상 도시에서 주체는 고정되지 않고 끊임없이 유동 하게 된다. 인터넷 도시처럼 영화 <인셉션>에서도 고정 된 주체와 공간은 없다. 현실과 환상이 끊임없이 열리고 닫히면서 공간적이기 보다는 서로 다른 시간들이 공간적 으로 배열되어 생겨나고 사라짐을 반복한다. 주인공의 기억 속에 잠재된 각각의 세계는 개별화되어 점프가 가 능하고 시간의 파편 속에 머문다. 이때 공간 또한 움직 이는 주체를 수용하기 위해 함께 유동하게 된다. 모든 변화의 궤적을 담는 이러한 유동성의 공간은 형태를 갖 17) Walter Benjamin, 기술복제시대의 예술작품, 최성만역, 길, 서울, 2012, p.47 18) 도시이미지의 5개 요소:Path, Edge, District, Node, Landscape Lynch, Kevin, The image of the city, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA., 1960 지 못한 채 변이 현상들을 계속 받아들이게 된다. 4. 사라짐 미학과 현대건축공간의 관계성 분석 건축의 한계에 도전하기 위한 건축가들의 노력은 과거 로부터 오늘날에 이르기까지 끊임없이 지속되었다. 첨단 기술의 발달은 건축의 이러한 욕구를 더욱 다양하게 실험 할 수 있는 계기를 마련하였다. 누벨은 질료를 사라지게 하고 비 물질화 되는 것이야말로 건축이 제 것으로 삼아 야할 개념이라고 주장하였다.19) 세지마 또한 투명함이 물 리적 차원을 넘어 건축의 다양성과 유연성을 확보20)하는 방법임을 언급하였다. 이러한 건축가들의 사고가 사라짐 의 미학과 관계함이 본 연구의 목적인 바 2장과 3장에서 조사된 내용을 통해 건축과 사라짐의 미학의 관계 요소를 추출하였으며 이를 분석의 틀로 이용하고자 한다. <그림 26> 건축공간과 사라짐의 미학의 관련성 요소 분석 4.1. 물질의 사라짐과 비 물질의 잠재성 장 누벨의 카르띠에 재단 빌딩은 유리의 이중 외피를 사용하여 물질로부터 벗어나고자 하는 건축가의 욕구가 반영되었다. 건축 외피에 사용된 투명한 이중성은 흐르 는 시간과 지나가는 행인들이 중첩, 반사되면서 끊임없 이 실재들을 탈바꿈한다. 건축의 형태는 유리의 이중 반 사에 의해 탈 질료화 되고 주변의 실상과 허상이 뒤섞이 는 과정에서 현실로부터 벗어난 가상 세계가 구현되며 사라짐의 미학과 건축의 관계 요소 안에 들어온다. 19) Jean Baudrillard,·Jean Nouvel, op. cit., p.19 20) EL Croquis S.L, Sanna:액체놀이터-대화의 파편들, EL Croquis 121/122호, 2008 한국실내디자인학회논문집 제23권 5호 통권106호 _ 2014.1064 피터 쿡의 쿤스트하우스 그라츠는 문어 빨판 같은 9개 의 채광창과 600개의 형광등으로 이루어진 미디어 표면을 가진 작품이다. 50분마다 내는 초저음의 진동소리와 시간 마다 달라지는 미디어 정보는 방문자 간의 예측할 수 없는 유희와 커뮤니케이션을 확보한다. 유네스코 유산인 그라츠 지역의 역사성 보존이라는 무게를 벗은 무의미한 형태감과 매끈한 미디어 외피는 끊임없이 새로운 현실을 생성해 내 며 사라짐의 미학과 건축의 관계 요소 안에 들어온다. <그림 28> Peter Cook & Colin Fournier, Kunsthaus Graz, Austria, 2003 사라짐의 미학에서 물질의 사라짐은 탈 질료, 탈 형 태, 탈 재현의 관계 요소의 공통점을 가지며 실재가 끊 임없이 생성되는 잠재적 사건을 만든다. 4.2. 신체성의 사라짐과 원격 지각성 디지털 기술의 발달은 건축 프로세스에 상당한 영향을 미쳤다. 디지털 프로그램은 신체적 지각능력을 넘어 우 주적 시점을 가능하게 하였다. 이러한 과정에서 건축은 신체성이 초월된 스펙터클 한 낯선 건축 형태들을 가지 게 되었다. 탈신체한 원격 지각을 이용한 건축은 디자인 과정에서 두 가지 입장으로 나뉜다. 건축가의 사고와 디 지털 프로그램이 결합되어 만들어지는 공간의 우연성을 강조하는 입장과 제시된 텍스트들이 수학적 알고리즘에 따라 모핑(morphing)되면서 얻어지는 공간의 우연성을 다루는 입장으로 구분된다. 전자의 경우 건축가 사고와 이용자의 다양한 경험들이 결합되면서 발생되는 사건을 중요하게 다루게 되는데, 카티아 프로그램을 이용한 게 리(Frank Gehry)구겐하임 미술관을 예로 들 수 있다. <그림 29> Frank Gehry, guggenheim bilbao museum, 1997 후자의 경우 린(Greg Lynn)의 작업들을 예로 들 수 있다. 이는 대상이 가져갈 텍스트들과 알고리즘이 모핑 되어 얻어지는 형상들이 건축의 문제를 해결하는 것으로 서 입력되는 데이터가 바뀔 때마다 건축은 지속적으로 변형 가능한 생물학적 기반이 된다. 그의 작품 ‘발생학적 주택(embryological house)’은 이러한 방법으로 진행된 건축 실험으로서 건축가가 제외되고 전적으로 프로그램 에 의지하는 원격 현시의 대표적 사례이다. <그림 30> Greg Lynn, embryological house 위 두 가지의 사례 모두 탈 원근과 궤도적 지각, 거대 함의 특징을 통해 사라짐의 미학과 건축의 관계 요소에 합류한다. 사라짐의 미학에서 신체성의 사라짐은 거대함 과 미세함, 탈 원근법, 우주적 지각의 관계 요소의 공통 점을 가지며 우연한 공간이 지속적으로 생성되는 잠재적 사건을 만든다. 4.3. 의미의 사라짐과 표피적 접근성 렘콜하스는 ‘정신착란증의 뉴욕’을 통해 도시의 혼돈을 인정하고 현대도시의 불확정성을 담을 수 있는 새로운 도시의 질서를 논의하였다. 그는 도시의 거대함과 팽창 이 기존 건축의 조형성, 윤리, 전통들과는 관계없이 공존 함을 긍정함으로서 아이러니하게 벤트리의 사고를 인정 한다.21) 그는 과밀함 속에 시간의 틈들이 쪼개지고 이 사이에서 발생되는 우연한 접근들이 표피화되어 인터페 이스로서 작동하게 됨을 사고의 핵심으로 삼고 있다. 이 것은 건축적이지 않으며 정체성에 도전하고 일시적인 것 으로서 의미를 가질 수 없는 것이다. 그의 작품 Conrexpo를 포함한 Euralille Masterplan은 그의 이러한 건축 사고를 그대로 반영하였다고 볼 수 있다. 이 작업 들은 석탄과 철강, 섬유산업의 작은 도시를 유럽과 연결 함으로서 문화의 목적지로 탈바꿈한 시도이다. 이것은 건축이라기보다는 거대화 된 도시의 인터페이스로서 역 할을 가진다. 호텔, 쇼핑몰, 전시장, 콘서트홀 등이 뒤섞 인 표피들은 어디든지 연결이 가능한 도시의 축소판이자 관문이다. 이것은 거리와 공간의 압축, 표피화, 무의미로 서 사라짐의 미학과 건축의 관계 요소 안에 들어온다. <그림 31> Euralille Masterplan, Rem Koolhaas, Lille, France, 1994 UN Studio의 갤러리아 백화점은 디지털 매체를 이용 해 기존 건축의 물리적 구조로부터 벗어나 표피적 접근 성을 드러내었다. 4,330개의 LED들은 컴퓨터 시스템에 의해 다양한 정보와 이미지를 시시각각 다르게 제공함으 로서 주변 환경의 맥락으로부터 벗어난다. 프로그램에 21) Rem Koolhaas, CA Press, 서울, 2006, p.15 한국실내디자인학회논문집 제23권 5호 통권106호 _ 2014.10 65 <그림 35> SANAA의 Rolex Learning Center, Swiss, 2010 <그림 33> 시애틀 중앙도서관, 램쿨하스 의해 짜인 표피는 시간에 따라 예술 작품으로 혹은 정보 제공으로 일회적 성질을 가진다. 시간표에 의해 공간적 표피들이 드러났다 사라지고 또다시 새로운 공간이 생성 되는 건축으로서 압축된 공간과 무의미를 지향함으로서 사라짐의 미학과 건축의 관계 요소 안에 들어온다. <그림 32> UN Studio, 갤러리아백화점, Seoul, 2003 사라짐의 미학에서 의미의 사라짐은 무의미와 공간의 압축, 표피화의 관계 요소에서 공통점을 가진다. 시간이 압축된 수많은 대상들은 표피적으로 사라지지만 각각의 실체들은 오히려 무수한 가능성을 가진 채 지속적으로 생성되는 잠재적 사건을 만든다. 4.4. 주체의 사라짐과 공간의 불확정성 렘콜하스의 시애틀 중앙 도서관은 고정된 주체도 없고 공간도 끊임없이 유동한다. 본부, 서고, 사무실, 회의실, 주차장의 다섯 플랫폼에 네 개의 클러스터(사람, 거실, 혼합 챔버, 열람실)들이 애매하게 끼워져 유동 하는 사이 공간으로 작동한다. 열 려있는 네 개의 클러스터들은 이용 자의 유기적 접근과 공간적 점프가 가능해진다. 즉 기능은 고정되지 않은 채 이용자들의 행위에 의해 역할이 비로소 생겨나게 된다. <그림 34> 렘쿨하스의 시애틀중앙도서관 개념도 또한, 애매한 층간의 중첩과 오픈된 기능들은 이용자 의 시선과 응시를22) 뒤바꾸는 주체로서 불확정한 공간을 경험하게 된다. 분산된 주체와 유동하는 불확정적 공간, 탈 중심성의 특징은 사라짐의 미학과 건축의 관계 요소 안에 들어온다. SANAA의 Rolex Learning Center 또한 식당, 도서 관, 사무실, 전시 등 각기 다른 프로그램들을 분리시키지 22) 이미경, 사건과 건축공간의 관계성 비교 연구, 한국실내디자인학회 논문집 제22권 1호(통권 96호), 2013. 2, p.141 않고 열린 공간에서 새로운 활동이 촉발되도록 계획되었 다. 공간은 언덕과 계곡으로 이루어져 각 프로그램 간의 거리를 좁히거나 넓힌다. 사용자들은 구불거리는 열린 공간에서 프로그램들을 자율적으로 이용한다. 열려있는 서로 다른 프로그램들은 자연스럽게 충돌되고 새로운 관 계를 형성한다. 공간은 잠재적으로 실재할 뿐 존재하지 않는 것이다. 사용자는 이러한 잠재적 공간에서 불확정 한 주체가 되는 특징으로서 사라짐의 미학과 건축의 관 계 요소 안에 들어온다. 사라짐의 미학에서 주체의 사라짐은 탈 중심성, 주체 의 분할, 주체와 공간의 불확정성, 연속의 부재 등의 관 계 요소에서 공통점을 가진다. 분산된 주체와 유동하는 공간적 특징은 끊임없이 떠돌면서 지속적으로 생성되는 잠재적 사건을 만든다. 5. 결론 본 연구는 실재와 가상의 문제가 아닌 현실적인 것과 잠재된 것의 문제를 촉진하는 사라짐의 미학이 건축에 영향을 미치고 있음을 전재로 관계성과 특징을 분석한 것이다. 사라짐의 미학적 특징은 탈현실·가상의 세계를 만들어 내는 물질의 사라짐, 탈 신체와 신체의 확장을 동반하는 신체성의 사라짐, 탈 공간·표피화의 현상과 관 계하는 의미의 사라짐, 탈 주체와 유동성을 가진 주체의 사라짐으로 분리할 수 있다. 사라짐의 미학 4가지 특성 은 기술발달과 더불어 건축의 현상에 영향을 미쳤으며 형태의 파편화와 탈 질료, 궤도적 지각과 탈 원근, 공간 의 압축과 무의미, 주체의 분할과 불확정성으로 특징지 어질 수 있다. 사라짐의 미학과 현대건축공간의 관계성 과 특징은 다음과 같이 확인되었다. 첫째, 모든 물성으로부터 자유로워지고자 하는 욕구로 서 물질의 사라짐과 현대건축공간은 탈 질료, 탈 형태, 탈 재현의 관계 요소의 공통점을 가지며 이는 끊임없이 새로움을 생성시킴으로서 모든 가능성을 열어주는 무한 한 잠재적 성격을 지닌다. 둘째, 원근법적이고 객관적인 시선으로부터 자유로워지 고자 하는 욕구로서 신체성의 사라짐과 현대건축공간은 거 대함과 미세함, 탈 원근법, 우주적 지각의 관계 요소의 공 통점을 가지며 인간의 신체를 넘어섬으로서 예측 불가능의 한국실내디자인학회논문집 제23권 5호 통권106호 _ 2014.1066 우연 공간을 끊임없이 생성시키는 잠재적 성격을 지닌다. 셋째, 공간적 거리, 역사로부터 떨어져 나오고자 하는 욕구로서 의미의 사라짐과 현대건축공간은 무의미와 공 간의 압축, 표피화의 관계 요소에서 공통점을 가지며 이 는 시간이 압축된 수많은 대상들이 표피적으로 사라지지 만 각각의 실체들은 오히려 무수한 가능성을 가진 채 지 속적으로 생성되는 잠재적 성격을 지닌다. 넷째, 파편화되고 유동하는 주체와 끊임없이 공간을 바꾸는 불확정성의 욕구로서 주체의 사라짐은 탈중심성, 주체의 분할, 모나드적 주체와 공간, 연속의 부재 등의 관계 요소에서 공통점을 가지며 이는 수많은 서로 다른 시간들의 잠재된 주체와 사건들이 끊임없이 충돌하면서 공간적으로 재배열되는 잠재적 성격을 지닌다. 이상의 결론을 통해 사라짐의 미학은 현대 건축과 물 질의 사라짐, 신체성의 사라짐, 의미의 사라짐, 주체의 사라짐을 통해 관계적 특성을 가지고 있으며 이러한 특 성 분석 결과 건축은 잠재성의 차원으로 사라짐을 실천 하고 있음을 알 수 있었다. 참고문헌 1. 박혜천, 인터페이스연대기, 디자인플럭스, 서울, 2009 2. 심혜련, 사이버스페이스 시대의 미학, 살림, 경기, 2011 3. 장용순, 현대건축의 철학적 모험-03, 미메시스, 경기, 2011 4. Dieter Mersch, 매체이론, 문화학연구회역, 연세대학교, 서울, 2009 5. Elizabeth Grosz, 건축 그 바깥에서, 강소영외역, 그린비, 서울, 2012 6. Jean Baudrillard, 시물라시옹, 하태환역, 민음사, 서울, 2011 7. Jean Baudrillard, 사라짐에 대하여, 하태환역, 민음사, 서울, 2012 8. Jean Baudrillard·Jean Nouvel, 특이한 대상:건축과 철학, 배영 달역, 동문선, 서울, 2003 9. Jean Francois Lyotard, 지식인의 종언, 이현복역, 문예출판, 서 울, 1993 10. Kevin Lynch, The image of the city, MIT Pr., Cambridge, MA., 1960 11. Marshall Mcluhan, 미디어의 이해, 박정규역, 커뮤니케이션북스, 서울, 1999 12. Markus Schroer, 공간·장소·경계, 정인모·배정희역, 에코 리브르, 서울, 2010 13. Martin Heidegger, 강연과 논문, 이기상외역, 이학사, 서울, 2008 14. Nikolaus Pevsner, Pioneers of Modern Design, Yale Univ Pr., 2005 15. Paul Virilio,, 소멸의 미학, 김경온역, 연세대학교 출판부, 서울, 2008 16. Paul Virilio,, 시각 저 끝 너머의 예술, 이정하역, 열화당, 경기, 2008 17. Reyner Banham, 윤재희역, 제1기계시대의 이론과 디자인, 세 진사, 서울, 1997 18. Walter Benjamin, 기술복제시대의 예술작품, 최성만역, 길, 서 울, 2012 19. 신성환, 폴비릴리오의 전쟁론과 시각 테크놀로지의 상관성, 영 남대학교 인문과학연구소, 인문연구66, 2012.12 20. 이미경, 사건과 건축공간의 관계성 비교 연구, 한국실내디자인 학회논문집 제22권 1호, 2013. 2 21. EL Croquis S.L., Sanna:액체놀이터-대화의 파편들, EL Croquis 121/122호, 2008 22. Rem Koolhaas, CA Press, 서울, 2006 [논문접수 : 2014 08. 18] [1차 심사 : 2014. 09. 17] [2차 심사 : 2014. 10. 02] [게재확정 : 2014. 10. 17] 
work_2f3mobevijdorp5vk6lreipuie	----	http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk Original citation: Heath-Kelly, Charlotte. (2015) Picasso at the bombsite : whither resilient place? Politics, Volume 35 (Number 1). pp. 72-77. ISSN 0263-3957 Permanent WRAP url: http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/64009 Copyright and reuse: The Warwick Research Archive Portal (WRAP) makes this work by researchers of the University of Warwick available open access under the following conditions. Copyright © and all moral rights to the version of the paper presented here belong to the individual author(s) and/or other copyright owners. To the extent reasonable and practicable the material made available in WRAP has been checked for eligibility before being made available. Copies of full items can be used for personal research or study, educational, or not-for profit purposes without prior permission or charge. Provided that the authors, title and full bibliographic details are credited, a hyperlink and/or URL is given for the original metadata page and the content is not changed in any way. Publisher’s statement: This is the accepted version of the following article: Heath-Kelly, C. (2015), Picasso at the Bombsite: Whither Resilient Place?. Politics, 35: 72–77. doi: 10.1111/1467- 9256.12081, which has been published in final form at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467- 9256.12081 A note on versions: The version presented here may differ from the published version or, version of record, if you wish to cite this item you are advised to consult the publisher’s version. Please see the ‘permanent WRAP url’ above for details on accessing the published version and note that access may require a subscription. For more information, please contact the WRAP Team at: publications@warwick.ac.uk http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/ http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/64009 http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-9256.12081 http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-9256.12081 mailto:publications@warwick.ac.uk Running Head: Resilience: A Forum Picasso at the Bombsite: Whither Resilient Place? Dr. Charlotte Heath-Kelly Institute of Advanced Study, University of Warwick Places are targeted for terrorist attacks because they are symbolic: they mean something. Anders Breivik’s attacks of 22 nd July 2011, for example, targeted Norway’s pre-eminent site for left-wing activism, Utøya island, and the Government Quarter in Oslo. Similarly, the redevelopment of such sites focuses on consolidating the meanings of places as symbols of national unity and the overcoming of trauma (Heath-Kelly, forthcoming; Lundborg 2012). Place is significant to both terrorism and post-terrorist response. And yet the reshaping of post-terrorist space is rarely discussed as a form of resilience. 1 Why should this be? In what follows I will explore the controversy and debate surrounding the preliminary decision (now revoked) to tear down the Høyblokka building in the Oslo Government Quarter with reference to several ambiguities of resilience discourse. Whilst an emerging literature is beginning to critically tackle the policy and practical deployments of resilience, this paper instead explores resilience through its absence. Where and when is resilience not deployed? What does it mean for the coherence of resilience policy, which centralises the goal of adaptive capacity in the face of contingency, if resilience policy is not applied to the redevelopment of bombsites? This short piece thus explores the debates around the Oslo government quarter to expose the ambiguity and temporality of resilience discourse - which appears unconcerned with the ‘bouncing back’ of post-terrorist space. I make particular reference to Jon Coaffee’s discussion of ‘place-making’ in anticipatory UK resilience policy (Coaffee 2013) and Dan Bulley’s (2013) discussion of the production of communities through UK resilience practice. When considered alongside the non-application of the resilience signifier to bombsite recovery practices, the ambiguity of ‘resilient places’ becomes apparent. Resilience is not oriented toward the amelioration of disaster events, as policy discourse suggests, but rather the regulation of the everyday through anticipatory techniques. Image_1.jpg here (centred) 1 Although post-disaster cities are somewhat tacitly and uncritically discussed as resilient in Vale & Campanella (eds) (2005). Caption below: Figure 1: The damaged Høyblokka: (Photo by Alexander Ottesen, https://www.flickr.com/photos/alexao/5978812209/) The Oslo government quarter is comprised of several different ‘blocks’, largely modernist and functional in style, all dominated by the overbearing high-rise structure of Høyblokka (Figure 1). Henrik Bull’s ‘G Block’ was constructed in 1906, followed by Erling Viksjø’s high- rise (Høyblokka) in 1958 and the Y block in 1969. Viksjø’s friendship with Pablo Picasso led to the innovative sandblasting technique developed on the facades and interiors of these buildings, where Picasso’s sketches are integrated within the concrete structures themselves (Figures 2 & 3). After Viksjø’s death, the development of the government quarter continued with the construction of S block in 1978, R4 in 1988, as well as the adaption in 1980 of Møllergata 19, the city’s former police station, built in the 1860s and 70s. Finally in 1996, building R5 was added (Ekman 2013). Despite the collaboration of noted artists and architects in its construction, the government quarter in Oslo has never generated much public affection. The passionless naming of the buildings, and the absence of alternative public nomenclature for them, points towards their status prior to 22 July 2011. Nobody had much interest in them. As Matthias Ekman has argued, the government quarter is located away from the main tourist trails in Oslo and failed to develop a symbolic persona in the style of the Parliament building or the Royal Palace (Ekman 2013). He argues that while most Norwegians possessed some conceptual understanding of the spatial location of the government buildings, these fragmentary framings located the buildings as somewhat featureless bureaucratic functionaries in the state apparatus. However, since Brevik’s bomb attack on the quarter in 2011, this ambivalence has radically shifted. Suddenly these buildings have come to matter – incorporated into debates concerning the appropriate architectural response to sudden violence. The questions surrounding the architectural and cultural worth of the government quarter have provoked heated discussion in Norway’s major newspapers and public fora. The importance and meaning of the buildings have been retrospectively renegotiated since they were targeted by Breivik, and since the report of a government appointed committee of architects, planners and structural engineers originally recommended the removal of key buildings, such as the looming Høyblokka, despite their structural integrity. The incorporation of Picasso’s sketches into the structures became a particularly salient narrative within the spirited defence of the government quarter. For example, after the report on reconstructing the Government Quarter was published, Oslo museum directors Lars Roede and Nina Berre were quoted in an interview with the Norwegian newspaper Aftenposten hailing the sandblasting technique used to integrate Picasso’s sketches into the concrete structures of government, opining that the buildings represent a ‘central work of Norwegian architecture’ (Nipen 2011). Similarly, in July/August 2013 the Oslo Museum of Architecture hosted an exhibit on this very technique, further developing the public narrative of retaining the government buildings as important features of national cultural heritage. Image_2.jpg here (centred) Caption below: Figure 2: Picasso mural at the Oslo Government Quarter (Author’s collection) Image_3.jpg here (centred) Caption below: Figure 3: Inside Høyblokka (reproduced courtesy of LPO Arkitekter) Simultaneously, the somewhat-bleak concrete modernism of the buildings has been reframed by commentators as a valuable statement of Norwegian egalitarian values, contra the regularly-invoked statement of Minister Rigmor Aasrud (who held the ministerial brief on the reconstruction project) that she is from a ‘country background’ and struggles to see the worth of ‘all this concrete’. For example, Roede and Berre narrate the history of the Government buildings as the ‘architectural centre-point for Norwegian nation-building’ where the High Rise and Y-Block exemplify the ‘foremost examples of modernism in Norway in the 1950s’. Nina Berre further commented that: The High-Rise can also be considered as a symbol of the social democracy that evolved in Norway, with the grid architecture which parcels the building into a series of rectangles. This equality and regularity can symbolise the democratic values the building represents (Berre quoted in Nipen 2011). Similarly Espen Johnsen, an art historian at the University of Oslo, publicly proclaimed after Breivik’s bombing that: The architect Erling Viksjø’s government building stands as our foremost symbol of the new monumental architectural design that was recognized in the decades after the war. The goal was to create new community-symbols to be used under the reestablished democratic society. Through a revised modernist idiom the architect and the artists succeeded to integrate the architecture and the art into a new unanimity. The Government Building represents the primary structure of this architecture ideal (Johnsen, 2011). After the attacks of 22 nd July 2011, then, Høyblokka (as representative of the Government Quarter) suddenly became the most talked about building in Norway. Breivik’s attack radically incorporated the Government Quarter buildings into public discussion of Norwegian topographical and architectural identity. Suddenly their disfigured forms have provoked debate about symbolic identity and the importance of retaining cultural heritage and Norwegian identity. While official recommendations initially highlighted the cost- benefits for tearing down Høyblokka and redeveloping the area, and noted the trauma which would potentially affect the officeworkers called upon to return there, public discussions and exhibits have overwhelmingly called for the government quarter to architecturally ‘bounce back’ from 22 nd July. Interestingly, for all the debate over the future of the government quarter, these questions have not been framed in terms of resilience. Yet the resilience discourse presents itself as enabling the capacity to ‘bounce back’ from violent disruption. It has come to dominate national and international approaches to the securing of life and infrastructure against threats. While the implementation of resilience is understood in a number of ways (Coaffee 2013; Holling 1973; Walker & Cooper 2011), policy documents frame resilience as involving the acceptance of disruptive events as inevitable and highlight the importance of fostering adaptive capacities of pre-emption and recovery. So what do ‘bouncing back’ and resilience mean, if they are not concerned with the recovery of urban sites? Resilience, it seems, is not applied to disaster sites to render them recoverable. Instead its policy application is almost entirely anticipatory, and when resilience claims relevance to disaster recovery it focuses in an abstract manner on the restoration of networked systems of transportation, communication, business and infrastructure (Cabinet Office 2013: 81-7), articulating a revealing lacunae with regard to place. So where is ‘place’ in resilience? And which temporalities does resilience discourse embody and silence? Jon Coaffee (2013) has explored the shifts in UK resilience policy which, he argues, have led away from the spatially focused first wave of resilience – which implemented bi-steel barriers and crash-rated bollards to ‘design out’ terrorism at high-risk sites. This ‘command and control’ structure for the resilience roll-out has now given way to a focus on decentralised, local structures which perform community resilience. Coaffee refers to this localised governmentality as ‘place-making’. This phrase is utilised to highlight the localised performance of fourth-wave resilience within a ‘more community driven social contract between citizens and state’ (Coaffee, 2013, p.246), contra the nationalised and securitised first wave articulation or the ‘crowded places’ agenda of the second and third waves. Similarly, Dan Bulley (2013) discusses the UK Resilient Communities program as a governmental strategy which produces communities as places through the extension of responsibilities for emergency planning and response. These are identifications of place-making through futurity (against the anticipated threat) in resilience practice. However, should the understanding of ‘place’ in resilience remain limited to the localisation and decentralisation of anticipatory resilience activities, and anticipatory in temporality? The post-event constitution of the Oslo bombsite as central to Norwegian cultural heritage suggests that public activism retrospectively reclaims and reconstitutes place. This could be called resilience, but it isn’t. As such, the renarrativisation of the Oslo government quarter provides an interesting window onto the discursive disregard within resilience discourse for the bombsite of the present and the retrospective reproduction of place. Why is this silence important? The Government Quarter buildings, while once denigrated and ignored, have now become framed as salient features in a national and cultural heritage. They have been made into crucial symbols of identity, and the proposal to tear down Høyblokka, in particular, has met with powerful public denunciation. The architecture of the damaged Government Quarter has been made representative of Norwegian identity, and the passionate calls for it to ‘bounce back’ could, in certain readings, symbolise a retrospective invocation of resilience – one which is not directed towards the mediation of future threat, but the restoration of a place damaged by an explosion. These practices could potentially be called resilience, but they aren’t. Why, then, doesn’t resilience recognise this retroactive place-making? Because place, for resilience, is only interesting as governmental technique. The ‘places’ forged through anticipatory community resilience policies (Bulley 2013; Coaffee 2013) fit the governmental remit of conducting conduct through devolving crisis responsibilities and hierarchies. They are not spaces for meaningful participation, discussion, art or dissent. Picasso simply doesn’t matter from this perspective. One might explain this discursive disregard for retrospective place-making activities by exploring ‘resilience’ as a tendency to abstract and depoliticise, and to govern the everyday (rather than the event) through anticipation. The absence of resilience from the bombsite exposes the unthinkability of ‘bouncing back’ as a restorative principle, then, and instead reveals it as a practice of technocratic and governmental management of population and futurity. About the Author Dr. Charlotte Heath-Kelly holds both a Warwick research fellowship and an Institute of Advanced Studies postdoc at the University of Warwick. Currently she holds a British Academy grant to research the ‘reclamation’ of post-terrorist space through architecture at the Manhattan WTC, Oslo Government Quarter, Utøya island and the Bali bombsites of 2002. Her monograph, Politics of Violence: Militancy, International Politics, Killing in the Name, was published in 2013 with the Routledge ‘Interventions’ series and was shortlisted for the 2014 BISA Susan Strange book prize. She has also published articles in Security Dialogue, The British Journal of Politics and IR, and Critical Studies on Terrorism. Charlotte Heath-Kelly, Politics and International Studies, Social Sciences Building, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL. Email: c.heath-kelly@warwick.ac.uk References Bulley, Dan (2013) ‘Producing and Governing Community (through) Resilience’, Politics 33 (4), pp.265-75. Cabinet Office (2013) Emergency Response and Recovery: Non Statutory Guidance accompanying the Civil Contingencies Act 2004, London: Cabinet Office. mailto:c.heath-kelly@warwick.ac.uk Coaffee, Jon (2013) ‘Rescaling and Responsibilising the Politics of Urban Resilience: From National Security to Local Place-Making’, Politics 33 (4), pp.240-52. Ekman, Mattias (2013) ‘The Dispute Over Memory in the Government Quarter after 22 nd July’, conference paper prepared for the workshop 22 nd July and the Negotiation of Memory, Oslo 12-14 August 2013. Heath-Kelly, Charlotte (forthcoming 2015) ‘Building a New Utøya; Re-placing the Oslo bombsite – Resilient Ambiguities of Post-Terrorist Space’, Studies in Conflict and Terrorism. Holling, C.S. (1973) ‘Resilience and Stability of Ecological Systems’, Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 4, pp.1-23 Johnsen, E. (2011) ‘Ikke riv høyblokka’, Dagsavisen, 28 July 2011, Meninger, 5. Lundborg, Tom (2012) ‘The Folding of Trauma Architecture and the Politics of Rebuilding Ground Zero’, Alternatives: Global, Local, Political 37(3), pp.240-52. Nipen, K. (2011) ‘Bygningene formet det nye Norge’, Aftenposten Morgen, 25 July 2011, Kultur, 6. Vale, Lawrence J. & Thomas J. Campanella (2005) The Resilient City: How Modern Cities Recover from Disaster (Oxford: Oxford University Press). Walker, Jeremy & Cooper, Melinda (2011) ‘Genealogies of Resilience: From Systems Ecology to the Political Economy of Crisis Adaptation’, Security Dialogue 42 (2), pp.143-160. http://alt.sagepub.com/content/37/3/240.short http://alt.sagepub.com/content/37/3/240.short 
work_2np4qtdcozbe7dfwcl5ifmderi	----	Licit International Traffic in Cultural Objects for Art's Sake Licit International Traffic in Cultural Objects for Art's Sake Hugo Keith Weihe* 1 Introduction The movement of works of art and cultural properties has at all times been beneficial to the development of new cultural values in new places and eras. There is no question that it encourages the mutual understanding and respect between people. Major historic events throughout the world have always entailed the relocation of cultural goods when victors took their tributes from the defeated. These goods were treasured and highly regarded for their level of human achievement. In a series of lectures entitled 'On the removal of works of art from the conquered territories to Rome',1 held in Leipzig at the Casselischen Alterthumer-Gesellschaft in 1798, L. Volkel justifies Napoleon's seizure of works of art in Italy and the Netherlands at that period, by relating it to the Romans abducting sculptures from Greece to Rome. The latter had captured the sculptures of Greek gods, robbing them of their protective function in their native terri- tories, but continued to worship them and were inspired by their artistic beauty. Now they were being captured once again to be placed in a new temple, a temple of art, the Louvre. What formerly was a standard procedure by the victorious, making hostages of the guardian gods of the defeated, had now become.a full tribute to their cultural status. To possess these great pieces naturally reflected on the grandeur, knowledge and style of the new owners, apart from being a token of their martial superiority. At no time were they inter- ested in destroying them. In the same year, 1798, Napoleon had taken with him to Egypt a staff of scientists who immediately set about registering the monu- ments and making exact drawings which some years later led to the first major publication in the field. The famous Rosetta Stone un- earthed by his troops was to become the actual key to Egyptian culture when it was deciphered by Francois Champollion. However, in an unprecedented change of fortune Napoleon was cornered by * Artibus Asiae, Museum Rietberg Zurich, Switzerland. 81 use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739195000063 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:39:29, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739195000063 https:/www.cambridge.org/core Hugo Keith Weihe the British, who captured the material assembled by him and trans- ferred it to the British Museum. This institution then and now ful- filled the important function of making it easily available to the general public as well as to foreign scholars who were able to estab- lish its cultural value in a global perpective. With some justification the director of the British Museum considers his museum a master- piece in its own right.2 In this new context the seized cultural goods actually advanced the recognition of Egyptian culture as well as the establishment of a whole new field of science, which equally ben- efited the source nation. Furthermore, it spurred a whole artistic movement in France, the Empire. This is a characteristic of all cultural transfers throughout history. If not warlords, then there are connoisseurs somewhere else in the world, who are eager to obtain foreign cultural objects. This is in the first place a tribute to the curiosity of mankind, to learn about and to cherish other peoples' achievements. A priori there is no arrogance, reckless exploitation or derogatory attitude of the politi- cally superior, or of the 'civilized' nations towards the Third World countries. The only exceptions to this were blinded by the obvious material value, as were the Spanish faced with the gold treasures of the Aztecs, which they chose to cast into ingots. Had they known the potential market value they would certainly have refrained from this brutal act. Cultural heritage consists of various goods that bear a distinctive relevance to a people's origin and development. The term 'national cultural patrimony' is applied in a broad sense to cultural goods and works of art created within a nation, but not necessarily by an artist of that specific nationality. This would apply, for instance, to the works of Pablo Picasso, a Spanish artist spending most of his cre- ative life in France. At the same time he remains a unique artistic talent — as every artist essentially is — at various stages of his life venturing into new artistic realms, initially perhaps indebted to French impressionism but probably more so to African art, later truly independent — or rather becoming influential himself. It is a remark- able phenomenon that the work of an individual should become rep- resentative for a whole nation, apart from the fact that he may not even be of that nationality. Some categories of cultural heritage, for example music and lit- erature, stand apart for their specific properties. Although there is an original score or manuscript, they factually exist only as a perform- ance or as printed matter, whereby the problem of uniqueness is eliminated. Without this burden and the lack of a singular material base they have transgressed all borders and in a quite straightforward way exploit their potential to become the cherished good of the world. The aspects of nationality and internationality have thereby already been overturned, without the loss of a specific identity. In view of this and with regard to the three images of the international cultural property milieu in mind, (1) 'national cultural heritage', 82 use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739195000063 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:39:29, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739195000063 https:/www.cambridge.org/core Licit Traffic for Art's Sake (2) 'cultural heritage of all mankind' and (3) 'cultural context', why should this kind of liberation not be possible for all embodiments of cultural heritage? In the following I will choose to speak mostly of works of art, but generally imply cultural goods in a broader sense. 2 Culture in Context The 'context' is the crucial point of view of the art historian. I would like to provide various aspects of this term beyond the object/context relationship as employed in archaeology. The art historian is trained to adopt both a local historical perspec- tive as well as a concept of 'global positioning', the assessment of mutual influences on a national and international level and cross- cultural exchange. Art history is as much about individual masters as it is about anonymous workgroups, their predecessors and followers, embedded in a cultural context, whose work may or may not become a gradient, a stepping stone in the artistic evolution. One of its most powerful tools is comparison, both within a cultural context and beyond. Art itself thrives on relative values; mostly there is an el- ement of technical accomplishment, for example of taking architec- tural structures to ever greater heights and more splendid decoration. But beyond that there is vision, innovation, singularity, creativity, genius. This is what we cherish and which is to the benefit of all humankind. An interesting aspect in view of cultural importance is the fact, that cultural goods in their making are very often not recognized as such. Naturally many cases are obvious by the sheer magnitude and effort employed in the construction of objects of national status right from the start, for example the great pyramids of Giza and their contents, but there are others that are first passed by, generally 'mo- bile' works, like the paintings of Vincent van Gogh or the Im- pressionists. Still others may slip into oblivion for a while, like the works of the Pre-Raphaelites, to be rediscoverd at a later point in time. These latter cases are most interesting to our argument, stress- ing the volatility of judgement. One of the crucial aspects is how we perceive art over a period of time. Why is it possible that works of art like the paintings by Vincent van Gogh were not considered to be art when they were first created and virtually unsellable at any price, only to become unchallenged masterpieces less than a century later and commanding the highest prices ever achieved by cultural goods at auction? True, the letters published by his widow revealed a powerful personality of great insight totally determined in his artistic quest and this has undoubtedly helped to form his image, but should that not have been clearly visible in the paintings themselves right from the start? How are we to know which of the goods of today are the cultural heritage of tomorrow? 83 use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739195000063 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:39:29, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739195000063 https:/www.cambridge.org/core Hugo Keith Weihe It is the liberality that has always existed in the contemporary art market — at any given time and undisputed today — that has been instrumental in the making of an artist. His work needs to be disco- vered, i. e. needs to be shown around to as broad an audience as possible. The collector buying from a dealer, a gallery or an auction is making a 'cash commitment', he needs to be sufficiently con- vinced of its quality to entail a financial suffering. This commitment to art by individuals is its status nascendi. It needs to be perceived as such and placed within its cultural context. This cultural context does not therefore exist per se, but is formed by growing consent in the relevance of an individual work for a community. More collec- tors might begin to compete, the prices would rise, themselves be- coming an indication of value and relative importance. There is no guarantee however that a once fashionable artist might not become forgotten again, whole artistic movements (re)considered to be sec- ondary. The failure to recognize art in the making is therefore ex- tended by a perpetual uncertainty in its potential as national heritage. However, the more time elapses, the more precise this evaluation will probably be. This would cast considerable doubt, for example, on the justifi- cation of considering a painting by Matisse as cultural property, par- ticulary as the time factor becomes overly important. When does a Matisse in Italy become a National Treasure? In 1940, 50 or 60? The owner intending to move the painting might just miss his chance by a few years. The time element is decisive, there is movement in the perception of art and the status and influence it exerts at any given time in past, present and future. 3 Commodification and Collecting Turning cultural objects into commodities is sometimes considered morally questionable. However, it is an inevitable historic fact and mostly a sign of recognition and respect. Speaking merely of specu- lation is too simple, there always is a relationship between market value and cultural relevance at any given time. The market is not out to destroy, but to intermediate and to supply to other more strongly interested parties. Futhermore, the market guards itself from overly excessive activities. The apparent eagerness of the art market in rich nations has encouraged fakes which to some extent act as an inbuilt protective measure for the real thing and have made many fields of collecting far less desirable, for example Pre-Columbian ceramics. From the history of collections and the building of artists' repu- tations it cannot be emphasized enough how important the role of the private collector is as the main driving force of artistic discovery. At the initial level of collecting there is no restriction, but why should the fruit of individual connoisseurship eventually result in a 84 use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739195000063 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:39:29, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739195000063 https:/www.cambridge.org/core Licit Traffic for Art's Sake ban? Should the collector not be entitled to profit from rising market values and to freely dispose of his property. In Europe, since the Renaissance, many works were not only cre- ated by commission, but for a free market. Art became a highly unique product, the work of a gifted individual, as opposed to a group-effort or the work of a nameless craftsman. The notion of artistic genius became apparent. The pricing for art gradually shifted from purely technical aspects, as the cost of the pigments involved and the total labour employed, to the aspect of artistic quality. Al- brecht Diirer argued in the case of the so called 'Heller-altar',3 that the more time he would invest in this commission the finer the result would be - thereby trying to coax out an extra 100 guilders from his client.4 Essentially he was not willing to compromise his artistry by a modest price level. This awareness of market value on the part of artists, culminating in the contracts between the Paris art dealer Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler and Picasso, Braque, Gris, Leger and others in the early 1900s, guaranteeing them a certain sum per can- vas of a specific size, established art in the making as a commodity. The history of the making of an artist generally proves that the dealer who makes works available and assembles exhibitions and the private collector who buys .from him are instrumental in this process. To discredit the private collector would be equally detri- mental to the public interest, as museums heavily rely on donations from private sources. To that extent, private collections very often represent an intermediary state. The private collector, as opposed to any institution, is only responsible to himself, drawing on his own funds and therby generally being far more enterprising and taking greater risks. A museum, as a rule, has to reach a decision within a large premium and be in a position to publicly justify any acqui- sitions. This will often prevent it from acquiring avantgarde art at an early stage. The image of the private collector might have been tinged by the avaricious approach, particularly in the eighties, of investors new to the art market, but the true collector still is the carrier of connoisseurship. It should not be forgotten that works of art very often are highly individualistic products and likewise require a personal approach. It is a false conception to believe that by becoming a sellable commodity a cultural object ceases to be an object of cultural ident- ity. Naturally its actual cultural value cannot be priced; none the less it has a market value at any given time which may vary according to location. If 'commodification' is an inevitable attribute, it is by no means a priori detrimental. At any time the actual or potential market value is an indication of the importance of a given cultural object or of its momentary perception.5 Most importantly the status of works of art has been established by their effective or potential market value reflecting back on them. The market offers a manag- able reference to relative values between objects. Without trade art would only have an intrinsic value. The market-place does not neces- 85 use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739195000063 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:39:29, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739195000063 https:/www.cambridge.org/core Hugo Keith Weihe sarily spoil the objects or their aura, high prices rather reflect their very special status. The trade actions of Peter Paul Rubens provide a fine example of the workings of artistic exchange and the total lack of any negative connotation. Through his achievements as a painter and his diplo- matic skills Rubens became an influental political figure conversing with the powerful people of his time. Being himself a collector of antiquities, he longed to acquire the collection of Roman antiquities of the British emissary to Holland, Sir Dudley Carleton. He set about in 1618 offering his own works in exchange, some of which he had sold previously and bought back at higher prices, thereby underlin- ing their importance.6 An agreement was ultimately reached, in which Sir Dudley accepted a number of paintings up to a specific total value, insisting on the difference being made up by Gobelin tapestries, a highly prized good at that time. Subsequently both par- ties parted again with their newly acquired treasures, Sir Dudley offering the Rubens' to the King of Denmark, Rubens being asked by the infanta Isabella of Spain in a move of appeasement with England to pass on his collection to the Duke of Buckingham, to which he obliged. Both the paintings by Rubens as well as the an- tiquities are cultural goods today. The status of tradable goods they enjoyed in the past not only asserted their importance, but helped alleviate political tension. A distinction should therefore be made between these 'mobile' cultural goods, and those commissioned for a specific function. A vast majority of the cultural goods handled in the art market will at one point become part of a public collection. Private collectors, seen in a historic context, are part-time owners. The main concern is for archaeological and ethnographical mate- rial which is most prone to looting. The fact that there is a demand for archaeological objects is in line with the general interest in all cultural artefacts and should neither be condemned nor indeed sup- pressed. The market, the private collector as well as institutional collections, are to some extent the driving forces for further dis- coveries. The uncovering of hitherto unknown cultural objects fur- thers the general knowledge. There is no question that excavations today must be undertaken in controlled conditions to ensure the ob- ject/context image. However, once this has been established and re- corded, there is no immediate reason why objects should not be dispersed other than that they should remain together to form a study collection. It could be argued that without the outlook of market- ability, many excavations could or would not be undertaken. Any art historian, particularly so in a museum, must be interested in the furthering of public interest, knowledge, and awareness of cultural values. The more material surfaces, the better. The denial of expertise to pieces of questionable source by experts and scholars would boomerang scientific advance, apart from the fact that 'em- bargos' of this sort never work in a global perspective. Naturally there can be no interest in a black market, where objects submerge 86 use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739195000063 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:39:29, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739195000063 https:/www.cambridge.org/core Licit Traffic for Art's Sake and thereby pass scientific recognition. A possible way of preventing this might be the encouragement of private enterprise in supervised land excavations, as has been practised in shipwreck incidents. The incentive would be a share in the potential hoard, at the discretion of the responsible government. There is a certain irony in the fact that sporadic finds and illicit trade brought things to light and initiated scientific research and artistic evaluation. For example Max Loehr correctly established the development of archaic Chinese bronze styles in the Shang period based on careful observation of existing objects of which most had no record, just by deducing a logical sequence of development.7 Many objects had been found by farmers ploughing their fields in the vicinity of ancient tomb sites, who would later sell them in the market place, where subsequently all traces of origin were lost. His analysis supported by theory alone, which was no easy task, proved to be correct based on pieces later found in controlled excavations in Hunan province. The fact that the nationalist image dominates in Third World source nations notably has to do with the fact that they have been exploited and have not profited financially to the full extent. If they have been stripped of their heritage almost completely, there will have to be some consideration placed in the restitution of individual pieces by a body like UNESCO. Otherwise, the solution can only be to further awareness and knowledge locally to guard what remains. However, there must be a strict line of conduct to avoid a double- faced approach. In a phase of economic strain there must not be any semi-official sale of works formerly considered 'national heritage' in an attempt to alleviate this condition. There is to be no tolerance of clandestine excavations in order to profit from commissions. 4 Exchange and Perception The mutual understanding between people and above all, the 'Com- mon Heritage of Mankind' (CHOM) are concepts strongly supported by the UNESCO. Both in effect strengthen the argument for a liberal approach of exchange. Ever since the times of Albrecht Durer, prints of all kinds have become a very effective means of distributing art and the knowledge of cultural achievements. Today, in the age of luxurious book publi- cations with beautifully printed colour plates throughout, the status of the original work has changed. Masterpieces thereby become gen- erally known and are accessible from all over the globe, in some cases already via electronic databases. However, there can be no doubt that the ability to reproduce cultural goods, both physically as well as in high quality photographs, always fails to substitute the original, as its 'aura' and uniqueness in time and location ('hie et nunc') remain irreproducible.8 Only an original has the attributes of a cultural property. The high level of mobility we enjoy today can 87 use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739195000063 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:39:29, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739195000063 https:/www.cambridge.org/core Hugo Keith Weihe never make up for actually having works in our immediate vicinity or even living with them. Still, the increasingly easy access through various media might justify a reconsideration of this position, par- ticularly in an era of computerized communication and the concept of the world as a 'global village'. Cultural exchange should not just be left to acts of war. Exchange and dislocation is a strong driving force in the making of cultural values, if not a catalyst in cultural evolution. Probably every culture in history has profited from foreign imports influencing and affect- ing the perception of its own culture. African cultures adopted new shapes and utensils brought to them by the Portuguese, while African masks triggered the development of cubism in France. Persian scroll- work was adopted by the Chinese in the Yuan period blue-and-white porcelain which in turn became highly prized collectables in Persia, whereby influences and goods were exchanged via the silk route. Just as their works, the creators of cultural goods may potentially profit from moving around, as naturally every artist is strongly influ- enced by his surroundings. So he might sometimes precisly choose to escape in search of new input: for example, Van Gogh moved from Holland to Paris and then to the south of France. His dark early works were now replaced by much brighter ones. The vivid colours he experienced in the vibrant sun of the Provence were most ben- eficial to his artistic development, but more striking is the fact that he described this landscape as his personal view of Japan,9 a far more distant culture of which he formed a vision through the colour woodblock prints that had been introduced to the Western art world around the mid 1850s. The strong colours he found in these 'off- prints' from the land of the rising sun had led him to this belief. It might therefore be said that a high level of liberality in exchange of goods, thoughts and visions is often instrumental in an artistic process. Why not pledge for an interchange of cultural property on the basis of loans? After all, among the most successful exhibitions to- day are the blockbusters bringing together the output of a lifetime of the likes of Braque, Cezanne, Picasso, Rembrandt, to name just a few. It might therefore even be argued that it would appear more practical if these works had always remained together. But Van Gogh or Picasso would certainly not be the internationally renowned masters they are today if their work had not been distributed world- wide and thereby granted the opportunity of being viewed and disco- vered internationally. Today, the exchange of loans of cultural ob- jects is becoming increasingly difficult. Many objects are too fragile or too unique in their importance to risk frequent dislocation, apart from the insurance premiums and the cost of safe transport being prohibitive. While this may be seen as a repercussion of the art market, it is foremost an account of the importance of each work. At all times contemporary art is exempt from any restrictions. Age barriers concerning cultural goods are set at fifty or one hundred use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739195000063 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:39:29, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739195000063 https:/www.cambridge.org/core Licit Traffic for Art's Sake years, but are purely technical measurements lacking actual justifi- cation. The making of a cultural object is fluent and not determined by precise age barriers. At one time all cultural products were 'con- temporary'. Because they have not yet proven their cultural import- ance, they cannot be looked back on and seen within a cultural de- velopment. They are granted total freedom so that they can prove their importance — and rightly so, although this would appear incon- sistent from a protectionist point of view. Spreading also guarantees a higher level of survival of cultural objects by distributing the risks of destruction by natural causes, by vandalism or theft. The keeping of cultural objects in their source nation alone does not guarantee the best rate of survival, on the contrary. Naturally this does not just apply to Third World source nations. Finally, it could be argued that strong protective measures as im- plied by the UNESCO convention to some extent damage cultural objects by making them untouchable ('noli me tangere'). They might thereby lose a certain degree of accessibility within a source nation most interested in preventing this. 5 Conclusions Foremost, it is imperative to further strengthen the awareness of all peoples of their own local heritage, to further education, knowledge and ethics in all fields including culture in a broader perspective. With regard to archaeological excavations it is vital for govern- ments to gain control, in order to conduct them with the necessary care and to record existing objects and the context of those yet to be discovered. In order to assure this, a certain amount of private enterprise in this field could be considered along the lines drafted. Even looters and smugglers could be trained to use more care and develop more knowledge, as the financial rewards are greater the better the condition of an object and the more they are aware of its importance. Blaming destruction of monuments in Third World countries on a receptive market in the rich countries focusses away from the lack of necessary control in the countries themselves. Preventing clandestine looting by killing.the market might prove an uphill battle rather like fighting drug abuse. The causes of collecting cultural goods are generally noble and not detrimental to health or a financial burden to society. Rules as expressed by the American Journal of Archaeology not to publish any works that have not knowingly been in a collection for more than thirty years prior to the 1973 rules could backfire in the sense that important but illegally exported works would have to be withheld from general knowledge, thereby seriously hindering scientific advance. 89 use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739195000063 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:39:29, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739195000063 https:/www.cambridge.org/core Hugo Keith Weihe With regard to the concept of 'global treasures', the preservation of each cultural object would be of foremost importance. It would therefore be necessary to assure its best possible protection in the safest available haven wherever that might be. After controlled as- sessment of its historic context, it should be made generally available and placed in the most suitable surroundings regarding accessibilry. Regulations for the movement of cultural objects should be as simplistic and unbureaucratic as possible. The British and Canadian export regulations appear to be the most workable as they respect the workings of the art market. The long tradition in the sale of works of art through auctions in England has established a liberal approach. The problem of Third World countries often being unable to afford buying back their own cultural goods would be alleviated, if they were to sell goods under controlled conditions and fully docu- mented at their true market value. This would also be a way of assuring true exchange, allowing them to acquire cultural goods from other source nations. Art has always flourished by exchange. We are obliged not only to look back, but also to look forward. Cultural objects should be allowed to be there where they are most treasured and can unfold their greatest potential. Notes 1 L. Volkel, 'Uber die Wegfiihrung der Kunstwerke aus den eroberten Landern nach Rom, Eine Vorlesung in der Casselischen Alterthiimer-Gesellschaft ge- halten von L. Volkel,' Leipzig, 1798. 2 Cf. Sources UNESCO, no. 28 (July/August 1991), p. 11. 3 Commissioned from the artist by Jakob Heller in 1507 and destined for the Dominican church in Frankfurt am Main. 4 Cf. Hugo Weihe, 'Kiinstlerische Qualitat und Marktwert,' Diss. phil., Zurich 1992, pp. 15ff. 5 It is important to consider these values as relative rather than absolute. For example, according to present legislation, the same Matisse painting might be 'worth' less if it were in Italy rather than in England, for the fact that it cannot be moved. This fact would be reflected in its market value. 6 Jeffrey M. Muller states: 'Through his active choice and seeking out, Rubens became, in effect, a collector of his own work.' in 'The artist as collector,' Princeton 1989, p. 15. 7 Max Loehr, 'The Bronze Styles of the Anyang Period,' Archives of the Chi- nese Art Societ of America, New York 1953, VII, pp. 4 2 - 5 3 . 8 Cf. Walter Benjamin, 'Das Kunstwerk im Zeitalter seiner technischen Repro- duzierbarkeit,' Gesammelte Schriften, Vol. 1, Frankfurt am Main, 1974. 9 Van Gogh expresses an admiration for Japan and Japanese colour woodblock prints in various letters to his brother written in Aries between 1888 and 1889, cf. Johanna Gesina Van Gogh- Bonger (Ed.), Vincent von Goghs Briefe an seinen Bruder, Frankfurt am Main 1988, Vol. Ill, pp. 340, 342, 385, letters 526, 527, 540. 90 use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739195000063 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:39:29, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739195000063 https:/www.cambridge.org/core 
work_2ombz7n2c5d4dffqvm3w57opwy	----	Okumuş & Yavan / Geçmişte ve Günümüzde Seramiğin Kullanım Alanları JOURNAL OF ARTS E-ISSN: 2636-7718 Cilt:1, Sayı:3, 2018 Vol:1, Issue:3, 2018 http://ratingacademy.com.tr/ojs/index.php/arts/index MODADA KÜBİZM ETKİLERİ EFFECTS OF CUBISM IN FASHION Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Başak BOĞDAY SAYĞILI Atılım Üniversitesi, Güzel Sanatlar Tasarım ve Mimarlık Fakültesi, Moda ve Tekstil Tasarımı Bölümü, İstanbul/TÜRKİYE E-mail. basakbs@gmail.com İngilizce ÖZET Makale Geçmişi: Geliş: 28 Eylül 2018 Kabul: 31 Ekim 2018 Günümüzün felsefi, bilimsel sosyolojik yaklaşımların temellerinin atıldığı sanayi devrimi ile yaşanan sosyal olaylar ve teknolojik gelişmeler, estetik anlayışın değişmesine neden olmuştur. Estetik anlayışın değişimi ile sanat anlayışı da değişime uğramıştır. 19. Yüzyılın sonu “Moda” kavramının oluştuğu ve “Modern Sanat”ın oluştuğu dönemdir. Bu araştırmanın amacı; sanat akımlarından biri olan kübizm sanat akımının etkilerinin görülmeye başlandığı 1900 ‘lerin başından günümüze kadar olan modadaki etkilerini örneklerle açıklamaya çalışmaktır. Araştırma, nitel bir araştırmadır. Veri toplama tekniği olarak belgesel tarama yöntemi kullanılmıştır. Elde edilen bulgular, görseller ile desteklenmiştir. Araştırmanın sonucunda, modanın kübizm sanat akımından nasıl etkilendiği ortaya konulmuştur. Anahtar Kelimeler: Moda, Sanat, Kübizm, Moda Tarih DOI: 10.31566/arts.2018345690 ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT Article History: Received: 28 September 2018 Accepted: 31 October 2018 The social revolution and technological developments that have taken place with the industrial revolution that the foundations of today's philosophical, scientific sociological approaches have taken place have caused a change in aesthetic understanding. With the change of aesthetic understanding, the understanding of art has also changed. The end of the 19th century is the period of "Fashion" and "Modern Art". The purpose of this research; Cubism, one of the artistic trends, is trying to explain with examples the effects of the 1900s, from the beginning of the effects of the art flow to the day-to-day fashion. Research is a qualitative research. Documentary screening method was used as data collection technique. Obtained findings were supported by visuals. As a result of the research, it has been revealed how fashion is influenced by cubism art movement. Keywords: Fashion, Art, Cubism, Fashion History DOI: 10.31566/arts.2018345690 1.GİRİŞ Sanayi devrimiyle birlikte yaşanan gelişmeler, toplum düzeninde köklü değişimler ortaya çıkarırken, sanat dünyasında da önemli değişimlere neden olmuştur. Sanat, sanayi devriminin ardından modern sanat olarak nitelendirilmeye başlamıştır. Modern sanat tarihçileri, modernizmin temel eğilimini genellikle soyutlamaya yönelik olduğunu belirtmektedirler. İlk soyut resmin kim tarafından yapıldığı bilinmemekle birlikte, http://ratingacademy.com.tr/ojs/index.php/arts/index mailto:basakbs@gmail.com BOĞDAY SAYĞILI / Modada Kübizm Etkileri Journal of Arts, Cilt / Volume:1, Sayı / Issue:3, 2018, 23-32 24 Cézanne’nin “Yıkananlar” isimli tablosu ilk örneklerden biri olarak gösterilebilir (Lynton;2004:19). Modern sanatın gündeme geldiği 20. Yüzyılın başından günümüze pek çok yeni akım ortaya çıkmıştır. Modern sanattın ana akımları “Fovizm, Kübizm, Fütirizm, Ekspresyonizm, Sürrealizm”dir. Bu akımlardan biri olan “Kübizm” akımını, modern sanatın babası olarak kabul edilen Cezanne’ın, küçük yüzeyleri yan yana getirerek, belirgin özellikleri bir mozaik gibi yerleştirmesinden etkilenen sanatçılar başlatmışlardır (Lynton;2004:24). Endüstri dönemi olan XX. Yüzyılda sadece duygu ve coşkularla çığır açan bir sanat yapılamayacağını savunan (İpşiroğlu;2012:168) Kübizm, 1907-1912 yılları arasında Pablo Picasso ve Georges Braque’ın ortaya atmış oldukları resim stiline verilen isimdir. Soyut sanatın başlangıcını işaret eden Kübizm, iki boyutlu resim yüzeyi üzerinde, birden çok bakış açısını kullanarak üç boyutlu bir etki yaratmaktadır (Ocvirk, Stinson, Wigg, Bone, Cayton;2013:309). Bu iki isim dışında o dönemde pek çok sanatçı tarafından kübizim benimsenmiştir. Toplumların zaman içinde geçirdiği politik, ekonomik, sosyolojik, kültürel vb. değişimler, sanatın; akımlar, eğilimler, ekoller üzerinden sürekli değişimi ile doğru orantılıdır (Şenel, Karaoğlu;2017:306). Benzer biçimde, doğasında yenilenme etkisi barındıran modanın sürekli değişimi de bu toplumsal durum değişikliklerinden bağımsız düşünülemez. Moda tasarımcısı Schiaparelli’den günümüze moda sektöründe tasarımcılar koleksiyonlarında daha yaratıcı ve özgün olmak için bir konsept üzerinde çalışmaktadırlar (Koca, Koç, Kaya;2015:128). Çalıştıkları konseptlerden biri olan sanat akımları, sanatçıların fikirlerini yansıtma biçimi, tanımından yola çıkarak, modada da tasarımcıların ve kullanıcıların fikir ve düşüncelerini yansıtma biçimi giysidir. Tasarım ve sanatı aynı ortak paydada birleştiren bir diğer nokta, her iki alanın sonunda estetik bir ürün yaratma çabasıdır. Sanat, tasarımcılara ilham veren ilk kaynaklardan biri olmasından dolayı, tasarımcılar için sonsuz bir araştırma alanıdır (Varol;2016). Faith Popcorn (1991), kültürel hedef kitleye göre moda trendlerinin, • Yüksek kültür: güzel sanatlar ve performans sanatlarından; • Düşük kültür: Yerel olarak takip edilen faaliyetlerden; • Popüler kültür: Reklam, film, televizyon, dergi, kutlama haberlerinden ortaya çıktığını belirtmektedir. Yüksek kültür genellikle modacıları ve yüksek dikiş yapan hazır giyim firmalarını etkilemektedir. Örneğin Yves Saint Laurent, Piet Mondrian’dan etkilenerek 1965 sonbahar koleksiyonunu tasarlamıştır. Oscar De La Renta’nın 2012 koleksiyonunda Pablo Picasso’nun kübist resimlerinin etkileri görülmektedir (Brannon, Divita;2015:121). 1908’den 1920’lerin başlarına kadar modanın kübizmden etkilenmesi için kritik zamanlardı. O kritik dönemden sonra yaşanılan politik, ekonomik ve sosyal şartların da etkisiyle moda kübizmden oldukça etkilenmiştir (Martin;1999). Kübizm, moda için yaratıcı bir araştırma alanı olmasının yanı sıra iki boyutlu olan tekstil yüzeyini insan vücudunu saran üç boyutlu giysiye dönüştürme aşamasında da (kalıp) kullanmaktadır. Kübizmin ortaya çıktığı 1908’den günümüze pek çok tasarımcı giysilerini tasarlama aşamasında kübizmden yararlanmıştır. Tasarımcılar ya giysinin tekstil yüzeyinde, ya biçiminde ya da kalıbında kübizmden yararlanmıştır. Böylelikle Kübizm sadece resimde değil, modanın yapısına uygunluğu nedeniyle modada da sürekli kendini göstermektedir. Hanse’nin modayı batının kapitalist sisteminde, geçmiş ve gelecekte giysi stillerinde değişim ve yenilikler olarak gördüğünü (Hansen;2004) ve Baudrillard’ın modanın zaman zaman geriye dönerek, “eski” ve “yeni” tasarımlarda, zamanın eski ve yeni anlayışlarını aynı anda üreterek çelişkili bir durum yarattığını (Baudrillard;2002) aktaran Şahin, bu noktadan sonra giysinin bir ürün olduğunu vurgulamaktadır (Şahin;2016:378). Ürün olarak giysinin moda soyut kavramı içerisinde tasarlanma sürecinde eskilerin yenilenerek, yeni zamanın BOĞDAY SAYĞILI / Modada Kübizm Etkileri Journal of Arts, Cilt / Volume:1, Sayı / Issue:3, 2018, 23-32 25 şartlarına uygun olarak tasarlanma sürecinde tasarım araştırmalarının önemli bir alanı olan sanattan da ilham alarak tasarlanan ve modada kübizmi yansıtan giysiler bu araştırmanın konusu olmuştur. 2.YÖNTEM Moda tasarımcılarının kübizm sanat akımından etkilenerek tasarlamış oldukları giysilerin kübizm sanat akımının başlangıcından günümüze kadar ulaşılabilen belgeler doğrultusunda incelenmesi amacıyla yapılan bu nitel araştırmada; belgesel tarama yöntemi kullanılmıştır. Araştırmanın evrenini, kübizmden etkilenerek tasarlanmış tüm giysiler oluşturmaktadır. Araştırma örneklemini ise; kübizmin temel etkilerine dayanılarak tasarlanmış olduğu düşünülen ulaşılabilen giysilerin görselleri oluşturmaktadır. 3. BULGULAR 1907’de ilk kübizm resimleri ortaya çıkmaya başladığından günümüze pek çok moda tasarımcısı kübizmden etkilenmiştir. Birden çok bakış açısını kullanarak iki boyutlu bir malzemeyi üç boyutlu göstermeyi hedefleyen kübizm sanat akımı, moda tasarımcıları için çok iyi bir kaynak olmuştur. Moda tasarımcıları fikirlerini modanın hammaddesi olan tekstil yüzeyini üç boyutlu giysiye dönüştürmede, bol kesikli ve keskin hatları kullanarak ve giysiyi oluşturan tekstil yüzeylerinde kübizmden faydalanmışlardır. 1910-1920 yıllarında kübizmin etkileri modada görülmeye başlansa da asıl etki daha sonrasında gerçekleşmiştir. Kübizm, modayı özgünlüğü, bir bütünün parçalara bölünmüş hali olması nedeniyle, bir giysinin insan vücudunu saran parçalı bir bütün olduğu düşünüldüğünde prensipte çok yakın çalışma alanları olduğu söylenebilir. Kübizm akımı modayı etkilemesi ile akım daha çok çevrelerce görülür ve fark edilir olmuştur (Martin;1999:16). Resim 1. Resim 2. Resim 3. Kaynak.https://books.google.com.tr/books?id=Fq3RbM4d4CkC&pg=PA35&lpg=PA35&dq=Leneif+ fashion&source=bl&ots=LePCGDwT00&sig=Bw4xrhACmcgADsUFv6DrHMTlHmg&hl=tr&sa=X &ved=2ahUKEwjkjIvB_9_cAhVFJ5oKHXd6BbkQ6AEwCXoECAkQAQ#v=onepage&q=Leneif%2 0fashion&f=false https://books.google.com.tr/books?id=Fq3RbM4d4CkC&pg=PA35&lpg=PA35&dq=Leneif+fashion&source=bl&ots=LePCGDwT00&sig=Bw4xrhACmcgADsUFv6DrHMTlHmg&hl=tr&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjkjIvB_9_cAhVFJ5oKHXd6BbkQ6AEwCXoECAkQAQ#v=onepage&q=Leneif%20fashion&f=false https://books.google.com.tr/books?id=Fq3RbM4d4CkC&pg=PA35&lpg=PA35&dq=Leneif+fashion&source=bl&ots=LePCGDwT00&sig=Bw4xrhACmcgADsUFv6DrHMTlHmg&hl=tr&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjkjIvB_9_cAhVFJ5oKHXd6BbkQ6AEwCXoECAkQAQ#v=onepage&q=Leneif%20fashion&f=false https://books.google.com.tr/books?id=Fq3RbM4d4CkC&pg=PA35&lpg=PA35&dq=Leneif+fashion&source=bl&ots=LePCGDwT00&sig=Bw4xrhACmcgADsUFv6DrHMTlHmg&hl=tr&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjkjIvB_9_cAhVFJ5oKHXd6BbkQ6AEwCXoECAkQAQ#v=onepage&q=Leneif%20fashion&f=false https://books.google.com.tr/books?id=Fq3RbM4d4CkC&pg=PA35&lpg=PA35&dq=Leneif+fashion&source=bl&ots=LePCGDwT00&sig=Bw4xrhACmcgADsUFv6DrHMTlHmg&hl=tr&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjkjIvB_9_cAhVFJ5oKHXd6BbkQ6AEwCXoECAkQAQ#v=onepage&q=Leneif%20fashion&f=false BOĞDAY SAYĞILI / Modada Kübizm Etkileri Journal of Arts, Cilt / Volume:1, Sayı / Issue:3, 2018, 23-32 26 Kübizmin modadaki ilk ve uzun süre öncülüğünü yapan Gabrielle Chanel’dir. Chanel ve Picasso’nun ilk birbirlerinin işlerinden etkilenmesi, Chanel’in, Picasso’nun dekorasyonunu yaptığı “Antigone” adlı oyuna kostümler tasarlaması ile olmuştur. Chanel ilk kareli palto stilini yaratmış, tül kafesli dar kreptöşin elbisesi moda dergilerinde haber olmuştur (Dereboy;2008:46). Chanel hem yüzey tasarımında, hem form, hem de biçim tasarımında kübizmden etkilenerek giysiler tasarlamıştır. Desenleri parçalamış tekrar birleştirmiştir (Resim 1-2). 1920’lerde Pariste önemli bir moda evi olan Leneif’te kübizmden etkilenenlerdendi. Leneif, Resim 3’te görüldüğü gibi form, biçim ve renk bakımından kübizmden faydalandığı görülmektedir. Resim 4. Resim 5. Resim 6. Kaynak. https://20thcenturydesignersfinalproject.weebly.com/jean-patou.html http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O75097/evening-dress-paul-poiret/ https://theredlist.com/wiki-2-23-1249-1253-view-1920s-profile-caroline-reboux-2.html Jean Patou’nun 1920’li yılların spor giysisinde (Resim 4) köşeler, kareler, kesikler ve parçalar görülmektedir. Paul Poiret’in 1933’e ait krem ve yeşil renkli parçalı gece elbisesinin de (Resim 5) kübizm etkisinde hazırlandığını söyleyebiliriz. Caroline Reboux’un, 1920’lerde tasarlamış olduğu kap, kübist hareketin etkilerini taşımaktadır (Resim 6). https://20thcenturydesignersfinalproject.weebly.com/jean-patou.html http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O75097/evening-dress-paul-poiret/ https://theredlist.com/wiki-2-23-1249-1253-view-1920s-profile-caroline-reboux-2.html BOĞDAY SAYĞILI / Modada Kübizm Etkileri Journal of Arts, Cilt / Volume:1, Sayı / Issue:3, 2018, 23-32 27 Resim 7. Resim 8. Resim 9. Kaynak.https://meganinsaintemaxime.com/2015/03/19/new-fashion-exhibition-jeanne-lanvin-in-paris/ https://www.europeana.eu/portal/en/exhibitions/les-couturiers/madeleine-vionnet http://www.vogue.it/en/news/encyclo//designers/v/madeleine-vionnet Jeanne Lanvin’in de 1920’li yıllarda tasarlamış olduğu giysilerde kübizmin etkisi görülmektedir (Resim 7). Madeleine Vionnet; kübizmden etkilenerek pek çok giysi tasarlamıştır. Tasarlamış olduğu özellikle eteklerde kübizmin etkileri belirgin bir şekilde görülmektedir (Resim 8). 1932 yılında tasarlamış olduğu gece elbisesi ise, biçim bakımından kübizmden faydalanarak, giysinin kalıbı hazırlanırken bütün keskin hatlarla parçalanarak oluşturulmuştur. Renkler yine kübizmin renkleridir (Resim 9). Resim 10. Resim 11. Kaynak. https://vintagedancer.com/1940s/1940s-ladies-workwear-clothes/ https://www.europeana.eu/portal/en/blogs/dior-the-new-look-revolution-at-musee-christian-dior- granville https://meganinsaintemaxime.com/2015/03/19/new-fashion-exhibition-jeanne-lanvin-in-paris/ https://www.europeana.eu/portal/en/exhibitions/les-couturiers/madeleine-vionnet http://www.vogue.it/en/news/encyclo/designers/v/madeleine-vionnet https://vintagedancer.com/1940s/1940s-ladies-workwear-clothes/ https://www.europeana.eu/portal/en/blogs/dior-the-new-look-revolution-at-musee-christian-dior-granville https://www.europeana.eu/portal/en/blogs/dior-the-new-look-revolution-at-musee-christian-dior-granville BOĞDAY SAYĞILI / Modada Kübizm Etkileri Journal of Arts, Cilt / Volume:1, Sayı / Issue:3, 2018, 23-32 28 1940’lı yıllara gelindiğinde 2. Dünya Savaşı nedeniyle kadın giysilerinin formu erkek giysilerine daha çok benzemiştir. Artık kadınlar çalışma hayatında daha çok yer almaktadır. Bu nedenle daha rahat giysilere ihtiyaç duyulmaktadır. Savaşın varlığı giysilere askeri tarzı yansıtmıştır. Bu dönemde kalıpsal olarak daha keskin hatlı giysiler kullanılmıştır (Resim 10). 1947’de Christian Dior’un “New Look” koleksiyonuyla kadınlara toplum içindeki yeri yeniden hatırlatılarak, kadın giysileri vücut hatlarını yeniden ortaya çıkaran ancak herşeye rağmen keskin hatlardan ve kübizm etkisiyle hazırlanan giysilerde çok kullanılan pili ve piliselerden yine de vazgeçilmeyen giysiler tasarlanmıştır (Resim 11). Resim 12. Kaynak. http://www.thepeoplehistory.com/50sclothes.html 1950’lerin sonunda kareli kumaşlar yeniden moda sayfalarında kendini gösterirken hem yapısal hem de yüzey desenlerinde kübizm etkileri görülmektedir. O dönemde bu etkilerinin görülmesi sadece sanatsal etki değil, aynı zamanda dönemin politik, ekonomik, zorlu ve kesin kurallı dönemleri olmasının da etkisi büyüktür (Resim 12). Resim 13. Resim 14. Resim 15. Kaynak. https://vogue.com.tr/haber/yves-saint-laurentin-modaya-yon-verdigi-ikonik-anlar/2 https://theredlist.com/wiki-2-23-1249-1258-view-1970s-profile-paco-rabanne-3.html http://uk.fashionnetwork.com/news/Paco-Rabanne-styles-sexy-aliens-for-spring,514306.html#.W21K_tIzYdU http://www.thepeoplehistory.com/50sclothes.html https://vogue.com.tr/haber/yves-saint-laurentin-modaya-yon-verdigi-ikonik-anlar/2 https://theredlist.com/wiki-2-23-1249-1258-view-1970s-profile-paco-rabanne-3.html http://uk.fashionnetwork.com/news/Paco-Rabanne-styles-sexy-aliens-for-spring,514306.html#.W21K_tIzYdU BOĞDAY SAYĞILI / Modada Kübizm Etkileri Journal of Arts, Cilt / Volume:1, Sayı / Issue:3, 2018, 23-32 29 Yves Saint Laurent’in Mondrian’dan esinlenerek hazırlamış olduğu koleksiyon 1960’lı yıllara damgasını vurmuştur ki Mondrian’ın da kübistlerden çok etkilendiği bilinmektedir (Resim 13). 1960’lı yıllara damgasını vuran bir başka isim Paco Rabanne’dir. Paco Rabanne de bütünü parçalayarak kübizm etkili giysiler tasarlamıştır (Resim 14). Metal elbisesi hem 1960’ların uzay ruhunu yansıtmaktadır hem de kübizmi yansıtmaktadır. Paco Rabanne 2000’li yıllarda bile hala kübizmin etkisini modada hissettiren yegâne markadır (Resim 15). Resim 16. Resim 17. Resim 18. Kaynak. https://www.arthipo.com/artblog/sanat-tarihi/op-art-sanat-akimi.html https://trendychicvintage.wordpress.com/2012/10/17/op-art/ https://www.accessoriesmagazine.com/breaking-trends-spring-2013-optical-prints/ 1960’lı yıllarda optik resim olarak bilinen Op-art sanatı gündeme gelmiştir. Op-artta, kübizmdeki gibi bütün parçalara bölünür ve sürrealizmde olduğu gibi göz yanılsamalarına neden olur. Bu sanat akımı; kübizmin ve sürrealizmin etkilerini ve öğelerini aynı anda kullanılarak yeni bir sanat akımı oluşturulmuştur (Resim 16). Resim 19. Resim 20 Kaynak. https://auntiefashion.wordpress.com/2011/05/17/oscar-de-la-renta-resort-2012/ http://www.kaluginastyle.com/en/how-to-choose-your-summer-skirt/ https://www.arthipo.com/artblog/sanat-tarihi/op-art-sanat-akimi.html https://trendychicvintage.wordpress.com/2012/10/17/op-art/ https://www.accessoriesmagazine.com/breaking-trends-spring-2013-optical-prints/ https://auntiefashion.wordpress.com/2011/05/17/oscar-de-la-renta-resort-2012/ http://www.kaluginastyle.com/en/how-to-choose-your-summer-skirt/ BOĞDAY SAYĞILI / Modada Kübizm Etkileri Journal of Arts, Cilt / Volume:1, Sayı / Issue:3, 2018, 23-32 30 1960’lardan sonra kübizmin etkileri daha çok Op-art sanatı ile görülse de 2000’lere gelindiğinde kübizmin modadaki etkileri hem biçim, hem form hem tekstil yüzeyi hem de renk olarak görülmektedir (Resim 17). 2000’li yıllarda giysilerin etek uçlarında keskin köşeli hatlar oluştuğu görülmektedir (Resim 18). Giysilerde çok parçalılık ve bu çoklu parçaların belirginleştiği görülmektedir. Bu çok parçalılık Op-art’a gönderme yapsa da temelinde kübizim yer almaktadır. Aynı zamanda Kübizmin renkleri olan siyahlar, bejler, toprak tonları ile 2000’li yıllarda çok karşılaşılmaktadır. 4. SONUÇ Sanayi devriminin ardından 20. Yüzyılla birlikte başlayan modern sanatın ilk akımlarından biri olan Kübizmin öncüleri, Ceazanne’ın resimlerinden etkilenen Picasso ve Braque’tır. Picasso, Braque ve akımın diğer sanatçılarının eserleri moda dünyası için ilham kaynağı olmuştur. Özellikle 1910-1920 yıllarında modada kübizmin ilk tohumları atılmış, 1920-1940 yılları arasında ise moda da kübizm büyük bir yükseliş yaşamıştır. 1960’larda modada yeniden doğan kübizm, daha sonra Op-Art sanatı olarak modada devam etmiştir. 2000’li yıllara gelindiğinde kübizm yeniden modada hayat bulmaya başlamıştır. Bütünün parçalara bölünmesi ile ifade edilen kübizmde koyu renkler ve toprak tonları tercih edilmiştir. Öncelikle Kübizmin renklerinden etkilenen moda, daha sonra bütünün parçalanmasından faydalanılarak iki boyutlu olan kumaşı üç boyutlu insan yüzeyini kaplamak için faydalanmış ve giysilerin kalıplarında kullanmıştır. Daha az kumaş harcayarak vücudu saracak giysiler oluşturulmasında ve bu parçalanmanın kübist resimlerde olduğu gibi kesin hatlarla tasarlandığı görülmüştür. Moda da kübizmden ilham alan tasarımcılar ve moda evleri; Gabrielle Chanel, Leneif, Jean Patou, Paul Poiret, Caroline Reboux, Jeanne Lanvin, Jean Paquin, Madeleine Vionnet, Christian Dior, Yves Saint Laurent, Paco Rabanne’dir Sanat akımları, belirli bir dönem başlayıp bitmezler. Sanatçılar ve tasarımcılar için sanat akımları her daim araştırma kaynağı olabilecek bir alandır. Kübizmde bu akımlardan biridir ve bu akımı moda, kendi alt alanlarında dönem dönem ilham almaktadır. BOĞDAY SAYĞILI / Modada Kübizm Etkileri Journal of Arts, Cilt / Volume:1, Sayı / Issue:3, 2018, 23-32 31 KAYNAKÇA BRANNON, E. L.; DİVİTA, L., (2015), Fashion Forecasting, Fourt edition, Fairchild Books, Bloomsbury Publishing, New York, London. DEREBOY, J.,(2008), Moda ve 100 Yılın Moda Tasarımcıları, Özel Güzel Sanatlar Stilistlik- Moda Ltd. Şti., Ankara. İPŞİROĞLU, N.; İPŞİROĞLU, M.,(2012), Oluşum Süreci İçinde Sanatın Tarihi, Hayalperest Yayınevi, İstanbul. KOCA, E.; KOÇ, F.;KAYA, Ö.,Yöresel Dokumaları Güncel Tasarımlarda Yorumlamak “Kargı Bezi Örneği, The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl:3, Sayı:9, Mart 2015, s.125-133. LYNTON, N.,(2004), Modern Sanatın Öyküsü, (Çev.;Prof. Dr. Cevat Çapan, Prof. Dr. Sadi Öziş), Remzi Kitapevi A.Ş., İstanbul. MARTİN, R.,(1999), Cubism and Fashion, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. OCVİRK, O.G.; STİNSON, R.E.; WİGG P.R.,; ROBERT O., B.; CAYTON, D.L., (2013), Sanatın Temelleri-Teori ve Uygulama, Editör:Nazlı Eda Noyan, Çeviri:Nur Balkır Kuru, Ali Kuru, Karakalem Kitapevi Yayınları, İzmir. ŞAHİN, Y., (2016), Geleneksel Türk Giyim Kültürü ve 20. Yüzyıl Modasının Kesişme Noktası: Geometrik Kesim, SDÜ ART-E Güzel Sanatlar Fakültesi Sanat Dergisi, Mayıs/Haziran 2016, Cilt:9, Sayı:17, s:376-390, ISSN 1303-2698. ŞENEL, E., KAROĞLU, H.,(2017), Postmodern Dönemde Estetik ve Tüketim Kavramları Açısından Sanat ve Moda Etkileşimi, ulakbilge 5. 10, 303-329. VAROL, E.; 2016, “The Relationship Of Fashion And Art And Art Literacy Of The Students Of The Department Of Fashion Design”, Global Journal on Humanities Social Sciences,Vol:2 No:1,s:437-452. Görsel Kaynaklar Resim1.2.3.https://books.google.com.tr/books?id=Fq3RbM4d4CkC&pg=PA35&lpg=PA35& dq=Leneif+fashion&source=bl&ots=LePCGDwT00&sig=Bw4xrhACmcgADsUFv6D rHMTlHmg&hl=tr&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjkjIvB_9_cAhVFJ5oKHXd6BbkQ6AEwC XoECAkQAQ#v=onepage&q=Leneif%20fashion&f=false Resim 4. https://20thcenturydesignersfinalproject.weebly.com/jean-patou.html Resim5. http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O75097/evening-dress-paul-poiret/ Resim 6. https://theredlist.com/wiki-2-23-1249-1253-view-1920s-profile-caroline-reboux- 2.html Resim 7. https://meganinsaintemaxime.com/2015/03/19/new-fashion-exhibition-jeanne- lanvin-in-paris/ Resim 8. https://www.europeana.eu/portal/en/exhibitions/les-couturiers/madeleine-vionnet Resim 9. http://www.vogue.it/en/news/encyclo//designers/v/madeleine-vionnet Resim 10. https://vintagedancer.com/1940s/1940s-ladies-workwear-clothes/ Resim 11. https://www.europeana.eu/portal/en/blogs/dior-the-new-look-revolution-at-musee- christian-dior-granville https://20thcenturydesignersfinalproject.weebly.com/jean-patou.html http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O75097/evening-dress-paul-poiret/ https://theredlist.com/wiki-2-23-1249-1253-view-1920s-profile-caroline-reboux-2.html https://theredlist.com/wiki-2-23-1249-1253-view-1920s-profile-caroline-reboux-2.html https://meganinsaintemaxime.com/2015/03/19/new-fashion-exhibition-jeanne-lanvin-in-paris/ https://meganinsaintemaxime.com/2015/03/19/new-fashion-exhibition-jeanne-lanvin-in-paris/ https://www.europeana.eu/portal/en/exhibitions/les-couturiers/madeleine-vionnet http://www.vogue.it/en/news/encyclo/designers/v/madeleine-vionnet https://vintagedancer.com/1940s/1940s-ladies-workwear-clothes/ https://www.europeana.eu/portal/en/blogs/dior-the-new-look-revolution-at-musee-christian-dior-granville https://www.europeana.eu/portal/en/blogs/dior-the-new-look-revolution-at-musee-christian-dior-granville BOĞDAY SAYĞILI / Modada Kübizm Etkileri Journal of Arts, Cilt / Volume:1, Sayı / Issue:3, 2018, 23-32 32 Resim 12. http://www.thepeoplehistory.com/50sclothes.html Resim 13. https://vogue.com.tr/haber/yves-saint-laurentin-modaya-yon-verdigi-ikonik-anlar/2 Resim 14. https://theredlist.com/wiki-2-23-1249-1258-view-1970s-profile-paco-rabanne- 3.html Resim15.http://uk.fashionnetwork.com/news/Paco-Rabanne-styles-sexy-aliens-for- spring,514306.html#.W21K_tIzYdU Resim 16. https://www.arthipo.com/artblog/sanat-tarihi/op-art-sanat-akimi.html Resim 17. https://trendychicvintage.wordpress.com/2012/10/17/op-art/ Resim 18. https://www.accessoriesmagazine.com/breaking-trends-spring-2013-optical-prints/ Resim 19. https://auntiefashion.wordpress.com/2011/05/17/oscar-de-la-renta-resort-2012/ Resim 20. http://www.kaluginastyle.com/en/how-to-choose-your-summer-skirt/ http://www.thepeoplehistory.com/50sclothes.html https://vogue.com.tr/haber/yves-saint-laurentin-modaya-yon-verdigi-ikonik-anlar/2 https://theredlist.com/wiki-2-23-1249-1258-view-1970s-profile-paco-rabanne-3.html https://theredlist.com/wiki-2-23-1249-1258-view-1970s-profile-paco-rabanne-3.html https://www.arthipo.com/artblog/sanat-tarihi/op-art-sanat-akimi.html https://trendychicvintage.wordpress.com/2012/10/17/op-art/ https://www.accessoriesmagazine.com/breaking-trends-spring-2013-optical-prints/ https://auntiefashion.wordpress.com/2011/05/17/oscar-de-la-renta-resort-2012/ http://www.kaluginastyle.com/en/how-to-choose-your-summer-skirt/ 
work_2rqzebt6erhspbnlqq2qb7g62e	----	draft 14 The Demoiselles d'Evanston: On the Aesthetics of the Wigmore Chart The Harvard community has made this article openly available. Please share how this access benefits you. Your story matters Citation Bruce L. Hay, The Demoiselles d'Evanston: On the Aesthetics of the Wigmore Chart, 73 Law, Probability & Risk 211 (2008). Published Version doi: 10.1093/lpr/mgn003 Citable link http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:11998341 Terms of Use This article was downloaded from Harvard University’s DASH repository, and is made available under the terms and conditions applicable to Open Access Policy Articles, as set forth at http:// nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:dash.current.terms-of- use#OAP http://osc.hul.harvard.edu/dash/open-access-feedback?handle=&title=The%20Demoiselles%20d'Evanston:%20On%20the%20Aesthetics%20of%20the%20Wigmore%20Chart&community=1/7&collection=1/8&owningCollection1/8&harvardAuthors=139b8f66412e0c72ea96855d6fce27e2&department http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:11998341 http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:dash.current.terms-of-use#OAP http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:dash.current.terms-of-use#OAP http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:dash.current.terms-of-use#OAP Electronic copy available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1308602 Les Demoiselles d’Evanston: On the Aesthetics of the Wigmore Chart Bruce L. Hay Harvard Law School, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA† Forthcoming, Law, Probability and Risk (fall 2008) There is an old adage that the Investigating Officer can often remember to good purpose, namely, “Cherchez la femme,” “Seek for the woman.”1 I The International Exhibition of Modern Art arrived arrived at the Art Institute of Chicago in March 1913, a few months before John Wigmore of Northwestern University published the The Problem of Judicial Proof, in which he introduced his “chart method” of analyzing and evidence.2 Known as the Armory Show, the exhibition was billed as America’s first big introduction to Cubism, Fauvism, Futurism, and the other fashionable isms of the contemporary European art scene.3 (“Splash! Splotch! Cubist Art Here,” one Chicago newspaper headline † Email: bruce_hay@harvard.edu. AUTHOR’S NOTE: This paper was originally presented at a conference on Graphic and Visual Representations of Evidence at Cardozo Law School, most papers from which were published in a special issue of Law, Probability & Risk in December 2007. I thank Peter Tillers for organizing the conference and including me. 1 GROSS, H. (1924). Criminal Investigation: A Practical Textbook for Magistrates, Police Officer and Lawyers. London: Sweet & Maxwell, __. 2 WIGMORE, J. (1913) The Problem of Proof. Illinois Law Review, 8, 83. Portions of the articles were taken from his book, WIGMORE, J. (1913). The Principles of Judicial Proof as Given by Logic, Psychology, and General Experience and Illustrated in Judicial Trials . Boston: Little, Brown. 3 The exhibition opened in New York’s 69th Regiment Armory in February 1913, featuring about 1,250 paintings, sculptures and decorative objects by about 300 European and American artists. About half of those works traveled Electronic copy available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1308602 2 announced, following the popular press’s custom of using “cubist” as an umbrella term to designate all of the strange new styles.4) It is intriguing to speculate (for I have been unable to determine) whether Wigmore attended the exhibition, and if so whether he saw any connection between the art on display there and the schematic diagrams in his Judicial Proof article, which came out in June of that year. If he did see a connection it was, to his mind, probably negative. Wigmore was enormously learned and had a wide-ranging knowledge of many cultures, but his leanings were had Victorian. He would have considered his chart method, designed as it was for the orderly administration of justice, as being firmly opposed to the decadence, libertinism, anarchism, bolshevism, and sheer mental derangement that many traditionalists discerned in the works of Matisse, Gauguin, Duchamp, Picasso, and other artists of what the newspapers called the “advance guard.” Indeed, Wigmore presented his method as a self-conscious reaction to what he saw as the disorder reigning in the continental legal systems. What America needs, he says in his 1913 article, is “a probative science – the principles of proof – independent of the artificial rules of procedure.”5 If we fail to develop one, “we shall find ourselves in the present plight of Continental Europe,” where in the previous century “the ancient to Chicago and then to Boston. For a general account of the exhibition, see BROWN, M. (1988). The Story of the Armory Show. New York: Abbeville Press. 4 Chicago Daily Tribune, 23 March 1913, p. 1. 5 The Wigmore quotations in this paragraph are from The Problem of Proof, supra note 1, pp. 77-78. 3 F ig ur e 1. W ig m or e, C ha rt o f t he E vi de nc e in C om m on w ea lth v . U m ili an . 19 13 . Fr om T he P ro bl em o f P ro of 4 worn-out numerical system of ‘legal proof’ was abolished by fiat and the so-called ‘free proof’ – namely, no system at all – was substituted.” European jurists, he explains, never acquired an “understanding of the living process of belief; in consequence, when ‘legal proof’ was abolished, they were unready, and judicial trials have been carried on for a century past by uncomprehended, unguided, and therefore unsafe mental processes.” He makes free proof sound like the juridical equivalent of free love; his talk of “unsafe mental processes” echoes what the guardians of public morals in Chicago are saying about the strange, unconventional nudes at the Armory Show. “Nasty, lewd, immoral, and indecent,” one schoolteacher declares; do not expose the young to these “degeneracies of Paris,” a clergyman warns.6 “The idea that some people can gaze at this sort of thing without its hurting them is all bosh. This exhibition ought to be suppressed,” says the president of the city’s Law and Order League. And newspaper calls the work “pollution … materialized in several paintings of the nude; portrayals that unite in an insult to the great, self-respecting public of Chicago. Just who is responsible for this showing of dishonor to sensitive great art that finds expression in the chaste and beautiful painting of the human figure in the nude in our Institute?” And a speaker at at a ladies’ group in Evanston intones: “The body is the temple of God, and the cubists have profaned 6 The remaining quotations in this paragraph are taken from The Story of the Armory Show, supra note 2, p. 206. 5 the temple.”7 Whatever Wigmore’s one views on the exhibition were, it is unlikely he thought it had much in common with his own work. Still, certain parallels between his chart method and artistic modernism are hard to resist. His project should, I think, be seen as part of the response to the “crisis of representation” making itself felt in many forms of cultural production at the time. Think of the year 1913 alone:8 Russell and Whitehead complete the Principia Mathematica, providing what they think will be a firm logical foundation for mathematics; Wittgenstein begins the correspondence concerning Russell’s theory of knowledge that will result in the Tractatus; Saussure dies, prompting the publication of his Cours de Linguistique Generale from student notes; in the legal academy, Hohfeld publishes his Fundamental Legal Conceptions as Applied in Judicial Reasoning. In the arts, the Rite of Spring, composed by Stravinsky and choreographed by Nijinsky, sparks a riot at its premiere in Paris; Malevich paints his Black Square, thought by some art historians to be the first purely abstract painting in western art; Joyce’s Portrait of the 7 Not all Chicagoans had such narrow-minded reactions. Many were enthusiastic about the new styles; others were skeptical, but urged “fair play for insurgent art,” as one Chicago newspaper put it. See The Story of the Armory Show, supra note 1, at 179. See also Martinez, A. (19__). A Mixed Reception for Modernism: The 1913 Armory Show at the Art Institute of Chicago. Museum Studies, 19, 30; PRINCE, S. (1990). Chicago Critics Take on Modernism. The Old Guard and the Avante-Garde: Modernism in Chicago, 1910-40 (S. Prince ed.), pp. 98-102. On responses to the exhibition across the country, see MANCINI, J.M. (1999). “One Term is as Fatuous as Another”: Responses to the Armory Show Reconsidered. American Quarterly, 51, 833. 8 I am indebted to Neal Feigenson for some of the examples in the paragraph. A recent treatment of that year’s achievements is Rabaté, J. (2007). 1913: The Cradle of Modernism. 6 Artist as a Young Man is serialized, the first volume of the Proust’s A la recherche du temps perdu iss published, and Virginia Woolf completes her first novel. In their different way each of these works, like Wigmore’s method, is a self-conscious effort to develop a new language for its aesthetic or intellectual domain. The Wigmore article doesn’t make the splash these other works do, but that shouldn’t keep us from viewing it in their company. The Wigmore chart system, as Peter Tillers has remarked, is an important precursor to current research on the visual representation of information, and for that reason deserves the attention of anyone interested in the subject of the recent symposium in these pages on visual evidence. 9 The analytical properties of the Wigmore system have been well explored by a number of scholars who have approached it from the perspective of cognitive science, demonstrating its potential value for drawing correct inferences from disaggregated bits of information.10 I am a fan of this work, being partial to the use of visual diagrams and also to the 9 See TILLERS, P. (2007). Introduction: Visualizing Evidence and Inference in Legal Settings. Law, Probability & Risk , 6, 4. Wigmore’s system has been mostly ignored by evidence scholars, who view it in rather the same way traditionalists saw the artistic avant-garde work of the period: as weird and illegible. The difference, of course, is that the avant-garde works of that era have now become mainstream, while the the Wigmore article is still generally seen as a “quaint, even bizarre, period piece,” as William Twining characterizes the prevailing attitude. TWINING, W. (1985). Theories of Evidence: Bentham and Wigmore. Stanford: Stanford University Press, p. 165.. 10 The Wigmore system has only received the sustained attention of a few scholars, most of them writing after the 1970s. See, for example, SCHUM, D. AND MARTIN, A. (1982). Formal and Empirical Research on Cascaded Evidence. Law and Society Review, 17, 105; Theories of Evidence, supra; TILLERS, P. and SCHUM, D. (1988). Charting New Territory in Judicial Proof: Beyond Wigmore. Cardozo Law Review, 9, 907; ANDERSON, T. AND TWINING, W. (1991). Analysis of Evidence: How to Do Things with Facts, Based on Wigmore’s Science of Proof. Boston: Little Brown. 7 study of rational decision making. But I am also a believer in the close reading of images, and wonder whether we students of the Wigmore system have not overlooked some of the meanings embedded in its outwardly formal, abstract language of primitive shapes. With that possibility in mind, I propose – somewhat irreverently – to examine at the Wigmore system from an aesthetic and vaguely psychoanalytic point of view, comparing it to another, better known geometric system of representation that also made its Chicago debut in that spring of 1913. My reflections here should not be taken as a judgment on the general project of developing tools for the visual analysis and representation of evidence, a project with which (to repeat) I am quite sympathetic. Rather, they should be taken as a reminder that if we are to understand visual evidence, we need to learn to look carefully at what we are seeing. II I would liken the Wigmore method to the aesthetic of Picasso’s Standing Female Nude, which traveled to Chicago with the Armory Show and now hangs in the permanent collection of the Museum of Modern Art in New York.11 A charcoal drawing done in 1910, this work is typical of the so-called analytic phase of cubism, with its characteristic monochrome palette, 11 I should note that this work did not attract the condemnations lavished on the paintings of Duchamp, Gauguin, and especially Matisse (whose paintings were burned in effigy). 8 Figure 2. Pablo Picasso, Standing Female Nude. 1910. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. 9 multiple planes, and reduction of its subject to simple lines, curves and angles.12 Nearby the Picasso I have reproduced the two complete charts Wigmore included in his Judicial Proof article as examples of his method; both are his own diagrams of the evidence in a murder case (figures 1 and 3). The charts employ the elaborate system of symbols Wigmore has developed in the article – closed circles and boxes, respectively, for “affirmatory” testimonial and circumstantial evidence; open boxes and circles, respectively, for “negatory” testimonial and circumstantial evidence; triangular objects for “explanatory” and “corroborative” evidence; an assortment of lines, arrows, squiggles and dots to indicate the source of the evidence, the degree of its perceived credibility, the conclusion toward which it points, and other things (figure 4). Of the cubist painters, a contemporary admirer said that soon they will have “created the algebra of painting,” by which they will “separate out – according to their own own analytical methods and to the characteristics of the object – the principal elements of the bodies they propose to translate.”13 He might almost have been speaking of Wigmore’s algebra 12 The analytic phase of cubism is usually dated to the period 1910-1912. The “synthetic” phase is said to have started in late 1912 when Braque and Picasso started using collage techniques to construct images out of newspapers, string, and other objects. 13 From critic Maurice Raynal’s catalog for a June 1912 modern art exhibition in Rouen. The English translation here is taken from FRY, E. (1966), Cubism. London: Thames & Hudson, p. 92. 10 Fi gu re 3 . W ig m or e, E vi de nc e C ha rt fo r H at ch et t v . C om m on w ea lth . 19 13 Fr om T he P ro bl em o f P ro of 11 of evidence. The lexicon of geometric shapes in the Wigmore chart has a surprising resemblance to that of the Picasso drawing, though obviously their terms of reference – one represents the physical world, the other purely abstract relations among thoughts – are very different. There is also a remarkable congruence in the problems of representation the two figures are designed to address. Sympathetic critics around 1913 are praising cubism for, among many other things, compressing more information into an image than could be achieved by conventional pictorial techniques.14 Where conventional painting gives just a partial view of an object, showing it from one side only, cubism can show the object from many sides at once; where conventional painting froze time at a single moment, cubism could capture successive moments in a single image.15 In cubism, one writer claims, the aim is to “depict the object as one knows it is – that is, from several angles at one time[,] … yielding a complete representation of the object”; 14 In comparing the critics’ theories of cubism to the Wigmore’s rationale for the chart system, I confine myself to some of the critical views circulating in 1913. For brevity’s sake, I do not take up the voluminous theoretical writings on cubism that have appeared since. For a recent view (emphasizing cubism’s semiological interrogation of the nature of the sign), with references to the broader literature, see FOSTER, H., KRAUSS, R., BOIS, Y., AND BUCHLOH B. (2004). Art Since 1900. New York: Thames & Hudson, 106-19, 691. 15 It was also suggested that cubism gave expression to recent developments in science and mathematics, including non-Euclidean geometries and the idea of a fourth dimension. See, for example, APOLLINAIRE, G. (1913). Les Peintres Cubistes. The English translation is excerpted in relevant part in CHIPP, H. (1968). Theories of Modern Art: A Source Book by Artists and Critics. Berkeley: University of California Press, 224. 12 Fi gu re 4 . G lo ss ar y of W ig m or e C ha rt S ym bo ls Fr om T he P ro bl em o f P ro of 13 this gives the observer “a real simultaneous vision of all of its faces.”16 The “quest for a ‘simultaneity’ of the aspects of the object,” another writes, was “close to the heart of cubism.”17 Compare Wigmore on his chart method: “Many data, perhaps multifarious, are thrust upon us.” The task for the decision maker is “to avoid being misled (it may be) through attending only to some fragments of the mass of data. We must assume that a conclusion reached upon such a fragment only will be more or less untrustworthy.”18 The difficulty is that “those data have entered into the formation of our belief at successive times; hence a danger of omission or of inferior attention. Knowledge in the highest perfection would consist in the simultaneous possession of facts.”19 We see different sides of a case at different times; the challenge is somehow to see them all at the same time, to “enable all the data to be lifted into consciousness at once.”20 To comprehend the whole matter and not just fragments, “it is necessary also to simplify it, to reduce it to its elements” – words that could have been Wigmore’s, though in fact they were written by the cubism theorist quoted above.21 16 LACOSTE, C. (1913). Sur le “cubisme” et la peinture. Temps Present (Paris, 2 April). Reproduced in English translation in Cubism, supra note 11, p. 120. 17 DELMARLE, F. (1914). Quelques note sur la simultanéité en painture. Poème et Drame (Paris, 14 March). Reproduced in English translation in Cubism, supra note 11, p. 131. 18 The Problem of Proof, supra note 1, p. 79. 19 Ibid. (emphasis in original; internal quotation marks omitted). 20 Ibid., p. 82. 21 Sur le “cubisme” et la peinture, supra note 14, p. 121.. 14 A related aim of both systems is to represent the processes of thought – to show how separate fragments of data are combined into a cognitive unit. For the cubists, one writer suggests in 1913, the aim is to get past the flow of mere sensory impressions in order to paint one’s mental conception of the object: “Therefore they no longer imitate the misleading appearances of vision, but the truer ones of the mind.”22 Compare Wigmore, for whom the purpose of his method is “not [to] show us what our belief ought to be,” but rather “to show only what our belief actually is, and how we have reached it.”23 When seeing and hearing evidence, we test it in our consciousness and reach a conclusion. “And thus step by step we set down the separate units of actual belief, -- connecting, subsuming, and generalizing, until the subfinal grouping is reached; then dwelling in consciousness on that, until at last a belief (or disbelief) on the final fact evolves into our consciousness.”24 The chart system tries to reproduce the assembly of sense data into an object of belief; it tries to show, as the cubists do, not just what we see but what we know. I really cannot do justice to the uncanny echoes between Wigmore’s manifesto for his system and the manifestoes for cubism that were being written by European art critics at the same moment. To read his work alongside theirs is to see how patently his article deserves to be treated as a document of high modernism. 22 RAYNAL, M. (1913). Qu-est-ce-que … le Cubisme? Comœdia Illustré (Paris, 20 December). Reproduced in English translation in Cubism, supra note 11, p. 130. 23 The Problem of Proof, supra note 1, p. 82 (italics in original). 24 Ibid., p. 83. 15 III Some readers will object that I have committed a category mistake. Wigmore is creating not pictures but diagrams, bearing a greater resemblance – and, the objection would go, more properly compared – to electrical circuit charts or industrial flow charts than to cubist portraits. Yet are we sure about that? No one thinks of Wigmore’s work as having anything to do with the representation of women. But for that matter, no one thought that of cubist works either, at least not initially. During the Armory Show, a prize was offered to anyone who could actually find the alleged nude in one of the most notorious cubist works.25 And who, even today, would know the subject matter of the Standing Female Nude, without either being told the title or being thoroughly acquainted with Picasso’s work? Yet there she is, once you look carefully: the female figure emerges unmistakably from Picasso’s tangled maze of lines, angles, and curves. Let us see whether we can also find her in, or between, the lines, angles and curves of the Wigmore system. Having set forth the glossary of symbols in his system, Wigmore gives two examples of how evidence discrediting a trial witness should be diagrammed in hypothetical cases (figure 6). In both examples, the circle on top of the box on the upper right represents the testimony of the 25 See The Story of the Armory Show, supra note 2, p. 136. The work in question was Duchamp’s Nude Descending a Staircase, one of the lightning rods of the show. 16 witness; the shapes to the left and below represent numbered items of evidence that discredit the testimony.26 The symbols in Wigmore’s system are presented as entirely arbitrary, with no necessary connection between signifier and signified, as Saussure might have put it. The shapes are not supposed to represent any information about a witness; they are simply said to designate certain formal qualities of the evidence (box = testimonial, circle = circumstantial, etc.). Look carefully at the images, however. In both, the refuted witness is represented by a venus symbol (♀), while the refuting evidence is represented as arrows – mars symbols (♂) in one of the figures – aimed roughly in the witness’s direction. The witnesses in these hypothetical examples are not supposed to be women. 27 Yet the concept of discredited testimony takes the visual form of a female on a box; and the concept of evidence that exposes the truth takes the visual form of phalanx of sharp arrows pointed at her. This may or may not have been intentional. But it is no coincidence that untrustworthy evidence in this system is placed under the sign of the female. Again and again in Wigmore’s his voluminous work on evidence, women emerge as a menace to sound thinking and the search for truth, and a scientific approach to evidence becomes 26 As Wigmore explains, the larger figure involves hypothetical testimony against a former employer. Items 19 and 19a in the figure represent the facts that the witness had been fired, and that a fired employee is likely to be biased; item 20 represents the demeanor of bias the witness showed on the stand. The smaller figure involves eyewitness testimony. Items 8, 9 and 10 are bits of information suggesting the witness could not have seen the incident clearly. See The Problem of Proof, supra note 1, pp. 87-88. 27 In describing these examples Wigmore uses the male pronoun to refer to the discredited witness. 17 Figure 5. Wigmore, Sample diagrams of evidence discrediting a witness. 1913. From The Problem of Proof 18 synonymous with minimizing the influence of the irrationality and disorder associated with the female mind. The best-known instance of this is his position on the testimony of alleged rape victims, which is aptly summed up by the topic’s placement in his Evidence Treatise. Here are two adjacent entries in the treatise’s table of contents: A. § 200. Character of Complainant in Rape Charge, from Particular Acts of Unchastity. § 201. Disposition of an Animal, from its Behavior in Particular Instances. Unchaste women, unruly animals. Sexual assault charges, in Wigmore’s view, are often the fabrications of oversexed adventuresses who sleep with men and then turn around to cry rape. For this reason he vigorously advocates putting rape complainants’ reputation and sexual history before the jury, and disapproves of rulings that limit the admission of such evidence.28 But false rape charges are not only brought by women who asked for it; they are also brought by women who have masochistic fantasies they cannot distinguish from reality. This “unchaste (let us call it) mentality finds incidental but direct expression in the narration of imaginary sex-incidents of which the narrator is the heroine or the victim.”29 Hence his infamous proposal, purportedly backed with the authority of the latest psychological research, that no rape case should go to trial 28 See WIGMORE, J. (1904). A Treatise on the Anglo-American System of Evidence. Boston: Little Brown. Volume I, p. 201. 29 WIGMORE, J. (1940). A Treatise on the Anglo-American System of Evidence, Third Edition. Boston: Little Brown. Volume III, p. 459. 19 before a psychiatrist examines the supposed victim and determines that her story is not a wishful fantasy.30 We learn more about the women’s animalistic nature in Wigmore’s Principles of Judicial Proof, the 1913 book whose publication accompanied the chart method article. The book contains some of Wigmore’s own writings, but mostly consists of other authors’ works that he offers as “illustrative” of the principles underlying the probative science he has called for in the chart article.31 The work of Hans Gross, the German criminologist whom I quoted in the epigraph, makes a frequent appearance. (Wigmore dedicates the book to Gross, “who has done more than any other man in modern times to encourage the application of science to judicial proof.”)32 Wigmore reproduces an extensive passage from Gross to illustrate what Wigmore terms the “generic traits” of women.33 Let us, the passage urges, confront honestly and unsentimentally the true nature of female psychology, in the spirit of scientific investigation. The facts are these: women feel rather than think; they intuit rather than reason; they gossip 30 Ibid., pp. 459-60. For a critical look at Wigmore’s position, see Bienen, L. A Question of Credibility: John Henry Wigmore’s Use of Scientific Authority in Section 924A of the Treatise on Evidence. California Western Law Review, 19, 235. 31 Principles of Judicial Proof , supra note 1, p. 2. 32 Ibid., dedication page. 33 In the second edition of the book, Wigmore introduces this passage as demonstrating that “women are more apt to confuse what they really have observed with what they have imagined or wished to occur; and [relative to men] are apt to fall below in candor and honesty.” WIGMORE, J. (1931). The Principles of Judicial Proof, or The Process of Proof, As Given By Logic, Psychology and General Experience and Illustrated in Judicial Trials. Second Edition. Boston: Little Brown, p. 292. 20 endlessly never get to the point; they perceive the world in terms of concrete objects and personalities, and cannot think logically, analytically, or conceptually; and “they have no real knowledge of justice.”34 Most importantly for purposes of the science of proof, the fairer sex has serious trouble telling the truth. “Dishonesty,” we learn, “is a specially feminine characteristic; in men it occurs only when they are effeminate. Real manliness and dishonesty are concepts which cannot be united.” You can seldom get a straight answer out of a woman, and if you do it is probably the opposite of what she means:35 But even her simplest affirmation or denial is not honest. Her ‘no’ is not definite; e.g., her “no” to a man’s demands…. So Schopenhauer agrees: “Nature has given women only one means of protection and defense – hypocrisy: this is congenital with them, and the use of it is as natural as the animal’s use of its claws. No means yes; and watch out for her claws. This is the female, which the many “science of proof” must face down and bring to heel. And here is a passage from a book on trial advocacy Wigmore offers to illustrate the principles of the “testimonial process”: The ferocious beast rears her head again:36 When a witness comes into the box with what is commonly called a “knowing” look, and with a determined pose of the head, as though he would say, “Now, then Mr. Counselor, 34 Principles of Judicial Proof , supra note 1., pp. 340-42. This passage is presented as an excerpt from GROSS, H. (1911). Criminal Psychology. 35 Ibid., p. 343 (ellipses in original). 36 Ibid., p. 530 (ellipses added). This passage is presented as a quotation from HARRIS, R. (1892). Hints on Advocacy. 21 I’m your man, tackle me,” you may be sure you have a Flippant and masterful being to deal with…. But although I have used the masculine pronoun, this witness is very often a female. … You will always approach her as if she were a wild animal ready to tear you if she could get near enough. Talk about fauvism: the recurrent association of women with wild animals is remarkable.37 Consider, finally, the two sample full-scale charts Wigmore includes in his article, which I reproduced earlier. One (figure 1) is the author’s diagrammatic representation of the evidence from a 1901 Massachusetts case; the other (figure 3) refers to an 1882 Virginia case.38 Without going into their details, I think it is worth observing what kinds of case these charts are pictures of. Here, in brief, are the facts of the Massachusetts case: a man sought to prevent the defendant’s marriage to a woman, apparently out of jealousy; later his decapitated body was found at the defendant’s workplace, the defendant was convicted of his murder, and the conviction upheld on appeal. Here are the facts of the Virginia case: a man died of poisoning after drinking whiskey delivered by the defendant, who was charged with his murder; his conviction was overturned by the state’s high court, which suggested he had been framed by the victim’s wife, who was having an affair and “had been supplied by her paramour with strychnine to administer to her husband.” Notice the pattern. In one case a woman has used her charms on 37 The Fauvist painters get their name from the French word for wild beasts. 38 The cases in question are Commonwealth v. Umilian, 171 Mass. 582 (1901), and Hatchett v. Commonwealth, 76 Va. 1026 (1882). For the opinions, evidence lists, and charts, see The Problem of Proof, supra note 1, pp. 91-103. 22 two men, one of whom is decapitated as a result. In the other, an unfaithful wife kills her husband and lets an innocent man take the rap. Female promiscuity and double-dealing leading to death, destruction of innocent men’s lives, and male decapitation: these are the themes encoded in the innocous little shapes in Wigmore’s drawings, and the animalistic dangers against which his geometric apparatus is designed to provide some measure of protection. In pointing out the irrational, misogynistic overtones of his system, my purpose has not to pick on Wigmore, whose attitudes toward women were no worse than average for his era. In some respects they were better; he was more respectful of women law students than many of his contemporaries.39 My point is simply that the “unsafe mental processes” that his chart method article warned against tend, in the scheme of his writings, to be associated with the seductions and duplicities of sexually licentious women. Let the courts beware of the woman of unchaste body or mind who lies on the witness stand and ruins a man’s life; in the same way, let the science of proof be on guard against “unguided, and therefore unsafe” patterns of thought that would ruin its claim to be a true science. These projects are mirror images of each other in the rhetorical, conceptual and psychic universes of the chart method. Loose thinking is the 39 His biographer reports that Wigmore agreed on one occasion to serve as master of ceremonies for a joint social event for law students at Northwestern and another law school. Told by a student that she was not invited because it was a stag event, Wigmore announced that he would not participate if Northwestern’s women students were excluded. See ROALFE, W. (1977). John Henry Wigmore: Scholar and Reformer. Evanston: Northwestern University Press, p. 67. 23 counterpart of a loose woman; clean analysis is the sign of female probity and the containment of sexuality; a systematic diagram the index of a legal system that has not permitted itself to be unmanned by female teeth and claws. The implicit psychic function being served is hinted at, I think, by the title of another publication from 1913: Totem and Taboo.40 Viewing it in this way, we can see that the Wigmore system, novel as it is in some respects, has a long lineage in western graphic design. Consider, to take a single example, Draftsman Drawing a Reclining Nude, whose 1538 treatise on geometric drawing and its applications (in which the woodcut appears) is an important precursor to modern analytical chart systems. 40 FREUD, S. (1913). Totem and Taboo. The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, vol. XIII (Strachey, ed., 1955). 24 Fi gu re 5 . D ür er , D ra fts m an D ra w in g a R ec lin in g N ud e. c . 1 52 5. H ou gh to n L ib ra ry , H ar va rd U ni ve rs ity 25 In Durer’s image, the man uses a reticulated net and a viewing rod to accurately register the proportions of his subject on an oblong sheet of paper. As Lynda Nead and others have pointed out, the picture dramatizes the transformation of disorderly nature, figured as a scantily clad, voluptuous female, into ordered knowledge, figured as a disciplined, attentive male accompanied by vertical instruments and a carefully manicured tree.41 The figure sets in opposition culture to nature, abstraction to physicality, knowledge to sexuality, male to female. Notice the positioning of the woman’s hand, and the air of anxiety hanging over the draftsman. The screen grid with its protects him from the feminine and enables him to impose order on it. Geometric clarity and scientific knowledge, in this picture, go hand in hand with the control of women and the containment of female sexuality. The draftsman who would tame the beast must keep his lines straight, his angles right, and his drawing implement sharp. Hence the instructions – from Wigmore – for good diagram drawing: Use an oblong sheet of unruled paper. … Use right-angled continued lines. … 41 See NEAD, L. (1992). The Female Nude: Art, Obscenity, and Sexuality. New York: Routledge, pp. 2, 11. For similar analyses of the image, see RUSSELL, H.D. (1990). Eva/Ave: Woman in Baroque and Renaissance Prints. Washington, D.C.: National Gallery of Art, pp. 21-23; FREEDMAN, B. (1991). Staging the Gaze: Postmodernism, Psychoanalysis, and Shakespearean Comedy. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, pp. 1-2. On the semiotics of representation of the female body in western art more generally, see the essays collected in Reclaiming Female Agency: Feminist Art History After Postmodernism (Broude & Garrard eds.). Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005; The Expanding Discourse: Feminism and Art History (N. Broude & M. Garrard eds.). New York: Harper Collins, 1992; The Female Body in Western Culture: Contemporary Perspectives (S. Suleiman ed.). Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1986. 26 Use a sharpened lead pencil. 42 The Durer woodcut helps us understand some of the significance of these words. As does the work of Picasso, so much of which, like the woodcut and the Wigmore chart, is devoted to finding new formal techniques for disassembling the female body. IV I do not want to be misunderstood as saying that analytical diagrams of this type (or scientific approaches to evidence more generally) are inherently associated with the cluster of anxieties I have identified here. Any such generalization would be completely out of keeping with premise of this paper, which is that identifying the meaning(s) of an image requires close attention to its specific context, which in this case means the written apparatus of which it is a part. To date, connoisseurs of the Wigmore system have, I think, been overly taken with its formal properties, treating it as the purely cognitive system its author presented it as, ignoring the full range of meanings embedded in its strange figures. In this respect they may have traced a path similar to the one Picasso scholars have followed when interpreting his epochal Les Demoiselles d’Avignon (figure 7).43 For decades, 42 The Problem of Proof, supra note 1, pp. 88-89. 43 By way of defending the title for this article, I note that while Northwestern’s law school is in Chicago, Wigmore lived in Evanston, where the rest of the university is located. See John Henry Wigmore: Scholar and Reformer, supra note 34, at 71. 27 critical assessments of this painting focused almost entirely on its formal pictorial innovations – Figure 7. Pablo Picasso, Les Demoiselles d’Avignon. 1907. Museum of Modern Art, New York. 28 the flattening and splintering of space, the proto-cubist reduction of the figures, the appropriation of Egyptian and African tribal art, the utter sabotaging of Renaissance compositional conventions. Only since the 1970s has a “revisionist” critical literature emphasized that this painting is, after all, a picture of prostitutes, and that its sharp edges and menacing figures enact a psychosexual drama blending fears of women, death, and castration.44 A revisionist understanding of Wigmore’s contribution to modernism might, as I’ve suggested, proceed along roughly similar lines. If my reading punctures some of his system’s pretensions, it also puts him in distinguished company. I hope it serves as a reminder that analytical charts are pictures, whatever else they may be. And that as students of visual evidence, we can never learn to look too closely at the pictures we are seeing. 44 A sample of recent scholarship, plus an overview of the history of the work’s critical reception, is contained in the anthology Picasso’s Les Demoiselles d’Avignon (C. Green ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001. The pivotal revisionist work examining the painting’s erotic dimensions was Leo Steinberg’s essay The Philosophical Brothel, in Art News, vol. 71 nos. 5-6 (Sept. and Oct. 1971), reprinted in October, vol. 44 (Spring 1988), pp. 4-74. See also Les Demoiselles d’Avignon, Studies in Modern Art 3 (Rubin, Seckel and Cousins eds.). New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1994; CHAVE, A. (1994). New Encounters with Les Demoiselles d’Avignon. Art Bulletin, 76, 597. 29 
work_2uaef3obkzen3lul7dq2vcoumq	----	Microsoft Word - 1_Mathias Rithel_Art_Style_[Final].docx Art Style | Art & Culture International Magazine ______ ______ 11 Be Tasteful! Be Kitsch! A critical analysis of social standards of beauty Waldenyr Caldas Abstract For a better understanding, this article seeks a more precise delineation of the differences, in the broadest sense, of these two qualifying adjectives—"tasteful" and "kitsch." Thus, we must consider social, economic, and cultural barriers and the ever-present class prejudice. Without a social analysis, this kind of criticism would be impaired and, by extension, superficial. We can already see that many obstacles separate these two concepts, and the difference between both terms shows a social border. By analogy, the concepts that separate these two terms can therefore be understood, not just a limit. This separation, it seems, is much more identified with a border—the outer edge of something—than a barrier—a structure that bars passage. It would be naive to deny or ignore this conceptual tension between "tasteful" and "kitsch," although there is a stratified consumption of cultural production. The capital society, always very smart and consistent with its origins, can deal with this stratification. In this sense, a way is sought to satisfy everyone, maximize profits, and keep the status quo unchanged, which has been the logic of Capitalism since its origins and, therefore, nobody denies it. Agreeing or not, with its political-ideological practices is another issue on which we have the free will to accept it or not. This frontier has been consolidating and, at the same time, become a recurrent theme of academic discussions, mainly due to the subjective aesthetic criteria of judging an artwork, qualifying a design, or choosing a musical concert or piece of clothing, among other things. This article mainly embraces the dichotomy created over time about these two terms and its social meaning. Christ Waldenyr Caldas, “Be Tasteful! Be Kitsch! A Critical Analysis of Social Standards of Beauty,” Art & Culture International Magazine, no. 5 (March 12, 2020): 11-23, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4088933 Art Style | Art & Culture International Magazine ______ ______ 12 Aesthetics and Politics We begin our analysis with a matter of extreme subjectivity, which necessarily involves the aesthetic values of class culture. Loosely and with possible exceptions, it is almost always dogmatic content analysis that is read, seen, or heard. Being kitsch is tasteless, and being tasteful is suitable for cultured and refined people. This affirmation is a syncretism that places modest products of mass culture and popular culture as something of the subaltern classes alone. Indeed, this attempt at such fusion is accurate, and there is a logic to it, although not as precise as it may seem. The cultural industry stratifies its production precisely to reach the consumer market of all social classes. Theodor W. Adorno and Max Horkheimer (1947), in their well-known analyses of "the cultural industry" in the humanities, have already taught us that the masses are not the measure, but the ideology of the cultural industry, even though the latter cannot exist without them. Empirical observation of the facts makes it current, as long as one thinks of the society of Capital, where the ideology of profit and the masses become inseparable and interdependent. The syncretic misconception, however, is the aesthetic evaluation (sometimes also political) that some critics make of these products. Its consumers are almost always of low income, low education, with restricted repertoire, a low level of information, and residents on the periphery of large and medium-sized cities. This model is almost a standard of the analysis and reviews that we see in journalistic texts—academic as well—when we think of art criticism, whatever its origin. In this sense, the syncretism is always present. For these reasons precisely, the aesthetic evaluation of products aimed at the subaltern classes or produced by them, with very few exceptions, is always very unfavorable. These products are considered unimportant and of dubious taste at least. But, this facet is only part of the question. There is another, which, in my view, is even more critical. The "aesthetic" analysis of these products is always full of qualifying, repetitive, innocuous adjectives that, strictly, say nothing or almost nothing. Some of them seek, among other things, to analyze the possible political- ideological content of the work, as if the author had an obligation to publicize their political engagement, their option for a political ideology. Often, this approach has the background and objective of establishing a serious tone and depth to the analysis. In Brazil, in the face of a troubled and broken political trajectory of systematic authoritarianism, this is very noticeable, even though we have been searching for democratic consolidation since 1985. During the 1960s to 1980s, the Art Style | Art & Culture International Magazine ______ ______ 13 political and ideological issues were a kind of "aesthetic thermometer" of any cultural product. To be respected, artists would have to declare themselves and engage politically by showing the ideological profile of their artworks. Then, by most of the criticisms, their artworks were considered good. Now, we all know that aesthetics and politics have always been pari passu, but not exactly in this way. An artwork may incorporate profound political-ideological issues, but that does not necessarily mean that, because of this incorporation, it is of good quality, which is a mistake mainly because the issue of the quality of work is something much more complicated than it may seem. Thus, but not only, these evaluations are almost always empty text. An attempt to explain the quality of the work aesthetically, but without any substrate or upholstery, is something notoriously sterile. In other words, reading or not reading this assessment would be almost the same. The readers leave the text as if they had not devoted their time to reading. It is necessary to understand, for example, that when Pablo Picasso made Guernica, he intended to denounce and protest against the arbitrariness, violence, and horrors practiced in this city in his country. The Nazis were ruthless. However, it would be unreasonable, I think, to expect that visitors to the Museum of Modern Art in New York, where this artwork remained for a long time, see Guernica for the same purposes and with the same criticality as Picasso. Many museum visitors want to know the artwork itself without worrying about its political-social significance. This approach, of course, does not mean alienation. However, this aesthetic experience may or may not, in some cases, emerge at the time of the visit, depending on the viewer's repertoire. Knowing an artwork of the magnitude of the Monalisa, Guernica, and others is already something pleasing to the visitor. Thinking about its socio-political relevance as the author did at the time of its creation is an attitude, a very personal option for its visitors. It is known that great works are almost always disputed by people for their mythical figure and iconic character, understandably so. The crowd that annually visits European, American, and Asian museums, among others, is not interested in or simply does not know the history of that artwork. They do not know how artist arrived at the result displayed in the museum. With some exceptions, this view is limited to specialists and scholars of the arts, which is the prevalence. Art Style | Art & Culture International Magazine ______ ______ 14 Toward Kitsch Art The aesthetic concepts used by professionals in the analysis of any cultural product could have more precise and explicit arguments and theoretical foundations. The reader must objectively know the reasons why the critic refutes a specific artwork and places it on the level of the artwork of "dubious taste." But after all, what are the objective criteria that led the critic to assign that work an uncertain status? This objectivity strictly does not exist, and the whole argument is lost at the level of subjectivity. Prevailing in the preparation of the aesthetic evaluation of criticism, the individual critical opinion—in the absence of more consistent arguments— chooses the path of "wishful thinking," which is the most modest empirical way of making a qualitative assessment (if possible) of artwork when there is neither theoretical resources nor an adequate and sufficient repertoire to do so. In the absence of these elements, the critic, consciously or not, uses a resource and strategy terribly similar to that of television presenters. It is the so-called “factual function” of language, as the French linguist and semiologist Georges Mounin explains in his work (1974). He says that for the factual function, the language seems to serve only to maintain among the interlocutors a sense of acoustic or psychological contact and pleasant proximity—for example, in social, hollow, or loving talk wherein nothing is said. Apart from matters of love, empirically, the presenters of television programs make use of the phatic function of language. They need to speak without interruption when they are not showing the planned attractions in their programs. If they do not, there is a severe risk that the viewer will change channels due to a lack of motivation in the program itself. The viewer loses this dynamic due to the absence of gestural stimuli, so crucial in the process of mass communication and dialogues with audiences. It should be noted, however, that the program presenters are not making any aesthetic evaluation of any product. They are merely doing their television work. If they use it consciously or not, the phatic function of language is another issue that could undoubtedly be the subject of further study. It does not seem to be the right or correct option to leave thinking about “aesthetic quality” under the responsibility of this intelligentsia. Consequently, merely accepting that it establishes within its criteria and knowledge what is of good quality or beautiful is, in short, a judgment of taste that implies the quality of a product, an artwork, a handcrafted piece, and more. In this case, all the educated and specialized people in their respective areas would have the intellectual authority to establish the criteria for the aesthetic taste of any work related to their métier. Art Style | Art & Culture International Magazine ______ ______ 15 However, it is not exactly this. It is not correct (and perhaps not even fair) to attribute to educated people—even with a solid academic background and specialized in the arts, for example—the ability to determine what is beautiful, artistic, good taste, dubious taste, or even distasteful. If so, we would be sanctioning an authorization for educated people to dictate the rules and criteria of what is considered beautiful, of good taste, and good aesthetic quality. I do not think this approach would be the best thing to do, because situations like this have already produced great mistakes and will undoubtedly continue providing them. An example, in my view, quite enlightening to this issue is the following: Initially, it was registered in the work of Stanley Edgar Hyman1 (1948) but was carefully interpreted by Professor Antonio Candido2 in his work (1978). In 1837, Liszt gave a concert in Paris, which announced a piece by Beethoven and another by Pixis, an obscure composer already considered of low quality. Unintentionally, the program changed the names, attributing the work of Pixis to be from Beethoven. The audience applauded Pixis thinking it was Beethoven and disqualified Beethoven thinking it was Pixis. Cases like this one are not unique, and scholars of art and literature, from time to time, record cases similar to what happened here. It is quite likely that a person who is cultured, sensible, and with a more refined degree would refuse to make any aesthetic judgment as if its result were something definitive. However, it would not happen. They would do it knowing that their evaluation is only one among so many other meanings in the face of subjectivity and aesthetic values. Therefore, in fact, it makes no sense for the art critic to label such an artwork as kitsch while exalting another artwork as excellent with complimentary adjectives. Collectively—that is, for the public—criticism does not contribute at all. Individual experiences have their importance and contribution in the field of cultural criticism, there is no doubt, but they cannot be extended to a universal participation and acceptance. No evaluation, no objective principle of taste is possible. There are many subjective factors that interfere in the faculty of judging and creating means to justify what is beautiful, forming a judgment of taste. But there may be some affinities between the art critic and a select group, even taking a universal dimension to like an artwork or not. Art Style | Art & Culture International Magazine ______ ______ 16 At first, one has to think about the following: if we analyze an artwork, or merely a street event that we witness, we do so with our repertoire and knowledge of our class culture. This is understandable and would happen spontaneously, mainly because we do not know enough about the culture of other social classes and their respective strata, hindering a more in-depth analysis of the cultural ethos, its intricacies, and subtleties of everyday events, which could compromise, among other things, the quality of empirical information on the artwork. This limitation would be enough for us to understand that it is not possible to carry out a more in-depth analysis, and, more than that, we would certainly not feel comfortable doing so. Empirically, it is easy to understand this issue, and the examples seem to be quite illuminating. Think of one of them: a young worker leaving the industry at the end of her workday looks vastly different from the president of the company. The difference in socioeconomic level, educational background, and repertoire creates the values and judgment of different tastes. With some exceptions, this becomes visually perceptible, not only in the appearance revealed by their clothing but also in their personal adornment. This entire set of seemingly unimportant factors shows the differences and aesthetic conceptions of class cultures and, of course, of socioeconomic level. Under these conditions, therefore, the concepts of kitsch and tasteful could be misused, as almost always happens, moreover, with a powerful charge of social prejudice. It Is, above all, a matter of citizenship, respecting the class condition without an aesthetic assessment of who is kitsch or tasteful, based merely on the subjectivity of an isolated opinion and without theoretical support. Thus, even with distinctive visual evidence between the worker and president of the industry, it would not be possible for us to say that the aesthetic taste of one is superior to that of the other. This attempt, most likely, would lead its author to make conceptual errors in search of positive results that would undoubtedly be imprecise and full of redundancies and innocuous and unnecessary words for their explanations, as always happens. The factual discourse on the aesthetic evaluation of cultural products is always full of adjectives that clarify little. And what we have seen so far not only occurs with so-called tacky or old-fashioned products. Everything is repeated precisely the same way for the evaluations of products considered in good taste. In the arts, for example, products of tasteful people are predicated on words that say nothing; the logomachy, factual speech is also present, just set up to a degree of greater Art Style | Art & Culture International Magazine ______ ______ 17 complexity, while the speech goals are the same, valuing the product and making it as profitable as possible, even if it uses logomachy discourse. There are exceptions to be considered, but it is not unusual to have an unofficial partnership between the entrepreneur of the arts and the art critic, in the sense of providing greater visibility and seeking to value an artwork so that they will be well quoted in the art market. Thus, the art critic, through the media, must create the image of an artist and artwork of special relevance. With this agreement, the art critic transfers his or her prestige (if he or she has some) to the artist and unofficially fulfills what was previously agreed with the entrepreneur of the art market. Under these conditions, the quality of that artist’s work is not discussed, even subjectively. What is on the agenda is another matter. There is interest where marketing overlaps with aesthetic evaluation, though when the artist has no talent, it requires a set of words, a critical speech in the criticism writings, testimonies, or other forms of communication. Such “talent” can indeed be manufactured in the media as it occurs in all segments of the arts. Now we return to a central question in this article: how to justify an artist's talent, if not with personal and subjective opinions about their artwork and, therefore, open to doubt? This is a question with answers that remains unsatisfactory. In a Capitalist society, often, having talent is not enough for the artist to receive recognition for their artwork. The term “kitsch” that is used to disqualify is also understood as a means by which the “substitution” of values shows the viewer simpler forms of perception and interpretation (and this offers greater emotional strength). In this sense, what is the need to make a highly intellectualized analysis of the work of art, if the person who makes it only offers his opinion and nothing else? Well, this does not mean that they are right or wrong in their aesthetic concepts; they are solely giving opinions. It also does not mean that the analyzed work is an excellent artwork or a kitsch one. There are no universal taste standards, and there is an internal taste logic that differentiates aesthetic taste between different social classes. And this, of course, does not mean that a social class has a more refined aesthetic taste, more sophisticated than the other. It just means they are different and nothing more. Even the taste for classes also differs internally between people. If, for example, a person with a rather modest repertoire is dazzled by Demoiselles d'Avignon, and Art Style | Art & Culture International Magazine ______ ______ 18 another viewer with a solid intellectual background falls in love with Jeff Koons's sculpture Tulips, undoubtedly the “status” of both will remain the same. Pablo Picasso’s artwork will maintain its prestige as a great work of art as for being the first cubist painting, while Jeff Koons’ sculpture Tulips will retain its “status” as consecrated work by the general public. Indeed, the set of artistic works by Koons has a very critical purpose, as Professor Christiane Wagner shows in her article entitled “Kitsch, Aesthetic Reminiscences and Jeff Koons” (2016). She explains that Koons has been collaborating with the public’s self-esteem through his artworks, destroying guilt or shame in people who, in their banalities, immerse. Tulips sculpture—seven tulips of varying colors fabricated from mirror-polished stainless steel—is part of the Celebration series, in particular reports the day-to-day aesthetic values added to the celebration symbols. Moreover, Koons also emphasizes these common aesthetic values with another sculpture series called Banality that sets the kitsch as the high motivation for the audience. Sculpture Tulips (1995-2004) by Jeff Koons. Photo by Pawel Biernacki. June 10, 2018. Licensed under CC BY 2.0. Art Style | Art & Culture International Magazine ______ ______ 19 Aesthetics of Imposture We are here in the face of what we might call, for lack of a better term, an “aesthetics of imposture,” because of logomachy discourse as an artifice that consists of presenting subterfuges and arguments that are not true and, thus, an imposture. Certainly, this is not an intentionally artful language, which would be unacceptable. It seems to be, rather, the lack of objective arguments to better spell out the aesthetic values of the work. This lack is quite common among so- called art critics without the resources to make their opinion explicit. However, this art criticism may not exist as universal participation, but only as subjective judgment. Aesthetics is part of the philosophy that reflects on art and beauty. All the literature in this regard does not propose, approve, or accept consolidated judgments. In the Platonic sense, there is a reflection on the absolute beauty in aesthetics, or in the Kantian sense for the universal taste, but there is no unanimity among thinkers in aesthetics. Among them, we highlight Hegel, who is opposed to both the Platonic and Aristotelian senses. He instead considered the principles of the relationship between form, sensitive, artistic achievements and content, the idea, in a process of synthesis and evolution of the spirit as a historical moment. Therefore, art Is part of a historical and cultural context. In this path, it is considered that the art's meaning is related to time and culture as well as social class. This approach is one of the largest problems of art criticism. Exceptions aside, when critics make their aesthetic assessments of taste and the idea of beauty, it is as if they are talking about a universal truth. However, there is no replica of their text. Their words reverberate strongly with the public, as if it were, in fact, a universal truth. Thus, this criticism can consecrate a specific artwork, creating an “untouchable aura” of the ideal of beauty and quality about it or destroying it by labeling it as inferior quality or of a dubious taste. This discussion aligns with some illuminating observations made by Immanuel Kant (1790), precisely because this thinker analyzed taste and beauty from the perspective of objectivity and subjectivity. Kant argues that there is not an objective taste that determines by concept what is beautiful because every judgment, itself, is aesthetical—as such, it is a perception that determines the motive and the subject's feeling and not the quality of an object. Thus, the search for a principle or general criterion for beauty and taste through certain concepts is senseless since what is sought would be impossible and contradictory in itself. Art Style | Art & Culture International Magazine ______ ______ 20 Kant's lessons lead us to believe that art critics—who use factual discourse—do not know these lessons, have forgotten or misinterpreted them, or at least have not yet read them. Instead, the reader receives elusive explanations that cannot be sustained with a closer reading. Now, if this is something partially or entirely intentional, this approach creates is another situation. Each case must be viewed and analyzed separately, avoiding injustices. Therefore, it is necessary to understand that responsible criticism does not act in this way. In any case, the dichotomy that I mentioned at the beginning of this article prevails. The product of educated people is also seen as tasteful by much of the population, especially of the more modest strata, but not only. This is the ground to be protected by an "aura" that exerts a psychological influence of respect and admiration in people, even by the combination of these two adjectives. There are two aspects to be highlighted for specific segments of society to reach these concepts mentioned above. The first is the ignorance, or almost, of the cultured people's products. The second is a little more complex and depends on the socioeconomic status of each social class. The subordinate classes, or at least some segments of them, tend to mitigate and psychologically revere the consumption of the so-called more affluent social classes, precisely given the considerable difference in purchasing power between them. This is the “aura” that I referred to earlier. To illustrate empirically, it is worth mentioning one example, but there are many others. In São Paulo, the Municipal Theater, located in the so-called old city center, keeps an intense program of musical concerts and other cultural events every year. On show days and just before the start, while people are arriving, there are other people on the sides of the entrance door who, most likely, pressed by economic scarcity, look respectfully at people entering the Theater. It is the curiosity and natural desire of a notoriously modest audience who could hardly buy tickets to attend a musical concert. It is not about homeless people (these appear in small numbers), but about people who have not had the opportunity to see a "tasteful" show full of cultured people. But at this point, if any of those people wanted to come to watch the show, it would not be possible if it were not with ticket in hand. In this case, there is no alternative but sublimation or to seek other forms of entertainment and social interaction. As known, sociability in large cities, although essential for all of us, is something a bit more complicated. This topic is not part of this article, but it is worth reading David Riesman's work, The Lonely Crowd (1961). Art Style | Art & Culture International Magazine ______ ______ 21 But everything does not always happen as described above. There are situations in which the so-called kitsch and tasteful products come to have a close and pleasant view. In São Paulo (not an exception), the government sometimes organizes free shows that include the presence of artists highly considered by the cultured public and the specialized press. It is worth remembering, as an example, the outdoor musical concerts in Ibirapuera Park, which in those moments becomes a democratic space. On these occasions, the public is undifferentiated because it contemplates all social classes and their respective segments; thus, the concepts treated here are irrelevant. This issue of kitsch and tasteful goes unperceived precisely because it is unimportant, but also because the people who are there at that moment come willing to participate without worrying about these irrelevant and imprecise aesthetic issues. This audience is presently interested in leisure, entertainment, not dwelling on subjective aesthetic evaluations that explain nothing. It is much better this way. Public parks, among other things, even have the virtue of eliminating at the base this tension between kitsch and tasteful, although visually, the socioeconomic differences between their visitors are realized. It is at this moment that people have the same focus on enjoyment, finally, for recreational pleasure. Fraternization and sociability prevail as something essential, especially in cosmopolitan cities like São Paulo. Final Considerations To finish this article, I want to again raise the lessons of the German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1790) when considering the issues on the judgment of taste. He says that the unfavorable judgment of others can arouse in us justified reservations about our judgment; however, it can never convince us that our judgment is incorrect. Therefore, there is no empirical argument to impose on anyone the judgment of taste. That is right, perfect! There is nothing more just, more libertarian and democratic, than to respect people’s judgment of taste without any aesthetic bias, especially when we lack solid arguments and fundamentals. This approach is what is routinely seen. It is necessary to make this assessment accurately, from within oneself and not in a protocol way, just to let others know that we “respect” people’s right to like anything kitsch or tasteful. Art Style | Art & Culture International Magazine ______ ______ 22 The Kantian lessons, in my view, should be read by some art critics before they disregard any artistic work. Their opinions and ratings are just more such thoughts, even though each critic considers them as teachings for the public accustomed to the arts. Nonsense. They should be regarded as, of course, exceptions. It is natural, for example, for the art critics to give their opinion. What is not reasonable is that they believe themselves to present the truth and expect their ideas to prevail as a kind of a consolidated norm as aesthetic criteria of an artwork evaluation. This is unwise, much less acceptable. It is a childish narcissism that cannot be accepted. And, to conclude, I want to register the following: when a work of art becomes public, at the same time, it also becomes subject to the most diverse interpretations. Naturally, viewers experience your reading just from the elements they perceive in the work. Of course, for this, they will be based on their repertoire, their experiences in everyday life, and, above all, their class condition, among other things that, together, will enable them to read the work. Therefore, we will have an opinion, an analysis no less critical than that of the critic specialized in the subject. If both interpretations (that of the critic and that of the ordinary citizen) are convergent and complementary, the interested public will benefit from knowing the subtleties that a work of art may have. But if they are divergent, there is no need to prioritize the words of the art critic. After all, it is just one opinion among many others. In some cases, as I already demonstrated at the beginning of this article, the critic's opinion may even be committed to market values, which would be natural because, after all, the work of art is, among other things, fundamentally merchandise, like almost everything in capital society. At that moment, it is very convenient to remember the work of the Italian literary critic, philosopher, semiotician, Umberto Eco, in his work Opera aperta (1962) translated in English as The Open Work (1989). Still, which has crossed time and remains current, he teaches us that any work can enable us to interpret it. The artwork is open because it does not have a single interpretation. It is polysemic, and therefore open to the most diverse analyses. There is no way to disagree with Umberto Eco in his arguments mainly because no model of theoretical analysis can cope with revealing the aesthetic characteristics of a work, but only how to perceive that work according to its assumptions. Art Style | Art & Culture International Magazine ______ ______ 23 Author Biography Waldenyr Caldas is a full professor in Sociology of Communication and Culture at the University São Paulo. He was a visiting professor at University La Sapienza di Roma and the Joseph Fourier University in Grenoble, France. Caldas has been a professor since 1996 as well as the vice-director (1997-2001) and Director (2001- 2005) of ECA - School of Communications and Arts, University of São Paulo. In his academic career, he obtained all academic titles until the highest level as a full professor at the University of São Paulo. Currently, he is a representative of the University of São Paulo, together with the Franco-Brazilian Committee of the Agreement “Lévi-Strauss Chairs,” and a member of the International Relations Committee of the University of São Paulo. Its scientific production records many books published, and several essays published in magazines and national and international collections. waldenyr@usp.br References Adorno, Theodor W. Théorie esthétique. Translated by Marc Jimenez. Paris: Klincksieck, 2011. Eco, Umberto. The Open Work. New York: Harvard University Press, 1989. Kant, Immanuel. Le jugement esthétique. Textes choisis. PUF, 2006. Mounin, Georges. Histoire de la linguistique des origines an XXe siecle. Paris: PUF, 1967. Riesman, David. The Lonely Crowd. New Haven: Yale University Press, [1961] 2020. Wagner, Christiane. “Kitsch, Aesthetics Reminiscences and Jeff Koons,” Revista Visuais, Institute of Arts (Sep 24, 2016), UNICAMP. Notes 1. Stanley Edgar Hyman, The armed vision (Knopf, New York, 1948) 323-324. 2. Antonio Cândido, Literatura e sociedade (Editora Nacional, São Paulo: 1978) 41. 
work_2unzkseei5efxg3szt3h6asvl4	----	Atenea 489 63 Atenea 489I Sem. 2004 RESUMEN En el año del centenario del nacimiento de Pablo Neruda, el autor expone hechos y plantea conje- turas en torno a la relación de amistad que existió entre el pintor Pablo Picasso y el poeta chileno, acerca de la que, por extraño que parezca, es poco lo que se sabe y menos aún lo publicado hasta hoy en esta forma. Palabras claves: Picasso, Neruda, amistad, hechos y conjeturas. ABSTRACT In the centennial celebration of the birth of Pablo Neruda, the author examines facts and proposes conjectures around the friendship that existed between the painter, Pablo Picasso, and the Chilean poet; a friendship about which, although it may seem strange, very little is known and even less has been published. Keywords: Picasso, Neruda, friendship, facts and conjectures. Recibido: 17.02.2004. Aprobado:10.06.2004. E L 8 DE ABRIL DE 1973, Pablo Neruda se enteró en Isla Negra de la noticia que los teletipos emitieron ese día a todo el mundo: su amigo el gran pintor Pablo Picasso había muerto en Nôtre-Dame-de-Vie, Mougins, Francia. Consternado por este hecho, Neruda, pese a la gravedad del mal que a él mismo le aquejaba, expresó el deseo de querer dar la que ISSN 0716-1840 ENRIQUE ROBERTSON* PICASSO Y NERUDA HECHOS Y CONJETURAS EN TORNO A UNA AMISTAD *Médico. Investigador. E-mail: e.robertson@t-online.de 63 Atenea 489I Sem. 2004 pp. 63-87 64Atenea 489I Sem. 2004 sería la última entrevista que concedió a la prensa chilena: el recordatorio que hizo de Picasso con ocasión del deceso del universal malagueño. Dicha entrevista apareció en la edición dominical del diario El Siglo el 15 de abril de 1973, pocos meses antes del fallecimiento del propio Neruda el 23 de septiembre, acaecido en trágicas circunstancias que, en los útimos doce días de su vida, al poeta le recordarían dolorosamente lo ocurrido cuarenta años antes en la guerra civil española. De esa guerra, con España en el corazón, Neruda rindió estremecedor testimonio. Picasso hizo lo propio con el “Guernica”. Ambas obras se han comparado en más de una oportunidad. En no pocos aspectos, también sus autores son comparables y hermanables. En la mencionada entrevista –reeditada en la revista Cuadernos de la Fundación Pablo Neruda1– dijo el poeta, sin precisar fechas, que había co- nocido a Pablo Picasso hacía largo tiempo. Picasso, por su parte, en un dis- curso pronunciado en Breslau, Polonia, 1948 –cuyo tema era una protesta por la persecución política a que era sometido en su país el poeta chileno, discurso al que volveremos más adelante–, dio a entender lo mismo. Se co- nocían, pues, desde hacía largo tiempo. ¿Qué significaba esto, con algo más de exactitud? En aquellos años signi- ficaba desde la guerra, o desde antes de la guerra. De los tiempos de antes de la guerra se puede decir que aunque Neruda hubiese oído hablar muchas veces del famoso Picasso, y que por eso –de oídas– no fuese para él un desco- nocido, no hay datos que permitan sostener que le haya conocido personal- mente en aquel entonces; por ejemplo en Barcelona, durante la última visita que el pintor hizo a la ciudad condal en 1934, cuando Neftalí Reyes –Pablo Neruda– llegaba a ella para asumir allí su cargo consular. Descartada la po- sibilidad de que se conociesen en esa oportunidad, lo probable es que, ya en plena guerra civil y solidariamente hermanados en el bando leal a la Repú- blica española, trabasen personal relación en Francia dos larguísimos años más tarde. Neruda había llegado a Barcelona en mayo de 1934, procedente de Buenos Aires, donde había conocido a Federico García Lorca. En Barce- lona recibe la dolorosa noticia de la muerte en Santiago de un entrañable amigo suyo: el poeta Alberto Rojas Giménez2. De las venturas y desventuras de hispanoparlantes avecindados en el París de los años 20 –que Neruda oyó de sus amigos chilenos Ortiz de Zárate, Pachin Bustamante, Isaías Cabezón, Jean Emar, etc.3–, Rojas Giménez debió ser el que más le impresionó al ha- 1Mansilla, Luis Alberto. Cuadernos, Fundación Pablo Neruda. Santiago de Chile, Nº 35. 1998. 2Plath, Oreste. Alberto Rojas Giménez se paseaba por el alba. Ediciones de la Dirección de Bi- bliotecas, Archivos y Museos. Santiago, Chile. 1994. “Alberto Rojas Giménez viene volando”. Neruda. OC, I, pp. 335-338 (poema publicado por primera vez en Revista de Occidente, Madrid, julio 1934. 3Rojas Giménez, Alberto: “Pintura nueva” e “¿Y en Chile? Los Independientes de 1927” (Picasso es mencionado en estos dos artículos de A. Rojas Giménez, reproducidos en Plath, Oreste. Alberto Rojas Giménez se paseaba por el alba, op cit.). Portada de la primera edición española de España en el corazón de Neruda. 65 Atenea 489I Sem. 2004 A. Rojas Giménez (por Huelén).Revista Cuadernos Nº 35, 1998. “Guernica” de Picasso. García Lorca y Neruda. 66Atenea 489I Sem. 2004 blarle de Picasso. Porque fue a Rojas Giménez a quien se le ocurrió la idea de decir que Pablo Picasso descubría e incorporaba continentes imprevistos al mundo plástico, afortunada idea que Neruda nunca olvidó. Además, por el propio Neruda se sabe que no le había sido posible evitar que a sus oídos llegase lo que de Pablo Picasso decía otro gran poeta de Chile: Vicente Huidobro4. Y, precisamente en relación a Huidobro, le llegaba, también de Chile, otra noticia: la muy irritante nueva que le hacía saber que en su país estaba siendo blanco de unos ataques de inusitada virulencia. Cumple Neruda treinta años de edad y, diciendo Aquí estoy, contraataca con no menos saña con un poema en el que menciona a Picasso por primera vez, sin que éste nada tuviese que ver con los motivos de su legítima ira5. En febrero de 1935 Neruda se traslada a Madrid donde García Lorca ya lo había presentado, siendo recibido con gran simpatía y homenajeado por su libro Residencia en la Tierra. También en 1935, un poco antes que él, Delia del Carril6, siguien- do los consejos de María Teresa León y Rafael Alberti, llegó de Francia a fijar su residencia en Madrid. Delia había vivido largo tiempo en París y conoci- do a Picasso y a muchos de sus amigos españoles, hispanoamericanos y fran- ceses. Ese mismo año, uno de estos últimos –Robert Desnos– participa con otros poetas galos en un encuentro político-cultural franco-español realiza- do en Madrid. Por un especial motivo, Desnos prolonga su estadía hasta noviembre. Antes de regresar a París quería asistir, en octubre de 1935, a la aparición del primer número de la revista Caballo Verde para la Poesía, edi- tada por Manolo Altolaguirre y dirigida por Neruda. Desnos celebró con ellos el lanzamiento de Caballo Verde, un poema suyo había sido elegido para su número inaugural. Este hecho importa porque lo más probable es que Neruda contactase personalmente con Picasso por primera vez en Pa- rís, en un homenaje póstumo a García Lorca organizado por Robert Desnos y Jean Cassou. A partir del alzamiento militar de julio de 1936, una san- grienta avalancha de hechos luctuosos había comenzado a arrasar con imparable e irracional violencia a toda España. En el triste verano de 1936 fueron asesinados muchos miles de civiles indefensos. Federico García Lorca fue uno de ellos. Este alevoso crimen y otros no menos deleznables que Neruda vio con sus propios ojos en Madrid, movieron al hasta entonces más bien apolítico poeta chileno a comprometerse definitivamente con la causa republicana española. Se integra en la Alianza de Intelectuales Antifascistas y colabora en el semanario que Alberti llamó El Mono Azul; este semanario contaba con el apoyo de Picasso, a quien, lo mismo que a Neruda, la guerra civil hizo cambiar políticamente de Saulo a Paulo. 4Teitelboim, Volodia. Huidobro. La marcha infinita. Biografía. Ed. Bat. Santiago, Chile. 1993 5Neruda, Pablo. “Aquí estoy”. OC, tomo IV (pp. 374-380). 6Sáez, Fernando. Todo debe ser demasiado. Biografía de Delia del Carril, la Hormiga. Ed. Sud- americana. Santiago de Chile. 1997. Vicente Huidobro por Picasso. Jean Cassou. 67 Atenea 489I Sem. 2004 Desposeído de su cargo consular, vía Valencia –donde se queda Delia– y Barcelona –donde recoge a Maruca–, Neruda llega a Francia –a Marsella– y por fin, en diciembre de 1936, a París. Con la revista Los Poetas del Mundo Apoyan al Pueblo Español y con el Grupo Hispano-Americano de Ayuda a España, que funda con César Vallejo, continúa participando aquí en activi- dades solidarias. En enero de 1937, Delia del Carril, que tres semanas antes había llegado a reunirse con él, escribe en una carta: “Pablo dará el veinte una conferencia sobre Federico García Lorca”. Así fue; a partir del 20 de enero de 1937 y con gran asistencia de público, en la Maison de la Culture de París tienen lugar unas jornadas de solidaridad con la República Española, en cuyo marco se rinde un homenaje al poeta asesinado. El día 21, Neruda dio su famosa con- ferencia en memoria de Federico, que se inició, según dejó constancia la revista Commune, con unas palabras de presentación de Robert Desnos. No podía sospechar Neruda que el destino de su amigo el poeta Robert Desnos, que ese día de enero de 1937 le presentó al público parisino, sería similar al de García Lorca que le había presentado en Madrid en diciembre Neruda junto a Delia del Carril. Robert Desnos, frag. de un cuadro de Max Ernst. Neruda y su primera esposa (María Antonieta Hagenaar, “Maruca”). César Vallejo, retratado por Picasso. 68Atenea 489I Sem. 2004 de 1934. En La Barcarola les recordaría después, junto a Miguel Hernández, llamándoles compañeros sin tregua en el sol y en la muerte7. Margarita Aguirre apunta que en esta conferencia Neruda dio cuenta del cambio que se había producido en su vida, al terminar diciendo muchos esperaban de mí tranquilas palabras poéticas distanciadas de la tie- rra y de la guerra... No soy político ni he tomado nunca parte en la contienda política, y mis palabras, que muchos habrían deseado neutrales, han estado teñidas de pasión. Comprendedme y comprended que nosotros, los poetas de América española y los poetas de España, no olvidaremos ni perdonare- mos nunca el asesinato de quien consideramos el más grande entre noso- tros, el ángel de este momento de nuestra lengua... No podremos nunca ol- vidar este crimen, ni perdonarlo. No lo olvidaremos ni lo perdonaremos nunca. Nunca. El texto completo de este bellísimo discurso se publicó en Valencia poco después, en un apartado especial de la revista mensual Hora de España8. El día del homenaje a García Lorca debió ser el día en que Neruda cono- ció a Picasso. Se puede dar por seguro de que así fue, porque el pintor, nom- brado poco antes director del Museo del Prado y comisionado además por el gobierno de la República Española para pintar un mural que resultaría ser el “Guernica”, realizó para esas jornadas el primero de los dos grabados que titularía “Sueño y mentira de Franco”. Por ello pocas dudas pueden ca- ber de que Pablo Picasso, y muchos amigos suyos –que también lo eran de Delia, como Aragón, Eluard, etc.– estaba presente ese día en la Maison de la Culture de París. Allí pués, debió haber sido donde el poeta chileno trabó personal relación de amistad con el famoso pintor español. Es también muy probable que por mediación de Bergamín –malagueño como él–, Picasso ya conociese Residencia en la Tierra, editado por éste en Madrid (Cruz y Raya, 1935) y que de ese libro el poema “Walking around” le hubiese impresiona- do muy especialmente. Por esas fechas –en una etapa que él mismo designó como una de las peores de su vida– Picasso había sufrido los efectos de una severa crisis existencial que le hizo dejar de pintar; todo hace pensar que también hubo días en que le sucedía estar cansado de ser hombre, como reza el primer verso de ese poema. Entonces, Pablo Picasso escribió. De sus escri- tos destacan los que, quizá muy irreverentemente, el autor de estas líneas ve como una paráfrasis: por ejemplo el texto con que Picasso acompañó al gra- bado “Sueño y mentira de Franco”. Este y otros textos suyos de ese tiempo José Bergamín. 7Neruda, Pablo. La Barcarola (OC, III, p. 212). Además: Robert Desnos. A la misteriosa. Las tinieblas. Ed. Hiperión. Madrid. 1996. En la Introducción (de Ada Salas y Juan Abeleira), ver nota 14 (p. 23). 8Hora de España, III, Valencia, 1937. OC, tomo IV (pp. 388-393). 69 Atenea 489I Sem. 2004 hacen recordar los fragmentos finales de “Walking around”. Quizá no sea una total insanía de juicio aventurar que Picasso, condimentándolos con algo de la mordaz acritud de “Aquí estoy”, para escribirlos encontró surreal inspiración en esos versos de Neruda. Si así fue, no hizo más que obrar en consecuencia: Pablo Neruda, el poeta autor de Residencia en la Tierra, había logrado interesarle. Y, entre otros, Desnos, Bergamín y Alberti le habían ha- blado de él. Por ellos ha de haber sabido que Huidobro, a quien conocía muy bien, acusaba a Neruda de plagiario de Tagore9. Picasso no debe haber dado ninguna importancia a este hecho. Lo que en su apreciación de Neruda sí debió importarle mucho ha de haber sido “Walking around”, poema que le había tocado –dicho taurinamente: le había rejoneado– profundamente. 9Neruda, Pablo. Veinte poemas de amor y una canción desesperada. O.C., tomo I (pp. 191 y 1.148: Poema 16, paráfrasis a R. Tagore). Grabado de Picasso “Sueño y mentira de Franco”. 70Atenea 489I Sem. 2004 Quizá por eso, al asir el rejón de escribir y hacer diestramente la faena, Picasso escribió a la Neruda. Esta conjetura se basa en el constatable hecho de que Picasso figura en la lista de suscriptores de Residencia en la Tierra (Cruz del Sur, Santiago de Chile, 1947). Esta notable suscripción podría tener una muy especial im- portancia: demostraría que Pablo Picasso, después de haber conocido la edición madrileña de Residencia en la Tierra –con “Walking around”– ha- bría deseado recibir desde Chile la versión definitiva del libro. Y, como suscriptor, sin duda ha de haberla recibido. Aceptado lo anterior, puede irse más lejos: si el texto de Picasso remite al vate chileno, el críptico mensaje de su grabado –indescifrable en muchos aspectos– quizá remita, con rejón de grabador, a Federico García Lorca. Y a Jean Cassou, amigo del poeta granadino y uno de los principales organiza- dores del homenaje en su memoria. La base de esta conjetura, más osada si cabe que la anterior, es saber que García Lorca dedicó a su amigo Jean Cassou el romance que tituló “Burla de don Pedro a Caballo”. Algunas escenas de “Songe et Mensonge de Franco” parecen ilustrar este romance. Quede lo anterior expresado con todas las debidas cautelas, licencias y reservas. La fecha 21 de enero de 1937 sería, pués, la imprecisa y remota fecha en la que el poeta, en la entrevista de 1973, dijo haber conocido a Picasso. Fieles a lo conjeturado, creemos que en esa fecha el pintor conocía Residencia en la Tierra y también los envenenados dardos de “Aquí estoy”, en el que Neruda le nombraba incidentalmente por primera vez. En el mordaz conflicto oral y escrito “Huidobro y De Rokha contra Neruda”, conocido como la guerrilla literaria10, Picasso entró en la poesía nerudiana aludido en relación a un retrato pasado por las verijas de Vincent Huidobro, y a un pedo del “poeta francés nacido en Santiago de Chile”. Un debut que probablemente no halagó a Picasso. O quizá sí. En la forma “Aquí estoy” debió gustarle y merecer de él un comentario mucho más humorístico que agrio; de más sabía Picasso lo que era ser denigrado por sus connacio- nales; lo que le sucedía a Neruda en Chile, le sucedía o había sucedido tam- bién a él en España; y quedado enciclopédicamente documentado en el Espasa. Manuel Abril, Premio Nacional de Literatura de 1934, en su libro De la naturaleza al espíritu acerca del arte español, había tenido que defenderlo de sus más contumaces detractores. Entretanto en España, la guerra civil seguía con aún más dantescos capítu- los: tres meses después del mencionado homenaje a García Lorca, el 26 de abril de 1937, la villa vasca de Guernica fue reducida a escombros y cenizas 10Zerán, Faride. La guerrilla literaria. Huidobro, De Rokha, Neruda. Editorial Sudamericana Chilena. 1997. 71 Atenea 489I Sem. 2004 por la aviación de Hitler, führer de la Alemania nazi y poderoso aliado de los sublevados. Se asegura que José Bergamín, apreciando la tremenda dimen- sión de este inaudito crimen, fue quien acudió primero, con el diario L’ Humanité en la mano, a dar a conocer la estremecedora noticia a Pablo Picasso. La realización del gran mural para el pabellón español de la Exposición Mundial en París que Picasso bautizó “Guernica”, y el trabajo de Neruda en la comisión organizadora del II Congreso Internacional de Escritores que se realizaría en Valencia –dos enormes tareas que culminaron en julio de 1937 y denunciaron al mundo ese crimen horrendo– ocuparon al pintor y al poe- ta a tiempo completo. El único chileno que pudo ver el proceso de creación del cuadro más famoso del siglo XX no fue Pablo Neruda, como se ha dicho alguna vez; fue el pintor Roberto Sebastián Matta. El joven Matta, en cumplimiento de sus funciones de aprendiz de arquitecto y chiquillo de los mandados, subió muchas veces la interminable escalera de la casona de la calle de Grands- Augustins, alto lugar donde estaba el atelier de Picasso. Allí, por encargo de sus jefes, le preguntó una y otra vez al pintor si ya era posible trasladar el El “Guernica” de Picasso, visto por Roberto Matta. 72Atenea 489I Sem. 2004 cuadro al pabellón español donde se le esperaba con urgente impaciencia. Esta tarea de esperar a que el genio diese la pincelada final a su obra, permi- tió a Matta ver al “Guernica” en algunos de sus diversos estados. A su modo, Matta lo recordó posteriormente. Terminada y expuesta la pintura, Neruda no agregó nada a lo dicho por su amigo Paul Eluard en “La victoria de Guernica”; quizá porque todo allí había quedado dicho: No habíais pensado en la muerte El miedo y el coraje de vivir y morir La muerte tan difícil y tan fácil Hoy es el fin de nuestro mundo cada uno muestra su sangre Definitivamente Los niños adquieren un aire ausente La tierra es fría como un muerto. Años después, Neruda diría: una de las obras más importantes de la época contemporánea es el “Guernica” de Picasso, un cuadro estremecedor por su contenido antiguerrero. Ahí se ve el horror del ser humano y el horror animal ante la destrucción y el asesina- to que significa la guerra. Paul Eluard junto a Picasso en Breslau (Polonia). Cartel de la Galería Bellechasse “Toros”. 73 Atenea 489I Sem. 2004 Un comentario relativamente magro, si se esperaba algo más. Por cierto, Mario Ferrero (Premio Nacional de Literatura) dijo más del “Guernica”, pero muchos años más tarde. El Premio Nacional de Literatura de Chile fue adjudicado el año 1945 a Neruda. En su discurso de agradecimiento dejó oír una voz que le permitió evocar a Picasso y a Paul Eluard. Desde esas fechas, evocar a Picasso sería algo frecuente en sus alocuciones. También le saludaría en ocasión de los muchos años que iba cumpliendo el siempre joven y renovado pintor. A mediados del siglo Neruda llamaría a Pablo Picasso: Padre de la Paloma; comparándolo además –en una fructuosa geografía– con una isla, un puer- to o un continente, comparaciones que reiteró en su última entrevista al decir que la muerte de Picasso equivalía a la desaparición de un continente, de un país con sus ríos, sus casas y su gente. Por su parte, Picasso, al definirse a sí mismo como un río, señalaría su fluvial hermandad con Neruda, que, según propia declaración, también era un río. EL DISCURSO DE WROCLAW (BRESLAU) La primera declaración pública de la existencia de una amistad entre Picasso y Neruda la expresó el pintor, acentuándola reiteradamente para evitar cual- quier duda. En efecto, la primera documentación que existe, de palabra y por escrito, de esa amistad, es el breve discurso que Picasso leyó en Wroclaw, Polonia, el 25 de agosto de 1948 en el Congreso de Intelectuales por la Paz realizado allí –al que asistió porque Paul Eluard logró la dificilísima hazaña de convencerle a viajar en avión de París a Varsovia–. Se dice que ese discur- so fue el único que Pablo Picasso pronunció en su vida. Comenzó diciendo a los allí reunidos que conocía y era amigo de Neruda: Tengo un amigo que debería estar aquí, un amigo que es uno de los mejores hombres que haya conocido. No es solamente el más grande poeta de su país, Chile, sino también el más grande poeta de la lengua española y uno de los más grandes poetas del mundo: es Pablo Neruda. Pablo Neruda, mi amigo, es no sólo un gran poeta, sino también un hom- bre que, como todos aquí, se ha dedicado a presentar el bien bajo la forma de lo bello. Ha tomado siempre el partido de los hombres desgraciados, de los que piden justicia y combaten por ella. Mi amigo Neruda está actualmente acorralado como un perro y nadie sabe ni siquiera dónde se encuentra. Nuestro Congreso, a mi modo de ver, no debe aceptar una injusticia tal, que se vuelva en contra de nosotros todos. Si Pablo Neruda no recobrara su libertad, nuestro Congreso no sería un Congreso de hombres dignos de ser libres. Yo os propongo que se vote la resolución siguiente, a la cual daremos la mayor difusión: 74Atenea 489I Sem. 2004 El Congreso Mundial de Intelectuales, reunido en Wroclaw, envía al gran poeta Pablo Neruda la expresión de su apoyo, de su admiración, de su afec- to, de su solidaridad. Los 500 miembros del Congreso, que representan a 46 naciones, denun- cian a todos los pueblos la abyección de los métodos policiales de los gobier- nos fascistas que se atreven a atacar a uno de los más eminentes representan- tes de la cultura. Exigen imperiosamente para Pablo Neruda el derecho a expresarse libre- mente y vivir libremente donde le plazca. El vate chileno, que –conjeturamos– fue quien hizo de Picasso un poeta, recordó en sus memorias este singular capítulo del pintor como orador: Entonces surgió Picasso, tan grande de genio como de bondad. Estaba feliz como un niño porque había pronunciado el primer discurso de su vida. El discurso había versado sobre mi poesía, sobre mi persecución, sobre mi au- sencia. En Confieso que he vivido, Neruda habla del primer, pero no del único discurso de Picasso. LOS LIBROS No es raro encontrar poesía nerudiana ilustrada con obra gráfica picassiana. Pero aquélla creada expresamente por el pintor para alguna obra del poeta se reduce a la que ilustra uno solo de sus libros. Neruda recuerda en su última entrevista la edición ilustrada del poema “Toros” que data de 1960. A 15 dibujos a tinta –para los 520 ejemplares, 50 de lujo, de que constó la edición– se suma una litografía fechada el 14.12.60, de la que se tiraron 50 ejemplares para la edición especial y se reimprimió en el cartel de la Galerie Bellechasse de París que, en los meses de abril y mayo de 1961, expuso estas ilustraciones. Neruda recuerda también que se proyectaba editar “El gran océano” –libro XIV de Canto general– ilustrado por Picasso. Lamentablemente dicho pro- yecto y otro no llegaron nunca a realizarse. En cuanto a los libros de Neruda que Picasso conociese, además de lo conjeturado en relación a Residencia en la Tierra, podemos decir, sin temor a equivocarnos, que conoció también los dos poemas dedicados a él en Las uvas y el viento, y que es muy probable que Neruda le hiciese llegar un ejem- plar de dicho libro11. 11Neruda, Pablo. Las uvas y el viento. OC, tomo I (pp. 922-923 y 1.069-1.072). 75 Atenea 489I Sem. 2004 LA PINTURA Neruda centró su admiración por la obra picassiana en una magnífica tela que conoció durante los días en que, ilegal e indocumentado extranjero en Francia, vivió escondido en París. Ello sucedió en el apartamento de Mme. Françoise Giroux, propietaria de un cuadro de Picasso. La fascinación que esa obra ejerció sobre el poeta, germinada durante muchas horas de soledad en que la observó largamente, quedó consignada en sus memorias escritas dos décadas después. En ellas describe al cuadro con algunas variaciones, rebautizándolo con poética licencia. Agrega además una anécdota, y da cuenta de un deseo que, para lamento del Museo de Bellas Artes de Chile, nunca se llegó a cumplir. En esa casa –dice– había un Picasso de grandes dimensiones, uno de los más hermosos que he visto. Representaba dos cortinajes de felpa roja que caían entrecerrándose como una ventana sobre una mesa. La mesa aparecía cru- zada de lado a lado por un largo pan de Francia. El cuadro me pareció reverencial. El pan enorme sobre la mesa era como la imagen central de un antiguo ícono, o como el San Mauricio de El Greco que está en El Escorial. Yo le puse un título personal al cuadro: La Ascensión del Santo Pan. En uno de esos días vino el propio Picasso a visitarme en mi escondite. Lo llevé ante su cuadro, pintado hacía tantos años. Lo había olvidado por completo. Se dedicó a examinarlo con mucha seriedad, sumergido en esa atención ex- traordinaria y algo melancólica que a veces se le advertía. Estuvo más de diez minutos en silencio, acercándose y alejándose de su obra olvidada. –Cada vez me gusta más –le dije cuando concluyó su meditación–. Voy a proponerle al museo de mi país que lo compre. La señora Giroux está dis- puesta a vendérnoslo. Picasso volvió de nuevo la cabeza hacia el cuadro, cla- vó la mirada en el pan magnífico y respondió por único comentario: No está mal. BANDERAS DE POSTGUERRA. DE LAS BIOGRAFIAS DE AMBOS PERSONAJES En las diversas biografías de Neruda, la lectura de los capítulos que tratan del tiempo en que vivió en Barcelona, Madrid y París resulta muy interesan- te. Ello permite conocer detalles relacionados con su vida privada –que al- gún paralelismo tiene con la de Picasso–, así como la historia de España en el corazón y la del Winnipeg, que en 1939 transportó a Chile a miles de repu- blicanos exiliados. En las biografías de Picasso, hacer lo mismo que con las del poeta permite enterarse de su no poco atormentada vida privada y el reflejo de ésta en su obra, representada particularmente también en el “Guernica” con su trascendencia política, y su propia politización. Esto deja 76Atenea 489I Sem. 2004 Cuadro de Picasso que gustó a Neruda: “Panes y frutero sobre una mesa” (de 1909). Desde 1951 es propiedad del Museo de Arte de Basilea, Suiza. 77 Atenea 489I Sem. 2004 vislumbrar mejor las relaciones de amistad que Picasso recalcó. Luego con- viene continuar dicha lectura al alimón, en una década en la que no se vie- ron, hasta la fecha en que se reencuentran en París en el Congreso Mundial por la Paz. Picasso asistió –podría decirse que como sucesor de Romain Rolland12– al Congreso Mundial de Intelectuales por la Paz en Breslau, en agosto de 1948. Luego, en abril de 1949, al Primer Congreso Mundial de Partidarios de la Paz, en la Sala Pleyel de París, al que el último día, para sorpresa de Picasso y de todos, también asistió Neruda. En septiembre del mismo año preside el Congreso de la Juventud del Movimiento por la Paz en Niza, que inaugura con un discurso. En octubre de 1950 asiste a la Se- gunda Conferencia de la Paz en Sheffield, Inglaterra. Pero un mes más tarde ya no habrá quién pueda motivarle a volver a Polonia –fracasan Eluard, Aragon y Ehrenburg– y no viaja al Segundo Congreso Mundial de Partida- rios de la Paz para recibir en Varsovia el Premio Lenin de la Paz que se le otorgaba junto a Pablo Neruda, quien sí asistió y que, el 22 de noviembre de 1950, en parte de su discurso dijo: Cambió también mi poesía. Llegaron las guerras, las mismas guerras de an- taño, pero llegaron con nuevas crueldades, más arrasadoras. De estos dolo- res que a mí me salpicaron y me atormentaron en España vi nacer el “Guernica” de Picasso, cuadro que a la misma altura estética de la Gioconda está también en el otro polo de la condición humana: uno representa la con- templación serena de la vida y de la belleza y, el otro la destrucción de la estabilidad y de la razón, el pánico del hombre por el hombre. Así, pues, también cambió la pintura. Dos y medio meses más tarde Picasso y Neruda son homenajeados en París en el Palais de la Mutualité. El motivo de la ceremonia es hacer entrega a Pablo Picasso del premio que debía haber recibido en Varsovia. El pintor, de muy buen humor y haciendo bromas, llegó al atestado local preguntan- do al poeta quién tenía el cheque con los duros que ambos compartirían. Se refería a la nada despreciable cantidad de dinero que acompañaría al pre- mio junto a diploma y medalla. Llegado el momento, cae de las manos del representante del Consejo Mundial de la Paz un rectángulo de papel que revolotea en el aire mientras Picasso exclama: “Merde! Le chèque!” 12Rolland, Romain. Premio Nobel de Literatura 1915, pacifista al que se llamó “la conciencia de Europa”. Cartel con paloma de la paz de 1949. 78Atenea 489I Sem. 2004 MAS BROMAS, RISAS Y ANECDOTAS Del encuentro de Picasso y Neruda en la sesión final de dicho congreso se cuenta anecdóticamente que Neruda apareció allí por sorpresa, llevando un ejemplar de la legendaria edición clandestina de su Canto general. Era el ejemplar que Neruda –disfrazándolo bajo el título de Risas y lágrimas de un imaginario autor llamado Benigno Espinoza– había portado en su escaso equipaje al salir de Chile cruzando a caballo la Cordillera de los Andes. De manera tan espectacular como se había escenificado su llegada, el poeta ha- bría procedido allí, ante los muy numerosos asistentes al acto, a regalar el grueso tomo a Picasso, para luego, en privado, pedirle su devolución porque era el único que tenía. De ser cierta esta anécdota, la prueba de que el pintor no se molestó por ello es que después, entre más risas que lágrimas, alojó al autor del libro –un familiar suyo– en su casa de Vallauris. En efecto, Pablo Ruiz hospedó a un poeta apellidado Ruiz, como él. Era Pablo Neruda que, al salir de Chile burlando a la policía política, cruzó la cordillera andina llevando su disfrazado Canto general; y disfrazado él mis- mo de barbudo y emponchado jinete cuyo nombre, según dejaba constan- cia la documentación que portaba, era el de Antonio Ruiz. Paloma de la paz de 1950. 79 Atenea 489I Sem. 2004 De esos días pasados en Vallauris, pueblo que menciona en uno de los dos poemas a Picasso contenidos en Las uvas y el viento, Neruda recordó en Confieso que he vivido: ... con ternura fraternal, el genial minotauro de la pintura moderna se pre- ocupaba de mi situación en sus detalles más ínfimos. Hablaba con las auto- ridades; telefoneaba a medio mundo. No sé cuántos cuadros portentosos dejó de pintar por culpa mía. Yo sentía en el alma hacerle perder su tiempo sagrado. Relacionar la anécdota del libro regalado y reclamado en devolución, con el minotauro de la pintura del que habla Neruda en esta cita, trae a la memoria otra que dice que Picasso le regaló al poeta un pequeño minotauro de oro, de cuyo paradero después nunca más se supo. Sostener que la expli- cación de tal misterio es que en bromista represalia por el da y quita del poeta, el pintor también le pidió la devolución del regalo, sería absurdo y cronológicamente imposible. Pero, de no serlo, una broma de este tipo no habría sido nada raro ni impensable; es sabido que ambos se contaron chis- tes e hicieron bromas no siempre livianas. Picasso, por ejemplo, se rió mu- cho de Neruda al sorprenderle una mañana en paños menores. Con la frase: Carnet de “Antonio Ruiz” (Neruda con documentación falsa). 80Atenea 489I Sem. 2004 ¡he visto al poeta en calzoncillos!, recibió muerto de risa a todos los conoci- dos que llegaron ese día a su casa en Vallauris. También se aliaron ambos para hacer bromas a terceros. En la ya varias veces citada última entrevista, el poeta recordó que en un acto público en que participaron juntos –quizá el realizado en el Palais de la Mutualitè– a sugerencia del pintor y por reírse de los cazadores de autógrafos, él firmó Picasso, y Picasso firmó Neruda. Cuenta también el poeta que Picasso se desternillaba de la risa cuando le leía versos de un librito de poesía erótica española que había encontrado en un mercado de viejo. Pero (por José Miguel Varas) se sabe que el éxito joco- so más rotundo lo obtenía el poeta cuando le contaba a Picasso el nada erótico chiste de Damocles: Una señora consulta al médico: –Doctor, no sé lo que me pasa, estoy tan nerviosa. Siento como si todo el tiempo colgara sobre mi cabeza la espada de Colón... El médico: –¿La espada de Colón? Mmm... ¿No será el huevo de Damocles? Dice J.M. Varas que Picasso literalmente se revolcaba de risa al oírlo13. Neruda tampoco lo hacía mal a la hora de reírse. En la conocida fotogra- fía en que recibe de Picasso un beso en la mejilla, puede verse al poeta rien- do como reía. Conmovía su rostro entero: sus ojos desaparecían, sus carrillos se elevaban, dos arrugas paralelas se le marcaban a cada lado de la nariz, y una contagio- sa risa de niño le brotaba de lo más profundo. LAS FOTOGRAFIAS La simpática y muy oportuna instantánea del beso en la mejilla fue tomada en París, y no en Varsovia como se dice a veces erróneamente. Esta foto y otra, que muestra una escena con varias personas en una plazoleta de Cannes, han sido publicadas suponiéndose que eran las únicas que les mostraban juntos. En la segunda el poeta no ríe. Muy por el contrario, desde el margen derecho de la foto observa de perfil a los presentes con cara seria, sombría y más bien tristona. No es extraño esto: el cónsul uruguayo en Cannes14 le había estropeado el día concienzudamente. Picasso, en la misma foto, difícil de apreciar por lo distante y por tener la cara sombreada por la toma a con- traluz que hizo el fotógrafo, tampoco parece muy alegre. Quedémonos, pues, con la primera toma, de la que el autor de estas líneas ha tenido la suerte de encontrar otras tres versiones, es decir tres fotografías realizadas pocos mi- 13Varas, José Miguel. Nerudario. Ed. Planeta. Chile. 1999. 14Id., “Un tal Germán Denis Barreiro o Ferreiro”: en Nerudario, p. 137. 81 Atenea 489I Sem. 2004 nutos antes o después de la del beso en la mejilla. No son desconocidas; una la publicó su autor en un opúsculo que tituló Picasso, arte y libertad15. Pro- bablemente no fue muy difundida; muchos no conocen esta publicación y nunca vieron la fotografía en la que, ante numerosas banderas, un muy ce- remonioso Neruda parece estar diciendo unas palabras de agradecimiento o elogio a un Picasso que lo mira con divertida curiosidad. Por lo que el fotógrafo dice de ella: que cree que es la única que muestra a Picasso y Neruda juntos en el Congreso Mundial de Partidarios de la Paz de París, pudiera creerse probado que no fue él quien hizo la del beso en la mejilla. Pero cabe dudar de ello porque el mismo fotógrafo olvidó otra similar que hizo en la misma ocasión. Que las cuatro fotos fueron hechas en el mismo lugar, no cabe duda. Lo prueba la vestimenta de los retratados: corbata incluida, es idéntica en las cuatro. Picasso y Neruda con otras personas, en Cannes. 15Chamudes, Marcos. Picasso, arte y libertad. Santiago de Chile, 1980. 82Atenea 489I Sem. 2004 83 Atenea 489I Sem. 2004 Hay otras fotos de Picasso en el mencionado opúsculo. En ellas el pintor lee ante unos micrófonos –provisto de quevedianos anteojos– un texto que, según el autor de las fotos, sería el famoso discurso de Wroclaw. Esto signi- ficaría que ¡Picasso no se cambió de ropa desde 1948! Porque no se puede negar que –¿un año después!?– todavía lleva la misma indumentaria. Y, como se puede apreciar, al menos la chaqueta es la misma –¡otro año más tarde!– en la foto del beso en la mejilla (en la que todavía sostiene en sus manos el papel que habría leído, ¡dos años antes!). Salvo mejor opinión, lo cierto ha de ser que se trata de fotografías toma- das en el parisino Palais de la Mutualitè. Otras fotos, procedentes de Polo- nia, aclaran más errores; y permiten también colegir que Picasso pronunció discursos en más de una oportunidad. Picasso en diferentes discursos, una vez en Breslau y la otra en París. 84Atenea 489I Sem. 2004 UN RETRATO DE PABLO NERUDA, POR PABLO PICASSO Para finalizar, un hallazgo que fue posible gracias a casualidades afortuna- das. En el citado número de Cuadernos, cuya contraportada muestra la ins- tantánea del beso de Picasso a Neruda, hay también un artículo titulado “Pintura y poesía (Neruda y los pintores)” con unos cuantos retratos del poeta que, como es natural, inducen a preguntarse: ¿cuál de ellos pintó Picasso? La respuesta es: ninguno de ellos. No es natural, ni mucho menos, que el pintor Picasso, que retrató a todos sus amigos poetas, quizá a unos mejor que a otros, pero a todos, no hubiese hecho ni siquiera una sola cari- catura, como las que hizo de Alberti y otros, de su amigo el poeta Neruda. Picasso pintó al chileno Huidobro, es un retrato que sabemos pasado por las verijas y que apareció en un sello de Correos en Chile. Y, aunque no fuese poetisa, pintó decenas de veces a Eugenia Errázuriz, una dama chilena a quien Neruda también nombra en su última entrevista. Neruda habló de su amigo Picasso, en prosa y verso. Debería pues, haber una retribución de Picasso a su amigo Neruda, a pluma y pincel. Mientras germinaba esta idea, se cumplieron ciento veinte años del nacimiento de Picasso. Esto motivó recordatorios en diversos medios. En uno de ellos, en relación a los dibujos que fechaba cada día, se dijo que –según propia declaración del pintor– eran la escritura de su diario de vida. Se recordó también una frase suya: “Yo no lo digo todo, pero todo lo pinto”. Esta frase y lo anterior, iluminan como la luz del candil de la dama del “Guernica”. La lectura del diario picassiano confirma su declaración: no lo decía todo, pero todo lo pintaba. Y como él, Neruda lo versificó todo. El diario picassiano contiene, como la poesía nerudiana, muchas autorre- ferencias de enorme interés; el nuestro era buscar la página que confirmara la sospecha de que, al pintar su diario de vida, algún día tendría que haber pin- tado un retrato de su amigo Neruda. Picasso retrató a Vallejo; y también a Huidobro. Más motivos debió haber tenido para retratar a Neruda; aunque éste, quizá por lo que una vez dijo del retrato y las partes pudendas de Huidobro, nunca quisiese a posar ante Picasso para un retrato. Por eso –conjeturamos– de existir tal retrato, éste debió haber sido hecho rescatándolo de la memo- ria. En ausencia del retratado y por un motivo muy especial. Al encontrar finalmente la página buscada, se confirmó nuestra creencia de que así debió haber sido. Eugenia Errázuriz, retratada por Picasso. Caricatura de Rafael Alberti, por Picasso. 85 Atenea 489I Sem. 2004 PRESENCIA Y AUSENCIA DEL PRINCIPAL INVITADO No es preciso historiar la búsqueda en todo detalle, lo que importa es dejar dicho que el hallazgo del retrato de Neruda en el diario de vida picassiano coincide con un momento de la biografía nerudiana en la que el poeta esta- ba en Chile y, veinte años después de su “Aquí estoy”, se aprestaba a celebrar allí el cumplimiento de sus cincuenta años de edad. Este hecho hace posible que todo encaje en el tiempo y el espacio: Picasso retrató a Neruda el día en que recibió desde Chile una invitación. Y quizá también dos poemas: “Picasso” y “Llegada a Puerto Picasso”, que serían incluidos en el libro Las uvas y el viento, que estaba pronto a editarse en Santiago y haría su aparición en febrero de 1954. Este hecho prueba que en esa etapa de su vida pública y privada, Neruda tenía especialmente presente al genial malagueño. El día 12 de julio Pablo Neruda celebraría su cincuentena e invitaba a Chile a su amigo Pablo Picasso. Deseaba que asistiese a las festividades de celebración de su cumpleaños, lo que –como es fácil colegir al consultar la revista Aurora– tendría también una connotación política de gran enverga- dura, tanta como la que tuvo en aquellos eventos europeos que unos años antes habían contado con la presencia de ambos. Debería, en un país de Hispanoamérica en el que se quería reunir a personalidades de todo el mun- do, tener aún más. Por eso, al país a cuyo puerto principal había arribado un día el Winnipeg, Picasso no debería faltar. Pero el pintor no acudió a la cita. Y puesto que, sin dar explicaciones, Picasso rechazaba invitaciones simila- res desde hacía años, puede que se haya creído que no tuvo ni la deferencia de acusar recibo o dar respuesta a la invitación. Nuestro hallazgo prueba que la dio. Su respuesta a la invitación nerudiana fue dibujada en el diario en el que todo lo pintaba. Retrató a Neruda en la hoja fechada el 17 de enero de 1954, titulándola “Visita en el atelier”, refiriéndose quizá a aquella visita que el poeta llamó “Llegada a Puerto Picasso”. Este retrato ha de haber sido la respuesta y regalo de cumpleaños de Picasso a su amigo Neruda. Si dibujo y mensaje llegaron a destino, no se sabe. Pero sí que este valioso dibujo fue ofrecido en venta por una galería de arte italiana algo más de un año después de la muerte del poeta chileno. Es más agradable pensar que Neruda no conoció este dibujo nunca mencionado por él. Eso es mejor que suponer que al verlo no le gustó por considerar que caricaturizado así, de obeso y calvo poeta cincuentón, era víctima de una broma pablopicassiana que le ridiculizaba inaceptablemente. Si fue así: lamentable. Rafael Alberti, por ejemplo, publicó alegremente el dibujo con el que Picasso lo inmortalizó con bastante más crueldad. El personaje que visita al pintor en su atelier es Neruda. No hay duda. Es el Neruda que quedó archivado en la fotográfica memoria de Picasso el día en que ambos fueron fotografiados en la clara reunión de las banderas. 86Atenea 489I Sem. 2004 “Visita en el taller” de Picasso. 87 Atenea 489I Sem. 2004 BIBLIOGRAFÍA Aguirre, Margarita. 1973. Las vidas de Pablo Neruda. Grijalbo: Buenos Aires, Argen- tina. Cabanne, Pierre. 1982. El siglo de Picasso. Edición del Ministerio de Cultura: Ma- drid, España. Daix, Pierre. 1989. Picasso creador. Ed. Atlántida: Buenos Aires, Argentina. Ferrero, Mario. 1988. Neruda, voz y universo. Ediciones Logos: Santiago de Chile. Neruda, Pablo. 1999-2002. Obras completas (O.C., tomos I, II, III, IV y V). Edición de Hernán Loyola con el asesoramiento de Saúl Yurkievich. Galaxia Gutenberg. Círculo de Lectores: Barcelona. O’Brien, Patrick. 1980. Picasso. Ed. Noguer: Barcelona, España. Teitelboim, Volodia. 1984. Neruda. Ediciones Michay. Madrid, España. �� 
work_2xy4tpegbbc6xmxvx42ixfpqja	----	Microsoft Word - Levy_repetition.doc Art Journal, Spring, 1996 Repetition and the scientific model in art ELLEN K. LEVY This essay explores repetition in the work of artists who use scientific models as a point of departure for their art. The biological and physical sciences provide these artists with exam- ples of processes regularly occurring in nature, and the artists use science as a means of ex- ploring relationships between art and the world. These artists use repetition to depict and evoke nature’s processes, with such actions as duplication, folding, and mirroring. Through comparisons with genetics—a science particularly associated with repetitive phenomena—I offer fresh insights about the functions of repetition in the work of some contemporary art- ists. Just as repetition calls attention to variation within sameness, the artistic use of analytic systems can focus attention on personal vision. When artists specifically use genetics as the scientific model, their repetition suggests generative metaphors. Repetition has several classic functions. It helps defer closure in a work of art by establishing expectations of recurrence while giving pleasure to the viewer. In his early paintings Frank Stella accomplished this effect by internalizing and reiterating the four edges of his paintings and implied that the internally depicted lines could continue out indefinitely past the framing border. Gilles Deleuze points out important distinctions between static and dynamic repetitions. Active repetition in art can evoke evolutionary processes, likening the dynamic repetition to genetic action.1 Used dynamically in art, repetition can go beyond rote articulation to invoke experience and memory, in turn involving reproduction and reflection. When artists repeat visual phrases, they engage time, simultaneously setting up reverbera- tions of prior use (memory) and suggesting the impossibility of their full retrieval (loss). This near-musical cadence is an aspect of work that has recurrent units, such as grids in Agnes Martin’s paintings. Although not generally so regarded, appropriation might be con- sidered a special instance of repetition. A contemporary artist, for example, might repeat a motif from Pablo Picasso, who in turn had borrowed it from a much-earlier and now- inaccessible African source. These applications in the suspension of closure and the marking of time establish a sense of organic continuity and outward growth. Repetition thus can gen- erally suggest biological patterns, while replication, another kind of repetition, can share in this organic association or can imply the opposite, namely industrial standardization. Repetition in art often gains power and fresh content by scientific contextualization. Such artists as Alfred Jensen and Robert Smithson capitalize on their ability to evoke na- ture’s processes through repetitive patterns. Repetition reinforces the already existing scien- tific context in their work, permitting the surfacing of little-explored subject matter. I exam- ine these new functions of repetition in selected artworks after first discussing pertinent as- pects of repetition in genetics. In science repetition is vital to the proof of a successful hypothesis. It also figures in each of three basic genetic processes: replication, transcription, and translation.2 Replication enables the transfer of hereditary information from one DNA molecule to another, transcrip- tion copies the information to RNA, and translation yields the gene product, namely pro- teins. Genetic replication involves the separation of two strands of the double helix and the subsequent synthesis of new strands that complement the originals. In replication the he- lix unwinds, and polymer-forming enzymes known as DNA polymerases subsequently copy the strands. Additional proteins unwind the helix, stabilize it, and permit the DNA polym- erases to build new strands. During transcription sequenced (ordered) bases of DNA are copied into RNA, which program the synthesis of a linear set of amino acids. An enzyme known as RNA po- lymerase copies one strand of the DNA into an RNA molecule and initiates the synthesis. Only one strand of the helix is copied: the coding strand, which contains the genetic infor- mation. The other strand is noncoding and acts as a template during replication. The final process is translation. As there are only four bases each in DNA and RNA but twenty amino acids to be specified in living cells, three bases or triplets are needed to specify one amino acid. If a two-base system were used, for example, it would only yield sixteen (four-squared) coding possibilities. Three bases offer sixty-four (four-cubed) coding possibilities, more than enough to produce twenty amino acids. Subsequently, amino acids link together as a chain to form a protein molecule. The order of amino acids determines the function of a protein just as the order of words determines the meaning of a sentence. Repeti- tive protein folding subsequently generates structures with specific functional properties. Genetics manifests repetition in other ways. Repetitive elements exist within the vast regions of the genome that do not participate in generating the body’s supply of proteins. Called noncoding or “junk DNA,” the long, repetitive sequences of letters differ from the triplet, coding sequences of nucleic acid pairs.3 The so-called junk is widespread and consti- tutes all but roughly 3 percent of the more than three billion bases or building blocks that make up human DNA. A small segment of the scientific community believes that the redundancy of the repetitive noncoding DNA may provide material for evolutionary change. According to this hypothesis new genetic ideas can be “tested” in the regions not engaged in protein produc- tion.4 This cannot be accomplished without possible damage in coding regions that are vi- tally occupied in generating the body’s supply of proteins. In this way the repetitiveness of the junk DNA might provide a source of evolutionary development that augments the sepa- rate genetic process of recombination, where chromosomes exchange segments resulting in a random assortment of recombined chromosomes. There is thus more than one way to pro- vide for genetic change. The structures of genetic processes have analogues in art. First, the two-stranded complementarity of DNA enables duplication of the genetic material and the inheritance of traits. This complementarity can suggest the mirroring that exists in some art. Second, each genetic process provides a linear order in which sequences determine function. This is true during transcription when DNA is copied into RNA and also during translation when the RNA molecule synthesizes strands of amino acids. Specific amino acid sequences are also responsible for folding, introducing another form of repetition. These linear sequences can be related to the sequences and patterns artists use. Finally, the repetitive, pieced-together, modular structure of genetic material allows flexibility. Different genetic products can be assembled into new configurations.5 A corresponding feature in art is the flexibility provided by combinative units like grids and modules. As a model for art, genetics provides for sys- tem, variation, and organic metaphors. In this essay I discuss functions of repetition in certain works, focusing upon one work by each of three artists who, notwithstanding common roots in Minimalism, come from different generations and aesthetic worlds: Jensen, Smithson, and Allan McCollum. I de- scribe and compare their works and draw upon scientific conceptions that inform repetition in their art. I have selected art in which repetition (in the form of grids, recurring modules, and mirroring) functions in a manner that reflects scientific influence. Because repetition can evoke biological processes, the scientific context of the art- ists I discuss is reinforced. In effect, the scientific model functions as a substitute for the model once provided by figurative representation. There is great advantage for artists to con- textualize their work in this manner: the ability to couple abstract processes available in self- reflexive art with an external referent provided by the scientific model. This ability appears at a time when artists often seek to enlarge aesthetic concerns, avoiding strict formalism. Repetition in a scientific context can enhance the appearance of subject matter that is vital, universal, and visually accessible. Each work discussed here embodies a different aspect of repetition. Jensen employs the grid as a source of repetitive units; Smithson, the duplication formed by mirrors; and McCollum, replication via templates and molds. Considered out of chronological order, the artists repeat elements in the two-dimensional space of painting (Jensen), in an object that mediates between two and three dimensions (Smithson), and in fully three-dimensional space (McCollum). In 1977 Jensen painted a three-paneled work titled Seeking to Unravel the Shape of an Enzyme (fig. 1), incorporating signs, symbols, writing, and numbers into grids in combi- nations of color and black and white.6 The paint is thick and juicy, forming a sensuous con- trast to his analytic subject. The painted phrase “The Shape of the ATCase molecule” ap- pears twice in this painting, as a heading on each of the two side panels. One source for Jen- sen’s painting is the action of the enzyme ATCase (aspartate transcarbamoylase) in the bio- synthesis of pyrimidine, one of the bases along with purine essential to the complementarity FIG. 1 Alfred Jensen, Seeking to Unravel the Shape of an Enzyme, 1977, oil on canvas, 3 panels, 86 x 182 inches. PaceWildenstein Gallery, New York. of DNA. The ATCase enzyme might have provided Jensen with a point of departure in this particular work.7 In preparing the painting Jensen had preserved newsclips of the research of Nobel Prize laureate William Lipscomb, who investi- gated properties of ATCase in pyrimidine metabolism. Jensen’s exploration of ATCase is consis- tent with his readings8 about physi- cal systems as presented in J. Needham’s Science and Civiliza- tion in China as well as in theories of Michael Faraday, the nineteenth-century physicist and chemist. In Seeking to Unravel the Shape of an Enzyme, grids help Jensen to establish mir- rored relationships, most noticeably, a symmetrical relationship within the three panels ech- oed by a fragment of text. The phrase “the relationships between structure and function” is positioned on the bottom center panel like a pivot. Because Jensen has given his painting a scientific context, his depicted mirroring could be viewed as suggesting notions of comple- mentarity. In addition to the conceptual framework of enzymatic configurations, Jensen incorporates within his grids other systems, signified by references to male and female dualities and painted phrases and sentences, one of which reads “solar calender 360 day year, 46452 days equal 129 years 12 days.” This phrase provides a taking-off point for inscribed numerical sequences. By merging ancient episte- mologies with references to Western sci- ence, Jensen gains a sense of play and a rich layering of associations. Through repetition Jensen achieves the appearance of near-mystical ineffability. At first view he employs many nearly indistinguishable elements that present an excessive array of num- bers and words. The apparent inter- changeability of numbers leaves the viewer with the impression of repetition itself. The viewer looks at painted words, blurring the distinction between image and text. Jensen appears ultimately in- scrutable. FIG. 2 Robert Smithson, Enantiomorphic Chamber, 1964, painted steel and mirror. John Weber Gallery. New York. FIG. 3 Robert Smithson. Gyrostasis, 1968, flat white paint on folded steel. 73 x 57 x 40 inches, John Weber Gallery, New York. Smithson’s Enantiomorphic Chamber (fig. 2) employs repetition in a way both simi- lar to and different from Jensen’s Seeking to Unravel the Shape of an Enzyme. During the 1960s Smithson often used repetitive modules.9 An example is his spiraling work Gyrostasis (fig. 3), which is based on numerical progressions that diminish away from the base of the sculpture. Enantiomorphic Chamber points to Smithson’s growing involvement with scien- tific systems of transformation. In Enantiomorphic Chamber Smithson’s specific scientific reference is crystallogra- phy, the structural arrangement of atoms or molecules within crystals.10 An enantiomorphic system is a system in which the introduction of heat reverses the normal direction of physical changes.11 The resulting molecules (enantiomers) are identical to each other except for rota- tion about a key atom. A similar situation is the presence in nature of right- and left- handedness. Smithson’s sculpture features two identical but reversed chambers, whose internal mirrors duplicate the symmetry of their side-by-side positioning. Each of Smithson’s mirrors reflects the other half of the sculpture. As a result the mirrors reflect each other in a manner suggestive of complementarity in DNA strands. Using mirrors, Smithson recalls enantiomers (isomers) that are identical except that they are positioned in reverse of each other. The func- tion of such isomers is dependent on their orientation because the mirror-image state can exhibit different properties in nature. Smithson’s mirrors create an illusion of the altered physical form and metaphorically link function with structure. Creative play emerges within Smithson’s system. In Enantiomorphic Chamber mir- rors are framed obliquely by painted steel that gives rise to varied spatial illusions, appearing like frames seen simultaneously from different vantage points. In this way Smithson uses FIG. 4 Allan McCollum, Drawings. 1989/91, over 2,000 framed drawings of pencil on museum board, installation: Centre d’ Art Contemporain, Geneva, Switzerland, 1993. geometry to question its own premises of rationality. The numerous reflections in Smith- son’s piece help to offset an otherwise symmetrical arrangement and add a sense of unpre- dictability. McCollum, best known for his endless repeats of minimal paintings, has also created Drawings (fig. 4), where each work is a replica in that it is a variant of a template. His system allows for an enormous expansion with approximate repetition. Repetition is associ- ated here with capitalist production, rather than notions of evolutionary process. Critical of consumerism and interested in the collusion between mass culture and high art, McCollum, like Andy Warhol, exposed in his early work the assumptions built into advertising.12 In re- cent work he has extended these concerns to conditions of museum display, particularly paleontological exhibitions. By replicating fossils, McCollum shifts his works’ associations from industrial standardization to evolutionary themes. McCollum’s exhibition Natural Copies from the Coal Mines of Central Utah (fig. 5) consists of multiple recasts of “natural casts” of dinosaur tracks. McCollum first came upon the natural casts in a museum of prehistory in Utah. He made rubber molds from the fossils, “manufactured” impressions, and displayed them.13 The slight difference in each casting is caused by variable conditions at the time of casting. Photocopies of literature about the tech- niques of casting are available on stands near the sculpture and contribute to the sense of proliferation. FIG. 5 Allan McCollum. Natural Copies from the Coal Mines of Central Utah. 1994-95, enamel on polymer- reinforced gypsum, installation at John Weber Gallery. John Weber Gallery, New York. Other contemporary artists have drawn more consciously on genetic paradigms. In her diptych Untitled (fig. 6), which is a painted and photo-based collage made with a four- color laser copier, Beverly Fishman refers explicitly to genetic replication in her own artistic process. Fishman manipulates imagery appropriated from scientific texts by inverting, color- ing, distorting, and reproducing cellular forms. The duplications in Fishman’s piece mimic generative mechanisms. The sleek, elliptical shapes suggest analogies to cellular structures, which prompt the viewer to recognize that forms that might initially be categorized as non- objective are, in fact, representations of biological subjects and processes. These cells, one imagines, are intended as representations of primal and vital forces. Kinetic Trap (fig. 7), by chemist Marilyn Emerson Holtzer, conflates the ancient ritual of weav- ing with the genetic process of pro- tein production (translation) in DNA. This coupling of women’s crafts with generativity can suggest a femi- nist viewpoint. Holtzer’s works are inspired by protein folding, and her motifs are loosely based on the se- quence of amino acids in a particular protein chain. According to Holtzer, “just as the sequence of amino acids in a protein chain determines its na- tive structure, the specific sequences and interlacements of warp and weft fibers determine the intricate pattern- ing of the narrow woven bands.”14 The repetitive elements that define her weavings also, therefore, imply a genetic process. In his work Joseph Nech- vatal replaces cybernetics for War- hol’s factory model of the social or- der. He refers explicitly to computer FIG. 6 Beverly Fishman, Untitled, 1993, photo-based collage and painting, 24 x 96 inches. Private collection. FIG. 7 Marilyn Emerson Holtzer, Kinetic Trap, 1993, tablet woven in silk, 14 x 14 inches. Courtesy the artist. viruses and their proliferation in viral attaque: amoR foRti (fig. 8). This painting represents one of many possi- ble configurations. Nechvatal intro- duces a computer virus into his com- puter, generating and recording images that infect and multiply, transforming his initial production. His intention is to create excess through technological means. He associates the “viral” inva- sion with biological invasion, suggest- ing that the resultant overloaded art be viewed as a “bodily” defense.15 We have seen repetition in the gridded systems of Jensen, the mirror- ings of Smithson, and the context- sensitive duplications of McCollum, as well as in the techniques of other art- ists. Repetition enables the exploration of scientific subjects previously un- treated in art while emphasizing an abstract, process-oriented method. The repetition artists use generally draws attention not to standardization (War- hol-related work is the exception), but to differences grounded in experience and specificity. Science provides the artists discussed here with a model of a process by which art can be made. At its best, when artists unite scientific analysis with self-expression, they encompass creative metaphor and play, avoiding doctrinaire applications of scientific principles. The rigor of science can also provide a striking counterpoint to artistic freedom. In addition, when artists place repetitive elements of their work within the specific context of genetics rather than in that of science in general, repetition reinforces generative associations. ELLEN K. LEVY is guest editor of this issue of Art Journal. COPYRIGHT 1996 College Art Association COPYRIGHT 2004 Gale Group FIG. 8 Joseph Nechvatal. viral attaque: amoR foRti, 1994, computer-robotic assisted acrylic on canvas, 39 x 581/2 inches. Courtesy the artist. Notes 1 Gilles Deleuze, Difference and Repetition (New York: Columbia University Press, 1968), 70. 2 Dr. Robert Shapiro has provided a careful reading of this information. 3 Natalie Angier, "Keys Emerge to Mystery of So-called Junk DNA," New York Times, June 28, 1994, C1, C3. 4 Susumu Ohno, Evolution by Gene Duplication (New York: Springer, 1970); Stephen Jay Gould, Eight Little Piggies (New York: W. W. Norton 1993), 318-20. 5 Roland Saldanha et al., "Group I and Group II Introns," FASEB 7 (January 1, 1993): 15-24. 6 6. Maria Reidelbach, Alfred Jensen: Paintings and Works on Paper, exh. cat. (New York: Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, 1985), 8-20. 7 Regina Bogat (artist's widow), telephone conversation with author, July 6, 1995; Lupert Stryer, Bio- chemistry, 4th ed. (New York: W. H. Freeman, 1995), 237-44. 8 See Linda Cathcart and Marcia Tucker, Alfred Jensen: Paintings and Diagrams from the Years 1957-1977, exh. cat. (Buffalo: Albright-Knox Art Gallery), 3-24; and Alfred Jensen, The Late Works, exh. cat. (New York: Pace Gallery, 1984). 9 Toby Mussman, "Literalness and the Infinite," in Gregory Battcock, ed., Minimal Art (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1968), 237-50. 10 Lawrence Alloway, Topics in American Art (New York: W. W. Norton, 1975), 221-36. 11 Ibid., 223. 12 Craig Owens, Beyond Recognition (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), 117-21. 13 This was on view at John Weber Gallery, New York, March 25-April 22, 1995. 14 Marilyn Emerson Holtzer, artist's statement, April 1995; and idem, Weavings, exh. card (Washing- ton: American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1993). 15 Joseph Nechvatal, "The Art of Excess in the Techno-mediacratic Society," in New Observations 94 (March-April 1993): 19. 
work_33dhrzsubndb5eojbmpio7ad4u	----	Avant 01/2010 Niestymulująca tradycja Wpływ temperamentu na preferencje w sztuce Joanna Rządkowska, Alicja Paracka, Natalia Frankowska W tekście zostały przedstawione wyniki badań nad wpływem temperamentu na preferencje dotyczące sztuk. Preferencje te zależą od wielu zmiennych osobowościowych. Opisane badanie było powtórzeniem badań prowadzonych w nurcie Teorii Opanowywania Trwogi (TOT), z ujęciem struktur temperamentu jako różnic indywidualnych. Wyniki ujawniły znaczne różnice w preferowaniu sztuki tradycyjnej i nowoczesnej, zależnie od stopnia harmonizacji struktur temperamentalnych. Sangwinicy i melancholicy w warunkach kontrolnych oceniali najwyżej sztukę nowoczesną, zaś w warunkach eksperymentalnych (mających wywołać u badanych poczucie lęku) najwyżej oceniali sztukę tradycyjną. Wyniki potwierdzają wpływ różnic indywidualnych, a także zmiennych sytuacyjnych, na preferencje dotyczące sztuki. Wstęp teoretyczny Psychologowie tacy jak Burt (1933) i Eysenck (1940) jako jedni z pierwszych podjęli się badań nad związkiem osobowości z preferencjami dotyczącymi sztuki. W ostatnich latach ukazały się – między innymi – wyniki badań: Furnham’a i Avison (1997), Furnham’a i Walker’a (2001) Zwiegenhafta (2008), Axelssona (2007), które badają relację osobowości z preferencjami muzycznymi czy plastycznymi (również tymi dotyczącymi fotografii). AVANT 01/2010 | www.avant.umk.pl OPEN ACCESS 328 Niestymulująca tradycja Większość nowoczesnych metod badawczych korzysta z teorii Wielkiej Piątki (ekstrawersja, ugodowość, sumienność, neurotyzm i otwartość na doświadczenia), stosowanej od lat 90-tych ubiegłego wieku (Chamorro- Premuzic, Furnham, Reimers 2007). Badania te unaoczniają, że chęć obcowania ze sztuką jest związana z otwartością na doświadczenie (tamże). Niektóre badania wskazują na związek między poszukiwaniem doznań (thrill and adventure seeking) a preferencją odnoszącą się do sztuki reprezentacyjnej: przedstawiającej głównie klasyczne, charakteryzujące się subtelną symboliką kompozycje (Furnham, Walker 2001). Natomiast inne publikacje próbują udowodnić, że poszukiwanie wrażeń (sensation seeking) jest powiązane z wyborem sztuki surrealistycznej oraz odrzuceniem sztuki reprezentacyjnej (Furnham i Avison 1997). Powyższe stwierdzenia potwierdzają badania terenowe (Mastandrea, Bartoli, Bove 2009), podczas których przy pomocy odpowiedniego kwestionariusza przeanalizowano osobowość gości odwiedzających muzea sztuki starożytnej i nowoczesnej. Okazało się, że wszyscy zwiedzający nie różnili się pod względem otwartości na doświadczenia. Jednakże ludzie zwiedzający muzeum sztuki nowoczesnej osiągnęli wyższe wyniki w skali poszukiwania wrażeń. Sygnalizuje to być może, że otwartość na doświadczenie decyduje o tym, czy w ogóle lubimy sztukę i tym samym będziemy pojawiać się w muzeum, natomiast sam temperament determinuje wybór poszczególnych tendencji artystycznych. Cechy Wielkiej Piątki rzadko uzasadniają więcej niż 10% wariancji (zmienności wyników) (Chamorro-Premuzic, Furnham, Reimers 2007). Cecha „poszukiwanie doznań” tłumaczy najwięcej wariancji: plasuje się ona na dwóch krańcach skali, jeśli chodzi o sztukę nowoczesną i tradycyjną. Warto zwrócić uwagę na zmienne związane z poziomem pożądanej stymulacji, gdy pragniemy wytłumaczyć preferencje odnośnie sztuki. Strelau (2006) pisze, że temperament odnosi się do formalnych i względnie niezmiennych cech osobowości. Zgodnie z Regulacyjną Teorią Niestymulująca tradycja 329 Temperamentu (RTT) składa się on z sześciu elementów składowych: żwawości, perseweratywności, wrażliwości sensorycznej, reaktywności emocjonalnej, wytrzymałości i aktywności (Strelau 1997). Z rozważań tych wynika, że temperament – jako instancja psychiczna regulująca dopływ oraz odporność na stymulacje – może mieć jakiś pośredni wpływ na preferencje bodźców wzrokowych (w tym także i sztuki). Co więcej, autor sugeruje, że na podstawie owych cech można wydzielić dwa typy osobowości: zharmonizowany (umiejący zapewnić sobie optymalną dawkę stymulacji; w typologii Hipokratesa-Galena odpowiadają mu sangwinicy i melancholicy) i niezharmonizowany (niepotrafiący właściwie dozować sobie stymulacji; odpowiednio: cholerycy i flegmatycy). Wielu badaczy sugerowało powiązania między sztuką i różnymi typami emocji oraz nastrojów. Warto omówić ten związek w kontekście teorii RTT, która zawiera istotny komponent emocjonalny: przekonuje ona mianowicie, że emocje mogą być istotnym źródłem stymulacji. Koneĉni (2008) uważa, że najbardziej autentycznymi, choć rzadkimi stanami wywołanymi przez muzykę mogą być: estetyczny podziw, poruszenie lub dreszczyk emocji (aesthetic awe, being moved and thrill). Koresponduje to w jakimś stopniu z wymienioną wcześniej koncepcją Furnhama i Walkera (2001), która sugeruje, że poszukiwanie doznań ( thrill and adventure seeking) może być powiązane z percepcją sztuki czy poszukiwaniem stymulacji. Silvia (2005) poddaje krytyce starsze koncepcje łączące emocje estetyczne z pobudliwością (arousability), przykładowo: odrzuca poglądy Berlyne’a (za: Silvia 2005). Tłumaczy zarazem swoją krytykę tym, iż teorie Berlyne’a opierają się na podłożu psychobiologicznym i uwzględniają tylko dwie emocje: przyjemność oraz awersję (związane z obszarami kar i nagród w mózgu); Berlyne nie bierze w ogóle pod uwagę tematyki indywidualnego odbioru sztuki (Silvia 2005). 330 Niestymulująca tradycja Silvia odwołuje się do teorii oceny (appraisal theory), która postuluje, że złożone lub nieoczekiwane dzieło sztuki nie wystarczy, aby wzbudzić emocjonalną odpowiedź. Powinno ono być uznane przez postrzegającego za złożone, jak również poddane ocenie dotyczącej tego, w jakim stopniu sobie z tą złożonością poradziło (ibid.). Mając na względzie te informacje, przyjmujemy, że każde dzieło sztuki posiada pewien potencjał stymulacyjny. W naszym badaniu będziemy traktować sztukę tradycyjną jako mniej złożoną i stymulującą niż sztuka nowoczesna. Analogicznie do założeń z zakresu teorii opanowywania trwogi oraz „amebowej teorii Ja” (Burris, Rempel 2004; Landau, Greenberg, Solomon, Pyszczynski, Martens 2006) zakładamy, że osoby, u których wzbudzimy lęk, zmienią swoje preferencje odnośnie dzieł sztuki. Zmiana ta ma być uwarunkowana tym, że ich stymulacyjna dawka będzie większa. Zakładamy również, że lęk może wzbudzić poczucie zagrożenia (Burris, Rempel 2004), które może prowadzić do wyboru bardziej tradycyjnej i „znanej” sztuki. Z drugiej strony brak wzbudzania lęku może zwiększać uznanie dla sztuki nieznanej, złożonej lub „obcej” (Landau, Greenberg, Solomon, Pyszczynski, Martens 2006). Metoda Przebieg badania i osoby badane Uczestników badania rekrutowano na terenie trójmiejskiej uczelni. Większość to studenci Uniwersytetu Gdańskiego, Szkoły Wyższej Psychologii Społecznej w Warszawie oddział w Sopocie oraz Politechniki Gdańskiej, ponadto kilku badanych to uczniowie Liceum Ogólnokształcącego w Kartuzach. Łącznie w badaniu wzięło udział 120 osób. Niestymulująca tradycja 331 Zastosowane narzędzia psychometryczne W badaniach dokonano pomiaru cech temperamentalnych, stanu i cech lęku oraz poziomu zainteresowania prezentowanymi dziełami sztuki, co było warunkiem wprowadzenia lub niewprowadzenia badanych w stan lęku oraz zobiektywizowaną ocenę atrakcyjności dzieł sztuki. Do pomiaru cech temperamentalnych zastosowano kwestionariusz FCZ-KT (Formalna Charakterystyka Zachowania – Kwestionariusz Temperamentu) (Strelau i Zawadzki 1997), diagnozujący podstawowe, biologicznie zdeterminowane wymiary osobowości, które opisują formalne aspekty zachowania. Test ten zawiera 6 skal dotyczących: Żwawości, Perseweratywności, Wrażliwości sensorycznej, Reaktywności emocjonalnej, Wytrzymałości oraz Aktywności. Inwentarz stanu i cechy lęku (Sosnowski, Wrześniewski, Jaworowska, Ferenc 2006) służył do rozróżnienia lęku: a) jako chwilowego stanu emocjonalnego (state - anxiety); b) oraz lęku rozumianego jako utrzymująca się, trwała cecha osobowości. Kwestionariusz STAI składa się z dwóch niezależnych części, które zawierają po 20 stwierdzeń każda. Przy pomocy pierwszej części STAI (X-1) można badać poziom lęku traktowanego jako aktualny stan emocjonalny. Do badania oceny atrakcyjności zastosowano przygotowaną do tego ankietę, która obejmuje piętnaście pozycji. Ankieta sondowała poziom atrakcyjności prezentowanych dzieł sztuki na pięciostopniowej skali Likerta. W badaniu zastosowano również dwa filmy krótkometrażowe stworzone przez autorów badania: kontrolny (nie wzbudzający lęku) oraz eksperymentalny (mający wywoływać lęk). Obrazy podlegające ocenie tworzyły trzy kategorie i przedstawiano je losowo w postaci slajdów. Na te kategorie składały się obrazy zgromadzone na podstawie cech wspólnych: tematyki, ogólnej konwencji i stylu. Założono, że każda z podanych kategorii jest źródłem odmiennego rodzaju stymulacji. 332 Niestymulująca tradycja Wykorzystano następujące kategorie i dzieła malarskie: sztuka tradycyjna/konwencjonalna: Pieter Boel, Large Vanitas still Life, Ignacy Henri Theodore-Fantin Latour, The Rosy Wealth of June, Théodore Rousseau, Fontainebleau, Titian, Portrait of the man, Eugene Brudin, Laundresses by a stream; sztuka kubistyczna: Georges Braque, Le Portugais, Juan Gris, Bottles and Knife, Pablo Picasso, Siedząca naga kobieta, Georges Braque, Blue Bird, Philip Absolon, Cassie Thinking About Cubism; oraz sztuka modernistyczna: Gilbert and George, Bloody Mooning, Andy Warhol, Skull, Salvador Dali, Premonition of Civil War, Francis Bacon, Figure with meat, Andy Warhol, Heinz box. Procedura Podstawą wyników opisywanych w tym opracowaniu jest badanie przeprowadzone przez studentki psychologii wiosną 2009 roku (był to projekt realizowany na potrzeby przedmiotu: „Praca Empiryczna I”). Badanie to miało charakter quasi-eksperymentu. Zastosowany pakiet narzędzi diagnostycznych używany był w odpowiedniej i ustalonej kolejności. Przed podaniem kwestionariuszy badani byli przydzielani losowo do grup: kontrolnej oraz eksperymentalnej. Następnie uczestnicy dostali do wypełnienia kwestionariusz FCZ-KT, po czym zostali poproszeni o obejrzenie dwuminutowego filmu: kontrolnego albo wzbudzającego lęk. Projekcję za każdym razem uruchamiał prowadzący, każdy z badanych miał zapewniony identyczny poziom głośności. Kolejnym krokiem było wypełnienie przez badanych części X-1 kwestionariusza STAI. Po wypełnieniu arkusza badani oglądali pokaz slajdów, który składał się z 15 zdjęć dzieł sztuki, a następnie oceniali je w przygotowanej do tej czynności ankiecie. O celu badania informowano jedynie wówczas, gdy badani wyrazili wyraźne zainteresowanie. Odpowiadano, że badanie dotyczy analizy wpływu różnych rodzajów stymulacji na wrażliwość sensoryczną i emocjonalną. Niestymulująca tradycja 333 Wyniki W celu sprawdzenia zależności między zmiennymi przeprowadzono analizę korelacji Pearsona, która wykazała zależność pomiędzy oceną sztuki abstrakcyjnej oraz nowoczesnej na poziomie: r = .25, p < .05. Nie uzyskano natomiast korelacji między zmiennymi: oceną sztuki nowoczesnej oraz oceną sztuki tradycyjnej (p = .281), co oznacza, że skale te są od siebie niezależne. Korelacja potwierdzająca przesłanki teoretyczne to ujemny związek między oceną sztuki nowoczesnej a wynikami STAI (X-1) na poziomie r = .34, p < .001. W celu weryfikacji zakładanych hipotez przeprowadzono wieloczynnikową analizę wariancji w modelu mieszanym. Uzyskano istotne statystyczne efekty interakcji i efekty główne, zarówno dla typów zharmonizowanych i niezharmonizowanych. Dla typów zharmonizowanych istotny okazał się efekt interakcji obu czynników: F (2, 94) = 9.12, p < .001, eta2 = .16, który oznacza, że preferencje w sztuce zależały od warunku eksperymentalnego. Oznacza to, że o ile osoby Ryc 1: Preferencje typów zharmonizowanych wobec rodzajów sztuki. 334 Niestymulująca tradycja o typach zharmonizowanych w warunkach kontrolnych oceniały jednakowo wysoko każdy rodzaj sztuki, to po wzbudzeniu lęku wyraźnie preferowały sztukę tradycyjną M = 18.91, mniej abstrakcyjną M = 15.22, a najmniej nowoczesną M = 11.65, ps < .05 (wyniki przedstawia Ryc. 1). Co ciekawe, typy niezharmonizowane, niezależnie od warunku zawsze preferowały sztukę tradycyjną, zaś abstrakcyjną i nowoczesną oceniały równie nisko (wyniki przedstawia Ryc. 2). Dyskusja Zakładany związek między temperamentem a preferencjami dotyczącymi sztuki okazał się niejednoznaczny i zależny od sytuacji. Wyniki temperamentów niezharmonizowanych (choleryków i flegmatyków) nie różniły się w warunkach eksperymentalnych i kontrolnych, co może być spowodowane nieelastycznością tych typów, charakteryzujących się nieumiejętnością dostarczania sobie właściwej dawki stymulacji (Zawadzki i Strelau 1997). Reakcje typów zharmonizowanych (melancholików oraz Ryc 2: Preferencje typów niezharmonizowanych wobec rodzajów sztuki. Niestymulująca tradycja 335 sangwiników) znacznie różniły się zależnie od sytuacji. W niewzbudzających lęku warunkach kontrolnych nie było różnic między preferencjami rodzajów sztuki, natomiast w warunkach eksperymentalnych (po wywołaniu lęku) rosło uznanie dla sztuki tradycyjnej, zaś spadało dla sztuki nowoczesnej. Może to świadczyć o elastyczności zachowania i umiejętności dostarczania sobie właściwej dawki stymulacji. Zróżnicowanie między sangwinikami i melancholikami nie jest jednoznaczne. Mniejsze zainteresowanie względem sztuki nowoczesnej u melancholików w warunku eksperymentalnym dosyć jednoznacznie świadczy o potrzebie ograniczenia stymulacji. Ale czy wzrost zainteresowania dla sztuki tradycyjnej u sangwiników to odstymulowanie czy dostymulowanie się? Czy sztuka tradycyjna podwyższa, czy może obniża aktywację układu nerwowego? i wreszcie: jeśli podwyższa, to dlaczego ten efekt nie występuje w warunku kontrolnym? W kontekście Teorii Opanowania Trwogi (Landau, Greenberg, Solomon, Pyszczynski, Martens 2006) nie przewidywano wzrostu zainteresowania dla sztuki tradycyjnej, którą jednak odnotowano w naszym badaniu. Badacze promujący TOT odrzucali także aktywację układu nerwowego jako możliwe wytłumaczenie zmian w percepcji sztuki, dowodząc, że to tylko lęk jako taki ( anxiety) – a nie pobudzenie (arousal) – prowadził do zmian w percepcji sztuki. W niniejszym badaniu założono jednak za Strelauem (2006), iż pobudzenie oraz poziom stymulacji w sytuacji eksperymentalnej wpływał na to, w jaki sposób badani reagowali na dzieła sztuki. Aby dowieść, jakie typy stymulacji rzeczywiście wpływają na percepcję sztuki, a jakie nie – należałoby przeprowadzić kolejne badania. Odnośnie tego, co Koneĉni (2008) pisał o różnych emocjach wywoływanych przez muzykę, wydaje się interesujące następujące pytanie: czy lęk zainicjowany filmem i doznania budzone przez dzieła sztuki mogą być pewną klasą emocji, czymś podobnym do poruszenia lub dreszczyku wrażeń (being moved and thrilled)? Uczucia te mogłyby korespondować z poszukiwaniem doznań Zuckerman’a i zostać powiązane z wymiarami temperamentalnymi. Mógłby o tym świadczyć fakt, że oglądanie filmu wywołującego niepokój wpłynęło na sposób, w jaki ludzie postrzegali różne kierunki czy prądy w sztuce. 336 Niestymulująca tradycja Silvia (2005) apelował, odwołując się do teorii oceny, że istotne jest uwzględnienie subiektywnej percepcji sztuki. W teorii RTT Strelaua każdy typ temperamentalny indywidualnie odbiera bodźce i działa w świecie. Wyniki badań potwierdzają tę zależność; badani reagowali na prezentowane im w warunku eksperymentalnym dzieła sztuki rożnie: zależnie od tego, w jaki sposób odebrali film. Z drugiej strony, rezultaty nie współgrają z krytyką Strelaua odnośnie połączenia behawioralnej pobudliwości z emocjami estetycznymi. Unaoczniają one raczej, że możliwy jest między nimi pewien związek lub że czynniki wpływające na poziom aktywacji mogą również wpływać na percepcję sztuki. Mogłoby to sugerować, że sztuka (pomijając jej walory artystyczne), dostarcza nam stymulacji i wpływa na poziom aktywacji. Podział emocji estetycznych na przyjemne oraz awersyjne być może nie pokrywa się z wachlarzem emocji estetycznych, które są doświadczane w warunkach neutralnych, jednak to badanie ukazuje, że emocje awersyjne mogą mieć pewien wpływ na to, jak postrzegamy sztukę. Wyniki naszego badania korespondują bezpośrednio z wynikami uzyskanymi przez Mastandrea, Bartoli i Bove (2009). Dowiedli oni, że odwiedzający muzeum sztuki nowoczesnej mocniej przeżywali lęk i podniecenie od odwiedzających muzeum sztuki starożytnej. Potrafiący dostarczyć sobie odpowiednią dawkę stymulacji badani (czyli typy zharmonizowane), u których wzbudzono lęk za pomocą filmu, mogły zgodnie z własnymi potrzebami gorzej oceniać sztukę nowoczesną, gdyż stanowiła ona dodatkową dawkę lęku, natomiast uznanie dla sztuki tradycyjnej rosło ze względu na jej "niegroźny" charakter. Inny możliwy wniosek, który można wyciągnąć z badania: nie ma czegoś takiego jak stały „smak”, zaś preferencje wykazują zmienność sytuacyjną. Fakt, że inaczej odbieramy sztukę w warunkach neutralnych i lękowych może też mieć pewne implikacje np. dla terapii sztuką. Czy niskie uznanie dla sztuki nowoczesnej wszystkich temperamentów w warunku lękowym, a także negatywna korelacja między sztuką nowoczesną i wynikami w STAI sugerują, że nie warto zapraszać współczesnego artysty do szpitala psychiatrycznego? Niestymulująca tradycja 337 Reasumując, temperament może oddziaływać na zmiany naszych preferencji, kiedy odczuwamy strach lub silne pobudzenie. Każda analiza uwzględniająca wpływy temperamentu musi wziąć pod uwagę zmienność sytuacyjną oraz optymalną ilość stymulacji, jak pokazały wyniki tego badania. Literatura 1. Axelsson, Ö. 2007. Individual Differences in Preferences to Photographs. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, vol. 2: 61-72. 2. Burris, Ch, T., Rempel, J. K. 2004. “It’s the End of the World as We Know It”: Threat and the Spatial–Symbolic Self. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, vol. 1: 19-42. 3. Burt, C. 1933. The Psychology of Art. How the mind works. Allen and Unwin: London. 4. Chamorro-Premuzic, T., Furnham, A. 2007. The ARTistic Personality. The Psychologist, vol. 2: 84-87. 5. Eysenck, H. J. 1940. The General Factor in Aesthetic Judgements. British Journal of Psychology, vol. 31, 94–102. 6. Furnham, A., Avison, M. 1997. Personality and preference for surreal paintings. Personality and Individual Differences, vol. 23: 923–935. 7. Furnham, A., Walker, J. 2001. Personality and judgments of abstract, pop art, and representational paintings. European Journal of Personality, vol. 15: 57–72. 8. Koneĉni, V. J. 2008. Does Music Induce Emotion? A Theoretical and Methodological 9. Analysis. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, vol. 2: 115- 129. 10. Landau, J., M., Greenberg J., Solomon, S., Pyszczynski, T., Martens, A. 2006. Windows Into Nothingness : Terror Management, 338 Niestymulująca tradycja Meaninglessness, and Negative Reactions to Modern Art. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, vol. 6: 879-892. 11. Mastandrea, S., Bartoli, G., Bove, G. 2009. Preferences for Ancient and Modern Art Museums: Visitor Experiences and Personality Characteristics. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, vol. 3: 164-173. 12. Silvia, P. J. 2005. Emotional Responses to Art: From Collation and Arousal to Cognition and Emotion. Review of General Psychology, vol. 4: 48-51. 13. Sosnowski, T., Wrześniewski, K., Jaworowska, A., Ferenc, D. 2006. Inwentarz Stanu i Cechy Lęku (STAI). Podręcznik. Pracowania Testów Psychologicznych Polskiego Towarzystwa Psychologicznego: Warszawa. 14. Strelau, J. 2006. Temperament jako regulator zachowania. Gdańskie Wydawnictwo Psychologiczne: Gdańsk. 15. Zawadzki, B., Strelau, J. 1997. Formalna Charakterystyka Zachowania – Kwestionariusz Temperamentu (FCZ-KT). Podręcznik: Pracowania Testów Psychologicznych Polskiego Towarzystwa Psychologicznego: Warszawa. 16. Zweigenhaft, R. L. 2008. A Do Re Mi Encore: A Closer Look at the Personality 17. Correlates of Music Preferences. Journal of Individual Differences, vol. 29, 45-55. 
work_3a6yujs4djeibplbkwlxln3b7y	----	Kaiak. A Philosophical Journey, 4 (2017): Sublimazione 1 Data di pubblicazione: 15.12.2017 LA VERGOGNA DELLA CREAZIONE di Fabio Galimberti Leggendo queste pagine, l’uomo di Cro-Magnon farebbe di certo spallucce.1 Abstract L’articolo parte dalla tesi della sublimazione come destituzione della volontà di potenza della pulsione e come possibilità di affrancamento del corpo nell’esperienza estetica. Se la volontà di potenza della pulsione si esercita sul corpo del soggetto, la sublimazione la trasferisce sul corpo dell’opera attraverso un atto di deposizione, liberando così il corpo dalla sua presa. Ho ritrovato tracce di quest’atto di deposizione nella riflessione di scrittori e filosofi (Erri De Luca, Silvia Vizzardelli, Giorgio Agamben). Ho ipotizzato una sua presenza anche nell’attività artistica degli uomini primitivi, proponendo una spiegazione del collocamento insolito delle pitture all’interno delle caverne, in punti oscuri e quasi irraggiungibili, a partire dal sentimento della vergogna e come risposta al trauma della costituzione della realtà psichica. This essay starts from the thesis that sublimation is the destitution of the the will of power of the drive and the possibility of making free the body in the aesthetic experience. If the the will of power of the drive is exercised on the body of the subject, the sublimation transfers it to the body of the work through an act of deposition, so freeing the body from its grip. I found traces of this deposition’act in the reflection of writers and philosophers (Erri De Luca, Silvia Vizzardelli, Giorgio Agamben). I hypothesized his presence also in the artistic activity of primitive men, proposing an explanation of the unusual placement of the paintings inside the caves, in obscure and almost unreachable points, starting from the feeling of shame and as an answer to the trauma of the constitution of psychic reality. Scrivere un libro è provare a capire dove ci si trova, segnalare a che punto si è con una questione, «la richiesta inoltrata dal navigante circa la possibilità di conoscere la propria posizione»2, scrive il poeta Valerio Magrelli. Per restare nella metafora, nelle prossime righe dirò, in forma di brevi annotazioni, cosa è stato proseguire questa navigazione, nell’incontro con altri naviganti e nell’arrivo in altri approdi, che ho sentito in qualche modo familiari. In una pubblicazione recente la mia posizione era segnalata da una tesi sulla sublimazione come messa in opera della verità e del godimento. Era una tesi che, riprendendo quella nota di Heidegger, voleva dar conto di come la libido innervi la creatività, a livello inconscio, sia nel suo versante di desiderio, con il correlato delle fantasie che mette in gioco, sia nel suo versante pulsionale, per come è un trattamento della soddisfazione che tocca le zone erogene del corpo. Questa implicazione del corpo, non contemplata nella 1 A. Leroi-Gourhan, Le religioni della preistoria, Adelphi, Milano 1993, p. 95. 2 V. Magrelli, Poesie (1980-1992) e altre poesie, Einaudi, Torino 1996. Kaiak. A Philosophical Journey, 4 (2017): Sublimazione 2 Data di pubblicazione: 15.12.2017 formula heideggeriana, era quella che mi interessava di più e tuttora mi interessa. Perché vedo nella sublimazione un’occasione di sottrarre il corpo al dominio di quel parassita che è il Trieb, un momento di sospensione della sua morsa, un frangente di tregua, provvisorio, instabile, ma salutare, agognato, rinnovabile. La pulsione è la volontà di potenza che usa il corpo, lo sfrutta, lo fa agire, lo fa funzionare a vuoto, senza scopo e senza perché. La pulsione è il fondamento nichilistico del soggetto. Mentre la sublimazione è una destituzione della volontà di potenza della pulsione, è la sua diversione, deviazione, istituzione altrove, concentrazione in un fuori concreto che la addensa e se ne fa carico. Sulla scia di questa idea ho trovato una concordanza straordinaria tra lo sfruttamento pulsionale e quello che realizza la tecnica. La tecnica può essere pensata come un aiuto al corpo, come superamento dei suoi limiti. Ma proprio in questo oltrepassamento, in questo uso estensivo, avviene anche un ulteriore sfruttamento, un renderlo più operativo, più efficiente ancora, più attivo, più eccitato fino al limite dell’esaustione. La tecnica diviene attivazione senza senso e senza scopo, «soppressione di tutti i fini nell’universo dei mezzi»3, assoggettamento del corpo alla legge del puro e cieco funzionamento. Ma se noi sostituiamo a “tecnica” la parola “pulsione” riusciamo a rendere a meraviglia il concetto freudiano di Trieb. Strana concordanza, a prima vista, ma molto comprensibile ad una seconda considerazione. La tecnica è prolungamento, ampliamento della volontà di potenza della pulsione. Pensiamo a come l’occhio possa essere potenziato da tutti gli strumenti tecnologici. Microscopio, telescopio, radiografie, telecamere, risonanze magnetiche: sono tutti mezzi che vanno oltre i limiti fisiologici dell’organo, rendono così l’organo ancora più efficiente, più attivato, più prestante. Non lo lasciano in pace, ma lo spremono, lo magnificano, lo iperstimolano. La tecnica è protesi, altro corpo, non staccato da quello fisico, è altra prateria per il pascolo della pulsione, dalla quale continuiamo così ad essere divorati. A meno che non si offrano nuovi campi e nuova erba da masticare. Anzi, forse si può stabilire un rapporto diretto tra aumento della tecnica e necessità della sublimazione. Erri De Luca rende bene l’elusione del divoramento con l’immagine tratta dal Libro del profeta Amos: come il pastore strappava «dalla bocca del leone due zampe o il lobo di un orecchio», così la sua scrittura dentro la giornata feriale è stata «scippo di rimasugli dalla bocca di un lavoro che sbranava le forze», il tentativo «di consistere in qualcosa, di trattenere un resto per non» darsi «arreso all’usura del giorno»4. La sublimazione è questa sottrazione del corpo al lavorio della pulsione, tempo festivo, vacante, nel quale non tutto di sé è dato in pasto, è la possibilità di salvare la pelle offrendo altro da mangiare, buttando cibo ai piedi di Cerbero. In questo buttar giù, lasciar cadere da sé, sfrondarsi, consiste il gesto della sublimazione. Anche Silvia Vizzardelli, che ha incrociato felicemente estetica e psicoanalisi, valorizza dell’esperienza estetica proprio il lasciarsi andare, l’abbandono di sé, vedendo nel movimento di abbassamento, contrario a quello di elevazione, la possibilità di un distacco da sé che riesce solo «attraverso un gesto rovinoso, una fatale caduta, una deposizione».5 Nel realizzare un’opera si attua questa deposizione, una scorporazione dell’esigenza pulsionale, come una cessione, una colata di sé che va a precipitarsi in un prodotto, in un manufatto o in una performance, che va a condensarsi in qualcosa di materialmente esterno, va a conficcarsi residualmente nell’artefatto. L’opera è deposito libidico. L’artista, il pittore ad esempio, secondo Lacan è chi «dà qualcosa in pasto all’occhio, ma invita colui al quale il quadro è presentato, a deporre lì il proprio sguardo, come si depongono le armi»6. Lo 3 U. Galimberti, Psiche e techne. L’uomo nell’età della tecnica, Feltrinelli, Milano 1999, p. 40. 4 E. De Luca, Non ora, non qui, Feltrinelli, Milano 2012, p. 11. 5 S. Vizzardelli, Io mi lascio cadere. Estetica e psicoanalisi, Quodlibet Studio, Macerata 2014, p. 36. 6 J. Lacan, Il Seminario. Libro XI. I quattro concetti fondamentali della psicoanalisi, Torino 2003, p. 100 (corsivo Kaiak. A Philosophical Journey, 4 (2017): Sublimazione 3 Data di pubblicazione: 15.12.2017 sguardo è un’arma che non smette di essere attiva e operante, ma che non fa subire passivamente al corpo del soggetto la sua azione, perché viene deposta e quindi neutralizzata. È una minaccia che la sublimazione riesce a dirigere altrove, una minaccia che non viene sventata in assoluto, ma in relazione a sé, perché, provvisoriamente, per il tempo labile dell’esperienza estetica, viene spostata su qualcosa di diverso dal corpo proprio. Nel caso della pittura viene inoculata nella tela, come un virus capace di contagiarla, di trasferire lì la sua infezione. Non c’è in questa neutralizzazione un modo per intendere quanto Freud affermava con il termine equivoco di desessualizzazione? Ho trovato nella riflessione di Giorgio Agamben sull’inoperosità un punto di incontro prezioso, che dà conto di questa congiuntura di un’azione che continua ad essere esercitata, senza che a subirla sia la carne del soggetto. In un passaggio finale del suo testo, incentrato sulla potenza destituente, Agamben fa riferimento a quelli che i grammatici latini chiamavano verbi deponenti, quei verbi che non si possono dire propriamente né attivi né passivi, tra i quali, ironia della lingua, c’è anche il verbo gaudeo. Si chiede l’autore: «Che cosa ‘depongono’ i verbi medi o deponenti? Essi non esprimono un’operazione, ma la depongono, la neutralizzano e rendono inoperosa e, in questo modo, la espongono»7. Ecco come può essere riformulata l’idea di sublimazione: è una messa inopera della verità e del godimento, un rendere inoperosa la volontà inconscia. Esposizione, scrive l’autore, posizione fuori dell’Es, riscriverei, posizione fuori dell’azione attivante del desiderio e del godimento, suo collocamento ed esercizio nell’opera. Agamben rintraccia nell’inoperosità un fattore metafisico dell’antropogenesi, ciò che libera «il vivente uomo da ogni destino biologico o sociale e da ogni compito predeterminato»8. In effetti, è immediato correlare la creazione estetica, come forma particolare di sublimazione, all’origine dell’uomo. E porsi la questione della nascita dell’arte in termini di nascita dell’uomo, così come ha fatto Georges Bataille, nel suo testo su Lascaux, nel quale enuncia quanto «l’opera d’arte sia intimamente legata alla formazione dell’umanità»9. Lascaux è una delle località in cui sono stati ritrovati esempi straordinari dell’arte paleolitica. Le grotte di Lascaux, in particolare, con le sue raffigurazioni parietali sono state definite la Cappella Sistina del paleolitico. Ma un altro sito così magnificente è ad Altamira, in Spagna. Pablo Picasso, dopo averlo visitato, avrebbe detto: “Dopo Altamira, tutto è decadenza”. Che l’animale uomo ad un certo punto della sua evoluzione abbia d’improvviso avvertito la necessità di creare manufatti o dipingere pareti è qualcosa che desta meraviglia. Non utensili o strumenti tecnici per cavarsela con i bisogni fisiologici (che comunque a partire dalla simbolizzazione avevano già smesso di essere semplicemente tali), ma oggetti artistici, statuette, dipinti, decorazioni. Desta meraviglia che mentre alcuni uomini del Paleolitico imbracciavano le armi per andare a caccia o si preoccupavano di cucinare le prede catturate, altri prendessero ocra e carbone per andare a tracciare sulle pareti di una caverna la sagoma di bisonti, cervi, cavalli, altri animali e altri segni. È talmente meraviglioso che inizialmente gli studiosi non hanno potuto far altro che considerare questa attività finalizzata alla sopravvivenza fisica, non hanno potuto che legarla alla preoccupazione di procurarsi il cibo. Nella loro spiegazione l’arte avrebbe avuto unafinalità utilitaristica, connessa a credenze magico-religiose, avrebbe fatto parte di un rituale praticato all’interno delle caverne e celebrato con lo scopo di ottenere il successo nella caccia e di favorire la riproduzione degli animali. Sarebbe stata magia propiziatoria. Gombrich sostiene che per «capire questi strani inizi dell’arte» dobbiamo scoprire cosa mio). 7 G. Agamben, L’uso dei corpi, Neri Pozza, Vicenza 2014, p. 350. 8 Ibidem, p. 351. 9 G. Bataille, Lascaux. La nascita dell’arte, Mimesis, Milano 2007, p. 17. Kaiak. A Philosophical Journey, 4 (2017): Sublimazione 4 Data di pubblicazione: 15.12.2017 spinga questi uomini primitivi «a considerare le immagini non come qualcosa di bello da guardare, ma come oggetti da usare, ricchi di potenza»10. Riecco la volontà di potenza e non la sua destituzione nella creazione artistica. Hauser rinforza l’idea: «Le immagini facevano parte dell’apparato di questa magia; erano la ‘trappola’ in cui la selvaggina doveva cadere, o piuttosto la trappola con l’animale già catturato: perché l’immagine era insieme rappresentazione e cosa rappresentata, desiderio e appagamento. Nell’immagine da lui dipinta il cacciatore paleolitico credeva di possedere la cosa stessa, credeva, riproducendolo, di acquistare un potere sull’oggetto»11. Ancora il potere. Ma con un’immagine suggestiva, quella della trappola con l’animale già catturato. Quale animale? Possiamo rispondere proprio a partire dalle parole di Hauser, andando oltre la sua tesi esplicita. L’animale è libidico, è insieme “desiderio e appagamento”. L’immagine dipinta è una trappola per la pulsione, una “trappola per lo sguardo” afferma Lacan. Che la pittura non avesse questa finalità utilitaristica è dimostrato dalla prevalente non corrispondenza tra il bestiario raffigurato e la fauna consumata. Renne e stambecchi erano la selvaggina cacciata prevalentemente, lo si è dedotto dai resti di cucina e dei pasti ritrovati, dunque avrebbero dovuto essere i più rappresentati sulle pareti delle caverne, mentre i soggetti principali sono cavalli e bisonti, che secondo la ricostruzione di André Leroi-Gourhan, che ha rivoluzionato il modo di intendere l’arte primitiva, rappresentavano il simbolo del maschile e del femminile. Il dualismo sessuale al quale rimandano è confermato anche dalla frequente raffigurazione associata di vulve e falli, con prevalenza dei genitali femminili. Anche in questo caso più selvagina, che selvaggina. Probabilmente Hauser non disponeva di questi dati dietetici. La sua posizione è perentoria e nel ribadirla apre una questione che è della massima importanza: «Ogni altra spiegazione dell’arte paleolitica – ad esempio la sua interpretazione come forma decorativa o espressiva – è insostenibile. Vi si oppone tutta una serie di indizi, e principalmente la posizione dei dipinti nelle caverne, spesso in angoli completamente nascosti, difficilmente accessibili, affatto oscuri, dove non avrebbero mai potuto servire come ‘decorazione’. Tale disposizione indica appunto che i dipinti non furono eseguiti per la gioia degli occhi, ma perseguivano uno scopo per cui importava ch’essi fossero collocati in certe caverne e in certe parti determinate di esse – evidentemente in luoghi particolarmente adatti all’incantesimo. Non è possibile parlare di intento decorativo o di esigenza estetica di espressione e comunicazione, qui dove le pitture venivano piuttosto celate che esposte».12 La questione che Hauser, come altri, apre è quella della stranezza del loro collocamento. È probabile che l’arte parietale primitiva non sia stata praticata soltanto all’interno delle caverne e che, se rimane ai nostri giorni la testimonianza maggiore della creatività degli uomini del Paleolitico, insieme all’arte mobiliare, ciò sia dovuto proprio alle particolari condizioni climatiche e geologiche presenti in quelle cavità, che si sono conservate stabili, in termini di temperatura e umidità, per l’ostruzione delle imboccature prodotte nel tempo dal deposito di detriti. Tanto è vero che il loro stato di conservazione è degenerato con l’invasione dei turisti che ha alterato l’equilibrio atmosferico. Ma quello che Hauser fa notare è il loro posizionamento estremamente riparato, in zone non solo buie, ma impervie, faticosamente raggiungibili, anguste. È un’annotazione cruciale, che pone un interrogativo al quale risponde troppo rapidamente, deducendo che non avessero finalità estetiche, altrimenti sarebbero state in vista, e stabilendo così un’equivalenza tra espressione e comunicazione che non va da sé. Non è la stessa cosa creare e pubblicare. Si può compiere un atto sublimativo senza darne conto ad altri, anzi evitando accuratamente la pubblicità. Quanti scrittori tengono nel cassetto il proprio romanzo? Quante soffitte 10 E. H. Gombrich, La storia dell’arte raccontata da E. H. Gombrich, Einaudi, Torino 1979, p. 27. 11 A. Hauser, Storia sociale dell’arte, Einaudi, Torino 2001, p. 8. 12 A. Hauser, Storia…, cit., p.10. Kaiak. A Philosophical Journey, 4 (2017): Sublimazione 5 Data di pubblicazione: 15.12.2017 ospitano i quaderni di poesie dell’adolescenza? Quanti pittori non si separano dai propri quadri? O, per prendere un esempio più quotidiano, quanti cantano disinvoltamente e a squarciagola sotto la doccia, ma sarebbero spaventati dal canticchiare una canzone in mezzo ad altre persone? Quanti si mettono a ballare in casa davanti allo specchio in modo scemo e scatenato, ma in una discoteca rimangono rigidi come un manico di scopa? Espressione e comunicazione sono due fenomeni dell’esperienza estetica che possono essere disgiunti e il cuneo che li può separare è il sentimento della vergogna. L’uomo è «la bestia dalle guance rosse»13, scriveva Nietzsche. Ed è una verità che una psicoanalisi forse più incentrata sul problema etico del senso di colpa ha trascurato. Di che cosa ci vergogniamo? Dei nostri fantasmi, delle bizzarrie che popolano la nostra mente, che animano i nostri desideri più nascosti, delle idee più private, che teniamo al riparo anche dalla nostra coscienza, di quelle che non riveliamo nemmeno a noi stessi. Ci vergogniamo della nostra innere Besudelung scriveva sempre Nietzsche, della nostra macchia interiore. Come non vedere in questa macchia il vero pigmento, la materia prima della pittura? Come non cogliere che era del suo stesso colore che facevano uso gli uomini del Paleolitico per dipingere le pareti delle loro grotte? Che era la loro anima polverizzata, insieme al tuorlo d’uovo e ai minerali sminuzzati, ciò che spalmavano in modo denso sulle viscere della terra? Lo facevano in modo schivo, schermandosi, con discrezione. È questo per me uno dei modi per rispondere alla questione del collocamento delle raffigurazioni all’interno delle caverne, nei punti meno praticabili, più scomodi e appartati. Come fossero le cripte, i sancta sanctorum della loro soggettività, i pozzi della mente. Era per pudore, per un profondo sentimento di ritegno che sceglievano di sottrarre alla vista e di consegnare al buio delle grotte quanto avevano di più intimo. Era una scelta di deflessione, di sottrazione alla luce, di avvolgimento protettivo nella pelle dell’oscurità. Era un modo allora come adesso per sottrarsi alla violenza della richiesta libidica, per farsi discreti e «rinunciare per un momento a qualsiasi volontà di potenza»14, come scrive Pierre Zaoui, in un libro che rinviene nell’arte di scomparire una forma di resistenza politica nell’attualità, che a mio parere anche la sublimazione può portare avanti facendo metaforicamente camminare il soggetto rasente i muri. Il secondo modo per rispondere alla questione del loro strano collocamento è attinente al primo e riprende quella sottrazione alla volontà di potenza della pulsione, che Freud esprimeva parlando della sua «forza d’urto»15. È ovviamente una speculazione, ma quello con cui deve essersi confrontato l’uomo primitivo è stato lo shock della costituzione della realtà psichica, il costituirsi della soggettività, della realtà mentale, l’effrazione dell’organismo da parte del trauma della lingua, la sua penetrazione e fissazione in forma di traccia indelebile. Ad esempio la traccia significante della differenza sessuale e delle immagini identificatorie, effetto dell’alienazione simbolica e immaginaria. Intendo così quella folla di animali e di simboli deposta sulle pareti delle grotte, come quello che l’uomo era al fondo della sua identificazione inconscia e quello che cercava di mettere fuori di sé, per desoggettivarsi nel fare sublimativo, per liberare il corpo dalla prigione dell’anima. Qual è il modo che lo stesso Freud indica come tentativo di risposta al trauma? È la sua riproduzione in forma di gioco, come quello celeberrimo del nipotino Ernst, che lanciando 13 F. Nietzsche, Così parlò Zarathustra, Adelphi, Milano 1991, p. 104. 14 P. Zaoui, L’arte di scomparire. Vivere con discrezione, il Saggiatore, Milano 2015, p. 12. L’autore fa del contravveleno del depotenziamento una forma di dissidenza, “la scommessa politica e attuale della discrezione: imparare a uscire dall’ordine della mostrazione di sé e della sorveglianza generalizzata”, ibidem, p. 15. 15 S. Freud, Pulsioni e loro destini, in Opere, Bollati-Boringhieri, Torino 1990, vol. 7, p. 15. Andrebbe fatto un più esteso lavoro di connessione tra il concetto di urto del Trieb freudiano, lo shock di W. Benjamin (L’opera d’arte nell’era della sua riproducibilità tecnica) e lo Stoss di M. Heidegger (L’origine dell’opera d’arte). Vedi su questo l’interessante Introduzione di C. Pasi, La comunicazione crudele. Da Baudelaire a Beckett, Bollati- Boringhieri, Torino 1998. Kaiak. A Philosophical Journey, 4 (2017): Sublimazione 6 Data di pubblicazione: 15.12.2017 fuori della culla un rocchetto tenuto per un filo pronunciava il suo espressivo “o-o-o”, che per la madre stessa significava fort (“via”), per poi recuperarlo con un allegro da (“qui”). Freud vede in questo gioco un modo del nipotino per fronteggiare e padroneggiare l’assenza traumatica della madre inscenando la scomparsa e la riapparizione di un oggetto alla sua portata. Ma quello che Freud nota ancora è qualcosa di inaspettato, ossia «che il primo atto, l’andarsene, era inscenato come un giuoco a sé stante, e anzi si verificava incomparabilmente più spesso che non la rappresentazione completa, con il suo piacevole finale»16. Non possiamo vedere in questo solo mettere fuori, in questa interruzione dell’atto completo, in questa rottura del circuito pulsionale nel gioco a sé stante, l’essenza del gesto sublimativo? Non possiamo vedere nella scelta del solo fort, del “via”, dell’atto dell’andarsene, la scelta del distacco da sé che si realizza nell’esperienza estetica? Infine, un’ultima annotazione. La caverna, da Platone in poi, ha un nobile passato filosofico. Qui credo che sia stata voluta non solo come supporto alla rappresentazione, come tela, come superficie pittorica, ma come rappresentazione stessa della soggettività con la quale l’uomo era confrontato traumaticamente. È metafora concreta del contenitore mentale e della contenzione del corpo. I suoi anfratti, le sue zone oscure, i suoi percorsi contorti, con le clandestine iscrizioni significanti sono rappresentazione di quella dimensione altra costituita dalla realtà psichica. La andere Schauplatz, come scriveva Freud, dalla quale nella sublimazione tentiamo di affrancare il corpo, deponendola fuori. 16 S. Freud, Al di là del principio di piacere, pp. 201-202 (corsivo mio). Vedi anche come è ripreso il concetto di coazione a ripetere in Ch. Türcke, La società eccitata. Filosofia della sensazione, Bollati Boringhieri, Torino 2012 e in V. Cuomo, Al di là del recinto della sublimazione, Kaiak. A Philosophical Journey, 4 (2017): Sublimazione. 
work_3evkrwvmenazrkl6fa2zlhoecm	----	The Journal of Academic Social Science Studies International Journal of Social Science Doi number:http://dx.doi.org/10.9761/JASSS7510 Number: 66 , p. 211-222, Spring II 2018 Araştırma Makalesi / Research Article Yayın Süreci / Publication Process Yayın Geliş Tarihi / Article Arrival Date - Yayınlanma Tarihi / The Published Date 19.01.2018 15.04.2018 ŞİDDET VE SANATSAL YARATI VIOLENCE AND ARTISTIC CREATION Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Gökçen Şahmaran Can ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9435-6697 Yüzüncü Yıl Üniversitesi Güzel Sanatlar Fakültesi Öz Şiddet kavramı sözlüklerde geçen anlamı ile; karşıt görüşte olanlara kaba kuv- vet kullanmak, sert davranmak, sertlik, "şiddet olayları" ise, insanları sindirmek, kor- kutmak için yaratılan olay ya da girişimler olarak tanımlanmaktadır. Şiddeti sanat bağlamında ele aldığımızda, çoğu sosyal hareketlerin ve psikolojik ifadelerin bir uzantısı olarak; baskı altında olanların yaşadıkları iktidarsızlık durumu toplumsal olaylarda patlak verdiği gibi sanatsal çalışmalarda da kendini göstermiştir. Bu çerçevede, bir ekonomik hakimiyet sistemi olarak kapitalizmin insanları tü- ketime zorladığı ve hiçe indirgediği böyle bir ortamdan doğal olarak sanatçılar da etki- lenmişler, modern dünyanın birey üzerinde kurduğu baskı ve şiddet gibi unsurlar sa- natçıların sanatsal ifade biçimlerine yansımıştır. Sanat anlayışının şiddet, yıkıcılık ve di- reniş içeren oluşumu, modern topluma karşı dayatılan estetik yasalara karşı oluşturul- muş özellikler barındırır. Bu bağlamda, estetik kaygılardan çok toplumsal kaygıları ve özellikle şiddeti ön plana alan "Happening", "Fluxus", "Body-art" gibi sanatsal hareketler ortaya çıkmıştır. Böylece sanatçılar, yaşamı tüm yönleriyle ele alarak, baskıya ve özellik- le şiddete karşı kültürel farklılıkların bilinciyle yaşamdaki tüm olumsuzlukları bedenle- rini kullanarak anlatma çabası içerisine girmişlerdir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Şiddet, Sanat, Happening, Fluxus, Gövde Sanatı Abstract Acts of violence are defined as acts or attempts that are created to intimidate and/or oppress people. The opinion that the feeling of being threatened and the reactive violence caused by this feeling are one of the most dangerous violence types is establis- hed in many theoretician’s statements. Another type of this feeling is mentioned as the destructiveness occurring as a result of frustration and tension which arises from opp- ression, that is it occurs in order to grab the power at the end of a period with a lack of a governing authority. Within the context of art when violence is discussed, the predicament in which https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9435-6697 212 Gökçen Şahmaran Can those living under oppression go through a lack of governing authority have appeared in artistic works as well as social events as an extension of many social movements and psychological expressions. In this framework naturally artists have also been affected by the environment in which capitalism, as an economic sovereignty system, forced people into consumption and degraded humanity; such factors as oppression and violence that the modern soci- ety employs on individuals have been reflected on their artistic expression. The sense of art which is shaped by violence, destructiveness and resistance features characteristics that are formed against aesthetical laws, and are imposed upon the modern society. In this context, such artistic movements as “Happening” and “Fluxus”, "Body-art" that con- centrates more on societal concerns and especially violence than the aesthetical focus ha- ve emerged. Thus, artists strive to tell every negativity in life with an awareness of cultu- ral diversity, in defiance of oppression, attacks against sexual orientations, and especi- ally violence by using their bodies. Keywords: Violence, Art, Happening, Fluxus, Body-Art Giriş Etimolojik olarak, dilimize Arapçadan giren "şiddet" sözcüğü, karşıt görüşte olanlara kaba kuvvet kullanmak, sert davranmak, sertlik, "şiddet olayları" ise, insanları sindir- mek, korkutmak için yaratılan olay ya da girişimler olarak tanımlanmaktadır (TDK). Bu genel tanımlamaların dışında şid- det, yalnızca başkalarının fiziksel bütünlüğü- ne saldırı ya da tehdit kavramıyla sınırlandırı- lamaz. Belli bir toplumsal düzene karşı baş- kaldırı ve saldırıyı da içerir. Başkalarına yöne- lik şiddet eylemlerinin dışında bir de intihar gibi, kişinin kendi kendine uyguladığı şiddet fiilleri bulunmaktadır. Baş aktörü kendi olan kişinin kendine yönelttiği özel şiddetin ya- nında, özellikle günümüz dünyasına damga- sını vuran kollektif şiddet de vardır. İç savaş- lar, terör eylemleri, soykırımlar, kanlı gösteri yürüyüşleri gibi. Verilen örneklerin bazıların- da şiddet, örgütlü ve düzenli bir biçimde ger- çekleşirken, önceden hazırlıksız başka bir deyişle "kendiliğinden" oluşan kollektif şiddet örnekleri de söz konusu olabilir. Örneğin, bir protesto eyleminin yakıp yıkma ve yağmaya dönüşmesi gibi (Ünsal, 2005: 29-32). Antropolojik yönlerinin dışında, sos- yolojik yönüyle de araştırılan "şiddet" kavra- mını, teorisyenler, iktidarı ele geçirmek veya onun kanuni olmayan amaçlara hizmet edil- mesi için kullanılması durumu olarak tanım- lamaktadırlar. Ayrıca, iktidar ve şiddeti ay- rılmaz bir bütün olarak görmektedirler. Bu düşünceye göre, sosyal düzenin devam etme- sini sağlayan şiddet ile tahripkar şiddet ara- sında yakın bir ilişki olduğu varsayılmakta- dır. Postmodernizm üzerine incelemeler yapmış olan "Frankfurt Toplumsal Araştırma- lar Enstitüsü" - Frankfurt Okulu - teorisyenle- rinin ve postmodernizmin önemli düşünürle- rinden biri olan Michel Faucoult'nun da araş- tırmaları içerisinde olan kavramlara şöyle açıklık getirilmiştir: Frankfurt Okulu moder- nist düşünürlerinden E. Fromm, Wilhelm Reich ve Adorno ile postmodern düşünürler- den M. Foucault'nun "disipline edici ve ha- pishaneye dönüşmüş modern toplum teorisi" (Keskin, 2005: 117-122) benzerlik taşımaktadır. Bu düşünürlere göre, tabiatın hüküm altına alınması ile baskı altında olan bireyin bir ikti- darsızlık durumu yaşaması yıkıcılığı kaçınıl- maz kılmıştır. Foucault, kişinin günlük yaşantısını planlamak ve sınırlandırmak için bir iktidar mekanizması geliştirmiştir. Amaç, otorite tarafından belirlenen kurallara, düzene uyan bir birey yaratmaktır. İktidarın daha etkili olması için planlanmış bir izlemdir bu. Bu izlemlerin varlık bulması için devletin yasala- rında geliştirilmiştir. Foucault'nun "Bio- İktidar" ismini verdiği bu güç mekanizması iki esas temelde gelişmiştir. Birinci biçimi, insan vücuduna bir makina olarak yaklaşır, buna disiplinci iktidar adı verilir. Gayesi vü- Şiddet ve Sanatsal Yaratı 213 cudu disipline etmek, geliştirmek, yararlı ve yumuşak başlı kılmak ve ekonomik denetim sistemleriyle bütünleştirmektir. İkincisi ise, insan vücuduna doğal bir tür olarak yaklaşır ve popülasyonu tanzim edici bir kontrol üze- rine yoğunlaşır. Kapitalizmin gelişmesinde bio-iktidar elzem bir unsurdur. Çünkü, kapi- talizm bireyin üretim sürecine denetimli bir şekilde girmesini sağlar. Onsekizinci yüzyıl- dan beri gelişen bu durum insan bedenine, aileye, okula, cinselliğe, yayılan iktidar ağları dizisi ortaya çıkarmıştır. İktidar, bu kurum- larda, kişileri kurallara uymaya zorlayarak, normalleştirmeye çalışarak üretim süreçlerine uygun hale getirmeyi amaçlar. Bu durum sonucunda iktidar, insanın baskı altına alın- ması durumunda doğan gerginliğiyle şiddeti karşısına almış olur. Bu baskı ve engellenme- ler sonucunda bir iktidarsızlık durumu yaşa- yan kişi ise iktidarı elde etmek için şiddete başvurur (Keskin, 2005: 117-122). 1. Bir Modern Çağ Pratiği Olarak Şiddet ve Sanat Şiddeti sanatsal anlamda ele aldığı- mızda, birçok sosyal hareketin ve psikolojik ifadenin uzantısı olarak "İktidar, Şiddet ve Yaratıcılık" kavramlarının ayrılmaz bir bütün olarak yol aldığını gözlemliyoruz. Bu kavram- ların sanatla olan bağlarına, Max Scheler, R. May, Otto Rank ve Nietzsche gibi önemli düşünürler şu şekilde açıklık getirmişlerdir: Martin Heidegger'ın felsefesine zemin hazırlayan Avrupa'nın en etkili düşünürle- rinden Max Scheler (1874-1928), şiddeti, "Res- sentiment" (Hınç, Kin) gibi bir Fransızca söz- cükle felsefenin gündemine sokmuştur. Res- sentiment kavramının özünde, kişinin düşün- celere, kurumlara, yapıtlara, genel olarak de- ğerlere ve değer yüklenmiş nesnelere karşı duyduğu haset, kızgınlık vb. gibi negatif duygular yatmaktadır. Ressentiment gibi negatif bir duygunun oluşması için bireyin bir iktidarsızlık durumu yaşaması gerekmekte- dir. Scheler, böyle bir durumun ancak maddi eşitsizliklerin veya siyasal güçsüzlüğün ya- şandığı ortamlarda gelişeceğinden söz eder. Yani, Ressentiment'dan söz edilebilmesi için bir değersizleşme dürtüsünün genelleşmesin- den bahseder. Kapitalizmin üretimdeki etki- sinin bu değersizleştirmedeki rolüne değinir. Ressentiment, kökeni nedeniyle, ağırlıklı ola- rak baskı altında olanları, otoritenin göstermiş olduğu eziyetlere karşı hınç duyanları kapsar (Scheler, 2004). Bu çerçevede, bir ekonomik hakimi- yet sistemi olarak kapitalizmin insanları tüke- time zorladığı ve hiçe indirgediği böyle bir ortamdan doğal olarak sanatçılar da etkilen- mişler, modern dünyanın birey üzerinde kur- duğu baskı ve şiddet gibi unsurlar sanatçıla- rın sanatsal ifade biçimlerinde varlık bulmuş- tur. Ressentiment'ın, şiddetin ve başkaldı- rının yaratıcılığa dönüşen şekline Otto Rank ve Rollo May gibi düşünürler şu şekilde açık- lık getirmişlerdir. Bu düşünürlere göre, çağı- mız modern insanı, gözünü açtığında yaban- cılaşmış bir dünyayla karşılaşıyor ve yabancı- laşmış bir şekilde yaşama uyum sağlama gay- retiyle içindeki boşluğu doldurmaya çalışıyor. Kendine yabancılaşmış modern insan, korku ve endişe içinde doyumsuz bir şekilde yaşı- yor. Yabancılaşma ise insanın insana uygula- dığı şiddet ile ortaya çıkıyor. Rank ve May'in inceledikleri bu şizoid yıkıcılığın toplumsal boyuttaki ifadesinin Nietzsche'de varlık bul- duğudur. Nietzsche'nin Hıristiyanlığı açıkla- mak için kullandığı Ressentiment olgusu, Rank'a göre, bütün inkılaplar için söz konu- sudur. Her inkılap farklılıktan duyulan acı sonucu gelişir, farklı ve güçlü olan bu olum- suzluklarla başetmeye çalışır. Mücadeleyi kazandığında, bu kez kendi farklılığını baskın göstermeye çalışır. Her türlü yaşanan toplum- sal olay sonucu ortaya çıkan akıldışılık, top- lumsal biçim almaya zorlanmıştır ve bu akıl- dışı olguların bireysel biçimlenişi ise sanatta ifadesini bulmuştur (May, 1994). Farklılığın altının çizilmesi, baskı altında olanların yaşa- dıkları iktidarsızlık durumu toplumsal olay- 214 Gökçen Şahmaran Can larda patlak verdiği gibi sanatsal çalışmalarda da kendini göstermiştir. 2. Şiddetin Sanata Yansımaları ve Öne Çıkan Yapıtlar Antik Yunan sanat özelliklerini içinde barındıran sanat anlayışının, şiddet ve direniş içeren oluşumu, modern topluma karşı daya- tılan estetik yasalara karşı oluşturulmuş özel- likler barındırmaktadır. Özellikle I. ve II. Dünya Savaşları'ndan sonra Kant, Lessing, Schiller ve benzerlerinin savunduğu estetik projenin, toplumsal olaylarda meydana gelen çözülmelerle birlikte sanatta da çözülmelere neden olduğuna, baskıcı estetik kuralların estetiği kırma yönünde kışkırttığına tanık oluyoruz. 2.1. Hans Holbein, "Mezarındaki İsa" Resim 1. Hans Holbein, Mezarındaki İsa, 1521 Hans Holbein'ın (1497-1543) "Meza- rındaki İsa" adlı eseri, ince uzun kompozisyo- nuyla oldukça sade ve etkili bir resimdir. Bu eserde, şiddete maruz kalmış bir insan bedeni resmedilmektedir. İnce, uzun ve dar bir mezar içerisinde boylu boyunca uzanmış, deri altın- dan iskeleti görülecek biçimde zayıf, yarı çıp- lak bir ceset betimlenmektedir. Cesedin yü- zündeki ifade ve bedeninde oluşmuş yaralar, öldürülmeden önce şiddetli bir işkenceye maruz kaldığını anlatıyor. Başı tuvali izleyen seyirciye doğru eğik, saçları çarşafın üzerinde dağınık bir biçimdedir. Vücudun, saçlarından ayak uçlarına kadar, sağ yanı olduğu gibi görülüyor. Sağ elinin üstündeki çivi yarasının grimsi tonundan cesedin çürümeye başladığı anlaşılıyor. Elindeki soğuk renk tonunun yü- zünde de tekrarlandığı seçilebiliyor. Göğüs kafesinin tam altında, bir mızrak tarafından açılmış yara izi var. Yarı açık gözlerindeki umutsuzlukla verilen betimleme insanları sarsmış, zihinlerde bir yarık açmıştır (Yılmaz, 2012: 259-260). Resim genel olarak ele alındığında Hans Holbein, insan bedeninin iskelete dö- nüşmesi üzerine yoğunlaşmış, bedenin çürü- mesini sanatsal bir dil ile ifade etmiştir. Bu doğrultuda ölüm, korkunç ve iğrenç bir olgu olarak ele alınmıştır. 2.2. Francisco de Goya, "3 Mayıs" İspanyol resminin ve Romantizm'in en önemli ressamlarından biri olan Francisco de Goya (1746-1828), Barok İspanyol resminin Altın Çağı'nı temsil etmektedir. Goya'nın parlak ve canlı renklerle dolu neşeli yaşam atmosferi içinde olan ilk resimleri yerini za- manla iç karartıcı koyu renklere bırakmıştır. Kompozisyonlarındaki hüzünlü ve romantik atmosfer, yaşadığı toplumsal olayların, hayat- taki zorlukların ve savaşların trajik ve korku dolu bir ifadesidir. Bu ifade zaman zaman hırs ve şiddet doludur. Goya'nın romantizmin doruğa çıktığı "3 Mayıs" adlı eserinde gerçek bir tarihi olay resmedilmiştir. Fransız işgaline karşı ayakla- nan bir grup İspanyol asinin gerçekleştirdiği kanlı eylemler ve bu eylemlerin bastırılmasını konu edinen eser tam bir trajedik ifade ile betimlenmiştir. Ressamın ele aldığı konu, tarihi konuları ele alma eğiliminde olan Ro- mantik anlayışa çok yakındır (Beksaç, 1994: 89-90). Şiddet ve Sanatsal Yaratı 215 Resim 2. Francisco de Goya, 3 Mayıs, 1808 Resmin merkezindeki beyaz gömlekli adam, çapraz ve öfkeli fırça darbeleriyle oluş- turulmuştur. Resim çok hızlı, şiddet içeren bir tarzla spontane gelişmiş gibi durmaktadır. Tuvali aydınlatan tek figür beyaz gömlekli adam ve onu vurmak üzere dizilmiş askerler- den oluşmuş ve gerilimli bir hava ifade edil- miştir. Resimde gerçek bir durumu anlatan birçok detay yer almaktadır. Örneğin, karan- lık ve puslu hava şartları altında bir rahip elleri kenetli, gözünü yere dikmiş ve esirler- den biri yumruğunu sıkmış ölümü beklemek- tedir. "3 Mayıs", o dönem yapılan tarihi resim- lerden oldukça farklıdır. Kompozisyonun büyük bir bölümü boşluktan ibarettir. Cansız, kasvetli, sıkıcı denilebilecek bir boşluk. Resme hareket katmak için sadece renkten faydala- nılmış. Hastalıklı bir dünyayı anlatan resim- lerden biri olarak dünya sanat tarihine geç- miştir. Goya'nın sanatını takip eden pek çık- madı denilebilir, çünkü onun kadar ileri giden olmadı ancak sonrasında birçok sanatçı, özel- likle Picasso Goya'dan etkilendiğini açıklamış- tır. 2.3. Pablo Picasso, "Guernica" Sanat tarihine şiddeti en iyi anlatan resim olarak geçen, İspanyol ressam Pablo Picasso'nun (1881-1973) kübik eseri, sanatçı tarafından 1937 yılında, 56 yaşındayken ya- pılmıştır. Resmin hikayesi şöyledir: İspanya 1936 yılında bir iç savaş yaşar. Milliyetçilerle Cumhuriyetçiler arasında çıkan bu iç savaşta halk kendi kendini yok eder. Biscay bölgesin- de bulunan Guernica kasabası bu savaşta en büyük yarayı alan yerleşim yerlerinden biri- dir. 1937 yılında Milliyetçi kesime dahil olan halk, daha güçlü olmak adına Nazi Almanya- sından ve İtalya'dan yardım alır. Nüfusu 5000'den fazla olan Guernica Kasabası'nda bombardıman sonucu çıkan yangınlarda 1600'den fazla kişi öldü. Bu vahşetin en acı yanı kasabanın erkeklerinin kasaba dışında olmalarından dolayı ölen 1600 kişinin ka- dınlar, yaşlılar ve çocuklar olmasıydı. Bu vahşetin yaşandığı sıralarda İspanyol hükü- meti 1937 yılında bir fuarda sergilenmek üze- re duvar resmi siparişi vermiş ve Guernica'da yaşanan hazin olayın etkisinde kalan sanatçı resmin konusu olarak onu seçmiş, duyguları- nı resme yansıtmıştır. Guernica olarak tanınan resim 3,5 x 7,8 metre ölçülerinde yapılmıştır. Siyah beyaz gazete fotoğraflarına benzer bir biçimde oluşturulan resimde iç savaşın neden olduğu ölü ve cansız hava yansıtılmaya çalı- şılmıştır. Savaşın insanlar üzerinde yarattığı korku ve üzüntüyü ifade eden Picasso, figür- leri bir odada çığlık atarken betimlemiştir. 216 Gökçen Şahmaran Can Resim 3. Pablo Picasso, Guernica, 1937 Tuvalin sol tarafında görülen kızgın boğa İspanya'nın gelenekselleşmiş kültürünü simgeleyerek, milliyetçilik kavramının altını çizmiştir. At figürü, insanın insana yaptığı zulme karşılık insanlığın bu durum karşısın- daki çaresizliğini simgelemiştir. Kafasını ka- pıdan içeri uzatan kadının elinde gaz lambası bulunmaktadır. Bu kadının özgürlük anıtını anımsattığı düşünülmektedir. Atın ağzındaki hançer, çığlıkla beraber yenilgiyi simgelemek- tedir. Resmin tepesinde yer alan lamba olay- ların çıplak gözle, açık ve net bir şekilde gö- rüldüğünü anlatmaktadır. Kompozisyondaki bölümlerin gazete parçaları gibi verilmesi ise Guernica'da yaşanan acının tüm dünyada duyulacağına ve insanların buna kayıtsız kalamayacağına dikkat çekmek içindir. 2.4. Anselm Kiefer, "Senin Altın Saç- ların Margarethe" Resim 4. Anselm Kiefer, Senin Altın Saçların Margarethe, 1981 1969 yılında kimliğine bir Alman ola- rak bakmaya başlayan Alman asıllı Anselm Kiefer, Almanya'da gerçekleşen yahudi soykı- rımını anlatan geçmişiyle ilgili resimler yap- maktadır. Alman Nazilerinin baskın olduğu dönemde yaşanan şiddet yüklü eylemleri simgesel malzemelerden oluşan nesnelerle anlatmaya çalışmıştır. İkinci Dünya Sava- şı'nda ırkçı Naziler tarafından yakılarak öl- dürülen yahudileri, yapıtlarında külrengi, Şiddet ve Sanatsal Yaratı 217 gri, ve kahverengi ile simgesel olarak ifade eder. Şiddeti, vahşeti, yanarak ölmeyi, çarpıcı bir şekilde ifade ederek düşünmeye sevkeder. Asemblajlarında teknik olarak kum, saman, hasır ve kurşun gibi malzemeler kullanır. Anselm Kiefer'in "Senin Altın Saçların Margarethe" adlı resim serisi, Nazi toplama kamplarından kurtulmuş fakat tüm ailesini kamplarda yitirmiş olan yahudi Şair Paul'un şiirlerinden esinlenerek oluşturulmuştur. Şairin şiirlerinde yer alan, işlediği her günaha rağmen tanrı tarafından bağışlanan kadın kahraman Margarete ve yahudi umudunun kadın sembolü Sulamith'i simgesel olarak kullanmıştır. Sanatçı, Celan'in şiirlerinden esinlendiği Margerethe ve Sulamit'i resimle- rinde Margerethe'in altın rengi saçlarını sa- manla, yahudi Sulamith'i kömürle simgele- miştir. Toplama kampı fırınlarında yakılan yahudilerin saçları kül olmuştur. Bunun kar- şısında ideal Alman kızının sarı saçları sa- mandandır. Bunun açıklaması samanın kolay- ca yanıp küle dönüşebilecek bir madde olma- sıdır. Kömür ise yansa bile daha kalıcıdır. Bu iki kadın, ayrı bedende bir kadının ikiye bö- lünmüş hali durumundadır. Saman zamanla yok olup gidecektir fakat kömür kalıcıdır. Kiefer, resmi bu şekilde ifade ederek, yahudi soykırımını tuval üzerinde tersine çevirmiştir. Güzel ve iyi gösterilmeye çalışılan tarihi, tüm gerçekliği ile gözler önüne sermiştir. 2.5. Joseph Beuys, "Ben Amerika'yı Seviyorum Amerika Beni" Şiddet eylemi, vahşetin ve şiddetin egemen olduğu ilk çağlardan bu yana sanat yapıtlarında önemli bir yer tutmaktadır. Geçmiş zamanlardan beri tiyatrolarda sergi- lenen şiddet kavramı bir özgürlük düşüncesi olarak ele alınmıştır. Şiddet ve vahşetle arınıl- dığı düşünülmüştür. Şiddetin, sanatçının doğal refleksi ile oluştuğu bir antitiyatro bi- çimi "Happening" ise, seyirciye sıradan bir bakış atarak bile karşı konulması güç bir sal- dırı isteği oluşturabilir. Happening; şiddeti pop müzik dehşe- tini kremalı pastalar ve işeme eylemi ile göste- rirken yalnızlığın ve iletişimsizliğin bireyi sürüklediği psikolojik şiddeti surata inen bir şamar, burunda duyulan bir çimdiklenme ile hissettirir. Acımasız bir gülüş, burnundan huniyle su içirme; politikayı kolaylıkla res- medebilir. Boyna ip dolama, ya da bir kukla oynatma, fiziksel şiddetin en tipik örneklerin- dendir. Happening, bugünkü anlayışıyla poptmodernizmin önemli bir sanatsal değeri olarak gösterilmektedir. 1960'lı yılların sonla- rına doğru yerini Body-art ve Performansa bırakmış, günümüzde güncelliğini hala ko- rumaktadır (Tönel, 2005: 364-365). Joseph Beuys (1921-1986), Happening sanatının önemli bir ismi olarak, Amerika ve Avrupa'daki hemen hemen bütün sanatçıları etkisi altına almış, Happening ve Fluxus gibi hareketlerin yaygınlaşmasına neden olmuş- tur. Joseph Beuys, 1972 yılında "Referan- dum Yoluyla Doğrudan Demokrasi" adlı per- formansında bir boks maçı düzenleyerek bu- nun tiyatrol bir gösteriye dönüşmesini sağla- mıştır. Amacı, seçimlerdeki yöntemlerin yeni baştan düzenlenmesi ve Dusseldorf Sanat Akademisi'nde gerçekleştirdiği heykel dersle- rinin parasız olmasıdır. Aynı zamanda ilgisi olan herkesin sınavsız sanat öğrencisi olması gerektiğini savunmasıdır. Dünyada yaşanan şiddet, zulüm, toplumsal baskılar gibi çağın gerçekleri Beuys'un performanslarında ifade edilir (Clark, 2004: 178). 218 Gökçen Şahmaran Can Resim 5. Joseph Beuys, Ben Amerika'yı Seviyorum Amerika Beni, 1974 1974 yılında gerçekleştirdiği "Ben Amerika'yı Seviyorum Amerika Beni" adlı performansında sanatçı, ormanda yakalanmış vahşi bir kurt ile tam beş gün aynı kafeste kalmıştır. Vahşi bir kurtla aynı ortamda kala- rak bunu sanatsal bir protestoya dönüştür- müştür. Tek şartı Amerika'ya geldiğinde Amerika'ya ayak basmayacak ve görmeyecek- ti. Bundan dolayı yüzü kapalı bir şekilde ke- çeye sarıldı. Keçeye sarılmış bir biçimde sed- yeye konularak sergi salonuna getirildi. Sergi salonunda büyük bir kafesin içinde vahşi bir kurtla vakit geçirecekti. Kafes içinde biraz saman, türbinlerin sesinin kaydedildiği bir cihaz ve Wall Street gazetesi vardı. Gazete Amerikan ekonomisinin acımasızlığının sim- gesiydi. Kurt ise Amerika'dan Orta Asya'ya gelen bir kurt cinsini temsil ediyordu. Tam ayağa kalkarken kurdun saldırması "Amerika sizin özgürlüğe geçmenize izin vermez" an- lamına geliyordu. Sanatçıya göre, kurt Ame- rika'dır ve her ne kadar saldırıya geçse de kurt kendisini sevmeye başlamıştır. Bu per- formansın her anı video ve fotoğraf makinesi ile kayıt altına alınmıştır. Performans bittikten sonra aynı şekilde geldiği gibi keçeyle Al- manya'ya dönmüştür. Bu sanatsal eylem ol- dukça ses getirmiş ve vahşi Amerikan emper- yalizmine görsel olarak taşlamalarda bulun- muştur. Sanatsal kaygılardan çok toplumsal kaygıları ve özellikle şiddeti öne çıkaran Fluxus ve Happening gibi hareketler sanatta sınır olmayacağının bir göstergesidir. Bu çer- çevede, sanatta sınırların yok sayılması dü- şüncesi ağır basmaktadır. 2.6. Gina Pane, "Duygusal Aksiyon" Resim 6. Gina Pane, Duygusal Aksiyon, 1973 Şiddet ve Sanatsal Yaratı 219 1970'lerin sonları ve 1980'lerin başla- rında seyirci karşısında kendini yaralayarak, bedenine acı çektirerek her türlü teşhirciliği sergileyen sadomazoşist hareketlerde beden siyasi bir areneya dönüştürülmüştür. Sapkın- lığa varan bu tür gösterilerdeki estetik çar- pıtmalar, genel kabul görmüş sanatsal ve top- lumsal kuralları hiçe saymak için gerçekleşti- rilir. Bu durumda beden, kavramsal bir objeye dönüştürülerek anlaşılmasını istedikleri mesa- jı nakleder. Bedenini sanatsal bir obje olarak kullanan bir başka sanatçı Gina Pane'dir. Fransız body-art sanatçısı Gina Pane (1939-1990), 1970'li yıllara kadar yapıtlarını doğadan esinlenerek oluşturmuştur. Yapıtla- rından birinde üzerinde metal çıkıntılar, çivi- ler olan bir merdivene çıplak ayakla, acısına katlanamayacağı eşiğe gelene kadar tırmanır. Bu yıllarda, sanatına seyirciyi de dahil eder. "Duygusal Aksiyon" (Sentimental Action) adını verdiği performansında, vücudunun belirli bölgelerini jiletle kestiği, gül dikeni batırdığı işlemleri Milano'daki bir galeride seyirci önünde yapar. Seyirciler genellikle kadın izleyicilerden seçilmiştir. Sergilemeyi üst üste iki kez tekrar eder. İlk eylemini elinde kırmızı güllerle, ikinci eylemini beyaz güllerle oluşturur. Gösteriye elinde beyaz güllerle ayakta başlar, kırmızı güllerle fetüs pozisyo- nunda bitirir. Elinde gül demetiyle öne arkaya sallanarak hareketler yapar, sonra gül diken- lerini sırasıyla koluna batırır ve en sonunda elini jiletle keserek performansını sonlandırır. Şiddet içeren bu çalışmasını anne-çocuk ilişki- sinin içsel bir yansıması olarak ifade eder. Bu tür gösterilerle, sanatsal sınırları aşmaya ve sorgulanmayanları sorgulamaya davet eder. 2.7. Marina Abramoviç, "Ritim 10" Yugoslav Marina Abramoviç (1946-), kendine acı çektirerek, kana bulayarak arın- maya (Katarsis) çalışan bir başka eylem sanat- çısıydı. Eylemlerinde, kendi kendini yaralaya- rak acıyı şahsen deneyimlemiştir. Ve bu şekil- de kendini ölüme çok yakın hissetmiştir. Öncesinde resim eğitimi alan Abramoviç, sonrasında gösteri sanatlarına yönelerek, in- sanın bedensel ve zihinsel sınırlarını dene- yimlemeye başlamıştır. Eylemlerini halkın önünde ve gözlerinin içine bakarak yapıyor- du. Batı dışında farklı kültürlerden deneyim- lediği, acı ve ölüm korkusunu yenebilmek adına ve bedenin kişiye yaşattığı sınırlandır- malardan kurtulabilmek adına bedenini fiziki zorlanmalara maruz bırakıyordu. Performans, sanatçı için bir başka boyuta geçme eylemiy- di. Kendi bedenini yeniden oluşturmaya ve sahiplenmeye çalışan Abramoviç'in ayin ha- vasında geçen gösterileri kişinin canını yakar özelliktedir. 220 Gökçen Şahmaran Can Resim 7. Marina Abramoviç, Ritim 10, 1973 Bu gösterilerden biri 1973 yılında ger- çekleştirdiği "Ritim 10" adlı çalışmasıydı. Bu çalışma tam bir saat sürmüştü. Abramoviç, ayinsel havası olan bir mekanda, yere beyaz bir kağıt sererek üzerine on farklı kesici alet yerleştirir. Salonda ses alma cihazları da bu- lunmaktadır. Gösteri başladığında, cihazın kayıt düğmesine basar, sol elinin tırnaklarını ojeyle boyar ve sonrasında parmaklarını ara- layarak beyaz kağıdın üzerine koyar. Bıçağın birini sağ eline alır ve yerdeki sol elinin par- makları arasına hızlı ve ritimli bir biçimde vurmaya başlar. Sırasıyla bütün bıçaklarla aynı işlemi gerçekleştirir. Bu işlemleri gerçek- leştirirken ses alma cihazı sesleri kaydetmek- tedir. İşlem sona erdikten sonra ses alma ciha- zını başa sarıp kaydedilen sesleri sessizce dinler. Dinledikten sonra gösteriyi bir kere daha tekrarlar. Gösteri tamamlandıktan sonra tekrar ses cihazını başa alır, sessizce dinler ve salondan ayrılır (Yılmaz, 2012: 270). 2.8. Chris Burden, "Mıhlanmış" Bir başka örnek, Amerikalı sanatçı Chris Burden'in (1946-2015) yaptığı perfor- manslar bedene acı verme, zarar verme çerçe- vesinde gelişmiştir. Burden, sanatı vasıtasıyla gerçeği sorgulamaktadır. Sapkınlığa varan gösterileriyle, daha yüksek bir gerçekliği olan, farklı boyutta sanat yapmaktadır. Amacı ihti- har etmek değildir. Toplum içinde, istediği her şeyi yapabileceği bir özgürlük alanı oluş- turmak için, sorular soruyor (Antmen, 2016: 234-235). En tanınmış çalışmaları 1971 yılında gerçekleştirdiği "Shoot" (Ateş etme), 1973 yılında gerçekleştirdiği "Trough the Night (Gece Boyunca) ve "Nailed" (Mıhlanmış) adlı performansıdır. Resim 8. Chris Burden, Mıhlanmış, 1974 Burden, 1974 yılında gerçekleştirdiği performansında, evinin garajındaki bir Volkswagen'in arkasına, İsa'nın çarmıha ge- rilme sahnesinde olduğu gibi, arkadaşları tarafından çivilenmiş ve bu şekilde dışarıda arabayla dolaştırılmıştır. İsa figürü insanları uyarmak adına işkenceye katlanan, bu gayede ölen biriydi. Fakat sanatçı ise, acıya katlana- cak kadar yaşadığı dünyaya bağlı biridir. Ellerine çakılan çivileri sonrasında kadifeyle kaplanmış bir taş üstüne yerleştirip New York sanat galerisine satmıştır. Sanatçı bu perfor- mansında "beden"e el koyan, "beden"i yön- lendiren iktidara karşı durmayı acı çekerek öğütlüyor. Söylem ve eylemlerin "beden" üze- rinde dönmesi, toplumda yaşanan bunalımla- rı, sorunları, gizli gerçekleri ortaya çıkarma çabasıyla oluşturuluyor. Şiddet ve Sanatsal Yaratı 221 2.9. Herman Nitsch, "80. Eylem" 1980'lere gelindiğinde 20. yüzyıl sanat oluşumlarının evrilmeye başlandığı dikkat çekmektedir. 1980'li yıllar, gerek toplumda gerek sanatta önemli farklılıkların belli düzey- lerde ön plana çıktığı bir dönem olmuştur. Dönemin, kimlik üzerinde yaşanan farklılıkla- rı su yüzüne çıkarması, sanatsal anlamda yeniliklerin oluşmasına sebep olmuştur. Kim- lik ve fark üzerine yoğunlaşan siyasi oluşum- lar "beden" politikalarıyla anılmaya başlanır. Çünkü, bedene dönük her türlü eylem, yaşa- nılan sistemi eleştirmeye yöneliktir. Bu çerçe- vede, sanatçılar kültürel farklılıkların bilinciy- le, baskı ve özellikle şiddete karşı, yaşamın tüm olumsuzluklarını bedenlerini kullanarak göstermeye çalışmışlardır (Kahraman, 2002: 196-212). Hermann Nitsch ve benzeri sanatçı- ların, kendilerine acı çektiren kanlı eylemleri ile dönüşüme uğrayan bedenleri söylemlerini iletmek için birer plastik nesneye dönüşür. Resim 9. Hermann Nitsch, 80. Eylem, 1984 Avusturalyalı sanatçı Hermann Nitsch bu amaçla bir seri kanlı eylem gerçek- leştirdi. Sanatçıya göre, bu kanlı eylem göste- rileri, mekanlarına sıkışmaya mahkum edilen modern insana bir tür arınma sağlamaktaydı. 1984 yılında düzenlediği "80. Eylem", tipik bir Hermann Nitsch klasiğiydi. Saflığın simgesi olan beyaz kıyafetler içerisindeki sanatçının gözleri yine beyaz bir örtüyle bağlandıktan sonra çarmıha gerilmişti. Asistanları, izleyen- lerin önünde bir danayı kesip iç organlarını çıkarmışlar, dananın kanını çarmıha gerilmiş olan sanatçının üzerine dökmüşlerdi. Bedene yapılan bu taciz uygulamaları üç gün sürerek, izleyicinin rahatsız olması sağlanmıştır. Bu eylemler insanlara yöneltilen bir aynadır (Yılmaz, 2012: 268). Stelarc, Stuart Brisley, J. Koons, Ro- bert Wilson, Oleg Kulig, Eva Hesse, Lynda Benglis, Louise Bourgiois, Yayoi Kusama be- denlerini sanat nesnesi olarak kullanan sanat- çılara örnek olarak verilebilir. SONUÇ Geç kapitalizmin yarattığı olumsuz toplumsal koşullar sonucu gerçekleşen eko- nomik bunalımlar, cinsel hastalıklar (AIDS), şiddet vb. sanatçıların benliğinde tedavisi mümkün olmayan yaralar açmıştır. Çağdaş, modern uygarlığın insanı değersiz birer me- taya dönüştürmesi ile kendine yabancılaşan sanatçı, yerleşmiş, kurumsallaşmış tüm otori- teye karşı tepki vermeye başlar. Bu durum, özellikle, estetik ifadelerde kendini gösterir. Baskı güçlerini temsil eden Klasik es- tetikte, sanatçıya dair izler görülmezdi. Klasik sanatçı, belirlenmiş kurallar çerçevesinde gerçeği yansıtmak için, doğal olanı vermeye çalışırken; kavrama dönük işler yaratmaya çalışan sanatçıda bu özellikler alabildiğine 222 Gökçen Şahmaran Can özgürdür. Bu özgürlük içerisinde, mitik, ta- rihsel, cinsel gerçekliği ve şiddeti, küçüm- senmeyecek bir anlam kaydırmasıyla görsel pratiklere dökerler. 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Şiddet ve Sanatsal Yaratı, Jass Studies-The Journal of Academic Social Science Studies, Doi number:http://dx.doi.org/10.9761/JASSS7510, Number: 66 Spring II 2018, p. 211-222. 
work_3i2x5r65rfbb5amel53owj7zxq	----	Turkish Studies Volume 13/2, Winter 2018, p. 311-330 DOI Number: http://dx.doi.org/10.7827/TurkishStudies.12801 ISSN: 1308-2140, ANKARA-TURKEY Research Article / Araştırma Makalesi Article Info/Makale Bilgisi  Received/Geliş: Aralık 2017 Accepted/Kabul: Mart 2018  Referees/Hakemler: Doç. Dr. Mehmet ÖZKARTAL – Doç. Dr. Emine NAS – Doç. Dr. M. Emin KAYSERİLİ – Doç. Dr. Oğuz DİLMAÇ This article was checked by iThenticate. İSLAM PLASTİK SANATLARINDA SOYUTLAYICI YAKLAŞIMLAR VE BATI SANATI ÜZERİNDEKİ YANSIMALARI* Şemseddin DAĞLI** ÖZET Günümüz çağdaş sanatlar kapsamında farklı görsel örnekler ve sanatçılar örnekleminde ve Çalışmamızda üzerinde durmaya çalıştığımız sorun Geleneksel Türk ve İslam sanatlarının, modern sanatlar dâhilinde müstesna bir yeri yer tutan soyut sanat içerisindeki konumudur. Bu bağlamda, Batı sanatı kapsamında soyut sanat içinde gerçekleşerek, yüzyılımıza damgasını vuran modern sanat akımları arasındaki birtakım benzerlikleri ortaya koymaktır. Bu anlamda batı sanatçısının doğu ve İslam sanatlarından (Henry Matisse, Mark Tobey, Paul Klee, Wassily Kandinsky Vincent Van Gogh, Pablo Picasso, Hans Hartung, başta olmak üzere daha pek çok sanatçının) bu etkileşime örnek olabilecek nitelikte çok sayıda eser ortaya koydukları ve faydalandıkları bilinen bir gerçektir. Bizim amacımız bu etkileşimi belgelemek değildir. Burada üzerinde durduğumuz konu plastik anlamda sanat dediğimiz bu eylemi gerçekleştiren sanatçının bir insan olduğundan hareket ederek insanın temel içgüdüsel yaklaşımlarında farklı coğrafya ve değişik kültürel ortamlarda tarihsel süreç içerisinde benzer tepkisel refleks geliştirerek yine benzeri sanatsal hadiseleri gerçekleştirmiş olduğu gerçeğidir. Felsefi olarak İslam sanatlarının arka yapısı ile düşünsel gerçeği ve çıkış kaynağını yorumlayarak sorgulamak için İslam’daki resim yasağı sorununu ve bu yasağın nedenleri ile birlikte sonuçlarını analiz etmek gerekir. Söz konusu konularda yapılan araştırma ve yorumlamalar ise günümüzde bile kesin olarak herhangi somut bir yargıya ulaşamamıştır. Bu haliyle ele aldığımız konu her bir ele alınışında daha yeni tartışmalar başlatacak sonuçlar doğurmaktadır. Anahtar Kelimeler: İslam, soyut, sanat, resim, modern. * Bu makale, 18-24 Eylül 2017 tarihinde Malaga/ İspanya da düzenlenen USOS Uluslararası Sosyal Bilimler Kongresi’nde sunulan “İslam Sanatlarında Soyut Yaklaşımlar Ve Batı Resmindeki Yansımaları” isimli tebliğin geliştirilerek yayıma hazırlanmış biçimidir. ** Doç. Dr., Akdeniz Üniversitesi Güzel Sanatlar Fakültesi, El-mek: szdagli@hotmail.com http://dx.doi.org/10.7827/TurkishStudies. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3085-2879 312 Şemseddin DAĞLI Turkish Studies Volume 13/2, Winter 2018 ABSTRACTIVE APPROACHES IN THE ISLAMIC ARTS AND ITS REFLECTION ON WESTERN PAINTING ABSTRACT The question that we attempted to emphasize in our study is the position of Traditional Turkish Arts within the abstract arts included in modern arts. In this context, it reveals some similarities among modern art movements which left its mark on our century by realizing in abstract art within the scope of western art. In this sense, it is known that western artists revealed many works (Henri Matisse, Mark Tobey, Paul Klee, Wassily Kandinsky Van Gogh’ Picasso and many others) gave many examples and made use of this interaction. Our purpose is not to certificate this interaction. What we emphasized here that is based on that the artist who performed the action which we called as art in plastic sense is a human being, it is a fact that human realizes the similar artistic events by reacting similarly within the same historical process in different geographies and different culture mediums in his/her basic instinctual approaches. Philosophically, it is necessary to analyse the problem of painting ban in Islam and the reasons and consequences of this ban in order to inquire by interpreting the background, intellectual truth and its origin of emergence in Islamic arts. Researches and interpretations on these issues concluded in such a manner that each will create newer discussions without ever reaching a definite judgment even today. STRUCTURED ABSTRACT The question that we attempted to emphasize in our study is the position of Traditional Turkish Arts within the abstract arts included in modern arts. In this context, it reveals some similarities among modern art movements which left its mark on our century by realizing in abstract art within the scope of western art. In this sense, it is known that western artists revealed many works (Henri Matisse, Mark Tobey, Paul Klee, Wassily Kandinsky Van Gogh’ Picasso and many others) gave many examples and made use of this interaction. Our purpose is not to certificate this interaction. What we emphasized here that is based on that the artist who performed the action which we called as art in plastic sense is a human being, it is a fact that human realizes the similar artistic events by reacting similarly within the same historical process in different geographies and different culture mediums in his/her basic instinctual approaches. Philosophically, it is necessary to analyse the problem of painting ban in Islam and the reasons and consequences of this ban in order to inquire by interpreting the background, intellectual truth and its origin of emergence in Islamic arts. Researches and interpretations on these issues concluded in such a manner that each will create newer discussions without ever reaching a definite judgment even today. Culture is a sociological phenomenon formed by nurturing with the material and spiritual resources of the way of thinking, thinking and living that is based on the life of a society. It embraces all the aesthetic and scientific fields in the direction of traditions. It is also affected and fed by other cultures and is degenerated by the pressure of other cultures. Art is a universal form. It is a language of emotion. Voices İslam Plastik Sanatlarında Soyutlayıcı Yaklaşımlar ve Batı Sanatı Üzerindeki… 313 Turkish Studies Volume 13/2, Winter 2018 melodies words pictures figures lines colors forms language tools. People have followed different ways of explaining the formations of the outer world in objects or in everything they designed in their minds. Human thought and art. These two social phenomena cannot jump from one point to another. Each period is a natural consequence of the previous period, but it is the next one. Only in this way is it possible to connect the previous turn to the present. The western artist who is looking for innovation in the past century has created different styles with different searches and descriptions other than what came to that day. A number of western artists who did not stay within themselves during this period of search but turned their faces to the east found the stone stones of eastern Islamic arts in the advent of modernism. From this optic, 20 yr. The fact that art is influenced by eastern art while art is being created is evident in the works and expressions of artists. It is observed that the Western artist imitates eastern arts while imitating his work with a rationalist approach but has a different dimension to form language. The motives of the Eastern Islamic world are in the form of socio-cultural phenomena clad in plastic forms that are appropriate to the needs of Western artists. In most of the contemporary societies, traditional folkloric values and traditional arts appear in different dimensions with new interpretations and conclusions. It is known that artists who produce works with abstract understanding by offering them with examples within the scope of Yeruz are inspired by their approach to this art in this direction. It is possible to see this inspiration in the works of artists such as Picasso, Paul Klee, Hans Hartung, Piette Mondrian and Joan Miro. This is an indication of the formal sense of richness and plasticity of eastern Islamic arts. It is observed that the contemporary western art, which we try to put forth in the texts and pictures, is particularly influenced by the Islamic arts especially when compared to western paintings and eastern Islamic art examples. It is observed that Paul Klee, Piette Mondrian strong representative of surrealism Miro, the important representative of Cubism Pablo Picasso, and the Dutch Escher studies are clearly observed. In Islam, the abstractionist tendencies at the core of Islamic art as a result of the insufficiency of understanding of the picture ban are the Islamic artist's distant from the painting tradition as opposed to the Western artist, and the surrealist narratives beyond the reality, with an intellectual connotation, sometimes poetic, the expression is conveyed to the appearance of the form as text. This composition has been achieved by the Islamic artist, sometimes as a mysterious mystery, and sometimes as a guide to realistic narratives. Keywords: Islam, art, picture, modern. GİRİŞ Sanat dediğimiz sosyal olay tüm canlılar içinde insanoğluna ait uğraşılarından birisi durumundaki bir kavramdır. Bir toplumun duyuş yaşayış biçimi olarak kavradığımız Kültürün sosyal yapısı kapsamı içerisinde ele aldığımız bu olgu tarihsel süreçte toplulukların dinsel siyasal inançları ve sosyolojik yapısı içerisinde şekillenmiştir. Türk ve İslam sanatçıları bulundukları coğrafyadan hareketle diğer kıtalara ve coğrafyaya adım attıklarında da bu kültürel aktarım farklı din inanç ve öğretilerin etkilediği bu coğrafyada kültürden direk beslenen sanatlarında birbirinden etkilenmesi doğaldır. İslam sanat anlayışını kavrayabilmek için kutsal kitabı olan kurana bakmak gerekir. Kuranda belirgin olan soyut duygular İslam sanatçısına başlangıç noktası teşkil etmiştir Kitap 314 Şemseddin DAĞLI Turkish Studies Volume 13/2, Winter 2018 sanatları diye adlandırabileceğimiz hat tezhip ciltçilik ebru gibi sanatlar İslam dünyasının sanat dünyasına sunduğu estetik kazanımlarıdır. Resim ve heykel gibi boyutlandırılmış sanata karşı özellikle ibadethaneler ve kitaplarda hoş bakmayan İslam sanatı soyut formlarda kendini bulmuştur İslam’da resim yasağının yanlış anlaşılması sonucu soyuta ve farklı biçim arayışlarına yön tutan İslam sanatçıları böyle bir endişe içerisinde bulunmadan salt insansı sezgi ve endişelerini plastik bir ifadeyle her şekilde görünüşe ulaştırmayı hedefleyen batılı sanatçı arasında somut benzerlikler söz konusudur. İslam sanatlarında Tanrıya ulaşma güdüsü içinde tam bir teslimiyet batıl sanatçıda ise çatışmacı bir diyalektik vardır. Sonuçta oluşan iki eylemde her ne kadar farklıysa da sonuç neredeyse aynıdır. Günümüz modern sanatı ve çağdaşlık kavramları dekoratif ve sezgisel anlamlar taşır. Ruhun derinliklerine kısa sürede ulaşarak etki oluşturur. Bu çalışmanın amacı bir ilişkiyi ortaya koymak olmamakla birlikte zaman içinde çağın ve dönemin anlayışları gereği teknolojik ve kültürel yakınlaşmaların yoğun olarak yaşandığı yüz yılımızda sanatsal olarak ortaya çıkan eserlerin biçimsel olmamakla birlikte yaklaşım dâhilinde benzerlikler olarak ortaya çıkmasıdır. Çalışmada bu benzerlikleri dönemler ve eserler bazında ortaya koymaktır. MATERYAL ve YÖNTEM Çalışmada materyal olarak ele aldığımız örnekler İslam sanatçıları tarafından ortaya konulan ve çok değişik alanlarda üretilen eserlerdir. Bunlar İslam yazı sanatı hat diğer kitap sanatlarından birisi olan minyatür özgün dokuma tekniklerinden düz ve havlı dokumalar kilim ve halı ve çini ağırlıklı eserlerdir. Bura da ele alınan eserler ön ve arka yapılarıyla birlikte plastik açıdan analiz edilmiştir. Örnekler belirlenirken alan sınırlaması yapılıp ülkemiz müzelerinden Türk İslam eserleri müzesi, İstanbul şehir müzesi, Topkapı sarayı müzesi, Ankara etnografya müzesinde bulunan yazı resim örnekleri seçilmiştir. Materyaller dönem üslup biçim form vb. açısından değerlendirilmiştir. Avrupa sanatına söz konusu olan eserler ise Hollanda İngiltere, Almanya ve diğer Avrupa müze ve koleksiyonlarından seçilmiş örneklerdir. Çalışmada temel yaklaşım olarak İslam sanatlarının değişik malzemelerle ve tekniklerle sunulmuş örnekleri ve batının modernist resim anlayışları arasındaki plastik benzeşimi anlam bütünlüğü içinde ortaya koymaktır. Veriler Türk İslam sanatının görsel örnekleri olan hat ve dokuma örneklerinden ve batı resim sanatının modern soyut anlayışta eserler üreten sanatçılarından Escher, Fausto Zonaro, Robert Delaunay, George Braque, Paul Klee, Joan Miro Hans Hartung, Vassily Kandinsky seçilmiştir. Çalışmanın yöntemi karşılaştırmalı analiz yöntemidir. Çalışmamıza konu alarak ele aldığımız örnekler dönem üslup ve biçimsel form benzerlikleri dâhilinde ele alınmıştır. Eser incelemeleri batılı resim anlayışı içinde yapılan resimlerle karşılaştırmalı olarak benzerliklere ele alınmıştır. Bu benzerlikler ortaya konulmaya çalışılırken eserler renk biçim espas denge armoni ritm hareket vb. ön yapıyı oluşturan plastik kriterler ışığında arka yapı yani içerik açısından karşılaştırmalı olarak incelenmiştir. İslam sanatı İslam sanatları içinde müstesna bir yeri bulunan geleneksel Türk süsleme sanatlarının tarihsel gelişim süreci içerisinde tanımlamasını yaparken İslam sanat anlayışının doğası içinde var olan soyut yaklaşımlarla batı sanatında yüzyılımıza damgasını vuran soyut sanat arasındaki bazı benzerlikler mevcuttur. Günümüz batı resmine ve sanatına yön veren çağdaş batılı sanatçıların doğu sanatlarından Wincent Van Gogh’un Henri Matisse, Mark Tobey, Paul Klee, Wassily Kandinsky ve daha pek çok sanatçının bu etkileşimin örneklerini verdiği hatta faydalandıkları bilinen bir gerçektir. Bizim ise buradaki amacımız doğu İslam sanatları ve batı sanatının etkileşimi belgelemek değildir. Burada problem olarak baktığımız olay plastik anlamda sanat dediğimiz eylemi gerçekleştiren sanatçı bir insan olduğuna göre insanın temel içgüdüsel yaklaşımlarında farklı coğrafya, farklı kültür İslam Plastik Sanatlarında Soyutlayıcı Yaklaşımlar ve Batı Sanatı Üzerindeki… 315 Turkish Studies Volume 13/2, Winter 2018 ortamlarında tarihi zaman diliminde aynı reflekslerle tepki vererek benzeri sanatsal olayları gerçekleştirdiği gerçeğidir. Bu yöndeki diğer farklı değerlendirmelere göre ise insanoğlu güzel sanatlardan hiçbir zaman sürecinde ayrılamamıştır. Bundan ötürü medeniyetleri güzel sanatlardan ayrıyeten düşünmekte mümkün olmamaktadır (Kara, 1999,187). Din sanat Sanat ve din bazen birbirlerine baskın olarak sürekli birbirinden etkilenmişlerdir. Din, bilim sanat ve ahlâk gibi fenomenler insanın şuuraltında bir bütün olarak yaşanmaktadır (Coşkun, 2014, 98). Bölgesel ve toplumsal ayrımlara karşı ortak bir dünya görüşü ışığında gelişen İslam inancının içinde bulunduğumuz evreni tanıma yaşama ve günlük hayatı bir uyum içinde bütünleştiren İslam sanatları batı sanatını da etkileyen ve etkilemeye devam eden evrensel özellikler taşımaktadır (Köksal, 1984,31). Batı sanatında, resim, genellikle izleyiciye bir çerçeve ya da pencereden izleniyormuş hissi verirken doğu resmi zihinsel ve kalpte mevcut olan oradan da mekâna yansıtılan bir duruma sahiptir. Batılı sanat, zaman içerisindeki, durdurulmuş bir anlık hareketin resmini yaparken, doğu sanatı, durağan olmayan, hareketli ve sürekli bir durumun resmini yapmaktadır (Coomaraswamy,1995, 32-34). İslam sanatlarının arka yapı elemanlarını yorumlayabilmek içim resim yasağı meselesi ve bu yasağın boyutlarını iyi analiz etmek gerekir. Bu konularda yapılan araştırma ve yorumlamalar kesin bir yasaya ulaşmadan her biri daha yeni tartışmalar başlatacak şekilde sonuçlanmaktadır. Eldeki mevcut örneklere göre, İslam sanatlarının erken dönelerinde bilinçli olarak tasvirden kaçınılmış ve bunu doğal sonucu olarak soyutlamaya girilmiştir (Yakutcan, 1989,2). Kur’ân dilinde yaratma “bara'a”, biçim verme “savvara” aynı anlamda yorumlandığı için, yaratılan varlıkların benzerini tasvir yani resim, Allah’ı taklit sayılmış ve sanatçılar figürleri benzetmeye çalışmaktan kaçınmışlardır. (Buhârî, Libâs 90, 2). “Döneminde henüz oluşum aşamasındaki İslam sanatının Emevi döneminde gözlemlenen resim yasağı ve bu yasağa uymayan bazı kural dışı uygulamalarda halifelerin şahsi davranışları, sanatsal sorun ve coğrafi etkileşmelerle açıklanabilecektir.” (Grabar,1988, 15) (Resim 1). Resim 1. Ürdün'de 6. Emevî Halifesi Velid bin Abdülmelik tarafından yaptırılan kuseyramra sarayında duvar resimleri İslam’da resim yasağı kesin bir yargı olmamakla birlikte, güçlü bir etki alanına sahip olduğu gerçektir. Bunun sonucu olarak İslam toplumlarında hat geleneği güçlenmiş; yazı, resmin yerini doldurma düşüncesinin merkezi olmuştur (Koçan, 1997, 11). İslam dininde resim yapmak yasak sayıldığı için İslâm ülkelerinde yazıları süslemek bir bakıma resmin yerini tutuyordu. Bu nedenle hat 316 Şemseddin DAĞLI Turkish Studies Volume 13/2, Winter 2018 sanatı ile bugünkü nonfigüratif resim sanatı arasında büyük benzerlik vardır. İslam’ın doğuşu sırasında Araplar 'kufi' denen bir yazı biçimi kullanıyorlardı. Hattat denen yazı ustaları daha sonra değişik biçimde yazılar icat etti. Ondan sonra süsleme sanatları arasında yer alan yazı sanatı bir meslek haline geldi, büyük bir gelişme gösterdi. Türk sanatçıları Arap yazısını güzel sanat haline getirdi (Sabah Gazetesi, Kasım,2014)(Resim 2-3). Resim 2. Hattat Mustafa Rakım Efendiye Ait Celi Sülüs ve Sülüs yazılı Levha TSMK-GY. 324/1) Resim 3.Ahmet Karahisari Müselsel Besmele İslam sanatçısı güzelliğin yaratıcısı değil onu keşfedendir ve asla onu varedenle rekabete kalkışmaz. Sanatını o’nu anlamaya, anlatmaya ve yüceltmeye adar. Sanatçı tüm güzelliklerin kaynağının yaradan olduğunu fark ederek göreceli bir güzellik anlayışından ideal güzelliğe ulaşmak ister. Böylece insanı, hayvanî derekenin bile altına düşürecek olan süfli bağlarından kurtularak, onu meleklerin bile üzerine taşıyacak olan ulvi bir idraki ve derunî bir sezgiyi yakalar; Allah’ın büyüklüğünü, haşmetini ve güzelliğini ifade etmek için gerekli olan düşünceye dalar (Pişkin, 2014,50). İslam sanatçısı eserlerini oluştururken, yaratıcı ile bir yarış halindeymiş gibi algılanmaktan mümkün olduğunca uzak durmaya çalışan, "kendi yaratımı” üzerinde yorumlamaktan ziyade, “Tanrı'nın yarattıklarının keyfi” üzerinde yorumlamayı öne çıkaran bir bakışa sahiptir (Can & Gün, 2012, 164). İslam bir zarafet dinidir. Düzendir intizamdır ve bu manzumelerin hayata geçirilmesini öngörür. İslam’ın peygamberi bir hadislerinde “Allah güzeldir ve güzelliği sever.” Müslim, iman, 147 diyerek “Allah’ın ve dinin ölçüsünün her şeyde zarafet olduğunu öğütlemiştir. Buna ilişkin bir örnekte Hz Peygamberin bir süre sonra kapatılacak olan bir mezarın çukurundaki uyumu bozan yığının düzeltilm esini isteyerek, “esasında bu tür şeyler ölüyü ne sıkar ne de ona rahatlık verir, ama bu iş hayatta olanların gözlerine güzel görünmek içindir” emretmesi, İslâmi sanat anlayışının içeriğini, onun duyurucusunun sanata verdiği önemi göstermektedir. Bu hassasiyet aynı zamanda “o Allah ki, her şeyi güzel yapmış ve ilk başta insanı çamurdan yaratmıştır.” “Sen dağları görürsün de onları yerinde durur sanırsın. Oysa onlar bulutların yürümesi gibi yürümektedirler. Bu her şeyi güzel ve sağlam yapan Allah’ın sanatıdır.” ayetlerinin tefsiri niteliğindedir (Coşkun, 2014, 95). İslam Plastik Sanatlarında Soyutlayıcı Yaklaşımlar ve Batı Sanatı Üzerindeki… 317 Turkish Studies Volume 13/2, Winter 2018 Din ve sanat arasında duyguların ifadesi açısından dapek çok benzerlik bulunmaktadır. Din ahlâkta güzellik ararken, sanat görece güzelliği yansıtmaktadır. Tolstoy ise eserinde sanatın gerçek amacının ahlâkî mükemmellik olduğunu belirtmiştir (Tolstoy, 1996,88). Tüm bu ahlaki söylemlerine rağmen Tolstoy sanat için yapılan yanlışlıklara tepkisini şu şekilde belirtmektedir: “Sanat dünyasının en büyük meselesi, sanatçının yalandan ve kötülükten uzaklaşamaması, insanın kötü duygularının ve şeytanın ortak hareket etmeleridir” (Tolstoy,1996, 62). Din- tarikat- resim Objeleri olduğu gibi resmetmekten imtina eden bir takım sanatçılar (nakkaşlar), nesnel gerçeğe yönelerek, sezginin akıl ve mantık yoluyla görselleşerek vahdet-i vücuda ulaşmak istemişlerdir. Bu anlamda İslâm sanatçısı, üç boyutlu hacimsel anlatım unsurları olan, ışık-gölge ve perspektifi kullanmaktan bilinçli olarak uzak kalmışlardır. Resimlenmek istenen nesneler; içleri renklerle doldurulmuş sade geometrik biçimlerle ifade edilmiştir. Bu sayede İslâm sanatçısına nesnel görsellik yolu kapanmış, soyut ve sonsuzluk yolu açılmıştır(Bingöl, 2015,67).Anadolu’da yazı ve resim ilişkisinin bütünleşmesinde İslam da resim yasağı düşüncesine diğer tarikatlara göre daha hoş görü ile bakan iki tarikatın önemi büyüktür. Mevlevilik ve Bektaşilik (Resim 4). Resim 4. Osman Yumni, Leylek Formunda Yazı-Levha Topkapı Sarayı Minyatür ve Yazma Eserler Salonu H.1309/M.1901 G.Y. 1474. Mevleviler resim sanatı için iyi bir ilham kaynağıdır. Önceleri bir tür soyut resim olan minyatürle başladı. Sonraları klasik veya modern çalışan ressamlar da konuya ilgi gösterdi. Batıdan G. Mandel, Hollandalı Van Mour, İtalyan Zanora'nın Mevlevi resimleri meşhurdur. Bizden 318 Şemseddin DAĞLI Turkish Studies Volume 13/2, Winter 2018 İbrahim Çallı, Cemal Tollu, Maide Arel ve Aliye Berger "Mevleviler" konulu resimler yaptılar (Demirci 2015) (Resim 5 -6-7). Resim 5. Jean BaptisteVan Mour Galata Mevlevihanesi Resim 6. Fausto Zonaro Neyzen Resim 7. Fausto Zonaro, haykıran dervişler Tasavvufun dışında oluşan düşünce ve anlayışlarda sanat, eşyayı algılamak, eşyaya işlev yüklemek açısından bulunulan şartlara göre değişkenlik arzeder. Sanat anlayışlarında nesne, öznenin kontrolündedir. Sanatçı istediği şekilde nesneyi yorumlayıp biçim verebilmektedirEstetik ve sanat üzerindeçalışma yapanlar, sadece kendi anlayışları paralelinde yorum oluşturmaktadırlar. Bunun için şunu ifade edilmelidir ki, estetik ne psikolojik duyguların ne genel sanat anlayışının ne de bütün bu alanları içeren felsefenin kapsamı dâhilinde değildir. Sanat ve estetik, tüm düşüncelerin inanışların ve dinin kapsamı dâhilindedir. Bu anlamda estetik ve güzellik, “estetik, yalnız felsefî tavır alan bir kimse için bir şey ifade eder” 10 mantığıyla bakan felsefecilerin isavının dışında olan bir realitedir(Teknik, 2014, 497 ). İslam Plastik Sanatlarında Soyutlayıcı Yaklaşımlar ve Batı Sanatı Üzerindeki… 319 Turkish Studies Volume 13/2, Winter 2018 Modern sanat Modern sanatın gelişim sürecinde xx. yüzyıl sanatçısı, sürekli bir hareketlilik içinde soyutanlayışı aramış ona yönelmiştir. Aynı yüzyılda plastik sanatlarda biçimi ve yüzeyi parçalama eğilimi belirmiş eşyanın ana fonksiyonları görerek farklı yorumlarını irdelemişlerdir(Müller, 1972,75). (Resim 8). Resim 8. George Braque, Şişe ve Balıklar,61x75cm,1910 Tate Gallery / Londra - İngiltere Çalışmamıza konu olan modern sanat algısını anlayabilmek için, öncelikle modern- modernizm kavramlarını irdelemek gerekir. Köken olarak “modern” kelimesi Latince “modernus” kelimesinden türetilmiştir. Modern kelimesinin geç Latincedeki şekli olan "modernus", "hemen şimdi, tam, bugüne ait" anlamlarındaki "modo" zarfından türer. Modernus, ilk kez kullanıldığı V. yüzyıldan günümüzde işaret ettiği anlamına kadar farklı anlayışları ya da toplulukları ifade etmiştir. Hıristiyanlar, Romalı ve pagan geçmişten ayrı tutmak üzere kendilerini modernus diye adlandırırlar (Kızılçelik, 1994, 87). Ortak bir dünya görüşü ışığında gelişen İslam inancının içinde bulunduğumuz evreyi tanıma, yaşana günlük hayatı uyumlu kılan İslam sanatları batıyı da açıdan baktığımızda “batı sanatının en büyük özelliği, insanın Allah’a karşı mücadelesidir. Batıda insan yaptıklarıyla Allah’ın altında olmak istemez, o’na karşı adeta savaşır. Sanat da onun yarattığıdır. Batılı ressamlar büyük boyutlarda insan vücutlarını, kasları ve dokularıyla birlikte çizmişlerdir. İslâm’da ise, sanat ibadet gibidir. İnsana, tabiata bakışta Allah ile herhangi bir çatışma yoktur. Müslüman’ın yaratıcı olmak gibi herhangi bir iddiası yoktur’’ (Çetin,43). Gerçek olan şuki, sanatsal değerler ve etkinlikler insan ruhunu yücelterek dinginleştiren kılan, hoşgörü ve sevgiyle yoğuran motive edici bir etkiye sahiptirler. Arseven,1994, 1755-1756; Denilebilir ki sanat, din ile iç içe bir görünüm sergiler. Dinin kendisini anlatma, mesajını iletme yollarından birisi sanattır (Ökten, 2014, 28). İslam soyut sanat İslâm sanatı başlangıcından itibaren soyuta yönelmiştir. Bu nedenle geometrik formları tercih ederek doğadan aldığını bir nevi doğasızlaştırarak ortaya koymuştur. Bu durum yalnızca süsleme sanatına özgü değildir. Minyatür sanatını açıklamak için de bize gerekli olan doneleri sunmaktadır. İslam yazı sanatı hat, arabesk ve minyatür sanatlarının gelişmesini sadece "resim 320 Şemseddin DAĞLI Turkish Studies Volume 13/2, Winter 2018 yasağı" gibi puta tapmayı önleme amacı güden bir önleme bağlamak yanlıştır. Aslında İslâm dünyasında tasvir, yaygın olmamasına karşın hep var olmuştur. Soyuta yönelişin arkasındaki itici güç, yukarıda temas ettiğimiz tevhit ve tenzih prensipleri olmuştur( Aydın, 1987,237). Bu konuyla ilgili olarak verilebilecek en güzel örneklerden biride Hollandalı sanatçı M.C Escher’dir. M.C Escher 1922 yılındagerçekleştirdiği İspanya ziyareti esnasında gördüğü Alhamra Sarayı'nda alçı ve süslemelerden fazlasıyla etkilenmiş, ileriki dönem sanat hayatındaki baskılarının vazgeçilmez konularından birisi olarak biçimlenmiştir (Resim 9-10-11-12-13-14). Resim 9. Cordoba ulu camii Resim 10.Alhambra çinileri Resim 11,M.C.Escher mimari çizim Resim 10. M.C Escher, metamorfoz -Rotterdam İslam Plastik Sanatlarında Soyutlayıcı Yaklaşımlar ve Batı Sanatı Üzerindeki… 321 Turkish Studies Volume 13/2, Winter 2018 Resim 11 M.CEscher metamorfoz. Escher Museum, roterdam Resim 12. Elhamra Sarayı- Granada II. Dünya savaşının hemen ardından ortaya çıkan soyut sanat akımı, yüzyılın en büyük sanat olayıdır. Düşüncenin gerçekleşmesinden soyutlama yavaş yavaş oluşagelmiştir (Erdem,1963, 18). Soyutlamakonu üzerine eğilen farklı yazarlar tarafından terminolojik anlamda şu şekilde tanımlanmıştır. Bu yazarlardan John Louke’ye göre “soyutlama”, dış dünyaya ilişkin belirli nesnelerden belirli fikirleri alarak onları gerçek varoluştan (zaman, mekân) ayırır. ( genç-sipahioğlu 1990: 180) Soyut sanat olası tüm dış gerçekleri inkâr eden sade renk ve formlarla estetik duygular heyecanlar uyandırmayı hedefleyen bir kavramdır. Soyut sanat zihinsel bir vakadır. Tabiatın taklidi dışındadır. Devam eden bir sanat evriminin 20 yy’da ki görünüşüdür (Kınay 1993: 266.) (Resim 15). Resim 13. Robert Delaunay, Circular Forms (Formescirculaires) Soyut sanat yalnızca bir ressamın keyfi bir anlatım üslubu olmadığı için 20. yüzyılı kültürel, politik açılardan büyüteç altına almakta yarar vardır. Böyle bir ayrıştırmadan sonra bu sanatın dünyadaki sosyal dengesizliklere duyarsız kalamayan sanatçının süper güçlere karşı hiçliğini anlayarak kendi içine kapanması sonucu bakışlarını doğadan uzaklaştırmasını kendi içine çevirmesiyle ortaya çıkmış, bir iç çatışmadır (Büyükişleyen, 1978, 134). Soyut sanat pek çokları için garip üçgenler, kareler, ucubik şekillerden ibarettir. Gerek soyut sanat gerekse ”normal” sanatın ne olduğu, nasıl olması gerektiği konusunda Batıda yapılan tartışmalar asırlardır devam etmektedir. Ancak meselenin özüne inmek isterseniz bütün kavgaların iki noktada yoğunlaştığı görülür. Bunlardan ilki sanat görüneni taklit etmelidir, estetik prensipler kuralınca gerçekleşir. Diğeri ise sanat bir anlam içermez renk, şekil, ses, ritm vs. 322 Şemseddin DAĞLI Turkish Studies Volume 13/2, Winter 2018 amaç değil araçtır. Batı sanatçısı gerçekçi yaklaşımdan ayrılarak soyuta yönelmeye başlamış bir başka deyimle, soyut sanatçı Paul Klee’nin de söylediği gibi görünmeyeni görünür eylemenin yollarını araştırmıştır (Eti,1977, 28). Modern sanatın pek çok öncüsünün ortaya koydukları eserlerde Doğu ve eski Türk el sanatı örneklerinde olduğu gibi, sadelik, minimuma indirgeme, çoktlukta birlik, belirlginlik içinde belirsizlik gibi ilkelerin ön plana çıkmasıdır. Modern sanat akımlarının böylesine sentez ve deneme yolu ile sonuca gitme uğraşları, duygusal ve anlamlı eserlerin temelinde olması gereken bir özellik ve bir estetik zenginliktir. Bu anlamda resim sanatın gelişim süreçlerinde etkili olduğunu, bu öğelere yakın durarak çok daha yakın bakıp incelemek gerektiği düşünülmektedir (Bayramoğlu, 2016, 353). “Şüphesiz Modern Sanatın geniş çatısı altında, her toplumun kendine haslığını ve kültürel rengini koruyarak farklı seçenekler sunabilmesi olağan bir durumdur.” (Lynton 2004: 52-57). Kültürlerin başka kültürleri ve sanatlarını etkilemek gibi bir başka fonksiyonellikleri de vardır Bu bağlamda sanata baktığımızda modern resim sanatında haklı bir şekilde yer bırakanların halı ve kilimlerimizi görmemiş olduklarından bahsedemeyiz. Halıların daha 13. ve 14. yüzyıllarda Venedikli tüccarlarca Avrupa'ya yayıldığını, ünlü Alman ressam HansHolbein'in de 15. yüzyılda yaptığı resimlerindebir fon elemanı olarak kullandığı bilinmektedir. Sonraki yüzyıllarda batılı sanatçıların halı ve kilimlerle fazlaca ilgilenmişlerdir. Burada söz konusu olan sorun, hangi sanatçının hangi halıdan ya da kilimden nasıl faydalandığından öte modern sanatçıların kullandığı görsel anlatım unsurları veya düzenlemeler ile geleneksel kültürün ürünü Anadolu halı ve kilim örgeleri arasında çok yakın benzerliğe dikkat çekilmesidir ( Bingöl, 2014,72), (Resim 16-17). Resim 14. Afyon yöresi cicim yolluk (Şemseddin Dağlı kolleksiyonu) Resim 15. Paul Klee. Portale di una moschea İslam Plastik Sanatlarında Soyutlayıcı Yaklaşımlar ve Batı Sanatı Üzerindeki… 323 Turkish Studies Volume 13/2, Winter 2018 Resim 16. Afyon yöresi cicim kilim (Şemseddin Dağlı kolleksiyonu) Resim 17. Paul Klee_. Highwayand Byways [Hauptwegund Nebenwege] (1928)Museum Ludwig, Cologne 20. yüzyıl Modern Batı Resim sanatının öncülerinden Paul Klee, Doğu kültürü etkisini eserlerinde yansıtan ressamlardandır. Gençliğinde bir süre resim ve müzik arasında seçim yapmakta kararsız kalan Klee, tavrını resimden yana koyarken akademik resim kurallarına aykırı bir yol izlemiştir. Bu süre içerisinde farklı yönelimler içerisinde çelişkiler yaşayan sanatçının, 1914 yılında yaptığı Tunus seyahati yaşamı ve sanatında dönüm noktası olarak izlenir. Bu gezi sırasında sanatçı, Doğunun saf parlak renkleri ile ritim ve geometri ağırlıklı süslemelerini keşfeder. Ayrıca 1929’da yaptığı Mısır gezisi Klee’nin tüm sanat yaşamında etkili olduğu görülmektedir (Bayramoğlu, 2016,354), (Resim 20-21-22-23). 324 Şemseddin DAĞLI Turkish Studies Volume 13/2, Winter 2018 Resim 18. Paul Klee, Zitronen Resim 19. Paul Klee Castleand sun Sanatçıların özgür duruşlarını sergileyerek öze ulaşma çabalarının arttığı bir dönem olan birinci dünya savası sonrası özellikle Amerikalı sanatçıların ortaya koydukları eserlerde bu etkileşimin izleri görülmektedir. Özellikle halı ve kilimlerimizdeki örge motif dizaynı renk düzenleri bazı sanatçılara ilham vererek kullanılmıştır. İslâm inancına göre; “gerçek güzellik, nesnenin değişen niteliklerinde değil, değişmeyen özündedir. Bu öze ancak nesneyi sadeleştirip temel çizgilerini yakalamakla ulaşılabilir.” Adeta stilizasyonu anlatan bu tavır kültür dünyamızda sanatın, İslâmî inanç sistemi ile nasıl buluşup, beslendiğini açıkça ortaya koymaktadır (Birol, 2016,63). Sembolleşmiş olarak görülen motif-nesne sıralama yöntemi başta Manisa Gördes halıları olmak üzere, Anadolu halı ve kilimlerinde geleneksel olarak çeşitli şekillerde kullanılan bir yöntemdir. Afyon-Bayat yöresinde dokunan Türkmen gelini ile kaynana arasındaki kavgadan ismini alan, “örümcekli” kiliminde, görülen geleneksel motif-nesne sıralama yöntemi yıllardan beri günümüzdede aynı şekilde kullanılmaktadır. Kilimde ardışık bi şekilde tekrarlanan motiflerin içleri sıcak-soğuk renk düzeninde doldurulmuş bu sayede kompozisyona farklı bir hareketlilik kazandırılmıştır. Pop sanatın önde gelen temsilcisi Andy Warhol’un “Marilyn Monroe” adlı yapıtında da motif-nesne sıralama yöntemini benzer bir biçimde kullanıldığı görülmektedir. Soğuk- sıcak renklerle betimlenen Monroe’nun portesi, kilimde olduğu gibi, yan yana dizilerek bir istif düzeni içerisinde oluşturulmuştur. Sanatçı, motif sıralama yöntemini kullanarak, soğuk-sıcak renklerle betimlediği portrelerle, Monroe’nun değişken ruh hali izleyiciye hissettirmektedir (Bingöl,2014,70-71).(Resim 24-25) İslam Plastik Sanatlarında Soyutlayıcı Yaklaşımlar ve Batı Sanatı Üzerindeki… 325 Turkish Studies Volume 13/2, Winter 2018 Resim 22 Kayarevan kufisi Resim 23 Paul Klee in the Style of Kairouan1914. Resim 24Andy Warhol Marilyn Monroe, 1967 Resim 20. Afyon yöresi örümcekli kilim Klee resimlerinde, aldığı müzik eğitiminde de etkisi ile İslâm kültüründe tanıdığı nesnel gerçeği aramaya yönelerek müzikte olduğu gibi, resimde sadeleştirilmiş anlatımlara ulaşmak istemiştir. İslâm kültüründe var olan nesnel gerçek düşüncesini arayışa çıkan sadece Klee değildi. Bu sanatçılar arasında Matisse, Delaunay, Vassily, Kandinsky ve daha birçok döneminin ünlü ismi sayılabilir (Turani, 1960). Cezanne’nin (1839 1906), “doğa; küre, koni ve silindirden oluşur.” diyerek, doğayı yalın biçimlerde görmek isteği, daha sonraki kuşak tarafından benimsenip, kübizmde ifadesini bulmuştur. Wasily Kandinsky (1866-1944), Paul Klee (1879 1940) bunlarla da yetinmeyip, sanatta gerçeği arama çabasına girmişlerdi.11 nesnelerin görünümlerini resmetmek onlar için yeterli olmuyor, nesnel gerçeği arayarak soyut anlatıma ulaşmak istiyorlardı. Sanatçıların, sanatın kendi ifadesini arayışına yönelmeleri, 19. yüzyılın sonlarında sanatçıları yeni arayışlara yöneltti (Bingöl,2014,69). Soyut resmin önde gelen temsilcilerinden Wassily Kandinsky’nin çalışmalarını ele alacak olursak, her iki sanatta da bir renk uyumu bulunmaktadır Kandinsky’nin resimlerinde, boya lekeleri figüratif bir anlam içermeksizin tuval üzerine rastgele bir şekilde serpilmiştir (Kınay, 1993, 266),(Resim 26). 326 Şemseddin DAĞLI Turkish Studies Volume 13/2, Winter 2018 Resim 21. Wassily Kandinsky, Transverse Line 1923. Kandinskynin soyut sanatta kuramlar aradığı süreçte Klee’ de doğadaki denge ve ilişkinin armonilerini aramaktadır. Soyut resim sanatının öncülerinden Kandinsky “Doğa kendi biçimini kendi amaçları, sanat da kendi biçimini kendi amaçları için yaratır.” Anlayışı ile soyuta yönelmiştir (Büyük İşleyen, 1978,136). Dönemin bir başka ünlü sanatçısı Picasso Paris’te karşılaştığı Cezayir’li bir hattatın yapmış olduğu hat eserlerini görünce aynen söyle demiştir; “İşte gerçek resim bu.” sanatçı tanıdığı bu hat ustasından bir dönem dersler almış ve hat sanatına olan hayranlığını ileride şu sözlerle ifade etmiştir.” Batı’nın yüzyıllar boyu üzerinde durup peşinden koştuğu soyut ifadeyi hattatlar asırlar önce bularak çağın üstüne çıkmış ve en güzel örneklerini vermişlerdir. Benim varmak istediğim son noktayı, İslam yazısı çoktan bulmuş” (https://indigodergisi.com, 28 Kasım 2014), (Resim 27). Resim 22. Qur'anic Manuscript - Maghribi Burada Picasso’nun doğu hattatlığı diyerek tarif ettiği hattatlık, doğrudan doğruya Türk yazı sanatı olabilir. Çünkü Doğu’da Türkler’den başka hattat olan toplum yoktur. Anlaşılması güç olan İslam Plastik Sanatlarında Soyutlayıcı Yaklaşımlar ve Batı Sanatı Üzerindeki… 327 Turkish Studies Volume 13/2, Winter 2018 bir gerçekte şudur: hattatlık Picasso’nun zannettiği gibi, sadece nonfigüratif değil, hem figüratif hem de nonfigüratif olan bir sanattır. Türk hattatları batı soyut sanatçıları gibi yalnızca gerçeklerden kaçınmakla kalmamışlar, bu gerçeği anlatmışlardır. Resim sanatının geleceği hakkında sunmaya çalıştığımız örnekler bağlamında Picasso’yu bir diğer örnek olarak görmek olasıdır. Bu ressam, geleneksel Afrika maskelerinden esinlenerek Kübizm akımının temel değerlerini prensiplerini ortaya koyarak 20. asrın başlarında resim sanatında yepyeni bir hava estirmiştir. Georges Braque ile birlikte başlattıkları kübizm akımı sanat tarihinde silinmez derin bir iz bırakmıştır. Bu resim anlayışının temelinde ise bazı doğu etkilerinin yattığı söylenebilir. Bir defasında, Picasso, bir Türk hat sanatı eserini görüp “işte gerçek soyut resim budur” dediği söylenir. Doğu sanat anlayışının kökünde tasavvufun yerini, rolünü ve etkisini kabul etmiş olursak, bu manevi cevherlerle dolu engin deryanın verebileceği ilhamların tükenmeyeceğini diyebilmekteyiz. Tasavvufa dayanan sanatçı, bilgeliğe ermiş bir zat oluverir. Tasavvuf sayesinde yeniliğe olan kapılar hep açık kalacaktır. Vurgulamak istediğim husus, tasavvufun sanatta yol gösterici bir rehber olması için gereken her şeyi içinde barındırmasıdır. Bu ise yalnız sanatta değil, hayatın her sahasında geçerli olmalıdır. Sanatta gerçek avangard olmak bugün artık çok zor. Muhyiddin i Arabi’nin dediği gibi “söylenmemiş söz kalmadı”. Ancak Mevlana diyor ki: “yeni şeyler söylemek lazım”. Sanatta tekrarlamanın “bir âlemi yok”. Sanatımızın geleceğiyle kafa yormak vazgeçilmez bir merakımdır. Yaşatıldığımız tüm bu savaş rüzgârlarına rağmen sanata sarılalım diyorum. Asıl uğraşlara hayatımızı adamak (kaderimiz Picasso ve tasavvuf, Rıfat emin). Son yüzyılın Avrupalı sanatçılarında bir takım izmler akımlar belirginleşmiş ve bunlardan dönem ve üslup açmış Picasso, Miro, Kandinsky, Klee, Hartung gibi bazı dev sanatçıların bizim geleneksel kültürümüzün ürünleri hat minyatür ebru halı kilim gibi plastik ve simgesel boyutu yüksek sanatlarımızı karakterize ederek kullandıkları gözlemlenmektedir (Resim 28, 29). Resim 23. Joan Miro Les Grandes Manoeuvres Resim 24. Hans Hartung, Untitled 1938 Kültürün önemli belirtilerinden olan bazı im ve işaretlerin başka biçimlerde başka sanatlarda plastik ifadeler bulması çağlar boyu sanatçıların ortak güdüsü olmuştur. Burada anlaşılması gerekense bu kültürel alıntıların doğrudan direk değil yorumlanarak kendi anlayışlarına göre işlenmesi sonucudur. Din-Sanat ilişkisi Sanat, özü itibariyle değil ancak yapıtları noktasında 328 Şemseddin DAĞLI Turkish Studies Volume 13/2, Winter 2018 psikolojik bir inceleme konusu olabilir. Sanatın özde ne olduğu sorusu psikolojinin alanını aşan bir durumdur. Benzer şekilde din de, esas itibariyle kendi fenomenolojisini oluşturan, kendine özgü coşku ve simgeleriyle öz olarak psikoloji tarafından tam olarak açıklanamayan bir olgudur. En nihayetinde din ve sanat, her ikisi de öz olarak bilim olmadığı gibi ancak kendilerine özgü nesnelerle açıklanabilirler. Sanatçı ile yapıtı arsındaki ilişki sanatçının yetiştiği ortam, şartlar bilinmeden tam olarak anlaşılamaz (Jung, 2006, 308-309). SONUÇ VE ÖNERİLER Geçtiğimiz yüzyılda yenilik arayan batı sanatçısı o güne kadar gelenin dışında farklı arayış ve betimlemelerle farklı üsluplar oluşturmuştur. Bu arayış dönemlerinde kendi içlerinde kalmayıp yüzünü doğuya çeviren bir takım batılı sanatçılar modernizm serüvenindeki mihenk taşlarını doğu İslam sanatlarında bulmuşlardır. Bu optikten bakıldığında 20 yy. sanatı oluşturulurken batının doğu sanatından etkilendiği gerçeği sanatçıların ortaya koyduğu eserler ve anlatımlarında belirgindir. Rasyonalist bir yaklaşımla eserini ortaya koyarken batılı sanatçı doğu sanatlarını taklit etmeden ama form dili bakımından farklı bir boyuta taşıdığı gözlemlenmektedir. Doğu İslam dünyası motifleri batılı sanatçı elinde çağın gereklerine uygun form ve biçimlerde plastiğe bürünmüş sosyokültürel olgular halindedir. Çağdaş toplumların pek çoğunda yöresel folklorik değerler ve geleneksel sanatlar yeni yorumlar ve sonuçlarla farklı boyutlarda görünüşe ulaşır. Konumuz dâhilinde ele aldığımız batılı soyut sanatçıların bu yöndeki sanat anlayışına yönelerek esinlendikleri bilinmektedir. Örnekler içinde yer alan Picasso, Paul Klee, Hans Hartung, Piette Mondrian, Joan Miro gibi sanatçıların eserlerinde bu esinlenmeyi görmek mümkündür. Bu doğu İslam sanatlarının biçimsel ve anlam zenginliğinin plastik bir görünüşünün bir göstergesidir. Çalışmada metinlerde ve resimlerde ortaya koymaya çalıştığımız, günümüz batı sanatı özellikle batılı resimler ve doğu İslam sanatı örneklerine karşılaştırmalı olarak bakıldığında özellikle İslam sanatlarından oldukça etkilenildiği gözlemlenir. Burada soyut sanatın önemli temsilcilerinden Paul Klee ve Piette Mondrian sürrealizmin güçlü temsilcisi Miro, kübizmin önemli temsilcisi Pablo Picasso, Hollandalı Escherin çalışmalarındaki etkileşimleri net bir şekilde gözlemlenmektedir. Yapılan incelememiz sonucunda elde ettiğimiz karşılaştırmalı sonuçlarda İslam yazı sanatının Hurufilik inançları dâhilinde ele alınan ürünleri yazı resimler Gerek ön yapı ( renk biçim form e espas denge vd.) şekilden yön espas kompozisyon vb. açılardan benzerlikler teşkil etmektedir. Bunların yanı sıra bilinç dışı salt hayal ve mistik inanışlar çerçevesinde gelişen gerçeküstü ifadeler ve anlamlar taşıdığı gözlemlenmiştir. Sürrealizmin temel dayanaklarından hayali betimlemeler İslam yazı resimlerinde de farklı boyutlarda ve şekillerde tezahür etmektedir. İslam da resim yasağının yeterince anlaşılamayıp kavranamaması sonucunda İslam sanatının özünde bulunan soyutlayıcı eğilimler Batılı sanatçının aksine pentür geleneğinden uzak duran İslam sanatçısı elindeki malzemeyle gerçeğin ötesindeki sürre el anlatımları düşünsel bir çağrışımla bazen şiirsel, basende tılsımlı bir ifade metni olarak form etrafında görünüşe ulaştırmıştır. Bu kompozisyon düzeni İslam hat sanatçısı tarafından kimi zaman zahiri bir sır kimi zamanda bir yol gösterici olarak düşsel anlatımlara ulaşmıştır. Her ülke sanatçısı kendi mitlerinden kendi doğasından ve kültüründen beslenmektedir. Plastik anlamda ya da diğer sanatlarımızda olsun eserler ve kompozisyonlar oluşturulurken öz değerler ön planda tutulmalı hareket noktası buradan seçilmeli buradan beslenerek çalışmalar yapılmalıdır. Batılı sanatçının tüm değerlerini tüketerek yüzünü bozulmamış doğu ve İslam dünyasına ve kültürüne çevirdiği günümüzde bize düşen kendi içimizden ve benliğimizden hareketle kültürel değerlerimizi çağdaş yorumlamalarla sunmaktır. Çağdaşlaşmak kendinden kopmak değil çağla bütünleşen ama bozulmayan bir yorumu yakalamaktan geçer. İslam Plastik Sanatlarında Soyutlayıcı Yaklaşımlar ve Batı Sanatı Üzerindeki… 329 Turkish Studies Volume 13/2, Winter 2018 KAYNAKÇA Arseven, C.E., (1994). “Sanat Ansiklopedisi”, C. IV, 1755-1756, İstanbul. Aydın, M., (1987).“Din Felsefesi”, 237, İzmir. Bayramoğlu, M., (2016). “20.Yüzyıl Modern Batı Resim Sanatında Geleneksel Türk Sanatı Örneklerinin Etkisi”,Sobider Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, Yıl: 3, Sayı: 6, 351-366,Mart. Bingöl, Y. (2014).“İslam ve Modern Sanat” İslam Ve Sanat. Tartışmalı İlmi Toplantı 07-09 Kasım 2014 Akdeniz Üniversitesi Antalya. Birol, İ. A. (2016). “Sanat ve Çizgilerin Dili” İsmek El Sanatları Dergisi, Sayı 22. Büyükişleyen, M. Z. (1978). Sanat Eserlerini İnceleme. Ankara: Yaygın Yüksek Öğretim Kurumu. Can, Y., Gün, R. (2012). İslam Sanatına Giriş (2. Baskı). Dem Yayınları, İstanbul. Coşkun, İ. (2014).“İslam Sanatının Gelişmesini Engelleyen Kelami Yorumlar” İslam Ve Sanat Tartışmalı İlmi Toplantı, 7-9 Kasım, (Yayımlanmış Bildiri Kitabı) Antalya. Comaraswamy, A. K. (1995). “Sanatın Tabiatındaki Başkalaşım”, (Çev. Nejat Özdemiroğlu), İnsan Yayınları, İstanbul. Çetin, M. “İslâm Sanatının Yeniden Teşekkülü”, Adım Yayıncılık, İstanbul. Demirci, M. (2015). “Resim Sanatında Mevleviler”, Yeni Asır Gazetesi, 7.12.2015. Erdem, S. (1963). “Modern Sanat”, Türkiye Basımevi, İstanbul. Eti, S. (1977). “Soyut Resim Ve Ebru”, Türkiye’miz Kültür Ve Sanat Dergisi, 23, 28-32. Gombrich, E. H, Çev. Bedrettin Cömert, Sanatın Öyküsü, S. 443-475. Jung, C. G. (2006). “Analitik Psikoloji”, (Çev.) Ender Gürol ( 2. Baskı). Payel Yayınevi, İstanbul. Kara, M. (1999).“Din Hayat Sanat Açısından Tekkeler Ve Zaviyeler”, Dergâh Yayınları, İstanbul, 187. Kınay, C. (1993). Sanat Tarihi. Ankara: Kültür Bakanlığı. Kızılçelik, S. (1994). “Postmodernizm: ‘Modernlik Projesine’ Bir Başkaldırı”, Türkiye Günlüğü, Sayı: 30, S. 87. Köksal, A. “Türk Ve İslam Dünyasında El Yazması Hat Ve Tasvir Sanatı”. Milliyet Sanat Dergisi, S.102(Ağustos 1984), 31-33.). Lynton, N. (2004 ) “Modern Sanatın Öyküsü”, Remzi Kitabevi, Üçüncü Baskı, İstanbul. Müller, J. E. (1972). “Modern Sanat”. (Çev.) Mehmet Toprak, Remzi Kitabevi,İstanbul. Ökten, S. (2014). “Fincanımda Kola Var”, Tuti Kitap, İstanbul. Paul K. (1971). BildnerischeDenken, Basel/Bümtiz. S. 15-19. Pişkin, Y. (2014). “Din Sanat Bağlamında Dini Tecrübenin Sanat Ruhuna Etkisi”, İslam ve Sanat, Tartışmalı İlmi Toplantı 07-09 Kasım 2014 Akdeniz Üniversitesi Antalya. Teknik, A. 2014). “Tasavvufi Perspektifte Nesnedeki Sanat Ve Estetik Algısı”, İslam ve Sanat, Tartışmalı İlmi Toplantı 07-09 Kasım 2014 Akdeniz Üniversitesi Antalya. Tolstoy, L. N. (1996). “Sanat Nedir”,(Çev.) Baran Dural, Şule Yayınları. İstanbul. Turani, A. (1960).“Modern Resim Sanatının Gerçek Çehresi”, Ankara. Yakutcan, A., Ömür, C. (1989).İslam’da Resim, Heykel Ve Musiki, Nil Yayınevi, İzmir. 330 Şemseddin DAĞLI Turkish Studies Volume 13/2, Winter 2018 İNTERNET KAYNAKLARI Müslim, İ. 147. 49 Ebu Dâvûd, Edâhî, 11 www.Yenibalkan.Com/Kose-Yazilari/Picasso-Ve-Tasavvuf-H6082.Html, 29 Mart 2016 Salı 13:51yeni Balkan, https://İndigodergisi.Com › 28 Kasım 2014 Kaderimiz picasso ve Tasavvuf Rifat Emin 29 Mart 2016 Salı 13:51Yeni Balkan www.Yenibalkan.Com/Kose-Yazilari/Picasso-Ve-Tasavvuf-H6082.Html Sabah Gazetesi, Hat Sanatına İlgi Azaldı Kültür Sanat Haberleri: 14.11.2014 10:35 http://www.yenibalkan.com/Kose-Yazilari/Picasso-Ve-Tasavvuf-H6082.Html https://www.google.com.tr/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=85&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwjSi7TT7cDVAhWC7RQKHU0BBy44UBAWCDwwBA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.yenibalkan.com%2Fkose-yazilari%2Fpicasso-ve-tasavvuf-h6082.html&usg=AFQjCNEsmIJB-FW1N4UzC4ERC1rkU5-8qg https://www.google.com.tr/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=85&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwjSi7TT7cDVAhWC7RQKHU0BBy44UBAWCDwwBA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.yenibalkan.com%2Fkose-yazilari%2Fpicasso-ve-tasavvuf-h6082.html&usg=AFQjCNEsmIJB-FW1N4UzC4ERC1rkU5-8qg http://www.sabah.com.tr/kultur-sanat 
work_3p2ettibkvcq3mm5kvl25a6a34	----	[PDF] What Paint Can Tell Us: A Fractal Analysis of Neurological Changes in Seven Artists | Semantic Scholar Skip to search formSkip to main content> Semantic Scholar's Logo Search Sign InCreate Free Account You are currently offline. Some features of the site may not work correctly. DOI:10.1037/neu0000303 Corpus ID: 36622486What Paint Can Tell Us: A Fractal Analysis of Neurological Changes in Seven Artists @article{Forsythe2017WhatPC, title={What Paint Can Tell Us: A Fractal Analysis of Neurological Changes in Seven Artists}, author={A. Forsythe and T. Williams and R. Reilly}, journal={Neuropsychology}, year={2017}, volume={31}, pages={1–10} } A. Forsythe, T. Williams, R. Reilly Published 2017 Psychology, Medicine Neuropsychology Objective: The notion that artistic capability increases with dementia is both novel and largely unsupported by available literature. Recent research has suggested an emergence of artistic capabilities to be a by-product of involuntary behaviour seen with dementia, as opposed to a progression in original thinking (de Souza, et al., 2010). A far more complementary explanation comes from Hannemann (2006), who suggests that art offers an outlet for dementia patients to refine and sharpen their… Expand View on Wolters Kluwer mural.maynoothuniversity.ie Save to Library Create Alert Cite Launch Research Feed Share This Paper 18 CitationsBackground Citations 4 Results Citations 1 View All Figures, Tables, and Topics from this paper figure 1 table 1 figure 2 figure 3 figure 4 figure 5 figure 6 figure 7 figure 8 figure 9 View All 10 Figures & Tables Dementia Neurodegenerative Disorders nervous system disorder Linguistics Index Body of uterus Aging Mental Suffering Paper Mentions Blog Post Can paint strokes help identify Alzheimer’s? PsyPost 1 January 2017 Blog Post Paintings Reveal Signs of Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s in Famous Artists 3quarksdaily 31 December 2016 Blog Post Paintings Reveal Signs of Alzheimer's and Parkinson's In Famous Artists Slashdot 30 December 2016 News Article Famous artworks showed early signs of disease: study Health Medicinet 29 December 2016 News Article Famous artworks showed early signs of disease, say study The Malay Mail Online 29 December 2016 News Article Can paint strokes help identify Alzheimer’s? Health Medicinet 29 December 2016 Blog Post Paintings reveal early signs of cognitive decline, claims study Science news, comment and analysis | theguardian.com 29 December 2016 18 Citations Citation Type Citation Type All Types Cites Results Cites Methods Cites Background Has PDF Publication Type Author More Filters More Filters Filters Sort by Relevance Sort by Most Influenced Papers Sort by Citation Count Sort by Recency Painting in Neurology B. Piechowski-Jóźwiak, J. Bogousslavsky Psychology 2020 Save Alert Research Feed A Complex Story: Universal Preference vs. Individual Differences Shaping Aesthetic Response to Fractals Patterns N. Street, Alexandra Forsythe, R. Reilly, R. Taylor, M. Helmy Psychology, Medicine Front. Hum. Neurosci. 2016 23 PDF View 1 excerpt, cites background Save Alert Research Feed Parkinson’s disease and changes in the appreciation of art: A comparison of aesthetic and formal evaluations of paintings between PD patients and healthy controls Jon O. Lauring, Matthew Pelowski, Eva Specker, T. Ishizu, R. Kupers Psychology, Medicine Brain and Cognition 2019 PDF Save Alert Research Feed A shared fractal aesthetic across development Kelly E. Robles, Nicole A. Liaw, R. P. Taylor, D. Baldwin, M. Sereno Computer Science 2020 PDF Save Alert Research Feed Statistical Image Properties in Works from the Prinzhorn Collection of Artists with Schizophrenia Gudrun Maria Henemann, A. Brachmann, C. Redies Art, Medicine Front. Psychiatry 2017 1 View 1 excerpt, cites background Save Alert Research Feed Why would Parkinson’s disease lead to sudden changes in creativity, motivation, or style with visual art?: A review of case evidence and new neurobiological, contextual, and genetic hypotheses Jon O. Lauring, T. Ishizu, Hana H. Kutlikova, Felix Dörflinger, Matthew Pelowski Psychology, Medicine Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews 2019 1 Save Alert Research Feed The Implications of Fractal Fluency for Biophilic Architecture R. P. Taylor, Arthur Juliani, A. Bies, C. Boydston, B. Spehar, M. E. Serenob Computer Science 2017 3 PDF View 1 excerpt, cites background Save Alert Research Feed A healthy dose of chaos: Using fractal frameworks for engineering higher-fidelity biomedical systems. A. Korolj, H. Wu, M. Radisic Medicine Biomaterials 2019 7 Save Alert Research Feed Neurodegenerative Diseases and Changes in Artistic Expression M. Filippi, Noemi Piramide, Sarasso Elisabetta, F. Agosta Psychology 2020 Save Alert Research Feed Analysis on Artist Neuropsychology and Art Creation Yaqi Huang Psychology, Medicine Translational neuroscience 2019 PDF Save Alert Research Feed ... 1 2 ... References SHOWING 1-10 OF 49 REFERENCES SORT BYRelevance Most Influenced Papers Recency Changes in painting styles of two artists with Alzheimer's disease. B. Buren, B. Bromberger, Daniel C. Potts, B. Miller, A. Chatterjee Psychology 2013 17 PDF View 1 excerpt, references background Save Alert Research Feed Biophilic fractals and the visual journey of organic screen-savers. R. Taylor, J. Sprott Psychology, Medicine Nonlinear dynamics, psychology, and life sciences 2008 39 PDF View 1 excerpt, references methods Save Alert Research Feed A Complex Story: Universal Preference vs. Individual Differences Shaping Aesthetic Response to Fractals Patterns N. Street, Alexandra Forsythe, R. Reilly, R. Taylor, M. Helmy Psychology, Medicine Front. Hum. Neurosci. 2016 23 PDF View 1 excerpt, references methods Save Alert Research Feed Lifeworks: Art movements S. Pinker Medicine 2002 6 View 1 excerpt, references background Save Alert Research Feed Memory and the creation of art: the syndrome, as in de Kooning, of 'creating in the midst of dementia'. C. Espinel Psychology, Medicine Frontiers of neurology and neuroscience 2007 7 Save Alert Research Feed Creativity with Dementia Patients Beat Ted Hannemann Psychology, Medicine Gerontology 2006 59 PDF View 2 excerpts, references background Save Alert Research Feed The Assessment of Art Attributes A. Chatterjee, Page Widick, Rebecca Sternschein, W. B. Smith, B. Bromberger Psychology 2010 80 PDF View 1 excerpt, references background Save Alert Research Feed Frontal lobe neurology and the creative mind L. C. de Souza, H. Guimarães, +4 authors E. Volle Psychology, Medicine Front. Psychol. 2014 34 Save Alert Research Feed Predicting beauty: fractal dimension and visual complexity in art. A. Forsythe, M. Nadal, N. Sheehy, C. J. Cela-Conde, M. Sawey Psychology, Medicine British journal of psychology 2011 143 PDF Save Alert Research Feed Dementia with Lewy bodies and the neurobehavioral decline of Mervyn Peake. D. Sahlas Psychology, Medicine Archives of neurology 2003 20 PDF View 2 excerpts, references background Save Alert Research Feed ... 1 2 3 4 5 ... Related Papers Abstract Figures, Tables, and Topics Paper Mentions 18 Citations 49 References Related Papers Stay Connected With Semantic Scholar Sign Up About Semantic Scholar Semantic Scholar is a free, AI-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the Allen Institute for AI. 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work_3pw5b7cyzrg3tmmr4cxandl7oe	----	Nanorestart: Nanomaterials for the restoration of works of art Baglioni et al. Herit Sci (2021) 9:5 https://doi.org/10.1186/s40494-020-00477-x E D I TO R I A L Nanorestart: Nanomaterials for the restoration of works of art P. Baglioni*, D. Chelazzi and R. Giorgi © The Author(s) 2021. This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creat iveco mmons .org/licen ses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creat iveco mmons .org/publi cdoma in/ zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data. Cultural Heritage (CH) represents a fundamental soci- etal, ethical and economical resource, and a driver for education and social inclusion. To grant these benefits, however, CH assets need to be preserved and accessible. In particular, the conservation of modern and contem- porary works of art requires advanced solutions at the cutting edge of modern chemistry and material science. Works from this era often display mixed media and mate- rials derived from the industry that were not conceive to last long, as well as substrates with enhanced sensitive- ness to water and organic solvents. Just to mention few examples, restoring modern/contemporary painted art can prove challenging when it comes to remove soiling deposited on the paint surfaces, especially in the case of works that are not varnished; the canvasses of the paint- ings can also become fragile by oxidative and acid-cata- lyzed degradation reactions; besides, tapes and adhesives on contemporary artifacts are difficult to remove owing to degradation processes and to the intrinsic sensitive- ness of paper, inks and dyes; finally, outdoor sculptures and mural paintings are exposed to the progressively more adverse conditions caused by concerning climate changes. In response to these challenges, the EU funded H2020 NANORESTART project (NANOmaterials for the RES- toration of works of ART) developed nano- and advanced functionalized materials to ensure long-term protection and security of modern/contemporary CH, taking into account environmental and human risks, feasibility and materials costs. The newly developed tools and materials represent a breakthrough in cultural heritage and con- servation science, and focus on: (i) tools for controlled cleaning, such as highly-retentive gels for the confine- ment of cleaning fluids based on “green” surfactants and solvents; (ii) the strengthening and protection of surfaces by using nanocontainers, nanoparticles and supramolec- ular systems/assemblies; (iii) nanostructured substrates and sensors for enhanced molecules detection; (iv) evalu- ation of the environmental impact and the development of security measures for long lasting conservation of cul- tural heritage. Within the project the industrial scalability of the developed materials has been demonstrated. NANORESTART involved 27 partners from 11 coun- tries, between 2015 and 2018. In a holistic approach to conservation, the project gathered centers of excellence in the field of synthesis and characterization of nano- materials, world leading chemical Industries and SMEs operating in R&D, and International and European cent- ers for conservation, education and museums. Such cent- ers assessed the new materials on modern/contemporary artifacts in urgent need of conservation, and dissemi- nated the knowledge and the new nanomaterials among conservators on a worldwide perspective. The new solutions, based on green chemistry, have been used to restore masterpieces by Pablo Picasso, Jackson Pollock, Roy Lichtenstein, Eva Hesse, Giorgio de Chirico, Lucio Fontana, Jean Dubuffet, and others. Extensive dissemina- tion and training on the new products were carried out, both in the EU and worldwide, and some of the project products are already available on the market. In this collection we group a selection of ten papers to illustrate the highlights of the projects. The selected papers are mainly related (but not limited) to the conser- vation of easel paintings, as the latter represent one of the most iconic classes of CH objects worldwide. Open Access *Correspondence: piero.baglioni@unifi.it Consorzio Interuniversitario Per Lo Sviluppo Dei Sistemi a Grande Interfase (Center for Colloid and Surface Science), CSGI, and Chemistry Department, University of Florence, Via della Lastruccia 3, Sesto Fiorentino, 50019 Florence, Italy http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/ http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/ http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1186/s40494-020-00477-x&domain=pdf Page 2 of 5Baglioni et al. Herit Sci (2021) 9:5 An inclusive review article [1] reports on up-to-date advances on oil painting cleaning, discussing models to predict swelling or solubility of varnishes and paints, and proposing a framework for experimental and theoretical investigations into solvent transport in oil paints. Recent developments in solvent- and water-based cleaning for- mulations are also outlined. Three papers [2–4] present then case studies where newly developed cleaning systems, based on retentive hydrogels, were used to remove soiling or detrimen- tal varnishes from the surface of masterpieces by Pablo Picasso, Roy Lichtenstein and Eva Hesse. The Picasso case study involved the evaluation of recently developed gels made of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) “twin-chain” poly- mer networks (TC-PNs), which were combined with an oil-in-water (o/w) nanostructured fluid (NSF) for the removal of a non-original varnish and wax layers from the surface of Picasso’s “L’Atelier” (1928, Peggy Guggehn- heim Collection, Venice) [2]. An extensive physico- chemical characterization of the combined TC-PNs-NSF system clarified that the fluid is partially free to diffuse through the network, but also interacts with the gel walls; during the cleaning, the dynamics of the fluid at the gel- artifact interface are controlled by the osmotic balance among the interconnected pores of the gel. These features provided space- and time-controlled cleaning action, allowing the removal of the varnish and wax layers, and restoring the integrity of this masterpiece without risks for the original paints (Fig.  1). Moving to another iconic work, Roy Lichtenstein’s Whaam! (1963, Tate London) had accrued a layer of soiling deposited over almost 50  years of continuous display, which was affecting the aesthetic look of this masterpiece. The paper by Bartoletti et al. [3] outlines the design and execution of an optimal cleaning strategy for what came in as a highly challeng- ing intervention. Starting with technical and historical investigation on the original artifact’s materials, the pro- cess involved iterative steps following a decision-making approach, which eventually comprised the evaluation of several established and novel cleaning systems tested on representative mock-ups. The optimized cleaning strat- egy included the use of PVA-based TC-PNs uploaded with tailored aqueous solutions, leading to controlled and homogeneous removal of the soiling (Fig.  2), and marked the first successful treatment in the history of this Lichtenstein painting. A similar systematic approach and iterative evaluation was followed for the cleaning of Eva Hesse’s sculpture Addendum (1967, Tate Collection Fig. 1 Pablo Picasso, The Studio (“L’Atelier”), 1928, Peggy Guggenheim Collection, Venice (The Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation, New York), before (left) and after (right) the cleaning carried out with TC-PN hydrogels loaded with the o/w NSF. ©Succession Picasso, by SIAE 2020 Page 3 of 5Baglioni et al. Herit Sci (2021) 9:5 T02394) [4]. After extensive testing, the surface of the artifact’s top papier mâché was cleaned applying an aque- ous solution with cosmetic sponges, while the sculpture ropes were cleaned using tailored formulations of hydro- gels based on networks of PVA semi-interpenetrated with polyvinyl pyrrolidone (PVP), so as to obtain low-risk and effective recovery of the artifact’s aesthetics (Fig. 3). The conservation of the supports of painted artifacts is also addressed, as illustrated by three papers included in the selection [5–7]. The first paper reports on the devel- opment and evaluation of sustainable treatments for the consolidation of canvasses in modern and contemporary art [5]. Namely, both polar and nonpolar formulations were developed by mixing deacidification agents (sub- µm-particles of calcium carbonate or magnesium oxide) with either polar (hydroxyethyl methyl cellulose and nanocrystalline cellulose) or nonpolar components (syli- lated cellulose), and using water or heptane as dispers- ing media. The application of these products to aged and degraded canvas showed good increase of breaking force with only low mass uptake and slight optical changes. The deacidification results in the deposition of an alka- line reserve that prevents recurring degradation. The second paper evaluates consolidants and deacidifying agents based on different nanoparticles (silica, calcium carbonate, magnesium oxide, cellulose nanofibrils and cellulose nanocrystals) as compared to traditional prod- ucts, monitoring color, gloss and pH changes [6]. The best performing novel formulations were those based on calcium carbonate, magnesium oxide and cellulose nanocrystals. Cellulose nanofibrils are also promising consolidants given their physico-chemical compatibility with painting canvasses. The authors of the third paper carried out the systematic mechanical assessment of consolidants for canvas reinforcement under controlled environment [7]. The newly developed consolidant based on nanofibrillated cellulose (CNF) was compared to com- monly used natural and synthetic adhesives, checking the visual appearance, consolidation effect, and response of the mechanical properties of the treated canvases to programmed changes in relative humidity (RH). The consolidants form bridges between the cotton fibers, whereas the CNF treatment formed a visible continuous and dense surface coating. No significant color change was observed. Treatment with CNF produced a higher value of Young’s modulus than the traditional products. Besides, the dynamic mode mechanical testing showed that the nanofibrillated cellulose treatment led to the highest variation in storage (or elastic) modulus meas- ured at the end of RH plateaux (20 and 80% RH). These results candidate CNF as a promising material for the consolidation of canvasses. Moving to different types of artistic substrates, a paper by Mirabile et  al. provides a critical overview and expansion on the use of two novel methodologies for the removal of pressure sensitive tapes (PSTs), which employ different cleaning fluids loaded into retentive gels [8]. Essentially, hydrogels loaded with an o/w NSF and organogels loaded with a green alkyl carbonate solvent represent two complementary approaches that altogether allow the removal of different classes of tapes from sen- sitive paper artworks. Thanks to the retentiveness of the Fig. 2 Roy Lichtenstein’s Whaam! during cleaning. The difference between the left (cleaned) and right (yet to be cleaned) panels is evident. Photo ©Tate 2017; ©The estate of Roy Lichtenstein Page 4 of 5Baglioni et al. Herit Sci (2021) 9:5 gels, both methods permit selective PST removal without uncontrolled inks bleeding or matter transport through the paper matrix. An inclusive assessment was carried out on four completely different paper artworks, where the new formulations proved to be versatile tools to either remove aged PSTs or re-adhere detackified tapes that were part of the original artwork. The protection of metal surfaces is addressed in a paper by da Conceicão et  al., which evaluated the potential of a hybrid system made by an imidazolium salt (as an anticorrosion additive) and chitosan-based coatings for the protection of copper-based alloys [9]. The best per- formances under accelerated corrosion conditions were exhibited by a combination of the imidazolium salt with benzotriazole (whose toxicity is decreased by confine- ment into the chitosan matrix), which granted optimal protective efficacy of the bronze surface without chang- ing the metal appearance. Finally, advanced detection tools for the analy- sis of modern artworks are discussed in a paper by Aylami et  al. [10]. Surface Enhanced Raman Scatter- ing (SERS) is a powerful tool for the identification of dyes, but its application in real case studies is limited by its inherent invasiveness and the need of extract- ing samples. Instead, the paper proposes non-invasive transparent SERS probes fabricated by self-assembly of Ag nanoparticles into glass and polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) surfaces. SERS measurements can be carried out directly on selected surfaces using these probes, which are then removed with no contamination of the surfaces. Identification of dyes on a ballpoint drawing and a Japanese woodblock print confirmed the poten- tial of this diagnostic methodology. Overall, the selection of papers demonstrates a pal- ette of new exciting and sustainable tools for the res- toration and analysis of modern and contemporary artifacts, opening new perspectives and setting new standards in the field of CH preservation. Acknowledgements All NANORESTART partners are gratefully acknowledged for their contribution to the project results. The European Union Horizon 2020 project NANORE- START (Nanomaterials for the Restoration of Works of Art), under the Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme Grant Agreement 646063, is grate- fully acknowledged for the financial support. The authors also acknowledge Richard Brereton and Matthew Smyllie for their support and assistance during the editing and production of this issue. Fig. 3 Eva Hesse’s Addendum after cleaning and on display at Tate Modern. Photo Tate, July 2018 © The estate of Eva Hesse, courtesy Hauser & Wirth, Zürich Page 5 of 5Baglioni et al. Herit Sci (2021) 9:5 Authors’ contributions All authors contributed equally to the writing of this manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Funding The research carried out in NANORESTART (Nanomaterials for the Restoration of Works of Art) has received funding from the European Union under the Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme Grant Agreement 646063. Availability of data and materials Not applicable. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Received: 15 December 2020 Accepted: 18 December 2020 References 1. Baij L, Hermans J, Ormsby B, Noble P, Iedema P, Keune K. A review of solvent action on oil paint. Herit Sci. 2020;8:43. 2. Pensabene Buemi L, Petruzzellis ML, Chelazzi D, Baglioni M, Mastrangelo R, Giorgi R, Baglioni P. Twin-chain polymer networs loaded with nano- structured fluids for the removal of a non-original varnish from Picasso’s “L’Atelier” at the Peggy Guggenheim Collection. Venice Herit Sci. 2020;8:77. 3. Bartoletti A, Barker R, Chelazzi D, Bonelli N, Baglioni P, Lee J, Angelova LV, Ormsby B. Reviving WHAAM! a comparative evaluation of cleaning sys- tems for the conservation treatment of Roy Lichtenstein’s iconic painting. Herit Sci. 2020;8:9. 4. Bartoletti A, Maor T, Chelazzi D, Bonelli N, Baglioni P, Angelova LV, Ormsby B. Facilitating the conservation treatment of Eva Hesse’s Addendum through practice-based research, including a comparative evaluation of novel cleaning systems. Herit Sci. 2020;8:35. 5. Böhme N, Anders M, Rechelt T, Schuhmann K, Bridarolli A, Chevalier A. New treatments for canvas consolidation and conservation. Herit Sci. 2020;8:16. 6. Oriola-Folch M, Campo-Francés G, Nualart-Torroja A, Ruiz-Recases C, Bautista-Morenilla I. Novel nanomaterials to stabilize the canvas sup- port of paintings assessed from a conservator’s point of view. Herit Sci. 2020;8:23. 7. Bridarolli A, Nualart-Torroja A, Chevalier A, Odlyha M, Bozec L. Systematic mechanical assessment of consolidants for canvas reinforcement under controlled environment. Herit Sci. 2020;8:52. 8. A Mirabile, D Chelazzi, P Ferrari, C montis, D Berti, N Bonelli, R Giorgi, P Baglioni. Innovative methods for the removal, and occasionally care, of pressure sensitive adhesive tapes from contemporary drawings. Herit Sci 2020. 8;42 9. Silva da Conceicão DK, Nunes de Almeida K, Nhuch E, Raucci MG, Santillo C, Salzano de Luna M, Ambrosio L, Lavorgna M, Giuliani C, Di Carlo G, Staccioli MP, Falcade T, Schrekker HS. The synergistic effect of an imida- zolium salt and benzotriazole on the protection of bronze surfaces with chitosan-based coatings. Herit Sci. 2020;8:40. 10. Alyami A, Mirabile A, Iacopino D. Fabrication of transparent composites for non-invasive Surface Enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS) analysis of modern art works. Herit Sci. 2020;7:87. Publisher’s Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in pub- lished maps and institutional affiliations. Nanorestart: Nanomaterials for the restoration of works of art Acknowledgements References 
work_3qaqer4itbdtdl3ffs4mm3ixxe	----	74 Wanda Morla en París de los años veinte: una experiencia de la modernidad Wanda Morla in Paris during the Twenties: an Experience of Modernity Patricio Lizama A. Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile plizama@uc.cl En el texto se analizan las cartas escritas en 1922 en París por Wanda Morla relevancia de la carta como documento y discurso amoroso, y se profundiza en el “encuentro fortuito” de estos jóvenes en París, en cómo Wanda Morla se reconstruye alejándose del modelo de mujer vigente en la elite chilena de la época y en su experiencia de la modernidad en el campo cultural francés, en particular el musical, entre 1921 y 1922. Palabras clave: Carta, azar, predestinación, reconstrucción mujer, modernidad, campo musical francés. The letters written in Paris in 1822 by Wanda Morla to Domingo Santa Cruz –then residing in Madrid– are analy- zed in terms of the pertinence of the letter both as a document and a statement of love. The “fortuitous encounter” in Paris of these two youngsters is studied in depth, along with the process of selfconsciousness of Wanda Morla as a person different from the feminine stereotype then current among the Chilean elite. Besides her experience of the cultural modernity in France between 1921 and 1922, in particular as pertains to music, is discussed. Keywords: Letter, chance, predestination, feminine selfconsciousness, modernity, French musical field. El libro Pájaro libre como soy. Cartas de Wanda Morla Lynch, es un valioso epistolario que edita Wenceslao Díaz y que publica Ediciones Universidad Católica de Chile1. Las cartas, ciento noventa y ocho en total, son de Wanda Morla quien desde París le escribe a sus hermanas en Santiago, y luego a Domingo Santa Cruz quien reside en Madrid. Él inicia en esta ciudad su carrera diplomática como segundo Secretario de la Legación de Chile e ingresa al Real Conservatorio Superior para realizar estudios de composición con el violista y compositor Conrado del Campo. El libro contiene una breve nota inicial escrita por Pedro Lastra y luego una introducción de Wenceslao Díaz que explicita las trayectorias de Wanda y Domingo, caracteriza a otras mujeres chilenas –Luisa Lynch, madre de Wanda, Eugenia Huici, amiga de Pablo Picasso, Igor Stravinsky y otros actores centrales de la vanguardia de la época–, y revela la manera en que encontró las cartas2. 1 Una primera versión de este texto fue leída al presentar el libro de Wenceslao Díaz en diciembre de 2013. Para su publicación en RMCh, se realizaron algunos cambios. 2 Luisa Lynch fue una mujer destacada en el campo cultural de principios de siglo XX en Chile y pertenece al llamado feminismo aristocrático. Eugenia Huici, casada con el pintor José Tomás Revista Musical Chilena, Año LXX, julio-diciembre, 2016, Nº 226, pp. 74-84 75 Wanda Morla en París de los años veinte: una experiencia… / Revista Musical Chilena La búsqueda y recopilación de este valioso material se suma a los anteriores libros publicados por Díaz. El primero, Juan Francisco González: cartas y otros documentos de su época, permite conocer los viajes de este pintor a Europa, sus disputas plásticas a comienzos del siglo XX y la relevancia de sus clases y de su práctica artística, tareas que lo convierten en un referente para la generación que dará origen al Grupo Montparnasse y a la renovación plástica a partir de 1923. El segundo, Bohemios en París – Epistolario de artistas chilenos en Europa, 1900-1940, revela los viajes de pintores de distintas generaciones y tendencias al viejo continente, muestra cómo ellos se enfrentaron a las nuevas corrientes del arte en Europa, a veces ignorándolas, otras veces modificando sus creencias aprendidas en Chile, y retrata con nitidez la compleja trama de instituciones, actores y polémicas del campo pictórico chileno de inicios del siglo XX. Destacaremos algunos de los aspectos más significativos de esta nueva publicación de Díaz. LA CARTA: DOCUMENTO HISTÓRICO Y DISCURSO AMOROSO La carta, comunicación escrita que siempre es diferida en el tiempo entre espacios distintos, constituye en este libro un valioso documento histórico. Conocemos entretelones de la vida diplomática y de la elite chilena en Francia, en especial los relativos a Carlos Morla Lynch, hermano de Wanda que más tarde trabajó en la embajada de Chile en Madrid durante la guerra civil española3. Nos informamos con gran detalle y juicio crítico de la pintura, el ballet y el teatro que Wanda ve en París, pero el arte que ella comenta con mayor ampli- tud es la música, la clásica y la moderna. De este modo el epistolario ofrece una mirada exhaustiva del campo musical francés de los años veinte. Wanda toma clases de piano con Madeleine de Valmalète, asiste a ensayos y conciertos al antiguo conservatorio, a la Salle Gaveau, aprecia la música del pasado, sus intérpretes, sus escenarios, sus profesores, así como también las nuevas propuestas del presente que surgen en particular entre los inmigrantes rusos a quienes ella conoce. La carta es al mismo tiempo una comunicación que tiene lugar para compensar la ausencia y, en este sentido, informa sobre el remitente y su receptor de múltiples formas. En esta correspondencia se entreabre el universo privado de dos jóvenes y se percibe la intimidad de la experiencia amorosa, la cual muestra el anverso y el reverso que suponen los viajes y las distancias entre los amantes. Surgen así las paradojas que articulan a la carta amorosa: presencia/ausencia; proximidad/distancia; imaginario/real. Domingo y Wanda se conocen en Santiago, se reencuentran por casualidad en París en febrero de 1922, comien- zan a escribirse con frecuencia e inician la relación sentimental cuando ella viaja a Madrid en mayo de 1922, pero luego se distancian pues la joven regresa a París y él permanece en la capital española dedicado a su trabajo y a sus estudios musicales. Cuando Wanda y Domingo inician su relación, el epistolario, sin excluir la referencia a los acontecimientos artísticos, da cuenta del amor de la pareja, de los planes que desarrollan para casarse y concluye con el matrimonio celebrado en enero de 1923 en París. Por último, se agregan algunas cartas de Luisa Lynch a su hija Wanda quien empieza su nueva vida en Madrid. Errázuriz, se separó de él y permaneció en Francia donde se convirtió en amiga y mecenas de varios artistas fundamentales de la vanguardia contemporánea. 3 Ver Morla Lynch 1958. Revista Musical Chilena / Patricio Lizama A. 76 EL ENCUENTRO EN PARÍS: AZAR Y PREDESTINACIÓN Wanda y Domingo se juntan en forma casual en París en febrero de 1922. París era una fiesta como dice Ernest Hemingway, época de “los años locos”, y, para estos dos jóvenes chilenos, 1922 también será una fiesta. El encuentro entre Wanda y Domingo se vincula al azar y surge en un momento crítico en la vida de la joven Morla, pues ella viaja con su madre a Europa en enero de 1921 para superar el quiebre de su primer amor en Chile. Instalada desde junio de 1921 en París, un día de febrero del año siguiente asiste con su madre a un concierto de órgano en el Conservatorio y en la puerta ven a Santa Cruz que desea entrar, pero no tiene invitación. Luisa Lynch le dice al portero que él es su hijo y ese día, Domingo ingresa al concierto, a la vida de Wanda y a la familia Morla. El encuentro fortuito como sostienen los surrealistas, está mediado por predestina- ciones y sincronías. La posibilidad de hallar un amor se la habían anunciado a Wanda en enero de 1921 en Los Andes, antes de abordar el Ferrocarril Transandino que las llevaría a Buenos Aires y de allí a Europa, cuando su hermana Carmen le ve las cartas y le confiesa: “Te casarás con quien tú quieras” (45)4. Wanda recuerda ese episodio unos pocos días después en enero de 1921 en Buenos Aires y le escribe a Carmen: “No sé qué diera por obtener lo que deseo. He recordado mucho tu consoladora frase en Los Andes” (45). Agreguemos que las hermanas Morla se distinguen por sus prácticas espiritistas y por sus conocimientos ocultistas, de modo que la revelación recibida no era un hecho menor para Wanda. La música es lo que une a los jóvenes y Domingo subraya cómo esta primera expe- riencia en el conservatorio resulta el fundamento que acerca para siempre a la pareja: “Fui admitido de inmediato [al concierto] y, por primera vez, con Wanda ¡nos sentamos a escuchar la música que debía unirnos para siempre!”(25). Por su parte, Wanda le escribe a su hermana Ximena días después del encuentro, cuando Domingo todavía permanece en París: “Oh milagros de la vida europea –en París, ciudad inmensa donde el individuo se pierde, Wanda Morla y Domingo Santa Cruz caminando a tomar el Métro y después sentados en un banco frente a un altar muy sobrio con solo una cruz de argento y una gran Biblia abierta, mientras arriba el órgano, la orquesta y las voces elevaban hacia el cielo las más tiernas demostraciones” (63). El lugar donde se encuentran también es significativo pues el conservatorio parisino se ubica en el número 14 de la calle Madrid, capital donde vive y desde donde viaja Santa Cruz. La sincronía descubierta por Wanda relacionada con la proximidad de las fechas de celebración de los nombres propios Domingo y Nieve, es otra sorprendente manifestación del azar. En carta del 31 de marzo, ella le confiesa a Domingo (116): “Leyendo en La Légende Dorée sobre el santo de su nombre Saint Dominique confesseur, he visto con alegría que nuestros nombres de pila son como hermanos; pues usted ha de saber que me llamo Wanda Nieve y si Santo Domingo se honra el 4 de agosto, el día 5 del mismo mes se glorifica el nombre de nuestra Señora de las Nieves. Cuando chica esa fecha era toda mi ilusión y la víspera (el día 4) era el día más luminoso de la espera. Esa coincidencia me parece digna de serle con- tada ¿no encuentra?”. Inevitable es añadir que el día que se reúnen en el conservatorio cae nieve, lo mismo que sucede el día que se casan en París. Y en ambas ocasiones lo que escuchan son obras para órgano de Johann Sebastian Bach. La joven Morla, por último, hace una lectura religiosa del episodio que los une. Le escribe a Domingo en marzo de 1922 y afirma: “yo también creo que es Dios que ha querido 4 Los números entre paréntesis hacen referencia a la página en Morla 2013. 77 Wanda Morla en París de los años veinte: una experiencia… / Revista Musical Chilena este encuentro en un momento tan propicio, seguramente si nos hubiéramos visto en Chile con más frecuencia y en años anteriores no habría sido lo mismo” (84). En junio de 1922, cuando ya son pareja, le señala que al leer El corazón secreto de Pierre Aguétant, se interesó por los “Nada infinitos” y comprende que un “Nada” de su vida es “nuestro encuentro simpático en el Conservatorio”. Estos “nada”, según Aguétant, tienen en el amor “una im- portancia excepcional. Ocultos en la sombra, esperan la ocasión propicia para iluminarnos, encantarnos o traicionarnos”. Wanda agrega: “este “nada” … había sido escrito por Dios” y concluye: “soy como predestinada” (216). Sincronía del azar mediada por el arte, predestinación interpretada desde la fe y anti- cipada en el tarot, son realidades que están en la base de este epistolario y que configuran la original identidad de Wanda. WANDA FUERA DE LUGAR: LA RECONSTRUCCIÓN DE UNA JOVEN DE ELITE EN PARÍS En el epistolario advertimos rasgos de la formación y los modos de comportamiento de la elite chilena, creencias y conductas que Wanda enjuicia y de las cuales se distancia con nitidez. En Chile a los 17 años, ella se sabe inestable y admite que atraviesa un periodo de cambio, proceso que percibe como transitorio. A su hermana Carmen le comenta “que la complejidad de los sentimientos que experimento solo depende de la transición en que me encuentro” (43). Agrega: “hay momentos de feminidad y otros en que me siento totalmente niña; es suficiente para probar que puedo sentir como si tuviera dos corazones” (44). Años más tarde, confiesa a Domingo que “al venirme a Europa era yo todavía una chiquilla, sin carácter definido … y sin dirección estable”. Añade que tenía “muchas aspiraciones para ser buena y unos ideales forjados por intuición formaban todo mi ser íntimo, pero era todo mal definido, inquieto y sin contornos” (84). Lo único seguro era su deseo de tener una familia, profundizar su formación artística, mantener su vínculo con la bailarina rusa Ana Pavlova, su “madre espiritual” conocida en Santiago y que visita en París, y otorgarle una proyección trascendente a su vida. En la capital francesa, Wanda define sus anhelos y afirma su autonomía pues se aleja del horizonte existencial inscrito en su familia. Su independencia la experimenta “a los 19 años, cuando empecé a ser una persona pensante, cuando empecé a ver más claro mi propia personalidad e inclinaciones” (147). Ella rechaza la vida diplomática y la vida mundana de compromisos sociales y recepciones, de fiestas y salones con personas que se “las dan de elegantes” y que son muy superficiales. A la vez, reniega de quienes asumen a París como el lugar donde esta vida mundana se vive con mayor distinción, pues sostiene que este mundo “chic” es artificial, vacío y lleno de vanidad. Le escribe a su hermana Carmen en 1921 (58): “París es una ciudad de la tierra, en ella no hay hadas ni genios como en los bosques encantados; hay simplemente hombres de todas castas, de todas clases, de todas razas, ideas y religiones. Hay lujo e inconsciencia; hay medios distinguidos donde se ven mujeres bien vestidas, bien pintadas, bien falsas … Hay falta de dignidad, cancans de malas lenguas y la vanidad pasea por los salones mientras la moral, sujetando por las alas al amor, llora en el umbral de las puertas. Ese es el mundo chic que solo conocemos de referencia”. A su hermana Ximena que cree a Wanda y a su madre “en medio del mundo chic”, le pregunta: “El mundo chic ¿dónde está? Esas mujeres que llevan trajes de 3.000 frs., que van a bailar o a cenar a los restaurantes; que bailan el Shimmy como muñecas epilépticas, que se dan aires y coquetean. ¿A eso te refieres?” Concluye: “Cada día siento la mentira en todo esto” (56). En octubre de 1922, le escribe a Domingo y reitera su desacomodo (356): Revista Musical Chilena / Patricio Lizama A. 78 “Más que nunca creo que la vida social y la mundana son hermanas y que en ellas solo se sienten bien los seres que necesitan remudar de casa y de pensamientos, los que les gusta el flirt (pongo esa palabra tan antipática por necesidad de expresión), el bailoteo y las diversiones de poco vuelo espiritual. No tengo carácter para ella, soy como vieja, me daba hoy una flojera terrible de hablar y me pasé mirando a todos como si fueran cajitas mecánicas con forma de muñecos, y con mi alma puesta en ti. ¡Qué falta me haces, mi hijito! Contigo no me sentiría fuera de centro en ninguna parte pues siempre tendríamos algo que comentar o considerar”. La misma incomodidad le genera el mundo femenino preocupado de la ropa y de la moda, del vestido de fiesta y de las visitas a las modistas. Debido a su austeridad, ella tiene un juicio ético-moral acerca de estas vivencias (108): “…me puedo familiarizar con esos lujos y le aseguro que no quiero porque considero simplemen- te inmoral el pagar por un trapo, por precioso que sea, lo que equivale al sueldo de cualquier modesto empleado de comercio. Cuando voy a esas partes es tal la rebelión de sentimientos que se levantan contra mí misma al verme tentada por algo que, dentro del presupuesto que me he marcado con mi conciencia, pasa a ser demasiado, que más bien se vuelve la tal ida un momento desagradable. ¿Comprende ahora que prefiera evitar esas tardes perdidas en los salones de costura? … Me vienen todo el tiempo los pensamientos familiares y me encuentro muy fuera de lugar”. La vanidad y el vacío de estas preocupaciones son también juzgadas con claridad: “Sería muy agradable ser elegante si no se fuera vaciando el interior poco a poco por ocuparse de los trapos que solo duran una estación del año y deja, entre una satisfacción de los primeros días, un dejo de decepción cuando se tiene un poco de conciencia” (96). La independencia de Wanda se expresa respecto al modelo de mujer impuesto por la sociedad patriarcal que impulsa a la mujer a casarse, tener hijos y depender del hombre. Ella cuestiona la ideología de la domesticidad dominante y el papel femenino subalterno, busca liberarse de restricciones y prácticas enraizadas y define un marco discursivo propio con otras perspectivas, que le permiten construir otros sujetos femeninos y proponer sub- jetividades alternativas, aunque siempre inmersas en la tensión de la cultura donde está inserta. A Ximena le dice en 1921 (53): “No pienses que soy pretenciosa, esto no es orgullo, es dignidad, y es lo que me aleja cada vez más de la idea de casarme por lo que se casa la gente en general, para no quedarse sola y ser inútil en la vida. Siento en mi destino de mujer una gran misión; si no encuentro a una persona que la comprenda como yo para cumplir la que Dios señaló, desde la creación del mundo, al hombre y a la mujer, de unirse para dar a la Tierra seres fuertes y dignos, si no encuentro un compañero que me ayude… sé que todo este sentimiento de desahogo maternal que tengo no se perderá”. Al saberse distinta y con mayor madurez, declara con energía: “sé muy bien lo que quiero” y agrega que tiene “derecho para pensar como yo quiero y creo justo” (320). Su diferencia le provoca un retraimiento y un “estado de acritud” que no es aceptado ni comprendido en su familia. Su madre la critica y le hace observaciones; su hermano diplomático la contradice y la tilda de beata y Wanda siente “el muro y … el abismo que me separa de los seres que son de mi sangre” (320). Ella es una extraña en el mundo, una exiliada del ámbito familiar y su necesidad de autoafirmación la lleva, al igual que los artistas de los relatos de Rubén Darío, a buscar un refugio: “Prefiero por mucho, estar en mi cuartito azul de Rue Lisbonne, donde tantas cosas me respetan” (108). Wanda soluciona lo denunciado por Virginia Woolf porque la mujer en este caso tiene “un cuarto propio”: ella convierte “su buhardilla, en un reino”. La capacidad crítica y autorreflexiva de Wanda le brindan un acabado conocimiento de sí misma de modo que al conocer a Domingo, entiende de inmediato que con él puede 79 Wanda Morla en París de los años veinte: una experiencia… / Revista Musical Chilena terminar de articularse una identidad con un origen y un destino nuevos. Ella comparte con el joven Santa Cruz el amor por la música, el arte “más sublime”, y a la vez el amor por Dios porque para Wanda la música es también el arte “más cerca de Dios” y el que le permite evangelizar y “aportar algo bueno y más elevado a una sociedad” (107). De este modo, en la visión de Wanda el amor humano y la música están imbricados y constituyen dos mediaciones para acceder a la divinidad. Por esto es que al pensar el regreso a Chile, se imagina casada con una vida sencilla orientada a difundir “día a día en todos los círculos, algo verdaderamente bueno –con base– escogido, sin otro fin que el de acercar por medio de grandiosos conciertos espirituales, muchas almas buenas a Dios” (107). Al mismo tiempo, se construye un origen alternativo que también pasa por el vínculo entre el arte y la fe. En Santiago, la joven Morla halla una “madre espiritual” en la bailarina Anna Pavlova: “la venero con adoración mística”, a quien llama “Ella” y “Madame”; en París la ve de nuevo porque “es la única, el único ser que me volvió a dar por unos días el perdido sentimiento de felicidad” (54). En esta misma capital encuentra en Johann Sebastian Bach un “padre” porque para ella, la obra de este compositor la conduce a la trascendencia. Con toda convicción, Wanda afirma: “… es que Bach, Domingo, es más que música, es toda una obra de fe y de amor a Dios” (111). En otra carta, Wanda sostiene: “Bach para mí es algo más que un genio en la música, es un santo que hace sentir a Dios” (87). Agrega que “siento por él una veneración y lo tomo para mi vida… como un bienhechor espiritual” (87). Como a Domingo el músico alemán le provoca una experiencia muy semejante, ella le dice: Es “Nuestro Padre” (152), y también “nuestro venerado Padre y mediador” (194). Su proyecto existencial lo define como una misión, una vida protegida y encaminada hacia la divinidad: ella se “acerca a Dios por los caminos más altos”. Esta propuesta no satisfa- ce a la familia Morla, pues Wanda comenta a Domingo que su madre “me estaba rebatiendo mis ideas diciendo que con ellas no iba a ser nuestra vida sino algo muy bohemia” (147). A esta resistencia se agrega la de la familia Santa Cruz que es incluso más explícita, ya que la madre y las hermanas de Domingo no comparten las ideas de este hermano menor, las que les parecen egoístas e inadecuadas. Pero no hay nada que haga retroceder a Wanda, porque ella ha visto que “la familia en Europa que se constituye sobre base seria y no pide lujo ni inconsciencia sino un bienestar y tranquilidad seguros, es el tipo de la familia feliz en toda tierra” (147). Wanda va más allá del territorio adjudicado y aprendido en su entorno. Los límites que derriba y los espacios que conquista no la convierten en alguien que rompa con su clase ni con los roles otorgados por la sociedad a las jóvenes de la elite, pero sí en una mujer capaz de definir una vida que incluye trabajar de acuerdo a sus capacidades e intereses y equilibrar lo público y lo privado. En esta línea le dice a Domingo: “usted no se haga ilusiones, no tendrá en mí mujer célebre, intelectual y oradora. Tendrá ante todo su mujer en su hogar. Su amiga en su vida y su compañera de trabajo” (277). PARÍS: LA CIUDAD MODERNA La modernidad plural y heterogénea en continua transformación y desintegración, genera en el sujeto un sentimiento de ambigüedad y angustia, pues la realidad es vivida como oportunidad y amenaza. Ser modernos es “encontrarnos en un entorno que nos promete aventuras, poder, alegría, crecimiento, transformación de nosotros y del mundo y que, al mismo tiempo, amenaza con destruir todo lo que tenemos, todo lo que sabemos, todo lo que somos” (Berman 1988: 1). El desarrollo y la hegemonía de los “saberes triunfantes” basados en una objetividad científico-racional, junto a la autonomía y la dominación que convierten al hombre en “amo y señor de la naturaleza”, gestan una cultura secularizada que expulsa a Dios. Al prescindir Revista Musical Chilena / Patricio Lizama A. 80 de lo sagrado, la modernidad libera al sujeto de todo relato que impida “construir su propia visión de mundo; pero sumerge a ese mismo sujeto en la orfandad que dicha libertad supone” (Hopenhayn 1997: 13). La joven chilena vive estas experiencias de la modernidad, pues Europa es para ella un espacio que le pone a prueba sus convicciones y a la vez le ofrece oportunidades de enri- quecimiento. Wanda percibe en Europa la crisis del fundamento religioso porque observa un continente donde declina la fe; por ello en los templos “no hay indicios de ceremonias. [Hay] iglesias frías, sin velas, sin flores, sin fieles, sin Sacramento” (85). Por otra parte, en el viejo mundo encuentra una civilización científico-técnica con “maquinarias, ingeniería, edificaciones, cirugía, rascacielos, metropolitanos subterráneos, aeroplanos y telégrafo sin hilos” (50), realidades nuevas que imprimen “grandes velocidades” a la vida y a las comu- nicaciones y que son valoradas por Wanda. Por último, la dimensión de la modernidad europea que ella más aprecia es “la Europa artística”, que le resulta “interesante, sabia y llena de grandes inquietudes” (308). Revisemos algunas de estas últimas experiencias ligadas al arte en París. París es la ciudad moderna y cosmopolita de las multitudes donde halla “hombres de todas las castas, de todas clases, de todas razas, ideas y religiones” (58). Con lucidez, Wanda comprende que esta cultura de la mezcla ha contribuido a formar el arte galo y que este campo cultural acoge y exhibe las nuevas tendencias, pero al mismo tiempo resguarda y enseña la memoria de la tradición, dualidad que le otorga un espesor único a la capital francesa. París es también la ciudad que le cuestiona sus convicciones plásticas y luego le permite apreciar “la tradición de la ruptura”. Distanciada de su cultura de origen, esta urbe europea es para Wanda una ciudad compleja, abierta, móvil, con un campo cultural autóno- mo y “libertades excepcionales de expresión”, que le resulta un espectáculo deslumbrante y lleno de posibilidades. Ella se da cuenta que “conociendo más la gran ciudad he reconocido en ella mis gustos, y mi carácter teniendo un campo vasto se ha desarrollado mucho más libre, con mayor libertad que lo que hubiera conseguido desarrollarse en otra parte” (98). Al mismo tiempo, París le resulta una pesadilla que cuestiona sus creencias artístico- culturales aprendidas en Chile. A Pablo Picasso lo rechaza al llegar a París. En 1921 confiesa que es el “creador de la pintura más incomprensible”, de “la pintura más fea que se ha visto”(51). Eugenia Huici tiene en su casa el “Retrato de un hombre afirmado en una mesa” del pintor español. Wanda dice que lo ha “mirado con buena voluntad”, pero agrega: “inútil; cerrando un ojo, abriendo los dos, de lejos, de cerca, de pie y de cabeza, y todo ha sido inútil” (51). Formada en los parámetros de la mímesis realista que valora la representación figurativa, le pregunta a Eugenia si en el cuadro “ve el hombre, le ruego que me dé un derrotero, que me inicie en la ciencia” (51). A pesar de este desencuentro inicial, Wanda con el tiempo modifica sus ideas porque asiste a exposiciones, lee libros y revistas hasta que logra entender el cubismo. Después de ver la exposición “Cien años de pintura francesa”, concluye: “el espíritu que no es porfia- do puede entrar fácilmente en la comprensión modernista” (104)5. Como prueba de ello sostiene que en el presente le producen horror las “obras de academia demasiado hechas y de una realidad sin interés”. En cambio, le atraen los pintores más contemporáneos: “el gusto que sentí frente a un Cézanne, a un Matisse, a un Manet y otros aún más avanzados” (104). Su enriquecimiento plástico le lleva a aceptar ser retratada por su gran amiga Sara Malvar, chilena que vive en París y que comprende muy bien el conjunto de las vanguardias y las interrelaciones del arte moderno. Sara, señala Wanda, “pinta a la témpera un retrato 5 La exposición “Cien años de pintura francesa” incluyó obras desde Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres a Georges Braque y fue organizada por André Lhote y Jacques Émile Blanche con catálogo del primero. 81 Wanda Morla en París de los años veinte: una experiencia… / Revista Musical Chilena mío que a todos horroriza porque es de colores violentos y con una composición muy osada, un cuello largo de gacela a lo Modigliani y unos ojos turquesa de iniciada” (278)6. La música es lo que Wanda conoce bien, de modo que ella refiere la riqueza de lo antiguo y lo nuevo que se presenta en París. Al llegar a Francia señala: “tengo hambre de oír un Bach bien clásico, un Beethoven sereno, mi Schumann genial y los Debussy trans- parentes” (49). Toca piano en su departamento, “los estudios de Krebs, de Puchna, un concierto sencillísimo de Beethoven, Mendels[s]ohn y Scarlatti, todo desfiló por el teclado, insípido” (117), adquiere la guía de conciertos, asiste a una iglesia protestante para escuchar audiciones de oratorios, corales y cantatas de Bach, a ensayos de los precursores de Bach y de Cesar Franck en las iglesias de L’Etoile y San Eustache, a otros ensayos privados de Gustave Bret, y a conciertos de piano y orquesta de Ferruccio Busoni en el antiguo conservatorio. Además va a conferencias y diálogos, conoce a Abel Decaux, profesor de órgano y organista del Sacré-Coeur de Montmartre, toma clases con el organista Marcel Dupré y sus apuntes y notas los comenta por carta con Domingo (243): “Te contaré que Dupré hoy nos tocó tres Grandes Preludios y Fugas y entre ellas una que llaman de Los Maestros Cantores, pues tiene una frase que es la que continuamente sale en relieve entretejida con todas, que es igual a una del Preludio de Wagner:” “Tocó también al final la Gran Fantasía en sol menor (Preludio y Fuga) en una forma maravi- llosa y para afirmar lo que me había dicho M. Decaux, repitió que solo en Francia era donde se conservaba la verdadera tradición organística de Bach, pues Maestros belgas habían ido a beber en la fuente misma, y a su vez los organistas franceses habían ido donde los belgas; así Widor y Guilmant pasaron cada cual dos años junto a Lemenz, quien a su vez había pasado años recogiendo la tradición sagrada de manos de Hesse, organista de una ciudad de Alemania”. La música contemporánea también le atrae y explica con detalle. El 23 de marzo de 1922 va al concierto ruso en El Trocadero. Se “ejecutó Une nuit sur le Mont Chauve y una parte de la Kovantchina, ópera de Mussorgsky, Schérézadé de Rimsky-Korsakov, y Petrushka de Stravinsky, esto último me pareció extraordinario, lleno de vida, si se puede decir; lleno de electricidad. Mussorgsky quedaba muy musical, pero al paso lento de los fiacres de hace cincuenta años” (104). Igor Stravinsky le parece que es un compositor no “para piano, es demasiada riqueza de timbres, solo la orquesta le sirve y en Petrushka Stravinsky introduce un piano de gran cola en el conjunto orquestal, lo que es de gran efecto” (104). Le escribe a Domingo el 2 de junio de 1922: “Mañana en la Ópera hay una premiére de Stravinsky: Mâvra, ballet ruso, además darán Le Sacre du Printemps y Petrushka. Iremos y llevaré mi partitura nueva del Sacre. Será interesantísimo” (189). Al día siguiente le da sus impresiones (191): “Le Sacre me resultó confuso; como fue lo primero, me desorientó, nunca lo había oído en orquesta, además la partitura no sirvió sino para embrollarme pues estaba oscurísimo y no podía leer … Debe de oírse mucho la música de Stravinsky para gustar de ella; al principio, el tacto auditivo falla, no se abarca nada en claro y todo se oye borroneado. Así me sucedió también con Mâvra, ópera cómica en un acto de orquestación modernista pero tallada ‘sur un fond de robe 1890’”. “Una ópera sentimental, alegre, fresca, con giros en el canto italiano, de Rossini −o de algo así−, muy lejos de la música moderna o rusa, acompañados por unas voces de instrumentos perfectamente 6 Sara Malvar fue pintora, vivió en Madrid y en 1920 se trasladó a París. Casada con el pintor chileno José Backhaus, al quedar viuda en París en 1922, regresó a Chile en 1923 y escribió excelentes crónicas en las Notas de Arte de Juan Emar. Ver Lizama 2003. Revista Musical Chilena / Patricio Lizama A. 82 armónicos pero en tonos disonantes, a veces desvariante, como si todos los músicos estuvieran afiebrados, incluso los cantantes”. El 14 de junio va de nuevo a ver a Igor Stravinsky y el comentario es distinto pues al igual que le ocurre con la pintura, la continua frecuentación de lo nuevo le permite mo- dificar sus creencias: “Ahora sí que entendí la música y [pude] apreciar el conjunto. La Consagración de la Primavera, a pesar de tener como sous-titre: (Scènes de la Russie Païenne), me hizo el efecto de una cosa abstracta como idea, ni féerica ni humana, ni pagana ni mitológica” (240). Agrega (240): “Se inicia con un preludio que llama la atención por su adormecida expresión, algo que hace sentir la quietud de las siestas que duermen las serpientes al sol mientras una cigarra de lejos chirría. Interesante te resultará ver la partitura, que te mandaré mañana con la explicación que le da su autor. Te explicaré la acción coreográfica muy extraña y desorientadora y eso quedará en tus manos para cuando la quieras ver … ¿sabes que Mâvra me gustó mucho? Tiene un encanto de ópera italiana, ingenua, fresca en ambiente ruso y expresión musical modernísima. Es curioso cómo un conjunto así resulte gracioso”. Los ballets rusos de Diaghilev son otras expresiones artísticas que ella ve con entusias- mo en el teatro de La Ópera y después en el Teatro Mogador donde se instala más tarde la compañía. Le cuenta a Domingo el 17 de junio de 1922: “En el programa está, además de Petrushka, La belle au bois dormant (Tchaikovsky) –Scheherezade (Rimsky-Korsakov), Les Sylphides (Chopin), Le Spectre de la Rose (sur L’invitation a la valse), de Weber, Le Carnaval (de Schumann), Le prince Igor (de Borodin). Como te estaba contando de los ballets, además de todo el repertorio ya explicado tienen (y lo he dejado al último de la enumeración por ser más interesante) Le Chout ou Le Bouffon, de Prokofiev. Les Contes Ruses, de Liadow. L’Aprés midi d’un Faune, de Debussy y Les femmes de bonne humeur, de Scarlatti. Esto último debe de tener olor a Mâvra” (250-251). Las reflexiones de Wanda sobre los orígenes y los vínculos de la música con la mo- dernidad, aportan una última dimensión. La base de la música nueva según ella tiene “la influencia oriental aportada por Borodin. Se ve clara la influencia morisca venida de España, se ve en muchas composiciones las formas de Bach; la fuga, la polifonía, y es de todas estas influencias que nace la música moderna francesa, que a mi parecer está en su ciclo de desarrollo” (55). La velocidad y la dinámica de la vida moderna son para la joven Morla expresiones que explican el porqué de los ritmos musicales emergentes. Stravinsky, dice Wanda, “con un ritmo sostenido se muestra digno contemporáneo de las grandes velocidades como ser autos, taxis, Metropolitain, aeroplanos y telégrafos sin hilo” (104). En otra ocasión insiste y expande este orden de relaciones: “en este siglo donde el triunfo de las máquinas y la velocidad es manifiesta, donde todo corre vertiginosamente, donde todo lo que se dice se grita, donde triunfan los Jazz-Bands de negros americanos, es de cajón que la música tome ritmos locos y saque timbres estridentes. Ese es el efecto que me hizo uno de los momentos animados de Petrushka” (111-112). PALABRAS FINALES Wanda y Domingo se casan el 18 de enero de 1923 en París. En abril de 1923, desde Madrid, Wanda le escribe a su madre que está en Chile y la llama a no dejar “que se borre de tu mente toda la luminaria intelectual y artística de Europa”. Le dice (525): “No pierdas el hilo y conserva ese ambiente que teníamos en París en nuestros rincones queridos de Rue Lisbonne o de Rue Bayard. Recuerda las sesiones de pintura con Pepe y Sara, el terremoto 83 Wanda Morla en París de los años veinte: una experiencia… / Revista Musical Chilena de Hernández, los tés en que se devoraba pan con mantequilla discutiendo con Celia Castro en presencia de Eugenia tartamuda de emoción… Recuerda los cursos de Dupré en el órgano de la Salle Gaveau y nuestras tocatas nocturnas, de los Preludios y Fugas de Bach, las idas al teatro Champs-Elysées, en pleno invierno, amenazando nieve o lluvia a oír a Zacconi o a Stanislavski; los conciertos de Wiener o Stravinsky. Todo eso mamacita es la vida intensamente vivida y vale lo que no se puede pagar con nada, pues es el recuerdo único de los tiempos que pasamos tan juntas … Esa época al fin, en que pasaba madurando en mi corazón el ideal de felicidad que ahora he realizado, tendrá para mí el encanto de la época más vibrante de mi vida”. La publicación del libro de cartas impide que se borre “la vida intensamente vivida” de Wanda Morla Lynch y saca a la luz una época esencial del arte contemporáneo vista a través de una testigo privilegiada para apreciarla. El epistolario representa además un material de gran valor para el conocimiento e investigación de la música universal y chilena, junto con ofrecer nuevas imágenes acerca de Domingo Santa Cruz Wilson, uno de sus fundadores. En este sentido, un estudio que aborde las cartas de Wanda junto a los comentarios referidos a ella y a su vida en conjunto que aporta Santa Cruz en Mi vida en la música, no solo puede contribuir a enriquecer la mirada sobre la actividad artística de esos años, sino que también permitiría develar una faceta de este músico ligada a su vida afectiva, dimen- sión que contrasta con el perfil más conocido del hombre ejecutivo, fuerte y decidido que figura en sus escritos histórico-musicales. Asimismo, y al igual que Mi vida en la música, que es el libro de memorias de Santa Cruz, Pájaro libre como soy es un registro que semejante a un diario de vida, nos abre al espacio reflexivo y a la conciencia íntima de quienes experimentaron el tránsito entre dos formas de vivir la modernidad, en una época en que las diferencias en el amor, el arte, la cultura y la vida urbana eran ostensibles. Por último, es una historia amorosa que permite conocer cómo un encuentro fortuito les cambió la vida a dos jóvenes chilenos en Europa. OBRAS CITADAS Berman, Marshall 1991 Todo lo sólido se desvanece en el aire. Cuarta edición. Madrid: Siglo XXI. Díaz, Wenceslao 2004 Juan Francisco González: cartas y otros documentos de su época. Santiago: Ril Editores. 2010 Bohemios en París: epistolario de artistas chilenos en Europa. 1900-1940. Santiago: Ril Editores. Lizama, Patricio 2003 Notas de Arte. Jean Emar en La Nación (1923-1927). Santiago: DIBAM, Centro de Investigaciones Diego Barros Arana, Ril Editores. Hopenhayn, Martin 1997 Después del nihilismo. De Nietzsche a Foucault. Santiago: Andrés Bello. Morla, Wanda 2013 Pájaro libre como soy. Cartas de Wanda Morla Lynch. Edición y notas de Wenceslao Díaz. Santiago: Ediciones Universidad Católica de Chile. Morla Lynch, Carlos 1958 En España con Federico García Lorca: (páginas de un diario íntimo 1928-1936). Madrid: Aguilar. Revista Musical Chilena / Patricio Lizama A. 84 Santa Cruz, Domingo 2007 Mi vida en la música. Contribución al estudio de la vida musical chilena durante el siglo XX. Edición y revisión musicológica de Raquel Bustos Valderrama. Santiago: Gobierno de Chile, Consejo Nacional de la Cultura y las Artes, Consejo Nacional del Libro y la Lectura, Ediciones Universidad Católica de Chile. 
work_3z72acm7rfejdhsqoszi5krx5i	----	I recognize your face but I can&#x2019;t remember your name: Further evidence on the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon Memory & Cognition 1973, VoI.1,No. 3,287·290 I recognize your face but I can't remember your name: Further evidence on the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon* A. DANIEL YARMEY University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada Fifty faces of "famous" persons were used as stimuli to precipitate the tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) experience. Results showed that Ss in TOT states searched for target's name by locating first his profession, where he was most often seen, and how recently. Ss also had accurate knowledge of the initial letters of target names, initial letters of similar sounding names, and numbers of syllables in target names. It was concluded that TOT states for to-be-remembered names are retrieved from semantic and episodic memory systems on.the basis of verbal and imaginal encodings. William James (1893) first drew attention to the peculiar experiences involved in trying to recall a forgotten name, knowing and feeling how close we are, being aware of improper matches, but vainly groping in our inability to retrieve. Brown and McNeill (1966) called this phenomenon "tip-of-the-tongue" (TOT) behavior. They demonstrated that words are frequently available in memory but, at least temporarily, not accessible. When Ss are in the TOT state, they are able to identify a number of characteristics of target words with a high degree of accuracy such as the number of syllables and the initial letter: The closer S is to recall, the more accurate is his knowledge. Although some of the words that Ss found, as they searched their memory, could be classed as similar in meaning to the target, the majority of words were similar in sound. Other writers (e.g., Norman, 1969; Dale & McGlaughlin, 1971) have pointed out, however, that the nature of Brown and McNeill's questionnaire may have biased Ss to generate primarily acoustically related words. Brown and McNeill's (1966) theoretical interests, however, are consistent with the Ebbinghaus-Watson tradition in which memory' is considered only in terms of a verbal memory system involving components such as phonetic, phonemic, syllabic, and semantic word properties. In the last 10 years, however, other memory systems, particularly nonverbal imagery, have been rediscovered and shown to be equally important in memory tasks (see Paivio , 1971; Richardson, 1969: Segal, 1971: Sheehan, 1972). Although the TOT state involves an inability to recall a word, it is quite likely that both verbal and nonverbal imagery codes are involved. Brown & McNeill reported that for several months they watched the TOT state in themselves. Interestingly, when they attempted to recall the name of a particular street, the only associates they reported coming to mind were verbal. For several years, I have *This research was supported by a grant from the National Research Council of Canada (APA 288). The author wishes to thank Jean Ann Woodhouse for her assistance in tabulating the data and Howard R. Pollio for his discussion and comments on preliminary drafts. noticed that when I try to recall the names of people, introspective experiences such as images and affect and verbal descriptions are easily aroused. This suggests that TOT experiences may involve both verbal and nonverbal imagery processes which serve to mediate this state. The purpose of this investigation was to explore further the TOT phenomenon. The general procedures employed by Brown and McNeill were followed with one major change. Whereas Brown and McNeill precipitated TOT states by reading definitions of English words of low frequency, in the present study visual presentations of "famous" persons were given and Ss were asked to try to recall their names, Whenever S was unable to think of the target's name but felt sure that he knew it and that it was on the verge of coming back, he was considered to be in the TOT state. It was expected that Ss in TOT states would elicit both imagery and verbal mediators as well as phonetic information concerning the target's name. Although verbal and imagery symbolic processes are viewed as alternative coding systems, it is also assumed that chains of verbal associates and images of events can and do occur (paivio, 1971). No attempt was made in this study to tease apart verbal and imagery representations. METHOD Subjects Fifty-three undergraduates participated in one of two sessions; each session was 2 h long. The Ss were volunteers from two psychology courses. Stimulus Materials The list consisted of 10 female and 40 male faces of "public" persons. Each stimulus was a black-and-white full-face photograph taker. from popular magazines. Thirty-five personalities came from the entertainment field (e.g., Cary Grant and Carol Burnett) and 15 came from other fields (e.g.. Spiro Agnew and Pablo Picasso). Each face was cut beneath the chin and around the hairline. All stimuli were photographed and made into 35-mm slides. 287 288 YARMEY Table I Frequency Selection in Completion of Categories Selections Categories First Second Third Fourth Fifth Profession 242 144 30 9 1 Places 208 175 12 11 1 Recency 3 21 103 16 7 Initial Letter of First and Last Names 19 37 26 22 6 Syllables in First and Last Names 46 13 29 20 12 Names of Similar Sound IS 17 38 16 6 Response Sheet The response sheet included all but one of the categories used by Brown and McNeill (1966) plus three other response categories. The vertical columns were headed as follows: intended word (+ one I was thinking 00 (- not); number of syllables in first name; number of syllables in last name; initial letter of first name; initial letter of second name; names of similar sound (1. closest in sound) (2. middle) (3. farthest in sound); person's profession(s) or field(s) of importance; place(s) where you most often see this person; how recently? the name you were seeking if it is now available but is not the target name. Procedure A modified form of the instructions used by Brown and McNeill (1966) was employed. Since these instructions are quite lengthy, they will not be repeated here. The following changes were made. Whenever Brown and McNeill referred to "definitions and words," the. terms "faces and names" were substituted. Instead of asking Ss to write down "words of similar meaning," Ss were instructed to try to recall the person's profession or field of importance, the place(s) where they most often saw this person, e.g., newspapers, television, movies, theatre, magazines, etc., and finally, how recently they had seen this person, e.g., within the last week, last month, last year, or more than a year ago? The Ss were told that they were not required to fill in the columns in a left-to-right sequence. Rather they were free to complete the columns in their own preferred order. Ss were instructed to number each column serially as they started to complete it. In summary, the procedure consisted of presenting slides of facial photographs of "public" persons. Those Ss who were in a TOT state for a particular stimulus face completed a questionnaire designed to describe their TOT experience. RESULTS General Information The total number of reported TOT instances across all faces and all Ss was 623. Three hundred and sixty-four of these reports were positive TOTs and 259 were negative TOTs. "A positive TOT is one for which the target name is known and consequently, one for which the data obtained can be scored as accurate or inaccurate. In those cases where the target name was not the name intended but some other name which S finally recalled and wrote in the right most column his data was checked against that name as his effective target. A negative TOT is one for which the S judged the name read out not to have been his target and, in addition, one in which S proved unable to recall his own functional target [Brown & McNeill, 1966, p. 327]." Brown and McNeill (1966) pointed out that the general nature of TOT data violates most assumptions that underlie statistical tests of significance. For example, all stimuli did not reliably evoke TOT states; two of the faces failed to precipitate any TOTs, while the range was from 1 success to 28. The largest number of TOT states in one S was 26, the greatest frequency of positive TOTs in one S was 18, and the highest number of negative TOTs in one S was 12. Five Ss signaled 0-5 TOTs, 17 reported 6·10 TOTs, 28 claimed 11-20 TOTs, and 3 Ss had over 20 TOT states. The Ss made actual targets of 68 names not on the original list, and all but 7 of these were sought by one S only. Some faces were clearly more easily confused than others. For example, one movie star (Ann-Margaret) was mistaken by different Ss for Marilyn Monroe, Jane Mansfield, Tuesday Weld, Lana Turner, and Angie Dickinson. Brown and McNeill refer to this type of data as fragmentary data and suggest that in spite of the limitations they be reported as fully as possible. Selection Order of Categories The reported order of searching memory stores for categorical information about target names is shown in Table 1. Although 623 TOTs were reported, 90 TOT instances lacked information on the sequence of category completions. Because of the relatively few guesses of the number of syllables in both first and last names and guesses of the initial letter of both names, the data in these two categories have been combined. The table suggests that in trying to remember a person's name, or at least a famous person's name, Ss first try to locate his profession and then try to remember where they most likely have seen this person. Ss then attempt to recall when they last saw this person. Other information, such as phonemic information, is available but is much less likely to be utilized early in the search. The table indicates that Ss attempted to first guess the initial letter of the names, followed closely by guesses of the number of syllables, and finally by similar sounding names. Phonemic Information Initial Letters TIP-OF-THE-TONGUE PHENOMEON 289 Table 2 Frequency Scores of Specificity of Information on Target's Profession, Place, and Recency Specificity specificity. Table 2 shows the frequency scores of specificity classifications on the target's profession, place most often seen, and how recently. Ss' knowledge about the target's profession, reportedly, is highly specific, while knowledge of where the target is most often seen is moderately specific. Since these targets were "famous" persons, Ss' reports of having seen these persons more frequently in the last year rather than in the last month, for example, seems to have face validity. Proximity to the Target and Quality of Information Brown and McNeill (1966) made a distinction among three types of positive TOT states that is relevant also in this investigation: " ... (I) Cases in which S recognized the name read by E as the name he had been seeking; (2) Cases in which S recalled the intended name before it was read out; (3) Cases in which S recalled the name he had been seeking before E read the intended name and the recalled name was not the same as the name read... [po 331]." Brown and McNeill state that since Ss in a Type 2 or Type 3 state found the target name before it was read and Ss in a Type 1 state did not, the TOTs of Type 1 may be considered further away from the target than Type 2 and Type 3 TOTs. The prediction is made, therefore, that Ss in Type 2 and Type 3 TOTs would have more accurate information (recall) about the target than Ss in Type 1 TOTs (recognition). The hypothesis was tested on the guesses of the targets' professions or fields of importance and places where the targets are most frequently seen. Ss in the Type 1 TOT state were correct on 91.9% (113 out of 123) of their guesses of the targets' profession and 94.9% (111 out of 117) correct on "place" guesses. Type 2 TOT states yielded 98.7% (153 out of 156) correct guesses for "professions" and 98.6% (141 out of 143) correct guesses for "location." For Ss in Type 3 TOT states, 93.8% (30 out of 32) of "profession" guesses were correct and 97% (32 out of 33) of "place" guesses were correct. Although these percentage scores are greater, as predicted for Type 2 and Type 3 TOTss, than for Type 1 TOTs, the only statistically significant difference occurred between Types 1 and 2 regarding professions (X 2 = 5.96, df = 1, p < .02). The differences between TOT states for Types 1 and 2 regarding locations fell just short of significance (X2 =3.00, df = 1, .05> p < .10). The Ss in positive TOT states were correct on 68% of their guesses of the initial letter of first names and on 59% of guesses of the initial letter of last names. An analysis of the initial letters of names of similar sound to the target names revealed that 83% of first names and 77% of last names matched. It is difficult to estimate the chance level of success in guessing the first letter of names, but since 14 different letters of the alphabet were used for the first names and 16 different letters as-· guesses, the chance level of successful matching must be low. Number of Syllables Over all positive TOTs, the number of syllables of the name S was seeking was correct on 73% (57 out of 79) guesses for first names and 79% (53 out of 67) for last names. These results must be qualified by the fact that the average number of syllables in first and last names was only 1.7 and 1.8, respectively. Consequently, the chance level of successful guessing must be high. The number of syllables in similar sounding first and last names as the target was guessed correctly 83% (25 out of 30) and 77%(17 out of 22) of the time, respectively, for both cases. Although Ss were asked to rank order the names of similar sound in terms of the degree of their seeming resemblance to the target, this was done by only one S. This particular S "knew" who Liza Minelli was and tried to find her name by writing out (1) Monetti, (2) Mona, (3) Magetti, (4) Spaghetti, (5) Bogette. Symbolic Representations The data for both positive and negative TOTs were combined and analyzed in terms of their specificity of S's information about the target's professions or fields of importance and those places (e.g., movies, television, book or particular magazines, theatre, etc.) where the target is most often seen and how recently. Specificity was defined as: (1) High -S was exact in describing the professions and places and gave precise examples, e.g., for the target "Elliot Gould" one S reported, "He is a movie star, latest film was Bob, Carol, Ted and Alice." (2) Moderate-S gave a good but not exact description, e.g., for the target "Glen Campbell" one S reported, "T.V. specials, on Smothers Brothers." (3) General-S had some knowledge but was vague, e.g., for the target "Ernie Ford" one S reported "comic in movies." And (4) Low-S was very vague, e.g., for the target "Arthur Godfrey" one S reported he was "in show business and is seen in newspapers." If S claimed to have seen this person within the last week, his statement was classified as highly specific: within the last month, moderate: within the last year. general: and over a year ago, low in Profession Place Recency High 197 14 8 Moderate 71 254 32 General 24 4 93 Low 15 1 31 290 YARMEY DISCUSSION These results add support to Brown and McNeill's (1966) "generic" recall interpretation of memory, i.e., partial recall of letters, syllables, affix, word class, and abstract recall, such as placement of primary stress. In this study, phonemic information of to-be-remembered names was available and consistently accurate. Ss were able to guess correctly initial letters of target names, initial letters of similar sounding names, and numbers of syllables in target names. Similar to words, names of people obey certain sequential and syntactical letter and syllabic constraints as well as phonetic generalizations. Although retrieval from generic memory is important in searching for target names, it is secondary to retrieval from other memory stores such as verbal and imagery representations. Ss' descriptions of their memory search during TOT states clearly involved both imagery and verbal mediators. While these reports do not prove a causal relationship, they are descriptive of subjective associative experiences. The predominant encoding strategy of "person information" was in a spatial form, i.e., Ss were highly specific in describing the target's profession, they were able to describe accurately where they most often saw the target, and finally, they were able to give temporal-spatial relationships to this experience. Since the majority of these public persons, reportedly, were last seen between 1 and 12 months ago, the long-term retention Of this information must be stable and highly consolidated. These temporal-spatial organizations of TOT states appear to be related to Tulving's (1972) hypothesis of episodic memory. Tulving does not explicitly refer to imagery processes, but rather describes episodic memory in terms of autobiographical events which are stored in terms of temporally dated episodes and temporal-spatial relationships among these events. Perceptual events that are stored in episodic memory are encoded in terms of their perceptible (imaginal?) properties or attributes and are retrieved without reference to rules or other cognitive processes. In conclusion, this study shows that tip-of-the-tongue behavior is not limited to acoustically related words. Rather, depending upon the nature of the task, generic, verbal, and imaginal symbolic representations, at least, are involved in TOT experiences. In addition, TOT states seem to operate both in semantic long-term memory as well as in the more perceptual episodic memory system. Although verbal representations are the targets in TOT states, several retrieval systems are used to locate the to-be-remembered name. REFERENCES Brown, R., & McNeill, D. The "tip of the tongue" phenomenon. Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior, 1966, 5, 325-337. Dale, H. C. A., & McGlaughlin, A. Evidence of acoustic coding in long-term memory. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1971,23,1-7. James, W. The principles of psychology. Vo1. 1. New York: Holt, 1893. Norman, D. A. Memory and attention. Toronto: Wiley, 1969. Paivio, A. Imagery and verbal processes. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1971. Richardson, A. Mental imagery. New York: Springer, 1969. Segal, S. J. (Ed.) The adaptive functions of imagery. New York: Academic Press, 1971. Sheehan, P. W. (Ed.) The function and nature of imagery. New York: Academic Press, 1972. Tulving, E. Episodic and semantic memory. In E. Tulving and W. Donaldson (Eds.), Organization and memory. New York: Academic Press, 1972. (Received for publication February 5,1973; accepted February 11, 1973.) 
work_46wmz2hmybd3bp23vpzkxqofpi	----	BUYING BEAUTY: 1 Buying Beauty: On Prices and Returns in the Art Market Luc Renneboog and Christophe Spaenjers* This version: 6 December 2011 Abstract: This paper investigates the price determinants and investment performance of art. We apply a hedonic regression analysis to a new data set of over one million auction transactions of paintings and works on paper. Based on the resulting price index, we conclude that art has appreciated in value by a moderate 3.97% per year, in real U.S. dollar terms, between 1957 and 2007. This is a performance similar to that of corporate bonds – at much higher risk. A repeat-sales regression on a subset of the data demonstrates the robustness of our index. Next, quantile regressions document larger price appreciations in higher price brackets. We also find variation in historical returns across mediums and movements. Finally, we show that both high-income consumer confidence and art market sentiment forecast art price trends. Key words: art; auctions; hedonic regressions; investments; repeat-sales regressions; sentiment. * Luc Renneboog (luc.renneboog@uvt.nl) is Professor of Corporate Finance, Tilburg University, the Netherlands. Christophe Spaenjers (spaenjers@hec.fr) is Assistant Professor of Finance, HEC Paris, France. The authors would like to thank Sofiane Aboura, Richard Agnello, David Bellingham, Fabio Braggion, Michael Brennan, Peter Carpreau, Geraldo Cerqueiro, Gilles Chemla, Mark Clatworthy, Craig Clunas, Peter De Goeij, Neil De Marchi, Alberta Di Guili, Elroy Dimson, Kevin Evans, Julian Franks, Rik Frehen, Edith Ginglinger, Victor Ginsburgh, Marc Goergen, William Goetzmann, Tom Gretton, Duncan Hislop, Noah Horowitz, Jonathan Ingersoll, Martin Kemp, Marius Kwint, Geraldine Johnson, Benjamin Mandel, David Marginson, Bill Megginson, Allison Morehead, Thierry Morel, Michael Moses, Kim Oosterlinck, Liang Peng, Rachel Pownall, Clara C. Raposo, Catarina Reis, Keith Robson, Frans de Roon, Geert Rouwenhorst, Ahti Salo, Sofia Santos, Marie Shushka, Mick Silver, Myron Slovin, Cindy Soo, Matthew Spiegel, Darius Spieth, Peter Szilagyi, Nick Taylor, Svetlana Taylor, Radomir Todorov, Hans Van Miegroet, Joost Vanden Auwera, Stephen Walker, Jason Xiao, Roberto Zanola, and participants at seminars and workshops at Antwerp University, Cambridge University, Cardiff Business School, Duke University, ISCTE Business School, London Business School, Manchester Business School, Paris-Dauphine University, Tilburg University, UCL-Core, Universidade Catolica Portuguesa, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Yale University, the 2009 FMA Meetings, the 2009 LBS Annual Art Investment Conference, and the 2009 Multinational Finance Conference for valuable comments and suggestions. Spaenjers would like to thank the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO) for financial support, and London Business School for its hospitality. 2 I. Introduction Stories about the baffling amounts of money paid for first-tier art frequently entertain newspaper readers around the world. Yet, high prices do not necessarily imply high returns. Consider, for example, Claude Monet’s “Dans la Prairie”, the star lot of the Impressionist and Modern Art Evening Sale at Christie’s London in February 2009. The canvas changed owners for the substantial sum of 10 million British Pound (GBP), and was the top seller in an auction that, according to the Wall Street Journal (2009), “showed that there's plenty of life” in the Impressionist and Modern sector. However, the same painting had been sold twice before in recent history – in June 1988 at Sotheby’s London for 14.3 million GBP, and in November 1999 at Sotheby’s New York for 15.4 million U.S. dollars (USD). By any standard, the rate of return on the Monet was dismal. Nevertheless, the growth in the number of multi-million dollar sales, the expansion of the global population of high-net-worth individuals, and the increasing need for portfolio diversification have all brought increased attention to art as an investment in recent years. In turn, the belief in art as a viable alternative asset class has led to the creation of several art funds – not all very successful (Horowitz, 2011) – and art market advisory services which cater to affluent individuals who consider investing in art. The Wall Street Journal (2010) recently reported that almost 8% of total wealth is held in so-called “passion investments”: art, musical instruments, wine, jewelry, antiques, etc. Of all such luxury assets, art is the most likely to be acquired for its potential appreciation in value (Capgemini, 2010). There is a growing academic literature on art investments, but previous studies have utilized relatively small data sets of sales (pairs) at the high end of the market. The resulting indices are prone to a number of estimation issues and selection biases (cf. Section II). The current paper therefore uses a comprehensive new data set of nearly 1.1 million auction sales to re-examine the price formation and returns in the art market, over a period from 1957 to 2007. We perform a hedonic regression analysis which relates transaction prices to a wide range of value- determining characteristics and year effects. Our results show that artist reputation, attribution, signs of authenticity, medium, size, topic, and the timing and location of the sale are significantly correlated with price levels. Based on the regression coefficients on the year dummies in our model, we can build a price index that controls for time variation in the composition of the market (and corrects for changes in price dispersion). We find that constant-quality art prices increased by a moderate 3.97% in real USD terms on a yearly basis over the 1957-2007 period. Between 1982 and 2007, the geometric average annual real return is 5.19%. For the second half of the twentieth century, our estimates are substantially below those reported by Goetzmann (1993) and Mei and Moses (2002). Our baseline hedonic index proves robust to alternative specifications and estimation methods. For example, allowing for time variation in the hedonic coefficients does not materially affect our results. 3 Importantly, also applying a repeat-sales regression to a subset of our sample leads to nearly identical return estimates for the 1982-2007 period. Quantile regressions over the same time frame show that historical rates of appreciation vary across the price distribution; the annualized real return at the 95th percentile is almost 5 percentage points higher than the return at the 5th percentile. In line with this finding, but in contrast to previous research (and to what the Monet example may suggest), we do not find that portfolios of masterpieces underperform the rest of the market. Moreover, a “value” strategy, in which one focuses on important but relatively less expensive artists, has outperformed our baseline index by 1.6 percentage points on an annualized basis. Next, we show that oil paintings and post-war movements have outperformed other art over the last few decades. Overall, the risk-return profile of art has been inferior to that of financial assets, even before transaction costs, especially in the second half of our time frame. However, art has outperformed other physical assets, such as gold, commodities, and real estate. While we find a low correlation between changes in the art price index and same-year equity returns, the correlation with lagged equity returns is substantially higher. Finally, we examine the determinants of art market returns. We find evidence that (lagged) equity market returns and changes in high-income consumer confidence predict art returns, highlighting the importance of luxury consumption demand. However, we document that also a novel art buyer sentiment measure (based on volume and buy-in rates at high-profile auctions, and on media reports) forecasts price changes. This suggests that time-varying optimism about the potential of ‘art as an investment’ can partially explain the existence of art market cycles. II. Literature on art returns Researchers have used different methodologies to calculate the financial returns on art investments, starting from public auction records.1 Stein (1977) considers the auctioned objects in each year as a random sample of the underlying stock of art (by deceased artists), and constructs an index based on the yearly average transaction price. Baumol (1986) and Frey and Pommerehne (1989) calculate the geometric mean return on works that sold at least twice during the considered time frame. Unfortunately, however, these simple methods do not enable the construction of a price index that adjusts for variations in quality. Most recent studies have therefore used either repeat-sales regressions or hedonic regressions to measure the price movements of art and other infrequently traded assets (e.g., real estate). Repeat-sales regressions (RSR) explicitly control for differences in quality between works by only considering items that have been sold at least twice. The method uses purchase and sale price pairs to 1 Art is not only sold at auction, but also privately, for example through dealers. Total turnover in the art and antiques market is roughly split equally between the two transaction types (McAndrew, 2010). However, it is generally accepted that auction prices set a benchmark also used in the private market. 4 estimate the average return of a portfolio of assets in each time period. Pesando (1993), Goetzmann (1993), Mei and Moses (2002), and Pesando and Shum (2008), among others, have applied the methodology to art investments. There are three problems with existing RSR studies. First, since art objects trade very infrequently (and resales can be hard to identify), only considering repeated transactions decimates any data set to a relatively small number of observations. For example, Mei and Moses (2002) include 4,896 sales pairs over a period of 125 years; Goetzmann et al. (2011) use even fewer sales pairs, although their focus is not on the resulting price index itself. Meese and Wallace (1997) show that the use of such small databases renders RSR estimators sensitive to influential observations. Second, most repeat-sales studies suffer from selection issues. For example, the sample used by Mei and Moses (2002) includes sales pairs with a first transaction anywhere in the world, but a resale at Sotheby’s or Christie’s New York – arguably the most expensive sales rooms in the world. Moreover, the initial purchase is identified using the provenance entries in the New York sales catalogues; this information could be more likely to be included when a high price is expected. An index estimated based upon such a sample may thus be biased upwards. Other studies, including Goetzmann (1993), have utilized repeat-sales information from the so-called “Reitlinger data” – books with auction price data until the 1960s – of which is well known that they are incomplete and focus disproportionately on famous artists (Guerzoni, 1995). Third, even abstracting from the issues just outlined, items which trade twice may in general not be representative for the overall population of art works. Hedonic regressions control for quality changes in the transacted goods by attributing implicit prices to their “utility-bearing characteristics” (Rosen, 1974). In the often-used time-dummy variant of the hedonic pricing methodology, all available transaction data are pooled, and prices are regressed on a set of value- determining attributes and one or more time dummies. Under the assumption that all omitted characteristics are orthogonal to those included (Meese and Wallace, 1997),2 the coefficients on the time dummies account for constant-quality price trends over the sample period. Since no information is thrown away prior to the estimation, hedonic regressions make efficient use of available data, and may therefore give more reliable estimates of price indices than RSR. Not surprisingly, one of the key difficulties is the choice of hedonic characteristics (Ashenfelter and Graddy, 2003). Observable and easily quantifiable features such as size, medium, and the location of sale are frequently used (Anderson, 1974; Buelens and Ginsburgh, 1993; Chanel et al., 1996; Agnello and Pierce, 1996), but the number of hedonic variables often remains relatively limited. The literature has failed to systematically include variables that measure reputation or the strength of attribution, an important price-determining factor for Old Masters (Robertson, 2005). Also, just like in studies using RSR, the utilized samples have been relatively small and selective. Research has been based 2 Although there are omitted variables in every model, hedonic pricing is particularly suitable for luxury consumption goods markets, in which a limited number of key characteristics often determine the willingness to pay for an item (e.g., the 4 Cs of a diamond). In any case, Butler (1982) argues that the omitted variable bias is often negligible; “approximate correctness can be achieved with significantly fewer characteristics than is generally supposed”. 5 either on the problematic (and old) Reitlinger data mentioned before (Buelens and Ginsburgh, 1993; Chanel et al., 1996), or on samples of art from one country (Agnello and Pierce, 1996; Renneboog and Van Houtte, 2002; Higgs and Worthington, 2005). The estimated returns on art vary with data, methodology, and the time period under consideration (Ashenfelter and Graddy, 2003). With respect to paintings, the two most influential repeat-sales studies report relatively high real returns over the second half of the twentieth century. Goetzmann (1993) calculates an average annual real appreciation of 3.8% between 1850 and 1986, but with a “long and strong” bull market, in which annualized returns average around 15%, since 1940. Mei and Moses (2002) reports a real return of 4.9% over the period 1875-1999, but a higher annualized return estimate of 8.2% after 1950. (For prints, Pesando and Shum (2008) report much lower returns over the period 1977-2004.) In general, studies that use hedonic regressions have found somewhat lower returns, but to date no exhaustive hedonic analysis has been undertaken. III. Data and methodology In this paper, we construct a price index for art using the hedonic regression methodology. As outlined before, the main advantage of this approach is that information on all observed transactions can be taken into account. Our model relates the natural logs of real USD prices to year dummies, while controlling for a wide range of hedonic characteristics: ∑ ∑ = = +++= M m T t ktkttmktmkt DXP 1 1 ln εγβα (1), where Pkt represents the price of art object k at time t, Xmkt is the value of characteristic m of item k at time t, and Dkt is a time dummy variable that takes the value one if object k is sold in period t (and zero otherwise). The coefficients βm reflect the attribution of a relative shadow price to each of the m characteristics, while the antilogs of the coefficients γt can be used to construct an art price index that controls for time variation in the quality of art sold. The value of the hedonic index in year t is: 100*)exp( tt γ≡Π (2), with γ0 set equal to 0 for the initial, left-out period. The return in year t is then: 1 1 − Π Π ≡ −t t tr (3). However, a subtle (and often neglected) point is that such an index will track the geometric – not the arithmetic – mean of prices over time, due to the log transformation prior to the estimation. This is especially important for our estimation of returns if there is time variation in the heterogeneity-controlled dispersion in prices, i.e., the hedonic regression residuals (Silver and Heravi, 2007). If we assume that the 6 residuals of our hedonic regression are normally distributed in each period, with variance 2tσ in period t, then we can correct for this transformation bias by defining the corrected index values as follows (Triplett, 2004; Silver and Heravi, 2007): 100*)( 2 1 exp 20 2*     −+≡Π σσγ ttt (4). The corrected return in year t, can then be defined as follows: 1 * 1 * * − Π Π ≡ −t t tr (5). We describe our data in subsection A. The hedonic variables that will be used in the estimation of Eq. (1) are presented in subsection B. A. Data We focus on the market for oil paintings and works on paper (i.e., watercolors and drawings), which account for a substantial proportion of all transactions – and about 85% of total turnover – in the art market (Artprice, 2006). We start by compiling a list of artists. This selection of artists has to be as exhaustive as possible, so as not to have a bias towards artists that are popular today, and therefore we consult several authoritative art history resources from different time periods. Our artist selection procedure, of which details can be found in Appendix A, culminates in a list of 10,442 artists. We classify 4,490 of those artists in at least one of the following art movements: Medieval & Renaissance; Baroque; Rococo; Neoclassicism; Romanticism; Realism; Impressionism & Symbolism; Fauvism & Expressionism; Cubism, Futurism & Constructivism; Dada & Surrealism; Abstract Expressionism; Pop; Minimalism & Contemporary. We then collect data on all relevant sales by matching our list of names with all artists in the online database Art Sales Index [http://www.artinfo.com/artsalesindex]. This resource contains auction records for different types of art. Prices are hammer prices, exclusive of transaction costs. Historically, the Art Sales Index, just like many other databases, has not included buy-ins (i.e., items that do not reach the reserve price and remain unsold). Although the first sales in the Art Sales Index date from the beginning of the 1920s, data are unavailable or sparse in many years until the second half of the 1950s. Therefore, we start our analysis in 1957, the first year for which we have more than 1,000 observations. (Unfortunately, however, for 1963 the data coverage is limited, with only some of the highest priced sales included.) The Art Sales Index only includes London sales until the late 1960s, but it has an exhaustive worldwide coverage afterwards. The most recent auction records available for this study are from the autumn auctions of 2007. Our final data set consists of 1,088,709 sales; about 60% of these transactions concern oil paintings, with the remainder split roughly evenly between watercolors and drawings. The artist with the highest 7 numbers of sales (5,405) is Pablo Picasso. The magnitude of our database enables us to draw a complete picture of the price formation and the returns in the art market, in contrast to most previous studies which are based on more selective samples. We translate all nominal prices in our data set to prices in year 2007 USD, using the CPI as a measure of inflation. In real terms, the most expensive transaction is ‘Portrait du Dr. Gachet’ by Vincent van Gogh, which sold for 75 million USD in May 1990 at Christie's New York. (In nominal prices, it is ‘Garçon à la Pipe’ by Pablo Picasso, which was auctioned off for 93 million USD in May 2004 at Sotheby's New York.) While such high-profile sales attract ample attention, the average price level is much lower. The mean (resp. median) sales price over all observations for 2007 is 159,354 USD (resp. 14,775 USD). Goetzmann (1996) argues that survivorship could cause upward bias in the estimation of art returns, since artists who “fall from fashion” are typically not traded. The impact of this bias on our results may be rather small. First, as Goetzmann (1996) points out himself, the rate of artist obsolescence is relatively low. Second, in contrast to previous work, we do not require a work of art to trade twice and/or to sell at a large auction house. Our sample thus also includes many sales of less popular artists at smaller auction houses at any point in time (especially after 1970). Finally, pieces that are donated to museums after a substantial increase in an artist’s fame – or items that are sold through private transactions in the early part of artists’ careers – are not observed at auction either (Goetzmann, 1993; Mei and Moses, 2002), partially offsetting the upward bias. Nevertheless, our return estimate should probably still be considered as an upper bound on the rate of return (before transaction costs) realized by art investors over our time frame. B. Variables Our hedonic regressions include a number of variables that capture the characteristics of the artist, of the work, and of the sale. The descriptive statistics for these hedonic variables are presented in Table 1. [Insert Table 1 about here] First, in addition to artist dummies capturing each artist’s uniqueness, we consider the following exogenous reputational measure: Textbook dummy. We manually check which of our artists were included in several editions of the classic art history textbook ‘Gardner’s Art Through the Ages’ (1926, 1959, 1980, 1996, and 2004). In total, 652 of our artists are listed in at least one edition. The dummy variable TEXTBOOK equals one if the artist was featured in the edition of – or the last edition prior to – the year of sale. Two other characteristics related to the artist’s career are included in the late-twentieth-century movement- specific models (cf. Section IV.E), but not in our general models, as they could potentially pick up price differences between various eras or movements: 8 Exhibition dummy. The variable EXHIBITION equals one once the artist has been represented at Documenta in Kassel. Inclusion in this prestigious exhibition evidences an artist’s rise to fame. In total, 680 of our artists were represented at one of the eleven exhibitions between 1955 and 2002. Dead artist dummy. It is often assumed that prices for art works increase after the death of an artist. The dummy variable DECEASED, which equals one if the sale occurs subsequent to the artist’s death, should capture this effect. Second, we also consider a range of price-determining variables that capture the attribution and authenticity, the medium, the size, and the subject matter of the work of art: Attribution dummies. Attribution can be an important factor influencing the price of art objects, especially of older works. Different levels of attribution are used in the auction world: ATTRIBUTED (to), STUDIO (of), CIRCLE (of), SCHOOL (of), AFTER, and (in the) STYLE (of). About 12% of the observations in our sample carry such an attribution. Authenticity dummies. More than half of the art works is SIGNED, while about one third is DATED. Medium dummies. We introduce dummies for the different medium categories: OIL, WATERCOLOR (including gouaches), and DRAWING. Size. The height and width in inches are represented by HEIGHT and WIDTH (with squared values HEIGHT_2 and WIDTH_2). The average work has a height and a width of about 20 inches (51 cm). Topic dummies. The subject matter can significantly affect the aesthetic appreciation of art objects. We therefore categorize the works in different topic groups based on the first word(s) of the title. We create eleven categories, based on the search strings listed in Appendix B: ABSTRACT, ANIMALS, LANDSCAPE, NUDE, PEOPLE, PORTRAIT, RELIGION, SELF-PORTRAIT, STILL_LIFE, UNTITLED, and URBAN. Furthermore, we create a dummy STUDY that equals one if the title contains the words “study” or “etude”. The largest categories are portraits and landscapes. Third, we include dummies that indicate the timing of the sale, and the reputation and location of the auction house: Month dummies. Since important sales are often clustered in time, we include month dummies. The busiest months are May, June, November, and December. Auction house dummies. We make a distinction between different fine art auction houses that have been important throughout our sample period. For Sotheby’s and Christie’s, we introduce dummy variables for their London, New York, and other sales (e.g., SOTH_LONDON, SOTH_NY, and SOTH_OTHER). Together, these two institutions are responsible for about half of all sales in our sample. For two other big British auction houses, Bonhams and Phillips, we make a distinction between their London sales rooms and other activities (e.g., BON_LONDON and BON_OTHER). 9 We also create two dummies to account for the sales by important European and American auction houses (AUCTION_EUROPEAN and AUCTION_AMERICAN) – see Appendix C. IV. The returns on art A. Baseline indices Table 2 shows the parameter estimates of the hedonic variables for our baseline model. Eq. (1) is estimated using ordinary least squares (OLS) and the dependent variable is the natural log of the real price in USD. For 1,078,482 sales we have complete information on all hedonic characteristics presented in the previous section. Because of the very large number of observations, nearly all coefficients are statistically highly significant. Hence, we focus on economic significance as well: Table 2 shows the “price impact” of each hedonic variable, which can be proxied by taking the exponent of the coefficient, and subtracting one. It is important to note that the variables are in most cases picking up otherwise unobservable differences in quality, and that the regression coefficients thus reflect correlation instead of causality. For example, works sold at Sotheby’s or Christie’s mainly catch higher prices because of their high attractiveness, not necessarily because of auction house certification. [Insert Table 2 about here] Table 2 reveals that works are on average priced 13.5% higher after the inclusion of the artist in an important art history reference book. Also the strength of the attribution has an important effect on the price of an art object. Whenever an attribution dummy comes into play, the price level drops by more than 50%. Not surprisingly, larger discounts are recorded for works that are “in the style of” or “after” a master than for “attributed” or “studio” works. We also observe that signed and dated works carry higher prices: a signature increases the price by as much as 31% on average, while a date adds almost 19% in value. Works on paper are priced lower than oil paintings, and drawings are less valuable than watercolors. Furthermore, prices increase with size, up to the point that the work becomes too large, as indicated by the negative coefficients on the squared terms. Regarding the topic dummies, there are significant discounts associated with studies and portraits, while self-portraits trade at a premium. The coefficients on our month-of-the- year dummies confirm that the most expensive auctions are clustered at the ends of the spring and the autumn. Finally, the highest prices are paid at the main offices of Sotheby’s and Christie’s. Based on the coefficients on the time dummies and the variance of residuals in each period, we construct both an uncorrected art price index Π, and a price index Π* that corrects for log transformation bias. The results are reported in Table 3; the price levels in 1957 are standardized to 100. As mentioned before, the coverage of the data is very selective for the year 1963, so we geometrically interpolate index values for that year. (Previous studies showed very small price movements in 1963.) Table 3 indicates that the index values have high statistical precision. In most cases, the standard deviation on the regression coefficient is 10 around 0.03, which implies tight confidence intervals around each index value. Figure 1 graphically depicts the evolution of the indices over our time frame, and compares them to the evolution of deflated average and median prices in our data set. [Insert Table 3 and Figure 1 about here] The corrected price index in Figure 1 illustrates that, in boom periods, prices can increase very fast: they more than tripled in real terms between 1982 and 1990. The yearly increase in prices between 1985 and 1990 exceeded 23%. However, prices also rapidly decreased after 1990, and no large changes in price levels occurred between the mid-1990s and the first years of the 2000s. In the most recent art boom period of 2002-2007, the annual real price appreciation averaged 13.65%. The figure documents that an index based on average or median prices would overestimate the volatility of prices, because of the lack of control for quality differences over time. Indeed, a key contribution of this paper is to disentangle changes in market composition from those in heterogeneity-controlled price levels. At the same time, however, the average and median series serve as a check on the order of magnitude of the overall price appreciation (at least over the last two-three decades, when the coverage of the data set is no longer expanding notably). Figure 1 also illustrates the quantitative importance of the correction for the log transformation; while the end-of-period index values are very similar, we observe marked deviations between Π and Π* over some periods. Annualized (i.e., geometric average) returns are reported in Panel A of Table 4. We focus on the corrected price index. On average, art has appreciated at a yearly real rate of 3.97% between 1957 and 2007. Over the last 25 years, the geometric mean real return is somewhat higher (5.19%). The nominal equivalents (not reported), obtained by correcting the index for the year-to-year changes in the CPI series, are 8.21% (1957-2007) and 8.47% (1982-2007). These numbers are substantially below the return estimates reported in Goetzmann (1993) or Mei and Moses (2002) for the periods in common. For example, over the period 1957-1999, Mei and Moses (2002) report an annualized nominal return of 12.81%, while our index appreciated by 7.59% on an annual basis – a difference of over 5%. [Insert Table 4 about here] Table 4 also reports standard deviations of the time series of annual returns. For our corrected index, the standard deviation over the full time frame is slightly above 15%. However, we will later note that this number still underestimates the true riskiness of art investments (cf. Section V). B. Robustness checks We now check the quantitative robustness of our baseline results. First, we repeat our analysis using a number of different set-ups: (i) excluding the topic dummies (as these may capture the subject matter rather imprecisely), (ii) excluding the more than 5,000 artists with fewer than 100 sales (as these artists are less 11 liquid), and (iii) excluding Minimalism & Contemporary art (as selection and survivorship issues may be more of a concern for more recent artists). Panel B of Table 4 shows the uncorrected real return estimates for 1957-2007 and 1982-2007, which can be compared to the performance of price index Π, as shown in Panel A. Our estimates do not change substantially, with annualized price appreciations over the period 1957-2007 that differ by less than 0.05% from those reported earlier. Second, a potential problem with the hedonic approach is that coefficients are constrained to be stable across the whole sample window. This is a strong assumption as shadow prices of hedonic characteristics (i.e., tastes) may change over time. An adjacent-period model can mitigate this problem: by dividing the sample in subperiods, it enables the hedonic coefficients to fluctuate (Triplett, 2004). We apply this method to our data set by performing a separate hedonic regression for every two consecutive years since 1982 (and then chain-linking our returns). We restrict our analysis to the second half of our time frame, because the methodology would underestimate the returns over the full time frame due to the expansion of coverage by the database over the first 20-25 years. The adjacent-year model generates an uncorrected return estimate (4.60%) that is very similar to the one we obtained from the pooled data, lending further support to our benchmark index. Third, the main advantage of RSR is that is controls for the uniqueness of each work. Also, in contrast to a hedonic price index, it can be thought of as an investable index, at least in theory. Unfortunately, our data set does not uniquely identify each artwork – let alone each repeated sale. Yet, we aim to identify multiple transactions of the same item indirectly. We consider two items as being identical if they are from the same artist (not from a pupil or follower), have the same dimensions, carry the same title (but not “Untitled” or “Composition”), are of the same medium, and do not differ with respect to the presence of a signature or date. Strikingly, this reduces the data set from 1.1 million individual transactions to 30,611 ‘repeat sales’ with a holding period of at least a year. For similar reasons as before – an RSR over the full sample would underestimate average returns because of the focus on higher-priced items in the first half of our time frame – we look at the 21,846 transactions between 1982 and 2007. (This number compares favorably to the size of the databases used in previous repeat-sales studies.) In line with Goetzmann (1993) and Mei and Moses (2002), we apply a three-stage estimation procedure on our sample of repeat sales, based on Case and Shiller (1987). In a first step, we regress returns on a matrix (containing a row for each item and a column for each time period) with dummy variables indicating the holding period of each item, using OLS. In a second stage, we regress the squared residuals from the first step on an intercept and the time between sales. In a third step, we redo the RSR, using weighted least squares, with the fitted squared residuals as weights. The last line of Panel B of Table 4 shows that, over the time frame under consideration, the RSR implies an average annual increase in the geometric mean price of 4.56%, compared to 4.55% for the (uncorrected) 12 hedonic regression index.3 The standard deviation is only slightly higher than before. The correlation between the repeat-sales returns and the hedonic returns (not reported) is 0.98. C. Quantile regressions Despite some work on the “masterpiece effect” – which examines the question whether more expensive art out- or underperforms the overall market (e.g., Pesando, 1993; Mei and Moses, 2002) – prior literature has not systematically explored the potential variation of returns across price brackets. This is surprising, given that the art market is likely to be segmented for a number of reasons. First, art is indivisible, and therefore small investors are generally not able to invest in higher-end works. Second, wealthy individuals may be less tempted to buy in the lower-end of the market, where works do not signal the same social status (Mandel, 2009). Third, the more expensive parts of the market may be more prone to speculation. The distribution of returns may thus be skewed over and above a potential masterpiece effect. In such a setting, quantile regressions may be particularly useful (Zietz et al., 2008; Scorcu and Zanola, 2011). While OLS regressions provide estimates for the conditional means only, non-linear quantile regressions can characterize the entire distribution of the dependent variable (Koenker and Hallock, 2001). We estimate price trends for the percentiles 0.95, 0.75, 0.50, 0.25, and 0.05, using the adjacent-year set- up outlined before. (We split our sample in subperiods to avoid that the hedonic coefficients measure variation in premiums or discounts across time rather than across price brackets). We denote the price indices by Q95, Q75, etc. We show the results, again since 1982, in Panel C of Table 4 and in Figure 2. An interesting pattern emerges. The low performance of Q05 is particularly striking: it has an annual growth rate of only 1.35%, compared with 4.91% for Q50 (i.e., the constant-quality median price level). Over the last 25 years, prices have gone up more in the higher price brackets. For example, for Q95, we record an annualized return of 6.32%. Paired-sample t-tests on the return series (not reported) show that the difference in (arithmetic) average return between Q05 and any of the other quantile series is statistically significant at the 0.05 level. The outperformance of the higher quantiles is mainly due to strong price rises in times of increasing demand for art. This finding seems in line with “superstar economics”.4 The higher 3 As with the hedonic regression, the RSR implies an index that is related to the geometric mean price in each period. Goetzmann (1992) proposes to correct for log transformation bias by adding half of the cross-sectional variance of the returns in each period to the estimated coefficient, where this variance is estimated in the second step of the Case- Shiller method. However, Goetzmann and Peng (2002) argue that the nature of the bias due to the log transformation is generally not uniform through time. There is also a danger of misspecification of the error structure (Meese and Wallace, 1997) which may lead to an overestimation of the relevant correction term. Since we are mainly interested in testing the robustness of our baseline index to a change in methodology, we compare the pre-correction indices to each other; they should give similar results. 4 In Rosen (1981), a small number of superstars earn large amounts of money, and increases in demand make the earnings distribution ever more skewed. A condition is that there is “imperfect substitution among quality 13 average growth and higher volatility of the upper price range can also be associated with increases in both income inequality (Goetzmann et al., 2011) and the income cyclicality of high-income households (Parker and Vissing-Jorgensen, 2010), although we do not formally test these hypotheses in this paper (because of lack of a sufficiently long time series). In contrast, at first sight, the results seem at odds with the finding of Mei and Moses (2002) that masterpieces underperform – an issue that we turn to next. [Insert Figure 2 about here] D. The performance of “masterpiece” and “value” portfolios The quantile regression results shows that prices have generally gone up more for high-value items. To further examine the profitability and riskiness of buying high-end art, we estimate the historical performance of two different investment strategies, based on our repeat-sales data. First, we consider a “masterpiece” strategy: we ‘buy’ in year t all auctioned works by the 100 artists that were most expensive over years t-1 and t-2 (as measured by an adjacent-period hedonic regression model over those years). This strategy comes close to how other authors have examined the masterpiece effect, although we do not select works endogenously on realized transaction prices. Second, we implement a “value” strategy: we buy in year t all observed works by the 100 least expensive artists over t-1 and t-2 that were nevertheless included in the art history textbook described earlier at the start of year t-2. Such a strategy could exploit fluctuations in taste, or a lag in appreciation by the market relative to the recognition of the artist’s art-historical significance. (Of course, the items included in this portfolio are in general still expensive compared to the overall sales distribution.) In both cases, we apply the RSR methodology to estimate returns; in other words, we ‘sell’ whenever the owner sold in practice. The results are shown in Panel D of Table 4, and compared to our earlier constructed RSR index in Figure 3. [Insert Figure 3 about here] We find no evidence of underperformance of a “masterpiece” strategy, which is not inconsistent with our quantile regressions, but stands in contrast to Mei and Moses (2002).5 The described strategy yields an annualized growth in price levels of 4.81%, compared to 4.56% for our earlier constructed RSR index. The differentiated goods”. This is certainly the case in the art market: ten mediocre works do not add up to a single masterpiece. In a recent paper, Gyourko et al. (2006) rely on superstar economics to rationalize why the gap in house prices between “superstar cities” and less attractive locations keeps increasing over time; the authors note that “living in a superstar city is like owning a luxury good”. 5 Mei and Moses (2002) and Ashenfelter and Graddy (2003) argue that idiosyncratic overbidding and mean reversion could be one explanation for the seemingly negative effect in studies that identify masterpieces based on transaction prices. Goetzmann (1996) provides an alternative explanation: if only larger auction houses are taken into account, expensive items that drop in value are more likely to be included in the sample than lesser-quality works that underperform. Of course, the relative performance of masterpieces may also vary over time, for example if it depends on evolutions in aggregate demand or the income distribution (cf. supra). 14 “masterpiece” strategy realized strikingly high returns in the boom in the late 1980s (when indeed “blue chip” art was very much in favor), but lost much in the subsequent bust. For the “value” strategy, we record an annualized return of 6.16%; it has performed notably well since the mid-2000s. Both high-end strategies thus have end-of-period index values above those for the overall sample, although the outperformance is not statistically significant at the traditional levels. The (unreported) p-value of a t-test on the difference between the “value” returns and the benchmark returns is 0.14. E. Indices per medium and per movement We now return to our baseline hedonic model and repeat the hedonic regression analysis on three complementary subsamples of our data set: oil paintings, watercolors, and drawings. The coefficients on the hedonic variables (not reported) are in line with the previous results. Although the trends are similar across the different types of art, we find faster price increases for oil paintings. In real terms, watercolors and drawings were on average still priced lower in 2007 than in 1989 and 1990. Panel E of Table 4 reports the (corrected) returns over the different time frames. Over the last half century, prices for oil paintings have appreciated at a yearly average real rate of 4.63%, while watercolors and drawings have increased by 3.67% and 2.51% annually. Oil paintings have strongly and significantly outperformed works on paper in the second half of our time frame – a finding that is related to the discrepancies in returns between price categories reported before. The lower performance of art items other than paintings is also consistent with Pesando and Shum (2008), who find an average real return on prints of 1.51% between 1977 and 2004. Finally, we run a separate hedonic regression for each movement, based on the classification of each artist. We add the variables EXHIBITION and DECEASED to the models for the three most recent art movements (Abstract Expressionism, Pop, and Minimalism & Contemporary). Most artists of these movements have been active over our time frame, which will enable a correct measurement of exhibition and death effects. We find that EXHIBITION is significantly positive in the Abstract Expressionism and Minimalism & Contemporary set-ups; in the latter model we also observe a clearly positive death effect (not reported). In general, the results on the other hedonic characteristics are in line with the earlier findings, although there is some variation in the coefficients on the topic dummies (e.g., a premium is paid for nudes only in Pop) and on the auction house dummies (e.g., auctions at the large continental European houses generate premiums for the earliest art movements). The average yearly real returns for the different art movements since 1957 and since 1982 are also reported in Panel E of Table 4. Since 1957, the indices have increased by between 2.57% and 6.32% on average per year. Between 1982 and 2007, only the post- war art movements Abstract Expressionism, Pop, and Minimalism & Contemporary have shown real price appreciations of more than 7% per annum, on average. However, the standard deviations show that these movements have also been the more volatile ones. Romanticism, Realism, Impressionism & Symbolism, 15 and Fauvism & Expressionism record mean appreciations of less than 5% over the same time frame. The indices for three art movements from different time periods (Rococo; Cubism, Futurism & Constructivism; and Pop) are plotted in Figure 4 from 1982 onwards. The figure confirms that a post-war art movement like Pop has been more profitable – the outperformance is statistically significant at the 0.05 level – but is also more risky. [Insert Figure 4 about here] V. Comparison of investment performance and correlation with other asset classes We want to compare the performance of art investments to that of other assets. However, we first need to address the underestimation of risk by our hedonic indices. Since our methodology aggregates sales information per calendar year, our returns will suffer from spurious first-order autocorrelation and have understated standard deviations. We can unsmooth our baseline index Π*, a technique originated in the real estate literature, but later also applied to collectibles (e.g., Campbell, 2008; Dimson and Spaenjers, 2011). Based on Working (1960), we can calculate that taking a yearly average of daily prices induces spurious first-order serial correlation in the hedonic coefficients of about 0.25. We therefore re-estimate our standard deviations, removing this spurious autocorrelation from the return series. Over the period 1957-2007, the standard deviation of our desmoothed art index is now equal to 19.05% (instead of 15.21%). Over the second quarter century, the standard deviation rises less sharply, from 15.31% to 18.04%.6 We collect data from Global Financial Data on indices measuring total returns on U.S. T-bills, 10-year U.S. government bonds, Dow Jones corporate bonds, the GFD global index for government bonds, S&P 500 stocks, the GFD world index for equity, gold prices, and the CRB commodity price index. We borrow data on residential real estate prices in the U.S. from Shiller (2009); unfortunately, commercial real estate price indices have only been available for shorter time periods. Panel A of Table 5 shows the average yearly real returns and volatilities calculated over the periods 1957-2007 and 1982-2007. The same table also presents the ex-post (arithmetic) Sharpe ratios, using the returns on T-bills as the risk-free rate. [Insert Table 5 about here] Over the longer time frame, the art index clearly underperforms stocks. The S&P 500 and the GFD global equity index have appreciated at average real rates of 6.63% and 6.34%, respectively, while our art index increased by 3.97% annually over the same period. The reward-to-variability, as measured by the Sharpe ratio, is higher for stocks and corporate bonds than for art. The art index has a higher average return 6 Even these new numbers are still a lower estimate of the true riskiness of art investments, for two reasons. First, the standard deviations reported here refer to the aggregate art market; Panel D of Table 4 made clear that the volatility of most art portfolios is likely to be higher. Second, our analysis does not take into account buy-ins. If reserve prices in the art market follow recent sales prices, this implies a return measurement bias when the market reverses (Goetzmann and Peng, 2006): returns may be underestimated (resp. overestimated) in boom (resp. bust) periods. 16 since 1957 than both government bond indices, but the Sharpe ratios only surpasses that of U.S. government bonds. Nevertheless, compared to the other tangible assets in Table 5 (gold, commodities, and real estate), art does relatively well. Over the shorter time frame (since 1982), the risk-return profile of art only compares favorably to that of other real asset classes. Our comparison does not take into account differences in transaction costs, which are high for art investments. For most of our time frame, auction houses charged buyer’s premiums and seller’s commissions of around 10% (Pesando, 1993; Ashenfelter and Graddy, 2003). However, in recent years, while important consignors have sometimes been able to obtain lower commission rates, the buyer’s premium has grown to around 25% for many smaller purchases. The large transaction costs emphasize the need for long holding periods in collectibles markets (Dimson and Spaenjers, 2011). Moreover, art buyers have to take into account storage and insurance costs. We now turn to the correlations between the asset categories. Panel B of Table 5 shows the correlation matrix of real returns for the 1957-2007 time frame. The correlations between our art index on the one hand and the gold, commodity, and real estate price indices on the other are 0.30 or higher. In contrast, we find very little comovement between art and financial assets. Yet, additional (unreported) analysis shows correlations of art returns with lagged equity returns of 0.34 (S&P stocks) and 0.55 (global stocks). This suggests that wealth effects may drive art prices – something we examine in more depth in the next section. VI. Explaining the returns on art Art is ultimately a durable luxury consumption good, and consumption indeed seems to dominate the art purchase decision for a representative agent (Mandel, 2010). The fundamental value of a work of art can thus be thought of as the present value of all future flows of consumption services. Since supply is inelastic, the market price of these consumption flows will be determined by the strength of demand in each period. The importance of investment income for wealthy households, together with the discretionary nature of luxury consumption, may then induce positive correlation between art prices and financial asset values (Aït-Sahalia et al., 2004). Previous literature (e.g., Hiraki et al., 2009; Goetzmann et al., 2011) has indeed found a strong relation between stock prices and art prices. In line with this work, in column (1) of Table 6, we regress our art returns on same-year and lagged global stock market returns over the period 1981-2007. Below each coefficient, we report Newey-West standard errors that control for heteroskedasticity and autocorrelation up to two lags. Adjusted R-squareds are reported at the bottom. The results confirm that stock returns significantly affect art price growth rates.7 7 In unreported analysis, we also control for changes in top incomes (using updated U.S. data from Piketty and Saez (2003), available from Emmanuel Saez’ webpage), real interest rates, and equity market sentiment (Baker and Wurgler, 2006), but this does not materially change our results. 17 [Insert Table 6 about here] To further examine the role of consumer demand, we add in column (2) a variable that measures whether high-income (upper third) consumers think it is a good time to purchase “major household items”. (Ludvigson (2004) notes that “there is some evidence that consumer confidence surveys reflect expectations of income and non-stock market wealth growth”.) The information is taken from the University of Michigan’s Survey of Consumers, and we use the data for December of the previous year. The measure has been standardized to have zero mean and unit variance. We find that consumer sentiment strongly significantly affects art returns. We also see an increase in adjusted R-squared from 0.33 to 0.49. The results in columns (1) and (2) of Table 6 highlight the importance of consumption demand. However, they cannot fully explain the pattern of art markets booms and busts that we have witnessed over the last decades. This may be because the fundamental value of art, as defined before, is hard to grasp. Combined with the impossibility of short-selling, this uncertainty implies a potential role for art buyer sentiment, which could be defined as unjustified optimism (or pessimism) about future resale values. Furthermore, because auctions are held infrequently, sentiment may only slowly exert pressure on observed aggregate price levels. We thus expect high sentiment to be followed by price appreciations – at least in the short run – rather than by low returns as is the case in more liquid financial asset markets (Baker and Wurgler, 2006). We propose three proxies for art buyer sentiment which can be measured by the end of each year (so that they can be related to price levels in the year starting immediately after). A first factor is the year-on- year change in fourth-quarter sales volume at Sotheby’s and Christie’s (London). Baker and Stein (2004) argue that in markets with short-sale constraints liquidity can proxy for sentiment. Moreover, they suggest that the “liquidity-as-sentiment approach” is particularly relevant for “real” asset markets. Our second variable equals the rate of items sold (and thus not bought in) at the Impressionist and/or Modern art evening auctions in the Fall of each year (since 1980) in New York. These high-profile auctions are considered a barometer for the market, and buy-ins at these sales are widely commented upon in the press. We proxy for the sales rates by dividing the number of observed transactions by the maximum lot number for each auction. For our third proxy, we turn to the historical archives of The Economist. We look up all articles dated between 1980 and 2006 which mention “art market”, “art prices”, or “art auctions”. We read each article to verify that it is indeed about the state of the art market, or about art investment. We then analyze the content of each of the 56 selected articles using a software package called General Inquirer. General Inquirer counts the number of words belonging to certain categories in a text, and is also used by Tetlock (2007) in his analysis of Wall Street Journal columns. In each year, our measure of sentiment is the relative use of “positive outlook” versus “negative outlook” words in the latest article of the year, using the built-in dictionaries of the software. 18 Our main sentiment measure is then the first principal component of these three sentiment proxies (which have positive pairwise correlations of between 0.3 and 0.4). Applying a principal components procedure reduces the idiosyncratic noise in each individual measure (Baker and Wurgler, 2006). We show the evolution of our standardized sentiment measure since 1980 in Figure 5. Sentiment was negative in the early 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s, and generally positive in the second half of the 1980s and the mid-2000s. [Insert Figure 5 about here] In column (3) of Table 6, we regress the returns on art on the lagged sentiment measure, controlling for same-year and lagged global equity returns and the lagged consumer confidence measure, over the period 1981-2007. The lagged stock return variable is still positive but loses significance at the traditional levels. In line with expectations, we find a positive impact of art market sentiment that is statistically significant at the 0.05 level. This strongly suggests that time-varying optimism about art investment impacts art pricing. Unreported analysis shows that Pop and Minimalism & Contemporary art, which may be harder to value, are more sensitive to changes in art buyer sentiment. VII. Conclusion Many collectors are acutely attuned to the financial value of their assets (Burton and Jacobsen, 1999). Moreover, investors are increasingly turning to collectibles markets to diversify their portfolios. This underlines the importance of an accurate measure of the financial returns to art. Therefore, in this paper, we have investigated the price determinants and historical investment performance of art, by applying an extensive hedonic regression framework to a data set of more than one million paintings and works on paper. Our hedonic art price index indicates that art prices have increased by a moderate 3.97%, annually, in real USD terms between 1957 and 2007. This return estimate is lower than that reported in previous papers that used smaller samples of high-quality paintings sold at top auction houses. During art market booms, however, prices can skyrocket. For example, between 2002 and 2007, our index shows a real return of 13.65% per year. We also document larger price appreciations at the upper end of the market, and variation in average returns across mediums and movements. In general, art’s risk-return profile is much less attractive than that of financial assets, even before transaction costs. Finally, regression results show that art price cycles are determined by both luxury consumption demand and variation in art market sentiment. Appendix A – Compilation of list of artists We start by consulting Grove Art Online [http://www.oxfordartonline.com], a database published by Oxford University Press that contains all articles of the 34-volume ‘The Dictionary of Art’ (1996) as well as ‘The Oxford Companion to Western Art’ (2001). We select all 9,775 individual artists from the categories ‘graphic arts’, ‘painting and drawing’, and ‘printmaking’. We subsequently expand our set of artists by means of another online database, Artcyclopedia [http://www.artcyclopedia.com]. This raises the number of artists to 10,211. 19 We then compose a list of thirteen art movements: Medieval & Renaissance; Baroque; Rococo; Neoclassicism; Romanticism; Realism; Impressionism & Symbolism; Fauvism & Expressionism; Cubism, Futurism & Constructivism; Dada & Surrealism; Abstract Expressionism; Pop; and Minimalism & Contemporary. When possible, we classify our artists into one of these categories, based on the ‘Styles and Cultures’ from Grove Art Online and ‘Art Movements’ of Artcyclopedia. We can put 4,132 artists into at least one art movement. Next, we expand our data set in two more ways, to correct for the possible underrepresentation of modern and contemporary art. We compare the index of the influential book ‘Modern Art’ (Britt, 1989) to our data set and add 62 modern artists to our list (with classification). The book also enables us to assign another 87 artists not yet classified to a specific art movement. Next, in order to have a representative and up-to-date sample of contemporary artists, we consult Wikipedia [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_contemporary_artists] in April 2008. We can add 169 artists, bringing our list to 10,442 artists in total; 40 other artists can now be classified in Minimalism & Contemporary. Finally, we check for pseudonyms and different spellings of all artists’ names. Appendix B – Titles and topics We use the first word(s) of the title to classify works in topic categories. Most titles in our database are in English, but we also include French keywords in our analysis. We avoid search strings that can be used in different contexts. Sometimes we only search for titles no longer than one word or in which the word is followed by a space (e.g., “cat_”) to avoid misclassifications due to longer words with identical first characters (e.g., “catholic”). These are the topic categories, along with their search strings: ABSTRACT (“abstract”, “composition”), ANIMALS (“horse”, “cheval”, “chevaux”, “cow_”, “cows”, “vache”, “cattle”, “cat_”, “cats”, “chat_ “, “dog_”, “dogs”, “chien”, “sheep”, “mouton”, “bird”, “oiseau”), LANDSCAPE (“landscape”, “country landscape”, “coastal landscape”, “paysage”, “seascape”, “sea_”, “mer_”, “mountain”, “river”, “riviere”, “lake”, “lac_”, “valley”, “vallee”), NUDE (“nude”, “nu_”, “nue_”), PEOPLE (“people”, “personnage”, “family”, “famille”, “boy”, “garcon”, “girl”, “fille”, “man_”, “men_”, “homme”, “woman”, “women”, “femme”, “child”, “enfant”, “couple”, “mother”, “mere_”, “father”, “pere_”, “lady”, “dame”), PORTRAIT (“portrait”), RELIGION (“jesus”, “christ_”, “apostle”, “ange_”, “angel”, “saint_”, “madonna”, “holy_”, “mary magdalene”, “annunciation”, “annonciation”, “adoration”, “adam and eve”, “adam et eve”, “crucifixion”, “last supper”), SELF-PORTRAIT (“self-portrait”, “self portrait”, “auto-portrait”, “autoportrait”), STILL_LIFE (“still life”, “nature morte”, “bouquet”), UNTITLED (“untitled”, “sans titre”), URBAN (“city”, “ville”, “town”, “village”, “street”, “rue”, “market”, “marche”, “harbour”, “port_”, “paris”, “london”, “londres”, “new york”, “amsterdam”, “rome_”, “venice”, “venise”). 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DECEASED equals one in case the artist is dead at the time of the sale. The attribution dummies ATTRIBUTED, STUDIO, CIRCLE, SCHOOL, AFTER, and STYLE equal one if the auction catalogue identifies the work as being “attributed to” the artist, from the “studio” of that artist, from the “circle” of the artist, from the artist’s “school”, “after” the artist, or “in the style of” the artist, respectively. The authenticity dummies SIGNED and DATED take the value of one if the work carries a signature of the artist or is dated, respectively. The medium dummies OIL, WATERCOLOR, and DRAWING indicate whether the work is an oil painting, a watercolor (or a gouache), or another work on paper. The variables HEIGHT and WIDTH measure the height and the width of the work in inches. The topic dummies are based on the first word(s) of the title of the work (cf. Appendix B). The month dummies indicate the month of the sale. The auction house dummies SOTH_LONDON, SOTH_NY, SOTH_OTHER, CHR_LONDON, CHR_NY, CHR_OTHER, BON_LONDON, BON_OTHER, PHIL_LONDON, and PHIL_OTHER equal one if the sale takes place at Sotheby’s London, Sotheby’s New York, another branch of Sotheby’s, Christie’s London, Christie’s New York, another branch of Christie’s, Bonhams London, another office of Bonhams, Phillips London, or another sales room of Phillips, respectively. AUCTION_EUROPEAN and AUCTION_AMERICAN are dummy variables that equal one if the sale takes place at a large Continental European or a large American auction house, respectively (cf. Appendix C). For each variable, we report the number of observations (N), the mean, and the standard deviation (S.D.). For dummy variables, we also show the number of zeros and ones. N Mean S.D. 0 1 Artist characteristics TEXTBOOK 1,088,709 0.1218 0.3271 956,096 132,613 EXHIBITION 1,088,709 0.2118 0.4086 858,118 230,591 DECEASED 1,088,709 0.8810 0.3238 992,796 95,913 Work characteristics Attribution dummies ATTRIBUTED 1,088,709 0.0435 0.2040 1,041,361 47,348 STUDIO 1,088,709 0.0051 0.0716 1,083,104 5,605 CIRCLE 1,088,709 0.0229 0.1496 1,063,778 24,931 SCHOOL 1,088,709 0.0065 0.0802 1,081,663 7,046 AFTER 1,088,709 0.0101 0.1002 1,077,668 11,041 STYLE 1,088,709 0.0288 0.1671 1,057,407 31,302 Authenticity dummies SIGNED 1,088,709 0.5900 0.4918 446,375 642,334 DATED 1,088,709 0.3292 0.4699 730,275 358,434 Medium dummies OIL 1,088,709 0.6025 0.4894 432,813 655,896 WATERCOLOR 1,088,709 0.1739 0.3790 899,358 189,351 DRAWING 1,088,709 0.2236 0.4167 845,247 243,462 Size variables HEIGHT 1,078,702 20.6597 14.8467 WIDTH 1,078,549 21.5984 15.8748 Topic dummies STUDY 1,088,709 0.0152 0.1225 1,072,127 16,582 ABSTRACT 1,088,709 0.0255 0.1576 1,060,960 27,749 ANIMALS 1,088,709 0.0108 0.1033 1,076,970 11,739 LANDSCAPE 1,088,709 0.0430 0.2028 1,041,934 46,775 NUDE 1,088,709 0.0082 0.0903 1,079,757 8,952 PEOPLE 1,088,709 0.0377 0.1906 1,047,628 41,081 PORTRAIT 1,088,709 0.0619 0.2410 1,021,273 67,436 23 RELIGION 1,088,709 0.0161 0.1257 1,071,234 17,475 SELF-PORTRAIT 1,088,709 0.0030 0.0544 1,085,479 3,230 STILL_LIFE 1,088,709 0.0244 0.1543 1,062,130 26,579 UNTITLED 1,088,709 0.0287 0.1670 1,057,438 31,271 URBAN 1,088,709 0.0137 0.1164 1,073,761 14,948 Sale characteristics Month dummies JANUARY 1,088,709 0.0287 0.1670 1,057,438 31,271 FEBRUARY 1,088,709 0.0450 0.2074 1,039,667 49,042 MARCH 1,088,709 0.0916 0.2884 989,021 99,688 APRIL 1,088,709 0.0862 0.2807 994,864 93,845 MAY 1,088,709 0.1358 0.3426 940,857 147,852 JUNE 1,088,709 0.1389 0.3459 937,442 151,267 JULY 1,088,709 0.0547 0.2275 1,029,109 59,600 AUGUST 1,088,709 0.0132 0.1141 1,074,345 14,364 SEPTEMBER 1,088,709 0.0325 0.1773 1,053,329 35,380 OCTOBER 1,088,709 0.0904 0.2868 990,270 98,439 NOVEMBER 1,088,709 0.1674 0.3733 906,483 182,226 DECEMBER 1,088,709 0.1155 0.3196 962,974 125,735 Auction house dummies SOTH_LONDON 1,088,709 0.1220 0.3273 955,868 132,841 SOTH_NY 1,088,709 0.0868 0.2816 994,167 94,542 SOTH_OTHER 1,088,709 0.0553 0.2285 1,028,541 60,168 CHR_LONDON 1,088,709 0.0945 0.2925 985,848 102,861 CHR_NY 1,088,709 0.0621 0.2413 1,021,149 67,560 CHR_OTHER 1,088,709 0.0711 0.2570 1,011,321 77,388 BON_LONDON 1,088,709 0.0106 0.1023 1,077,189 11,520 BON_OTHER 1,088,709 0.0058 0.0759 1,082,400 6,309 PHIL_LONDON 1,088,709 0.0151 0.1220 1,072,251 16,458 PHIL_OTHER 1,088,709 0.0093 0.0960 1,078,571 10,138 AUCTION_EUROPEAN 1,088,709 0.1364 0.3432 940,173 148,536 AUCTION_AMERICAN 1,088,709 0.0189 0.1361 1,068,160 20,549 24 Table 2 – Baseline hedonic regression results Table 2 presents the baseline hedonic regression results. Eq. (1) is estimated using OLS. The dependent variable is the natural log of the price in year 2007 USD. The descriptive statistics for the independent variables are shown in Table 1. For each variable, we report the coefficient (β), the standard deviation (S.D.), and the price impact (i.e., the exponent of the coefficient minus one). The number of observations (N) and the R-squared (R2) are presented at the bottom of the table. β S.D. exp(β) - 1 Year dummies [included] Artist characteristics Artist dummies [included] TEXTBOOK 0.1263 0.0065 13.46% Work characteristics Attribution dummies ATTRIBUTED -0.7365 0.0050 -52.12% STUDIO -0.7977 0.0134 -54.96% CIRCLE -1.0490 0.0068 -64.97% SCHOOL -1.4152 0.0120 -75.71% AFTER -1.8850 0.0104 -84.82% STYLE -1.5688 0.0064 -79.17% Authenticity dummies SIGNED 0.2703 0.0027 31.04% DATED 0.1706 0.0026 18.60% Medium dummies OIL [left out] WATERCOLOR -0.7144 0.0033 -51.05% DRAWING -1.1005 0.0030 -66.73% Size variables HEIGHT 0.0205 0.0002 2.07% WIDTH 0.0250 0.0002 2.53% HEIGHT_2 -0.0001 0.0000 -0.01% WIDTH_2 -0.0001 0.0000 -0.01% Topic dummies STUDY -0.2049 0.0078 -18.53% ABSTRACT -0.0780 0.0068 -7.50% ANIMALS -0.1703 0.0094 -15.66% LANDSCAPE -0.1320 0.0048 -12.37% NUDE -0.1645 0.0105 -15.17% PEOPLE -0.0372 0.0050 -3.65% PORTRAIT -0.2278 0.0050 -20.37% RELIGION -0.1114 0.0082 -10.54% SELF-PORTRAIT 0.1202 0.0171 12.77% STILL_LIFE 0.0410 0.0067 4.18% UNTITLED -0.1639 0.0065 -15.12% URBAN 0.0409 0.0081 4.17% Sale characteristics Month dummies JANUARY [left out] FEBRUARY -0.1209 0.0072 -11.39% MARCH 0.0318 0.0065 3.23% APRIL 0.0859 0.0065 8.97% MAY 0.1325 0.0062 14.16% JUNE 0.1430 0.0063 15.37% JULY 0.0843 0.0070 8.80% AUGUST -0.0629 0.0101 -6.09% SEPTEMBER -0.1599 0.0077 -14.78% 25 OCTOBER 0.0007 0.0065 0.07% NOVEMBER 0.1821 0.0061 19.98% DECEMBER 0.1517 0.0064 16.38% Auction house dummies SOTH_LONDON 0.6324 0.0037 88.22% SOTH_NY 0.7195 0.0041 105.35% SOTH_OTHER 0.3107 0.0046 36.44% CHR_LONDON 0.6468 0.0039 90.94% CHR_NY 0.6685 0.0046 95.12% CHR_OTHER 0.1540 0.0042 16.65% BON_LONDON 0.1180 0.0094 12.52% BON_OTHER -0.1193 0.0125 -11.24% PHIL_LONDON 0.2170 0.0079 24.23% PHIL_OTHER 0.1164 0.0099 12.35% AUCTION_EUROPEAN 0.1308 0.0033 13.98% AUCTION_AMERICAN -0.0968 0.0074 -9.22% N 1,078,482 R2 0.6411 26 Table 3 – Baseline art price indices and art returns Table 3 presents the art price indices and returns for the baseline hedonic regression model detailed in Table 2. For each year, we report the dummy coefficient (γ), the standard deviation (S.D.), the variance of the residuals (σ2), the uncorrected price index and return (Π and r), and the price index and return that are corrected for changes in price dispersion over time (Π* and r*) (cf. Section III). Index values for 1963 are geometrically interpolated. Year γ S.D. σ2 Π r Π* r* 1957 1.1789 100.00 100.00 1958 -0.0817 0.0402 1.1144 92.16 -7.84% 89.23 -10.77% 1959 0.2102 0.0384 1.2183 123.39 33.89% 125.85 41.03% 1960 0.2275 0.0380 1.1131 125.55 1.75% 121.48 -3.47% 1961 0.3014 0.0382 1.1805 135.18 7.67% 135.28 11.36% 1962 0.3327 0.0353 1.1744 139.47 3.18% 139.16 2.86% 1963 - - - 140.72 0.89% 140.61 1.04% 1964 0.3505 0.0355 1.1803 141.97 0.89% 142.07 1.04% 1965 0.5273 0.0338 1.1770 169.44 19.35% 169.27 19.15% 1966 0.6390 0.0345 0.9487 189.45 11.81% 168.85 -0.25% 1967 0.7044 0.0347 0.9466 202.26 6.76% 180.07 6.65% 1968 0.8423 0.0334 1.0564 232.17 14.79% 218.37 21.27% 1969 0.8716 0.0335 1.0208 239.08 2.98% 220.90 1.16% 1970 0.7773 0.0325 0.9335 217.57 -9.00% 192.44 -12.88% 1971 0.9410 0.0312 0.9100 256.25 17.78% 224.01 16.40% 1972 1.1224 0.0308 1.0856 307.22 19.89% 293.22 30.89% 1973 1.3932 0.0304 0.9249 402.77 31.10% 354.73 20.98% 1974 1.2909 0.0303 0.9030 363.61 -9.72% 316.75 -10.71% 1975 1.0670 0.0304 0.8847 290.66 -20.06% 250.89 -20.79% 1976 0.9606 0.0301 0.8685 261.31 -10.10% 223.75 -10.82% 1977 0.9581 0.0300 0.8779 260.68 -0.24% 224.25 0.22% 1978 1.0943 0.0300 0.8710 298.69 14.58% 256.07 14.19% 1979 1.1720 0.0299 0.8397 322.86 8.09% 272.49 6.41% 1980 1.1763 0.0299 0.8148 324.22 0.42% 270.26 -0.82% 1981 1.0436 0.0299 0.8329 283.94 -12.43% 238.83 -11.63% 1982 0.8652 0.0300 0.8095 237.56 -16.34% 197.49 -17.31% 1983 0.8888 0.0299 0.8137 243.21 2.38% 202.62 2.60% 1984 0.9058 0.0298 0.8711 247.40 1.72% 212.10 4.68% 1985 0.9976 0.0298 0.8566 271.17 9.61% 230.80 8.82% 1986 1.2319 0.0298 0.8567 342.76 26.40% 291.75 26.40% 1987 1.5505 0.0297 0.8845 471.38 37.53% 406.86 39.46% 1988 1.7498 0.0297 0.8662 575.35 22.06% 492.07 20.94% 1989 1.9651 0.0296 0.9220 713.58 24.03% 627.57 27.54% 1990 2.0252 0.0297 0.9227 757.79 6.20% 666.68 6.23% 1991 1.6356 0.0298 0.7791 513.24 -32.27% 420.25 -36.96% 1992 1.5304 0.0298 0.7576 462.02 -9.98% 374.26 -10.95% 1993 1.3661 0.0298 0.7699 392.01 -15.15% 319.51 -14.63% 1994 1.3595 0.0297 0.8066 389.41 -0.66% 323.27 1.18% 1995 1.3727 0.0297 0.8103 394.58 1.33% 328.17 1.52% 1996 1.3678 0.0297 0.7994 392.66 -0.49% 324.78 -1.03% 1997 1.3676 0.0297 0.8437 392.60 -0.02% 332.02 2.23% 1998 1.3954 0.0297 0.8626 403.65 2.82% 344.60 3.79% 1999 1.4458 0.0297 0.8745 424.54 5.17% 364.60 5.80% 2000 1.4157 0.0297 0.9165 411.94 -2.97% 361.28 -0.91% 2001 1.3539 0.0297 0.9354 387.26 -5.99% 342.86 -5.10% 2002 1.4276 0.0297 0.9354 416.88 7.65% 369.08 7.65% 2003 1.5405 0.0297 0.8974 466.69 11.95% 405.40 9.84% 2004 1.6462 0.0297 0.9214 518.74 11.15% 456.07 12.50% 2005 1.6691 0.0296 0.9769 530.76 2.32% 479.76 5.19% 2006 1.7724 0.0296 1.0711 588.51 10.88% 557.62 16.23% 2007 1.9786 0.0299 1.1133 723.27 22.90% 699.91 25.52% 27 Table 4 – Annualized returns for baseline indices, robustness checks, and extensions Panel A of Table 4 presents the annualized (i.e., geometric average) returns and standard deviations (S.D.) over the periods 1957-2007 and 1982-2007 for the baseline art price indices detailed in Table 3. It also shows the number of observations (N) included in the estimation. Panel B shows the results for a number of robustness checks (cf. Section IV.B). Panel C repeats the adjacent-period hedonic model using quantile regressions (cf. Section IV.C). Panel D presents the RSR results for two different trading strategies (cf. Section IV.D). Panel E shows the return estimates (corrected for changes in price dispersion over time) for the different mediums and movements considered in this study (cf. Section IV.E). N Real returns 1957-2007 1982-2007 Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Panel A: Baseline indices Art price index Π 1,078,482 4.04% 16.68% 4.55% 14.39% Art price index Π* 1,078,482 3.97% 15.21% 5.19% 15.31% Panel B: Robustness checks (compare to Π) Drop topic dummies 1,078,482 4.02% 14.05% 4.53% 14.39% Exclude artists < 100 sales 935,736 4.04% 14.26% 4.57% 14.69% Exclude Min. & Cont. 1,059,010 4.00% 13.95% 4.48% 14.26% Adjacent-period model - - - 4.60% 13.62% Repeat-sales regression (RSR) 21,846 (x2) - - 4.56% 15.79% Panel C: Quantile regressions Q95 862,290 - - 6.32% 18.99% Q75 862,290 - - 5.77% 16.54% Q50 862,290 - - 4.91% 15.11% Q25 862,290 - - 3.89% 13.84% Q05 862,290 - - 1.35% 12.57% Panel D: Trading strategies (compare to RSR) “Masterpiece” strategy 1,467 (x2) - - 4.81% 22.08% “Value” strategy 727 (x2) - - 6.16% 20.99% Panel E: Indices per medium and per movement Oil 650,563 4.63% 14.69% 5.73% 15.39% Watercolor 187,612 3.67% 16.38% 3.96% 14.79% Drawing 240,307 2.51% 20.64% 4.37% 15.22% Medieval & Renaissance 30,806 3.01% 27.13% 6.44% 19.59% Baroque 124,617 4.76% 17.69% 5.82% 12.57% Rococo 30,292 3.69% 25.42% 5.03% 12.15% Neoclassicism 12,601 6.32% 45.93% 5.36% 22.45% Romanticism 41,897 4.28% 17.34% 4.79% 15.24% Realism 60,820 2.57% 21.42% 4.16% 15.46% Impressionism & Symbolism 95,829 4.10% 24.01% 4.55% 16.70% Fauvism & Expressionism 73,543 3.72% 22.84% 4.90% 18.36% Cubism, Futurism & Constr. 49,056 5.53% 22.40% 6.01% 20.55% Dada & Surrealism 49,697 5.85% 32.32% 5.58% 19.42% Abstract Expressionism 35,960 - - 7.78% 21.91% Pop 18,924 - - 10.35% 29.33% Minimalism & Contemporary 19,472 - - 7.07% 23.68% 28 Table 5 – Art versus other assets Panel A of Table 5 displays the geometric mean real returns on art and other assets since 1957 and since 1982. The real returns on art are based on our corrected price index Π*, and are shown in Table 3. The return data for the financial assets, gold, and commodities come from Global Financial data. Data for U.S. real estate come from Shiller (2009). The panel also includes the standard deviation (S.D.) of the returns, and the arithmetic Sharpe ratio (i.e., the arithmetic average excess return divided by its standard deviation). The standard deviations for art are based on a desmoothed return series (cf. Section V). The return on T-bills is used as a proxy for the risk-free rate. Panel B shows the pairwise correlations between the returns since 1957. Correlation coefficients that are significantly different from zero at the 0.05 level are displayed in bold. Panel A: Comparison of investment performance Real returns 1957-2007 1982-2007 Mean S.D. Sharpe Mean S.D. Sharpe Art 3.97% 19.05% 0.2000 5.19% 18.04% 0.2725 T-bills 1.39% 2.11% N.A. 1.99% 1.88% N.A. U.S. government bonds 2.68% 10.56% 0.1853 5.77% 9.87% 0.4503 DJ corporate bonds 3.97% 9.74% 0.3443 6.81% 7.69% 0.7256 Global government bonds 3.07% 8.19% 0.2641 5.98% 7.53% 0.5717 S&P 500 stocks 6.63% 16.54% 0.4106 9.33% 15.34% 0.5707 Global stocks 6.34% 16.16% 0.3953 8.91% 16.76% 0.5039 Gold 2.35% 24.19% 0.1285 -0.89% 14.80% -0.1171 Commodities 3.03% 11.40% 0.1780 2.06% 10.28% 0.0511 U.S. real estate 1.06% 4.06% -0.0548 2.41% 4.73% 0.0902 Panel B: Correlations of returns A rt T -b ill s U .S . g ov er nm en t b on ds D J co rp or at e bo nd s G lo ba l g ov er nm en t b on ds S& P 50 0 st oc ks G lo ba l s to ck s G ol d C om m od iti es U .S . r ea l e st at e Art 1.00 T-bills 0.01 1.00 U.S. government bonds -0.20 0.56 1.00 DJ corporate bonds -0.17 0.58 0.90 1.00 Global government bonds -0.10 0.46 0.88 0.89 1.00 S&P 500 stocks -0.03 0.34 0.27 0.39 0.33 1.00 Global stocks 0.20 0.28 0.18 0.32 0.33 0.88 1.00 Gold 0.30 -0.54 -0.18 -0.28 -0.13 -0.28 -0.15 1.00 Commodities 0.44 -0.41 -0.26 -0.25 -0.25 -0.15 -0.07 0.55 1.00 U.S. real estate 0.39 -0.24 -0.13 -0.13 -0.07 -0.15 0.02 0.24 0.16 1.00 29 Table 6 – Explaining the returns on art Table 6 presents the results of a linear regression of art returns on a number of independent variables, over the period 1981-2007. Below each coefficient, we report Newey-West standard errors that control for heteroskedasticity and autocorrelation up to two lags. The real returns on art are based on our corrected price index Π*, and are shown in Table 3. Model (1) only includes same-year and lagged global stock returns, from Global Financial Data, as independent variables. Column (2) adds (lagged and standardized) data from the University of Michigan’s Survey of Consumers on the attitude of high-income (upper third) consumers with respect to the purchase of “major household items”. Model (3) adds a newly constructed (lagged and standardized) art market sentiment measure, based on volume and buy-in rates at high-profile auctions, and on media reports (cf. Section VI). The number of observations (N) and the adjusted R-squared (R2) are presented at the bottom of the table. (1) (2) (3) Dependent variable: real returns on art Same-year global stock returns 0.1751 0.1325 0.1184 (0.1050) (0.0901) (0.0987) Previous-year global stock returns 0.5396 ** 0.4012 * 0.2976 (0.2534) (0.1941) (0.2066) High-income consumer confidence 0.0677 *** 0.0554 ** (0.0226) (0.0231) Art market sentiment 0.0425 ** (0.0175) N 27 27 27 Adjusted R2 0.33 0.49 0.52 30 Figure 1 – Hedonic price indices Figure 1 presents the baseline art price indices detailed in Table 3. Π is the uncorrected price index, while Π* corrects for changes in price dispersion over time. The figure also includes the average and median real price for each year in our data set. Figure 2 – Quantile regressions Figure 2 presents the art price indices that result from repeating the adjacent-period hedonic model using quantile regressions (cf. Section IV.C). 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 19 57 19 59 19 61 19 63 19 65 19 67 19 69 19 71 19 73 19 75 19 77 19 79 19 81 19 83 19 85 19 87 19 89 19 91 19 93 19 95 19 97 19 99 20 01 20 03 20 05 20 07 Π (uncorrected) Π* (corrected) Average real price Median real price 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 19 82 19 83 19 84 19 85 19 86 19 87 19 88 19 89 19 90 19 91 19 92 19 93 19 94 19 95 19 96 19 97 19 98 19 99 20 00 20 01 20 02 20 03 20 04 20 05 20 06 20 07 Q95 Q75 Q50 Q25 Q05 31 Figure 3 – Trading strategies Figure 3 presents the index that results from applying an RSR to all item pairs that are considered to be repeated transactions (cf. Section IV.B), and the art price indices for a “masterpieces” and a “value” trading strategy (cf. Section IV.D). Figure 4 – Indices per movement Figure 4 presents the (corrected) art price indices for three different movements: Rococo; Cubism, Futurism & Constructivism; and Pop (cf. Section IV.E). 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 19 82 19 83 19 84 19 85 19 86 19 87 19 88 19 89 19 90 19 91 19 92 19 93 19 94 19 95 19 96 19 97 19 98 19 99 20 00 20 01 20 02 20 03 20 04 20 05 20 06 20 07 RSR Masterpiece Value 0 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200 1,400 19 82 19 83 19 84 19 85 19 86 19 87 19 88 19 89 19 90 19 91 19 92 19 93 19 94 19 95 19 96 19 97 19 98 19 99 20 00 20 01 20 02 20 03 20 04 20 05 20 06 20 07 Rococo Cubism, Futurism & Constructivism Pop 32 Figure 5 – Art market sentiment Figure 5 presents the end-of-year values for the art market sentiment measure used in this study. It is based on volume and buy-in rates at high-profile auctions, and on media reports (cf. Section VI). It is standardized to have zero mean and unit variance. -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 19 80 19 81 19 82 19 83 19 84 19 85 19 86 19 87 19 88 19 89 19 90 19 91 19 92 19 93 19 94 19 95 19 96 19 97 19 98 19 99 20 00 20 01 20 02 20 03 20 04 20 05 20 06 
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work_4cvlwyhtojemxkf2vpg4yhg5rm	----	WSEE_A_480072 246..264 Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=wsee20 Slavic & East European Information Resources ISSN: 1522-8886 (Print) 1522-9041 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/wsee20 Russian Art & Design in the Evergreen Museum & Library James Archer Abbott To cite this article: James Archer Abbott (2010) Russian Art & Design in the Evergreen Museum & Library, Slavic & East European Information Resources, 11:2-3, 246-264, DOI: 10.1080/15228881003795504 To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/15228881003795504 Published online: 08 Sep 2010. Submit your article to this journal Article views: 832 View related articles https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=wsee20 https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/wsee20 https://www.tandfonline.com/action/showCitFormats?doi=10.1080/15228881003795504 https://doi.org/10.1080/15228881003795504 https://www.tandfonline.com/action/authorSubmission?journalCode=wsee20&show=instructions https://www.tandfonline.com/action/authorSubmission?journalCode=wsee20&show=instructions https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/mlt/10.1080/15228881003795504 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/mlt/10.1080/15228881003795504 PART II: REGIONAL COLLECTIONS Russian Art & Design in the Evergreen Museum & Library JAMES ARCHER ABBOTT Evergreen Museum & Library, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA This article describes the strong relationship between art collector Alice Warder Garrett (1877–1952) and artist L�eon Bakst (1861– 1924). Bakst and Mrs. Garrett became friends in early-twentieth- century Paris, where she acquired a number of his works of art. He eventually visited the United States under the auspices of Alice Garrett, and designed and decorated a series of interiors within the Garretts’ Baltimore, Maryland residence, Evergreen House—today open to the public as Johns Hopkins University’s Evergreen Museum & Library. KEYWORDS L�eon Bakst, Alice Warder Garrett, John Work Garrett, Ballets Russes, Russian, interior design, costume design, theater, theatre, Johns Hopkins University, Evergreen Museum & Library The Johns Hopkins University’s Evergreen Museum & Library in Baltimore, Maryland is among a small and unique group of American historic houses with important concentrations on Russian art and design. The house itself is counted as one of the Monument City’s rare treasures—a modern interpretation of the great Renaissance cabinet of curiosities, richly assembled and layered by two generations of the philanthropic Garrett family, most often associated with the powerful Baltimore & Ohio Railroad and the Robert Garrett and Sons investment house. Unique and unrivaled, Evergreen’s Russian holdings date from the second generation of Garrett occupancy. Largely, they were not acquired as historical artifacts, but, instead, commissioned as contemporary additions to the collections and the house itself. They are works by émigré Léon Bakst (born Lev Address correspondence to James Archer Abbott, MA, Director and Curator, Evergreen Museum & Library, Johns Hopkins University, 4545 North Charles Street, Baltimore, MD 21210, USA. E-mail: james.abbott@jhu.edu Slavic & East European Information Resources, 11: 246–264, 2010 Copyright � Taylor & Francis Group, LLC ISSN: 1522-8886 print/1522-9041 online DOI: 10.1080/15228881003795504 246 FIGURE 1 Theatre Lobby, North Wing, Evergreen Museum & Library. Completed 1922. Stenciled and painted plaster, wood and textiles. Collection of The Johns Hopkins University. Russian Art & Design in the Evergreen Museum & Library 247 Samoilovich Rosenberg, 1866–1924), the highly influential painter and designer best known for his awe-inspiring modernist designs for Serge Diaghilev (1872– 1929) and his early twentieth-century Ballets Russes. They include: whole rooms; stage sets; designs for same as well as for costumes, textiles, and other decorative elements; and portraits. The origin of Evergreen as a backdrop for collecting began in the late 1850s, soon after the merchant Broadbent family completed construction of what was then a country house. A melding of both the historic, Jefferson- espoused Greek revival and the more romantic and then-current Italianate design vocabularies, Evergreen was no doubt intended to impress. From the beginning, the house’s vast interior was envisioned as a type of reliquary for treasures—fine paintings, sculpture, and other objets d’art representative of FIGURE 2 “Costume Design for Arabian Prince with Pageboy” for La Belle au Bois Dormant. Signed Upper Right: Bakst 1916. Graphite, watercolor, gouache on paper. EH1952.1.402. Evergreen House Foundation, Evergreen Museum & Library, Baltimore, MD. 248 J. A. Abbott extensive travel, great knowledge, as well as significant financial and social standing. An American interpretation of the great European country house or villa, Evergreen was, from its beginning, a beacon of taste for Baltimore. But it was not until 1878 when one-time Baltimore & Ohio president John Work Garrett (1820–1884) acquired the estate for his son Thomas (1848–1888) and his young family that Evergreen became associated with true connoisseur- ship. Building upon his father’s own model of expanding a gentleman’s personal understanding of the world through collecting, Thomas became an active appre- ciator of German and Asian porcelains, rare treatises, and historical coins; for his literary interests he built the first two of five libraries that still exist within the house. His collecting passions were vast, and, as is often the case, subsequently passed to his three sons, and most fervently continued by his eldest, John Work Garrett (1872–1942) who dedicated his life to diplomatic service. Eventually the inheritor of Evergreen, Ambassador Garrett married the astute and always theatrical Alice Warder (1877–1952; see Figure 3) in Washington, D.C., in December 1908. 1 Together, they redefined Evergreen as an even more diverse and eclectic repository of art. To the historical collec- tions assembled by John’s father, they added Modern art by artists such as Amadeo Modigliani (1884–1920), Raoul Dufy (1877–1953), and Pablo Picasso (1881–1973). But perhaps the most celebrated contemporary acquisitions were those Alice commissioned from Léon Bakst. Bakst and Mrs. Garrett met in Paris in 1914 while John Work Garrett was serving among the United States’ diplomatic delegation to France during World War I. 2 While her husband was busy with his duties, Mrs. Garrett assisted friends Edith Wharton and Walter Berry with the American Hostels Committee, an organization aiding refugees with both housing and other urgent needs. She also actively invested time and interest in the art scene of war-dominated Paris, becoming acquainted with artists like Edouard Vuillard (1868–1940) and Pierre Bonnard (1867–1947), and often dining with and subsequently falling under the temporary tutelage of master art historian Bernard Berenson (1865–1959). Standing in sharp contrast to the historically- tied Berenson, the innovative and very modern Bakst became a frequent companion of Mrs. Garrett’s at this time, as the artist’s name appears frequently in her still extant day books. They regularly took mid-day tea together, while also attending opera and ballet performances in the evenings. By August 1915, when Bakst was painting Alice Garrett’s portrait, in which she wears a dress he had designed specifically for her, his importance in her life proved to have no rival: “I go almost every day to pose for Bakst. . .[he has] such reverence for his art and great will power and concentration on his work.” 3 Alice Garrett became a patron of the renowned Ballets Russes during this period, no doubt in part as a demonstration of her loyalties to Bakst.4 She attended performances of the company’s various ballets at the famous Théâtre du Châtelet, including the Bakst-designed Les Femmes de Bonne Humeur (1917). Mrs. Garrett presumably aided her friend in his planning of an American tour for the company, Russian Art & Design in the Evergreen Museum & Library 249 which included the Garretts’ home city of Baltimore. She also celebrated his independent design work for Russian ballerinas Ida Rubinstein (1885–1960) and Anna Pavlova (1881–1931), as well as producer and satirist George Thenon. After John Work Garrett’s reassignment as America’s Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to the Netherlands and Luxembourg in September 1917, his wife continued to visit Paris, dedicating hours to the company of Bakst. She organized an exhibition of over eighty of the artist’s watercolors in The Hague in the spring of 1919, from which she presumably added to her already sizable collection of Bakst’s drawings and paintings. Of this, Bakst wrote to his patroness: “You cannot possibly realize how moved and touched I was by the interest you brought to my exhibition. . .for me. . .my Art. . .absorbs all my being and always keeps me in a state of energy and enthusiasm.” 5 FIGURE 3 Alice Warder Garrett, ca. 1921. Evergreen House Foundation, Evergreen Museum & Library, Baltimore, MD. 250 J. A. Abbott Upon the couple’s return to the United States in the summer of 1919, Mrs. Garrett took on the official role of representing her friend’s art. She organized an exhibition of Bakst’s work at Manhattan’s M. Knoedler & Company in April 1920, as well as another exhibition that traveled to Dallas, Los Angeles, San Francisco, Santa Barbara, Denver, and Chicago. (A second Garrett-organized Knoedler exhibition was held in December 1922.) With each venue, she wired monies from various sales to the sometimes struggling artist’s Paris account. Still another exhibition of Bakst’s paintings and drawings was held at the Maryland Institute School of Fine and Practical Arts (today the Maryland Institute College of Art) in early 1921. This led to Bakst’s actual arrival in Baltimore, and his subsequent involvement in the transformation of Evergreen, which had recently been inherited by Ambassador Garrett. “Bakst is here,” Alice Garrett wrote in 1922 to socialite and Legion of Honor recipient Beatrice Astor Chanler (1886–1944), “and you can’t imagine what won- derful things he is doing in the theatre. It is going to be a perfect jewel.” 6 What had been nothing more than a dark, utilitarian gymnasium for her husband and his brothers during their adolescent years soon became a strikingly modern theater with colorfully stenciled walls, ceiling, and lighting fixtures inspired by Russian folk art motifs. It was an ideal, somewhat whimsical backdrop for the occasional intimate performances given by the stage-loving Mrs. Garrett. Bakst also designed costumes and completed three sets for her performances: Chansons Orientales; Seville Street Scene; and The Rustic Mill or The Irish Barnyard. 7 According to historian Cindy Kelly, Bakst’s decoration was “reminiscent of his earliest design work for the Ballets Russes,” simplistic in its general composition and bright, near primary palette.8 However, it was also reflective of the Russian-born avant-garde that heralded a new artistic beginning in the West, a particularly relevant selection for the house of a statesman actively involved in the formulation of a new world order following the end of global war. Beyond Alice Garrett’s recitals, East Coast society was treated to concerts by the Musical Art Quartet, a chamber ensemble affiliated with the preceding incarnation of today’s Julliard School of Music. It was in reference to such mesmerizing evenings in this Bakst-designed confection that interior decorator Billy Baldwin (1903–1983) later recalled: “There I was surrounded by the best art and music. . .I knew I could never return to the life I had led before.” 9 Léon Bakst subsequently redesigned Evergreen’s dining room, creating an electric Chinese scheme that included acidic yellow walls, a series of red and gold nineteenth-century Chinese scrolls, and sharp, contrasting white enameled woodwork that emulated the succinctly drawn lines of the artist. Though surely far from alarming by today’s sophisticated palette, this room no doubt chal- lenged the sedate calm of 1920s Colonial revivalism. Where most other society gatherings were resigned to gray, off-white, or other safely hued backdrops, Garrett dinners would demonstrate no such complacency. Their dinner parties were “alive” before the first course was even served, as Bakst no doubt intended. Russian Art & Design in the Evergreen Museum & Library 251 Upon his last visit to Evergreen before his 1924 death, the artist redesigned a retired bowling alley, making it, through partnership with regional architect Laurence Hall Fowler (1876–1971), a vibrant gallery of mainly Japanese applied arts. This sophisticated burgundy, pink, and ivory interior with lighted cases made of former windows and converted medicine cabinets still revels in a spontaneity and energy befitting its era—the Jazz Age. Though Bakst did not live to see the gallery’s completion, it—like the theater, dining room, and other works by the artist cherished by Alice Garrett—honored his unique imagination and creativity. The important Bakst holdings contained at Evergreen are listed below. Upon Ambassador Garrett’s 1942 death, the physical rooms created by the artist were included in the gift of the mansion to The Johns Hopkins University— made on behalf of “lovers of music, art, and beautiful things.” 10 Dying ten years after her husband, Alice Garrett gave her art collection—including textile and costume designs as well as other works by Bakst—to a newly created entity, the Evergreen House Foundation (EHF), the partial purpose of which she saw as the encouragement of new artists and designers like those she had aided in her lifetime—artists like Léon Bakst. FIGURE 4 “Farm Scene,” Theater Stage Set, ca. 1922–23. Canvas, cardboard, wood, paint, stone, rope. EH1952.1.1201a-g. Evergreen House Foundation, Evergreen Museum & Library, Baltimore, MD. 252 J. A. Abbott Together, the University and EHF maintain and celebrate the art of the great Bakst. Demonstrating the foundation’s commitment to the celebration of Bakst and his art is the 2009 acquisition of a yet-to-be identified rendering for another private theater by the artist. Undated, the work is based on the excavated and heavily restored Throne Room in the Palace of Minos at Knossos, Crete (c. 2000–1700 B.C.). Incorporating griffin and dolphin-adorned murals similar to the famous frescoes at Knossos, Bakst’s more modern scheme also includes stylized columns and wall treatments reminiscent of Viennese and Russian design vocabularies of the years just prior to and following the First World War. The highly rhythmic patterning included in this newly acquired work affords an interesting comparison to the equally energized Constructivist vocabulary of Evergreen’s iconic theater. Evergreen Museum & Library is one of two museums owned and operated by The Johns Hopkins University, and it is open for public tours as well as through special programming and events Tuesday through Sunday, throughout the year. 11 For more information please visit http://www.museums.jhu.edu/. FIGURE 5 Léon Bakst, ca. 1915. Evergreen House Foundation, Evergreen Museum & Library, Baltimore, MD. Russian Art & Design in the Evergreen Museum & Library 253 List of Works by Léon Bakst in the Collections of the Evergreen Museum & Library and the Evergreen House Foundation (Prepared by Edward Heimiller, 2009 Graduate Intern) Black Painted Wooden Lamps with Parchment Shade ca. 1922–23 EH1952.1.344.9a-b – 12a-b Drapery Panels Four panels with floral and rooster patterning* ca. 1922 Silk brocade with metallic threads EH1952.1.905 *A three-piece Louis XV-style parlor suite and two English Georgian armchairs also relate to these panels—they all have upholstery of the same material as the draperies. Alice Garrett apparently utilized this Bakst-designed textile—assumed to be not a special commission, but an already in-production textile—for the decoration of a number of Evergreen’s primary reception rooms in the 1920s. Drawing “THE PATTERN REPEATS HERE” (Stage curtain design for Evergreen Theatre) ca. 1922 Graphite on paper EH (not numbered) Drawing “Judith of Bethulia with the head of Holofernes” Signed Lower Right: Bakst ca. 1919–20 Graphite, India ink on paper EH1952.1.126 Drawing “Sultane Norie,” African Woman Wearing a Turban Signed Lower Left: Bakst Graphite, charcoal, gouache on paper EH1952.1.128 Drawing Costume for Alice Work Garrett Inscribed Upper Right: Corsage de La roba espagnole Pour Mme Garratte ca. 1922–23 Graphite, watercolor, charcoal on paper EH1952.1.131 254 J. A. Abbott Drawing Costume Design, Baroness in Scene 3 for La Belle au Bois Dormant ca. 1916 Graphite, watercolor, gouache, silver paint on paper EH1952.1.132 Drawing Nude Woman Unsigned Ink on paper EH1952.1.144 Drawing Portrait of Linda Cole Porter Signed Lower Right: Bakst Graphite on paper EH1952.1.147 Drawing Nature Study, Branch with Leaves and Fruit Signed Upper Right: Bakst Graphite on paper EH1952.1.151a Drawing Nature Study, Study of Branch of Leaves Signed Upper Right: Bakst Graphite on paper EH1952.1.151b Drawing Nature Study, Study of Leaves Signed Lower Left: Bakst Graphite on paper EH1952.1.151c Drawing Nature Study, Botanical Study Signed Upper Left: Bakst Graphite on paper EH1952.1.151d Drawing Nature Study, Study of Ivy Signed Upper Left: Bakst Graphite on paper EH1952.1.151e Russian Art & Design in the Evergreen Museum & Library 255 Drawing Nature Study, Study of Branch of Fruit Signed Upper Left: Bakst Graphite on paper EH1952.1.151f Drawing Nature Study, Study of Ivy Signed Upper Left: Bakst Graphite on paper EH1952.1.151g Drawing Nature Study, Fruit on Branch Singed Upper Left: Bakst Graphite on paper EH1952.1.151h Drawing Nature Study, Fruit or Gourds on Branch Unsigned Graphite on paper EH1952.1.151i Drawing Nature Study, Fruit on Branch Signed Lower Left: Bakst Graphite on paper EH1952.1.151j Drawing Nature Study/Set Design, Study of Ruins Signed Lower Left: Bakst Graphite on paper EH1952.1.151k Drawing Nature Study, Branch of Leaves Signed Upper Left: Bakst Graphite on paper EH1952.1.151l Drawing Nature Study/Set Design, Mountain Landscape Inscribed: Undecipherable Graphite on paper EH1952.1.151m 256 J. A. Abbott Drawing Nature Study/Set Design, Landscape with Aqueduct Signed Lower Left: Bakst Graphite on paper EH1952.1.151n Drawing Nature Study/Set Design, Scene of a Cottage with Fence Singed Lower Left: Bakst Graphite on paper EH1952.1.151o Drawing Nature Study/Set Design, Valley Landscape with Road Signed Lower Right: Bakst Graphite on paper EH1952.1.151p Drawing Design for Chansons Orientales backdrop Signed Lower Right: Bakst 23, 0—10 Scale ca. 1923 Watercolor, gold paint on paper EH1952.1.389 Drawing Design for Seville Street Scene backdrop (Two Houses on a Narrow Street) Unsigned ca. 1923 Watercolor EH1952.1.390 Drawing Winged Figures Design for Columns of Evergreen Theatre Unsigned ca. 1922 Graphite, watercolor on paper EH1952.1.392 Drawing Triangle Design for Columns of Evergreen Theatre Signed Lower Right: Bakst 1922 ca. 1922 Graphite, watercolor on paper EH1952.1.393 Russian Art & Design in the Evergreen Museum & Library 257 Drawing Rooster Design for Ceiling of Evergreen Theatre Signed Lower Right: Bakst 22 ca. 1922 Watercolor on paper EH1952.1.394 Drawing Fish Design for Proscenium Arch and Hanging Lights of Evergreen Theatre Signed Lower Right: Bakst ca. 1922–23 Watercolor Stencil EH1952.1.395 Drawing Maze Design for Carpet for Evergreen Theatre Signed Lower Right: Bakst ca. 1922–23 Graphite, watercolor on paper EH1952.1.396 Drawing Design for Evergreen Theatre Windowpanes Signed Lower Right: Bakst ca. 1922–23 Watercolor, gold paint on paper EH1952.1.397 Drawing Bird or Rooster Design for Evergreen Theatre Walls Signed Lower Right: Bakst ca. 1922–23 Watercolor EH1952.1.398 Drawing Costume Design for Alice W. Garrett Unsigned ca. 1922–23 Graphite on paper EH1952.1.399 Drawing “Monteau” Costume Design for Alice W. Garrett Inscribed Lower Right: Original Drawing by Bakst for Alice Garrett; Upper Left: Monteau from Madame Garrett ten tuffen ca. 1922–23 258 J. A. Abbott Graphite on paper EH1952.1.400 Drawing Mendiant/Beggar Costume Design for Les Femmes de Bonne Humeur Signed Lower Right: Bakst; Upper Right: Mendiant 1917 Indian ink on paper EH1952.1.401 Drawing “Costume Design for Arabian Prince with Pageboy” for La Belle au Bois Dormant Signed Upper Right: Bakst 1916 Graphite, watercolor, gouache on paper EH1952.1.402 Drawing “Mariccua” Costume Design for Les Femmes de Bonne Humeur Signed Lower Left: Bakst 1916; Upper Right: Mariccua Graphite, watercolor, gouache on paper EH1952.1.403 Drawing “Battista” Costume Design for Les Femmes de Bonne Humeur Signed Lower Right: Bakst; Upper Left: Batissta ca. 1916 Graphite, watercolor, gouache on paper EH1952.1.404 Drawing “A Boyar” Costume Design for Sadko Signed Lower Left: Bakst 1917 Graphite, watercolor, gouache on paper EH1952.1.405 Drawing Design for the Forest Scene in Act II of La Belle au Bois Dormant Unsigned ca. 1916 Watercolor on paper EH1952.1.406 Drawing Design for the Prologue of Act I for La Belle au Bois Dormant Signed Lower Right: Bakst ca. 1916 Graphite, watercolor, gouache on paper EH1952.1.407 Russian Art & Design in the Evergreen Museum & Library 259 Drawing Design for the Enchanted Castle in Act II, Scene 2, for La Belle au Bois Dormant ca. 1916 Signed Lower Right: Bakst Watercolor on paper EH1952.1.408 Drawing “Fantastic Bird,” Preparatory Drawing for Evergreen Theatre ca. 1922–23 Graphite, crayon on paper EH1952.1.751 Drawing Preparatory Design for Rooster Motif for Evergreen Theatre ca. 1922–23 Graphite, watercolor on paper EH1952.1.753a Drawing Farm Scene Inscribed Lower Right: Bakst for scenery Evergreen Theatre (Alice Garrett’s handwriting) ca. 1923 Indian ink on paper EH1952.1.756 Drawing Head of a Young Man Unsigned Charcoal on paper EH1952.1.878 Drawing Alice W. Garrett in Costume Signed Lower Left: Bakst / 1915 ca. 1915 Graphite, watercolor on paper EH1975.196.1 on extended loan from the collection of Mrs. George Rublee III Drawing Textile Design for Chauve Souris: Motif of Roosters, People, Horses, and Lions Signed Lower Right: Leon Bakst ca. 1922–24 Graphite, watercolor, gold paint on paper EH1991.11.1 260 J. A. Abbott Drawing Unidentified Theater Design Based on the Throne Room in the Palace of Minos at Knossos, Crete Signed Lower Left: Bakst ca. 1920 Graphite, watercolor, gouache on paper EH2009.1 Fabric Panels Painted Burlap, with dark green field and gold ring patterning ca. 1922–23 EH1952.1.669 a-g Letter Certificate of Beauty and Grace with Wax Seal ca. 1916 Ink, wax on paper EH1952.1.418 Pink Painted Wooden Lamps with Parchment Shade ca. 1922–23 EH1952.1.344.1a-b – 8a-b Side Tables Moderne, Black Painted Side with Rectangular Top ca. 1922–23 Wood and paint EH1952.1.1206a-k Sign “YOU ARE ONE/OF THE 102/MILLION ‘ARTISTS’/IN THE U.S.A./YOU ARE LIVING/IN ONE/THE 18 MILLION/DWELLINGS/YOU ARE/A MEMBER/OF ONE/OF THE/22 MILLION/FAMILIES” [Uncompleted version of “IF YOU ARE LATE. . .” theater sign (EH1952.1.885), with standing man interrupting seated patrons during a performance, on reverse] ca. 1922–23 Ink on paper; ink and watercolor (drawing on reverse) EH1952.1.758 Sign “THE NATION’S MOST/VALUABLE RESOURCE/IS ITS FUND OF/HUMAN ENERGY” [Accompanied by a pie-chart defining: “SLEEP/8 HOURS/ CONSUMPTION”; “RECREATION/8 HOURS/CONSUMPTION”; “WORK/8 HOURS/PRODUCTION”] Unsigned ca. 1922–23 Ink on paper EH1952.1.759 Russian Art & Design in the Evergreen Museum & Library 261 Sign “IF YOU ARE LATE PLEASE WAIT HERE UNTIL THE MUSIC PAUSES” [Accompanied by a drawing with standing man interrupting seated patrons during a performance.] Signed Lower Right: Léon Bakst ca. 1923 Watercolor on paper EH1952.1.885 Stage Curtain ca. 1922–23 Painted canvas EH1952.1.1185 Stencils Fantastic Bird for Evergreen Theatre ca. 1922–23 Paint on varnished paper EH1952.1.748a-b Stencils Triangular Patterning, Column Decoration for Evergreen Theatre ca. 1922–23 Varnished paper EH1952.1.750a-b Stencils Fantastic Bird in Diamond Stencil (or Triangle Stencil with Spotted Bird) for Evergreen Theatre ca. 1922–23 Varnished paper EH1952.a.752a-b Stencils Fragment of Rooster Motif for Evergreen Theatre ca. 1922–23 Varnished paper EH1952.1.753b-n Stencil Triangular Patterning with Square or Key Motif for Evergreen Theatre ca. 1922–23 Varnished paper EH1952.1.754 Studies for Fans or Lamp Shades ca. 1922–23 262 J. A. Abbott Paint on varnished paper EH1952.1.749 Textile Floral Motif Design on Silk 1924 Manufactured by: Robinson Silk Company for Clingen and Selig (American, New York, New York); printed by United Piece Dye Works. EH1952.1.409 Textile Lion Motif Design on Silk EH1952.1.410 Textile Triangle Pattern Design on Silk 1924 Manufactured by: Robinson Silk Company for Clingen and Selig (American, New York, New York); printed by United Piece Dye Works. EH1952.1.411 Textile Floral Spray Design on Silk 1924 Manufactured by: Robinson Silk Company for Clingen and Selig (American, New York, New York); printed by United Piece Dye Works. EH1952.1.412 Textile Rooster Motif Design on Silk EH1952.1.413 Theater Stage Set “Farm Scene” ca. 1922–23 Canvas, cardboard, wood, paint, stone, rope EH1952.1.1201a-g Theater Stage Set “Seville Street Scene” ca. 1923 Canvas, wood, netting, paint EH1952.1.1139a-d Theater Stage Set “Chansons Orientale” Russian Art & Design in the Evergreen Museum & Library 263 ca. 1922–23 Canvas, wood, paint EH1952.1.1202a-i Rooms at Evergreen House Designed or Remodeled by Léon Bakst Theatre (former gymnasium), North Wing Originally built 1885; remodeled by Bakst, 1922 Stenciled and painted plaster, wood, paper, and textiles Collection of The Johns Hopkins University Theatre Lobby, North Wing 1922 Stenciled and painted plaster, wood and textiles Collection of The Johns Hopkins University Dining Room, Main House Originally built, 1857; remodeled by Bakst, 1922 Painted plaster and wood Collection of The Johns Hopkins University Far East Room (former bowling alley), North Wing [In collaboration with architect Laurence Hall Fowler (1876–1971)] Originally built, 1885; remodeled by Bakst and Fowler, 1924 Painted wood Collection of The Johns Hopkins University NOTES 1. John Work Garrett inherited Evergreen upon the 1920 death of his mother, Alice Whitridge Garrett (1851–1920). 2. John Work Garrett was serving as the Department of State’s special agent in charge of civilian prisoners of war, initially assigned to the staff of Ambassador Myron T. Herrick (1854–1929). 3. Cindy Kelly, L�eon Bakst at Evergreen (Baltimore, MD: Evergreen House, Johns Hopkins University, 2004), 11. 4. For the 1917 season, Mrs. Garrett is recorded as a “Dame Patronnesse” of the ballet company. 5. Léon Bakst to Alice Warder Garrett, May 18, 1919. Evergreen Museum & Library. Evergreen House Foundation. 6. Alice Warder Garrett to Beatrice Astor Chanler, 1922, transcription in the archive of Evergreen Museum & Library. 7. Surviving examples of the Bakst-designed costumes for Mrs. Garrett are now included in the Costume Institute within the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. 8. Kelly, L�eon Bakst, 27. 9. Billy Baldwin, Billy Baldwin Remembers (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1974), 25. 10. Will of the Honorable John Work Garrett, Collection of the Evergreen House Foundation. 11. The other museum of Johns Hopkins University is Homewood Museum—a restored Carroll family- affiliated, Federal-era mansion on the main campus of the university. 264 J. A. Abbott 
work_4djqugl6ojga7ajykijkegfwca	----	Zurich Open Repository and Archive University of Zurich Main Library Strickhofstrasse 39 CH-8057 Zurich www.zora.uzh.ch Year: 1997 March 1996–February 1997 Siehr, Kurt DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/s0940739197000222 Posted at the Zurich Open Repository and Archive, University of Zurich ZORA URL: https://doi.org/10.5167/uzh-154389 Journal Article Published Version Originally published at: Siehr, Kurt (1997). March 1996–February 1997. International Journal of Cultural Property, 6(1):161-168. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/s0940739197000222 Chronicles March 1996-February 1997 Kurt Siehr* The French Cour de Cassation held that the authenticity of a piece March 1996 of art may be questioned even if the artist's heir had certified that the object was a genuine product of the artist: Le journal des arts, September 1996, p. 61. The French Court of Appeals in Metz awarded to the receiver of 22 May 1996 bankrupt enterprise Schlumpf 25 million francs as compensation for the devaluation of a collection of motorcars (exhibited in a museum in Alsace) which had been classified as unmerchantable French "monuments historiques": Le journal des arts, September 1996, p. 61. French decree no. 96-541 changes the French statute of 1913 on 14 June 1996 historical monuments in order to decentralize certain procedures for the protection of cultural property: Recueil Dalloz Sirey 1996, Le- gislation, p. 279 and 370. Publication of the EC Proposal for a European Parliament and Coun- 21 June 1996 cil Directive on the resale right for the benefit of the author of an original work of art. This instrument proposes to harmonize the law on a "droit de suite" in Europe: Official Gazette of the EC, No. C 178 p. 16. Kinshasa "Regional Seminar on Illicit Traffic in Cultural Property". 26—28 June 1996 See report by Etienne Clement, supra at 139—41. In Saint-Malo (Brittany, France) an exhibition opened with unsigned 2 July 1996 works of Vincent van Gogh, promoted as newly discovered works but in reality being clumsy fakes. The visitors had to pay for en- trance. Three weeks later the police shut down the exhibition: ART- newsletter, vol. XXII, no. 3 of 8 October 1996, p. 7. The Paris Court of Appeals found that certain art objects of the royal 3 July 1996 family of Orleans (Count of Paris) do not qualify as "souvenirs de famille" and therefore can be sold as part of an estate to be divided among the heirs of the deceased person: La Semaine juridique, Juris- classeur periodique, 1996, II, 22703. See infra 14/15 December 1996. Royal Assent to the English Treasure Act 1996 (1996 c. L4): New 4 July 1996 Law Journal 1996, p. 1346. * Professor of Law, University of Zurich. 161 use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739197000222 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:42:03, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of Chronicles 23 July 1996 The Nigerian Minister of Information and Culture inaugurated an Inter-Ministerial Committee on the Looting of Nigerian Cultural Property. Information by Prof. Folarin Shyllon of Ibadan University. 23 July 1996 The bill of an Italian statute implementing the EC Directive no. 93/ 7 of 15 March 1993 on the return of cultural objects unlawfully removed from the territory of a Member State was introduced in the Italian Senate: II giornale dell'arte, vol. XIV, no. 150 of December 1996, p. 35 (text) and 33 (article by F. Lemme). 24 July 1996 The mayor of Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) issued a decree concerning art objects and collections of documents of historical, literary or artistic interest, owned or held by public enterprises or being under public administration in order to be privatized, which should be classified as cultural property under Article 5 of City Law No. 166 and not be scattered. A list of those items will be prepared. Decree No. 14.998: ARTnewsletter, vol. XXII, no. 1 of 10 September 1996, p. 5. 31 July 1996 The European Convention of 16 January 1992 on the Protection of the Archaeological Heritage (European Treaty Series No. 143) en- tered into force in Poland: Dziennik Ustaw No. 120, 9 October 1996, Pos. 564 and 565. July 1996 A New York court, confronted with a suit in rem against an Artemis statue stolen in 1988 from the Convent of Maria Immaculata in Poz- zuoli (Naples), applied for the first time the UNESCO Convention of 1970 on the return of illegally exported cultural objects and or- dered the return of the statue: The Art Newspaper, January 1997, p. 25. The International Law Association (ILA) held its 67th Conference in Helsinki (Finland). The ILA Committee on Cultural Heritage drafted a resolution which was adopted by the ILA plenary session on 17 August 1996. See report by K. Siehr, supra at 142—43. The Australian business magnate Alan Bond was convicted in Perth (West Australia) of charges of fraud and deception and was sen- tenced to three years in jail. In November 1987 Bond purchased Vincent van Gogh's "Irises" for $ 53.9 million at Sotheby's and partially paid by proceeds from the sale of Eduard Manet's "La promenade": ARTnewsletter, vol. XXII, no. 1 of 9 September 1996, p. 7. August 1996 Austrian President of State Klestil announced that on his forthcom- ing visit to Mexico he may take with him as a present the "crown of Montezuma" exhibited for a long time in the Vienna Volkerkun- demuseum (Museum of Ethnology). This announcement aroused an outcry of Austrian museum people: ART, September 1996, p. 9. August 1996 A Johannesburg court of South Africa held that an auctioneer may reopen the bidding at his discretion if he missed a bid and that there- fore the hammer went down too early: ARTnewsletter, vol. XXII, no. 2 of 24 September 1996, p. 8. 1 2 - 1 7 August 1996 16 August 1996 162 use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739197000222 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:42:03, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of Chronicles An agreement between the Russian Federation and the Principality of Liechtenstein on the exchange of archives has been signed in Vaduz. Russia returns the archives of the royal house of Liech- tenstein taken by Russian troops as booty in 1945 after the occupa- tion of Austria. The Principality of Liechtenstein provides docu- ments on the execution of Tsar Nicholas II recently bought at auction in London: Neue Zurcher Zeitung, 7/8 September 1996, p. 9. On a visit of the German Chancellor Kohl to the Ukraine both States agreed to return cultural objects displaced during or after World War II: Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 4 September 1996, p. 1; supra at 134-36. Opening of the Berlin exhibition devoted to the collection Heinz Berggruen in the Sriilerbau (opposite the Charlottenburg Castle). The collection of paintings of Paul Cezanne, Paul Klee, Henri Matisse and especially of Pablo Picasso will stay in Berlin for the next ten years: ARTnews, January 1997, p. 54. Celebration of the Day of Cultural Heritage, initiated by the Council of Europe. See Swiss publication "Tag der Kulturgiiter". Polish Statute on the Inspection of Monuments (pos. 496 of 1996) was passed: Dziennik Ustaw. Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej Nr. 106, 30 September 1996, p. 2346. The International Association of Legal Science (Paris) organized the Conference on the protection of cultural property in Rabat (Mo- rocco). See report by R. K. Paterson and K. Siehr, supra at 144-50. Conference was held in Venice (Italy) on the question of the authen- ticity of the Ludovisi Throne (Museo Nazionale Romano, Rome) and the Boston Throne (Museum of Fine Arts, Boston). The Thrones were exhibited in the Palazzo Grassi (Venice) in the exhibition "Magna Graeca": Minerva 7 (no. 6/1996), p. 33 et seq. (article by J. M. Eisenberg). Treaty between Italy and the Episcopalian Conference of Italy on the protection of cultural property of religious interest owned by church institutions: II giornale dell'arte, October 1996, p. 5. Ninth session of the Intergovernmental UNESCO Committee for promoting the return of cultural property to its countries of origin or its restitution in case of illicit appropriation. See report by Jan Hladik, supra at 151-53. The library of Linkoeping (Sweden) has been set on fire. About 300.000 books have been destroyed: La Repubblica, 22 September 1996, p. 16. Itar-Tass of Moscow reported that a very precious book was stolen from the Moscow State Library. The book of 1564 is supposed to be the oldest printed book in the Russian language: The Art Newspaper, November 1996, p. 1. 3 September 1996 3 September 1996 6 September 1996 7 September 1996 8 September 1996 11-12 September 1996 12 September 1996 13 September 1996 16-19 September 1996 20 September 1996 24 September 1996 163 use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739197000222 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:42:03, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of Chronicles 26 September 1996 September 1996 13 October 1996 22 October 1996 28 October 1996 29/30 October 1996 29 October 1996 30 October 1996 30 October 1996 The Art-Law Centre of Geneva organized an international sympo- sium on "Patronage of the Arts" in Lausanne. See report by Q. Byrne-Sutton and M.-A. Renold, supra at 154—55. The Swiss National Council voted unanimously to set up a special commission to investigate what happened to Nazi art loot brought to Switzerland before and during World War II: ARTnewspaper, vol. XXII, no. 4 of 22 October 1996, p. 2. Henri Nannen, publisher (i. a. of the weekly "Der Stern"), art enthu- siast and founder of a museum in Emden (Germany), passed away: Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 15 October 1996, p. 45. The United States District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsyl- vania entered a judgment in favor of the defendants in the civil action Crisoty v. Rizik. The plaintiffs purchased in 1989 a painting by Corrado Giaquinto stolen more than three decades earlier from the defendants' parents' home. The plaintiffs, who had delivered the painting to the defendants after having been informed about the theft, asked for recovery of their expenses for restoration of the painting. The court denied an unjust enrichment claim against the defendants. Unpublished decision No. 93 — 6215. Belgium passed the statute implementing the EC Directive 93/7/ EEC of 15 March 1993 on the return of cultural property unlawfully removed from the territory of a Member State: Moniteur beige of 21 December 1996, No. 245, p. 31865. Christie's of Vienna sold at auction the Mauerbach treasures which were items seized by the National Socialists and stored since 1945 in Austria, finally in the Mauerbach cloisters. This Mauerbach auc- tion for the benefit of the victims of the Holocaust comprised more than 1.000 items (paintings, drawings, sculptures and other works of art) and produced about $ 14 mill., i. e. five times more than ex- pected: Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 1 November 1996, p. 33; Neue Zurcher Zeitung, 2/3 November 1996, p. 47; The Art Newspa- per, December 1996, p. 35; ARTnewsletter, vol. XXII, no. 6 of 19 November 1996, p. 2. ARTnews, December 1996, p. 91. The Institute of Art and Law (Leicester) held a conference in London on "Transacting in Art — the Legal Pitfalls": The Art Newspaper, October 1996, p. 26. In the State Library of Berlin the Ambassador of the Republic of Georgia returned to Germany 100.000 books taken from German libraries after World War II and deposited later in Georgia. This was done according to Art. 16 of the German-Georgian Treaty of 25 June 1993 on Cultural Cooperation: Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 30 October 1996, p. 6; 31 October 1996, p. 8 and 37 (article by W. Fiedler); Die Zeit, 8 November 1996, p. 52 (article by K. Garbo). The French Tribunal de grande instance de Paris declined to annul the sale of a painting sold as a piece of the "atelier de Poussin" but 164 use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739197000222 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:42:03, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of Chronicles which later turned out to be a painting of the master himself: // giornale dell 'arte, December 1996, p. 81. The criminal court of Sherman (Texas) dismissed criminal charges against the heirs of Jack Meador who looted the Quedlinburg trea- sure reacquired by Germany in 1990 (see Int'l J. Cult. Prop. 1992, p. 215). The US attorney had filed the indictment too late. Yet the heirs may face an investigation by the Internal Revenue Service: Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 26 October 1996, p. 37; The Art Newspaper, December 1996, p. 7. Treasures of the Wettin dynasty of Saxony, buried at the end of World War II in Moritzburg (Germany), have been discovered and excavated: Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 18 October 1996, p. 44. Part of a Giorgione fresco from the Venetian palace "Fondaco dei Tedeschi" has been discovered in England (Saltwood Castle). As to this fresco, see Jaynie Anderson, Giorgione. Peintre de la "Brievete Poetique". Catalogue Raisonne. Paris: Lagune 1996, p. 279 no. 169, pp. 261-263, 280-284; ARTnewsletter, vol. XXII, no. 5 of 5 No- vember 1996, p. 2. The French archaeologist Franck Goddio presented the results of his underwater explorations in the harbour of Alexandria (Egypt) and told that he may have located the royal palaces of the Ptolemean kingdom: Neue Zurcher Zeitung, 8 November 1996, p. 20; Frank- furter Allgemeine Zeitung, 6 November 1996, p. 4. The French Minister of Foreign Affairs Herve de Charette returned to Antoinette Carvailho the painting "Les Glaneuses" of Leon Augustin Lhermitte (1844—1925). This art object had been taken by the Ger- man occupation army in 1940, remained in East Germany and in 1994 was returned to France after the German reunification: Neue Zurcher Zeitung, 18 December 1996, p. 42; Museart, January 1997, p. 30. The Hungarian Minister of Culture and Education published the De- cree No. 14/1996 on the Procedure Declaring Private Records with Permanent Value as Legally Protected. This Decree is based on the Hungarian Statute No. LXVI of 1995 in Public Records, Public Ar- chives and Protection of Private Archives: Magyar Kozlony 1996 No. 95 of 7 November 1996, p. 5456; 1995 No. 56 of 30 June 1995, p. 3018. England restored the "Stone of Scone" to Scotland. This stone placed in the coronation chair in Westminster Abbey had been brought to London in 1296 and is supposed to be a symbol used since 840 in Scone for the ceremony of the coronation of Scottish kings: Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 16 November 1996, p. 3. Conference of the "Direction des Musees de France" on "Pillage and Restitution - what became of works of art removed from France October 1996 October 1996 October 1996 3 November 1996 6 November 1996 7 November 1996 15 November 1996 17 November 1996 165 use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739197000222 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:42:03, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of Chronicles 23 November 1996 November 1996 November 1996 November 1996 1 December 1996 3 December 1996 6 December 1996 5—6 December 1996 10 December 1996 during World War II." See report by Veronique Parisot, supra at 156-57. The ashes of Andre Malraux (1901-1976), former French minister of cultural affairs (1959 — 1969), adventurer (Angkor) and "hommes des lettres" and "art historian" (Musee imaginaire), were transferred to the Pantheon in Paris: Neue Zurcher Zeitung, 25 November 1996, p. 3; The Art Newspaper, December 1996, p. 7; Journal des Arts, November 1996, p. 1. Turkey declared the site of Troy as "Historical National Park Troy and Vicinity — Park of Peace" and is expecting the listing of the site as World Cultural Heritage by UNESCO: Neue Zurcher Zeitung, 7 November 1996, p. 20; see Int'l J. Cult. Prop. 1996, p. 315. The Tribunal de la Seine decided that the former owner of the Pous- sin painting "La fuite en Egypte" has no claim for return of the painting or for compensation against the auctioneer because the attri- bution of the painting to Poussin was doubtful at the time of auction: Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 9 November 1996, p. 41. The Sternburg family created a foundation of its art collection exhib- ited in the Leipzig Art Gallery in favour of this institution which will get a new building in some years: Frankfurter Allgemeine Zei- tung, 18 November 1996, p. 35. In the United Kingdom the law implementing the EC Directive on copyright of unpublished materials came into force: The Art Newspa- per, January 1997, p. 12. The Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg (Russia) opens until 30 March 1997 the fourth Russian exhibition of art objects taken from Germany under the title "Masterpieces of Western European Draw- ings from Private German Collections": Frankfurter Allgemeine Zei- tung, 3 December 1996, p. 4 and 7 December 1996, p. 35; Die Zeit, 6 December 1996, p. 54; ARTnewsletter, vol. XXII, no. 9 of 31 De- cember 1996, p. 7; The Art Newspaper, December 1996, p. 7. The Institute of the International Chamber of Commerce organized a conference on "Cultural Aspects of International Trade in Goods and Services: Are there any Exceptions": La Semaine juridique 1996, no. 47, Echos et opinions. Conference on "International Protection of Cultural Property - New Law on the Protection of Cultural Property" organized by the Lud- wig Boltzmann Institute of European Law, Vienna. Van Gogh's painting "Jardin a Auvers," formerly owned by Jean- Jacques Walter (he received in court 145 million French Francs as compensation for not being allowed to export the painting), was put at auction by the Paris auction house Jacques Tajan in the name of the estate of Jean-Marc Vernes (he bought the painting in 1992 for 166 use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739197000222 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:42:03, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of Chronicles 55 million French Francs) — and was not sold because only 32 mil- lion French Francs ($ 6.1 million) were offered: Frankfurter Allgem- eine Zeitung, 14 December 1996, p. 41; ARTnewsletter vol. XXII, no. 9 of 31 December 1996, p. 2. The Italian Ministry of Cultural Property quashed the notification of 22 November 1995 by which the Ministry prohibited the export of a Bellotto painting temporarily imported from England for an exhibi- tion in Milano (see Int'l J. Cult. Prop. 1996, p. 208): // Giomale dell'arte, January 1997, p. 1. Sotheby's of Monte Carlo sold at auction the collection of the Count and Countess of Paris. This collection had been the subject matter of several court proceedings (supra 3 July 1996): // giornale dell'arte, December 1996, p. 85. A new agreement on the financial support of the Foundation Prus- sian Cultural Heritage, holding the biggest European museum unit consisting of 16 museums in Berlin, several libraries, archives and research institutes, has been concluded between the German federal government and the German states and entered into force. Neue Ju- ristische Wochenschrift, Wochenspiegel, 1997, no. 4, p. XXXIX. German Chancellor Kohl and Russian President Yeltsin met in the vicinity of Moscow. They agreed that the open question of return of German cultural objects must be solved in 1997: Frankfurter Allge- meine Zeitung 6 January 1997, p. 2 and 25. France ratified the UNESCO Convention of 17 November 1970 on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property. Frankfurter Allge- meine Zeitung, 1 February 1997, p. 41; II giornale dell'arte, Febru- ary 1997, p. 4 The painting "Lady Elizabeth Vervey with Pigeon in her Arms" by Johann Friedrich August Tischbein (1750—1812), stolen in Weimar (Germany) in 1945 and about to be auctioned with Sotheby's in New York, is returned to the Kunstsammlungen zu Weimar: Tagesspiegel (Berlin), 2 February 1997, p. 19; Neue Zurcher Zeitung 8/9 Febrruary 1997, p. 47. Sotheby's of London suspended two senior staff members in Milan and London because they are suspected of having smuggled a paint- ing by the Italian painter Giuseppe Nogari form Italy to London: The Times 6 February 1997, pp. 1 and 14, 15. 12 December 1996 14/15 December 1996 1 January 1997 4 January 1997 7 January 1997 4 February 1997 5 February 1997 167 use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739197000222 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:42:03, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739197000222 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:42:03, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of 
work_4ezsixik4rekrmu7jpeosgixu4	----	Image & Narrative, Vol 12, No 3 (2011) 51 Ephemeral Art: Telling Stories to the Dead Mary O’Neill Abstract: The endurance of the form of storytelling and the compulsion to tell them suggests that telling stories is not merely an entertainment, an optional extra which we can chose to engage with or not, but a fundamental aspect of being. We tell stories to construct and maintain our world. When our sense of reality is damaged through traumatic experiences we attempt to repair our relationship with the world through the repeated telling of our stories. These stories are not just a means of telling but also an attempt to understand. Stories are performed and performative; they do not leave us unchanged but can in fact motivate us to act. They are not merely about things that have happened, but are about significant events that change us. Through our stories we demonstrate that we have not only had experiences but that those experiences have become part of one’s knowledge. In this essay O’ Neill will explore the potential of objects to tell a story, the object that is both the subject of the story and the form of telling. Two ephemeral art works will be considered: Domain of Formlessness (2006) by British artist Alec Shepley and Time and Mrs Tiber (1977) by Canadian artist Liz Magor. Both works embody the process of decay and tell a story of existence overshadowed by the knowledge of certain death and the telling of the story as a means of confronting that knowledge. The ephemeral art object tells a story in circumstances when there are no words, when we have nothing left to say. Résumé: La persistance de la forme narrative, mais aussi notre compulsion narrative, nous signalent que raconter une histoire n'est pas un simple divertissement, un supplément plus ou moins superflu qu'on pourrait laisser de côté si on le voulait, mais un aspect fondamental de notre vie. Nous racontons des histoires pour construire et sauvegarder notre univers. Lorsque des expériences traumatisantes ont entamé notre sens du réel, nous essayons de rétablir notre contact avec le monde en multipliant les récits. Le but de ces récits n'est pas seulement de raconter, mais aussi de comprendre. Un récit est donc un acte, il nous change et il peut nous pousser à l'action. Un récit ne parle pas uniquement de ce qui s'est passé, il parle des choses importantes qui ont eu lieu et qui nous ont transformés. Par le biais de nos récits, nous montrons que nous avons fait davantage qu'accumuler des expériences et que celles-ci se sont intégrées à ce que nous avons appris et à ce que nous savons. Image & Narrative, Vol 12, No 3 (2011) 52 Le présent article explore le potentiel narratif des objets. L'objet y apparaît à la fois comme ce dont il est question dans le récit et ce qui structure la narration, comme on le voit dans les deux œuvres d'art éphémères qu'analyse l'auteur: Domain of Formlessness (2006) de l'artiste britannique Alec Shepley et Time and Mrs Tiber (1977) de l'artiste canadienne Liz Magor. Ces deux œuvres mettent en forme un processus de déchéance et racontent l'histoire d'une vie placée sous le signe de la conscience d'une mort certaine, mais aussi de la narration comme une manière de faire face à cette conscience. L'objet d'art éphémère raconte une historie dans des circonstances privées de mots, où nous n'avons plus rien à dire. Key words: ephemeral art, (Liz) Magor, (Alex) Shapley, storytelling, trauma [The story] . . . achieves an amplitude that information lacks. (Benjamin 89) In this essay I explore the stories told by two ephemeral art works, Time and Mrs Tiber (1977) by Canadian artist Liz Magor, and Domain of Formlessness (2006) by British artist Alec Shepley. These works tell a story of existence overshadowed by the knowledge of certain death. Through their emphemerality they embody both the process of decay and disappearance; the telling of the story is used as a means of confronting this knowledge. The ephemeral art object can tell a story in circumstances where the traditional myth of art, as something that endures into an indefinite future and opens a doorway to immortality, will no longer serve. Western art has traditionally been concerned with power and authority, of the church, state or wealth. It has been conceived of as permanent and monumental, concerned with what is to come, a form of propaganda that will survive us and represents us to future generations, and ensure our immortality through the survival of our reputations and the great achievements of our culture (O'Neill 89). The works of Magor and Shepley are ephemeral in the sense that they are not only transient, but contain within them the seeds of their own demise. They have broken with tradition and are concerned with the past and how that past is experienced in the present, at the moment of looking. They are flawed works that allude to mourning and offer the possibility of an alternative to the Freudian triumvirate of remembering, repeating and working-through (Freud 147-156). In these works, remembering and repeating is evident – the original loss is repeated, which on the face of it could suggest that they are trapped in the repeating stage. However, rather than the closure that working- through promises, these works suggest an alternative – they form an accommodation with Image & Narrative, Vol 12, No 3 (2011) 53 their trauma, and offer a new aesthetic, a new story, in which the fleeting, the discarded and the transitory acquires a significance which Western traditions of art denies. Some of our stories, those that deal with traumatic experience, are an attempt to communicate, but they may also be an attempt to understand. Experiences that are difficult to comprehend need to be remembered and the means of this remembering may be the story of what happened, which we tell again and again in slightly different versions. The association between storytelling and the management of traumatic experience is well known and is indeed the basis of forms of therapy. For example, psychoanalysis involves freeing ourselves from the unconscious stories which we are compelled to relive by telling them over and over again to an attentive listener who reflects back what we are really saying. Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) facilitates the altering of our stories that have become unhelpful or debilitating by working directly with the conscious voices in our heads to change their story. The definition of trauma has taken on a political and legal dimension in recent years particularly in relation to the recognition of, and status given to, sufferers of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) amongst military veterans. PTSD was first officially recognised in the Diagnostic Statistical Manual (DSMIII) of the American Psychiatric Association in 1987, where it is defined as the result of an event “outside the normal range of human experience” (236). PTSD often leads, in the words of Cathy Caruth a leading scholar of trauma, to a reaction that involves “the unwitting re-enactment of an event that one cannot simply leave behind.” (Caruth 2). Domain of Formlessness The bleak existentialism of Ernest Becker, as outlined in his Pulitzer Prize winning book The Denial of Death, identifies the making and collecting of art as one of the means through which we create illusions of immortality as a defence against the knowledge of death that would annihilate us (171 - 174). In his discussion of the challenge facing the artist Becker states “there is something in his life experience that makes him take on the world as a problem: as a result he has to make personal sense out of it.” (171) The production of an artwork is described by Becker as “the artist’s attempt to justify his heroism objectively, in the concrete creation” (172). However the ephemeral work of art rejects both the possibility of the heroic artist and the “concrete creation” (172). It affords an encounter with the demise of the myth of the consolation of art, as well as the vicarious immortality it offers, and suggests a possibility beyond the psychic devastation described by Becker. Here a new narrative, a new form of meaning, whereby the ephemeral is seen as valuable and more precious precisely because it is fleeting, replaces the narrative of immortality. Image & Narrative, Vol 12, No 3 (2011) 54 Domain of Formlessness is a series of short films, each a single scene no more than 2 minutes long that play in a loop. The scenes take place in what looks like a cardboard box turned on its side (fig. 1). It begins with a single object, carefully placed in the box, followed by various other objects that are added at an increasing speed and with an increased suggestion of carelessness until the curtain falls, or in some cases fails to fall and has to be nudged closed with a stick (fig. 5). The objects refer to art history and other works by Shepley – bits of drawings, maquettes for sculptures, a traditional artist’s palette complete with blobs of paint, the odds and ends that one would find around an artist’s studio. There are also more domestic objects, a small doll’s house, a bird box, a model boat and a shoe. The differing scales of the objects means that they bear little relation to each other – a frigate leans against a table on which a house has been pushed aside to accommodate a bird box, the entrance of which is piled high with armchairs. In the box Shepley creates a miniature world, a theatre/doll’s house in which order is created and destroyed in endless succession. It is the world of dreams and stories in which scale is a matter of experience and importance rather than a physical characteristic. The films are manipulated by the addition of scratches and dust and have the amateurish quality of home Fig. 1: still from Domain of Formlessness (2006), Alec Shepley Image & Narrative, Vol 12, No 3 (2011) 55 Fig. 2: still from Domain of Formlessness (2006), Alec Shepley movies before the advent of digital technology. The pathos is accentuated by the sound track, a piece by jazz guitarist Django Reinhardt, which reinforces the connection with a more innocent viewing experience of the past. In my interview with Shepley he described the work as an acceptance of the ultimate failure of an artwork and, to an extent, a celebration of life’s minor triumphs because these "are all there is". The demise of the work becomes the goal and, in letting go of the ego and notions of success, the damaged goods and the discarded become valuable. Shepley uses the word “avalanche” to describe what takes place within each vignette. The characteristics of avalanches are that they are sudden and overwhelming but not unexpected. These metaphorical avalanches happen again and again, but despite this the artist continues to construct scenes with the potential to escape the fate of the previous episodes. He describes how the film will play and play until the CD or the computer gives up and then it is over, not finished, just over. In the cinematic story form that this work utilises, as in other forms of storytelling, there is a physical rhythm. The listener settles into the story, can be lulled by the rhythm of telling, a heartbeat can quicken at a climactic moment and relax with the relief of the resolution, the 'happy ever after' followed by the closing of the book, or 'The End' screen of a film. The looping of Shepley’s film suggests a lack of resolution in the telling of the story Image & Narrative, Vol 12, No 3 (2011) 56 and we are deprived of the sense of completeness that the traditional form of story offers. Domain of Formlessness has qualities of a pastiche, a folly echoing the style of remembered Saturday afternoon films where fallible characters such as Abbott and Costello, Buster Keaton or Jacques Tati amused us by exaggerating our incompetence, our failures. The scenes provide a contained miniature world where an initial short-lived sense of order quickly descends into chaos and each scenario ends not because something has been achieved but because the curtain closes and it is over. But rather than being a folly which attempts to create a fake work it is a ruin in which we see the vestige of what once was, or, more importantly, Fig. 3: still from Domain of Formlessness (2006), Alec Shepley Image & Narrative, Vol 12, No 3 (2011) 57 Fig. 4: still from Domain of Formlessness (2006), Alec Shepley might have been but was not good enough. Like these short films by Shepley the phrase ‘telling stories’ is deceptively simple; it conjures up thoughts of childhood tales of fabulous beasts, magical lands and dream-like existences. It is associated with ‘in the beginning’ and ‘happily ever after’. We are familiar with the structure, the beginning, middle and end, in which we experience a temporal unfolding. While this unfolding happens in one direction in time for the listener it happens backwards in time for the teller (Ricoeur 42-43). Stories are inextricably linked to memory, not only the privileged view of the teller who knows the outcome, but also the listener's experience of previous stories. The listener’s trust in the telling of a story is that there will be a dénouement, where motivations will be made clear and secrets revealed. However the great power of stories, the endurance of the form and the compulsion to tell them suggests that telling stories is not merely an entertainment, an optional extra which we can choose to Image & Narrative, Vol 12, No 3 (2011) 58 Fig. 5: still from Domain of Formlessness (2006), Alec Shepley engage with or not, but a fundamental aspect of being. We tell stories to construct, maintain and repair our reality. When we were conceived, when the sperm met the egg, we were not there, but there is a second self-conception, which is our own. We conceive ourselves in our minds and then, through the speech act of our stories, we are born. The telling of stories is more than an individual process; through our stories we form relationships, our family stories bind us to those with whom we have shared experiences and our collective stories become our tribal, regional or national identity. These stories are performed and performative; they do not leave us unchanged but can in fact motivate us to act, to fight and be willing to die for an ideal or a belief. The stories we tell are not merely about things that have happened, but are about significant events that have changed us. They are not general but specific; what happened and to whom. Through our stories we demonstrate that we not only have had experiences but that those experiences have become part of our knowledge. The etymology of the term experience suggests that it is a form of authority based on trial, experiment and observation, which is opposed to theory (Jay 10). In telling stories then it is possible that we combine experience and observation and move beyond theory to achieve a new form of authority. Stories are a contract and their existence requires another, a listener, to complete the event that is telling, Image & Narrative, Vol 12, No 3 (2011) 59 even if that listener is oneself or an imagined other. In the face of some life experience or societal changes our traditional stories may prove inadequate and we must construct and tell ourselves new stories. These stories can represent a rupture with the safety of the past when we were sure ‘everything would turn out alright’. One such life event is the experience of bereavement unconsoled by religious belief. When we can no longer rely on traditional religious rites to offer comfort through the promise of another life beyond this, new stories are required to perform the act of memorialisation. This can vary from the inclusion of songs in a funeral service which represent the fullness of the life lived to the creation of an entire ritual process which can act as a surrogate life to fill the time that one would have devoted to the deceased – for example, creating and maintaining a roadside memorial. Time and Mrs. Tiber Time and Mrs. Tiber is an early work by Liz Magor consisting of 53 jars of preserves, some of which were found on the abandoned farm of homesteaders Mr and Mrs Tiber on Cortes Island; a remote and inaccessible spot in British Columbia, 80 miles or four days by sailboat, northwest of Vancouver. The artist prepared 27 jars in 1977, which she added to the original preserves found on Cortes Island, dating from the 1950s. The jars along with the others made by Magor were displayed on open wooden shelves with other kitchen items, recipe cards and utensils. Magor, speaking of the work in an unpublished interview in 1976, states: They were self-sufficient, and now they are dead. In her house I found a shelf full of preserves that Mrs Tiber had put up. She was working against time. She was trying to keep the fruit preserved for next year. The preserved fruit remains, but she and her husband are dead. The piece also included excerpts from The Magic Mountain by Thomas Mann which refer to mortality and the passage of time1 1 The artist does not provide reference information for these quotes. This is usual in a work of art as they do not follow academic conventions. The references I have provided are not from the same edition used by the artist and therefore there are variations in the translation. . Considered Mann’s most overtly philosophical work, The Magic Mountain is set in a sanatorium where a young man, Hans Castrop, has gone to recuperate. Initially intending to spend only a short time, he eventually remains for seven years. The following excerpt from the book appears on a recipe card with the heading “DATE BREAD” which Magor features in Time and Mrs Tiber: Image & Narrative, Vol 12, No 3 (2011) 60 “Dissolution, putrefaction,” said Hans Castrop. “They are the same thing as combustion: combination with oxygen – am I right?” “To a T. Oxidisation.” “And life?” “Oxidisation too. The same. Yes young man, life too is principally oxidisation of the cellular albumen, which gives us that beautiful animal warmth, of which we sometimes have more than we need. Tut, living consists in dying, no use mincing the matter – une destruction organique, as some Frenchman with his native levity has called it. It smells like that, too. If we don’t think so our judgment is corrupted.” (Mann 266) Time and Mrs Tiber is no longer exhibitable and now sits dismantled in the stores of the National Gallery of Canada. Magor’s work was the subject of a protracted correspondence between the artist, the gallery conservators and various experts called upon to discuss the state of a work that was deteriorating. The blackened jars of fruit are stored in a metal cabinet and they no longer have the qualities that the jars of fruit had when Magor first came upon them on the remote Cortes Island. My interest in this piece is not confined to the work itself as it was first shown but in the entirety of the piece as it has become, which includes the correspondence and the relationships between the work and the various people who have become responsible for it over time. The story told by the original work has become more complicated than the artist originally intended and is infinitely more complicated than Mrs Tiber could have foreseen when she first put the jars into storage. In this work we are presented by two sets of direct intent. Mrs Tiber clearly communicates her wish that the fruits of summer should survive to be eaten in the dark cold days of winter, when luscious golden fruits could be the difference between life and death. This act, as Magor identified in a 1977 interview (unpublished), is a desire to defy time. It is also an act of hopefulness and promise, that one will survive another year. The jars as they are at present contain sinister black liquid and greenish lumps and are more reminiscent of something from the dark depths than anything that ripened in the summer sun and they no longer offer the possibility of nourishment. This does not mean that Mrs Tiber has failed but shows what Magor describes (in the same interview) as our helplessness in the face of the destruction of time. Magor, by removing the jars from Cortes Island, created a monument to the industry of Mrs Tiber and her skill, which has proved one of the ephemeral aspects of this work. Mrs Tiber’s preserved fruits survived more successfully than any made by Magor or the Image & Narrative, Vol 12, No 3 (2011) 61 conservators who attempted to replicate the process. Magor also refers to the quietness of the jars, which had survived by not drawing attention to themselves. In the ruined house on Cortes Island they survived their maker. However, by bringing them to the gallery and attempting to prolong their lives as art, rather than being either consumed as food or rotting away naturally, Magor drew attention to them and accelerated their decay. Like a mythical hero of another story, whose immortality rests on staying in one place, their leaving is a form of sacrifice, as it involves becoming human and frail. This is the fate of Joachim, another character in The Magic Mountain, whose curiosity about the wider world induces him to leave the sanatorium only to return after a short time to die. The dilapidated house on Cortes Island had proved to be the perfect environment for storing preserves. It was a cool and dark place, which contrasted sharply with the environment of the gallery. The rapid deterioration was unwittingly caused by the gallery, the very environment that we associate with conservation and preservation. Some of the early interventions undertaken with the intention of preservation had the direct, opposite effect. Ironically this parallels Mann's personal experience of the sanatorium, where he developed an upper respiratory tract infection while visiting his wife. This event is recreated in The Magic Mountain (Humphreys 151). On another recipe card Magor again quotes from The Magic Mountain: And Hans says “Hermetics, hermetics! I really love that word, it reminds me of my grandmother’s jams and jellies. I used to walk into the pantry and see all these beautiful jams and jellies and I thought, there they are, all sealed away, locked up forever, not changing,” (Mann 511) Throughout the correspondence about the work preserved in the gallery, Magor’s sense of responsibility for the jars is evident both explicitly and in the tone of her writing. Equally, the mimetic quality of this work, Magor’s sense of identification with it, represents a Wildean relationship between the artist and the piece. Time and Mrs Tiber is a form of portrait in the attic, but rather than deteriorating while the artist remains youthful, Magor refers, in her 1977 interview, several times to her desire that the work should last as long as she herself does (see also Keyser 2). Thus this work acts as a mirror in which Magor had hoped to see her own ageing process reflected. Under these circumstances, the unexpectedly rapid decay of the preserves threatens this relationship. Magor is pulled between conflicting desires to acknowledge the ephemerality of the work and the desire to maintain it. In a review of Magor’s work Ann Rosenberg states: “Liz’s art poses philosophical questions and offers some intelligent answers.” (22) Time and Mrs Image & Narrative, Vol 12, No 3 (2011) 62 Tiber may no longer possess the visual qualities it once had; however, this does not mean that it is now mute and no longer asks philosophical questions. This was the work of a young artist, just six years out of art school. Her youth at the time of making the work does not suggest that this is not a thoughtful piece, clearly conceptualised and articulated. However, it does show that during our life our relationship with time can change, and that an artist whose works deal with time may well have a changing relationship with their work as they age. These shifting relationships do not reflect muddled thinking or a conceptual flaw in the work, rather growth and development of ideas that are themselves about something shifting and dynamic. The young Magor offered a specific set of direct intentions, which shaped the work and which she communicated in conversations, correspondence and interviews. The correspondence from the older Magor demonstrates that nothing is fixed, that for some, being older may well mean being wiser. Time and Mrs Tiber may have lost visual qualities, to the extent of it no longer being exhibitable, but I would suggest that it is older and wiser, still asking philosophical questions and still providing intelligent answers. These answers may not be as fixed and sure as they were in 1977 but their very uncertainty may be the wisdom they offer. There is still the original knowledge of time and our efforts to defy it, and there is also new knowledge. This knowledge resides both in the work, which embodies our inability to defy time, and in the documentation in the National Gallery of Canada. This documentation gives us an insight into the development of thinking, both about this work and the broader philosophical issues concerning de-accessioning of work from gallery collections. The documentation also shows how the relationship between the artist, conservator and curators can be an enriching and thought provoking one in which all three parties learn in tandem for the benefit of the work. It shows the ephemerality of intentions and the effort involved in letting go of both ideals and a work of art. Trauma, Art and Transubstantiation: a Conclusion In the twentieth century there has been a wealth of visual art that deals with evidence of a wounded mind or body, from George Grosz to Pablo Picasso to Doris Salcedo. These depictions of trauma may be so literal, as in the case of artists like Kathe Kollwitz, whose powerful drawings depict harrowing scenes of pain, misery and wretchedness, that they require little interpretation, or are abject as described by Hal Foster in Return of the Real (127- 70). Foster outlines two possibilities for the traumatic work: either it probes the wound by presenting the “obscene object-gaze of the real” or represents “the condition of abjection in order to provoke its operation” (157). However, the works of Magor and Shepley provide Image & Narrative, Vol 12, No 3 (2011) 63 insight into the experience of mourning and a site through which it is performed, without the violent confrontation described by Foster. The gentleness of these works allows the viewer to engage without the possibility of disgust or repulsion, which are so often the responses to the works described by Foster. In Unclaimed Experience: Trauma, Narrative, and History, Caruth discusses the tale of Tancred and Freud’s reference to it in Beyond the Pleasure Principle: . . . Tancred, unwittingly kills his beloved Clorinda in a duel while she is disguised in the armour of an enemy knight. After her burial he makes his way into the strange magic forest which strikes the Crusaders’ army with terror. He slashes with his sword at a tall tree: but blood streams from the cut and the voice of Clorinda, whose soul is imprisoned in the tree, is heard complaining that he has wounded his beloved once again. (Caruth 2) Freud’s interest in this narrative is the repetition of the traumatic event, while Caruth focuses on the “sorrowful voice” (2) that emanates from the tree. The story can be read in other ways however. My interest is in both the magical resurrection that takes place and the terrifying place in which this occurs. The deceased Clorinda lives again in the form of another, as if in an act of transubstantiation. This transformation allows an object to move beyond being a reminder of a lost loved one and to become the lost other. Works of art made when the deceased is still present frequently take the form of photographs of the dead, for example in the Morgue (1992) series by Andres Serrano, Araya Rasdjarmrearnsook’s Conversation (2002), AA Bronson's Felix 5 June 1994 (1994/99), or Walter Schels and Beate Lakotta's Life Before Death (2004). These works are powerful mementos of the dead. However, when the actual body is no longer available as the site of mourning a new presence is required and is created. Magor and Shepley have appropriated commonplace objects; for example, jars of preserved fruit and scraps of paper become the “tall tree” (Caruth 2) of the Tancred story and the world of art becomes “the strange magic forest” (Caruth 2) where the dead live, only to die again and again. Here the flimsy physicality of the works and, more importantly, their lack of permanence take on a new significance. Through their ephemerality the original loss is constantly in a state of being repeated – not in Freudian terms of compulsion but with acceptance. Both of these works tell a powerful story of love and loss. Their fragile and elusive existence echoes the tentative connection with the world that is often the experience of those living with a painful loss. They allude to and appropriate old stories that are deeply embedded in our collective experience of the world but they also offer new insights. Image & Narrative, Vol 12, No 3 (2011) 64 Work Cited American Psychiatric Association (APA). Diagnostic Statistical Manual (DSMIII). Washington, D.C.: APA, 1987. Print. Becker, Ernest. The Denial of Death. New York: Free Press Paperbacks, 1997. Print. Benjamin, Walter. The Storyteller: Observations on the Works of Nikolai Leskov. London: Fontana, 1992. Print. Caruth, Cathy. Unclaimed Experiences: Trauma, Narrative and History. Baltimore and London: John Hopkins University Press, 1996. Print. Foster, Hal. The Return of the Real. Cambridge Mass: The MIT Press, 1996. Print Freud, Sigmund. “Remembering, repeating and working through.” The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud Vol. XII. Ed. J. Strachey. London: Hogarth Press, 1956-74. 147-56. Print. ---. 'Beyond the Pleasure Principle' The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud Vol. XVIII. Ed. J. Strachey. London: Hogarth Press, 1956-74. 1953-74. Print. Humphreys, P. “The Magic Mountain - A Time Capsule of Tuberculosis Treatment in the Early Twentieth Century.” Canadian Bulletin of Medical History 6 (1989): 147-63. Print. Jay, M. Songs of Experience: Modern American and European Variations on a Universal Theme. California: University of California Press, 2005. Print. Keyser, B. Restoration & Conservation Laboratory, Special Report. [Ottawa]: National Gallery of Canada, 1980. Print. Magor, Liz. Excerpts from unpublished taped interview. National Gallery of Canada Collection. Dec. 1976. ---. Unpublished taped interview. National Gallery of Canada Collection. May 1977. Mann, Thomas. The Magic Mountain. London: Penguin, 1960. Print. O'Neill, Mary. “Ephemeral Art: Mourning and Loss.” (Im)permanence: Cultures in/out of Time. Ed. J. Schachter & S. Brockmann. Pittsburgh: Centre for the Arts in Society, 2008. 149-62. Print. Ricoeur, Paul. Time and Narrative: Volume 1. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1984. Print Rosenberg, A. “The four voices of four places.” Artmagazine May/June (1977): 21-23. Print. Shepley, Alec. Personal Interview. 4 June 2010. Image & Narrative, Vol 12, No 3 (2011) 65 Dr. Mary O’Neill is currently Senior Lecturer in Critical and Contextual Studies at the University of Lincoln and a Higher Education Academy: Art Design Media National Teaching Fellow. Her current research interests span a variety of disciplines and fields and include loss, failure, boredom, ephemerality, disappearance and sorrow as well as the methodology of communicating these subjects. O’Neill has published widely on these subjects both in the academic arena and, more recently, in the form of short stories. moneill@lincoln.ac.uk mailto:moneill@lincoln.ac.uk� 
work_4g7zetwrizfqtahkklqmkewdhe	----	CULTURE IN THE MEDIA… 171 UDC 316.72:316.774 CULTURE IN THE MEDIA: THE REPRESENTATION OF CULTURE IN JUTARNJI LIST Marko Pavlovski University of Zagreb, Croatia Abstract: In today's picture of the widely circulated print media a famous assertion is that culture as a subject is decreasing in relevancy, as seen by the amount of pages dedicated to the cultural section and informations on cultural events, especially those of international importance, in the entire content of the most widely read newspapers. The aim of this paper is to show the presence of cultural themes in one of the most popular daily newspaper published in the Republic of Croatia, Jutarnji list. The research will cover the content of this daily for a period of one year (January 1st 2013 to 1st January 2014), to show the presence of cultural themes in it. I suppose, because of a prior knowledge of the materials, that notifications on events in culture at home and abroad will reside outside pages dedicated to the cultural section, so it will be necessary to examine the contents of whole numbers. Furthermore, I will compare the representation of various artistic genres, the presence of film art compared to the amount of articles devoted to literature, and I will devote particular attention to the content dedicated to the non-commercial aspects of a particular genre, for example the amount of information about events in the poetry scene, promotions or group exhibitions of young filmmakers at home and abroad. Keywords: Jutarnji list, culture, representation, media, cultural section I. INTRODUCTION In today's picture of the widely circulated print media a famous assertion is that culture as a subject is decreasing in relevancy, as seen by the amount of pages dedicated to the cultural section and informations on cultural events, especially those of international importance, in the entire content of the most widely read newspapers. The aim of this paper is to show the presence of cultural themes in one of the most popular daily newspaper published in the Republic of Croatia, Jutarnji list. The average circulation of Jutarnji list in 2012 was 60 000 copies per day, while the average circulation of Jutarnji list in 2013 was 50 000 copies per day. We can assert a diminished circulation of average copies sold by day, but this trend is also visible with the other two most successful newspapers in Croatia, 24sata and Večernji list. The newspaper 24sata, for example, had an average circulation of 130 000 copies sold per day in 2012, and an average circulation of 110 000 copies sold per day in 2013. Večernji list had an average circulation of 65 000 copies per day in 2012, and an average circulation of 60 000 copies per day in 2012. According to those numbers, Jutarnji list is third КУЛТУРА / CULTURE, 11/ 2015 172 in average circulation of copies sold per day in Croatia. Interesting to note, however, is the fact that the newspaper is second in popularity on Facebook, with 480, 279 likes on the official Facebook page, compared to 24sata's 906, 294 and Večernji list's 243,185. All three are notorious by their lack of culture sections,which is a sentiment condivided by a wide range of commentators, from Facebook fans to journalists that work in these newspapers. Writer Miljenko Jergović, a famous columnist of Jutarnji list, wrote in one of his essays: ‘’... (croatian newspapers) on their pages do not normally deal with literature, and more recently none from the metropolis have a culture section, while culture, quite exceptionally, appears only as a tenant in other sections, ...’’ (Jergović, 2010: 385) As shown, even a columnist of the third newspaper by average daily circulation in Croatia shares the opinion that culture not only is lowly represented in croatian newspapers, but even that it doesn't have a section of its own. The research will cover the content of this daily for a period of one year (January 1st 2013 to 1st January 2014), to show the presence of cultural themes in it. I suppose, because of a prior knowledge of the materials, that notifications on events in culture at home and abroad will reside outside pages dedicated to the cultural section, so it will be necessary to examine the contents of whole numbers. Furthermore, I will compare the representation of various artistic genres, the presence of film art compared to the amount of articles devoted to literature, and I will devote particular attention to the content dedicated to the non- commercial aspects of a particular genre, for example the amount of information about events in the poetry scene, promotions or group exhibitions of young filmmakers at home and abroad. II. METHODOLOGY According to the Croatian dictionary (Anić), culture is the totality of material and spiritual, ethical and social values, made by humanity. Cultural sections of the newspaper follow art, which is defined as a creative activity founded on sensibility and expressed by speech or writing, voice, line, color, movement, plastic shapes, structures, etc. According to Baran, „Culture serves a purpose. It helps us categorize and classify our experiences; it helps define us, our world, and our place in it.“ (Baran, 2009: 10) Following the aesthetic principles of contemporary art, we decided: a) not to include the contents of the 'spectacles' section, which is often referred to workers in culture, especially musicians and actors, in a manner unrelated to their creativity; b) to research cultural articles in the strictest sense of art, divided into basic categories (literature, film, theater, music, exhibitions) and articles on literary exhibitions, film and theater festivals, etc. Furthermore, we will note on which pages articles on culture appear and the number of times per month when they are announced on the front page. After counting the articles on cultural themes in Jutarnji list in 2013,we decided to divide them in two categories: primary and secondary. Primary categories group the most present artistic genres in the articles of mostly the cultural section of Jutarnji list, while the secondary categories include groups that were also represented, but in minor numbers. CULTURE IN THE MEDIA… 173 III. RESULTS A. Primary Categories J F M A M J J A S O N D L 59 49 56 59 63 72 56 51 74 88 74 77 F 64 73 47 48 58 50 59 53 45 79 47 48 T 22 19 27 29 22 18 44 28 30 34 38 20 M 27 48 66 57 66 52 69 53 33 58 69 73 E 40 25 28 29 25 29 38 33 36 37 30 35 I 7 1 4 2 0 5 5 8 14 8 10 9 Table 1. As shown in Table 1., we divided the primary categories of cultural reviews in Jutarnji list in the following six groups: Literature, Film, Theater, Music, Exhibitions and Interviews. Of the six, Literature was unexpectedly the highest ranking, with most articles dedicated to it per month, and the highest number of articles per single month – 88 articles in October. Those number are affected by the fact that Jutarnji list in 2013 had a special issue of the cultural section, thematizing the Festival svjetske književnosti (Festival of World Literature), held in Zagreb in September of 2013. Participants of the Festival of World Literature were,among others, Péter Nádas, Claudio Magris, Jaume Cabre, Goce Smilevski, Ivan Lovrenović , Goran Vojnović... Furthermore, writers of literature articles and reviews are quite numerous in the culture section, notably the literary critics Jagna Pogačnik and Adriana Piteša, while Miljenko Jergović in his columns often reviews writers and books unknown to the wider literary audience, sometimes even publications that are not translated in Croatian, but are available in Serbian. Second in articles published by month in the culture section of Jutarnji list in 2013, is the category of Film. This category has a special subsection in the culture section, were two prominent film critics, Nenad Polimac and Jurica Pavičić, assign votes to movies, from the latest movies playing in theaters, new movies available on DVD, to reviews of classics of the genre. Articles on films often cover the topic of famous directors and actors. These articles were also included in our table because they are centred on the work and career of the presented artists over their private lives and various affairs that are not relevant to the aim of our research. The highest number of articles about Film were published in October of 79. Jutarnji list also covers various film festivals held in Croatia during the year, among others Pula Film Festival, Motovun Film Festival, Zagreb Film Festival, Subversive Festival, Zagreb Jewish Film Festival – Festival of Tolerance ecc. The newspaper's film critics also attend the most important and worldwide known international film festivals, The Cannes International Film Festival, Berlin International Film Festival, Sarajevo Film Festival, etc. Music was the hardest category to evaluate correctly. The adoperated methodology eliminated various non- cultural and non-artistic news, articles and reviews about the private life of musicians. Notably the most prominent author in this subsection of Jutarnji list's culture section is the music critic Aleksandar Dragaš who, by himself, covers a wide range of topic about the musical culture: reviews of the latest published musical records, concerts, festivals, new and interesting performers and bands, but also essays on trends in modern music, such as the effect of pop-music on the younger audiences and its perspectives in influencing future musicians ecc. Dragaš is a rock critic, and we can КУЛТУРА / CULTURE, 11/ 2015 174 explicitly see rock music as the most represented genre of music in the cultural section of the newspaper, but there are also reviews of classical and jazz concerts by other authors. For example,on the 9th of December Dragan Lisac wrote on his experience during the season premiere of the opera La Traviata at the Teatro alla Scala in Milan. Theater had an unexpectedly high number of articles per month. Articles about theater in the culture section of Jutarnji list usually include brief assertions of the monthly programme of various theaters in Croatia and recensions by theatre critics, most notably reviews by the theatre critic Tomislav Čadež. Articles on theatre in the first half of 2013 however, were characterised by the success of the play Fine mrtve djevojke by director Dalibor Matanić and dramatist Mate Matišić, followed by the cultural scandal of the year – the banning of the poster for the show by the mayor of Zagreb, Milan Bandić. This act was followed by many controversies and reactions, of which most notable was perhaps that of director Oliver Frljić, who disbanded all collaborations with Gavella, the theatre in which the censored Fine mrtve djevojke was on the programme. Jutarnji list followed the scandal, even dedicating it a first page article on 18th January 2013. The highest number of articles on theatre by month was reached in July, mostly because of a special on the 13th season of Ulysses Theatre (Kazalište Ulysses) on the island group of Brijuni. Unexpectedly, the group Exhibitions rose to the table of primary categories, as it is covered in great detail in the articles of the culture section of Jutarnji list. The most prominent author of reviews on art exhibitions is Patricia Kiš, art critic for Jutarnji list. The year 2013 was characterised by two important events: the exhibition of works by Pablo Picasso, held in Klovićevi Dvori Gallery in Zagreb from 23rd March to the 7th of July, and the presentation of Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio's Supper at Emmaus, held between the 5th June and 31st August in the Museum of Arts and Crafts in Zagreb, allowed by the Italian Republic as a kind of gift for Croatia's entry in the European Union on the 1st of July 2013. Another unexpected group that rose to the table of primary categories was Interviews. By the term Interview we mean interviews with artists conducted mostly by Dobroslav Silobrčić, a journalist of Jutarnji list who leads an interview section in the newspaper. We counted only the interviews made with artists and other various workers in culture, as the section covers a wide range of professions of the persons being interviewed. We decided to enlist this category in the primary categories because of the space physically dedicated to the section and because of the relevance in Croatia, and sometimes even international relevance, of the artists being interviewed. B. Secondary Categories J F M A M J J A S O N D Arc 3 x 2 1 1 x x x x x x 1 Phot 4 1 1 2 x x x x x x x x A (v) 3 6 4 8 3 1 2 5 4 2 7 11 Str 2 3 1 1 1 x x 4 2 4 3 4 Mon 1 1 x 1 x x x x x x 1 1 Ser 1 2 x 4 1 1 3 5 7 4 3 2 Sclp x x x 3 3 3 3 x x 1 2 2 A (p) x x x x x x x x x x 1 1 Table 2. CULTURE IN THE MEDIA… 175 We divided those articles on culture in Jutarnji list, that were not in one of the six primary categories, in eight secondary categories. The term secondary is used here only to describe the presence of this categories in the newspaper's articles, andnot based on their actual importance. We considered to add Poetry as a secondary category, based on its low presence, but we concluded that it belonged in the Literature primary category. We decided, however, to differentiate the series secondary category from the Film primary category. As shown in Table 2., the eight secondary categories are Architecture, Photography, Arts (visual), Strip, Monograph, Series, Sculpture and Art (performative). We decided Strip as a self-standing category, differentiating the genre of graphic novels from the primary category Literature. Of the eight categories decided, Arts (visual) was the most covered, with 11 articles in the month of December, but most articles of the category through 2013 were reviews and brief news on discoveries of lost paintings and highly successful Art auctions. C. Dedicated Pages Table 3. As seen in Table 3, Jutarnji list dedicates its frontlines to articles on cultural themes quite often. In January cultural themes were on the frontline 7 times, in February also, in March 4 times, in April 5 times, in May 6 times, in June 10 times, in July 4 times, in August 8 times, in September 5 times, in October 5 times, in November 3 times and in December 4 times. In total, articles in Jutarnji list covering cultural themes, and that were highlighted on the frontpage of the newspaper amount to a sum of 68 articles in 2013. The presented data demonstrates a presence of cultural themes on the front pages of the newspaper, contrary to the popular opinion that daily newspapers in Croatia do not evaluate culture in an adequate manner. Some of the headlines included the Fine mrtve djevojke scandal in January, around the banning, by part of censors, of a poster for the play, that purportedly offended some citizens of Zagreb and members of the Christian Church on the basis of its controversial raffiguration of the Virgin Mary; in the same month the front pages were indicating an in- depth review of the year's Academy Awards ceremony. On the 30th of May, on the other hand, a part of the front page was dedicated to the arriving of Caravaggio's Supper in Emmaus at the Museum of Arts and Crafts in Zagreb, while on the 11th October the newspaper was proclaiming Alice Munro as the recipient of that year's Nobel Prize in Literature. It's important to note, however, that the newspaper had special editions about cultural events, and that should also be noted. For example, on the 17th of April there was a special cultural supplement on the Gavella theatre and its programme, on the 4th of September there was a special cultural supplement about the Festival svjetske književnosti, the Festival of world literature, and on the 21st of December a special supplement with recommendations about the year's best cultural events was found, based on the choice of authors from Jutarnji list. Month J F M A M J J A S O N D Front pages 7 7 4 5 6 10 4 8 5 5 3 4 КУЛТУРА / CULTURE, 11/ 2015 176 On average, the culture section of Jutarnji list in 2013 was found between pages 26-28 or 32-34 of the newspaper from Monday to Friday. On Saturday, pages 72-73 were the most common. The Sunday edition of Jutarnji list does not have a culture section. Summarizing, pages dedicated to culture in Jutarnji list were as follows:  Mon-Fri: 26-28, 32-34  Saturday: 72-73  On Sundays there is no culture section IV. CONCLUSION In conclusion, we can confirm that Jutarnji list has indeed a culture section, which is published in the newspaper every day except Sunday. Usually two pages on average of the newspaper are dedicated to the culture section, sometimes even more. The articles in the culture section can be divided in six primary categories, that are the following: Literature, Film, Theater, Music, Exhibitions and Interviews. In our research on the presence of articles on culture in Jutarnji list in 2013, we counted a total of 778 articles dedicated to Literature, a total of 671 articles dedicated to Film, a total of 331 articles dedicated to Theater, a total of 671 articles dedicated to Music, a total of 385 articles dedicated to Exhibitions and a total of 73 interviews with artists in the Interviews category, for a sum of 1,907 articles that we classified in the six primary categories. Unexpectedly, Exhibitions arose as as a primary category, with thoroughly writeen articles often accompanied by a portrait of the exhibiting artist(s). Unexpected was also the number of interviews with artists (actors, directors, writets, painters etc.), and we decided to include it in the six primary categories because of the relevance of the artists being interviewed. Articles on cultural themes that didn't belong to one of the six primary categories were divided in eight secondary categories,which were Architecture, Photography, Arts (visual), Strip, Monograph, Series, Sculpture, Art (performative). In our research on the presence of articles on culture in Jutarnji list in 2013, we counted the following number of articles in the secondary categories. There was a total of 8 articles dedicated to Architecture, a total of 8 articles dedicated to Photography, a total of 56 articles dedicated to Arts (visual), a total of 25 articles dedicated to Strip, a total of 5 articles dedicated to Monograph, a total of 33 articles dedicated to Series, a total of 17 articles dedicated to Sculpture and a total of 2 articles dedicated to Arts (performative). We differentiated the secondary category Series from the primary category Film, but decided to exclude Poetry as a secondary category, merging it in the primary category Literature instead. Despite expectations, the articles on the subject of culture are mostly contained in the culture section (except in the case of Miljenko Jergović’s column Saturday matinee, Subotnja matineja, in which the author often writes about writers and other artists, which is located in the Saturday supplement Magazin). Our presumption on the dispersion of articles on cultural themes throughout the newspaper's pages was proven wrong, with the exception of interviews with artists, that are found in the differentiated interview special section. In total, articles in Jutarnji list covering cultural themes, and that were highlighted on the frontpage of the newspaper amount to a sum of 68 articles in 2013. The presented data CULTURE IN THE MEDIA… 177 demonstrates a presence of cultural themes on the front pages of the newspaper, contrary to the popular opinion that daily newspapers in Croatia do not evaluate culture in an adequate manner. Some of the headlines included the Fine mrtve djevojke scandal in January, around the banning, by part of censors, of a poster for the play, that purportedly offended some citizens of Zagreb and members of the Christian Church; in the same month the front pages were indicating an in-depth review of the year's Academy Awards ceremony. On the 30th of May, on the other hand, a part of the front page was dedicated to the arriving of Caravaggio's Supper in Emmaus at the Museum of Arts and Crafts in Zagreb, while on the 11th October the newspaper was proclaiming Alice Munro as the recipient of that year's Nobel Prize in Literature.Besides the presence of articles thematising cultural topics on the front pages of Jutarnji list, in the newspaper were present through the year various special cultural supplements. Some of these were the following: on the 17th of April there was a special cultural supplement on the Gavella theatre and its programme, on the 4th of September there was a special cultural supplement about the Festival svjetske književnosti, the Festival of world literature, and on the 21st of December a special supplement with recommendations about the year's best cultural events was found, based on the choice of authors from Jutarnji list. Notable is the presence of authors-columnists that cover cultural topics (Aleksandar Dragaš covering music, Miljenko Jergović, Adriana Piteša and Jagna Pogačnik literature, Patricia Kiš exhibitions and art in general, Jurica Pavičić and Nenad Polimac film, Tomislav Čadež theatre). This phenomenon may warrant further research, as it seems that culture themed articles in Jutarnji list are mostly written by a specific group of authors, of which some are relevant experts in their corresponding fields or well-known art, literary or theatre critics. REFERENCES [1] M. Jergović, Pamti li svijet Oscara Schmidta. Zagreb: Naklada Ljevak, 2010. [2] S. J. Baran, Introduction to mass communication: media literacy and culture, 5th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2009. [3] Jutarnji list. 1st January – 31st December 2013. Zagreb: EPH Media, 2013. КУЛТУРА / CULTURE, 11/ 2015 178 
work_4hwlwlat5vbnvbhtvt5vniqzwa	----	Total Intravenous Anaesthesia: N. L. Padfield (ed.), Butterworth Heinemann: Oxford, UK, 2000, 306, pp; indexed, illustrated, ISBN: 0-7506-4171-1; Price &pound;35.00 Book Reviews European Journal of Anaesthesiology 2003; 20: 993–995 © 2003 European Academy of Anaesthesiology ISSN 0265-0215 Total Intravenous Anaesthesia N. L. Padfield (ed) Butterworth Heinemann: Oxford, UK, 2000, 306 pp; indexed, illustrated ISBN: 0-7506-4171-1; Price £35.00 The book provides an excellent introduction to total intravenous anaesthesia (TIVA). The editor has used a total of 15 contributors, including several leading authorities on the subject, and the text is fully refer- enced. As the foreword points out, the introduction of propofol has revolutionized the practice of TIVA and this is reflected in the book. Although other agents are considered, the emphasis is on the use of propofol, short-acting opioids and target-controlled infusions. The book is split into three parts, the first of which provides a general overview of TIVA, including chap- ters on its history, pharmacology and basic clinical application. The chapter on pharmacokinetics man- ages to deal with a complex subject, reasonably, suc- cinctly and the use of diagrams in this chapter helps considerably. The last chapter in this section, on administration of TIVA, has some particularly help- ful clinical scenarios. The second part of the book deals with related issues, specifically postoperative nausea and vomiting and awareness. The bulk of the book, however, is contained in the third part and this deals with the application of TIVA to a variety of subspecialties. There are chapters devoted to its use not only in day case surgery, but also to cardiotho- racic, neurosurgical, plastic/ear, nose and throat and endocrine surgery. These chapters highlight areas where the use of TIVA is becoming the technique of choice rather than a useful alternative. In all, the editor has managed to produce a fully comprehensive but accessible text with a ‘hands on’ feel to it. I have few criticisms as I think this book achieves exactly what it sets out to do, i.e. to provide an excellent starting point for those wishing to familiarize themselves with the technique of TIVA. It would also serve as a useful reference book for those preparing for examinations and it certainly deserves a place in every departmental library. M. A. M. Gillies London, UK Being the author of a technical manual carries with it a great responsibility. The text must be easy to understand with no ambiguity. Similarly, diagrams and photographs must be of a high standard with clear labelling. Unfortunately, relatively few manuals of technique reach this high standard. Therese O’Connor and Stephen Abram appear to have tried to achieve a text of excellence by focusing on a relatively small number of basic techniques. Their approach has been to cover the methodology in a systematic manner. Unfortunately, this gamble does not appear to have paid off. This has resulted in introductions that are too brief and descriptions of technique that are repetitive. Important variations in technique are lost in the text because of the pre- sentation and, as a result, there is a risk of making a Atlas of Pain Injection Techniques T. O’Connor, S. Abram Churchill Livingstone: Edinburgh, UK, 2003, 141 pp; indexed, illustrated ISBN: 0-443-06380-X; Price £49.99 2012-10.qxd 12/Nov/03 10:21 AM Page 993 https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0265021503241600 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:41:01, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0265021503241600 https://www.cambridge.org/core 994 Book Reviews © 2003 European Academy of Anaesthesiology, European Journal of Anaesthesiology 20: 993–995 mistake. When I compared their description of some techniques to other texts that are available, I usually found the other books easier to follow! There was no justification of the approach used in their book over any other and the text is not supported by references. O’Connor and Abram certainly have some very nice line diagrams, but labelling was poor and Figure legends hidden in the text. It is much easier to read the legend close to the diagram and not as a part of the text! Many of the diagrams appeared to be an over simplification and some simple line diagrams were repeated on numerous occasions. The quality of the radiograph and computerized tomography reprints was low by today’s standard. Whereas I accept that there will always be a per- sonal touch to procedures, I was disappointed by the approach that they used for certain techniques. For instance, I was surprised to see radiographs being used, as opposed to continuous imaging, to confirm needle placement for facet joint injections. Also, I wonder about the use of Esmarch bandages, presum- ably for patients with complex regional pain syn- drome, in their description of intravenous regional sympathetic blocks. I doubt that my patients would tolerate this. This book needs a better introduction on general principles and the chapters on drugs used need to be expanded. In addition, a chapter on block needles and nerve stimulators needs to be considered. Unfortunately, this book will sit on my shelf and be rarely used by trainees or myself. A. Baranowski London, UK The fascination of medical topics and illness for artists through the ages mirrors the fascination of the gen- eral population. In Medicine and Art, Professor Emery and his wife have collected a series of illustrations portraying medicine and medical practice from anti- quity; from an Egyptian statue and a Greek amphora to a collage of the twenty-first century. Each painting or drawing is accompanied by a brief but compre- hensive description of medicine and medical practice during the period at the time of the creation of the artwork and a brief outline of the artist and his career. In many instances, the artists are either accredited masters themselves or pupils of artists who had a sig- nificant influence on the development of art through the ages. For instance, Pietro Lorenzetti (active 1320–1348 – St Humility Healing a Sick Nun (circa. 1341)) was a Sienese painter who was directly influenced by Giotto (1266–1337). The Dutch genre painter Gerrit Dou (1613–1764 – The Quack Doctor (1650) and The Physician (1653)) had a linear style that contrasts with the painterly style of his teacher Rembrandt. The subtle humour of both William Hogarth (1697–1764 – Marriage a la mode: the Inspection (1743)) and Thomas Rowlandson (1756–1827 – The Consul- tation or Last Hope (1808)) is well demonstrated in the chosen pictures. In the latter, the problems of gross obesity are graphically illustrated! The paintings of Vincent van Gogh (1853–1890 – The Hospital at Aries (1890)), Edvard Munch (1863–1944 – Death in the Sick Room (1893)), Stephen Conroy (1964 – Healing of a Lunatic Boy (1986)) and Sergi Chepik (1953 – The Madhouse (1987)) portray an aspect of psy- chiatry, both personal and environmental. The paint- ing by Pablo Picasso (1881–1973 – Science and Charity (1897)) is from a period of his career with which many of us are unfamiliar and demonstrates his immense early talent. Other paintings by Henry Tonks, Stanley Spencer, Andrew Wyeth and L. S. Lowry all contri- bute to a fascinating collection of art related to the medical world, which provide a source of stimulus to the enquiring reader. N. M. Breach London, UK Medicine and Art Alan Emery, Marcia Emery Royal Society of Medicine Press: London, UK, 2003, 111pp; illustrated ISBN: 1-85315-501-2; Price £40.00 (hbk) 2012-10.qxd 12/Nov/03 10:21 AM Page 994 https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0265021503241600 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:41:01, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0265021503241600 https://www.cambridge.org/core Book Reviews 995 © 2003 European Academy of Anaesthesiology, European Journal of Anaesthesiology 20: 993–995 ERRATUM: Rowbotham DJ. COX-2-selective inhibitors: clinical relevance in surgical and acute pain. Eur J Anaesthesiol 2002; 19 (Suppl. 25): 11–20. The chemical structure for rofecoxib is incorrectly shown as a sulphonamide when it should be a methyl sulphone. Thus –NH2 should be replaced by –CH3. 2012-10.qxd 12/Nov/03 10:21 AM Page 995 https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0265021503241600 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:41:01, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0265021503241600 https://www.cambridge.org/core 
work_4jhqdkodsjckxizg53wwrgacfe	----	No Job Name CHRONICLES 2010 January 1, 2010–December 31, 2010 Kurt Siehr* 1 JANUARY 2010 The Unidroit Convention of 24 June 1995 on Stolen or Illegally Exported Cul- tural Objects entered into force for Greece. 1 JANUARY 2010 Essen, Germany, Istanbul, Turkey, and Pécs, Hungary, were chosen Cultural Cap- itals of Europe in 2010. Le Journal des Arts, 7–20 January 2011, p. 6; The Art Newspaper, September 2010, p. 28, and December 2010, p. 31; Le Journal des Arts, 21 January–3 February 2011, p. 10; Il Giornale dell’Arte, December 2010, p. 9; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 9 January 2010, p. 33; Die Zeit, 19 August 2010, p. 61; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 14 November 2009, p. Z4, and 29 May 2010, p. Z3. 1 JANUARY 2010 The introduction of zero estate tax in the United States would have negative im- plications for donations to art museums and charities. The Art Newspaper, March 2010, p. 7. 4 JANUARY 2010 50 years ago the French poet Albert Camus (1913–1960) passed away. Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 31 December 2009, p. 27; Die Zeit, 30 December 2009, p. 72. *University of Zürich Faculty of Law, Max-Plank-Institute, Hamburg. Email: siehr@mpipriv.de International Journal of Cultural Property (2011) 18:493–548. Printed in the USA. Copyright © 2011 International Cultural Property Society doi:10.1017/S0940739111000294 493 https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 https:/www.cambridge.org/core 4 JANUARY 2010 In Dubai the highest building (800 meters), built by SOM architects, was finished and inaugurated. Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 5 January 2010, p. 14; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 4 January 2010, p. 7. 5 JANUARY 2010 In 1875 the Paris Opera, called the Garnier-Opera, was inaugurated and at the occasion of this event and in memory of the architect Charles Garnier (1825– 1898) an exhibition was later opened in Paris. Süddeutsche Zeitung, 13 December 2010, p. 12; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 3 January 2011, p. 20. 6 JANUARY 2010 The U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York decided the case Grosz v. Museum of Modern Art. It granted the defendant’s motion to dismiss because of the bar by the statute of limitations and the museum still held the paintings Herrmann-Neisse with Cognac, Self-portrait with Model, and Republican Automations by George Grosz (1893–1959). Case 9 Civ. 3706 (CM)(THK); The Art Newspaper, November 2009, p. 13. 10 JANUARY 2010 The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York opened the exhibition The Draw- ing of Bronzino. Bronzino (1503–1572) was an excellent master of mannerism. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 4 February 2010, p. 34; ARTnews, February 2010, p. 92. 12 JANUARY 2010 An earthquake of 7.0 magnitude destroyed almost the whole city of Port-au- Prince, Haiti, and also damaged art centers and museums. The Art Newspaper, January 2011, p. 1, and March 2010, p. 1; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 15 Jan- uary 2010, p. 1. 13 JANUARY 2010 Denmark published the bill for ratification and implementation of the Unidroit Convention of 1995. Forslag til Lov om tilbagelevering og overførelse af stjålne eller ulovligt udførte kulturgenstande. 494 KURT SIEHR https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 https:/www.cambridge.org/core 15 JANUARY 2010 Berlin and Paris exchanged their art galleries and were present for one week in the other capital. Le Journal des Arts, 8 January 2010, p. 1; The Art Newspaper, January 2010, p. 59; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 16 January 2010, p. 37; Süd- deutsche Zeitung, 16–17 January 2010, p. 20. 15 JANUARY 2010 In the Tribunale di Pesaro, Italy, the Getty Foundation was accused of having bought the bronze of an athlete (supposed to be of Lisippos, ca. 340 bce) in bad faith. The Art Newspaper, February 2010, p. 18, and March 2010, p. 13; Il Giornale dell’Arte, January 2010, p. 10; Süddeutsche Zeitung, 13–14 February 2010, p. 13. 19 JANUARY 2010 The Family Court in Tel Aviv decided that the safes in Tel Aviv containing writing by Max Brod (1884–1968) may be opened. Die Zeit, 21 January 2010, p. 42. The District Court, however, stopped the opening. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 21 January 2010, p. 31, and 29 January 2010, p. 31. 21 JANUARY 2010 The Minister of Science and Culture of the German state Hessen returned to the Ambassador of Iraq 22 antique pieces of art that had been attached in Germany as looted and imported in violation of the UN Resolution 1483/2003. http:// cms.Frankfurt-live.com/front_content.php?ideat-21&printldeat-7 (of 22 January 2010). 23 JANUARY 2010 300 years ago in Meissen, Germany, the first European porcelain was manufac- tured in Saxony and has since then been collected by lovers of porcelain. Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 23 November 2010, p. 14; Frankfurter All- gemeine Zeitung, 12 December 2010, p. 63; Süddeutsche Zeitung, 23–27 December 2009, p. 22. 23 JANUARY 2010 The Indian Ministry of Law and Justice, Legislative Department, issued “The An- cient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains (Amendment and Val- idation) Ordinance 2010.” 50 Indian Journal of International Law 119ff. (2010). CHRONICLES 495 https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 https:/www.cambridge.org/core 26 JANUARY 2010 The painting The Art of Painting by Jan Vermeer (1632–1675) was once owned by Count Czernin, who sold this treasure to Adolf Hitler for 1.65 million German marks, a price said to be undervalued. The Kunsthistorische Museum, which re- fused to return it to the Czernin family, was now exhibiting this treasure. Il Gior- nale dell’Arte, April 2010, p. 51. 27 JANUARY 2010 In Istanbul the Hagia Sophia opened again after six years of restoration as a mu- seum. Once the biggest Christian church, it was changed into a mosque and later into a museum. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 8 February 2010, p. 25. 28 JANUARY 2010 At the auction Important Old Master Paintings of Sotheby’s in New York, the so- called American Leonardo of the Hahn family (see Hahn v. Duveen, 234 N.Y.Supp. 185 [Sup.Ct. 1929] ) was sold for $ 1.3 million to an unknown purchaser. The painting was sold as Follower of Leonardo Da Vinci, probably before 1750. Sotheby’s Auction Catalogue, 28 January 2010, pp. 102–105; Carol Vogel, International Her- ald Tribune, 13 January 2010, p. 9; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 30 January 2010, p. 36; Kurt Siehr, Bulletin Kunst und Recht, no. 1, June 2010, p. 13; Le Journal des Arts, 19 February–4 March 2010, p. 24. 28 JANUARY 2010 The Kammergericht (Court of Appeals of Berlin) decided that two posters of the Sack collection did not have to be returned to the son of the collector. Kunst und Recht, 2010, p. 17; Kunstrechtsspiegel, no. 01/2010, p. 12; Götz Schulze, Kunstrechts- spiegel, 01/2010, p. 9; Zeitschrift für offene Vermögensfragen, 2010, p. 87; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 19 February 2010, p. 35. 29 JANUARY 2010 The Ethnological Museum Zürich opened an exhibition, Fakes, about fake art mass- produced in China to be sold as copies and fakes. Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Interna- tionale Ausgabe, 4 February 2010, p. 23. 30 JANUARY 2010 The Folkwang Museum in Essen, Germany opened its new building designed by the architect David Chipperfield and sponsored by the Krupp Foundation. In 1932 496 KURT SIEHR https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 https:/www.cambridge.org/core Paul J. Sachs of the Museum of Modern Art called it “the most beautiful museum of the world.” Kunstforum, 2000, p. 10 (January–February 2010); Neue Zürcher Zei- tung, Internationale Ausgabe, 8 February 2010, p. 19; Süddeutsche Zeitung, 4 De- cember 2009, p. 13; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 30 January 2010, p. Z6. JANUARY 2010 During excavations for the subway in Berlin 13 statues of so-called degenerate art were discovered and restored. It is still not certain how these statues were bur- ied and who did it. It is likely that the sculptures were in a hidden deposit of the former ministry of propaganda. They were exhibited in the Neue Museum (Mu- seum für Vor und Frühgeschichte) on Museum Island in Berlin MuseumsJournal, 2011, April–June, pp. 20–22; Der Berliner Skulpturenfund, 2nd. ed., Berlin, 2011; The Art Newspaper, December 2010, p. 9. JANUARY 2010 In Tunis the Center for Christian-Muslim Studies, including its library, was de- stroyed by fire. Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 19 March 2010, p. 18. 1 FEBRUARY 2010 Swiss Interior Minister Didier Burkhalter and the Columbian foreign minister signed a bilateral agreement on the mutual protection of cultural property nec- essary under the Swiss Cultural Property Transfer Act, implementing the 1970 UNESCO Convention. Nike Bulletin, 2010, no. 3, p. 25. 3 FEBRUARY 2010 The Stuttgart County Court (Landgericht Stuttgart) convicted three persons of having faked sculptures of Alberto Giacometti (1901–1966). ARTnews, December 2010, p. 101; Il Giornale dell’Arte, April 2010, p. 76. 3 FEBRUARY 2010 The French Cour de cassation decided that the lex rei sitae governs the transfer of title and title presumption with respect to wall paintings transferred from New York to Paris. Kunstrechtsspiegel, 02/2010, p. 96. 3 FEBRUARY 2010 Sotheby’s of London sold the sculpture L’homme qui marche I by Alberto Gia- cometti (1901–1966) at auction for Y74 million. The sculpture was owned by the Dresdner Bank, taken over by the Commerzbank, and was sold to a private col- CHRONICLES 497 https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 https:/www.cambridge.org/core lector. Agenda News, 2010, p. 116; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 5 February 2010, p. 16; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 5 February 2010, p. 31; The Art Newspaper, March 2010, p. 59; Die Zeit, 11 February 2010, p. 41; International Herald Tribune, 5 February 2010, p. 10; Le Journal des Arts, 19 February–4 March 2020, p. 25. At the same auction the painting Kirche in Sassone by Gustav Klimt (1862–1918) was sold for £27 million. It was stolen during the Nazi period of Vienna and later bought in good faith by a private collector. The former owner, Amalie Redlich, and the present owner agreed to sell the painting at auction and to divide the proceeds equally. Marie-Therese Posawetz, Bulletin Kunst und Recht, no. 1, June 2010, p. 28. 4 FEBRUARY 2010 The Berlin County Court (Landgericht) decided that a victim of a terrorist at- tack in Berlin in 1983 (Maison de France, Berlin-Charlottenburg) has no right to have the property, exhibited in Stuttgart, seized to be sold for him in satisfaction for the terrorist attack committed by the state who owns the seized property. Kunst und Recht, vol. 12, 2010, p. 130. 10 FEBRUARY 2010 The painting Chouette sur un arbre, by an anonymous painter of the nineteenth century and with an estimated value of Y100, was sold at auction in Cannes (Azur Auctions) for Y350,000 and was later discovered as a painting by Caspar David Friedrich (1774–1840) worth Y3 million. Le Journal des Arts, 19 March–1 April 2010, p. 36. 12 FEBRUARY 2010 The Dresden State Art Collection and the von Lehndorff family settled their dis- pute concerning the return of art objects (i.e., seven paintings, library) that had been left with the estate of the family in Steinort, East Prussia, and found their way to the Dresden State Art Collection. Kunstrechtsspiegel, 1/2010, p. 48; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 16 February 2010, p. 33. 12 FEBRUARY 2010 The Collection Bührle in Zürich, which was the victim of theft in 2008, left the old gallery building and integrated into the Kunsthaus Zürich. The collection will be exhibited in a temporary form. The Art Newspaper, December 2009, p. 18; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 23 February 2010, p. 13, and 24 March 2010, p. 25. 498 KURT SIEHR https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 https:/www.cambridge.org/core 15 FEBRUARY 2010 The Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam closed a show of winter landscapes of the Dutch painter Hendrick Avercamp (1585–1634) entitled Hendrick Avercamp—The Small Ice-Age. The exhibition was also shown later in the National Gallery of Art in Washington, DC. Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 16 January 2010, p. 17. 18 FEBRUARY 2010 The Oberster Gerichtshof (Supreme Court) of Austria decided that for a claim of damages because of loss of a loaned art work, it is sufficient that the certificate of loan be presented to a court, and the painting on loan cannot be given back. Kunst und Recht, vol. 12, 2010, p. 123, with a note by Leonhard Reis on p. 121. 18 FEBRUARY 2010 The Brandenburg Court of Appeal decided that the Foundation of State Castles and Gardens (Stiftung Staatliche Schlösser und Gärten) is not allowed to prohibit taking pictures of the premises to be commercialized by the defendant. Kunst- rechtsspiegel, 02/2010, p. 81; MultiMedia und Recht, 2010, p. 706. 20 FEBRUARY 2010 The Scuderie del Quirinale in Rome exhibited an almost complete selection of the work of Caravaggio (1571/72–1610) to celebrate the 400th anniversary of his death. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 23 February 2010, p. 33. 24 FEBRUARY 2010 The German Bundesgerichtshof (Federal Supreme Court for Civil and Criminal Cases) decided that a public auction (whereby also stolen goods may be acquired bona fide) need not be directed by an auctioneer admitted by public authority. Kunstrechtsspiegel 02/2010, p. 90. 24 FEBRUARY 2010 The bust of Brutus once taken by Napoleon from Rome to Paris left Rome for the first time since 1815 and was exhibited in Berlin. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 4 March 2010, p. 37. CHRONICLES 499 https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 https:/www.cambridge.org/core 25 FEBRUARY 2010 The Second Protocol to the 1954 Hague Convention on the Protection of Cul- tural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict entered into force for Germany. Bundesgesetzblatt, 2011, part II, p. 486. 25 FEBRUARY 2010 The well-known art dealer of Basel, Ernst Beyeler (1921–2010), passed away in Riehen, Basel, where he had exhibited his art collection in a magnificent house. Il Giornale dell’Arte, April 2010, p. 73; Le Journal des Arts, 5–18 March 2010, pp. 2 and 36; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 27 February 2001, p. 20, and 2 March 2010, p. 24; Süddeutsche Zeitung, 27–28 February 2010, p. 16. FEBRUARY 2010 Matthias Dietel, son of the collector Heinz Dietel, tried in vain to recover the col- lection of his father from the Museum in Erfurt, Germany. The collection had been taken during the time of the DDR (Democratic Republic of Germany; East Germany) for fictitious tax debts. Die Welt, 10 February 2010, p. 25. 1 MARCH 2010 Two hundred years ago the Polish composer Frederic Chopin (1810–1849) was born. Concerts, exhibitions, and seminars were given and held at this occasion. During his lifetime Chopin was the object of many paintings and statues. Frankfurter Allge- meine Zeitung, 30 December 2010, p. 32; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Aus- gabe, 27 November 2010, p. 23. 2 MARCH 2010 Orkin, a relative of Margarete Mauthner, initiated a lawsuit against Switzerland in New York because Switzerland refused to return an allegedly Nazi-looted drawing Les Saintes-Maries de la Mer by Vincent van Gogh. Mauthner had to sell the paint- ing in 1933, and Oskar Reinhart bought it under value and added it to the Mu- seum Am Stadtgarten in Winterthur, which later passed to Switzerland. The Art Newspaper, June 2010, p. 26. 4 MARCH 2010 The Armory Show 2010 took place in New York and attracted many collectors. The show explored art restitution in Austria. Kunstrechtsspiegel 02/2010, p. 75. 500 KURT SIEHR https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 https:/www.cambridge.org/core 5 MARCH 2010 Paolo Giorgio Ferri, the retired attorney general of Italy in the proceedings against Marion True, Giacomo Medici, Robert Emanuel Hecht, and others, gave an inter- view to The Art Newspaper about his experience as prosecutor. The Art Newspaper, June 2010, p. 58. 5 MARCH 2010 The Capitoline Museum in Rome showed the exhibition L’Eta della Conquista: Il fascino dell’arte greca a Roma (The Time of Conquering: The Charm of Greek Art in Rome). The show described the looting of Greece and the takeover of Greek art in Rome. Süddeutsche Zeitung, 13–14 March 2010, p. 15; Il Giornale dell’Arte, March 2010, p. 58. 6 MARCH 2010 In 1810 Queen Luise of Prussia (born 1776), wife of King Friedrich Wilhelm III, passed away. She was and still is very popular in Northern Germany. On the an- niversary of her death, an exhibition was opened in Schloss Charlottenburg in Berlin called Luise: Life and Myth of a Queen. MuseumsJournal 2010, no. 1, pp. 14– 17; no. 3, p. 37; The Art Newspaper, November 2010, p. 59; Die Zeit, 15 June 2010, p. 43; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 6 March 2010, p. 33; Die Welt, 19 July 2010, p. 22. 6 MARCH 2010 The Victoria and Albert Museum in London incorporated the legendary Straw- berry Hill Collection of Horace Walpole (1717–1797), a collection of frivolities and trivialities. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 6 June 2010, p. 31; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 7 June 2010, p. 18. 7 MARCH 2010 The Kunstsammlungen Dresden celebrated 450 years (the collection was founded in 1560). The first exhibition, the famous Turkish Chamber (Türkische Cam- mer), was opened and showed the important pieces of oriental art collected by the Kings of Saxony. art, April 2010, p. 4; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 6 March 2010, p. 31; Süddeutsche Zeitung, 6–7 March 2010, p. 13, and 17–18 April 2010, p. 15. CHRONICLES 501 https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 https:/www.cambridge.org/core 9 MARCH 2010 The Commission of the European Union published a proposal for a decision of the European Parliament and of the Council establishing a European Union ac- tion for the European Heritage Label. Brussels SEC(2010) 197. 9 MARCH 2010 The Art-Loss-Register made accessible the register of about 40,000 stolen art works. Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 13 March 2010, p. 19. 11 MARCH 2010 The Neue Galerie in New York opened the exhibition on Otto Dix (1891–1969). The New York Review of Books, 19 August 2010, p. 39. 11 MARCH 2010 The Suermondt-Ludwig-Museum in Aachen, Aix-La-Chapelle, exhibited the work of Hans von Aachen (1552–1615), the European court artist (that of Emperor Rudolph II in Prague) of his time. The exhibition was scheduled to be shown later in Prague and Vienna. Arsprototo, 2010, no. 1, p. 64; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zei- tung, 29 March 2010, p. 28; The Art Newspaper, November 2010, p. 65; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 17 April 2010, p. 17; Die Zeit, 25 March 2010, p. 61. 12 MARCH 2010 The European Fine Art Fair (Tefaf) was held in Maastricht, Netherlands. Le Jour- nal des Arts, 2–15 April 2010, p. 24; Il Giornale dell’Arte, March 2010, p. 40; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 13 March 2010, pp. 13 and 37; Süddeutsche Zei- tung, 13–14 March 2010, p. 20; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 13 March 2010, p. 19. 15 MARCH 2010 IFAR (International Foundation for Art Research) Evening on “Twenty Years and Counting: The Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum Theft” told the story of the theft on 18 March 1990 and the attempts to catch the thieves and to recover the stolen paintings. IFAR Journal, 12, no. 1, 2010, pp. 33–45; Frankfurter Allgemeine Sonntagszeitung, 21 March 2010, p. 57. 502 KURT SIEHR https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 https:/www.cambridge.org/core 16 MARCH 2010 The 250th anniversary of the birth of the Swiss painter Johann Heinrich Meyer (1760–1832), the “Kunschtmeyer” and Goethe’s friend and art expert, in Stäfa, Lake Zürich. Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 30 March 2010, p. 19; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 1 April 2010, p. 36. 17 MARCH 2010 The Islamic art collection of Aga Khan IV was exhibited in the Gropius Building in Berlin. This famous collection will be permanently exhibited in Toronto in 2013. MuseumsJournal, no. 2, 2010, pp. 66–67. 17 MARCH 2010 In Dubai the Art Fair Dubai began and caused incidents of censorship. Le Journal des Arts, 2–15 April 2010, p. 25. 18 MARCH 2010 The Germanische Nationalmuseum in Nürnberg, Germany, was completely ren- ovated and reopened with the exhibition Renaissance, Barock, Aufklärung (Renais- sance, Baroque, Enlightenment). Arsprototo, no. 1, 2010, p. 58; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 13 April 2010, p. 16. 18–19 MARCH 2010 A conference was held, entitled Cultural Patrimony in France and Italy: Defining— Protecting—Managing, in Florence organized by the University of Florence and the University of Paris South 11. Roccella, JUS 2010, p. 563. 20 MARCH 2010 The Museum Folkwang in Essen, Germany, launched its first major exhibition after having moved to a new building. It exhibited the art collection formerly owned by the museum, but was later sold as “degenerate art” under the Nazis. Agenda News, 2010, p. 21; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 25 March 2010, p. 29; Museums- Journal, no. 3, 2010, p. 4; Süddeutsche Zeitung, 10–11 April 2010, p. 14; Die Zeit, 18 March 2010, p. 88. 24 MARCH 2010 The Museum of Modern Art in Freiburg, Germany, made restitution and bought back the painting Portrait of Max John by Otto Dix (1891–1969) for Y370,000, CHRONICLES 503 https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 https:/www.cambridge.org/core with financial support from the Siemens Foundation and others. MuseumsJour- nal, April–June 2011, pp. 34–35. 26 MARCH 2010 Jennifer Anglim Kreder moderated a discussion on a proposed U.S. State Depart- ment Committee on Nazi Looted Art. Cultural Heritage & Arts Review 1, 2010, pp. 6–7. 27 MARCH 2010 In Compiègne, France, the exposition 1810, La politique de l’amour: Napoléon 1er et Marie-Louise à Compiègne opened and reminded the visitor of the mar- riage between Napoléon (1769–1821) and Marie-Louise of Austria (1791–1847), a political marriage that ended factually in 1815 and was dissolved in 1821 (death of Napoléon) when Marie-Louse was already Duchess of Parma. Le Journal des Arts, 11–24 June 2010, p. 8; The Art Newspaper, March 2010, p. 68. 30 MARCH 2010 U.S. Federal District Judge Colleen McMahon in New York ordered that a lender could take possession immediately of all of Berry-Hill Galleries art, which had been used as collateral for a loan. The Art Newspaper, May 2010, p. 64. 30 MARCH 2010 The Surrogate’s Court of the State of New York, County of Nassau, decided that an ancient golden tablet, stolen during World War II from a deposit of a Berlin museum (Vorderasiatisches Museum) cannot be recovered because the museum was too late to ask for recovery. Because of laches the claim was dismissed. Kunst und Recht, vol. 12, 2010, p. 66. 31 MARCH 2010 The Board of the Society of German Art Historians wrote an open letter with respect of the destruction of Stuttgart Main Station. The Board emphasized that the Main Station was a monument designed by Paul Bonatz (1877–1956) and should be preserved and not destroyed for a new underground station and new tracks. Kunstchronik, 63, May 2010, p. 235. 504 KURT SIEHR https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 https:/www.cambridge.org/core MARCH 2010 New York art dealer Larry Salander pleaded guilty in a trial held in New York charging him with conversion, theft, and fraud of his customers by using their art objects for his own gain. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 27 March 2010, p. 35. MARCH 2010 Miami collector Craig Robins sued the Chelsea dealer David Zwirner for breach of confidentiality with respect to paintings by the South African painter Marlene Dumas. The Art Newspaper, May 2010, pp. 1 and 33. 6 APRIL 2010 One year ago an earthquake destroyed L’Aquila in the Abruzzi mountains of Italy. Since then, not all monuments have been restored. Many of them are still in ruins. Il Giornale dell’Arte, April 2010, p. 14. 7 APRIL 2010 190 years ago, on 7 April 1820, the Editto Pacca was passed by the Vatican State in Italy as a reaction of the “art theft” by Napoleon in Italy. With this Editto, modern legislation against export without governmental decision began. Il Giornale dell’Arte, June 20120, p. 85. 9 APRIL 2010 The exhibition of the icon collection of Mikhail Elizavetin at the Pushkin Mu- seum in Moscow was cancelled because the heirs of Elizavetin claimed to be the owners of the icons. The Art Newspaper, June 2010, p. 24. 9 APRIL 2010 In Paris at the Drouot, the painting L’Incendie de l’Opéra vu d’une croisée de l’Académie de peinture, place du Louvre by Hubert Robert (1733–1808) was sold for Y1.5 million. Le Journal des Arts, 30 April–13 May 2010, p. 22. 13 APRIL 2010 The Patterson Collection, consisting of pre-Columbian art, was seized in Ger- many at the request of Guatemala in 2008. The collection came from Spain, where it had been exhibited in Santiago de Compostela since 1997. In 2009 Gua- temala asked for return of 369 art objects of the Patterson Collection. A return claim of Guatemala based on the German implementation act of the 1970 CHRONICLES 505 https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 https:/www.cambridge.org/core UNESCO Convention failed because Guatemala was late in listing the objects as national treasures of Guatemala, according to a decision of the Bayerische Ver- waltungsgerichtshof (Bavarian Court for Administrative Matters). Kunst und Recht, 12, 2010, p. 125; confirmation on 16 July 2010, Bulletin Kunst und Recht, no. 02/ 2010, p. 52; Kunstrechtsspiegel 03/2010, p. 132; Süddeutsche Zeitung, 17–18 April 2010, p. 18. 15 APRIL 2010 The European Court of Justice decided that the French statute implementing the EEC (European Economic Community) Directive 2001/84/EC of 27 September 2001 on “droit de suite” is valid. The French statute provides that the droit de suite can only be exercised by statutory heirs and not by legacies as, for example, the Foundation Salvador Dali and its collecting society. Bulletin Kunst und Recht no. 1, June 2010, p. 37. 15 APRIL 2010 The Italian minister Bondi, opening the Italian Week of Culture, announced that Pompei should be run and administered by a privately organized Trust (Fondazi- one). Il Giornale dell’Arte, May 2010, p. 12. See also infra 6 November 2010. 17 APRIL 2010 The Kunsthaus Zürich, Switzerland, which exhibited the famous Collection Bührle until 16 May 2010, celebrated its 100th anniversary. Magazin des Kunsthauses Zürich, November 2009, p. 3; January 2010, p. 30; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Interna- tionale Ausgabe,31 March 2010, p. 35, and special edition of 17–18 April 2010. 17 APRIL 2010 Burglars stole porcelain from the porcelain room of Sutton Park, near York, En- gland, and continued a series of porcelain burglaries in English historic houses. The Art Newspaper, June 2010, p. 1. 18 APRIL 2010 The German Free State of Saxony and the City of Dresden celebrated 450 years of history of the State Collection of Dresden. Electorate Prince August I of Saxony started his collection and the establishment of a Wunderkammer in 1560, which ultimately became the State Collection of Dresden, including the Green Vault of Turkish treasures. Kunstforum, 203, July–September 2010, p. 8. 506 KURT SIEHR https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 https:/www.cambridge.org/core 19 APRIL 2010 450 years ago Philipp Melanchton (1498–1560), the reformer, professor in Wit- tenberg, scholar of Greek language, and colleague of Martin Luther and Erasmus of Rotterdam, passed away in Wittenberg, and today this was celebrated in many places. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 20 April 2010, p. 4. 20 APRIL 2010 The U.S. Permanent Representative to the United Nations, Ambassador Susan E. Rice, announced at the United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues that the United States has decided to review the U.S. position on the Declaration, which the U.S. voted against in 2007. The American Journal of International Law, 104, 528, 2010. 20 APRIL 2010 An oil spill posed a threat to the environment in the Gulf of Mexico and to the states with shores to the Gulf of Mexico. The oil spill started at a drilling of BP in the Gulf and drove BP into financial difficulties. Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Interna- tionale Ausgabe, 10 September 2010, p. 3, and 17 December 2010, p. 3; Die Welt, 17 December 2010, p. 11; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 7 January 2011, pp. 1 and 20, National Geographic, 218, No. 4, October 2010, pp. 28ff; New York Review of Books, 29 September 2011, p. 38; Die Zeit, 17 June 2010, p. 24. 20 APRIL 2010 The Cour d’appel d’Aix-en-Provence decided that the Fondation Vincent van Gogh d’Arles had to return the painting Hommage à van Gogh, etude d’après van Gogh pour l’exposition van Gogh en Arles, 1985 by Francis Bacon (1909–1992) to the heirs of John Edwards, the executor of Francis Bacon. Le Journal des Arts, 30 April–13 May 2010, p. 2. 21 APRIL 2010 The research group, Entartete Kunst (Degenerate Art), of the Free University of Berlin opened the website http://entartetekunst.geschkult.fu-berlin.de in which art objects are collected that had been removed during the Nazi period as “degen- erate art.” Süddeutsche Zeitung, 21 April 2010, p. 1; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 21 April 2010, p. 34. CHRONICLES 507 https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 https:/www.cambridge.org/core 21 APRIL 2010 At the Dorotheum in Vienna a painting of Frans Francken II (1581–1642) was auc- tioned and sold for Y7.02million, the highest amount on record at the Dorotheum. Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 24 April 2010, p. 20; Frankfurter Al- lgemeine Zeitung, 24 April 2010, p. 39. 23 APRIL 2010 Giuseppe Panza di Biumo (1923–2010), the great Italian collector of modern and contemporary American art, passed away. The Art Newspaper, June 2010, p. 38; Il Giornale dell’Arte, May 2010, p. 14; Le Journal des Arts, 14–27 May 2010, p. 3. 23 APRIL 2010 The Retrospective of Ernst Ludwig Kirchner (1880–1938) opened at the Städel Museum in Frankfurt am Main and gave a splendid overview of his work done in Dresden, Berlin, and Davos. His paintings were also prohibited during the Nazi period as “degenerate.” Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 23 April 2010, 35; art, April 2010, p. 76; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 24 April 2010, p. 23; Die Zeit, 29 April 2010, p. 58, and 1 July 2010, p. 57. 23 APRIL 2010 The Landesmuseum für Kunst und Kulturgeschichte in Münster, Westfalia, Ger- many, repurchased a painting of Carl Eduard Blechen (1798–1840) which was ear- lier restituted to the heirs of the Jewish collector Julius Freund. Süddeutsche Zeitung, 24–25 April 2010, p. 17. 23 APRIL 2010 The European Centre of Tourism (Centro Europeo per il Tourismo) opened in the Castel Sant’Angelo in Rome after 30 years of cultural activity the exhibition SOS: Arte dall’Abruzzo, una mostra per non dimenticare, which was designed to recall the earthquake of L’Aquila on 6 April 2009. Il Giornale dell’Arte, September 2010, p. 24. On the situation in L’Aquila 18 months after the earthquake, see Il Giornale dell’Arte, December 2010, p. 14. 24 APRIL 2010 The Armenians still deplore the persecution and extinction of more than a mil- lion Armenians by the Turkish army in 1915, which almost extinguished Arme- nian culture as well. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 23 April 2010, p. 38. 508 KURT SIEHR https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 https:/www.cambridge.org/core 24 APRIL 2010 The Fondazione Cini in Venice (Isola di San Giorgio Maggiore) exhibited the art- ist Sebastiano Ricci (1659–1734), a long-forgotten artist of Venice. Frankfurter All- gemeine Zeitung, 19 June 2010, p. 38. 26 APRIL 2010 IFAR Evening with Robert M. Edsel on “The Invisible Heroes: The Monuments Men.” IFAR Journal, 12, no.1, pp. 16–28 (2010). 27 APRIL 2010 The European Commission published a Green Paper “Unlocking the Potential of Cultural and Creative Industries.” Brussels COM(2010)183 final. APRIL 2010 Zahi Hawass, the head of Egyptian Antiquities Authority, convened the Confer- ence on Stolen Antiquities in Cairo and Libya asked from the UK the return of a Roman statue of Apollo found in Cyrene, Libya. The Art Newspaper, May 2010, p. 13. 1 MAY 2010 The World Expo opened in Shanghai, China, touted as China’s largest event in history. The Art Newspaper, May 2010, p. 9. 2 MAY 2010 150 years ago Theodor Herzl (1860–1904) was born and is still remembered as the spiritual founder of Israel. His dream of a place for Jews in Palestine became true with the re-creation of the State of Israel in 1948. Süddeutsche Zeitung, 30 April, 1–2 May 2010, p. VI/6. 3 MAY 2010 The Swiss collector Jeanne Marchig filed a lawsuit against Christie’s for breach of warranty and breach of fiduciary duty regarding a drawing that she consigned to the auction house in 1997 and which, she says, Christie’s negligently misattrib- uted to an early nineteenth-century artist of the German School and sold for $21,850. It is now attributed to Leonardo da Vinci. Lisa Duffy-Zeballos and Shima Majidi, IFAR Journal, 12, no. 1, pp. 6–11; The Art Newspaper, June 2010, p. 77; ARTnews, October 2010, p. 52. CHRONICLES 509 https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 https:/www.cambridge.org/core 4 MAY 2010 Pablo Picasso’s Nude. Green Leaves and Bust sold for Y84 million at Christie’s in New York. Il Giornale dell’Arte, February 2011, p. 17. Flag by Jasper Johns (born 1930) sold for $28.6 million. The Art Newspaper, May 2010, p. 61, and June 2010, p. 88; Le Journal des Arts, 14–27 May 2010, p. 27, and 21 January–3 February 2011, p. 19; Il Giornale dell’Arte, May 2010, p. 67, and June 2010, p. 1; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 6 May 2010, p. 18. 6 MAY 2010 In Prague, Czech Republic, the exhibition Neoclassicism and Biedermeier opened with art objects of the Prince of Liechtenstein collection. The exhibition could not take place last year because of controversies over property of the prince, but was possible now. The Art Newspaper, June 20120, p. 22; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 7 May 2010, p. 33. 6 MAY 2010 The U.S. Cultural Property Advisory Committee met for a State Department pub- lic hearing to review a proposal to extend the Memorandum of Understanding with Italy that imposes import restrictions of Italian antiquities to the United States. The proposal concerned extending loans with terms of 10 to 20 years, and loans to all museums and liberalizations with respect to coins. The Art Newspaper, June 2010, p. 4. 7 MAY 2010 The Kunstmuseum Berne exhibited the work of Albert Anker (1831–1910) on the 100th anniversary of the artist’s death. Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 31 May 2010, p. 17. 7 MAY 2010 The definitive exhibition Topography of Terror opened in Berlin. Die Welt, 7 May 2010, p. 23. 8 MAY 2010 With the exhibition Triumph of the Blue Swords: Meissen Porcelain for Aristocracy and Bourgeoisie 1710–1815, the Meissen porcelain manufactory celebrated its 300th anniversary at the Dresden Japanisches Palais. The Art Newspaper, The Year Ahead 2010, p. 55. 510 KURT SIEHR https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 https:/www.cambridge.org/core 12 MAY 2010 In Rotterdam at the Museum Boijmans van Beuningen and in The Hague Mau- ritshuis, the exhibition Van Meegeren’s Fake Vermeers opened and attracted many visitors interested in the work of forger Han von Meegeren (1889–1947). ART- news, June 2010, p. 48; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 22 July 2010, pp. 1 and 19. 12 MAY 2010 French President Nicolas Sarkozy opened the Museum Centre Pompidou-Metz in Metz, France, as part of the Centre Pompidou in Paris. This is a kind of decen- tralization of French cultural politics. Y69 Million were spent for the new mu- seum. 203 Kunstforum, July–September 2010, p. 9; The Art Newspaper, June 2010, p. 18; Le Journal des Arts, 30 April–13 May 2010, pp. 15 and 19; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 14 May 2010, p. 17. 12 MAY 2010 The Bavarian State Galleries announced that four paintings had been returned to the heir of the Jewish art historian August Liebmann Mayer (1885–1944). The art objects were confiscated by the Nazis. Kunstrechtsspiegel 02/2010, p. 98. 16 MAY 2010 By decree, the Musée de l’Orangerie and the Musée d’Orsay were combined in Paris and the Musée de l’Orangerie became part of the Musée d’Orsay. Le Journal des Arts, 11–24 June 2010, p. 3. 18 MAY 2010 The French parliament passed Law no. 2010–501 authorizing the French Repub- lic to return the Maori heads to New Zealand. These heads were the subject of court proceedings previously. Journal official, 19 May 2010, p. 9210; Le Journal des Arts, 10 July–3 September 2010, p. 6. 19–20 MAY 2010 Theft of valuable paintings in the Musée d’art moderne in Paris. IFAR Journal, 11, no. 3/4, 2010, p. 12; IFAR Journal, 12, no. 1, 2010, p. 57; The Art Newspaper, July–August 2010, p. 16; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 21 May 2010, p. 8; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 21 May 2010, p. 16, and 22 May 2010, p. 18. CHRONICLES 511 https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 https:/www.cambridge.org/core 22 MAY 2010 In Florence at the Galeria Palatina, Palazzo Pitti, and Galeria degli Uffizi, the ex- hibition Caravaggio e Caravaggeschi a Firenze celebrated 400th anniversary of Car- avaggio’s death (c. 1571/2–1610). The Art Newspaper, May 2010, p. 79. 22 MAY 2010 The De Young Museum in San Francisco opened the exhibition of 100 paintings on loan from the Musée d’Orsay in Paris under the title Birth of Impressionism: Masterpieces from the Musée d’Orsay. The Paris museum is undergoing a Y11.4 million refurbishment, and these paintings will never again be on loan as a group. The Art Newspaper, May 2010, p. 84. 27 MAY 2010 The MAXXI, the Italian National Museum of Art of the XXI Century, designed by the architect Zaha Hadid, was inaugurated in Rome and opened for the pub- lic. Il Giornale dell’Arte, May 2010, p. 49; Le Journal des Arts, 28 May–10 June 2010, p. 4; The Art Newspaper, May 2010, p. 13, and July–August 2010, p. 11; art, August 2010, p. 96; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 29 May 2010, p. 20. 28 MAY 2010 The Decreto-legge 85/2010 was passed in Italy, providing for the transfer of mon- uments to the provinces (federalismo demaniale). Will these monuments now better maintained? Il Giornale dell’Arte, December 2010, p. 6. MAY 2010 Germany returned about 500 books to Belorussia, acquired by the Library of the Botanical Garden, Berlin, in 1943–44. It was discovered that the books had been looted during World War II and were given back to the State Library of Minsk. MuseumsJournal 4/2011, p. 11. MAY 2010 In May 1990 the painting Dr. Gachet by Vincent van Gogh (1853–1890) was sold the Japanese industrialist Saito for $82.5 million. Since then, it must have been sold several times but nobody knows who the owner of the painting is or and where it is located. Die Zeit, 2 September 2010, p. 57. 512 KURT SIEHR https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 https:/www.cambridge.org/core MAY 2010 The Whitney Museum in New York decided that a new building by Renzo Piano will replace the old building. Le Journal des Arts, 24 September–7 October 2010, p. 7. 1 JUNE 2010 Jeffrey Deitch took over as the director of the Los Angeles Museum of Contem- porary Art. Le Journal des Arts, 22 January–4 February 2010, p. 3. 2 JUNE 2010 The Administrative Court in Frankfurt am Main ruled that three bronze bowls seized by the police and allegedly looted in Turkey had to be given back to an art dealer because it could not be proven that the allegation was true. Frankfurter All- gemeine Zeitung, 28 July 2010, p. 3. 3 JUNE 2010 100 years ago Eduard Arnhold bought a piece of land in Rome and had a Swiss architect to build houses on this piece of land: This became the Villa Massimo, the cultural center of German artists and poets in Rome. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 4 June 2010, p. 36. 4 JUNE 2010 Italy and Germany concluded a treaty about the rebuilding and restoration of the church San Pietro Apostolo in Onna of the City of L’Aquila damaged by the earth- quake of 6 April 2009. This treaty is a sign of cross-border assistance in caring for cultural property in Europe. Bundesgesetzblatt, part II, 2010, p. 1398. 7 JUNE 2010 Christie’s sold in the Kunsthaus Zürich the painting “Genfer See mit Jura” by Ferdinand Hodler (1853–1918) for SFr. 2.6 million. Kunstforum, 203, 22, July– September 2010. 7 JUNE 2010 The German Federal Ministry of Finance announced that four paintings held by the Federal Republic of Germany have been returned to the heirs of Martin and Florence Flersheim. The paintings are by Hans Thoma, Wilhelm Trübner, Carl Spitzweg, and Fritz von Uhde. Kunstrechtsspiegel, 02/2010, p. 103. CHRONICLES 513 https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 https:/www.cambridge.org/core 9 JUNE 2010 The Brussels Non-European Art Fair (Bruneaf ) opened in Brussels, celebrating the 50th anniversary of independence of the Congo Republic. Le Journal des Arts, 11–24 June 2010, p. 24. 10 JUNE 2010 The artist Sigmar Polke (1941–2010) passed away in Cologne. Neue Zürcher Zei- tung, Internationale Ausgabe, 17 June 2010, p. 12. 14 JUNE 2010 UNESCO at its Session in Brasilia chose 21 more important places and sites as World Heritage Sites. Vernissage 2010, p. 5. 14–16 JUNE 2010 The Moses Mendelssohn Centre for European-Jewish Studies, together with the College of Jewish Studies of Humboldt University Berlin, held a conference in Berlin on Collectors, Patrons and Art Dealers as Avant-Garde of Modern Art 1880– 1933. Kirchmaier, Kunst und Recht, 12, 2010, p. 134. 16 JUNE 2010 The Art Basel opened its 41st annual art fair in Basel for almost a week until 20 June 2010. Kunstforum, 203, July–September 2010, pp. 368–373; on the confer- ence Art and Law in Basel on 18 June 2010. See also Weller, Kunstrechtsspiegel, 02/2010, p. 77; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 19 June 2010, p. 39; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Sonderausgabe, 12 June 2010. 16 JUNE 2010 The London gallery Colnaghi (sold to Konrad Bernheimer and Katrin Bellinger) celebrated its 250th anniversary with the exhibition Colnaghi: 250 Years of Deal- ing in Art. The Art Newspaper, June 2010, p. 17; Jeremy Howard (ed.), Colnaghi. Established 1760: The History (London 2010). 18 JUNE 2010 The conference Protection of Monuments in Europe—The Past, Present and the Future was held in Vienna under the auspices of the Austrian Research Society Art and Law, presided by Professor Gerte Reichelt. Kunstrechtsspiegel 02/2010, p. 81. 514 KURT SIEHR https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 https:/www.cambridge.org/core 20 JUNE 2010 The Albertinum Dresden (Gallery of New Masters and Sculptures of the State Collection of Dresden) reopened after the Gallery had to be closed in 2002 when the Elbe river, a few meters from the Albertinum flooded the City of Dresden and also damaged the building, but not the collection of the Gallery. 203 Kunstforum p. 8 (July–September 2010); The Art Newspaper, June 2010, p. 22; Il Giornale dell’Arte, June 2010, p. 16; art, August 2010, p. 107; Die Zeit, 24 June 2010, p. 57; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 18 June 2010, p. 20; Frankfurter Al- lgemeine Zeitung, 21 June 2010, p. 29; ARTnews, June 2010, p. 52. 22 JUNE 2010 Jennifer Anglim Kreder, on behalf of the American Jewish Congress, Commission for Art Recovery, and others, filed an Amicus Curiae Brief in the case of Grosz v. Museum of Modern Art with the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second District. Document No. No. 10–257-cv. 23 JUNE 2010 Christie’s in London sold the painting Portrait of Angel Fernandez de Soto by Pablo Picasso to an unidentified buyer for $42 million. The painting once was owned by Paul von Mendelssohn-Bartholdy of Berlin, was illegally confiscated by the Nazis, and was later the object of a settlement between the heirs of the former owner and Andrew Lloyd Webber, the present owner. Majidi and Flescher, IFAR Journal, 12, no. 1, 2010, pp. 12–13; The Art Newspaper, July/August 2010, p. 48, and June 2010, p. 10; Le Journal des Arts, 9 July–9 September 2010, p. 28; Il Giornale dell’Arte, April 2010, p. 67, and July/August 2010, p. 53; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internation- ale Ausgabe, 26 June 2010, p. 20; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 26 June 2010, p. 43. 23 JUNE 2010 The Museum Thyssen-Bornemisza in Madrid opened the exhibition Ghirland- aio [c. 1448–1494] and the Renaissance in Florence showing famous portraits of the renaissance period. Il Giornale dell’Arte, June 2010, p. 26. 24 JUNE 2010 Ten paintings, lost during World War II and recovered in recent times, were ex- hibited in Picture Gallery of Castle Sanssouci in Potsdam, Germany. Museum- sJournal, January–March 2011, pp. 34–37. CHRONICLES 515 https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 https:/www.cambridge.org/core 24 JUNE 2010 The Maison Jean Cocteau (1889–1963) in Milly-la-Forêt opened after five years of restoration. Every room is filled with recordings about artists of all kinds. Il Giornale dell’Arte, June 2010, p. 22. 24 JUNE 2010 Christie’s of London sold at auction six statues of the former Krebs collection taken from the Krebs family, looted by the Russian Army, given back to East Ger- many, and returned to the former owners. Die Welt, 8 June 2010, p. 26. 25 JUNE 2010 Recovery of The Taking of Christ (The Kiss of Judas) after Caravaggio in Berlin. The painting was stolen on 29 July 2008 from the Odessa Museum of Western and Eastern Art in the Ukraine. IFAR Journal, 12, no.1, 2010, p. 63; Kunstrechtsspie- gel, 02/2010, p. 102. 29 JUNE 2010 The collector Rudolf Leopold (1925–2010), the former owner of a vast collection of modern Austrian paintings (Gustav Klimt, Egon Schiele, and others) passed away in Vienna. Il Giornale dell’Arte, September 2010, p. 6; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 30 June 2010, p. 33. 29 JUNE 2010 The Martin-Gropius-Bau in Berlin exhibited Teotihuacan—Mexico’s Mysterious City of Pyramids. Süddeutsche Zeitung, 2 July 2010, p. 12; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 5 July 2010, p. 29, Die Welt, 5 July 2010, p. 21. 30 JUNE 2010 With the exhibition Close Examination: Fakes, Mistakes and Discoveries, the cu- rators and conservation department of the National Gallery London united the investigate the physical nature of paintings supported by the Engineering and Phys- ical Science Research Council. The Art Newspaper, The Year Ahead 2010, p. 63; The Art Newspaper, June 2010, pp. 4 and 6; Süddeutsche Zeitung, 3–4 July 2010, p. 11. 30 JUNE 2010 The highest court of Austria, the Oberste Gerichtshof in Vienna, decided that a Chinese export prohibition concerning a small ceramic model Big Carriage with 516 KURT SIEHR https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 https:/www.cambridge.org/core Horse” does not have to be taken into account when dealing with the validity of a contract of sale of this model to a buyer. Kunst und Recht, 2011, p. 119, with crit- ical comment by Leonhard Reis in Kunst und Recht, 2011, p. 112. JUNE 2010 The sculpture The Sowing Man by Constantin Meunier (1831–1905), given back to the heirs of Otto Krebs, was reacquired by the Foundation of the Prussian Cul- tural Heritage and placed in the Court of Colonnades close to the Old National Gallery in Berlin. MuseumsJournal, October–December 2010, p. 46. JUNE 2010 The OMC (Open Method of Coordination of the EU) Expert Working Group on the Mobility of Collections published its Final Draft and Recommendations to the Cultural Affairs Committee on improving the means of increasing the mobil- ity of collections. http://ec.europa.eu/culture/our-policy-development. The Art Newspaper, February 2011, p. 11. JUNE 2010 Max Warburg discussed the financial problems of the Warburg Institute, Lon- don, which may lose its essential nature by being incorporated into the University of London. The Art Newspaper, July/August 2010, p. 29. 1 JULY 2010 The Italian professor of urban planning Francesco Bandarin of Venice took over UNESCO’S entire cultural programme and is now assistant director-general for culture. The Art Newspaper, June 2010, p. 32. 2–4 JULY 2010 The 12th Seminar on Art and Law for European doctorate candidates was held in Munich. This seminar was organized by Kurt Siehr for young scholars who pre- pare a thesis on any subject concerning art and law. Kirchmaier, Kunst und Recht, 12, 2010, p. 136. 5 JULY 2010 The website www.kulturgutschutz-deutschland.de was launched in Magdeburg, Germany, to inform the public about German national treasures that many CHRONICLES 517 https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 https:/www.cambridge.org/core not be legally exported with government permission. Kunst und Recht, 2010, p. 193. 6 JULY 2010 Werner Schmalenbach (1920–2010), the art historian and museum director (Kest- ner Gesellschaft, Hannover; State Collection Düsseldorf ), passed away. Süd- deutsche Zeitung, 7 July 2010, p. 11. 7 JULY 2010 Sotheby’s in London sold the drawing Modern Rome—Campo Vaccino by Joseph Mallord William Turner (1775–1851) for £29 million to the Getty Museum. It had previously estimated the sale to be £12–18 million. The Art Newspaper, June 2010, p. 48–49; Andrew Wilton, “Impressions of the Past,” Minerva, January/ February 2011, p. 22; Turner sale deferred: The Art Newspaper, July/August 2010, p. 1, 6, and December 2010, p. 7; Kunstforum, January/February 2011, p. 13; Il Giornale dell’Arte, June 2010, p. 14, and September 2010, p. 82; Frankfurter Allge- meine Zeitung, 10 July 2010, p. 36, Süddeutsche Zeitung, 7–8 August 2010, p. 17, International Herald Tribune, 5–6 June 2010, p. 12; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Interna- tionale Ausgabe. 17 July 2010, p. 19. 13 JULY 2010 Bonhams of London sold a lithograph of Edvard Munch Madonna for £ 1.1 mil- lion at auction. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 17 July 2010, p. 35. 14 JULY 2010 Christie’s in Paris sold at auction Tête by Amedeo Modigliani for Y38.5 Million (Y43.2 Million). Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 19 July 2010, p. 39. 15 JULY 2010 In Moscow the Grabar National Art and Science Restoration Center was ac- cidently set on fire and caused damage. The Art Newspaper, September 2010, p. 25. 15 JULY 2010 Werner Schmidt (1930–2010), the former director of the State Art Collections of Dresden, passed away in Dresden. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 17 July 2010, p. 34; Süddeutsche Zeitung, 17–18 July 2010, p. 15. 518 KURT SIEHR https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 https:/www.cambridge.org/core 16 JULY 2010 Inside the Colosseum in Rome were exhibited 337 looted archaeological objects seized by the Italian Carabinieri del Nucleo Tutela Patrimonio Culturale, the Ital- ian branch of police protecting cultural objects. Il Giornale dell’Arte, September 2010, p. 75. 18 JULY 2010 The exhibition Matisse: Radical Invention 1913–1917 opened at the Museum of Modern Art in New York, focusing on the invention of cubism and its influence on his artist friends, such as Pablo Picasso. Il Giornale dell’Arte, July/August 2010, p. 11. 18 JULY 2010 Several exhibitions celebrated the 400th anniversary of the death of Caravaggio (1571/2–1610). Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 7 January 2010, p. 32; Süddeutsche Zeitung, 17/1 July 2010, p. 18; Le Journal des Arts, 11 December 2009–7 January 2010, p. 7. 19 JULY 2010 Settlement of the Portrait of Wally case between the heirs of Lea Bondi-Jaray and the Collection Leopold in Vienna. The Collection Leopold paid $19 million to the heirs, and the heirs recognized title of the collection and returned the painting to Vienna where it is now exhibited with information about the former owners and the recovery of the painting. Bulletin Kunst and Recht 2/2010, p. 15; Il Giornale dell’Arte, September 2010, p. 6; The Art Newspaper, September 2010, p. 4; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 22 July 2010, p. 29. 21 JULY 2010 The “Union des commissionaires de l’hôtel des ventes” (UCHV) were examined about the charge of having stolen or diverted art objects during their work at the Hôtel Drouot auction house in Paris. Le Journal des Arts, 4–17 February 2011, p. 25. 22 JULY 2010 Opening of the exhibition History of Reconstruction: Construction of History in the Museum of Architecture in Munich. The exhibit showed the modern trend to reconstruct destroyed monuments and buildings instead of designing new build- CHRONICLES 519 https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 https:/www.cambridge.org/core ings in a newer style. Kunst Chronik 2011, p, 135; Kunstforum, no. 204 (2010), p. 10; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 16 September 2010, p. 31. 25 JULY 2010 Reopening of the Israel Museum in Jerusalem after three years of refurbishment. Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 31 December 2010, p. 20; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 2 August 2010, p. 29. 26–27 JULY 2010 Conference on Objects and Emotions: Loss and Acquisition of Jewish Property in the German Historical Institute London. Main speaker was the historian Atina Grossmann from the Cooper Union in New York. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 1 November 2010, p. 32. 27 JULY 2010 Holocaust victims of Budapest filed a lawsuit against the City of Budapest in the Federal District Court of the District of Columbia, Washington, DC, asking for the return of several paintings looted during World War II and still in the Art Museum of Budapest. Die Welt, 7 August 2010, p. W4. 28 JULY 2010 A bust of Heinrich Heine (1779–1856) was placed into the Walhalla (close to Regensburg, Donau), a structure built by order of King Ludwig I of Bavaria (1786– 1868) to immortalize famous Germans. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 28 July 2010, p. 9, and 29 July 2010, p. 29. 29 JULY 2010 The Deutsche Kunstarchiv digitalized and made public the archives of the an- cient gallery David Heinemann of Munich, which, between 1872 and 1939, sold many pictures of the Bavarian school and also of many French painters. Il Gior- nale dell’Arte, September 2010, p. 84. 30 JULY 2010 The Italian Law n. 122 as passed and converted the Law Decree no. 78 of 31 May 2010, providing that there will not be spent more than 20% of the amount spent in 2009 for cultural institutions and activities. Il Giornale dell’Arte, January 2011, 1 and 26. 520 KURT SIEHR https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 https:/www.cambridge.org/core JULY 2010 Bank vaults in Zürich were opened containing manuscripts of Franz Kafka (1883– 1924) of the estate of Max Brod (1884–1968) and which are the objects of a law- suit in Israel between the National Library in Jerusalem (claiming that the papers belong to the national heritage) and the heirs of Eva Hoffe, who passed away in 2007. International Herald Tribune, 25–26 September 2010, p. 2; Neue Zürcher Zei- tung, Internationale Ausgabe, 28 May 2010, p. 20; 16 July 2010, p. 20; 30 July 2010, p. 19; 16 September 2010, p. 25; 17 October 2010, p. 26; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 14 January 2010, p. 29; 21 July 2010, p. 33; 7 August 2010, p. 31; 14 Sep- tember 2010, p. 31; 17 October 2010, p. 36. JULY 2010 The heirs of the art dealer Alfred Flechtheim (1878–1937), whose collection was seized by the Nazis and who fled from Germany to London, wanted to recover the paintings of the former dealer. Kunst und Recht, 2010, p, 102. JULY 2010 The Andy Warhol Art Authentication Board (AWAB) found that some 100 Brillo Boxes, supposed to be original boxes of Andy Warhol, were actually fakes and produced later by Pontus Hultén (1924–2006), the late director of the Centre Pom- pidou. Il Giornale dell’Arte, October 2010, p. 1; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internatio- nale Ausgabe, 27 November 2010, p. 20. 2 AUGUST 2010 In London the gallery Hue Williams in Battersea filed a lawsuit against the artist James Turrell for failing to supply what are known as “grey books,” documents that include instructions for Turrell’s works and establish their authenticity. The Art Newspaper, June 2010, p. 75. 6 AUGUST 2010 In Palermo, Sicily, a contract was signed between the Italian Province Sicilia and the Catholic Church for the improvement of protection of cultural objects of re- ligious interest. Il Giornale dell’Arte, October 2010, p. 4. 12 AUGUST 2010 The U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit in the case Cassirer v. Kingdom of Spain and Thyssen-Bornemisza Collection Foundation dismissed the appeal of CHRONICLES 521 https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 https:/www.cambridge.org/core the defendants (concerning a Pissarro painting) and affirmed the judgment of the District Court, which denied motions to dismiss for lack of controversy, personal jurisdiction, proper venue, and sovereign immunity under the Foreign Sovereign Immunity Act. Case 06–56325. 20 AUGUST 2010 The U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit in Dunbar v. Seger-Thomschitz dismissed the appeal of the defendants and confirmed the District Court (638 F.Supp.2d 659, E.D. La. 2009), which declined to return the painting Portrait of Youth by Oskar Kokoschka (1886–1980) as time barred. http://www.lootedart.com/ OFCUIA999341. 23 AUGUST 2010 Egon Schiele’s Portrait of Wally was back in Vienna. IFAR Journal, 12, no. 1, 2010, p. 14. 28 AUGUST 2010 The Fondazione Cini on the Venetian island of San Giorgio opened the exhibi- tion Carceri d’invenzione about Giovanni Battista Piranesi (1720–1778) and his fantasies. The Art Newspaper, December 2010, p. 37; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zei- tung, 1 September 2010, p. 31; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 9 October 2010, p. 23. 29 AUGUST 2010 Three famous paintings of Giorgione (1477–1510) were exhibited in the Palazzo Grimani of Venice: La Vecchia, La Tempesta, and La Nuda. Il Giornale dell’Arte, September 2010, p. 28. 29 AUGUST 2010 In 1910, exactly 100 years ago, Japan conquered Korea and damaged Korea and Korean culture heavily. Japan begged pardon for the invasion. Frankfurter Allge- meine Zeitung, 11 August 2010, p. 5; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 28 August 2010, p. 23; Die Zeit, 19 August 2010, p. 18. AUGUST 2010 The so-called Collection Jaeger is discovered to consist of fakes of modern paint- ings by professional forgers, attributed to modern masters by famous experts and 522 KURT SIEHR https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 https:/www.cambridge.org/core sold by auction houses of good standing. Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Aus- gabe, 13 November 2010, p. 22; 21 December 2010, p. 15; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 4 September 2010, p. 35; 11 September 2010, p. 41; 18 September 2010, p. 39; 18 December 2010, p. 17: The Art Newspaper, October 2010, p. 65; Le Jour- nal des Arts, 3–16 December 2010, pp. 1 and 5; Süddeutsche Zeitung, 16–17 Octo- ber 2010, p. 3; art, September 2010, p. 122; AUGUST 2010 The Mauritshuis Museum in The Hague decided to lend the painting Girl with a Pearl Earring by Jan Vermeer (1632–1675) to the Museum in Kobe, Japan, in 2012 in order to raise money for the expansion of the Mauritshuis. The transporting of the painting was considered quite problematic and the stay in Kobe rather dubi- ous because of the environmental conditions in the Japanese museum. The Art Newspaper, September 2010, p. 11. 4 SEPTEMBER 2010 At the National Gallery of Ireland in Dublin opening of the exhibition Gabriel Metsu: A Master Rediscovered in the Dutch Golden Age. The exhibition will be shown later in Amsterdam (Rijksmuseum) and in Washington, DC (National Gallery). Il Giornale dell’Arte, September 2010, p. 35; The Art Newspaper. September 2010, p. 63. 8 SEPTEMBER 2010 The Vatican loaned Raphael’s four finest tapestries, the Miraculous Draught of Fishes, to the Victoria and Albert Museum’s Sistine show entitled Raphael Car- toons and Tapestries for the Sistine Chapel. The Art Newspaper, June 2010, p. 16, and September 2010, p. 66; Il Giornale dell’Arte, September 2010, p. 30; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 17 September 2010, p. 6, and 25 September 2010, p. 35. 8 SEPTEMBER 2010 The Jewish Museum in Frankfurt showed an exhibition of the drawings of Else Lasker-Schüler. Die Welt, 20 September 2010, p. 26; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Inter- nationale Ausgabe,29 September 2010, p. 20. 9 SEPTEMBER 2010 The U.S. Ambassador in Germany gave back to the German city of Pirmasens 11 paintings that had been stolen by a U.S. soldier during World War II. The paint- ings had been inherited by the thief ’s niece, who agreed to return the stolen art pieces. Kunstrechtsspiegel, 03/2010, p. 139. CHRONICLES 523 https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 https:/www.cambridge.org/core 9 SEPTEMBER 2010 Picasso’s electrician, Pierre Le Guennec, of Southern France revealed a cache of 271 unknown works of Pablo Picasso donated to him by the master or his wife. The works were confiscated by France’s art theft unit. IFAR Journal, 12, no. 2, 2011, p. 14; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 2 December 2010, p. 33; Die Welt, 1 Decem- ber 2010, p. 23; International Herald Tribune, 30 November 2010, pp. 1 and 4; Il Giornale dell’Arte, January 2011, p. 6; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Aus- gabe, 30 November 2010, p. 14. 11 SEPTEMBER 2010 The auction house Lempertz of Cologne organized an auction at Brussels selling pre-Columbian art of high quality. Il Giornale dell’Arte, September 2010, p. 91. 11 SEPTEMBER 2010 In Łód-z, Poland, the Polish biennale took place and was funded by the City of Łód-z. The Art Newspaper, October 2010, p. 10. 11 SEPTEMBER 2010 1100 years ago, circa 910, the French Cloisters of Cluny were founded and be- came very influential in medieval culture, religion, and life. Süddeutsche Zeitung, 11–12 September 2010, p. 11; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 29 September 2010, p. 22. 12 SEPTEMBER 2010 The restored altar piece of San Corbinian by Friedrich Pacher (1435–1508) was returned to the church of Assling in Tirol. The altar has quite a history. It was removed in 1850, sold to Jacques Goudstikker in 1936, taken by Hermann Göring in 1940, returned to the heirs of Goudstikker in 2006, and sold by Christie’s one year later. Il Giornale dell’Arte, September 2010, p. 78; The Art Newspaper, May 2010, p. 27. 12 SEPTEMBER 2010 In Teheran the Cyrus Cylinder, lent by the British Museum, was unveiled by Pres- ident Mahmoud Ahmadinejad. The Cyrus Cylinder will be in Teheran until 12 Jan- uary 2011. However, one fragment of the Cylinder owned by Yale University and on loan in London was missing because it is kept in London because of fears that it would fall afoul of U.S. sanctions against Iran. The Art Newspaper, March 2010, 524 KURT SIEHR https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 https:/www.cambridge.org/core p. 5; July/August 2010, p. 7; October 2010, pp. 1 and 7; Il Giornale dell’Arte, April 2010, p. 50. 14 SEPTEMBER 2010 200 years of the Berlin Museum of Natural History (Museum für Naturkunde) with its 30 million objects is celebrated in Berlin. MuseumsJournal, 4/2010, p. 72; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 22 September 2010, p. 19. 14–17 SEPTEMBER 2010 During its Asia Week, Christie’s of London sold at auction a 12th–11th century bce Chinese wine vessel from the Shang Dynasty for $ 3.3 million. The Art News- paper, October 2010, p. 71; Il Giornale dell’Arte, October 2010, p. 2. 15 SEPTEMBER 2010 The French Biennale des Antiquaires opened in Paris. Hervé Aaron as president of the Syndicat National des Antiquaires expressed high expectations. The Art News- paper, September 2010, p. 59; Le Journal des Arts, 24 September–7 October 2010, p. 24; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 18 September 2010, p. 21. 17 SEPTEMBER 2010 The Oberlandesgericht (Court of Appeals) Celle, Germany, decided that the paint- ing Miracolo di Sant’Antonio by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo (1696–1770) had to be returned to its previous owner in Paris because it had been stolen in Paris in 1979 and not been acquired in good faith by the present holder, the Niedersächsische Landesmuseum in Hannover, Germany. The Art Newspaper, October 2010, p. 20; Il Giornale dell’Arte, December 2010, p. 55; Die Welt, 3 September 2010, p. 38. 17 SEPTEMBER 2010 The Louvre in Paris acquired a medieval tapestry of circa 1430 for the Louvre Collection of medieval art. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 18 September 2010, p. Z4. 20 SEPTEMBER 2010 The Vatican Library reopened after three years of restoration. Il Giornale dell’Arte, September 2010, p. 77; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 3 July 2010, p. Z3. CHRONICLES 525 https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 https:/www.cambridge.org/core 21 SEPTEMBER 2010 150 years ago the German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860) passed away, and many recall his rather realistic and pessimistic philosophy. Christopher Janaway, Times Literary Supplement, 15 October 2010, p. 16; Die Welt, 20 Septem- ber 2010, p. 24. 21 SEPTEMBER 2010 The Cour d’appel de Paris declined to invalidate a sale of a Boulle furniture (of André Charles Boulle, 1642–1732) by the couple François Pinault because of mis- take. Le Journal des Arts, 22 October–4 November 2010, p. 23. 22 SEPTEMBER 2010 The French collector of French drawings Louis Antoine Prat exhibited 101 draw- ings of his collection in Sydney, Australia. The Art Newspaper, September 2010, p. 35. 22 SEPTEMBER 2010 The exhibition Peace and Freedom in the Albertina in Vienna showed works of art of Pablo Picasso and his devotion to peace, revolution, and communism. The show was designed with the Tate Gallery of London and will later move to the Danish Louisiana Museum of Modern Art close to Copenhagen. Die Welt, 22 Sep- tember 2010, p. 21. 22 SEPTEMBER 2010 The Musée d’art et histoire du Judaisme in Paris discovered the German-Jewish painter Felix Nussbaum (1904–1944) and devoted an exhibition to him. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 1 December 2010, p. 33. 23 SEPTEMBER 2010 The Egyptian President Mubarak and the Italian prime minister Berlusconi in- augurated the Museo della rinnovata Accademia Egiziana di Roma. Il Giornale dell’Arte, November 2010, p. 67. 23 SEPTEMBER 2010 In the Paris Musée d’Orsay and the Grand Palais two exhibitions of Claude Monet (1840–1926) were shown. ARTnews, December 2010, p. 52; International Herald Tribune, 25–26 September 2010, p. 20; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Aus- 526 KURT SIEHR https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 https:/www.cambridge.org/core gabe, 21 October 2010, p. 17; Il Giornale dell’Arte, September 2010, p. 26; The Art Newspaper, November 2010, p. 1. 24 SEPTEMBER 2010 The U.S. dealer Richard Gray of Chicago and New York donated nine drawings of his collection of French and Italian drawings to the Art Institute of Chicago and opened the exhibition Gray Collection: Seven Centuries of Master Drawings. The Art Newspaper, June 2010, p. 26. 24 SEPTEMBER 2010 The Musée Jacquemart-André in Paris opened the exhibition Rubens, Poussin and the Painters of the XVIIth Century, where the influence of Rubens and Poussin on other painters was clearly shown. Il Giornale dell’Arte, September 2010, p. 32. 24 SEPTEMBER 2010 In the Palazzo Strozzi, Florence, Italy, opened the exhibition Bronzino [1503– 1572]: Artist and Poet at the Court of the Medici showing the artist’s works of early realism. Almost two-thirds of his masterpieces were shown. International Herald Tribune, 16 November 2010, p. 13; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 24 November 2010, p. 21; Die Welt, 17 December 2010, p. 23; art, September 2010, p. 34; The Art Newspaper, June 2010, p. 73, and September 2010, p. 63; Die Zeit, 7 October 2010, p. 58; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 2 October 2010, p. 36; Süd- deutsche Zeitung, 25–26 September 2010, p. 13. 25 SEPTEMBER 2010 Sotheby’s of New York sold at auction the art collection of Lehman Brothers after this bank went bankrupt on 15 September 2008. Die Welt, 25 September 2010, p. W5. 29 SEPTEMBER 2010 The Landgericht Düsseldorf decided that the Museum Schloss Moyland with the vast collection of works of Joseph Beuys (1921–1986) violated the copyright of the Beuys estate because the museum exhibited 19 photographs taken by the late Manfred Tischer of a Beuys happening in 1964. This decision was heavily criti- cized. The Art Newspaper, November 2010, p. 13. CHRONICLES 527 https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 https:/www.cambridge.org/core 29 SEPTEMBER 2010 The auction house Chopin de Janvry & Associés in Paris sold at auction the painting Madame de Florian by Giovanni Boldini (1842–1931) for Y1.7 million. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 2 October 2010, p. 41. 30 SEPTEMBER 2010 The Tate Modern in London opened an exhibition of works of Paul Gauguin (1848–1903), focusing on his interpretations of the myths and legends of the South- ern areas where he lived for several years. Le Journal des Arts, 22 October–4 No- vember 2010, p. 8; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 6 November 2010, p. 19. 30 SEPTEMBER 2010 The National Gallery of Australia dedicated a new wing to indigenous artists. The Art Newspaper, November 2010, p. 26. SEPTEMBER 2010 Giuseppe Eskenazi (born 1939) celebrated the 50th anniversary of dealing with Chinese art and artefacts in London where his father established the art gallery. It had been founded in 1923 with headquarters in Milan. The Art Newspaper, Octo- ber 2010, p. 68. SEPTEMBER 2010 The privately owned Weserburg Museum in Bremen deaccessioned two paintings of Gerhard Richter and Franz Gertsch in order raise money for repairs and ren- ovation. The German Museum Association was concerned about it. The Art News- paper, November 2010, p. 22; Süddeutsche Zeitung, 19 November 2010, p. 13; Die Zeit, 23 September 2010, p. 59; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 23 September 2010, p. 33. SEPTEMBER 2010 A mysterious donor donated fakes to American museums for almost 20 years. This was discovered and the museums warned by e-mail on the Museum Security Network and the American Association of Museum Registrar’s Committee list serv- ers. The Art Newspaper, November 2010, pp. 1 and 4. 528 KURT SIEHR https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 https:/www.cambridge.org/core SEPTEMBER 2010 The auction place Hôtel Drouot, Paris, terminated the contract with the Union des commissionaires de l’Hôtel Drouot, the union charged with theft and conver- sion. Il Giornale dell’Arte, October 2010, p. 88. SEPTEMBER 2010 Russian legislation prohibits that art works formerly in churches and now in pub- lic museums be given back to churches. However, this policy is not always re- spected. Famous icons are lent to local churches, especially in regions of well-to-do people. For example, in the colony of millionaires called Princes See, close to Moscow, the icon St. Mary of Toropez was lent by the Russian Museum to the Alexander-Newski-Church. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 1 July 2010, p. 38, and 28 September 2010, p. 31. 1 OCTOBER 2010 The Biennale Internazionale di Antiquariato al Palazzo Venezia in Rome opened and ran until 10 October. Il Giornale dell’Arte, September 2010, p. 86, and No- vember 2010, p. 79; Gazzetta Antiquaria, nuova serie, n. 58-II/2010, p. 14. 1–2 OCTOBER 2010 IVth Heidelberg Day of Art and Law. This year’s Art Day was concerned with the law of theatre and with traveling artworks. The papers given will be published in 2011. Kunst und Recht, 12, 2010, p. 137. 3 OCTOBER 2010 The Museum of Modern Art in New York opened the exhibition Abstract Expres- sionist New York: The Big Picture, exhibiting works of Mark Rothko, Jackson Pol- lock, Robert Motherwell, Barnett Newman Robert Rauschenberg, and others. Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 12 November 2010, p. 19. 4 OCTOBER 2010 The Russian curator Andrej Jerofejew was sentenced in Moscow, charged with exhibiting modern art. The verdict has been approved by the court of appeals. Die Zeit, 1 July 2010, p. 50. CHRONICLES 529 https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 https:/www.cambridge.org/core 5 OCTOBER 2010 Opening of the exhibition Man, Myth and Sensual Pleasures, Jan Gossart’s Renais- sance in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. The Dutch painter Jan Gossart (c.1478–1532) was rediscovered as a master of the Northern renaissance. IFAR Journal, no. 3, 2011, pp. 26–31; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 24 December 2010, p. 35. 6 OCTOBER 2010 The famous Main Station of Stuttgart, Germany, was torn down, and more of it was scheduled to be destroyed to make room for a new station that was to be located underground. The architect Paul Bonatz (1877–1956) designed the Main Station, built in 1914–1928. The heir of Paul Bonatz brought a lawsuit in Stuttgart and applied for an order to stop tearing down the station and the reconstruction of those parts that had already been torn down. The county court dismissed the copyright claim and the court of appeal confirmed. Weighing the interests of the owner and the plaintiff, the court gave priority to the defendant owner. Ober- landesgericht Stuttgart, Kunst und Recht, 2010, p. 195, with note by Lucas Elmen- horst on pp. 180–183; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 25 September 2010, p. 37, and 24 January 2011, p. 27. 6 OCTOBER 2010 In the Galeries nationales du Grand Palais in Paris opened the exhibition France 1500 showing 200 works of art created around 1500 and brought together from the Musée de Cluny, the Louvre, and several foreign museums. Le Journal des Arts, 24 September–7 October 2010, p. 16. 6 OCTOBER 2010 The Madrid parliament declined a motion to have the Spanish bullfight be de- clared a national heritage. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 7 October 2010, p. 9. 8 OCTOBER 2010 Opening of the exhibition Michelangelo as a Draughtsman in the Albertina, Vi- enna, with more than 100 masterpieces from the largest graphic art collections in the world. The Art Newspaper, The Year Ahead 2010, p. 91; Die Zeit, 14 Octo- ber 2010, p. 63; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 12 November 2010, p. 33; Le Journal des Arts, 19 November–2 December 2010, p. 9; Il Giornale dell’Arte, Oc- tober 2010, p. 38; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 26 November 2010, p. 19. 530 KURT SIEHR https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 https:/www.cambridge.org/core 8 OCTOBER 2010 The National Palace Museum in Taipei, Taiwan, opened the exhibition Dynastic Renaissance with loans from mainland China and started exchange relationships with China, The Art Newspaper, January 2011, p. 22. 9 OCTOBER 2010 The eighth edition of the roving European biennial Manifesta opened to the pub- lic in the neighboring Spanish cities of Murcia and Cartagena on the Costa Brava. The Manifesta is deliberately nomadic to avoid building “institutional structures similar to Venice or São Paolo.” It was, until now, shown in Rotterdam, Luxem- bourg, Ljubljana, Frankfurt, San Sebastian, Nicosia, and Trentino-South Tyrol. The Art Newspaper, October 2010, p. 81. 13 OCTOBER 2010 The National Gallery in London opened the exhibition Venice. Canaletto and his Rivals. Giovanni Antonio Canal, called Canaletto (1697–1768), painted the Venice of his time in order to sell his works of art to travelers on their Grand Tour. He had, of course, rivals such as Luca Carlevarijs (1663–1730), Gaspare Vanvitelli (1652/ 53–1736), and his nephew Bernardo Bellotto (1722–1780). Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 2 December 2010, p. 17; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 16 December 2010, p. 34; Le Journal des Arts, 22 October–4 November 2010, p. 9; Il Giornale dell’Arte, October 2010, p. 41; Süddeutsche Zeitung, 17–18 October 2010, p. 17. 13 OCTOBER 2010 Final judgment of acquittal of Marion True, former antiquities curator of the J. Paul Getty Museum, in Rome, after a trial that started on 16 November 2005. ARTnews, December 2010, p. 54; The Art Newspaper, November 2010, p. 7, and January 2011, pp. 8 and 9; Le Journal des Arts, 22 October–4 November 2010, p. 3; Il Giornale dell’Arte, November 2010, p. 6; Le Journal des Arts, 21 January–3 Feb- ruary 2011, p. 9. 13–14 OCTOBER 2010 Session of the committee Comitati Privati per la salvaguardia di Venezia. The president for 24 years, Alvise Zorzi, resigned because of age, and his successor was Umberto Marcello del Majno of an old Venetian aristocratic family. Il Giornale dell’Arte, November 2010, p. 74. CHRONICLES 531 https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 https:/www.cambridge.org/core 14 OCTOBER 2010 The Frieze Art Fair took place in London, Regent’s Park until October 17. The Art Newspaper, October 2010, p. 92. 15 OCTOBER 2010 Opening of the exhibition Hitler and the Germans: The Community of People [Volksgemeinschaft] and Crime in the Berlin Historical Museum. This exhibition demonstrating the crimes of Nazi Germany was very well attended. MuseumsJour- nal 4/2010, p. 90. 15 OCTOBER 2010 The Kunsthaus Zürich reconstructed the exhibition of Pablo Picasso (1881– 1973) held in Zürich in 1932. Many paintings of that era were returned to Zürich. In 1932, 34,000 visitors attended the exhibition, but this did not cover the costs of the exhibition and the catalogue. Most of the paintings exhibited in 1932 were on sale and have been sold since that time. Zürich bought one of the paintings, Gui- tare sur un guéridon. Kunsthaus Zürich, Magazin, 3, August 2010, p. 10; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 15 October 2010, p. 19; 19 October 2010, p. 21; 27 December 2010, p. 19; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 21 December 2010, p. 29. 15 OCTOBER 2010 The Schirn Kunsthalle in Frankfurt am Main opened an exhibition on Gustave Courbet (1819–1877), the realistic French artist who despised academic painting and painted landscapes, simple people, and subjects that were indecent and rad- ical at the time. Courbet was famous for the marketing, networking, and publicity of his paintings, including scandals. The exhibition is sponsored by France (Nico- las Sarkozy as French president). Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 16 December 2010, p. 17; The Art Newspaper, October 2010, p. 89; Il Giornale dell’Arte, October 2010, p. 28; Die Zeit, 21 October 2010, p. 40; Frankfurter Allgemeine Sonntagszeitung, 10 October 2010, p. B1. 17 OCTOBER 2010 At the High Museum of Art in Atlanta two masterpieces by Titian (1480/5–1576), part of the exhibition Titian and the Golden Age of Venetian Painting, started a tour of various cities in the United States (Minnesota, Houston, etc.). The paintings were then with the National Galleries of Scotland and have been acquired (or will be ac- quired) from the Duke of Sutherland: Diana and Actaeon and Diana and Callisto. 532 KURT SIEHR https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 https:/www.cambridge.org/core The New York Review of Books, December 2010, no. 20, p. 16; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 16 October 2010, p. 35. 17 OCTOBER 2010 The exhibition Chardin: Il pittore del silenzio (Chardin: The painter of the silence) opened in Ferrara, Italy, curated by Pierre Rosenberg, the former director of the Louvre. The Chardin (1699–1779) exhibition will later be shown in Madrid at the Prado. Il Giornale dell’Arte, October 2010, p. 25. 18 OCTOBER 2010 The website www.errproject.org/jeudepaume opened. The sited allows Holocaust survivors, their relatives, and others to search the records of more than 20,000 art objects stolen in Nazi-occupied France and Belgium between 1940 to 1944. In- ternational Herald Tribune, 19 October 2010, p. 2; Robin Cembalest, “Claims Con- flict,” ARTnews, October 2010, p. 50. 19 OCTOBER 2010 In Prague the tomb of Tycho Brahe (1546–1601) was opened in the Teyn-Church (Altstädter Ring) order to find out how much quicksilver could be found in his body and who might have been the murderer of Brahe, the Danish astronomer. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 18 November 2010, p. 35. 19 OCTOBER 2010 The Prado in Madrid opened an exhibition of the collection of Renoir paintings bought a several years ago by Robert Sterling Clark (1877–1956) in Paris. The collection is now located at the Sterling and Francine Clark Art Institute in Will- iamstown, MA. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 15 November 2010, p. 31. 19 OCTOBER 2010 Opening of the exhibition Jean-Léon Gérôme (1824–1904): L’Histoire en spectacle in the Musée d’Orsay in Paris. Gérôme was for a long time regarded as “salon painter.” This was the first comprehensive exhibition that revealed Gérôme’s in- terest in photography, in traveling (especially to Egypt), and his masterly knowl- edge of spectacular scenery favored by his clients, also in the United States. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 28 December 2010, p. 29; Frankfurter Allgemeine Sonntagszeitung, 12 December 2010, p. 31; Le Journal des Arts, 5–18 November 2010, p. 9; Il Giornale dell’Arte, October 2010, p. 28. CHRONICLES 533 https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 https:/www.cambridge.org/core 20 OCTOBER 2010 In the Palais des Beaux-Arts in Brussels the exhibition Lucas Cranach and his Time opened with many paintings lent from everywhere. The show gave a good idea of the workshop of Cranach (1472–1553), who served everybody whether Catholic or Protestant and who left his workshop to his son. Le Journal des Arts, 3–16 November 2010, p. 9. 21 OCTOBER 2010 The Japanese painter and wood carver Katsushika Hokusai (1760–1849) was born 250 years ago. He was a great artist and strongly influenced French and Dutch impressionist painters. art, January 2010, p. 32; MuseumsJournal, 4/2011, p. 4. 21 OCTOBER 2010 UNESCO issued decision UN 185EX/Sr.9 and raised concern about Israel’s policy to restore monuments in the occupied West Bank territories, namely, the tomb of King Herod and Rachel’s tomb. The Art Newspaper, December 2010, p. 25; Feb- ruary 2011, p. 3; and May 2011, p. 47. 21–24 OCTOBER 2010 The Foire international d’art contemporain (FIAC) opened in Paris. Le Journal des Arts, 8–21 October 2010, p. 19. 22 OCTOBER 2010 In the Cathedral of Magdeburg, Germany, the bones of Queen Editha (910–946), wife of Emperor Otto I (936–973), were buried again after they had been discov- ered recently by an English-German research team. The remains were determined to be the bones of the daughter of the English King Edward (871–924). Süd- deutsche Zeitung, 23–24 October 2010, p. 12. 23–24 OCTOBER 2010 The auction house Hauswedell & Nolte in Hamburg sold at auction a correspon- dence of Theodor Fontane (1819–1898) an important person of Berlin and else- where. The correspondence was bought by the Kulturstiftung der Länder for the Fontane Archive in Potsdam. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 13 November 2010, p. 39; arsprototo, no. 3, 2011, p. 27. 534 KURT SIEHR https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 https:/www.cambridge.org/core 24 OCTOBER 2010 The work of German and foreign expressionist artists (Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, Käte Kollwitz, Marianne von Werefkin, Wassilij Kandinsky, Else Lasker-Schüler, and others) are exhibited in various places in the Rhine-Main region. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 13 November 2010, p. 33; Der Tagesspiegel, 14 December 2010, p. 24. 26 OCTOBER 2010 In the Museo d’Arte Contemporanea in Rome, MACRO Fall 2010 opened, exhib- iting works of contemporary art. Il Giornale dell’Arte, Flyer October 2010, pp. 1–8. 26–27 OCTOBER 2010 Auction of the Rothschild Collection of Estimauville by Christie’s of Paris was very successful, estimated at Y2.5 million and resulting in Y4.7 million. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 20 November 2010, p. 38. 28 OCTOBER 2010 The book Das Amt und die Vergangenheit: Deutsche Diplomaten im Dritten Reich und in der Bundesrepublik (The Office and the Past, German Diplomats in the Third Reich and in the Federal Republic), by Eckart Conze, Norbert Frey, Peter Hayes, and Moshe Zimmermann, was officially presented to the German Foreign Office and got considerable attention in Germany. The German diplomats were not innocent during the Nazi period and not at all opposed to the Hitler regime. Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 17 December 2010, p. 20; Frankfurter Allgemeine Sonntagszeitung, 24 October 2010, p. 33, and 28 November 2010, p. 29; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 28 October 2010, p. 31, and 30 October 2010, p. 33. 31 OCTOBER 2010 The Collection Oskar Reinhart Am Römerholz in Winterthur, Switzerland, opened after a long period of renovation. Le Journal des Arts, 22 October–4 November 2010, p. 11. OCTOBER 2010 The Spanish culture minister announced that the newly discovered painting The Wine of Saint Martin’s Day by Pieter Bruegel the Elder (1524/30–1569) was ac- quired by the Prado for Y7 million and would remain in Spain. ARTnews, Decem- ber 2010, p. 48. CHRONICLES 535 https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 https:/www.cambridge.org/core OCTOBER 2010 The National Gallery in Berlin revealed that the museum bought back two art- works restituted to their former owners: the statue Sowing Man by Constantin Meunier (1831–1905) and the painting Evening in Potsdam by Lotte Laserstein (1898–1987). Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 22 October 2010, p. 29. OCTOBER 2010 Italy was concerned about mass tourism in the Vatican where millions of visitors to the Sistine Chapel bring dust and moisture inside the Chapel. Venice is also complaining about the many posters and advertisements covering palaces and buildings all over the city. Le Journal des Arts. 22 October–4 November 2010, p. 5; The Art Newspaper, October 2010, p. 37, and November 2010, p. 7; Il Gior- nale dell’Arte, October 2010, p. 1. Venice will increase a tourist tax and have the 17.5 million tourists to pay an extra charge. The Art Newspaper, November 2010, p. 1. OCTOBER 2010 Germany returned to the City Museum in Gdansk, Poland, six paintings that had been stolen in Gdansk during World War II and had been discovered in Berlin. Germany was still waiting for the return of the Berlinka collection of the State Library in Berlin still kept by Poland in Krakow. Il Giornale dell’Arte, January 2011, p. 11. OCTOBER 2010 Opening of the expansion of the Los Angeles Museum of the Holocaust. The ex- pansion, costing $18 million, was made possible thanks to the generosity of Ran- dolph Schoenberg, who represented Maria Altmann in her case against Austria regarding Klimt’s painting Portrait of Adele Bloch-Bauer. The Art Newspaper, Sep- tember 2010, p. 14. OCTOBER 2010 Greece celebrated the 2500-year anniversary of the victory over the Persians at the battle of Marathon in 490 bce. Minerva, January/February 2011, p. 5. OCTOBER 2010 The Dutch advisory committee on restitution recommended that the Rijksmu- seum should return the painting Winter Landscape by Jan van de Velde II (1593– 536 KURT SIEHR https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 https:/www.cambridge.org/core 1641) to the heirs of Curt Glaser because he had to sell it in order to finance his escape. The heirs think the same should be done in England with respect of a paining owned by the Courtauld Gallery. The Art Newspaper, January 2011, p. 7. OCTOBER 2010 The British Library returned to Italy the Benevento Missal, stolen during World War II, bought by British Army officer Douglas Ash in Naples in 1944, and sold to the British Library three years later. The return was recommended by the UK Spolia- tion Advisory Panel in March 2005. The Art Newspaper, October 2010, p. 7, and November 2010, p. 6; Il Giornale dell’Arte, November 2010, p. 14. 2 NOVEMBER 2010 Sotheby’s New York sold the painting Nude Seated on a Divan by Amedeo Modigliani (1884–1920) for $68.9 million. The sale was stipulated beforehand. Süddeutsche Zeitung, 30–31 October 2010, pp. 18, and 13–14 November 2010, p. 16; Le Journal des Arts, 19 November–2 December 2010, p. 25; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 6 November 2010, p. 21; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 30 October 2010, p. 37. 4 NOVEMBER 2010 The British Museum’s exhibition Journey Through the Afterlife: Ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead attracted many visitors who wanted to know more about faith and belief in ancient Egypt. Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 30 De- cember 2010, p. 15; Murray Eiland, “Preparing the Dead,” Minerva, January/ February 2011, p. 14. 4 NOVEMBER 2010 Sotheby’s of New York sold the painting Ritratto di Giovinetta Errazuriz by Gio- vanni Boldini (1842–1931) for Y4.6 million, the highest price ever paid for a Bol- dini. Il Giornale dell’Arte, December 2010, p. 80. 5 NOVEMBER 2010 The Ancient Art Fair in Basel, Switzerland, opened and tried to make good busi- ness. Süddeutsche Zeitung, 6–7 November 2010, p. 19; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 6 November 2010, p. 38. CHRONICLES 537 https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 https:/www.cambridge.org/core 6 NOVEMBER 2010 In Pompeii, Italy, several walls of the ancient excavated ruins collapsed, showing the deplorable maintenance of ancient sites in Italy. International Herald Tribune, 15 December 2010, p. 2; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 8 Novem- ber 2010, p. 16, and 19 November 2010, p. 18; 3 December 2010, p. 33; and 4 December 2010, p. 11; Il Giornale dell’Arte, September 2010, p. 14; November 2010, p. 8; December 2010, pp. 1 and 12; January 2011, pp. 1, 6, and 34; February 2011, p. 12. Funding will be provided in 2011. The Art Newspaper, December 2010, p. 29; February 2011, p. 7; September 2011, p. 6; Le Journal des Arts, 7–20 January 2011, p. 8; Andrew Wallace-Hadrill, “The Collapse of Pompeii?” Minerva, March/April 2011, p. 26; Frankfurter Allgemeine Sonntagszeitung, 14 November 2010, p. 75; 28 November 2010, p. 47. 7 NOVEMBER 2010 An exhibition at the Château de Fontainebleau, France, on King Henri IV (1553– 1610) revealed one aspect of the famous King, his commission of arts. Le Journal des Arts, 7–20 January 2011, p. 9. 7 NOVEMBER 2010 Pope Benedict XVI consecrated the Basilica Sagrada Familia in Barcelona, built by Antoni Gaudi (1852–1926) and still unfinished, as a real place of worship. Süd- deutsche Zeitung, 6–7 November 2010, p. 11; Die Zeit, 4 November 2010, p. 71; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 8 November 2010, p. 9; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, In- ternationale Ausgabe, 8 November 2010, p. 3. 8 NOVEMBER 2010 Birthday party in the London National Gallery for Sir Denis Mahon (born 1910) to celebrate his 100th birthday. The Art Newspaper, December 2010, p. 7. 9 NOVEMBER 2010 The Geneva-based Foundation for Art Law organized a colloquium on Restitu- tion of Human Remains. News 21 of the Fondation pour le droit de l’art, February 2011, p. 4. 9 NOVEMBER 2010 Until today Pieter Brueghel the Younger’s The Procession to Calvary was on dis- play. The owner of the painting, Lord St. Oswald, wanted to sell it, and the Her- 538 KURT SIEHR https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 https:/www.cambridge.org/core itage Memorial Fund tried to save the painting for the UK. The Art Newspaper, November 2010, p. 76. 10 NOVEMBER 2010 The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York devoted an exhibition to the photographers Alfred Stieglitz (1864–1940), Edward Steichen (1879–1973), and Paul Strand (1890–1976). Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 28 December 2010, p. 27. 10 NOVEMBER 2010 The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York announced that it will return to Egypt 19 small artefacts from the tomb of Tutankhamun. Minerva, January/ February 2011, p. 6. 10 NOVEMBER 2010 In London a vase of the time of the Chinese Qianlong Emperor (1735–1776) sold for £43 million to an anonymous buyer. Minerva, January/February 2011, p. 4; Le Journal des Arts, 21 January–3 February 2011, p. 19; Il Giornale dell’Arte, Decem- ber 2010, p. 80. 12–13 NOVEMBER 2010 Yearly conference of the Swiss Ethnological Society discussed the Swiss imple- mentation of the UNESCO Convention of the Protection of Intangible Cultural Heritage. Nike, 4/2010, p. 11. 12–20 NOVEMBER 2010 The Italian Biennale Internazionale dell’Antiquariato in Florence opened its fair and promised to protect cultural objects. Il Giornale dell’Arte, November 2010, p. 81. 15 NOVEMBER 2010 Joe Simon-Whelan withdrew his claim in New York against the Andy Warhol Foun- dation because of fraud, collusion, and manipulation. The Art Newspaper, Decem- ber 2010, p. 4. CHRONICLES 539 https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 https:/www.cambridge.org/core 15 NOVEMBER 2010 The Palazzo Venezia in Rome opened the exhibition I due imperi: L’aquila e il drag- one (The two empires: The eagle and the dragon) for the festivities of 40 years of diplomatic relations between China and Italy. Il Giornale dell’Arte, November 2010, p. 69. 16 NOVEMBER 2010 Twenty years ago the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) was passed. Susan Benton Bruning, “NAGPRA’s 20th Anniversary: Re- flections on the Watershed Law Impacting the Collection of Native American Ob- jects,” IFAR Journal, no. 2, 2010, pp. 28–34. 16–19 NOVEMBER 2010 The High Court in London heard the case of the drawing Madonna and Child with St Anne and a Lamb by Leonardo (1452–1519). The Art Newspaper, January 2011, p. 57. 17 NOVEMBER 2010 UNESCO at its session in Nairobi accepted Repas gastronomique des Français to be put in the list of protected intangible cultural heritage. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 18 November 2010, p. 33. Also the Spanish Flamenco and other regional traditions were recognized as part of the list of protected traditions. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 18 November 2010, p. 9. 19 NOVEMBER 2010 The Duma of Moscow passed a statute allowing the return of about 11,000 ob- jects to religious institutions and organizations. Museums objected to this law and articulated concern with respect to the collections of public museums. Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 22 November 2010, p. 4. 19 NOVEMBER 2010 In the Prado, Madrid, the paintings Adam and Eve by Albrecht Dürer (1471– 1528) were returned from their restoration. The couple was a gift to King Philippe IV of Spain (1621–1665) by Christina of Sweden (1632–1654 abdicated, death 1689 in Rome). She did not like the paintings. Il Giornale dell’Arte, November 2010, p. 72. 540 KURT SIEHR https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 https:/www.cambridge.org/core 20 NOVEMBER 2010 100 years ago Count Lev Nikolajewitch Tolstoi (1828–1910), author of War and Peace (1868–69) and Anna Karenina (1875–1877) passed away in Russia. He died as a simple man, pacifist, prophet, ecologist, and reformer and is buried on his farm of refuge Jasnaja Poljana, Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 20 November 2010, pp. Z3 and Z5; Süddeutsche Zeitung, 20–21 November 2010, p. 17; Die Zeit, 23 September 2010, p. 65, and 18 November 2010, pp. 63–65; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 28 September 2010, p. 19, and 20 November 2010, p. 23. 20 NOVEMBER 2010 In Völklingen, Germany, the exhibition The Celts: Druids, Princes and Warriors presented a show of Celtic art objects. It was said to be the biggest show devoted to these ancient peoples, dating from 500 bce. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 22 November 2010, p. 27. 21 NOVEMBER 2010 The Detroit Institute of Art showed the exhibition Fakes, Forgeries and Mysteries drawing on the public interest on forgeries of art objects. The Art Newspaper, “What’s On,” November 2010, p. 3. 21 NOVEMBER 2010 The Museum Oskar Reinhart am Stadtgarten in Winterthur, Switzerland, opened the exhibition of the Swiss painter Albert Anker (1831–1910), famous for his genre paintings of Swiss peasants and peasant life. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 15 January 2011, p. 34; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 27 November 2010, p. 27. 23 NOVEMBER 2010 Yale’s President Richard Levin signed an agreement with Peru’s President Alan Garcia, under which all the objects removed by Hiram Bingham (1875–1956) from Machu Picchu and other places of Peru will be returned to Peru. IFAR Journal, 12, no. 2, 2011, p. 2; Minerva, January/February 2011, p. 9. 26 NOVEMBER 2010 Opening of the exhibition devoted to sculptor Reinhold Begas (1831–1911) on the occasion of his 100th anniversary of his death in the German Historical Mu- CHRONICLES 541 https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 https:/www.cambridge.org/core seum in Berlin. MuseumsJournal 4/2010, p. 68; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 13 December 2010, p. 27. 26 NOVEMBER 2010 At the auction by Villa Grisebach, Berlin, paintings of Lesser Ury (1861–1931) achieved tremendous prices as compared with prices in former times. Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 4 December 2010, p. 21. 27 NOVEMBER 2010 The attorney general of Stade, Germany, seized a painting that was about to be sold at auction in Buxtehude, Germany, because the painting Jewish Woman with Oranges by Alexander Gierymski (1849–1901) was supposed to have been looted in Poland during World War II. Kölner Stadt-Anzeiger, 30 December 2010, p. 22. 27 NOVEMBER 2010 The State Gallery in Stuttgart, Germany exhibited Grey Passion by Hans Holbein the Elder (1460/65–1533) after a its restoration after acquisition from the Prince of Fürstenberg in 2003. The Art Newspaper, November 2010, 2010, pp. 31 and 35; Frankfurter Allgemeine Sonntagszeitung, 28 November 2010, p. 26; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 13 January 2011, p. 17; art, November 2010, p. 58; Il Giornale dell’Arte, November 2010, p. 32; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 24 July 2010, p. Z4. 28 NOVEMBER 2010 Irene Ludwig (1927–2010), wife of the collector and patron Peter Ludwig (1925– 1996), and herself a collector and patron, passed away in Aachen, Germany. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 1 December 2010, p. 8. Before she died, she do- nated many works of art to museums on Cologne, Germany. Frankfurter Allge- meine Zeitung, 31 March 2011, p. 29. NOVEMBER 2010 A small notice in the paper Wiener Wirtschaftsblatt reads: “Insolvency Opened: Kadenza GmbH, Formerly Machold Rare Violins Trading Company mbH.” The famous violin trader Dietmar Machold of Vienna had financial problems. David Schoenbaum, Das Griechenland der Musikwelt, Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 22 December 2010, p. 33. 542 KURT SIEHR https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 https:/www.cambridge.org/core NOVEMBER 2010 The New York auctions in autumn 2010 sold art objects for more than $ 500 Mil- lion. The art market had apparently recovered from the financial crises. Die Zeit, 18 November 2010, p. 73. NOVEMBER 2010 The Italian police caught a gang of 16 people who apparently have stolen and sold illegally excavated art objects and more than 4000 ancient coins. Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 20 November 2010, p. 18. 1 DECEMBER 2010 The Centre Pompidou in Paris opened the exhibition of works of the Dutch painter Piet Mondrian (1872–1944), an artist almost unknown in France who, in 1942, went into exile to New York. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 13 January 2011, p. 31. 2 DECEMBER 2010 At the Convention Center in Miami Beach the Art Basel Miami Beach 2010 opened, one of the most important art fairs for contemporary art. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 4 December 2010, p. 37; Süddeutsche Zeitung, 4–5 December 2010, p. 19. 3 DECEMBER 2010 Opening of an exhibition in Berlin on Carl Richard Lepsius (1810–1884), the archaeologist and specialist in Egyptian art. The exhibition is designed to com- memorate the 200th birthday of Lepsius. MuseumsJournal 4/2010, p. 62. 3 DECEMBER 2010 The Tribunal de grande instance de Paris decided that Pierre Coulibeuf violated the work of Marina Abramovic (born 1946) by using her work for his movie The Star and awarded damages of Y50.000. Le Journal des Arts, 21 January–3 February 2011, p. 36. 3 DECEMBER 2010 A trove of ancient silver stolen years ago from Morgantina ago was returned to Aidone, Sicily, after having been on view at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. http://www.nytimes.com, visited on 10 December 2010. CHRONICLES 543 https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 https:/www.cambridge.org/core 3 DECEMBER 2010 For the first time Dutch group portraits of famous painters of the Dutch Golden Age were shown outside of The Netherlands and exhibited in the Alte Pinakothek in Munich. Süddeutsche Zeitung, 4–5 December 2010, p. 16. 3 DECEMBER 2010 Opening of an exhibition on the painter Philipp Otto Runge (1777–1810) in the Kunsthalle Hamburg. Runge was an artist of the Romantic School and was very diligent, but sold no paintings and was subsidized by his brother who was a mer- chant. Die Welt, 15 December 2010, p. 24; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 4 De- cember 2010, p. 35; Frankfurter Allgemeine Sonntagszeitung, 5 December 2010, p. 26; Die Zeit, 2 December 2010, p. 65; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 10 January 2011, p. 17; art, December 2010, p. 40; The Art Newspaper, December 2010, p. 75; Il Giornale dell’Arte, December 2010, p. 31. 6 DECEMBER 2010 At Sotheby’s of London the book Birds of America by John James Audubon was sold for £7.3 million. It is one of the most expensive printed books. Süddeutsche Zeitung, 9 December 2010, p. 14. 6 DECEMBER 2010 In Milan the Museo del Novecento opened with masterworks of the twentieth century, such as Bocconi, Morandi, Sironi, and DeChirico e Fontana. Il Giornale dell’Arte, December 2010, p. 12. 7–9 DECEMBER 2010 Auctions by Sotheby’s and Christie’s in New York fetched high prices for classical antiquities because the sale guaranteed that the items were removed from the coun- tries of origin before 1970, the crucial date for the 1970 UNESCO Convention. International Herald Tribune, 18 December 2010, p. 14; Jerome M. Eisenberg, in 22 Minerva no. 2, 2011, p. 50; Il Giornale dell’Arte, December 2010, p. 83, and January 2011, p. 59; The Art Newspaper, October 2010, p. 7, and December 2010, p. 79; Le Journal des Arts, 21 January–3 February 2011, p. 19. 9 DECEMBER 2010 A portrait of Philippe le Bon was returned to Schloss Friedenstein after it had been stolen or hidden after World War II, commissioned for auction by Christie’s, 544 KURT SIEHR https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 https:/www.cambridge.org/core and finally bought back by the Siemens Foundation to loan to the Schloss Frieden- stein in Gotha, Germany. www.otz.de, visited on 10 December 2010. 9 DECEMBER 2010 The Frankfurt Archaeological Museum exhibited the fragment of a former horse statue of Emperor Trajan (98–117) and a treasure of coins and jewelry found nearby. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 10 December 2010, p. 36. 10 DECEMBER 2010 A selection of lost and recovered paintings, lost during World War II, were ex- hibited in the Old National Gallery in Berlin. MuseumsJournal, January–March 2011, p. 50–53; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 14 January 2011, p. 34. 13 DECEMBER 2010 A state trial court in Brooklyn denied summary judgment in the case of Gerard Malanga, Andy Warhol’s principal assistant, against John Chamberlain who is sus- pected to have sold a work of art as a work by Andy Warhol (1928–1987). IFAR Journal, 12, 2/2011, p. 5. 16 DECEMBER 2010 The Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam opened the exhibition Gabriel Metsu, who lived from 1626 to 1667, around the time as Jan Vermeer (1632–1675). At a certain time, works of Metsu sold better than those of Vermeer. The exhibition showed 35 of the Dutch master lent from several countries. Die Zeit, 20 January 2011, p. 52. 17 DECEMBER 2010 In the Exhibition Hall of the Federal Republic of Germany in Bonn the exhibition Napoleon and Europe: Dream and Trauma opened; it was scheduled to go to Paris next year. The Art Newspaper. The Year Ahead 2010, p. 105; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 21 December 2011, p. 32; Frankfurter Allgemeine Sonntagszeitung, 2 Jan- uary 2011, p. 24; Die Zeit, 22 December 2010, p. 21; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Inter- nationale Ausgabe, 15 January 2011, p. 17. 17 DECEMBER 2010 In the Palazzo Farnese in Rome (now the French Embassy to Italy) the exhibi- tion From the Collection of Renaissance to the French Embassy opened. Dalu Jones, Minerva, March/April 2011, p. 30; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 24 January 2011, p. 17; The Art Newspaper, December 2010, p. 74. CHRONICLES 545 https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 https:/www.cambridge.org/core 17 DECEMBER 2010 The German Federal Supreme Court (Bundesgerichtshof ) decided that the owner of gardens and castles (e.g., Prussian Foundation Castles and Gardens in Berlin- Brandenburg) can prohibit taking and marketing photos of these gardens and build- ings. There is no public obligation to permit such photos. Juristenzeitung 10, p. 371. 21 DECEMBER 2010 The Dresden State Gallery of Art exhibited almost the entire work of Lucas Cra- nach the Elder (1472–1553) and the Younger (1515–1586) Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 24 December 2010, p. 38. 24 DECEMBER 2010 The painting Madonna with Child by Giovanni Francesco Barbieri, called Guer- cino (1591–1666) was donated to the Städel Museum in Frankfurt am Main. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 23 December 2010, p. 29. 27 DECEMBER 2010 An Italian court in Rome declared that the archive of Giorgio Vasari (1511–1574) could be sold by the owner Giovanni Festari (died on 17 October 2009) for Y150 million to a Russian investor. The sale to a Russian investment company ROSS seemed to be a fake sale in order to cause the Republic of Italy to exercise the right of redemption. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 11 January 2011, p. 4; Der Stan- dard, 27 January 2011, p. 27. 30 DECEMBER 2010 Opening of a new museum, Mathaf Arab Museum of Modern Art, in Qatar with 6000 paintings, drawings, and sculptures from mostly Islamic countries of Africa and Asia. ARTnews, December 2010, p. 56. 30 DECEMBER 2010 The thieves of the sign “Arbeit macht frei” at the entrance of the Auschwitz con- centration camp were sentenced to two and a half years in prison, decided a Pol- ish court. Süddeutsche Zeitung, 31 December 2010, p. 8. 31 DECEMBER 2010 The Venus of Morgantina, Sicily, left Los Angeles (formerly owned by the Getty Museum) and headed for Sicily where it would be expected to arrive in 2011 and 546 KURT SIEHR https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 https:/www.cambridge.org/core be exhibited. Le Journal des Arts, 21 January–3 February 2011, p. 9; Il Giornale dell’Arte, December 2010, p. 20. DECEMBER 2010 The Brooklyn Museum was preparing to return about 4500 pre-Columbian arti- facts taken from Costa Rica a century ago. International Herald Tribune,4 January 2011, pp. 8–9. DECEMBER 2010 Vittorio Sgabri was appointed superintendent for the museums of Venice, includ- ing the Galleria dell’Accademia. The Art Newspaper, January 2011, p. 18. DECEMBER 2010 The financial crisis could be felt everywhere. France was afraid that there would be fewer patrons subsidizing art and culture. Le Journal des Arts, 22 October–4 November 2010, p. 16 and 17. Opposition against Sarkozy’s cultural reforms. The Art Newspaper, May 2010, p. 6. In Hamburg, Germany, museums got less money from the city government and were about to be closed. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zei- tung, 19 May 2010, p. 33; The Art Newspaper, May 2010, p. 20, and July/August 2010, p. 16, and September 2010, p, 16. Government grants no longer cover costs of Kunstvereine. The Art Newspaper, May 2010, p. 7. Less money for libraries. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 10 November 2010, p. N5. Greek cultural institu- tions, because of cuts and closures, were on strike. The Art Newspaper, June 2010, p. 15; Irish and Scottish museums would get less public money next year. The Art Newspaper, December 2010, p. 15. In Italy the conductor Daniel Barenboim, be- fore starting to conduct Rheingold in the Scala of Milan, read the Italian Consti- tution, which obliges the Republic to care for art, culture, and research. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 9 December 2010, p. 29. “The Horror Story of Venice’s Civic Museums,” The Art Newspaper, October 2010, p. 8. The exhibition La scultura a Roma nel Quattrocento had to be reduced from 90 to 35 objects. Il Giornale dell’Arte, May 2010, p. 21. Museums in Turin, Naples, and Bologna suffered steep drops in financial and political support. The Art Newspaper, November 2010, p. 20. In the Netherlands there were also shortfalls. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 8 July 2011, p. 33. In Switzerland less government money was scheduled for subsidizing his- torical monuments. Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 27 January 2011, p. 25. The United Kingdom announced 15% cuts for national museums. The Art Newspaper, November 2010, p. 9; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 21 September 2010, p. 13. In the United States the Asian Art Museum Foundation of San Fran- cisco was facing bankruptcy. The Art Newspaper, January 2011, p. 16. Cutbacks in the Chicago Art Institute. The Art Newspaper, May 2010, p. 22. But the art trade CHRONICLES 547 https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 https:/www.cambridge.org/core seemed to recover. Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 30 December 2010, p. 11. DECEMBER 2010 Italy and China made an agreement providing China exhibition space in Rome (Palazzo Venezia) and providing space for Italy in the National Museum of China in Beijing. The Art Newspaper, December 2010, p. 13. DECEMBER 2010 Another German-Russian dialog on libraries took place in Moscow. However, there was no success concerning the restitution of German books to German libraries. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 22 December 2010, p. N4. DECEMBER 2010 Scientists of France and England identified the head of King Henry IV of France (reigned 1589–1610). Henry IV was murdered, and his corpse was buried in Saint- Denis in Paris. In 1793, at the time of the French Revolution, his grave was looted and his head disappeared. It was auctioned in 1919 to the antiquarian Joseph Bour- dais and in 1955 sold to Jacques Bellanger. Now scientists have identified the head of Henry IV by revealing personal distinguishing attributes of his head (pierced ear for an earring, wound of the upper jaw because of an injury; red and white hair), Die Welt, 17 December 2010, p. 22; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 17 De- cember 2010, p. 8. 548 KURT SIEHR https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 https:/www.cambridge.org/core 
work_4oo2jpu4dncpxn7wbspnukonge	----	Ratio Mathematica ISSN: 1592-7415 Vol. 35, 2018, pp. 87- 99 eISSN: 2282-8214 87 Preparation and Application of Mind Maps in Mathematics Teaching and Analysis of their Advantages in Relation to Classical Teaching Methods Andrej Vanko* Received: 04-08-2018 Accepted: 30-11-2018 Published: 31-12-2018 doi: 10.23755/rm.v35i0.428 ©Andrej Vanko Abstract In this article, we are dealing with mind maps and describing the experiment with the application of mind maps in teaching mathematics at secondary schools. The experiment is aiming at comparing classical teaching and learning with mind maps. In the past, we created two groups of students (25 students per group), an experimental and a control group. We have set up a pre-test consisting of tasks not related to the subject that will be taken through mind maps. By the end of the experiment, we apply a post-test with tasks directly focused on the subject that we will teach through mind maps. We will then evaluate the individual tests and then we will evaluate the effectiveness of the mind maps in the teaching process compared to the traditional methods. Keywords: mind maps, experiment, mathematics, application, pre- test, post-test, comparing * Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra, Trieda A. Hlinku 1, 949 74 Nitra, Slovak Republic; Email: andrej.vanko@ukf.sk. Andrej Vanko 88 1. Mind Maps Mind maps are diagrams that express essential relationships between terms in the form of claims. The statements are represented by briefly characterized combinations of terms that describe relationship information and describe the interrelation of concepts. The mind map illustrates the structure, hierarchy, and the relationship between the terms. It enhances the learning process efficiency and promotes creativity. They are very economical in expressing a very complex content, helpful to memorize, allowing a view of the same thing from multiple angles, allowing see the relationships between ideas in a complex way [8]. They also help to see paradoxes and opposites, which motivates students to ask new questions. It is very important to determine the central idea, from which lead the main and the secondary branches, which gradually form certain relations. We use different colors, shortcuts, diagrams, symbols, equations, and images in the map. Mind maps as a schematic expression of thoughts, ideas or notes are not inventions of the 21st century. In addition, the use of learning methods built on the creation and presentation, which are logically arranged and the links of the conjugated terms are not the discovery of current educational trends. In the past, teachers structured the learned curriculum by using key concepts placed on a magnetic board, notice board, or complemented the prepared schemes with cutout images and characters. Many important artists and geniuses, such as Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Isaac Newton, Pablo Picasso, Thomas Edison, Galileo, Marie Curie and others, brought certain schemes into their own ideas in the past. They tried to highlight their ideas, not just linear, using lines and words, but also with a strong language of images, drawings, schemes, codes, symbols, and graphs [1]. In current professional, as well as popular-learning literature, we can encounter several names of the linear and nonlinear layout of concepts, data and main themes in graphically integrated structures. The authors present conceptual maps, mental maps, thought maps, cognitive maps, semantic maps, knowledge maps, webs, mind maps, and so on. Some of these terms do not distinguish individually and call their collectively mental maps or cognitive schemes [2]. J. D. Novak [3] considered as a founder of conceptual map theories and their construction speaks of mind maps as a hierarchically arranged, graphical representation of relations between selected concepts. There are general terms at the top of the map that are associated with terms that are more specific in the lower tree level. From the central concept, the "branches" are connecting with the Preparation and application of mind maps 89 concept in the lower parts of the map, from which the "branches" are connecting again with the concept at the lower levels of the map. Psychologists Veselský [4] and Stewart [5] talk about conceptual maps as graphical imaging systems, whose basic building unit are concepts. They are represented by frames with inscribed notional names and the relationships are expressed by marked orientated lines linking the respective conceptual expressions. Focus on the non-linear abstract representation of the structure of the subject and notes an opposite to the written, printed, projected, or otherwise presented text followed by the sentences one after the other [6], stresses Mareš. According to him, it is based on the idea of organizing the best and the most transparent key concepts and relationships by "visualizing" them and creating a sketch, a schematic of an easily accessible abstract "outer" memory. Although a learner learns to organize the key elements of the curriculum on paper first. He has to begin with organizing them in the head. Thus, he is forced to consciously construct and reconstruct a network of concepts and relationships in his "mental space" [7]. It follows from the above that there is no terminological unity and consensus among the experts in understanding the different concepts of capturing concept ideas in the graphical structure of related concepts with the designation of relationships and links between them. The Fisher’s definition of mind maps is probably the most precise according to them. A conceptual, thought-based, or otherwise called mental map is a diagram that illustrates the context and relationship between knowledge, serves to organize them. We understand the conceptual, mental or idea map as synonyms. We do this in particular because some of the used conceptual maps do not have a typical structure of mental maps, they consist of several levels, and there are significant links ̶ relationships between some terms [2]. 2. Preparation, Application and Evaluation of the Pre-Test If we wanted to compare the two different teaching methods, we needed to have the experimental and control groups at the same level of knowledge before the comparisons began. To test knowledge of these groups, we created a pre-test that tested both groups before applying the mind maps. Students in both groups wrote this pre-test on the same day. The pre-test included three tasks from the previous non-geometry related lesson. Tasks aimed at adjusting the fractions, creating, and Andrej Vanko 90 solving the equation. In each assignment, we identified several characters, which we took into consideration during the evaluation and allowed us to compare the two groups of students more objectively. Pre-test, Task 1: Determine when the expression is meaningful and adjust it to the simplest form. 𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑎 − 𝑏 − 𝑎 − 𝑏 𝑎 + 𝑏 1 − 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 𝑎2 − 𝑏2 ∶ 1 𝑏2 − 2 𝑏 + 1 2 − 1 + 𝑏2 𝑏 Rated characters in task # 1: • a ≠ b • b ≠ 0,1 • transcription for multiplication • common denominator • modifying a fraction • cutting fractions • excluding -1 from the second fraction • result Pre-test, Task 2: If we enlarge one side of the square by 4 units and at the same time reduce the other side by 2 units; we create a rectangle whose content is 12% larger than the square. Specify the square size of the square. Rated characters in task # 2: • picture • content of a square • rectangle content • increase content by 12% • equality of contents • edit quadratic equation • result Pre-test, Task 3: If we increase the unknown number by 7 and if we create the square root of this enlarged number, we get a number that is by 5 smaller than the original number. Specify an unknown number. Rated characters in task # 3: • enlarged number • root • reduced number • equality • squaring • writing of quadratic equation • modification of quadratic equation • writing results Preparation and application of mind maps 91 The selected characters represented the various conditions within the given task, important for its solvability, mathematical operations, mathematical entries, various comparisons, adjustments of equations, fractions and results of individual tasks. The choice of characters within the assignments helped us evaluate the solution of these tasks objectively without any external influence. Picture 1: Selected sample of students in pre-test, experimental group, Task 1 Picture 2: Selected sample of students in pre-test, experimental group, Task 2 Picture 3: Selected sample of students in pre-test, experimental group, Task 3 Picture 4: Selected sample of students in pre-test, control group, Task 1 Picture 5: Selected sample of students in pre-test, control group, Task 2 Picture 6: Selected sample of students in pre-test, control group, Task 3 a ≠ b b ≠ 0,1 transcription for multiplication common denominator modifying a fraction cutting fractions excluding -1 from the second fraction result N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N Y Y N N N N N N Y Y N N N N picture content of a square rectangle content increase content by 12% equality of contents edit quadratic equation result Y N Y N N N N N N N N N N N Y Y Y N N N N Y Y Y N N N N enlarged number root reuced number equality squaring writting of quadratic equation modification of quadratic equation writting results Y Y Y Y N N N N Y Y Y Y N N N N Y Y Y Y N N N N Y Y N Y N N N N a ≠ b b ≠ 0,1 transcription for multiplication common denominator modifying a fraction cutting fractions excluding -1 from the second fraction result N Y N N N N N N N N Y Y N N N N N N Y Y N N N N N N N N N N N N picture content of a square rectangle content increase content by 12% equality of contents edit quadratic equation result N Y Y N N Y N Y N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N enlarged number root reuced number equality squaring writting of quadratic equation modification of quadratic equation writting results Y Y Y Y N N N N Y Y Y Y N N N N Y Y Y Y N N N N N N N N N N N N Andrej Vanko 92 We evaluated the pre-test as the ratio of the characters in the resolution (Y means, that character was in resolution, N means, that character was missing in solution) from all students within the given task to the total number of characters within the given task. In Table 1 there is shown percentage of students’ success rate in each group in a particular task. Table 1: Comparison of pre-test results in experimental and control groups (%) Task / Group Experimental Control Task 1 10.2 5.7 Task 2 14.3 15.6 Task 3 33 34 Even though the students did not properly calculate the tasks, it was clear from the pre-test that both groups of students were about the same level of knowledge, what was essential for our experiment and we could move to the next stage, the application of mind maps in the teaching process. 3. Application of Conceptual Maps in the Teaching Process in the Subject of Mathematics After agreement with the mathematics teacher in the experimental group, we had three lessons available, during which we presented the curriculum of geometry dealing with the mutual positions of lines and planes. We used a computer and a projector for this activity. The curriculum was processed using conceptual maps and inserted into the presentation. We divided the curriculum for lessons into individual groups as follows: 1st lesson: Mutual position of lines (parallel, parallel identical, concurrent), 2nd lesson: Mutual position of lines (skew), mutual position of lines and planes (parallel, parallel identical), 3rd lesson: Mutual position of lines and planes (concurrent), mutual position of planes (parallel, parallel identical, concurrent). Preparation and application of mind maps 93 We informed students about the content for next three lessons. Picture 7: Introductory division of the curriculum Picture 8: Detailed division of the mutual positions of the two lines In Picture 8, we have explored in more detail the possible mutual positions of the two lines. Picture 9: Detailed division of the parallel positions of the two lines Picture 9 focused on the case of two parallel lines and the possible representation of these lines. Andrej Vanko 94 Picture 10: Detailed parametric representation of mutual parallel positions of two lines In Picture 10 there is an illustrative and detailed description of a branch of parametric representation. Picture 11: An example of the mutual position of two parallel lines in parametric representation In Picture 11 there is task, which the students were trying to solve after the theoretical part was completed. On the map there were marked intermediate results that served to students for check. Preparation and application of mind maps 95 As can be seen in Picture 7 ̶ 11, the principles of the mind map were retained. The deeper we got into the mind map, the more specific terms were in that part. Our task was to explain these concepts to the students so they can join these concepts together alone and can apply them in solving different problems. After these three lessons, during which we were teaching using mind maps, we moved into the final phase of our experiment. This part consisted of the post-test we gave to the students. The post-test consisted of tasks that focused directly on the subject discussed at our three lessons. 4. Preparation, Application and Evaluation of the Post-Test After completing the pre-test, which showed us that the students are about the same level of knowledge, following the use of mind maps in three teaching lessons, we have reached the final stage of our experiment. This final phase consisted of two phases: application of post-test and evaluation of results from post-test. The tasks in the post-test were, this time, directly focused on the mutual positions of planes and lines, in order to compare the effectiveness of this method in the experimental group against the classical way of teaching in the control group. In the given tasks, we have re-selected the characters that represented the key elements in the solving of the task. Post-test, Task 1: Show that the planes α and β are concurrent and write the parametric representation of the intersection of these planes. α: 5x – 3y + 2z – 5 = 0 β: 2x – y – z – 1 = 0 Rated characters in task # 1: • normal vector p • normal vector q • vector products • parameter at point P • parametric representation of intersection Andrej Vanko 96 Post-test, Task 2: Determine the mutual position of plane β and line p. β: x – 5y + 4z – 6 = 0 p: x = 2 – t, y = 3t, z = 3 + 4t, t ∈ R Rated characters in task # 2: • placing p to β, scalar product • place P into equation β • adjusting equation after placing P into β • determine final position Post-test, Task 3: Determine the mutual positions of p, q. If p = (𝑨𝑩) ⃡ , q = (𝑪𝑫) ⃡ A = [7, 6] B = [6, 8] C = [6, -5] D = [4, -1] Rated characters in task # 3: • line p • line q • expression of p • expression of q • vector comparison • computation and comparison of parameters • result Picture 12: Selected sample of students in post-test, experimental group, Task 1 Picture 13: Selected sample of students in post-test, experimental group, Task 2 Picture 14: Selected sample of students in post-test, experimental group, Task 3 normal vector p normal vector q vector products parameter at point P parametric expression of intersection Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N placing p to β, scalar product placing p to β, scalar product adjusting equation after placing P into β determine final position Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y line p line q expression of p expression of q vector comparison computation and comparison of parameters result Y Y N N Y N N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Preparation and application of mind maps 97 Picture 15: Selected sample of students in post-test, control group, Task 1 Picture 16: Selected sample of students in post-test, control group, Task 2 Picture 17: Selected sample of students in post-test, control group, Task 3 The post-test was evaluated in the same way as the pre-test and the results from both tests were subsequently recorded in Table 2 Table 2: Comparison of the results of the post-test in the experimental and control group (%) Task / Group Experimental Control Task 1 88.3 78.3 Task 2 91.7 68.8 Task 3 82.1 53.6 As we can see from Table 2, the results compared to the pre-test are much better. The students were able to apply the acquired knowledge in solving of the given tasks. For our experiment is much more important that the results achieved in the experimental group, in the group where we were teaching with the help of mind maps, are obviously better than in the control group where the classic teaching methods were used. normal vector p normal vector q vector products parameter at point P parametric expression of intersection Y Y N N N Y Y Y Y N Y Y Y Y N Y Y Y Y Y placing p to β, scalar product placing p to β, scalar product adjusting equation after placing P into β determine final position Y N N N N N N N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y line p line q expression of p expression of q vector comparison computation and comparison of parameters result Y Y N N Y N N Y N N N N N N Y Y N N Y N N Y N N N Y N N Andrej Vanko 98 5. Conclusion This article was focused on the application of mind maps in the teaching process and the comparison of the mind map's effectiveness with the classical way of teaching. This comparison consisted of three important steps: 1st Pre-test and evaluation 2nd Application of conceptual maps in the teaching process 3rd Post-test and evaluation In both tests, pre-test and post-test, we chose the rated characters which we were looking for during the correction of students’ tests. We subsequently evaluated and compared these rated characters. The students wrote the tests on the same day to prevent the possible influence and improvement of the results in one or the other group. In the first step, we gave the students a pre-test, in which the balance or imbalance of students’ knowledge in the experimental and control group should be demonstrated. The results of the pre-test showed that the students were about the same level of knowledge. In the next step, we had three lessons from the geometry. Subject of these lessons was the mutual positioning of the lines and the planes. During these lessons we were using mind maps. In the last step, the students wrote a post-test with tasks related to the mutual positions of the lines and planes. The post-test was then evaluated and the results from both groups were compared in Table 2. According to the values, we can see that success in solving problems is higher in the experimental group. These results are better in the range of 10% to almost 30% compared to the control group, which is not negligible. Only for comparison, the results of the pre-test in both groups varied from 1% to less than 5%. At the end, we can conclude that the mind maps in our presentation with our teaching are more effective compared to the traditional classical teaching method. Preparation and application of mind maps 99 References 1. MIND MAPPING BLOG. Software for mindmapping and information organization [online]. [Cit. 2013-06-02] Dostupné na internete: http://www.mind-mapping.org/blog/mapping-history/roots-of-visual-mapping/ 2. FISHER, R. Učíme děti myslet a učit se: praktický průvodce strategiemi vyučovaní [z angličtiny preložil Karel Balcar], Praha: Portál, 1997. ISBN 978-80-262- 0043-7, s.71-93 3. NOVAK, J.D., CAAS, A J. The Theory Underlying Concept Maps and How to Construst Them. Technical Repost IHMC CmapTools, Florida Institute for Human and Machine Cognition, [online]. [Cit. 2013-13-02] Dostupné na internete: http://cmap.ihmc.us/Publications/ResearchPapers/TheoryUnderlyingConceptMa ps.pdf 4. VESELSKÝ, M. Vedomosti a ich modelovanie. In: Psychológia a patopsychológia dieťaťa, roč. 22, 1987. ISSN 0555-5574 s. 217-229. 5. STEWART, J. Techniques for assessing information in cognitive structure. Science Education, 64, 1980, s. 223-235. [online]. [Cit. 2013-13-02] Dostupné na internete: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/sce.3730640212 6. ČÁP, J., MAREŠ, J. Psychologie pro učitele. Praha: Portál, 2001. ISBN 80- 7178-463-X. strana. 441-505 7. MAREŠ, J. Styly učení žáků a studentů. Praha: Portál s.r.o., 1998. ISBN 80- 7178-246-7. strana 142-170 8. BARALIS, G. H.: The views of primary education teachers on the verification of multiplication. In: Ratio Mathematica Journal of Mathematics, Statistics and Application. Vol 27 (2014), ISSN 2282-8214. p. 49-59 
work_4r4bfhb4dngefilqgf2rxvbkym	----	Hindrances to Internal Creative Thinking and Thinking Styles of Malaysian Teacher Trainees in the Specialist Teachers’ Training Institute Available online at www.sciencedirect.com 1877–0428 © 2011 Published by Elsevier Ltd. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.04.406 Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences 15 (2011) 4013–4018 p WCES-2011 Hindrances to Internal Creative Thinking and Thinking Styles of Malaysian Teacher Trainees in the Specialist Teachers’ Training Institute Chua Yan Piaw University of Malaya, Institute of Principalship Studies, Level 2, Block C, Complex City Campus UM, Jalan Tun Ismail, 50480 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Abstract The aim of this study is to identify hindrances to internal creative thinking and thinking styles of a group of Malaysian teacher trainees from the Specialist Teachers’ Training Institute (N = 232). Three psychological tests were used administrated to the subjects. The result indicates that the ability to think creatively for the majority of subjects (87.50%) is hindered seriously by one of the hindrances to internal creative thinking, that is, stimulus fixity. The finding implies that lecturers of this group of teacher trainees should guide them to overcome this internal barrier before trying to encourage them to think creatively. © 2011 Published by Elsevier Ltd. Keywords: Internal creative thinking, thinking style, teacher trainees, stimulus fixity, functional fixity 1. Background Human beings react differently to ambiguous situations, situations which cause an individual to experience stress and make him unable to think creatively. Several authors and researchers (Chua, 2010a, Almeida, Prieto, Ferrando, Oliveira, & Ferrándiz, 2008; Carson, Peterson, & Higgins, 2003; Daniels, 1998; Torrance, 1984; Sarnoff & Cole, 1983) are of the opinion that the ability to think freely with an open mind when facing ambiguous situations is an indicator of creative thinking. Hindrances to creative thinking can be divided into two types: hindrances to external creative thinking and hindrances to internal creative thinking. According to Dacey (1989), two kinds of hindrances to internal creative thinking which prevent people from continuing to think freely and openly when faced with ambiguous situations are stimulus fixity and functional fixity. Dacey defined stimulus fixity as a condition of an individual who, when faced with a specific stimulus, can only think about the stimulus such that he is unable to open his mind creatively to think about something else other than the stimulus. It is this hindrance that causes an individual to lose his creative thinking ability when faced with ambiguous situations. In addition, Dacey’s 1989 study conducted on a group of secondary school students showed that nearly 75% (n = 900) of them possess rigid thinking and are unable to think creatively because of stimulus fixity. He commented that the students’ ability of thinking is limited to the stimuli in front of them until they cannot think creatively about any other thing. Torrance, Ball & Safter (1984) labelled this condition as premature closure, that is, one of the Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license. Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/ 4014 Chua Yan Piaw / Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences 15 (2011) 4013–4018 hindrances where a person cannot open up or free his thinking to think of something else other than the stimulus in front of him. Functional fixity on the other hand is defined as the condition where a person is unable to open his mind to think beyond the function of a specific object. According to Dacey, life is a process of growing functional fixity – the more a person learns about how things work, the more he tends to accept the patterns of unalterable. Nevertheless, functional fixity interferes with problem solving at all levels of thinking. Only imaginative people could resist being functional fixity, and think freely for functions other than usual purposes. Dacey (1989) reported that the majority of his research subjects (secondary school students) are less creative because of functional fixity. Several authors and researchers (Koh, 2009; Norrizan, 2000) are of the opinion that the teaching methodology and the Malaysian school curriculum at this point in time place more emphasis on teaching, learning and evaluation methods which are left-brain oriented and which promote rote learning, convergent thinking and submission to the authority of teachers. According to Torrance and Sato (1979), the left and right hemispheres of the human brain function together to process information and both are required for creative problem-solving. William (1983) stated that man have two hemispheres in his brain but sometimes the education system operates such that we are made to use only one hemisphere and this indirectly hinders our ability to think creatively. Chua (2004) compared creative thinking among students in Asia and the United States and reported that the standard mean score for the creative thinking index of a group of Malaysian secondary school students is lower than the standard mean score for a similar age group in the United States. However, the factor that accounted for the difference was not identified. In relation to this, this study aims to explore and identify the hindrances to creative thinking and thinking styles of a group of teacher trainees in the teacher training institute in order to provide more information to educators, especially those who are directly involved in creative education. 2. Research objectives The objectives of this study are to identify: 1) hindrances to internal creative thinking in teacher trainees from the perspectives of stimulus fixity and functional fixity; and 2) thinking styles of a group of teacher trainees. 3. Methods The data of this descriptive survey was collected using three paper-pencil questionnaires. 3.1. Research subjects The subjects of this study comprised 232 semester three teacher trainees (Average age: 19.6 years old) of the Specialist Teachers’ Training Institute, Kuala Lumpur. The subjects enrolled in a Bachelor of Teaching programme, offered by the Ministry of Education, Malaysia. 3.2. Research instruments Three instruments were used in this study. The first instrument was the Story-writing Test (Dacey, 1989). This is a paper-pencil test using a picture of a cat looking at a rectangle. The subjects were asked to write a short story, which is interesting and unusual, a story that no one else would think of. This instrument is used to collect information about a hindrance to internal creative thinking, that is, stimulus fixity. The second instrument used was the Two-string Test (Dacey, 1989). This instrument is a paper-pencil test showing a picture of a young man. One of his hands is tied with a string to the ceiling of a room (string A) while the other hand is trying to reach for the string which is far from him (Dacey, 1989: 24). Research subjects were asked to help the young man solve his problem using a mouse trap. This instrument is used to gather information about functional fixity, another hindrance to internal creative thinking. Chua Yan Piaw / Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences 15 (2011) 4013–4018 4015 The third instrument was the Thinking Style (YBRAINS, Chua, 2010b) which is used for collecting quantitative information about thinking styles. The test items were built based on research findings about brain hemisphericity. It is a paper-pencil test with 25 items. Each item contains choices related to left-brain, right-brain and whole brain thinking. The items of the YBRAINS instrument were developed based on research evidences of split brain experiments including the blood flow technique (Lassen & Ingvar, 1972), dichotic listening technique (Bethmann, Tempelmann, De Bleser, Scheich, & Brechmann, 2007; Kimura, 1961), and electroencephalogram or electrical brain writing technique (Galin & Ornstein, 1972). Besides that, in building the test, findings regarding the functions of the left brain and right brain from psychological tests such as the literal preference test (Porch & Coren, 1981) and the street gestalt completion test (Bogen, 1975) were also referred to. [The computer-based YBRAINS test was awarded a gold medal at the 21th International Invention, Innovation & Technology Exhibition, ITEX ’10, on 14 - 16 May 2010, Kuala Lumpur Convention Centre] A left-brained thinker tends to be more logical and analytical in thinking. He evaluates materials in a rational way, works in a systematic manner, follows rules, processes information sequentially or step by step, is a conforming person, is emotionally inhibited, prefers structured assignments, takes life seriously and is proficient in language and verbal activities. Jobs best suited for this kind of person are those that require systematic, logical thinking and decision-making skills. Meanwhile, the right brained person is creative, generates good spatial relationships, has a highly adventurous and inventive mind, solves problem intuitively, is a non-confirming person, responds with emotions and feelings, prefers open-ended assignments, has a good sense of humour, faces everyday life with an open mind, responds to music and art and possesses innate musical and artistic talent. The right-brained person is suitable for jobs that require the forming of spatial relationships, creative expressions (such as the aesthetics value of cubism painting of Pablo Picasso) and those that involve idea generation. To be considered whole brained, a person must have a balanced thinking style, possesses the thinking abilities and other characteristics of left-brained and right-brained thinkers. The whole brained thinker is most suited for jobs that need right-brain and left-brain skills. Test-retest reliability of the YBRAINS was conducted in a pilot study on a group of 35 students of a teacher training programme at the Kuala Lumpur Specialist Teachers’ Training Institute. The same students were retested three months later. The average age of the respondents in the reliability test (average age: 19.4 years old) was similar to the average age of the respondents in the study. The product-moment correlation coefficients were positively significant for the brain styles [left-brain style: r = .93, p< .05; right-brain style: r = .84, p< .05; whole- brain style: r = .87, p< .05]. 3.3. Research procedure The research subjects individually answered questions from the three research instruments in a classroom setting under the supervision of lecturers who were teaching the classes concerned. The time allocated for the first and second instruments was 8 minutes each, while 30 minutes were allocated for the third instrument. 3.4. Data analysis Since this is a descriptive research, data for hindrances to internal creative thinking (stimulus fixity and functional fixity) is tabulated in frequency and percentage. The data is also analysed qualitatively, that is the students’ answers are interpreted based on the definitions of stimulus fixity and functional fixity. For thinking styles (left, right and whole brain thinking styles), the data is tabulated in terms of frequency and percentage. 4. Results 4.1. Hindrances to internal creative thinking The frequency and percentage for hindrances to internal creative thinking of the subjects are shown in Table 1. 4016 Chua Yan Piaw / Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences 15 (2011) 4013–4018 Table 1. Frequency and percentage of the hindrances to internal creative thinking ability of the subjects (N = 232) Test Hindrances to creative thinking Stimulus fixity Functional fixity Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage The story-writing test 203 87.50 – – The two-string test – – 34 14.66 The results show that 87.50% (n = 203) of the subjects experience stimulus fixity and 14.66% (n = 34) experience functional fixity. The results indicate that stimulus fixity is the hindrance to creative thinking experienced by the majority of the subjects. Only a small number of the subjects experience the problem of functional fixity. 4.1.1. Stimulus fixity When the short stories of the subjects were analysed quantitatively, it was found that most of the subjects could only write stories centred on the rectangle in the picture given. The following are some of the extracts from the short stories written by this group of subjects: “In the box, there was food. A cat smelled the fried fish and tried to go near the box. Unfortunately the cat could not open the box.” (Subject 22) “The cat ran very fast, looking all around. It saw a box in front. The cat opened the box and saw a rat sleeping in the box.” (Subject 25) “One day a cat saw a hole in the wall of its master’s house. The cat wanted to see what was in the hole. So it waited in front of the hole and observed. Suddenly a rat jumped out.” (Subject 8) “A cat wanted to look for its friend who had gone missing for a long time. While it was walking, looking for its missing friend, it saw a very big box. It tried to open it, but could not because the box was too heavy.” (Subject 117) The research data clearly shows that the ability of the above subjects to think openly and freely when faced with an ambiguous situation is low. This weakness (thinking was restricted by the rectangle in the picture which represents an ambiguous situation) hinders them from thinking creatively and producing unique ideas. Extracts from the short stories written by the second group of subjects, who are free from stimulus fixity, are as follows: “One quiet night, I felt tired and slept on the bed. I had a strange dream. In my dream, there was a hungry cat with yellow fur. It was looking for food all around its master’s house and finally saw a fish on the table. When the cat was going to eat the fish, it saw another cat which was sick and hungry. It remembered its mother who was kind and always helped other cats who needed help.” (Subject 34) “Kamal is an artist. One day Kamal drew a pretty picture (picture of a cat, like in the picture above). He coloured it using pretty colours. He wanted to sell his picture to the owner of a restaurant, but the restaurant owner did not want to buy the picture because he could not understand it. Kamal explained that the picture would bring luck to the restaurant owner because the cat in the picture represented the customers who were very interested in the restaurant’s food, and if the picture were hung on the wall of the restaurant, the business would increase.” (Subject 77) The difference between the two types of stories above is that the first group composed the stories as if they were instructed to focus their stories on the rectangle in the picture. In this situation their thinking was restricted and they were unable to compose unique and unusual stories. Their stories were almost always constrained by the lines that surround the picture. However the stories of the second group were not restricted by the rectangle in the picture; they used the whole picture or elements in the picture as the basis to develop stories which were freer and unique. Their thinking was not hindered by stimulus fixity. 4.1.2. Functional fixity The research data in Table 1 clearly shows that only a small group (n = 34; 14.66%) of teacher trainees could not solve the problem (when faced with an ambiguous situation) creatively because they could not imagine how the Chua Yan Piaw / Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences 15 (2011) 4013–4018 4017 mouse trap could be used for purposes other than its original one. Some of the teacher trainees suggested that the mouse trap be used to catch a mouse and the mouse be used to help the young man reach for the two strings. However, the majority of the subjects could think logically and rationally, and suggested using the concept of gravitational pull (weight of the mouse trap) to swing the trap which was tied to string B to reach string A. 4.2. Thinking style The frequency and percentage of each thinking style of the students are shown in Table 2. It was found that most of the students tend to use the left brain to think (left brain 66.81%, right brain 27.16% and whole brain 6.03%). Table 2. Thinking styles of the subjects (N = 232) Thinking style Frequency Percentage Left 155 66.81 Right 63 27.16 Whole brain 14 6.03 5. Discussion The study results show that most (n = 203; 87.50%) of the teacher trainees experience the problem of stimulus fixity. They tend to focus their attention on the stimulus alone when faced with ambiguous situations. These teacher trainees are stimulus-bound; they follow rules religiously and are unable to bend the rules to suit their needs. They assume that rules exist when the situation is ambiguous (Slahova, Savvina, Cacka, & Volonte, 2007; Getzels & Taylor, 1975; Torrance, 1979). They are likely to assume non-existent directions in order to alleviate the fear of being wrong, and the fear is undoubtedly one of the most effective inhibitors of creative thinking. This behaviour served as a hindrance to internal creative thinking. A creative personality dares to engage in uncertain and ambiguous situations, find new aspects in something that is congenial and familiar and create new experiences, always eagerly searching for new styles and manners and proceeding with various stages of the creative process (Slahova, Savvina, Cacka, & Volonte, 2007, Chua, 2009). Obviously, from the results of the study, this creative personality is lacking in the teacher trainees. This may be due to the school education system which directly or indirectly stresses thinking which is “systematic, logical and structured” in order to achieve high score in examinations (some subjects in the curriculum do emphasise the significance of enhancing thinking skills in students. This is however, due to the tough competition among schools for academic achievement and “excellent school” and “cluster school” status). Students are taught to follow instructions step by step and to think logically as soon as they enter school (Hart, 1983). This emphasis indirectly will train them to centre and view each stimulus from only one perspective. Such a focus only increases the ability to think logically while weakening the ability to think creatively. The findings of this study are supported by the research data about functional fixity, where the majority of teacher trainees could think logically, as illustrated by their use of the gravity concept to solve the problem in the Two-string Test. They could see the mouse trap functioning as a weight, but other unusual functions were not immediately obvious to them. The research results are also supported by the data in Table 2 which shows that most of the teacher trainees tend to use their left brain, which is oriented towards logical, systematic and rational thinking. However, the results about functional fixity are not in line with the findings of Dacey (1989). The contradictions in the two research findings may be explained by the results of Chua’s research (2002), which showed that the standard mean score index for creative thinking in Malaysian students is lower when compared to the mean score index for American students of the same age. Nevertheless, to compare data of two studies which were conducted 10 years apart does not make sense. More bilateral or multilateral studies should be conducted to clarify this result. 4018 Chua Yan Piaw / Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences 15 (2011) 4013–4018 6. Implications and suggestions The results imply that the teacher trainees in this research experience problems in stimulus fixity when they are faced with ambiguous situations. To free them from this hindrance to creative thinking, it is suggested that lecturers help their students to become aware of this problem and explain to them the natural process of creative thinking while at the same time prepare an environment which will allow them to think creatively. This will awaken them to their innate powers of mind and enable them to reclaim their ability to think creatively. References Almeida, L.S., Prieto, L.P., Ferrando, M., Oliveira, E., & Ferrándiz, C. (2008). Torrance Test of Creative Thinking: The question of its construct validity. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 3(1), 53–58. Bethmann, A., Tempelmann, C., De Bleser, R., Scheich, H., & Brechmann, A. (2007). Determining language laterality by fMRI and dichotic listening. Brain Research, 1133(1), 145–157. Bogen, J.E. (1975). The other side of the brain VII: Some educational aspects of hemispheric specialisation. UCLA Educator, 17, 24–32. Carson, G.H., Peterson, J.B., & Higgins, D.M. (2003). Decreased latent inhibition is associated with increased creative achievement in high- functioning individuals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(3), 449–506. Chua, Y.P. (2002). Brain hemisphericity, creative and critical thinking of Malaysian form sixth students. Unpublished doctoral degree dissertation. Serdang, Malaysia: University Putra of Malaysia. Chua, Y.P. (2004). Creative and critical thinking style. Serdang, Malaysia: Universiti Putra Malaysia Press. Chua, Y. P. (2009). Writing a series of best-selling research reference books. Journal of Scholarly Publishing, 40(4), 408-419. Chua, Y. P. (2010a). The use of the concept test study in writing a series of bestselling academic books. International Journal of Market Research, 52(6), 715-730. Chua, Y.P. (2010b). Building a test to assess creative and critical thinking simultaneously. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 2(2), 2010, 551-559. Dacey, J.S. (1989). Fundamentals of creative thinking. New York: Lexington Books. Daniels, S. (1998). A kaleidoscopic view: Reflections on the creative self. Roeper Review, 20(3), 154–158. Galin, D., & Ornstein, R. (1972). Lateral specialization of cognitive mode: An EEG study. Psychophysiology, 9, 412–418. Getzels, J.W., & Taylor, I.A. (1975). Perspectives in creativity. Chicago: Aldine Pub. Co. Hart, L.A. (1983). Human brain and human learning. New York: Longman. Kimura, D. (1961). Some effects of temporal lobe damage on auditory perception. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 15, 156–165. Koh, S.L. (May 31, 2009). Nurturing minds. The New Straits Times, p. H20. Lassen, N.A., & Ingvar, D.H. (1972). Radio-isotopic assessment of regional cerebral blood flows. In progress in nuclear medicine. Baltimore: University Park Press. Norrizan, R. (2000, April 22). More than passing exams. The Sun, p. 16. Porac, C., & Coren, S. (1981). Effects of stimulated refractive asymmetries on eye dominance. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 9, 269–271. Sarnoff, K., & Cole, P. (1983). Creative and personal growth. Journal of Creative Behaviour, 17(2), 95–102. Slahova, A., Savvina, J., Cacka, M., & Volonte, I. (2007). Creative activity in conception of sustainable development education. International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education, 8(2), 142–154. Torrance, E.P. (1979). The search for satori and creativity. New York: Creative Synergetic Association. Torrance, E.P., Ball, O. E. & Safter, H.T. (1984). TTCT streamlined (revised) manual including norm and direction for administrating and scoring Figural A and B. Lexington: Personal Press/Ginn & Company. Torrance, E.P., & Sato, S. (1979). Difference in Japanese and United States’ styles of thinking. Creative Child and Adult Quarterly, 4, 145–151. Williams, L.V. (1983). A guide to right/left brain education: Teaching for the two sides mind. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. . 
work_4vghkspkyjg73ei2l35dzsylqm	----	Adresa autora: Emil Vlajić, Svetozara Markovića 36/25, Zaječar, Srbija. E-mail: vemil@mts.rs Rad primljen: 6. 4. 2015. Rad prihvaćen: 31. 5. 2015. Elektronska verzija objavljena: 21. 8. 2015. www.tmg.org.rs 97 Vol. 40 (2015) br. 2 Originalni rad UDK 75.049:61 ISSN 0350-2899. - Vol. 40, br. 2 (2015), str. 97-105. COBISS.SR-ID 216886028 DOKTORI U OČIMA UMETNIKA PHYSICIANS IN THE EYES OF ARTISTS Emil Vlajić ZDRAVSTVENI CETNAR ZAJEČAR, ZAJEČAR Sažetak: Lekarska profesija se nalazi na vetrometini istorijskih zbivanja. Često je odraz opštih istorijskih i društvenih dešavanja. Vetrovi istorije kroz socijalne turbulencije menjaju poziciju doktora, ali i njegovo viđenje od strane ljudi koji nisu doktori. Posebno viđenje imaju oni koji od lekara očekuju pomoć – lekar svakako izgleda drugačije u njihovim očima. Međutim, samo umetnici imaju tu moć da kroz svoju veštinu prikažu svu kompleksnost odnosa lekara i pacijenta. Kroz slike umetnika vidimo kompleksnost i višeslojnost tog odnosa. U tom odnosu upravo emotivni naboj izbija u prvi plan i veličina umetnika se prepoznaje po stepenu emocija koje nas preplavljuju dok posmatramo njihova dela. U ovom radu je analizirano sedam slika, sedam umetnika, gde se prikazuje upravo odnos lekara i pacijenta. Svaka od ovih slika ima svoju priču, odražava istorijsko okruženje, prikazuje različite vrste pacijenata i na različite načine prikazuje doktore. Svima je jedinstveno to da u centar dešavanja stavljaju lekara i njegov odnos prema pacijentu. Kroz oči umetnika možemo da doživimo lekarsku profesiju na novi način i kroz novu dimenziju spoznamo odnos lekara i pacijenta. Ključne reči: Umetnost i medicina, doctor i pacijent, medicina, umetnost. Abstract: The medical profession has always been a very important part of history. Very often it is the reflection of general historical and social events. The winds of history and social turbulences change the doctor’s role in society as well as the way people who aren’t doctors see them. People who expect doctor’s help certainly view this person very differently and he holds a special place in their lives. However, not all people have the skill and the talent to present the complexity of this doctor-patient relationship to the world. Artists have the ability to present to the world what they see and what they feel through their art and tell the story about the doctor and the patient and multiple layers of their relationship. The emotional aspect of this relationship is one of the most important ones and we can measure an artist and their art by the amount of emotions we feel when we are looking at an art piece. In this article seven artworks by seven authors will be analyzed all of which represent the doctor-patient relationship. Each of these paintings has its own story, it represents the social and historical environment of the time period in which it was created and it shows different types of patients and presents doctors in different ways. The thing all of these artworks have in common is the central motif – the doctor and the patient and their relationship. The artist gives us an opportunity to observe and to experience medical practice and to witness the doctor-patient relationship in a different way. Key words: Medicine and art, Doctor and patient, Medicine, Art UVOD Istorija lečenja duga je koliko i ljudska istorija. Svest o bolestima dovodi do pojave prvih pokušaja lečenja i istovremeno do ljudi koji su se bavili ovakvim poslom. I ubrzo, istorijski gledano, pored pojmova o zdravlju i bolesti i pojave prvih „lekara” izgrađuje se i sam odnos između bolesnika i „lečitelja”. Kroz čitavu ljudsku istoriju, ovaj odnos je trajao i opstajao, često je bio u drugom planu, nekada neprimetan i skriven, ali uvek prisutan. Savremeno doba, sa eksplozivnim širenjem i razvojem medicinske nauke, uz svu šarolikost tehničkih pomagala, na neki način odnos pacijenta i doktora ostavlja u pozadini. Ovaj odnos time ne gubi od svog značaja. Za razliku od medicine, koja se razvija nepojmljivom brzinom, odnos lekar–pacijent konstanto je prisutan i održava svoj značaj. Lekari često svoj odnos prema pacijentu, oslobođen same medicine, olako shvataju, računaju da se podrazumeva, ne pridaju mu veliki značaj, dozvoljavaju da se spontano razvija. Malo lekara o njemu 98 Originalni rad Vol. 40 (2015) br. 2 www.tmg.org.rs intenzivno razmišlja i svesno ulaže trud u poboljšanje ovog odnosa. Kvalitet samog lekara se, pored medicinskog znanja, može ceniti i kvalitetom odnosa prema pacijentu. Tek retki doktori ovaj, rekli bismo „nemedicinski” aspekt svoje profesije, znaju da ispolje na pravi način. Pacijenti to prepoznaju, nekako su osetljiviji, i pridaju veliki značaj upravo ovom odnosu. Oni lakše razumeju postojanje dobrog odnosa sa lekarom, nego stručne pojmove koje medicina nosi, a lekari koriste. Iskusni lekari znaju koliku snagu i pomoć u procesu lečenja ima dobar odnos sa pacijentom. Umetnici mogu svojim senzibilitetom za prepoznavanje finih međuljudskih odnosa, koristeći izražajna sredstva umetničke profesije, da iskažu sve nijanse specifičnog odnosa doktor– pacijent. Sledi devet umetnika i njihovih dela koja oslikavaju ovaj odnos. Svako od ovih dela nosi specifičnost autora, ali oslikava i okruženje, stanje društva određene epohe. Svaka slika nosi svoju specifičnost odnosa lekara sa pacijentom, ali i fluid emocija koje su čvrsto vezane za temu slike. Svaka slika ima svoju priču, koja je duboka, ljudska, na neki način, nosi suštinu ljudskog postojanja. Vincent van Gog, Portret dr Gašea, 1890. Vincent van Gogh, “Portrait of Dr Gachet”, 1890. Dr Pol Gaše (1828–1909) je bio strastveni ljubitelj umetnosti i lično je poznavao mnoge umetnike tog vremena. Brinuo je o Van Gogu u poslednjim mesecima umetnikovog života. Van Gog je u pismu svome bratu napisao svoj prvi utisak o dr Gašeu: „Bolesniji je od mene, ili bar koliko i ja”, ali je kasnije promenio mišljenje i naveo da su postali dobri prijatelji [1]. Tokom trajanja njihovog poznanstva, Van Gog je načinio dva poretreta doktora Gašea. Prvi se nalazi u privatnoj kolekciji, a drugi je izložen u muzeju Orsej u Parzu. Oba portreta prikazuju doktora Gašea kako sedi za stolom sa glavom naslonjenom na desnu ruku. Dr Gaše gleda u daljinu melanholičnim pogledom. Njegove oči, ispunjene tugom, deluju kao da odsutno traže nešto u daljini. Oslonio je glavu na ruku, dok mu druga ruka miruje na stolu. Male crtice boja oko i kroz samog dr Gašea su, gotovo sve, usmerene ka gornjem levom uglu slike. Usred nemira njihove boje i energije, doktor deluje odsutno i nezainteresovano za sopstveno mentalno zdravlje. Na crvenom stolu nalaze se dve knjige, čiji su autori braća koja su 99 Vol. 40 (2015) br. 2 Originalni rad www.tmg.org.rs ih zajednički napisali. Asocijacije idu u prilog Van Gogovog simboličnog i tragičnog, a ipak bliskog odnosa sa sopstvenim bratom Teom. U čaši na stolu naslikan je cvet zubaca, biljke iz koje se dobija digitalis. Stavljanjem lekovite biljke u prvi plan, umetnik portretu doktora pridaje medicinski značaj. Dr Gaše i Van Gog su odnos doktor–pacijent prevazišli i postali su prijatelji. Van Gog je bio posebno naklonjen svom doktoru u zajedničkoj borbi protiv depresije i naglašava činjenicu da i doktori mogu biti pacijenti, da mogu biti bolesni od istih bolesti od kojih leče svoje pacijente, tj. da i sami mogu biti sa druge strane odnosa doktor– pacijent [2]. Frida Kalo, Autoportret sa portretom doktora Farila, 1951. Frida Kahlo, “Self-Portrait with the Portrait of Doctor Farill”, 1951. Doktor Huan Faril je operisao Fridu Kalo 1951. godine 7 puta pošto se njena bolest značajno pogoršala. Po delimičnom oporavku, koji je bio u tom stepenu da može da slika (mada je Frida često slikala i u bolničkom krevetu, koristeći specijalno konstruisane stalke za to), stvoreno je ovo delo. Slika je bila posvećena doktoru Farilu. Kompozicija slike ima elemente naivnog slikarstva Meksika, tzv. ex-voto i retablo stila, gde se umetnik (najčešće je to naivni umetnik skromnih sposobnosti) zahvaljuje nekom svecu ili zaštitniku koji ga je spasao ili mu pomogao da prebrodi neku tešku situaciju. Ambijent ove slike je krajnje jednostavan, soba sa zidom u beloj i plavoj boji i daščanim podom, u blatno braon tonu, oslikava jednostavnost meksičke kuće. Na slici je prikazano platno sa slikom doktora Farila na slikarskom stalku i Frida koja sedi u invalidskim kolicima. Platno koje je prikazano na slici u stvarnosti ne postoji. Naslikan je doktor Faril, u odelu, sa kravatom, ozbiljnog izraza lica, pogleda uprtog naviše. Pošto je nameravala da se slikom zahvali doktoru, Frida je mogla da jednostavno naslika sam portret, kao što je prikazan na njenoj slici, ali se umetnica odlučila da snažnu, odlučnu figuru doktora dopuni sopstvenim prisustvom i na taj način dodatno iskaže svoje poštovanje, divljenje i zahvalnost lekaru koji je bio tako istrajan u pokušajima da joj olakša život. S druge strane, izdvojila ga je iz svoje realnosti, jer pored nje, koja je u invalidskim kolicima, doktor je na platnu, u svetu koji nije u istom nivou, nalazi se na nekom uzvišenom mestu. Tako ga je i predstavila, doktor je naslikan kao da ga posmatrač vidi odozdo, kao što se često prikazuju sveci i uzvišene ličnosti. Doktorov portret je gotovo monohromatski, a sebe je umetnica prikazala u krajnje jednostavnoj odeći, u tradicionalnoj meksičkoj bluzi sa jedva primetnim ukrasnim detaljem, u još jednostavnijoj suknji koja je naborana i spušta se do poda, potpuno joj prekrivajući noge. Lice umetnice je prepoznatljivo. Odlučnog pogleda uprtog direktno u posmatrača, sa obrvama koje su naglašene i karakteristične za Fridu. Najmarkantniji detalj i fokus čitave slike jeste njen slikarski pribor koji drži u rukama. Paleta ima oblik otvorenog ljudskog srca, sa 100 Originalni rad Vol. 40 (2015) br. 2 www.tmg.org.rs prepoznatljivim konturama komora i pretkomora, aortama i pramenovima Hisovog snopa. Paleta, ili bolje je reći otvoreno srce, koje Frida drži u ruci pred portretom svog doktora, je crvene boje, boje krvi. U desnoj ruci Frida drži snop slikarskih četkica čiji su vrhovi uredno sređeni i imaju oblik vrhova kopalja. Četkice su uglavnom crvene, sa njih kaplje upravo ta, crvena boja. Elementi simbolike na ovom platnu su jasni. Frida, koja je u invalidskim kolicima, znači nemoćna i slaba, iskazuje svoju unutrašnju snagu izrazom lica, odlučnim pogledom i čvrstinom kojom drži četkice, otvara svoje srce i na taj način potpuno izlaže svoje najosetljivije delove tela i najosetljivije delove svoje duše očima lekara u koga ima potpuno poverenje i kome je beskrajno zahvalna [3]. Ova slika je Fridin poslednji potpisani autoportret. Tri godine kasnije, na samrti, zabeležene su njene reči: "I hope the exit is joyful - and I hope never to return" [4]. Francisko Goja, Autoportret sa doktorom Arietom, 1820. Francisco José de Goya y Lucientes “Self-portrait with Doctor Arrieta”, 1820. Bez obzira na to što se umetnički rad španskog slikara Franciska Goje svrstava u romantizam, on je izgradio sopstveni prepoznatljivi, „neuglačan, a ipak suptilan, ciničan i nežan” stil. Kritičnost i nepoverljivost prema tadašnjem društvu samo pojačavaju turbulentne političke prilike u državi i prate njegov umetnički rad. Kao zahvalnost za uspešno lečenje, Goja je posvetio sliku Autoportret sa doktorom Arietom svom doktoru Euhenio Garsia Arietai. To je dupli portret sa elementima ex-voto stila. U podnožju slike stoji objašnjenje „Zahvalni Goja svom prijatelju Arijeti: za umešnost i brigu kojom je uspeo da sačuva život tokom kratke i teške bolesti pred kraj 1819. godine, u 73. godini života. Naslikao 1820.” Na slici je prikazan bolesnik, Goja, kako sedi u postelji obučen u bledi sivomaslinasti kućni kaput. Deluje kao da je na samrti, krajnje je iscrpljen i poslednjim snagama, grčevito gužvajući čaršav rukama, pokušava da se održi u sedećem položaju. Njegovo lice je bledo, a glava deluje preteško, pada na stranu; oči su 101 Vol. 40 (2015) br. 2 Originalni rad www.tmg.org.rs polusklopljene, kao da se pacijent prepušta neizbežnoj sudbini i miri se sa bliskim krajem, hvata poslednji dah. Dr Arijeta je prikazan kao lekar koji zaista brine o svom pacijentu. On sedi na krevetu, pridržavajući pacijenta u sedećem položaju svojim telom i sa obe ruke, levim ramenom daje oslonac za mlitavu bolesnikovu glavu. Odlučni izrazi lica, pogleda uprtog u medikament, svojim čitavim stavom dr Arijeta odaje pozitivnog, altruističnog i odanog čoveka. Ako izuzmemo medicinske preporuke, celokupni stav doktora, sa bliskim kontaktom i pouzdanim osloncem za pacijenta, odlučnim i samopouzdanim pokretom kojim daje lek, bliskim odnosom njihove dve glave, pokazuje koliko ovaj doktor brine o svom pacijentu: klasičan prikaz divnog, humanog doktora. Svedoci smo intimnog, gotovo svetog momenta koji daje nadu [5]. Ne treba zaboraviti da je upravo taj pacijent, koji je bio na samrti, naslikao sve to. Da, Goja se oporavio, i sa neverovatnom preciznošću i umetničkim darom prikazao ne samo izgled ove situacije, već je uspeo da dočara i bespomoćnost bolesnog čoveka i mogućnost vraćanja iz mrtvih uz pomoć doktora koji iz te perspektive dobija nadljudske moći. Malo je umetnika koji su spremni da sebe prikažu u tako intimnom bespomoćnom stanju, kao što je Goja. Kete Kolvic, Kod doktora, 1920. Käthe Kollwitz, “Beim Arzt”, 1920. Kete Kolvic jedna je od najznačajnijih nemačkih umetnica dvadesetog veka, izuzetna žena koja je stvorila vanvremenska umetnička dela u uslovima teškog života i oskudice. Njena dela reflektuju socijalne uslove tog doba i tokom 1920-tih godina. Ona je stvorila seriju slika koja se tiču rata, siromaštva, života radničke klase i života običnih žena. Njen suprug je bio lekar u siromašnom delu Berlina koji je nudio besplatno lečenje siromašnima, tako da je Kete Kolvic imala prilike da se svakodnevno sreće sa gradskom sirotinjom i seljacima, njihovim patnjama, bolestima i strahovima. Svakodnevna životna iskustva su direktno uticala na njen rad, koji je prikazivao očaj miliona tokom perioda depresije, masovne nezaposlenosti i nezadržive inflacije. Imala je urođen osećaj za socijalnu nepravdu i saosećanje sa patnjama siromašnih. Krupne izolovane figure u njenim radovima prikazuju patnju, tugu, bespomoćnost ili tegobna preispitivanja. Tema Pijete, mrtvog Hrista u majčinim rukama, progoni Kolvicovu kroz celu njenu karijeru. Mnogi njeni radovi prikazuju upravo ovu, najtragičniju od svih pozicija, majku sa svojim mrtvim detetom na rukama. Sasvim razumljivo ako imamo na umu da je izgubila svog 18-godišnjeg sina na zapadnom frontu u privim mesecima Velikog rata [6]. Tokom nacističkog perioda izgubila je svoje mesto profesora i zabranjeno joj je da izlaže. Godine 1936. njena dela su povučena iz muzeja i galerija pošto je njen rad svrstan u „degenerisanu umetnost”. Na slici Kod doktora vidi se kako ozbiljan, proćelav doktor sa bradom i naočarima postavlja stetoskop na gola leđa dečaka i koncentrisano osluškuje disajne šumove. Njegovo lice deluje ozbiljno, čak zabrinuto, sa naglašenim naboranim čelom. Oslanjajući se levom rukom o koleno, nagnut unapred, svu svoju koncentraciju upućuje na ono što se čuje 102 Originalni rad Vol. 40 (2015) br. 2 www.tmg.org.rs preko stetoskopa iz dečakovih pluća. A to što se čuje svakako nije utešno, jer na doktorovom licu se očitava krajnja zabrinutost, sa izraženim borama na čelu i stisnutim usnama izgubljenim u bradatom licu. Oči su mu sklopljene od koncentracije. Mršava, zabrinuta žena sedi naspram njih oslanjajući glavu na svoju šaku. Dečak očito boluje od tuberkuloze, koja je u to vreme bila neizlečiva. Majka očekuje od doktora smrtnu presudu ne samo za svog sina, već verovatno i za sebe i za svoju ostalu decu. Malo je ko u istoriji umetnosti prikazao emocije očaja i bespomoćnosti kao što je to kroz svoje radove izrazila Kete Kolvic. Pikaso, Nauka i milosrđe, 1897. Pablo Picasso, „Science and Charity“, 1897. Pikaso je ovu sliku načinio kada je imao 15 godina i ona odlično pokazuje njegov ogroman talenat koji će dominirati u umetnosti 20. veka. Zadivljuje perfektna tehnika koju je osvojio u ovom ranom uzrastu. Godinu dana pre nastanka ove slike, njegova omiljena sestra Končita je umrla od difterije, kada je imala samo 7 godina i svakako je to bio jedan od razloga zašto je Pikaso izabrao ovako depresivnu temu. U tom uzrastu, Pikaso se sve više opirao autoritetu oca i njegovoj želji da karijeru stvara kroz izložbe, nagrade, prihvatanje i priznavanje od strane akademskih autoriteta u umetnosti. Odbacuje i religijske poglede na svet i kreće putem originalnog izražavanja. Ovo je poslednje njegovo delo kojim dominiraju elementi klasičnog stila. Na ovoj slici Pikaso nas upoznaje sa humanističkom stranom medicine kasnog 19. veka u Španiji, pre no što je medicina koristila razna snimanja i laboratorijske pretrage. Vidimo mladu ženu koja je na samrti. Sama bolest nam ostaje nepoznata, ali boja njene desne ruke nam jasno ukazuje da se radi o nečem vrlo ozbiljnom. Izraz lica pacijentkinje je zabrinut, pogled s mukom usmeren naviše. Može se reći da se bolesnica predala neminovnom bliskom kraju, a da jedina briga koje njeno lice izražava jeste usmereno ka detetu. Majku pregleda doktor, koji je upravo shvatio da gubi pacijenta. Levu ruku je ispružio ka bolesnoj ženi, opipava puls na njenom ručnom zglobu. Položaj doktorove ruke izražava brigu i odgovornost prema pacijentu, i sadrži istovremeno toplinu i ohrabrenje. Samim svojim izgledom, kao i ozbiljnim izrazom lica, doktor deluje umirujuće na prisutne u sobi. Pogled mu je uprt u džepni sat, jedini deo tehnologije koji služi medicini u sobi. S druge strane kreveta bolesne žene stoji sestra sa malim detetom, u jednoj ruci, i sa šoljom leka, u drugoj. Lek očito ne može biti uzet zbog ozbiljnog stanja bolesnice. Malo dete posmatra majku iz ruku medicinske sestre, nesvesno ozbiljnosti situacije i teškog perioda koji ga očekuje [7]. U vreme kada je slika nastala lekari su bili visoko cenjeni stubovi društva. Pored znanja, pored nauke, imali su moć da olakšaju bol, da budu uzdanica i nada, da razumeju i podrže i u najtežim situacijama. Bez obzira na nedostatak pratećih medicinskih instrumenata, ovom slikom Pikaso nas podseća na najjače oružje lekarske profesije, brigu za pacijenta i poverenje koje su pacijenti imali u lekare. 103 Vol. 40 (2015) br. 2 Originalni rad www.tmg.org.rs Luke Fildes, Doktor, 1891. Sir Luke Fildes, “The Doctor”, 1891. Ser Henri Tejt je 1890. godine od umetnika Luke Fildsa naručio sliku po njegovom nahođenju. Umetnik je pri stvaranju ovog dela imao na umu tragičan događaj iz sopstvenog života – smrt svoga sina u uzrastu od godinu dana. Bez obzira na tragediju, Fildes je bio impresioniran predanošću i zalaganjem doktora koga je tada imao prilike da gleda očima oca bolesnog deteta. Ali slika o kojoj je reč prikazuje „doktora tog vremena”, kroz lik doktora prikazuje samu suštinu lekarske profesije, a ne neku konkretnu ličnost [8]. U vreme nastajanja slike u umetnosti je bio je popularan socijalni realizam koji je prikazivao težinu života radničke klase. Na slici Doktor prikazan je skromno namešten ribarski dom sa posuđem od kalaja, sa otrcanim tepihom na kamenom podu, sa iznošenom odećom roditelja. Scena na slici je komponovana u dve grupe koje razdvaja centralna figura deteta koje bolesno leži na improvizovanom krevetu od dve kuhinjske stolice. U pozadini, otac deteta stoji, sa jednom rukom na ramenu svoje žene koja daje nemu podršku, nepomičnog pogleda uprtog u doktora. Majka deteta, iscrpljena nepodnošljivom brigom, skrivenog lica, ruke drži sklopljene za molitvu. Svako od njih, na svoj način, očekuje bilo kakav znak od strane doktora. Doktor sedi pored bolesnog deteta u napetom položaju, zaleđen između spremnosti da reaguje (oslonjena ruka na koleno) i odlučnosti da istraje (brada oslonjena na drugu ruku). Njegov položaj i pogled uprt u bolesno dete odražava svu predanost ne samo svojoj profesiji, već pacijentu. Lečenje, tj. medicina je prisutna u ovoj prostoriji, na stolu je poluprazna bočica sa lekom, tu je i lavor i bokal sa vodom za spuštanje temperature, na podu je recept. Ali, napetost cele kompozicije, emotivni naboj koji zrači iz prikazane situacije, ukazuju na suštinu odnosa doktora prema malom pacijentu čiji je život u njegovim rukama. Nagoveštaj olakšanja vidi se u slabom svetlu koje se probija kroz prozor iza roditelja, nagoveštavajući da je najgori deo noći prošao i da zora, koja simbolizuje olakšanje, upravo stiže. Tihi heroizam običnog doktora ukazuje da heroji nisu oni koji čine neverovatne, velike stvari, već oni koji, predano radeći svoj svakodnevni posao, čine ono za šta su se spremali da čine [9]. 104 Originalni rad Vol. 40 (2015) br. 2 www.tmg.org.rs Onore Domije, Dva doktora i smrt, 1869. Honoré Daumier, Les Deux medecines et la Mort, c. 1869. Onore Domije, koga su nazivali „Mikelanđelo karikature,” bio je slikar, štampar, skulptor i karikaturista. Tokom svog radnog veka načinio je više od 4000 litografija koje su poznate po specifičnoj satiri u kojima su glavni likovi bili političari. U svojim karikaturama naglašavao je političku situaciju svog vremena, oslikavajući korupciju u sudstvu, greške birokratije i nekompetentnost vlade. Zbog oštrog pera bio je i u zatvoru. Lekarska profesija nije bila pošteđena u njegovim radovima. Nisu bili pošteđeni ni pacijenti. Imao je oštro oko da u odnosu lekara prama pacijentu vidi dublju pozadinu okruženja čitavog tadašnjeg društva. Slika Dva doktora i smrt ima jasnu satiričnu komponentu, usmerena je na jednu osobinu koja često prati lekare: gordost. Dva lekara, obučena u odeću koja ukazuje na visok naučni rang, sa debelim knjigama, koje bi trebalo da nas ubede u njihovu kompetentnost, raspravljaju žučno o bolesti pacijenta. Toliko su zaokupljeni diskusijom, zastupajući svako svoje mišljenje o bolesti, od kog očigledno ni jedan ne misli da odustane, da sam pacijent ostaje daleko u pozadini. I zaista, u drugom planu je pacijent o kome se sa mnogo više uspešnosti brine poseban „doktor,” sama smrt. Visoka naučna diskusija između doktora je u jednom planu, daleko od pacijenta, tako da doktori jednostavno ne primećuju najznačajniju promenu kod svog pacijenta, odlazak u svet mrtvih. Na vrlo instruktivan način Onore Domije skreće pažnju tadašnje javnosti, a i doktorima svih epoha, da ispred sopstvene taštine ima nešto što je važnije – sam bolesnik. ZAKLJUČAK Pored drugih velikih tema i medicina je inspirisala umetnike. Oni su na svoj način znali da predstave bolest i smrt, lečenje i zdravlje, doktore i bolesnike. Kroz oči umetnika se nekada saznaju skrivene stvari koje profesionalcima često izmiču u svakodnevnom radu. Treba pažljivo pogledati radove umetnika koji imaju nešto da kažu o profesijama kojim se bavimo. Tu se često mogu pronaći fine, jedva opipljive stvari koje se često tiču suštine medicinske profesije i ulaze u srž samog postojanja. LITERATURA 1. Van Gog: Pisma bratu, Sluzbeni glasnik; Beograd, 2008. 2. Jeffrey K Aronson, Manoj Ramachandran, The diagnosis of art: melancholy and the Portrait of Dr Gachet, J R Soc Med. 2006 Jul; 99 (7): 373–374. 3. Park MP, Park RHR: The fine art of patient-doctor relationships, BMJ 2004; 329; 1475–1480. 4. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frida_Kahlo 5. Polyxeni Potter, Francisco José de Goya y Lucientes (1746–1828). Self-portrait with Doctor Arrieta (1820). Emerg Infect Dis. 2004 May; 10 (5): 974. 105 Vol. 40 (2015) br. 2 Originalni rad www.tmg.org.rs 6. http://artvemil.blogspot.com/2015/01/kathe-kollwitz- and-her-hands.html 7. Rodriguez del Pozo P, Fins JJ. Medicine and the arts. Science and charity: by Pablo Picasso. Acad Med. 2013 Apr;88 (4): 466–7. 8. Simon Wilson, Tate Gallery: An Illustrated Companion, London 1997, p. 90. 9. Jane Moore, What Sir Luke Fildes’ 1887 painting The Doctor can teach us about the practice of medicine today, British Journal of General Practice, March 2008. 
work_4wm36y6rcnhuzaczthak4gmcmu	----	A symbol — but of what? Iron Age daggers, Alessi corkscrews and anthropoid embellishment reconsidered Jack Carlson∗ An ingenious derivation for the La Tène dagger with anthropoid hilt shows how craftsmen gave an agreeable character to a working weapon. The dagger remained every bit as effective, but the splayed person on the hilt added a touch of playful luxury to the serious business of stabbing. By way of a modern anthropoid corkscrew, the author lures us away from an obsession with symbolism and encourages us to look for a more down-to-earth ‘psychological functionality’ in decorated objects. Keywords: Europe, Iron Age, La Tène, dagger, anthropoid ornament Introduction In 1873, while digging for gravel near his home, a Mr Guyot of Salon, France, discovered a human skeleton and associated burial objects (Morel 1898: 145). Among these artefacts was a dagger with an anthropomorphic hilt (Figures 1 & 2), now in the British Museum’s Morel Collection (London, British Museum: Morel Collection ML.1669; Megaw 1970: no. 228; Stead & Rigby 1999: no. 1669). The dagger is iron, 460mm long including a 345mm-long blade, while the hilt is bronze-coated iron. The hilt, formed from two pieces, is in the shape of a saltire, or X, with each branch of the X terminating in a round knob and forming the limb of a human model. The width across the arms of this anthropoid hilt is 45mm. The human figure’s ‘head’, sunken between the outstretched arms, features eyebrows and oval eyes, a nose, moustache and downturned mouth, a high hairline and a ponytail. But why was this dagger’s hilt shaped like a man and decorated with human features? Current research on this and other anthropoid weapons has not addressed this question, although it is clearly of great consequence to our understanding of La Tène ritual, art, social and military hierarchy and warrior culture. Similar daggers, all dated to the La Tène period — fourth to first centuries BC — have been found as far afield as Hungary and western Ireland: the number of discovered examples is unknown, although estimates have ranged from 40 to 70 (Clarke & Hawkes 1955: 205; Zeller 1980: 119–20; Drilhon & Duval 1985: 308; Pleiner 1993: 49, 69; Fitzpatrick 1996: 376). While scholarship related to these weapons has concentrated almost exclusively on typology, there remains much confusion ∗ Institute of Archaeology, Oxford University, 36 Beaumont Street, Oxford OX1 2PG, UK (Email: john.carlson@arch.ox.ac.uk) Received: 15 February 2011; Accepted: 4 April 2011; Revised: 18 April 2011 ANTIQUITY 85 (2011): 1312–1324 http://antiquity.ac.uk/ant/085/ant0851312.htm 1312 R es ea rc h Jack Carlson Figure 1. Anthropoid-hilt dagger from Salon, Aube, France. La Tène II, second century BC. British Museum Morel Collection ML.1669. Iron blade; bronze-coated iron hilt ( c© The Trustees of the British Museum). about their functionality (Clarke & Hawkes 1955; Petres 1979: 176; Drilhon & Duval 1985: 185; Pleiner 1993: 49–51, 166; Megaw 2002: 408–411; Stead 2006: 72). The idea that such daggers must have been symbols of chiefs or other high ranks and offices is pervasive (Bulard 1980: 49; Pleiner 1993: 49–51; Fitzpatrick 1996: 388; Cunliffe 1997: 233; Megaw 2002: 411) but it fails to consider context and comparanda. Traditionally, false dilemmas have been presented between the function- ality of the anthropoid handle — as a religious, symbolic or funerary object — and the functionality of the dagger as a weapon, and between “art for art’s sake” (Megaw & Megaw 1995: 345; Cunliffe 1997: 112; see also Aldhouse-Green 2004: xvi, 6) and a meaning related to rank or ritual (cf. Freedberg 1989: xxi–ii). No ornament is insignificant. Owner- ship of an object as eye-catching as the Salon dagger, not to mention the ability to create it, surely begets a degree of prestige and respect. At the same time, the social and political functions of the anthropoid deco- ration are far from explicit. There is nothing to indicate that the weapon was the definite indicator of a certain rank or status (indeed there is evidence to the contrary), just as there is nothing to suggest that the Salon dagger was not a real weapon. In the broader typology of Hallstatt and La Tène weapons, anthropoid examples like the Salon dagger developed from pseudo-anthropoid weapons and antenna-daggers. Context and comparison with other objects — old and new — reveal that it is both a La Tène custom and a human impulse to create such representations on utilitarian objects, especially when those objects already resemble humans or animals. In turn, a reassessment which looks beyond 1313 A symbol — but of what? Iron Age daggers, Alessi corkscrews and anthropoid embellishment reconsidered Figure 2. Anthropoid-hilt dagger from Salon, Aube, France. La Tène II, second century BC. British Museum Morel Collection ML.1669. Bronze-coated iron handle (illustration by R. Pengelly & M. Moores from Stead & Rigby 1999: fig.146; c© The Trustees of the British Museum). conventional categories (symbol, ornament, talisman, implement) may inform the ways in which anthropoid embellishment more generally is deconstructed and understood. To argue that anthropomorphic or zoomorphic decoration on functional objects of the La Tène period is more than mere ornament, is to state the obvious (Cunliffe 1997: 111–12). The anthropomorphic hilt served some purpose, but to take the Salon dagger as a specific emblem of rank or as a primarily symbolic object is to go a step too far. As Alfred Gell (1998: 74) has argued, the function of an object’s decoration and the function of the object 1314 R es ea rc h Jack Carlson are not mutually exclusive. Gell’s theory on the relationship between decoration and “the psychological functionality of artefacts” must also be considered as an alternative to hitherto unchallenged rank-related explanations for anthropoid decoration. The Salon dagger is a functional dagger and its functionality was enhanced — though not dominated — by the anthropoid hilt. The false dilemma Ruth and Vincent Megaw (2001: 19) introduce their book, Celtic Art, by stating that a “minimal working definition of Celtic art is that it encompasses elements of decoration beyond those necessary for functional utility”. The construction ‘functional utility’ is somewhat contrived, perhaps because it is clear that elements of decoration may also possess utility. But the role of decoration on the Salon dagger and on La Tène objects in general has been presented as a false choice between mere ornament and specific symbolic meaning. Barry Cunliffe’s discussion of the Celtic fire-dog, a wrought-iron hearth device, is a typical example (1997: 111–12): “the simple functional fire-dog[’s] projecting ends were frequently decorated with enormous skill to create the spirited essence of horned bulls’ heads. . .. The quintessential bovine head on the fire-dog is a symbol, but of what?. . . [W]e reject ‘art for art’s sake’ as a starting point (and with it the even less acceptable ‘art for art historians’ sake)”. Why must it be a symbol? Zoomorphic decoration on fire-dogs was a common feature, as Cunliffe indicates; a relatively banal choice of embellishment given that the shape of the object already suggested a bovine head and, in many cases, would have required relatively little extra effort on the part of the craftsman (the highly ornate Capel Garmon fire-dog, mentioned by Aldhouse-Green [2002: 11] is exceptional). If it is granted that the bulls’ heads probably made the piece more expensive, more interesting, perhaps more pleasing to use and more prestigious to display, it still seems a stretch to reach the following line of enquiry: the “bovine head on the fire-dog is a symbol, but of what?” (Cunliffe 1997: 111–12). The same thinking has been applied to La Tène period weapons with anthropoid hilts. Cunliffe himself has speculated that “such [anthropoid] swords . . . may have been an emblem of a particular social class” (1997: 233). Elsewhere, Radomı́r Pleiner (1993: 49– 51) has described the daggers, including the Salon example, as “emblem[s] of rank among warriors, commanders, or chiefs”, “symbols of rank” and “denot[ing] warriors of special . . . rank” (see also Megaw 2002: 408, 411). Others have ascribed apotropaic or talismanic significance to the daggers, and A.P. Fitzpatrick has taken them as wholly symbolic priestly objects (Petres 1979: 176; Fitzpatrick 1996: 373, 388; Megaw & Megaw 2001: 164; Megaw 2002: 411). The premise that such weapons must have been specific symbols, related to rank or ritual, has not accounted for the anthropoid hilts’ more general social or psychological functionality. One wonders if such theories have not been influenced — directly or indirectly — by the rank-related dress daggers worn by certain officers in some modern militaries. Symbolic and apotropaic interpretations have even discounted the functionality of the Salon dagger as a weapon. While “distinguishing warriors or commanders of a certain rank” Pleiner (1993: 69) writes, “this type of sword [sic] . . . could hardly have been used for fighting on the field of battle” given its small size (compared to long, slashing swords). Fitzpatrick (1996: 376) agrees that these daggers were purely symbolic. 1315 A symbol — but of what? Iron Age daggers, Alessi corkscrews and anthropoid embellishment reconsidered It is surprising that such views have gone unchallenged for so long. The approach that has been taken to the anthropoid decoration on these weapons is very different from the model proposed by Alfred Gell about the agency of decoration. While Gell (1998: 74) emphasises that there is no such thing as “‘mere’ decoration” and that “decoration is intrinsically functional”, he does not advocate that decoration should automatically be taken as symbols or emblems. With a more mature approach, Gell gives examples: a child may be more inclined to go to bed if his sheets and pillowcases are embellished with spaceships or dinosaurs; the spaceships and dinosaurs are not symbols, but the decoration enhances the bedding’s functionality. Likewise, decoration on lime containers from Iatmul, New Guinea, served a general social function, enhancing the owners’ prestige, but was not pegged to a specific rank or station. These sheets and lime containers are, of course, also able to “do duty” as sheets and as lime containers and certainly are not solely symbolic objects (Gell 1998: 74). It is clear that a richer model than the binary view of function — mere decoration or emblem — may be applied to the Salon dagger. Given this theoretical background, what do the development and contexts of anthropoid-hilted weapons suggest about the Salon dagger’s functionality? Development and context The Salon weapon was associated with a Middle La Tène non-anthropoid long sword which is now lost, and an iron scabbard (for the dagger) about which little is known except that it was entirely broken on discovery (Morel 1898: 145; Stead & Rigby 1999: no. 1669). Based on what is known, this was not a richly furnished burial by any standard. Comparanda may give a better sense of the burial objects with which this type of weapon was associated and, perhaps, of the people who were likely to have owned them. In their 1955 article on a La Tène anthropoid sword from Shouldham, Norfolk, UK, R.R. Clarke and C.F.C. Hawkes proposed a typology for anthropoid swords. The Salon piece has several parallels in this typology: these hilts (Clarke & Hawkes, type E) are distinguished by the sunken head, the strongly profiled grip and median ring moulding and they have been found in Hungary, Bohemia and the Italian Alps (Clarke & Hawkes 1955: 209–211). The only other one of this type with a known provenance comes from an assemblage which is rather different from the Salon burial: “a cremation grave at Malnate, Varese, in northern Italy near Lake Como where it was found with an iron chain belt and part of a glass armlet, characteristic of later Middle La Tène graves” (Megaw 1970: no. 228). In fact there is wide variation in the contexts and burial goods associated with La Tène anthropoid-hilt weapons in general. Pleiner (1993: 49–51), who has taken these weapons as rank “emblems”, has focused on those contexts he deems to “deserve special attention”. Those are ones in which anthropoid daggers are accompanied by ornamental boar tusks, and a boat-coffin burial which included such a weapon at Chatenay-Macheron (Chaumont). Other anthropoid daggers, however, were found in relatively poorly furnished burials (Vidal 1983: 383); in some cases the weapons were not even accompanied by long swords (Stead 2006: 72). Éva f. Petres (1979: 176), writing on the Hungarian examples from the same period, notes that “in the case of [anthropoid-hilt weapons] found in cemeteries and single 1316 R es ea rc h Jack Carlson graves, the other grave-goods do not demonstrate any outstanding luxuriance”. Pleiner himself (1993: 59) has commented that in this period, swords were “no longer reserved for the top men in society, but had become spread throughout the bulk of the population”, and that to “distinguish between [sic] different classes of leader among the Celts . . . on the basis of archaeological evidence is almost impossible in the Middle La Tène period.” Why, then, should we suppose that this, of all objects, is a symbol of a certain class of leader? A consideration of this dagger’s context and that of related weapons resists such a classification and encourages new, more broad-minded readings to answer the question of why this little man was crafted on the hilt. An understanding of the way in which these anthropoid hilts developed also suggests a more nuanced concept of functionality. For the human figure that adorned the Salon dagger was an adaptation of earlier antenna hilts and of earlier and coeval pseudo-anthropoid weapons. As decoration, an anthropomorphic hilt is fundamentally different from, for example, the lunar and solar images that are emblazoned on some La Tène period weapons (and to which Pleiner [1993: 49–51] compared the anthropoid motif ). Not only is the anthropoid hilt different in terms of imagery, but it is different in that the choice to turn the handle into a little man was based on the fact that the shape of La Tène dagger handles was already suggestive of a human figure. The decoration, therefore, is more closely tied to the pure functionality of the dagger as a dagger; the little man is the hilt. Moreover, there was less creativity and additional effort required, and less freedom of choice involved in turning a pseudo-anthropoid hilt into an anthropoid hilt than, for example, in embellishing a sword with images of dragons or moons. Late Hallstatt period (sixth to fifth centuries BC) daggers and swords from Central Europe have similar X-shaped hilts, often with a knob between the arms at the pommel end of the X (Sievers 1982; Figure 3). It is surely from these weapons that the later anthropoid dagger hilts developed, even if the fourth-century missing link weapons with pseudo-anthropoid hilts (i.e. without facial features) — a dagger from Ay (Senden), Bavaria (Figure 4) and a long sword (840mm) from Kyšice, Plzeň in the Czech Republic — cited by R.R. Clarke and C.F.C. Hawkes (1955: 204–205) may be less clearly datable to the fourth century than has previously been suggested (Sankot 1995: 413–15). There is, of course, an abundance of La Tène pseudo-anthropoid daggers, the hilts of which were functionally and technologically the same as their Hallstatt counterparts. As daggers came to incorporate facial features on their pommel knobs, pseudo-anthropoid daggers also continued to be produced and in many cases they are exactly the same except for the lack of facial features. This development, often taken for granted, is far from trivial because the human figure was not expressly chosen to badge the objects, but rather the anthropoid hilts were a variation on those which were already felt to resemble human forms (Clarke & Hawkes 1955: 204–205); in the same way, perhaps, that artist Pablo Picasso felt his bicycle seat to resemble the shape of a bull’s head (Walton 1990: 276–7). The final step — which in many cases, including the Salon case, only involved the addition of human features on the knob — it must be said, would not have required a large amount of extra effort on the part of the object’s creator, and no additional metal. Robert Bagley (1987: 40) reminds us that in “antiquity . . . in East and West alike”, metal was relatively expensive and labour relatively cheap. 1317 A symbol — but of what? Iron Age daggers, Alessi corkscrews and anthropoid embellishment reconsidered Figure 3. Antenna dagger from Hallstatt, Upper Austria, sixth–fifth centuries BC. Iron; c. 550mm long; blade c. 420mm long (Clarke & Hawkes 1955: fig. 1.3; after Déchelette 1913: fig. 282.1; courtesy of the Prehistoric Society). The Kyšice anthropoid-hilted long sword (fifth to fourth centuries BC; Clarke & Hawkes 1955: 204–205; Sankot 1995: 413–15) also provides an important clue about the functionality of X-shaped, pseudo-anthropoid and anthropoid-hilt designs. What was the purpose of such a hilt shape? The gory truth is that it effectively enabled the warrior to stab and then draw the blade back out again; the warrior would push against the hilt figure’s legs to stab, and then pull against the figure’s arms to retract. The weapons to which these hilts were affixed were, of course, stabbing weapons, not — or at least not solely — slashing weapons. It is for this reason that almost all anthropoid hilts are attached to daggers and not long swords. Only early long swords, which were lighter, shorter and more sharply pointed than their later counterparts, would have use for this type of hilt (in addition to the Kyšice example, there are earlier Hallstatt pseudo- anthropoid swords; Sievers 1982: 57–9). In the Middle and Late La Tène period, the long sword was modified for “slashing only” (Clarke & Hawkes 1955: 204–205). In fact, it is probably the development of the slashing only sword which required warriors to carry an additional weapon for stabbing. Stead (2006: 72) notes briefly that anthropoid-hilt weapons may have been “subsidiary weapons” hence the presence at the Salon burial of both the Salon dagger and an accompanying long sword. Part of the confusion, perhaps, about the functionality of the Salon dagger and other La Tène anthropoid daggers relates to a matter of vocabulary. Traditionally, these daggers have been referred to as swords or short swords (Smith 1925; Clarke & Hawkes 1955; Megaw 1970: no. 228; Petres 1979: 176; Pleiner 1993: 49–51; Fitzpatrick 1996; Cunliffe 1997: 233; Stead 1318 R es ea rc h Jack Carlson Figure 4. Pseudo-anthropoid hilt from Ay (Senden), Bavaria, fourth-century BC. Iron; hilt c. 100mm long; c. 60mm across the ‘arms’ (Clarke & Hawkes 1955: pl. 24.4; courtesy of the Prehistoric Society). & Rigby 1999: no. 1669; Jope 2000: 101; Megaw & Megaw 2001: 164; Stead 2006: 71; see also Megaw 2002: 408). If only subconsciously, surely this word choice has impacted the ways in which scholars have conceived the weapons. While most authors, presumably working from convention, do not discuss their choice to refer to these objects as swords, A.P. Fitzpatrick (1996: 373) actually gives his rationale: “most of the weapons. . .are approximately 300mm or more in length”. But surely the question of slashing weapon or stabbing weapon is more relevant than what seems to be an arbitrary measurement. Ironically, the most careful discussion about the difficulties of such measurement-based distinctions is presented in relation to earlier, Hallstatt weaponry (Sievers 1982: 57–9). Megaw (2002: 408) justly remarks that it is “strictly incorrect to call many of [these] weapons ‘swords’ [when] the average length of La Tène swords is 700mm”, using instead “poignards” as a loanword or, less neatly, “short swords”. I.M. Stead (2006: 5), in his catalogue on British Iron Age weapons, recognises that the difference between a dagger and a short sword is the difference between stabbing and slashing weapons, but nevertheless sets “arbitrary limits” of 305mm for the longest dagger blade and 320mm for the blade of the “shortest short sword”; these parameters would place the Salon dagger (with a blade length of 345mm) just inside the sword category. As slashing swords, however, these objects would be fairly useless and Pleiner (1993: 69) concludes that “this type of sword [sic]. . .could hardly have been used for fighting”. As daggers, however, they would have been fully functional thanks, in part, to the design of their grips, some of which are worn “by use” (Smith 1925: 59–60). Considerations of context and development confirm that the anthropoid shape of the Salon dagger’s hilt had much to do with the weapon’s stabbing efficacy and little to do with the specific symbolic functionality of a human figure. But why make the anthropomorphism of these dagger hilts explicit by adding human facial features? 1319 A symbol — but of what? Iron Age daggers, Alessi corkscrews and anthropoid embellishment reconsidered Psychological functionality Alfred Gell (1998: 74) contended that “the world is filled with decorated objects because decoration is often essential to the psychological functionality of artefacts, which cannot be dissociated from the other types of functionality they possess”. But just as the anthropoid hilt was, as mentioned above, a fundamentally different sort of decoration from inlaid astral images on La Tène weapons it is, of course, also different from Gell’s ‘psychological functionality’ examples: decorated Iatmul lime-containers and children’s bedsheets embellished with dinosaurs or spaceships. If, many centuries from now, an archaeologist discovers early twenty-first-century children’s bedding, she might rightly wonder why images of dinosaurs and spaceships, of all things, were chosen to adorn the textile. But we need not even ask such questions about the Salon hilt: why a human? Why did the designers of this object choose this motif? Why are his arms and legs outstretched? It is a symbol, but what does it mean? The grip was made into a model human with outstretched limbs because that is what effective dagger handles looked like anyway. This was the most obvious, straightforward way of making the La Tène dagger fancier; more obvious, certainly, than the other methods of embellishment — chagrinage; engraved combatant dragons on the blade; plant motifs — employed by those “major creators of Celtic art” (Megaw & Megaw 2001: 126), the iron- and bronzesmiths. One very simple rationale for at least part of the Salon dagger’s functionality, and yet one which has scarcely been mentioned, if at all, in scholarship on anthropoid weapons, is that it was a luxury object. Many warriors owned daggers, but not all daggers were created equal. We need not search more deeply to understand the anthropoid hilt than we do to understand decorated Iatmul lime-containers. The anthropoid hilt was an adaptation of a relatively commonplace object, and it was modified such that its increased complexity was clear to the observer. Like any luxury item, it enhanced its owner’s prestige in a general way and, in turn, was likely to have had a psychological impact on the owner or bearer of the dagger, whether the owner lived in Salon, in Ireland or in the Carpathian Basin, and whether the owner’s burial was rich or sparse. While still related to social standing, this notion is clearly very different from the rank symbol interpretations. One modern example of a functional object for which an anthropoid luxury version exists is the wing corkscrew (Figure 5). I remember thinking, as a child, that these devices looked like little men; one could make their arms flap by moving their heads up and down. I am not, of course, the only person to have thought so; since 1994, one of Italian utensil company Alessi’s best-selling products has been an explicitly anthropoid version of the wing corkscrew, designed by Alessandro Mendini (Figure 6). One might also compare the anthropomorphic hilts to pouring spouts decorated as birds’ mouths — a global phenomenon in both the ancient and modern world. As these objects demonstrate, there is a universal impulse to see anthropomorphic and zoomorphic shapes in objects, and to make that zoo- or anthropomorphism explicit. The Alessi corkscrew is a luxury item and surely these objects are sometimes conversation- starters at parties, while at other times guests may simply take note of the owner’s tastes and of the affluence which ownership of such an object implies. But ownership of the Alessi corkscrew is not strictly limited to any certain group of people. And, most clearly, Anna G., 1320 R es ea rc h Jack Carlson Figure 5. A household wing corkscrew, twentieth century, chrome ( c© iStockPhoto.com/Nikolay Titov). as the anthropoid corkscrew has cheerfully been christened by its designer, is not a symbol or emblem of anything at all. If, rather than adding facial features and hair to a conventional corkscrew design — to make the corkscrew truly anthropomorphic — the creators of this object had instead emblazoned the device with an heraldic badge, a moon or a dragon, or fashioned the head of the corkscrew in the shape of a cross or a fleur-de-lis, then many more questions would need asking and answering. Needless to say, the anthropoid version of the corkscrew is also a working corkscrew: if it were not, how could it function as an index of taste or wealth? It would also lose its psychological functionality if it could not work as a corkscrew. Any pleasure derived from using, holding or displaying the corkscrew, or from seeing it in action, must also be considered as part of the utensil’s functionality. While it is true that we need not search too deeply for the meaning of the figure on the Salon hilt (just as we do not in the case of the Alessi corkscrew), it surely had other psychological effects beyond the social esteem associated with owning, wearing and bearing 1321 A symbol — but of what? Iron Age daggers, Alessi corkscrews and anthropoid embellishment reconsidered Figure 6. An anthropoid household wing corkscrew designed by Alessandro Mendini and produced by Alessi S.p.A., twentieth century, chrome-plated zamak (courtesy of Urban Attitude). 1322 R es ea rc h Jack Carlson such a weapon. This is not to say that the anthropoid hilt made the act of stabbing enjoyable in the same way that the Alessi corkscrew may well be a source of pleasure for its owners. When one is relying on an object to be able to save one’s life, one wants to know that the object is as finely crafted as possible and the inclusion of human features would have clearly reflected the smith’s attention to detail. In the same way that a warrior might derive a psychological benefit by entering battle with well-polished armour, boots or weaponry, so too might the Salon warrior have benefited from fighting with a showy dagger. A similar comparison may be made between the Salon dagger and modern military aircraft, bombs and missiles decorated with a shark’s face motif on their noses. If, in battle, our Salon man found himself engaged in “the ancient and European tradition of dagger fighting” (Clarke & Hawkes 1955: 204), the warrior with the fancy, anthropoid hilt may have had a psychological edge. Such theories are not far-fetched and, in a complete consideration of the daggers’ functionality, must be taken into account; by way of comparison: in a recent psychological study, it was proven that the fighter wearing red benefits from a psychological advantage and has a significantly greater chance of winning in boxing and other combat sports (Hill & Barton 2005: 293). The possibility that the anthropomorphic nature of these hilts may have helped La Tène warriors connect with their weapons must also be considered. As Kendall Walton (1990: 11, 51, 276–7) describes, representations, including toys, paintings, plays and the bull’s head Picasso made from a bicycle seat, inevitably invite their viewers and users into a game of make believe. Modern US marines and soldiers name their rifles which, of course, are not even anthropomorphic so it is not such a stretch to imagine warriors of the La Tène period naming their anthropoid daggers. We may never know if they did, but this is the type of rich consideration of functionality which comparison is often able to bring to light and which the Salon dagger and other anthropoid weapons deserve. Anthropoid objects have been created and used in civilisations ancient and modern. They provoke a range of responses and associations: they are whimsical, dazzling and uncanny (unheimlich) and they resist classification as art, symbol or implement. This reconsideration of the Salon hilt — as a form inspired by function and, inexorably, possessing a dynamic social and psychological functionality of its own — may find application in our interpretations not only of other La Tène objects, but of archaeological artefacts more broadly. There is a temptation among archaeologists to declare that ancient objects which the modern world has long treated as art were more significant — often symbolically significant — than mere ornament in the societies which created them. This is at once a truism and a misleading assumption. Anthropoid hilts very likely came about not because of some mysterious political or religious semiotics on which we can only speculate, but because earlier dagger hilts, in order to function properly, happened to look a little like men with outstretched limbs. But decoration, especially when it is representational, intrinsically affects the ways in which useful objects are useful (Walton 1990: 51; Gell 1998: 74). Interpretations of anthropomorphic and zoomorphic embellishment — whether that embellishment occurs on Iron Age weapons and fire-dogs or on twenty-first-century corkscrews — must begin with this understanding and not with the straw man proposition that such images are art for art’s sake. By considering and actively applying — through comparison if it is helpful — the notion of an artefact’s psychological functionality, it is possible to overcome 1323 A symbol — but of what? Iron Age daggers, Alessi corkscrews and anthropoid embellishment reconsidered perpetuated assumptions (emblem of rank) and scholarly impediments (a symbol, but of what?). References ALDHOUSE-GREEN, M. 2002. Any old iron! Symbolism and ironworking in Iron Age Europe, in M. Aldhouse-Green & P. Webster (ed.) Artefacts and archaeology: aspects of the Celtic and Roman world: 8–19. Cardiff: University of Wales Press. – 2004. An archaeology of images: iconology and cosmology in Iron Age and Roman Europe. London: Routledge. BAGLEY, R. 1987. Ancient Chinese bronzes from the Arthur M. Sackler collections. Volume 1: Shang ritual bronzes in the Arthur M. Sackler collections. Washington (DC): Arthur M. Sackler Foundation; Cambridge: Arthur M. Sackler Museum & Harvard University. BULARD, A. 1980. Sur deux poignards de la fin de l’époque de La Tène. Etudes Celtiques 17: 33–49. CLARKE, R.R. & C.F.C. HAWKES. 1955. An iron anthropoid sword from Shouldham, Norfolk, with related continental and British weapons. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 21: 198–227. CUNLIFFE, B. 1997. The ancient Celts. Oxford: Oxford University Press. DÉCHELETTE, J. 1913. Manuel d’archéologie préhistorique, celtique et gallo-romaine. Volume 2: archéologie celtique ou protohistorique. Paris: Picard. DRILHON, F. & A. DUVAL. 1985. Méthode d’étude des poignards anthropoı̈des de La Tène, in L. Bonnamour, A. Duval & J–P. Guillamet (ed.) Les âges du fer dans la vallée de la Saône: VIIe –Ie r siècles avant notre ère; Paléométallurgie du bronze à l’âge du fer: actes du VIIe colloque de l’Association Française pour l’Etude de l’Âge du Fer, Rully, 12–15 mai 1983: 299–308. Paris: CNRS. FITZPATRICK, A.P. 1996. Night and day: the symbolism of astral signs on later Iron Age anthropomorphic short swords. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 62: 373–98. FREEDBERG, D. 1989. The power of images: studies in the history and theory of response. Chicago (IL): University of Chicago Press. GELL, A. 1998. Art and agency: an anthropological theory. Oxford: Oxford University Press. HILL, R.A. & R.A. BARTON. 2005. Psychology: red enhances human performance in contests. Nature 435: 239. JOPE, E.M. 2000. Early Celtic art in the British Isles. Oxford: Clarendon Press. MEGAW, J.V.S. 1970. Art of the European Iron Age: a study of the elusive image. Bath: Adams & Dart. – 2002. A late La Tène anthropoid gripped sword in New York, in K. Kuzmová, K. Pieta & J. Rajtár (ed.) Zwischen Rom und dem Barbaricum: Festschrift für Titus Kolnı́k zum 70. Geburtstag (Archaeologica Slovaca Monographiae 5): 407–418. Nitra: Archäologisches Institut der Slowakischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. MEGAW, J.V.S. & M.R. MEGAW. 1995. The nature and function of Celtic art, in M.J. Green (ed.) The Celtic world: 345–75. London: Routledge. – 2001. Celtic art: from its beginnings to the Book of Kells. London: Thames & Hudson. MOREL, L. 1898. La Champagne souterrain: matériaux et documents ou résultats de trente-cinq années de fouilles archéologiques dans la Marne. Reims: Matot-Braine. PETRES, É.F. 1979. Some remarks on anthropoid and pseudo-anthropoid hilted daggers in Hungary, in P-M. Duval & V. Kruta (ed.) Les mouvements celtiques du Ve au Ie r siècle avant notre ère: actes du XXVIIIe colloque organiseé à l’occasion du IXe Congreś international des sciences preh́istoriques et protohistoriques, Nice, le 19 septembre 1976: 171–8. Paris: CNRS. PLEINER, R. 1993. The Celtic sword. Oxford: Clarendon Press. SANKOT, P. 1995. Les épées pseudo-anthropoı̈des de Bohême, in J–J. Charpy (ed.) L’Europe celtique du Ve au IIIe siècle avant J.-C.: contacts, échanges et mouvements de populations (Mémoires de la Société Archéologique Champenoise 9): 413–22. Sceaux: Kronos. SIEVERS, S. 1982. Die mitteleuropäischen Hallstattdolche (Prähistorische Bronzefunde 6.6). München: Beck. SMITH, R. 1925. A guide to antiquities of the Early Iron Age in the Department of British and Mediaeval Antiquities. London: British Museum. STEAD, I.M. 2006. British Iron Age swords and scabbards. London: British Museum. STEAD, I.M. & V. RIGBY. 1999. Iron Age antiquities from Champagne in the British Museum: the Morel Collection. London: British Museum. VIDAL, M. 1983. Poignard anthropoı̈de de la nécropole Saint-Roch à Toulouse (Haute-Garonne). Revue archéologique de Narbonnaise 16: 377–83. WALTON, K.L. 1990. Mimesis as make-believe: on the foundations of the representational arts. Cambridge (MA): Harvard University Press. ZELLER, K.W. 1980. Kriegswesen und Bewaffnung der Kelten, in L. Pauli (ed.) Die Kelten in Mitteleuropa: Kultur, Kunt, Wirtschaft: 111–32. Salzburg: Amt der Salzburger Landesregierung, Kulturabteilung. 1324 
work_4xbni7w5cjdppgb4ahdjj25klm	----	untitled SSaalloonn: a gathering of stimulating peo- ple under the roof of an inspiring host- ess, partly to amuse one another and partly to refine their taste and increase their knowledge through conversation and reading (Wikipedia). W elcome to CMAJ Salon, an exchange of lateral think- ing about health that as- pires to feed the culture of curiosity and nurture the intellect, both in print and online. Salons began in Renaissance Italy and France but gained prominence for stimulating lively intellectual conversa- tion in 17th-century France. Initially, sa- lons were concerned with the fields of arts and literature, but later they ex- panded to include music, philosophy and politics. Now, CMAJ’s Salon intro- duces health as the overarching topic of discourse. Health, in this context, will be interpreted in the widest manner possible with potential subjects ranging from an ode to your favourite body part to shrinking our environmental foot- print, from an exposition on the stetho- scope to innovative cognitive theories. CMAJ’s Salon will be an exploration of a nascent idea or hypothesis that is fu- elled by fact and driven by passion. The thoughts of scientists, researchers and other health-related experts will fre- quently grace these pages, but Salon will also lure contributors who are not always part of the world of health and medicine, people such as an eco-farmer or a yoga master, who can make a worthwhile contribution to the discourse on health in the spirit of our transdisciplinary world. The aim is to introduce novel ideas into health and medicine. This page will offer a lively mélange of thoughtful and sometimes quirky ideas that will ignite sparks of insight and stimulate thought and discussion. Our hope is that the conversational nar- ratives in CMAJ Salon will become fod- der for engaging stories that one offers at parties or in staff rooms. One churlish definition contends that salons are a combination of a wa- tering hole plus bookish thugs. Sadly, we cannot offer the former, but we hope to avoid the latter. Off the printed page, the heart of the salon experience — the interchange of ideas — will be- gin in earnest at cmaj.ca, where readers can post their thoughts on the articles. This intellectual e-exchange, open to all in an atmosphere of politeness and respect for others, will provide a way out of the cul de sac of elitism associ- ated with salons. Historically, salons were hosted by titled or wealthy women and later, in the 20th century, by gifted, intelligent women with a facility for stimulating conversation. I will endeavour to fulfill the role as a quiet, behind-the-scenes editor and, perhaps, in the best-case scenario, muse. I have big shoes to fill. G e r t r u d e S t e i n h o s t e d S a t u r d a y evening salons in Paris beginning in 1907 for luminaries such as Ernest Hemingway, Pablo Picasso, Henri Ma- tisse and Guillame Apollinaire. Host- ing is a serious business and not al- ways risk free: Madame Anne Louise Germaine de Staël, a well-known host- ess of a philosophy-based salon in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, was exiled from Paris by Napoleon Bona- parte. I don’t particularly aspire to life in the wilds of Renfrew County, but then again an e-letter from Stephen Harper would be amusing. Above all else, as readers, writers or e-participants, CMAJ Salon is your page. Welcome, and as Stein report- edly said when greeting callers at her salon, “Entrez-vous.” Barbara Sibbald BJ CMAJ Deputy Editor, News and Humanities D O I: 10 .1 5 0 3 /c m aj .0 7 0 7 0 5 Salon CMAJ’s Salon: lateral thinking about health Contributors are encouraged to send their discourse (700 words maximum, F r e n c h o r E n g l i s h l a n g u a g e ) t o s a l o n @ c m a . c a . S e e c o n t r i b u t o r s guidelines at cmaj.ca. CMAJ • July 3, 2007 • 177(1) © 2007 Canadian Medical Association or its licensors 111122 The author wishes to thank the journalists and editors, in particular Dr. Dorian Deshauer, who helped develop the CMAJ Salon concept. St u ar t K in m on d 
work_4zhhjnhvgzc7hil6njyeq6ma7y	----	1035–1044_NEU190885 I knew Ted Kurze initially from the vantage point of Yale University in New Haven, CT, where, as a resident, I saw him as one of the iconic figures who estab- lished the operating microscope as a neu- rosurgical tool, opening a new era in the field. Later, he offered me an opportunity that would prove to be my longstanding and only academic position for more than a generation. That opportunity was in the magnificent setting of the immense, cathe- dral-like Los Angeles County Hospital at the University of Southern California Medical Center. It was there that I made the turbulent emergence from resident to neurosurgeon in a challenging, rich, and largely unforgiving environment. Ted was an engaging and charismatic man, truly complex and eclectic—as at home at the helm of an ocean racing sailboat or on a tennis court as in the operating room or when engaged in intimate conversations related to philosophy, metaphysics, his- tory, music, geography, psychology, reli- gion, or the assessment of human nature. He was a primary mentor to me, and for this I will be forever grateful. —Michael L.J. Apuzzo, Chicago, 2008 In the spirit of Ted Kurze (Fig. 1B), this articlewill touch on diverse topics with a numberof common themes. It is configured in 3 sec- tions; in the first section, the power of ideas and their role in initiating change and progress are assessed. This potential cascade effect will be illustrated by an enumeration of the move- ment of Modernism in art. In the next section, the immense scope and capabilities of “mod- ern” scientific endeavors are discussed. And in the final section, the realities and philosophies of modern neurosurgical attitudes are defined in hopeful and theoretical terms. Alchemy, Ideas, and Modernism In the history of science, alchemy was a chemical discipline and speculative philosophy aiming to achieve the transmutation of base metals into gold, to find a universal cure for dis- eases, and to discover a means of indefinitely prolonging life. Fundamentally, it was the NEUROSURGERY VOLUME 63 | NUMBER 6 | DECEMBER 2008 | 1035 SPECIAL ARTICLE THE ALCHEMY OF IDEAS THIS ARTICLE PRESENTS an assessment of the power of ideas and their role in initiat- ing change and progress. The enormous potential cascade effect is illustrated by exam- ining the movement of Modernism in the arts. Next, the immense scope and capabili- ties of the modern scientific endeavor—with robotic space exploration at the scale of 109 meters at one extreme and the wonders of nanoscience at the scale of 10�9 m at the other—are examined. The attitudes and philosophies of neurological surgery are related to those involved in the Modernist movement and placed on the defined scale of contemporary scientific activity. KEY WORDS: Creativity, Ideas, Modernism, Nanoneurosurgery, Nanotechnology, Neurological surgery, Progress, Space, Stardust Neurosurgery 63:1035–1044, 2008 DOI: 10.1227/01.NEU.0000335789.61773.C5 www.neurosurgery-online.com Michael L.J. Apuzzo, M.D. Department of Neurological Surgery, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California James B. Elder, M.D. Department of Neurological Surgery, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California Rodrick Faccio, B.S. Department of Neurological Surgery, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California Charles Y. Liu, M.D., Ph.D. Department of Neurological Surgery, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, and Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California Reprint requests: Michael L.J. Apuzzo, M.D., 1420 San Pablo Street, PMB A-106, Los Angeles, CA 90033. Email: neurosurgery- journal@hsc.usc.edu Received, July 16, 2008. Accepted, August 19, 2008. Acknowledgment Presented in part as the Theodore Kurze Lecture at the American Association of Neurological Surgeons Annual Meeting, Chicago, Illinois, April 30, 2008. FIGURE 1. Left, Los Angeles County/University of Southern California Medical Center; Center, Theodore Kurze; Right, Michael L.J. Apuzzo. 1036 | VOLUME 63 | NUMBER 6 | DECEMBER 2008 www.neurosurgery-online.com APUZZO ET AL. power or process of transforming something common into something special. An idea can be a transforming or transmuting agent capable, in its most potent form, of initiating a cascade of influence and change; indeed, it can be a catalyst for transmutation and change from the ordinary to the elevated. An example of the cascade effect in operation is evident in an examination of the genesis and development of the Modernist movement in the arts. Fueled and instigated by the emergence of industrialism and the railroad, “modern” cities such as Paris and London became lodestones that attracted artists and they provided an immense picture gallery where modern artists could properly read from the “immense dictionary of modern life” (10). For more than 100 years, Paris was “ground zero” for the Modernist movement in art, architecture, music, dance, design, literature, and poetry. Beginning around 1860, the idea of “change” began to emerge and was met with resistance, particularly from the bourgeois. However, the idea held sway, and those drawn by what art historian Peter Gay has termed the “lure of heresy” pressed forward, creating what was considered the birth of the Modernist movement in 1910, according to Virginia Woolf. The fundamental idiom of the idea base, as defined by Ezra Pound in 1935, was, “Make it new.” Hallmarks of the spirit of the Modernist movement were its generally utopian nature, the attitude that progress in all things was assumed, the acceptance of the inevitability of scientific and social process, and the premium placed on innovation and discovery. Those engaged felt pressure to reinvent themselves, to divest themselves from the past, and to be astonished with the future (10). The cascade effect is readily appreciated with reflection on and recollection of the works of iconic Modernist figures, which include, for example: In painting: Claude Monet: the father of French Impressionism, who cham- pioned the idea of the artist expressing his perceptions of a subject (Fig. 2). Pablo Picasso: whose excursion into Cubism expressed decon- struction and reconstruction of the subject in geometric forms, presented in monochrome brown and neutral colors. Wassily Kandinsky: creator of the first modern abstract work based on geometric progressivism, color symbolism, and psychology (Fig. 3). Mark Rothko: who used broad patterns of monotone color for psychological effect (Fig. 4). Jackson Pollock: purveyor of a chaos of paint in color and disor- der over broad surfaces. In architecture: Charles Edouard Jeanneret-Gris: who, at age 33, reinvented him- self as “Le Corbusier” to champion aesthetic spareness and the “machine aesthetic” as an urbanist (Fig. 5). FIGURE 2. Arrival of the Normandy Train, The Gare Saint-Lazare, 1877, by Claude Monet, National Gallery, London. FIGURE 3. Composition 8, July 1923, by Wassily Kandinsky, Guggenheim Museum, New York. FIGURE 4. Mark Rothko, Orange and Yellow, 1956, oil on canvas, unframed: 91 � 71� (231.14 � 180.34 cm.), Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo, New York, Gift of Seymour H. Knox, Jr., 1956. © 1998 Kate Rothko Prizel & Christopher Rothko/Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York. NEUROSURGERY VOLUME 63 | NUMBER 6 | DECEMBER 2008 | 1037 THE ALCHEMY OF IDEAS Frank Lloyd Wright: the master of personal reinvention, who, over a 60-year career, introduced concepts of “organic” architecture and robust modernity through novel employ- ment of cement (Fig. 6). Mies van der Rohe: the self-educated son of a stonecutter from Aachen, Germany, who sought to represent the modern age through extreme clarity, with “skin and bones” minimalist employment of steel and glass. Frank Gehry: the Romantic Modernist, who presents sensual geometry in titanium “jackets” (Fig. 7). Consider the recent performance of Philip Glass’ 1979 Modernist opera Satyagraha at New York’s Metropolitan Opera (Fig. 8). Given its form and content, would this have been cre- ated or accepted 100, 75, or even 50 years ago? Scope and Scale of Modern Science One of the Modernist denizens of Paris was Diego Rivera, a young Mexican artist from Guanajuato. He had dabbled in Cubism and became enamored with the concept of fresco paint- ing, traveling to Italy to study the 2000-year history of that art form. He went on to become the world’s most accomplished muralist. As the final stages of construction of Rockefeller Center in Manhattan were under way in 1932, he was invited to create a massive mural to commemorate the spirit of the times (Fig. 9). His creation, however, incorporated an image of Vladimir Ilyich Lenin and was rejected. His fresco, with some variations, was ultimately completed at the Palace of Fine Arts in Mexico City. It was titled Man, Controller of the Universe. The center of the piece depicted man at the controls of the Universe Machine and looking into the heavens with a sense of confi- dence and power (Fig. 10). This idea of comprehension and con- trol of the environment has led to mankind’s quest for thou- sands of years, from the Egyptians to the Mayans to today, to grasp the details of the skies above. The concept of comprehen- sion of the stars has created a cascade effect of activities. The Cosmic Scale In 1965, Penzias and Wilson at Bell Laboratories in Murray Hill, NJ, discovered that, beyond the simple visual apprecia- tion of the heavens, an invisible cosmic microwave back- ground radiation could be detected. This phenomenon was later found to have variations, called anisotropy, which could FIGURE 8. Satyagraha, Act III Metropolitan Opera New York, com- posed by Philip Glass, April 2008. FIGURE 5. Villa Savoie, Poissy, France, designed by Charles Edouard Jeanneret-Gris (Le Corbusier), 1929. FIGURE 6. The Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York, designed by Frank Lloyd Wright, 1959. FIGURE 7. Walt Disney Concert Hall, Los Angeles, designed by Frank Gehry, 2003. 1038 | VOLUME 63 | NUMBER 6 | DECEMBER 2008 www.neurosurgery-online.com APUZZO ET AL. be measured, thus giving a calculated depiction of the after- glow of the Big Bang—the creation of our universe 13.6 billion years ago. In 1980, the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe was launched to give a detailed rendering of the skies, and it provided a “baby picture” of the universe (Fig. 11). This proj- ect, which is ongoing, has provided enormous insight into the composition and time of creation of the universe, its stars and galaxies, and our solar system. It is estimated that our solar system’s age is 4.6 billion years (Fig. 12). The composition of the universe has been a topic of great interest. According to the periodic table, the atoms that we comprehend comprise only 4% of the universe and are termed “ordinary matter.” Twenty- three percent of the universe is unknown “dark matter.” The remainder, nearly 73%, is composed of a strange “dark energy,” which is believed to be an antigravity force that is cre- ating an ongoing expansion of the universe and will cause its demise millions of years hence. During the formation of the solar system, some of the prod- ucts were the comets, which course in regions beyond Neptune (1). Comets, which are comprised of a nucleus of carbon, dust, FIGURE 9. Man at the Crossroads with Hope and High Vision to the Choosing of a New and Better Future (study for the destroyed mural at the Radio Corporation of America Building, Rockefeller Center), New York, by Diego Rivera, 1934. From Rochfort D: Mexican Muralists: Orozco, Rivera, Siequeros. San Francisco, Chronicle Books LLC, 1998. FIGURE 10. Man, Controller of the Universe, Palace of Fine Arts, Mexico City (detail), by Diego Rivera, 1934. Photograph by Bob Schalkwijk. FIGURE 11. Image of the infant universe illustrating 13.7 billion-year-old temperature fluctuations (color differences) that correspond to the cosmic materials that developed to become the galaxies. (Courtesy of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration [NASA]/ Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe [WMAP] Science Team[http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/media/ 080997/080997_5yrFullSky_WMAP_4096W.tif].) NEUROSURGERY VOLUME 63 | NUMBER 6 | DECEMBER 2008 | 1039 THE ALCHEMY OF IDEAS and ice, develop what is called a “tail,” made of dust, ice, and water, as they begin to change configuration on the basis of their proximity to the sun and the impact of solar winds. This tail was considered by astronomers and astrophysicists to con- tain clues to the composition and formation of the planets and our universe in general. An idea was formulated to access a comet’s tail! Investigators at the California Institute of Tech- nology, Lockheed Martin, and the University of Washington then conceived the elements of practicality of the project. The comet Wild 2 was identified as being accessible by modern spacecraft. A material called aerogel (13) was created at the Jet Propulsion Laboratories by Peter Hsu. This spun silicon, the world’s lightest solid, would be used as a catchment substance to gently retrieve materials during the encounter. It was incor- porated into a detector grid that was deployed by the space- craft as it was carefully angulated, at a speed of 13,000 miles per hour, through the comet’s tail (Figs. 13 and 14). On February 7, 1999, a Delta II rocket carrying the 849-pound, solar-powered spacecraft was launched from Cape Canaveral, FL. The successful encounter occurred on January 2, 2004, and the capsule containing the detector grid was returned to the Utah desert on January 15, 2006, completing a 7-year journey of 2.9 billion miles (500 � 109 m). More than 1000 particles meas- uring 5 to 300 μm were retrieved, and the samples are currently undergoing analysis in multiple laboratories throughout the world. These were the first rock samples returned to earth from any place beyond the moon—a fantastic achievement of mod- ern science at an extreme scale (Figs. 15 and 16). The Medical Universe and Neurological Surgery Medicine exists in a global, social, economic, political, and sci- entific universe driven by forces of national economic vitality, popular attitudes and demands, emerging intellectual, affec- tual, and economic buoyancy, parallel progress in transferable technical and biological areas, and crisis situations, real and perceived. Perhaps most importantly, the principal catalyst for progress is the seminal idea. The innovative notion has been particularly operative in neurological surgery, in which, over the past generation, the concept of progressive minimalism has fueled a cascade of progress with new dimensions in the field. The continuum has been progressive—microsurgery, stereotaxy, navigated endoscopy, radiosurgery, endovascular techniques, and cellular and molecular adjuvants. What area of endeavor will follow molecular biology as a seminal innovative concept? An idea conceived at the California Institute of Technology by Nobel Laureate and Professor of Theoretical Physics Richard Feynman has proved remarkably prescient. In December 1959, he delivered a keynote lecture to the American Physical Society in which he described a concept of “manipulating and controlling things on a small scale” and stated that there exists “a staggeringly FIGURE 12. Illustration depicting the time course and evolution of events during the formation of the universe. During the 13.7 billion years since the Big Bang, stars and planets were formed, while the universe has continued to expand. (Courtesy of the NASA/WMAP Science Team [http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/media/060915/060915_CMB_Timeline150.jpg].) FIGURE 13. A, aerogel molded into individual blocks and configured into a collector grid. (Courtesy of NASA/Jet Propulsion Laboratory [JPL]-California Institute of Technology [CIT] [http://stardust.jpl. nasa.gov/photo/spacecraft.html#ksc].) B, NASA’s Stardust spacecraft is lowered before deploying panels for lighting tests. The length of the Stardust main bus is 1.7 m (5.5 ft). The spacecraft weighs 385 kg (849 lb). (Courtesy of NASA/JPL-CIT [http://stardust.jpl.nasa. gov/photo/ksc990111.html].) B A 1040 | VOLUME 63 | NUMBER 6 | DECEMBER 2008 www.neurosurgery-online.com APUZZO ET AL. small world that is below” and “there is plenty of room at the bottom.” This was the conceptual birth of what we now term “nanotechnology.” Nanotechnology A nanometer is a billionth of a meter (10�9) and spans ap- proximately 10 atomic diameters. Nanotechnology encompasses the design, fabrication, and application of nanoscale systems, or nanosystems, and is a synthesis of multiple disciplines including electrical engineering, biotechnology, chemistry, and physics. In addition, nanotechnology has been defined by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration as “the creation of func- tional materials, devices, and systems through control of matter on the nanometer length scale (1–100 nm) and exploitation o f n o v e l p h e n o m e n a a n d properties (physical, chemi- cal, biological, mechanical, electrical . . . ) at that length scale.” Molecular nanotech- nology is the 3-dimensional control of atoms and molecu- lar structures to create materi- als and devices with molecu- lar precision. Since the introduction of the concept in 1959, there has been a progressive escalation of activity, highlighted by in- novative concepts and Nobel Laureate discoveries. Thou- sands of sophisticated labora- tories involved in nanotechnology research have heralded the “nanotechnology gold rush” that is changing the way man- kind approaches its everyday life on our planet. We are cur- rently involved in the definition of nanoscience, with its con- cepts and principles being defined and applied in mesoscale (1000+ nm) (17). We now have elements and building blocks for the creation of products in the nanoworld: nanoparticles, nanowires (12), nan- otubes (19), and the 60-carbon construct “fullerene” (Fig. 17), originally discovered in spectral analyses of cosmic dust by Nobel Laureate and Gene and Norman Hackerman Professor of Chemistry and Professor of Physics and Astronomy Richard Smalley and his associates at Rice University in Houston. We have tools and methods for manipulation and investigation in nanoscale dimensions. Most importantly, nanotechnology has yielded new concepts in computer science that are essential for the field’s development. The silicon microchip, which has been an essential feature in the development of all modern science, has been moving toward the end of its refinement capabilities. We need to apply nanoscale manufacturing methods for further minimalization. Additionally, fundamental limitations of binary logic exist. Therefore, new methods of computing, namely, quan- tum computing and molecular computing, are being developed by the use of novel methods of fabrication, such as the self- assembly principles demonstrated in Mark Reed’s laboratory at Yale as part of so-called bottom-up methodology. Current large- scale microprocessor production uses top-down manufacturing methods, which employ a technique termed electron beam lithography to fabricate objects in single-crystal silicon. New technologies in imaging allow nanoscale observations and have the advantage of compatibility with living tissue. These instruments are part of the scanning probe microscope group, which includes the scanning tunneling microscope, the scanning capacitance microscope, and the atomic force microscope. With the use of these nanowire probe-oriented devices, both visualiza- tion and manipulation at the atomic level have been realized (Fig. 18). Another tool for manipulation is termed optical tweez- ers (4), which use a stream of photons to effect movement and FIGURE 14. Illustration depicting the rendezvous of Stardust with Wild 2. As the spacecraft flies through Wild 2’s coma, it deploys its tennis racket-shaped collector grid to capture cometary particles. Traveling at 13 000 miles per hour, the solar-powered spacecraft makes its way safely through the coma as its bumper shields protect the spacecraft from damage by larger pieces of the comet. (Courtesy of NASA/JPL-CIT [http://stardust. jpl.nasa.gov/photo/artist.html#row7].) FIGURE 16. Photograph of the comet Wild 2 taken by the approach- ing Stardust spacecraft before col- lection of comet debris. (Courtesy of NASA/JPL-CIT [http://stardust. jpl.nasa.gov/photo/cometwild2.ht ml#row2].) FIGURE 15. A, side view of the aerogel collector grid, showing particles from the comet’s tail as well as the tracks left by these particles as they entered the aerogel. (Courtesy of NASA/JPL-CIT [http://stardust.jpl.nasa. gov/photo/aerogel.html#row5].) B, microscopic image of cometary particle in compressed aerogel. (Courtesy of NASA/JPL-CIT [http://stardust. jpl.nasa.gov/news/news113.html].) A B NEUROSURGERY VOLUME 63 | NUMBER 6 | DECEMBER 2008 | 1041 THE ALCHEMY OF IDEAS desired fabrication at the atomic level (17). Amazingly, a bio- molecular motor powered by F1-adenosine triphosphatase has been created as a nanoelectromechanical device (Fig. 19). Nanomedicine Today Nanomedicine encompasses medical diagnosis, monitoring, or treatment at the atomic and single-molecule level. It is cur- rently being applied to areas of imaging, diagnosis, and ther- apy (6, 7, 13). In imaging, quantum dots (9, 11), magnetic nanoparticles, and cross-linked iron oxide nanoparticles are elements of active research, the latter two as contrast agents, and quantum dots as flu- orescent labels for live cells, receptors, and neoplasms (Fig. 20) (9, 11). Quantum dots are particularly interesting. They fluoresce with- out quenching throughout the usual visual spectrum and offer striking markers of cellular components and cell constructs in vivo (Fig. 21). They also offer the capability for delineating the extent and location of neoplastic bur- den (Fig. 22). Nanoconstructs are currently valuable in the detection of deoxyribonucleic acid and pro- teins—a boon to medical diag- nostics (5). These constructs include gold nanoparticles, sil- ica nanoparticles, gold nano- shells, nanotubes, nanowires, nanoarrays, nanofluidics, nano- electromechanical systems, and nanocantilevers (Fig. 23). Nanoconstructs have been used therapeutically for drug delivery and gene therapy; these include nanoshells, liposomes, hydrogels, fullerenes, polymeric nanoparticles, polymeric mi- celles, dendrimers, implantable constructs, and “smart” sur- faces. A major advantage of nanoscale delivery appears to be enhanced membrane penetra- tion. Additionally, targeted nan- otherapy offers improved safety and compliance, increased effi- cacy, reduction of secondary effects, and, importantly, target- specific drug release. Potential nanosurgery devices include the ultra-efficient fem- tosecond laser system, nanonee- dles, nanotube nanotweezers, and optical tweezers (Fig. 24) (4). Quantum dot localization (9, 11) and hemostatic effects of self- assembled nanoparticles (12) have also been demonstrated. Nanoneurosurgery is the application of nanotechnology to the spectrum of nervous system disease. It will ultimately employ elements, principles, and capabilities of nanotechnol- ogy to diagnose and treat potential or existing central and peripheral nervous system diseases. The Future Molecular nanotechnology is the 3-dimensional positional control of atomic and molecular structures to create materials and devices with molecular precision (16). Ultimately, nanomed- icine will involve designing and fabricating molecular devices and then using them in patients to establish and maintain health. Mature nanomedicine will require the ability to build these devices with atomic precision. Molecular nanotechnology and molecular manufacturing will be the key to enabling technolo- gies for nanomedicine. FIGURE 17. A, images of nanopar- ticles. Left, transmission electron microscopy of indium metal oxide nanoparticles; center, photomicro- graph of multiple polymeric nanopar- ticles loaded with deoxyribonucleic acid; right, individual polymeric nanoparticle. B, scanning electron micrographs demonstrating variations in crystalline SiC nanowire structure and stages of synthesis using principles of self-assembly. a, numerous grain boundaries on copper foil film; b, faceted nanocrystals deposited on the film; c, nanocrystals coalescing along the grain boundaries; d, array of verti- cally aligned nanowires; e, multitude of nanowires growing radially with bush-like structure; f, flat nanowire tips; g and h, close view of tips with various diameters shows numerous nanowires contained within hollow wires; i, nanowires after being cut with a “scalpel”; inset, cross sectional view. C, scanning electron microscopic image of highly ordered carbon nanotube arrays. D, illustration of a C60 Buckminster-fullerene (buckyball) molecule made up of 60 carbon atoms arranged in a series of interlocking hexagonal shapes. (Image copyright � Dr. Robert C. Wagner, University of Delaware.) A B C D 1042 | VOLUME 63 | NUMBER 6 | DECEMBER 2008 www.neurosurgery-online.com APUZZO ET AL. Consider that we have now entered the early stages of creating novel drug delivery devices, bioprosthetics, new biomaterials, engineered tissues, engineered “organs,” and robotic devices (8). Later, we will see an ever-decreasing scale of operation and the ability to recapitulate every function. Through process engineer- ing, we will create genetic content, gene expression, protein prod- ucts, cell structure and function, and thus, organ structure and function. Largely, these capabilities will offer the re-creation of the human being. There is, indeed, “plenty of room at the bottom” in medicine and for us in neurological surgery as we consider these concepts to be realities and future capabilities (7, 14, 15). Neurosurgical Modernism Over the past generation, we have reinvented neurological surgery through a culmination of scientific, social, and economic events (2, 3). We all want to be modern; however, at times, there is a feeling of insecurity related to this movement and the rush of new ideas and methods. Consider the statement in 1927 from FIGURE 18. Atomic force microscopy used to manip- ulate single selected silicon atoms. A–C, sequential mechanical extraction of 2 single silicon atoms (marked with circles in A and B) from a silicon surface. D, removal of the silicon atom circled in A; E, the created cavity; F, the atom was then replaced. FIGURE 19. Series of images demonstrating nanopropellers being rotated anticlockwise at 8.3 rps (A) and 7.7 rps (B) by an F1-adenosine triphos- phatase biomolecular motor. From Soong RK, Backand GD, Neves HP, Olkhovets AG, Craighead HG, Montemagno CD: Powering an inorganic nanodevice with a biomolecular motor. Science 290: 1555–1558, 2000. FIGURE 21. Illustration showing potential targets for quantum dots of varying dimensions within a cell. Varying the composition and physical dimensions of quantum dots allows control over the color of light emitted. A B C D E F A B FIGURE 20. Illustration showing that quantum dots fluoresce at different wavelengths depending on their physical properties and composition. From Ilic B, Yang Y, Craighead HG: Virus detection using nanodectromechani- cal devices. Appl Phys Lett 85:2604–2606, 2004; Rasi NR, Markin CA: Nanostructures in biodiagnostics. Chem Rev 105:1547–1562, 2005. NEUROSURGERY VOLUME 63 | NUMBER 6 | DECEMBER 2008 | 1043 THE ALCHEMY OF IDEAS the foreward by Le Corbusier (Fig. 25) to his classic, im- passioned “manifesto of the modern,” Towards a New Architecture: “Man’s stock of tools marks out the stages of civilization, the Stone Age, the Bronze Age, the Iron Age. Tools are the result of successive improvement; the effort of all generations is embodied in them. The tool is the direct and immediate expression of progress; it gives man essential assistance and essential freedom, also. We throw the out-of-date tool on the scrap-heap; the carbine, the culverin, the growler and the old locomotive. This action is a manifestation of health, of moral health, of morale also; it is not right that we should produce bad things because of a bad tool; nor is it right that we should waste our energy, our health, and our courage because of a bad tool; it must be thrown away and replaced.” We, during our time, have the scope and capability of activity that span a realm from 109 to 10�9 meters—an incredible thought! With the reinvention of neurolog- ical surgery, we, in many ways, will and must rein- vent ourselves both in spirit and in practical realities. Consider the hallmarks of the Modernist movement in the arts and literature and the attitudes of those who truly participated in giving s o c i e t y t h e f a b u l o u s progress and fresh ideas that attended the concept of Modernism. The passion for progress, the premium placed on innova- tion and discovery, the pressure to reinvent, and the need to astonish ourselves with the new, the future, are things to which we should all adapt to move neurological surgery forward. The quest for modernity should be an inveterate passion for all of us who would call ourselves neurosurgeons! Disclosure The authors have no personal financial or institutional interest in any of the drugs, materials, or devices described in this article. REFERENCES 1. A’Hearn MF: Whence comets? Science 314:1708–1709, 2006. 2. Apuzzo MLJ, Liu CY: 2001: Things to come. Neurosurgery 49:765–778, 2001. 3. Apuzzo MLJ, Liu CY: Honored guest presentation: Quid novi? In the realm of ideas—The neurosurgical dialectic. Clin Neurosurg 49:159–187, 2002. 4. Arai Y, Yasuda R, Akashi K, Harada Y, Miyata H, Kinosita K Jr, Itoh H: Tying a molecular knot with optical tweezers. Nature 399:446–448, 1999. 5. Cohen H, Levy RJ, Gao J, Fishbein I, Kousaev V, Sosnowski S, Slomkowski S, Golomb G: Sustained delivery and expression of DNA encapsulated in poly- meric nanoparticles. Gene Ther 7:1896–1905, 2000. 6. Elder JB, Liu CY, Apuzzo MLJ: Neurosurgery in the realm of 10�9: Part 1— Stardust and nanotechnology in neuroscience. Neurosurgery 62:1–20, 2008. 7. Elder JB, Liu CY, Apuzzo MLJ: Neurosurgery in the realm of 10�9: Part 2— Applications of nanotechnology to neurosurgery: Present and future. Neurosurgery 62:269–285, 2008. 8. Fritz J, Baller MK, Lang HP, Rothuizen H, Vettiger P, Meyer E, Güntherodt H, Gerber C, Gimzewski JK: Translating biomolecular recognition into nanome- chanics. Science 288:316–318, 2000. 9. Gao X, Cui Y, Levenson RM, Chung LW, Nie S: In vivo cancer targeting and imaging with semiconductor quantum dots. Nat Biotechnol 22:969–976, 2004. 10. Gay P: Modernism: The Lure of Heresy: From Baudelaire to Beckett and Beyond. New York, W.W. Norton, 2008. 11. Han M, Gao X, Su JZ, Nie S: Quantum-dot-tagged microbeads for multi- plexed optical coding of biomolecules. Nat Biotechnol 19:631–635, 2001. FIGURE 22. Spectral imaging of a live mouse harboring human prostate cancers labeled with bio- conjugated quantum dots. Multi- functional bioconjugated quantum dots injected into the tail vein demonstrate dramatic preferential labeling of subcutaneous prostate tumor tissue. FIGURE 25. Charles Edouard Jeanneret-Gris (Le Corbusier). FIGURE 23. Scanning electron micrograph of a por- tion of a nanofabricated functionalized silicon nano- cantilever array. FIGURE 24. Optical tweezers used to tie a knot in an actin filament. To manipulate the filament, 2 poly- styrene beads coated with myosin were held by optical tweezers, and 1 end was manipulated to form a knot. Scale bar, 10 µm. 12. Ho GW, Wong ASW, Wee ATS, Welland ME: Self-assembled growth of coax- ial crystalline nanowires. Nano Lett 4:2023–2026, 2004. 13. Leary SP, Liu CY, Apuzzo MLJ: Toward the emergence of nanoneurosurgery: Part II—Nanomedicine: Diagnostics and imaging at the nanoscale level. Neurosurgery 58:805–823, 2006. 14. Leary SP, Liu CY, Apuzzo MLJ: Toward the emergence of nanoneurosurgery: Part III—Nanomedicine: Targeted nanotherapy, nanosurgery, and progress toward the realization of nanoneurosurgery. Neurosurgery 58:1009–1026, 2006. 15. Leary SP, Liu CY, Yu C, Apuzzo MLJ: Toward the emergence of nanoneuro- surgery: Part I—Progress in nanoscience, nanotechnology, and the compre- hension of events in the mesoscale realm. Neurosurgery 57:606–634, 2005. 16. Oyabu N, Custance O, Yi I, Sugawara Y, Morita S: Mechanical vertical manip- ulation of selected single atoms by soft nanoindentation using near contact atomic force microscopy. Phys Rev Lett 90:176102, 2003. 17. Pinna N, Garnweitner G, Antonietti M, Niederberger M: A general nonaque- ous route to binary metal oxide nanocrystals involving a C-C bond cleavage. J Am Chem Soc 127:5608–5612, 2005. 18. Stardust, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, NASA. http://stardust.jpl.nasa.gov/ photo/spacecraft.html#ksc. Accessed September 8, 2008. 19. Steinhart M, Wehrspohn RB, Gösele U, Wendorff JH: Nanotubes by template wetting: A modular assembly system. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 43:1334– 1344, 2004. COMMENTS In this wonderful tribute to Ted Kurze, Apuzzo et al. provide thereader with several unique insights into the way new ideas bring about change and progress in our civilization. They accomplish this by focusing on the broad effect that the Modernist movement has had on European thought and the specific role that individual Modernists have had on developing our society’s acceptance of the inevitability of inno- vation and discovery. As the field of neurosurgery and individual neu- rosurgeons move to reinvent themselves in response to today’s scien- tific, social, and economic events, it is particularly useful to be aware of our Modernist roots. Understanding the roots of the passion we share for bettering the lives of our patients will undoubtedly allow us to move more gracefully, with fewer missteps. E. Sander Connolly, Jr. New York, New York It is often instructive to step back and reflect on the realm of sciencein our lives. This article explores the subject, ranging from the immensity of a universe beyond comprehension to the nanometer world beyond perception. It is inspirational as well as humbling. One of the major attractions of neurosurgery is the capacity to use the same concepts that help us understand the laws of physics, biochem- istry, and molecular biology to devise novel methods for treating neu- rological disease. In some ways, a career in neurosurgery also is the most inspiring and humbling of any career I can imagine. The future of our discipline will depend on incorporating some of the concepts and themes in this article into new treatment methods. Our willing- ness to collaborate with other disciplines in science is necessary to make this happen. Joseph M. Piepmeier New Haven, Connecticut This special article was presented at the 2008 meeting of theAmerican Association of Neurological Surgeons in Chicago, IL, as part of the Theodore Kurze Lecture. Dr. Michael L.J. Apuzzo, former colleague of Ted Kurze, delivered the original presentation. The senior author is a well-known master surgeon, teacher, and innovator of numerous technologies in both surgery and radiation oncology. In his characteristic style, he skillfully examines the power of ideas, the move- ment of Modernism in the arts, and their role in sculpting the future of neurosurgical practice. This all-embracing essay is organized into 3 parts: an assessment of the power of ideas in initiating change and progress, the capabilities of “modern” scientific endeavors, and the realities of modern neurosurgical attitudes. In the first part, “Alchemy, Ideas, and Modernism,” the authors illus- trate, through art, architecture, and music, how an idea is capable of influencing both scientific and humanistic thought. Provocative and influential works of Modernist figures are cited: Wassily Kandinsky’s Composition 8, 1923; Villa Savoie, designed by Charles Edouard Jeanneret-Gris, “Le Corbusier”; Frank Gehry’s “jackets” at the Walt Disney Concert Hall. These works reflect the cascade effect and how artistic thought eventually progresses to innovative diagnostic tech- niques and surgical approaches. The authors begin the second part, “Scope and Scale of Modern Science,” with Diego Rivera’s 1934 mural Man, Controller of the Universe, which depicts man in control of the universe machine (resembling a sur- geon behind a DaVinci robotic apparatus). The image serves as a sym- bol of where neurosurgery has ventured in the past (microsurgery, stereotaxy, endoscopy, radiosurgery, endovascular techniques) and per- haps will go in the future: nanotechnology. The authors assert that nan- otechnology, the 3-dimensional control of atomic structures, may expand the field of neurosurgery to include anatomic engineering with nanoneedles, nanotubes, nanotweezers, and femtosecond laser systems. The third part, “Neurosurgical Modernism,” summarizes the scope of neurosurgery and spans from the cosmos (a scale of 109 m) to nanoscience (a scale of 10–9 m). Parallels are drawn between the Modernist movement in arts and architecture with true practitioners of medicine today. The ultimate outcome of this push for “the new” will inevitably result in improved neurosurgical capabilities. Traditionally, the goal of the Theodore Kurze Lecture has been the integration of neurosurgical scientific endeavors with those of the humanities. Dr. Kurze’s legacy and intellectual spirit are proudly dis- played in this exceptional essay. John J. 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work_52eulyy5wnburp7hgvaibu5sfy	----	Editorial Editorial Björn Sundmark Bookbird: A Journal of International Children's Literature, Volume 56, Number 1, 2018, pp. 2-3 (Article) Published by Johns Hopkins University Press DOI: For additional information about this article [ Access provided at 6 Apr 2021 02:40 GMT from Carnegie Mellon University ] https://doi.org/10.1353/bkb.2018.0000 https://muse.jhu.edu/article/687444 https://doi.org/10.1353/bkb.2018.0000 https://muse.jhu.edu/article/687444 B O O K B I R D 2 I B B Y. O R G Editorial w i t h t h e f o u n dat i o n o f i b by , the Inter- national Youth Library, and Bookbird, Jella Lepman concretized the idea put forth by French critic Paul Hazard that children’s literature can portray both what makes every culture unique and what is uni- versal: our “humanity.” In consequence, by reading books in other languages and from culture rather than our own, we can gain an understanding of oth- er cultures, as well as realize our common humanity, and this can bring us closer to each other. Ultimately, reading is a peace project—hence IBBY’s stated mission “to promote international understanding through children’s books” (mission statement, IBBY homepage). As editor of Bookbird, I naturally see it as my ambition to promote a better understanding of children’s literature. With the global reach of Book- bird, I also recognize that we are excellently placed to promote not just understanding but international understanding of and through children’s literature. We attempt this with every issue in our choice of ar- ticles, reviews, exhibitions, and interviews. However, sometimes a topic or theme comes up that partic- ularly well “promotes international understanding through children’s books.” The special feature of this issue, “translation and transmedia,” is ideal for this purpose. Translation is fundamental to IBBY’s mission. Without books in translation, we are locked in our own language ghettos. This is true even of large languages, like English, where the percentage of translated books is often very low. Transmedia is another rewriting process by which works of literature are adapted to new purposes, media forms, and genres. Through such adaptation work, books are given new lease of life and can continue to “promote understanding” of different times, cultures, and languages. The process of “translation” can be rather intricate and take unexpected turns. The cover of this issue of Bookbird is a case in point. The image is from Svjetlan Junakovic’s Great Book of Animal Portraits (2007) and represents a murdered chicken in a bathtub. One can regard it as a translation or reinterpretation of Jacques-Louis David’s 1793 painting The Death of Marat, which depicts the murder of Jean-Paul Marat by Charlotte Corday the same year. It is one of the most famous images of and from the French Revolution and has been com- pared to Michelangelo’s Pietà and Caravaggio’s The Entombment of Christ. It has inspired later painters— like Edvard Munch and Pablo Picasso, who made their own versions of The Death of Marat—and is also frequently alluded to in popular culture (film, PC games, etc.). What Junakovic does with his version could be seen as mere subversion, but I think it cuts deeper than parody. On the one hand, Junakovic’s can be seen as an anthropomorphic dead chicken, that is, an animal (bird) cast as a human being. Since anthropomorphism is heavily featured in children’s literature and culture—from Aesop to Zootropolis— the painting (and the whole collection of animal portraits) thus invites a children’s literature read- ing. In other words, Junakovic’s act of translation questions the child-adult boundary by humorously repackaging serious art as children’s literature. On the other hand, the original painting, The Death of I B B Y. O R G 3 5 6 . 1 – 2 0 1 8 BJÖRN SUNDMARK is Professor of English Literature in the Faculty of Education, Malmö University, Sweden. He has published numerous articles on children’s literature, and is the author of the study Alice in the Oral-Literary Continuum (1999) and co-editor of The Nation in Children’s Literature (Routledge 2013). He is editor of Bookbird–Journal of International Children’s Literature. Marat, is so well-known, looms so large, and its style of painting has been so meticulously copied that it is still in a sense visible through Junakovic’s “translation.” If so, one could argue that Marat is still there, but turned chicken—through a process of zoomorphism (turning men into beasts), which is the opposite of anthropomorphism. However, with Junakovic’s painting it is impossible to say if the animal has turned man or the man turned animal. Thus, Junakovic subtly calls the human-animal divide into question, something that is very much part of a contemporary discourse on posthumanism, animal rights, and the like. And that is just the cover! For a more extensive commentary on the theme, I refer you to Anna Kerchy, who presents the featured articles, in her critical introduction to the study of translation and transmedia. Finally, having prepared this issue, and seen the potential in the material, I have come to recognize how well it fits the mission of IBBY. With this in mind, I want to propose to Bookbird’s readers and to IBBY that an award for the translation of children’s books should be established. It would, alongside the H. C. Andersen Award, be a prize that fully encapsulates the spirit of IBBY—a translation prize to promote international understanding through children’s books. 
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work_5afqy7hflbg7bodhnnw3zbccem	----	Microsoft Word - Koziczak.doc TRAMES, 2017, 21(71/66), 4, 403–410 THE FORM OF PAINTER’S SIGNATURE AND ITS SUITABILITY FOR THE ASSESSMENT OF THE AUTHENTICITY OF PAINTINGS Anna Koziczak Kazimierz Wielki University, Poland Abstract. One of the commonly used methods for determining the authenticity of the painting is the analysis of signature placed on it. However, unmistakable confirmation of authenticity may apply only to signatures of sufficiently high quality. The article indicates, from a handwriting expert viewpoint, which properties of signatures are significant to their identification, and which are not, and therefore, that in some cases, despite the corres- pondence of signature with the exemplars, conclusion about its authenticity is invalid. Keywords: painters’ signature, authenticity of paintings, art forgery, fake painting, handwriting identification, authenticity of the signature, art market DOI: https://doi.org/10.3176/tr.2017.4.07 1. Introduction The painter’s signature, defined as the mark made by the artist’s hand on his/her painting, takes a variety of forms. It may be a full name signature, an abbreviated signature, a monogram, as well as a symbol used as an identifying mark of the artist (e.g. a geometric or animal shape). Sometimes the signatures are more complex and contain not only the name or its equivalent but also the date, title, place of creation, or other authorial information. While signatures had already been used in antiquity, they began gaining importance from the 15th century (Matthew 1998:624). As the social prestige of the painter’s profession grew, signing paintings became an increasingly popular custom. In the 19th century there was an enormous development of the art market. The establishment of new art galleries and more and more numerous private collections resulted in a great demand both for the works of contemporary art and paintings of the old masters (see for example data presented by Worthington and Anna Koziczak 404 Higgs 2004:258). In consequence, the counterfeiting of paintings and signatures developed on a scale unheard of before. 2. The significance of signatures for the assessment of the authenticity of paintings Signatures are believed to be of particular importance for the attribution of a work of art. Therefore, signature analysis is (in addition to physico-chemical tests, the analysis of technology, painting techniques, and style) one of the most important methods for investigating the authenticity of a painting. However, when discussing the role of signature in determining the authorship of a work of art, we should take into consideration that the authenticity of a signature does not mean that the painting on which it was placed is authentic or, conversely, the inauthenticity of a signature is not tantamount to the inauthenticity of the work. This means that there are four possible combinations for the painting-signature pair: (a) authentic painting + authentic signature, (b) fake painting + fake signature, (c) authentic painting + fake signature, (d) fake painting + authentic signature (Widla 1980:8). The first combination is obvious and self-explanatory. The presence of the three remaining painting-signature combinations on the art market is due to the fact that the prices of signed paintings are usually much higher than those reached by unsigned ones. This is why signing fake paintings with forged signatures, while reprehensible, is understandable. Due to the value of signed paintings, even genuine paintings which have not been signed by their authors are sometimes given signatures by other people, for example members of the artists’ families. There are frequent cases of renowned artists signing their signatures on other people’s paint- ings (as Corot and Pablo Picasso used to do) or in blanco, on an empty foundation (for example Salvador Dali), as a peculiar form of providing financial support. Finally, many artists, including Rembrandt, signed the works of their students to confirm that the works met the requirements of the workshop (Arnau 1960:122). In this case, the signatures of the masters served as quality labels. Regardless of the possible relationships between a painting and the signature on it, it is obvious that the signature serves as the attribution indicator for the painting only when its authenticity can be assured (Bensimon 1996:29). Naturally, this statement leads to the question when such an assurance can be had or, more precisely, if and in which way it depends on the form of the signature. 3. Form of signature and the scope of examination The assessment of the authenticity of signatures can be based on two kinds of tests:  the examination of the technical layer of the signature allows, among other things, detecting later interferences with the structure of the work (analysis The form of painter’s signature 405 of the foundation, covering material, and the way the latter was applied onto it; the UV and IR radiation examination; stratigraphic analysis, or examining individual covering material layers),  the examination of graphic features of a signature. Sometimes the examination includes the linguistic features of a signature and involves checking it for spelling, grammar, and logical errors (the former, like using a sobriquet the artist received posthumously in a signature, may give grounds for excluding the authenticity of the signature). 3.1. Examination of the technical layer The range of tests which can be carried out is only slightly dependent on the form of the signature. This relationship occurs only when focusing the analysis on the manner in which the covering material was applied to the foundation, particularly the artist’s (or the forger’s) manner of wielding the brush or other tool used to place the signature. In this kind of examination, the odds of drawing conclusions regarding the authenticity of signatures are greater if the examined signatures are longer and the complexity of their design is greater. The remaining tests of the technical layer do not depend on the form of the signature; therefore, they can be carried out to the same extent regardless of the length, design, or any other properties composing the form of signatures. 3.2. Examination of the graphical layer It is completely different when examining the graphical layer of a signature: these tests are related to the form of the signature directly and significantly. The scope of tests which can be performed on a given signature (and thus also the conclusions as to its authenticity) is greatly influenced by three formal properties: (a) length, (b) degree of complexity, (c) dynamics of performing the signature. 3.2.1. Signature length The longer the signature, the more graphical features there are in it, which can be subjected to analysis. This relationship is essential to the examination of the painter’s signature, since (similarly to the signatures on traditional documents) in order to categorically state that the signature was placed by a specific person, the expert has to find in it a unique, individual set of graphical features. Which, in turn, is only possible when there is a sufficient number of analysed features (Koppenhaver 2007:260). As the signature shortens, the number of graphical features it contains also decreases, down to the level below where it is impossible to indicate the maker of a signature due to the lack of sufficient data. If the examined signature is short and the number of features in it scarce, two factors should be taken into account. First, the consistency of the features of a signature with exemplar signatures from a given artist does not necessarily attest to the authenticity of the signature, Anna Koziczak 406 as the high degree of similarity of short samples can be due to imitation (Hilton 1939:571) and, in extraordinary cases, even pure coincidence. Second, the inconsistency between the features of a signature and the artist’s comparative material does not have to prove the inauthenticity of the signature (Slyter 1995:46). The graphism of handwriting of every human (including signatures) changes in time as well as due to various internal and external factors, long-term and temporary, such as the whim of a moment, feeling unwell, haste, or intentional change of specimen signature (Huber and Headrick 1999:51, Naftali 1965:530, Osborn 1910:196, Tomilin 1974:161), This natural variability of graphism varies for different people (Ellen 1997:21); however there is no grounds to assume that painters’ signatures are more stable than traditional ones. Consider- ing the above-average sensitivity of artists, a painter’s signatures may yet turn out to be entities of lower stability in general (the author has not found any detailed studies on this subject). To simplify the issue of signature length, it can be said that the expert “needs to have something to examine”. Expert opinions on short signatures can generally result only in a non-categorical conclusion, such as there are no grounds to ques- tion the authenticity of the signature. Categorical positive conclusions, that are confirming the authenticity of a signature, drawn in such circumstances should be considered ungrounded, which means that they must be incorrect in at least half of the cases (see the numerous examples presented by Arnau or Spencer 2004). The odds of drawing a categorical conclusion denying the authenticity of a signature are slightly better; such conclusions can be based, for example, on the signature showing features clearly contrary to the writing habits of the given artist. In the case of short signatures, the strongest grounds for the categorical negative con- clusions are given by the traces of forgery found in the technical layer. 3.2.2. Degree of signature complexity The degree of signature complexity depends on the technique in which it was made. Some techniques limit the freedom of stroke so much that they force the use of simple graphical solutions in signatures (e.g. using block letters, composed of separate, unconnected sections). The degree of signature complexity is also partially tied to its length. Short signatures are usually not complicated, whereas the design complexity of long signatures may be either high or low. The dependence between the degree of signature complexity and the ability to determine its authenticity is clear: the more complex the signature, the easier it is to confirm or exclude its authenticity (Fig. 1). Signatures of complex design are more difficult to imitate, and the likelihood of a similar graphical structure being repeated by another person is lower. Such signatures, compared to those of simple design, contain a greater number of graphical features valuable in terms of identification. Thus, the greater the complexity of a signature, the more useful it is in evaluating the authenticity of a painting. A contrario, as a categorical confirmation of the authenticity of a very simple signature is generally impossible, The form of painter’s signature 407 signatures of this kind cannot be deemed useful in evaluating the authenticity of the work as a whole. Figure 1. A long signature, with a large number of graphic features – possible categorical con- clusions about its authenticity (photo: A. Koziczak) 3.2.3. Dynamics of performing the signature Examining the authenticity of a signature also depends on the dynamics (freedom and surety) of its making. The measures of dynamics of making a signature include, above all, the pace (speed) of drawing, the pressure of the writing tool on the foundation, and the degree of connections between individual letters (Morris 2000:67). A fast speed of drawing, fluently drawn lines (particularly in curves and loops), rhythmic changes of pressure, and high degree of connection attest to the signature having been drawn leisurely and naturally. Imitating signatures drawn like this and of sufficient length, is extremely difficult. Therefore, high dynamics of drawing provides a solid ground for drawing conclusions as to the authenticity of a signature (Fig. 2). This is not the case for signatures drawn at a slow pace, using a constant pressure of the tool on the foundation, where every letter, or even individual parts of letters, are drawn separately and not connected to others (Fig. 3). Imitating such signatures, resembling pictographs rather than writing, is easy, particularly for art forgers, who are often gifted artists and have the necessary skills (Kelly and Lindblom 2006:98). In the case of signatures with low dynamics, especially the short ones (Fig. 4), even high consistency with the com- parative material of a given artist cannot give grounds to categorically confirm their authenticity. Figure 2. High dynamics of signature provides solid ground for conclusions as to the authenticity of a signature (photo: A. Koziczak). Anna Koziczak 408 Figure 3. The low dynamics of the signature significantly impedes the determination of whether the signature is authentic or not (photo: D. Markowski). Fig. 4. Very short and simple form of signature with low dynamics – no basis to confirm or exclude authenticity (photo: Rijksmuseum. Available online at <https://www.rijksmuseum.nl/en/rijksstudio/ artists/frans-hals>. Accessed on October 27, 2017). 3.3. Summary The above observations are nothing new for the experts in the identification of handwriting and traditional signatures. They know that all inscriptions without freedom of drawing, and on top of that short and simple in design, are research materials of the highest risk category; therefore all conclusions about the origin of such inscriptions must be drawn with utmost care. Thus, when examining a signature for authenticity, it is not enough to verify whether its features are consistent with the comparative material of this artist, or not (Widla 2016:201). Instead, it is necessary to analyse in detail the common features and differences between the studied samples, the identification value of both and the possible reasons why they occur (Mathyer 1961:130), and, above all, if the signature form allows to draw conclusions on its origin. The form of painter’s signature 409 The relationships presented above are rarely taken into account by art historians and museum professionals (as shown by the opinions they provide), yet the expert opinions on the authenticity of signatures are usually provided by them rather than by experts in handwriting analysis. Limiting the testing to the com- parison of the graphical features alone must lead to errors, particularly because high quality painter’s signatures, that is both complex and drawn with freedom, confidence, and speed, are relatively rare. Much more often paintings are marked with signatures of dubious quality: short, simple, without connections between letters, and drawn rather slowly. To a large extent, it is justified by the particular conditions of making signatures (an unusual writing position, foundation, and writing tool, which is difficult to use fluently, not the least because the paint on the brush runs out fast). These circumstances make drawing a painter’s signature more difficult than a traditional one. As a result, the quality of many signatures is low. For that reason, painters’ signatures serve the purpose of identification less often than traditional ones. 4. Conclusions 1. A signature can be a significant determinant of the authenticity of the work of art on which it was placed only when the authenticity of the former is certain. 2. The possibility to assess the authenticity of a signature depends on its form. A conclusive confirmation of authenticity of a signature is only possible for signatures of appropriate quality. 3. The analysis of long, complex, and freely and dynamically drawn signatures gives the best odds of drawing proper categorical conclusions. The shorter and simpler the examined signature, and the less dynamically it was drawn, the smaller are the odds of an unambiguous assessment of its authenticity. In the case when the examined signature is very short and simple, without connections, and slowly drawn, there is no basis to confirm its authenticity even if its features are con- sistent with the exemplars. Therefore, signatures of this kind have no practical value in evaluating a work of art for authenticity. 4. As expert opinions on the authenticity of works of art are generally costly, it is worth to evaluate the quality of signature before commissioning the examina- tion. If the work of art is marked with a signature of little identification value, it is advisable to begin identifying its attribution with the tests which yield better odds of categorical conclusions. Acknowledgements The author would like to thank the Rijksmuseum and Professor Dariusz Markowski for their support and granting permission for using the photographs of signatures presented in the article. Anna Koziczak 410 Address: Anna Koziczak Faculty of Administration and Social Sciences Kazimierz Wielki University ul. Ogińskiego 16 85-092 Bydgoszcz, Poland E-mail: koziczak@ukw.edu.pl References Arnau, Frank (1960) Kunst der Fälscher, Fälscher der Kunst: Dreitausend Jahre Betrug mit Antiquitaten. Econ-Verlag GMBH. Bensimon, Philippe (1996) “L’expertise des signatures en matière de faux tableaux”. Revue Internationale de Police Criminelle 457, 28–30. Ellen, David (1997) The scientific examination of documents: methods and techniques. London: Taylor & Francis. Hilton, Ordway (1939) “The detection of forgery”. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 30, 4, 568–599. Available online at <http://www.jstor.org/stable/1136977>. Accessed on October 27, 2017. Huber, Roy A. and A. M. Headrick (1999) Handwriting identification: facts and fundamentals. Boca Raton and New York: CRC Press. Koppenhaver, Katherine M. (2007) Forensic document examination: principles and practice. Totowa New Jersey: Humana Press. Matthew, Louisa C. (1998) “The painter’s presence: signatures in venetian renaissance pictures”. The Art Bulletin 80, 4, 616–648. Available online at <http://www.jstor.org/stable/3051316>. Accessed on October 27, 2017. Mathyer, Jacques (1961) “The expert examination of signatures”. The Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science 52, 1, 122–133. Available online at <http:// scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/jclc>. Accessed on October 27, 2017. Morris, Ron N. (2000) Forensic handwriting identification: fundamental concepts and principles. San Diego, San Francisco, New York, Boston, London, Sydney, and Tokyo: Academic Press. Naftali, Arie (1965) “Behavior factors in handwriting identification”. The Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science 56, 4, 528–539. Available online at <http://www.jstor.org/ stable/1141688>. Accessed on October 27, 2017. Osborn, Albert S. (1910) Questioned documents. Rochester N.Y.: The Lawyers’ Cooperative Publishing Co. Kelly, Jan Seaman and Brian S. Lindblom, eds. (2006) Scientific examination of questioned docu- ments. Boca Raton, London, and New York: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group. Slyter, Steven A. (1995) Forensic signature examination. Springfield, Illinois USA: Charles C. Thomas Publisher. Spencer, Ronald D., ed. (2004) The expert versus the object: judging fakes and false attributions in the visual arts. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. Tomilin, W. W. (1974) Osnowy sudiebno-medicinskoj ekspertizy pisma. Moscow: Medicina. Widla, Tadeusz (1980) “L’expertise des signatures artistiques”. Bulletin du Musée National de Varsovie 21, 1, 7–24. Widla, Tadeusz (2016) Ekspertyza sygnatury malarskiej. Katowice: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Śląskiego. Worthington, A. C. and H. Higgs (2004) “Art as an investment: risk, return and portfolio diversifica- tion in major painting markets”. Accounting and Finance 44, 257–271. Available online at <http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu>. Accessed on October 27, 2017. 
work_5ouska6aqjhjrjynq5zfw5jr6q	----	<303730365FB4D9C2F7BCF6C1A45FB9CCB1B9C7D02033342D312E687770> An East/West Pas De Deux: The Ballets Russes and the Orient in the Modern Western Imagination Robert Myers OH, East is East, and West is West, and never the twain shall meet, Till Earth and Sky stand presently at God’s great Judgment Seat;1) The opening couplet of Rudyard Kipling’s “The Ballad of East and West,” first published in 1889, is one of Kipling’s well-worn tautologies and all too obviously fallacious truths that seem simply to confirm his position as the most egregious of Victorian Orientalists. These verses appear, at first glance, to assert that the Orient and the Occident are not only essential spaces but eternal antinomies. In that sense, of course, Kipling’s words can be seen as prefiguring much of the recent rhetoric about East and West (‘Clash of Civilizations,’ ‘War on Terror,’ ‘Islamofascism,’ ‘Islamism,’ etc.) that has been repeated ad nauseam and, as such, has achieved a sort of naturalized, self-evident status in spite of its obvious vacuity. “Kipling,” as 1) Rudyard Kipling, “The Ballad of East and West,” in Rudyard Kipling’s Verse: Definitive Edition (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1940), 234. George Orwell writes, “is a jingo imperialist, he is morally insensitive and aesthetically disgusting.”2) But as Orwell also observes in the same essay, Kipling is a paradoxical writer, and not simply because he is “a good bad writer,” who coined such memorable phrases as “the White man’s burden,” “somewhere East of Suez,” and “what do they know of England who only England know.”3) Upon closer inspection in fact in the very next couplet: “But there is neither East nor West, nor Breed nor Birth / When two strong men stand face to face tho’ they come from the ends of the earth” Kipling makes precisely the opposite point from the one the opening lines had suggested. The ballad recounts a story set in the Khyber Pass near the Afghan border in what the contemporary American media glibly refer to as the “tribal region” of Pakistan about a standoff between a Western soldier and his Eastern adversary. The tale ends when the Easterner, who has stolen the soldier’s father’s horse, offers to send his own son to guard the soldier as he returns the horse to its rightful owner. As such, Kipling’s ballad is a very good bad poem about how human solidarity can transcend the most intractable borders of race, culture and geography. One hint of how overly-optimistic Kipling was can be seen a century later, at least in the military realm, in the cover story of the November 20, 2010 Independent newspaper, which recounts the story of the death of the hundredth British soldier in the current Afghan war. In this essay I will discuss the permeability of borders between 2) George Orwell, “Rudyard Kipling,” originally published in Horizon (1942), reproduced on The Orwell Prize website, accessed May 23, 2011, http:// theorwellprize.co.uk/george-orwell/by-orwell/essays-and-other-works/rudyard-kipling/. 3) Ibid. East and West in another sphere, the arts, in an earlier era the beginning of aesthetic modernism, with respect to the fine arts, in Europe and North America and the attendant paradoxes and ironies of cultural transmission, which, I hope, will call into question the very notion of such facile phrases as ‘Western culture,’ ‘Western civilization,’ ‘the Muslim world,’ and ‘radical Islam and the East,’ as well as the supposedly inherent world-views and innate antagonisms that ostensibly exist between these clearly delineated spheres. Like any aesthetic movement, especially one defined by a radical break with the past, European modernism has many beginnings. A number of art and cultural historians, for example, locate its beginning with the 1907 retrospective show at the Salon d’Automne in Paris of the work of Paul Cezanne, who died the year before. Cezanne, who asserted that “[p]ainting stands for no other end than itself it is simply a pretext for line and colour, nothing more,” laid the groundwork for Cubism and abstraction, and Picasso famously referred to him as “the father of us all.”4) I will assert, however, that it is just as, if not more, logical to locate that beginning two years later with the arrival in Paris from St. Petersburg of the Ballets Russes in 1909. Certainly modernism, if it means anything, means rupture to “make it new” in the phrase of Ezra Pound, who writes, although somewhat ironically, in the 1913 poem “Les Millwin” about the young artists from the Slade School who attended a 1910 production of Cléopâtre in London “with forearms / Crossed in great 4) Qtd. in Rosemary Bailey, “See France through Artists’ Eyes,” The Guardian, May 17, 2009, accessed May 23, 2011, http://www.guardian.co.uk/travel/2009/may/ 17/ provence-cezannne-picasso-france-travel. futuristic x’s” and certainly no one in Paris had seen anything before remotely like those first productions of the Ballets Russes.5) As John MacKenzie, Lynn Garafola and others have written, ballet was essentially an ossified, nearly moribund, art form, when the group’s producer Serge Diaghilev, designer Leon Bakst, choreographer Mikhail Fokine and a troupe that included performers such as Ana Pavlova, Ida Rubinstein and Vaslav Nijinsky arrived in Paris.6) Not only did the subject matter unbridled and orgiastic female desire, inverted sexuality, masturbatory delight, sado-masochism, homoeroticism and the link between eroticism and death create shock, another indispensable element in the creation of a modernist aesthetic, the forms of the pieces produced by the Ballets Russes transcended the simply novel. They radically and permanently altered notions of what constitutes dance and of the relationships both between dance and ballet and between performance and painting. The body, gestures, clothing and their relationship to notions of what we now refer to as gender were interrogated most particularly in the performances of Rubinstein and Nijinsky. But the group’s investigation of form was not limited to movement and the body. The works themselves were radically re-imagined. For example, Schèhèrazade (1910) based on The 1001 Nights was reduced from an epic, never-ending narrative to a half-hour, non-narrative based on the outer frame tale, in which King Shahryar returns unexpectedly from a hunting trip to discover that his wife, Zobeida, is in the midst of an orgy with the slaves in 5) Laura Marcus and Peter Nichols (eds.), The Cambridge History of Twentieth Century Literature (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2004), 111. 6) John Mackenzie, Orientalism: History, Theory and the Arts (Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 1995), 197. the seraglio; he then proceeds to slaughter the slaves and his wife.7) As many modernist writers would later do for example, Joyce, in Ulysses, published in 1922, compressed the epic of the Odyssey into a single day in modern Dublin Diaghilev and the Ballets Russes transformed the languid, always delayed eroticism of 1001 Nights into the sexual frenzy of Sheherazade. The Ballets Russes also radically redefined gender by repeatedly dramatizing powerful females such as Cleopatra, Thamar and Zobeida as insatiable and sadistic sexual devourers and by for the first time in the history of ballet foregrounding the male body as erotic object. The troupe’s founder, Diaghilev, was an inveterate collector, curator and impresario, whose genius lay in a combination of showmanship and the ability to create novel and shocking aesthetic synergies. The designers, composers, choreographers and performers of the Ballet Russes also redefined genre by creating one-of-a-kind gesamtkunstwerks i.e. total works of art such as L’Aprés Midi d’un Faune (Afternoon of a Faun), Le Spectre de la Rose (The Specter of the Rose), Daphnis et Chloé (Daphnis and Chloe), Le Sacre du Printemps (The Rite of Spring), and the troupe’s lesser-known but equally innovative works with more overtly Eastern themes. These pieces incorporated innovative, sometimes disjunctive and, at times, almost atonal scores with harmonies and scales from the East by composers such as Debussy, Stravinsky, Ravel and Satie that completely eschewed the hackneyed 7) In 1001 Nights, Shahryar, traumatized by this infidelity, goes on to murder every woman with whom he sleeps afterwards until he meets Sheherazade, who avoids the fate of her predecessors by telling him riveting tales many, not unsurprisingly, about infidelity, chicanery and brutality every night, which she interrupts as dawn approaches. style of German symphonic music based on Wagnerian leitmotifs. The sets for the pieces were designed by designers such as Leon Bakst, who saturated the stage with ostensibly dissonant colors such as green and blue; by Natalia Goncharov, whose designs for L’Oiseau de Feu (The Firebird) and Le Coq D’or (The Golden Cockerel) are manifestations of her belief that “the East means the creation of new forms, and extending of the problems of color;”8) and by Pablo Picasso, who transported the Cubist lines of his paintings onto the stage. The costumes were created by Bakst, Matisse and others using draping Asian lines, splotches of color and elaborate embroidery heretofore unseen on European stages. These juxtapositions of jarringly new sounds, costumes and scenic designs not only created new theatrical universes, they resonated in the realms of fashion design in the clothing of Paul Poiret and Coco Chanel, both of whom worked with the dance troupe, and in Bakst and Poiret’s influential interior designs. As Peter Wollen writes, “The huge success of Scheherazade was the pre-condition for Poiret’s Oriental fashion The Russian Ballet launched orientalism, Poiret popularized it, Matisse channeled it into painting and fine art.”9) One further element that is essential to consider in assessing the breadth and complexity of the achievement of the Ballet Russes is the influence they have had and continue to have on both “high” and “popular” culture. In addition to the artists mentioned above who collaborated with them directly, Jean Cocteau worked closely with the 8) John E. Bowlt, “Léon Bakst, Natalia Goncharova and Pablo Picasso,” in Jane Pritchard, ed., Diaghilev and the Golden Age of the Ballets Russes 1909-1929 (London: Victoria & Albert Publishing, 2010). 9) Peter Wollen, “Fashion/Orientalism/The Body,” New Formations 1 (1987): 12. troupe and wrote librettos for several operatic pieces. They also had close links to Juan Gris, Rodin, Marinetti, Virginia Woolf, Duncan Grant and others in the Bloomsbury Circle, and they spawned dozens of imitators on American vaudeville stages in the 1910s during the period the group toured there.10) The Ballet Russes defined ballet in the 20 century through the work of Diaghilev’s last choreographer, George Balanchine, and his collaborator Lincoln Kirstein, the founder of the New York City Ballet, who consciously modeled his career on Diaghilev’s, and through the work of the two greatest male dancers of the second half of the twentieth-century Rudolph Nuryev and Mikhail Baryshnikov, both of whom acknowledged their debt to Nijinsky, just as Balanchine acknowledged his to the troupe’s other choreographers, Michel Fokine, Leonide Massine, and Nijinsky. The group’s aesthetic migrated directly into modern American experimental dance in the figure of one of the troupe’s principal dancers, Adolph Bolm, into Hollywood cinema through the figure of Theodore Kosloff who left the Ballet Russes after the first season in Paris and in the 1920s and became an “actor, dancer, choreographer, technical director and unofficial advisor” to Cecile B. DeMille,11) and the group’s costumes and designs were revived in the 1970s in the fashion designs of Yves St. Laurent. The aesthetic also continues in exhibitions like the major autumn 2010 exhibition at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London, “Diaghilev and the Golden Age of the Ballets Russes,1909-1927,” attesting to the lasting influence of the troupe’s 10) Judith Mackrell, Bloomsbury Ballerina: Lydia Lopokova, Imperial Dancer and Mrs. John Maynard Keynes (London: Weidenfeld &Nicolson, 2008). 11) Lynn Garafola and Nancy Van Norman Baer, The Ballets Russes and Its World (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1999), 9. work in many spheres of art and culture.12) Here, I would like to briefly focus on three aspects of the history and aesthetic of the Ballet Russes. First, it seems significant that so many of the group’s earliest works were based on Arab and Islamic motifs. The first two productions presented in Paris, in 1909, the year before Scheherazade was presented, were Cleopatra and Thamar. Cleopatra, based on Pushkin’s Egyptian Nights, portrays a sexually voracious monarch who indulges her passion at will and then kills her prey after she is sexually satisfied. Nijinsky danced the role of a slave who begs for a night with Cleopatra, knowing the price for his pleasure will be death. Ida Rubinstein, a tall exceedingly slender dancer, who played the role of the Arab femme fatale, is carried onstage “on the shoulders of six slaves, in a sarcophagus which, when opened, revealed her swathed from head to foot like a mummy.”13) Cocteau describes the scene as follows: Each of the veils unwound itself in a fashion of its own; one demanded a host of subtle touches, another the deliberation required in peeling a walnut, the third the airy detachment of the petals of a rose, and the eleventh, most difficult of all, came away in one piece like the bark of the eucalyptus tree.14) 12) The Yves St. Laurent collection was part of the Victoria and Albert Museum exhibit. See, for example: Jenna Rossi-Camus, “Exhibition Review: Diaghilev and the Golden Age of the Ballet Russes at the V&A,” Worn Through: Apparel from an Academic Perspective, October 28, 2010, http://www. wornthrough.com/2010/10/28/exhibition-review-diaghilev-and-the-golden-age- of-the- ballet-r/. 13) Wollen, “Fashion/Orientalism/The Body,” 19. 14) Ibid. Thamar, produced two years after Scheherazade and based on a narrative poem by Lermontov, dramatizes the story of a Georgian princess who lures a male passerby into her castle then “plunges a dagger into the heart of her captive lover”.15) Not coincidentally, all three ballets link slavery or captivity, female sexuality, violence and death, motifs which recur with frequency in the troupe’s oeuvre in the 1910s and which prefigure preoccupations of post-war European aesthetics and the 1917 Russian Revolution. In spite of their lurid subject matter, their basis in literary works from the East emphasizes the fact that, beyond their obvious shock value, Diaghilev, who was notoriously high-brow and evinced virtually no interest in the burgeoning cinema industry, expected that these new forms of ballet would be taken seriously as works of art. Many of the pieces performed in the first ten years of the troupe’s existence are overtly linked to the Arab and Islamic East Salome (1913); The Polovtsian Dances (1909), based on Borodin’s opera Prince Igor, featuring a metatheatrical scene in which Uzbeki slaves entertain the captive Christian Prince Igor, who is offered his choice of dancers by his Uzbeki counterpart; Les Orientales (The Orientals) (1910), a revue of Eastern dances, which featured “The Saracens’ Dance,” “The Assyrians’ Dance,” and “The Oriental Dance” and the “Djinn’s Dance,” both choreographed and performed by Nijinsky; and The Golden Cockerel (1914), a “fable with sets more like Persian carpets or painted peasant furniture than backdrops for dancing”.16) Numerous other ballets, such as Le Dieu Bleu (The Blue God) (1912), with a 15) Garafola and Baer, The Ballets Russes and Its World, 250. 16) John E. Bowlt, “Léon Bakst, Natalia Goncharova and Pablo Picasso,” 107. libretto co-written by Jean Cocteau and based on a Hindu legend, and, of course, the ballets with Russian themes, are also set in the East. Other pieces not based on Eastern source material nevertheless feature motifs inspired by Asia or the East, such as Le Chant de Rossignol (The Song of the Nightingale) (1925), based on a Stravinsky opera after a Hans Christian Anderson fairy tale and containing Tibetan-style costumes designed by Matisse, and Parade (1917), with music by Eric Satie and costumes, curtain and scenery by Picasso and containing a character called the Chinese Conjuror, who first introduces Cubist design into the theatre. Perhaps most importantly, other works by the Ballets Russes allow us to perceive the ways in which artistic creation in, what Howard Goodall calls “a collaborative hothouse of an unprecedented order,”17) reconfigures facile political and ideological geographies. For example, when one looks at Bakst’s designs in the book Bakst in Greece, by Charles Spencer, and analyzes the profound influence that ancient Greece had on the Bakst’s designs one can’t help but see what a thin line separates the supposedly Western nymphs and shepherdesses in Narcisse and Afternoon of the Faun from the Eastern pilgrims and potentates in The Blue God and Scheherazade. And that insight prompts a second look at the costume and set of Le Tricorne (1919) based on Alarcon’s novel The Three-Cornered Hat which were designed by Picasso, who was, after all, born in Malaga, from where on a clear day one can see the North African coast and which for eight centuries was part of the Islamic world. His Sevillan 17) Howard Goodall, “Music and the Ballets Russes,” in Jane Pritchard, ed., Diaghilev and the Golden Age of the Ballets Russes, 177. dancer, with her stacked, pagoda-like headdress, suddenly resembles Bakst’s design for the child’s headdress in The Blue God, which was “inspired by details from Angkor Thom in Cambodia,”18) and his set for a Spanish town looks indistinguishable from an Arab town in the Maghreb right across the Mediterranean. The other two aspects I would like to focus on are, first, the many profound paradoxes one encounters in the history and aesthetic of the Ballets Russes and, finally, several crucial aspects of the troupe’s relationship to American culture. Of course the reason these paradoxes are so significant is that they very rapidly undermine the facile antinomies so often attributed to the East (femininity, passivity, dissimulation, excessive ornamentation, unbridled sexuality, etc.) and the West (masculinity, functionality, straightforwardness, clean engineering, productive repression, etc.). The most obvious paradox concerning the Ballet Russes as the vessel of what might be termed a neo-Orientalist aesthetic, which profoundly altered Western modernist art is, of course, the fact that the company, its producer, choreographers, performers and many of its designers were Russian. Less obvious, but equally ironic is the fact that the principal designer of this visual universe that theatrically came to represent the Arab and Islamic universe in the West was Leon Bakst, who was a Russian Jew i.e. an outsider who was not, according to law, allowed to live in St. Petersburg without a permit. Although most of Bakst’s collaborators were not Jewish, the troupe’s varied oeuvre obviously forces us to reconsider whether Russia’s position as simultaneously 18) Jane Pritchard, “The Transformation of Ballet,” in Jane Pritchard, ed., Diaghilev and the Golden Age of the Ballets Russes, 78. an Eastern and Western country makes it a singular hybrid or simply the most potent example of an increasingly widespread phenomenon, which at a given historical moment created an environment that produced some of the modern world’s most innovative artists. Another paradox essential to understanding the group’s aesthetic is the fact that not only did the principal choreographer Michel Fokine, Diaghilev and, of course, Nijinsky, transform ballet from a long narrative to a short non-narrative form, they shifted the focus from female to male more specifically the eroticized, androgynous male body. This radical shift appears all the more amazing when one considers that Fokine, Diaghilev and most of the members of the troupe were products of the seemingly stodgy Imperial Ballet School, which was wholly subsidized by the Czar and his court.19) It is, however, important to remember that St. Petersburg was the most cosmopolitan and Westernized city in Russia. In fact, Diaghilev and many of his contemporaries considered themselves Decadents and prided themselves on owning copies of the works of Baudelaire and Huysmanns, which were banned in Russia. Not only were Diaghilev and these Russian aesthetes influenced by Western Decadents, they read 19 -century Russian literature, some of which, like the works of Lermontov, portrayed the Caucasus and other Islamic regions of Russia, and Diaghilev curated an exhibition of over 300 paintings from throughout the Russian empire.20) At least three other significant Western figures influenced the 19) Mackrell, Bloomsbury Ballerina, 15-34. 20) Sjeng Scheijen, “Diaghilev the Man,” in Jane Pritchard, ed., Diaghilev and the Golden Age of the Ballets Russes. development of the Ballets Russes. The American modern dancer Isadora Duncan championed a more “natural” style of dance that she associated with ancient Greece and in which, for example, she eschewed toe shoes in favor of bare feet and flowing clothes; she performed in St. Petersburg in 1906 and profoundly influenced the choreographer Michel Fokine and other members of the Ballets Russes. Conversely, Peter Wollen suggests that the use of loose-fitting harem pants in several of the productions by the Ballets Russes in Paris created an enormous vogue which was actively promoted and exploited by the fashion designer Paul Poiret that was responsible for freeing Western women from the confines of the tight-fitting corset that they had worn until the troupe’s arrival.21) The second significant Western figure is Claude Debussy, whose approach to musical composition, particularly his treatment of harmony, had been profoundly altered by hearing “the complex resonances of the Javanese gamelan at the 1889 Paris Exposition Universelle.” Goodall explains that “by transplanting the exotic clash of sonorities of Eastern music into the Western palette, [Debussy] radically challenged the established ‘rules’ of nineteenth century music.”22) Of the “handful of visionary musicians” who grasped “the enormity of Debussy’s approac h was Igor Stravinsky.”23) The Firedbird, Petrushka and the Rite of Spring, are, Goodall contends, a result of the collision of Stravinsky’s classic training under the tutelage of Rimsky-Korsakov and his fascination with Debussy. It is difficult to imagine a more complex 21) Wollen, “Fashion/Orientalism/The Body,” 8-10. 22) Goodall, “Music and the Ballets Russes,” 173. 23) Ibid., 174. and fitting allegory of cultural transmission between East and West than the exchange between Debussy and Stravinsky, both of whom composed for the Ballets Russes. The other significant Western figure was Oscar Wilde. Ida Rubinstein, who appeared in some of the earliest productions in Paris, approached Fokine in St. Petersburg in 1907, two years before the troupe’s departure for Paris, about performing Wilde’s Salomé. According to some versions of the story, the performance was planned and ultimately cancelled because there was a rumor that when she removed the final veil in the notorious “Dance of the Seven Veils” she would appear in the nude.24) Like Wilde, Diaghilev, Nijinsky and many other members of the troupe, Rubinstein was gay, and she eventually became a significant figure in a circle of lesbians in Paris that included Natalie Barney and the painter Romaine Brooks.25) It is hardly surprising that another border that the troupe’s members transgressed was the one between the forbidden sexuality manifested on stage and similarly proscribed sexuality offstage. Diaghilev, for instance, famously fired his lover, Nijinsky, when news arrived in Paris in 1914 that the dancer had suddenly married a Hungarian aristocrat.26) In 1909, Fokine approached Diaghilev and suggested that he cast Bernstein, who was an actor, not a dancer, in the version of Cleopatra produced the same year in Paris. It seems apparent that Fokine simply transplanted Wilde’s “Dance of the Seven Veils” into 24) Charles Spencer, Bakst in Greece (Athens, Greece: GEMA Publications, 2009), 42. 25) Ibid., 81. 26) Mackrell, Bloomsbury Ballerina, 91. the Cleopatra the Ballets Russes presented.27) This example is but one of many of how designers, choreographers and dancers sought out Eastern and Western raw materials, stylized them and imported them into the ballets. For example, for his designs in Le Chant du Rossignol, Matisse used robes from the Tibet-China border that he had seen in the Buddhist gallery at the Musée Guimet in Paris;28) for costumes in the The Polovtsian Dancers, the designer Roerich purchased Uzbeki fabrics from the market in St. Petersburg; and for his role in Afternoon of a Faun Nijinsky studied figures on Greek vases and the movements of a mechanical toy duck. As John Mackenzie writes, “With the Ballets Russes the Orientalist thesis of Edward Said seems at one level superficially confirmed and at another irretrievably disrupted” (199).29) I would like to close with several observations about the Ballets Russes in America. In 1916, the group toured the U.S. for the first time, where it was both reviled and revered. The Kansas City police chief, having been forewarned about the risqué subject matter of the troupe assured his citizens that he had instructed “Dogleaf,” as he referred to Diaghilev, that theirs was a “strictly moral town” and he would not tolerate any “high brow immorality.”30) The mayor of Boston “gave instructions that the Russians were permitted to bare only their toes,” and when Adolph Bolm performed the Golden Slave in Schèhèrazade in New York, his body blackened with paint, one critic remarked that such a disturbing portrayal of cross-racial 27) Wollen, “Fashion/Orientalism/The Body,” 19. 28) Jane Pritchard, “The Transformation of Ballet,” 78. 29) John M. MacKenzie, Orientalism: History, Theory, and the Arts, 199. 30) Qtd. in Judith Mackrell, Bloomsbury Ballerina, 94. eroticism would be impossible in the segregated South, and the Catholic Theatre Movement called for an outright ban of the piece.31) Nonetheless, when Nijinsky re-joined the troupe and danced in The Specter of the Rose in New York, rose petals rained down on him, and the Herald wrote that he was “probably the greatest [artist] that the present generation has seen here.”32) Because of Diaghilev’s aversion to the cinema, there are no films of the Ballet Russes, but Hollywood did produce one film, The Thief of Baghdad, in 1924, starring Douglas Fairbanks, Jr. that, in some respects, captures the aesthetic of the group. As Garafola and Baer write, the more natural style of Fokine’s choreography coincides “with the requirements of silent screen acting.”33) And The Thief of Baghdad, writes Gaylyn Studlar, is a “gesamkunstwerk driven by dance aesthetics at every level” that utilizes its “Leon Bakst-influenced production design” to create “scenic décor as ‘dance space.’”34) Fairbanks was the precursor of the Hollywood Western “he-man” embodied two decades later by John Wayne. In films such as The Mask of Zorro, Fairbanks had developed a persona as a virile man of action in the mould of the ardent imperialist Theodore Roosevelt, whose achievements as president included the brutal suppression of Phillippine nationalism in colonial war fueled by ferocious anti-Asian racism. It was thus ironic that Fairbanks should, 31) Ibid. 32) Qtd. in Mackrell, Bloomsbury Ballerina, 105. 33) Garafola and Baer, 4. 34) Gaylyn Studlar, “Douglas Fairbanks: Thief of the Ballets Russes,” in Bodies of the Text: Dance as Theory, Literature as Dance, ed. Ellen W. Goellner and Jacqueline Shea Murphy (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1995), 109. as Studlar writes, emulate “the orientalized and feminized male body of the Ballets Russes danseur,” and more specifically Nijinsky in Schèhèrazade.35) Although in the film Fairbanks adopts the role of a cultural other an Arab thief and his “movements often have the look of postclassical ballet techniques,”36) his performance is un-done because, unlike the aesthetic form from which he borrows androgynous costumes, scenic opulence and oriental excess represented in Bakst, Nijinsky and the Ballets Russes he ultimately asserts a non-virtuosic and clumsy masculine certitude, what Studlar calls “all-American stomping.”37) As Gary Wills has written, John Wayne’s signature manly swagger was actually in part the result of ballet lessons, but of course those were always off-screen. In spite of pursuing the profoundly liberating possibilities of an aesthetic that continually redefines genre, geography and gender, Fairbanks like most Americans and like Kipling’s “two strong men” continues to refuse to cross certain borders, perhaps because crossing them inevitably leads into territories in which we must acknowledge the extent to which “so-called” others reside in us.38) 35) Ibid., 115. 36) Ibid., 117. 37) Ibid. 38) Gary Wills, “John Wayne’s Body,” New Yorker, August 19, 1996, 38. Bailey, Rosemary. “See France through Artists’ Eyes.” The Guardian, May 17, 2009. http://www.guardian.co.uk/travel/2009/may/17/provence-cezannne-picasso- france-travel. Bernstein, Matthew, and Gaylyn Studlar. Visions of the East: Orientalism in Film. London: I.B.Tauris and Co Ltd, 1997. Bowlt, John E. “Léon Bakst, Natalia Goncharova and Pablo Picasso.” In Diaghilev and the Golden Age of the Ballets Russes 1909-1929 edited by Jane Pritchard, 103-128. London: Victoria & Albert Publishing, 2010. Garafola, Lynn, and Nancy Van Norman Baer, The Ballets Russes and Its World. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1999. Goodall, Howard. “Music and the Ballets Russes.” In Diaghilev and the Golden Age of the Ballets Russes 1909-1929, edited by Jane Pritchard, 103-128. London: Victoria & Albert Publishing, 2010. Kipling, Rudyard. “The Ballad of East and West.” In Rudyard Kipling’s Verse: Definitive Edition, 234-238. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1940. MacKenzie, John M., Orientalism: History, Theory, and the Arts. Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 1995. Mackrell, Judith, Bloomsbury Ballerina: Lydia Lopokova, Imperial Dancer and Mrs. John Maynard Keynes. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2008. Marcus, Laura and Peter Nichols, eds. The Cambridge History of Twentieth Century Literature. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2004. Orwell, George. “Rudyard Kipling.” The Orwell Prize. http://theorwellprize.co. uk/george-orwell/by-orwell/essays-and-other-works/rudyard-kipling. Pritchard, Jane ed., Diaghilev and the Golden Age of the Ballets Russes 1909-1929. London: Victoria & Albert Publishing, 2010. Pritchard, Jane. “The Transformation of Ballet.” In Diaghilev and the Golden Age of the Ballets Russes 1909-1929, edited by Jane Pritchard, 103-128. London: Victoria & Albert Publishing, 2010. Rossi-Camus, Rossi. “Exhibition Review: Diaghilev and the Golden Age of the Ballet Russes at the V&A.” Worn Through: Apparel from an Academic Perspective, October 28, 2010. http://www.wornthrough. com/2010/10/28/exhibition-review-diaghilev-and-the-golden-age-of-the- ballet-r/. Scheijen, Sjeng. “Diaghilev the Man.” In Diaghilev and the Golden Age of the Ballets Russes 1909-1929, edited by Jane Pritchard, 103-128. London: Victoria & Albert Publishing, 2010. Spencer, Charles, Bakst in Greece. Athens, Greece: GEMA Publications, 2009. Studlar, Gaylyn, “Douglas Fairbanks: Thief of the Ballets Russes.” In Bodies of the Text: Dance as Theory, Literature as Dance, edited by Ellen W. Goellner and Jacqueline Shea Murphy. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1995. Wills, Gary. “John Wayne’s Body.” New Yorker, August 19, 1996, 38. Wollen, Peter. “Fashion/Orientalism/The Body.” New Formations 1 (1987): 12-19. An East/West Pas De Deux: The Ballets Russes and the Orient in the Modern Western Imagination Using the case of the Ballets Russes, this paper continues an interrogation of the viability of applying Edward Said’s definitions of Orientalism to the sphere of the arts. Although in his original study, Orientalism, Said explicitly asserts that his study is a delimited analysis focused principally on British and French 18th- and 19th-century academic Orientalism and that he is not analyzing so-called Orientalist painting and literary artists such as Flaubert, his followers, and later Said himself, extended his theoretical framework to include studies of literature and the arts. By examining the profundity of the rupture caused in the aesthetic sphere by the arrival of the Ballets Russes in Paris in 1909, this study simultaneously repositions the works of the Russian ballet troupe to the center and the very beginning of European modernism and attempts to show how its radically subversive works undermine the notion of such facile categories as “East” and “West” or “Oriental” and “Occidental.” In addition to examining the paradoxes of cultural transmission inherent in the group’s works, which belie the existence of rigid civilizational borders in the arts, the study also proposes a reconsideration of European modernism by re-examining the place of ballet in the modernist movement; the significance of the work of the group’s producer Serge Diaghilev, designers Leon Bakst and Natalia Goncharov, choreographer Mikhail Fokine, composer Igor Stravinsky and performers such as Ana Pavlova, Ida Rubinstein and Vaslav Nijinsky; and of the work produced in collaboration with the Ballets Russes by European artists, composers and designers such as Pablo Picasso, Henri Matisse, Claude Debussy, Erik Satie and Coco Chanel. Orientalism, Ballets Russes, Diaghilev, Leon Bakst, Vaslav Nijinsky, Ida Rubinstein, Michel Fokine, Natalia Goncharov, Modernism, Edward Said, Stravinsky, Debussy, Matisse, Picasso, Thief of Baghdad, Douglas Fairbanks, Modern Dance, Rudyard Kipling, George Orwell, Scheherezade 
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work_5ryeoeznbnbppecnak4yvlxntq	----	06 April 2021 AperTO - Archivio Istituzionale Open Access dell'Università di Torino Original Citation: Exploring cultural heritage repositories with creative intelligence. The Labyrinth 3D system Published version: DOI:10.1016/j.entcom.2016.05.002 Terms of use: Open Access (Article begins on next page) Anyone can freely access the full text of works made available as "Open Access". Works made available under a Creative Commons license can be used according to the terms and conditions of said license. Use of all other works requires consent of the right holder (author or publisher) if not exempted from copyright protection by the applicable law. Availability: This is a pre print version of the following article: This version is available http://hdl.handle.net/2318/1578514 since 2017-12-04T09:32:41Z Exploring cultural heritage repositories with creative intelligence. The Labyrinth 3D system. Rossana Damiano1,1, Vincenzo Lombardo1,1, Antonio Lieto1 a Dipartimento di Informatica, Università di Torino b CIRMA, Università di Torino Abstract In cultural heritage, the use of ontologies makes the description of artworks clearer and self-explanatory, with advantages in terms of interoperability. The current shift towards semantic encoding opens the way to the creation of in- terfaces that allow the users to build personal paths in heritage collections by exploiting the relations over the artworks. In the attempt to leverage this multiplicity of paths, we designed and imple- mented a system, called Labyrinth 3D, which integrates the semantic annotation of cultural objects with the interaction style of 3D games. The system immerses the user into a virtual 3D labyrinth, where turning points and paths represent the semantic relations over cultural objects, with the goal of engaging the user in the exploration of the collection. Keywords: 3D visualization, cultural heritage, computational ontologies 1. Introduction In the last decade, the advent of connected, portable devices, and the evo- lution of the Web towards a participatory model have prompted cultural insti- tutions to pursue new communication strategies that leverage the Web [1, 2]. Cultural institutions have rushed to publish their collections online, with the goal of innovating their interaction with the audience through the help of per- sonalization and social media [3, 4]. In parallel with this trend, digital archives have moved towards semantic annotation, a paradigm where the items in the archive are described with refer- ence to a computational ontology. The use of ontologies, implemented through logic-based languages [5], makes the description of artworks clearer and un- ambiguous, with advantages in terms of interoperability among systems [6, 7]. Semantically annotated collections, then, lend themselves to personalization [4] and cross media integration of data sources, following the paradigm of Linked Open Data [8, 9]. Despite the potential of the semantic representation, however, the search in heritage archives is still largely based on keywords and/or tags, through which users can filter the archive contents to find what they need. As exemplified Preprint submitted to Entertainment Computing June 30, 2016 by the well known Europeana initiative, which provides a unified interface to a set of national digital collections [10], the search typically returns a list of items (books, pictures, videos, etc.) accompanied with personalized recommendations, but it does not contain an explicit representation of meaning relations over them. In contrast with this approach, [11] argues that, in order to meet the needs of the general audience, tools for supporting exploratory search are needed besides the traditional keyword–based interfaces. In cultural heritage, search interfaces are typically based on the metaphor of the “archive”, which mirrors the actual fruition of the physical cultural objects (see, for example, the web interface of the above mentioned Europeana system), although the trend of the 3D “visit” has emerged in online museum collections, as demonstrated by the well known Google Art Project.1 In this paper, we address the access to digital collections by proposing an approach that leverages semantic annotation to create a 3D environment where the user can explore the semantic relations over the items in a visual environ- ment. Our approach combines the use of the 3D language, typical of new media – and video games in particular –, with the capability of semantic annotation to connect entities that are distant in space and time but share some common features at the cultural level. The use of 3D for the interface is motivated by the goal of attaining a user experience characterized by high level of engagement and a sense of immersion [12]. As shown by an established line of research in information visualization [13], in fact, visual metaphors can convey a conceptual model in an immediate and engaging way. The system we describe in this paper is part of a larger project, called Labyrinth2, aimed at the dissemination of cultural heritage archives to the gen- eral audience. In order to mediate between the point of view of the user and the heterogeneity of the items in heritage repositories, which usually di↵er by features such as media type, age and purpose but share some narrative features like stories and characters, the project relies on the notion of “archetypes” of narrative nature. Mainly inspired by the research in iconology and narratology [14, 15], the term “archetype” is employed in Labyrinth to refer to a conceptual core set at the intersection of narrative motifs, iconological themes and classical mythology (the system itself is named after a well–known archetype). The plan of the paper is the following: after describing the background of the project and discussing its motivations (Section 2), in Section 3 we provide a brief overview of the live system with a navigation example. Section 4 de- scribes the components of the systems, namely the ontology (Section 4.1), the 3D environment (Section 4.2) and the core component of the system, i.e., the mapping of the ontology onto the 3D environment (Section 4.3). The system architecture, which combines these elements to create newer and newer paths through the repository, is described in Section 5. Discussion and conclusion end the paper. 1https://www.google.com/culturalinstitute/u/0/project/art-project 2http://app.labyrinth-project.it:8080/LabyrinthTest/ 2 2. Background In the last decade, the use of ontologies for the access to cultural heritage collections has been investigated by several projects. A pioneering contribution was given by the Finnish Culture Sampo project [16]. In this project, a number of domain ontologies provide the background against which cultural objects (in- cluding artworks, artists, traditional practices, etc.), encoded in di↵erent media formats (e.g., images and videos), can be explored, tracking the underlying rela- tions over them. In CultureSampo, once a certain artifact (e.g., a painting) has been retrieved, it is possible to explore the relations over the objects (and char- acters) represented therein. The system has recently evolved towards a linked data approach with the release of a new application, War Sampo, focused on the Second World War [9]. The Agora system [17] frames the exploration of a digital collection into historically relevant episodes, supported by a semantic account of the notion of event [18]. For example, the user can choose a historical episode (e.g., “German occupation of Poland in the Second World War”) and navigate among the cultural objects related to this event. A line of research in ontology-based systems has specifically explored the use of narrative models in cultural heritage dissemination. Stories not only repre- sent an e↵ective way to convey information in a compact format, as argued by [19], but, according to the research in cognitive psychology, they are a primary means for the conceptualization of reality [20]. In cultural heritage, many art- works have, by and large, some type of narrative content. In visual arts, for example, paintings often display story episodes while statues immortalize char- acters; even non representational artworks often refer to narrative elements, despite the abstract nature of their visual content. Stories are narrated by tex- tual media such as tales and novels, but also – though in nonverbal terms – by di↵erent kinds of musical works, from operas to symphonic poems. Narrative is the focus of the Bletchley Park Text system [21], a semantic system designed with the goal of supporting the users in the exploration of online museum col- lections. Designed with the notion of the “guided visit” in mind, the system encompasses an ontology of story, taken from the Story Fountain project [22]. The stories represented in the system are employed in a web interface to create relations over entities in online collections; based on this knowledge, the user can ask the system to find a narrative connection between di↵erent entities. More recently, the Decypher EU project leverages stories to addresses the curatorial side of cultural heritage dissemination [23]. In Decipher, a story ontology is the basis of a system that supports the creation of story-based collections by museum curators. Finally, Europeana also uses some simple narrative features to describe the items they contain. In Europeana, it is possible, for example, to navigate among the artifacts representing a given action or displaying a cer- tain character, across a large number of indexed objects; the system does not provide, however, a story–level navigation. The Labyrinth project extends the approaches described above by integrat- ing the use of a narrative model to connect the items in a collection with the use of a visual environment for the exploration of these connections. The system re- 3 lies on an ontology of narrative archetypes to describe the items in the collection; the 3D interface of system is inspired to a well known narrative archetype, the “labyrinth”. The notion of labyrinth is not only deeply rooted in the Western Culture, dating back to Greek Myths and witnessed by several archaeological locations across Europe [24], but also, thanks to the graph like nature of the notion of labyrinth [25], it lends itself well to representing the many-to-many relations among artworks encoded in the ontology. The goal of the visual design of the 3D interface is two-fold: on the one side, it is aimed at engaging the users to explore the repository though an immersive experience; on the other side, it is aimed at making the system usable by the large majority of uses by integrating information giving and entertainment in a familiar environment. The labyrinth, or maze, is a genre of video games most users are familiar with, thanks to classic 2D games such as Atari’s Pacman3 and recent 3D titles such as Imangi’s Temple Run4 or PlayFirst’s Dream Chronicles5. In cultural heritage, the use of 3D visualization is normally intended as a support for study and dissemination activities. 3D projects in cultural heritage can be roughly divided into two types: virtual equivalents of physically exist- ing locations, such as museums and historical buildings, and reconstructions of physical environments that have disappeared, such as archaeological locations or temporary art works. Google Art Project6 and Arounder7 are examples of the first type, where 3D is often obtained through PMVR techniques that integrate high definition images of artworks in the 3D environments. Rome Reborn [26], the 3D reconstruction of Rome as it appeared in the IV century, is an example of the second type. In this project, the use of 3D is integrated with animated characters of ancient Romans, who interact with the users. A similar approach is proposed by [27], who present a framework for 3D real time applications in web browsers, employed to develop virtual reconstructions of Rome (Virtual Rome project) and other Italian locations [28]. Labyrinth di↵erentiates from these approaches since the 3D representation is not employed to reconstruct real environments or to create virtual ones, but as a tool to convey semantic relations through a visual environment. For this reason, the system does not encompass a semantic model of the 3D environment: rather, it maps a semantic representation of the domain onto the 3D environment, as part of the interaction design process. 3. Live System The Labyrinth project encompasses both a standard web based interface [29] and a 3D application [30]. Both interfaces allow the user to navigate a repository of cultural objects with the guidance of a set of archetypes of narrative nature. 3https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pac-Man 4http://www.imangistudios.com 5http://www.playfirst.com/games/view/dream-chronicles 6www.google.com/culturalinstitute/project/art-project 7www.arounder.com 4 Figure 1: A screenshot of the web interface of the system (in Italian). The archetypes are contained in an ontology that describes each archetype in terms of its related stories, characters, objects, events, and locations, and stores the connections that relate these categories with the items in the repository. In both the hypertextual and the 3D interfaces, the interaction with the user starts with the selection of an archetype. In the hypertextual interface, the users continues by refining her/his search based on the inner articulation of the selected archetype into more specific categories (namely, stories, characters, objects, events, locations and epochs), then into single elements within the category (single story, character, etc.), by following a top-down strategy that ends with the selection of a specific artifact (for a detailed description, see [31]). Fig. 1 shows a screenshot of the interface (in Italian): after selecting the archetype of the labyrinth, the user has decided to explore the category of “stories”, then the specific story entitled “Theseus kills the Minotaur”. As a result, the interface shows a record of the story (upper part of the main box, “Teseo uccide il Minotauro”), which includes the related stories, the characters and objects featured by the story, and the locations and epochs in which the story takes place. The user can click on them to navigate from the currently selected story to another, or to move to a di↵erent category of the archetype (for example, “characters” or “locations”). Below (bottom of Figure 1), the interface shows the thumbnails of the artifacts (or, better, of their digital copy) that refer to the currently selected element (here, the story “Theseus kills the Minotaur”); each thumbnail can be clicked on to get a record of the artifact. 5 Figure 2: 3D interface: selection of the archetype (left) and assignment of initial and target artworks (right, labeled as “current” and “target”). Figure 3: First step of the navigation: the initial artwork, Minotauromachia (left); right: some of the doors available from the initial artwork (same character and same story). A slide show of the thumbnails is positioned on the left of the story record to provide a quick glance on the available contents for the current selection. Di↵erently from the hypertextual interface, the 3D interface is characterized by a bottom-up approach: here, the user navigates from artifact to artifact on the basis of the relations over them represented in the ontology, building her/his own personal path through the repository. The user is situated in a virtual maze where the artworks are located in the clearings and connected by pathways that represent the relations over the artworks. Immersed in the virtual maze in a first person perspective, the user is encouraged to explore the repository in the same way as the visitor of a hedge maze explores the turns and twists of the maze on her/his way to the exit. In order to exemplify the user experience in the 3D labyrinth, we will describe a navigation example extracted from the system log, illustrated through the screenshots of the steps that compose it (Figures 4, 5, 6). After choosing the archetype of the “labyrinth” (Fig. 2, left), the user is assigned a start and a target artwork (Fig. 2, right), randomly extracted from the repository: in the example, they are, respectively, the “Minotauromachia” (a painting) and a novel, “Il labirinto greco”. When the user clicks on the Start button posited below the start and target nodes, she/he is brought to the 3D environment 6 Figure 4: Second step of the navigation: a pathway (left) to the subsequent artwork; second artwork (right), with doors leading to the other artworks in the “same character” relation. Figure 5: Third step of the navigation: a Greek vase representing Thesues killing the Minotaur (left); doors leading to the artworks referring to the same story (right). (Fig. 3, left). The first location is the node containing the start artwork, the painting entitled “Minotauromachia” by Pablo Picasso, which shows the Greek hero Theseus fighting with a Minotaur. Fig. 3 (left) shows how the artwork (here, a picture of the painting) is displayed to the user in a 2D layer temporarily superimposed to the 3D scene; the artwork is accompanied by the information about its author, the place where it is hosted and the creation date. A longer description can be obtained by clicking on “description”, below the image; by clicking on “close”, the layer disappears. Figure 3 (right) shows some of the connections available from the node, represented by the two doors labeled as “agent” and “story” (other doors are out of the view): the first door leads to artworks that feature the same character (named “agent” in the system) as the current artwork, the second door leads to artworks that relate to the same story. By choosing the door labeled as “agent”, the user is led through a path- way (Fig. 4, left) to an empty node (Fig. 4, right) that contains doors for the artworks that display the same character as the previous artwork, The- seus; the titles of the artworks are written above the doors, from left to right: “Monete rivenute a Cnosso” (“Coins found in Knossos”), “Teseo uccide il Mino- tauro” (“Theseus kills the Minotaur”), “A↵reschi della villa imperiale a Pompei” (“Frescos, Villa Imperiale in Pompei”). The user selects the middle door, and 7 Figure 6: Left: fourth step of the navigation, a statue of Ariadne (same story relation); a di↵erent artwork (right), reachable by backtracking to the previous step (a Roman fresco representing the myth of the Minotaur in Pompei). is led to a node that contains a Greek vase displaying the Theseus in the act of killing the Minotaur (Fig. 5, left). Notice that the console posited in the bottom part of the interface contains, besides the controls for getting help, stopping the sound and exiting the application, a progress bar displaying the artworks visited by the user so far: by selecting a previously visited artwork, the user is brought back to the node containing it. After the Greek vase, the user follows the same story relation by clicking on the door labeled as “story” (not shown), and is brought to an empty node with doors for the artworks that refer to the same story: “Arianna dormiente” (“Sleeping Ariadne”) and “A↵reschi della villa im- periale a Pompei” (“Frescos, Villa Imperiale in Pompei”: notice that, like in a true labyrinth, the same artwork can be gained by following di↵erent paths). By choosing the first door, “Arianna dormiente” (“Sleeping Ariadne”), the user will reach a node containing a Roman statue of Ariadne, the female character of the myth of the Minotaur (Fig. 6, left); from there, by backtracking to the previous node, the user may select the second door, “A↵reschi della villa impe- riale a Pompei” (“Frescos, Villa Imperiale in Pompei”), which leads to a node containing a painting that illustrates the myth of the Minotaur, located in a Roman villa in archaeological site of Pompei (Fig. 6, right). 4. The tripartite core of Labyrinth Given a collection of cultural objects, commonly represented by the digital resources that constitute the “digital equivalents” of the actual physical objects [32], the access to the collection in an ontology based system such as Labyrinth 3D is the result of the interplay of three elements, namely the information about the objects, or metadata, contained in the ontology (Section 4.1), by which the objects are indexed, the visualization interface (Section 4.2), driven by the project specific goals (dissemination, presentation, study, etc.), and the mapping of the objects onto the visualization interface (Section 4.3). Thanks to this tripartite relation, the system translates the information about the cultural objects into a visual representation where the semantic relations over the objects contained in the ontology are mapped onto the elements of a 3D environment. 8 4.1. The Archetype Ontology The description of the artworks encoded in the metadata typically includes features such as date, authorship and title of the items, normally expressed ac- cording to standard vocabularies, such as ISO 8601 for dates8 or ULAN (Union List of Artists Names) for names.9 Beside authorship and editorial informa- tion, metadata usually contain also information about the management and preservation of cultural objects, such as responsibility for the preservation, dig- italization standards, etc. In the last decade, metadata have evolved towards semantic encodings describing the content of the artworks, with categories such as iconography, event types, etc.[33, 34]. An example of semantic description is provided by the Europeana Semantic Model (ESM)10. As exemplified by the navigation example provided in the previous section, the semantic annotation of the artworks in Labyrinth is mainly oriented to the representation of their content, and narrative content in particular. The narra- tive content of the artworks is expressed through a set of archetypes that char- acterize Western culture through the ages, heritage of the Greek and Roman tradition [35]. The core of the Labyrinth system is the Archetype Ontology (AO), described in detail in [31]. The AO contains a number of archetypes (the journey, the labirinth, the hero) and describes how the artworks relate to them via the representation of stories, characters, objects, events, locations and epochs. The AO contains 8 top classes: the Archetype class contains the archetypes; the Artifact class contains the artworks, organized according to the FRBR model [36]; Entity contains the characters and objects represented in artifacts; Story represents a collection of stories related with the archetypes; the Description Templates class contains a role-based schema for describ- ing events and states that can be filled by characters and objects; the Format class encodes the format and type of media resources; Geographical Place and Temporal Collocation, finally, encode, respectively, the spatial and tem- poral information related to artifacts, stories and archetypes. The Archetype Ontology was manually built based on an extensive survey of the notion of archetype, spanning from Warburg’s Bilder Atlas [14] to folkloric studies [15] and contemporary accounts of tropes in media.11 The ontology was aligned with the conceptual reference model established by the International Council of Museums (ICOM), the CRM-FRBR model [36], a standard in the description of cultural heritage. In the Labyrinth system, the editing phase is conducted through a back-end web interface through which items can be added to the repository. The descrip- tion of the items is accomplished through form filling and it follows the Dublin Core initiative [37], a metadata element schema that has become a standard de 8http://www.iso.org/iso/home/standards/iso8601.htm 9http://www.getty.edu/research/tools/vocabularies/ulan/ 10http://pro.europeana.eu/ese-documentation 11http://tvtropes.org 9 facto in digital archives12. When a new item is added to the repository, the system imports the description of the item in the ontology through a built–in procedure that converts the input data into the ontology format (a set of RDF13 triples). First, the internalization phase (described in details in [29]) translates the metadata of the resource (creator, date, etc. ) into the language of the ontology. Then, a mapping procedure matches the imported description with the available archetypes. Both steps are achieved via if-then rules encoded in SWRL14, the rule language designed for ontologies. As an example of how the mapping is accomplished, consider the rule that examines the “title” metadata element of an artwork in order to find a connection with the archetype of the “Labyrinth”: if words like “labyrinth” or “maze” are found in the title, the rule will add to the ontology the assertion that the artwork evokes the archetype of the labyrinth. Finally, after the new item has been internalized in the system and mapped onto the ontology, a specific set of rules add the narrative features to the artworks (narrative mapping). For example, if an artwork represents a set of characters performing some action, the system searches for a story in which the same characters perform that action (see [29] for a detailed description of how the narrative properties are added to the representation of the items). For instance, an artwork representing Ariadne in the act of giving the ball of thread to Theseus (a focal event in the myth of the Minotaur) would be recognized as having the myth of the Minotaur as a narrative component. In order to illustrate how the items in the repository are represented in the ontology as a result of the internalization process, we will resort to an exam- ple. Fig. 7 illustrates the description of the painting “Minotauromachia” by Pablo Picasso (the first step of the navigation example in Section 4.1), serial- ized in the XML/RDF format. Notice that each line represents an RDF triple, composed of a subject (all triples in this fragment have the same subject, i.e., the named individual “Minotauromachia” in line 2), a predicate (for example, hasResourceType, line 4) describing a property of the subject or a relation with another entity, and an object (here, the resource type, Image) which constitutes the value of the property – or the second term of the relation. All resources are characterized by a prefix given by the URI of the ontology. Fig. 7 outlines the role of each phase of the procedure described above. The annotation is divided into two groups of assertions: the first group contains the assertions extracted from the artwork metadata by the internalization procedure; the second group contains the properties added by the mapping procedure, which connects the artwork with the archetypes: this group contains specific annotations concerning the narrative relations among the artworks. Lines 3 to 6 are created by the internalization procedure and correspond to the artwork metadata, such as type, creator, etc. The hasResourceType prop- erty (line 4) describes the media type of the resource, i.e., image; the hasCreator 12https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:std:iso:15836:ed-2:v1:en 13https://www.w3.org/TR/rdf-concepts/ 14https://www.w3.org/Submission/SWRL/ 10 Properties added by the internalization phase: 1 <!-- http://www.AO.org/labyrinth#Minotauromachia --> 2 <owl:NamedIndividual rdf:about="http://www.AO.org/labyrinth#Minotauromachia"> 3 <rdf:type rdf:resource="http://www.AO.org/labyrinth#Manifestation"/> 4 <hasResourceType rdf:resource="http://www.AO.org/labyrinth#Image"/> 5 <ma-ont:hasCreator rdf:resource="http://www.AO.org/labyrinth#Pablo_Picasso"/> 6 <hasGeographicalLocation rdf:resource="http://www.AO.org/labyrinth#NewYork"/> After the mapping phase: 7 <evokes rdf:resource="http://www.AO.org/labyrinth#KnossosLabyrinth"/> 8 <displays rdf:resource="http://www.AO.org/abyrinth#Minotaur/> 9 <displays rdf:resource="http://www.AO.org/labyrinth#Theseus"/> 10 <describesAction rdf:resource="http://www.AO.org/labyrinth#killing"/> After the narrative reasoning: 11 <hasPart rdf:resource="http://www.AO.org/labyrinth#Minotaur_Story"/> 12 </owl:NamedIndividual> Figure 7: The description of the artwork “Minotauromachia” by Pablo Picasso in the AO ontology. The sections show the properties added by each phase of the internalization and mapping procedures. property (line 5) connects the painting with its author, “Pablo Picasso”; the hasGeographicalLocation property (line 6) describes the location of the artwork. Lines 7 to 11 describe the relation of the artwork with the archetype: the prop- erty evokes (line 7) relates the painting with the archetype of the “Labyrinth”, while a set of specific properties describe the relation with the archetype in greater detail, focusing on its narrative aspects: displays (lines 8-9) refers to the characters which appear in it, i.e., Theseus and the Minotaur; describesAction (line 10) refers to the event type it depicts (“killing”). Finally, the property has- Part (line 11) states that the painting contains, as part of its narrative content, the Minotaur Story. Given this description, several relations can be detected with other artworks. Besides the standard relations based on author or resource type, the archetype of the labyrinth connects the artwork with other artworks that display the same characters (Theseus or the Minotaur), depict the same action type (killing), or refer to the same story (the myth of the Minotaur) and other related stories (e.g., Ariadne and the Thread). 4.2. Designing the 3D environment The design of the 3D environment is inspired by the metaphor of the labyrinth. This metaphor was chosen for its ability to convey the graph–like nature of the relations over the artworks in a cultural heritage collection, and for its imme- diacy of use, since it provides an intuitive mapping for artworks (nodes of the 11 labyrinth) and relations over them (connections among the nodes). The interac- tion metaphor underlying the navigation is “finding one’s way”: here, however, the user does not simply gain the exit, but the creation of a personal path in artworks’ meaning, represented by a virtual “red thread”. In order to make the experience more engaging, when the session begins, the user is given a target node. When the user reaches the target node, or when the user decides to exit from the labyrinth, the session ends and the user is shown the statistics about her/his own path: number of visited nodes, elapsed time, backtrackings, etc. The visual design of the labyrinth is inspired to the classical hedge maze, with architectural elements that are intended to remind of some distant but indefinite past; this choice was primarily due to the constraint posed by the heterogeneity of the contents assumed by the project. The floor is partly tiled, partly covered with grass, and the mood is inspired by a dark, Gothic style. The maze contains two types of nodes: some nodes (artwork nodes) contain artworks, some nodes (relation nodes) are empty and only serve the function of connecting the artwork nodes, as exemplified in the navigation example provided in Section 3. The presence of an artwork in a node is signaled by a low circular balustrade in the middle, open in several points, that are intended as a↵ordances inviting the user to step into the inner part of the node [38]. The entrance to pathways is marked by doors; each door corresponds to a semantic connection (e.g., same story), and is surmounted by the name of the type of connection (e.g., “story”). Each node has a fixed number of doors/pathways: depending of the number of semantic relations that connect the node with other nodes, some doors may be closed, or hidden by greenery. If the connection leads straight to a single artwork, the title of the artwork is posited above the door. Pathways di↵er in length and form: some are short, some are longer and they bend, so that their end is not visible, in order add some thrill to the experience. The navigation in the system is inspired to the paradigm of constrained navigation [39], with the aim of making it usable also for non expert users of 3D applications. The user moves by clicking on small circles of light posited on the floor, in front of the doors of the nodes and along the pathways. Circles of the same type also mark the presence of an artwork in the middle of artwork nodes and must be clicked to get information about the artwork. Smaller circles of light appear inside the circles when they are clicked, so that they eventually form a sort of “red thread” that marks the path made by the user so far. The metaphor of the red thread, aimed at improving self orientation, is enforced also by the console posited in the lower part of the screen, that shows the list the nodes visited by the user. By clicking on a node in the list, the user is brought back to that node. The console also contains buttons for ending the session and turning o↵ the sound. The user is free to explore the labyrinth, going back to previous locations and clicking on the control posited in artwork nodes to receive information and experience them via the appropriate plugins: depending of the media type of the resource associated with the artwork, an image is displayed, a video is played, etc. A short description of the artwork, with title, date and creator, is always provided, as exemplified in Fig. 3 (Sect. 3). 12 The 3D environment was implemented with the Unity 3D15 real time engine, which supports several platforms and mobile conditions. Unity 3D o↵ers first person gameplay default assets, both concerning camera motion control and mouse tracking motion control. In order to optimize the production time and cost of the 3D assets, a single model of the labyrinth node, with a predefined set of exits, was created: at run time, it is dynamically adapted to the semantic relations connecting the current artwork with the others by closing or opening the corresponding number of doors. To achieve our goals, we built an indexed database of 3D objects to be promptly displayed in real time by the 3D Engine. Thus, we were able to produce several theme variations exponentially explod- ing the number of possible combinations. The standard 3D objects are: the octagonal square (3 variants, actually), the open door (3 variants), the closed door (2 variants), the textual artwork viewer (1 variant), the pictorial artwork viewer (1 variant), the movie viewer (1 variant). The pathways are a 3D ob- ject category on their own: they vary in shape in accordance to their length, which is measured in steps (2-3-4 steps, each in three variants). Joined together, steps compose asymmetrical paths, which can also be used backwards, therefore multiplying the possible combinations of subsequent pathways. So, the maze, determined through the user choices, is perceived as never being the same. 4.3. Mapping the ontology onto the 3D The mapping of the semantic relations onto the visual environment poses some problems that need to be faced as part of the system design, and constrain the architecture of the system. Formally, the labyrinth is an undirected graph [25], where vertices have a variable degree.16 The nodes correspond to the graph vertices, the pathways to the edges. Notice that, as in a real maze, there are also nodes with only one incident edge, i.e. dead ends where the user has to backtrack. The direct transposition of the graph-like structure of the relationships over the artworks from the ontology to the 3D labyrinth, however, would lead to a proliferation of the edges that would be confusing for the user. Take, for example, the similarity relation “displaying the same character” among artworks. Representing this relation as artwork to artwork relations implies that, for each artwork, an edge should be added from the artwork to every other artwork that displays the same character (and this should be done for each semantic relation). In order to alleviate this problem, in Labyrinth, we decided to represent the semantic relations such as “displaying the same character” through special nodes that represent the relation itself, thus obtaining a more compact representation. These nodes do not correspond to artworks, but simply distribute the semantic relation over the pairs of artworks that are in the given relation. 15https://unity3d.com 16For usability reasons, the maximum number of edges per vertex has been limited to the arbitrary threshold of 7, given the well known limitations of short term memory first shown by Miller [40]. 13 Reasoner Triple store Archetype ontology Media storage Resource descrip6on 3D Labyrinth Web interface Seman6c naviga6on Ontology-to-3D API ONTOLOGY SERVER WEB SERVICES VISUALIZATION CLIENTS DC RDF/ XML Client side Server side DB SWRL RULES mapping internaliza6on MEDIA REPOSITORY Figure 8: The architecture of the Labyrinth system. As a result of the constraint described above, there are two types of nodes (with di↵erent iconic elements) in the labyrinth, connected by the pathways: artwork nodes and relation nodes. Artwork nodes are connected with both relation nodes and artwork nodes. Relation nodes are connected only with artwork nodes. The user navigation starts from an artwork node: the user has to choose one of the pathways exiting from the node, labeled either with the name of a di↵erent artwork (in this case, the pathway, leads directly to an artwork node) or with the name of a semantic relation (in this case, the pathway leads to a relation node, that in turn leads to a set of di↵erent artwork nodes). Since the semantic relations are symmetric, pathways can be walked both ways. 5. The Labyrinth system In this section, we describe the architecture of the labyrinth system, which constructs the 3D environment as long as the interaction with the user pro- gresses. 5.1. System architecture The architecture of the Labyrinth system is structured according a client– server schema. The ontology is stored in an ontology server; the information it 14 contains is dynamically extracted from the ontology and made available to the visualization client, which manages the user interface. The system encompasses four main modules (see Fig. 8): • the Ontology Server (Fig. 8, top) stores the AO ontology – where the cultural heritage objects are described – and provides the reasoning ser- vices that allow the system to establish the relations of each object with the archetypes, as exemplified in Section 4.1 (for example, inferring the relation between an artifact and a story given the characters displayed in the artifact). In the current implementation, the ontology server is pro- vided by Owlim.17 The ontology server also supports the SWRL rule sets that implement the internalization and mapping procedures described in Section 4.1, by which new items are ingested in the system. The ontology server provides also the SPARQL18 endpoint for querying the ontology, necessary to extract from the ontology the data that will be visualized in the interface (i.e., the semantic relations over the artifacts, such as the same character or the same story relations exemplified in the navigation example in Sect. 3). Notice that this module is independent of the vi- sualization type and it serves both the web-based interface and the 3D environment. • the Media Repository (Fig. 8, right) stores the media objects (the digital equivalents of the artworks) which constitute the repository of the system and is indexed by a relational database (a mySql database); • a set of Web Services (Fig. 8, left) implement the Application Pro- gramming Interface specific to each visualization client. This component extracts the data from the ontology in response to the requests of the clients. The web services, written in Java, are called by the visualization clients to respond to the actions of the user, and return the data in XML format. For example, in the 3D environment, when the user clicks on a door leading to a given artwork, the visualization client calls the API com- mand that fetches the information about the artwork, needed to generate the node with the artwork in the 3D maze. • the Visualization Clients (Fig. 8, bottom) support the interaction with the user through 3D navigation, as standalone application (for the 3D system) or embedded in a web browser (for the web interface). The core of the system consists of the APIs that fetch the data from the ontology to the visualization clients. The interplay among these components realizes the mapping of the objects and relations encoded in the ontology onto the environments where they can be visualized by the user. In the following, we describe in detail the interaction between the Ontology-to-3D API and the 3D 17http://www.ontotext.com/products/ontotext-graphdb-owlim-new-2/ 18https://www.w3.org/TR/sparql11-overview/ 15 visualization client. The interaction between these two components achieves the computational creativity that the user can enjoy by navigating the repository in the virtual maze. 5.2. The system at work The topology of the maze is computed locally as the user progresses in her/his path. This choice is partly related with the user experience design and partly related with optimization issues. Concerning the user experience, the step by step generation of the maze provides room for the adaptive personal- ization of the navigation experience, which can be tailored to the typology and behavior of the user given the available relations over the artworks. Currently, the variability of the navigation is provided by a basic random mechanism. Since the system does not pose any constraints on the number of related artworks, the available relations over them may exceed the number of doors, set to 6 in the current implementation, when necessary, 6 artworks are randomly extracted. As a result, in di↵erent navigation sessions, di↵erent artworks may be extracted, thus generating slight variations in the user experience.19 Concerning the op- timization issues, the step by step generation of the topology guarantees that the computation needed to generate the maze is not a↵ected by the size and the connectivity degree of the repository (which only a↵ect the execution of the queries).20 Moreover, if the repository changes, no initialization is needed. Notice also that this solution is made possible by the fact that the 3D envi- ronment does not encompass a top down, map-like visualization of the maze, with the consequence that the user can only experience a subjective view of the environment. This choice, although debatable for the lack of orientation it may provoke in the user, is consistent with the actual experience of the real hedge maze by which the design of the 3D system is inspired. Basically, the maze is generated on the fly as follows: when the navigation begins, the system retrieves from the ontology the information about the first artwork, and generates only the portion of the maze which describes this artwork and its connections with the others, namely a node containing the artwork and the pathways which represent its semantic relations with the others. Each pathway represents a relation type (e.g., story, location or agent/character), as illustrated by Figure 3 (right), where the doors leading to the pathways for “story” and “agent” are visible. When the user makes the next choice by selecting the pathway she/he wants to take, the next portion of the maze is created. If the selected pathway leads to a group of artworks (i.e., the relation it represents contains multiple artworks), the system creates an empty node whose function is to redirect the user to the single artworks, each placed in a di↵erent node (see the example in Fig. 4, right, with doors for the single 19Notice that, if the user backtracks in the same session, the nodes that have been already visited are not generated from scratch, to let the user orientate her/himself. 20The prototype ontology currently contains 1211 triples, but a wholly functioning system would be much larger. 16 Figure 9: The interplay between the ontology server (left) and the interaction with the user (right) operated by the Ontology-to-3D API. artworks). A direct pathway is generated only if the selected pathway leads to a single artwork. The rationale behind this strategy is to enforce the 1 : 1 mapping between artworks and nodes, so that a node always contains a single artwork. In the following, we describe the algorithm executed by the 3D visualization module to manage the interaction with the user, supported by the ontology- to-3D API (see Figure 9). The visualization client (3D Labyrinth, bottom of figure) queries the ontology (top of the figure) through the ontology-to-3D API (see Section 5.1). The generation of the 3D labyrinth is accomplished through the following steps: Initialization. The session begins when the user starts the application on the client device. • Session start. First, the 3D client queries the ontology server to get the list of the available archetypes through the startLabyrinth3D() command (Fig. 2, left). • Archetype selection. When user chooses one of the available archetypes, the client sends the selected archetype to the server (setArchetype()). 17 • Navigation initialization. The client invokes an initialization command (initialize()) that selects a random pair of artworks: they provide, respec- tively, the initial and target nodes (Fig. 2, right). When the user clicks on the “start” command in the interface, the navigation begins. Node generation At this point, the next node is generated, until either the user reaches the target node or she/he exits the labyrinth (by clicking the exit button posited in the navigation console). This loop is repeated each time the user selects the next artwork. 1. Retrieval of relations. The client queries the ontology to get the informa- tion about the chosen artwork (or the initial artwork at the beginning of the navigation) through the command getNodeInfo(). This command is the key to the mapping of the semantic relations encoded in the ontology onto the 3D labyrinth: given an artwork, it returns the identifier of the digital resource that represents the artwork in the media repository, its metadata (the information about its creator, title, etc.) and the list of its semantic relations (character-based, story-based, location-based relations, and so on) with the other artworks. The client employs the information about the artwork’s relations with the other artworks to build the node that will contain the artwork and stores the digital resource and the infor- mation about the artwork to generate the 2D panel describing the artwork in case the user requires it (as exemplified in Fig. 3, left, Fig. 5, left, and Fig. 6). To retrieve these data from the ontology, getNodeInfo() executes a set of SPARQL queries on the ontology, one for each possible type of semantic relations. For example, the following query extracts from the ontology the set of artworks ?a that are evocative of the archetype of the labyrinth (: evokes) and display the character of Theseus (displays): SELECT ?a WHERE{ ?a :evokes :Labyrinth ?a :displays :Theseus } By executing similar queries for all the semantic relations embedded in the system (namely, story, character, event, location, epoch and object), the system collects all the available relations connecting the selected artwork with the rest of the repository. 2. Computation of topology. The method getNodeInfo() returns an XML fragment describing the selected artwork and its related artworks; in prac- tice, the XML contains a section for each semantic relation type (agent, story, etc.). For example, consider the following fragment, returned by invoking the command getNodeInfo() on the artifact displayed in Fig. 5 (left), a Greek vase of the 5th century b.c. displaying Theseus killing the Minotaur: 18 <agent> <rartifactagent> Minotauromachia_Picasso </rartifactagent> ... <rartifactagent> Ariadne_and_the_Thread </rartifactagent> </agent> <story> <rartifactstory> Sleeping_Ariadne </rartifactstory> ... <rartifactstory> VillaImperiale_Pompei </rartifactstory> </story> The response contains the set of artworks (or artifacts, as artworks are generically termed in AO) related to the input artwork, indexed by re- lation types: the example shows the story relation (artworks tagged as rartifactstory) and character relation (artworks tagged as rartifactagent). The example response contains (among other artifacts not listed in the ex- ample) two story-related paintings, “Minotauromachia” by Pablo Picasso and “Ariadne and the Thread” by the Italian painter Palagio Pelagi, and two character-related artworks, namely an anonymous statue representing a sleeping Ariadne (situated at the Vatican Museums) and the frescoes depicting the myth of the Minotaur situated at the “Villa Imperiale” in Pompei. Notice that the latter two artworks are displayed in Fig 5 (right) as available alternatives after the user has chosen the story relation from the node containing the Greek vase (Fig 5, left): in the figure, they are termed, respectively “Arianna dormiente” (“Sleeping Ariadne”) and “Af- freschi della Villa Imperiale” (“Frescoes, Villa Imperiale”). At this point, the topology of the labyrinth is computed. For each semantic relation (in the example response: <rartifactstory> and <rartifactagent>): – if the relation contains a single artifact, an artwork node is created to represent it and a pathway is added from the chosen node to the new artwork node; – if the relation contains multiple artifacts (as in the standard case), a relation node is created and a pathway is added from the chosen node to the relation node; for each artifact, then, an artwork node is created and a pathway is added from the relation node to each of the new artwork nodes (see Fig. 3, right). 3. Generation of the labyrinth. Based on the topology computed above, the next node of the 3D labyrinth is created and added to the 3D environment, 19 together with its exiting pathways. When the user chooses a new artwork (either directly connected to the current one or indirectly, via a relation node), the loop is repeated. End of session. When the user either reaches the target node or clicks on the exit button, the client executes the endLabyrinth() command to visualize the statistics of the session (time elapsed, visited nodes, etc.) and closes the session. 6. Lesson learned We carried out an evaluation of the 3D interface of the system, in order to gather information about the users’ liking of the system and their expectations about its use. The evaluation took place in a scientific fair, with some users taking part to participated demos and some other user freely interacting with the system. The experimentation is described in detail [41]: here, we only summarize the most important results, which are relevant for discussing the potential and the possible applications of Labyrinth 3D. 41 testers took part in the evaluation, males and females, with ages ranging from 10 to 67 years old. The system was very well welcomed by the visitors of the fair, in particular by students and teachers, who were enthusiastic about its potential for education and dissemination. The ethnographic observation of the testers who interacted directly with the system showed that the navigation was generally easy, with some problems in clicking the navigation controls when they were located far away along the pathways, because the distant controls tend to be small due to the perspective. Users were sometimes bewildered at finding themselves in a node they had already visited, but were ready to accept the explanation that this is typical of labyrinths. The users tended to read carefully the information displayed about the single items, reasoning aloud about their connection with the archetype and with the previously visited nodes. A questionnaire was given to the users to assess their liking of the system and their preferences about the use contexts. The questions about the use of the system revealed that the users would prefer the PC and the tablet for using the system, a finding that is in line with the goal of the project of creating an immersive experience. When asked about the similar media, the users selected the video game and the encyclopedia, also in line with the design goal of creating a tool for cultural dissemination. In particular, a group of 6 questions were aimed at investigating the general acceptance of the system: by using Likert scales (with 5 points from �2 to +2, mapped onto values from 1 (�2) to 5 (+2) in the subsequent data analysis), we asked testers to what degree the system was: i.intuitive, ii.interesting, iii.engaging, iv.useful, v.appealing, vi. straightforward to use. The average value of the answers to the questions concerning the acceptance was 4.5, with “interesting” as the highest average value (4.7) and “straightforward” as the lowest average value (4.32), indicating that the application was appealing but that its use was not entirely clear to some users. The values are illustrated in Table 1. As it can be noticed, the standard deviation is not high, meaning that the testers generally agreed on a positive evaluation. 20 Table 1: Average values for the questions about perceived properties of the system, on a 5 point Likert scale. subquestion SYSTEM PROPERTY AVERAGE VALUE ST. DEV. i intuitive 4.35 0.72 ii interesting 4.7 0.57 iii engaging 4, 41 0.74 iv useful 4.48 0.61 v appealing 4.5 0.74 vi straightforward 4.32 0.68 The results of the evaluation suggest that the proposed approach works and open the way to a re-use of the architecture of the system for applications that leverage the creativity intrinsic to a cultural heritage archive to generate per- sonalized paths in a 3D environment. A precondition to the reuse the approach of the Labyrinth project is to abstract the experience in the design and imple- mentation of the system into a pipeline for creating similar applications. Given our experience in the design and implementation of Labyrinth 3D, we propose the following pipeline, divided into three phases: visual design, software de- velopment and editing, each characterized by specific professional roles. We skip the conceptual modeling phase, assuming that an annotated repository of cultural heritage objects is already available (for example, as part of some an- notation project or as a by product of a digitalization initiative). It is possible, however, that, for specific projects, an ad hoc ontology is developed to satisfy this requirement: if this is the case, an ontology engineer and a domain ex- pert cooperate to design the ontology that will constitute the backbone of the system. The visual design phase is aimed at bridging the gap between the concep- tualization of heritage objects (the archetypes in Labyrinth 3D) and the users through the use of visual and spatial metaphors (the maze in Labyrinth 3D). As argued by [13], the choice of the metaphor is crucial to communicating the conceptual model. This phase should be conducted with the help of a sample repository where a few objects have been inserted to support the design process and the subsequent development phase. Given the annotated repository, the interaction designer, in cooperation with a visual designer, i) devises a suitable metaphor for conveying the description of the objects in the repository through the 3D environment (by mapping of the object properties and their relations onto the features of the environment), ii) designs the interaction flow (speci- fying how the user can interact with the 3D environment and what responses he/she should get in each phase of the interaction) and iii) establishes the visual properties of the 3D, such as its mood and appearance. A game designer may be involved in this phase to insert elements of playability into the interaction. As shown by [42], in fact, the use of game in tandem with visual metaphors increases the levels of learning. 21 The software development phase translates the interaction design into 3D assets, staged and manipulated by a 3D engine. Once the interaction metaphor has been established, the 3D models that constitute the environment are cre- ated and arranged in a set of layouts by a 3D production team, together with animations and camera movements (in case the navigation is achieved by con- straining the user to predefined movements, as in Labyrinth 3D). In parallel, the semantic web developer implements the queries that extract the object de- scriptions from the ontology (previously uploaded onto an ontology server) and makes them available by programming a web service available though an API. Finally, the 3D developer programs the 3D environment so that it implements the interaction flow established in the interaction design phase. In the editing phase, the cultural heritage objects are collected and anno- tated with the semantic metadata required by the conceptual model encoded in the ontology before adding them to the repository. Metadata may include, for example, the relations of heritage objects with locations, artists, historical events, etc. Although professional annotators are preferred, metadata may be also contributed by amateurs through crowd sourcing, as recently proposed by [43]. 7. Conclusion In this paper, we described Labyrinth 3D, a system where the user can explore the semantic relations over a repository of cultural objects through a virtual maze where the objects are connected by pathways representing the meaning relations over them. The approach of Labyrinth 3D leverages a system- atic mapping of the conceptual model underlying the repository onto a virtual, 3D environment, to create an immersive and engaging experience for the user. Designed to provide an alternative to the standard approaches to archive navi- gation, Labyrinth 3D relies on the users’ curiosity to create personal paths in a cultural domain. In the next years, thanks to the advent of the paradigm of Linked Open Data [44], semantically encoded information about cultural heritage, including events, performances, collections, etc. will be available on the web from di↵erent sources, enabling the experimentation of new paradigms in the presentation and dissemination of cultural heritage. By applying the approach of Labyrinth 3D to the design of new applications, it will possible to refine and improve the approach described in this paper through practical case studies. The ultimate goal of this research is to take full advantage of the whole range of the new media languages, such as 3D, to develop creative and innovative applications in the field of cultural heritage. As a future work, we envisage the adoption of the software pipeline of Labyrinth 3D in educational projects. 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work_5t3fcd4q7rbdbalywgezqd3bqm	----	73 DOI: 10.22559/folkloredebiyat.2017.69 folklor/edebiyat, cilt:24, sayı:93, 2018/1 REFRAMING PABLO PICASSO AND DORA MAAR IN GRACE NICHOLS’S “WEEPING WOMAN” GRACE NICHOLS’IN “WEEPING WOMAN” ADLI ŞİİRİNDE PABLO PICASSO VE DORA MAAR İLIŞKİSİNE YENİDEN BAKIŞ” Özlem Uzundemir* ABstrACt The Guyanese poet Grace Nichols’s ekphrastic poem “Weeping Woman” in her Picasso, I Want My Face Back challenges Pablo Picasso’s iconic status in twentieth-century art. Written in the form of a dramatic monologue, the poem gives voice to Picasso’s model, muse and lover, Dora Maar, who was a Surrealist photographer before she had an affair with Picasso. Unlike traditional ekphrastic poems which involve the description of a fixed, silenced and gazed beautiful image through a male persona who is also a gazer of that image in poetry, Nichols transforms Maar’s objectified position in Picasso’s painting into a subject by voicing her critique of the artist’s cubist art, his use of colors as well as his geometric figures, and of his maltreatment of her. Through this ekphrastic stance, Maar reconstructs her identity as a photographer and rids herself from the artist’s domination over her in his art and personal life. Hence, the aim of this article is to discuss in what ways Nichols’s poem problematizes the privileged status of the male artist over his silenced female model and acknowledges the artistic talent of the woman through the use of ekphrasis. Keywords: Grace Nichols; Dora Maar; Pablo Picasso; ekphrasis *Doç.Dr. Çankaya Üniversitesi İngiliz Dili ve Ed. Bölümü. ozlemuzundemir@cankaya.edu.tr folklor / edebiyat 74 ÖZEt Guyana asıllı İngiliz şair Grace Nichols’ın 2009 yılında yayımlanan Picasso, I Want My Face Back (Picasso, Yüzümü Geri İstiyorum) adlı şiir kitabında yer alan ilk şiiri “Weeping Woman” (Ağlayan Kadın) çağdaş resimbetim (ekfrasis) örneklerindendir. Pablo Picasso’nun aynı adlı resmini betimleyen şiir, Picasso’nun yirminci-yüzyıl sanatındaki eşsiz rolünü bir dönem sevgilisi olmuş ve resimlerine modellik yapmış olan Dora Maar’ın ağzından sorgular. Maar aslında Picasso ile tanışmadan önce Sürrealist akıma dahil olmuş bir fotoğraf sanatçısıdır, ancak Picasso ile yaşadığı çalkantılı aşk süresince kendi sanatçı kimliğini bir kenara bırakır. Sessiz, durağan ve bakılan güzel sanat nesnesinin bir erkek konuşmacı tarafından betimlendiği geleneksel resimbetimsel şiirlerin aksine, Nichols şiirinde Dora Maar’ı Picasso’nun resmindeki nesne konumundan çıkartarak ona ressamın sanatını eleştirme hakkı verir. Maar Picasso’nun Kübist stilini, geometrik figürlerini ve kullandığı renkleri eleştirmekle kalmaz, ilişki boyunca ressamın üzerinde kurduğu hakimiyetten de yakınır. Maar ressamın sanatı ve kişisel ilişkisindeki baskın kişiliğinden kurtulduktan sonra kendi sanatçı kimliğini yeniden oluşturma sürecine girer. Bu makalenin amacı, Nichols’ın şiirinde erkek ressamın dişil imge üzerinde kurduğu hakimiyetin ne şekilde sorunsallaştırıldığını ve kadın sanatçının kendi kimliğini yeniden kurgulama çabalarını resimbetim çerçevesinde ele almaktır. Anahtar Sözcükler: Grace Nichols; Dora Maar; Pablo Picasso; resimbetim “Weeping Woman,” featured in the Guyanese poet Grace Nichols’s Picasso, I Want My Face Back, takes the form of a dramatic monologue in the voice of Picasso’s model, muse and lover, Dora Maar. The poem is an example of ekphrasis, which involves the representation of a visual artwork in literature, and in this case Picasso’s eponymous painting is described by the persona. Unlike traditional ekphrastic poems, such as Robert Browning’s dramatic monologue “My Last Duchess”, where the Duke of Ferrara shows an agent his silenced dead wife’s portrait and discloses his domineering and possessive personality, in Nichols’s poem the female object/image in the painting is transformed into a subject and an onlooker, who criticises Picasso’s art. Through this critical subversion, Maar reconstructs her identity as a photographer in order to escape what she perceives as the artist’s domination over her in his art as well as his personal life. In this sense, considered within the framework of ekphrasis, this study aims to discuss how the interaction between the verbal and visual arts in Nichols’ “Weeping Woman” is used for two purposes: first to challenge the privileged status of the male artist over his silenced female model and then to acknowledge the artistic talent of the woman. At the beginning of her book Paint Me a Poem, which includes poems by Grace Nichols as well as children with whom she works on several paintings at the Tate Gallery, she claims: “I’d always been intrigued by painting and how poetry and painting have inspired each other. For me, there is a close relationship between the two art forms. In the compositional balance of a painting, one can almost speak of a certain colour ‘rhyming’ with a similar colour” (Nichols, 2004, p. 5). Nichols underlines the interaction between visual and verbal art forms by using the diction specific to each, namely color and rhyme, and shows how, for her, these art forms are closely interconnected and should cooperate folklor / edebiyat 75 with one another. Therefore, before analyzing Nichols’s ”Weeping Woman”, I would like to discuss briefly the characteristics of ekphrasis by referring to various prominent critics throughout the ages. Discussion on the sister arts, namely visual and verbal arts, until the twentieth century, is highly paragonal. Since Leonardo da Vinci considers the eye as “the nobler sense” in relation to the ear as “the second, acquiring nobility through the recounting of things which the eye has seen,” (2001, p. 20) painting, for him, is privileged over poetry. Moreover, unlike poetry, which is composed of words, in other words arbitrary signs, painting is a natural sign as it represents things in nature truthfully (da Vinci, 2001, p. 21). Taking da Vinci’s distinction into consideration, Gotthold Ephraim Lessing dwells on the juxtaposition between the spatiality, silence and fixity of the image as opposed to the temporal dimension of literature with an emphasis on action and eloquence (1984, p. 78). Within the frame of the contemporary discussions on ekphrasis, W. J. T. Mitchell in his seminal book Picture Theory names the steps of polarity in ekphrasis as: “(1) the conversion of the visual representation into a verbal representation, either by description or ventriloquism; (2) the reconversion of the verbal representation back into the visual object in the reception of the reader” (Mitchell, 1994, p. 160). In other words, the literary work describes an art object or allows the image to speak and in this way, another visual image is formed in the reader’s mind. He talks about how this dialectical relationship between the visual and verbal arts is unavoidably gendered: a male viewing subject in poetry describes an art object depicting a fixed and silent female image. In his Iconology, Mitchell claims, “Paintings, like women, are ideally silent, beautiful creatures designed for the gratification of the eye, in contrast to the sublime eloquence proper to the manly art of poetry” (Mitchell, 1986, p. 110). The gaze, as Mitchell underlines, is a crucial issue in discussions on ekphrasis, as the narrator or the character in literature, who describes the artwork, is also a beholder. Simon Goldhill, in his article on ekphrastic epigrams in the Hellenistic period, asserts that the act of looking is “a practice of interpreting, of reading – a way of seeing meaning,” (2007, p. 2). And, as such, Goldhill contends, “ekphrasis is designed to produce a viewing subject” (2007, p. 2). In Nichols’s poem, then, the viewed object in Picasso’s painting becomes the viewing subject with a voice to critique his art. Since in “Weeping Woman” Grace Nichols mainly focuses on Picasso’s well- renowned eponymous painting, the poem asks for a transreferential act of reading: in other words, the poem and the painting supplement each other in the sense that appreciation of the poem necessitates the reader to view Picasso’s painting, and afterwards, the female image in the painting cannot be viewed without Maar’s story in mind. As the poet asserts in the Preface of the book, “The painting with its haggard fractured features and clash of colours (executed in Picasso’s famous cubist style) made me want to give that face a voice” (Nichols, 2009, p. 8). The woman in the painting is Picasso’s lover Dora Maar, who was a photographer and known to be a member of the Surrealist Movement in Paris. As Julie L’Enfant asserts, “some of Maar’s photographs are considered central documents of Surrealism” (L’Enfant, 1996-1997, p. 15). While married to Marie- Thérèse Walter, Picasso saw Maar at the Café des Deux Magots in Paris in 1936, and folklor / edebiyat 76 was immediately fascinated by her seductive and masochistic behaviour, playing with a knife between her fingers and staining her gloves with blood. During their affair between 1936 and 1945, Picasso continuously “humiliat[ed] this once proud and independent woman” (L’Enfant, 1996-1997, p. 18). For instance, one day Picasso gave her “a very distorted portrait of her, inscribed For Dora Maar, Great Painter (Lord, 1993, p. 238) to make fun of her artistic talent. After Picasso left her for a younger woman, Maar suffered a nervous breakdown followed by a long therapy period with the French psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan. Nichols gives voice to Maar in the form of a dramatic monologue and defies the characteristics of traditional ekphrasis, where the female image stays silent and fixed within the frame. The poem opens with Dora Maar’s outcry of pain severely denouncing Picasso’s Cubist style of using fractured figures. She says: They say that instead of a brush he used a knife on me – a savage geometry. But I say, look again, this is the closest anyone has got to the pain. (Nichols, 2009, p. 9) In line with Goldhill’s argument that ekphrasis creates a “viewing subject”, Maar is transformed from a silent, gazed object of aesthetic beauty in Picasso’s painting into a gazing subject who speaks in Nichols’s monologue. She denounces not only Picasso’s art as “a savage geometry” because of her deformed depiction in the painting, but also his maltreatment by using two symbols suggestive of male power, brush and knife. It is with the details of the image, her red hat “twisted mouth / and gnashing teeth, / my fingers fat and clumsy” (Nichols, 2009, p. 9) that Maar rejects such ugly depiction of herself, as she is known to be a very attractive woman with beautiful hands and long fingers. Moreover, she condemns the distasteful colours he used in this painting: for instance, green is “not the green of new shoots / but the ghastly green of gangrene” (Nichols, 2009, p. 9). Maar compares Picasso’s abuse of her body to that of a conqueror invading a land: she calls him a “Conquistador / of the flesh” (Nichols, 2009, p. 12) exploiting her body “with the sperm / of [his] colours” (Nichols, 2009, p. 12). The sperm and colors refer to Picasso’s maltreatment in both his actual life and his art respectively. Apart from his objectification of her, Maar also resists Piccaso’s act of silencing her through his art, by giving voice to her cry which is depicted in the picture: “I hear / ... / my own stiffled scream” (Nichols, 2009, p. 9). This voicing of the cry, which is an aspect of ekphrasis mentioned before, in fact, shows the distance between Maar the image and Maar the beholder. Through this offensive image of a weeping woman in a group of paintings, Picasso displays on the one hand his abhorrence of war, and on the other hand his view of women as “suffering machines” (Nichols, 2009, p. 11). However, Nichols’s critique of Picasso’s painting through Maar’s monologue displays the poet’s aspiration to subvert the characteristics of traditional ekphrasis in which static, silent female figure is framed in art. Maar’s condemnation is intensified with her reproval of Picasso’s reputation and fortune by comparing him to the mythological figure, Midas: “Everything he touches,” folklor / edebiyat 77 she says “with his Midas hands / turns, of course, into a fortune. / One still-life can buy a house” (Nichols, 2009, p. 11). Ironically, while the persona of Maar underlines in this way the fact that fame brings fortune to the male artist, in person she could only hope that future generations would appreciate her surrealist art. In his Picasso and Dora: A Personal Memoir, James Lord touches upon this expectation, noting that “Several times she remarked that she was absolutely sure of herself so far as the future was concerned: it would recognize the enduring quality and unique accomplishment of her work” (Lord, 1993, p. 325-6). Grace Nichols seems to have recognized Maar’s talent, and tries to give credit to the woman artist with her poem. The ekphrastic critique of Picasso’s art – the geometric depiction of figures, the use of colours, and the image of the woman in pain - is superseded by another form of ekphrasis in which Maar’s focus is directed towards her own art. To underline her accomplishment in art, then, she needs to reconsider her personal relationship with the artist; that is to say, how his treatment and view of her shifted “from goddess to doormat” (Nichols, 2009, p. 11). Before becoming a devoted lover, striving to meet his needs, however, Maar had been a member of the Surrealist Movement, “wearing her camera / like a medallion against her heart” (Nichols, 2009, p. 11). After she hears “whispers of a new mistress” (Nichols, 2009, p. 13), and sees the pitying looks of the people, she articulates her perplexity: she is well aware that although depicted as very ugly and suffering, she has been immortalized through his art, and that the painting has become “an icon / of twentieth-century grief” (Nichols, 2009, p. 10). The painter once confessed that he tried several times to depict Maar cheerfully, but he could not do so, saying: “I just couldn’t get a portrait of her while she was laughing ... for years I painted her with tortured shapes.” (as cited in Caws, 2000, p. 5) In order to reconstruct her identity, Maar has to break apart the iconic status of Picasso in her mind and distance herself from her past identity as the painter’s beloved muse. She describes how she is relieved of her painful experience during the therapy period, and as a result demands Picasso to give her her “face back” (Nichols, 2009, p. 16). Despite the demands of the public that she should give credit to Picasso for her fame, she asserts her identity by bitterly disclaiming that she is not a parasite: I am no moth flitting around his wick. He might be a genius but he’s also a prick – Medusa, Cleopatra, help me find my inner bitch, wasn’t I christened Henriette Theodora Markovitch? (Nichols, 2009, p. 16) In this passage, though she recognizes Picasso’s talent (“a genius”), she also thinks that he is repulsive (“a prick”) in his treatment of women. Maar takes as her own muses dazzling women from mythology and history who will give her courage to resist the damage Picasso has done on her personality, and by mentioning her full name, she asserts her own identity against what she sees as Picasso’s erasure of it. As a result of this recovery period, she starts working as a photographer again, taking pictures with her camera and “turn[ing] my negatives into positives. / my floating foetuses into life” (Nichols, 2009, p. 17). The process of photographic printing is also very suggestive of her transformation, from a psychological breakdown after Picasso’s folklor / edebiyat 78 betrayal of her, to a state where she can refabricate her identity. If the critical gaze of her silenced objectified self in Picasso’s art is one part of Maar’s issue in her monologue, then the other is how as a viewing subject she highlights her photography by using the trope of the eye: she calls her instrument to observe and reflect the world as “my one- eye” (Nichols, 2009, p. 17), and “my third-eye” (Nichols, 2009, p. 17), and resembles herself to Polyphemus, the man-eating cyclops to suggest how she tries to survive through her art of photography. Underlining her persona’s artistic contributions in an ekphrastic fashion, Nichols names some surrealist works by Maar; the “floating foetus” alludes to her famous Portrait of Pere Ubu; other references include Maar’s photograph of “A blind man sitting / with his white cane in the sun,” (Nichols, 2009, p. 17) and her photographs of Picasso in his studio painting his Guernica. With the metaphor of a butterfly having “still imperfect wings,” (Nichols, 2009, p. 17) Maar finally suggests that she has liberated herself from being “a battered muse” (Nichols, 2009, p. 16) in his consuming love. As part of the art of painting, colours, then, gain importance in her life: black suggests her strength and freedom from male oppression, white her innocence, green faith in the future, yellow her awakening, red her passion, and blue the support of her soul (Nichols, 2009, p. 18). After she becomes independent of his influence and finds her true self, as underlined by Maar in the poem, she starts appreciating Picasso’s art but she still refuses her effect on his art: “‘Picasso’s art is Picasso’s art. / Not one is Dora Maar’” (Nichols, 2009, p. 19)*. She realizes that there are many women abused by men: “There will always be a weeping woman. / Although I’ve left, she remains, / weeping her Hiroshima of tears” (Nichols, 2009, p. 20). This is an attempt by Maar to sympathize with other women who suffer for similar reasons. What Gabrielle Griffin argues in terms of Nichols’s poems on a fat African female figure is very pertinent in this context as well. Griffin suggests that the female persona in Nichols’s poems “uses her body, her voice, her song to maintain her sense of selfhood, to support others and to subvert the structures that oppress her” (Griffin, 1993, p. 28). To reconstruct her identity and to refashion her career as an artist, Maar first needs to subvert Picasso’s repression on her, free herself from the boundaries of the frame of art and gain her voice. Nichols’s “Weeping Woman” demonstrates how the act of writing or creating for women can become “a political act of breaking silence” (Wiskers, 1993, p. 3). By challenging the characteristics of traditional ekphrasis, discussed before, in which the female image remains a silenced object, the poet takes Dora Maar out of the frame of Picasso’s painting, where she is depicted with a weeping visage, and gives voice, autonomy and freedom to the silenced and fixed female image. Such an alternative to traditional ekphrasis, suggests subverting the dichotomy that privileges the male artist over the female, and attributing equal value to the woman’s accomplishments through an emphasis on her persona’s painstaking efforts to reconstruct her identity as an independent artist. I would like to end with Nichols’s short poem “Epilogue”, which tells the poet’s process of adapting into the colonizer’s culture with specific emphasis on * Nichols probably refers to James Lord’s memoir in which he quotes Dora Maar’s statement: “all his portraits of me are lies. They’re all Picassos, not one is Dora Maar” (Lord, 1993, p. 123). folklor / edebiyat 79 language. The poem summarizes Dora Maar’s ambition in “Weeping Woman” as well if the language concern is replaced with that of identity. She says: I have crossed an ocean I have lost my tongue from the root of the old one a new one has sprung. (Nichols, 1983, p. 87) Works Cited Caws, M. A. (09. 04. 2015). A tortured goddess. The Guardian. Da Vinci, L. (2001). Leonardo on painting. M. Kemp (Ed.) (M. Kemp and M. Walker, Trans.) New Haven: Yale Nota Bene. . Goldhill, S. (January 2007). What is ekphrasis for?. Classical Philology, Volume 102 (Issue 1), pp. 1-19. Griffin, G. (1993). Writing the body: reading Joan Ridley, Grace Nichols and Ntozake S h a n g s . Black women’s writing. G. Wisker (Ed.) (pp. 19-42). Hampshire and London: Macmillan. L’Enfant, J. (1996-1997). Dora Maar and the art of mystery. Woman’s Art Journal, Volume 17 (Issue 2), pp. 15-20. Lessing, G. E. (1984). Laocoön. (E. A. McCormick, Trans.) Baltimore, Maryland: The Johns Hopkins University Press. Lord, J. (1993). Picasso and Dora: A personal memoir. New York: Farrar Straus Giroux. Mitchell, W. J. T. (1986). Iconology: image, text, ideology. Chicago: The University of C h i c a g o Press. Mitchell, W. J. T. (1994). Picture theory. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Nichols, G. (1983). Epilogue. I is a long memoried woman (p. 87). London: Karnak House. Nichols, G. (2004). Paint me a poem: New poems inspired by painting and sculptures in Tate. London: A & C Black. Nichols, G. (2009). Weeping woman. Picasso, I want my face back (pp. 9-20). N o r t h u m b e r l a n d : Bloodaxe Books. Wisker, G. (1993). Introduction. G. Wisker (Ed.). Black women’s writing (pp.1-18). Hampshire and London: Macmillan. 
work_5witzl4u4reflgbcgze3py2ika	----	“Susana y los viejos” en la pintura barroca y su resignificación desde una perspectiva de género en las expresiones artísticas de los siglos XX y XXI Florencia Martini RESUMEN El artículo indaga las representaciones de género en la cultura, específicamente en la pintura barroca (s. XVI-XVII), a través del análisis de la obra “Susana y los viejos” de Tintoretto (1560/65), Artemisia Gentileschi (1610) y Guercino (1617), pinturas que representan una escena del Antiguo Testamento (Daniel 13), para luego examinar las resignificaciones producidas en los siglos XX y XXI, que invierten las representaciones sociales de los siglos XVI-XVII, en la obra de Pablo Picasso (1955), la performance “Ablutions” (1972) -llevada a cabo por Suzanne Lacy, Judy Chicago, Sandra Orgel, Jan Laster y Aviva Rahmani- y, finalmente, en la obra inédita de un artista local, Pablo Martini (2012). Palabras clave​: representaciones de género – mito bíblico – siglos XVI y XVII – siglos XX y XXI. ABSTRACT The article focuses on gender representations in the field of culture, specifically in baroque painting (16​th and 17​th centuries), through the analysis of “Susanna and the Elders” by Tintoretto (1560/65), Artemisia Gentileschi (1610) and Guercino (1617), three paintings that represent a scene from the Old Testament (Daniel 13), to then examine the resignifications produced in the 20th and 21st centuries —that invert the social representations of the 16th and 17th centuries— in a work by Pablo Picasso (1955), the performance “Ablutions” (1972) —by Suzanne Lacy, Judy Chicago, Sandra Orgel, Jan Laster and Aviva Rahmani— and, finally, in the work of a local artist, Pablo Martini (2012). Keywords​: gender representations – Biblical myth - 16​th​ and 17​th​ centuries- 20​th​ and 21​st​ centuries Florencia Martini «​“​Susana y los viejos” en la pintura barroca…» Esta obra está bajo una Licencia Creative Commons Atribución – No Comercial – Sin Obra Derivada 4.0 Internacional. Introducción En este artículo aspiro a indagar las representaciones de género en la cultura, específicamente en la pintura barroca (siglos XVI-XVII), analizando para ello la obra “Susana y los viejos” de Tintoretto (1560/65), Artemisia Gentileschi (1610) y Guercino (1617), representación de una escena del Antiguo Testamento (Daniel 13), para luego examinar las resignificaciones de la obra en los siglos XX y XXI, que invierten el sentido sociocultural de la escena, y dotan de cierta agencia a las mujeres, quienes dejan de ser objetos inertes subalternizados por la mirada masculina y la norma jurídica patriarcal. En tal sentido, abordo la obra de Picasso (1955), la performance “Ablutions” (1972), llevada a cabo por Suzanne Lacy, Judy Chicago, Sandra Orgel, Jan Laster y Aviva Rahmani y, finalmente, la obra inédita de un artista local, Pablo Martini (2012). Susana y los viejos en el Antiguo Testamento El tema representado es narrado en el Antiguo Testamento (Daniel 13): Arquián y Sedequía eran dos ancianos jueces que acudían asiduamente a casa de Joaquín, judío de Babilonia, próspero y respetado, esposo de Susana. Un día, al encontrarse Susana bañándose en una de las fuentes del jardín, los ancianos, que se habían escondido para observarla, trataron de abusar sexualmente de ella y, ante la resistencia de Susana, la acusaron de adulterio (afirmando que la habían observado con un joven en los jardines). Susana es condenada a muerte por lapidación y es entonces cuando interviene el joven profeta Daniel. Este interroga a los viejos por separado y advierte contradicciones en sus relatos por lo que concluye que han mentido. Ante ello se revoca la condena de Susana, quien es absuelta, y los ancianos jueces, condenados por falso testimonio. La historia fue muy frecuentada por los artistas de los siglos XVI y XVII, porque les brindaba la oportunidad de abordar una escena cargada de erotismo al tiempo que cumplía una función religiosa moralizante. El arte barroco y la Iglesia católica ​La Reforma católica o Contrarreforma es la respuesta de la Iglesia católica dada a la Reforma protestante de Martín Lutero. Denota el período de resurgimiento católico desde el Concilio de Trento en 1545 y el pontificado del papa Pío IV en 1560 hasta el fin de la guerra de los Treinta Años. El franciscano Sixto V representó la etapa final de la Contrarreforma católica al convertir Roma y el barroco en la representación visual del catolicismo. El arte barroco, ​principalmente en pintura y escultura, tuvo como función difundir el credo católico entre la gente común. Su intención fue introducir al fiel a los misterios de la fe a través de los sentidos y mostrarle la gloria celestial a la cual podía aspirar. La pintura barroca utiliza el cuerpo desnudo de la mujer como elemento pregnante de la mirada de los espectadores (varones), paradójicamente, para introducir un mensaje religioso moralizante que se detiene en las fronteras del mundo de la vida masculina. El cuerpo desnudo de las mujeres se constituye en instrumento de captación de la mirada masculina al solo efecto de introyectar la doctrina religiosa católica, como embate a la reforma protestante. En las pinturas barrocas y manieristas, el cuerpo blanco, erótico, listo para la mirada queda plasmado en este instante en que la mujer se descubre observada, profanada. La mujer aparece como “carnada” que focaliza la mirada pública (de los varones) en vistas a restaurar los valores católicos. Nada protege el cuerpo de Susana de la mirada de los jueces, ni los portones cerrados ni los umbrales o cercas de su jardín, no hay límites que impidan la visión. Los muros se hacen transparentes para permitir la máxima visibilidad. La mirada comparece en este relato como pura violación. Susana es penetrada por los ojos, que rozan su piel y la desnudan, pretenden macular a la azucena. El hecho de que sean dos los viejos de la historia, multiplica la intensidad de este acto voyerista. Cuatro ojos o una mirada más. Revista de Culturas y Literaturas Comparadas​- Volumen 9, año 2019 Si analizamos el versículo del Antiguo Testamento que da cuenta de la historia, se advierte que trata el mundo de los varones. Desde una perspectiva jurídica contemporánea, llama la atención que lo único que se pone en juego es la “palabra” de los varones. La mujer no tiene voz, no tiene logos . A pesar de que se observa el método de averiguación de la verdad propio del proceso penal 1 contemporáneo (verificación a partir de pruebas, entre las cuales cobra protagonismo el testimonio), la mujer no es “testigo” en tanto no figura como sujeto portador de una voz legítima para la reconstrucción del mundo. La mujer aparece como un objeto más dentro de la esfera de custodia del varón. El discurso jurídico está modelado ​sobre la base de un sujeto “hombre” que incluye a la mujer, un sujeto universal falsamente indiferenciado desde el punto de vista del género, ya que es producido en realidad como un sujeto masculino trabajando representaciones del mundo orientadas a sí mismo (Chaneton, 66). Es por lo que Susana aparece más como una espectadora que protagonista del proceso penal en el que es juzgada como adúltera. Como lo sostiene Chaneton, el género es el campo primario en el cual se articula el poder, una manera de expresar el poder en occidente en las tradiciones judeocristianas e islámicas. Como tal, se encuentra involucrado en la construcción del poder, como poder de establecer el significado legítimo. Distinciones como femenino/masculino reciben, entonces, una significación jerarquizada y codificada por la dominante que, luego, se presenta como natural. El significado legítimo, en última instancia, lo impone el joven profeta Daniel, legitimando en definitiva el sistema de justicia, al provocar la condena por falso testimonio de los ancianos jueces de Babilonia. Desde una perspectiva jurídica contemporánea, tanto mujeres como varones son susceptibles de ser sujetos pasivos de un delito, esto significa que mujeres y varones son protegidos por la ley penal. Por tanto, la situación fáctica que describe el versículo de Daniel debería focalizarse, probada la mendacidad de los ancianos jueces, en la tentativa de abuso sexual de Susana, al colocarla como víctima de un delito, circunstancia que no acontece en la historia. La lesión a bienes sociales de la mujer (en este caso la integridad sexual de Susana) no ingresa en la consideración del asunto sometido a juicio. No emerge de la historia que se haya oído a Susana en alguna instancia del proceso. Se encuentran en juego los bienes jurídicos que protegen a los varones y a la cosa pública, incluida la autoridad religiosa, fijando al varón como centro natural del espacio público. Se protege el estado civil (delito de adulterio), la honra del varón poseedor de la esposa y el falso testimonio (de los ancianos jueces), que protege la correcta 2 administración de justicia. 1 En la obra publicada en 1983 (​El diferendo​) Jean Francois Lyotard define el diferendo como ​“el caso en que el querellante se ve despojado de los medios de argumentar y se convierte, por ese motivo, en una víctima (…) un caso de diferendo, tiene lugar cuando la “resolución del conflicto que opone dos partes civiles se hace en el idioma de una de ellas mientras que la injusticia sufrida por la otra no se significa en ese idioma”, citado por Scavino (1999:112). En el mismo sentido, Jaques Rancière (1996), sostiene que la injusticia no puede resolverse bajo la forma de un acuerdo entre partes porque los sujetos que la injusticia política pone en juego no son entidades a las cuales tal o cual injusticia les ocurriría por accidente, sino sujetos cuya existencia misma es el modo de manifestación de la injusticia. Rancière llama la atención sobre esta constante en el pensamiento occidental desde la época de los griegos: los esclavos son esclavos porque no pueden hablar de igual a igual con los amos, porque no comparten el mismo ​logos (palabra o razón) de la ciudad, citado por Scavino (115-116). 2 No ha de perderse de vista que el delito de adulterio se configuraba en una época en la que las mujeres no tenían derechos. A partir del casamiento, el esposo asumía la “representación” legal de la mujer para todos los actos civiles de la vida cotidiana. Incluso el régimen legal en Argentina era disímil para varones y mujeres. El varón cometía adulterio solo si tenía una “manceba” (relación estable) mientras que, para que la mujer cometiera el delito, bastaba un solo contacto sexual. Florencia Martini «​“​Susana y los viejos” en la pintura barroca…» El mito bíblico exhibe el quebrantamiento de la pureza de la mujer (sea como virgen -propiedad de Dios- o como fiel esposa- propiedad del marido) estereotipada por el imaginario religioso y social de la época . 3 Tintoretto, 1560-1565 (Kunsthistorisches Museum, Viena, Austria) 4 Tintoretto eligió representar no el momento dramático en el que los dos viejos se manifiestan abiertamente ante Susana, sino el momento en que la protagonista se mira en un espejo en el interior de un jardín idílico, concentrándose así en el contenido erótico de la escena. Aunque ocupe la mitad derecha del cuadro, el personaje de Susana es el centro de atención, con una blancura deslumbrante bañada de luz. A la izquierda, hay un seto de rosas, a cuyos extremos se encuentran los viejos. Entre Susana y ese seto aparece toda una serie de objetos y joyas (el espejo en el que Susana se mira, el paño de seda blanco para secarse y un frasco de perfume de porcelana). Susana luce plácida, gozando de su imagen reflejada en el espejo. Asume el papel de mujer sumisa que disfruta el estatus social que le otorga su marido, de buena posición social y económica. En este cuadro Susana aparece como una pertenencia más del jardín privado de Joaquín y, su cuerpo bañado de luz como un lugar sagrado, asociado a la pureza y a la procreación. Artemisia Gentileschi, 1610 (Castillo de Wiessenstein de Pommersfelden, Alemania) 5 Gentileschi realiza esta obra con tan solo diecisiete años. En la composición los dos hombres unidos componen un gran ojo ávido, famélico, hipérbole de la mirada. Artemisia optó por pintar a Susana como una joven vulnerable, asustada, que rechazaba a esos dos hombres pecaminosos. Enfatiza plásticamente a Susana a través de la iluminación que contrasta ante la gran masa oscura de lo masculino amenazador. Resulta interesante el enfoque particular que Gentileschi le da a esta obra (entre otras en el mismo sentido), porque pone en evidencia una resistencia a la dominación masculina que evidencian las obras de la época. Un año después (1611) la artista es violada por Agostino Tassi, un artista amigo de su padre, a quien, luego de un año, decide denunciar. Su testimonio fue puesto en duda y, si bien Tassi fue finalmente declarado culpable, no fue condenado a la pena de prisión, sino al castigo menor del exilio (de Roma) . 6 Gentileschi fue la primera mujer en conseguir entrar en la Academia de Bellas Artes de Florencia, la misma institución por la que pasó Miguel Ángel​. ​Padeció la indiferencia y el rechazo del mundo artístico de su época por el hecho de ser mujer y la humillación de que muchos de sus cuadros fueran atribuidos a su padre o a otros artistas varones. Durante siglos fue considerada una mera curiosidad, una rareza tan exótica como menor dentro de la historia del arte, tal como nos lo recuerda Irene Hernández Velasco (8/1/17, ​BBC El Mundo​) . 7 3 El estereotipo constituye un esquema vinculado al imaginario social bajo la influencia del medio social, que determina formas de pensar, sentir, actuar, generando creencias sobre clases de individuos (Amossy y Herschberg Pierrot), en este caso la mujer pura, casta, fiel, sumisa a los mandatos de Dios y del marido, representada por estos, quienes en definitiva poseen las riendas de su vida cotidiana. 4 https://elpoderdelarte1.blogspot.com/2018/05/susana-y-los-viejos-obra-de-tintoretto.html 5 https://www.culturabizarra.com/artemisia-gentileschi-susana-los-viejos/ 6 En 1613, Gentileschi ​pinta “Judith decapitando a Holofernes” en la que narra la seducción, embriaguez y asesinato del líder del ejército babilónico, que acomete Judith al liberar a su pueblo. Esta pintura es considerada un grito desesperado de odio y repulsión frente a la violación padecida. 7 Después de la sentencia y de todo el escándalo suscitado con el proceso, Orazio Gentileschi organizó un matrimonio para Artemisia que le permitiese recuperar a ojos de la sociedad la dignidad perdida. Así, el 29 de noviembre, solo dos días después de la condena contra Tassi​, ​la joven se casó con el pintor florentino Pierantonio Stiattesi​ ​y juntos se trasladaron a Florencia. Para entonces Artemisia ya había comenzado a plasmar en sus lienzos a mujeres fuertes y a sufridas, a heroínas, víctimas, suicidas, guerreras, a personajes femeninos procedentes tanto de la Biblia como de la mitología; y adopta una perspectiva nueva: la de una mujer. No le faltaba razón al filósofo francés Roland Barthes cuando sentenciaba que la fuerza de Artemisia Gentileschi radica en su capacidad de dar la vuelta a los papeles Revista de Culturas y Literaturas Comparadas​- Volumen 9, año 2019 Guercino, 1617 (Museo del Prado, Madrid, España) 8 En su pintura, Guercino muestra a los viejos acechándola, en el momento de mayor tensión física y psicológica de la historia, tensión que se manifiesta también en la composición. La pintura está dividida en dos partes: a la izquierda predomina la representación naturalista de los viejos, subrayada por un dramático claroscuro que acentúa la violencia de los afectos recalcado por la disparidad cromática de sus vestidos. Todo ello contrasta con el cuerpo clásico y monocromático de Susana, quien inmersa en un golpe de luz frente a los hombres arrojados en la penumbra convoca la mirada del espectador, como si se tratase de un anciano más. Guercino nos hace partícipes de ese momento pecaminoso, situándonos al amparo de la misma sombra que cobija a los ancianos. Todos, ancianos y espectadores, observamos a voluntad el desnudo de Susana. Picasso, 1955 (Museo Nacional del Prado, Madrid, España) 9 El capítulo 13 de Daniel describe la posesión por Joaquín de un jardín cerrado con una fuente, en el cual paseaba Susana al mediodía: Vivía en Babilonia un hombre llamado Joaquín (13, 1), tenía un jardín junto a su casa y los judíos acudían a él porque gozaba de gran estima (13, 4). Cuando al mediodía ya todos se habían retirado, Susana salía a pasear por el jardín de su marido (13, 7). Susana dijo a sus criadas: traigan jabón y perfume y cierren las puertas del jardín que quiero bañarme (13, 17), los dos ancianos se levantaron y fueron corriendo hacia ella (13, 19) y le dijeron: “las puertas del jardín están cerradas y nadie nos ve. Nosotros estamos llenos de pasión por ti, consiente y entrégate a nosotros” (13, 20). La fuente (portadora del agua) ha sido interpretada como espacio de purificación, mientras que el jardín, en el suceso concreto descripto por Daniel, representa el territorio (espacio de dominación) de Joaquín, esposo de Susana. Las fronteras del jardín fijan los límites de la propiedad de Joaquín y Susana se mueve dentro de ellos, como una posesión más de su marido (tal como ha sido analizado en la obra de Tintoretto). Picasso deconstruye la representación social de la mujer pura y nívea, lugar sagrado de vida, vigente en la pintura barroca exhibiendo una mujer que domina el acontecimiento erótico al tiempo que arroja a los viejos a la impotencia de un plano exterior a la escena. Prescinde de la fuente y del jardín, la pinta dentro de una habitación, su espacio de autonomía. “Ablutions”, 1974 (Nueva York) 10 La obra es una producción colectiva llevada a cabo por Suzanne Lacy, Judy Chicago, Sandra Orgel y Aviva Rahamani, con la colaboración de docentes y estudiantes. Se gesta a partir de las exploraciones de violación que realizan Lacy y Rahamani en sus diferentes prácticas. El público ingresa a un gran estudio de arte abierto donde se encuentran con tres tinas de metal galvanizado en el piso de concreto llenas con huevos, sangre y arcilla respectivamente. Alrededor de las tinas se observan cáscaras de huevo, cuerdas, cadenas y riñones reales. Mientras tanto, una banda sonora reproduce experiencias de mujeres que han sido violadas. Una mujer desnuda es lentamente atada de pies a cabeza con vendas de gasa mientras otras se bañan en las tinas. Al salir de ellas, sus cuerpos exhiben riachuelos de sangre en la arcilla tradicionales, alentando "una nueva ideología que nosotros modernos leemos claramente: la reivindicación femenina", citado por Irene Hernández Velasco (2017). 8 https://www.museodelprado.es/coleccion/obra-de-arte/susana-y-los-viejos/9c9b3611-5c80-457d-a99a-e5580f3074e6 9 https://www.hoyesarte.com/evento/38-picassos-de-la-familia-picasso/attachment/picasso-7/ 10 suzannelacy.com Florencia Martini «​“​Susana y los viejos” en la pintura barroca…» agrietada. A lo largo de la presentación, Suzanne Lacy fue clavando cincuenta riñones de ternera en la pared, envolviendo la habitación como una columna vertebral rodeada por sus órganos. Hacia el final de la performance Suzanne Lacy y Jan Lester envuelven el escenario con cuerdas hasta que este se transforma en una telaraña de atrapamiento. “Ablutions” (ablución) representa la purificación ritual por medio del agua. Hace referencia al baño de Susana en la fuente del jardín de Joaquín. El jardín es reemplazado por un estudio de piso de concreto; la fuente, por una tina de metal; y el agua, por sustancias viscosas. La instalación invierte el sentido de las miradas. Los cuerpos atrapados por sustancias, vendajes y telarañas laceran las miradas, infestando a los espectadores. La mirada voyerista es cegada por la violencia de los cuerpos vulnerados. Las voces que reproducen los detalles de las violaciones suscitan la adhesión a partir de una manera de decir que es también una manera de ser. El destinatario participa en el mundo configurado por la enunciación y accede él mismo a una identidad encarnada. La adhesión del destinatario se produce mediante un apuntalamiento recíproco de la escena de enunciación, de cuyo ethos​ participa, y del contenido manifiesto (Maingueneau). Butler sostiene que el género es instituido en el tiempo por medio de una repetición estilizada de actos constitutivos y en las diferentes formas de repetición estriba la posibilidad de transformar el género (citado por Chaneton 87). Es en este sentido en que “Ablutions” repite en un contexto diferente los actos constitutivos de la obra. Esta rompe con la hegemonía discursiva (que forma parte de la hegemonía cultural que la incluye y sobredetermina globalmente lo enunciable), proveyendo el acceso a los medios de enunciación de lo todavía por decirse: el indecible político de género. Los cuerpos actúan y reaccionan. Generan lo que es nuevo, sorprendente, impredecible (Chaneton 143). La significación social puede pensarse en términos de transformación porque se conciben márgenes relativamente abiertos siempre móviles que son propios de la hegemonía como juego de incertidumbre o significación suspendida del futuro (148); el cuerpo se presenta como un producto psicosocial sujeto a constantes resignificaciones, “sólo hay cuerpos históricos, concretos, plurales, específicos en localizaciones dadas y en esos contextos situados, los cuerpos son hablados por las significaciones de género/clase/generación dominantes en el marco de la hegemonía cultural” (153). La significación social atribuida por los sujetos al acontecimiento se encuentra ligada a la experiencia y lo vivido (conciencia práctica para Gramsci), a un reconocimiento en el nivel de la conciencia teórica y al ​habitus como conjunto de disposiciones y expectativas sociales históricamente construidas como creencias encarnadas en los cuerpos sexuados (Chaneton 160). Pablo Martini, 2012 (Córdoba, Argentina) 11 Las miradas de los viejos multiplicados alrededor de Susana, alongadas por especie de narices punzantes, se proyectan sobre el cuerpo femenino como lanzas vaticinando el martirio de Susana, que aparece como una figura dislocada, enclavada en el centro de la composición, contenida por un cubo virtual (al estilo de los espacios que contienen a los protagonistas de las pinturas de Bacon), replica una fuente que se presenta como una fosa abismal. La composición radial configurada con los entes al acecho genera una fuerza centrípeta que produce una mayor oclusión. La multiplicación de los viejos alrededor de Susana expresa la propagación de las miradas producidas por efecto de la reproducción técnica de las imágenes y los medios de comunicación masiva de nuestros días, y evidencian el voyerismo de las sociedades contemporáneas. El brazo de Susana culmina con un gesto de resistencia, mientras que al lado opuesto emerge una pierna femenina vistiendo liga y sensuales zapatos: estereotipos contemporáneos de la mujer-objeto (del consumo masculino). 11 https://pabloemartini.blogspot.com/2019/02/blog-post.html Revista de Culturas y Literaturas Comparadas​- Volumen 9, año 2019 La obra en la pintura barroca y en el arte contemporáneo Mientras que en las obras barrocas, con sus diferentes matices, aparece el tópico de la desnudez de la mujer como morada sagrada que concentra la luz como expresión estereotípica de 12 la pureza (frente a la negritud de los viejos que representan la idea común de pecaminosidad que impone la autoridad religiosa ), canalizando de este modo el claroscuro característico de la pintura 13 barroca, en el arte de los siglos XX-XXI. Susana se libera (en el caso de Picasso) o evidencia (en el caso de “Ablutions” y Martini) el yugo masculino (tanto del esposo, propietario del jardín que encierra a Susana en los límites de su territorio, como de los viejos que, a partir de la invitación del propio esposo, aprovechan la ocasión para invadir la intimidad de Susana y vulnerar su cuerpo no solo con la mirada, sino también con sus cuerpos). La blancura del cuerpo de Susana se desvanece para recobrar los matices de su autonomía (Picasso), dislocándose el cuerpo-mercancía/objeto estético (Martini) y cubriéndose de texturas pringosas que denuncian la violencia de los cuerpos vulnerados (“Ablutions”). Estas obras denuncian el estereotipo femenino que encauza la dominación masculina, permitiendo abrir paso a una nueva identidad de género , desarraigada de 14 las estructuras androcéntricas tradicionales . Al hacerlo, colocan en la agenda de la comunidad una 15 representación social alternativa. 16 Como lo sostiene July Chaneton, el drama de las mujeres como colectivo consiste en que ellas deben elegirse libertad y autonomía en un mundo en el que el sujeto masculino le impone que se asuma como el otro. A lo largo de la filosofía occidental, en la literatura, las costumbres, los mitos, las religiones, la política y la doxa del “eterno femenino”, la “humanidad” es macho y el hombre define a la mujer no en sí, sino respecto de él (33). No resulta casual que en la historia bíblica sea un hombre quien asume la defensa en juicio de Susana frente a los viejos. Susana no puede defenderse por sí misma, porque no es sujeto de la ley. Nunca más ajustada la frase de Poullai de la Barre, en el ​Tratado de la Igualdad de los Sexos​, cuando afirma que “todo lo que se ha dicho sobre las mujeres lo han dicho los hombres. Las mujeres en la historia no han hablado, hay que hablar con las mujeres” (citado por Chaneton 65). Bibliografía Amossy, Ruth y Herschberg Pierrot, Anne. ​Enciclopedia semiológica, Estereotipos y Clichés​. Buenos Aires: Eudeba, 2001. Campos Rodríguez, Vanessa Brasil. “El relato de Susana y los viejos: su representación en la pintura y sus resonancias en el cine de Hitchcock”. ​VI Congreso Internacional de Análisis Textual, 15 al 17 de abril del 2010​, Facultad de Ciencias Sociales Jurídicas y de la Comunicación, Universidad de Valladolid, Segovia. 12 Entre la obra y el mundo del que procede, se inscriben estereotipos como mediadores entre individuos y la sociedad que como tal constituyen rastros de lo social (Amossy y Herschberg Pierrot 54). 13 Las ideas comunes, a diferencia de los lugares comunes, no están asociadas a la noción de trivialidad sino a una relación con la autoridad política y social que las sustenta. Constituyen prejuicios relacionados con la moral social, pensamientos y acciones prefabricadas prescriptas por el discurso social (Amossy y Herschberg Pierrot). 14 Joan Scott define género como una manera primaria, recurrente y persistente de significar relaciones de poder en occidente en las tradiciones judeocristianas e islámicas (Chaneton 26) 15 El androcentrismo es la primacía de un sentido único que tiende a subsumir en él otros sentidos que son diferentes o alternativos. Implica el predominio de las significaciones culturales, estilos de vida, imágenes y relatos, cuyas características resultan funcionales a los intereses propios de un punto de vista del que puede decirse que (co)responde, en el sentido de ofrecer soporte a intereses, deseos y expectativas específicas a la producción social de subjetividad masculina (Chaneton). 16 Las representaciones sociales son imágenes del mundo presentes en una comunidad lingüística. Imagen mental acerca de alguna cosa, prototípica, que implica una creencia, base del significado que adquiere cada nuevo estímulo relacionado con esa cosa. Las representaciones completan el mundo, interactúan y pueden formar nuevas imágenes hasta convertirse en colectivas (Raiter). Florencia Martini «​“​Susana y los viejos” en la pintura barroca…» Chaneton, July. “Género, poder y discursos sociales en la Argentina de fin de Siglo XX”. Tesis. Universidad de Buenos Aires, 2004. Impreso. Hernández Velasco, Irene. “Artemisia Gentileschi, la pintora que fue violada y se vengó haciendo arte feminista en el siglo XVII”. ​BBC Mundo,​ ​8/1/17.​ Web. 4 de marzo de 2018. Lacy, S.​; Chicago, J.; Orgel, S. y Rahamani, A. “Ablutions” (1972) suzannelacy.com Web. 1 de marzo de 2018. Lyotard, Jean Francois. ​El diferendo​. Barcelona: Gedisa, 1983. Maingueneau, Dominique. ​El enunciador encarnado. La problemática del Ethos. ​Madrid: UAM, 2010. Rancière, Jacques.​ El desacuerdo​. Buenos Aires: Nueva Visión, 1996. Raiter, Alejandro. ​Representaciones sociales​. Buenos Aires: Eudeba, 2001. Walther, Ingo F. (editor).​ Los maestros de la pintura occidental.​ Colonia: Taschen, 2005. Scavino, Dardo. ​La filosofía actual. Pensar sin certezas.​ Buenos Aires: Paidós, 1999. Fecha de recepción: 15/04/2018 Fecha de aceptación: 01/03/2019 
work_64mefivdsnd2fdcupis3z7bt3a	----	Literatura y Lingüística N° 34 419 ISSN 0716 - 5811 / pp. 419 - 430 sara malvar: una ProPuesta de Poema en Prosa* Patricio Lizama A** Resumen En este trabajo analizamos,de manera breve,la comprensión que tiene Sara Malvar de la poesía moderna y de las problemáticas artístico-culturales del creador en la modernidad periférica. Luego, en el núcleo del trabajo, estudiamos su texto llamado “Tennis” el cual es definido como poema en prosa y leído en relación con la arquitectura moderna y con una concepción ocultista del universo. Palabras clave: Poesía moderna, poema en prosa, arquitectura moderna, ocultismo. sara malvar: a ProPosed Prose Poem Abstract In this work we analyze, briefly, Sara Malvar's understanding of modern poetry and the creator artistic and cultural issues in peripheral modernity. Then, in the core of the work we study the text called "Tennis," which is defined as a prose poem and read in relationship to modern architecture and with an occultist conception of the universe. Keywords: Modern Poetry, prose poem, modern architecture, occultism. Recibido: 18-03-2016 Aceptado: 16-06-2016 * El presente trabajo es parte del proyecto Fondecyt Regular Nº 1150535 “Poema en prosa y modernidad en Chile: 1888-1945”, del cual soy investigador responsable. Una versión más completa acerca del aporte de Sara Malvar será desarrollada en un libro que preparo. ** Chileno. PhD. Profesor Titular de la Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile. plizama@ puc.cl 420 Sara Malvar: una propuesta de poema en prosa / Patricio Lizama A. Sara Malvar es poco conocida en Chile. Artista plástica formada en la academia, se casa con el pintor chileno José Backhaus y viaja a España en 1917. Viven en Ávila, luego en Madrid, capital donde exponen en julio de 1920. Al año siguiente se trasladan a París, conocen a Eugenia Huici, y a través de ella, entre otros, a Pablo Picasso, Le Corbusier, Robert y Sonia Delaunay. Al mismo tiempo visitan a Wanda Morla, Vicente Huidobro, Jean Emar y a varios pintores chilenos quienes también residen en la capital francesa. En octubre de 1922, Sara vive una profunda crisis originada por la repentina muerte de su esposo en París , y a fines del año siguiente regresa a Chile. La acabada comprensión del arte moderno que Malvar articula en París, le permite participar en 1924 y 1925 en el proyecto de las “Notas de Arte”dirigido por Jean Emar en La Nación, página en la que ella escribe con gran lucidez acerca de Arthur Rimbaud, Guillaume Apollinaire, Vicente Huidobro, Amadeo Modigliani, Henri Rousseau, Le Corbusier, Erik Satie, y traduce un fragmento del manifiesto del surrealismo. Su aporte también lo encontramos en sus adelantadas propuestas acerca de los problemáticas artísticas y culturales que enfrenta el creador de la vanguardia hispanoamericana. En 1924, ella los llama a abandonar el color local y a acoger “la tradición humana, que no sabe de razas ni de épocas” (Emar 186), planteamientos presentes en algunos manifiestos latinoamericanos y que una década más tarde desarrollarán Alfonso Reyes y Borges. Asimismo, los invita a replantearse la búsqueda de la originalidad al concebir la creación como un trabajo intertextual, pues sostiene que “la historia de la pintura no es sino una cadena ininterrumpida de influencias” surgidas del “choque, la fusión de corrientes diversas o contrarias” y concluye: “los grandes artistas ‘han imitado, han copiado, y[…]han sido siempre ellos mismos’” (Emar186). Por último, anima a los artistas chilenos a viajar a Europa porque percibe la poca autonomía, la carencia de estímulos y el inevitable tedio en el campo plástico nacional. Afirma que “el ambiente y las condiciones actuales, [son] más propicias al parecer para anquilosar cualquier organismo que para ayudar a cambiar un estado de cosas” (Emar186). Literatura y Lingüística N° 34 421 Sara Malvar y la poesía moderna En las Notas de Arte, Emar escribe sobre la “razón de ser” de la pintura moderna y Malvar hace lo mismo respecto a la poesía moderna; para explicitar la génesis y evolución de la nueva lírica, utiliza las categorías de Le Corbusier referidas a la arquitectura y distingue a los “constructores” de los “precursores”. Señala que Rimbaud es un precursor, ya que se aleja de la representación mimética y la escritura descriptiva, explora lo desconocido, revela lo indecible y expresa el inconsciente a través de una continua búsqueda experimental. Agrega que en la base de su obra existe una percepción visionaria capaz de aprehender “todas las relaciones y el infinito continuo” y plasmar “un mundo alucinado de imágenes y analogías donde todo se corresponde y cambia” (Emar112). Entre los constructores, señala a Apollinaire y,a partir del impacto de la pintura en su poesía, destaca sus versos fragmentarios y discontinuos, sin puntuación, y la variada tipografía que permite construir relaciones poéticas originales y constelaciones de imágenes sugerentes en el espacio de la página. Huidobro es el otro constructor porque, en la imagen creacionista, aproxima realidades lejanas, establece relaciones secretas e imprevistas y genera una belleza “subterránea”, planteos que dialogan con las propuestas de Reverdy y más tarde con la visión de la imagen que tienen los surrealistas (Emar174). Junto con mostrar la “razón de ser” de la poesía contemporánea, Malvar define el texto poético y lo hace con una mirada transversal, ya que los elementos y procesos que ella distingue–pensamiento nuevo, trabajo de composición, imágenes condensadas, síntesis, participación del lector–son también esenciales en otras manifestaciones artísticas como la pintura, la arquitectura y el cine. Con gran lucidez para la época, ella señala en junio de 1924, rasgos esenciales de la lírica emergente: Todo poema moderno en que los pensamientos se esquematizan hasta el último límite, en que la descripción se reduce a uno o dos términos justos, precisos, en que las imágenes son como concentraciones de pensamientos, exige del lector un trabajo complementario de reconstrucción, de sensibilidad casi paralelos al autor. (Emar 116) 422 Sara Malvar: una propuesta de poema en prosa / Patricio Lizama A. Sara Malvar y el poema en prosa Los planteamientos anteriores y esta definición de la poesía de Malvar, los encontramos realizados en un texto escrito por ella llamado “Tennis” que aparece en las “Notas de Arte” de octubre de 1924 y que evidencia su fascinación por la vida moderna. Leamos: En el campo geométrico del court, los jugadores, cuatro puntos blancos. Movientes formas en equilibrio. –He visto jugar a los Torralba, a los Robson, Boyd y Zumelzú –juego neto, preciso, lleno de juventud, nervioso y controlado a un tiempo. A veces, gestos, movimientos de pura belleza. Parecían obedecer al llamado imperioso de las fuerzas multiplicadas, del ritmo que acelera y renueva la vida (Emar140). El texto,construido con una voluntad consciente de organizar el discurso en forma poética, lo entendemos como un poema en prosa, “género poético breve de ideación moderna” modelado por Aloysius Bertrand y reformulado por Baudelaire al intentar un nuevo modo de percibir y representar la vida en la modernidad (Aullón de Haro 22). Lejos de la intención moralizante, didáctica u oratoria, el poema en prosa está construido con una estética de lo fragmentario y discontinuo que transgrede la oposición entre verso y prosa y el proceso mismo de la escritura. Su articulación fundada en la intensidad lírica, en “la brevedad y la concentración temática” (Fernández 32), carece de una forma fija y de los mecanismos tradicionales de la poeticidad como el verso, el ritmo y la rima –fuerzas destructoras– pero contiene un juego de repeticiones, antítesis, paradojas, estructuras paralelísticas y simétricas que le otorga estabilidad –fuerzas constructoras– y logra encerrar al lector en sus límites, pues su objetivo “es el de cercar en todo lo posible el acto de mirar” (Tenreiro 68). Los contrastes, contradicciones y desgarramientos establecen una dualidad en la estructura temática y en la composición, y permiten entender al poema en prosa como un texto en tensión de base oximorónica que se define como una “asociación de opósitos” porque subraya el encuentro de los contrarios. La confrontación e integración de contrarios Literatura y Lingüística N° 34 423 da origen a un universo altamente organizado que se funda en la analogía universal, el trabajo de las correspondencias y el principio de semejanza. “Tennis”: síntesis, fragmento y discontinuidad El espacio –“campo geométrico”–, los jugadores –“cuatro puntos blancos”, “movientes formas”–, el juego –nervioso, controlado– y las acciones –gestos, movimientos–, son caracterizados con una estética del sugerimiento basada en una cuidadosa síntesis y una gran economía de medios. La brevedad, la condensación y la sugerencia se explican porque la artista chilena no desea narrar una historia ni hacer una descripción extensa; al contrario, y de acuerdo a su concepto del poema moderno, ella usa “uno o dos términos justos, precisos” (Emar 116) porque hace la “guerra a la anécdota” como diría Huidobro, proceso que también se manifiesta en la plástica –“guerra a la literatura en la pintura”–, en la arquitectura –despojo del adorno y del ornamento– y en la literatura como es el caso del microrrelato. Asimismo, Malvar utiliza una estética de lo fragmentario y lo discontinuo, la cual define la experiencia esencial del sujeto en la modernidad y tiene su raíz en lo sostenido por Baudelaire. La escritura elíptica, semejante a la del cine, reduce la longitud de los segmentos, condensa la información y la expresividad en los sustantivos, no en los verbos, y elimina los nexos y la coordinación explícita de las oraciones. Ella,con párrafos muy breves,rompe el desarrollo lineal, pues construye una cadencia entrecortada, una secuencia discontinuada de fragmentos a base de cortas y delimitadas repeticiones cuya unión surge del encuentro de imágenes yuxtapuestas encadenadas en forma secreta. Esta relación de eslabones convergentes obliga al lector a desarrollar una capacidad asociativa y revela un ritmo de vida ligado a la agilidad y a la instantaneidad. Malvar concibe un texto que no crece hacia afuera, sino hacia dentro (Anson 29). “Tennis”: objeto moderno, asociación de contrarios y estructura simétrica Malvar, alejada del color local y de la naturaleza como fuente del arte, es seducida por un objeto moderno, el juego de tenis, percepción que la transforma en una máquina de ver, en un “espectáculo de orden” que 424 Sara Malvar: una propuesta de poema en prosa / Patricio Lizama A. destruye la visión ilusionista y anecdótica del objeto. Ella “mira desde arriba” con una percepción que borra las distancias normales y aplasta la tierra en una superficie de modo que ve la cancha de tenis como una planta arquitectónica tal como se vería “a vuelo de pájaro”.2 El juego, universo ordenado, es una “confrontación de contrarios”. El tenis enfrenta a pares de participantes, su desarrollo alterna reposo y movimiento, y supone obligaciones e invenciones, disciplina e improvisación, norma y libertad. Los desplazamientos que exigen gran rapidez y precisión son cortos y largos, hacia adelante y hacia atrás, a derecha e izquierda y ocurren dentro y fuera de los límites de la cancha. Los “gestos y movimientos de pura belleza”configuran una epifanía de formas que surge de modo sorprendente, que aparece y desaparece, y genera en el espectador una fascinación que lo captura y le provoca una intensa concentración.3 El juego es “una conjunción de opuestos” según Huizinga, al igual que el poema en prosa. El tenis tiene su origen en el mundo francés, luego se extiende al anglosajón–espacio donde lo renombran Tennis y establecen las reglas–y después se universaliza (Cavalla 46). En el poema, los jugadores enfrentados son de dos países, los hermanos Luis y Domingo Torralba son de Chile y Guillermo Robson, Ronald Boyd y Adolfo Zumelzú son de Argentina. Todos son latinoamericanos, pero algunos tienen orígenes hispanos y otros anglosajones, dualidad que también se advierte en el texto entre el título “Tennis”, término en inglés, y los párrafos escritos en español.Esta tensión se extiende a una polaridad mayor entre el lado de allá, la modernidad central que inventa y codifica el juego, y el lado de acá, modernidad periférica, que lo apropia y le introduce variantes.4 El tenis, como el poema en prosa, es“una asociación de opósitos” (Moga 38). El terreno de juego para Malvar es un “campo geométrico” que ella sustrae de su realidad de uso, lo convierte en un “objeto encontrado” al margen del arte oficial y de la industria al que le otorga valor plástico,y 2 Nuestro concepto del objeto, señala Le Corbusier, se basa en su conocimiento total: sentidos, materia, volúmenes, perfil, propiedades. Ver Juan Carlos Sancho, El sentido… 3 Ver Hans Ulrich Gumbrecht. Elogio de la belleza atlética. Buenos Aires: Katz, 2006. 4 William Cox, naturalista y explorador de origen británico, es el primero en instalar una cancha de tenis en el país, acontecimiento que ocurre en Valparaíso en 1882. La cancha no es de pasto pues la hace con “la tierra arcillosa mezclada con maicillo”. Más tarde aparecerán en el país canchas de ripio, líneas demarcadas por tablones sujetos con zunchos”, canchas de baldosas. Ver Mario Cavalla, Historia… Literatura y Lingüística N° 34 425 lo entiende desde una perspectiva arquitectónica presidida por la geometría y el pensamiento purista de Ozenfant y Jeanneret. La cancha es una composición ortogonal de rectángulos cuadrados sin diagonales ni curvas, construida a base de rectas y ángulos rectos y donde se advierte una simetría rectangular perfecta respecto a la red. Las líneas verticales y horizontales existentes a los dos lados de la cancha conforman una trama de paralelas y perpendiculares que se refuerza con la igualdad de los pares de rectángulos y cuadrados a cada lado del court. El tejido de paralelismos que caracteriza a la cancha configura un equilibrio estático y una estructura simétrica que posee ritmo y cadencia, porque la semejanza es factor relevante del ritmo. La simetría se convierte en “aguda percepción del orden” y no en “operación mimética” (Sancho 74). El court nace del cálculo, la síntesis y la claridad, y revela las virtudes de la belleza valorada por el purismo: rigor, proporción y geometría. “Tennis”: juego, equilibrio, simetría El juego es una totalidad cerrada que crea su propio mundo ajeno al curso habitual de la vida, pues propone un orden, un espacio y un tiempo otros donde se despliegan acciones ligadas a la alternancia, la tensión antitética, la armonía y el ritmo. Estas acciones dan lugar a movimientos y a una infinita variedad de disposiciones y principios. Malvar contempla a los jugadores de tenis como “movientes formas en equilibrio”, cuerpos en relación que estallan hacia todas las direcciones y vínculo de contrarios que por medio de giros y traslaciones introducen una dispersión en el espacio. El movimiento de los “cuatro puntos blancos” plasma una continua metamorfosis y una multiplicidad que originan una perturbación de la simetría y revelan un nuevo ritmo, una forma singular de sucederse y alternar de los desplazamientos: crean figuras de gran belleza.Esta armonía, como la del universo donde existen realidades que parecen no conciliarse, “no es ausencia de contrastes, sino equilibrio” porque los contrarios no se anulan sino que viven en una tensión continua (Eco 72). El equilibrio ahora es dinámico, supone otro ritmo y tiene su correlato en la concepción de simetría de Le Corbusier, quien afirma que la 426 Sara Malvar: una propuesta de poema en prosa / Patricio Lizama A. correspondencia exacta en forma, tamaño y posición de las partes de un todo, es una “falsa acepción de igualdad mantenida por un academicismo siempre vivaz”. Él propone, en cambio, “situar el término [simetría] en su plano original que es el del equilibrio de los contrarios” pues “expresa una relación ilimitada, tensa, entre dos términos” (Sancho 109). El juego del tenis, cancha y jugadores actualiza equilibrios, repetición, simetrías, modulacióny ritmos enfrentados que se armonizan, dualismo y confrontación, movimiento, equilibrio de contrarios, encuentro de este en la confrontación, rasgos que están en la base del poema en prosa. “Tennis: ritmo, universo y poeta El poema en prosa se organiza desde el interior y encuentra “allí su propio centro de gravedad, su propio foco de energía, su propia e íntima profundidad de comprensión” (Fernández 32)5. La cancha de tenis es para Malvar una ordenación visual del mundo entendida en su belleza y perfección formal, objeto estético. A la vez, es un centro de convergencia e irradiación de fuerzas universales, objeto mágico. La cancha es un espacio ilimitado, pero finito (Cirlot 68). El movimiento en equilibrio de los tenistas es visto por Malvar en correspondencia con las fuerzas y el ritmo de las leyes de la naturaleza, lo que revela una concepción rítmica y ocultista del universo. Esta nueva “asociación de opósitos”vincula el mundo visible y terrenal con el invisible, celestial, a través de sutiles y misteriosos lazos porque todo rima, se llama y se responde. A la vez,la conexión de estos dos mundos devela la presencia del principio esotérico, “lo que está abajo es como lo que está arriba, y lo que está arriba es como lo que está abajo”.6 A partir de estos planteamientos, las figuras y formas construidas por los jugadores son un microcosmos en interacción constante con los movimientos y ritmos del macrocosmos. Las correspondencias se nutren de este contacto y, por ello, si Darío ve en la danza de Isadora Duncan la concentración y encarnación del ritmo cósmico, Malvar lo ve en el 5 Fernández cita a Mary Ann Caws, “The Self Defining Prose Poem: on its edge”. The prose poem in France. New York: Columbia University Press, 1983. 180. 6 http://eruizf.com/martinismo/kibalion/el_kibalion_05.html Literatura y Lingüística N° 34 427 movimiento de los jugadores de tenis, deporte moderno que también es otra danza con sus propios ritmos. Por último, si el universo “está compuesto por contrarios que se unen y se separan conforme a cierto ritmo secreto” (Paz Busqueda 43), si de las discordias surge una armonía oculta ligada a tensiones opuestas que dejan de ser percibidas en forma contradictoria,el mundo parece un complicado tejido de acontecimientos en el que toda suerte de conexiones se alternan, se superponen o se combinan y, de este modo, determinan la textura del conjunto. Malvar, en este poema en prosa, advierte simetrías entre dos mundos, correspondencias que se mantienen ocultas y están superpuestas no en transparencia sino en opacidad. Ella intuye una totalidad, vislumbra un modo de conocimiento y cumple la función esencial del poeta. En palabras de Baudelaire,“¿qué es un poeta sino un traductor, descifrador?” (Paz Hijos 108); en palabras de Poe, “el mundo material está lleno de analogías rigurosas con el mundo inmaterial” (Azcuy 27). Malvar descifra y revela una analogía.El conocimiento poético –la imaginación, la facultad productora de imágenes en cuyo seno los contrarios se reconcilian– nos deja vislumbrar la analogía cósmica (Paz Las peras 149). Palabras finales Baudelaire, con ecos platónicos, señala: “El mortal instinto de lo bello [es] el que nos hace considerar la tierra y sus espectáculos como una correspondencia del cielo” (Rella 17). La artista chilena ve el tenis como una analogía del universo y sus leyes, capacidad que surge de una clarividencia que la define como vidente.Ella posee una segunda vista, una imaginación más aguda y un sentido más allá del tiempo y el espacio, conciencia abierta y visión superior capaz de descubrir correspondencias y revelar analogías del mundo habitado por el hombre. A través de un proceso de abstracción, Malvar realiza un “viaje inmóvil” que territorializa y desterritorializa. La artista, con ilimitada expansión de la mirada y del rango de perspectivas con que mira, es un “caleidoscopio dotado de conciencia” con sensibilidad hacia “lo transitorio, lo fugitivo, lo contingente”, pensamiento que define la experiencia de la modernidad y que está en la base del poema en prosa. Ella captura “imágenes momentáneas”, “fragmentos fortuitos de 428 Sara Malvar: una propuesta de poema en prosa / Patricio Lizama A. realidad” en los que busca las sugerencias de eternidad en el presente que pasa, busca la dimensión intensiva del instante pues se trata de “imprimirle a la contingencia una infinita reverberancia”.(Hopenhayn 133) Los movimientos de los cuerpos en relación se pueden entender como desplazamientos eurítmicos que expresan lo suprasensible. Para Steiner, la euritmia es un arte que, a través del lenguaje plástico del movimiento humano, busca expresar el ser eterno y el aspecto divino-espiritual contenido en el hombre. Lo anímico espiritual se manifiesta en lo físico corporal y la euritmia puede poner “al ser humano en consonancia con el universo” (65). Asimismo, se pueden entender como un yo místico, alma del mundo que se une a las energías armoniosas, identificación mística que procede de “la intuición que forma la base de los ocultismos de todas las razas: el de la identidad del hombre integral –con el desarrollo de todas sus facultades humanas y divinas– y el universo, con todas sus fuerzas en acción” (Cirlot 68). Malvar, ya en los años veinte, se abre el patrimonio universal y se siente con pleno derecho a usar y transformar este legado. Ella acude a la tradición con una mirada selectiva y reelabora un género, el poema en prosa. Si Darío inaugura la serie genérica del poema en prosa en Hispanoamérica con el modernismo en Azul, la obra de Pedro Prado agrega el énfasis de lo propio en el mundonovismo y Malvar agrega una nueva propuesta que nace de su vínculo con la vanguardia. Literatura y Lingüística N° 34 429 Referencias Bibliográficas Anson. El istmo de las luces. Madrid: Cátedra, 1994. Aullón de Haro, Pedro. “Teoría del poema en prosa”. Quimera 262(Octubre 2005): 22-25. Azcuy, Sergio. El ocultismo y la creación poética. Caracas, Monte Avila Editores, 1983. Cavalla, Mario. Historia del tenis en Chile. 1882-2006. Santiago: Ocho Libros editores, 2006. Cirlot, Eduardo. El mundo del objeto a la luz del surrealismo. Barcelona: Anthropos, 1986. Eco, Umberto. Historia de la belleza. Barcelona:Lumen, 2004. Emar, Jean. Notas de Arte. (Jean Emar en La Nación. 1923-1927). Estudio y recopilación Patricio Lizama. Santiago: Dibam-Ril, 2003. Fernández, Jesse. El Poema en prosa en Hispanoamérica. Madrid: Hiperión, 1994. Hopenhayn, Martín. Después del nihilismo. De Nietzsche a Foucault. Santiago: Andrés Bello, 1997. Moga, Eduardo. “La poesía en prosa de Manuel Álvarez Ortega. Sintaxis del alma”. Quimera 262 (octubre 2005): 36-39. Paz, Octavio. Las peras del olmo. Barcelona: Seix Barral, 1971. --- Los hijos del limo. 3` edición. Barcelona: Seix Barral, 1990. --- La búsqueda del comienzo. Escritos sobre el surrealismo. 3 ed. Madrid: Editorial Fundamentos, 1983. Rella, Franco. La búsqueda del presente. Miradas sobre la modernidad. Barcelona: Ediciones UPC, 1995. Sancho, Juan Carlos. El sentido cubista de Le Corbusier. Madrid: Editorial Munilla-Lería: 2000. Steiner. Euritmia. Lenguaje visible del alma. Madrid: Ed. Rudolf Steiner, 1992. 430 Sara Malvar: una propuesta de poema en prosa / Patricio Lizama A. Tenreiro, Salvador. El poema plural. Notas sobre la poesía contemporánea. Caracas: Ediciones La Casa de Bello, 1989. 
work_65fzfakr5bdbxg6g7pi5zpvnfu	----	Globalisation, cosmopolitanism and consumption University of Warwick institutional repository: http://go.warwick.ac.uk/wrap This paper is made available online in accordance with publisher policies. Please scroll down to view the document itself. Please refer to the repository record for this item and our policy information available from the repository home page for further information. To see the final version of this paper please visit the publisher’s website. Access to the published version may require a subscription. Author(s): MIKE SAVAGE, DAVID WRIGHT, MODESTO GAYO-CAL Article Title: Cosmopolitan nationalism and the cultural reach of the white British Year of publication: 2010 Link to published article: http:dx.doi.org/ 10.1111/j.1469-8129.2010.00449.x Publisher statement: The definitive version is available at www.blackwell-synergy.com http://go.warwick.ac.uk/wrap 1 Cosmopolitan nationalism and the cultural reach of the White British Mike Savage, David Wright and Modesto-Gayo-Cal. Corresponding Author: Dr. David Wright, Centre for Cultural Policy Studies, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL. e-mail: D.Wright.3@warwick.ac.uk Biographical Notes Professor Mike Savage is Director of the ESRC’s Centre for Research into Socio- Cultural Change at the University of Manchester. His recent works include the co- authored Globalisation and Belonging and The politics of method: identities and social change in Britain since 1940. David Wright is an Assistant Professor in the Centre for Cultural Policy Studies at the University of Warwick with interests in the sociological study of taste, cultural consumption and cultural policy. He was a Research Fellow on the Cultural Capital and Social Exclusion project, based at the Open University. Modesto Gayo-Cal is an Assistant Professor at the Universidad Diego Portales in Santiago (Chile). He was a Research Fellow on the Cultural Capital and Social Exclusion project at Manchester University. His areas of interest are theories of nationalism, political behaviour, middle-classes and cultural consumption. Along with Savage and Wright, he is a co-author of the book Culture, Class, Distinction (Routledge, 2009). mailto:D.Wright.3@warwick.ac.uk 2 Cosmopolitan nationalism and the cultural reach of the White British Abstract In recent years, strong claims have been made for the breakdown of national boundaries and the re-formation of national identities in an increasingly interconnected global world – driven in large part by the possibilities and limitations that emerge from an increasingly global media world. It has been argued that new post-national, cosmopolitan subjectivities accompany, enable and feed-off globally oriented forms of cultural consumption. This paper examines these claims in the light of unusually comprehensive data on the tastes of the white British population collected in a large national sample survey, in-depth interviews, and focus groups. By identifying and analysing the geographical spread of the cultural referents of the tastes of the white British we make an empirical assessment of the claims for cosmopolitan identities. We argue that, if white British identities are being reformed by processes of globalisation it is, paradoxically, in an increasingly Anglophone direction. Key Words: Cosmopolitanism, culture, national identity, taste. Word-count: 7,949 3 Introduction: Cultural contact, cosmopolitanism and the ‘national’ imagination. During the 1990s the analysis of nationalism pitched those who emphasised the modernity of nationalism, linked to the role of state building and modern forms of print communication, against those who emphasised the long term historical bases of national identities emerging out of complex webs of ethnic affiliations and cultural tensions (e.g. Anderson 2006; Breuilly 1993, Smith 1995, 1986). Recently, there has been increasing recognition that globalisation, mobility and migration have somewhat altered the stakes of these debates. These developments demand a somewhat different analytical approach, focusing on everyday practices and the cultural meanings of national belonging in hybrid conditions (Billig 1995; Hearn 2007; Smith 2008), and relating contemporary nationalism to cosmopolitanism (Calhoun 2007, 2008) as the dominant form of apparently ‘post-national’ identity. In Nick Stevenson’s words cosmopolitanism tends to be conceptualised as ‘a way of viewing the world that among other things dispenses with national exclusivity. …. Arguably cosmopolitan thinking is concerned with the transgression of boundaries and markers and the development of a genuinely inclusive cultural democracy and citizenship for an information age’ (Stevenson 2003: 332) In this paper, by contrast, we argue, on the basis of significant empirical evidence on the geographical spread of cultural tastes, that cosmopolitanism does not necessarily mark a break from distinctly national cultures, as much as a complex reworking of 4 them. We follow here in the footsteps of Calhoun (2003) who famously defines cosmopolitanism as complicit with the world view of corporate executive ‘frequent travellers’, who have the ability to (reworking Simmel’s famous phrase about the ‘stranger’) ‘come today and leave the day after tomorrow’. In this perspective cosmopolitanism is not only linked to the privileged classes but is also central to the hold of ethnic and religious divisions characterised by the (so called) ‘War on Terror’ and what Huntington (1996) identifies as the ‘Clash of Civilisations’. Thus Calhoun (2007) underlines the ambiguity of cosmopolitanism. On the one hand, in societies and in a world where cultural diversity is a norm, it is easier or more feasible people for people to live together in egalitarian terms. However, on the other hand, taking into account that inter-personal solidarities come from particularistic, specific or local social interrelations, a locally disembedded orientation damages social solidarity. Drawing on these perspectives, we can see how cosmopolitan identities can be central to the reworking of white, Christian, Eurocentric and Anglophone identities. Our position emphasises the need to understand the relationships between cosmopolitanism and nationalism as a part of a broader global process, which is attentive to how cultural signifiers from different parts of the globe are configured into a distinctively national formation. Here there is an important difference from the 1990s debate on nationalism which pitched modernists, who emphasised ‘‘the invention of nationalism’, in which the nation is seen as a cultural artefact or ‘imagined community’ (Anderson 2006) against primordialists who emphasised the nation as durable ‘historic deposit’ (Smith 1986). Both accounts differently analysed what might be termed the ‘internal formation of nations’ - for instance the development of transport networks, schooling systems, citizenship entitlements, and the existence of key symbolic referents 5 of the nation which were appreciated by the national population. By emphasising the role of ‘cosmopolitan nationalism’, however, we can focus on how constructions of the nation are also bound up with global flows and movements. This involves criticising the view that contemporary forms of cultural production and circulation, and consumption shatter national boundaries and permit new fluidities in the movement of people, signs, artefacts and identities in the way proposed by sociologists such as Albrow (1996), Castells (1996) and Robertson (1995). We argue, in contrast, that national cultures can be remade through contemporary cultural flows (see more generally, Calhoun 2007, 2008) whilst also recognising that, following Smith (1986) the so-called ‘hybridization’ or ‘fragmentation’ of national identities are phenomena that run in parallel with the maintenance of the privileged political or symbolical positions by ethnicities which were dominant in the first place. We therefore part company from sociological arguments that flows promote new kinds of homogeneous spaces, or what Augé (1995) famously called ‘non-places’. The world of shopping malls and motorway interchanges, airport lounges, waterfront developments and suburban estates seemed to evoke new kinds of global spaces which could be found in all nations. Instead we emphasise that, in the wake of intensified geo- political tensions, global cultural flows involve the proliferation of diverse cultural signifiers and global connections that can generate new kinds of national identity (Gilroy 1993; Ong 1999; Kalra et al. 2005; Papastergiadis 2000). Appadurai’s emphasis on the proliferating flows of different ‘scapes’ has been influential in pointing to the way that distinct identities are constructed through mobilising specific imaginaries (Appadurai 1996). New forms of cultural mobility lend themselves to the re-working of national cultures. In this paper we therefore pursue the argument that cosmopolitanism 6 allows the reformation of white British identities in an environment which is both multi- cultural and shaped by global cultural flows. The British case is a particularly interesting one to consider here, having been identified by Calhoun (2008: 431) as the central location for cosmopolitan discourse i . British identities have historically been closely linked to empire and trade (Kumar 2005; Cohen 1997) so that it is highly germane to consider how global cultural flows might be remaking Britain’s national cultural referents. The complex relations between the English, Scottish, Welsh and Irish have themselves made British national identities (as well as those of its constituent nations) historically fraught and uncertain. This is one reason why British notions of ‘high culture’ have often looked outwards, for instance to European cultural referents, notably European classical music and literature. This is linked to the relative historical weakness of explicit cultural conceptions of ‘Englishness’ until the recent past (see Kumar 2005 and Hutchinson et al 2007). Post war changes including de-colonisation and the decline of empire, immigration into the UK, as well as the incorporation of the UK into the European Union pose powerful challenges to British culture which draw on motifs of Eurocentric whiteness and Empire. Although interest in ‘whiteness’ and ‘Britishness’ or ‘Englishness’ as an object of sociological study has risen in recent years (e.g. Jacobson 1997; McCrone 1997; Langlands 1999) there remain relatively few empirical case studies of how this is understood ‘on the ground’. Savage et al. (2005) draw on 182 in-depth interviews with predominantly white middle class residents near Manchester to argue that, although many people have considerable global connections with their kinship networks, friendships and life experiences often ranging well beyond UK boundaries, their 7 salience rarely stretches beyond the Anglophone boundaries of the former British Empire. To address this limitation, this paper examines in detail the geography of the symbolic imagination of the white British population as it is revealed by their cultural tastes to reflect on their relationship to contemporary national identity. We draw on the unprecedented range and quality of the data collected as part of the ESRC funded ‘Cultural Capital and Social Exclusion’ ii project on cultural taste, participation and knowledge in the UK in 2003-2006 (see Bennett et al 2009). This project involved three components. Firstly, we conducted 25 focus groups with groups from different age groups, geographical locations within the UK, sexualities, occupational groups, and ethnicities. 17 were with ‘white British’ focus groups. Secondly, we carried out a national sample survey of 1564 respondents (along with a boost survey of 227 respondents drawn from three minority ethnic groups: Pakistani, Indian, and Afro- Caribbeans). This survey contains an unusually varied number of questions on a range of cultural preferences and practices. A particular feature of these questions is that they do not just ask about people’s interests for genres but also ask people to identify which named artists, or specific works they know of and like. Because these named artists were deliberately derived from a variety of global locations, we have an unusual means of assessing how our respondents were able to connect with cultural signifiers with different origins. Finally, we also conducted in-depth interviews with respondents to the survey and, where appropriate and possible, their partners. This amounted to a further 44 interviews selected according to a theoretical sample designed to capture a range of social positions (see Silva 2005). Thirty-one of these were with white respondents. 8 The paper here uses both quantitative and qualitative data. In the second part we deploy our quantitative data, to assess how common it is for respondents to identify artists or art works from different geographical origins. We show here that it is British, and to a lesser extent, American referents which massively predominate amongst our national sample in general and our white British sample in particular. Moreover we show that both continental European and especially Asian, African, and South American sources are largely invisible. The absence of European contacts, traditionally those which have been lauded as the predominant focus for high culture, is especially important for the younger age groups. In the third part of the paper, we use our qualitative material to explore in greater depth how cultural contacts outside the UK were referred to. Our interest here is, in the spirit of Walter Benjamin (1973), in unpicking the auratic hold of different geographic locations in the minds of our respondents to reveal the kinds of excitements and fascination associated with different locations and to explore how respondents deal with the collapse of distance. In the fourth part of our paper we examine the theme of ‘escape’ in the qualitative data, and show the distinctive appeal of American cultural forms to the white British and in particular the power of either ‘quirky’ American culture or cultural forms which evoke a nostalgically ‘re-imagined’ British national space. Alongside this we see a tendency for younger sections of the white British population to distance themselves from cultural forms which might more obviously represent the contemporary nation. Together these four substantive points contribute to the debates between ‘cultural’ and historic or ethnic accounts of national identities by revealing the extent to which the global flows of contemporary culture serve to accentuate an imagined Britishness for White Britons. 2: The geography of cultural connections: survey evidence. 9 Our project was concerned to examine whether Bourdieu’s concept of cultural capital (1984) could be applied in the British context (see Bennett et al 2009 for an overview). The use of a survey combined with a qualitative phase to examine British tastes allowed us to engage with Bourdieu empirically and theoretically. The survey is sociology’s technology for knowing ‘nations’ (Savage and Burrows 2007), and Distinction was ineluctably a national study, a fact which has garnered criticism about both its ignorance of the ethnic complexity of 60s France and about the limited transferability of its insight to other places (Bennett et al. 2009; Holt 1997). Our survey’s deliberate engagements with both questions of ethnicity and with global culture, then, are two significant refinements to Bourdieu’s approach. It is interesting in this context to note that the concept of cultural capital, uneasily straddles national and European frames of reference, to the general exclusion of those from either the Americas or from various post-imperial landscapes. Embodied ‘high’ culture in the UK has historically been continental European in its definition and scope. This is true whether one focuses on the aristocratic, leisured culture of the ‘Grand Tour’ or that of the intellectual modernist ‘avant-garde’. In the former case, the cultural canon was identified with the ‘classical’ civilisations of Greece and Rome, channelled through the Renaissance which was centred in Italy, and then diffusing in the Enlightenment in the 18 th and 19 th centuries into France, Germany and other parts of northern Europe through classical music and the romantic novel. In the latter case, the central modernist cities (apart from London) were Paris (above all), Berlin and Vienna, with lesser venues such as Trieste, Turin, Barcelona and Moscow. The exception to this Eurocentric modernist is embrace is New York (perhaps construed as the United States’ honorary 10 European city) which was the only major modernist city to be located outside Europe. From within this framing, American culture has traditionally been identified, often disparagingly as ‘mass’ culture (Hoggart 1957), which lowers standards and spreads commercial values, whilst cultural forms from other parts of the world, though selectively incorporated through the ‘cosmopolitan’ experiences of the merchant classes, have historically been simultaneously marginalised and exoticised through ‘Orientalism’ (Said, 2003). In any case, cultural resources and their geographical spread are entwined with narratives of national identity and the symbolic imaginaries of nationhood. Given these historical patterns, what does our survey data indicate about the salience of different geographical markers in the cultural repertoire of the British today? 11 Table 1: Popularity of named artists/ art works, broken down by region. Named artist or art work Regional location Haven’t heard of (%) Like (%) Film Directors (would make a point of watching) Steven Spielberg US 4 44 Alfred Hitchcock US/UK 5 34 Pedro Almodovar E 92 3 Ingmar Bergman E 43 7 Jane Campion ‘Other-World’ 83 2 Mani Rathnam ‘Other-World’ 94 1 Books Haven’t heard of (have read) Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets (JK Rowling) UK 4 21 Pride & Prejudice (Jane Austen) UK 7 38 Solace of Sin (Cathryn Cookson) UK 48 8 I know why the caged bird sings (Maya Angelou) US 80 4 The Firm (John Grisham) US 35 17 Madame Bovary (Flaubert) E 60 7 Musical works Haven’t heard of (listened to it and liked it) Wonderwall (Oasis) UK 26 49 Einstein on the Beach (Phillip Glass) US 84 3 Symphony No 5 (Mahler) E 53 19 Kind of Blue (Miles Davis) US 69 13 Oops I did it again (Britney Spears) US 22 26 Chicago (Frank Sinatra) US 8 65 Stan (Eminem) US 31 35 Four Seasons (Vivaldi) E 21 56 Visual Arts Haven’t heard of (seen works by and liked) Vincent Van Gogh E 6 67 Pablo Picasso E 6 49 Frida Kahlo ‘Other World’ 88 4 JMW Turner UK 27 51 Tracey Emin UK 72 3 Andy Warhol US 26 22 LS Lowry UK 23 55 12 Source: CCSE data, weighted We begin with a simple listing of the popularity of named film directors, books, musical works and artists in our national sample. Clearly, our findings are only valid for the items we examine here, although these are much more wide ranging than for other surveys. Table 1 reports on the proportion of the sample who like, or alternatively have not heard of, the various specific artistic works or artists that we inquired about in our research, which we break down by four global locations: British, American, continental European and ‘other world’. We should note that our British category includes English and Scottish artists, and American only includes works or artists from the United States. We do not have the data which allows us to readily tease out the relationship between national identities within the UK (on which see Condor et al 2006). We can see considerable specificity by cultural field in the salience of different regions of origin. In films, American directors massively predominate (though we should note Hitchcock’s hybridity as an English director who made his career in Hollywood). Even though we chose relatively popular European directors, and those from other parts of the world, they have very little general salience amongst our sample. In the field of literature, by contrast, the most popular novelists were British (Jane Austen and JK Rowling), though the American thriller writer John Grisham also has a good standing, and outpaces the British romance writer, Catherine Cookson, whose work is strongly associated with North Eastern England. By contrast Gustave Flaubert, as an exemplar of the European tradition of high-culture has few devotees. iii Music appears to travel easiest, insofar as European, American and British musicians enjoy high recognition, and levels of popularity appear more easily explained by their genre than by any other factor, with Phillip Glass, and to a lesser extent Mahler and Miles Davis having least 13 popularity. The same is true in the visual arts, where we see van Gogh, closely followed by LS Lowry, JMW Turner and Pablo Picasso enjoying most popularity, but Tracey Emin and Frida Kahlo being largely unknown and even more unappreciated. A few general conclusions can be derived from these findings. Firstly, figures from outside Europe, the US and UK do not command significant knowledge. The most strikingly unknown were the films of the Tamil Indian Mani Rathnam and the Mexican artist Frida Kahlo who was unknown by 88% of the sample. Secondly, the appeal of European influence was largely confined to the worlds of visual art and music, and there is a pattern that the older the figure is, the more popular they are (Vivaldi is more popular than Mahler, Van Gogh than Picasso, Bergman than Almodavar). American influences enjoy hegemony with respect to film directors and music. We might thus summarise our findings that cultural forms demanding linguistic competence are entirely skewed towards Anglophone referents, and although there is greater openness to European influences in music and the visual arts, this Euro-centrality may be a residue from older formations. Of course the cultural items we chose in our survey are largely arbitrary – and there are significant and important reasons, other than those of geography or global flows which enable or allow for an artist or item to be known or otherwise (note the 72% of the sample who hadn’t heard of the artist Tracey Emin, ubiquitous in the British art world and media circles). We will shortly use our qualitative material to provide other evidence on the geographical range of the white population. Before we do this, we can usefully examine how far different social and ethnic groups vary in their likelihood of appreciating art works and artists from different regions of the world. 14 We constructed a scale for cultural appreciation for artists and art works in each of four regions: British, European, American, and ‘Other World’. Respondents who had heard of the artist or art work obtained one point, which became two points if they also liked the artist or work. In addition to the questions listed in Table 1 (which indicates how each work or artist was coded to a region), we also used questions on favourite TV programmes. To give an example, respondents who appreciated every British artist and art works could obtain a maximum score of 19; those who had not heard of any would get 0. Each of the four scales has a different maximum because of the different number of questions focusing on artists or works from different regions. We can see that the ‘Other World’ score only has a maximum score of 5, and for this reason this scale is not readily interpretable. For the purposes of comparison Table 2 reports the score of each group as a percentage of the total possible score, to allow for comparison between the four scales and the various social groups. What is interesting to note here is the extent to which the scores vary by social group, so that we can explore variation in pre-dispositions to artists or works from different regions. Here we see some interesting patterns, with those for different age groups being the most noteworthy. Amongst 18-24 year olds the percentage on the American scale was 44% of items known and liked, whilst for European it was 25% and for ‘Other World’ it was only 8%. Amongst the over 65s, the relationship between British, American and European tastes is reversed, with British tastes dominating and the percentage on the scale for American tastes falling behind that of continental Europe. The percentage on the ‘Other world’ scale was lower, at 4%. We see here, then, two very different generations in terms of their cultural connections: an 15 older group where British, American and European references compete, but where one can detect British references dominating. This is very different from the younger group where American contacts dominate over others. Our findings are interesting in view of the arguments put forward by Back (1996) and Tyler (2004) which claim that younger whites are more questioning of national categories, and more able to borrow from ‘other’ ethnicities. Our findings suggest that, whilst, they do indeed score less highly in their valuing of British artists and works, and they look predominantly to American sources. Table 2: Percentage scores on scales by socio-economic, ethnic and age-groups. British American European ‘Other’ world professionals 56,8 41,3 44,3 8,0 Intermediate 54,2 37,9 34,3 6,0 Working class 45,8 34,2 24,3 4,0 Male 46,3 37,5 31,4 4,0 Female 53,7 35,8 39,3 8,0 White English 52,6 37,5 33,6 6,0 White British 49,5 35,8 28,6 6,0 White other 41,6 40,8 40,7 12,0 Ethnic minority 30,5 29,2 20,0 12,0 18-24 35,3 44,2 25,0 8,0 25-34 43,2 43,8 30,0 6,0 35-44 50,0 37,5 32,1 6,0 45-54 53,7 37,5 32,1 6,0 55-64 59,5 34,6 37,9 6,0 65-74 55,8 27,9 32,1 4,0 75+ 52,6 23,8 30,0 4,0 No educ qualifications 48.8 30.5 22.1 3.6 GCSE, CSE, O- level, NVQ/SVQ Level 1or 2 49.8 37 29.5 4.4 RSA/OCR Higher Diploma, City & Guilds Full T 53.1 39.8 31.8 3.8 GCE A-level, Scottish Higher Grades, ONC 50.5 38.8 31.1 7 Univer/CNAA Bachelor Degr, 57.4 42.1 45.3 10 16 Master Deg/Ph.D./D.Phil Indian boost 30,0 29,2 19,3 20,0 Pakistani boost 27,4 25,0 14,3 12,0 Afro-Carribbean 30,5 37,9 21,4 12,0 Source: CCSE data, weighted Although class differences in attitudes to cultural diversity are often emphasised, here they prove to be relatively muted. In fact the professionals score higher on every scale than the working class, and by a similar ratio. This includes references to American work and artists, so indicating that American culture is no longer (insofar as it ever was) predominantly mass, working class, culture. The slight exception to this point is that the score for European contacts is almost double amongst the professionals compared to the working class. This pattern recurs for data on education, where the university educated outscore those with lower levels of education and with a particular jump in the university educated towards familiarity with both ‘Other-world’ and European referents. Both these findings suggest that cosmopolitan tastes are bound up, as Bourdieu might suggest, with struggles for social status. Those who identify as White British gain high scores for British items, and demonstrate more recognition for American than European items with, again, items from the ‘Other world’ being marginal. The ‘white other’ scale, which includes Irish and other forms of European and migrants from former colonies shows an intriguing pattern, with British, American and European items all equally recognised, and with twice as many familiar ‘Other world’ items on average than their White British counterparts. Minority ethnic groups score lower on all the scales (apart from ‘Other world’), and especially on the European and British scales. The last three rows of Table 2 unpack these scores further by using our boost sample to distinguish three different ethnic minorities: here Pakistanis score lowest on all scores, followed by 17 Indians, whereas Afro-Carribeans obtain the highest scores especially on the American scale (so indicating the pull of the ‘Black Atlantic’, Gilroy, 1993). This data offers an important perspective to contemporary accounts of national identity, especially those concerned with the challenge to apparently settled identities wrought by emerging cultural flows. The identification, sampling and measuring of the cultural choices and preferences of white British population provides important empirical weight for theorising in this area – though, these findings need to be treated carefully. They are valuable in giving some indications of the cultural reach of different groups amongst a national random sample, but are too broad brush to allow us to tease out how ethnicity and geographical location interact and are articulated in the identities of our respondents. The most important finding, which indicates the striking decline in the salience of Eurocentric attachments amongst the national affiliations of the young, is one which we explore further in the next section. 3: Breaking the hold of continental Europe? There is considerable interest in the extent to which the British are ‘reluctant Europeans’ in terms of their attitudes to the European union and more generally the ‘European project’ (Cinnarella 1997; Cinnarella and Hamilton 2007). Cram (2009), for instance wonders how far there is a process of ‘banal Europeanism’ by which at a mundane level European practices are becoming more established. We are able to address this in telling ways by looking at British cultural tastes and preferences. One of the advantages of our focus group material is that participants introduced their own references in the course of their conversations, and did not simply respond to our prompts. This more ‘naturally occurring’ data, therefore, gives a more powerful way of 18 assessing the kinds of geographical range that these groups used. Considering this evidence, across the entire social range of the white focus groups, the absence of European referents in literature and film is remarkable. There were 53 references to specific books: none of these was to any named continental European author. The one exception, the autobiography of the German Formula One champion Michael Schumacher, is perhaps revealing since the author is not first and foremost a writer. Of the 91 references to a named film, only 1 was to a European film (the French Delicatessen). Of the 16 references to film directors, only 2 were to Europeans (the Spaniard Pedro Almodovar and the Dane Lars von Trier). Of 65 references to actors, only 1 was to a figure of continental European origin. This was the Austrian-American Arnold Schwarzenegger, currently Governor of California, whose film career is closely associated with – in fact entirely located in - Hollywood. Even in the world of music, where our survey shows greater appreciation and recognition of Europeans, only seven out of the 167 references are to continental Europeans (Mozart 3; Bach 2; Beethoven; Vivaldi). Whereas contemporary British and American musicians generate intense feelings and excitements, this invariably does not extend to continental Europe. We can also use our in-depth interviews with white respondents to consider the kind of art works and artists that individuals conjured up as being personally meaningful to them. The general pattern is similar. Out of 96 references to writers, only 4 were European (one of which is to the biography of Ingrid Bergman). Of 96 specific films that were named by our respondents, only one, Fanny and Alexander directed by Ingmar Bergman, was from continental Europe. Out of 111 references to musicians, there was only one reference to ‘Europop’ (to Abba, who famously and initially 19 controversially, sang only in English), and there were only 10 (all contained in 3 out of 44 interviews) references to European composers. Rather than being sources of fascination or interest, it appears that European references are marginal, even to the lives of the professionals for whom Table 2 indicates have the greatest European reference points. Insofar as such references are salient, this is nearly always for deeply old, classical, genres, which may be valued as historical resources but are not seen as having much contemporary purchase. What our qualitative interviews further reveal, though, is that when European or classical forms of culture are identified, they are usually treated in disparaging ways. Maria – a modern language teacher from the north of England, was an enthusiast for many artists, but she drew the line at the French writer and philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre. Maria Yeah, well I’m thinking of people like Sartre, I think sometimes they try to be so convoluted that they just end up going up their own backsides to be honest. Ronald – a legal secretary from the English Midlands who was unusual in being a genuine devotee of classical music, reflects a persistent ‘trace’ of the classical, European canon of high art and literature but one he shrinks away from in favour of his ‘not too heavy’ brand of English classical literature. In talking about his favourite literature, he shies guiltily away from ‘classical’ literature as he describes his preferences, 20 Ronald Well modern literature. I tend to read both classic otherwise, and modern literature. So it can be any of those. Interviewer Classics like what? Ronald Well, you’ve got, nothing ridiculously heavy, you know the true old English novels, Jane Austen, Hardy, those sort of things, but I’ve got Herodotus to read at the moment, I haven’t started it, it’s on the bookshelf looking appealing at me but I haven’t started it yet. The articulation of preferences provided by our qualitative material deepens our understanding of the complex relationship between cultural preferences and national identity. The evidence of these exchanges in particular is that European reference points are no longer (insofar as they ever were) central to British cultural geography. They are not, in Benjamin’s terms ‘auratic’. They are familiar, ‘tired’, a sign of a lost world, which, like Ronald’s unopened Herodotus, hang-around as half welcome guests from the distant past. If they do not constitute points of cultural excitement or fascination in the cultural construction of contemporary British identity, the next section begins to explore where these points might lie. 4: Sources of cultural fascination. In many of our qualitative interviews, we see a strong motif which celebrates ‘escape’. Such a notion is hardly a discovery – indeed it has been central in various ways to sociological and cultural studies accounts of the relationships between popular culture and everyday life. Of particular interest here, however, is the ways this escape seeks to 21 put Britain at a distance. It does so through an appeal to a non fixed space, yet at the same time, we can see it as under-girded by a cultural geography which involves features of difference and familiarity. This focuses either on an English fantasy past, or to the Anglophone parts of the world, reflecting what Gilroy (2004) has identified as a nostalgia for an imagined national past and a dissatisfaction or melancholy with a particular interpretation of the national present. Irene, a retired factory worker from the Midlands describes her preference for the American drama series of the 1980s in terms of their distance from her own life -experiences Irene Well I think we used to like Dallas and The Colbys and all that kind of thing, because it was glamorous and you know it took you out of the world, what it is today with all the beautiful clothes and you know the richness of all the oil fields. Maria (the Sartre disliking language teacher mentioned above) contrasts her ‘anti- Europeanism with two forms of decidedly British literary texts. On the one hand the altered Britain of the sci-fi parodist Terry Pratchett, which she describes thus, Maria For me the sci-fi part of it, it’s more fantasy than sci-fi , I’m thinking of Terry Pratchett, because it’s just so incredibly funny and it’s drawing parallels with our world but it’s set, it’s - his Discworld it’s a different world completely but there are parallels to our world jumbled up periods in time as well. A lot of it is sort of set with the decor being Tudor or Mediaeval but there’ll be modern concepts or a particular thing that happened in history would be reflected in his books. And he’s basically parodying it, very funny how they’re written. Nearly 22 every single sentence he writes is a reference to something else and the normal person just wouldn’t understand half of them. This altered, re-imagined Britain, with a quirkiness beyond the ken of ‘the normal person’ serves to distance Marie from parochial concerns and can be interpreted as a symbolic distancing from the reality of the national social space, though also allows the comfort of the familiarity of intertextuality. On the other hand she also describes her preference for historical detective fiction with decidedly British settings Maria I can give you for example there’s the Cadfael ones, although I do find her writing style a little bit heavy going at times. Susannah Gregory, she does, her series are based on Matthew Bartholomew, physician, a lecturer at Cambridge in the 15th century. Her books are especially good because they sort of bring the whole world to life. Michael Jecks’ books, he’s set in 14th century Devon. Candice Robb, she’s set in York in the 15th century and it’s the whole Mediaeval period. I love history and to have something that makes you think set in that period and books that do actually bring it to life, for me it’s just perfect. Popular tastes for reading are bound up with narratives of national identity in 21 st century Britain. Wright (2007), for example, considers national nostalgia as one element of the BBC’s 2003 search for ‘the nation’s favourite book’, The Big Read. In her study of the cultural meanings and referents of the Harry Potter literary franchise Cecire (2009) notes the tendency for fantasy literature to entail a ‘re-imagining’ of an idealised Anglicised history and landscape as a means of negotiating changed conceptions of Britishness. We see this re-imagined British landscape clearly here. Such texts, which 23 offer escape from Britain through parodising it, or either historical or futuristic referents, might be further contemporary manifestations of what Aldridge (1995), in his study of the success of the Peter Mayle book series on Provence refers to as literary ‘myths’ for the English which offer the means for readers to negotiate with and ironise the altered position of the UK in the broader European, post-imperial, global context. The tension between similarity and difference they exhibit also explains the appeal of American culture. Another respondent, Cherie, a professional in the heritage industry from the North of England similarly articulates her taste in detective novels, distinguishing between the ‘Miss Marple, in the library kind of thing’ – a definitively English kind of text which evokes an early twentieth century imaginary of imperial but genteel forms of national life – and what she views as more sophisticated American crime fiction. This casting of American literature as sophisticated is echoed by Amy, a doctoral student and focus group participant. We can contrast her preference for the American novelist Ann Tyler’s parabolic novels about ‘quirky, odd people’, with her hatred of the British TV drama series Bad Girls, which she describes as ‘the pittance. It’s crap TV’ We have seen in Section 3 that the white middle classes score highly on the American scale, as well as the British and European scales. Our qualitative findings do suggest a complex process of the ‘gentrification’ of American culture. A central feature here is the possibility of appropriating popular culture: or reclaiming what was sometimes called by our participants, ‘crap TV’. Especially in the focus groups of the younger white middle classes, a central theme became that of delineating ‘rubbish’ and the conditions under which such ‘crap’ could legitimately be consumed. By identifying certain programmes as ‘crap’, and hence showing that one knows the rules of the game of taste, 24 In Bourdieu’s terms, it becomes possible to watch them, in an ironic way. The noteworthy thing here, from our perspective, is that amongst the white British focus group discussants, ‘crap’ was consistently associated with British texts and forms. Focus groups, notably those held with younger professionals, made revealing comments about their ability to reflexively define and name their viewing patterns as a means of demonstrating the sophistication of their cultural palettes whilst disavowing forms of snobbery – a narrative of ‘I know it is crap and therefore I can watch it’ exemplified by Geena, a Trades Union officer recruited into a focus group organised with lesbians (a group consisting entirely of young, educated professional women). Here she refers to her recent viewing of a reality TV show set in the package holiday industry, Geena I watched something like ‘Club Reps: The Workers’ iv the other week and it was fantastic What was fantastic about it? Geena Because it could not have been further removed from my life in terms of the sort of age, orientation and geographical location and it’s completely unchallenging and yeah it demands nothing of me. By contrast, American popular culture is especially liable for positive appropriation. Sean, a young academic who took part in a focus group organised around young professionals remarks in relation to his own TV viewing Sean It involves constant moving between programmes, none of which I particularly enjoy! There’s this wonderful moment where something like the 25 West Wing really is on but, the rest of the time it’s so often just watching crap till one in the morning because I really can’t be bothered to go to bed. Zara, a marketing officer for a midlands arts gallery recruited to a group of professionals working in the culture industries similarly refers to contemporary American drama series as essential viewing, Zara There are programmes that I absolutely can’t miss otherwise somebody dies. Things like Twenty Four and Six Feet Under and the West Wing which I absolutely have to see British popular culture, though, is less likely to be appropriated in this way. When asked to describe the term ‘trashy TV’, participants in a focus group organised with cultural professionals produce the following exchange Tina: Big Brother, unfortunately for me it’s my trash soaps Zara Eastenders, oh Tina oh, it’s a load of crap Zara: every time you turn the telly on it’s on and you just - I don’t, you know if I’m in I’ll watch it, if I’m not in it doesn’t bother me but - I do feel myself drawn to it and I hate it, I hate myself for it ‘cos it’s rubbish The evidence here is that contemporary claims to cultural distinction appear to draw on a rendering of ‘quirky’ American/ Anglophone cultural forms. A fascination with TV programmes such as Six Feet Under, The Sopranos, or the West Wing; or the writing of 26 Ann Tyler or Terry Pratchett, is symptomatic of an emergent form of cultural cosmopolitanism which at one level seeks out the ‘other’, though it is essentially an ‘other’ which is congenial to the world views of the white, educated middle classes. This is especially important to understanding the cultural identities of these apparently cosmopolitan groups. For white Britons these almost-familiar referents reflect a taste- formation which re-embeds established, imperial, connections, whilst claiming a certain distance from parochial Britishness. Conclusions In this paper we have argued, on the basis of unusually wide ranging and detailed data on the cultural tastes and practices of a representative sample of the white British population, that we can see a re-making of British national cultural preferences. There is no simple cosmopolitanisation of cultural referents. Although we can identify various kinds of ‘scapes’ and ‘cultural mobilities’ which cross national boundaries, in our view, these largely serve to intensify white Anglophone identities, especially amongst the white, educated, middle classes. In the light of this evidence we propose three substantive concluding points. Firstly, proponents of globalisation such as Roland Robertson may well be correct in claiming that people are aware of the relativity of national cultures, and the fact that their cultural forms are particularistic and exemplify certain cultural limits and boundaries. However, this awareness is in large part still premised on the mundane centrality of national cultural forms, and is hence dependent on the continued power of national cultural referents – though the strategies of distancing oneself from these 27 referents was important, especially to younger cohorts. What we also see is that in seeking a certain critical distance from this national culture, large numbers of white Britons are drawn to historical or futuristic parodies, or utopic settings set in places which are both distant from, and yet utterly familiar to, the British setting. It is this which explains the attraction of the ‘imaginary landscape’ of those former colonies of the British Empire which have significant numbers of white settlers. This is the cultural imaginary of the (post-) colonial white British. Secondly, we have detected the weakening hold of European cultural referents. Although English language and culture historically emerged out of the European arena, and notwithstanding the UK’s membership of the European Community, and the considerable amount of tourism to selected European venues, European culture - where it is referred to at all - is seen as a historical residue, not an active area of contemporary cultural engagement. No contemporary continental European figures were identified in either our focus groups or in-depth interviews as ones that conveyed cultural fascination or interest. Although canonical Europeans from the past were known, especially in the visual arts and music, these did not convey excitement or intensity. We see this as the weakening of a Eurocentric white identity and its replacement with a more Atlanticist, Anglophone version. Finally, we need to note the sheer invisibility of cultural referents from vast areas of the world. China - and Asia in general, Africa, and South America, not to mention Eastern Europe, are ‘terra incognita’. Whilst these places might be increasingly culturally visible at the level of the global academy, the random post-code sample and the broad range of focus group participants reported here suggested they have little purchase in 28 the white British imagination more generally. Notwithstanding Edward Said’s arguments about the way that Orientalism involves the exoticised visibility of the ‘other’ our data indicates the mundane invisibility of the other. Our qualitative data indicate no references to, or interest in, non-Christian cultures. What we need to recognise, therefore, is that the proliferation of cultural flows is highly uneven across the globe, and tends to be based on the well known principle of ‘homophily’, that is to say they connect territories which are seen as being populated by ‘people like us’. In our view, therefore, we need to be attentive to the way that global flows and diasporic identities, far from encouraging utopic, liberal cosmopolitan identities, actually facilitate new kinds of particularistic ethnic and national identities. i Britain was a center of the 1990s boom in talk of cosmopolitanism. Reference to ‘cosmopolitan Britain’ became standard speech, as in: ‘Cosmopolitan Britain has emerged as one of the world’s most diverse and innovative food and drink markets’ It evoked sophisticated, metropolitan culture versus the non- cosmopolitan hinterlands; this was a period of renewal in the cultural and financial life of British cities with yuppies, art galleries, and startling improvement in restaurants’ (Calhoun 2008: 431) ii This paper draws on data produced by the research team for the ESRC project Cultural Capital and Social Exclusion: A Critical Investigation (Award no R000239801). The team comprised Tony Bennett (Principal Applicant), Mike Savage, Elizabeth Silva, Alan Warde (Co-Applicants), David Wright and Modesto Gayo-Cal (Research Fellows). The applicants were jointly responsible for the design of the national survey and the focus groups and household interviews that generated the quantitative and qualitative date for the project. Elizabeth Silva, assisted by David Wright, co-ordinated the analyses of the qualitative data from the focus groups and household interviews. Mike Savage and Alan Warde, assisted by Modesto Gayo-Cal, co-ordinated the analyses of the quantitative data produced by the survey. Tony Bennett was responsible for the overall direction and co-ordination of the project. iii The BBCs 2003 of the ‘nation’s favourite’ book, The Big Read, revealed a similar Anglophone dominance. Of the 100 books finally placed only 8 were written in a language other than English. Three of these were from South or Latin America (Two books by the Columbian Gabriel Garcia Marquez and one by the Brazilian Paulo Coelho) and only one by a contemporary European writer, the German novelist Patrick Suskind). iv A British documentary series following the exploits of a team of travel reps working for a package holiday company catering for British holiday makers in Greece and Gran Canaria. 29 References Albrow, Martin, 1996. 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The Ethnic Origins of Nations, Oxford, Blackwells Smith, Anthony, D, 1995. ‘Gastronomy or Geology: the Role of Nationalism in the Reconstruction of Nations’, Nations and Nationalism, 1 (1): 3-23 Smith Anthony, D, 2008. ‘The Shifting Landscapes of Nationalism’, Nations and Nationalism, 8 (2): 317-330. Stevenson, Nick, 2003. ‘Cultural Citizenship in the ‘Cultural’ Society: A Cosmopolitan Approach’, Citizenship Studies 7 (3): 331-348. Tyler, Katharine, 2004. ‘Reflexivity, Tradition and Racism in a Former Mining Town’. Ethnic and Racial Studies 27 (2): 290-309. Wright, David, 2007. ‘The Big Read: Assembling the Popular Canon’. International Journal of the Book 4 (4): 19-26. http://www.open.ac.uk/socialsciences/cultural-capital-and-social-exclusion/project-summary http://www.open.ac.uk/socialsciences/cultural-capital-and-social-exclusion/project-summary 
work_67ccld5oc5fplkqnncgdr72b4a	----	Representations of Blindness in Picasso's Blue Period Representations of Blindness in Picasso’s Blue Period James G. Ravin, MD; Jonathan Perkins, PhD T he Spanish painter Pablo Picasso (1881-1973) was the most important artist of the 20th century. It is impossible to consider the development of modern art without him. A unique, highly productive artist who created more than 20 000 works in more than 75 years of activity, Picasso was the most frequently exhibited and critiqued artist of the last century. Best known as a painter, he also worked in sculpture, prints, ceramics, and theater design. Blindness was a theme that played an important role in the artist’s first distinctive style, known as the Blue Period. Picasso’s earliest work was done in a natu- ralistic manner and gives few hints of the future direction his art would take. While still a teenager, Picasso made several vis- its to Paris, the capital of the artistic world, where he exhibited paintings and draw- ings at the gallery of Ambrose Vollard, who represented postimpressionists and younger members of the French avant- garde. The exhibition was a modest finan- cial success and brought him further com- missions. One art critic saw in this show the debut of a “brilliant newcomer,” but wrote that “Picasso’s passionate surge for- wards has not yet left him the leisure to forge a personal style.”1 During his early years Picasso developed a strong person- ality and envisioned himself a sort of artist- hero, akin to a Nietzschean superman. He had encountered philosophy and art theory a few years earlier but remained a studio artist and never considered abstract think- ing important to the way he worked. He found this type of discussion irrelevant and distracting, and even used the word “blind- ing”2 to describe such activity. In late 1901 his work took a dra- matic turn when he developed his first dis- tinctive style, the nearly monochromatic works of the Blue Period (1901-1904). These works are instantly recognizable by their overwhelming use of blue colors and melancholy figures. Several oil paintings and a print from this period have blind- ness as a theme. The sad, brooding mood of these works may have been a reaction to the suicide of his close friend and fel- low artist, Carlos Casagemas (1880- 1901), which followed a failed romance. Images of blindness may be traced back to Greek antiquity, where the blind poet Homer is a familiar figure. In Span- ish art and literature, the blind poet evolved into the blind guitarist. Blind beggars were a common sight on the streets of Spain for centuries. Francisco Goya (1746-1828) created several paintings and prints of this subject. Picasso painted and engraved works based on the theme of blindness sev- eral times during his Blue Period. Occa- sionally he returned to images of the blind later in his career, such as his depictions from the 1930s of a blind minotaur, an an- cient Greek mythological figure who had the head of a bull and the body of a man. Pervasive use of blue pigment was not invented by Picasso, for there is a long his- tory of working this way. His immediate predecessors in this manner were symbol- ist painters of Spain and France, who used blue to emphasize the emotional sensa- tions of sadness and despair. Many works in the Art Nouveau style created toward the end of the 19th century also have an overwhelming blue tone, with one good example being Emile Galle’s work in glass entitled Blue Melancholia.3(p216) Through- out his career Picasso incorporated the methods of other artists into his work. Oth- From the Section of Ophthalmology, Medical College of Ohio, Toledo (Dr Ravin); and the Visual Arts Program, University of Illinois at Springfield (Dr Perkins). SPECIAL ARTICLE (REPRINTED) ARCH OPHTHALMOL / VOL 122, APR 2004 WWW.ARCHOPHTHALMOL.COM 636 ©2004 American Medical Association. All rights reserved. Downloaded From: https://jamanetwork.com/ by a Carnegie Mellon University User on 04/05/2021 ers have put it more sharply—he stole from everyone, from the old masters to his contemporaries. According to Francoise Gilot, one of his many mis- tresses, Picasso said, “When there’s anything to steal, I steal.”4 The blue works show a particular debt to El Greco which is evident in the elon- gated hands and faces. He found working in blue highly compatible with his subject matter—the poor, disabled, and downtrodden. Some have suggested the pov- erty-stricken subjects reflect his life- style at the time. Picasso was cer- tainly not as rich then as he was to become later, but he was not greatly different financially from the rest of his artistic and literary circle. He had financial support from home and had exhibited successfully by this time. Some have suggested he used blue primarily because he could only af- ford cobalt blue paint. This is incor- rect. He could certainly afford to pur- chase whatever paints he wanted. He was still in his youth, testing a tech- nique that proved to be effective for him and that had been explored pre- viously by others.5 Perhaps Picasso identified with the unfortunate in- dividuals he painted. His ambiva- lent comments about Paris are evi- dent in a letter he wrote that same year to his friend, the poet and art- ist, Max Jacob: My dear old Max, I think about the room on the boulevard Voltaire and the om- elets, the beans, and the brie and the fried potatoes. But I also think about those days of misery and that’s very sad. And I remember the Spaniards from the rue de Seine with disgust.6 If Picasso ever told anyone pre- cisely why blindness was impor- tant to him, we have not been able to find a description. We do know that his father’s vision was deterio- rating from an unknown cause at this time. Inevitably, psychoana- lytic approaches have been at- tempted. The psychiatrist Carl Jung saw “incipient psychic dissocia- tion” and even schizophrenia in Pi- casso’s paintings.7 Blindness is a most serious problem for a painter. In a recent, highly acclaimed biography of Picasso, Richardson noted that Pi- casso was at home in Barcelona with his parents when he painted some of the blind figures from his Blue Pe- riod, and that by depicting “the pros- pect of what he most feared in life, was not this a way of protecting him- self against it?”3(p279) The closest Pi- casso came to discussing blindness is this cryptic quotation from the mid 1930s: “There is in fact only love that matters. Whatever it may be. And they should put out the eyes of paint- ers as they do to goldfinches to make them sing better.”8 Roland Pen- rose, who recorded these words, also wrote “The allegory of the blind man pursued Picasso throughout life as though reproaching him for his unique gift of vision.”9 These quo- tations give a hint that Picasso was confronting and naming his fears but do not clarify the meaning of his por- traits of the blind. Picasso’s depictions of the blind are too stylized for us to diagnose precisely the diseases being delin- eated. Although the name of the model for La Celestine (Figure 1) is known, we do not know what c a u s e d h e r c o r n e a t o b e c o m e opaque. Her white eye contrasts markedly with the blue that domi- nates the rest of this painting. She is the one-eyed procuress de- scribed in the drama of the same name written by Fernando de Ro- jas (first known edition, 1499) that is considered second in impor- tance in Spanish literature only to Cervantes’ Don Quixote. Picasso knew Rojas’s story from his adoles- cent years, if not earlier.3(p288) The cause of the atrophic orbit of The Old Guitarist (Figure 2) also remains obscure. Picasso engulfed the region of the eye in a dark blue shadow in his paintings of the blind, a characteristic that can be considered an archetypical Figure l. Pablo Picasso. La Celestine, 1903, Spanish. Oil on canvas, 81.0 � 60.0 cm. Musée Picasso, Paris, France, 2003 Estate of Pablo Picasso. (REPRINTED) ARCH OPHTHALMOL / VOL 122, APR 2004 WWW.ARCHOPHTHALMOL.COM 637 ©2004 American Medical Association. All rights reserved. Downloaded From: https://jamanetwork.com/ by a Carnegie Mellon University User on 04/05/2021 stylistic feature of the Blue Period. Similarly, we cannot identify a cause for the poor vision of the fig- u r e i n T h e B l i n d M a n ’ s M e a l (Figure 3). Picasso described what he was creating in this work succinctly in a letter: “I am painting a blind man at a table. He holds some bread in his left hand and gropes with his right for a jug of wine.”1 0 This is one of his few remarks about works made at the time, but reveals nothing. Picasso did not depict figures in great detail, but tended to ideal- ize them in these Blue Period works. He took the elongated arms, hands, torsos, and heads of El Greco and placed them in an early 20th century setting. Some critics have seen a “spiritual inner vision” in the blind figures Picasso created in this way.11 The figures are isolated and do not interact well. Other observers have felt this is a reflection of Picasso’s own iso- lation at that time.12 Despite nearly a century of critical comment on these works, the full meaning is still unclear. The artist himself did not offer any help in deciphering them. When asked, he responded dismissively, terming the Blue and Rose Period works as pure senti- ment.4 But we would argue that the blind characters in the Blue Period paintings were not created simply to make the viewer feel sorry for them. Picasso found an intensity of other senses in his depiction of the blind. In The Old Guitarist and The Blind Man’s Meal different senses appear to be enhanced as compared with the lack of sight. The fact that the fig- ures are blind might, in and of it- self, indicate that other senses are more acute, but Picasso empha- sized other senses by elongating forms and was influenced by El Greco. In particular, the long, thin hands of the figures in both these works are fundamental to an en- hancement of the senses because they are direct actors in creating mu- sic in the case of The Old Guitarist, and in touching the food in The Blind Man’s Meal. Picasso explored the “power” of blindness in La Celes- tine. By depicting an eye with an opaque cornea next to an appar- ently normal eye, Picasso juxta- posed vision and blindness. Para- doxically, it is the blind eye that draws the gaze of the viewer. The fact that the opaque cornea blocks vi- sion is the very element that at- tracts vision on the part of the viewer. The style of the Blue Period may be thought of as a kind of meditation on blindness, or at least impaired vision. In these works the artist explores the expressive possi- bilities of a radical reduction of color. Picasso surrounded the envi- ronment with a dark blue veil and used flat, simplified backgrounds that threaten to disappear alto- gether. An obscuring of traditional vision is the fundamental expres- sive component of these works. In investigating blindness Picasso chose a style that deemphasizes objective sight in favor of a deeper vision. The figures are recognizable as people, which is more than can be said for some paintings from his Cubist period. The fractured cubist portraits, which depict individuals from a multitude of directions, con- fuse many museum goers. The pub- lic is interested in the Blue Period paintings from his youth because of what he created later. Early Picasso is not as pleasurable to view as Im- pressionism, to cite just one ex- ample. Some of the reverence for these works comes from the fact that Figure 2. Pablo Picasso. The Old Guitarist, 1903/1904, Spanish. Oil on panel. 122.9 � 82.6 cm. The Art Institute of Chicago, Chicago, Ill, Helen Birch Bartlett Memorial Collection. Figure 3. Pablo Picasso, The Blind Man’s Meal, 1903, Spanish. Oil on canvas. 95.3 � 94.6 cm. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, NY, Mr and Mrs Ira Haupt Gift, 1950. (REPRINTED) ARCH OPHTHALMOL / VOL 122, APR 2004 WWW.ARCHOPHTHALMOL.COM 638 ©2004 American Medical Association. All rights reserved. Downloaded From: https://jamanetwork.com/ by a Carnegie Mellon University User on 04/05/2021 experts say they should be seen, en- joyed, and respected for what Pi- casso was to become, the epitome of modernism. The most important art may be difficult to understand, even disturbing, while art that is super- ficially appealing may be overly sac- charine, lack any meaning after the first glance, and remain totally un- important. Picasso made evaluating his work difficult. He treated with scorn attempts at analysis and said he just painted what he saw, the things that moved him: When I paint, my object is to show what I have found and not what I am looking for. . . . What one does is what counts and not what one had the intention of doing. . . . There are no concrete or ab- stract forms but only forms which are more or less convincing lies.13 He denied any evolution in his style even if others separated his work into radically different phases: “When- ever I had something to say, I have said it in a manner in which I have felt it ought to have been said . . . ” since different motives inevitably require dif- ferent methods of expression. This does not imply either evolution or progress, but an adaptation of the idea one wants to express and the means to express that idea.13 These statements reaffirm the com- mon observation that an artist is in- herently biased when it comes to evaluating and interpreting his own work. Picasso actually admitted as much in saying, “The connoisseur of painting gives only bad advice to the painter. For that reason I have given up trying to judge myself.”14 Picasso’s colors and subject mat- ter brightened by the end of 1904 as he entered the next major phase of his art, the Rose Period (1905-1906). The change to warmer colors and more pleasant themes is linked to the happiness he shared with his first long-term liaison, Fernande Ol- ivier. The works of the Blue and Rose Periods have certainly achieved criti- cal acceptance, but if Picasso had stopped painting at this point, he would be remembered as a second- or third-rank artist who had not reached full artistic maturity. The next phases of his career, particu- larly cubism (1906-1915) brought Pi- casso fame on the international level and made him the single most im- portant figure in 20th century art. Accepted for publication October 14, 2003. Corresponding author and re- prints: James G. Ravin, MD, 3000 Re- gency Ct, Toledo, OH 43623 (e-mail: jamesravin@aol.com). REFERENCES 1. McQuillan M. Picasso. Dictionary of Art. Vol 24. London, England: Macmillan Publishing Co Inc; 1996:727. 2. Chipp HB. Theories of Modern Art. Berkeley: Uni- versity of California Press; 1973:265. 3. Richardson J. A Life of Picasso. Vol 1. New York, NY: Random House Inc; 1991. 4. Cowing E. Picasso: Style and Meaning. London, England: Phaidon Press; 2002:5. 5. Kimmelman M. First steps on the journey from prodigy to Picasso. New York Times. April 11, 1997:B1, B22. 6. McCully M, ed. A Picasso Anthology: Docu- ments, Criticism, Reminiscences. London, En- gland: Thames & Hudson Ltd; 1981:41. 7. Farrier JL. Picasso. Paris, France: Editions Pierre Terrail; 1996:45. 8. Penrose R. Picasso: His Life and Work. New York, NY: Harper; 1958:91. 9. Penrose R. Picasso, perception, and blindness. Museum (Paris). 1981;33:193. 10. Boggs JS. Picasso & Things. Cleveland, Ohio: Cleveland Museum of Art; 1992:41. 11. Picasso, the Early Years 1892-1906 [exhibition brochure, unpaginated]. Washington, DC: Na- tional Gallery; 1997. 12. Janson AF: History of Art. 5th ed. New York, NY: Harry N Abrams Inc; 1995:744. 13. Francis HS. Picasso’s “La Vie.” Cleveland Mu- seum Art Bull. 1945;32:93. 14. Peter LJ. Peter’s Quotations: Ideas for Our Time. New York, NY: Bantam Books; 1980:377. (REPRINTED) ARCH OPHTHALMOL / VOL 122, APR 2004 WWW.ARCHOPHTHALMOL.COM 639 ©2004 American Medical Association. All rights reserved. Downloaded From: https://jamanetwork.com/ by a Carnegie Mellon University User on 04/05/2021 
work_6a5zhocbxzfk7nv7e6iop27vb4	----	Mistaken Identity and Mirror Images: Albert and Carl Einstein, Leiden and Berlin, Relativity and Revolution Jeroen van Dongen* Albert Einstein accepted a ‘‘special’’ visiting professorship at the University of Leiden in the Netherlands in February 1920. Although his appointment should have been a mere for- mality, it took until October of that year before Einstein could occupy his special chair. Why the delay? The explanation involves a case of mistaken identity with Carl Einstein, Dadaist art, and a particular Dutch fear of revolutions. But what revolutions was one afraid of? The story of Einstein’s Leiden chair throws new light on the reception of relativity and its creator in the Netherlands and in Germany. Key words: Albert Einstein; Carl Einstein; Anton Pannekoek; Hendrik Antoon Lorentz; Cornelis van Vollenhoven; Ernst Gehrcke; Paul Weyland; George Grosz; Johannes Theodoor de Visser; Pieter Jelles Troelstra; University of Leiden; Dada, Cubism; November Revolution; Brussels’ Soldiers Council; anti-Relativity; history of relativity. Introduction: Preparations in Leiden On December 21, 1919, Hendrik Antoon Lorentz offered Albert Einstein a special position: He was asked if he would like to join the University of Leiden as a bijzonder hoogleraar or, in Lorentz’s words, as a ‘‘let’s say ‘special professor.’’’ The Leiden University Fund (LUF), a private fund supported by donations from alumni and students, would endow the chair, and Einstein would be expected to travel to Leiden only once or twice a year; to hold classes or seminars would be appreciated, but not required. 1 Einstein liked Lorentz’s proposal very much, as he informed his close friend Paul Ehrenfest, who would be his colleague in Leiden. Ehrenfest, in turn, was as ‘‘excited as a child’’ about the ‘‘Einstein present’’ that the Leiden professors were preparing for themselves. Einstein soon started thinking about his inaugural lec- ture: It would have to be a lecture on the ether, since Lorentz had asked him to * Jeroen van Dongen is University Docent at Utrecht University and Editor and Visiting Associate with the Einstein Papers Project at the California Institute of Technology. Phys. Perspect. 14 (2012) 126–177 � 2012 The Author(s). This article is published with open access at Springerlink.com 1422-6944/12/020126-52 DOI 10.1007/s00016-012-0084-y Physics in Perspective 126 discuss publicly his latest views on its existence. In kind consideration of Lorentz’s ideas, but also as a reflection of his latest reassessment of the Mach principle, Einstein now found that all along, instead of claiming the nonexistence of the ether,* he only should have argued for the ‘‘non-reality of the ether velocity.’’2 In any case, Einstein wrote to Lorentz on January 12, 1920, that he would gladly accept the appointment, as he had been presented with a truly ‘‘fairytale-like’’ offer.3 Leiden’s University Council, that is, the LUF’s Board, consisting of a large group of alumni,4 formally approved the position on February 9, so the only remaining step was an official authorization by the Dutch government. But that, Lorentz assured Einstein, was to be expected ‘‘in a few weeks,’’ and could be ‘‘solidly counted on.’’ 5 However, only after a long and halting process would Einstein’s position be confirmed by the Dutch government—on September 21, 1920, well over seven months later. Only then would Queen Wilhelmina finally sign the decree that appointed Einstein to his Leiden chair. Why was there such an unexpected and long delay? What were the particular circumstances and concerns that led the Dutch government to take more than seven months to carry through on something that was, by all appearances, a trivial formality? I reconstruct below the factors that led to this delay, 6 and I discuss the broader political and sociocultural contexts and concerns that motivated Einstein’s appointment and undergirded the com- plications it encountered. It is a story with unusual twists and turns that shed light on the broader perception of Albert Einstein and of the reception of relativity, both in the Netherlands and in Germany. Why Einstein? The Internationalist Perspective Paul Ehrenfest and Hendrik Lorentz first met Einstein a little less than a decade before Lorentz offered him the special Leiden chair. Ever since then, both felt a close personal bond with Einstein. This clearly was one of the reasons why they wanted to tie Einstein to Leiden. Lorentz and Einstein (figure 1) liked each other enormously, and were in awe of each other’s scientific achievements; Lorentz was as a fatherly friend to Einstein, even if some physical distance seems to have been a necessary condition for their relationship. 7 Ehrenfest (figure 2) had a strong need to have Einstein near him. Both were German-speaking Jews of the same age, and their personalities, temperaments, and scientific interests resonated strongly. An intimate friendship, which included the families of both, had been * In his inaugural lecture, Einstein discussed the metric field as a kind of ether, acting on, and being acted upon by matter; a definite state of motion, however, could not be ascribed to it. In deference to Lorentz, he even said that ‘‘the ether of the general theory of relativity is the outcome of the Lorentzian ether, through relativization’’; see Einstein, Äther (ref. 2), p. 13; 178. Vol. 14 (2012) Mistaken Identity and Mirror Images 127 Fig. 1. Albert Einstein (1879–1955) and Hendrik A. Lorentz (1853–1928) in front of Ehrenfest’s house in Leiden in 1921; photograph by Paul Ehrenfest. Credit: Boerhaave Museum, Leiden. Fig. 2. Paul Ehrenfest (1880–1933), Pavlik (Paul) Ehrenfest, Jr., and Albert Einstein (1879–1955) in Ehrenfest’s home, 1920. Credit: Photograph by Willem J. Luyten, Museum Boerhaave, Leiden; courtesy of American Institute of Physics Emilio Segrè Visual Archives. 128 Jeroen van Dongen Phys. Perspect. gradually cemented after they first met in 1912. As Einstein wrote to Ehrenfest, ‘‘I have well learned to feel you as a part of me, and myself as a part of you.’’8 Having Einstein join the Leiden faculty, even if only as a part-time ‘‘special’’ professor, obviously would also greatly benefit physics there, and in the Neth- erlands in general, as Lorentz expressed.9 In particular, Heike Kamerlingh Onnes very much looked forward to the opportunity to regularly discuss with Einstein the problems he faced in his cryogenic laboratory.10 Kamerlingh Onnes had been less enthusiastic about the prospect of attracting Peter Debye, whose name had also circulated recently for a theoretical professorship in Leiden: Given Debye’s stronger experimental interests, Kamerlingh Onnes had feared the loss of his uncontested stewardship of his laboratory. Ehrenfest had initially lobbied for an offer to Debye, being afraid that he himself would not be capable of maintaining the high quality of Leiden’s theoretical physics; his efforts to tie Einstein to Leiden were inspired just as much by his sense of his own insufficiency.11 Einstein had been proposed for professorships in Leiden earlier. He had been offered Lorentz’s chair in 1912, but at that time he had already committed himself to the Federal Institute of Technology (Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule, ETH) in Zurich; he also had been too intimidated by the prospect of having to follow in Lorentz’s footsteps to accept.12 Paul Ehrenfest eventually succeeded Lorentz, and Einstein, after a period in Zurich, moved to Berlin in 1914, where he combined a position at the Prussian Academy with the directorship of the newly- established Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics and a professorship at the Uni- versity of Berlin. With the offer of a special chair in 1920, the Leiden physicists were careful to point out that they did not intend to lure Einstein away from Berlin, where life had become difficult after the Great War. Earlier, in September 1919, Einstein had turned down yet another suggestion to join Leiden for a full professorship; on that occasion he had promised Max Planck that he would ‘‘not turn my back on Berlin, unless conditions prevail that would make such a move natural and correct.’’13 Einstein, however, was in dire financial straits as he had to support his first wife Mileva Marić and their two children who were living in expensive Switzerland at a time when the German mark was quickly losing value. He had made clear to Ehrenfest that great sacrifices were being made to keep him in Germany, sacrifices he felt should not be snubbed by an ungrateful departure. Furthermore, his political wishes, entailing a parliamentary democracy and an end to the Wilhel- minian ‘‘religion of power,’’ had at last been realized following the collapse of the Imperial order. In view of these circumstances, Einstein believed that leaving Germany would be disloyal.14 The offer of a special, part-time professorship, however, he could accept. For Einstein, the most important reason for welding a formal tie to Leiden was his close friendship with Ehrenfest and Lorentz. He obviously also might have appreciated that the position came with a salary that, at 2000 guilders per year (the Vol. 14 (2012) Mistaken Identity and Mirror Images 129 maximum annual salary of a full professor was 7500 guilders), was both substantial and was paid in a hard currency.15 A further great attraction was that physics in Leiden was first-rate. Indeed, as Ehrenfest had already pointed out in September 1919: ‘‘Imagine what human-scientific environment you would have here: Lorentz, De Sitter, Onnes …, Kuenen, me and my wife, Droste, de Haas and his wife, Burgers, Zeeman, and all the time excellent young people, for example, Burgers and Kramers.’’16 Exciting guests, such as Gunnar Nordström or Niels Bohr,* regularly passed through, and would often stay at the Ehrenfest home. Indeed, Einstein had only one reservation: he was concerned that any lectures he might give would add too little to the program already presented by the Leiden faculty. Yet, in January 1920 Einstein gratefully agreed to the appointment. 17 Thus, there were abundant personal and scientific reasons for establishing a tie between Einstein and Leiden. Einstein would feel strongly at home in Holland, as may be evident from the expressive declaration he issued after the German invasion of the Netherlands in 1940: Holland has enriched humanity by its accomplishments of the mind and the arts, and it has contributed to the inner and political liberation of the individual by its struggle for justice. One is gratified by Holland’s humane atmosphere as it brings together tolerance, broad understanding, humour and true helpfulness.18 The tenor of Einstein’s declaration reflected both his outrage over the German invasion and his broader appreciation of Dutch culture in the interwar years (likely augmented by Einstein’s sympathy for Spinoza and his era). A large part of his appreciation undoubtedly was due to the political ideals and efforts of some of Leiden’s academic elite—who had been involved in securing Einstein’s special chair. The creation of Einstein’s special chair followed closely after the conclusion of the Great War. Einstein also had been greatly offended by the outbreak of that war, which, in fact, had turned him into a committed pacifist. He had joined the ‘‘New Fatherland Association’’ in Berlin, a society that labored for peace during the conflict, and after the war he immediately sought to improve relations between the formerly warring nations. He wanted to reestablish ties between European intellectuals, and undertook multiple efforts to further this goal.19 For instance, he welcomed French pacifist Paul Colin in Berlin, joined a private German * Hendrik Antoon Lorentz (1853–1928); Heike Kamerlingh Onnes (1853–1926); Willem de Sitter (1872–1934), Professor of Astronomy; Johannes P. Kuenen (1866–1922), Professor of Physics; Johannes Droste (1886–1963), Lecturer in Mathematics; Wander de Haas (1878–1960), Professor of Physics at the Technical University of Delft; Geertruida de Haas- Lorentz (1885–1973); Johannes Burgers (1895–1981), Professor of Aerodynamics and Hydrodynamics in Delft; Pieter Zeeman (1865–1943), Professor of Physics at the University of Amsterdam; Hendrik A. Kramers (1894–1952), Assistant to Niels Bohr at the University of Copenhagen; Gunnar Nordström (1881–1923), Professor of Mechanics in Helsinki, and Niels Bohr (1885–1962), Professor of Physics at the University of Copenhagen. 130 Jeroen van Dongen Phys. Perspect. committee to research war crimes committed in Lille and, in 1922, made a highly publicized visit to Paris. Such efforts would resonate strongly with the ideals and actions of his Leiden colleagues. Of central importance for organizing Einstein’s position were Lorentz and Cornelis van Vollenhoven (1874–1933, figure 3), Professor of Dutch East Indian Law and a prominent member of the LUF Board. Lorentz and van Vol- lenhoven also were leading figures in the Dutch Academy of Sciences: Lorentz as Secretary of its Section of the Sciences and van Vollenhoven, after 1920, as Sec- retary of its Section of the Humanities. Together they would spearhead Dutch efforts aimed at international reconciliation in the academic world.20 Appointing Einstein would fit in well with these efforts or, as Paul Ehrenfest put it to him: In fact I believe that you, by spending a few weeks here, will contribute enormously, in an undemonstrative but therefore all the more powerful way, to the reestablishment of many disrupted scientific relations.21 Facilitating and negotiating international reconciliation was a core element of the professional identity of both Lorentz and van Vollenhoven; in the case of the latter, it also was an essential part of his scholarship. Van Vollenhoven saw a need to reorganize and systematize what he saw as the confusing patchwork of inter- national law: Already in 1910, he was convinced that the Netherlands, as a small Fig. 3. Cornelis van Vollenhoven (1874–1933). Credit: Van Vollenhoven Institute, University of Leiden. Vol. 14 (2012) Mistaken Identity and Mirror Images 131 nation with an internationalist outlook, should take a prominent leading role in efforts to establish international peace. This, he believed, also would provide an opportunity to further the country’s own plight and position.22 He was convinced that progress toward international peace would be possible only if a supervisory and regulatory supranational police force were created to enforce the authority of an appropriate international court.* A second essential aspect of van Vollenho- ven’s role in Leiden was his great affection for its university, which he would serve as Rector and, among many other functions, as Secretary of the LUF. Under his stewardship, the LUF’s endowment would grow substantially. 23 On July 28, 1919, the International Research Council (IRC) and, a few months earlier, the Union Académique de Recherches et de Publications, its sister organ- ization for the humanities, were created. Both organizations had barred from their memberships the academies of the former Central Power countries.24 The neutral Dutch had committed themselves to lobby for the admission of the excluded countries; when asked to become a member of the IRC, the Dutch Academy, after heated internal debate, had decided to join but reserved for itself and its members the right to continue to collaborate with scientists from Germany and its former allies. Furthermore, it stipulated that its expectation was that united efforts eventually would be directed at reconciliation and the admission of the excluded parties to the IRC. Just as the French IRC representative Émile Picard had feared, the Dutch Academy, under the stewardship of Lorentz and van Vollenhoven, soon began to act as an international mediator after joining the IRC.25 For Lorentz such a role was a continuation of his efforts during the war, inspired by van Vollenhoven’s ideas. His efforts were mirrored by those of Einstein, even if they were grounded in different ideals: Lorentz saw science as a national institution, and his attempts at international reconciliation were part of attempts to further the standing of Dutch science, while Einstein longed for the recovery of an international community of scholars that would serve as an inspiration against pernicious nationalist sentiments.26 It thus seems clear that Lorentz and van Vollenhoven would see Einstein’s appointment as an opportunity to assist their reconciliation efforts. When the procedure finally came to a close in October 1920, Einstein attended a small workshop in Leiden on the properties of paramagnets at low temperatures and the physics of superconductivity that had been organized by Ehrenfest and Kamer- lingh Onnes, and was held under the auspices of the Institut International du Froid, with which the latter had close ties.27 Based in Paris, the Institut aimed to promote * Van Vollenhoven perhaps influenced Einstein’s thinking on international peace and disarmament, as van Vollenhoven’s ideas seem to be reflected in Einstein’s later positions during the Cold War; see, for example, Einstein’s fall 1945 interview, ‘‘On the Atomic Bomb,’’ in Rowe and Schulmann, Einstein on Politics (ref. 14), pp. 373–378, and Paul Doty, ‘‘Einstein and International Security,’’ in Gerald Holton and Yehuda Elkana, ed., Albert Einstein: Historical and Cultural Perspectives: The Centennial Symposium in Jerusalem (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1982), pp. 347–367. 132 Jeroen van Dongen Phys. Perspect. research at low temperatures and to facilitate international collaborations; Axis countries, however, again had been excluded from membership. Einstein’s par- ticipation thus carried strong symbolic value, in particular because the Magnetwoche was also attended by Frenchmen Pierre Weiss and Paul Langevin.28 A picture taken at the event (figure 4) suggests cordial and productive discussions, regardless of nationality; Leiden and the Netherlands could once more be seen as facilitating the exchange of ideas and the reestablishment of personal relation- ships. In fact, Ehrenfest, earlier in 1919, when expressing his excitement about Einstein’s future Leiden position, already had told Einstein that he thought the international position of Kamerlingh Onnes’s cryogenic laboratory offered excellent opportunities in this regard, since visitors from abroad spent both long and short periods there for experimentation.29 Why were so many Dutch intellectuals keen to present themselves as interna- tional peace brokers? What motivated this peculiarly Dutch position? The Netherlands had maintained a policy of strict neutrality throughout the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries; it was, after all, a small nation hemmed in between the great European powers with substantial but vulnerable colonial interests. 30 German unification, and in particular Prussian dominance in the Empire, had led some Fig. 4. Magnetwoche in Leiden, 1920. (left to right) Albert Einstein (1879–1955), Paul Ehrenfest (1880–1933), Paul Langevin (1872–1946), Heike Kamerlingh Onnes (1853–1926), and Pierre Weiss (1865–1940) discussing the physics of paramagnets and superconductivity at Kamerlingh Onnes’s home in Leiden. Credit: Alfred A. Knopf; courtesy of the American Institute of Physics Emilio Segrè Visual Archives. Vol. 14 (2012) Mistaken Identity and Mirror Images 133 late-nineteenth-century Dutch scholars to fear for their cultural and intellectual independence: They were afraid of an unduly large influence on the literature, practice, and institutions of Dutch science from an oversized neighbor to the east; in some disciplines (medicine in particular), there already were clear signs of such an undesirable dominance. Historians Willem Otterspeer and Joke Schuller tot Peur- sum-Meijer have observed that many Dutch academics, to allay their fears, began to emphasize a cosmopolitan spirit: fears of German dominance would be unfounded so long as the Netherlands retained its role as a mediator between the dominant cultures of Europe.31 Seen in this light, the wake of the Great War actually presented an opportunity for Dutch scholars: By taking care of the international plight of German science, the Dutch could assert their desired independence. Appointing Einstein at this point in time then would confirm Dutch academics in their self- chosen role, and assure them of their international relevance. Einstein and the Politics of Dutch Appointment Practices On March 10, 1920, a month after its submittal, Paul Ehrenfest reported to Einstein that his appointment was still ‘‘crawling around in government offices.’’ Never- theless, Ehrenfest expected a quick resolution of the matter. He proposed to Einstein that he travel to Holland in the second half of April and hold his inaugural lecture on May 5. Einstein therefore finished work on his lecture in early April and scheduled a trip to Leiden for around May 1. To save money, at the urging of Ehrenfest, he had decided to have his lecture printed in Germany instead of the Netherlands. Einstein was not sure how to compose its title page, however, nor did he know how to include the customary dedications to the chair’s curators and other faculty members. He wrote that he felt like a child that was about to experience its first day in school; he was particularly uncertain concerning the correct pronunci- ation of Ik heb gezegt (he spelled it incorrectly–it should be gezegd), which simply means ‘‘I have said’’ and is the traditional closing of Dutch inaugural lectures.32 Ehrenfest replied in mid-April with detailed instructions for the title page (‘‘The Dutch title will necessarily have to be as follows: Down with the ether superstition!!—Lecture delivered at the assumption of the duties of special pro- fessor at the University of Leiden by A. Einstein’’), and for the customary and elaborate acknowledgments. He decided for Einstein that he should pronounce Dixi instead of Ik heb gezegd, undoubtedly to Einstein’s relief. But Ehrenfest still complained about the slow pace with which the appointment was being treated by the Dutch bureaucracy.33 The delays were not due to officials in Leiden: Immediately after the formal approval of the chair by the Leiden University Fund, van Vollenhoven approached the Queen, who ultimately held the proper authority to establish a chair and appoint Einstein. Her cabinet forwarded the request to the Ministry of Education, Arts, and Sciences, which in turn consulted its Board of Supervision (‘‘Commissie van Toezicht, bedoeld in art. 201 der H.O. wet’’). The Board saw no objections to 134 Jeroen van Dongen Phys. Perspect. allow the LUF to create a chair in physics. But it did raise a concern regarding the prospect of having Albert Einstein occupy that chair: objections possibly might be raised against his appointment ‘‘in view of his political principles.’’ 34 To justify its concern, the Board referred the Minister of Education, Johannes Theodoor de Visser (1857–1932), to a recent newspaper article in the liberal Nieuwe Courant entitled ‘‘Berlin University Life.’’35 This article described the general hostility toward the immediate postwar Ger- man Revolution of November 1918 that prevailed among Berlin university students. They had resumed their old nationalist traditions, which had been suspended when they first tested the waters after the revolution; now, however, the ‘‘nationalist- reactionary spirit dominated again,’’ and no opportunity to hold a nationalist protest went unobserved. The Berlin professors, too, had not learned anything from recent events. Still, the Nieuwe Courant’s correspondent noted, a minority did understand and appreciate the events of November 1918, among whom was Einstein. Reactionary Berlin students and professors especially singled out pacifists against whom they vented their anger: Recently, the Dutch paper informed its readers, Georg Nicolai’s lectures had been so severely disrupted that he had been forced to suspend them. Nicolai was Extraordinary Professor (ausserordentlicher Professor) of Medicine and Physiology, who within days after the infamous mili- taristic ‘‘Manifesto of the 93’’ was issued in October 1914 had drafted a counter ‘‘Manifesto to the Europeans’’; a little later he had fled Germany owing to the condemnation of his publications. Now, in 1920, after the disruptions of his classes, he was declared unfit for teaching altogether, since a university senate committee had found him guilty of committing treason during the war. Einstein circulated a statement in support of Nicolai,36 only to find his own lecture disrupted three weeks later: ‘‘instead of appreciation for the fact that the famous man of the theory of relativity teaches at their university, [rightist students] try to make his classes impossible by obstruction,’’ the Nieuwe Courant reported. Apparently unknown to the Dutch correspondent was that the obstruction of Einstein’s lecture had been motivated in part by his opening up of his classes essentially to anyone who wished to attend. Tuition-paying students objected, and had successfully protested Einstein’s open-door policy to the university authori- ties. Einstein initially demurred, and preferred to refund all student fees. This action was taken, but only after the tumultuous lecture had taken place. Another context, however, was also relevant to this story: Some Berlin newspaper reports claimed that anti-Semitic catcalls had been made during the disruptions. Einstein and the Rector of the University denied this. Yet, it would be quite imaginable: By opening up his lectures, Einstein had wished to accommodate a large group of immigrant students that consisted mostly of poor Jews who had fled pogroms in Eastern Europe. In the end, however, he decided against his own initiative, believing that these students would be better served by classes at some institution other than the University of Berlin.37 The Dutch authorities in The Hague were obviously unaware of these developments. In any case, they already had become Vol. 14 (2012) Mistaken Identity and Mirror Images 135 alarmed by the article in the Nieuwe Courant: they decided that Einstein merited a more thorough look before a decision on his Leiden chair could be reached. The Dutch government at the time consisted of a coalition of three popular confessional parties: the Roman Catholic State Party, the Christian Historical Union, and the protestant Anti-Revolutionary Party (whose name primarily reflected its opposition to the values of the French Revolution). The government had just created a new Ministry of Education, headed by de Visser, a former clergyman, and he and his Ministry were now dealing mostly with Einstein’s case. Officially, professorial searches in the Netherlands would not consider a can- didate’s political positions or religious beliefs; in reality, however, things worked differently. 38 Ever since a reform of higher education in 1815, university professors were regarded as such senior civil servants that their appointments required royal approval. After a major constitutional redraft in 1848 that limited the monarch’s actual powers, this in effect meant that these appointments were reviewed by the central government in The Hague, which also decided on the memberships of the governing boards of the universities; these ‘‘curators’’ often were seasoned administrators who themselves had served in The Hague. In the end, this entailed that, formally, local professors had little clout in the choice of their future col- leagues. Nevertheless, both professors and administrators usually had the same elitist background: religiously, they belonged to the well-established Dutch Reformed Church, and politically they were liberal; candidates proposed by the sitting faculty usually would have few problems being approved. The popular confessional parties, the same parties that were in the coalition government that would review Einstein’s appointment in 1920, wanted to change this status quo. At the beginning of the twentieth century, the protestant Anti- Revolutionary Party (ARP), whose constituents were members of the breakaway neo-Calvinist Reformed Church in the Netherlands, had labored to create special professorships at Dutch state universities. The ARP’s goal was to enable private societies and foundations to endow chairs and to have them filled by candidates who were not members of the traditional elite; of course, the ARP wished to have its own constituency’s candidates appointed to such special chairs, in particular in the humanities and law, and most definitely in theology. Leiden initially opposed this development, even if it offered the possibility to create chairs that were motivated primarily by scientific interests, or to broaden the curriculum offered to students. 39 Eventually, however, Leiden used the LUF to create special profes- sorships, like Einstein’s, for exactly these reasons.* * The LUF generally would spend its funds on improving education, for instance by awarding student and faculty scholarships. In 1918 it would endow a first special chair in public finances, held by Anton van Gijn, a former Minister of Finance; in 1920, along with Einstein’s chair, the LUF funded a special chair in tropical medicine; see Otterspeer, Een welbestierd budget (ref. 4), p. 58. It was van Vollenhoven’s idea for the LUF to endow special chairs; see de Kanter-Van Hettinga Tromp and Eyffinger, Cornelis van Vollenhoven (ref. 22), p. 31; idem, ‘‘Cornelis van Vollenhoven’’ (ref. 22), p. 315. 136 Jeroen van Dongen Phys. Perspect. The new Ministry of Education was headed by Christian party politicians from 1918 until 1933. It actively considered the religious denomination of professorial candidates, much to the dismay of the sitting faculty. Its goal was to achieve more diversity, reflecting the religious diversity of Dutch society at large. Nonetheless, socialists—who were regarded as too extreme and a liability—and women still would not be considered for positions at Dutch state universities. Objections also could be raised in regard to German candidates:40 local talent should be favored, since German chairholders often had chosen to return to Germany when oppor- tunities arose, and, as noted earlier, Dutch academics generally were fearful of being overrun by the dominant culture next door. Thus, in the end, the official policy of not considering a candidate’s personal background was regularly sidestepped in backroom dealings. Nevertheless, the majority of appointees were still of familiar liberal pedigree, and the issue actually was considered to be of immediate relevance only if a chair in the humanities was involved, in particular a professorship in theology.41 Given these circumstances, was it to be expected that Einstein would be considered a problematic candidate in The Hague? He was left-leaning and politically active: this would have raised discomfort and could prompt inquiries, as it indeed did following the article in the Nieuwe Courant. That Einstein was Jewish, should it have come up, would not have helped, nor that he could be seen as German. But there also were mitigating circumstances: In Einstein’s case, the Ministry of Education was dealing with a safe chair in physics, and only a special chair at that, funded by a private organ- ization. Thus, in the end, the Dutch civil service need not have been alarmed by a fear of inevitable and heated debates in parliament—yet, it soon would be alarmed, very much alarmed. Why? What Went Wrong in The Hague? ‘‘Why is the confirmation of your appointment being held up for so long?’’ Paul Ehrenfest asked Einstein in a letter of April 13, 1920, two months after the LUF had sent its request to the Ministry of Education, and a full month after its Board had referred the Minister to the article in the Nieuwe Courant. Ehrenfest still expected the matter to be resolved promptly, however, and remained convinced that it was an excellent idea for Einstein to travel to Holland two weeks later. Einstein arrived in Leiden on May 7. After a few days he reported home that his appointment was still running into ‘‘difficulties.’’ He also indicated that the ground for those difficulties was his ‘‘hot political reputation,’’ which would have made the Dutch authorities wary.42 His wife, Elsa Einstein-Löwenthal, was unhappy about these tidings: So everywhere people have it in for you because of your socialist beliefs! Even in Holland! Do me a favor and don’t act like such a furious Socialist; you are not one any more so than Ehrenfest and many others! Please finally put an end Vol. 14 (2012) Mistaken Identity and Mirror Images 137 to this stupid talk; at last, you are regarded everywhere as a raging revolu- tionary…. It is already bad enough that you won’t get the Nobel Prize because of this, and it should not go any further. A critical mind like you is not a communist!43 Elsa, of course, was right: Einstein was not a communist. He thought the Bol- sheviks do ‘‘not seem so bad,’’ but found their theories ‘‘ridiculous.’’ He was a democrat first, although at this time he was not convinced of the benefits of a welfare state; all in all, he seems not yet to have given too much thought to issues in political economy.44 It is therefore surprising that his wife said that he had the reputation of a ‘‘raging revolutionary.’’ Clearly, his reputation was much sharper than his actual positions warranted. In any case, Einstein still could not deliver his much-anticipated inaugural lecture in May, because the approval of his chair had not yet materialized. When some weeks later he set out to return to Berlin without the appointment to his new special chair, his wife scolded: ‘‘Now where is the appointment to the Dutch professorship? You have been put in a ridiculous position.’’ Elsa reminded him of the hurrying she had to impose on the staff at the Springer publishing house, which had printed Einstein’s inaugural lecture, and she worried about who was going to pick up the bill for it now that it could not be circulated.45 Instead of delivering his inaugural lecture, Einstein spoke to the Leiden Society for Scientific Lectures in the Academiegebouw (figure 5) with a number of dignitaries in attendance, and was elected as a member of the Royal Academy of Sciences in Amsterdam.46 Fig. 5. The central hall (Academiegebouw) of the University of Leiden in the early twentieth century. Credit: Beeldbank, Nationaal Archief, The Hague. 138 Jeroen van Dongen Phys. Perspect. Despite these festive occasions, however, Einstein’s Leiden colleagues were ‘‘greatly embarrassed.’’47 As Lorentz informed him: ‘‘if it had been in our power, the whole matter would have been ready on 10 February,’’ 48 but even a last-minute attempt at intervention in The Hague by Kamerlingh Onnes yielded no result. The Dutch authorities were indeed quite apprehensive about appointing Ein- stein. On March 26, 1920, more than a month before Einstein would travel to Holland, Minister of Education de Visser had invited LUF Board member van Vollenhoven and N.C. de Gijselaar, Mayor of Leiden and President-Curator of the University of Leiden, for a private consultation.49 After the article in the Nieuwe Courant had appeared, some very disturbing notices had been brought to the attention of the Ministry of Education: the office of the Attorney General had informed Minister de Visser that a year earlier it had received information from the Justice Department that: [A] certain dr. Eisenstein [sic, Einstein was meant] would be sent to the Netherlands from the revolutionary side in Germany, to start up a propaganda service in this country. He would come here with a passport that would appear to be in order, but is presumably false, and made in Berlin.50 That was not all: Eisenstein’s (Einstein’s) partner, a countess named ‘‘von der Hagen,’’ had turned up in France to participate in ‘‘bolshevist propaganda activi- ties’’; she too was suspected of traveling on a false passport.51 The Attorney General further referred Minister de Visser to a distressing secret memorandum that had been drafted on June 18, 1919, by a military intelligence officer for the benefit of a regional command center in Breda, close to the Dutch-Belgian border: I was informed yesterday that Dr. Einstein [not Eisenstein] and Countess Olga von Hagen [not von der Hagen] live in Berlin, Wilmersdorf, Uhlandstrasse. As I have pointed out to you earlier, both have lived in Brussels during the occu- pation of Belgium, where Dr. Einstein has repeatedly attempted to promote a revolution among the Belgians, and Olga von Hagen often published under the pen name ‘‘The Red Countess.’’ Her writings also intended to bring the Belgian population to revolt against the government. From receipts that I have seen lately, it seems to me that they maintained quite an extravagant lifestyle in Brussels. Both persons are closely watched and their departure for the Neth- erlands will certainly be reported in time.52 Minister de Visser (figure 6) must have been truly alarmed: this Einstein appeared to be a most undesirable character indeed, and certainly not someone he would like to appoint to a Leiden professorship, even if it was only a ‘‘special’’ chair. But de Visser did not dismiss the LUF request outright; as noted, he had called in van Vollenhoven and de Gijselaar for consultation. The former reported back to de Visser the day after their meeting: Vol. 14 (2012) Mistaken Identity and Mirror Images 139 It is with great pleasure that I can confirm to you that we are dealing with a case of mistaken identity. Professor Einstein has never lived at the address that you mentioned, is married to a little Jewess that has the same name as he does, does not consort with countesses, and has not lived in or spent time in Brussels during the war….53 Van Vollenhoven pointed out that there are many Einsteins living in Berlin (among them Alfred Einstein, the well-known musicologist) and that ‘‘our Albert E.’’ was a pacifist and an opponent of Prussian warmongers, but that could hardly be held against him. He again urged Minister de Visser to expedite the confir- mation of Einstein’s appointment, so that he could deliver his inaugural lecture shortly after the Easter break, sometime in April. As we know, Einstein’s appointment was not expedited. It appears that Min- ister de Visser and his staff simply did not do anything for another six weeks, until Einstein was about to arrive in Holland in early May. Then, instead of approving Einstein’s appointment, de Visser called in another authority for assistance: He sent a request to his colleague, the Minister of Foreign Affairs, asking him if no objection could be raised against the appointment of Albert Einstein (and not ‘‘the musician Alfred Einstein’’);54 additional reassurances from the physicists that Einstein ‘‘finds communism a stupidity’’ had been no help.55 Fig. 6. Johannes Theodoor de Visser (1857–1932), Minister of Education, Arts, and Sciences from 1918–1925 in 1918. Credit: Beeldbank, Nationaal Archief, The Hague. 140 Jeroen van Dongen Phys. Perspect. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs took two weeks to reply: on May 20, it reported to Minister of Education de Visser: An inquiry, conducted by Her Majesty’s ambassador in Berlin, [has established that] Professor Alfred [sic] Einstein is part of the far left wing of the democratic party. The notion that he would be connected to revolutionary circles could not be confirmed to Baron Gevers. The problems that the named Professor had some time ago with his students would not have been the consequence of his political views, but should be seen entirely as a result of the wish of the students to protest against the decision of Professor Einstein to allow the general public admission to his lectures. He would have been brought to this decision owing to his great vanity.56 So Baron Willem A.F. Gevers, the Dutch Ambassador in Berlin, established that even if this Alfred or Albert Einstein was not the safest of choices, he certainly was no Bolshevik rabble-rouser. De Visser, finally reassured, then dutifully passed on his approval of the LUF’s request to create a special chair in physics in Leiden to the full Council of Ministers and the Cabinet of the Queen. The Queen’s officials replied on June 9, confirming the approval of the creation of the special chair.57 But by this time, of course, Einstein had already left the country. However, even if Einstein had stayed in the Netherlands a little longer, there still would not have been enough time for him to accept the chair. Pushing papers from one high office to another took another couple of weeks, and only on June 25 did Queen Wilhelmina actually sign the official decree that allowed the LUF to create the chair.58 Nonetheless, Einstein at this point still could not be appointed to his special chair. Yet another obstacle had arisen: Einstein did not hold a Dutch doctorate. His appointment therefore needed one more full round of ministerial approvals and royal confirmations. The LUF thus again turned to Minister de Visser on July 26, 1920, and humbly submitted Einstein’s curriculum vitae for the perusal of his officials.59 De Visser again dutifully passed the request on to his Board of Supervision, once more seeking approval of the candidate Albert Einstein. This time the Board could ‘‘advise favorably,’’60 but only on the condition that de Visser was absolutely sure that: [All] doubts have been eradicated regarding the identity of the appointed professor and Dr. Einstein, who during 1919 has been observed as decidedly committed to the communist principles. To erase any lingering doubts, to be absolutely certain, once and for all, and to inform Minister de Visser as best it could, the Board included a physical description of ‘‘the communist Dr. Einstein’’: [R]ound head; robust physical appearance; 1.72 m[eters] tall; baldness at the temples, and advancing beyond the middle of the forehead; sideburns halfway along the ears; no moustache or beard; straight nose; big mouth; eyes stand apart from each other and are of an indefinable grey; wears a lorgnette or Vol. 14 (2012) Mistaken Identity and Mirror Images 141 glasses with horn rims, sometimes also a monocle; on his right hand a ring with a blue gem. This indeed would clear up all possible confusion, once and for all, since Albert Einstein obviously did not fit this description. Thus, on September 16, 1920, Minister de Visser finally requested Queen Wilhelmina to issue a decree that appointed Einstein to the newly-created special chair in Leiden. She did, five days later: Einstein now at last could hold his inaugural lecture on the ‘‘Ether and the Theory of Relativity’’ at 2 P.M. on October 27 in the large auditorium of the University of Leiden. Troubles in Berlin The almost five months between Einstein’s departure from Leiden at the end of May 1920 and his return on October 21 had been quite difficult for him—but his difficulties did not have much to do with the Dutch delays: Berlin had seen a full- blown anti-Einstein campaign kicked off by a certain Paul Weyland (1888–1972, figure 7).61 Weyland’s campaign constituted the first apogee of what has become known as the anti-relativity movement. Although Weyland’s actions appear to be unrelated to the Dutch delays, understanding the latter will nevertheless assist us in opening up a new perspective on the anti-relativists, as we shall see. On August 6, 1920, Weyland published an aggressive newspaper article claiming that Einstein, among other things, had plagiarized the work of others when he had formulated the theory of relativity. The article further contained thinly veiled anti-Semitic allusions and concluded that ‘‘German Science’’ had to close ranks and ‘‘settle scores.’’62 A few days later, Weyland announced a series of lectures that would reveal the truth about Einstein, who had unduly captivated the public’s imagination ever since the announcement of the eclipse results in 1919. Now, however, twenty lectures, to take place in Berlin’s Philharmonic Hall and organized by the Working Society of German Scientists for the Preservation of Pure Science, were going to break that spell. In all likelihood, the Working Society had only one member who had no sci- entific qualifications whatsoever: Weyland himself.63 Nevertheless, owing to the hubbub he had created, the large auditorium of the Berlin Philharmonic was filled to capacity on August 21, 1920. There were two speakers: Weyland and Ernst Gehrcke,64 an experimental physicist who had publicly resisted relativity as early as 1911. Gehrcke reportedly presented his arguments with some calm, but Wey- land ranted and raved like a demagogue.65 Meine Damen und Herren! Hardly ever in science has a scientific system been set up with such a display of propaganda as the general principle of relativity, which on closer inspection turns out to be in the greatest need of proof!66 Weyland claimed that Einstein had resorted to propaganda tactics because he had been unable to counter his academic critics in any other way. His charge of 142 Jeroen van Dongen Phys. Perspect. propaganda and media hyping was a familiar strategy among Berlin anti-Semites, fueled by the circumstance that some newspapers, for instance, the liberal and widely circulated Berliner Tageblatt, were owned or edited by Jews. 67 Paul Weyland was an obscure product of postwar Berlin, and following his action against Einstein (which he would exploit for a number of years) he grad- ually faded into the margins again.68 Einstein, like Weyland himself, initially believed that the latter had the support of a fair number of physicists and phi- losophers—these, like Nobelist and prominent anti-relativist Philipp Lenard, however, quickly melted away owing to the controversy that the Berlin event produced. After Weyland’s and Gehrcke’s lectures, only one other lecture in the announced series actually took place, and many anti-relativists soon distanced themselves from Weyland. Nevertheless, they would continue their—often highly vocal—opposition to the theory of relativity for many years. Weyland appears to have been motivated by an opportunistic desire for the limelight. His criticism, however, was inspired foremost by the many rightist political frustrations he bore. He was an active member of the Deutschnationale Volkspartei,69 a nationalist-conservative party that strongly opposed the Revolu- tion of November 1918 and the Weimar Republic. Culturally, he resisted modernist developments, and in an increasingly vehement manner he defended deutsch-völkisch values against perceived onslaughts from Poles and Jews.70 Fig. 7. Paul Weyland (1888–1972). Credit: Andreas Kleinert, private copy. Vol. 14 (2012) Mistaken Identity and Mirror Images 143 According to Weyland’s assessment, which he presented to his audience at the Philharmonic, Germany was suffering from intellectual and moral decay that had attracted ‘‘all kinds of adventurers, not only in politics, but also in art and science.’’ He claimed that the theory of relativity was being ‘‘thrown to the masses’’ in exactly the same way that the leftist ‘‘Dadaist gentlemen’’ promoted their prod- ucts. These, too, had nothing to do with observation of nature, as little as had the theory of relativity. Now, finally, a movement had arisen that was going to fight this ‘‘scientific Dadaism.’’71 Einstein was in the audience during Weyland’s and Gehrcke’s lectures. He wrote a reply in the Berliner Tageblatt a few days later. Upset and angry, he was convinced that his opponents were primarily politically motivated (‘‘if I were a German nationalist with or without a swastika instead of a Jew with liberal international views, then …’’).72 Einstein deemed the speakers in the Philharmonic ‘‘not worthy of an answer from my pen,’’ and found that Lenard, even if he had done valuable experimental work, had ‘‘not produced anything’’ of lasting value as a theorist. The Dutch press, like the German press, closely covered the events in Berlin,73 which was how Paul Ehrenfest learned of them: He immediately wrote to Einstein, imploring him not to allow himself to be dragged down into the dirt by his opponents. He also assured Einstein that, should he wish to leave Germany (as newspapers were reporting) Leiden undoubtedly would be able to accommodate him with a full position, even if initially it could commit itself formally for only a few years.74 When Einstein replied to Ehrenfest’s letter, he had calmed down consider- ably: He was already convinced that the ‘‘anti-relativity company is pretty much broke,’’ and that he would not have to leave Berlin.75 Lorentz meanwhile had informed Einstein that the special professorship would now finally be fully approved, and that he could expect to hold his inaugural lecture at the end of October.76 Before Einstein could leave Berlin for Leiden again, however, he first had to attend the meeting of the Gesellschaft Deutscher Naturforscher und Ärzte (Society of German Scientists and Physicians) in the resort town of Bad Nauheim. A public discussion on relativity had been scheduled there for Sep- tember 23, and everyone, including Germany’s newspapers, expected a standoff between Einstein and his opponents. Indeed, the audience, which had turned up in a substantial number, was treated to an intense yet factual exchange between Einstein and Lenard; Einstein would describe it as a ‘‘cockfight.’’ 77 Both came away from the debate feeling frayed; in fact, Einstein’s wife Elsa had fallen ill in Bad Nauheim, in part owing to the nervous and tense atmo- sphere surrounding the debate.78 Einstein surely would have been glad that following the event, after a comforting sojourn with Elsa and his children to her hometown of Hechingen, he finally could travel once again to Holland to deliver his inaugural lecture. 144 Jeroen van Dongen Phys. Perspect. What Dr. Einstein? But who was the mysterious ‘‘Dr. Einstein,’’ with ‘‘baldness at the temples,’’ ‘‘sideburns’’ but ‘‘no moustache or beard,’’ ‘‘straight nose,’’ ‘‘big mouth,’’ eyes that ‘‘stand apart from each other and are of an indefinable grey,’’ who ‘‘wears a lor- gnette or glasses with horn rims,’’ and most disturbing of all, was ‘‘committed to the communist principles’’? Was there a communist Einstein in Berlin or elsewhere who actually fit this description? Indeed there was. The railway police in Bamberg, Bavaria, reported on June 22, 1919, that they had ‘‘apprehended [a] person, presumably Einstein, … about 165 cm tall …; without beard, with sideburns, glasses, dark hair, bald on his forehead and the back of his head.’’ He also had ‘‘a deep scar from surgery behind his right ear’’ and ‘‘speaks slowly, calmly, and without an accent.’’79 He had been stopped on June 14 at the Bavarian border while traveling on a train from Berlin to Nürnberg, and had identified himself with a false passport–a military identifi- cation card in the name of a certain Paul Karl Körcher, which had greatly alarmed the police officers; they believed they were facing none other than Max Levien, the fugitive leader of the Munich branch of the German Communist Party. 80 Levien had been a prominent foreman of the short-lived Bavarian Soviet Republic (April 7—May 2–3, 1919), and widely-circulated wanted posters had offered a reward of 30,000 marks for aid in his arrest. Levien’s fellow Bavarian communist leaders had already been either killed or arrested. Nonetheless, neither Levien nor Paul Körcher had been apprehended; the railway police had indeed arrested Einstein– not Albert but Carl Einstein, author, avant-garde art critic, and radical revolutionary. Carl Einstein also was the person the Dutch authorities had confused with Albert Einstein: Carl Einstein did live in Berlin on Uhlandstrasse (at number 32, actually only a few blocks away from Albert Einstein at Haberlandstrasse 5), and he indeed was ‘‘consorting’’ with a countess, Aga von Hagen. But why would the Dutch authorities confuse a Berlin communist with the world’s most famous physicist? The neutral Dutch had followed developments during the war in nearby Brussels closely, but what exactly had happened there that would have made them apprehensive about Einstein, Carl or Albert? What role did Carl Einstein play in the communist movement? Were there other occasions in which the two Einsteins were confused? By answering these questions, we will gain new insight into the wider reception of Albert Einstein and his theory of relativity. Carl Einstein (figure 8) was born in Neuwied, near Koblenz, in 1885. He grew up in Karlsruhe, where his father became the principal of a school. His parents were Reform Jews; his family was unrelated to Albert Einstein’s.81 Carl, like Albert, had dropped out of high school (Gymnasium). In 1904 he went to Berlin to study; he enrolled in courses in philosophy, art history, history, and classical lan- guages. As a young man, he shared with Albert a fascination for Ernst Mach’s ideas; Carl was particularly impressed by Mach’s notion of an ‘‘element of Vol. 14 (2012) Mistaken Identity and Mirror Images 145 sensation’’—he later would argue that the Cubists had captured particularly well a Mach-like sense of observation, just as he himself would try to capture this in his own literary writings. 82 He ended his university studies in 1908 without graduating (so he actually was not a ‘‘Dr.’’), and set out to make a living for himself as an author and critic. His experimental novel, Bebuquin oder die Dilettanten des Wunders (Bebuquin or the Dilettantes of Wonder), which appeared in various installments beginning in 1908 and as a book in 1912,83 quickly made him distinctly noted in the literary world. In 1913 he married Maria Ramm; their marriage would be dissolved in the early 1920s. Carl Einstein began his career as an expressionist: He belonged to the group of authors and artists who wished to revolt against the bourgeois values and culture of Wilhelminian Germany, and did so by presenting new, antinaturalist forms. 84 Art had to resist the unfree aristocratic world and the state’s rationalizing forces: Everyone should aspire to a free and communal society, and many expressionists, himself included, would feel at home with anarchist views. He considered himself to be a radical revolutionary, but before 1915 his desired revolution was primarily cultural and ethical, rather than concretely political. According to Carl Einstein, most post-Impressionist painting had become too decorative and aspired too little to an objective ideal. To arrive at true art and a true philosophy, he demanded that the usual way of representation be destroyed, and that a new representation be formed from the perspective of idealistic aes- thetic interpretations. He would demand a similar interaction—a continual tearing down and building up, a permanent struggle through crisis and dialectic criticism— Fig. 8. Carl Einstein (1885–1940) as sketched by Ludwig Meidner (1884–1966) in 1913. Credit: Ludwig Meidner Archive, Jüdisches Museum der Stadt Frankfurt am Main. 146 Jeroen van Dongen Phys. Perspect. for his own writing and for his own life, even for his daily life; Carl Einstein was engaging, provocative, full of unrest, and characterized by a jerky intensity.85 He had the personality of a revolutionary, and wished to produce and promote rev- olutionary art. After the publication of Bebuquin, he wanted to write in a still ‘‘more radical’’ way ‘‘to create a completely new mind for this age.’’ There could be no compromise: ‘‘I have to be unbearably fanatic, almost impossible to put up with. Otherwise I consider my work a failure.’’ 86 Carl Einstein was an early and strong supporter of Cubist art (figure 9). In his opinion, it was the perfect starting point from which painting could move beyond the decorative: Cubism opposed the stylized and scientific ‘‘forgery’’ that was the norm, and instead managed to capture experiential reality with its suggestions of spatial and temporal extension.87 He would regularly travel to Paris and there met Pablo Picasso, Georges Braque, and Juan Gris. They, and the circles to which they belonged, had begun to appreciate sub-Saharan African art, even though Euro- pean art criticism until then had largely dismissed African sculpture as primitive. Carl Einstein would be one of the earliest critics to discuss it in the context of Western aesthetic norms in his book, Negerplastik,88 which at the same time outlined a wider programmatic view for Cubism. Its publication in 1915 estab- lished his reputation as an art critic. Fig. 9. Le Guitariste by Pablo Picasso (1881–1973). Credit: Musée National d’Art Moderne, Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris, � Pablo Picasso, Le Guitariste, 1910 c/o Pictoright Amsterdam 2011. Vol. 14 (2012) Mistaken Identity and Mirror Images 147 Negerplastik came out while Carl Einstein was serving in the German army. He had enlisted as a volunteer, inspired by the euphoric ‘‘Spirit of 1914’’ that had swept through Germany at the outbreak of the Great War. His enthusiasm was not exceptional among expressionists: the war was welcomed by many of them as the much-desired sharp break with an odious and complacent peace.89 After serving in the Alsace region, he was ordered to Brussels in 1916, the center of the German administration on the Western front. He worked there in a subordinate position in the colonial department of the German civil administration. Soon his revolu- tionary spirit turned, however, to concrete political action:90 He became one of the prominent figures in the Soldiers’ Council of Brussels, the Soviet of German sol- diers who revolted against their former commanders and ruled the city for a short and turbulent period in November 1918. The Soldiers’ Council marked the end of the German occupation of Belgium. By August 1918, after an often brutal occupation, it had become clear that Ger- many stood in a lost position; it began to withdraw its troops in mid-October. The troops then turned against their commanding officers, as in Germany itself, and on November 9, 1918, the day on which the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II was announced, the Soldiers’ Council took over the civil administration in Brussels.91 For a few days, the Council attempted to be the city’s central authority and directed the withdrawal of troops; Carl Einstein (figure 10) was its press officer. He also would function as its representative in consultations with Belgian officials Fig. 10. Carl Einstein (1885–1940) as sketched by Rudolf Grossmann (1882–1941) in 1921. Below the middle image, Carl Einstein had written, ‘‘Et quand même c’est moi qui a fait la révolution en Belgique!’’ Source: Carl Einstein, Werke (ref. 118), inside front cover. 148 Jeroen van Dongen Phys. Perspect. and emissaries from neutral countries.92 He thus was one of the key figures in the operation of the Soldiers’ Council. The Council’s revolutionary character was exhibited in the way in which Carl Einstein dealt with his former superiors in the deliberations on the withdrawal of German troops. On the first day of its operation, neutral diplomatic representa- tives of the Netherlands and Spain, the president of the Belgian national relief committee, and the former leaders of the German civil government—the last were now stripped of their uniforms and regalia—were assembled for a meeting with the Soldiers’ Council. Local city officials who were present recalled the unusual event: After a little while a door swung open, and someone in civilian clothes, wearing a monocle and with half of his skull wrapped in bandages, walked up. This strange fellow was called Einstein; he had been an art critic in Paris and, just until yesterday, he was a small-time junior employee in the German adminis- tration of Wallonia in Namur, under the command of Governor Haniel…. ‘‘I am,’’ he said [without looking at the German officers]…, ‘‘a member of the Council of Soldiers and Workers…. [Von] der Lancken [chief of the political department of the German administration] (who Einstein indicated by pointing his finger at him, while omitting his title of baron) … told me that I could find everyone here….’’ After this preamble, Einstein straightened himself. While walking around, looking angrily at Moltke, Rantzau and the others [members of the local German command], he said in a loud voice: ‘‘This abysmal imperial regime has come to an end. As of today, the Council of Soldiers and Workers intends to succeed the oppression and tyranny that has weighed on Belgium for so long with a humane and loyal regime. The German soldiers don’t want anything except to leave Belgium as quickly as possible. Let’s allow them to leave and try, from all sides, to avoid any conflicts! I have been commissioned by my comrades of the Council to see if there is any measure that we can take in the interest of resupplying Belgium during the period of the evacuation.’’ 93 At this, the Spanish envoy indicated that the Belgian national relief committee had organized the provisioning of the country, and that it would be most helpful if its workers would not be hindered in any way. Einstein turned to Count von Moltke: ‘‘Off to the telephone! Call up the general in charge of waterways and tell him that I give orders that things should happen as has just been said!’’ He added, with his gaze fixed on his compatriots: ‘‘The Council of Soldiers and Workers at present calls the shots, and that implies that its orders are to be followed up on the spot! The odious oppression that this population has had to suffer has to stop. All Belgian civilians who have been arrested and jailed during the occupation have been released on my order.’’94 Vol. 14 (2012) Mistaken Identity and Mirror Images 149 The relief committee’s leader concurred with the suggestion of the Spanish emissary, but also complained that some of his supplies had been requisitioned by the occupying forces. Einstein reacted furiously: Einstein, in a menacing manner, turned to the Governor of Wallonia, Haniel, to whom he had been quite subordinate only yesterday. Shaking his fist, he yelled at him: ‘‘Sir, I am very surprised by what the president of the National Committee has just said. Why are you not acting in line with my orders? Take note of those I am giving you right now!’’ While the gang of barons and counts listened without uttering a word, ex- Governor Haniel humbly took a notebook from his pocket and meekly wrote Einstein’s directions down.95 Three days later, on November 13, Carl Einstein was still excited about the latest developments, in particular about rumors that the troops at the front were fra- ternizing. Later that day, however, he seemed worn out and dejected, and advised a friend to leave Belgium as quickly as possible.96 The Council’s rule soon collapsed. Sybille Penkert, in her most useful, early study on Carl Einstein, has suggested that he and the Council played a constructive role toward a more or less orderly evacuation of Brussels.97 Yet, some who had direct dealings with Einstein have painted a different picture: The Dutch Ambassador, M.W.R. van Vollenhoven (yes, another namesake), for example, wrote in his memoirs that Carl Einstein, ‘‘not knowing anymore how to get out of trouble,’’ at one point had asked him and the Spanish ambassador to mediate between the Soldiers’ Council and the Belgian authorities—thus, in effect, disqualifying Einstein’s own role. Various factions in the German army had begun fighting each other, and the Soldiers’ Council kept issuing conflicting orders, while the German troops fired on the Belgian popula- tion; Einstein, as an excuse to van Vollenhoven for their assault, suggested that the Belgian citizens had turned on the German soldiers. By now, however, the Dutch ambassador had seen enough of the chaos, and he promptly sought a transfer of power from the Germans to local Belgian authorities, as indeed was effected on November 13. One of the Belgians’ first measures was to rearrest some of the criminals whom Carl Einstein had released.98 Thus, the events in Brussels that were contained in the Dutch intelligence report are now clarified. But what about ‘‘the Red Countess Olga von Hagen’’? Her actual name was Agathe von Hagen (ca. 1872–1949), and she was indeed a countess. She and Carl Einstein had met through Gottfried Benn, the expressionist author and close acquaintance of Einstein who also was in Brussels. Von Hagen was employed as a social worker by the German authorities and became Einstein’s partner for more than a decade; an acquaintance called her ‘‘sympathetic and humane,’’ and Benn found her ‘‘royal’’ and ‘‘wonderful.’’99 She was well connected: when Carl was apprehended by the police in Bamberg, he gave her name, along 150 Jeroen van Dongen Phys. Perspect. with that of the National Minister of Internal Affairs (Reichsminister des Innern) Eduard David, as references for identification purposes; David was a close friend of von Hagen. 100 She and Carl Einstein made an odd couple; they have been characterized as the personification of the contradictions between charitableness and criticism. Whereas the excitable Einstein could be ‘‘uncouth,’’ Countess von Hagen appeared ‘‘calm,’’ even during the German collapse and revolutionary storm that swept through Brussels.101 We can safely conclude that Dutch officials in The Hague had confused Albert Einstein with Carl Einstein. The latter would have been in their files, since in nearby Brussels he had evolved into a communist revolutionary leader. The rebellion that led to the Soldiers’ Council in Brussels should be seen as an integral part of the German Revolution of November 1918. Its leaders were also strongly inspired by the Russian Revolution of the preceding year; they had adopted both its vocabulary and its Soviet ideology. Carl Einstein left Brussels both with the conviction that political action inspired by that ideology could be successful, and with the will to put this conviction into practice. After the collapse of the Soldiers’ Council in Brussels, he quickly departed for Berlin in the middle of November,102 filled with an urgent desire for revolutionary political action. Dutch Revolutionary Fears and Professorial Appointments On Armistice Day, November 11, 1918, Carl Einstein had opened the ‘‘official’’ meeting of the Central Soldiers’ Council in Brussels.103 That same day, only 140 kilometers to the north in Rotterdam, the leader of the Dutch Social Dem- ocratic Labor Party (SDAP), Pieter Jelles Troelstra (1860–1930, figure 11), had proclaimed at a party meeting that ‘‘the working class in the Netherlands at this moment seizes political power. It will have to constitute itself as a revolutionary power,’’ and he had repeated his proclamation the next day in parliament.104 Despite the Dutch government’s best efforts, the revolutionary fever had not been contained to Brussels or to Berlin, but also had arrived in the Netherlands. There were substantial differences, however, and by the end of the week it was clear that a Dutch revolution had failed; in fact, it had never really got off the ground. The majority of the SDAP and union leadership had not been in favor of Troelstra’s move, and did not follow suit. The country had held its first general election just a few months earlier, and only twenty-five percent of the vote had gone to the socialists; in these circumstances, a revolution could hardly expect broad popular support. Troelsta, however, closely following events in Germany, was afraid that the SDAP would lose the revolutionary momentum to communists and anarchists. His proclamations created quite an upheaval, but he soon had to admit that he had been ‘‘mistaken.’’ The SDAP subsequently passed a motion stating that it would remain a legal and democratic party, and would only join any revolution if the majority of the Dutch working class supported it; this, however, was unlikely to transpire because of its large membership in confessional groups. Vol. 14 (2012) Mistaken Identity and Mirror Images 151 Unions associated with these groups also had rallied to resist the revolution, and what became known as ‘‘Troelstra’s mistake’’ soured political relations between socialists and other political parties for a long time. Still, regardless of Troelstra’s failure, the Dutch Cabinet, in which Minister of Education de Visser served, had been jolted by it, and had become deadly afraid of revolutionary councils and their leaders, such as Carl Einstein: Reports that Russian Bolsheviks had allocated extensive reserves for bankrolling ‘‘propaganda’’ services in Western Europe further fueled anxieties, and some Dutch Cabinet members feared a renewed effort by Troelstra in the near future.105 Many of the Dutch government’s social policies were directed at heading off such revolutionary attempts. Christian politics usually worked toward this end by co-optation: By promoting the organization of labor movements under a Christian banner, and by piecemeal improving the social plight of the working classes through legislation, one tried to keep the working poor inside the various churches and their affiliated organizations. Minister de Visser himself, earlier in his career when still a clergyman, had formed a local chapter of a Christian labor organi- zation that aspired to gradual social change; his belief had been that only the Christian faith held the promise of harmonious coexistence of the proprietary and working classes.106 Obviously, the leaders of the Christian people’s parties, including de Visser, thus very much would wish to keep revolutionary agitators out of professorial chairs. Fig. 11. Pieter Jelles Troelstra (1860–1930), Dutch socialist leader. Credit: Wikimedia Commons. 152 Jeroen van Dongen Phys. Perspect. Albert Einstein’s difficult appointment procedure was not the only example. In April 1920, Ehrenfest informed Einstein of his hunches as to why Einstein’s appointment was being held up: Probably, the Minister [de Visser], owing to the Bolshevik actions (as leaders and propagandists) of some professors here in this country, is having confirmed in Berlin that you are not another bolshevism-propagandist. The more famous you are, the more care he needs to take that you are not possibly some agitator, before pressing you to his breast!107 A particular case that Ehrenfest would have had in mind would have been the failed appointment in Leiden of the astronomer Antonie Pannekoek (1873–1960, figure 12), which fell through in the spring of 1919, less than a year before Ein- stein’s appointment came up. The case of Pannekoek is revealing, as historian David Baneke has shown,108 in particular owing to the heightened sensitivities as a consequence of Troelstra’s actions. Pannekoek was both a prominent astronomer and a prominent theorist of socialism, and he insisted that the two parts of his intellectual persona were strictly separate. In astronomy he was known, for example, for his work on the detailed structure of the Milky Way; as a socialist, he stood to the left of Troelstra’s SDAP: In his view, the revolution had to arise directly out of the people, and he opposed strict party discipline. His contributions to socialist theory were greatly appreci- ated: In 1906 the German Social Democratic Party had invited him to become a Fig. 12. Astronomer and socialist Anton Pannekoek (1873–1960), ca. 1906–1910. Credit: University Library, University of Amsterdam. Vol. 14 (2012) Mistaken Identity and Mirror Images 153 lecturer at its party school in Berlin, and Lenin, for example, had been an admirer of his work.109 Pannekoek would work as an ideologue in Germany until 1914 when, at the outbreak of the Great War, he returned to Holland and took up a teaching post in a secondary school, along with a position as an unpaid lecturer (Privaatdocent) at the Leiden Observatory. On March 3, 1918, Ernst Frederik van de Sande Bakhuysen, the elderly director of the Leiden Observatory, died. Local administrators proposed Willem de Sitter (1872–1934) as his successor, who insisted that two adjuncts also should be appointed: the Dane Ejnar Hertzsprung (1873–1967), who would head the Observatory’s astrophysical department, and Pannekoek, who would head its Meridian Department. In October 1918, Minister de Visser accepted de Sitter’s proposal—just a few weeks before ‘‘Troelstra’s mistake’’—but delayed its execu- tion until further notice. Then, early in 1919, articles began to appear in the Dutch press on Pannekoek’s communist connections: some alleged that he had received funds from Russia for propaganda purposes in Holland, and that he would have been elected as honorary president of a revolutionary Soviet Council in Hungary, where Béla Kun’s revolution was underway. There was no basis of truth to the first story, but there was some substance to the second—even if Pannekoek had had no hand in his honorary Hungarian election. De Sitter lost his patience: ‘‘What are you really,’’ he asked Pannekoek, ‘‘a communist or an astronomer’’? Pannekoek explained that he had not been politically active since his return to the Netherlands. He had completely ‘‘returned to science’’; it was not his fault if the Dutch government wished to sacrifice science to political interests.110 The appearance of another newspaper report, pointing out that a known communist was about to be appointed to a prestigious post in the Leiden Oberservatory, sealed his fate: The next day, on May 3, 1919, de Visser announced that ‘‘under no conditions’’ would he appoint Pannekoek, ‘‘in view of the national interest.’’111 Meanwhile, de Visser had accepted de Sitter. Leiden’s curators subsequently dropped their lobby on Pannekoek’s behalf; de Visser’s refusal in The Hague had been too categorical, and could not be expected to be overturned, in particular in light of Troelstra’s failed revolution. The Chairman of the Curators, de Gijselaar, summed up the sentiment regarding Pannekoek: ‘‘those red gentlemen never keep their word,’’ since at the slightest sign of unrest ‘‘they become unhinged.’’112 Socialists in parliament raised the turn of events with de Visser: They charged that he was conducting a ‘‘political inquisition in higher education,’’ and besides, Pannekoek could hardly be expected to ‘‘raise havoc with the stars.’’113 De Visser would not budge: this candidate supported the overthrow of the State, and thus was patently unfit as an educator—certainly at times when ‘‘every foundation is shaking.’’114 A motion of disapproval of de Visser’s actions did not get a majority. Pannekoek soon became lecturer at the University of Amsterdam, which as a city institution did not need de Visser’s approval to appoint its faculty; furthermore, 154 Jeroen van Dongen Phys. Perspect. Amsterdam’s city council had a solid contingent of communist and socialist members.* In the case of Pannekoek’s proposed appointment at Leiden, it appears that all parties involved were more or less informed about his communist background from the outset. It thus may seem surprising that de Visser initially agreed to it. However, this of course was a chair in the uncontroversial subject of astronomy, and Pannekoek had retired from publishing on political subjects. In any case, Pannekoek himself had feared all along that approval of his appointment would fall through in the end,115 and indeed, in the wake of the Troelstra affair, the Dutch government threw out his candidacy when newspapers began to report on it. This course of events strongly suggests that the Dutch government may have feared adverse public opinion at least as much as any actual revolutionary threat that Pannekoek may have presented. In either case, after Troelstra’s actions both the Dutch government and the public at large would not and did not accept the appointment of a communist at Leiden. Thus, given their fresh experience with Pannekoek, it is not surprising that Dutch authorities subjected Albert Einstein to such an elaborate and meticulous appointment procedure, and that he ran into similar problems, particularly since they initially believed that they were dealing with a far more dangerous person than a retired theorist of socialism. Only after it had been spelled out and con- firmed again and again that this Einstein was a different sort of revolutionary than the other Einstein, could the former Einstein be appointed to a special chair in Leiden. The ‘‘Communist Einstein’’ At the end of the Great War, while Carl Einstein hastily departed from Belgium, Albert Einstein’s name was circulating in the Berlin press in relation to various democratic initiatives in Germany. On November 13, 1918, he gave a lecture at a public meeting that was attended by more than a thousand people and was prominently reported on. He spoke out in support of the November Revolution, but he strongly warned against a violent and undemocratic ‘‘tyranny of the * The willingness of Amsterdam’s City Council to appoint ‘‘red’’ professors was already in evidence when it made Gerrit Manoury (1867–1956) Professor of Mathematics at the University of Amsterdam in 1918. In 1920, de Visser requested that the University of Amsterdam’s curators investigate the recent political activity of Manoury and Pannekoek (rumors were circulating that they had attended a meeting of the Comintern). The Uni- versity’s curators replied that they saw no need for such a step: Neither one had misbehaved or neglected their duties, nor had they been engaged in propaganda activities; see Knegt- mans, ‘‘Politiek aan de Nederlandse universiteiten’’ (ref. 41), p. 114; for the City Council’s stewardship of the Amsterdam Physics Department in this period, see A.J.P. Maas, Atom- isme en individualisme. De Amsterdamse natuurkunde tussen 1877 en 1940 (Hilversum: Verloren, 2001), chapters 3–4, pp. 89–158. Vol. 14 (2012) Mistaken Identity and Mirror Images 155 Left.’’116 Albert Einstein thus stepped forward as a prominent voice in the political arena, but not as an anarchist revolutionary. Did only Dutch officials confuse Albert and Carl Einstein? Or were there other times and places where they could be or in fact were mixed up? Albert thought so: in an interview in December 1919 for the Neues Wiener Journal, he stated that, ‘‘In various newspapers I am portrayed as an emphatic Communist and anarchist, obviously due to confusion with someone who has a similar name. Nothing is farther from my mind than anarchist ideas.’’117 As we will see, Carl Einstein’s continued and visible role in a number of revolutionary efforts would produce ample opportunities to tangle up the two. On his return to Berlin in the middle of November 1918, Carl Einstein immediately entered the revolutionary fray. He published communist appeals, for example, ‘‘To the intellectuals–One thing remains to be done: to make a com- munist society a reality,’’118 and he was involved in the violence that took place in the Berlin newspaper quarter (Zeitungsviertel) during the Spartacist uprising.119 At its conclusion, on January 16, 1919, a day after communist leaders Rosa Lux- emburg and Karl Liebknecht were murdered, the leftist paper Freiheit prominently reported on its front page the arrest of ‘‘the author Carl Einstein,’’ and claimed that it had taken place without any probable cause. 120 Later, Carl was part of Berlin’s brutal March battles (Märzkämpfe) that followed a general strike and involved summary executions by government-backed paramilitaries; after- wards he had to live as a fugitive, ‘‘fleeing from house to house,’’ in the words of artist George Grosz (figure 13).121 Carl Einstein’s name surfaced again in the press in April and May of 1919 as he lectured at the second Congress of Soviets in Berlin (figure 14). In the following month, just before he traveled to Bavaria, newspapers reported that Rosa Lux- emburg’s corpse had been recovered from a Berlin canal. Carl was one of six speakers at the ceremony commemorating her passing—a ceremony at which thousands were present. According to one account in the daily 8-Uhr-Abendblatt, many Spartacists had spoken in an inflammatory manner at the event. The paper particularly singled out ‘‘the communist Einstein’’ (note: identified without his first name), who would have tried to incite the crowd to ‘‘pick up by surprise and kill,’’ not only those responsible for Luxemburg’s murder, but also those who had silently condoned it.122 Denials soon appeared in Republik and Freiheit from attendees, and from Carl Einstein himself: The 8-Uhr-Abendblatt had given an entirely false representation of what had transpired; the faulty report had been due, according to Einstein, to an attempt to slander his name and that of other communists.123 The events at the commemoration of Luxemburg resurfaced in a Munich newspaper that recounted the police apprehension of the ‘‘communist Einstein’’ (note: identified again without his first name) near Bamberg. Carl Einstein had been on his way to Nürnberg to lecture at a political rally, but on June 18, 1919, after his arrest and after the local police received confirmation of his identity, he 156 Jeroen van Dongen Phys. Perspect. was directed to return to Berlin. 124 The Berlin press, in their accounts of his arrest, added to the story new twists (‘‘Einstein would have loaned his passport to Le- vien’’) and turns (there would have been a ‘‘campaign against Einstein’’). Most surprising was a new claim that Carl Einstein’s supposed incitement at Luxem- burg’s graveside had been fabricated by press officers of a paramilitary Freikorps that, in fact, was under the command of those responsible for her murder.125 Relevant for our purposes is that with the repeated mention of a Berlin com- munist Einstein in the press (at times with the omission of a first name), it could be expected that Albert Einstein would indeed appear to some as a leftist radical, or could be completely confused with Carl Einstein, as in The Hague. His unfounded reputation as a communist, which to the chagrin of his wife accompanied Albert Einstein in the early years of the Weimar Republic,* seems attributable, at least in part, to Carl Einstein’s public presence. Fig. 13. George Grosz (1893–1959), cover of Die Pleite (April 1919). The caption reads: ‘‘Cheers Noske—the proletariat has been disarmed!’’ Gustav Noske (1868–1946), Social Democratic Minister of Defense, was ultimately responsible for the violent quelling of the communist revolts in early 1919. Die Pleite was a leftist magazine to which both Grosz and Carl Einstein contributed. Courtesy of: University of Iowa, Dada digital collection, � 2011, ProLitteris, Zürich. * Albert Einstein’s ‘‘red’’ reputation would stay with him, even after his permanent departure for the United States in 1933; see Fred Jerome, The Einstein File: J. Edgar Hoover’s Secret War Against the World’s Most Famous Scientist (New York: St. Martin’s Griffin, 2002). Vol. 14 (2012) Mistaken Identity and Mirror Images 157 After the most turbulent months of the Revolution of November 1918 had passed, Carl Einstein remained a prominent communist activist; at times, however, he would suspend his political agenda or revise his positions. He quickly became disappointed with developments in Germany, but persisted in a personal and artistic rebellion. His alter ego, Bebuquin, expressed in a sequel his frustrations with the outcome of events in 1919: [The] atmosphere of the Berlin revolution … consists of a lack of leadership; careerism of socialists; salonbolsheviks; aristos etc. against the university, against the Nazis with their paid professional revolutionaries, faced on the other side by communist functionaries.126 Carl Einstein’s disenchantment with Weimar politics strengthened his renewed immersion in art;127 his iconoclasm in the arts, of course, in turn also remained as a way to continue his resistance to bourgeois values. In July 1921, Carl’s work, Die schlimme Botschaft (The Bad News), 128 was published. In it Jesus Christ was crucified again, but this time in the acerbic Fig. 14. Max Beckmann (1884–1950), Die Ideologen (1919). Litograph number six in a portfolio of eleven called The Hell, documenting Beckmann’s Dantesque journey through postwar Berlin. Heinrich Mann (1871–1950) is lecturing at this leftist salon while below him Max Beckmann, hand over mouth, closes his eyes in disgusted despondency. Carl Einstein (1885–1940) stands behind Mann, stoically, and Agathe von Hagen (ca. 1872–1949) gazes upward, crossing her arms. Credit: National Galleries of Scotland. 158 Jeroen van Dongen Phys. Perspect. atmosphere of postwar Germany. The work initially appeared to fall flat, but it eventually drew the attention of rightist circles, which led to a spectacular blas- phemy trial. Carl Einstein was convicted, and, by now very publically visible, he was attacked as a Jew and socialist.129 This event marked the end of his literary career. He continued as an ever-more-prominent art critic, however, and returned to Paris in 1928. He did not terminate his political engagement, even if his involvement with elitist art seemed to contradict his role as an intellectual who stood on the extreme left. In 1936 he joined the Spanish Civil War and fought on the side of the anarcho-syndicalists against Franco. After their defeat, he returned to France, where at the outbreak of the Second World War he was placed, as a German, in an internment camp. Upon his release during the German invasion, Carl Einstein (figure 15) fled to the Pyrenees where in the end, in 1940, he took his own life. Mirror Images We have seen a number of possible and actual occasions in which Albert Einstein and Carl Einstein were misidentified. This has shown, among other things, why Albert Einstein’s Leiden chair was so much delayed, and how it could be that many saw him as politically much more radically leftist than he actually was. This public misconception likely would have been reinforced by the circumstance that Fig. 15. Carl Einstein (1885–1940) in 1939. Credit: Bibliothek der Freien, Berlin. Vol. 14 (2012) Mistaken Identity and Mirror Images 159 both Einsteins were perceived as modernist intellectuals.130 In many ways, Albert and Carl were not just namesakes, but also each other’s mirror image. Albert, too, was labeled a ‘‘revolutionary,’’ even if he himself may not have chosen that title. 131 His revolution was in science, not in politics or art, and it succeeded, while many of the attempts of Carl, who unlike Albert strenuously sought the revolutionary epithet, failed. By 1918 Albert played the role of revolutionary reluctantly—yet his revolution was eventually as much in the public eye as those Carl pursued. This suggests that we could learn more by a further comparison of the two, which I now will undertake. My emphasis will be on what it can teach us about the reception of relativity. Let us first return to Paul Weyland and his very vocal opposition to relativity in the summer of 1920. The metaphor of mirror images suggests itself in his case directly—so much so that one wonders whether Weyland in fact did confuse Albert and Carl, or rather chose to play on their possible confusion. For example, a year earlier, in May 1919, Carl lectured at the Berlin Philharmonic on the ‘‘political responsibility of the intellectual’’ in a series organized by the Soviet newspaper, Räte Zeitung, that was to mark the founding of a Soviet Society (Räte Bund); the Society’s goal was to promote and deepen Soviet ideology.132 Carl was one of two speakers that night. These coincidental similarities with Weyland’s event actually may not have been coincidental: Weyland’s later Philharmonic event and his Working Society look like a mirror image of Carl’s event, even if political events at the Berlin Philharmonic were not uncommon. Did Weyland perhaps choose the location and format of his evening on purpose, as tacit ref- erence to Carl’s appearance? We also saw that Weyland drew explicit parallels between an alleged marketing of relativity and Dadaists’ practices. Did Carl Einstein also have any Dadaist credentials? Carl Einstein is not usually identified as a member of the Dada movement: He did not participate in Dada events, nor did he publish in Dada periodicals. Nonetheless, during 1919 and 1920 he collaborated intensively with George Grosz and the brothers Wieland and Helmut Herzfeld (the latter used the pen name John Heartfield), all of whom were prominent members of the Berlin Dada group. Carl Einstein shared his desire for political revolution and antipathy to bourgeois culture with them, even if they differed on what political and social role art ought to play.133 He contributed articles to the Herzfelds’ politically-oriented periodical Die Pleite (see figure 13 above), and together with Grosz he composed the satirical magazine Der blutige Ernst (figure 16). Grosz and Carl Einstein declared that their magazine ‘‘pinpoints Europe’s sicknesses, catalogs the total collapse of the conti- nent, combats the deadly ideologies and institutions that caused the war, and confirms the bankruptcy of Western culture’’—in its pages the tone and themes of George Grosz’s artwork and Carl Einstein’s writing complemented each other naturally.134 Even if Der blutige Ernst was not a Dada publication, Grosz was already well known as one of Dada’s leading Berlin representatives; some of that reputation would easily have rubbed off on Carl Einstein. 160 Jeroen van Dongen Phys. Perspect. Der blutige Ernst ceased publication in February 1920, and Carl Einstein, despite his collaboration, appears not to have warmed much to Dadaist art and its typical photomontage technique. The Dada group, in turn, seems to have had a lukewarm opinion of Carl Einstein’s views on art.135 In a photomontage entitled Pablo Picasso: La vie heureuse. Dr. Karl Einstein gewidmet (Pablo Picasso: The Happy Life. Dedicated to Dr. Karl Einstein, figure 17), which was included in the first International Dada Fair, Grosz and Heartfield pasted together a Picasso reproduction and the eyes of a bourgeois resembling Carl Einstein, along with a Freikorps officer and the word ‘‘Noske,’’ the name of the reviled social democrat who was held accountable for much of the government’s violence of the preceding year. The composition rendered Carl Einstein’s Cubist fixations as an expression of odious establishment tastes. The Dada fair generated wide media attention, as intended. Rightist dailies were outraged by its artworks, and the exhibition was subjected to a lawsuit for defamation of the German army.136 It was held in the center of Berlin, close to the Philharmonic, and took place from June 30 to August 25, 1920. Weyland thus had scheduled his anti-relativity event exactly on the eve of the end of the Dada fair. Carl was not the only Einstein depicted at the fair; also on display was Hannah Höch’s collage, Schnitt mit dem Küchenmesser. Dada durch die letzte weimarer Bierbauchkulturepoche Deutschlands (Cut with a Kitchen Knife. Dada through the Fig. 16. George Grosz (1893–1959) and Carl Einstein (1885–1940), advertising pamphlet for Der blutige Ernst (1919). Courtesy of: University of Iowa, Dada digital collection, � 2011, ProLitteris, Zürich. Vol. 14 (2012) Mistaken Identity and Mirror Images 161 Last Weimar Beer-Belly Cultural Epoch of Germany, figure 18). In it a front-page photograph of Albert Einstein from the Berliner Illustrirter Zeitung figured prominently, together with pictures of, among others, Kaiser Wilhelm II, rightist Putschist Wolfgang Kapp, artist Käthe Kollwitz, and Karl Marx. Those whom Höch viewed favorably—those who opposed conservative values and reactionary politics—were placed close to the word ‘‘Dada,’’ as was Albert Einstein, despite his own somewhat traditional tastes in art;137 those whom Höch disliked, like the Kaiser, were placed next to the word ‘‘anti-Dada.’’ The artwork represented cur- rent artistic and political revolutions; it particularly drew attention to women’s right to vote, and how this would alter Germany’s ‘‘beer-belly culture.’’ Almost entirely composed of newspaper clippings, it also captured the hyped atmosphere of Berlin’s daily press, and its images of high-rise buildings and factory machinery depicted the modernist spirit that many conservatives found deeply objectionable.138 The names and images of both Einsteins thus circulated at the Dada fair, and they appear as an entangled reflection of each other: as bourgeois and Fig. 17. A reproduction of George Grosz and John Heartfield’s La vie heureuse (dr. Karl Einstein gewidmet), 1920, was contained in the Erste internationale Dada-Messe: Katalog (Berlin: Kunsthandlung Dr. Otto Burchard, 1920), p. 2. The original of the photomontage is believed to be lost, the only known image is this one. Credit: University of Iowa, Dada digital collection. 162 Jeroen van Dongen Phys. Perspect. antibourgeois, and revolutionary vanquisher and sellout. In the end, whether Weyland actually had jumbled up Albert and Carl Einstein is not of immediate relevance; their dual roles, given the uproar that both relativity and Dada were generating, serve to illustrate a larger context. Deliberately or not, Weyland saw an interest in portraying Albert as a kind of Carl Einstein; he chose to smear Albert Einstein (figure 19) with the scandalous reputation of Dadaist art. The tactic worked: Max von Laue, present at the Philharmonic event, summed up Weyland’s rhetoric in a letter to Arnold Sommerfeld as follows: ‘‘Einstein would be a plagiarist, supporters of relativity publicity makers, and the theory itself Dadaism (that word was really put forward!)’’139 Fig. 18. This collage by Hannah Höch (1889–1978), Schnitt mit dem Küchenmesser (full title in text), was featured in the first International Dada Fair, held in art dealer Otto Burchard’s gallery in downtown Berlin, from June 30 to August 25, 1920. The collage featured not only Albert Einstein (1879–1955), but many other public figures, including the first president of the Weimar Republic, Friedrich Ebert (1871–1925), the reactionary Putschist Wolfgang Kapp (1858–1922), Kaiser Wilhelm II (1859–1941), socialists, Dadaists, Karl Marx (1818–1883), and Vladimir Lenin (1870–1924). Credit: Bildarchiv Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Berlin. Vol. 14 (2012) Mistaken Identity and Mirror Images 163 Weyland thus not only played on anti-Semitic sentiments in his demagogic rant, he also attempted to capitalize on the negative reaction that the revolutions in art and politics precipitated—revolutions of which Carl Einstein, speaker at Rosa Luxem- burg’s graveside and coeditor with George Grosz, formed the vanguard. Weyland wished to mobilize these negative sentiments against another onslaught on cherished values, namely, the revolution that wished to topple established scientific knowledge, driven by yet another revolutionary Jew, Albert Einstein. Weyland’s phantom Working Society thus was supposed to labor for the ‘‘Preservation of Pure Science.’’ In turn, by co-opting the anti-relativist stance, he also intended to enlist support for his larger desires: to resist the Revolution of November 1918 and modernist culture. Weyland’s whipping up of anti-relativistic sentiments thus was a natural complement to a broader politically and culturally reactionary agenda. All in all, the above suggests that part of the German resistance to relativity should be seen as resistance to the revolutionary spirit of the postwar years. For Weyland, at least, it was only a small step from anti-revolutionary to anti-relativist, and his opposition to relativity brought science into an unfamiliarly shrill anti-revolutionary discourse. Weyland, of course, was far from the only opponent of relativity. ‘‘Anti-rela- tivists,’’ as they are known collectively in the literature, can hardly be identified as a unified group with a single agenda. The identification applies to a rightist experimental physicist like Philipp Lenard, to the philosopher and converted Jew Fig. 19. Albert Einstein (1879–1955) in 1921, photograph by Ferdinand Schmutzer. Credit: Bildarchiv, Austrian National Library, Vienna. 164 Jeroen van Dongen Phys. Perspect. Oskar Kraus, and to amateur scholars like the engineers Rudolf Mewes and Hermann Fricke who wished to defend their own private solutions to the riddles of the universe. Historian Milena Wazeck, in her recent insightful study of the phenomenon, has pointed out a particular feature that helps to explain the vehement character of some of the opposition that Einstein encountered: Many, if not all of these opponents of Einstein fought against their marginalization by the specialization and professionalization pressures of established science. Relativity, as the most visible representative of these pressures, was an obvious target for dissent.140 Wazeck’s analysis thus differs from the earlier literature, which mostly pointed to the political dimension of the opposition to Einstein.141 However, this weakening of explicit sociopolitical factors also seems to reduce the possibility of understanding the actions of German anti-relativists in their Weimar context. It may be argued further that Wazeck’s point of view too easily follows anti-rela- tivists in their self-fashioning as unpolitisch or apolitical: Anti-relativists often wished to present themselves as scholars who were interested exclusively in matter-of-fact discussions on the merits of Einstein’s theory, far from the political fray. This self-qualification sounds dishonest, however, since it conflicts with the vehemence of their criticisms, and the political overtones of many of their statements. 142 In 1905 Einstein regarded his light–quantum hypothesis as revolutionary, not his theory of relativity,143 which could be viewed as a reformulation of Lorentz’s familiar electrodynamics. Nevertheless, relativity was soon widely seen as a rev- olutionary theory in the early history of its reception. This perception deepened and spread throughout society at large after the extensive press coverage of the eclipse results of 1919 that confirmed Einstein’s predictions.144 Along with the theory’s contentions about space and time, this perception can hardly seem sur- prising, given the particular historical moment in which the eclipse results exploded onto the world scene: Their dramatic presentation came at a time when there were political revolutions in many European nations. At the same time, modernist perspectives were revolutionizing the arts.145 In such an atmosphere, scholars as well as the public at large would be more prone to view Einstein’s theory of relativity as ‘‘revolutionary,’’ rather than as a reinterpretation of Lo- rentzian electrodynamics: in revolutionary times, one expects revolutions. Albert Einstein’s personal background—Jew, democrat, and pacifist—would have aided that identification, particularly in Germany, whether or not he was being confused with Carl. From this perspective, it thus should not be surprising, for example, that the Berliner Illustrirter Zeitung chose to caption Einstein’s image with the claim that his work ‘‘signifies a complete revolution of our understanding of Nature.’’146 When tabloids announce yet another revolution, anti-revolutionaries find a new cause. Anti-relativist Ernst Gehrcke (figure 20) complained about a ‘‘revolution- ary wave in the sciences,’’ and he expressed the hope that ‘‘also in the development of the sciences, the thought of evolution’’ would regain the momentum.147 He believed that: Vol. 14 (2012) Mistaken Identity and Mirror Images 165 [After] the end of the war, and in Germany the successful political overthrow of the State, the psychological moment for revolutions also in art and science seemed to have arrived, and first cautiously, then increasingly more forcefully, the full propaganda campaign for the theory of relativity was rolled out in the daily press [figure 21].148 Fig. 21. Cartoon from Le Journal (March 29, 1922). In the caption, a modernist artist says to a bewildered spectator whose high hat is on the floor: ‘‘That is the bending of light.... Mr. Einstein will understand very well....’’ Source: Reproduced in Gehrcke, Massensuggestion (ref. 148), p. 77. Fig. 20. Ernst Gehrcke (1878–1960). Credit: American Institute of Physics, Emilio Segrè Visual Archives, W.F. Meggers Collection. 166 Jeroen van Dongen Phys. Perspect. The connotations of Gehrcke’s words were not lost on his readers on the extreme right: The charge of propaganda was a clear code for them to pick up that relativity was to be spinned as yet another plot played out by yet another revo- lutionary Jew.149 Although Gehrcke liked to present his position as apolitical, the words he chose and his analysis suggest otherwise—as does his repeated and unqualified identification of Albert Einstein as an Independent Socialist (as a supporter of the breakaway Unabhängige Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutsch- lands), that is, as a leftist radical.150 What was true for Weyland and Gehrcke was not true for all German anti- relativists: Wazeck is correct in identifying as a common denominator of the larger group’s opposition the need to resist a perceived marginalization in current sci- ence. Yet, the above indicates that some of the most visible anti-relativists also feared marginalization of their social and political positions and conservative cultural values,151 owing to modernist forces, the November Revolution, and the more radical pressures that loomed beyond. In this perspective, the angst and actions of the anti-relativists in the late 1910s and early 1920s were as much an expression of their resistance to threatening changes in broader social domains as to those in the sciences, or in physics proper; they served, in particular, as a reaction to the democratic left and modernist culture that seemed to dominate in the early years of the Weimar Republic. Both Albert and Carl had warmly welcomed the collapse of Wilhelmine Ger- many. Albert saw his wishes come true with the creation of a parliamentary democracy, whereas Carl wished for and labored toward a true Soviet republic. Both Albert and Carl were equally offensive to those who wished to see neither come to pass; to obstruct Albert’s theory most effectively anti-relativists such as Weyland and Gehrcke chose to portray him as much as possible as someone resembling Carl. In turn, the venomous opposition to relativity theory itself was due, at least in part, to the fear that ‘‘revolutionary’’ political ideals, communist or democratic, and modernist values, expressed most clearly in the arts, were gaining the ascendancy. Conclusion: Relativity and Revolution The history of Einstein’s Leiden professorship is revealing in several respects. Appointing Einstein should not be seen as separate from the local political context of the Netherlands, just as it has suggested a new angle—the dual perspective of Albert and Carl Einstein—from which to reconsider the negative reception of relativity in some German circles; here, too, the political context was responsible for perceptions of Albert Einstein. In Holland, for Leiden’s academic elite Ein- stein was a particularly attractive candidate owing to his internationalist positions, which resonated strongly with their own efforts toward international reconciliation as inspired by van Vollenhoven’s ideals and nationalist aspirations. Further, Lei- den, as a neutral meeting ground, offered to Einstein the opportunity to act on his Vol. 14 (2012) Mistaken Identity and Mirror Images 167 internationalist beliefs—along, of course, with the opportunity to interact with a group of first-rate physicists. That, however, never actually matured into a really longstanding, hands-on collaboration: Einstein never became a full-fledged participating member of the Leiden faculty. He would of course visit Leiden a fair number of times over the years, coauthor a few short papers with Ehrenfest, occasionally contribute to academic developments in Holland, and maintain a steady correspondence with Lorentz and Ehrenfest, which included many elaborate discussions on physics. Yet, by 1927 the Leiden University Fund had commuted Einstein’s special pro- fessorship into a visiting professorship without any obligation to actually spend any time in Leiden. The remuneration would be set aside for any possible future visits of Einstein, but otherwise it would be spent on the education of young local physicists. This change in the terms of the professorship had been made at Ein- stein’s request: the obligation to visit Leiden periodically had come to weigh too heavily on him, undoubtedly after many planned trips had been cancelled.152 Einstein’s special chair remained largely dormant until September 1952, when it finally was ‘‘retracted.’’153 The Dutch government had gone to great lengths to remain neutral in the Great War, and in its aftermath it very much feared to be drawn into the next maelstrom: it wished to keep out the revolutionary fever that was raging throughout Europe. Communists, especially following Troelstra’s actions, there- fore could not be appointed at Dutch state universities. Einstein, mistaken for his namesake, thus experienced an unusual delay in obtaining his special chair, since Carl Einstein was exactly the kind of radical that Dutch officials were most keen on keeping out of the Netherlands. Albert’s confusion with Carl also helps to account for his broader reputation as a leftist radical, while his actual positions and persona were considerably more moderate. These need not have produced insu- perable problems in Holland; indeed, in the end, they did not obstruct his appointment at Leiden. Einstein’s actual positions did produce problems in Germany. His difficulties in the new Weimar Republic were not with officials (he even would have easy access to some of its leading representatives), but with those who resisted relativity as revolutionary science. The confusion between and comparison of Albert and Carl Einstein has clearly shown that the resistance to relativity has to be seen, at least for some, as resistance to the November Revolution, the Weimar Republic, and in general the toppling of existing cultural and social values. For anti-relativists such as Paul Weyland and Ernst Gehrcke, both the old social order and what they regarded as proper scientific knowledge seemed to be at stake. Indeed, the vehemence of Einstein’s opponents should be explained by their desire to resist marginalization—yet, they perceived their marginalization as taking place in the social realm at least as much as in the scientific realm. The result was that for Einstein’s angry conservative opponents his revolution was just as unacceptable as Carl’s. 168 Jeroen van Dongen Phys. Perspect. In the midst of the German anti-relativity actions in the summer of 1920, Einstein told his friend and former collaborator, Marcel Grossmann, that: This world is a strange madhouse. Currently, every coachman and every waiter is debating whether relativity theory is correct. Belief in this matter depends on political party affiliation.154 When putting physics circa 1920 in perspective, we see that the history of the reception of relativity was strongly colored by the broader political and cultural contexts of the postwar period; in some circles, and not least in the public at large, it was almost entirely determined by these contexts. In particular, the history of the Leiden chair, and the confusions surrounding it, have shown that fears of revolution in the cultural as much as in the political domain, colored the initial perceptions of Albert Einstein, just as the confusions with Carl Einstein have made clear that the broad reception of relativity cannot be seen as separate from the revolutionary discourse that dominated Europe in the early years of the postwar period. Acknowledgments For insightful comments, I am grateful to David Baneke, A.J. Kox, Willem Otterspeer, Ze’ev Rosenkranz, and Milena Wazeck. I presented the earliest version of this article at a conference on Editing Centenary Scientific Manuscripts that was organized by Scott Walter of the Poincaré Archives in 2007 at the University of Nancy 2; I am grateful to Scott for inviting me to this conference. I am further indebted to my fellow editors of Volume 10 of The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein for a most rewarding collaboration, and to Ms. Toontje Jolles of the National Archive in The Hague for assistance. Finally, I thank Roger H. Stuewer for his meticulous and thoughtful editorial work on my paper. Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License which permits any use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the ori- ginal author(s) and the source are credited. References* 1 Lorentz to Einstein, December 21, 1919, in Diana Kormos Buchwald, Robert Schulmann, József Illy, Daniel J. Kennefick, Tilman Sauer, Virginia Iris Holmes, A.J. Kox, and Ze’ev Rosenkranz, ed., The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein. Vol. 9. The Berlin Years: Correspondence, January 1919-April 1920 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2004), Doc. 229, pp. 320-321; translated by Ann Hentschel (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2004), Doc. 229, pp. 194-195; hereafter cited as CPAE 9. * Translations from the German in Einstein’s Collected Papers are mine. Vol. 14 (2012) Mistaken Identity and Mirror Images 169 2 Einstein to Ehrenfest, January 12, 1920; Ehrenfest to Einstein, December 9, 1919; Einstein to Lor- entz, November 15, 1919, CPAE 9, Doc. 254, pp. 352-354; 212-213; Doc. 203, pp. 286-289; 173-175; Doc. 165, pp. 232-234; 138-139. For his inaugural lecture, see Albert Einstein, Äther und Relativitätstheorie. Rede gehalten am 5. Mai 1920 an der Reichs-Universität zu Leiden (Berlin: Julius Springer, 1920); reprinted in Michel Janssen, Robert Schulmann, József Illy, Christoph Lehner, Diana Kormos Buchwald, Daniel Kennefick, A.J. Kox, and David Rowe, ed., The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein. Vol. 7. The Berlin Years: Writings, 1918-1921 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2002), Doc. 38, pp. 306-320; G.B. Jesseryt and W. Perrett translation reprinted in Alfred Engel (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2002), Doc. 38, pp. 160-182; hereafter cited as CPAE 7. For more on Einstein’s reassessment of Mach principle, see Michel Janssen, ‘‘Of pots and holes: Einstein’s bumpy road to general relativity,’’ Annalen der Physik 14 Supplement (2005), 58-85. 3 Einstein to Lorentz, January 12, 1920; Einstein to Ehrenfest, February 2, 1920, CPAE 9, Doc. 256, pp. 355-356; 214-215; Doc. 294, pp. 402-404; 246-247. 4 Willem Otterspeer, Een welbestierd budget: Honderd jaar Leids Universiteits-Fonds 1890-1990 (Leiden: Leids Universiteits-Fonds, 1990), esp. p. 54. 5 Lorentz to Einstein, February 11, 1920, CPAE 9, Doc. 308, pp. 421-422; 257-258. 6 Part of this reconstruction has appeared in an abbreviated form in the ‘‘Introduction’’ (Section III, pp. xliii-xlvi) to Diana Kormos Buchwald, Tilman Sauer, Ze’ev Rosenkranz, József Illy, Virginia Iris Holmes, Jeroen van Dongen, Daniel J. Kennefick, and A.J. Kox, ed., The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein. Vol. 10. The Berlin Years: Correspondence, May-December 1920 and Supplementary Correspondence, 1909-1920 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2006); here- after cited as CPAE 10; this part is based on an archival find of the author in the National Archive, The Hague (see also note 34). 7 A.J. Kox, ‘‘Einstein and Lorentz: More than Just Good Colleagues,’’ Science in Context 6 (1993), 43-56. For the Einstein-Lorentz correspondence between March 30, 1909, and September 13, 1927, see A.J. Kox, ed., The Scientific Correspondence of H.A. Lorentz. Vol. 1 (New York: Springer, 2008), pp. 265-659. 8 Einstein to Ehrenfest, November 8, 1919, CPAE 9, Doc. 160, pp. 227-228; 135-136, on 227; 136; see also Martin J. Klein, Paul Ehrenfest. Vol. 1. The Making of a Theoretical Physicist (Amster- dam and London: North-Holland and New York: American Elsevier, 1970), pp. 293-323; Martin J. Klein, ‘‘Paul Ehrenfest, Niels Bohr, and Albert Einstein: Colleagues and Friends,’’ Physics in Perspective 12 (2010), 307-337; Jeroen van Dongen, ‘‘Einstein’s Methodology, Semivectors and the Unification of Electrons and Protons,’’ Archive for History of Exact Sciences 58 (2004), 219-254, on 224-229; Jeroen van Dongen, Einstein’s Unification (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010), pp. 96-103. 9 Lorentz to Einstein, December 21, 1919, CPAE 9, Doc. 229, pp. 320-321; 194-195. 10 Tilman Sauer, ‘‘Einstein and the Early Theory of Superconductivity, 1919-1922,’’ Arch. Hist. Ex. Sci. 61 (2007), 159-211, esp. 162-163; Kamerlingh Onnes to Einstein, February 8, 1920, CPAE 9, Doc. 304, pp. 417-418; 254-255. 11 Marijn Hollestelle, ‘‘Paul Ehrenfests internationalisme: Bloei en verval van de Leidse theo- retische fysica,’’ in L.J. Dorsman and P.J. Knegtmans, ed., Over de grens: Internationale contacten aan Nederlandse universiteiten sedert 1876 (Hilversum: Verloren, 2009), pp. 69-87; see also Marijn Johannes Hollestelle, Paul Ehrenfest: Worstelingen met de moderne wetenschap, 1912-1933 (Lei- den: Leiden University Press, 2011), chapters 6 and 7, pp. 204-283. 12 Kox, ‘‘Einstein and Lorentz’’ (ref. 7), pp. 53-54. 13 As Einstein reported to Ehrenfest, September 12, 1919, CPAE 9, Doc. 103, pp. 154-155; 86-87. 14 On his democratic beliefs, see Albert Einstein, ‘‘On the need for a National Assembly,’’ CPAE 7, Doc. 14, pp. 123-125; 76-77; see also David E. Rowe and Robert Schulmann, ed., Einstein on 170 Jeroen van Dongen Phys. Perspect. Politics: His Private Thoughts and Public Stands on Nationalism, Zionism, War, Peace, and the Bomb (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2007), pp. 3, 82-83. 15 Lorentz to Einstein, December 21, 1919, and January 16, 1920, CPAE 9, Doc. 229, pp. 320-321; 194-195, and Doc. 264, pp. 362-363; 219-220. 16 Ehrenfest to Einstein, September 2 and 8, 1919, CPAE 9, Doc. 98, pp. 145-146; 81-82, and Doc 101, pp. 150-151; 83-84; on p. 150; 84. 17 Einstein to Lorentz, January 12, 1920, CPAE 9, Doc. 256, pp. 355-356; 214-215. 18 Albert Einstein Archives, Jerusalem, Doc. No. 28 524; hereafter cited as EA; available at the website \http://www.alberteinstein.info/[. 19 See, for example, Rowe and Schulmann, Einstein on Politics (ref. 14), pp. 85-92. 20 W. Otterspeer and J. Schuller tot Peursum-Meijer, Wetenschap en wereldvrede: De Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen en het herstel van de internationale wetenschap tijdens het Inter- bellum (Amsterdam: Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen, 1997). 21 Ehrenfest to Einstein, December 9, 1919, CPAE 9, Doc. 203, pp. 286-289; 173-175; on p. 286; 173. 22 B.J.A. de Kanter-Van Hettinga Tromp and A. Eyffinger, Cornelis van Vollenhoven (1874— 1933) (The Hague: T.M.C. Asser Institute, 1992); idem, ‘‘Cornelius van Vollenhoven (1874-1933),’’ in Gerard J. Tanja, ed., The Moulding of International Law: Ten Dutch Proponents (The Hague: T.M.C. Asser Institute, 1995), pp. 285-334; C. van Vollenhoven, ‘‘Roeping van Holland,’’ De Gids. Vierde Serie 74, (1910), 185-204. 23 Otterspeer, Een welbestierd budget (ref. 4), pp. 54-56. 24 Daniel J. Kevles, ‘‘‘Into hostile camps’: The Reorganization of International Science in World War I,’’ Isis 62 (1971), 47-60. 25 Otterspeer and Schuller tot Peersum-Meijer, Wetenschap en wereldvrede (ref. 20), pp. 119-125. 26 For a similar qualification of the difference in Lorentz’s and Ehrenfest’s perspectives, see Frans van Lunteren, ‘‘Wissenschaft internationalisieren: Hendrik Antoon Lorentz, Paul Ehrenfest und ihre Arbeit für die internationale Wissenschafts-Community,’’ in Arne Claussen, ed., Dokumentation. Einstein und Europa–Dimensionen moderner Forschung (Düsseldorf: Wissenschaftszentrum Nord- rhein-Westfalen, 2006), pp. 25-35, on p. 26. 27 On those ties, see Dirk van Delft, ‘‘Koude drukte: Het laboratorium van Heike Kamerlingh Onnes als internationaal centrum van lagetemperaturenonderzoek,’’ in Dorsman and Knegtmans, Over de grens (ref. 11), pp. 31-52. 28 On the physics discussed at the event, see Sauer, ‘‘Einstein’’ (ref. 10), pp. 170-187. 29 Ehrenfest to Einstein, December 9, 1919, CPAE 9, Doc. 203, pp. 286-289; 173-175. 30 J.J.C. Voorhoeve, Peace, Profits and Principles. A Study of Dutch Foreign Policy (The Hague, Boston, London: Martinus Nijhoff, 1979), esp. pp. 3-41. 31 Otterspeer and Schuller tot Peersum-Meijer, Wetenschap en wereldvrede (ref. 20), pp. 205-214. 32 Einstein to Ehrenfest, April 7, 1920, CPAE 9, Doc. 371, pp. 497-499; 307-308, on p. 498; 307; Ehrenfest to Einstein, March 10, 1920, CPAE 9, Doc. 347, pp. 468-472; 288-291. 33 Ehrenfest to Einstein, April 13, 1920, CPAE 9, Doc. 373, pp. 500-505; 309-313, on p. 501; 310. 34 Commissie van Toezicht to Minister of Education, Arts and Sciences, March 5, 1920; Univer- siteitsraad van het Leids Universiteits-Fonds to Queen Wilhelmina, February 10, 1920, Bestand Albert Einstein, Dossiers Rijkspersoneel Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschappen, geboortejaren voor 1903, toegang 2.14.17 inventarisnummer 13, National Archive, The Hague; hereafter cited as NA. I located these documents in February 2005 while working on the editorial Vol. 14 (2012) Mistaken Identity and Mirror Images 171 http://www.alberteinstein.info/ team that was preparing the publication of CPAE 10 and first reported my find in a newspaper interview; see Martijn van Calmthout, ‘‘Moet die rooie onruststoker Einstein hier prof worden?’’ De Volkskrant (May 14, 2005). 35 ‘‘Berlijnsch universiteitsleven,’’ Nieuwe Courant (March 2, 1920), Morning Edition. 36 Wolf Zuelzer, The Nicolai Case (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1982), p. 285. Only Einstein and the astronomer Wilhelm Förster also signed the counter ‘‘Manifesto to the Euro- peans’’ (‘‘Aufuf an die Europäer’’), in A.J. Kox, Martin J. Klein, and Robert Schulmann, ed., The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein. Vol. 6. The Berlin Years: Writings 1914-1917 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996), Doc. 8, pp. 69-71; translated by Alfred Engel (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997), Doc. 8, pp. 28-29; hereafter cited as CPAE 6. For Einstein’s statement on the disruptions of Nicolai’s classes, see ‘‘In support of Georg Nicolai,’’ CPAE 7, Doc. 32, pp. 282-283; 151. 37 ‘‘Tumultszenen bei einer Einstein-Vorlesung’’ (‘‘Uproar in the Lecture Hall’’), 8-Uhr-Abe- ndblatt (February 13, 1920), CPAE 7, Doc. 33, pp. 284-288; 152. 38 Otto J. de Jong, Benoemingsbeleid aan de Rijksuniversiteiten (1876-1931): Rede bij de viering van de 364ste Dies Natalis der Rijksuniversiteit te Utrecht op 19 Maart 1982 in de Janskerk (Utrecht: Utrecht University, 1982). 39 Ibid., p. 19. 40 For an example see Peter Jan Knegtmans, ‘‘Professor Ernst Laqueur en de grenzen aan het internationalisme in de wetenschap in het interbellum,’’ in Dorsman and Knegtmans, Over de grens (ref. 11), pp. 89-100. 41 Peter Jan Knegtmans, ‘‘Politiek aan de Nederlandse universiteiten sedert 1876,’’ in L.J. Dors- man and P.J. Knegtmans, ed., Stille wijkplaatsen? Politiek aan de Nederlandse universiteiten sedert 1876 (Hilversum: Verloren, 2006), pp. 107-118, esp. pp. 109-110. 42 Einstein to Elsa Einstein, May 9, 1920, CPAE 10, Doc. 9, pp. 252-253; 156. 43 Elsa Einstein to Einstein, after May 9, 1920, CPAE 10, Doc. 10, pp. 253-255; 157-158, on 254; 157. 44 Quoted from a letter to Hedwig and Max Born, January 27, 1920, in Rowe and Schulmann, Einstein on Politics (ref. 14), p. 410; see also pp. 406-408. 45 Elsa Einstein to Einstein, May 24, 1920, CPAE 10, Doc. 30, pp. 275-276; 171-172. 46 Einstein to Elsa Einstein May 20, 1920, CPAE 10, Doc. 22, pp. 267-277; 166. 47 Einstein to Elsa Einstein, May 27, 1920, CPAE 10, Doc. 32, pp. 277-278; 173, on p. 277; 173. 48 Lorentz to Einstein, May 27, 1920, CPAE 10, Doc. 35, p. 280; 174. 49 De Visser to de Gijselaar and van Vollenhoven, March 22, 1920, NA. 50 Parket van de Procureur Generaal to de Visser, March 19, 1920, NA. 51 Ibid. 52 Opperwachtmeester, Detachementscentrum, Koninklijke Marine, 1e Divisie to the Districts- Commandant in Breda, June 18, 1919, NA. 53 Van Vollenhoven to de Visser, March 27, 1920, NA. 54 De Visser to Minister van Buitenlandse Zaken, May 4, 1920, NA. 55 Kamerlingh Onnes to de Visser, May 10, 1920, NA. 56 Secretaris Generaal, Buitenlandse Zaken to de Visser, May 20, 1920, NA. 57 De Visser to Raad van Ministers, cc. to Kabinet der Koningin, May 26, 1920, NA. 58 Decree No. 42, June 24, 1920, ‘‘Wij Wilhelmina, etc.,’’ NA. 172 Jeroen van Dongen Phys. Perspect. 59 Van Vollenhoven to de Visser, July 26, 1920; van Vollenhoven to Wilhelmina, July 12, 1920, NA. 60 Commissie van Toezicht bedoeld in art. 201 der H.O. wet to de Visser, September 8, 1920, NA. 61 Jeroen van Dongen, ‘‘Reactionaries and Einstein’s Fame: ‘German Scientists for the Preser- vation of Pure Science’, Relativity and the Bad Nauheim Meeting,’’ Phys. in Perspec. 9 (2007), 212-230; see also Hubert Goenner, ‘‘The Reaction to Relativity Theory I: The Anti-Einstein Campaign in Germany in 1920,’’ Science in Context 6 (1993), 107-133; David E. Rowe, ‘‘Einstein’s Allies and Enemies: Debating Relativity in Germany, 1916–1920,’’ in Vincent F. Hendricks, Klaus Frovin Jørgensen, Jesper Lützen, and Stig Andur Pedersen, ed., Interactions: Mathematics, Physics and Philosophy, 1860–1930 [Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science, Vol. 251] (Dordrecht: Springer, 2006), pp. 231–279. 62 Paul Weyland, ‘‘Einsteins Relativitätstheorie. Eine wissenschaftliche Massensuggestion,’’ Tägliche Rundschau (August 6, 1920), Evening Editon. 63 Andreas Kleinert, ‘‘Paul Weyland, der Berliner Einstein-Töter,’’ in Albrecht Helmuth, ed., Naturwissenschaft und Technik in der Geschichte. 25 Jahre Lehrstuhl für Geschichte der Natur- wissenschaften und Technik am Historischen Institut der Universität Stuttgart (Stuttgart: Verlag für Geschichte der Naturwissenschaften und der Technik, 1993), pp. 198-232. 64 Paul Weyland, Betrachtungen über Einsteins Relativitätstheorie und die Art ihrer Einführung (Berlin: Arbeitsgemeinschaft deutscher Naturforscher zur Erhaltung reiner Wissenschaft e.V., 1920); E. Gehrcke, Die Relativitätstheorie eine Wissenschaftliche Massensuggestion (Berlin: Ar- beitsgemeinschaft deutscher Naturforscher zur Erhaltung reiner Wissenschaft e.V., 1920). 65 ‘‘Einstein’s Encounters with German Anti-Relativists,’’ CPAE 7, pp. 101-113, on p. 106; see also ‘‘Introduction,’’ CPAE 10, Section II, pp. xxxviii-xlii. 66 Weyland, Betrachtungen (ref. 64), pp. 10-11. 67 Van Dongen, ‘‘Reactionaries and Einstein’s Fame’’ (ref. 61), pp. 213-214. 68 Kleinert, ‘‘Paul Weyland’’ (ref. 63), pp. 206-232. 69 Goenner, ‘‘Reaction to Relativity Theory’’ (ref. 61), pp. 120-123. 70 Kleinert, ‘‘Paul Weyland’’ (ref. 63), pp. 201-208. 71 Weyland, Betrachtungen (ref. 64), pp. 19-20. 72 Albert Einstein, ‘‘Meine Antwort. Ueber die anti-relativistische G.m.b.H.,’’ Berliner Tageblatt (August 27, 1920), Morning Edition, pp. 1-2, in CPAE 7, Doc. 45, pp. 345-347; 197-199, on 345; 197. 73 ‘‘Einstein wil Berlijn verlaten,’’ Algemeen Handelsblad (August 27, 1920), Evening Edition; ‘‘Prof. dr. Einstein,’’ Nieuwe Rotterdamsche Courant (August 27, 1920), Evening Edition. 74 Ehrenfest to Einstein, August 28, 1920, and September 2, 1920, CPAE 10, Doc. 114, pp. 389- 390; 244-245, and Doc. 127, pp. 403-405; 254-255. 75 Einstein to Ehrenfest, before September 9, 1920, CPAE 10, Doc. 139, pp. 417-419; 264-265. 76 Lorentz to Einstein, September 10, 1920, CPAE 10, Doc. 144, pp. 423-424; 268. 77 Einstein to Ehrenfest, October 7, 1920, CPAE 10, Doc. 163, pp. 444-445; 280, on p. 444; 280. For more on the Bad Nauheim debate, see van Dongen, ‘‘Reactionaries and Einstein’s Fame’’ (ref. 61), pp. 221-225; see also Paul Forman, ‘‘Die Naturforscherversammlung in Nauheim im September 1920: Eine Einführung in der Weimarer Republik,’’ in Dieter Hoffmann and Mark Walker, ed., Physiker zwischen Autonomie und Anpassung (Weinheim: Wiley-VCH Verlag, 2007), pp. 29-58. 78 Einstein to Ilse and Margot Einstein, September 24, 1920, CPAE 10, Doc. 154, pp. 435-436; 275; for more on the Bad Nauheim debate see the extensive annotation on p. 436. Vol. 14 (2012) Mistaken Identity and Mirror Images 173 79 ‘‘Abschrift,’’ drafted by the Bamberg police department June 22, 1919, cited in Dirk Heisserer, ‘‘Einsteins Verhaftung: Materialien zum Scheitern eines revolutionären Programms in Berlin und Bayern 1919,’’ Archiv für Geschichte des Widerstandes und der Arbeit 12 (1992), 41-77, on 56. 80 Ibid., pp. 49-52. 81 Sibylle Penkert, Carl Einstein: Beiträge zu einer Monographie (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1969), p. 25, n. 1. 82 Ibid., pp. 47, 55; on Albert Einstein’s relation to Mach, see Gerald Holton, ‘‘Mach, Einstein, and the Search for Reality,’’ in Gerald Holton, Thematic Origins of Scientific Thought: Kepler to Einstein. Revised Edition (Cambridge, Mass. and London: Harvard University Press, 1988), pp. 237-277, esp. pp. 241-244. 83 Carl Einstein, Bebuquin oder die Dilettanten des Wunders: Ein Roman (Berlin-Wilmersdorf: Verlag der Wochenschrift DIE AKTION (Franz Pfemfert),1912). 84 Christoph Braun, Carl Einstein: Zwischen Ästhetik und Anarchismus: Zu Leben und Werk eines expressionistischen Schriftstellers (Munich: Iudicium, 1987). 85 Penkert, Carl Einstein (ref. 81), pp. 52, 57; Braun, Carl Einstein (ref. 84), p. 183. 86 Carl Einstein to Maria Ramm, June 30, 1915, cited in Penkert, Carl Einstein (ref. 81), p. 78. 87 Braun, Carl Einstein (ref. 84), p. 185. 88 Carl Einstein, Negerplastik (Leipzig: Verlag der Weisen Bücher, 1915). 89 Braun, Carl Einstein (ref. 84), pp. 10-11, 166. 90 Penkert (ref. 81), p. 81, where Penkert claims that Carl Einstein quickly became acquainted with pacifist circles in Brussels, and was greatly excited by the Russian revolution. Klaus H. Kiefer believes, however, that there were no obvious triggers for Carl Einstein’s turn to revolutionary politics, but that there was a gradual inclusion of politics in his revolutionary discourse; see Klaus H. Kiefer, ‘‘Carl Einstein and the Revolutionary Soldiers’ Councils in Brussels,’’ in Rainer Rumold and O.K. Werckmeister, ed., The Ideological Crisis of Expressionism. The Literary and Artistic German War Colony in Belgium 1914-1918 (Columbia, S.C.: Camden House, 1990), pp. 97-112. 91 Sophie de Schaepdrijver, De Groote Oorlog: Het koninkrijk België tijdens de Eerste Werel- doorlog (Amsterdam and Antwerp: Uitgeverij Atlas, 1997), pp. 240-254. 92 Penkert, Carl Einstein (ref. 81), pp. 81-82. 93 Louis Gilles, Alphonse Doms, and Paul Delandsheere, cited in Penkert, Carl Einstein (ref. 81), p. 83; see also M.W.R. van Vollenhoven, Memoires: Beschouwingen, belevenissen, reizen en an- ecdoten (Amsterdam and Brussels: Elsevier, 1948), pp. 366-368. 94 Carl Einstein, cited by Louis Gilles, Alphonse Doms, and Paul Delandsheere in Penkert, Carl Einstein (ref. 81), p. 83. 95 Ibid., p. 84. 96 Ibid., p. 83. 97 Ibid., pp. 82, 84. 98 Van Vollenhoven, Memoires (ref. 93), pp. 366-378; his account of poor governance by Carl Einstein and the Soldiers’ Council is similar to that of the chief of staff of the Mayor’s office in Brussels; see Auguste Vierset, Mes souvenirs sur l’occupation allemande en Belgique (Paris: Li- brairie Plon, 1932), pp. 486-493. 99 Thea Sternheim, quoted in Penkert, Carl Einstein (ref. 81), p. 80; Heisserer, ‘‘Einsteins Ver- haftung’’ (ref. 79), p. 59. 100 Heisserer, ‘‘Einsteins Verhaftung’’ (ref. 79), pp. 59-60. 174 Jeroen van Dongen Phys. Perspect. 101 Thea Sternheim, quoted in Penkert, Carl Einstein (ref. 81), p. 81; Heisserer, ‘‘Einsteins Ver- haftung’’ (ref. 79), p. 59. 102 Kiefer, ‘‘Carl Einstein’’ (ref. 90), pp. 104-106. Heisserer, ‘‘Einsteins Verhaftung’’ (ref. 79), p. 44. Jutta Bohnke-Kollwitz, based on an entry that Käthe Kollwitz made in her diary on November 16, expressed surprise that Carl Einstein took part in a meeting with Walther Rathenau and Gerhart Hauptmann that day, only three days after the collapse of the Brussels’ Council; see Jutta Bohnke- Kollwitz, ed., Käthe Kollwitz: Die Tagebücher (Berlin: Wolf Jobst Siedler Verlag, 1989), pp. 382- 383. However, not Carl, but Albert Einstein had been invited to this meeting; see Robert Schulmann, A.J. Kox, Michel Janssen, József Illy, and Karl von Meyenn, ed., The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein. Vol. 8. The Berlin Years: Correspondence 1914-1918. Part B. 1918 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998), pp. 1029-1030; hereafter cited as CPAE 8. Furthermore, Vierset believed that Carl Einstein met on November 16 in Sint-Truiden with Adolphe Max, Mayor of Brussels, who was returning to the city from captivity in Germany; see Vierset, Mes souvenirs (ref. 98), pp. 491-492. 103 Penkert, Carl Einstein (ref. 81), pp. 135-136. 104 Troelstra, quoted in J.J. Woltjer, Recent verleden: Nederland in de twintigste eeuw (Amsterdam: Uitgeverij Balans, 2005), p. 147; on the SDAP, see pp. 146-160. 105 The Dutch Cabinet’s immediate responses, and its fear of Russian interventions, are well documented in the diaries of its Minister for Labor, P.J.M. Aalberse; see ‘‘Dagboek VI’’ and ‘‘Dagboek VII,’’ available at the website of the Huygens Instituut voor Nederlandse Geschiedenis, \http://www.inghist.nl/Onderzoek/Projecten/Aalberse/Dagboeken[. 106 J. de Bruijn, ‘‘Johannes Theodoor de Visser (1857-1932): Predikant, politicus en onderwijshervor- mer,’’ in Paul E. Werkman and Rolf E. van der Woude, ed., Wie in de politiek gaat, is weg? Protestantse politici en de christelijk-sociale beweging (Hilversum: Verloren, 2009), pp. 93-122, on pp. 101-102. 107 Ehrenfest to Einstein, April 13, 1920, CPAE 9, Doc. 373, pp. 500-505; 309-313, on p. 503; 312. 108 David Baneke, ‘‘‘Hij kan toch moeilijk de sterren in de war schoppen.’ De afwijzing van Pannekoek als adjunct-direkteur van de Leidse Sterrewacht in 1919,’’ Gewina. Tijdschrift voor de Geschiedenis der Geneeskunde, Natuurwetenschappen, Wiskunde en Techniek 27 (2004), 1-13; see also David Baneke, ‘‘Teach and Travel: Leiden Observatory and the Renaissance of Dutch Astronomy in the Interwar Years,’’ Journal for the History of Astronomy 41 (2010), 167-198, esp. 170-173. 109 E.P.J. van den Heuvel, ‘‘Antonie Pannekoek (1873-1960). Socialist en sterrenkundige,’’ in J.C.H. Blom, P.H.D. Leupen, P. de Rooy, T.J. Veen, and L. Kooijmans, ed., Een brandpunt van geleerdheid in de hoofdstad: De Universiteit van Amsterdam rond 1900 in vijftien portretten (Hil- versum and Amsterdam: Uitgever Verloren/Amsterdam University Press, 1992), pp. 229-245. For completeness, it should be noted that Lenin wrote a pamphlet against Pannekoek’s views, after Pannekoek had distanced himself from Lenin’s revolution. 110 De Sitter and Pannekoek, cited in Baneke ‘‘‘Hij kan toch moeilijk de sterren’’’ (ref. 108), p. 9. 111 De Visser to the curators of Leiden University, May 3, 1919, cited in ibid., p. 9. 112 De Gijselaar to de Sitter, May 16, 1919, cited in ibid., p. 10. 113 Motions of the Tweede Kamer, cited in ibid., p. 11. 114 De Visser, in the Motions of the Eerste Kamer, cited in ibid., p. 11. 115 Ibid., p. 12. De Sitter and Pannekoek believed that the latter’s appointment was most forcefully opposed by Prime Minister C. Ruijs de Beerenbrouck (Baneke, private communication, May 10, 2011). 116 Albert Einstein, ‘‘On the Need for a National Assembly,’’ CPAE 7, Doc. 14, pp. 123-125; 76-77, on p. 123; 76; on Einstein’s appearance in the press on November 16, see CPAE 8, pp. 1029-1030. Vol. 14 (2012) Mistaken Identity and Mirror Images 175 http://www.inghist.nl/Onderzoek/Projecten/Aalberse/Dagboeken 117 Kurt Joel, ‘‘Unterredung mit Albert Einstein,’’ Neues Wiener Journal (December 25, 1919), quoted in Rowe and Schulmann, Einstein on Politics (ref. 14), p. 84; see also CPAE 7, pp. 124-125, n. 7. 118 Carl Einstein, ‘‘An die Geistigen,’’ Die Pleite, Nr. 1 (Berlin: Malik-Verlag, 1919); reprinted in Carl Einstein, Werke. Band 2. 1919-1928, ed. Marion Schmid (Berlin: Medusa, 1981), p. 16. 119 Kiefer, ‘‘Carl Einstein’’ (ref. 90), pp. 107-108. 120 Heisserer, ‘‘Einsteins Verhaftung’’ (ref. 79), p. 44. 121 George Grosz to Harry Graf Kessler, March 16, 1919, cited in ibid.,p. 46. 122 8-Uhr-Abendblatt (June 13, 1919), cited in ibid., p. 53. 123 Carl Einstein, Freiheit (June 14, 1919), cited in ibid., p. 54. 124 ‘‘Abschrift. Graf Soden, Staatsministerium des Innern, Polizei-Abteiling,’’ June 22, 1919, cited in ibid., pp. 55-59. 125 Ibid., pp. 62-64. 126 Carl Einstein, cited in ibid., p. 66. 127 Nico Rost, in Penkert, Carl Einstein (ref. 81), p. 86. 128 Carl Einstein, Die schlimme Botschaft: Zwanzig Szenen (Berlin: Ernst Rowohlt Verlag, 1921). 129 Penkert, Carl Einstein (ref. 81), pp. 89-91. 130 Carl Einstein scholar Klaus H. Kiefer has also put Carl and Albert in a comparative perspective; see his ‘‘Einstein & Einstein: Wechselseitige Erhellung der Künste und Wissenschaften um 1915,’’ Kom- paratistische Hefte 5/6 (1982), 181-194; later, however, he expressed skepticism about his article; see Klaus H. Kiefer, Diskurswandel im Werk Carl Einsteins. Ein Beitrag zur Theorie und Geschichte der europäischen Avantgarde (Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag, 1994), p. 515. 131 On Einstein as a ‘‘revolutionary’’ see, for example, Lewis S. Feuer, Einstein and the Genera- tions of Science (New York: Basic Books, 1974), pp. 61-66. 132 ‘‘Räte Bund,’’ Räte Zeitung (May 10, 1919), reproduced in Heisserer, ‘‘Einsteins Verhaftung’’ (ref. 79), p. 48. 133 Charles W. Haxthausen, ‘‘Bloody Serious: Two Texts by Carl Einstein,’’ October 105 (Summer 2003), 105-118. 134 Ibid., p. 108 (includes translation). 135 Ibid., p. 117. 136 Ludger Derenthal, ‘‘Dada, die Toten und die Überlebenden des Ersten Weltkriegs,’’ Zeit- enblicke 3, No. 1 (June 9, 2004), website http://zeitenblicke.historicum.net/2004/01/derenthal/ index.html, sections \6[-\14[. 137 Hubert Goenner, Einstein in Berlin 1914-1933 (Munich: C.H. Beck, 2005), pp. 272-276. 138 For identifications in Höch’s artwork, see Gertrud Julia Dech, Schnitt mit dem Küchenmesser: Dada durch die letzte weimarer Bierbauchkulturepoche Deutschlands: Untersuchungen zur Foto- montage bei Hannah Höch (Münster: Lit Verlag, 1981), esp. pp. 63-102, plates V-IX; see also Maria Makela, ‘‘By Design. The Early Work of Hannah Höch in Context,’’ in Peter Boswell, Maria Makela, and Carolyn Lanchner, ed., The Photomontages of Hannah Höch (Minneapolis: Walker Art Center, 1996), pp. 49-79, on pp. 62-64, and Eric D. Weitz, Weimar Germany: Promise and Tragedy (Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2007), pp. 287-289. 139 Von Laue to Sommerfeld, August 25, 1920, Archive of the Deutsches Museum, Munich, Sommerfeld Nachlass, 1977-28/A,197/5. 140 Milena Wazeck, Einsteins Gegner. Die öffentliche Kontroverse um die Relativitätstheorie in den 1920er Jahren (Frankfurt/Main: Campus Verlag, 2009). 176 Jeroen van Dongen Phys. Perspect. http://zeitenblicke.historicum.net/2004/01/derenthal/index.html http://zeitenblicke.historicum.net/2004/01/derenthal/index.html 141 Van Dongen, ‘‘Reactionaries and Einstein’s Fame’’ (ref. 61); Goenner, ‘‘Reaction to Relativity Theory’’ (ref. 61); Rowe, ‘‘Einstein’s Allies and Enemies’’ (ref. 61). 142 Jeroen van Dongen, ‘‘On Einstein’s opponents, and other crackpots,’’ Studies in History and Philosophy of Modern Physics 41 (2010), 78-80. 143 John Stachel, ed. and transl., Einstein’s Miraculous Year: Five Papers That Changed the Face of Physics (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998), pp. 13-14. 144 Klaus Hentschel, Interpretationen und Fehlinterpretationen der speziellen und der allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie durch Zeitgenossen Albert Einsteins (Basel, Boston, Berlin: Birkhäuser Verlag, 1990), pp. 106-121. 145 On historical parallels between the introduction of relativity and modernism in the arts, see Thomas Vargish and Delo E. Mook, Inside Modernism: Relativity Theory, Cubism, Narrative (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1999); for the influence of relativity and Ein- stein’s persona on modern art, see Linda Dalrymple Henderson, ‘‘Einstein and 20th-Century Art: A Romance of Many Dimensions,’’ in Peter L. Galison, Gerald Holton, and Silvan S. Schweber, ed., Einstein for the 21 st Century: His Legacy in Science, Art, and Modern Culture (Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2008), pp. 101-129. 146 Berliner Illustrirter Zeitung (December 14, 1919), front page. 147 Ernst Gehrcke, ‘‘Geleitwort,’’ in Melchior Palágyi, Zur Weltmechanik: Beiträge zur Metaphysik der Physik (Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius Barth, 1925), p. VI. 148 E. Gehrcke, Die Massensuggestion der Relativitätstheorie: Kulturhistorisch-psychologische Dokumente (Berlin: Verlag von Hermann Meusser, 1924), p. 5. 149 For examples, see Wazeck, Einsteins Gegner (ref. 140), p. 278. 150 Gehrcke, Massensuggestion (ref. 148), pp. 8, 12. 151 For beyond Germany, see Thomas F. Glick, ‘‘Cultural issues in the reception of relativity,’’ in Thomas F. Glick, ed., The Comparative Reception of Relativity [Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science, Vol. 103] (Dordrecht, Boston, Lancaster, Tokyo: D. Reidel, 1987), pp. 381-400, esp. pp. 394-395; for the German case, see Rowe, ‘‘Einstein’s allies and enemies’’ (ref. 61), pp. 265-266; for the French case, see Astrid van Kimmenade, ‘‘Resistance, Resentment and Relativity: A comparative analysis of French and German critics of the theory of relativity,’’ Masters Thesis, Utrecht University, 2010. 152 Leidsch Universiteits-Fonds to Einstein, February 10, 1927, EA 29 308; Ehrenfest to Einstein, January 8, 1927, EA 10 151; Einstein to Ehrenfest, January 11, 1927, EA 10 153. 153 ‘‘De intrekking van deze bijzondere leerstoel heeft plaatsgevonden bij het Koninklijk Besluit van 23 September 1952, No. 9. (H.O.W. 2855542),’’ NA. 154 Einstein to Marcel Grossmann, September 12, 1920, CPAE 10, Doc. 148, pp. 428-430; 271-272, on 428; 271. Institute for History and Foundations of Science and Descartes Centre Utrecht University P.O. Box 89910 TA Utrecht, The Netherlands e-mail: j.a.e.f.vandongen@uu.nl Einstein Papers Project California Institute of Technology Pasadena, CA 91125, USA Vol. 14 (2012) Mistaken Identity and Mirror Images 177 Mistaken Identity and Mirror Images: Albert and Carl Einstein, Leiden and Berlin, Relativity and Revolution Abstract Introduction: Preparations in Leiden Why Einstein? The Internationalist Perspective Einstein and the Politics of Dutch Appointment Practices What Went Wrong in The Hague? Troubles in Berlin What Dr. Einstein? Dutch Revolutionary Fears and Professorial Appointments The ‘‘Communist Einstein’’ Mirror Images Conclusion: Relativity and Revolution Acknowledgments ReferencesTranslations from the German in Einstein’s Collected Papers are mine. 
work_6az73qbhh5bo7bkurfgeispjrm	----	Journal of the Korean Institute of Interior Design http://dx.doi.org/10.14774/JKIID.2016.25.3.112 Vol.25 No.3 Serial No.116 _ 2016. 06 한국실내디자인학회논문집 제25권 3호 통권116호 _ 2016.06112 러진테럽터스의 뉴 장르 공공미술에 나타난 환경색채 연구 * A Study on the Environmental Color of New Genre Public Art in Luzinterruptus’ Work Author 김선 Kim, Sun-Young / 정회원, 수원과학 학교 실내건축디자인학과 조교수, 건축학박사 Abstract The purpose of the thesis is to explore ways of improving the quality of urban life by analyzing the Luzinterruptus’s work looking for a new perspective on the relationship between environmental color and society. The street artist Luzinterruptus was born in Spain, is a leader in the field of New Genre Public Art brush on a canvas of light in the night. They should seek the views of other common color system and color environments. The method of research is urban design, we consider the concept of the public good understanding, and New Genre Public Art. It also analyzes the environmental color of Luzinterruptus to take advantage of the phenomenology by David Katz color classification. The scope of the thesis is focused on the analysis of the works featured in their website and webzine. Then select a sculpture installation information is stated on the environmental color of their work. The role of environmental color in their work is not an aesthetic experience of harmonious urban landscape was seeking Public Art. The citizens of the area and the installation work themselves. Also it listed as demolition after the exhibition to realize the difference with other people and take advantage to environmental color. Therefore, they the contemporary agenda in many part of narrative takes in the garbage or disposables that you can easily look at our surroundings, In addition, citizens are directly experiencing the fantastic custom-made lights and colors and objects of the oversize as a potential recalls memories. Thus, the use of environmental color comfortable life there is horizontal participation and communication of the ‘citizens’ critical perspective of the 21st century cumulative cities. Keywords 러진테럽터스, 뉴 장르 공공미술, 환경색채 Luzinterruptus, New Genre Public Art, Environmental Color 1. 서론 1.1. 연구의 배경과 목 산업 명 이후 본격 으로 개된 도시는 사회 경제구 조와 함께 자유주의를 실 하 다. 장 자크 루소에 따르 면 이처럼 지나치게 도시가 비 해지면서 인간의 삶은 도시 권력에 매몰되어 마치 인류가 뱉어 낸 가래침처럼 변했다고 한다. 이러한 문제를 르겐 하버마스는 「의사소통 행 이 론」에서 ‘공공 역(public sphere)’으로 해답을 찾는다. 이 공공 역은 사 역의 응물이 아니라 사 역의 한 부분으로 이해해야 한다. 1) 즉 재의 도시 모습과는 다른, 인류의 시작과 함께 사회·문화의 장으로서 삶을 �������������������������������������������������������������� * 이 논문은 2014년도 정부(교육부)의 재원으로 한국연구재단의 지원 을 받아 수행된 연구임. (NRF-2014S1A5A8013732) 하는 도시 안의 ‘도시민’을 염두에 두어야 한다.1) 20세기 이후 도시는 특수성과 지역성에 몰두하 다. 그러나 이제 무분별한 도시개발을 멈추고 무형의 인 라 스트럭처의 도시재생(urban regeneration)을 지향하고 있 다. 이 시민과의 상호소통을 요하게 여겨 교량, 터 , 도로, 건축 등 문 이고 공학 기술이 요구되는 분야보다는 비 문 업이 비교 쉬운 공공미술 분야 에서 활발한 움직임을 보인다. 특히 뉴 장르 공공미술은 퍼포먼스, 이벤트, 해 닝, 설치, 비디오 등 뉴미디어 아 트의 화로 시간성(temporality)을 추구하고, 컴퓨터를 기반으로 인터랙티 아트의 시간완충장치(suspension of time)를 가능 하는 이 이 있다. 한 도시-장 기존속의 고 도 거 도시-에서 나와 타자의 차이를 깨 1) Jürgen Habermas, The Theory of Communicative Action, Volume 1: Reason and the Rationalization of Society, Beacon Press, 1985, p.17 한국실내디자인학회논문집 제25권 3호 통권116호 _ 2016.06 113 닫고 서로 얽히어(intertwining) 사회 계가 층층이 쌓이면서 충돌하게 된다.2) 이러한 추세에 입각한 스페인 출신의 거리 술가들로 구성된 러진테럽터스는 보다 신 으로 도시의 문제에 근하여 도시민의 참여를 독려하고 있다. 특히 그들은 ‘밤이라는 캔버스에 빛이라는 붓’으로 뉴 장르 공공미술 을 피력한다. 그들은 표색계(color system)에서 출발하는 기존의 환경색채와는 분명히 다른 을 내포한다. 도시 거리의 막한 밤과 조되는 제작조명으로 이루 어진 그들의 작품을 분석한다. 이는 정량 근의 배색 과 조화, 정성 근의 색채형용사 뉘앙스 등 보편 색채 조사에서 탈피하여, 다른 이면해석에 이바지 하리라 믿는다. 특히 공공 역에서 이루어지는 시민들의 극 참여와 소통의 과정은 작가들의 기 아이디어와 의 간극에서 나와 타자의 차이를 깨닫는 계기가 된다. 이는 도시가 지향하는 쾌 한 삶의 질과 맞닿아 있 으리라 견하며, 뉴 장르 공공미술에서 차지하는 환경 색채의 상을 찾는데 도움이 되리라 믿는다. 본고는 색 채에서 다루지 않았던 뉴 장르 공공미술의 환경색채를 탐색하여, 시각 술의 본질인 이미지 표 에 따른 조형 성, 시 조류와 략의 내러티 를 형성하는 시간성, 다양한 분야와 업에 의한 콜라주 확장성 등 환경색 채 요소를 도출하여 도시의 환경색채에서 실제로 다루어 야 하는 가치를 재고하는데 목 이 있다. 1.2. 연구 방법 범 본고는 도시민의 삶의 질을 높이기 해 다양한 방법 을 모색하는 도시 략가들에게 뉴 장르 공공미술에서 환경색채 의의를 찾고, 몸의 충돌에서 비롯한 사회 계를 환경색채로 표 하는 러진테럽터스의 작품을 분석 한다. 연구 방법은 도시 디자인과 공공성의 이해로 뉴 장르 공공미술을 고찰한다. 색상·명도·채도 등 물리 구 분에서 색채지각 3요소의 개념을 환기시켜, 데이비드 카 츠의 색 분류를 토 로 그들이 지향하는 환경색채의 근 경로를 마련한다. 즉 표색계 조사나 뉘앙스에서 벗 어나 그들이 선호하는 공간색과 원색을 심으로 분석 하여 기존의 환경색채 분석과 차별시킨다. 연구 범 는 결과보다 과정을 시하는 그들의 뉴 장르 공공미술 가 운데 도시민과 업한 설치 조형물로 선정하되, 그들의 홈페이지와 Dezeen 웹진에 소개된 목록 에서 비교 환경색채와 연계가 뚜렷한 작품을 선정한다. 특히 기 단계부터 설치물의 색채 아이디어와 조명 선택 등이 컨 셉 스 치에서 설명된 작품을 우선한다. 2) Johann Heinrich Lambert, Neues Organon, University of Michigan Library, 1764, p.79 2. 도시와 환경색채 2.1. 도시 디자인과 공공성 도시 디자인은 인간 내면의 자아와 외부세계를 보다 폭넓게 만드는 실체 지역과 가치를 창출해야 한다. 거 주 생활 기반을 조율하는 기능과 더불어, 도시민 삶 의 질과 도시발 에 기여하는 총제 인 맥락이어야 한 다. 이 때 공공성은 사회·문화·정치·철학 안에서 인간의 활동 인 삶(vita activa)을 근본으로 타자와의 사이 (in-between)를 인정하는 요소이다. 공공성의 뜻은 무엇인가. 우선 인민(공공)에서 생된 라틴어 ‘푸블리쿠스 (pūblicus)’의 사 의미는 ‘국가의, 공식의’와 ‘공개의, 개방의’로 나뉜다. 한 공공은 정치지배체제를 한 공 공간에서 출발하 으며, 로마 공화국은 최 로 공공 역을 실화하 다.3) 17세기에 이르러 ‘공공복지(salus publica)’의 ‘공동의(gemein)’에서 ‘공정복리, 공 이익, 공 질서’를 포 한다. 기술문명의 발달로 18세기부터 정치 행 는 경제활동 아래로 도되어 국가와 시민을 상호 결합하는 간 역으로 정치·경제·사회문화를 수반한다. 이처럼 공공성은 시 의 헤게모니를 작동시켜 공 역 에서 사 권리를 지킨다. ‘공공(public)’이 ‘공개, 개방, ’을 의미하듯 도시 디자인의 공공성은 사회문화 권 력의 역학 계에서 벗어나야 한다. 공공을 다루는 도시 디자인이 공공공간, 공공시설물, 공공건축물, 공공시각매 체로 변되는 국내 실에서 공공을 실 하기 해 환 경을 장식, 리하는 료 행정에서 벗어나야 한다. 한 사 개인을 공 심으로 확 한 공개 소통이 발 생한다.4) 이는 ‘사이에 존재(inter-esse/self-interest)’로 공통 심사를 둘러싸고 이루어지므로, 공공 역은 경계 구분을 떠나 도시민을 한 무장소성(non-places)이어야 한다. 그러므로 무엇보다 공공 역에 사람들이 더 자주 오고 더 많은 활동으로 외부환경에 머무르는 시간이 길 어지도록 도시를 계획해야 한다. 2.2. 색과 색채 색의 연구 분야는 다양하지만 색은 빛을 발하는 원 (light source), 빛의 반사 상(object), 이 결과를 찰 하는 찰자(observer)의 ‘색채지각 3요소’에서 출발한다. 일반 으로 색지각 요소에 따라 햇빛, 조명, LED, 스크 린의 디스 이 등 발 체에서 빛을 직 보는 원색, 빛의 반사로 이루어진 물체의 색인 물체색(표면색), 색유 리나 셀로 지처럼 빛이 상을 통과하여 보여주는 투과 3) Hannah Arendt, The Human Condition. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1958, pp.58-60 4) 齋藤純一, 公共性の政治理論, ナカニシヤ出版, 2010, p.14 한국실내디자인학회논문집 제25권 3호 통권116호 _ 2016.06114 <그림 1> 매스색채와 볼륨색채 <그림 2> Necker Cube 색으로 구분한다.5) 색은 가시 선의 명암과 분 조성에 따라 색각을 느끼는 빛의 주 수이며 스펙트럼의 조상 차다. 그러니까 엄 히 말하면, 색은 념이라 상을 만 날 때 실재하므로 색과 색채는 다르다. 『괴 겐(Göttingen)실험 상학 』인 에드문트 후설 (Edmund Husserl)에게 향을 받아 상학 으로 색을 구분한 데이비드 카츠(David Katz)는 순수한 색만 있고 음 은 없는 면색(film color), 물체 표면에서 빛의 작용 인 표면색(surface color), 특정한 장이 강한 반사로 지 각되는 속색(metal color), 색유리나 셀로 지처럼 빛 을 투과하는 투과색(transparent color), 거울에 비춰진 상인 경 색(mirrored color), 비눗방울처럼 외부에 간섭 으로 내부에 빛이 갇힌 간섭색(interference color), 물체 표면 뿐 아니라 투명한 용 안에서도 지각되는 공간색 (bulky color), 발 자체인 원색(illuminant color)으로 나 었다. 본고에서는 면색, 표면색, 속색, 경 색 등 텍스추어와 택의 표피색채(epidermic color), 투과색, 간섭색처럼 주변 환경에 향을 받는 여러 겹들의 표층 색채(layered color), 시-공간(time-space) 개념인 공간색, 원색은 인터랙션색채(interaction color)로 구분한다. 한 시-공간의 색채는 여러 시 으로 상을 표 하는 동 시성, 상호작용과 부유 입의 연속성, 속도와 움직임 의 과정성이 있는 색채 6)로 시간의 개념이 포함된 색채 로 이해한다. 구분 표피색채 (EC: epidermic color): 면색, 표면색, 속색, 경 색 표층색채 (LC: layered color): 투과색, 간섭색 인터랙션색채 (IC: interaction color): 공간색, 원색 <표 1> 색채유형 2.3. 도시의 환경색채 개념 환경색채는 인간-환경 계에서 인간 생존과 안 에 직결되고 미 가치를 지키는데 필요 요소로 사회·문화 차원에서 색채사용과 련한 환경문제이다. 특히 도시에 서 환경색채는 한 균형과 쾌 한 안정을 한 미 체험 뿐 아니라, 효과 인 정보 달로 인간 삶을 지원 하는 요 장치이다.7) 즉 환경색채는 각 지역의 정체성 수립과 진 개발에 시각 편안함과 심미 조화로 서, 도시경 친화에 목 이 있다. 그러므로 도시의 환경 5) 김선 , 빛 번짐을 용한 블러색채의 특성 연구, 한국색채학회논 문집 제28권 1호, 2014, p.6 6) 김선 , 건축의 시-공간 색채체계 연구1, 한국색채학회논문 집 제30권 1호, 2016, p.13 7) 김홍기, 환경색채계획론. 이화여자 학교 출 부, 2011, p.21 색채는 다양한 상호작용의 계이다. 컨 자연의 숲 속에 있는 붉은 건물은 상색채일 확률이 높은 반 면, 도시의 붉은 건물은 반드시 그 지 않다. 보행로 주변의 식재나 공공디자인, 혹은 인간행태가 상색채일 수 있다. 즉 시각디자인이나 산업디자인, 그리고 패션디 자인에서 색채는 매스(mass)이다. 즉 상색채만 존재한 다. 그러나 휴먼스 일보다 큰 도시의 환경색채는 매스 와 볼륨(volume)이다. 즉 상색채와 배경색채가 존재한 다. 바로 이러한 지 이 새롭게 환경색채를 논의해야 하 는 목이다. 의 좌측 그림은 시각디자인, 산업디자인, 패션디자인 의 매스색채를 표 한 것이고, 우측 그림은 도시디자인 의 볼륨색채를 표 한 것이다. 매스색채란 체 으로 인간의 치수보다 작거나 비슷하기 때문에 상색채만 존 재한다. 이때 매스색채가 표층색채(LC)일 경우에는 부분 으로 볼륨색채로 인식하기도 하지만 어반스 일(urban scale)아니므로, 엄 히 말하면 볼륨색채는 아니다. 볼륨 색채는 반드시 주변의 배경색채와 상색채가 계를 맺 어 환경색채의 톤과 질료의 재질감이 지속 으로 변화해 야하기 때문이다. <그림 2>를 몇 간 응시하면 처음에는 흰색의 사각 형이 돌출되어 보이다가 다시 회색이 튀어나와 보이고, 을 흐릿하게 하면 여러 겹의 사각형이 무작 로 보 인다. 이는 2차원 공간에서 3차원 공간 이상의 지각 습 이 용되기 때문이다. 즉 2차원 정보는 망막 에서 다양한 시각자극이 발생한다. 8) 이러한 원리로 상색채와 배경색채의 경계가 처음에 8) 김선 , 마크 로드코의 색면추상에 표 된 색의 확장성 연구, 한국 실내디자인학회논문집 제22권 1호, p.243 한국실내디자인학회논문집 제25권 3호 통권116호 _ 2016.06 115 는 각각 구분되지만, 시간이 지나면 찰자가 선택하는 색채에만 집 한다. 한 일정 시간이 지나면 상색채 와 배경색채는 동시에 지각된다. 이 때 지각 거리의 깊 이에서 톤의 변화가 일어나고, 이동 속도의 간격에서 톤 의 재배치가 진행된다. 즉 도시의 환경색채는 표색계로 논하는 색채로만 이해할 수 없다. 3. 뉴 장르 공공미술과 환경색채 3.1. 뉴 장르 공공미술의 개 술은 공공의 기원과 유희를 담고 있으므로 인류의 삶과 동시에 시작했다. 물론 모더니즘 태동과 아방가르 드 정신에 입각한 순수미술의 추구는 조각, 회화, 건축의 업을 와해시키기도 했다. 그러나 재 공공미술은 사 회·문화 변화와 갤러리들의 노력으로 참여와 소통의 술로 발 하 다. 이 듯 공공미술은 시 의 흐름과 유 형에 따라 가변 으로 변화하고 있다. 공공미술이라는 용어는 리의 「68 명」이 일어나기 직 유럽의 지식인들 사이에서 공동체의 가치를 찾기 해 존 렛이 처음 사용한다. 그는 술품을 직 구 매하는 소수의 사람들뿐 아니라 람자들의 동참을 한 공공미술 개념을 공식화하고,「공공미술 자문 원」구성 을 정부에 제안한다. 이후 공공미술이라기보다 건축물의 미 가치를 제고하는 럽 아트(plop art)에 가깝다는 비난을 받는다.9) 1960년 후반부터 공공미술은 규모 상권이 형성된 도시에 투입되고, 무미건조한 도시환경에 흥미와 즐거움 을 주어 시민정서를 반 하는 콘텐츠의 기능을 한다. 한 마천루, 공원, 장에 작품을 설치하여 어반 스 일에 서 느껴지던 화감을 완화시켜 쾌 한 보행로로 과 거리를 좁힌다. 1970년 이르러 술가와 비평가는 미술과 공간 계 에 문제제기로 Street Paving, Street Furniture, Art Rail, Wall Painting Art에서 기 제를 도입한 도시계획 으로 람자를 사용자로 변화시킨다. 1990년 이후 비로소 ‘행동하는 문화와 심미 감수 성이 제된 사회·정치 성향의 미술활동’을 뉴 장르 공 공미술로 명명한다. 모든 매체를 활용하며 도시인의 삶 과 직 연 된 이슈와 소통하여 물리 장소에서 사회 이슈를 분석·비 하는 맥락으로 옮겨진다. 9) John Willett, Art in A City, Liverpool University Press, 2007, p.37 구분 특징 건축 속의 미술 Art in Architecture � 미술작품을 통한 정부 건물의 미 가치 제고 � 랑스 1%법(1951년), 미국 연방정부 공공시설청 ‘건 축 속의 미술 로그램’(1963년) � 순수미술 주 공공장소 속의 미술 Art in Public Places � 공원, 장 같은 지역의 공공장소 활성화 � NEA‘공공장소 속의 미술 로그램’(1967년) � 순수미술 주에서 공공장소의 콘텍스트에 합한 공공미술의 독특한 정체성 형성 도시계획 속의 미술 Art in Urban Design � 도시계획의 요 요소로 공공미술 활용 � 기 제(pooling systme)가 도입됨 � 라 데팡스, 바르셀로나, 필라델피아, 러스, 로스앤 젤 스 등에서 시행하여 문화 인 도시환경 조성에 큰 성과 뉴 장르 공공미술 New Genre Public Art � 미술을 통한 시민간의 커뮤니 이션 확 와 시민문 화공동체 형성을 해 결과보다는 과정 시 � 비디오 제작, 퍼포먼스, 미술공방 운 , 정원꾸미기 등 하드웨어 심에서 소 트웨어 심으로 변화, 장 르도 시각 술의 역을 넘어서 화, 비디오, 공연 등 확장 <표 2> 공공미술의 변화(문화 부, 2005) 3.2. 피겨-그라운드(Figur-Grund)의 환경색채 2장에서 고찰하 듯, 환경색채는 상색채(F)와 배경 색채(G)로 구분한다. 배경색채는 식재와 토양으로 부 분의 식재는 계 변화에서 공통된 순환의 질서를 보인 다. R-B사이의 고유색은 꽃에서만 지각되고, 식재는 Y 계열이 포함되어 B-G사이의 고유색은 실제 자연색채에 존재하지 않는다. 한 식재는 YR계열에서 시작하여 YR계열로 끝난다.10) 반면 도시는 지역별 지, 하늘, 기후 등의 풍토색(風 土色)에서 비롯한 지역색(地域色) 개념에서 벗어나야 한 다. 왜냐하면 재 도시의 지는 차로와 보행로이며, 하늘은 마천루에 가깝고, 시설물과 보행자는 지역색을 무색하게 한다. 특히 조명과 뉴미디어는 빛의 변수를 극 화하여 환경색채의 흐름을 재편성한다. 이러한 환경색채는 ‘피겨-그라운드(Figur-Grund)’ 으로 근하고자 한다. 이는 에드가 루빈이 「게슈탈 트 심리학(Gestalt psychology)」의 시각 지각에서 최 응용했다. 게슈탈트라는 용어는 크리스티안 폰 에 펠스(Christian von Ehrenfels)가 에른스트 마흐(Ernst Mach)의 『감각의 분석(Die Analyse der Empfindungen, 1886)』에서 감을 받은 이후 그라츠 학 (Grazer Schule)에게 인계된 ‘Gestaltqualität’에 유래 한다. 즉 막스 베르트하이머(Max Wertheimer)가 기차 여행에서 구입한 스트로보스코 (stroboscope)11)의 가 10) Karin Fridell Anter, Nature’s colour palette. Inherent colours of vegetation, stones and ground. Stockholm, Scandinavian Colour Institute, 1996, pp.66-69 11) 주기 으로 변화하는 조명을 기 으로 발생시켜, 회 혹은 진동 하는 물체를 측하거나 회 속도, 진동 주 수 혹은 유사한 주기 량을 측정하는 계기. 회 체의 회 주기와 조명의 명멸 주기가 일치하면 회 체는 정지한 듯이 보인다. 따라서 조명의 명멸을 가 감하여 회 체의 회 수(진동체의 진동수)를 측정할 수 있다. 두산 백과사 한국실내디자인학회논문집 제25권 3호 통권116호 _ 2016.06116 <그림 3> Rubin's vase effect 구분 유형 속성 A. G-G 표층색채(LC) 선택 지각의 동시성 B. F-F 표피색채(EC) 치 불변의 성 C. F-G 표피색채(EC), 표층색채(LC), 인터랙션색채(IC) 속도와 이동의 유동성 <표 3> F-G의 환경색채 구분 특징 세부 요소 조형성: FO (formativeness) 시각 술의 본질인 이미지(image) 표 심미, 장식, 명시, 시인, 유목 시간성: TE (temporality) 시 조류와 략의 내러티 (narrative) 형성 참여, 소통, 과정 확장성: EX (expandability) 다양한 분야의 콜라주(college)화 흥미, 체화, 기억, 환상 <표 4> 뉴 장르 공공미술의 환경색채 속성 운동(apparent movement)과 선택 지각(selective perception)12)과 비슷한 원리이다. 의 그림에서 A.는 앙의 꽃병(F)과 마주보는 두 얼 굴(G)의 실루엣이 명확치 않은 F-F, G-G의 구조이다. 반면 B.는 F가 꽃병이며 C.는 얼굴의 측면이 F이다. 이 를 환경색채와 연 하여 해석하면 아래와 같다. “A.”는 G-G의 구조다. F와 G를 각각 동시 지각하되, 학습이나 심에 따라 순차 으로 색채를 인식한다. 컨 보행자가 가로등, 표지 , 버스 베이 등에 주목할 경우 순서 로 인식한다. 이 때 F와 G는 서로 뒤바 기 도 한다. 즉 선택 지각에 따른 표층색채(LC)의 동시성을 지각한다. 재 부분의 색채 연구인 공간은 있되 시간 은 없는 찰자 의 경 색채이다. “B.”는 F-F의 구조다. 찰자의 거리와 사용자의 이동 을 배제한 제품디자인의 색채 분석에서 주로 활용하므로 정지된 화면의 균질한 측색인 표피색채(EC)이다. “C.”는 F-G의 구조다. Necker Cube처럼 여러 겹의 F 와 G가 무작 로 첩되어 여러 겹들(F)의 합인 G와 하 나의 F는 서로 계한다. 학계에서 환경색채를 인공색채 와 자연색채로 구분하지만, 녹지율을 고려하더라도 도 시에서는 인공색채는 70%정도이므로 G는 인공색채들의 합으로 이해하는 게 옳다. 속도와 이동의 유동성에 의해 표피색채(EC)-표층색채(LC)-인터랙션색채(IC)를 모두 지각한다. 이처럼 피겨-그라운드의 환경색채는 기 로서 선택지각의 동시성, 치 불변의 성, 속도와 이동의 유동성 등의 속성을 지닌다. 12) 여러 개의 자극이 있을 경우 객 으로 정보의 모든 것을 지각하 지 않고 자극을 선택하여 지각하는 것이다. 3.3. 뉴 장르 공공미술에서 환경색채 요소 본 논문의 2.3 에서 고찰한 바 환경색채는 인간의 생 존과 안 에 직결된다. 도시 디자인에서 환경색채는 미 체험 뿐 아니라 효과 인 정보 달로서 인간의 삶을 지원하는 장치이기도 하다. 그 다면 작품을 매개로 시 민의 참여와 소통으로 상호작용하는 뉴 장르 공공미술의 환경색채는 어떠한지 알아보자. 첫째, 뉴 장르 공공미술은 물질로서 술을 부정하는 비물질 경향은 있으나, 시각 술의 본질을 기본으로 한다.13) 환경색채는 작품이 추구하는 이미지(image)를 직 표 하는 ‘조형성(formativeness)’이 있으며, 심미, 장식, 명시, 시인, 유목의 세부요소가 있다. 둘째, 뉴 장르 공공미술은 술가의 아이디어에서 출 발하지만 도시 정책에 기반을 둔 정부, 련 기 , 시민 단체와 업한다.14) 작품은 더 이상 술가들의 자율 역이 아니며, 시민들과 계하는 삶의 일부로 내러티 (narrative)의 ‘시간성(temporality)’이다. 즉 술가-정 부-시민의 참여와 소통의 과정이 존재한다. 셋째, 뉴 장르 공공미술은 비디오 제작, 퍼포먼스, 미 술공방 운 , 정원꾸미기 등 하드웨어에서 소 트웨어로 변화한다. 이제 사 내부인 갤러리에서 공 외부인 거 리로 나와 화, 비디오, 공연 등 다양한 분야와 수평 으로 융합한다.15) 한 공공미술에서 사용하지 않는 재 료를 사용하거나, 기후·생태·환경·인종·종교·젠더 등 사 회문화 동시 의 담론과 조류를 형 비례나 사실 스 일에서 벗어나 기술한다. 이러한 환경색채는 거 크 기(over-scale)의 언캐니(uncanny) 호기심을 자극하거 나 환상 체화로 잠재된 기억을 끄집어내는 감각의 콜 라주(collage)화로 ‘확장성(expandability)’이 있다. 흥미, 체화, 기억, 환상 등의 세부요소가 있다. 13) http://www.tate.org.uk/learn/online-resources/glossary/n/new-genre-public-art 14) Lacy, Suzanne, Mapping the Terrain: New Genre Public Art. Newyork Thames and Hudson, 1991, p.56 15) Thomas H. Sander, Social Capital and New Urbanism: Leaind a Civic Horse to Water, National Civic Review, vol..91, No.3, 2002, pp.213-234 한국실내디자인학회논문집 제25권 3호 통권116호 _ 2016.06 117 NO. 이미지 유형 속성 EC LC IC FO TE EX 1 표 면 색 투 과 색 원 색 빛 이 없 는 어 두 운 거 리 와 야 조 명 의 명시 시 민 과 실 시 간 의 소통 붐 비 는 거 리 에 언 캐 니 한 공 화 장 실 설 치 로 흥미 ⦁디자인 컨셉: 밤에는 매우 시끄럽고 혼 잡한 지역에 병원에서 사용하는 남성용 소변기 80개의 설치로 주변을 환기 ⦁디자인 방법: 의료용 소변기 안에 노랑 물을 담고 LED 조명의 매입 2 투 과 색 공 간 색 나 트 륨 조 명 의 시인 성 짧 은 퍼 포 먼 스 소통 떠 있 는 새 장 의 환 상 체험 ⦁디자인 컨셉: Les Folies 2009 Festival 에 나흘 동안 시로 자연 회기 달 ⦁디자인 방법: 새장 하부에 나트륨 조명 을 매입 3 표 면 색 공 간 색 원 색 어 두 운 밤 에 검 정 강 물 에 하 얀 설 치 물 로 명시 설 치 와 해 체 시 강 을 오 염 시 키 지 않 는 과정 강 주 변 의 물 고 기 , 오리, 어 린 이 용 욕조, 시 민 등 과 체험 ⦁디자인 컨셉: 화와 음악의 Rizoma Film Festival에 작은 마을의 강에 부유시 켜 실주의 설치 ⦁디자인 방법: 총을 맞아 쓰러진 군인 형상의 80개의 부유물의 뉘앙스에 조명 을 매입 <표 6> 작품 분석 4. 러진테럽터스의 작품 분석 4.1. 러진테럽터스의 작품 세계 란시스코 고야(Francisco Jose de Goya), 에두아르 마네(Edouard Manet), 블로 피카소(Pablo Picasso)의 작품에서 보듯 화가의 붓은 때로 군인의 총보다 더 강력 하다. 러진테럽터스는 바로 이러한 힘을 시사한다. 러진 테럽터스(Luzinterruptus)의 의미가 interrupted light에서 비롯되었듯 그들은 ‘빛’과 ‘어둠’으로 환경색채를 기술하 며 원색을 기반으로 투과색, 간섭색, 공간색 등을 선호 한다. 한 시민들과 함께 도시의 밤거리를 캔버스로 빛 을 붓으로 설치한다. 분석 상은 그들의 홈페이지나 페 이스 북, 인터뷰 등에서 환경색채의 아이디어를 언 하 되, 동일한 재료로 비슷한 설치를 할 경우 보다 많이 이 슈화된 작품을 선정한다. NO. 분석 상 년도 1 Public Toilet Intervention, San Ildefonsoof Spain 2009 2 Fishing Light, Maubeuge of France 3 Floating Presences, Molinicos of Spain 2010 4 Malignant Shadows, Madrid of Spain 5 Radioactive Control, Hamburg of Germany 2011 6 Pharmacy Herbs, Madrid of Spain 7 Plastic Garbage Guarding the museum, Geserber Museum of Switzerland 2012 8 Pool on a background of Field of Barley, La Latina of Madrid 9 Literature Versus Traffic, Melbourne of Australia 10 Fishing in Light, Rivas Vaciamadrid of Spain 2013 11 Labyrinth of Plastic Waste, Katowice of Poland 2014 12 Plastic Island, Lumiere of London 2015 13 Rain Interactive, Brentford of London <표 5> 작품 목록 4.2. 러진테럽터스의 사례 조사 본 은 도시의 문제 에 근하되, 도시민의 참여를 독려하는 러진테럽터스의 환경색채를 분석한다. 그들이 빛과 어둠의 계에서 주로 활용하는 인터랙션색채의 을 언 한 작품을 선정하 다. 분석항목은 작품의 개 요를 논한 후 EC, LC, IC의 색채유형을 분석하고, FO, TE, EX의 뉴 장르 공공미술의 환경색채 요소를 분석하 다. 한국실내디자인학회논문집 제25권 3호 통권116호 _ 2016.06118 NO. 이미지 유형 속성 EC LC IC FO TE EX 4 표 면 색 가 로 등 이 없 는 거 리 에 조 명 필 요 성 의 명시 보 행 자 와 조 용 한 소통 움 직 이 는 그 늘 + 그 림 자 로 흥 미 유발 ⦁디자인 컨셉: 인종·젠더·폭력·섹슈얼리 티를 그림자 화가인 카라 워커(Kara Waler)의 회화처럼 검정 마분지와 10개의 와이어 모빌을 이용하여 그림, 화와 다 른 이미지 구 ⦁디자인 방법: 램 로 보행로의 어두운 벽면에 그늘+ 그림자 형성 5 표 면 색 공 간 색 원 색 인 간 크 기 의 오 제 로 유목 병 원 자 원 사 자 와 5 일 동 안 설 치 로 참여 천 으 로 을 가 리 고 테 이 로 입 을 막 는 언 캐 니 밸 리 체화 ⦁디자인 컨셉: 시 가 당면한 최 과제 인 방사능과 원자력 발 소 험성과 공 포의 시각화를 특수보호장비를 한 인간 크기의 오 제 활용으로 30일간 Dockville Festiva에 설치 ⦁디자인 방법: 백개의 LED와 일루미네 이트 6 공 간 색 원 색 거 리 를 록 색 으 로 변 화 시 키 는 심미, 장식 Cris 와 Alex 의 도 움 으 로 설 치 해 체 참여 형 막 기 의 잡 체험 ⦁은하와 별을 볼 수 없는 빛 공해에서 착안하여 잡 (형 막 기)를 약국표지 으로 활용, 이 막 는 인공조명을 합 성으로 성장 ⦁디자인 방법: 록 색조의 형 막 기 는 풀을 형상화 7 표 면 색 투 과 색 공 간 색 원 색 거 조 명 의 유목 재 료 기 부 로 참여 풍 선 조 명 의 체화 ⦁디자인 컨셉: 박물 에 버린 비닐, 물 병과 시민이 기부한 쓰 기 안에 조명, 헬륨을 주입 후 끈으로 연결하여 Oh, Plastiksacki Exhibition에 4개월간 풍선조 명 설치 ⦁디자인 방법: 오천 개의 색색 비닐 안 에 조명 매입 NO. 이미지 유형 속성 EC LC IC FO TE EX 8 투 과 색 간 섭 색 공 간 색 원 색 랑 조 명 으 로 시인 성 어 린 이 들 과 부 모 들 의 공 동 설 치 참 여 소통 흥 미 와 체 험 의 유발 ⦁디자인 컨셉: 빈부격차 없이 즐길 수 있는 문화센터 리모델링이 럭셔리 쇼핑 몰 사업으로 변한 곳에 보리밭을 깔고 그 에 6×4m 공공수 장 조성 ⦁디자인 방법: 2천 개의 유리컵, 병 안 에 랑색 물과 조명 매입 9 원 색 어 두 운 계 단 과 거 리 에 서 시인 무 슨 일 이 벌 어 지 는 지 물 어 가 며 실 시 간 동 참 과 소통 체 화 와 낯 선 환상 ⦁디자인 컨셉: 공공도서 에서 페기 처 분한 만권의 책으로 사 공지 없이 게릴 라성 설치로 바쁜 도시인들에게 독 서의 가치 달과 책-사람, 어둠-빛, 문 학-정체성 ⦁디자인 방법: 책 한권에 각각 2개씩의 LED 조명 활용 10 투 과 색 간 섭 색 원 색 색 색 의 유목 용 기 를 직 설치, 반 환 하 는 참여 직 인 공 물 고 기 를 잡 는 흥미, 기억, 체화 ⦁디자인 컨셉: 다양한 모양, 색상의 라스틱 인공호수에 인공물고기를 가득 채워 환경 이슈화 ⦁디자인 방법: 라스틱 안에 담긴 물에 굴 , 증폭 11 투 과 색 간 섭 색 공 간 색 원 색 거 조 명 의 유목 직 시 민 의 설 치 와 해 체 로 재 활 용 의 체험, 소통, 참여 빛 의 미 로 체험 ⦁디자인 컨셉: 하루 소비되는 육천 개 물병, 비닐, 라스틱 등 재활용 가능한 제품을 7×5m 속모듈 안에 미로 형태로 Katowice Street Art Festival 설치 25명 이상 시민들이 시간 별로 규칙 설치 후, 3일 동안 해체 ⦁디자인 방법: 주조색인 neon-blue, light-green로 조율 한국실내디자인학회논문집 제25권 3호 통권116호 _ 2016.06 119 NO. 이미지 유형 속성 EC LC IC FO TE EX 12 표 면 색 투 과 색 어 두 운 바 다 에 조 명 으 로 유목 열 흘 동 안 시 민 참여 물 에 떠 다 니 는 쓰 기 기억 ⦁디자인 컨셉: 4만 톤의 라스틱 병으 로 10×15m의 직사각형 형에 5천개 조 명 설치로 여덟 번째 륙을 생성하여 해양생물의 죽음과 생태계 괴 방지 달 ⦁디자인 방법: 라스틱 병에 다른 작품 에 비해서는 조도가 낮은 루미네이트 활 용 13 투 과 색 간 섭 색 원 색 거 인 보 우 조 명 의 유목 시 민 들 과 함 께 설치 언 캐 니 한 체화 ⦁디자인 컨셉: 3천개의 콘돔 안에 랑 잉크와 조명을 담아 삶의 원천 표 ⦁디자인 방법: neon-blue를 임에 매 달아 조형성 확 4.3. 소결 2008년부터 인간의 삶과 근 한 일회용품과 직 제작 한 조명을 활용하여 도시환경과 사회문화 반에 문제제 기를 주도하는 러진테럽터스는 도시에서 직 시민들과 함께 설치한다. 이 정크 아트(junk art)는 일반인들이 뉴 장르 공공미술에 쉽게 근하고 참여하는 과정에서 다양 한 분야의 사람들과 소통하고 체험하면서 체화되고 잠재 된 기억의 콜라주화가 일어난다. 「Public Toilet Intervention」,「Fishing Light」에서 알 수 있듯 기에는 외부의 도움 없이 내부 으로 작업 을 진행한다.「Floating Presences」부터 주변 환경을 극 으로 활용하며, 「Radioactive Control」에서 본격 으로 러진테럽터스의 술가 집단 외의 사람들에게 도움 을 받는다. 컨 「Labyrinth of Plastic Waste」, 「Plastic Island」,「Rain Interactive」은 지역 주민들이 직 물병을 기부하고「Plastic Garbage Guarding the museum」에서는 실제 생활 쓰 기와 기부 받은 일회용 품으로 거 풍선을 만들고,「Rain Interactive」는 콘돔 을 활용한 삶의 원천을 언 한다. 「Pool on a background of Field of Barley」부터 작품설치 시 시민 들의 도움을 극 으로 받아 도시재생의 새로운 소 트 웨어를 연출한다. 이처럼 도시재생은 작가의 아이디어를 기반으로 하지만, 그 외의 콘텐츠는 일반인들과 업하 는 특징이 있다. 기에는 EL, LC의 환경색채 유형이 두드러지나 2011 년부터 IC를 극 으로 활용한다. 국내는 공공미술품조 차도 명도, 채도의 색조를 비롯한 모노톤을 지향하 여 주변경 과 비슷한 톤의 미술품을 설치하도록 일 처리하는 반면, 러진테럽터스는 고명도, 명도, 고채도 를 극 으로 활용하고 있다. 분석에 따르면 그들의 색 채가 고명도, 명도, 고채도가 주를 이루어도 주변경 에 해되지 않는 이유는 바로 투과색과 간섭색을 활용 한 매스색채의 이해가 기 에 깔려있기 때문이다. 한 각기 다른 형태가 무작 로 군집을 이룬 거 한 조명으 로 피겨-그라운드를 용한 빛과 그림자의 톤과 셰이드 를 활용하기 때문이다. 그들의 작품은 직 참여하여 체 화하므로 이미지의 조형성, 당 의 시간성, 업에 의한 확장성 등이 존재한다. 5. 결론 러진테럽터스의 뉴 장르 공공미술에서 환경색채의 역 할은 일반 인 공공미술이 추구하는 미 체험이나 조화 로운 도시경 의 연출이 아니다. 그들은 기 환경색채 아이디어를 제외하면, 설치부터 철거까지 시민들이 몸소 참여하여 나와 타자의 차이를 깨닫는데 을 맞춘다. 이러한 과정은 작품이 추구하는 문제의식을 상기시는 주 요 가치이다. 따라서 동시 의 아젠다를 주변에서 쉽게 볼 수 있는 일회용품이나 생활쓰 기에서 착안하여, 상 징 인 오 제로 연출하는 내러티 를 모색한다. 그 기 때문에 그들은 시각 술의 기 인 조형성을 조명과 색채 로 환원시키되, 시민들의 참여와 소통을 존 한다. 시민 들에게 개방된 설치 작품은 공통의 심사를 보이는 사 람들 뿐 아니라, 거리를 지나는 도시민들에게 환상 인 빛과 오버스 일의 오 제로 낯선 흥미를 유발시켜 잠재 된 기억을 상기시킨다. 수많은「색채가이드라인」과 지자체별로 「 표색」이 각축을 벌이고 있는 재, 도시의 올바른 팰럼시스 트(palimpsest) 방향은 수직 정책과 사업진행이 아님 을 본고를 통해 알 수 있었다. 한 공공 역은 사 역의 응물이 아니라 사 역의 부분으로 이해하고 체 화한 도시민을 포함해야 하는 것도 알 수 있었다. 이를 반 하듯 국내의 도시재생 사업에서 환경색채에 심은 높은 반면, 찰자 심의 경 색채에만 머무르는 한계 가 있다. 하드웨어에서 소 트웨어로 진화하는 뉴 장르 공공미 술은 무형의 인 라스트럭쳐로 창조도시를 한 안 하나가 될 가능성이 높다. 따라서 도시 정책과 략 수 한국실내디자인학회논문집 제25권 3호 통권116호 _ 2016.06120 립의 물리 인 에서 탈피하여 미술가, 색채 문가, 도시계획가, 환경디자이 , 건축가, 사회문화 문가들의 력이 형식 차원을 넘어선 상호 업이 필요하다. 특 히 도시의 수직 경 뿐 아니라 인간의 삶을 담은 수 평 참여와 소통의 요성을 깨닫고 쾌 한 환경을 한 가치가 무엇인지 사고할 수 있는 계기를 마련해야 한 다. 이에 본 논문은 무형의 인 라스트럭처의 도시재생 을 지향하는 시 에서 환경색채와 련된 후속 연구에 기 석으로서 자리 잡기를 견한다. 참고문헌 1. 김선 , 마크 로드코의 색면추상에 표 된 색의 확장성 연구, 한국실내디자인학회논문집 제29권 1호, 239-246, 2013 2. 김선 , 건축의 시-공간석 색채체계 연구1, 한국색채학회논 문집, 제30권 1호, 1-14, 2016 3. 김홍기, 환경색채계획론, 이화여자 학교 출 부, 2001 4. 문화 부, 새 술정책-시각 술분야, 2005 5. 박정은, 신도시 환경색채계획 기본지침에 한 연구, 한국색 채학회논문집 가을학술 회, 37-41, 2009 6. 齋藤純一, 公共性の政治理論, ナカニシヤ出版, 2010 7. 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work_6deeimjrfve7bpjcc77u45bode	----	Establishing a Brain Styles Test: The YBRAINS Test Available online at www.sciencedirect.com 1877–0428 © 2011 Published by Elsevier Ltd. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.04.407 Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences 15 (2011) 4019–4027 WCES-2011 Establishing a Brain Styles Test: The YBRAINS Test Chua Yan Piawa * a University of Malaya, Institute of Principalship Studies, Level 2, Block C, Complex City Campus UM, Jalan Tun Ismail, 50480 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Abstract Teaching with knowledge of students’ thinking and learning styles increases its effectiveness. The YBRAINS test is developed to help school teachers to understand the thinking and learning readiness levels of their students in the process of providing effective teaching and learning activities. The test was established based on theories and brain experiment research evidences. This article reports the rationale of establishing the test and its validity and reliability. © 2011 Published by Elsevier Ltd. Keywords: Brain style, thinking and learning, YBRAINS, validity and reliability 1. Background One of the major goals of the Malaysian National Mission in producing first class human resources, as has been documented in the Malaysian Education Master Plan 2006-2010, is to produce “first class minded” students. Specifically, it aims to equip students with science, technology, innovative, creative and all-round soft and hard skills (core element 2, Ministry of Education Malaysia, 2007, pp13). As a consequence, educational transformation has been initiated, and teaching and learning strategies that focus on enhancing the “human mind”, emphasis on all- round skills in enhancing critical thinking left brain the and creative thinking right brain across school subjects have been introduced at all levels in schools (Suresh, 2009). However, it was observed that the teaching and learning strategies are implemented in schools without considering students’ thinking and learning styles. Teaching with knowledge of students’ thinking and learning styles increases its effectiveness. It’s difficult for a school teacher to provide teaching activities and materials that best accommodate students’ thinking and learning styles without knowing students’ thinking and learning styles (Chua, 2009). According to some scholars, matching teaching styles to thinking and learning styles will increase academic achievement and make the teaching and learning process an enjoyable experience (Naimie, Siraj, Chua, Shaghoi & Ahmad Abuzaid, 2010; Chua, 2010). Therefore, an attempt has been initiated to build a test of thinking and learning style. It was developed to help school teachers to understand their students’ thinking and learning styles. The instrument named YBRAINS, consists of 25 items, was developed based on theories and evidences of brain researches. 2. Theories and evidences of brain styles People naturally learn and think in different ways. Split brain experiments’ evidences have indicated that both human brain, i.e. the left and the right brain think and learn, or process information differently. Several scholars (Springer and Deutsch, 1993; Torrance, 1982; Bogen, 1975) suggested that when people are thinking or learning, they tend to rely on either the left or the right brain. The tendency for a person to rely either the left or the right Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license. Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/ 4020 Chua Yan Piaw / Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences 15 (2011) 4019–4027 brain in processing information is called brain hemisphericity (Torrance, 1988). Based on experiences and research findings, educational psychologists (Osborn, 1963; Ornstein, 1977; Bamber, 1983 and Ibrahim, 1998) argued that an educational practice is one of the factors of brain hemisphericity. For ages, many educational psychologists have recognised the distinctly different roles of both hemispheres of the human brain. Traditionally, the left hemisphere has been referred to as the dominant hemisphere, which has more functions in thinking and learning process, and the right hemisphere as the minor hemisphere. However, it is now believed that both of the hemispheres are important in thinking and learning processes. Bogen (1975) was the first person who uses the word “brain hemisphericity” or “brain thinking and learning style”. In his “parallel ways of knowing model”, Bogen believed that there are two distinct ways of knowing, which are opposite one and the other. The first way of knowing is related to intuition, divergent, imaginative, holistic and subjective ways of thinking (right brain functions). In contrast, the second way of knowing is related to Intellect, logical, convergent, rational, sequential, analytic and objective ways of thinking (left brain functions). Another scholar, Munzert (1991) in his effort to develop an IQ test asserted that the differences between left and right hemispheres’ functions are qualified by the mental activities, which are processed in each half of the brain. His theory of “Intelligent creativity-creative intelligent” asserted that the left brain is the “intelligence creativity” side, and it is the control centre for such intellectual functions, such as time, memory, numbers, language, speech, logic, analysis, sequence, classification, computation, and seriation. These functions encompass the abilities necessary for academic success. While the right brain is the “creative intelligence” side, and it is the control centre for the mental functions involved space, intuition, attitudes, emotions, extrasensory, rhythm, music, dance, synthesis, fine arts, mechanics, physical coordination, and visual-spatial. Similarly, Torrance, Reynolds, Riegel and Ball (1977), in their efforts to establish a brain style test (i.e. the Your Style of Learning and Thinking Test) listed the functions of the left and right brain. The functions of the left brain included recognising and remembering names, responding to verbal instructions, systematic and controlled in experimenting, dependent upon words for meaning, produced logical ideas, processes verbal stimuli, objective processing of information, serious, systematic in solving problems, receptive, abstract thinking, dislike improving, not psychic, little use of metaphor and analogies, responsive to logical, verbal appeals, deal with one problem at a time, sequentially, critical and analytical in reading, logical in solving problems, gives instructions verbally, uses language in remembering, and grasps certain and established truth. On the other hand, The functions of the right brain included recognising and remembering faces, responding to visual and kinaesthetic instructions, playful and loose in experimenting, responds with emotion and feeling, interprets body language, produces humorous ideas, process kinaesthetic stimuli, subjective processing of information, playful in solving problems, self acting; concrete thinking, likes improving; highly psychic, high use of metaphor and analogies, responsive to emotional appeals, deal simultaneously with several problem at same time, creative, synthesising, associating in reading, intuitive in solving problems, gives instructions through movement and gesture, uses images in remembering, and grasps uncertain truth. Empirical evidences of the functions of the left and right hemispheres were basically based on the observation on brain damage patients and split brain experiment studies (Gazzaniga, 2002; Springer and Deutsch, 2001; and Sperry, 1975). According to the split brain theory, derived from findings of the split brain experiments, the left brain involves with verbal, logical, sequentially-order, rational, realistic, evaluation, critical reasoning, and convergent tasks, while the right brain processes visual, non-verbal, intuition, non-linear, spatial, artistic, musical, holistic, imaginative and creative information (Szirony, Burgin, & Pearson, 2008; Weinberger, 2004; McManus, 2002; Saleh and Iran-Nejab, 1995; Shiflett, 1989; Ibrahim and Davis, 1989; Carol, 1989; Yarlott, 1986; Dombrower, Favero, King, Dombrower & Michael, 1982; Torrance, 1982; Herrmann, 1981; Sperry, 1975). 3. Indicators of brain styles Besides referring the above mentioned theory and models, the items of the YBRAINS test were developed based on research evidences of split brain experiments including the blood flow technique (Lassen, 1972), dichotic listening technique (Bethmann, Tempelmann, De Bleser, Scheich & Brechmann, 2005; Kimura, 1961), electroencephalogram or electrical brain writing technique (Galin and Ornstein, 1972), and hemispheric functions on visual stimuli study (Levy & Trevarthen, 1976). In additions, findings of the left brain and right brain functions Chua Yan Piaw / Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences 15 (2011) 4019–4027 4021 derived from psychological tests such as the literal preference test (Porch and Coren, 1981) and the street gestalt completion test (Bogen, 1975) were also be referred. 3.1. Left brain style The indicators of left brain thinking and learning style included: Good in logical, rational and analytical thinking, evaluate materials in rational way, works in a systematic manner, follows rules, processes information sequentially, or step by step, inhibited in responding emotionally, prefer structured activities, proficient in language and verbal activities, prefer science and mathematics subjects, suitable for works which need the skills of systematic, logical thinking and decision making, prefer words over picture or images when reading, prefer using right side of the body for physical activities (the left brain controls right side of the body), emotion is hardly influent by the people, dislike nonsense and less logic idea, prefer learning language subjects, like to tell real stories, realistic in thinking, like to work in a serious, structured, and office-like environment, like routine and repetitious works, tend to match visual stimuli with its function (derived from the laterality study for hemispheric functions on visual stimuli), and less ability in right brain functions. 3.2. Right brain style The indicators of right brain thinking and learning style include: Creative, imaginative in thinking, like to produce original ideas, good in spatial relationship, has a highly adventurous and inventive mind, solves problem intuitively, act spontaneously, response with emotion and feeling, prefers open-ended assignment, has a good sense of humour, has an open mind in everyday life, prefer using left side of the body in physical activities like to response to music and art, or innate musical and artistic talent, suitable for works that need the skills of spatial relationships, understand creative expressions in paintings (the aesthetics values of impressionism, surrealism and cubism art works, such as the aesthetics values in Vincent van Gogh, Claude Monet and Pablo Picasso’ paintings), emotion influent by others, good at recall image, like to tell humorous jokes, like to work in a playful environment, inventive in thinking, like non-structured works, tend to match visual stimuli with its appearance, and less ability in left brain functions. 3.3. Whole brain style The indicators of whole brain thinking and learning style include: Has a balanced thinking style, i.e. presents a mixed style of abilities and characteristics of the left brain and right brain styles, works better with task that needs the skills of both the right and left brain. Besides the three brain styles, the test is also measuring the level of openness in thinking. Openness is viewed as associated with the right brain functions, such as appreciation for art, emotion, adventure, unusual ideas and imagination (Runco & Pritzker, 1999). In the test, the openness levels (open style, mixed style and closed style) are identified based on the following openness indicators: generous in sharing idea with others; like to communicate ideas freely; have positive emotion; extraversion; practicing active listening, and listening with understanding; open to what others are saying; not being unreceptive to other ideas and opinions; and receptive to new experience and changes. It is important for an instructor to identify the openness level of a learner before preparing a lesson because teaching is less effective if the student’s mind is closed for learning. 4. Establishing the YBRAINS test Treffinger (1986) pointed out that there is no single, uniformly accepted theory of thinking, and there is also no single assessment instrument of thinking that is and will be universally accepted. Pertaining to brain style, Torrance (1988) stated that if information about the specialized functioning of the two cerebral hemispheres is to become useful to educators, educational psychologists must invent a variety of instruments and recalibrate many existing instruments, while Starko (2004) asserted that the use of a typical thinking instrument is depended on the need and the purpose of its developer, and varying theories and definitions will support differing types of assessment. 4022 Chua Yan Piaw / Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences 15 (2011) 4019–4027 According to some well-known educational test developers (Torrance, 1984; Watson-Glaser, 1980; Taylor and Getzels, 1975), the general criteria for selecting specific thinking test are: (1) It must have relevance to thinking theory, (2) It must have relevance to thinking behaviour in the real world, (3) it must simply a different aspect of thinking behaviour, (4) it must be attractive to the respondent, (5) it must be built so that a person can respond in terms of his/her experiences whatever these may have been, (6) it must yield data that can be scored reliably for meaningful aspects of thinking, and finally, (7) the testing materials, instructions for administration, time limits, and scoring procedures must be clearly and relevantly stated. The items of the YBRAINS test were developed based the general criteria suggested by the test developers mentioned above. Besides that, the items were also built on the rationale that thinking and learning styles can be identified, quantified, and represented by scores (Starko, 2004). The YBRAINS test consists of 25 items. The items are used to collect data concerning brain styles (left brain, right brain of whole brain style) and openness level (open style, mixed style or closed style) of a respondent. Each item provides respondent with multiple choices – each choice representing a specialised function of the left brain, or a parallel function of the right brain. The respondent is asked to indicate which of the specific brain functions best describes his/her own typical behaviours (not the statement that is correct to most people). The responses are then calculated to obtain a brain style score (divide the total point scored by the number of responses made by the respondent). The brain style score is then categorised into three thinking and learning styles based on a 9-point index which was divided into three sections: left brain style (section 1): 1.0 – 4.5 points; whole brain style (section 2): 4.6 - 5.4 points; and right brain style (section 3): 5.5 –9.0 points. For the openness level, the scoring is similar to provide a three sections’ openness styles: open thinking style (section 1): 1.0 – 4.5 points; mixed thinking style (section 2): 4.6 - 5.4 points; and closed thinking style (section 3): 5.5 –9.0 points (Figure 1). The whole brain and mixed thinking are set at a narrow range of 4.6 - 5.4 point (a 10% of the 9-point scale) because for a person to be balanced in brain style, the maximum range of difference between the scores of the two hemispheres is 10%. The three brain styles and thinking styles is then arranged in a two-dimensional matrix, to create a typology diagram (Figure 1). The typology diagram presents a new model: the Brain Style Model. BRAIN STYLE THINKING STYLE Open Mixed Closed Left Brain Whole Brain Right Brain Brain style score: 1.0-4.5 Openness score: 1.0-4.5 LEFT BRAIN-OPEN THINKING STYLE Brain style score: 1.0-4.5 Openness score: 4.6-5.4 LEFT BRAIN-MIXED THINKING STYLE Brain style score: 1.0-4.5 Openness score: 5.5-9.0 LEFT BRAIN-CLOSED THINKING STYLE Brain style score: 4.6-5.4 Openness score: 1.0-4.5 WHOLE BRAIN-OPEN THINKING STYLE Brain style score: 4.6-5.4 Openness score: 4.6-5.4 WHOLE BRAIN-MIXED THINKING STYLE Brain style score: 4.6-5.4 Openness score: 5.5-9.0 WHOLE BRAIN-CLOSED THINKING STYLE Brain style score: 5.5-9.0 Openness score: 1.0-4.5 RIGHT BRAIN-OPEN THINKING STYLE Brain style score: 5.5-9.0 Openness score: 4.6-5.4 RIGHT BRAIN-MIXED THINKING STYLE Brain style score: 5.5-9.0 Openness score: 5.5-9.0 RIGHT BRAIN-CLOSED THINKING STYLE Figure 1: Typology diagram of the brain style model generated from the YBRAINS test The YBRAINS test is developed in a computer-based system by using a visual basics programme. When a respondent responds to the test items, his learning and thinking styles (left, right or whole brain style, and open, mixed or closed thinking style), as well as the strengths, weaknesses and some suggestion to his style will be presented instantly by the computer programme. Besides that, the test uses a nature friendly background to stimulate Chua Yan Piaw / Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences 15 (2011) 4019–4027 4023 respondent’s thinking when he responds to the test items. Figure 2 indicates an example item and the results of the test in graphical form (The test has won two gold medals in innovation expo, including the 21st International invention, innovation & Technology Exhibition, 2010). Figure 2: An example of test items and the results of the test in graphical form 5. Reliability and validity of the YBRAINS test The items of the YBRAINS test were established on the assumptions that thinking and learning styles can be identified, quantified, and represented by scores. In order for these assumptions to be met, instrument used for measurement must meet the test of validity and reliability (Starko, 2004). 5.1. Reliability Test-retest reliability of the YBRAINS was conducted in two studies. The first study tested 224 student teachers (103 males, 121 females; average age: 19.1 years old) of a undergraduate teacher training programme at the Kuala Lumpur Specialist Teacher Training Institute, and retested the same students three months later. The Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients were positively significant for both of the thinking and learning styles (left brain style: r= .87, p< .05; right brain style: r= .84, p< .05). The second test was conducted on 127 sixth-form students (54 males, 73 females; average age: 18.0 years old) of the Seri Serdang Secondary School in a range of five months in 2008. The product-moment correlation coefficients were also positively significant for both of the thinking and learning styles (left brain style: r= .89, p< .05; right brain style: r= .82, p< .05). Ling (2010) in a study (on a group of 85 secondary school principals: 45 males and 40 females; average age: 45.1 years old) reported that the internal consistency reliabilities (Cronbach’s alpha values) of the left, right, open and closed style are .74, .72, .76, and .84. 5.2. Validity The validity of the YBRAINS test will be presented in terms of content, concurrent, construct and predictive validity. 5.2.1. Content validity The items of the YBRAINS test were constructed by attempting to transform theories and research findings regarding the functions of the left brain and right brain into a multiple-choice test format, with each choice representing either a left brain style or a right brain style, and either an open or closed thinking style. 5.2.2. Concurrent validity 4024 Chua Yan Piaw / Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences 15 (2011) 4019–4027 Concurrent validity examines whether an instrument correlates with current measures. The concurrent validity study for the YBRAINS test was conducted on a group of 223 students (102 males, 121 females; average age: 19.1 years old) undergraduate student teachers from the Kuala Lumpur Specialist Teacher Training Institute. The study identified correlation between the YBRAINS test and two thinking and learning styles instruments. The two instruments are: (1) The Styles of Learning and Thinking Test or SOLAT (Torrance, 1988). The SOLAT test (youth form) consists of 28 items. Each item of the test provides two choices – one representing a specialised function of the left brain, and the other representing a specialised function of the right brain. A respondent is asked to indicate which of the two specific learning and thinking styles best describes his own typical behaviour. (2) The Brain Works (Synergistic Learning Incorporated, 2006) test. The Brain Works test is a 20 items, triple-choice, computer operated self-assessment instrument. The three choices of each item represented the left brain, the right brain, and the mixed brain dominant thinking and learning styles. The results of the two concurrent validity studies are presented in Table 1. As shown in Table 1, the scores of left brain style of the YBRAINS were positively and significantly correlate with the left brain style of the SOLAT (r= .75, p< .01) and the Brain Works (r= .66, p< .05). On the other hand, the scores of right brain style of the YBRAINS were positively and significantly correlated with the right brain style of the SOLAT (r= .73, p< .01) and the Brain Works (r= .56, p< .05). Table 1. Correlation between the scores of the YBRAINS with the scores of the SOLAT and the Brain Works Correlation Left Brain Style Right Brain Style Styles of Thinking and Learning (SOLAT) - YBRAINS .75** .73** Brain Works - YBRAINS .66* . 56* Note: *significant at p< .05; **significant at p< .01 5.2.3. Construct validity Construct validity asks whether the task on an instrument match generally accepted characteristics of the construct being measured. In determining construct validity, test developer examines scores on instruments attempting to measure the same variable as well as scores on measures of different but related variables (Starko, 2004). In this case, according to the Split Brain Theory derived from the split brain experiment evidences (Sperry, 1975), critical reasoning abilities are functions of the left brain. On the other hand, creative thinking abilities are the functions of the right brain. The instruments are: (1) The Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal or WGCTA (Watson & Glaser, 1980). The WGCTA test is one of the most prominent critical thinking tests (Fulton, 1989). It was used to measure critical thinking skills of the subjects. It consisted of 80 items. The items are scored for five components of critical thinking based on the Watson and Glaser’ critical thinking definition. The five components of critical thinking are (1) inference, (2) recognition of assumptions, (3) deduction, (4) interpretation, and (5) evaluation of arguments. (2) The Torrance Test of Creative Thinking or TTCT test, figural form (Torrance, 1984). The TTCT test is the most well known creative thinking test. It has been translated and used in more than 25 different languages (Khatena, 1982: 244). It was used to measure creative thinking skills of the subjects. It consisted of 3 sub-tests: Picture Construction, Picture Completion and Lines Activity. These sub-tests are scored for five components of creative thinking based on Torrance’s definition of creative thinking. The five components are (1) fluency, (2) originality, (3) elaboration, (4) abstractness of titles, and (5) resistance to premature closure. The subjects were 292 form four students (135 males, 157 females; age: 16.0 years old) from the Seri Serdang Secondary School. It was hypothesised that if the instruments reliably measure similar thinking element, one would expects positive relationship, despite the different contents and responses required. The results of the Pearson correlations in Table 2 clearly indicate certain trends. It indicates that the YBRAINS scores of left brain style were positively and significantly correlated with the WGCTA critical thinking index (r= .61, p< .05) and its four components (inference: r=.68, p< .05; deduction: r=.71, p< .01; interpretation: r=.55, p< .05; and evaluation of arguments: r=.63, p< .05). On the other hand, the YBRAINS scores of right brain style were positively and significantly correlated with the TTCT creative thinking index (r= .59, p< .05) and its four components (fluency: r=.55, p< .05; originality: r=.76, p< .05; elaboration: r=.63, p< .05; and resistance to premature closure: r=.44, p< .05). Chua Yan Piaw / Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences 15 (2011) 4019–4027 4025 Table 2. Correlations between the scores of the YBRAINS with the scores of the TTCT and the WGCTA tests Correlation YBRAINS WATSON-GLASER CRITICAL THINKING APPRAISAL (WGCTA) Left Brain Style Inference .68* Recognition of Assumptions .27 Deduction .71** Interpretation .55* Evaluation of Arguments .63* Critical Thinking Index .61* TORRANCE TEST OF CREATIVE THINKING (TTCT) Right Brain Style Fluency .55* Originality .76* Elaboration .63* Abstractness of Titles .21 Resistance to Premature Closure .44* Creative Thinking Index .59* Note: *significant at p< .05; **significant at p< .01 However, the relative low and insignificant correlation between the Recognition of Assumptions score of the WGCTA and the left brain style score of the YBRAINS (r= .27, p> .05) suggests that the two tests measuring different aspects of critical thinking Similarly, the relative low correlation between the Abstractness of Titles score of the TTCT and the right brain style score of the YBRAINS (r= .21, p> .05) suggests that the two tests assess different components of creative thinking via different test contents and from different perspectives. (YBRAINS measures thinking and learning styles while TTCT and WGCTA measure thinking skills). The results suggest that the left brain style and right brain style of the YBRAINS reliably measure certain similar critical and creative thinking, as measured by the WGCTA and the TTCT tests, and these results are inline with the evidences of the split brain theory, that creative thinking is one of the functions of the right brain while critical thinking is one of the functions of the left brain. 5.2.4. Predictive validity Predictive validity examines whether scores on a measure predicts its traits or performance at a later time. It asks not how a measure correlates with other measures today but how they may relate to activities tomorrow (Starko, 2004). Based on the split brain theory (Springer & Deutsch, 1993), it seemed reasonable to predict that arts major and music major subjects will score higher on the right brain style of the YBRAINS test. On the contrary, mathematics major and science major subjects will score higher on the left brain style. Table 3 depicts the results of a predictive study. The subjects of the study were 52 mathematics major, 45 music major, 48 science major and 49 fine arts major student teachers (final year undergraduates; 81 males, 113 females; average age: 22.3 years old) from the Kuala Lumpur Specialist Teacher Training Institute. The data in Table 3 indicate that the music major and fine arts major students scored higher on the right brain style (music major: left brain style, M=14.21; right brain style, M=19.10; fine arts major: left brain style, M =14.33; right brain style, M=20.64). On the other hand, the mathematics major and science major subjects scored higher on the left brain style (mathematics major: left brain style, M =18.74; right brain style, M=15.45; science major: left brain style, M =19.50; right brain style, M=14.11). The results show the ability of the scores of the YBRAINS test in predicting the thinking and learning styles. Moreover, referring to the YBRAINS typography diagram (Figure 1), mathematics major and science major students demonstrated left brain style (YBARINS score: mathematics major = 3.61; science major score=4.11), while on the other hand, the music and fine arts students demonstrated right brain style (YBARINS score: music major = 6.31 ; fine arts =6.76). Table 3: Mean and standard deviation scores of the four academic majors on the YBRAINS test YBRAINS Mathematics Major (n=52) Music Major (n=45) Science Major (n=48) Fine Arts Major (n=49) Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD 4026 Chua Yan Piaw / Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences 15 (2011) 4019–4027 Left Brain Style 18.74 3.15 14.21 3.86 19.50 3.18 14.33 4.10 Right Brain Style 15.45 4.37 19.10 4.12 14.11 3.25 20.64 3.74 YBRAINS Score 3.61 0.93 6.31 0.89 4.11 0.81 6.76 0.69 In another study, Ling (2010) reviewed literature and found that Malaysian secondary school principals are working in a highly structured, systematic, rational, convergent thinking environment, and they are predicted as critical in thinking. Hence she hypothesised that the Malaysian school principals possess a left brain style. Her study on a group of school principals (n=85, aged 39 - 54) showed that 50.59% (n=43) of the respondents are left brain style thinkers, 48.24% (n=41) are whole brain style thinkers, and only one respondent possesses a right brain style (Table 4). The three predictive validity studies’ results show that to some extent, the YBRAINS test is able to predict the brain style of its respondent. 6. Conclusion The reliability and validity studies that have been presented above indicate the ability of the YBRAINS scores to represent the brain styles of its respondents. The instrument could be used as an alternative measure to other thinking and learning style tests to understand human behaviours from a slightly different perspective. Since human thinking is a universal behaviour, the usage of the test might not limited only to the Malaysian secondary school students, however, reliability studies should be carried out before it could be widely used. 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NY: Longman. Suresh, R. (2009, April 19). All-round skills to be focus of new curriculum .New Straits Times, pp.8. Synergistic Learning Incorporated (2006). Brain works. Retrieved October 23, 2006 from http://www.planetpsych.com/zInteractive/brain.htm Szirony, G. M., Burgin, J.S., & Pearson, L. C. (2008). Hemispheric laterality in music and math. Learning Inquiry, 2(3), 169-180. Taylor, I. A., & Getzels, J. W. (1975). Perspectives in creativity. Chicago: Aldine. Torrance, E. P. (1982). Hemisphericity and creative functioning. Journal of Research and Development in Education, 15(3), 29-37. Torrance, E. P. (1984). Torrance Test of Creative Thinking streamlined (revised) manual including norm and direction for administering and scoring figural A and B. Bensenville, IL: Scholastic Testing Service. Torrance, E. P. (1988). Styles of thinking and learning, administrator’s manual. Bensenville, IL: Scholastic Testing Service. Torrance, E. P. & Ball, O. E. (1977). Norms-technical manual for the streamlined scoring of figural form A, Torrance Test of Creative Thinking. Athens, GA: Georgia Studies of Creative Behaviour. Torrance, E. P.; Taggart, W. & Taggart, B. (1984). Human information processing survey. Bensenville, IL: Scholastic Testing Service. Torrance, E.P.; Reynolds, C. R.; Riegel, T. R., & Ball, O. E. (1977). Your style of learning and thinking, Forms A and B: Preliminary norms, abbreviated technical notes, scoring keys, and selected references. Gifted Child Quarterly, 21, 572-573. Treffinger, D. J. (1986). Research on creativity. Gifted Child Quarterly, 30(10), 15-19. Tucker, D. M. & Williamson, P. A. (1984). Asymmetric neural control systems in human self-regulation. Psychological Review, 91, 185-215. Watson, G. B. & Glaser, E. M. (1980). Watson-Glaser critical thinking appraisal. San Antonio, TX: Harcourt Brace. Weinberger, N. M. (2004). Music and the brain. Scientific American, 291(5), 88–95. Yarlott, G. (1986). Split-brain theory and education. British Journal of Educational Studies, 34(3), 235–248. 
work_6oof4fi6bfdgtpotybxcm6pbhu	----	issn 1516–8603 ArtCultura Uberlândia v. 17 n. 30 p. 1–248 jan.–jun. 2015 issn 1516–8603 ArtCultura Uberlândia v. 13 n. 22 p. 1–236 jan.–jun. 2011 Revista de História, Cultura e Arte Apoio: ISSN 1516–8603 ArtCultura Uberlândia v. 9 n. 14 p. 1–270 jan.–jun. 2007 Revista de História, Cultura e Arte F I C H A C A T A L O G R ÁF I C A Dados Internacionais de Catalogação na Publicação (CIP) Elaborada pelo Sistema de Bibliotecas da UFU | Setor de Catalogação e Classificação ArtCultura : Revista de História, Cultura e Arte, v. 17, n. 30, jan.-jun. 2015. — Uberlândia: Univer- sidade Federal de Uberlândia, Insti tuto de História. Semestral. ISSN: 1516-8603 1. História — Periódicos. 2. Arte — Periódicos. 3. Cultura — Periódicos. I. Universidade Federal de Uberlândia. Instituto de História. CDU: 930(05) Universidade Federal de Uberlândia Reitor: Elmiro Santos Resende Vice-reitor: Eduardo Nunes Guimarães Diretora da Edufu: Joana Luiza Muylaert de Araújo Edufu — Editora da Universidade Federal de Uberlândia Av. João Naves de Ávila, 2121 — Campus Santa Mônica — Bloco 1S Cep 38408-100 — Uberlândia — MG www.edufu.ufu.br — e-mail: livraria@ufu.br Instituto de História | Programa de Pós-graduação em História Universidade Federal de Uberlândia Av. João Naves de Ávila, 2121 — Campus Santa Mônica — Bloco 1H — Sala 1H36 Cep 38408-100 — Uberlândia — MG Telefone: [34] 3239-4130, ramal 27 www.artcultura.inhis.ufu.br | artcultura@inhis.ufu.br | facebook.com/revista.artcultura Editores Adalberto Paranhos (UFU/MG) Kátia Rodrigues Paranhos (UFU/MG) Conselho Editorial Alexandre de Sá Avelar (UFU/MG) Lucilia de Almeida Neves Delgado (UnB/DF) Antônio de Almeida (UFU/MG) Marcos Antonio de Menezes (UFG-Jataí/GO) Charles Monteiro (PUC-RS/RS) Maria Bernardete Ramos Flores (UFSC/SC) Jean Luiz Neves Abreu (UFU/MG) Maria Izilda Santos de Matos (PUC-SP/SP) José Roberto Zan (Unicamp/SP) Wolney Vianna Malafaia (Colégio Pedro II/RJ) Revisão de língua inglesa Projeto gráfico, editoração e capa Sieni Maria Campos Eduardo Warpechowski sobre Duas mulheres correndo na praia (1922), de Pablo Picasso, A criação de Adão, de Michelangelo Buonarotti (1508-1512) e obra de Paco Pomet (2011). Tiragem 1000 exemplares Conselho Consultivo Ana Maria Mauad (UFF/RJ) . Annateresa Fabris – USP/SP . Carlo Ginzburg – Scuola Normale Superio- re de Pisa/Itália . Dolf Oehler – Universität Bonn/Alemanha . Eduardo Morettin – USP/SP . Elizabeth Cancelli – USP/SP . Fernando Catroga – Universidade de Coimbra/Portugal . François Dosse – IUFM de Créteil – Institut d’Études Politiques – Paris/França . Ida Lewkovicz – Unesp/Franca/SP . Idelber Avelar – Tulane University/EUA . James Naylor Green – Brown University/EUA . Joana Maria Pedro – UFSC/SC . Jorge Coli – Unicamp/SP . Lucia Lippi Oliveira – CPDoc/FGV/RJ . Lucia Maria Paschoal Guimarães – UERJ/RJ . Marcos Napolitano – USP/SP . Maria de Fátima Morethy Couto – Unicamp/ SP . Maria de Lourdes Rabetti – UniRio/RJ . Maria Elisa Cevasco – USP/SP . Maria Helena Capelato – USP/SP . Marshall Berman – City University of New York/EUA (in memoriam) . Martha Tupinambá de Ulhôa – UniRio/RJ . Mike Featherstone – Nottingham Trent University/Inglaterra . Orna Messer Levin – Unicamp/SP . Rachel Soihet – UFF/RJ . Raúl Antelo – UFSC/SC . Roger Chartier – École de Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales – Paris/França . Santuza Cambraia Naves (in memoriam) – PUC/ RJ – Ucam/RJ . Serge Gruzinski – École de Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales/França . Sheila Schvarz- man – Universidade Anhembi Morumbi/SP . Sidney Chalhoub – Unicamp/SP . Tania Regina de Luca – Unesp/Franca/SP . Victor Hugo Adler Pereira – UERJ/RJ . Zélia Lopes da Silva – Unesp/Assis/SP Pede-se permuta Pédese canje On demande échange We ask for exchange Wir bitten um Austausch Si richiedle lo scambio Portais/Bases de Dados Periódicos Capes Sistema Eletrônico de Editoração de Revistas (SEER) LivRe! Latinindex Clase-Cich-Unam Directório Luso-Brasileiro de Repositórios e Revistas de Acesso Aberto Sumários de Revistas Brasileiras (sumarios.org) Google Acadêmico Proibida a reprodução total ou parcial de qualquer artigo sem a prévia autorização do Editor. Todos os artigos assinados são de inteira responsabilidade de seus autores, não cabendo qual- quer responsabilidade legal sobre seu conteúdo à revista ou à Edufu. Revista de História, Cultura e Arte issn 1516–8603 ArtCultura Uberlândia v. 13 n. 22 p. 1–236 jan.–jun. 2011 Revista de História, Cultura e Arte Apoio: 
work_6rn6kpxr7rexpjaebjvzy3srjq	----	Master-v5n1.pdf NEXUS NETWORK JOURNAL – VOL. 5, NO. 1, 2003 9 György Darvas Perspective as a Symmetry Transformation From the quattrocento to the end of the nineteenth century perspective has been the main tool of artists aiming to paint a naturalistic representation of our environment. In painters’ perspective we find a combination of affine projection and similitude. We recognise the original object in the painting because perspective is a symmetry transformation preserving certain features. The subject of the transformation, in the case of perspectival representation, is visible reality, and the transformed object is the artwork. The application of symmetry transformations developed from the origin of perspective through the centuries to the present day. The single vanishing point could be moved (translated), and even doubled, developments that made it possible to represent an object from different points of view. In the twentieth century, the application of topological symmetry combined with similitude resulted in new ways of seeing, new tools for artists such as cubists and futurists. A Brief History of the Concept of Symmetry The meaning of the intriguing term ‘symmetry’ has undergone considerable transformation in its use throughout the centuries. The proper translation of the Greek term symmetria ( ) is ‘common measure’, from the prefix sym ( ), common, and the noun metros ( ), measure. The Greeks interpreted this word to mean the harmony between the different parts of an object, the good proportions between its constituent parts. Later this meaning was applied to such things as the rhythm of poems, of music, and even the cosmos (“well-ordered system of the universe, in contrast with chaos”). Up until the Renaissance, Latin and the emerging modern European languages translated “symmetry” as harmony or proportion. In a wider sense, the terms balance and equilibrium also belonged to this family of synonyms. It is not too difficult to deduce that in many ways symmetry was always related to beauty, truth and the good. These related meanings determined its application in the arts, the sciences, and ethics respectively. Symmetry was not only related to such positive values, it even became a symbol of the search for perfection, as in the writings of Plato. The earliest surviving description of symmetry was given by the first century B.C.E. Roman architect Vitruvius, in his Ten Books on Architecture, which laid the foundations for the particular meaning of the notion. His usage suggests symmetry is a general term related to the meaning of words such as harmony, proportion, rhythm, etc. It was not by chance that the humanists of the quattrocento rediscovered Vitruvius’s treatise for themselves. With the publication of several translations, the term “symmetry” replaced earlier translated versions of the word, and took its place within modern European 10 GYÖRGY DARVAS – Perspective as a Symmetry Transformation languages, first in volgare [Italian: simmetria], later in German [Symmetrie]. It was also not by chance that this adoption of the Greek term took place in parallel with the growing self-consciousness of the arts, the development of art theory, the appearance and application of perspective, and geometry in the visual arts in general. A number of written works contributed to establishing the contemporary meaning of the term symmetry in the fifteenth century.1 Thus, after the Golden Age of Greece (fifth century B.C.E.), the paths of science and the arts crossed again in the Renaissance, only to divide once again—for centuries—and then to meet for a third time in the cultural melting pot of the twentieth century. This has provided fertile ground for the application of symmetry in both spheres, art and science, of human creativity, to products of two opposite cerebral hemispheres. Manifestations of Symmetry If one were to ask general readers what is meant by symmetry, most are likely to answer that it is something like reflection. Indeed, reflection, also called bilateral symmetry, is a very frequent (although not the most frequent) manifestation of symmetry. Take a shape in the plane, and a straight line in the same plane. We can reflect all points of this shape through the straight line, and we will obtain the mirror- shape of the original. We call the two shapes symmetrical because the mirror-shape preserves many properties of the original. The length of the lines between their corresponding points, the distance of the individual points from the reflecting straight line, the angles of intersecting straight lines connecting the corresponding points, and the form of the shape do not change. There are other properties as well that do not change, such as colour, etc. At the same time, however, the direction moving around it, and the left and right sides change. We can describe what has happened thus: first, we have taken a geometric object; second, we have made a geometric transformation (reflection through the straight line), which changed some properties; third, we found that certain other geometric properties remain invariant under the given transformation. After two reflections in respect of the same straight line, we return to the original object. Similar observations can be made when reflecting three-dimensional objects (Fig. 1). Fig. 1. Reflection. Drawing by the author A considerable proportion of readers may mention rotation, another frequent manifestation of symmetry. Take a shape in the plane and a straight line—this time perpendicular to the plane—as the axis of rotation. If we rotate all points of the shape by some (equal) angle of our choice around the axis, the rotated shape will preserve its properties; only its placement in the plane and orientation will change. Again, first, we took a geometric object; second, we made a geometric transformation (rotation around NEXUS NETWORK JOURNAL – VOL. 5, NO. 1, 2003 11 the straight line), which changed certain properties; third, we found that other properties did not change under the given transformation. If we choose an angle of rotation that is an integer (n) divisor of 360°, we return to the original object after n transformations (rotations). In these cases we speak of n-fold symmetry. Similar observations can be made when rotating three-dimensional objects (Fig. 2). Fig. 2. Rotation. Drawing by the author Fewer readers will mention the most frequent manifestation of symmetry: translation. Take an object, a direction, and a distance. Move the object in the fixed direction by the given distance, repeating this transformation any number of times, in principle ad infinitum. We will never get back to the original, but we generate a series of copies of the original object. The object preserves all its properties, except for its location in the plane (in space). What happened? Again, first, we took a geometric object; second, we made a geometrical transformation (translation in a set direction by a given distance), which changed the object’s location; third, we found, that its geometrical properties remain invariant under the given transformation. The same object can be translated in several directions. The decorative arts often make use of translation-symmetric motifs, as in frieze patterns, mosaics, window patterns on a building, or crystals in the sciences. Any repetition can represent a symmetry, such as rhythm in poetry and in music, or all periodic phenomena, like periodicity in the celestial mechanics or in the calendar (Fig. 3). Fig. 3. Translation. Drawing by the author The conservation of other geometric properties may serve as the basis for other types of symmetry, such as similitude, affine projection and topological symmetry. Similitude is a symmetry transformation whereby the distances between the corresponding points of two objects change, but the ratios between the lengths and the angles are preserved; thus the shape of the object remains similar to the original (Fig. 4). Fig. 4. Similtude. Drawing by the author 12 GYÖRGY DARVAS – Perspective as a Symmetry Transformation Affine projection is a symmetry transformation in which straight lines are transformed into other straight lines but angles are not conserved in this transformation (Fig. 5). Fig. 5. Affine projection. Drawing by the author Topological symmetry is a symmetry transformation in which the neighborhood relations between the points of the object are left intact, the distances between them as well as the angles between the lines connecting them are altered. Straight lines do not necessarily remain straight. A good example of topological symmetry is the lattice of the points of a squashed sponge (Fig. 6). Fig. 6. Topological Symmetry. Drawing by the author Generalisation of the Concept of Symmetry All the symmetry types mentioned are geometrical symmetries. What they have in common is that in all cases we perform a certain geometric operation, a transformation. During this transformation one (or more) geometric properties of this geometric object remain unaltered. We say that this property is invariant under the given transformation. To generalise the concept of symmetry, first, replace the geometric transformation with any kind of transformation; second, apply such transformations not only to geometric objects, but to any kind of object; third, investigate not only their geometric properties, but consider any kind of property of the objects. NEXUS NETWORK JOURNAL – VOL. 5, NO. 1, 2003 13 In other words, in a generalised interpretation of its meaning, we can speak of symmetry if under any (not necessarily geometric) transformation (operation) at least one (not necessarily geometric) property of the (not necessarily geometric) object is invariant. Thus we make a generalization in respect of three things: any transformation, any object, and any of its properties. This generalized conception of symmetry makes it possible for us to apply symmetry to the materialised objects of the physical and organic world, as well as to products of the mind. In addition to geometrical (morphological) symmetries, we can now discuss functional symmetries and asymmetries (such as may occur in the human brain, for example); gauge symmetries in physical phenomena; and properties like color, tone, light and shadow, weight, in objects of art. Perfection And Symmetry With this expansion of the meaning of symmetry — which opens the door to the consideration of a wide range of different phenomena as symmetries — one might ask the question: can everything around us, therefore, be considered symmetric? Before answering this in the negative, it would be wise to remind ourselves that symmetry is never perfect. Objects can be invariant in respect of certain transformations, but never under all; certain properties of objects can be invariant under a particular transformation, but not all properties. The tendency towards symmetry does not mean it is achieved perfectly everywhere or in everything. Fig. 7. Dissymmetry in an arabesque fragment from the Alhambra. Photograph by the author Dissymmetry. Symmetry often manifests itself in combined and generalized forms, especially in the arts. Here we should emphasize the role of dissymmetry, an expression denoting a property of objects showing symmetry in their general features, albeit slightly distorted. For example, a door is generally a mirror-symmetric object, but the asymmetrical handle distorts its bilateral symmetry. The patterns of windows on the 14 GYÖRGY DARVAS – Perspective as a Symmetry Transformation facade of a building may show symmetry, but the curtains in the windows may be pleated in different folds in each of the symmetrically-placed windows; the windows themselves may be open or closed; the window sills may be decorated with different potted plants. This dissymmetry lends a certain liveliness to an otherwise inanimate structure. Motifs on an arabesque follow symmetrical shapes, but individual leaves may differ from their symmetrically-placed pair, and tendrils spin around each other, distorting perfect mirror symmetry. Nevertheless, we find dissymmetry beautiful; usually more beautiful than absolutely perfect symmetry (Fig. 7). Over a hundred years ago Pierre Curie, the great physicist and crystallographer, claimed, “Dissymmetry makes the phenomenon.” What could he have meant? For a scientist, the subject of study should be sought where symmetry is distorted; what is there to study in a “perfect” object? Indeed, the dislocations of matter provide the most interesting phenomena for crystallographers. They provide one of the most interesting examples of dissymmetry: modern-day semiconductors, without which most of our devices would not work. The epoch-making discovery that allowed their manufacture was that very, very small amounts of contamination (that is, very small distortions of a once-perfect crystal) can completely change the electrical conductivity. While jewellers look for perfect gem crystals and never find them, scientists produce (almost) perfect artificial crystals and “distort” them, because they have learned how to exploit the advantages of this kind of “dis-perfection.” The history of particle physics in the recent half-century can be considered as a discovery of symmetry-breaking. Combined symmetries. Returning to the geometric manifestations of symmetry, we say that combined symmetries occur when we perform two or more symmetry transformations on the same object and one or more properties remain invariant. For example, take an object, translate (glide) it in a particular direction for a certain distance, and then reflect it through a straight line parallel with the direction of the glide, then repeat this couple of transformations any number of times. This operation is called glide reflection, and is frequently applied in frieze patterns (Fig. 8). Fig. 8 (above) Glide Reflection. Drawing by the author. Fig. 9 (left) Double helix by Watson and Crick NEXUS NETWORK JOURNAL – VOL. 5, NO. 1, 2003 15 Other geometric symmetry transformations can also be combined. To give but one example, a helix can be obtained by combining translation and rotation about the axis (Fig. 9). Perspective And Symmetry In the perspective of artists2 we find a combination of the symmetry transformations affine projection and similitude. Were perspective not a symmetry transformation preserving certain features, we would not be able to recognise the original from the picture (Figs. 10 and 11).3 An example from the Renaissance is Raphael’s School of Athens. Fig. 10. Similitude and affine projection. From “Calculating Diminishing Size in Linear Perspective” © 1995, Ralph Murrell Larmann Fig. 11. One vanishing point. From “Exteriors in 1-Point Perspective” © 1995, Ralph Murrell Larmann Similarly, we may think of aerial perspective as combining similitude and colour change (Fig. 12). Fig. 12. Aerial perspective. From “Atmospheric or Aerial Perspective” © 1995, Ralph Murrell Larmann 16 GYÖRGY DARVAS – Perspective as a Symmetry Transformation Developing perspective in the arts. The application of symmetry transformations has undergone an evolution from the origin of perspective down through the centuries. For example, the single vanishing point could be doubled, and even moved (translated). Developments made it possible to represent an object from different points of view (Figs. 13, 14, and 15). Fig. 13. Two vanishing points. From “Exteriors in 2-Point Perspective” © 1995, Ralph Murrell Larmann Fig. 14. Three vanishing points, worm’s eye view. From “Exteriors in 3-Point Perspective” © 1995, Ralph Murrell Larmann Fig. 15. More vanishing points; shadow and light vanishing points. From “The Perspective of Shadows” © 1995, Ralph Murrell Larmann NEXUS NETWORK JOURNAL – VOL. 5, NO. 1, 2003 17 In the twentieth century, such developments were taken further, as can be seen in the work of cubists like Georges Braque and Pablo Picasso, and futurists such as Umberto Boccioni. The application of topological symmetry combined with similitude resulted in new ways of seeing, and new tools for artists. Thus they were able to give up the straight lines and fixed direction demanded by the affine projection, and replace this by a topology, making it possible for them to stress certain important features of the represented object. An example of this would be M.C. Escher’s Ascending and Descending. The use of two or more centres of projection, or even the dissolution altogether of fixed centers, liberated the painter from central perspective and opened up new vistas for artists to provide the spectator with multiple-sided representations of the delineated object.4 We ought to note that pictures liberated from central perspective and other constraints, appear at first not to be symmetrical at all. In the old-fashioned, everyday, meaning of the term which restricts symmetry operations to reflection, rotation, translation, and perhaps similitude and affine projection, the naive spectator would be right in assuming there is no symmetry. Having admitted combined symmetries and topological symmetry, however, our concept of symmetry has been expanded, making it possible for us to understand the view of artists who broke with conservative traditions and allowing us to find the beauty (via symmetry, that is, the harmony of details and balance between the parts) in artworks that dare to go beyond traditional composition. To validate this approach, and go even further, we should adopt the generalisation of the concept of symmetry described above. Fig. 16. Pablo Picasso, Nude on a Beach, 1929 18 GYÖRGY DARVAS – Perspective as a Symmetry Transformation There were at least two transitional phases in which the change of the traditional perspective concept appeared in early twentieth-century art. The first step was the multiplication of the viewpoints of the artist, while the vanishing point(s) were fixed. That is, the artist would see the individual details of his or her object from different directions. An example of this is Picasso’s Nude on a Beach (1929). In Fig. 16 I have added colored straight lines to help recognize three different directions of view for the nude’s face, and dotted lines to mark how one sees her breasts under equal angles from each of the three directions. The next phase was when both the vanishing points and the artist’s viewpoints moved. For example, in Picasso’s Portrait of Marie-Thérèse (1937) (Fig. 17), one can easily recognize the different viewpoints of the artist on the face of the woman; in addition, I have added dotted lines along the edges to help recognize the moved vanishing points in the “distorted” (!) perspective of the room. The symmetry in these kinds of perspective is one where the represented object does not change, although its appearance is not that to which we are accustomed in traditional perspective artistic representation. Fig. 17. Pablo Picasso, Portrait of Marie-Thérèse, 1937 These transformations appear multiplied in several cases. Multiple perspective is used by cubists in horizontal perspective, as in Braque’s Girl with mandolin (1910) and Picasso’s Man with clarinet (1911-12); futurists used multiple perspective in vertical perspective, as in Boccioni’s Simultaneous visions (1911). The roles of the horizontal and the vertical directions in our view, and therefore in perspective representation, are not identical. We perceive the length of straight lines of equal length as different depending on whether they are horizontal or vertical. Imagine a tree 10 meters high at a distance of about 300 meters in front of you; you perceive (see) NEXUS NETWORK JOURNAL – VOL. 5, NO. 1, 2003 19 the tree as being much longer (higher), than a 10 meter long (horizontal) fence at the same distance. Since their roles in the view cannot be interchanged, we say that their roles are not symmetrical; that is, not invariant under this change. Thus the perspective will be different if we look at our object horizontally or in a vertical direction from above. The latter, vertical, view is characteristic of futurists works such as Boccioni’s painting,Simultaneous visions. Disregarding this difference in the horizontal and vertical views, however, the multiple-vanishing-points perspective appears in a similar manner in both cubist and futurist works. This is apparent in the similarities between the portrait by the futurist Boccioni, Materia (1911-12) and that by the cubist Picasso, Portrait of D- H. Kahnweiler (1910). Fig. 18. Dissymmetry on a Sumerian picture (H. Weyl, Symmetry, fig. 4) Reflecting Reality How far are the images of art produced using symmetry transformations true and proper mirrors of reality (at least in generalized terms)? Any expectations the reader may entertain about a perfect and symmetrical world must now be challenged. The perfection of even the simplest mirror-images can be cast into doubt. For example, if you were to place a life-sized photograph of yourself next to a looking glass, and then were to stand first before the one and then before the other, you would find that both images would look like your perfect double. But the mirror reflection is different from the photograph. If you tried to shake hands with the photograph, your hand would cross the vertical axis between the two “bodies”; you and your photograph would form a rotational symmetric pair around this axis, your right hand would be across on the left on your photograph; the mole on the right side of your face would appear on the left side in the photograph. And what about the looking glass? Offering your right hand to the looking glass, the reflection’s left hand, but to your right, would approach the mirror plane; that mole would be on the right on your image in the looking glass: you would find that your image in the looking glass (in contrast with your photograph) would be your mirror symmetric pair. If you now compared the two images, you would realize that the mirror image and the photograph are “mirror symmetric” of each other. Which is your real image? Which of the two represents your appearance more perfectly? Does a perfect symmetrical image exist at all? In an ancient Sumerian picture previously analyzed by H. Weyl in 1952 and reproduced here in Fig. 18, the two figures stand almost symmetrically face to face. This symmetry is distorted, however, for both 20 GYÖRGY DARVAS – Perspective as a Symmetry Transformation lift up their right hands, and the left figure’s right hand is closer to us, while the right figure’s right hand is further from us. Would the image be more symmetrical if one drew the picture again, changing the right figure only so that it lifts the hand closest to us? Graphically yes, by all means. However, we could say that the two figures are asymmetrical again, because one of them lifts its right hand, and the other its left. This scene, therefore, cannot be drawn in a perfectly symmetrical manner. What are we to believe about the perfection of our world’s symmetry? The facts do not demonstrate that our world lacks symmetry, but only that its symmetry is never perfect. If you look around you, you cannot fail to find many symmetrical objects, both natural and man-made. As the discussion above shows, there is symmetry, harmony and beauty in our environment. The world is almost perfect; there exist some distortions, admittedly, but it retains its dissymetry, which is still, above all, symmetry. Symmetry is quite natural. Human beings are almsot symmetrical (who sees that our heart beats on one side, or that our motions are co-ordinated from the left hemisphere of our brain?). Flowers are symmetrical, butterflies even more so. Not perfectly, but practically symmetrical. It seems quite natural to us that a tennis court is symmetrical. It must be symmetrical on two accounts: in geometrical terms, and in moral terms, since both the physical conditions and the rules of the game for the two players should be identical, that is, symmetrical. Nevertheless, these conditions and rules were not always so self-evident. In the sixteenth century, when this game originated, Henry VIII played it in his Hampton Court palace in an asymmetrical room, which together with the partial rules provided an advantage for the king. The self-evident and natural qualities of symmetry may depend on local and temporary, physical and social conditions. Something similar may be said of the acceptance of artistic trends, i.e., the changes in the perception of beauty, harmony, and symmetry. Objects and phenomena around us show signs both of symmetry and its lack at the same time. In reality, a thing is symmetrical in one or more aspects. In other words, it conserves one or more of its properties under a particular transformation, (such as a reflection or a rotation), while it is asymmetrical in other aspects: that is, its other properties are not conserved. There is no perfect symmetry (when all properties are preserved) and no perfect asymmetry (when no single property is preserved). A very asymmetrical world would be ugly, while a very symmetrical world would be boring. This concerns not only our physical environment, but also its artistic representations. Perspective as a symmetry operation that conserves properties during the process of artistic representation, helps us to preserve this beauty in all its classical and modern forms. Therefore we should also accept the sophisticated forms of combined symmetries that appear in modern art, and which are products of a long development in multiplying and NEXUS NETWORK JOURNAL – VOL. 5, NO. 1, 2003 21 transforming the vanishing points and the artist’s viewpoints, as manifestations of perspective representation. Accept it, as it is! Notes 1. Among these we may mention Lorenzo Ghiberti (I Commentarii); Leon Battista Alberti (De pictura, Della pittura); Piero della Francesca (De prospectiva pingendi); Luca Pacioli (Summa de arithmetica, geometria, proportionalita; De divina proportione); Leonardo da Vinci; and Albrecht Dürer (Undeweysung und Messung, Vier Bücher von menschlicher Proportion). 2. See the Math Forum webpage on perspective drawing: http://mathforum.org/sum95/math_and/perspective/perspect.html. 3. See “Art Studio Chalkboard: The Perspective of Shadows”: http://www.saumag.edu/art/studio/chalkboard/lp-shadow.html and also “Art Studio Chalkboard: Drawing Subjects”: http://www2.evansville.edu/studiochalkboard/draw.html 4. Multiple-sidedness is meant here first in geometric terms, and secondly figuratively. References DARVAS, G. 2001. Symmetry and asymmetry in our surroundings: Aspects of symmetry in the phenomena of nature, physical laws, and human perception. Pp. 136-140 in Peter Weibel, ed., Olafur Eliasson: Surroundings Surrounded, Essays on Space and Science. Karlsruhe: ZKM, Center for Arts and Media. PETERNÁK, M., N. EROSS, A. EISENSTEIN, and L. BEKE, eds. 2000-2001. Perspective. Budapest: C3, Foundation and Palace of Arts. WEYL, H. 1952. Symmetry. Princeton: Princeton University Press. WILLIAMS, K. 1999. Symmetry in architecture. Symmetry: Culture and Science 10, 3-4: 269-281. Also in VisMath: http://members.tripod.com/vismath/kim/ About the Author György Darvas (1948) http://www.mtakszi.iif.hu/darvas.htm is a physicist and philosopher, specialized in symmetry studies. He took his university and scientific degrees at the Loránd Eötvös University in Budapest. He is a senior research fellow in a research institute of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, gives lectures at the Faculty of Sciences of the Eötvös University, and he serves as the director and was to be one of the founders of the Symmetrion (http://us.geocities.com/symmetrion/). Also, he was one of the founders of the International Society for the Interdisciplinary Study of Symmetry (ISIS-Symmetry) in 1989, and served as its secretary general between 1989 and 2001. He is one of the founding editors of the journal Symmetry: Culture and Science (1990). He is author of about 150 publications, was an invited lecturer at several institutions from Japan to the US, and has delivered lectures at many world- wide conferences, as well as organizing a series of international meetings and exhibitions in the field of science-art relations and on the applications of symmetry. << /ASCII85EncodePages false /AllowTransparency false /AutoPositionEPSFiles true /AutoRotatePages /All /Binding /Left /CalGrayProfile (Dot Gain 20%) /CalRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1) /CalCMYKProfile (U.S. Web Coated \050SWOP\051 v2) /sRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1) /CannotEmbedFontPolicy /Warning /CompatibilityLevel 1.4 /CompressObjects /Tags /CompressPages true /ConvertImagesToIndexed true /PassThroughJPEGImages true /CreateJDFFile false /CreateJobTicket false /DefaultRenderingIntent /Default /DetectBlends true /ColorConversionStrategy /LeaveColorUnchanged /DoThumbnails false /EmbedAllFonts true /EmbedJobOptions true /DSCReportingLevel 0 /EmitDSCWarnings false /EndPage -1 /ImageMemory 1048576 /LockDistillerParams false /MaxSubsetPct 100 /Optimize true /OPM 1 /ParseDSCComments true /ParseDSCCommentsForDocInfo true /PreserveCopyPage true /PreserveEPSInfo true /PreserveHalftoneInfo false /PreserveOPIComments false /PreserveOverprintSettings true /StartPage 1 /SubsetFonts true /TransferFunctionInfo /Apply /UCRandBGInfo /Preserve /UsePrologue false /ColorSettingsFile () /AlwaysEmbed [ true ] /NeverEmbed [ true ] /AntiAliasColorImages false /DownsampleColorImages true /ColorImageDownsampleType /Bicubic /ColorImageResolution 300 /ColorImageDepth -1 /ColorImageDownsampleThreshold 1.50000 /EncodeColorImages true /ColorImageFilter /DCTEncode /AutoFilterColorImages true /ColorImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG /ColorACSImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >> /ColorImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >> /JPEG2000ColorACSImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >> /JPEG2000ColorImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >> /AntiAliasGrayImages false /DownsampleGrayImages true /GrayImageDownsampleType /Bicubic /GrayImageResolution 300 /GrayImageDepth -1 /GrayImageDownsampleThreshold 1.50000 /EncodeGrayImages true /GrayImageFilter /DCTEncode /AutoFilterGrayImages true /GrayImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG /GrayACSImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >> /GrayImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >> /JPEG2000GrayACSImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >> /JPEG2000GrayImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >> /AntiAliasMonoImages false /DownsampleMonoImages true /MonoImageDownsampleType /Bicubic /MonoImageResolution 1200 /MonoImageDepth -1 /MonoImageDownsampleThreshold 1.50000 /EncodeMonoImages true /MonoImageFilter /CCITTFaxEncode /MonoImageDict << /K -1 >> /AllowPSXObjects false /PDFX1aCheck false /PDFX3Check false /PDFXCompliantPDFOnly false /PDFXNoTrimBoxError true /PDFXTrimBoxToMediaBoxOffset [ 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 ] /PDFXSetBleedBoxToMediaBox true /PDFXBleedBoxToTrimBoxOffset [ 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 ] /PDFXOutputIntentProfile () /PDFXOutputCondition () /PDFXRegistryName (http://www.color.org) /PDFXTrapped /Unknown /Description << /FRA <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> /ENU (Use these settings to create PDF documents with higher image resolution for improved printing quality. 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work_6srpggk7v5ctjhtlystxgu6xey	----	ÔThese are not ordinary timesÕ: Political Persecution in Cold War America “A blot upon liberty”: McCarthyism, Dr Barsky and the Joint Anti-Fascist Refugee Committee* Phillip Deery On 4 May 1949, Dr Edward K. Barsky received some reassuring news. His reappointment as surgeon at Beth Israel Hospital in New York City, where he had worked since 1923, was confirmed for another two years. Twelve months later, the news he received shocked him, and it changed his life. He was informed by the Supreme Court of the United States that he was to commence serving a six month sentence in a Federal penitentiary. Accordingly, he became Prisoner No. 18907. Upon his release, he received further disturbing news. His licence to practise medicine would be revoked. These misfortunes had nothing to do with medical malpractice or professional incompetence. On the contrary, he was widely respected and trusted by patients, colleagues and hospital administrators. Instead, Barsky was paying the heavy price for a political decision he made in 1945 – that, as chairman of the Joint Anti-Fascist Refugee Committee (JAFRC), he would not cooperate with the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC). It was a fateful decision whose consequences could not be foreseen. He did not know it then, but for Edward Barsky, the domestic Cold War had started. The aim of this paper is to use the assault on the JAFRC, and Barsky’s individual story within that, to illuminate the mechanisms of political repression during the early Cold War. The JAFRC was the first to be subpoenaed by HUAC, the first to challenge its legitimacy, and the first to set the pattern for Cold War inquisitions. In 1950, after three years of unsuccessful legal appeals, the Committee’s entire Executive Board was jailed. Barsky received the most severe sentence. It was the biggest single incarceration of political prisoners in America during the early Cold War. Upon release, Barsky lost his right to practise medicine. By early 1955, the JAFRC had dissolved: like Barsky’s career, it had been crippled by McCarthyism. Despite widespread contemporaneous coverage in both the mainstream and Left press, the political repression of the JAFRC has escaped any systematic analysis by historians. This is surprising given Ellen Schrecker’s comments about the Barsky v. United States case, which was a culminating point in the JAFRC’s fight for political survival. This case, according to Schrecker, constituted a “landmark” decision in that it upheld HUAC’s power to require individuals to disclose their Communist Party affiliations and thereby permitted HUAC investigators to trample on witnesses’ constitutional rights. It represented, she argued, “a serious setback for political freedom”.[1] What little attention historians have given to the JAFRC is usually in connection with the aftermath of the Spanish Civil War, from which the JAFRC sprang, rather than to the onset of the Cold War, which oversaw its demise.[2] In contrast to the paucity of historical studies, the JAFRC has received more generous attention from the legal profession. This extends from contemporaneous case studies and Supreme Court opinions to jurisprudential scholarly works.[3] This paper, therefore, seeks to redress this historiographical oversight. The main concern, however, is to examine the institutional processes – that ‘bureaucratic rationality of McCarthyism’[4] – by which a once-flourishing medical career was thwarted and a once-viable organisation was destroyed. Although Barsky was but one individual and the JAFRC was but one of many left wing organisations targeted by HUAC and the FBI, they epitomise the assault on the Left by American cold war warriors. In the context of McCarthyism, both were perceived threats to national security. Barsky was a communist and the JAFRC was a communist “front”.[5] But this paper demonstrates that their punishment did not fit their “crime”, and this, perhaps, holds contemporary lessons for those who conduct the domestic “war on terror”. The paper also demonstrates that such an assault, contrary to received interpretations, commenced very early in the post-war period; for Barsky and the JAFRC the Cold War commenced in 1945, not 1947 or 1948. It should be remembered, of course, that such a bureaucratic blitz was part of a long historical trajectory. Political intolerance, the crushing of dissent, security service surveillance, deportations and imprisonment were all familiar to radical activists in the Labor movement since the 19th Century. Even HUAC, established for the first time as a standing committee through a Congressional vote[6] on 3 January 1945, had an earlier incarnation: the Dies Committee, formed in May 1938. And there is a legion of historians who have catalogued the history of anti- communist repression by the State.[7] However, the actions against Barsky and the JAFRC were an historical marker. They signalled the first flexing of political muscle by HUAC, which saw the JAFRC’s confrontation with it as a litmus test of its legitimacy. As its chairman, John S. Wood (D., Georgia) pointedly stated: “It is the purpose of our Committee to determine, once and for all, whether an organization such as the Joint Anti-Fascist Refugee Committee has the authority to defy Congress of the United States…”.[8] Because HUAC, not the JAFRC, triumphed, the framework was established for future Congressional inquisitions that were to become such an emblematic feature of McCarthyism. But first, who was Barsky and what was the JAFRC? “Eddie” Barsky was born in New York in 1897, attended Townsend High School and graduated from Columbia University’s College of Physicians and Surgeons in 1919. He undertook postgraduate training in Europe and, on return, commenced an internship in 1921 at Beth Israel Hospital in New York, where he became Associate Surgeon in 1931, and where he established a flourishing practice.[9] In 1935, Barsky, a Jew, joined the American Communist Party, which shaped his outlook on developments in Europe. Fascism was then ascendant, but in Spain there was hope. When the generals arose against the elected Republican government in July 1936, Barsky realised, like Orwell, that this was a state of affairs worth fighting for. As he told a reporter, “I came to [Spain] for very simple reasons. Nothing complicated. As an American I could not stand by and see a fellow-democracy kicked around by Mussolini and Hitler…I wanted to help Republican Spain. I did. Is it simple or complex?”[10] As casualties mounted, and as a “powerful antifascist coalition” developed in New York,[11] Barsky acted. On “one October night” in 1936, he founded, in a friend’s home, the American Medical Bureau to Aid Spanish Democracy.[12] After frantically fund-raising and then collecting, storing and loading provisions to equip an entire hospital in Spain, Barsky – along with sixteen doctors, nurse and ambulance drivers – sailed on 16 January 1937. This was just three weeks after the first American volunteers of the Abraham Lincoln Brigade had departed. He assumed control of the medical service within the International Brigade, established and headed seven front line, evacuation and base hospitals, and refined the operating techniques of medical surgery under fire. He also pioneered a surgical procedure for removing bullets and shrapnel from chest wounds, and helped create the mobile surgical hospital that became a model for the American Army in World War II. On at least one leading International Brigadier, Steve Nelson, Barsky made “a terrific impression”.[13] In July 1937 he took brief leave from the frontlines – to return to New York to raise funds for more medical aid.[14] He addressed, in mufti, 20,000 at a rally in Madison Square Garden; a photograph of him reveals the intensity of his commitment.[15] When he returned - and he stayed until October 1938 - he was made an honorary major in the Spanish Republican Army. In 1944 he wrote the autobiographical, 302-page “The Surgeon Goes to War”, which captures his profound empathy with the Spanish cause. When the celebrated author of Citizen Tom Paine, Howard Fast, first met Barsky in late 1945, he found him “a lean, hawklike man, handsome, commanding, evocative in appearance of Humphrey Bogart, a heroic figure who was already a legend”.[16] In 1950, when HUAC found him subversive, Ernest Hemingway found him saintlike: “Eddie is a saint. That’s where we put our saints in this country - in jail”.[17] From various organizations (United American Spanish Aid Committee, American Committee to Save Refugees and American Rescue Ship Mission) and individuals (especially veterans of the Abraham Lincoln Brigade) that supported the Spanish Republic during the civil war, the JAFRC was born on 11 March 1942.[18] The driving force was Barsky. With the Loyalists’ defeat in 1939, a massive exodus of over 500,000 Republican Spanish refugees spilled over the Pyrenees into France. Most congregated in overcrowded refugee camps and then, from 1940 after the German occupation, were conscripted as labourers or sent to concentration camps. Thousands died in the Mauthausen camp. 30,000 were interned in North Africa. Approximately 18,000 who escaped incarceration fought alongside the French Resistance (as well as De Gaulle’s Free French in Algeria) and suffered disproportionately at the hands of the Gestapo. To remain in Franco’s Spain, as many former Republicans soon discovered, invited imprisonment or death.[19] Despite this some remnants stayed on, in hiding. Others escaped to Spanish-speaking countries: Portugal, Mexico, Cuba and the Dominican Republic. They lived the rest of their lives in that strange world of exile, some in a “limbo of expectation”; others sadly “locked in a sterile polemic about responsibility for their defeat”.[20] In the immediate aftermath of the Civil War, Barsky – with his direct experience behind him but his visceral attachment to Spain intact – became preoccupied with the plight of these Spanish refugees. This preoccupation led directly to the establishment of the JAFRC, and the refugees were its raison d’être. Under Barsky’s indefatigable leadership, the JAFRC acquired legitimacy during World War II. Licensed to provide aid by Roosevelt’s War Relief Control Board, it was granted tax-exempt status by the Treasury Department. The Committee raised funds, formed sixteen chapters (or branches) in major American cities, established orphanages, and strenuously opposed Franco’s regime.[21] As Barsky told dinner guests at the opening of the Spanish Refugee Appeal, which sought to raise $750,000, in March 1945: Our program consists of relief, rehabilitation, medical care, transportation and associated welfare services, in many parts of the world…Who will help [the refugees]? We! We are the only people to help them. We help them or they die.[22] It sent thousands of dollars and tons of food, clothing and medicines to Spanish refugees in both France and North Africa. The Unitarian Service Committee and the American Friends Service Committee, a Quaker organization, distributed this relief. [23] Its work, as one report later noted, “was a work of mercy; it sheltered the homeless, fed the hungry, healed the sick”.[24] Material and legal support was given to other refugees to emigrate to one of the few countries that welcomed them – Mexico. There, a school for refugee children was built and the Edward K. Barsky sanatorium was opened when the JAFRC collected $50,000 after a national fundraising campaign in January 1945.[25] Eleven months later, HUAC pounced. On 10 December it subpoenaed Barsky and the JAFRC’s administrative secretary, Helen Reid Bryan, to appear before it at 10am on 19 December 1945 in Washington (this was postponed until 23 January 1946). They were to “produce all books, ledgers, records, and papers relating to the receipt and disbursement of money” by the JAFRC, together with “all correspondence and memoranda of communications by any means whatsoever with persons in foreign countries”.[26] The Executive Board held a special meeting on 14 December and unanimously adopted a resolution “to protect the rights of this Committee and its supporters” from HUAC. It would not surrender its records. It also declared that HUAC’s demands infringed democratic rights and were “unwarranted and unjustified”. It invoked HUAC’s own terms of reference by stating that the JAFRC “is truly American in every sense of the word and can, by no stretch of the imagination, be considered un-American, subversive, or an attack upon the principles of our form of government”.[27] In early January 1946, Barsky wrote to all contributors explaining the position of the JAFRC Executive Board. He cited a recent speech by Congressman Ellis Patterson, who called for the dissolution of HUAC, which he described as a “sham” that “violated every concept of American democracy”. That a showdown with HUAC loomed was implied by Barsky’s concluding paragraph: the JAFRC was “determined to continue its humanitarian and relief work” and would “let nothing stand in the way of providing this aid”.[28] Equally, HUAC was just as determined, as we have seen, that its authority would not be defied by the JAFRC. Why did HUAC target the JAFRC? According to J. Parnell Thomas (R., New Jersey), the trigger was an attack by the “Red Fascist”, Harold J. Laski, on the Catholic Church in Spain at a JAFRC- sponsored rally of 17,000 in Madison Square Garden on 24 September 1945. As a result, said Thomas, HUAC received “over 8,000 complaints” against Laski, the JAFRC and the Veterans of the Abraham Lincoln Brigade, and HUAC “decided to investigate the charges”.[29] (In fact the popular actor and Catholic, Frank Fay, organised a post-card campaign.[30]) For HUAC’s chief legal counsel, Ernie Adamson, the basis for investigating the JAFRC and its subsidiary Spanish Refugee Appeal was that “they both seem to be engaged in political propaganda, not relief”.[31] HUAC had jurisdiction over the “extent, character and objects of un-American propaganda activities” and JAFRC propaganda, according to HUAC chairman John S. Wood, was “of a subversive character”.[32] Opposing Franco, moreover, in which the JAFRC was engaged, was considered especially un-American and dangerous to the US by Roman Catholic red-hunters such as the “Senator from Madrid”, Pat McGarran (D., Nevada), and J. Parnell Thomas, who had close ties to the Franco regime.[33] Both subscribed to a particularly virulent form of Catholic anti- communism that stretched back to Father Coughlin in the 1930s and that now embraced powerful Catholic organizations (Knights of Columbus and Catholic War Veterans) and prelates (Cardinal Spellman, Archbishop Richard Cushing and Monsignor Fulton Sheen).[34] The long-term hatred of communism by American Catholics – fuelled by the treatment of Catholic priests both in Spain during the civil war and in “Iron Curtain” countries in the immediate post-war years – found a ready outlet in the JAFRC. But hostility to the JAFRC went even deeper than this. Congressman Karl Mundt (R., South Dakota) argued the JAFRC was engaged not merely in disseminating un-American, anti-Franco propaganda but also in “secret and nefarious activities”.[35] What were these activities? Newly- released FBI files (discussed below) confirm – and by late 1945, they were thick - that its director, J. Edgar Hoover, believed by 1944 that the JAFRC was actually subversive. He was convinced, by two different “confidential” sources, that veterans of the closely associated Abraham Lincoln Brigade, who had been trained in military warfare, would “lead the vanguard of the revolution in this country.”[36] Funds raised by the JAFRC, ostensibly for Spaniards’ relief, would assist that goal.[37] Given the symbiotic relationship between the FBI and HUAC,[38] it is arguable that underpinning HUAC’s post-war harassment of the JAFRC was Hoover’s long-term anti- communist crusade. The first JAFRC member to travel to Washington and confront the Committee was its administrative secretary, Helen Bryan. She did not travel alone: a delegation of more than 200 supporters accompanied her on the overnight train from New York. When she was inside HUAC’s chambers on 23 and 24 January 1946, they were lobbying seventy Congressmen.[39] Bryan, a Quaker, was a highly courageous woman. She was variously described as “saintly”; imbued with “integrity”, “loyalty” and a “high-minded sensitivity”; and devoted to a “lifetime service to humanity”.[40] As the nominal custodian of the records she willingly assumed full responsibility for the Board’s refusal to surrender them. This tactic sought to insulate the rest of the Board from prosecution. According to Fast, it was a defensive maneuver, but legally sound. However, “if we had had any premonition that imprisonment would result from this, not one of us would have allowed Helen Bryan to take the fall”.[41] Nevertheless, she took “a course of action that involved risk to herself rather than risk to others”.[42] The price she paid was three months in Alderston jail. Again and again the House Committee (John Wood, the chairman; J. Parnell Thomas and Karl Mundt, both Dies Committee alumni; John Rankin; and five others) interrogated the stubborn Bryan about the whereabouts of the records. Each time she refused. They were not interested in the workings of the JAFRC. Repeatedly she attempted to read an explnatory statement. Each time she was denied, to be met with “I demand that you answer the question ‘yes’ or ‘no’”. Eventually Bryan stated: “How can our organization, created to provide relief for Spanish Republican refugees and their families… in good conscience endanger the lives of people by turning names over to your committee?”[43] She then stated she had not brought the books and records and, as a result, was cited for contempt of Congress on 24 January 1946. The reasons, which HUAC members neither heard nor wished to hear, for Bryan’s refusal to relinquish JAFRC records were threefold. First, JAFRC records were already available to the US government. As the Committee’s defence attorney and former US assistant attorney general, O. John Rogge, repeatedly pointed out, both the President’s War Relief Control Board and the Treasury Department had full access to JAFRC reports and records and its investigators had examined them “for a substantial period of time”.[44] It would open its books to any “authoritative, impartial committee, but simply not to “this unconstitutional House committee” that was not entitled to them.[45] Second, the JAFRC questioned the constitutionality of HUAC and the scope of its jurisdiction. This was not unusual in 1945-48.[46] Then, a great many American liberals, including Congressmen, challenged the legitimacy of HUAC.[47] Even President Harry Truman criticised the purposefulness of HUAC hearings.[48] Former Vice- President Henry Wallace certainly did.[49] Finally, and most important, the financial records contained two politically volatile lists: one was a list of 30,000 American names who contributed to relief aid; the other was a list of Republican Spaniards who were receiving relief aid, including those inside Franco’s Spain. Barsky, Bryan and the other JAFRC members were convinced that, if these names were disclosed to HUAC and, presumably, the FBI, the liberties of each group would be imperilled. The Board felt a strong sense of obligation to protect both domestic donors from retaliation and Spanish recipients from persecution. To do otherwise, as a Board member later recalled, would be a “heinous and totally dishonourable action”.[50] A meeting of nineteen members of the Executive Board on 1 February – one of the best-attended – unanimously endorsed Bryan’s non-cooperation with HUAC.[51] Without knowing it, they, too, were soon to have similar experiences. Ten days later they instructed its National Chairman, Barsky, not to produce any records or documents when it was his turn to face HUAC on 13 February.[52] The closed, executive session of HUAC that interrogated Barsky was administratively a shambles. The transcript reveals a distinct lack of unanimity about the procedures to be followed or the degree of latitude afforded to this witness.[53] Barsky was twice asked to step outside so that members could decide on procedure. In one instance they even took a private vote. The hearing was punctuated by interruptions to HUAC’s own legal counsel (seeking preliminary information on the workings of the JAFRC) from Rankin demanding an immediate “Yes” or “No” answer from Barsky regarding the records. Three members (Gerald Landis, J.W. Robinson and the Chair) favoured permitting Barsky to read his prepared statement; others (Mundt, Rankin and Thomas) did not. There was also dispute over whether or not the statement, if not read, could be incorporated into the record. Rankin’s demand – “Give it to the Chairman. We will decide later whether it goes into the record or not” – prevailed. Barsky reluctantly handed over his statement, neither read nor tabled. Barsky remained circumspect and, throughout, retained his dignity.[54] Some HUAC members did not. Even at a distance of sixty-three years, their rudeness, intimidation, capriciousness and sheer bullying during these closed Congressional hearings has the capacity to astonish and shock. The standoff between JAFRC and HUAC began to achieve public attention. In addition to the radical press, editorials and articles appeared in the Los Angeles Examiner, Nation, New York Post, New York Times, Washington Post and World Telegram.[55] The newly-formed “Citizens to Safeguard the Joint Anti-Fascist Refugee Committee”, with such notables as Albert Deutsch, Dashiell Hammett and Lillian Hellman, inserted full-page advertisements in three daily newspapers, pressured the Democratic National Committee, contacted trade unions, chapters, sponsors and contributors urging action and donations, and organised a fund-raising dinner at the Waldorf-Astoria on 18 March. Two well-attended press conferences were organised. In addition Barsky personally undertook a major task: he wrote individually signed letters to every Congressmen, and he did this twice, on 18 February and 8 March.[56] J. Parnell Thomas was not daunted. Indeed, reactions by Barsky and JAFRC leaders emboldened him and confirmed their guilt. I have been on this committee from its very inception. I was on the Dies committee from the beginning to end…whenever we were attacked we [knew] we had struck pay dirt. Now we have struck pay dirt on this Barsky matter. Barsky is doing everything he possibly can…They are getting in touch with members of Congress, telling them that this is an un- American committee. They have used those words. After labelling the JAFRC as “the leading Communist-front organization today,” Thomas told the House that HUAC would be “going right to the bottom” of the JAFRC and would “thoroughly” investigate its leaders. He declared, “You can count on it that when we make our report to this Congress it will astound you all”.[57] Such bravado would prove hollow. There was no more “pay dirt” yielded, no exposé of the JAFRC leaders’ clandestine communist activities, no revelation that would “astound” Congress. In fact J. Parnell Thomas would precede those leaders into jail. Although he chaired HUAC’s inquisition of the Hollywood Ten the following year, in August 1948 his past fraudulent salary practices were exposed and, soon after, was indicted on charges of conspiracy to defraud the government, tried, convicted, fined $10,000 and sentenced to eighteen months in Danbury federal penitentiary.[58] One piece of information that Barsky provided to HUAC, upon request, was the names and addresses of all Executive Board members. This enabled the next round in the Congressional committee’s offensive against the JAFRC. Notwithstanding the “personal opinion” of Benedict Wolf, the JAFRC’s legal counsel, that it would be “very difficult” and “absurd” for Congress cite seventeen people,[59] this is precisely what happened. On 16 March 1946 every member of the Executive Board (in additional to Bryan and Barsky) was cited for contempt. This was hasty, precipitous action. Astonishingly, none of these individuals had been subpoenaed, none had appeared before HUAC, and none had been given any opportunity to answer any questions, even contemptuously. This over-reaching was so blatant that, when the HUAC chairman sought Congressional confirmation on 28 March, he quickly struck out their names when challenged by the radical American Labor Party Congressman, Vito Marcantonio (Ind., New York) and, more efficaciously, by “no better friend” of HUAC than the conservative Eugene Cox (D., Georgia).[60] But it was a pyrrhic victory for those supporting the JAFRC. Members of HUAC immediately went on the attack. To Mundt, the JAFRC was “honeycombed” with communists, was “bringing foreigners to America” and was “trying to destroy the things for which our flag stands”; to Thomas, the JAFRC was “a vehicle used by the Communist Party and the world Communist movement to force political, diplomatic, and economic disunity.” Rankin hoped that the House would “support the committee and let the world know that we are going to protect this country from destruction at the hands of the enemies within our gates”. The House complied. All the strenuous efforts of the JAFRC “pressure campaign” were in vain. The vote was a massive 339 to 4 in favour of citing Barsky for contempt of Congress.[61] That night a naïve or ignorant Benedict Wolf told the Executive Board: “Possibly it won’t go any further than the District Court because of the fact that the books and records were not in the custody of Dr. Barsky”.[62] The following day, it did go further. On 29 March, all remaining sixteen Executive Board members were served with subpoenas. All appeared before HUAC and, ritualistically, all refused one by one to hand over any books and records. All were cited.[63] None was permitted legal representation. Once again, proceedings became aggressive. Recalcitrance would be met with truculence. When, for example, Professor Lyman Bradley attempted to answer a question by reading a prepared statement, a HUAC member told the chair to “just call up the marshall and send him to jail”.[64] One ritual that recurred in numerous subsequent hearing and trials – “taking the Fifth” – was noticeably absent in these hearings. The fact that none invoked the Constitutional right of protection against self-incrimination, which may have saved them in 1946[65] (before “guilt by suspicion” became so ubiquitous) was sharply criticised by Howard Fast, one of those cited. Fast directed blame squarely at the JAFRC attorney, Benedict Wolf. He judged Wolf as “an unimaginative, plodding man”, who, “either by intent or by his poverty of invention…failed to advise us on the use of the Fifth”. According to Fast, he was responsible for the overall “woeful mismanagement” of the case, and his actions “never ceased to mystify me”.[66] But Wolf genuinely believed that those cited would be cleared by the courts, that talk of jail sentences was fanciful, and that HUAC’s investigatory methods (demanding financial records as opposed to “un- American propaganda”) would be declared unconstitutional.[67] It was not until 1 March 1947 that O. John Rogge took over.[68] In retrospect, by then it was too late. The Congressional confirmation of this mass contempt citation was distinguished by passionate debate for, as Helen Douglas (D., California) presciently commented, the vote “will directly affect the lives of 17 people, directly and indirectly, to the end of their days”.[69] The response of the red-hunting hard-liners was predictable: “Is Congress going to be subjected to contempt by an element in this country that is plotting day and night for the overthrow of this Government?”[70] Less predictable was this plea from Emmanuel Celler (D., NY), who had not previously voted against the citation of Barsky: Mr. Speaker, we are making history, regrettable history, in finding innocent people guilty of contempt without trial, without jury and without the benefit of counsel. I believe we are turning our backs upon our glorious past if we pass this resolution…I predict our action will come back to plague us.[71] However, Congress made its “regrettable history” and voted 292 in favour, 56 against and 82 abstentions.[72] Notwithstanding these Damoclean swords, the JAFRC attempted to continue its work. Its monthly Executive Board meetings for the remainder of 1946 recorded activities such as the Women’s Division Luncheon, a hootenanny, distribution of “Street Solicitation Cans”, theatre parties, preparations for a Madison Square Garden rally, and the Christmas auction at the Waldorf- Astoria. The longest meeting, which finished at 11pm, was the 21 November meeting, and it dealt with only one item: Gerhardt Eisler. This well-known German communist and recipient of JAFRC aid was a FBI bête noir. Eisler used various pseudonyms – Hans Berger, “Edwards”, Julius Eisman and Samuel Liptzen – which contributed to the FBI’s conviction that he was previously a senior Comintern agent and now a figure of “paramount importance” and “unlimited authority” within the American Communist Party.[73] He had entered the United States in 1941 en route to Mexico but instead was interned. After the war, he tried again to leave, and was arrested and jailed. Hoover’s long report on Eisler was read into HUAC testimony when Eisler appeared before it in early 1947. It described Eisler as a “Kremlin terrorist” and the “Soviet mastermind in the United States” and included specific reference to checks for $150 each signed by the JAFRC Treasurer, Lyman Bradley, regularly collected by Eisler at the JAFRC offices but endorsed by “Julius Eisman”.[74] Something shady and nefarious, if not downright conspiratorial, it seemed, was clearly afoot. It reinforced the FBI’s and, thus, HUAC’s, view of the JAFRC as subversive. But there was a more innocuous explanation: Eisler, who had been imprisoned in 1940 in a French concentration camp with other Spanish refugees, was the conduit between the JAFRC and German-born veterans of the Spanish Civil War who had become refugees during the Second World War. Twelve of these refugees named Eisler as a trustee of a fund that provided them with aid, derived from the $150 monthly checks. That fund was established in the name of a German killed in the Spanish civil war – Julius Eisman.[75] Correctly anticipating further incarceration (following a perjury charge from 1942 and a contempt citation from 1946), Eisler illegally fled the United States on a Polish ship, Batory, after buying a 25 cent visitor’s pass and hiding on board until it sailed.[76] While he hid, the Executive Board waited. Twelve months passed before the United States District Court of the District of Columbia, on 31 March 1947, indicted the JAFRC Board for contempt of Congress. The indictments charged the group with “having conspired to defraud the United States by preventing the Congressional Committee from obtaining the records”.[77] It was, in short, a conspiracy indictment. This changed a misdemeanour into a felony and thereby jeopardised the licence to practise of doctors and lawyers (who were well represented on the JAFRC Board). When appealing for funds to cover immediate legal expenses, estimated at $17,000,[78] Barsky wrote that “This case against us is a potential threat to the civil liberties of all Americans”.[79] On 16 June 1947, the eighteen Executive Board members of the JAFRC were brought to trial in the Federal District Court of Washington. The trial, which was to last ten days, had been delayed because Rogge charged that Justice Alexander Holtzoff was “guilty of bias and prejudice”. Indeed he was. Holtzoff had been assigned by the Department of Justice to advise the FBI when the JAFRC was first being investigated by the FBI in 1944-45. When Holtzoff refused to remove himself he made legal history: for the first time the US Court of Appeals issued a writ of prohibition against a Federal judge.[80] There was an unreliable witness as well as a prejudiced judge. At the trial, a key government witness, Robert Alexander from the Visa Division of the State Department, branded the JAFRC “subversive”. Twelve months later he was being investigated, at the request of the Secretary of State, on charges of “misconduct and dereliction of duty”.[81] Yet, to the JAFRC, this mattered little. On 27 June 1947, after adjourning for only one hour, four men and eight women of the Federal court jury convicted all eighteen Board members of contempt.[82] Immediately after the guilty verdict, five of the sixteen members got cold feet. They “purged” their contempt by recanting and resigning from the JAFRC Board. Their sentences were suspended.[83] The remaining eleven, except Barsky, were sentenced to jail for three months and fined $500 each; Barsky received a six-month sentence. He also received hundreds of letters of support, from Pablo Picasso in France to this unknown woman in Milwaukee: “My heart is sad by your suffering. I only wish I could give more. All the money I have to give is in this envelope. I gladly give my widow’s mite. God bless your work is my prayer”.[84] Coming before the Hollywood Ten trial and the Smith Act prosecutions, this mass political incarceration was the first since the Palmer Raids nearly thirty years before and the biggest during the McCarthy era. The eleven convicted JAFRC members served notices of appeal and were released on bond. Appeals cost money. Simply bringing one case to the Court of Appeals would cost $4000, so much time at JAFRC meetings was focused on fund raising, not for Spanish refugees but for self- defence: “A fund raising event, possibly in the Golden Gate Ballroom in Harlem, might be planned. Outstanding Negro and white talent could be secured. A counter proposal was made that such an event might be planned by which a larger income could be secured”.[85] In its capacity to raise funds to aid refugees, meanwhile, the increasingly besieged JAFRC suffered two body blows. First, the Committee was listed as a “subversive” organization in the first of the Attorney General’s Lists of Subversive Organizations, published on 4 December 1947.[86] The American Council of Civil Liberties, on behalf of the JAFRC, challenged procedural aspects of the List,[87] but to be on the list was tantamount to a kiss of death as far as broader community support was concerned. As I.F. Stone noted, many contributors and supporters were “frightened” to link themselves to a “disloyal” organization. [88] Until then, support had remained steadfast; a total of only two from the large list of JAFRC sponsors had resigned. Second, on 23 January 1948, the Internal Revenue Bureau informed the JAFRC that its tax-exempt status (granted on 8 February 1943) was revoked. This meant that donations could no longer be tax deductible and income tax returns since the inception of the JAFRC in 1942 must be submitted. It was little wonder that Barsky, in appealing to supporters for yet another financial contribution to support a legal challenge, felt that “we are now faced with one of the gravest crises in the history of our organization”.[89] Curiously, perhaps, recognition of this crisis could not be discerned in any of the addresses or reports heard by delegates to the two-day National Conference of the JAFRC in August. Indeed, an inverse relationship between vulnerability of position and defiance of tone pervaded discussions and resolutions.[90] But its nemesis awaited. For the next three years following the convictions, a series of complicated but ultimately unsuccessful appeals and petitions for re-hearings were conducted.[91] The many arguments presented to the appellate courts and to the Supreme Court, mainly by Rogge, and the judgements of the various courts, will not be summarised here.[92] Suffice it to say that both the Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit (5-2) and the Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit (2-1) held that HUAC was not exceeding constitutional powers or acting in violation of First Amendment, in questioning witnesses about Communist Party membership or associations. In other words, HUAC had the right interrogate individuals about their Communist Party affiliations. In his blistering dissenting opinion, Circuit Judge Henry Edgerton wrote that the HUAC inquiry stigmatised unpopular views, abridged freedom of speech and inflicted punishment without trial.[93] Ten years later Edgerton was vindicated, but too late for the JAFRC.[94] Rogge stated, “We are concerned here with the basic democratic right to be free from intimidation with reference to one’s personal beliefs”.[95] At a JAFRC-sponsored dinner at the Astor Hotel, Rogge let fly. HUAC, he proclaimed, was “an unconstitutional body acting in an unconstitutional manner and more concerned with advancing the political fortunes of its members than in protecting American ideals”.[96] At another meeting, recorded by the FBI, he went even further. The assault on the JAFRC, he claimed, was “plainly part of the first step towards Fascism”.[97] On 29 May 1950 the US Supreme Court refused, for the second time, to review two appeals filed by Rogge.[98] That decision opened the gates to the federal penitentiary. On the day the eleven commenced their incarceration, 7 June 1950, a solitary line of about fifty veterans of the Abraham Lincoln Brigade paraded outside the White House. Their placards read “No Jail for Franco’s Foes” and “Franco was Hitler’s Pal”.[99] A more “respectable” protest to the President was made by Francis Fisher Kane, an “old member of the Philadelphia Bar” and US Attorney General under Woodrow Wilson. He “earnestly” requested Truman to commute the sentences imposed, since imprisonment was “a denial of justice and a blot upon American liberty”.[100] Washington prison authorities, meanwhile, were itemising the clothes of their new inmates; in Barsky’s case, a green hat, blue shirt, grey and yellow necktie, and brown pants and coat.[101] He became Prisoner 18907. The eleven prisoners (Helen Bryan and Ernestina Fleischman were imprisoned separately, on 13 November 1950, after a final, unsuccessful legal appeal[102]) were drawn from a range of backgrounds – academic, legal, literary, medical, labor union and business. In addition to Barsky, the most notable members were the head of the German Department at New York University and Modern Language Association treasurer, Professor Lyman Bradley and the well-known essayist and historical novelist, Howard Fast.[103] Initially, Barsky and the other male JAFRC detainees were confined to the District of Columbia prison in Washington. The women Board members (Marjorie Chodorov, Ruth Leider and Charlotte Stern) were sent to Federal Penitentiary for Women at Alderston, West Virginia.[104] According to one commentator, “In the normal course of events [these individuals] wouldn’t see the inside of a jail, or even a courtroom, during their whole lifetime…But these are not ordinary times and these are not ordinary events.”[105] They were treated, however, very ordinarily and no different from the “common” criminal: handcuffed, stripped, processed naked, fingerprinted twice, showered, given faded blue uniforms and locked in a shared cell five by seven feet in a towering cell block. After nine days, the men were deliberately scattered.[106] Dr Jacob Auslander, a physician, joined J. Parnell Thomas, the criminal, in Danbury federal penitentiary in Connecticut; Bradley and Fast were relocated 300 miles away in the mountains of West Virginia, to a prison camp called Mill Point;[107] James Lustig, a trade unionist, went to Ashland, Kentucky; three others were remanded at the Federal Detention House in NYC. Barsky was sent to the Federal Reformatory in Petersburg, Virginia, 400 miles from New York. There, he lost 25 lbs in weight, suffered from ulcers, was permitted only two visiting hours per month from his wife only, and was not permitted to do any medical work, only menial work. Coupled with the psychological strain of the past four years of criminal and civil litigations and appeals, his months in this remote jail must have tested his resilience. He would also have been concerned by the financial effects on his dependant wife, Vita, and two-year-old daughter, Angela, of his prolonged cessation of income.[108] A heart-felt, hand-written, two-page letter was sent to him from a dentist and acquaintance (“I don’t know if you remember me”), Samuel Anderman. The letter is worth noting because it illustrates how the persecution of the JAFRC touched a great many Americans beyond the normal reach of JAFRC or communist “front” activity. After telling Barsky that his jailing had a “profound effect” on him, Anderman continued: “There are many people like myself around, who are not sleeping easily while you and other patriotic Americans are being jailed…Be of good cheer. This period is a severe trial but every great man has had to suffer for his convictions. Your suffering is not in vain…”. This letter was returned as the sender was not listed as one of Barsky’s correspondents.[109] Barsky was freed from Petersburg prison on 7 November. Either “good behaviour” or the numerous letters from the medical fraternity to the Federal Parole Board[110] earned him one month’s reprieve. He was just in time to greet and farewell his loyal, steadfast secretary, Helen Bryan. She began her three month sentence on 13 November. The night before, 200 friends, including Barsky, attended her farewell party at Fairfax Hall, NYC. According to one present, “it was a welcome, heart-warming occasion to see this man moving freely again, among his friends”. [111] It was the final function he attended as JAFRC Chairman. Due to “the demands of my present situation”, he resigned as officer, director and member of the JAFRC in January 1951.[112] It would have not been easy for Barsky to relinquish the organization he founded nearly a decade earlier. It was pivotal to his existence. According to a JAFRC staffer, “We never saw anybody with such single-mindedness. His entire life is wrapped up in the work of helping the refuges, in helping Spain”.[113] He himself told a reporter: “Best committee in America. No committee in America has this tradition”. The reporter noted that it was near-impossible to get Barsky off the subject of the work of the JAFRC, about which he slipped into “lyricism”.[114] So what were these “present demands”? If he thought deprivation of freedom would end upon his release from jail, he was wrong. Another round of persecution commenced; another fight to resist it became necessary. It concerned not his political or humanitarian activities for the JAFRC, although these continued to stalk him, but his right to practise medicine. And it did not end until 1955, by which time the JAFRC announced its own dissolution. During his time in Petersburg penitentiary, Barsky’s medical licence was revoked. Upon his release, he was obliged to re-apply. To that end, the Executive Director of Beth Israel Hospital, with the approval of the Medical Board and the Hospital’s Board of Trustees, wrote to the Board of Regents of the New York State Department of Education, the body responsible for issuing – and revoking – medical licences. The letter outlined the history and length of Barsky’s appointments at the Hospital and the type of service he rendered. It continued: Dr. Barsky is a skillful surgeon, whose medical ethics and conduct have always been beyond reproach. He is an ethical physician, imbued with the traditional Hippocratic sense of responsibility to his patients and services in their behalf. The patients at the Hospital are well served by him.[115] The expectation, presumably, was that restoration of his licence would be a formality. But by the winter of late 1950 and early 1951, the American political landscape had permafrosted and paranoia about communism was intense. In January 1951, the immensely powerful Board of Regents informed Barsky that it was reviewing his case and a subcommittee would decide whether a further penalty (from mere censure to revocation of licence) was to be imposed. Immediately, Barsky went on the offensive and wrote to numerous doctors, academics and Quakers requesting, if effect, character references to be posted to the Medical Grievance Committee prior to its closed hearing on 15 February. They obliged.[116] Before the hearing, Barsky’s attorney, Abraham Fishbein, mounted (what seems to the historian) a compelling and superbly crafted case revolving around five separate arguments and amounting to thirteen pages.[117] At the hearing Fishbein spoke with much passion: “This man has paid the full penalty…To treat him now as a felon who commits abortions or who deals in narcotics and place him on that level, gentlemen, is too low…I beg of you, gentlemen, don’t let’s stoop that low to hit this man…[who has] paid in full…To do more to this man is to wreak vengeance and not to do justice”.[118] On the other hand, the Assistant Attorney General of the State of New York, Sidney Tartikoff, for the Board of Regents, focused on the activities of the Joint Anti-Fascist Refugee Committee, the contempt of Congress citation, the constitutionality of HUAC and, especially, the Attorney General’s List of Subversive Organizations. Considerable evidentiary weight was placed by Tartikoff on the JAFRC being listed as subversive and un- American; unfortunately for Barsky this hearing was precisely two months before the Supreme Court invalidated such listing by the Attorney General.[119] None of these issues, for which Barsky had endured five months in prison and five years of litigation, was relevant to medical competence. None of these issues involved “moral turpitude”, the customary concern of the Committee. None of the dozens of testimonials counted. Barsky was found guilty of nothing, other than his failure to produce records subpoenaed by a congressional committee, which the Discipline Committee itself acknowledged was “the only method by which legal objections to [HUAC] could be judicially determined”. Even Tartikoff informed the Grievance Committee “candidly and honestly” that he could find “no real evidence” that JAFRC activities were “Communistic”. [120] And, as we know, Barsky was now no longer a member of the JAFRC. All this was to no avail. The Board of Regents’ Medical Grievance Committee revoked Edward Barsky’s medical registration, first issued in 1919, for a period of six months. No reasons were given. In a re-run of the legal challenges to his conviction that lasted from 1947 to 1950, Barsky launched appeals against this decision. The case was next heard by the Regents’ Committee on Discipline, which overturned the suspension of Barsky’s licence – there being no moral turpitude, no impeachment by evidence and therefore “no valid basis for discipline.”[121] However, this decision was repudiated by the full Board, which upheld the original ruling. Barsky then sought review in the Court of Appeals of the State of New York, which affirmed the order of the Board of Regents despite noting that the Board “ignored weighty considerations and acted on matters not proper for consideration”.[122] One improper matter was that List of Subversive Organizations. Barsky’s last legal recourse was the Supreme Court. His lawyer prepared a detailed Petitioner’s Brief (which included the plea, “this petitioner has suffered more than enough”). On 26 April 1954 – just three weeks before its historic School Segregation case[123] – the Supreme Court decided (6-3) on technical grounds not to interfere with the determinations of the Board of Regents. The dissenting judgements of Justices Black, Douglas and Frankfurter make fascinating reading and, presumably, must have fortified Barsky. Justice William O. Douglas did not mince words: “nothing in a man’s political beliefs disables him from setting bones or removing appendixes…When a doctor cannot save lives in America because he is opposed to Franco in Spain, it is time to call a halt and look critically at the neurosis that has possessed us”.[124] In a final, desperate act, Barsky wrote to the Board of Regents and appealed for clemency. Barsky was a self-effacing man, not given to effusive displays or the grand gesture. To an interviewer he did not display “the slightest hint of sentimentality”.[125] To his daughter, he was “very private, a shy man who did not toot his own horn”.[126] So writing the following soul- bearing letter would not have been easy. The letter also points, in a microcosmic way, to the damage inflicted on individuals who held political views contrary to the mainstream during the heyday of McCarthyism. I have been in practice for 35 years and never once during this time have I been in any difficulty. Not a single patient could or has ever accused me of…any lack of sympathy or understanding…[and] no medical colleague who has had any contact with me, either directly or indirectly, could point to any improper actions on my part…I am not a young man and my family, a wife and young child, are completely dependent upon my earnings. I am not wealthy, and being deprived of six months income would almost completely wipe out what little savings I have. To pick up the threads of a practice after a lapse of six months would be fraught with the greatest of difficulties and obstacles…I am sure that you gentlemen can understand what havoc a six months suspension could do to a professional career.[127] The Board was not swayed. In fact its legal counsel wrote to “caution” him on his office procedure: under the suspension order not only was he required to “desist from practice”, but his office secretary was forbidden from leaving any impression that “you are still in practice”.[128] Four days later, on 25 June 1954, the suspension of Barsky’s medical licence took effect. In 1955, Barsky did “pick up the threads” of his practice.[129] But there was yet another act of “undiluted vindictiveness” that was committed, yet another battle he had to fight.[130] When his medical licence was revoked, unbeknown to Barsky, so too was his registration with the Workmen’s Compensation Board, which he gained in July 1935. He learnt this only when insurance companies refused to honor his invoices from workers’ compensation cases, which comprised much of his surgical work.[131] He judged the damage to his reputation and earning capacity as “extremely great”.[132] He applied for renewal of his registration, which, with a surgeon of his longevity, qualifications and unimpeachable record, would normally have been a routine formality.[133] Not so with Barsky, for Barsky was a communist. He was “amazed” by the request to appear before the Medical Practice Committee but did so, on 24 May 1955, in the hope of “expediting this matter in an amicable way”.[134] Further amazement awaited him. He was obliged to take the oath, was questioned by an attorney (who was not a member of the Committee), and the questions related to his associations with communists, not his professional capacities. Barsky had not been informed beforehand of these unprecedented procedures, nor had he recourse to legal counsel. So he stopped answering questions. On 22 July he was informed that, because he “refused to answer certain questions which the Committee considered material and relevant”, his application for registration was rejected.[135] In what by now was a familiar route, Barsky formally appealed to the Medical Appeals Unit, informally appealed to the chairman of the Workmen’s Compensation Board (“to grant an exception so that patients operated upon by me would receive sickness disability benefits”), and enlisted the support of the “Provisional Committee of 1000 Physicians Against Imposition of ‘Loyalty’ Oaths”.[136] There is no extant record of the outcome of these appeals. It was in this same year, 1955, that the JAFRC officially disbanded. Its death throes were punctuated by further assaults. In 1952, the Treasury Department demanded payment of the crippling sum of $315,000 in back taxes after its tax-exempt status was revoked. In 1954, the Subversive Activities Control Board (SACB) ordered the National Committee to register the JAFRC as a Communist Party “front” organisation. It refused and faced further punitive sanctions. In early 1955, it faced investigation by the New York Joint Legislative Committee on Charitable and Philanthropic Agencies and Organizations, which was attempting, unsuccessfully, to locate and serve a subpoena on the new JAFRC chairman. Another JAFRC appeal to its beleaguered supporters could not save it. In a brief public statement the Executive Board disclosed that it had voted on 14 February in favour of its own dissolution. It cited “harassments, persecutions and prosecutions” by HUAC, SACB and the Treasury Department. These activities made it “impossible” to continue the “good and necessary relief work that we have carried on since our inception”.[137] This statement did not mention the role of the FBI, whose records detailing its ten-year vendetta against the JAFRC have remained classified, until now. It is to this role that we shall finally turn. Nearly 1200 pages of its confidential files on the JAFRC were requested and obtained by the writer in five batches between 2007 and 2009. Those who have researched the records of security organisations in other countries will find much that is familiar: infinite details of meetings, speakers, amounts raised, membership lists, publications, correspondence, telephone conversations, mail interceptions, travel itineraries, photographs of officials, lists of financial contributors, identities of donors, patrons and benefactors, and extensive deletions. These previously untapped files constitute a case study of political repression in the modern age. That repression is an index of the cost of defiance and the strength of the forces arraigned against the JAFRC, and the JAFRC was but one of dozens, perhaps hundreds, of left wing organizations destroyed during the McCarthyist era. Put simply, the sides were not evenly matched. The FBI’s relentless pursuit of the JAFRC commenced before World War II had ended and well before the Cold War had started. Three examples suggest the flavour of the hunt. First, on 18 January 1945, FBI Director, J. Edgar Hoover, contacted the head of the State Department’s Division of Foreign Activity. Hoover made this official aware of a plan by the JAFRC to bring Pablo Picasso to the US and, more ominously, that Picasso had recently joined the French Communist Party. The source – “confidential and reliable” – was an FBI informant inside the JAFRC; he or she was joined by dozens of other informants throughout the next ten years, and the intelligence they provided was voluminous. Second, on 21 February 1945, Hoover disseminated to senior FBI officers information received from the Military Intelligence Division of the US Army concerning the activities of Spanish communists inside France. In particular it emphasised the National Union of Spanish Republicans, formed in Vichy France in November 1942 and identified members of its Central Committee, with whom the JAFRC was in contact. Third, on 7 March 1945, the Director of the Office of Censorship, Byron Price, forwarded to Hoover a copy of a cable sent from Dorothy Parker in New York to Lillian Hellman in London requesting the latter to attend a JAFRC dinner in her honor. Referring to this cable (and implying that it was based in part on illegally obtained evidence), the document stated that “the attached information was taken from private communications and its extremely confidential character must be preserved”. From this sample we are able to get some sense of how various arms of the state – the FBI, the State Department, the US Army and the Office of Censorship – worked together to counter apparent threats to national security. Embodying such a threat was a national organiser of the JAFRC, Felix Kusman. Born in Estonia in imperial Russia on 25 March 1909, Kusman immigrated to the US in 1920 and served with the Abraham Lincoln Brigade in Spain. There, he met Edward Barsky and, subsequently, worked with him to establish the JAFRC. Suspicions commenced the following year, when a letter to Kusman, dated 24 February 1943, was intercepted; it thanked him for sending monthly checks to Mexico that helped establish a “Latin American Committee of Free Germans”.[138] The FBI was convinced there was foul play; that there was “something more to the transaction [of money] than a mere rescue of Anti-Fascist refugees”.[139] To find out, Kusman must be very closely monitored. And he was. When Kusman visited Seattle in early 1945, the FBI established a “Central Coordinating Committee” to monitor his movements and activities. It made extensive and effective use of “technical equipment” (microphone installation in his Roosevelt Hotel room and recording of all incoming and outgoing telephone calls) in addition to physical and photographic surveillance, which “completely covered” the subject. This surveillance was most successful in obtaining information of value regarding KUSMAN’s conversations and purposes of his visit to Seattle, and although KUSMAN had the reputation of being a “whirling dervish”, a man extremely hard to tail, he was never lost. With this technical coverage it was easy not only to follow KUSMAN, but to anticipate his movements by knowing the identity and time of his appointments.[140] The use of such microphones and wiretaps was probably illegal.[141] The theft by Los Angeles FBI agents of a duplicate set of Kusman’s keys was definitely illegal. They were stolen when his hotel room was entered and his personal belongings searched.[142] Surveillance was a labour- intensive activity. A report on Kusman’s activities for just one day, 15 February 1945 – from 10.40am, when he emerged from his hotel room, until the “time of the subject’s retiring”, at 11.10pm – runs to seven closely-typed pages. Kusman’s reputation as a “whirling dervish” had some basis: much to the chagrin of the FBI, which only found out after the event, Kusman illegally exited the US, illegally entered Portugal and illegally re-entered the US.[143] The final FBI reference to Kusman, hundreds of pages later, reveals that on 22 June 1953, he was detained on Ellis Island after being arrested by the Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) under a deportation warrant. The FBI confirmed that the INS had “no objection” to the Bureau re- interviewing Kusman “to see if he might not now be receptive to persuasion to testify as a Government witness”.[144] The cooperation of former members of the JAFRC or disaffected communists who were prepared – and sometimes eager – to provide testimony that incriminated their former comrades. They could “openly” produce admissible exhibits and information that had been obtained through clandestine means by informants or through “black bag jobs”, or burglaries. Seduced by, inter alia, a generous FBI stipend, former communists became professional anti-communists. Two who gave evidence against the JAFRC were the serial testifier, Louis Budenz, the ex-editor of the Daily Worker, and the serial liar, Harvey Matusow.[145] A less notorious apostate, John Janowitz, identified JAFRC member, Ruth Davidow, as a member of the Communist Party’s Tom Paine Club in Cleveland, Ohio, in 1945.[146] Janowitz had been an official of the Party’s Cleveland branch from 1943 until 1950. He was assessed as “a good witness for the Government in 1949” (the Smith Act prosecutions) and “available and willing to testify” in 1953.[147] This was central to the FBI’s modus operandi: to find witnesses who could confirm the communist domination of the JAFRC. Once “proven”, the organisation was obliged, under the draconian McCarran (Internal Security) Act of 1950, to register with the Subversive Activities Control Board as a communist “front” and surrender its membership and financial records. Its modus operandi is also revealed through its assessments of witnesses who testified against the JAFRC. Stephen A. Wereb, for instance, was not a member of the JAFRC “until contacted by a representative of this [Los Angeles] office”. During the period he worked for the FBI, from 1944 until 1948, “he was a regularly paid informant”.[148] As an “individual of known reliability”, he then testified against the JAFRC. So in its war on “front” organizations, the FBI used Wereb, and innumerable others, for two consecutive roles: first, as an undercover informant and second, as a public witness. Indeed, some of the last FBI files released on the JAFRC concern the location, availability and assessment of these informants/witnesses to testify before the SACB, which, with FBI help, was about to commence its 1954 investigation of JAFRC. [149] The irony is that, by this time, the JAFRC was barely functioning. Unlike the organisation he founded and to which he was so devoted, Barsky survived. And he continued to support progressive causes.[150] He was involved in a strike at Beth Israel Hospital in 1962, organised by Local 1199, over recognition of hospital employees. Two years later, he helped establish the Medical Committee for Human Rights. It provided doctors and medical staff for civil rights activists who went to Mississippi in the violent “Freedom summer” of 1964.[151] He remained active in this Committee as well as the anti-Vietnam war movement. He died at the age of 78 on 11 February 1975. In an echo of the Spanish civil war, seven ambulances were sent from the US to Nicaragua in support of the Sandinistas in 1985. They were named in honour of Edward K. Barsky. This article has shown how one left-wing organization was destroyed in the early Cold War. The manner of its destruction demonstrated the “bureaucratic rationality of McCarthyism”, alluded to earlier. There was no single persecutor but rather a range of government agencies whose combined force was formidable. The agencies identified in this article were the Attorney General’s Department, the Board of Regents of the New York State Department of Education, the House Un-American Activities Committee, the Federal Bureau of Investigation, the Internal Revenue Bureau, the Treasury Department, the Subversive Activities Control Board and the State Department. They were not necessarily working in unison nor were their different roles and activities coordinated. The absence of overarching coordination should not, however, imply an absence of a bureaucratic consensus and operational framework. Whilst there was no outward conspiracy, the various arms of the State complemented each other through their pursuit of a shared goal: the elimination of any activity deemed “un-American”. Against this, the JAFRC, its leader, Edward Barsky, and its legion of supporters, were no match. ------------------------------------ * I wish to thank Julie Kimber, Laurence Maher, Ellen Schrecker and the staff of the Tamiment Library for their assistance in the preparation of this article. [1] Ellen Schrecker, No Ivory Tower: McCarthyism and the Universities (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 128. [2] See Richard Bermack, The Front Lines of Social Change: Veterans of the Abraham Lincoln Brigade (Berkeley: Heyday Books, 2005), 57; Peter N. Carroll, The Odyssey of the Abraham Lincoln Brigade: Americans in the Spanish Civil War (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1994), 285-6; Peter Carroll and James Fernandez (eds.), Facing Fascism: New York and the Spanish Civil War (New York: Museum of the City of New York, 2007); Sebastiaan Faber, Exile and Cultural Hegemony: Spanish Intellectuals in Mexico 1939-1975 (Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 2002), 153-9; Karl Geiser, Prisoners of the Good Fight: The Spanish Civil War, 1936–1939 (Westport, Connecticut: Lawrence Hill, 1986); Martin F. Shapiro, “Medical Aid to the Spanish Republic During the Civil War”, Annals of Internal Medicine, 97:1, (1982), 121-2; Lise Vogel, “Sidney Vogel: Spanish Civil War Surgeon”, American Journal of Public Health, 98:12 (December 2008): 2146-9. For specific, if brief, references to the JAFRC during the Cold War, see Robert Carr, The House Committee on Un-American Activities 1945-1950 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1952), 32-5; Phillip Deery, “‘A Divided Soul’? The Cold War Odyssey of O. John Rogge”, Cold War History, 6: 2 (2006), 182; Ellen Schrecker, Many are the Crimes: McCarthyism in America (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1998), 322. Typifying the historiographical lacunae, Robert Justin Goldstein’s comprehensive Political Repression in Modern America: From 1870 to 1976 (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2001) completely bypasses the political repression of the JAFRC. [3] O. John Rogge, Our Vanishing Civil Liberties (New York: Gaer Associates, 1949), 44-53; New York Court of Appeals, Joint Anti-Fascist Refugee Committee v. McGrath 341 US 123, 104 (1951); Carl Beck, Contempt of Congress. A Study of the Prosecutions Initiated by the Committee on Un-American Activities, 1945-1957 (New Orleans: Hauser Press, 1959), 25-33; Telford Taylor, Grand Inquest: The Story of Congressional Investigations (New York: Simon & Schuster [nd]), 148-9; C. Herman Pritchett, Civil Liberties and the Vinson Court (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1954), 98. [4] Ellen Schrecker, foreword to David R. Holmes, Stalking the Academic Communist: Intellectual Freedom and the Firing of Alex Novikoff (Hanover & London: University Press of New England, 1989), p. viii. [5] However, as a catch-all concept, “communist ‘front’” is problematic not axiomatic. There were degrees of control and autonomy. Some organizations, such as the Jefferson School of Social Science, were instruments of Communist Party policy far more than others. In the case of the JAFRC, its single-minded devotion to the cause of Spanish refugees was consistent with, but not rigidly determined by the doctrinres of Party leaders in New York or Moscow. To allege that the JAFRC was a “favorite fund-raising project of the party” which cynically and “with elaborate virtuosity” played upon public sympathy, significantly under-estimates the agency of the JAFRC. Herbert Arthur Philbrick, I Led Three Lives: Citizen-“Communist”-Counterspy (New York: McGraw Hill, 1952), 251. [6] The vote was 207 to 186 with 40, including Lyndon B. Johnson, remaining neutral. The mover, John E. Rankin (D., Mississippi), rejoiced: “I caught ’em flat-footed and flat-headed”. Cited in Walter Goodman, The Committee (London: Secker & Warburg, 1969), 169. Similarly Robert Carr described the re-creation of HUAC as “one of the most remarkable coups in modern Congressional history”. Carr ,The House Committee on Un-American Activities 1945-1950, 19. [7] Two examples are Goldstein, Political Repression in Modern America; William Preston, Aliens and Dissenters: Federal Suppression of Radicals, 1903-1933 (Chicago: University Of Illinois Press, 1995). [8] “Statement issued by Honorable John S. Wood, of Georgia, Chairman, House Committee on Un-American Activities”, 24 January 1946, in Charlotte Todes Stern Papers, 1925-1956, #70, Box 2, Folder 1, Tamiment Library and Robert F. Wagner Archives, New York University (henceforth Stern Papers). [9] Medicine was in the marrow: his father was also a surgeon at Beth Israel and his two brothers, George and Arthur, also became doctors. (Arthur was a pioneering plastic surgeon who treated Vietnamese children during the Vietnam War.) Barsky’s private practice focused on industrial injuries (that is, workers’ compensation cases) that required surgery. [10] Joseph North, “A Case for the Doctor”, New Masses, 19 August 1947. [11] Peter N. Carroll, “Introduction”, in Peter N. Carroll & James D. Fernandez (eds.), Facing Fascism: New York and the Spanish Civil War (Museum of the City of New York and New York Uni Press, 2007), 15-16. [12] Edward Barsky, “The Surgeon Goes to War”, 12-13 (from chapter 1 “Someone Had to Help”), undated and unpublished manuscript, Edward K. Barsky Papers, 1936-1970, Abraham Lincoln Brigade Archives #125, Box 5, Folder 4, Tamiment Library and Robert F. Wagner Archives, New York University (henceforth Barsky Papers). [13] See Nelson’s eulogistic recollections of Barsky in Spain in New Masses, 19 August 1947. [14] Barsky, “The Surgeon Goes to War”, 214-5, Barsky Papers, Box 5, Folder 4; New York Journal, 19 July 1937; New York Post, 19 July 1937: New York World-Telegram, 19 July 1937 (clippings in Barsky Papers, Box 2, Folder 13). [15] See James Neugass, War is Beautiful: An American Ambulance Driver in the Spanish Civil War (New York: The New Press, 2008), frontispiece; this book is dedicated to Barsky. The 1937 tour allegedly raised “hundreds of thousands of dollars” for more medical equipment: New York Times, 13 February 1975 (obituary). [16] Howard Fast, Being Red: A Memoir (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1990), 143. In 1945, too, a reporter described him as “a tall, leaning, youngish-looking man of not quite fifty, with thick dark straight hair and a clipped, greying moustache”. Mary Braggiotti, “For a Forgotten People”, New York Post, 13 March 1945. Group photos confirm his height and apparent charisma. [17] Ernest Hemingway to Milton Wolff, 7 May 1950, cited in Peter N. Carroll, The Odyssey of the Abraham Lincoln Brigade: Americans in the Spanish Civil War (Stanford, Stanford University Press, 1994), 316; New York Times, 13 February 1975. (Hemingway met Barsky in Spain; Wolf was the last commander of the Abraham Lincoln Brigade.) By 1950 Fast was resorting to hyperbole, and transfigured Barsky into “a giant of a man, tempered out of steel, yet quiet and humble”. Howard Fast, “Why We Were Sent to Prison”, New Times, No. 26, 1950, 10. For glowing character references from JAFRC staff, see Joseph North, “A Case for the Doctor”, New Masses, 19 August 1947. [18] See VALB Records, Abraham Lincoln Brigade Archives #19, Box 10, Folders 15 & 25, Tamiment Library and Robert F. Wagner Archives, New York University. [19] The British Consul in Madrid conservatively estimated that that 10,000 Republicans were shot in the first five months after the war; the killings continued well into the 1940s. Paul Preston, The Spanish Civil War 1936-39 (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1986), 167-8. [20] Faber, Exile and Cultural Hegemony, 154; Preston, The Spanish Civil War, 167. [21] For a detailed report of its operations and finances for its first two years, see “Joint Anti-Fascist Refugee Committee”, May 1944, in Barsky Papers, Box 1, Folder 31. By then, it had raised $295,000, 25% of which came from trade unions and 75% from 75,000 individual contributions. [22] Typescript of address given by Barsky [1, 5], 21 April 1945, Barsky Papers, Box 3, Folder 3. At this dinner at the Hotel Astor, NYC, Lillian Hellman was the guest of honor. A far larger audience attended the huge JAFRC- sponsored rally at Madison Square Garden, the brainchild of Helen Bryan, on 24 September 1945. Its slogan was “Break off Relations With Franco” and its goal was to inaugurate the “Fall drive” to raise $300,000 for the rest of the year. The transcript of Barsky’s stirring speech is located in Barsky Papers, Box 1, Folder 13. The fact that the rally was supported by the CPUSA and advertised in the Daily Worker, was regarded as prima facie evidence of the JAFRC being a “front” for the Communist Party. See Congressional Record–House, 28 March 1946, 2802. [23] On behalf of the Unitarian Service Committee, Walter Rosenblum photographed these refugees in one of the main camps at Toulouse, France, and captured their stoicism rather than despondency. See http://www.rosenblumphoto.org/gallery_spanish.html# It was because of the parlous conditions at this camp that the Unitarian Service Committee requested additional funds from the JAFRC; see Minutes, Executive Board meeting, 31 January 1945, Stern Papers, Box 2, Folder 1. [24] New York Compass, 7 June 1950, 3. [25] The total amount raised in 1945 was $318,293. This dropped to $306,695 in 1946 and $254,430 IN 1947. Financial Statement, National Office, JAFRC, attached to correspondence, 27 February 1948, Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation files [henceforth FBI files], “Joint Anti-Fascist Refugee Committee” (FOIPA No. 1056236). [26] Already, on 1 December, HUAC had requested the President’s War Control Board to cancel the JAFRC’s licence to collect and distribute funds for the relief of Spanish refugees in Europe. [27] Minutes, Executive Board meeting, 14 December 1945, Stern Papers, Box 2, Folder 1. A copy of the 14 December resolution was sent to all JAFRC sponsors. Barsky also invoked HUAC’s charter (concerning overthrow of the United States government, subversive and/or un-American activities) when he testified before it; see HUAC, Executive Session, Testimony of Dr Edward K. Barsky, 13 February 1946, 161. [28] Letter, Barsky to Contributors, 2 January 1946, Stern papers, Box 2, Folder 1. [29] Congressional Record. Proceedings and Debates of the 79th Congress, second session, 28 March 1946, 2801-2 (henceforth Congressional Record–House). Professor Harold Laski, Professor of Political Science at the LSE, was in 1945 chairman of the British Labour Party. He was a Fabian Socialist who opposed the overtures to the Labour Party by the Communist Party; see his The Secret Battalion: An Examination of the Communist Attitude to the Labour Party(London: 1946). Such political subtleties would have eluded the ideologically myopic Thomas. [30] Eric Bentley, Thirty Years of treason: Excerpts from hearings before the House Committee on Un-American Activities, 1938-1968 (New York: Viking, 1971), 413. [31] New York Times, 28 December 1945. In fact, Adamson personally wrote to various contributors in January 1946, advising them that they were “misinformed” about the true nature of the JAFRC. See copies of correspondence in Barsky Papers, Box 1, Folder 28. [32] Congressional Record–House, 28 March 1946, 2801. Wood became chairman in July 1945 [33] Carroll, The Odyssey of the Abraham Lincoln Brigade, 268-9; Carroll and Fernandez, Facing Fascism, 182, n.7. See also Kenneth O’Reilly, Hoover and the Un-Americans: The FBI, HUAC and the Red Menace (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1983), 119. [34] Stephen J. Whitfield, The Culture of the Cold War (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991), 91-6.; David Caute, The Great Fear: The Anti-Communist Purge Under Truman and Eisenhower (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1978), 108-10. [35] Congressional Record–House, 16 April 1946, 3840. [36] J. Edgar Hoover, Memorandum for the Attorney General, 27 January 1938, reprinted in Science & Society, vol. 68, no.3, Fall 2004, 363. [37] Correspondence, J.T. Bissell, Colonel, General Staff, Military Intelligence Service, Washington, to J. Edgar Hoover, 14 April 1944, No. 5918/R. [38] In February 1946, a conference of senior FBI officials decided to provide covert support to HUAC; O’Reilly, Hoover and the Un-Americans, 76, 98. By 1947, assisting HUAC became “an FBI priority”. Athan Theoharis, Chasing Spies (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2002), 161. See also Schrecker, Many are the Crimes, 214-5. [39] Minutes, Executive Board meeting, 1 February 1946, Stern papers, Box 2, Folder 1. [40] Fast, Being Red, 144; Henry Cadbury, “Introduction”, Helen Bryan, Inside (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1953), ix- x; Lily Kingsley, “She Wouldn’t Let Them Down”, PM, 1 July 1947. This remarkable woman awaits a scholarly study. There is a brief obituary in the New York Times, 11 September 1976, a fleeting discussion of her role in establishing Swarthmore College in Glenda Elizabeth Gilmore, Defying Dixie: The Radical Roots of Civil Rights, 1919-1950 (New York: W.W. Norton, 2008), 219-20, and her own lengthy (305 pages) but unrevealing account, Inside, about her three months in the Alderston’s Federal Penitentiary for Women in 1950, but nothing else. The release of her FBI file is currently pending. [41] Fast, Being Red, 144, 151. [42] Cadbury, “Introduction”, ix. [43] Executive Session, HUAC, 24 January 1946, Testimony of Helen R. Bryan. Congressional Hearings Digital Collection, HRG-1946-UAH-0020: 601-05. See also her similar testimony to an Open Session on 4 April 1946 in Investigation of Un-American Propaganda Activities in the United States. Executive Board Joint Anti-Fascist Refugee Committee. HUAC Hearings, 79th Congress, 2nd session, 4 April 1946, 96-103. [44] New York Times, 22 July 1947. In fact in the summer of 1946 Treasury Department investigators spent more than two weeks in the JAFRC office examining financial records. Minutes, Executive Board meeting, 20 June 1946, Stern Papers, Box 2, Folder 1. [45] “Statement with regards to the present investigation of the [JAFRC] by [HUAC]”, nd [1946], Barsky Papers, Box 1, Folder 28. [46] The JAFRC’s legal counsel also advised Bryan that the subpoena itself was invalid; see the unread “Statement made by Helen R. Bryan to the House Committee on Un-American Activities, 1/23/46”, 3, Stern Papers, Box 2, Folder 1. It was subsequently incorporated into “Investigation of Un-American Propaganda Activities in the United States. Executive Board Joint Anti-Fascist Refugee Committee”. HUAC Hearings, 79th Congress, 2nd session, 4 April 1946, 103-5. [47] For example, Henry Steele Commager, “Who is Loyal to America?”, Harper’s Magazine, 9 September 1947. (Commager was Professor of History at Columbia University.) For the sheer volume of protests and petitions against HUAC for just October-November 1947, see M. Stanton Evans, “The Campaign Against HUAC”, in William F. Buckley Jr.(ed), The Committee and its Critics (New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1962), 212-3. [48] Elizabeth Edwards Spalding, The First Cold Warrior: Harry Truman, Containment, and the Remaking of Liberal Internationalism (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 2006), 175. [49] Civil Rights Congress, America’s “Thought Police”: Record of the Un-American Activities Committee (New York, October 1947), i-ii (foreword by Wallace entitled “Strike Back”). [50] Howard Fast, Being Red (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1990), 148. [51] Minutes, Executive Board meeting, 1 February 1946, Stern papers, Box 2, Folder 1. [52] Minutes, Executive Board special meeting, 11 February 1946, Stern papers, Box 2, Folder 1. [53] See Executive Session, HUAC, 13 February 1946, Testimony of Dr Edward K. Barsky, Congressional Hearings Digital Collection, HRG-1946-UAH-0020: 776-808. For the edited (and sanitised) version, see HUAC, Report. Proceeding Against Dr. Edward K. Barsky and Others, 28 March 1946, 79th Congress, 2nd Session, Report No. 1829, 1-4. [54] Barsky, of course, was no fool whom HUAC could easily intimidate. Dressed in his “impeccably-clad double- breasted suit”, and with his “business-like manner”, there was a “sureness…about his manner, his talk, his gestures”. New Masses, 19 August 1947. [55] The Nation (19 January 1946) editorialized that HUAC was on “a fishing expedition in the hope of finding something that looks like evidence to back the verdict it has already reached”. There was some truth to this. [56] Such activities were intensified and widened in scope, evidenced by the regular “Developments on Pressure Campaign” reports to the Executive Board meetings throughout 1946. [57] Congressional Record–House, 27 February 1946, 1763. What he may have had in mind was this: on 28 March Thomas reported that an “intensive” investigation had revealed that Gusavo Duran, who had been a major in the Spanish Republican Army during the civil war and a communist, arrived in the US in 1940 and worked (1943-5) as an assistant to the Assistant Secretary of State, Spruille Braden, in the US State Department. According to Thomas, Duran was an NKVD agent and “the directing genius” behind the JAFRC. Congressional Record–House, 28 March 1946, 2802. On 14 March 1950, Duran, now a UN employee, was one of the first targets of Senator Joseph McCarthy; after five hearings before the Tydings Subcommittee and the Loyalty Board, he was finally cleared of all charges in January 1955. Caute, The Great Fear, 331-38. [58] Goodman, The Committee, 269-70. He was joined in Danbury by two of the Hollywood Ten and one JAFRC member (Dr Jacob Auslander). [59] Minutes, Executive Board meeting, 8 March 1946, 2, Stern papers, Box 2, Folder 1. [60] Congressional Record–House, 28 March 1946, 2085. [61] Ibid., 2803,2806,2808.The four opponents were Marcantonio, Adam Clayton Powell Jr (New York), Edward Izac (California) and Matthew Neely (West Virginia). A copy of this citation can be found in the Stern papers, Box 2, Folder 1. [62] Minutes, Executive Board meeting, 28 March 1946, Stern papers, Box 2, Folder 1. Self-delusion must have been infectious: at the same meeting members were “in full agreement” that “one of the most effective ways” of fighting the Wood-Rankin Committee was to “raise larger funds for the Spanish republican exiles than have been raised in the past”. [63] Investigation of Un-American Propaganda Activities in the United States. Executive Board Joint Anti-Fascist Refugee Committee. HUAC Hearings, 79th Congress, 2nd session, 4 April 1946, 1-105; House Report No. 1936- Proceedings Against the Joint Anti-Fascist Refugee Committee, April 16, 1946. [64] Ibid., 10. [65] See Samuel H. Hofstadter, The Fifth Amendment and the Immunity Act of 1954 (New York: np, nd [1956]), 26- 30 (“Immunity in Congressional Investigation”). [66] Fast, Being Red, 149, 176. But see Schrecker, Many are the Crimes, 323, for the perceived risks of “taking the Fifth” in 1947. [67] In fact five constitutional challenges were made against HUAC between December 1947 and April 1950; three emanated from HUAC’s investigation of the JAFRC. For Rogge’s sanguine challenges to HUAC and his repeated (33 times) “We are going to show…” gauntlet-throwing, see his fifteen-page draft statement to the Federal District Court, 16 June 1947, Stern Papers, Box 2, Folder 1. [68] Rogge was experienced, high profile and a committed civil libertarian. Formerly assistant to the US Attorney General and soon New York State chairman, Wallace for President Committee (elected 4 April 1949), Rogge authored Our Vanishing Civil Liberties (New York: Gaer, 1949) that was serialized in the left-wing Daily Compass. See Deery, “‘A Divided Soul’?” 177-204. [69] Congressional Record-House, 16 April 1946, 3844. [70] Ibid., 3848. [71] Ibid., 3939. [72] See New York Times report, “17 Foes of Franco Voted in Contempt”, 17 April 1946. For a fuller discussion of this debate, see Beck, Contempt of Congress, 29-31. [73] Herbert Romerstein and Stanislav Levchenko, The KGB Against the “Main Enemy”: How the Soviet Intelligence Service Operates against the United States (Lexington & Toronto: Lexington Books, 1989), 238-9. The FBI’s demonisation of Eisler relied in part on the testimony of an ex-communist apostate who described Eisler as “Stalin’s chief agent here”. Louis Francis Budenz, Men Without Faces: The Communist Conspiracy in the USA (New York: Harper & Bros., 1948), 4. [74] House Committee on Un-American Activities, Hearings on Gerhardt Eisler: Investigation of Un-American Propaganda Activities in the United States, 6 February 1947, 11-12. Bradley’s future wife, Ruth Leider, a JAFRC Executive Board member, was also linked to Eisler through her signature on Eisler’s application for an “alien departure permit” in January 1942. Report, “Ruth Leider”, 13 April 1951, Federal Bureau of Investigation, Department of Justice, Headquarters Files 100-HQ-340005 and 100-HQ-260819, Lyman R. Bradley (FOIPA No. 115281-000). [75] Minutes, Executive Board meeting, 21 November 1946, Stern Papers, Box 2, Folder 1. Schrecker’s account of Eisler also counters the conspiratorial interpretation of Eisler’s post-war activities in the United States; Schrecker, Many Are the Crimes, 122-30. [76] He was cited on 18 February 1947 and convicted by the Court of Appeals, 170 F. 2d 273 (1948). For the consequences of his action, see Ellen Schrecker, “Immigration and Internal Security: Political Deportations During the McCarthy Era”, Science & Society, 60:4 (Winter 1996-67), 409-10. [77] “Memorandum of Legal Procedure and Legal Status” [nd April 1947], Barsky Papers, Box 1, Folder 28; New York Times, 4 April 1947. [78] Minutes, Executive Board meeting, 9 April 1947, Stern Papers, Box 2, Folder 1. On 16 April, Barsky requested Executive Board members to raise $900 each for their own expenses within fifteen days (Letter, Barsky to Charlotte Stern, 16 April 1947; Minutes, 30 April 1947, Stern Papers, Box 2, Folder 1). There was neither “Moscow gold”, nor free legal representation: Rogge, the chief defense attorney, did not work pro bono. [79] Correspondence, Edward K. Barsky to Charlotte Stern, 16 April 1947, Stern Papers, Box 2, Folder 1. [80] Washington Post, 12 June 1947. [81] New York Times, 9 September 1948. [82] Fast was again critical: “instead of arguing the legality of the charge, Rogge was engaging in a political attack against [HUAC]. It left me bewildered…”. Fast, Being Red, 176. [83] The five were Leverett Gleason (publisher of Reader’s Scope and the comic, Crime Does Not Pay), Louise Kamsley, Herman Shumlin ( a theatrical producer), Jesse Tolmach and Bobbie Weinstein. It is not known what the others thought of this five. No discussion of this action was recorded in the JAFRC minutes when, in absentia, their resignations were formally accepted. Minutes, Executive Board meeting, 15 September 1947, Stern Papers, Box 2, Folder 1. Efforts were made to secure additional Executive Board members, but none was successful. In February 1949, Dr Louis Miller, in whose home Barsky first formed the American Medical Bureau to Aid Spanish Democracy in 1936, also resigned; but his was accepted with “real regret”. Minutes, Executive Board Meeting, 18 February 1948. [84] Cited in New Masses, 19 August 1947. [85] Minutes, Executive Board meeting, 15 September 1947, Stern Papers, Box 2, Folder 1. Vincent Sheehan, the chairman of the “Citizens to Safeguard the JAFRC”, sent a letter on 30 September 1947 appealing for financial contributions to help “bear the costs of another trial” – that of Helen Bryan, on 27 October. It was accompanied by a Howard Fast brochure, “Three Names for Anti-Fascists”, of which 100,000 were printed to sell at one cent each. A major fund-raising “Court of Public Opinion Dinner” at the Astor Roof, was held on 30 October 1947 and raised $29,055 in cash and pledges. Letter, Helen Bryan to Executive Board members, 6 November 1947, Stern Papers, Box 2, Folder 2. [86] Robert Justin Goldstein, American Blacklist: The Attorney General’s List of Subversive Organizations (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 2008), 62. [87] Samuel Walker, In Defense of American Liberties: A History of the ACLU (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 179. However, the ACLU did not seek the Supreme Court to rule on the constitutionality of the List, which remained until 1974. [88] New Masses, 11 February 1948. Indicative was this FBI report: “Edward L. Parsons, Episcopal Bishop of Northern California, has formally resigned as Honorary Chairman of the JAFRC in SF [San Francisco]. Bishop Parsons has indicated that because the JAFRC has been designated as a subversive organisation he can no longer ask his friends and supporters to support the JAFRC. This has caused a financial crisis with the local chapter of the JAFRC…and is considering discontinuing maintenance of offices in SF”. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation files [henceforth FBI files], “Joint Anti-Fascist Refugee Committee”, Telex, “Whelan” to J. Edgar Hoover, 7 October 1953 (FOIPA No. 1056236). [89] Letter, Barsky to “Dear Friend”, 3 February 1948, Stern Papers, Box 2, Folder 1. At the December 1948 meeting Helen Bryan reported the “serious decline” in funds and noted that neither projected monetary aid was sent to Mexico nor outstanding legal bills were met. Minutes, Executive Board Meeting, 17 December 1948, 2-3, Stern Papers, Box 2, Folder 1. [90] [Reports and Proceedings], National Conference of the Joint Anti-Fascist Refugee Committee, 27-28 August 1948 [1-21], Stern Papers, Box 2, Folder 1. [91] United States v. Barsky, 72 F. Supp. 165 (1947); Barsky v. the United States, 167 F. 2d 241 (1948); Barsky v. the United States, 334 U.S. 843 (1948); Bryan v. United States, 174 F. 2d 525 (1949); United States v. Bryan, 339 U.S. 323 (1949); Bryan v. United States, 183 F. 2d 996 (1950); Bryan v. United States, 340 U.S. 866 (1950). The full text of Appeal from the District Court of the United States for the District of Columbia, United States Court of Appeals, Barsky et al, v. United States of America, No. 9602, Vol. 1 (1-288) & Vol. 2 (289-631), is located in Barsky Papers, Box 3, Folder 1. [92] Nor will the myriad of public relations and fund raising activities undertaken by the JAFRC in 1948-49 be discussed. These are outlined in the Executive Board Minutes; it is remarkable that Barsky had any time or energy left for surgery. [93] Barsky v. the United States, 164 F. 2d 241 (1948), 254; New York Times, 19 March 1948. [94] The right of witnesses to refuse to testify before Congressional committees and state agencies was upheld by the Supreme Court in the late 1950s; see Slochower v. Board of Higher Education, 350 U.S. 551 (1956); Watkins v United States, 354 U.S. 178 (1957); Sweezy v. State of New Hampshire, 354 U.S. 234 (1957). [95] Press release, 18 March 1948, Stern Papers, Box 2, Folder 4. [96] “US ‘Gestapo’ Forseen”, New York Times, 31 October 1947. [97] FBI file, “O. John Rogge”, Report of meeting, Boston, Massachusetts, 8 December 1948 in Memorandum, D.M. Ladd to J. Edgar Hoover, 23 December 1948 (FOIPA Request No. 1035916, “O. John Rogge”). An earlier FBI report in the same file (29 December 1947) noted that Rogge had stated: “We are almost exactly following the Nazi blueprint, and the threat to Democracy from Fascism is greater now than at any time since 1932”. [98] See Rogge’s article, “Courts Contradictory In Contempt Case”, Daily Compass, 17 November 1949. [99] New York Times, 8 June 1950; JAFRC, Campaign Bulletin, 3, 16 June 1950, 1, Barsky Papers, Box 1, Folder 16. [100] Copy of letter, Kane to Truman, 26 June 1950, Barsky Papers, Box 4, Folder 16. At a more organised level the battered remnants of the JAFRC still mobilised over 3000 letter-writers urging the President to use his executive power to free the JAFRC Board members. JAFRC, Campaign Bulletin, 3, 16 June 1950, 1, Barsky Papers, Box 1, Folder 16; letter from Dorothy Parker to Charlotte Stern, 5 July 1950, Stern Papers, Box 2, Folder 1. [101] Prison Records, Receipt of Property, Barsky Papers, Box 5, Folder 3. [102] United States v. Bryan, 339 U.S. 323 (1950); Bryan v. United States, 340 U.S. 866 (1950). Justices Black and Frankfurter dissented. [103] As a result of his conviction in 1947, Bradley was dismissed by NYU in 1951. Fast resigned from the Communist Party in the wake of Krushchev’s “secret speech” in February 1956; see Howard Fast, “On Leaving the Communist Party”, The Saturday review, 16 November 1957. [104] “Three Anti-Franco Women at West Virginia Prison”, Daily Worker, 20 June 1950. It was claimed that they were “America’s first three women political prisoners”. [105] Leon Edel, ‘“Premature Anti-Fascists’ Go to Jail Today”, New York Compass, 7 June 1950. [106] According to Professor Arad Riggs, who served as a legal counsel for New York University during Bradley’s dismissal, “I don’t want to talk too much about it, but I might say that I had a conversation with the United States District Attorney and I am told that when they had this group of eleven serving in the Washington jail, they were afraid they might take over the jail and decided to scatter them”. Transcript, “Hearing on Charges against Professor Lyman R. Bradley” [5 January 1951], 308, Records of the Lyman R. Bradley Academic Freedom Case 1947-1961, RG 19.2, Box 3, Folder 4, New York University Archives. [107] See Fast’s highly evocative account of their three months in jail in Being Red, 247-68. [108] According to his lawyer, they “suffered extreme hardship during the five months of his incarceration”. Abraham Fishbein to Committee on Licences of the Board of Regents of the University of the State of New York, 18 June 1954, 2, Barsky Papers, Box 4, Folder 8. During that five months he had to maintain his office and secretary to prevent his practice collapsing, imposing a further a financial burden on the family’s resources. Because of his regular and substantial donations to the Spanish Refugee Appeal (which operated under the JAFRC rubric), Barsky had no reservoir of savings on which to draw. [109] Anderman to Barsky, 23 June 1950; C.C. Nicholson (Warden, Petersburg Penitentiary) to Anderman, 3 July 1950. The original was then sent to Vita Barsky. Barsky Papers, Box 4, Folder 16. The same occurred with the letter to Barsky, 25 August 1950, from Dave and Ester Greene, whose “outrage at your forced confinement hasn’t abated a single bit”. [110] Barsky Papers, Box 4, Folder 16. [111] JAFRC, Campaign Bulletin, [no. 12], 1 December 1950, 2, Barsky Papers, Box 1, Folder 16. [112] Circular, “New Officers of the Joint Anti-Fascist Refugee Committee” [nd], Barsky Papers, Box 1, Folder 32. The new chairman was another physician, Dr Mark Strauss. Bryan was also replaced; the new executive secretary was Milton Kaufman. [113] New Masses, 19 August 1947. [114] Ibid. [115] Maxwell Frank to Board of Regents, State of New York, 27 November 1950, Barsky Papers, Box 5, Folder 1. [116] Barsky Papers, Box 4, Folder 12. [117] Petitioner’s Brief to New York State Department of Education, Committee on Grievances, February 1951, Barsky Papers, Box 4, Folder 2. [118] New York State Department of Education, Committee on Grievances. Minutes of Formal Hearing, 15 February 1951, 463, Barsky Papers, Box 4, Folder 1. [119] Joint Anti-Fascist Refugee Committee v. McGrath, 341 U.S. 123 (1951); Goldstein, American Blacklist, 158- 161. [120] New York State Department of Education, Committee on Grievances. Minutes of Formal Hearing, 15 February 1951, 457, Barsky Papers, Box 4, Folder 1. [121] New York State Department of Education, Report of the Regents’ Committee on Discipline, 31 July 1951, 28, Barsky Papers, Box 4, Folder 3. Its detailed report was later praised by the Supreme Court (majority opinion) for its “high degree of unbiased objectivity”. Barsky v. Board of Regents, 347 U.S. 442 (1954), 455. [122] Re Barsky, 305 N.Y. 89, 111 N.E. 2d. [123] Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483 (1954). [124] Barsky v. Board of Regents, 347 U.S. 442 (1954), 69–Dissent (A), 4. Without such dissenting opinions, there may been a little truth in I.F. Stone’s comment that “the Cold War hysteria has now completely enveloped the judiciary”. Daily Compass, 30 May 1950, 3. [125] New Masses, 19 August 1947, 7. [126] Correspondence, Angela Barksy Mortarotti, to writer, 18 March 2009. [127] Barsky to Committee on Licences, Board of Regents, 12 June 1954, Barsky Papers, Box 4, Folder 9. Barsky did not write alone. Also appealing for clemency on his behalf were 621 New York physicians who petitioned the Board to mitigate its disciplinary action. Letter, 14 June 1954, signatories to Board of Regents, Barsky Papers Box 4, Folder 8. [128] Charles A. Brind, to Barsky, 21 June 1954, Barsky Papers, Box 4, Folder 10. [129] On 11 February 1955, he was “qualified” by the Surgeons’ Qualifying Board of New York County Medical Society. [130] This phrase was used to describe the jailing of Helen Bryan but is also applicable here. Campaign Bulletin, no. 10, 2 November 1950, Barsky Papers, Box 1, Folder 16. [131] “Many of my patients are of moderate to poor circumstances…” Barsky to Angela Parisi, Chairman, Workers’ Compensation Board, 28 August 1955, Barsky Papers, Box 5, Folder 1. [132] Barsky to Parisi, 28 April 1955, Barsky Papers, Box 5, Folder 1. [133] This was the case with Dr Jacob Auslander, one of the JAFRC eleven jailed in 1950. [134] Barsky to Chester L. Davidson, Medical Practice Committee, 31 May 1955, Barsky Papers, Box 5, Folder 1. [135] Catherine C. Hafele, Executive Secretary, Medical Registration Office, to Barsky, 22 July 1955, Barsky Papers, Box 5, Folder 1. [136] Barsky to Medical Appeals Unit, 16 August 1955; Barsky to Parisi, 24 August 1955; Haven Emerson (“Provisional Committee”) to Parisi [nd], Barsky Papers, Box 5, Folder 1. [137] New York Times, 16 February 1955. See also undated [fall, 1954?] correspondence to “Friends” of the JAFRC from Mark Strauss (chairman), Ralph H. Gundlach (chairman, Citizens to Defend JAFRC), and Karen Morley (on behalf of the treasurer, Citizens to Defend JAFRC), Barsky Papers, Box 1, Folder 19. [138] Correspondence, J.T. Bissell, Colonel, General Staff, Military Intelligence Service, Washington, to J. Edgar Hoover, 16 March 1943. The fact that Kusman was a close friend of Gerhart Eisler, whom we have already met, intensified suspicion. [139] Correspondence, 14 April 1944, No. 5918/R. [140] Personal and Confidential Memorandum to Director, “Joint Anti-Fascist Refugee Committee - use of technical equipment on surveillance of Felix Kusman in Seattle Field Division”, 26 February 1945. [141] Schrecker, Many Are the Crimes, 226-7. In its anti-communist zeal, the FBI engaged in various forms of law- breaking, including burglaries. [142] Kusman’s keys were sent by courier to the FBI’s New York office; if they were his office keys they were possibly used for further illegal activity. [143] He managed this through his contacts in the National Maritime Union, The FBI learnt of his six-week absence in Lisbon through its bugging of Louise Bransten’s San Francisco home: “Louise: No! Felix. FELIX! I didn’t know you were out of the country Felix! KUSMAN: Nobody knew.” SAC NJL Pieper to Hoover, 17 February 1945, with Attachment, “Conversation between Felix Kusman and Louise Bransten at Latter’s Home - February 11, 1945” [Emphasis in original transcript]. [144] Confidential Security Information, Warren Olney III (Assistant Attorney General, Criminal Division) to Director, FBI, 6 July 1953, (file100-7061). Kusman had been interviewed by the FBI on three previous occasions under the Toplev Program. It was noted that “[u]ndoubtedly Kusman could furnish information of interest to the U.S. Government if he would cooperate”. No details of the final interview, on 10 July 1953, were located, but in a memo to Hoover concerning another matter, dated 12 October 1953, it was noted that Kusman had “declined to cooperate”. Not contained in the FBI-JAFRC files but in the FBI-Kusman file (FOIPA 0975848) in ALBA #178, Box 1, Folder 3, is 36-page Report on Kusman, dated 1 February 1954. It throws no further light on this issue. [145] For revealing portraits of both, see John E. Haynes, Red Scare or Red Menace? American Communism and Anticommunism in the Cold War Era (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 1996), 180-3. [146] Ruth Davidow subsequently featured in the 1983 documentary film The Good Fight: The Abraham Lincoln Brigade in the Spanish Civil War. [147] FBI Report, Cleveland (file 100-11805), 16 February 1953, “Joint Anti-Fascist Refugee Committee: Internal Security Act, 1950”, Section V: Appendix-Witnesses, 10. Evidence of overlapping membership was the main subject of a detailed 23-page file, “Interrelationship of CPA and JAFRC” compiled by the San Francisco Bureau (file 100- 10486). What an historian might think dubious, the FBI judged damning: “the CPA [Communist Party of America] has often helped the JAFRC by distributing much of the JAFRC literature through the medium of their various clubs.” (5) [148] FBI Report, Los Angeles (file 100-3514), 2 June 1953, “Joint Anti-Fascist Refugee Committee - Prosecutive Summary Report”, 9. [149] See, for example, FBI Report, San Francisco (100-10486), 30 October 1953, “Section IV: General Activities”, 4- 11. [150] See, for example, memoranda dated 11 May, 26 May, 4 June 1953 (file 100-7061). [151] I am indebted to Angela Barksy Mortarotti for the following information (correspondence, 18 March 2009). [152] See John Dittmer, The Good Doctors: The Medical Committee for Human Rights and the Struggle for Social Justice in Health Care (London: Bloomsbury, 2009). 
work_6usyt4f6c5cmfa6tctfemo6bwy	----	Microsoft Word - Cover_Art_Style_Final_4.docx Art Style | Art & Culture International Magazine ______ ______ 27 Montage and Assemblage: an Aesthetic Shock Dominique Berthet Abstract The notions of montage and assemblage applied to the field of art can appropriately be applied to collage. At the beginning of the twentieth century, cubism, Italian and Russian futurism, dadaism, and surrealism, each with distinct aesthetic objectives, practiced collage; this was in order, for example, to deconstruct object and space or for political and ideological purposes, with the aim of impacting social reality. The practice of collage 'exploded' the classical aesthetic based on mimesis. In an unpredictable diversity of practices, collage allows for the creation of gaps, giving access to a multitude of possibilities and opening on unsuspected artistic horizons. Collages, montages, and assemblages have been so widely represented in the artistic practices of the twentieth century that they appear inseparable from artistic modernity. However, these practices are not limited to Western art - they can also be observed in other cultures, with different objectives. As contemporary art can be seen as an extension and deepening of modern art and as its realization1, the practices of the twentieth century were prolonged into, and developed at, the beginning of the twenty-first century, even as other concepts were introduced and new practices emerged. Christ Dominique Berthet, “Montage and Assemblage: an Aesthetic Shock,” Art Style, Art & Culture International Magazine, no. 4 (December 12, 2019): 27-38, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4161741 Art Style | Art & Culture International Magazine ______ ______ 28 Montage and Cinema Excerpts from Glumov's Diary is Eisenstein's first film, 1923. Screenshot by Christiane Wagner. Creative Commons Attribution license (reuse allowed). Montage (editing), in general, is associated with cinema. Anne Souriau indicates that in cinema, montage is, “a material operation [allowing one] to adjust together strips made separately, to form the final band [...]. Montage is essential to the cinematographic aesthetic, since it is this that regulates the sequences, the effects determined by the passage from one scene to another, the rhythms, and the correspondences between image and sound.”2 Montage is, therefore, the organizing of different shots to form sequences. Dominique Chateau, in 'Contribution à l'histoire du concept de montage' (Contribution to the History of the Concept of Montage)3 tried to show how montage (editing) has transitioned from concept to concept; in the writings of young Soviet filmmakers, who themselves produced a theory of cinema, montage (editing) becomes one of the essential concepts of film theory. The book reminds us that it is Lev Kuleshov to whom we owe, from around 1917, revival of the French word montage; this he appropriates and transforms into a concept (the concept of film montage), that is to say, that it loads of rich theoretical content. The montage praised by Chateau is related to cinema both in technique and concept. It is defined by Kuleshov in 1918, in his article 'The art of photography,' as the thing that characterizes cinema4. In 1917, Kuleshov presented montage in the following way: "The essence of cinematographic art [...] rests entirely on the composition. To make a film, the director must combine different filmed, unordered, and unrelated fragments into a whole and juxtapose the different moments in the most advantageous, the most coherent and the best rhythmic order [...]"5. Montage thus comes from the collage, according to a certain order, of filmed fragments. The sequence of these fragments contributes to producing Art Style | Art & Culture International Magazine ______ ______ 29 an artistic impression. What is interesting to observe is that behind this reflection on montage and assemblage of fragments, there is a political approach, a militant slogan. For Kuleshov, the function of cinema was to “break through the gaps."6 There is in montage court (short editing) a search for narrative efficiency. With montage, everything becomes possible. Dominique Chateau (2019) explains that by the method of montage, we can create a semblance of heterogeneous elements of reality; the efficiency of this mode of composing is the fact that the spectator "sees what the montage suggests."7 Montage is thus strategic. Fragments are not elements derived from a kind of database, but must be created from the perspective of their assemblage. This is equivalent to saying: "the filming of fragments anticipates the whole [...]."8 Cinema is not reality but produces the illusion of reality. It creates a simulation of reality. Effective montage gives the impression that what in reality is feasible and achievable is improbable and impracticable: “What characterizes cinema is not the restitution of reality, but its production,"9 states Dominique Chateau (2019). The montage, as presented by Kuleshov, makes it possible to assemble “parallel and simultaneous actions"10 and to interweave them, to create what exists nowhere else. In the words of Dominique Chateau, Kuleshov, through montage, is a “creator of the world".11 It should be noted that the contradictory debates between Kuleshov, Pudovkin, Vertov, and Eisenstein on the subject of montage must be seen in the context in which they were born - that is, the Soviet Union of 1917-1940. Montage assumes the selection of fragments, their combination (approximation), and the construction of a set. It makes it possible to join what is disjointed, to build a whole from disparate fragments. Thus, it supposes the discontinuity of elements and aims at an internal continuity. Montage reduces gaps and produces rhythms. It breaks with the mere recording of raw reality. Excerpts from Glumov's Diary is Eisenstein's first film, 1923. Screenshot by Christiane Wagner. Creative Commons Attribution license (reuse allowed). Art Style | Art & Culture International Magazine ______ ______ 30 Excerpts from Glumov's Diary is Eisenstein's first film, 1923. Screenshot by Christiane Wagner. Creative Commons Attribution license (reuse allowed). Dziga Vertov, an author of a documentary, and an experimental, militant form of cinema sees the camera as a "cine-eye”(Kino-Eye) - more sophisticated than the human eye, that requires emancipation from the habit of servile reproduction: "Now we release the camera and run it in the opposite direction, away from the copy,"12 he writes. It is for him to create a "new perception of the world. This is why I am deciphering, in a new way, a world that is unknown to you."13 For Vertov, cinema was an instrument of knowledge. After his report and documentary, he embarked on creating a poetic form of cinema, moving from the idea of randomness through a montage of film pieces into control of the image sequence, developing a theory of intervals in an analogy with music. The intervals are presented as "passages from one movement to another" that "lead to action as kinetic outcome;"14 in addition to movement, the intervals are also concerned with time and space, as well as "all kinds of visual parameters."15 Dominique Chateau indicates that the notion of the interval "is at the same time gap, correlation, and transition, that is to say, work on images which, based on their fragmentation, seeks to establish between them semantic-visual links inscribed in the overall dynamics of the work."16 In what Vertov calls the "battle of montage," this is about playing on the gap between two images to create a link between them.17 For him, it is the binding of fragments. Montage is an addition, an aggregation of fragments in response to particular modalities and objectives. The various theoretical differences between Soviet filmmakers all indicate the aim of reception, on the part of the spectator, of a particular purpose and Art Style | Art & Culture International Magazine ______ ______ 31 effectiveness in the goal. Eisenstein, speaking of the "montage of attractions,"18 declared: "You must not create a work; you must mount it with ready-made pieces, like a machine. Montage is a beautiful word: it means putting together pieces that are there ready"19. However, this montage of pieces must be made according to a certain method and a certain objective, according to the filmmakers. Thus, we find ourselves at the heart of the debate on the form- content relationship. Montage, in general, is the active appropriation of fragments, in combinations producing dynamic oppositions, stimulating contrasts, and fertile disjunctions. Sometimes unexpected links are created between heterogeneous elements that were not intended to meet. Contacts are formed, and new relationships occur. Montage makes it possible to organize chaos, to invent new relationships, to shape "augmented realities" - to increase. From a technical point of view, the linking of two or more elements, either of the same nature or alien to each other, produces effects not present in the original items. Eisenstein said of montage that it is an "idea born of the clash between two independent fragments."20 In this space of shocks and tensions, filmmakers can create anachronistic links. Montage allows approximations, joinings, connections. This process opens on a multiplicity of possibilities and an infinity of results. Excerpts from Vertov's Three Songs of Lenin (1934). Screenshot by Christiane Wagner. Public domain. Art Style | Art & Culture International Magazine ______ ______ 32 Excerpt from Vertov's Three Songs of Lenin (1934). Screenshot by Christiane Wagner. Public domain. Art Style | Art & Culture International Magazine ______ ______ 33 Montage: an aesthetic and political challenge If montage is in general associated with cinema, it naturally concerns other fields such as painting, collage, photomontage, installation, happenings, theater, dance, poetry, literature, music, and so on. In the past, the question of montage has given rise to quarrels between authors in the Marxist sphere, such as Georg Lukács, Bertolt Brecht, Walter Benjamin, Ernst Bloch, Theodor W. Adorno, and Herbert Marcuse. In the twentieth century, Jean-Marc Lachaud, in ‘Collages, montages, assemblages’21, analyzed these divergent conceptions. Lukács, for example, considers montage as 'foreign' fragments, "torn from their context,"22 assembled together. In his opinion, it is a technical subterfuge inadequate to the task of showing objective reality.” Avant-garde works are, in his eyes, incapable of representing real social relations. His taste for tradition and deep sense of the futility of the artistic avant-garde show his inability to grasp the importance and value of new technology in undermining the foundations of capitalist society. He even considers these novelties as an expression of literary and artistic decadence. While Lukács condemns innovative works as being antirealist, Brecht, in contrast, defends innovative practices because they "favor the transformations of the social function of art that the triumphant revolution will concretize,"23 writes Jean- Marc Lachaud. Brecht's position on realism is radically different from that of Lukács. The dramaturge thinks that realism must be "cleaned up before use, as old notions, many of which have already been used and abused for too many and diverse purposes."24 Brecht favored a theatrical novelty, and new form, considering the installation a challenge to the idea of a harmonious and closed form. The old forms are no longer of interest because they are no longer effective. We must innovate and experiment with new forms. Adorno, in 'Aesthetic Theory', and especially in the pages concerning "the crisis of the senses," also deals with the issue of montage. First, it is worth recalling an advanced idea at the beginning of the book, that "If art is opposed to empirical reality by the time of the art form - and the mediation of form and content cannot be understood without their distinction - this mediation must be [...] sought in the fact that the aesthetic form is sedimented content."25 This idea is fundamental, notably in being opposed to other Marxist positions, in which the form must be at the service of the idea, the (revolutionary) content. Here, in contrast, the process of formatting asserts itself as an opposition to established reality, and Art Style | Art & Culture International Magazine ______ ______ 34 art, by its very existence, is critical vis-à-vis existing reality, manifesting itself as a resistance to, and negation of, this reality. It is the manifestation of freedom. Adorno saw in less realistic works (less realistic socialist works), or those less accessible and less explicit, the mark of the most effective critical power. Its enigmatic aspect makes the work irreducible to a closed interpretation; as such, it resists what tries to define it, or to recover it for ideologically integration. Modernist works show the "signs of dislocation." "Works of art that negate meaning are also necessarily dislocated in their unity," writes Adorno. On the function of montage, he goes on: "… just as it disavows unity by the apparent disparity of the parties, [it] contributes as a formal principle to its restoration."26 Montage is thereby both the disavowal of the unit and the reconstruction of it. Thus, Adorno saw the artist of modernity grappling with a kind of oscillation, between a desire to put in crisis unity and sense, while working for their reconstruction. For the author, even that which stands against the cohesion of meaning nevertheless produces meaning.27 Adorno distinguished "authentic art, which takes care of the crisis of meaning," and the art of "resignation," in which the negation of meaning "adapts to contingencies."28 The author goes on to say: "the principle of montage, as an action directed against organic unity obtained surreptitiously, was based on shock."29 When the shock dulls or disappears, the interest of the montage is neutralized. Adorno thinks of the work of art as a process, as a phenomenon in the making, "essentially concerning the parties at all."30 For him, a work of art is neither "stable" nor "definitive" but "in motion." The parties are not; they are neither inert or dynamic. They are "centers of forces tending to totality."31 Montage, Modernity, Assemblage Anne Souriau defines montage as: “the action of assemblage, or the way in which are assembled, to form a whole, parts first made up separately. [...] In general, and in all fields, a montage is an aesthetic fact, since one is an editor of an overall form and influences the aspects that the different parts adopt to each other's elements."32 Montage, therefore, consists of putting together heterogeneous elements of various origins, to obtain a particular result, employing adapted techniques. Art Style | Art & Culture International Magazine ______ ______ 35 Moreover, as already discussed, montage is based on the shock of fragments, themselves linked to artistic modernity, which is the manifestation. Adorno stated that, "according to its microstructure, all new art should be called montage"33 insofar as it uses the montage process, Jean-Paul Olive writes: "any modern work can only be conceived if in response to the shock phenomena characteristic of the modern era. To the exploded experience of modernity [...], to this experience of flying, corresponds an art that breaks, and can no longer - and no doubt no longer wants to - resolve to a unified appearance."34 Assemblage, for its part, supposes a non-homogeneity of the work, an interruption of the spatial continuity. It involves the juxtaposition, the superposition, the simultaneity of various structures and materials. It also affirms a break with the illusionist conception of art. It disrupts traditional artistic codes, ignores conventions, and produces displacements, disturbances, the unpredictable, the unexpected, the strange. It is in total rupture with the partitioning intrinsic to classical aesthetics. It is a work of construction that passes through choices and which refers to the intention of the artist who relates heterogeneous elements. It is about creating relationships and encounters, producing echoes, shocks, tensions. The artwork is constructed as and when dialogue is established between the fragments. Through assemblage, the artist explores areas of coexistence and encounter, organizing the heteroclite, arranging the varied, bringing together fragments to produce connections. In short, it is part of a poetics of encounter and relationship. The artist is thus reshaping the boundaries of art by creating new geographies. In these fortuitous, unexpected encounters, in these outbursts of unexpectedness, in these impulses that invent a whole, the gaps are reduced and ever new universes arise. Assemblage allows for displacements, permanent changes, combinations ever fruitful for the artist and unpredictable for the spectator. The assemblage of the various gives a place to open works, which also belong to an aesthetic of meeting. Through montage and assemblage, art breaks with the obligation to represent, to represent reality. In 'Still Life with Chair Caning' (1912), Pablo Picasso revealed that the artist no longer represents the real. However, artists present art through a collage of oilcloth pieces in painting compositions and a piece of rope forming a kind of frame. The cubist collages, Dadaist and Surrealist photomontages, assemblies (combined paintings) of Rauschenberg, Tinguely, and many others, offer diversions, deviations. These gaps and ruptures open up new horizons to new possibilities, new realities. Art Style | Art & Culture International Magazine ______ ______ 36 The Fragment It is naturally impossible to speak of montage and assemblage without evoking the mounted and assembled elements that are the fragments. Montage and assemblage use various fragments, pieces of the world, of reality, that the artist then combines, associates, and organizes to evoke surprise, astonishment, the unknown. The purpose of these processes is to bring out the unusual, the unexpected. These combined fragments are, in the eyes of the defenders of classical aesthetics, a symbol of impurity, regrettable intrusion, discrepancy, and dislocation; they are therefore the antithesis of harmony, unity, coherence, and everything they defend. The assembly of fragments is thus the mark of refusal and emancipation vis-à-vis representation, déjà-vu, of the established order. The fragment appeals to a particular thought - that of the diverse, the exploded, of discontinuity, loss, tension. It announces the irruption of the unexpected, of uncertainty, of instability. It is a rebellion against totality, harmony, unity. The fragment is the result of dislocation, bursting, fracture, tearing, breaking, cutting. It symbolizes violence. It is a break with continuity, the disappearance of everything, the defection of coherence and annihilation of a whole. The separation of the fragment leads to the destruction of the totality. It is indicative of a crisis of unity. The fragment also suggests the absence - what is missing. It is what is missing that gives rise to the sense of no more unity; hence the feeling of incompleteness. It refers to incompleteness, but the fragment is fundamentally ambiguous. In its incompleteness, it can be self-sufficient and establish itself as a homogeneous whole. This is how the German Romantics of the School of Jena envisioned seeing the fragment as a totality. As Alain Brunn says, the fragment “is both unfinished completeness and finished incompleteness."35 The fragment is not inert or frozen. In work, articulated with other fragments, it imposes itself by its dynamism. It is also the germ of work to come. It has its energy detached. It throbs with internal dynamism. Besides, fragments interact together in their implementation and create a dynamic in their relationship with other elements. In the space of the work, the fragments are put in tension, create echoes, friction, articulations, dialogues. The gathering and organization of fragments that pass through the work of montage and assemblage allow for constitution of a new whole. The fragment no longer appears as a reminder of a lost unit, as the debris of the world, as a residue of the real, but as part of a new whole. The association of heterogeneous fragments contributes to the development of a homogeneous whole. Fragments appear as moments before possible encounters. In the context Art Style | Art & Culture International Magazine ______ ______ 37 of the work, they are at once lonely and in solidarity. Assembled, they have a strength, a form, producing meaning. Brutal connections, tensions, telescoping between fragments, surprise the viewer. These assemblages can confuse, disturb, disrupt, destabilize. The assemblage produces transgressions. Montage and assemblage are at the origin of an art form which reveals other realities, ferments of possible. Jean-Marc Lachaud brings together these practices of collagists, “montagists,” and “assemblagists” under the term “aesthetics of non- coherence”, having “to do with a concrete utopia, thus with the prospect of emancipation (individual and collective)." 36 This aesthetics of non-coherence, which is also an aesthetic of the encounter, is part of what Adorno called a “frightening process” of the arts. In July 1966, he began his speech at the Berlin Academy of Arts with the following words: “In the most recent evolution, the boundaries between artistic genres flow into each other, or more precisely: their lines of demarcation are frightening."37 The process that Adorno was already observing in cubists was seen to develop throughout the twentieth century. In the twenty-first century, contemporary art has been characterized by a limitless hybridization of artistic practices, with extra- artistic domains as varied and unusual as genetics, robotics, and computer science, offering works that question, sometimes fascinate or discourage, but do not leave indifferent. Author Biography Dominique Berthet is a University Professor, he teaches aesthetics and art criticism at the University of the French Antilles (UA). Founder and head of CEREAP (Center for Studies and Research in Aesthetic and Plastic Arts). Founder and director of the magazine Recherches en Esthétique (Research in Aesthetics). Member of CRILLASH (Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Literature, Languages, Arts, and Humanities, EA 4095). Associate Researcher at ACTE Institute (Université Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne). Art critic, member of AICA-France (International Association of Art Critics). Exhibition curator. His research focuses on contemporary and comparative aesthetics, contemporary art, Caribbean art, and Surrealism. He has directed more than 50 volumes, published more than 110 articles and ten books among which: Hélénon, “Lieux de peinture” (Monograph), (preface Édouard Glissant), HC Éditions, 2006; André Breton, l’éloge de la rencontre. Antilles, Amérique, Océanie, HC Éditions, 2008; Ernest Breleur (Monograph), HC Éditions, 2008; Pour une critique d’art engagée, L’Harmattan, 2013. Art Style | Art & Culture International Magazine ______ ______ 38 Notes 1. Catherine Millet in French: “L’art […] est devenu contemporain quand il a commencé, d’une certaine façon à réaliser le projet moderne au sens où l’entendait Baudelaire” and “J’ai suggéré d’entrée que l’art contemporain était une réalisation de la modernité. Plus exactement, il réalise le programme de la modernité”, in “L’art contemporain. Histoire et géographie” (Paris, Flammarion, coll. “Champs arts” 2006), 32 and 159. 2. Anne Souriau (dir.), in Étienne Souriau, “Vocabulaire d’esthétique” (Paris, PUF, coll. Quadrige, 1999), 1025. 3. Dominique Chateau, Contribution à l’histoire du concept de montage. Kouléchov, Poudovkine, Vertov et Eisenstein (Paris, L’Harmattan, coll. Champs visuels, 2019). 4. In French: “Le mot “montage” a été utilisé ici depuis les premiers jours de l’existence du cinéma russe. On ne sait pas qui l’a prononcé le premier – évidemment un des opérateurs français qui vinrent en Russie. Mais c’est moi qui ai défini le “montage” comme une propriété spécifique du cinéma dans mes articles et dans le livre L’Art du cinema”, interview by Lev Kuleshov with “Film Culture au printemps 1967, in Chateau, Contribution à l’histoire du concept de montage, 29. 5. Kuleshov, in French: “L’essence de l’art cinématographique […] repose entièrement sur la composition. Pour faire un film, le réalisateur doit combiner différents fragments filmés, non ordonnés et non reliés en un tout, et juxtaposer les différents moments dans l’ordre le plus avantageux, le plus cohérent et le mieux rythmé […]”, in Chateau, Contribution à l’histoire du concept de montage, 30. 6. Kuleshov, in French: “percer une brèche dans les esprits”, in Chateau, Contribution à l’histoire du concept de montage, 41. 7. Chateau, Contribution à l’histoire du concept de montage, 53. 8. Chateau, Contribution à l’histoire du concept de montage, 55. 9. Chateau, Contribution à l’histoire du concept de montage, 72. 10. Kuleshov in Chateau, Contribution à l’histoire du concept de montage, 42. 11. Chateau, Contribution à l’histoire du concept de montage,22. 12. Dziga Vertov in Chateau, Contribution à l’histoire du concept de montage, 83. 13. Chateau, Contribution à l’histoire du concept de montage, 84. 14. Vertov in Chateau, Contribution à l’histoire du concept de montage, 94. 15. Vertov in Chateau, Contribution à l’histoire du concept de montage, 95. 16. Chateau, Contribution à l’histoire du concept de montage, 97. 17. In French “L’intervalle, c’est l’utilisation de l’écart sur le plan du référent entre deux images pour constituer un lien sémantico-visuel entre elles sur la base d’un ou de plusieurs paramètres visuels et en vue de participer à la dynamique du discours qu’ils actualisent ponctuellement”, Chateau, Contribution à l’histoire du concept de montage, 113-114. 18. Sergueï Mikhaïlovitch Eisenstein in Chateau, Contribution à l’histoire du concept de montage, 118. 19. Eisenstein in Aumont, “Montage Eisenstein” (Paris, Images modernes, 2005), 211. 20. Jacques Aumont and Alain Bergala, Esthétique du film (Paris, Nathan, coll. Arts Université, 1990), 60. 21. Jean-Marc Lachaud, Collages, montages, assemblages au XXe siècle, vol. 1 L’art du choc ; vol. 2 Le fragment à l’œuvre (Paris, L’Harmattan, 2018). 22. Lukács in Lachaud, “Collages, montages, assemblages”, vol. 2, 250. 23. Lachaud, “Collages, montages, assemblages”, vol. 2, 258. 24. Bertolt Brecht, “Popularité et réalisme.” In Écrits sur la littérature et l’art 2, trans. A. Gisselbrecht (Paris, L’Arche, 1970), 116. 25. Theodor W. Adorno, Théorie esthétique, trans. Marc Jimenez (Paris, Klincksieck, 1974), 14. 26. Adorno, Théorie esthétique, 207. 27. In French: “[…] il est impossible de penser une œuvre d’art qui, tout en intégrant en soi l’hétérogène et en se tournant contre la cohésion propre de son sens, ne produise pas malgré tout du sens.” Theodor W. Adorno, L’art et les arts, trans. Jean Lauxerois (Paris, Desclée de Brouwer, coll. Arts et esthétique, 2002), 71. 28. Adorno, Théorie esthétique, 206. 29. Adorno, Théorie esthétique, 208. 30. Adorno, Théorie esthétique, 237. 31. Adorno, Théorie esthétique, 237. 32. Anne Souriau, “Vocabulaire d’esthétique”, 1025. 33. Adorno, Théorie esthétique, 208. 34. Jean-Paul Olive, “Fragments épars, fragments dynamiques”, in Amey and Olive (dir.), “Fragment, montage-démontage, collage-décollage, la défection de l’œuvre ?”, coll. Arts 8 (Paris, L’Harmattan, 2004), 11. 35. Alain Brunn, “Fragment”, “Dictionnaire des notions” (Paris, Encyclopædia Universalis, 2005), 500. 36. Lachaud, Collages, montages, assemblages, vol. 2, 339. 37. Adorno, L’art et les arts, 43. 
work_6xj45dxwavcbjj3xxyyi2vkmny	----	Extensão rural e desenvolvimento com sustentabilidade cultural: o Ponto de Cultura no Sertão Pernambucano (Brasil) Rural extension and development with cultural sustentability: the point of the culture on the arid and remote interior of Pernambuco (Brazil) L’extension rurale et le développement avec la sustentabilité culturelle: le point de culture dans le désert de Pernambuco (Brésil) Extensión rural y desarrollo con sostenimiento cultural: el Punto de Cultura en Sertão Pernambucano (Brasil) Camila Loureiro* Angelo Brás F. Callou** Recebido em 20/12/2006; revisado e aprovado em 29/3/2007; aceito em 20/7/2007 Resumo: Analisa-se no presente artigo as contribuições do Projeto Estação da Cultura: o Ponto de Cultura no Sertão Pernambucano, selecionado pelo Programa Cultura Viva, do Governo Federal para o desenvolvimento local de Arcoverde, em Pernambuco. Especificamente, pretende-se observar as possibilidades de “sustentabilidade cultural”, a partir da implantação da Estação da Cultura nesta cidade. Neste trabalho, ressalta-se a importância de centralizar a sustentabilidade cultural como premissa para o desenvolvimento local, vislumbrando nas pessoas dessas comunidades como principais atores nesse processo. Palavras-chave: extensão rural; desenvolvimento local; sustentabilidade cultural. Abstract:. In this essay we analise the contributions of the “Projeto Estação da Cultura : o Ponto de Cultura no Sertão Pernambucano”, selected by “Programa Cultura Viva”, from Federal Government for the local development of Arcoverde, in Pernambuco. Specifically, we intend to observe the possibilities of “Cultural supports”, starting from the Estação Cultura implementation at the city. In this work, it is spotted the importance of to centralize the “cultural supports” as basis for the local development, looking to the people of these towns as the stars of these process. Key words: rural extention; local development; cultural support. Résumé: Cet article analyse les contribuitions du Projet de la Station de la Culture dans le désert du Pernambuco, sélectionné par le Programme Cultura Viva (Culture Vive) , du Governement Fédéral pour le développement local de Arcoverde, à Pernambuco. Notamment, on espére étudier les possibilités de sustentabilité culturelle, à partir de l’implantation de la Station de la Culture dans cette ville. On accentue l’importance de centraliser la sustentabilité culturelle comme prémisse pour le développement local. Alors, les habitants de ces communautés sont primordiaux dans ce procès. Mots-clés: extension rurale; développement local; sustentabilité culturelle. Resumen: Se analiza en el presente artículo las contribuciones del Proyecto Estación de la Cultura: el Punto de Cultura en Sertão Pernambucano, seleccionado por el Programa Cultura Viva, del Gobierno Federal para el desarrollo local de Arcoverde, en Pernambuco. Específicamente, se pretende observar las posibilidades de “sostenimiento cultural”, a partir de la implantación de la Estación de Cultura en esta ciudad. En este trabajo, sobresale la importancia de centralizar el sostenimiento cultural como premisa para el desarrollo local, vislumbrando en las personas de esas comunidades como principales actores en ese proceso. Palabras clave : extensión rural; desarrollo local; sostenimiento cultural. INTERAÇÕES Revista Internacional de Desenvolvimento Local. Vol. 8, N. 2, p. 213-221, Set. 2007. * Mestre em Extensão Rural e Desenvolvimento Local pela Universidade Federal Rural de Pernambuco, amiaaa@hotmail.com. ** Professor Titular da Universidade Federal Rural de Pernambuco, peixes@elogica.com.br. Introdução A temática da comunicação e cultura e do desenvolvimento local nos estudos de Extensão Rural surge a partir dos anos 90. Expande-se, assim, com o advento dos pro- cessos de globalização, da degradação am- biental, dos avanços tecnológicos emergen- tes, dos estudos de recepção latino-america- nos (desenvolvidos a partir do cultural studies ingleses) e das novas concepções sobre o ru- ral brasileiro (CALLOU, 2002). Esse assun- to é abordado pela primeira vez no artigo Desafios da Comunicação Rural em Tempo de Desenvolvimento Local, em 1995 (CALLOU; TAUK SANTOS, 1995). A partir daí, as an- tigas abordagens de Extensão Rural, que os- cilavam entre o paradigma funcionalista modernizador e as teorias de participação paulofreirianas, “não servem mais para ex- plicar o velho objeto” (TAUK SANTOS, 2000, p. 299). Contemporaneizar a Exten- INTERAÇÕES Revista Internacional de Desenvolvimento Local. Vol. 8, N. 2, Set. 2007. Camila Loureiro; Angelo Brás F. Callou214 são Rural significa, para Tauk Santos (2000), enfocar o desenvolvimento local numa ten- tativa de promover mudanças em prol das culturas populares. Os estudos culturais latino-americanos da comunicação, sobretudo, pela via dos es- tudos de recepção, propostos por Jesús Martín-Barbero e Néstor García Canclini, trouxeram novos aspectos teóricos para ins- trumentalizar a Extensão Rural na sua rela- ção com o desenvolvimento local (CALLOU, 2004). Isso ocorre particularmente a partir da tese de doutoramento de Tauk Santos (1994) sobre a participação de pequenos pro- dutores no Programa de Desenvolvimento Rural do Serviço de Tecnologias Alternativas (SERTA). Se, até então, os estudos de recep- ção, ainda que escassos, estavam voltados majoritariamente para a recepção de produ- tos midiáticos, a partir de agora, abriam-se também para revelar e reconhecer as apro- priações e ressignificações que as culturas po- pulares, na sua singularidade e criativida- de, fazem das propostas de desenvolvimen- to de organizações governamentais e não- governamentais (TAUK SANTOS, 2000). As culturas populares, compreendidas a partir dos estudos de recepção de Martín- Barbero, não são conceituadas por sua au- tenticidade ou beleza, “mas sim por sua re- presentatividade sociocultural, sua capaci- dade de materializar e expressar o modo de viver e pensar das classes subalternas [...]” (MARTÍN-BARBERO, 1997, p.105). Este en- tendimento assume na pesquisa de Extensão Rural em sua relação com o desenvolvimen- to local, um foco relevante de interesse neste trabalho. Isso porque a dimensão cultural é considerada, por alguns autores, dentro de um complexo multidimensional do desenvol- vimento local, isto é, econômico, social, am- biental e político. Jara (1998), por exemplo, traduz essa multidimensionalidade em vá- rias preocupações com: o presente e o futu- ro; a produção e o consumo de bens e servi- ços; a necessidade básica de subsistência; os recursos naturais e o equilíbrio ecossistêmico; as práticas decisórias e a distribuirão de po- der. Ao tratar da dimensão cultural no de- senvolvimento, o autor ressalta que se “deve combinar os interesses com os valores cultu- rais e as decisões com crenças para ativar os processos de inovação” (JARA, 2002, p. 109). Por sua vez, a noção de sustentabili- dade cultural na área do desenvolvimento aparece de modo explícito e chamativo no último parágrafo do livro de Benjamin (2004), Folkcomunicação na Sociedade Contem- porânea. Apesar de esta concepção ser ain- da pouco explorada nos estudos de desen- volvimento local, salta-se aos olhos como um aspecto significativo no campo da Extensão Rural. O Programa Cultura Viva do Governo Federal, no incentivo e apoio ao Projeto Es- tação da Cultura: o Ponto de Cultura no Sertão Pernambucano torna-se campo-chave de aná- lise, por reconhecer “a centralidade da di- mensão cultural no impulso do desenvolvi- mento sustentável” (BRASIL, 2004, p. 10), ao auxiliar na formação de jovens agentes culturais, em Arcoverde e nas suas comuni- dades circunvizinhas. Nesse sentido, para a Estação da Cul- tura (2004, p. 4), “Arcoverde é um ponto de encontro”, por ser passagem para as comu- nidades indígenas e remanescentes a quilom- bolas, estando estrategicamente situada no centro do estado de Pernambuco. Contudo, o poder executivo arcoverdense apóia-se na idéia que essa cidade é de forasteiros, sendo esquecidos os negros e índios, primeiros habi- tantes dessas localidades, bem como, das co- munidades periféricas e rurais. Por isso, o próprio projeto almeja ser o Ponto de Cultura no Sertão pernambucano, numa tentativa de “preservar o patrimônio histórico, ambiental e cultural dessa região” (ASSOCIAÇÃO, 2004, p.4). O esforço analítico desse trabalho al- meja produzir conhecimento sobre a impor- tância da cultura no desenvolvimento local pretendido pela Extensão Rural contempo- rânea. Isto é, uma proposta de desenvolvi- mento em bases extensionistas com susten- tabilidade cultural. Tem-se, portanto, uma preocupação em construir uma base meto- dológica, com o objetivo de analisar as pos- sibilidades de sustentabilidade cultural do projeto da Estação da Cultura, vislumbran- do nesses agentes culturais como propulso- res/extensionistas do desenvolvimento local para Arcoverde. Em Pernambuco, foram indicados 26 Pontos de Cultura pelo Programa Cultura Viva. Assim, tem-se como objeto de estudo o Projeto Estação da Cultura: o Ponto de Cultura 215Extensão rural e desenvolvimento com sustentabilidade cultural: o Ponto de Cultura no Sertão Pernambucano (Brasil) INTERAÇÕES Revista Internacional de Desenvolvimento Local. Vol. 8, N. 2, Set. 2007. no Sertão Pernambucano, em Arcoverde, ini- cialmente, por ser o primeiro convênio do Ponto de Cultura, assinado no Brasil. No de- correr da pesquisa, outras qualificações da Associação Estação da Cultura foram deter- minantes: priorizar a idéia de formar agen- tes culturais, em parceria com a rede escolar, e atuar em comunidades rurais, indígenas e remanescestes de quilombolas; preservar seu espaço físico (um dos poucos locais de Arco- verde com arquitetura conservada, tomba- da como patrimônio histórico e cultural do estado), e, por fim, agir ativamente no cená- rio social e político arcoverdense, evidencia- do na ocupação da Estação da Cultura, para defender os bens materiais e simbólicos de sua região (ASSOCIAÇÃO, 2004). Tal afirmação é demonstrada, quan- do um grupo de atores de teatro decidiu ocu- par o prédio da antiga estação ferroviária, em 17 de novembro de 2001, com a inten- ção de garantir um espaço físico para pro- dução de arte e cultura. Estes atores ainda almejavam preservar seu patrimônio histó- rico, antes “abandonado e deteriorado”. Mas pretendiam, sobretudo, formar lideranças sociopolíticas no Sertão pernambucano: os agentes culturais. Assim, numa atmosfera de conflito e resistência, fundou-se a Associa- ção Estação da Cultura, por meio da união de forças de artistas e pesquisadores, para contrapor as práticas assistencialistas do poder político arcoverdense (ASSOCIA- ÇÃO, 2004). A partir da análise do projeto da Esta- ção da Cultura, optou-se por um estudo de caso, além da escolha de instrumentos espe- cíficos para coleta de dados. Para isso, são utilizadas as seguintes técnicas: a) levanta- mento bibliográfico; b) análise documental do projeto original Estação da Cultura: o Pon- to de Cultura no Sertão Pernambucano, apro- vado pelo Ministério da Cultura; c) realiza- ção de roteiros de entrevistas semi-estrutu- radas, com os agentes culturais articulado- res das oficinas artísticas e com os dois mem- bros da Comissão Executiva da Estação da Cultura; e d) observação não participante. 1 Desenvolvimento local e sustentabili- dade cultural: uma aproximação teórica Dentre as concepções sobre desenvol- vimento local que contemplam a noção de sustentabilidade, a mais difundida refere-se ao não esgotamento dos recursos naturais que poderão ser necessários a gerações atuais e vindouras. Nesse sentido, o conceito de sustentabilidade relaciona-se com a idéia de preservação e de conservação de recursos naturais limitados e não renováveis, ou seja, aqueles gastos sem uma devida racionaliza- ção e podendo escassear numa perspectiva futura. No entanto, pensa-se como Franco (1998), que tal concepção torna-se reducio- nista, por restringir a noção de sustentabili- dade apenas à questão ambiental e ecológica. A partir desse ponto de vista, o autor afirma que uma organização de um sistema é sustentável, conforme demonstrado na definição do problema de pesquisa, quando se mantém ao longo do tempo, por ter ad- quirido algumas “características que lhe con- ferem capacidades autocriativas” (FRAN- CO, 1998, p.22). Ele ainda afirma que não se pode confundir sustentabilidade com du- rabilidade. Ressalta que um processo inde- pendentemente de ser “econômico, social, cultural, político, institucional ou físico-ter- ritorial é sustentável quando se mantém pro- longadamente no tempo”. Segundo Franco (1998, p. 22) “se um sistema é sustentável, então ele é durável, porque é capaz de se auto-organizar, de se reproduzir, enfim, de autocriar condições para sua continuidade”. Numa discussão sobre ecodesenvolvi- mento, Sachs (1992) também compreende que a noção de sustentabilidade não se limita ape- nas à problemática ecológica e ambiental. Tan- to que subdivide a idéia de sustentabilidade em cinco dimensões: social, econômica, políti- ca, espacial e cultural. Para o autor, a susten- tabilidade cultural deve ser analisada no pla- nejamento do desenvolvimento sustentá- vel, por representar um novo paradigma da sustentabilidade. Assegura que seus referen- ciais metodológicos possibilitam à sociedade acompanhar o ritmo da capacidade dos re- cursos naturais, com a finalidade de atingir a harmonia entre seres humanos e a natureza. Para isso, constata que a operacionalização da sustentabilidade cultural deve nortear-se na: INTERAÇÕES Revista Internacional de Desenvolvimento Local. Vol. 8, N. 2, Set. 2007. Camila Loureiro; Angelo Brás F. Callou216 Busca de raízes endógenas dos modelos de modernização e dos sistemas rurais integra- dos de produção, privilegiando processos de mudança no seio da continuidade cultu- ral e traduzindo o conceito normativo de eco- desenvolvimento em pluralidade de solu- ções particulares, que respeitem as espe- cificidades de cada ecossistema, de cada cultura, de cada local. (SACHS, 1992, p. 8) Nesse sentido, o autor parece conside- rar fundamental, tanto a dimensão cultural no desenvolvimento local sustentável (ao caracterizá-la pela valorização das diferen- ças, valores e saberes locais de cada popula- ção), quanto a ecológica, no seu aspecto ime- diato e/ou futuro. Ao definir desenvolvimen- to sustentável, Costabeber e Caporal (2006), pesquisadores em agroecologia, igualmente classificam em dimensões sociais, culturais e econômicas de uma sociedade, em sinto- nia com o meio ambiente e com os valores éticos e políticos. A sustentabilidade, para esses autores, deve ser estudada como uma busca incessante de pontos de equilíbrio numa perspectiva multidimensional de uma pirâmide constituída pelas seguintes bases: ecológica, econômica, social (primeiro nível); cultural, política (segundo nível) e ética (ter- ceiro nível). Na ênfase à dimensão cultural, são consideradas as atitudes respeitosas para com a cultura local (os valores, os conheci- mentos, os saberes), e ressaltam que esta di- mensão deve ser analisada como ponto de partida nos projetos de desenvolvimento. Apesar da importância da dimensão cultural no desenvolvimento local sustentá- vel, Martinell (2003) diz haver uma carên- cia de pesquisa evidencie a importância e a valorização da dimensão cultural, tanto dos aspectos quantitativos, quanto dos qualita- tivos. Segundo ele, existe uma dificuldade em atribuir um valor ao retorno das políticas culturais, ou seja, “calcular a rentabilidade social da cultura”, enfatizando a necessida- de de aferir os benefícios intangíveis das po- líticas culturais (MARTINELL, 2003, p.97). Deve ser nesse sentido que Canclini (2003, p.37) chama atenção para a necessidade de promover o capital cultural de nossas socie- dades, embora diga que “não se trata de acreditar que vamos nos salvar pela cultu- ra. Mas, talvez, nos ocupando das questões culturais consigamos demonstrar que nem tudo depende das dívidas”. Enfatiza-se, ainda, a importância da sustentabilidade cultural, pois na agenda po- lítica da maioria dos países, a ação cultural assume o caráter de medida marginal e su- plementar, com investimentos precários. Se- gundo ainda Martinell (2003), a valorização da cultura no setor público é imprescindível para consolidação da democracia, conse- qüentemente, promoção do desenvolvimen- to local. Para o autor, os neoliberais costu- mam defender que o Estado não deve intervir na cultura, atribuindo-lhe falta de competên- cia. Ainda assegura a necessidade da inter- cessão do poder executivo, afirmando que ao “deixar a cultura nas mãos do mercado 60% ou 70% das formas expressivas desa- pareceriam” (MARTINELL, 2003, p. 95). No entanto, Benjamin (2004, p. 139) observa que os próprios órgãos do governo apropriam-se das celebrações tradicionais, sob o patrocínio de grandes empresas, trans- formando os eventos em espetáculos de mas- sa, definindo como uma “espetacularização da cultura”. Do mesmo modo, tal concep- ção exploradora é denominada por Canclini (1983) de “tecnocratismo desenvolvimentis- ta”. O autor explica que a cultura popular é emoldurada aos hábitos estéticos e recreati- vos do turismo, transformando-a em verda- deiros espetáculos de massas ou em bailes modernos. Afirma que a burguesia comer- cial insiste em conservar essas festas para ex- pandir seu capital. E, por fim, proporcionar ao homem do campo uma fonte complemen- tar e aos turistas, atrações exóticas. Dentro desse contexto, Ayala e Ayala (1995) defendem que uma manifestação cul- tural passa a ser institucional, quando seus produtores são dependentes de patrocínios de uma identidade pública ou privada. Para eles, há uma necessidade de os produtores culturais possuírem poder de decisão, tanto nos componentes estéticos do evento (na dança: coreografia, instrumentária, músicas, versos, falas), quanto nas formas de atua- ção dos produtores diretos (quem participa, exercendo quais funções). E isso deve ocor- rer, não só na apresentação central, mas tam- bém, em todas as manifestações adjacentes. Concordamos com Sousa Santos (2002, p. 49) que, no domínio cultural, os neolibe- rais são muito seletivos, pois “os fenômenos culturais só lhe interessam na medida em 217Extensão rural e desenvolvimento com sustentabilidade cultural: o Ponto de Cultura no Sertão Pernambucano (Brasil) INTERAÇÕES Revista Internacional de Desenvolvimento Local. Vol. 8, N. 2, Set. 2007. que se tornam mercadorias que como tal devem seguir os trilhos da globalização eco- nômica”. Para o autor, a resistência mais eficaz contra a globalização hegemônica é a “localização”, que reside na promoção das economias locais e comunitárias, diversifica- das e auto-sustentáveis e ligadas a forças transnacionais, mas independentes delas. Ainda assegura que, numa cultura cada vez mais desterritorializada, a resposta contra os seus malefícios, seria a descoberta do senti- do de lugar e de comunidade. Desse modo, mencionamos Sousa San- tos (2002) por pronunciar a idéia de “globali- zação contra-hegemônica” na construção de um multiculturalismo emancipatório, basea- da no reconhecimento entre identidades e culturas distintas, conforme ele ressalta: Este reconhecimento pode resultar em múl- tiplas formas de partilha – tais como, identi- dades duais, identidades híbridas, interidentidades e transidentidades –mas todas elas devem orientar-se pela seguinte pauta transidentitária e transcultural: temos o direito de sermos iguais quando a diferen- ça nos inferioriza e ser diferentes quando a igualdade nos descaracteriza. (SOUSA SANTOS, 2002 p. 72) Pensa-se, portanto, que as manifesta- ções culturais não devem estar subordinadas aos ditames de uma elite hegemônica, para evitar justamente uma possível “espetacula- rização da cultura” ou um desenvolvimento meramente tecnocrático. Nesse sentido, atri- bui-se a idéia de sustentabilidade como uma questão que faz parte da multidimensionali- dade no desenvolvimento local, distante, portanto, do reducionismo econômico no de- senvolvimento, bem como, ecológico e am- biental na sustentabilidade. Assim sendo, acredita-se que a sustentabilidade cultural assume um grau de importância na valori- zação da tradição, dos conhecimentos e dos saberes de uma localidade, mas enfatizan- do a preocupação com o respeito à diversi- dade e ao pluralismo cultural, em prol das gerações presentes e futuras. Dentro dessas preocupações, o Projeto da Estação da Cultura: o Ponto de Cultura no Sertão Pernambucano, selecionado pelo Pro- grama Cultura Viva do Governo Federal, re- vela-se fecundo, pois parece assimilar o sen- tido de sustentabilidade cultural, ao deslo- car a cultura de uma posição subalterna para estratégica no desenvolvimento, a partir do seu entendimento como usina de símbolos, direito/cidadania e economia. E ainda apre- senta-se como “um programa flexível que não será o que o governante pensa ser o cer- to ou o adequado, mas o que o cidadão con- segue tocar adiante”(BRASIL, 2004, p.9). Como também, acolhe a idéia de desenvol- vimento sustentável, quando considera que as interações entre o global e o local devem respeitar as ações desenvolvidas em cada Ponto de Cultura. De modo que ganhem musculatura e estrutura óssea, conquistan- do sua sustentabilidade e emancipação. O Programa Cultura Viva definiu esse modo de pactuar com a sociedade como “Gestão Compartilhada e Transformadora e envolve os conceitos de empoderamento, autonomia e protagonismo” (BRASIL, 2004, p.20). O Programa enfatiza, assim, a neces- sidade da ausência de hierarquia na relação entre o Estado e a sociedade civil, conside- rando-se como uma proposta de construção de uma nova política pública para cultura. 2 O Ponto de Cultura no Sertão Pernam- bucano: desenvolvimento com sustenta- bilidade cultural No seu primeiro edital, publicado no Diário Oficial da União em 16 de julho de 2004, o Ministério da Cultura do Governo Federal, através do Programa Cultura Viva, selecionou 262 projetos e instalações, já exis- tentes no Brasil urbano e rural, para estabe- lecer seus Pontos de Cultura, com a inten- ção de ajudar a impulsionar as atividades desses movimentos socioculturais. Para isso, o programa sugeriu algumas idéias, através de cinco ações: Cultura Digital, Agente Cul- tura Viva, Escola Viva e Griôs, para que os Pontos de Cultura pudessem moldar, ade- quar ou transfigurar de acordo com sua rea- lidade, disponibilizando ainda equipamen- tos e recursos (BRASIL, 2004). No referido projeto, o Ponto de Cultu- ra é o espaço físico da Associação Estação da Cultura, localizada na antiga Estação Ferroviária (RFSA), em Arcoverde. Cada Ponto de Cultura recebeu um total de R$ 183.493,95, subdivididos em cinco parcelas. Nesse local, de acordo com os idealizadores do programa Cultura Viva, se deu a articu- INTERAÇÕES Revista Internacional de Desenvolvimento Local. Vol. 8, N. 2, Set. 2007. Camila Loureiro; Angelo Brás F. Callou218 lação entre o Estado e o Ponto da Estação da Cultura (BRASIL, 2004). Na justificativa do Projeto Estação da Cultura: o Ponto de Cul- tura no Sertão Pernambucano, essa associação define-se “como uma esfera pública que mantém uma relação indissolúvel com as questões de poder e de democracia”. Isto se evidencia no seu objetivo geral, aprovado pelo Ministério da Cultura, que é “formar o corpo de agentes culturais aptos para com- por a coordenação do Ponto de Cultura e influenciar na proposição das políticas pú- blicas para cultura no Sertão pernambuca- no” (ASSOCIAÇÃO, 2004). Na Associação Estação da Cultura, há aproximadamente 120 agentes culturais em processo de qualificação nos Núcleos: Comu- nicação, Artes Plásticas, Música, Dança/ Capoeira, Teatro, Educação e Pesquisa. Des- se total, apenas 33 agentes culturais foram escolhidos para receberem as bolsas da ação “Agente Cultura Viva” do Programa Cultu- ra Viva. O critério de seleção desses jovens deu-se pela idade, entre 16 e 24 anos, e pelo tempo de vínculo com a Estação da Cultu- ra. Tais agentes culturais distribuem-se em 12, no Núcleo de Música, na Rua 18; conhe- cida como alameda do lixão, periferia de Arcoverde, na Casa da Música; um em Dan- ça/ Capoeira; nove em Teatro, com traba- lhos com o Povo indígena Xukuru; quatro em Artes Plásticas, com oficinas na sede da Estação; e sete em Educação e Pesquisa, atu- ando nos sítios rurais Açudinho e Olho D’água (ASSOCIAÇÃO, 2004). O Núcleo de Teatro, antes denominado de Artes Cênicas, desenvolve experiências pedagógicas no processo de formação dos agentes culturais, trabalhando com crianças e jovens das comunidades vizinhas da Esta- ção da Cultura, como também, com oficinas com o Povo Xukuru e com Comunidade do Osso, áreas circunvizinhas a Arcoverde. Isto se trata de uma tentativa de estimular a sen- sibilidade das artes teatrais nesses atores so- ciais. Seus fundadores ainda consideram o teatro como o pai e mãe da Estação da Cul- tura (ASSOCIAÇÃO, 2004). No Núcleo de Teatro, encontram-se os trabalhos de maior proeminência da Estação da Cultura, como a oficina Agente Construindo, para qualifica- ção profissional de atores, tendo oito agen- tes culturais em processo de formação, en- t r e 1 5 a 24 anos. Há também o grupo Troupernas de Pau e Teatro, oficina perma- nente de equilíbrio e mobilidade em pernas- de-pau para montagem da peça “Quadrilha: um romance sertanejo”, de Romualdo Freitas. Outro espetáculo em destaque é “Carmem De La Zone”, de Sérgio Vieira Cardoso. A partir do desmembramento do nú- cleo de Artes Cênicas, também surgiu o Nú- cleo de Dança, com 11 agentes culturais (de 16 a 24 anos). Seus principais objetivos são fomentar a dança popular em Arcoverde; qualificar bailarinos através da prática e te- oria; resgatar a forma autêntica da dança popular da comunidade (Cavalo Marinho, Caboclinhos de Aldeia e os Cocos do Ser- tão). Essa formação é feita a partir de diver- sas leituras: Carlos da Fonte, Antonio Nóbrega, Ariano Suassuna, Carlos Milton Junior, como também do conhecimento po- pular dos mais velhos e ainda de textos ex- traídos da internet. Tal pesquisa resultou na apresentação da coreografia do Bumba meu Boi do Maranhão. Por sua vez, o Núcleo de Dança seg- menta-se na oficina de Capoeira, com 19 agentes culturais, entre 9 e 23 anos. Os lo- cais das oficinas de capoeira são, além da Estação da Cultura, na aldeia do Povo Xukuru, em Pesqueira, e na Escola Nunes Ferraz, em Arcoverde. Segundo Aldemir (22 anos), articulador da oficina de capoeira, suas pesquisas são fundamentadas “em tex- tos da internet, mas realizamos também en- trevistas com capoeiristas de Arcoverde e Juazeiro”. Para ele os principais objetivos desta oficina são: Repassar as técnicas de capoeira para os agentes culturais, com a intenção de que eles multipliquem esse conhecimento para sua comunidade; desmistificar a idéia precon- ceituosa sobre o conceito de capoeira; for- mar o agente cultural para vida, através do diálogo e da amizade. Esse depoimento revela um compro- metimento do agente cultural em preservar a fluidez e a agilidade da capoeira, como uma tradição cultural. Observa-se que, através dessas oficinas, pesquisas e entrevistas sobre a capoeira, esses agentes culturais multipli- cadores, além de proporcionarem a auto-esti- ma coletiva, poderão possibilitar a continui- dade, ou seja, a sustentabilidade cultural de 219Extensão rural e desenvolvimento com sustentabilidade cultural: o Ponto de Cultura no Sertão Pernambucano (Brasil) INTERAÇÕES Revista Internacional de Desenvolvimento Local. Vol. 8, N. 2, Set. 2007. uma dança popular que, durante muito tem- po, esteve à margem da sociedade. Com ênfase na musicalidade arcover- dense, o Núcleo de Música, com 11 agentes culturais de 8 a 22 anos, atuando na Casa da Música da Rua 18, periferia de Arco- verde. Esse conhecimento é aproveitado para confecção de instrumentos musicais, como: zabumbas, alfaias, surdos, pífanos e caixas, para serem comercializados. Para Renata (20 anos) e Aldemir (22 anos), articuladores dessas oficinas, o Núcleo de Música tem como objetivos cruciais: Pesquisar os ritmos locais de Arcoverde; combinar o ritmo erudito com o popular, buscando uma musicalidade original; res- gatar a música local, buscando uma visibili- dade para sociedade; gerar renda, através da confecção de instrumentos musicais de percussão; integrar música e educação, atra- vés de oficinas. No Núcleo de Música, notamos uma preocupação dos agentes culturais em mes- clar os ritmos populares arcoverdenses com a música erudita, numa tentativa de recriar uma musicalidade própria. Na formação desses agentes culturais, parece haver a as- similação da idéia de promoção, preserva- ção e recriação de sua cultura musical, en- quanto expressão de uma representação sim- bólica, além de ressaltar o aspecto econômi- co, através da comercialização dos instru- mentos musicais. O Núcleo de Artes Plásticas tem como proposta, através de oficinas, a adequação das técnicas das artes plásticas para o públi- co infantil, tendo 16 agentes culturais, entre 10 e 19 anos. O articulador dessas oficinas artísticas, Claudiney Mendes (19 anos), diz que sua finalidade era “constituir um grupo que atuasse e se identificasse com o sentimen- to da Estação da Cultura”. Para isso, almeja “aprimorar o dom artístico de cada agente cultural, descobrindo suas qualidades indi- viduais, para enriquecer com as técnicas das artes plásticas”. E ainda pretende “revelar para os agentes culturais o mundo das artes plásticas, para depois apresentar o produto final dessas oficinas para a comunidade”. Dentre as exposições já exibidas para socie- dade arcoverdense, ele menciona que: Em 2005, realizamos as exposições Caras e Cores (17 quadros com imagens da Estação da Cultura), Cubando e Expressando o Sertão (10 quadros retratando o Sertão nordestino, através das técnicas de Picasso do cubismo e expressionismo), e mais 10 quadros com temas livres, sugerido pelos próprios agen- tes culturais... Em 2006, criamos 20 másca- ras de carnaval, nos inspirado num estudo da origem carnavalesca até aos dias atuais. No mesmo ano, no período das festas de São João, os agentes culturais realizaram uma pesquisa teórica de temas juninos univer- sais. Decidimos, então, retratar algo de acor- do com a realidade local deles, criando 20 esculturas de personagens do espetáculo Quadrilha: um Romance Sertanejo, uma tradi- ção da Estação da Cultura e de Arcoverde. A partir desse depoimento, nota-se no Núcleo de Artes Plásticas uma preocupação em potencializar as energias sociais, dando vazão à identificação dos agentes culturais com a própria comunidade arcoverdense. Acredita-se que a exploração da pesquisa da linguagem artística na sua expressão lúdi- ca, além de desenvolver um modo diferencia- do de aprendizado, também pode criar um espaço para reflexão crítica sobre a realida- de em que o jovem está inserido. Numa tentativa de discutir a democra- tização dos meios de comunicação predomi- nantes na região, fundou-se o Núcleo de Co- municação na Estação da Cultura. Suas arti- culadoras, Emanuelle (17 anos) e Jéssica (16 anos), ressaltam que esse Núcleo tem como objetivos: “informar o público interno da Estação da Cultura, por meio da comunica- ção interna (mural, panfletos, e-mails e boca a boca)... Atingir o máximo de ouvintes, atra- vés dos seus veículos de comunicação”. Para isso, o Núcleo de Comunicação desenvolve um programa de rádio semanal sobre a Es- tação da Cultura, aos sábados de 13 às 14h, na Rádio Aliança, em Arcoverde, em que foram abordados temas como: Movimento Calango (movimento cultural que ocorreu na década de 80 e 90), no seu primeiro programa no dia 06 de maio de 2006; Povo Negro (13/05); Movimento indigenis- ta, especialmente sobre a morte do Cacique Xicão do Povo Xukuru (20/05); Educação, enfatizando Paulo Freire (27/05); Direito e Segurança (03/06); Universo Feminino (20/ 06); Teatro Popular (17/06); Terra: uma ques- tão fundiária (01/07); Rock (08/07); Sexua- lidade (15/07); e Religiões (22/07). Um outro veículo do Núcleo de Comu- nicação é o jornal mensal Coeviacá. Esta INTERAÇÕES Revista Internacional de Desenvolvimento Local. Vol. 8, N. 2, Set. 2007. Camila Loureiro; Angelo Brás F. Callou220 expressão é oriunda de uma colagem de vá- rios contos indígenas dos povos do alto Xingu: a Lenda do Píui, cuja história conta a façanha de um índio guerreiro encantado que periodicamente visitava as aldeias atean- do fogo nas suas cabanas, com a intenção de reunir as pessoas para sua reconstrução (ASSOCIAÇÃO, 2004). No início da publi- cação do Coeviacá (já com 8 edições, tendo Teresa Padilha como a jornalista responsá- vel pela sua edição), segundo Emanuelle e Jéssica, os temas desse jornal eram muito centrados nas ideologias e atividades da Es- tação da Cultura. Assim, elas notaram que esses conteúdos estavam “muitos fechados na Estação”. Desde então, decidiram abran- ger as matérias para temas de interesse da comunidade, especialmente, nas áreas de artes, cultura e política da região. Segundo Raphaela, articuladora das oficinas artísticas, o Núcleo de Educação e Pesquisa “surgiu após o diagnóstico que no processo de qualificação do agente cultural, há uma necessidade, além da prática, um embasamento teórico, como complementa- ção dessa formação”. Desde a ocupação da Estação, as ações em todos os núcleos sem- pre foram precedidas pela pesquisa, “tanto que para iniciar uma oficina de arte a pes- soa precisa se conhecer, por este motivo a primeira ação de um agente cultural é fazer sua história de vida”. A importância desse núcleo se revela, na medida em que ele per- passa por todos os núcleos da Estação da Cultura, conforme ela explica: Em Teatro existe hoje, Encontros Teóricos que acontecem uma vez por mês, onde os atores e atrizes fazem leituras de textos e debatem sobre o que foi pesquisado individualmente dentro de cada temática.... No Núcleo de Artes Plásticas, antes de iniciar qualquer módulo faz-se primeiramente um estudo, por exemplo, antes de aprender as técnicas cubistas, os agentes procuram saber o que é o cubismo, como surgiu e quem foi Pablo Picasso, e assim por diante... Em Dança tam- bém não é diferente, como se trabalha prin- cipalmente com dança popular é preciso não só aprender os passos, mas saber suas ori- gens... Os capoeiristas estão sempre procu- rando saber mais, já realizaram pesquisas sobre a história da capoeira além de diver- sas entrevistas com mestres, instrutores e adeptos desse jogo... A Comunicação é es- sencialmente educação e pesquisa; desde a relação entre comunicador/a educador/a até a constante busca por novas informa- ções.. O programa de rádio e o jornal exigem a prática cotidiana da pesquisa... Esse longo depoimento dá sinais evi- dentes de que o Núcleo de Educação e Pes- quisa é eixo motriz das diversas atividades artísticas, aspecto observado, ao longo da apresentação dos Núcleos da Estação da Cultura. Tal núcleo, ainda, é responsável pela manutenção da Biblioteca Paulo Freire, localizada na Estação da Cultura, aberta à comunidade de toda a região. Outra ação deste núcleo é o trabalho dos agentes cultu- rais na Casa da Memória da Vó Chiquinha: eles realizam oficinas de arte e leitura para crianças e desenvolvem pesquisas sobre plan- tas medicinais, banda de pífano local, bem como, estudos sobre a história da vó Chiquinha e dos objetos desse museu popu- lar. Pensa-se, portanto, que o Projeto Estação da Cultura: o Ponto de Cultura no Sertão Per- nambucano, enquanto projeto de intervenção no âmbito da Extensão Rural, pode contri- buir para o desenvolvimento com sustentabi- lidade cultural de Arcoverde. Ao acreditar que as atividades culturais e linguagens ar- tísticas levadas a cabo nessa intervenção, além de exercer um papel fundamental na reintegração social e na reflexão crítica, tam- bém são capazes de recuperar a auto-esti- ma e o sentimento de pertencimento comu- nitário dos habitantes dessas comunidades. Considerações finais Compreende-se, nas questões aqui apresentadas, a importância de centralizar a sustentabilidade cultural no campo da Extensão Rural para o desenvolvimento lo- cal. Nesse contexto, compreendemos que a sustentabilidade cultural é uma questão ine- rente ao complexo multidimensional no de- senvolvimento local. Por isso, a idéia do reducionismo econômico, nas teorias desen- volvimentista, bem como ecológico e ambi- ental, nas concepções sobre sustentabilidade, tornam-se incipientes. Nesse contexto, a no- ção de sustentabilidade cultural assume um grau de importância na valorização da tra- dição, dos conhecimentos e dos saberes de uma localidade, ressaltando a preocupação com respeito à diversidade e ao pluralismo 221Extensão rural e desenvolvimento com sustentabilidade cultural: o Ponto de Cultura no Sertão Pernambucano (Brasil) INTERAÇÕES Revista Internacional de Desenvolvimento Local. Vol. 8, N. 2, Set. 2007. cultural, em benefício das gerações presen- tes e vindouras. O Programa Cultura Viva, através do financiamento do projeto Ponto de Cultura no Sertão Pernambucano, reconheceu as ações da Estação da Cultura, possibilitando, assim, a continuidade na formação dos agentes culturais, em comunidades circundantes à Arcoverde: periféricas, rurais e indígenas. Nessa perspectiva, considera-se a Estação da Cultura, em Arcoverde, como o Ponto am- plificador das concepções e ações do projeto da Estação da Cultura, pois sua atuação se expande territorialmente para áreas rurais, como o povoado indígena Xukuru, a comu- nidade do Osso, em Pesqueira, bem como, os sítios Açudinho e Olhos D´água, em Arcoverde. De um modo geral, acredita-se que os investimentos do Governo Federal contribu- íram para o incremento do Ponto de Cultura da Estação da Cultura. Pois, não se restringiu, apenas, na formação dos agentes culturais, das oficinas Artes Plásticas, Teatro, Dança, Música, Educação e Pesquisa e Comunica- ção, mas, também, essas oficinas resultaram em produtos para os diversos Núcleos da Estação da Cultura. Pensa-se, portanto, que o grande desa- fio do Projeto Estação da Cultura foi designar escassos recursos financeiros e, sobretudo, humanos, para atender a uma extensa área: Arcoverde, o Povo Xukuru, Comunidade do Osso e os sítios Açudinho e Olhos D´água. Dos recursos humanos, apenas duas pesso- as adultas, ambas da Comissão Executiva da Estação da Cultura, são as responsáveis por coordenarem e acompanharem a qualifica- ção desses jovens agentes culturais. Essas reflexões ressaltam a necessidade de centralizar a sustentabilidade cultural, co- mo premissa para o desenvolvimento local. Todavia, mais do que aos agentes culturais importa às comunidades reconhecerem a re- levância da dimensão cultural e apropria- rem-se dessa noção, com o objetivo de se tor- narem protagonistas principais do seu pró- prio processo de desenvolvimento local. Este trabalho é apenas a ponta de um iceberg, não só a ser conhecido, mas também, lapidado, em busca da construção de um novo olhar sobre a relação entre Extensão Rural e o de- senvolvimento com sustentabilidade cultural. Referências ASSOCIAÇÃO Estação da Cultura. Projeto enviado ao MINC, Estação da Cultura: o Ponto de Cultura no Sertão Pernambucano. Arcoverde, 2004. AYALA, M.; AYALA, M.I.N. Cultura popular no Brasil. São Paulo: Ática, 1995. BENJAMIN, Roberto. Folkcomunicação na sociedade con- temporânea. Porto Alegre: Comissão Gaúcha do Folclo- re, 2004. BRASIL, Ministério da Cultura. Programa Nacional de Educação, Cultura e Cidadania – Cultura Viva. Brasília- DF, 2004. CALLOU, Angelo Brás Fernandes. Estratégias de co- municação em contextos populares: implicações con- temporâneas no desenvolvimento local sustentável. In: CIMADEVILLA, G. (Comp.). Comunicação, tecnologia e desenvolvimento: debates atuais. Rio Cuarto: Córdo- ba, 2004. CANCLINI, Néstor García. As culturas populares no ca- pitalismo. São Paulo: Brasiliense, 1983. ______. Reconstruir políticas de inclusão na América latina. In: COELHO, T. (org.). Políticas culturais para o desenvolvimento: uma base de dados para cultura. Brasí- lia: UNESCO Brasil, 2003. FRANCO, Augusto de. Porque precisamos de desenvolvi- mento local integrado e sustentável. 2.ed. Brasília-DF: Ins- tituto de Política ,1998. JARA, Carlos Julio. A sustentabilidade do desenvolvimen- to local. Brasília-DF: IICA: Recife: Seplan, 1998. ______. A dimensão intangível do desenvolvimento susten- tável. Brasília: IICA, 2001. MARTÍN-BARBERO, Jesús. Dos meios às mediações: co- municação, cultura e hegemonia. Rio de Janeiro: UFRJ, 1997. MARTINELL, Alfons. Cultura e cidade : uma aliança para o desenvolvimento. A experiência da Espanha. In: COELHO, T. (org.). Políticas culturais para o desenvol- vimento: uma base de dados para cultura. Brasília-DF: UNESCO Brasil, 2003. SACHS, Ignacy. Ecodesenvolvimento: ecologia e de- senvolvimento 1972 -1992. In: MAIMON, Dália (org.). Ecologia e desenvolvimento. Rio de Janeiro: APED, 1992. SANTOS, Boaventura de Sousa (org.). A globalização e as ciências sociais . São Paulo: Cortez, 2002. TAUK SANTOS, Maria Salett. Comunicação rural – velho objeto, nova abordagem, mediação, reconversão cultural, desenvolvimento local. In: LOPES, M.L.V. de; FRAU-MEIGS; TAUK SANTOS, M.S. (orgs.). Comunica- ção e informação: identidades sem fronteiras. São Paulo: Intercom; Recife: Bargaço, 2000. TAUK SANTOS, Maria Salett; CALLOU, Angelo Brás Fernandes. Desafios comunicação rural em tempo de desenvolvimento local . Revista Signo, João Pessoa, ano 2, n. 3, set. 1995. 
work_6zmwsbf2ofgqzj4o3nh3gp6vce	----	untitled Distributed aggregation of heterogeneous Web-based Fine Art Information: enabling multi-source accessibility and curation FRANCES BUCHANAN1, NICCOLO CAPANNI1 and HORACIO GONZÁLEZ-VÉLEZ2 1School of Computing, Robert Gordon University, St Andrew Street, Aberdeen AB25 1HG, UK; e-mail: fabuchanan@lumison.co.uk; n.capanni1@rgu.ac.uk; 2Cloud Competency Centre, National College of Ireland, Mayor Street-IFSC, Dublin 1, Ireland; e-mail: horacio@ncirl.ie Abstract The sources of information on the Web relating to Fine Art and in particular to Fine Artists are numerous, heterogeneous and distributed. Data relating to the biographies of an artist, images of their artworks, location of the artworks and exhibition reviews invariably reside in distinct and seemingly unrelated, or at least unlinked, sources. While communication and exchange exists, there is a great deal of independence between major repositories, such as museum, often owing to their ownership or heritage. This increases the individuality in the repository’s own processes and dissemination. It is currently necessary to browse through numerous different websites to obtain information about any one artist, and at this time there is little aggregation of Fine Art Information. This is in contrast to the domain of books and music, where the aggregation and re-grouping of information (usually by author or artist/band name) has become the norm. A Museum API (Application Programming Interface), how- ever, is a tool that can facilitate a similar information service for the domain of Fine Art, by allowing the retrieval and aggregation of Web-based Fine Art Information, whilst at the same time increasing public access to the content of a museum’s collection. In this paper, we present the case for a pragmatic solution to the problems of heterogeneity and distribution of Fine Art Data and this is the first step towards the comprehensive re-presentation of Fine Art Information in a more ‘artist-centric’ way, via accessible Web applications. This paper examines the domain of Fine Art Information on the Web, putting forward the case for more Web services such as generic Museum APIs, highlighting this via a prototype Web application known as the ArtBridge. The generic Museum API is the standardisation mechanism to enable interfacing with specific Museum APIs. 1 Introduction A huge proportion of the adult population in the world now has access to digital technology and the Internet. This access brings with it the power to not only consume information but also the ability to publish it. Individuals, referred to by Shirky (2010: 64) as the ‘people formerly known as the audience’, have gone from merely consuming information in front of a television to actively contributing, creating and sharing all forms of digital media content. The current population has grown up with the Web and is adapting to its changes. Each new generation grows up familiar with the Web as it is in their time so that the growing interactivity becomes second nature. The infrastructure that facilitates this is the World Wide Web, commonly designated ‘the Web’. Although this was initially a repository of interlinked hypertext documents written by a small proportion of the Web population, the majority of Web users had only passive access to browse or read. This has changed considerably, and in respect of this paper, in three important ways. The Knowledge Engineering Review, Vol. 30:2, 220–236. © Cambridge University Press, 2015 doi:10.1017/S0269888914000319 https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0269888914000319 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:40:57, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0269888914000319 https://www.cambridge.org/core First, hypertext has been enhanced with images, videos, multimedia applications and documents in various formats. Second, the introduction of Web applications has enabled information contribution on the same scale as information browsing; and third, Web services have opened up previously repository-centric data in a way that encourages others to analyse and augment that data. This change of approach to the Web is often referred to as ‘Web 2.0’ and in human terms is akin to a library being transformed into a community of authors (O’Reilly, 2007). A key component to the developing Web is users’ awareness of each other. Previously, a user browsing a Web resource would be unaware of any other users (see Figure 1). As participation increased so did awareness, through time filtered posting up to ‘instant’ communication, as shown in Figure 2. The tools of this new community range from the semi-individualist blogs, file hosting/sharing services ‘torrents’, through to highly interactive media sharing sites, multi-purpose Web applications, and the more com- munal wikis, mashups and social networks (see Figure 3). These tools create multiple sources of data, its associated meta-data as well as interpretations, contradiction and outright conflict in relation to the original materials. Crucial to permitting contribution is that anyone with access to the Internet is able to publish and distribute digital information for minimal effort and cost. Typically referred to as open data, the open source style contribution to Web data where access is (largely) without restrictions from licensing, patents or copyright has resulted in natural virtual groupings of individuals with the most diverse commonalities. Websites are taking on a more two-way conversa- tional and interactive role, facilitating the sharing of information, the establishment of communities of people with similar interests, and the creation of opportunities to comment and contribute. Such a culture of openness of information and data is spreading. There is a growing list of organisations that are opening up their previously repository-centric art-related data with a view to increasing transparency and dissemination, whilst encouraging others to analyse and add to that data. The list includes government agencies, the BBC, New York Times, The Guardian, and several universities, museums and archives. Of singular importance to this paper are the Web services providing Fine Art open data. The provision of programmable Web access to a museum’s archive of information is seen by these organisations as a new means of increasing the exposure of their collections whilst creating a digital dialogue with developers and the wider community. In the context of the present paper, it is seen as an opportunity to aggregate Fine Art Information in a more ‘artist-centric’, and therefore user-friendly, way. This paper seeks to examine the place of a Museum API (Application Program Interface) in the trend towards a more comprehensive aggregation of Fine Art Information. It begins, in Section 2, by taking a general look at the current state of Fine Art Information, highlighting the problems inherent therein, and describes the contributions of this project. It significantly extends our initial work (Buchanan et al., 2011) by reporting the introduction of the carefully designed user interface for ArtBridge as well as providing a holistic analysis of the application of large-scale Web-based systems to Fine Art. Section 3 discusses the method by which a solution can be provided, examining the issues limiting a centralised approach and favouring an open data approach. It then examines the transition from data to information via a review of a number of different Web applications that have been created using open data sources. In particular it highlights the way in which technology has improved the accessibility and quality of information currently available in the book and music domains. Examples from book and music domains can give valuable lessons in usability. Figure 1 Users are unaware of any other users Towards a generic Museum API 221 https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0269888914000319 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:40:57, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0269888914000319 https://www.cambridge.org/core Section 4 presents ArtBridge, a Web application built using open data obtained via a number of Museum APIs. In Section 5, the technical implementation of ArtBridge is given and the case is made for the further aggregation of Fine Art Information and therefore the need for the provision of more Museum APIs. Finally, Section 7 adduces the findings for our research to validate our data-centric hypothesis for the design of Web-based Fine Art repositories and APIs. 2 Background Provenance is well understood in Fine Art and curators have typically got a well-established set of processes to determine the origins of a given artwork. However, such processes are not necessarily transferable, particularly when it comes to determine the necessary ‘meta-data’ to define electronic cata- logues and collections in distinct museums. Crawlers and search engines rely on the integrity of the data they are retrieving. Some progress has been made on this with the introduction of trust-based applications such as the ‘Web of trust’ (Artz & Gil, 2007), which is a community-based tool that offers feedback from user reviews and rating to increase the confidence in good data sources and reject ones that are poorly managed or actively destructive. This Web relies on human activity, after all there are millions of participants. It is open to abuse but the community contribution acts as a self-correcting mechanism. An alternative approach is to introduce Artificial Intelligence in the form of machine learning to improve the relevance of the information retrieved (Snásel et al., 2009). The Web is continually growing in data content and old data is often amended, replaced or deleted. The result is that the semi-intelligent software agents, which feed the search engines, usually referred to as Web crawlers, have an increasingly difficult task in gathering new data and confirming the relevance of previously indexed data. In short the Web is growing and changing faster than the indexing systems can keep up. Web crawlers and related approaches are currently incapable of full information gathering on the Web (Baeza-Yates, 2003) and building efficient meta-search engines remains a colossal endeavour (Meng et al., 2002). Crawler technology is of course also improving but there are restrictions on them from the Web hosters’ point of view. Anti intrusion, to prevent illegal access to resources, and subscription only data mean that a portion of the Web will remain out of crawler reach for the foreseeable future (Henzinger, 2001). Figure 2 Users are semi-aware through time-filtered posting up to ‘instant’ communications Figure 3 Interactive users through communal wikis, mashups and social networks F . B U C H A N A N , N . C A P A N N I A N D H . G O N Z Á L E Z - V É L E Z222 https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0269888914000319 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:40:57, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0269888914000319 https://www.cambridge.org/core Hence, provenance-based retrieval of electronic data remains an open problem in computer science (Moreau et al., 2008). While semantic search tools (Uren et al., 2007) and ontology-based retrieval (Mayfield, 2002) have long been considered a suitable alternative, the indexing systems that currently dominate Web information retrieval are the generic search engines. These try to be all things to all surfers. Within the museographic domain, generic search engines are often used to implement an institute’s own search facilities. Although this allows specific tailoring of the indexing system, it has two drawbacks. First, the tailoring is customised to the specific institute, so inter-institute online cataloguing, curation and, in general, cooperation are tied to bilateral agreements. Second, the data indexed is restricted to the implementing institute so it does not allow the indexing of cross-institute data. The problem is akin to every museum independently building a catalogue system and API. The Dublin Core (Weibel, 1997) has long been considered a suitable alternative to homogenise meta- data and associated schemas to enable mapping of disparate cataloguing sources, without the requirement for a centralised data store. In theory, data can be widely dispersed across the Web in both location and format. Nevertheless, the result of the different mechanism for information retrieval is that specific rather than general APIs are being constructed for different organisations to index the same type of data. The BBC (Kobilarov et al., 2009), both curate data sets from external sources and allow access to their own content via an API. This data is now subject to the schema of the BBC API and this may result in incompatibility to indexing with other APIs that follow a different scheme to the BBC. A small number of specialised collaborative projects have specifically been funded that begin to demonstrate the possibilities for the aggregation of Fine Art Information. For example, the Google Art Project www.googleartproject.com is a website that brings together selected data from 17 different public galleries (Proskine, 2006). Each of those galleries has released high-resolution images of a selected group of artworks as a means to publicise both the content of their collections, and their physical gallery spaces (using the Google StreetView technology). It is not possible, however, to search this site by artist’s name—rather the main purpose of the site appears to be to provide highlights from each gallery’s col- lection. The information is gallery centric rather than artist centric, and indeed it includes only a small proportion of the artworks in each institution. Then there is Culture24 www.culture24.org.uk, a community aimed at supporting the cultural sector online. It aims to provide the ‘Latest news, exhibition reviews, links, event listings and education resources from thousands of UK museums, galleries, archives and libraries, all in one place’. Again this is not artist centric, this site’s data is more event related but it does provide a number of Web feeds that allow its data to be automatically included in other websites. The Europeana project goes a stage further in relation to aggregation of Fine Art Information (Haslhofer et al., 2010). Europeana was launched in 2008, with the aim of ‘making Europe’s cultural and scientific heritage accessible to the public’. The portal http://europeana.eu/portal gives access to different types of content from various cultural institutions throughout Europe, and is funded by the European Commission. The information presented via this portal is in fact artist centric in that it ‘makes it possible to bring together the works of a painter with, for example, relevant archival documents and books written about the artist’s life’. It is also greater in extent and coverage given the large number of institutions which have taken part by allowing the inclusion of their digital content. Each of these projects has been made possible as a result of the positive collaboration of the institutions, galleries and libraries involved. The information presented via each of these websites has been carefully selected and curated by the institutions that have ‘opted-in’ to the projects. With the exception of Culture24, it is not yet possible to programmatically retrieve the data available via each of these websites, for re-use. The data behind each of these websites is ‘open’ in the sense that the participating institutions have made it available for non-commercial use, but it is not freely available for programmatic consumption at large via an API or other form of Web service. This is in contrast to the domain of Books and Music where data is made available in machine readable formats, thereby lending itself to the creation of near-comprehensive Web catalogues of information. MusicBrainz.org, for example, is a site that acts as ‘a community music meta-database that attempts to create a comprehensive music information site’, and which provides data about music to many other Towards a generic Museum API 223 https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0269888914000319 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:40:57, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at www.googleartproject.com www.culture24.org.uk http://europeana.eu/portal https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0269888914000319 https://www.cambridge.org/core websites and applications. The data which is aggregated on this site is then utilised by companies such as The Guardian and last.fm for their own music-related Web pages, and is augmented with additional and related data. This level of online data aggregation ultimately provides the Internet user with accurate, informative and high-quality information about music and sets a standard of online information provision that has become the expected norm in this domain. A similar situation has arisen in relation to the domain of books, largely as a result of Amazon’s book API. It is now possible, on many different websites, to view the complete catalogue of works by a particular author, related book reviews and other relevant data. Sites such as Librarything.com provide a near-comprehensive information service by combining open data from Amazon as well as hundreds of public libraries. Users can browse online the extensive book catalogues and can search by author’s name, book genre, titles, subject-matter and even on the basis of ‘most popular’. It is clear that the online user experience in relation to browsing Fine Art Data cannot currently match that experienced within these two domains, given that the information remains largely distributed; and the reason for this is the very particular set of problems presented by the nine distinguishing features of Fine Art Information, as identified above. 2.1 Contribution The aims of this project are based on the portion of the Web which is constructed from hyperlinked pages of visual information, text and images. Given that the original Web was for text-based document sharing, this is a considerable amount. These pages are either viewed online via HTML or word processor-based presentations, or can be downloaded in many formats. The retrieval of this Web information retrieval relies on the viewer being able to find it, usually through hyperlinked indexing systems. The challenge presented to information retrieval systems is to produce a reduced set of data from a larger collection to satisfy a user’s information need. Some institutions have tackled this directly, as reported by Cahill (2009). This may result in excellent institute systems but it is unlikely to be a global or even portable solution. There is a need for an indexing model based on the content users and purpose. Various virtual museum approaches have been addressed and implemented. Some are highly specific and based on a single institute as considered in Hertzum (1998) or institute groups as examined by Schweibenz (1998). Both these lead to individual efficiency and give valuable insight to the construction of a virtual museum. However, these approaches do not separate the institute from the data and therefore the portability of such models is limited to institutes with similar characteristics. An approach that is more compatible with the resources in question and more likely to remain viable with the ever growing and changing Web is one with a contextually broader view. It should be concerned with what it is indexing more than who holds the data. It must still examine the general needs of the relevant institutes, predict their future needs. All this must consider what is being indexed from a content perspective as discussed by Dyson and Moran (2000). Our proposal consists of an API that requires an index of documents to be assembled using standard Web crawlers or by using available APIs. Knowledge of the structure of Web documents, which are reliant on HTML or related languages, allows their content to be automatically indexed. The API must also be able to review previous content owing to the changing nature of the data, as previously mentioned. This paper reviews the available approaches, discusses the prototype Museum API ‘ArtBridge’ and presents the case for a generic Museum API. This gives the framework for interaction between indepen- dent Museum APIs that adhere to the generic one. 3 Motivation The Web as a source of reliable information has already become unwieldy and at times unreliable; it is the sheer scale of this resource that presents the biggest challenges for individuals, businesses, organisations and developers alike. Visiting individual web pages to look for information is an inefficient use of time and energy, and although search engines can speed up the process, there is a growing need for the intelligent aggregation of topic-related information. It is Web technology that is not only driving and facilitating the increasing culture of open data, but also enabling us to make sense of it via applications that combine and F . B U C H A N A N , N . C A P A N N I A N D H . G O N Z Á L E Z - V É L E Z224 https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0269888914000319 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:40:57, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0269888914000319 https://www.cambridge.org/core enrich data from different sources including websites, databases, Web/news feeds and spreadsheets, thereby creating new digital content in the form of ‘mashups’ (Merrill, 2006). In essence, these applications transform raw data into understandable information by presenting it in a way that explains or visually maps out the story behind those facts or figures. Or as Rusbridger (2009) states, ‘The web has given us easy access to billions of statistics on every matter. And with it are tools to visualise that information, mashing it up with different datasets to tell stories that could never have been told before’. The domain of Fine Art Information, however, appears to have been neglected. Whilst it is relatively easy to find sites that aggregate event information related to exhibitions and what’s currently on in the art world, it is less easy to locate information about a particular artist and his or her work. Information about Fine Art itself is widely distributed, and difficult to find without very specific targeted searching. For example, how do we begin to answer questions such as ‘Where can I see artworks by the Scottish Artist Joan Eardley?’. A keyword search on Google for the name ‘Joan Eardley’ returns 293 000 results, including the following: 1. Aberdeen Art Gallery’s online collection has 162 images of paintings and drawings by the artist; 2. Google Images contained 5740 results—only the first 10 pages contained relevant information; 3. the BBC portal features the town ‘Catterline’ on the programme ‘Coast’, and referred to Joan Eardley having painted there; 4. Wikipedia—information about the village of Catterline and it’s ‘notable inhabitants’, which included Joan Eardley; 5. a Wikipedia biography of the artist; 6. Amazon.co.uk—a book about Joan Eardley by Cordelia Oliver; 7. the Scotsman newspaper published an article dated 2007 about the artist; and 8. the Press and Journal, a regional UK newspaper, published a newspaper article about the recent sale of an Eardley painting. This exercise demonstrates that to find the information required about this artist, it is necessary to browse at least eight different websites. The information is there, and exists on the Web, but is spread throughout distributed sources. This problem becomes more pronounced as the Artist’s notoriety increases: a keyword search in Google for the name ‘Pablo Picasso’ returns 21 200 000 results as of December 2011. This raises the question as to how to bring all of this information together to make it accessible from one place. (Ayers & Watt, 2005: 4–5) have aptly summed up this situation as follows—‘Most of us live in homes where water comes to us, rather than us having to travel to the water. It makes a lot of sense that information, too, should flow to us. It avoids the repetitive actions of going to visit individual Web sites and, if done well, achieves easier, more efficient and more effective access to information’. At the moment, information about visual artists and their work is held in separate sources such as in the proprietary archives of public galleries or museums, or in private galleries. These sources are distributed, heterogeneous and often unrelated (in the sense of not being linked together) (Baca, 2002). Some galleries only represent a handful of artists, whilst some artists exhibit their artworks at numerous galleries, spread throughout the world. There is no pooling of resources to provide a more comprehensive presentation of information in relation to: 1. the bibliography of the artist; 2. the images of the artists’ artworks; 3. the exhibitions in which the artist has taken part (and the artworks included in those exhibitions); 4. news articles of relevance to, or about, the artist or their exhibitions; 5. reviews of artists and exhibitions; and 6. information about the places that relate to the artist or the artwork. Fine Art Information is not ‘artist centric’ when taken as a whole. Although it is possible to search specific collections for artworks by a particular artist, it is not possible to find any one source that lists all of the artworks associated with a particular artist’s name, and where it currently resides. This is in contrast to Towards a generic Museum API 225 https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0269888914000319 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:40:57, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0269888914000319 https://www.cambridge.org/core the domain of books, for example, where numerous online catalogues provide the means to search by author to find a full list of their works, related book reviews and even book-cover images. Librarything. com is one such catalogue—this not only brings together information from hundreds of distinct library catalogues, but also creates an online community of book lovers. The principal distinguishing feature between this domain and that of Fine Art is the ISBN number. This enables books to be uniquely identified and catalogued, and at the same time facilitates aggregation of related information. Whilst museums and galleries do catalogue artworks according to certain minimum standards, there is no ubiquitous standardised method of identifying a particular artwork that would be equivalent to the ISBN number (Baca, 2008). There are accordingly huge variations from gallery to gallery in terms of the quality and completeness of the data recorded. There are also problems associated with both differing formats of data and different languages. Whilst collaborative attempts have been made to specify a schema to support data interchange between public galleries, such as that devised by the Getty Institute1, but these schema are not universally adopted. Overall, Fine Art Information can be characterised by a number of distinguishing features, which, taken together, present a unique set of challenges in so far as ingathering and organising that information using traditional retrieval techniques is concerned. The information is characterised by: 1. its dispersed and distributed nature; 2. a huge variation in quality and quantity, depending on the artist’s notoriety and the source of the information; 3. transience, particularly in relation to contemporary art and living artists; 4. heterogeneous formats; 5. the restrictive nature of repositories or archives (i.e. the information is not freely available for re-use); 6. a lack of uniformity in relation to the classification of images and art terms; 7. the fact that words (usually the artist’s name and subject) are used in a non-standardised way to identify and search for images (Baca, 2002; Manning et al., 2009: 178); 8. incomplete or inconsistent data; and 9. restrictions related to copyright and re-distribution of images of artworks. In view of these difficulties, Art Information remains heterogeneous, distributed and difficult to aggregate except in relation to event information: for example, New York Art Beat (NYArtBeat.com) is a site devoted to listing all art and design events in New York, and claims to be a ‘Smart data organisation with events sorted by media, schedules, and location, as well as event lists like Closing soon, Most popular, Open late, and Free’. It aggregates relevant art reviews and operates an intelligent tagging system that permits users to search easily for events of interest to them. In the true spirit of open data, it also provides an API2 that permits the inclusion of its information in other websites. Given the above set of problems inherent in Fine Art Information, it is not possible as matters currently stand to aggregate it with the same ease with which event information is brought together. The question arises, then, as to how the problems of heterogeneity and distribution might be overcome in this domain, withstanding the inherent difficulties. It would not be desirable or practical to seek to create a comprehensive centralised database of Fine Art Information by its very nature, Fine Art Information is constantly changing. Every day artworks are created, purchased, sold, loaned and even discovered; news stories or reviews of exhibitions are constantly being published; Fine Art Information is not a static data set and as such does not lend itself to a permanent amalgamation. It takes time to put together a data set from a large public collection and often by the time that data set is established, it is already out of date. To carry out this task manually for each of the public galleries in the world would be a task without end. There are also issues related to copyright that would prevent the centralised storing of images without express permission from each copyright owner. 1 Available at http://www.getty.edu/research/publications/electronic-publications/ cdwa/cdwalite.html 2 Available at http://www.nyartbeat.com/resources/doc/api F . B U C H A N A N , N . C A P A N N I A N D H . G O N Z Á L E Z - V É L E Z226 https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0269888914000319 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:40:57, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at http://www.getty.edu/research/publications/electronic-publications/cdwa/cdwalite.html http://www.getty.edu/research/publications/electronic-publications/cdwa/cdwalite.html http://www.nyartbeat.com/resources/doc/api https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0269888914000319 https://www.cambridge.org/core 3.1 From data to information via Web technology It has been said that good data visualisation starts with asking questions about what story the data can tell, and what is interesting about it (Fry, 2007: 4). If it can communicate the story told by the relative data, then the visualisation is considered to be a success. In the present case the aim would be to aggregate Fine Art Information in a more ‘artist-centric’ way, and therefore the question that needs to be answered is ‘where can I see artworks by’ a particular artist. This is the story that needs to be told by Fine Art Data if it is to be given the same online treatment as the domains of books and music. To demonstrate how Fine Art Data retrieved from museum APIs might be utilised, it is useful to examine the way in which other websites have aggregated open data in other domains, to tell a particular story. It is clear that visualisation can be much more than just a graphic representation of a static set of facts and figures—when one data set is combined with and enriched by another, with this newly combined information then being translated into a dynamic graphical format, the resulting application becomes a powerful communication tool capable of providing instant answers to the user’s specific query. The best way to highlight this is by way of example: the website mysociety.org is run by a charitable organisation that seeks to build websites to promote openness and democracy in public life. One of their most popular projects is TheyWorkForYou.com—this website takes the current list of Members of the British Parliament and maps that data to the UK postcode data set, allowing users to enter their own postcode to search for details of their parliamentary representatives. From there, users can see whether their MP has been present at a particular parliamentary debate and view details of what that MP has actually said in debates, this information being derived directly from Hansard, the official archive of daily Parliamentary debates. Users of the site can even choose to be alerted by e-mail whenever a particular MP speaks in Parliament and can e-mail the MP directly. The website also combines two further data sets—the Register of Members’ Interests and Expenses data—both of which can be searched at the click of a button. In bringing all of this public infor- mation together in a simple user-friendly interface, this website makes it easy for constituents to keep tabs on their Parliamentary representatives and, in doing so, increases their representatives’ accountability. This is a good example of Web technology being used to bring together publicly available data in a way that transforms it into a consumable story, and presents it in a more user-friendly way. As David Whiteland from mysociety.org said very succinctly during the writer’s discussions with him (in London in July 2010) technology changes ‘data to information’3. Data in isolation is just data, but data linked to other related data that is presented in a user-friendly way becomes useful information or knowledge. When that knowledge is made available via the Web, its potential audience is almost global. There are many different ways to present information via a Web interface, and a review of relevant websites suggests that there are four different levels of dynamism of data applications that range from simple graphical illustrations, to fully interactive websites. The four levels are as follows. First, there is the simple unchanging graphical representation of a static set of facts—the subway map being a good example of this. That simple image presents a very refined view of geographical information, station locations and routes in a way that makes it easy to plan a journey. The data set upon which this visualisation is based is relatively static over time (unless of course a rail line is extended or a new station built) as is the visualisation itself. An example of a Web-based visualisation at this level might be the Linked Open Data Cloud that is an interactive visualisation of all the linked data sets that exist at a certain point in time. This can be accessed online (at lod-cloud.net) and when clicking on any of the circles containing the name of a data set, the user is taken directly to the source of that data set. A simple yet highly effective visualisation of a large data set. The second level is a more dynamic graphical representation of a static set of facts. An example of this can be found on the website wheredoesmymoneygo.org. This website seeks to ‘promote transparency and citizen engagement through the analysis and visualisation of information about UK public spending’. Via its ‘Dashboard’4 application (see Figure 4), this website provides a stylish visual record, built using 3 In conversation in London, July 2010 at The Guardian offices, Kings Place, London. 4 The Dashboard can be found at www.wheredoesmymoneygo.org/bubbletree-map.html#/~/grand- total--2010- Towards a generic Museum API 227 https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0269888914000319 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:40:57, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at www.wheredoesmymoneygo.org/bubbletree-map.html#/&#x007E;/grand-total--2010- www.wheredoesmymoneygo.org/bubbletree-map.html#/&#x007E;/grand-total--2010- www.wheredoesmymoneygo.org/bubbletree-map.html#/&#x007E;/grand-total--2010- www.wheredoesmymoneygo.org/bubbletree-map.html#/&#x007E;/grand-total--2010- https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0269888914000319 https://www.cambridge.org/core Flash, of where public money has been spent, by year. The data upon which the visualisation is based is historic in nature (i.e. unchanging) and ordinarily this set of financial figures would make for very dull reading to the majority of people. However, here we see the power of dynamic interactive graphics—the apparent simplicity of the coloured circles communicates a complex set of statistics that is capable of being understood by non-statisticians. It provides a timeline allowing for an easy visual comparison of spending by year, from 2003 to date, and allows users to click on each area of expenditure (such as Health) for a further breakdown of the spend involved that year. This is a very good example of technology and design working together to communicate the story being told by an otherwise overwhelming set of public data. The third level of visualisation is similar to the second in that it involves a relatively static data set, but with the addition of a further layer of interactivity that allows the user to modify the view of the infor- mation by entering search criteria, or choosing a refinement of the data from a list. An example of this would be the website nukeometer.com built by Adam Charnock that uses JQuery, Google Maps API and a data set comprising the locations of all nuclear warheads in the world, derived from a news article in The Guardian (Rogers, 2009). It provides a very simple interface into which the user enters their current city and country. From there the application lists the number and location of the warheads within range of that city on a deceptively simple screen which displays quite a shocking message. The fourth level of visualisation involves two distinguishing features—a non-static data set, that is, a set of facts or information that is constantly changing and which requires regular dynamic updates; and second, the participation of and contribution by the user (see Figure 3). Such applications are complex, often involving many different features and/or data sources, and even the creation of a community of interests or social network. They invariably involve writing scripts to dynamically update the appropriate web page, either directly from Web resources or from a database into which the information has previously been stored. This type of application or service has two main features—the ever-changing data set and user participation. One website which demonstrates such dynamism is LibraryThing.com, previously referred to. This is, in the writer’s view, a site that exemplifies what can be done using intelligent Web technologies—it brings Figure 4 The ‘where does my money go’ dashboard (screenshot from www.wheredoesmymoneygo. org) F . B U C H A N A N , N . C A P A N N I A N D H . G O N Z Á L E Z - V É L E Z228 https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0269888914000319 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:40:57, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0269888914000319 https://www.cambridge.org/core together publicly available data about books whilst creating a community of people sharing a common interest in reading. At the same time it facilitates the creation of a comprehensive catalogue of book information that is constantly being augmented by the input of millions of users. This site makes use of data from Amazon’s book API, plus book catalogues from the Library of Congress in the United States and, according to the website, ‘690 other world libraries’5. In essence, this website is both a cataloguing facility and a social network for book lovers, requiring users to log in to their own profile page. It makes use of the constantly updating data stored by each of the source libraries, but enriches that data by linking them to other books, reviews, users, tags and images, thereby creating an enhanced database of books in addition to a social network of readers. It also provides recommendation services based upon other users’ reviews and even their conversations, in addition to a ‘zeitgeist’ recommendation feature that collates site statistics, using them as the basis for dynamic listings such as ‘most read’, ‘most reviewed’ and ‘top author’. With over one million users adding content to the site, and around 50 million books in its system, the data upon which LibraryThing is based, is constantly being augmented and updated. This website demonstrates how open data can be used in a very creative and dynamic way by bringing together disparate library catalogues of books, transforming them into a more comprehensive and updating repository of book and book-related information with a vibrant community of users. It has recently been argued that while catalogue records will continue to be the kernel of bibliography, thoughtful reviews will assume greater importance (Wagner & Weibel, 2005). Thus, applications that combine both data and social interaction can serve not only to present that data in a consumable form, but they can become platforms through which the data can be enriched by user interaction, thereby ‘acting as collective intelligence gatherers’ (Bell, 2009: 5). Such a situation is only made possible by Web technologies that permit both the dynamic aggregation and dynamic searching of vast and increasing amounts of open data. LibraryThing.com has access to a large array of online and trusted data sources relating to literature of all kinds, which enables it to provide a near-comprehensive online cataloguing facility in relation to books. If a similar volume of programmable Fine Art Data was made available online, there would be no barrier to providing a similar aggregation and cataloguing facility in relation to the works of art created by the artists of the world. This would ultimately improve the experience of those searching for Fine Art Information on the Web whilst at the same time would increase the accessibility of many museums’ online collections. 4 A possible solution: the Museum API It is the writer’s view that in order for the aggregation of Web-based Fine Art Information to be feasible, it is necessary to have a greater degree of machine capabilities of Fine Art Data. Most public and private art galleries have a publicly accessible website displaying digitised images of their artworks. The data is already in a format that would lend itself to inclusion in the world of open data. However, the means to automate the accurate processing and aggregation of this information is lacking. As previously indicated, the creation of a centralised repository of all Fine Art Information is neither feasible nor desirable given the fluidity of the data itself. A more pragmatic and dynamic solution is required, and it is the writer’s view that this could be provided by the creation of APIs to each digital repository of Fine Art Information, whether it is a public collection of art objects or a private commercial gallery. The provision of an API to a museum collection, or indeed to a commercial gallery, has a number of useful features for both the museum and the developer alike, which can be summarised as follows. First, the terms of use of the data are made clear from the outset by the institution providing the Web service. The images of artworks in respect of which public distribution is prohibited, are generally excluded from the API, or included with very low-resolution files. Further, there are limits on the purposes for which the data can be utilised, limits on the number of calls to the API that can be made per day, and terms requiring that specific permission be obtained in certain circumstances, for example, where the institution’s logo is to be used in an application. 5 http://www.librarything.com/ Towards a generic Museum API 229 https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0269888914000319 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:40:57, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at http://www.librarything.com/ https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0269888914000319 https://www.cambridge.org/core Second, once a museum has carried out the work to set up the API, it need not spend any further time dealing with requests for, or putting together, specific datasets given that the information can then be obtained programmatically (and in the desired format) using appropriately constructed URLs. A very efficient use of resources all round, and a pragmatic means to overcome the hurdles posed by the lack of homogeneous formats. Third, as far as the developer is concerned, using carefully constructed URLs it is possible to retrieve only the data that is required, in the knowledge that as it comes from a trusted source, it is likely to be highly relevant and of reliable quality. There is the added advantage that where a Web service utilises persistent URLs, the resource at that specific address will always be up to date so long as the API is properly managed. And finally, for relatively minimal effort, the museum can automatically expose its collection to a greater audience on the Web by making its data available to enthusiastic Web developers as well as museography specialists. The result will invariably by a plethora of interesting and novel Web applications, each of which publicises (for no effort or cost to the institution) the content of the museum’s collection. It is only necessary to look at websites such as programmableweb.com to see this in practice—as at July 2011, this site indicated that there were 2243 Web applications utilising the Google Map API (available at code.google.com/ apis/maps/index.html). These figures speak for themselves. 5 Implementation: ArtBridge A simple example of what might be achieved in the domain of Fine Art is provided by the Web application ArtBridge (see Figure 6), a project of the Robert Gordon University in Aberdeen (available at www.comp. rgu.ac.uk/ArtBridge). The system has been deployed using the MAMP 1.9 (Mac, Apache, MySQL, PHP http://www. mamp.info/) software stack under the Mac OS X 10.5 operating system. Our system has abstracted the connections to various Web resources to retrieve the results related to that search term, decoupling the logic of the query from the real infrastructure dependencies. The system processes the information, organising it into an artist-centric file containing relevant URLs that point to Web resources relevant to that artist. When a name is input via the Web interface, the system retrieves the file of relevant URLs and obtains the resources from those links, re-presenting them on the web page for that particular artist. In this way, the system aggregates relevant information in relation to artists and provides access to that information from each of the distinct sources, in one place. This application, written in Java, retrieves information from mainstream Fine Art sources: 1. New York’s Brooklyn Museum API; 2. London’s Victoria & Albert Museum API; 3. The Guardian’s Open-Platform; and 4. Aberdeen Art Gallery & Museum. It analyses the relevance of the data retrieved from each resource, and stores the URLs for the relevant resources in a separate XML file for each particular artist. The ArtBridge system allows the user to choose the name of a particular artist, and from there a Web application, written in ActionScript 3.0, then displays the relevant data retrieved from each of these four Web sources using the previously stored URLs. Each item of data is stored in a separate box within the display, and includes images from each of the Museums’ digital repositories, and relevant news articles from The Guardian’s Web service. All of these resources are retrieved dynamically from the URLs and therefore display the current information available at that particular URL. It is, however, designed in such a way that additional sources and formats of information can be incorporated in the system, without difficulty. The main application can be run from a simple GUI. Each option is managed by the StartApp class, which contains the main method. This class retrieves the input search terms from either the GUI or command line, and creates a new StartSearch object which is the kernel applicative object through which F . B U C H A N A N , N . C A P A N N I A N D H . G O N Z Á L E Z - V É L E Z230 https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0269888914000319 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:40:57, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at code.google.com/apis/maps/index.html code.google.com/apis/maps/index.html www.comp.rgu.ac.uk/ArtBridge www.comp.rgu.ac.uk/ArtBridge http://www.mamp.info/ http://www.mamp.info/ https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0269888914000319 https://www.cambridge.org/core all of the information in the system flows. It creates the ‘BuildXXXSearch’ objects which manage the construction of the URLs for each API, and manages the XML output. This is illustrated in Figure 5. The system is designed so that a ‘BuildXXXSearch’ object is instantiated for each API (Guardian, Brooklyn, Victoria & Albert Museum, etc.), with its own class design being dependent upon the idiosyncrasies of each of the repository APIs but with common attributes being inherited. In this way the details of the construction of specific URLs for each API are encapsulated within separate classes, and it also means that the system can be easily extended to cope with additional APIs simply by creating a new ‘BuildXXXSearch’ derived class for that API, for example: ‘BuildGuardianSearch(String key, String artistName)’. Where key represents the authentication parametric values for a given API (in the above example, The Guardian’s) and artistName is a string which is then parsed and converted into a searchable artist entry (typically formed as a first–last name pairing). A correct parsing is crucial because otherwise a seemingly straightforward query on ‘Vincent Van Gogh’ could include details of all artists with a first or middle name of ‘Vincent’ or ‘Van’ as well as personalities with ‘Gogh’ as a surname (e.g. Theo Van Gogh). Furthermore, open non-qualified search terms can often return a number of seemingly random artist’s names (e.g. ‘La Oreja de Van Gogh’, a Spanish pop band). When the search term has been processed in this way, the BuildXXXSearch object then puts together a specific URL String to enable the system to query the API. It is noted that the relatively large number of string variables reflects the complexity of queries that can be made to the API of the different information repositories. Query refinement is API dependent and therefore the BuildXXXSearch objects must contemplate the subtleties of the repositories. For example, for The Guardian’s API, we could change the newspaper section in which the data might appear. In the present case we are interested in ‘artanddesign’ or ‘culture’, but there are over 50 different sections that could be queried. A typical query URL looks like: content.guardianapis.com/search? q=pablo+picasso&section=artanddesign& format=xml Located immediately after the question mark, the tags part of the URL corresponds to The Guardian’s classification of news content. There are literally thousands of different tags by which queries can be Figure 5 Simple block diagram of the ArtBridge system Towards a generic Museum API 231 https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0269888914000319 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:40:57, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at content.guardianapis.com/search? q=pablo+picasso&#x0026;section=artanddesign&#x0026;format=xml content.guardianapis.com/search? q=pablo+picasso&#x0026;section=artanddesign&#x0026;format=xml https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0269888914000319 https://www.cambridge.org/core refined. In the present case, the hard-coded query is for articles, reviews or news but not obituaries, but this could be changed to look for only reviews in a particular section, for example. The URL String is therefore assembled and from that, a new URL object is created. The public method getUrl() of the BuildGuardianSearch class returns the URL object in question to the calling StartSearch object. The BuildBrooklynSearch and BuildVnASearch classes operate in a similar way. The information returned by each API is then parsed, with the relevant segments of data being stored in custom data objects. What the data objects will be storing, in effect, is a list of URLs that point to resources relevant to the particular artist. Some of those URLs will be known in advance, such as the links to biographies and links to galleries with which the artist has an association. Others will be retrieved from searches to the relative APIs. The object is not to acquire and store the actual images or text in a centralised database, but rather the URLs that point to these resources. The reason for this is threefold. First, there are complex copyright issues attached to the storing of images of artwork; second, it is not usually permitted (in the applicable terms of use) to store or cache data retrieved via an API for longer than 24 hours; and third, given that information on the Web is capable of changing rapidly, it is necessary to ensure that any data displayed via the application is up to date and relevant. It would therefore be desirable, in view of these constraints, to access the resources dynamically as required to ensure that the information displayed is always up to date. Finally, after the information is retrieved from the given repository the information is then rendered as a Web interface that provides a degree of interactivity and manipulation of the views of the data in question. The user is able to choose an artist’s name from a list and view the relevant information. Consideration required to be given as to how that interface was to be built, what scripting languages were to be used, and how those were to be deployed and tested. Ultimately, the chosen method has to use XSLT/CSS stylesheets, applied to the appropriate XML document selected using PHP as the scripting language. 6 Evaluation It is important in this particular project to work with real data from the relevant APIs in order to obtain accurate feedback from the content of the results returned. Open data from a select group of artists has been used to test the operation of the system and indeed in the final evaluation of the overall system. The artists are Pablo Picasso, Henri Matisse, Tracey Emin, Vincent Van Gogh, Jackson Pollock, Claude Monet, David Hockney and Andy Warhol, all of whom have data in at least one of the APIs used in the system. To evaluate the actual functioning of the system, each artist’s name has been input via the system GUI, and automatic searches were then carried out consecutively in the three APIs (The Guardian, Brooklyn Museum and Victoria & Albert Museum). For each artist, the results were output to the console so that an immediate assessment of the results could be made. As summarised in Table 1, the number of URLs are highly focused and relevant reporting actual references to the artwork and life of a given fine artist, as opposed to an assorted collection of loosely related pages. As an illustration, a simple Google search on Vincent Van Gogh on The Guardian site (guardian.co.uk) produces over 3000 results in stark contrast to the seven URLs reported. From the main display of information illustrated in Figure 8, the user can instantly see which of these three museums hold artworks by the particular artist chosen, and can view images of them if available. It is also possible to read relevant art reviews or news articles of relevance to that artist. A screenshot of the data relating to Henri Matisse as presented by ArtBridge user interface appears in Figure 8. Each image block, when hovered over by the mouse, displays the title of the artwork, and the city and name of the museum to which it belongs as shown in Figure 9. Clicking on the image displays either the full-sized image or the full news article. The information being brought together from these four distributed resources is re-organised in an artist-centric way, and avoids the need on the part of the user to separately visit these four different websites. However, given that the application is making calls to the relative APIs each time that an artist’s name is selected, it is increasing Web traffic to that Web service, whilst at the same time increasing public access to the content of each institution’s online digital collection. It also demonstrates a possible answer to such questions as F . B U C H A N A N , N . C A P A N N I A N D H . G O N Z Á L E Z - V É L E Z232 https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0269888914000319 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:40:57, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0269888914000319 https://www.cambridge.org/core ‘where can I see artworks by Henri Matisse?’ and in doing so highlights the potential benefits of increasing the aggregation of Fine Art Data. 6.1 Discussion At the moment, the scope of the application is limited by the number of online data sources available, although it is designed so as to be capable of the modular addition of many more. As the number of data sources increases, so too will the quality, accessibility and usability of the Fine Art Information provided online (see Figure 7). If a project such as Europeana was to provide an API allowing for online access to its million-plus digitised items (and this is mentioned as a possibility on their website), the effectiveness and utility of applications such as ArtBridge would increase exponentially. Further, if every public museum or gallery in each of our major cities were to allow access to their online data via an API then it would be possible to imagine a situation where the Web of Fine Art Data is aggregated to such an extent that a near- comprehensive catalogue of many artist’s works could be viewed, reviewed and augmented at a single location rather than the thousands of websites over which it is currently distributed. These are big, but not inconceivable, ‘ifs’, which if realised would bring the quality of online infor- mation in this domain up to the standard currently enjoyed in the book and music domains. The Web technology needed to effect this transformation already exists but is under-utilised in this area of Fine Art Data. It is the writer’s view that the museum API can act as a knowledge bridge between the distributed online digital repositories of Fine Art Data by providing for programmatic access to that data, and in doing so it Table 1 System evaluation results using a set of eight Fine Artists with The Guardian, Brooklyn and Victoria & Albert Museum (V&A) Application Programming Interface The Guardian Brooklyn V&A Pablo Picasso 25 10 3 Henri Matisse 8 0 4 Tracey Emin 11 1 1 Vincent Van Gogh 7 2 0 Jackson Pollock 1 0 0 Claude Monet 4 5 0 David Hockney 8 0 11 Andy Warhol 11 10 2 Figure 6 A representation of ArtBridge and the Museum API (Application Programming Interface) Towards a generic Museum API 233 https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0269888914000319 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:40:57, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0269888914000319 https://www.cambridge.org/core can facilitate its aggregation and contribute to the improvement of the online experience in this domain. It provides a pragmatic solution to the problems inherent in this domain, whilst at the same time increasing the online accessibility of each of the sources of digital Fine Art Information. 7 Conclusions In this paper we have been concerned with the specific context of highly independent, heterogeneous and distributed sources of Web information on Fine Art and Fine Artists. The problems addressed were those Figure 8 ArtBridge user interface—Henri Matisse example Figure 7 Generic museum standardisation for interactive APIs (Application Programming Interface) Figure 9 ArtBridge image block F . B U C H A N A N , N . C A P A N N I A N D H . G O N Z Á L E Z - V É L E Z234 https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0269888914000319 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:40:57, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0269888914000319 https://www.cambridge.org/core of large-scale information indexing and retrieval. The domain data occurs in various types; long term/static such as biographies and artworks, transient such as art collections and time specific such as exhibitions. The independence of the data naturally results in a heterogeneous organisation and structure so that separate data repositories cannot freely interact. This often creates duplication and contradiction in data. Contradiction is especially true when time dependence affects the relevance of the data. We established that the data is not the problem. The problem relates to different methods for infor- mation retrieval which result in specific, and non-interactive, APIs being created for the same type of data. Problem examples are shown through the need to source and filter data independently from multiple sites to obtain the required information. The paper established the continuity of data organisation in other domains, relating to pre-Web orga- nisation such as library systems. It highlighted distinguishing features such as ISBN and showed the contrast in universally accepted techniques within Fine Art cataloguing. In contrast to long-established methods, the rise Web participation in numbers and interaction is shown to be fundamental to data retrieval. We presented a proposal for the development of a solution in terms of the Museum API. This examined the Fine Art domain, presented the argument for a generic API and offered a prototype ‘ArtBridge’ that supports the aim of the Dublin Core to enable mapping of disparate data sources. This is supported by a review of different Web applications, which have been created using open data sources. A possible solution, The Museum API, is examined in terms of the current state of Fine Art Information, highlighting the problems. Support for our proposal ideas is currently observable through a small number of specialist, collaborative, aggregation projects. From the previous work, the requirements of the Museum API are established. Having already estab- lished that the data is not a problem, this shows that the data format is also not a problem; the means to aggregate is a central problem and a solution relies on automating an accurate process. The proposal is against a centralisation approach, which would be an impossible, never-ending task and would also require a top-down authority throughout the Fine Art domain. Instead, it supports a pragmatic solution of an API that encourages community participation and open source development. This approach allows the independent creation of APIs that can interact with each other. We obtained four solution steps from the requirements and these are; clarity of data and data use, API robustness (maintenance free), establishing trust in sources to validate the URL feeds, and automation of process to minimise the individual effort required for individual institutes to participate. Finally, the power of data visualisation, which will be obtained via such an API, is presented with examples in several different domains. This leads directly to our prototype solution, where we present ArtBridge as a Web app built using several Museum APIs. This counters the problems we have observed and fits the requirements of the solution. Future work will be establishing a full system that completes all four solution steps. Acknowledgements This research was partly supported by a Scott Trust Technology Bursary. The authors acknowledge use of the services and facilities of the School of Computing at the Robert Gordon University. References Artz, D. & Gil, Y. 2007. A survey of trust in computer science and the Semantic Web. Web Semantics: Science, Services and Agents on the World Wide Web 5(2), 58–71. Ayers, D. & Watt, A. 2005. Beginning RSS and Atom Programming. ISBN: 978-0-7645-7916-5. Wiley. Baca, M. (ed.) 2002. Introduction to Art Image Access: Tools, Standards, and Strategies. ISBN: 0892366664. Getty Research Institute. Baca, M. (ed.) 2008. Introduction to Metadata, 2nd edition. ISBN: 0892368969. Getty Research Institute. Baeza-Yates, R. 2003. Information retrieval in the web: beyond current search engines. International Journal of Approximate Reasoning 34(2–3), 97–104. Bell, G. 2009. Building Social Web Applications. ISBN: 0596518757. O’Reilly Media. Towards a generic Museum API 235 https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0269888914000319 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:40:57, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0269888914000319 https://www.cambridge.org/core Buchanan, F., Capanni, N. & González-Vélez, H. 2011. Fine artists of the world unite: bridging heterogeneous distributed open data sources of fine art. In i-Society 2011. IEEE, 224–229. Cahill, K. 2009. Building a virtual branch at Vancouver Public Library using Web 2.0 tools. Program: Electronic Library and Information Systems 43, 140–155. Dyson, M. C. & Moran, K. 2000. Informing the design of web interfaces to museum collections. 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The world in active nuclear weapons, The Guardian, 6 July. http://www.guardian.co. uk/news/datablog/2009/apr/06/north-korea-nuclear-weapons. Accessed 21 May 2012. Rusbridger, A. 2009. Free the facts: the Guardian’s editor-in-chief on why open data matters, The Guardian, 10 March 2009. www.guardian.co.uk/news/datablog/2009/mar/10/1. Accessed 23 April 2012. Schweibenz, W. 1998. The ‘virtual museum’: new perspectives for museums to present objects and information using the internet as a knowledge base and communication system. In ISI. ISBN: 3-87940-653-7. Schriften zur Infor- mationswissenschaft 34, 185–200. Hochschulverband für Informationswissenschaft. Shirky, C. 2010. Cognitive Surplus: Creativity and Generosity in a Connected Age. ISBN: 1846142172. Penguin Books. Snásel, V., Abraham, A., Owais, S., Platos, J. & Krömer, P. 2009. Optimizing information retrieval using evolutionary algorithms and fuzzy inference system. In Foundations of Computational Intelligence. Studies in Computational Intelligence 204, 299–324. Springer Verlag. Uren, V., Lei, Y., Lopez, V., Liu, H., Motta, E. & Giordanino, M. 2007. The usability of semantic search tools: a review. The Knowledge Engineering Review 22(4), 361–377. Wagner, H. & Weibel, S. 2005. The Dublin Core Metadata Registry: requirements, implementation, and experience. Journal of Digital Information 6(2), 1–20. Weibel, S. 1997. The Dublin Core: a simple content description model for electronic resources. Bulletin of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 24(1), 9–11. F . B U C H A N A N , N . C A P A N N I A N D H . G O N Z Á L E Z - V É L E Z236 https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0269888914000319 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:40:57, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=1008839 http://www.guardian.co.uk/news/datablog/2009/apr/06/north-korea-nuclear-weapons http://www.guardian.co.uk/news/datablog/2009/apr/06/north-korea-nuclear-weapons www.guardian.co.uk/news/datablog/2009/mar/10�/�1 https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0269888914000319 https://www.cambridge.org/core Distributed aggregation of heterogeneous Web-based Fine Art Information: enabling multi-source accessibility and curation 1Introduction Figure 1Users are unaware of any other�users 2Background Figure 2Users are semi-aware through time-filtered posting up to &#x2018;instant&#x2019; communications Figure 3Interactive users through communal wikis, mashups and social networks 2.1Contribution 3Motivation 3.1From data to information via Web technology Figure 4The &#x2018;where does my money go&#x2019; dashboard (screenshot from www.wheredoesmymoneygo.org) 4A possible solution: the Museum API 5Implementation: ArtBridge Figure 5Simple block diagram of the ArtBridge�system 6Evaluation 6.1Discussion Table 1System evaluation results using a set of eight Fine Artists with The Guardian, Brooklyn and Victoria &#x0026; Albert Museum (V&#x0026;A) Application Programming Interface Figure 6A representation of ArtBridge and the Museum API (Application Programming Interface) 7Conclusions Figure 8ArtBridge user interface&#x2014;Henri Matisse example Figure 7Generic museum standardisation for interactive APIs (Application Programming Interface) Figure 9ArtBridge image�block Acknowledgements ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS References 
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work_77b2fbbsl5abdno4o2bg2jzyiq	----	Magy-Tud-19-7.indd © 2019 Akadémiai Kiadó Magyar Tudomány 180(2019)7, 988–996 DOI: 10.1556/2065.180.2019.7.6 VIZUÁLIS METAFORÁK É S KOGNÍCIÓ – A NEMFOGALMI ÚJRAGONDOLÁSA1 VISUAL METAPHORS AND COGNITION: REVISITING THE NON-CONCEPTUAL Michalle Gal senior lecturer Culture Studies and Master Program, Shenkar College, Ramat Gan, Israel michalle.gal@shenkar.ac.il ÖSSZEFOGLALÁS Írásomban a metaforák vizuális aspektusait elemzem, és új metaforaelméletre teszek javas- latot, amelyben lényegi jellemzők a szintaktikai struktúra, a tárgyi kompozíció és a vizualitás. E célból bemutatom, hogy egyfelől a metaforikus alkotás vagy átváltoztatás, másfelől a befoga- dás, valamely dolognak egy másik, különböző dologként történő értelmezése vizuális képesség. Nemkonvencionális kompozíciók készítése révén, vagyis kompozíciós vagy akár esztétikai esz- közökkel történő predikáció. Szándékom szerint ez a meghatározás alkalmazható mindennemű metaforára: a fogalmi, nyelvi, képi és tárgyi metaforákra egyaránt. Következésképp szemben áll azzal a metaforadefinícióval, amely szerint a metafora eredendően fogalmi vagy nyelvi jelen- ség, és annak szemantikai folyamatára, tágabb értelmére és kognitív értékére épül. ABSTRACT The paper analyses the visual aspect of metaphors, offering a new theory of metaphor that char- acterizes its syntactic structure, material composition and visuality as its essence. It will according- ly present the metaphorical creating or transfiguring, as well as conceiving or understanding, of one thing as a different one, as a visual ability. It is a predication by means of producing non- conventional compositions – i.e., by compositional, or even aesthetic, means. This definition is aimed to apply to the various kinds of metaphors: conceptual, linguistic, visual, and material. It will thus challenge the prevailing conceptualist and linguistic theories of metaphor that define metaphor as based on its semantic mechanism, broad concepts, and cognitive value. Kulcsszavak: metaforaelmélet, formalista, nonkognitivista, nonkonceptualista, nemfogalmi, kompozíció, vizualitás, tárgyiság Keywords: theory of metaphor, formalist, non-cognitivist, non-conceptualist, non-conceptual, composition, visuality, materiality 1 Fordította: Szalai Éva VIZUÁLIS METAFORÁK ÉS KOGNÍCIÓ – A NEMFOGALMI ÚJRAGONDOLÁSA 989 Magyar Tudomány 180(2019)7 1. A KIHÍVÁS Vessünk egy pillantást Pablo Picasso 1943-ban készült, Bikafej című szobrára (URL1) – a vizuális metafora szép példája. „Metaforának” minősíthetjük, mert struktúrája maga a predikátum, kifejezi „bika voltát”: a forrástartományból, az állattól egy másik, külső tartományba visz, amelyet majd egy célhoz rende- lünk, ez esetben egy kerékpár nyergéhez és kormányához, hogy újra felépítsük struktúráját. A nyereg és a kormány bikát alkotnak, még akkor is, ha az csak metaforikus értelemben bika. Vizuális metaforával nyitottam, mert inkább a vizuális metaforát tekintem paradigmatikusnak, mint a fogalmi vagy a nyelvi metaforákat. Hamarosan az utóbbiakról is szólok, hogy rámutassak: szintén vi- zualitásra épülnek. A „cél” és a „forrás” terminusok George Lakoff és Mark Johnson 1980-ban kiadott, Hétköznapi metaforáink (Metaphors We Live By) című, hagyományte- remtő könyvének hatására váltak elfogadottá a metaforák tárgyalásában.2 A szer- zők „fókusz” (vagy tenor) helyett forrástartományról, „keret” (vagy vehiculum) helyett céltartományról beszélnek, ezek ma már gyakorta használt kifejezések a szakirodalomban. Közismert, hogy Lakoff és Johnson fogalmi-kognitivista meta- foraelméletet fogalmaznak meg, amelyben a metafora nem pusztán a fogalomal- kotó elme szüleménye, hanem maga is teljes egészében konceptuális. A szerzők épp a „struktúra” szóval írják le a metaforikus gondolkodás képességét. Például az általuk „fogalmi metaforának” minősített kifejezés elem- zésekor leszögezik: „nem csak beszélünk arról, hogy az érvelés olyan, mint a há- ború. A vitában valóban győzhetünk vagy veszíthetünk érveinkkel. […] Részben a háború fogalma alakítja a struktúráját sok mindennek, amit az érvelés során teszünk” (Lakoff–Johnson, 2003, 4–5.). A metaforával kapcsolatban kifejtik, hogy „az ’épület’ fogalom azon részei, amelyek segítségé- vel felépíthetjük az ’elmélet’ fogalmat, alapként és vázként szolgálnak” (Lakoff– Johnson, 2003, 47., 53.). Lakoff és Johnson számára azonban maga a metafora is a kognitív episztemológiai réteghez tartozik, a köznapi nyelvben, tapasztalatban vagy valóságban csak a tükörképe jelenik meg. Meghatározásuk szerint a metafo- ra lényege inkább „egy bizonyos dolognak egy másik dolog terminusain keresztül történő megértése és megtapasztalása”, vagyis nem nyelvi, még kevésbé vizuális vagy tárgyi egység. Ezzel szemben az alábbiakban a kompozíció, a vizualitás és a tárgyiság felől közelítve formalista, nonkognitivista és nonkonceptualista elméletet vázolok. Kifejtem, hogy a metaforák a vizuális-ontologikus szférába tartoznak. Onnan 2 A „forrástartomány” és „céltartomány” kifejezéseket először George Lakoff és Kövecses Zol- tán írták le tanulmányukban (Lakoff–Kövecses, 1983), később pedig Lakoff és Johnson könyvük második kiadásában (Lakoff–Johnson, 2003) fejtették ki e terminusokat. 990 TEMATIKUS ÖSSZEÁLLÍTÁS • A VIZUÁLIS TANULÁS PERSPEKTÍVÁI Magyar Tudomány 180(2019)7 erednek, és ott alakul ki struktúrájuk. Épp a vizuális szféra adta kompozíció- kat és strukturális lehetőségeket kihasználva érthetünk meg egy fogalmat egy másik fogalom segítségével: például az épületek vizualitása révén, amelyek tu- lajdonságait az elméletekre alkalmazzuk. Ezeket predikátumként használva az alapjaitól építhetjük fel az „elméletet” – például ezek adják az elmélet alapját és szerkezeti vázát, amelyek meglétekor szilárd és jól megalapozott lehet, hiá- nyukban pedig összeomolhat, széteshet. Az „elmélet” így az épületek kategória (periferikus vagy kissé rendhagyó, mégis) elfogadott tagjává válik, és létrejön a metafora. Lakoff és Johnson a „struktúra” szóval írják le azt, amit én két metaforikus szakasznak látok: azt állítják, hogy „az ember fogalmi rendszere metaforikusan strukturálódik”, továbbá „fogalmaink strukturálják, hogy mit észlelünk, és ho- gyan tájékozódunk a világban” (Lakoff–Johnson, 2003, 6., 4.). A szó első előfor- dulásában furcsa módon azt sugallja, hogy van valamiféle episztemológiai réteg, amely megelőzi a fogalmi rendszert. Ez nem illeszkedik a szerzők konceptualista elméleti keretrendszerébe. Még fontosabb, hogy a szó második előfordulásában épp ellentétes értelmű: a metafora valójában struktúra. De inkább külső-vizuá- lis metaforikus kompozíciók segítik az „elmélet-épület” és „érvelés-háború” fo- galmak létrejöttét – ha egyáltalán létrejöhetnek –, mint fordítva. E kompozíciók megváltoztatják az elmélet és az érvelés kapcsolódásait, és az épület, illetve a háború fogalmával kapcsolják össze őket. Ezt a rendet akaratlanul maga a La- koff–Johnson-modell teszi logikailag szükségszerűvé. Jellemző, hogy más kultú- rában lehetséges (inkább, mint háború) metafora – a résztvevők előadóművészek, akiknek a célja a vitában inkább az egyensúlyteremtés, mint a győzelem. Ha pedig a metaforák társadalmilag, konvencionálisan vagy fizikailag kötöttek, akkor a metafora megértése vagy konceptualizálása másodlagossá vá- lik, az első helyre a metaforikus külső-vizuális struktúra, vagyis maga a metafora kerül. Ezért bár igaz, hogy a metaforák vizuális voltára vonatkozó érvelésemben a fogalmi metaforák jelenthetik a legnagyobb kihívást, talán a jelen esetben nem kell ettől tartanom. 2. METAFORÁK ÉS NONKONCEPTUALIZMUS Ha az elmúlt két évtizedben Christopher Peacocke és Sean Kelly által megte- remtett terminológiából és érvekből indulunk ki, akkor a fenti tételt valamivel tovább vihetjük: nemcsak arról van itt szó, hogy a metaforák nem egy belső fogalmi rendszerre épülnek, hanem azt sem lehet fogalmilag megragadni, ami Picasso vizuális metaforájában a kerékpár részeit bikafejjé (a forrástartomány- nyá) teszik. Ez kompozíció: az a mód, ahogyan a művész elhelyezte (a metafora céltartományát alkotó) nyerget és kormányt. Továbbá ez a kompozíció magában VIZUÁLIS METAFORÁK ÉS KOGNÍCIÓ – A NEMFOGALMI ÚJRAGONDOLÁSA 991 Magyar Tudomány 180(2019)7 hordozza azt is, amit Nelson Goodman találóan „szintaktikus sűrűségnek” vagy „telítettségnek” nevez az esztétikai szimbólumok funkcióját ecsetelve – ebben a szimbólum minden egyes jellemzője számít: a helyzet, a vonal és vastagsága, az alak stb. (Goodman, 1978, 67–68.). Nézetem szerint a telítettség és a sűrűség a tapasztalati valóság általános finomabban tagolt struktúrájának és reprezen- tációs tartalmának alkategóriái. Peacocke kijelenti, hogy ezek meghaladják a fogalmi tartalmat. Megállapításai közül itt az a legfontosabb, hogy hangsúlyoz- za: a finomszerkezeti fenomenológia leírásában „szükségünk van a tapasztalat fogalmára, amely dolgokat vagy eseményeket, helyeket vagy időket reprezentál, meghatározott módon, illetve bizonyos tulajdonságokkal bír vagy bizonyos kap- csolatokban áll, szintén meghatározott módon”. Ernst Mach kocka példáját idézi, miszerint – attól függően, hogy honnan és hogyan szemléljük – ugyanazt az alakzatot „vagy négyzetnek, vagy szabályos gyémántnak is láthatjuk” (Peacocke, 2001, 240–241.). Kelly hozzáteszi, hogy a nemfogalmi perceptuális tartalom fő vonásai „az észlelt tárgy függése a perceptuális kontextustól, amelyben észlel- jük, illetve az észlelt tulajdonság függése a tárgytól, amelynek tulajdonságaként észleljük” (Kelly, 2001, 602.). Ezzel szemben – Lakoff és Johnson gondolatmenetét követve – az olyan ki- emelkedő konceptualisták, mint John McDowell és John Searle azt állítják, hogy fogalmi mentális tartalommal bír minden reprezentációs tartalmú tapasztalat, amelynek tartalma tehát valamely külső dolog érzetét reprezentálja (McDowell, 1994a, 1994b). Számukra valamely dolog percepciója attól függ, hogy ismerjük-e a fogalmát. Így ismét oda jutunk, hogy az esztétikai ontológia és percepció, de különösen a metaforák jellemzésekor nyilvánvaló, hogy a konceptualista megkö- zelítés nem elégséges. Tehát a konceptualisták azt állítják, hogy a tapasztalat reprezentációs tartal- ma mindig fogalmi, a nonkonceptualisták viszont azt, hogy van olyan tartalom, amely nem ragadható meg fogalmakkal, ugyanakkor mégis reprezentációs, in- tencionális és konkrét jellegű. Ez a nonkonceptualista terminológia hasznos, sőt, talán szükséges az esztétikai ontológia és percepció tárgyalása szempontjából. A nemfogalmi tartalom jellemzői épp azok, amelyek ontológiai származásukhoz kapcsolódnak, nevezetesen az esztétikai kompozíciók és az a képességük, hogy egy konkrét érzetüket tudják kelteni. Ez kétségtelenül igaz az olyan jelenség ese- tében, amilyen a vizuális metafora. A Bikafej kompozíciós elemei a percepció függésláncolatát példázzák: a nye- reg és a kormány rekonstruálása perceptuális kontextusuktól függ. Az alak és forma láttatni kívánt tulajdonságai – a goodmani „példázott tulajdonságok” – az őket hordozó tárgytól és annak helyzetétől függnek. Mindez valamiféle bikafej- ben kulminál, valamiben, amit ekként klasszifikálhatunk. Bár a bikafej kategó- riában periferikus, mégis akként strukturálódik, és annak érzékeljük. Bikafej, ugyanakkor mégsem az. Ezt a dialektikus predikátumtulajdonítást, dialektikus 992 TEMATIKUS ÖSSZEÁLLÍTÁS • A VIZUÁLIS TANULÁS PERSPEKTÍVÁI Magyar Tudomány 180(2019)7 konstrukciót, amelyet a szemlélő esztétikai tapasztalata kísér, nem lehet teljes mértékben konceptualizálni mindaddig, amíg élő a metafora. Tulajdonképpen ár- tok azzal, hogy megpróbálom szavakba foglalni, hiszen így nyelvi vagy fogalmi rendet erőltetek a vizuálisra, ami a nemfogalmi élő és működő vizuális metaforát fogalmiságba dermeszti, végső soron holt metaforává teszi. 3. A (KÜLÖNFÉLE) METAFORÁK VIZUALITÁSA A metaforák e vizuális aspektusát elemezve olyan metaforaelméletet fogalma- zok meg, amely lényegeként jellemzi a vizualitást. A metaforikus szerkesztés, alkotás vagy átváltoztatás éppúgy, mint a metaforikus felfogás vagy megértés, egy dolog meglátása egy másikban, vizuális képesség. A metaforikus folyamat predikáció – egy predikátum valamely tárgyhoz rendelése – nemkonvencionális struktúrák vagy kompozíciók előállításával, vagyis kompozíciós, sőt, akár esz- tétikai eszközökkel. Itt azzal érvelek, hogy az újszerű predikációnak ez a folya- mata eredendően ontologikus, mert a dolog átváltozását eredményezi, egy újabb kategóriának rendeli alá. Következésképp a metafora dialektikus jelenség ebben a vonatkozásban: bár megbontja az ontologikus kategóriák rendjét, struktúrája ezt a törést harmonikusnak ábrázolja, legalábbis helytállónak tulajdonítja. Arra épül, hogy a kompozíció egyszerre rendhagyó és helytálló. Maga a metaforame- chanizmus inkább vizuális-tárgyi, mint fogalmi jellegű. A szintaktikus struktúra, formák és tárgyi kompozíció mechanizmusa, amely együtt jár a struktúrák és kompozíciók percepciójával. Ez a meghatározás a különféle metaforákra egyformán alkalmazható: a vizuális és tárgyi metaforákra, amilyenek Picasso szobrai, a Bikafej (URL1) vagy a Pávián és kölyke (URL2), Claes Oldenburg Óriás lágy dobok (URL3) vagy Sült krumpli és ketchup (URL4) című, mindennapi tárgyainkat óriási- ra nagyító alkotásai, Alessandro Martorelli borsóhüvelyt formázó jégtartója (URL5); a nyelvi metaforákra, amilyen Natan Alterman izraeli költő „hever az ősz halálos ágyán, elgyötört / vigasztalan ősz” sora (A harmadik anya, 1938) vagy Max Black példája, „az elnök vaskézzel vezette a vitát” (Black, 1954, 274.); és a fogalmi metaforákra, amelyekre Lakoff és Johnson utaltak (AZ ÉR- VELÉS HÁBORÚ, A BOLDOGSÁG FELFELÉ IRÁNYULTSÁG, AZ ELMÉLETEK ÉPÜLETEK). A Pávián és kölyke és a Bikafej két, különböző kategóriákból származó alko- tórészt foglalnak egy entitásba. Oldenburg Sült krumpli és ketchup vagy Óriás lágy dobok című szobrai nem entitásokat, hanem különféle témákat, méreteket és anyagokat egyesítenek. A játékautó (céltartomány) a pávián feje (forrástarto- mány), és néha fordítva is igaz: a fej valójában autó. A krumpli óriási és műanyag- ból készült, a dobok viszont párnákból. Ezek a struktúrák magasabb szintre eme- VIZUÁLIS METAFORÁK ÉS KOGNÍCIÓ – A NEMFOGALMI ÚJRAGONDOLÁSA 993 Magyar Tudomány 180(2019)7 lik a pávián, krumpli, dob és párna kategóriákat éppúgy, mint a predikátumok bővítményeit. A vizuális metaforák szinte minden vizuális művészetben megtalálhatók. Ernst Gombrich már 1960–63 táján megállapította, hogy minden vizuális művészet percepciója metaforikus, a szemlélők metaforikus-perceptuális irányultságára épül. Gombrich, akit érdekes módon nem tartanak metafora-teoretikusnak, az elsők között terjesztette ki a metaforavitát tárgyakra és képekre, így azt onto- lógiai aspektussal is gazdagította. Kijelenti, hogy a metafora valamely funkció rávetítése egy dologra, amellyel az átváltozik valami más dologgá: a botból lehet vesszőparipa, a hóemberből képmás, vagy Édouard Manet színes festékfoltjai átváltozhatnak lovakká (Gombrich, 1985, 10.). Goodman, akinek ontológiájára nyilvánvalóan hatott Gombriché, ezt bontotta ki a bármilyen – fogalmi, nyelvi vagy vizuális – jelenséghez hozzárendelhető metaforikus-expresszív tulajdonsá- gok ontológiai elméletében. Ezt a gondolatmenetet folytatta Arthur Danto onto- logikus esztétikai elméletével: A közhely színeváltozása című könyvében (1981) a metaforákat a stílus felől jellemzi, amely a világ-látás alkotó módjából ered. Noël Carroll Vizuális metafora című tanulmányában az egyterűséget határozza meg a vizuális metaforák feltételeként: egyazon térben, sőt, valójában egyazon körül- határolt fizikai entitáson belül különféle elemek léteznek. Carroll állítása szerint ezek az elemek különböző kategóriákat vagy fogalmakat juttatnak eszünkbe, amelyeket úgy kapcsolunk össze és aktiválunk, hogy a valamely kategóriával társított dolog egy részét megfeleltetjük egy másiknak, vagyis „a vizuális meta- forák olyan képi vagy másként vizuális eszközöket használnak, amelyek azonos- ságukra utalva segítik a szemlélőt, hogy a metaforikus összefüggést felismerje” (Carroll, 1994, 190.). Megállapíthatjuk, hogy számos elméletben elfogadott bizonyos képek vagy tárgyak metaforaként történő osztályozása. Ezek azonban többnyire inkább a konceptuális vagy kognitív irányzathoz tartoznak, mint a vizuálishoz. Vagyis főként a metaforikus jelentéssel foglalkoznak, a fogalmi vagy a nyelvi metafora definícióját alkalmazzák a vizuális metaforára is. Carroll például kifejti, hogy a vizuális metaforák „ugyanúgy működnek, mint a verbális metaforák, értelmüket a szemlélő többé-kevésbé úgy azonosítja, ahogyan az olvasó vagy a hallgató azo- nosítja a verbális metafora értelmét” (Carroll, 1994, 189.). Ebből kiindulva felteszi a kérdést: vajon a vizuális metaforák valójában vizualitásba burkolózott nyelvi metaforák? Az én válaszom erre az, hogy épp az ellenkezője igaz: a verbális me- tafora struktúrája és szintaktikai sűrűsége révén nyeri el metaforikus jellegét. A Carroll kérdésfelvetésére adott válasz hasznos a vizuális metafora nemnyelvi természetének jellemzésében is, megnyitja az utat a metafora általános definíció- ja felé. A vizuális metafora egy kép vagy tárgy materiális konstrukciója. Nem érthetjük meg Picasso alkotását pusztán azáltal, hogy visszavezetjük a ’bicikli’ vagy ’bika’ szavakra. Ez a metafora független a nyelvtől. Kizárólag a bikafejjé 994 TEMATIKUS ÖSSZEÁLLÍTÁS • A VIZUÁLIS TANULÁS PERSPEKTÍVÁI Magyar Tudomány 180(2019)7 átváltoztatott nyereg és kormány vizuális jellemzőire épül, ugyanakkor részben megőrzi eredeti formális azonosságukat. A metaforák vizualitásának érve tehát szemben áll azokkal az elméletekkel, amelyek a metaforát – szemantikai mecha- nizmusára, tágabb értelmére és kognitív értékére alapozva – eredendően nyelvi vagy fogalmi jelenségként határozzák meg. Ezek az elméletek a 20. század má- sodik fele óta – a nyelvfilozófia, később pedig a kognitív tudományok hatására – meghatározó szerepet játszanak a filozófiai vitában. Érvelésemben addig merészkedem, hogy megfogalmazok még két állítást. Az első: míg a vizuális metafora nem verbális eredetű, a verbális metaforáról elmond- hatjuk, hogy vizuális eredetű – vizuális-verbális egység (amelyet „vizuális verbali- tás” jellemez). A második állítás: a metaforikus fogalmiság kivonására tett verbális kísérletek valójában vagy nem is tudják megragadni, vagy szó szerint értelmezett megnyilatkozásba dermesztik a metaforát. Ez mindennemű metaforára érvényes, a verbálisra is. Nem az a kérdés, hogy a metafora fogalmakból vagy képekből ered-e. A metaforát megfelelő jellemzéséhez először is a formalista filozófia nézőpontjá- ból kell vizsgálnunk, amely megmutatja, hogy a jelenségek lényege a struktúra. Reményeim szerint ez az érv magyarázó erejű: segít feltárni a metafora esztétikai jellegét, amitől aktív, produktív és hatásos lesz, amíg csak eleven. Ha a metafora lényegeként a vizualitását határozzuk meg, akkor elfogadhatjuk, hogy a vizuális metafora a paradigmatikus fajta, ennek mechanizmusát veszik át a különféle metaforák. A metaforikus folyamat alapja inkább a megfelelő forma, konfiguráció, szintaktikai elrendezés vagy tárgyi kompozíció, mint az, hogy egy dolgot egy másik dolog segítségével értelmezünk. Bár nem nyilvánvaló, azért ezeket a terminusokat választottam, hogy rámutassak a metafora alapját képező kvalitatív jellemzőire: a megjelenésére, magára a metaforikus közegre. Még a fogalmi metafora is függ a strukturális kategorizálástól, attól, hogy egy fogalmat valami másnak látunk, ezt pedig a vizuális közeg kínálta strukturális lehetőségek segítik elő. Lakoff és Johnson fogalmi metaforája, A BOLDOGSÁG FELFELÉ IR ÁNYULTSÁG kompozíció, egy érzelem vagy hangulat rekonstrukciója, amit a külső fizikai jegyek felhasználásával érhetünk el. Ugyanez érvényes Alterman „elgyötört / vigasztalan ősz” szóképére: az ősz átváltozik – de mivé? Talán… végtelenül szomorú évszak lesz belőle? Nem lehet fogalmakkal vagy szavakkal megragadni a lényegét. Így még világosabb a szintaxis szerepe a nyelvi metafora – ahol a metafora azonosítását a mondatszerkezet határozza meg – és a vizuális metafora esetében egyaránt. Tehát a metafora a köznapi nyelv esztétikai rétege – a metszéspont, ahol a nyelv és a művészet találkoznak. A metafora paradigmatikus módon magában foglalja a vizuális tartomány és a köznapi nyelv, pontosabban a képek és a sza- vak viszonyát. A vizuális metafora többféleképpen is paradigmatikus: a metafora, pontosabban a metafora újonnan konstruált céltartományának ontologikus vonat- kozását mutatja. A metafora kompozíciós percepcióját példázza. Vagyis annak a VIZUÁLIS METAFORÁK ÉS KOGNÍCIÓ – A NEMFOGALMI ÚJRAGONDOLÁSA 995 Magyar Tudomány 180(2019)7 megnyilvánulása, hogy a metafora percepciója inkább a vizualitására épül, mint- sem fogalmi megértésére vagy kogníciójára. A metaforikus folyamat predikációja több kategóriát átfogó struktúrákon, nemkonvencionális kompozíciókon alapszik. A képletes nyelv maga is attól függ, hogy képesek vagyunk-e az efféle struktú- rákat a maguk valójában látni, vagy új kompozícióként az elménkben létrehozni. Tágabb értelemben az újszerű kompozíció felfogása vizuális, sőt, esztétikai ké- pesség: hogy ne csak Pablo Picasso Pávián és kölyke című szobrát lássuk, hanem a magunk számára elképzeljük és egyben megalkossuk a meleg és hideg színeket, a palack „száját” vagy a fabot lovat, hogy felfogjuk – képet alkotva megértsük – a vaskezű elnök vagy az elmélet-épület fogalmát. Ha feltárjuk a metaforák vizualitását, az maga után vonhatja azt is, hogy a kul- turális haladást és szellemiséget inkább esztétikai, mint fogalmi irányultságúként jellemezhetjük. Gombrich szépen magyarázza a metafora ontológiáját és percep- cióját egyaránt: „Egy autó két fényszóróját érzékelhetjük egy izzó szempárnak; még el is nevezhetjük így. A művész pedig felhasználhatja ezt a hasonlóságot arra, hogy kidolgozza az átalakulás csodáját. Éppen ezt csinálta Picasso, amikor megalkotta a páviánnak és kölykének csodálatos bronzszobrát. Vett egy játékau- tót, talán éppen gyerekeinek a szobájából, és ebből lett a pávián feje. Az autó tetejébe és szélvédőjébe belelátta az arcot; aztán ez az új klasszifikálás sugalmaz- hatta azt a gondolatot, hogy ötletét mindjárt próbára is tegye. Ebben az esetben is, mint olyan sokszor máskor, a művész váratlan fölfedezése, hogy mire használha- tó egy autó, kettős hatással van reánk. Nemcsak abban követjük az alkotót, hogy az általa felhasznált speciális autóban a pávián fejét látjuk, hanem megtanuljuk tőle egyszersmind a világ új tagolásának (megismerésének) a módját, egy új me- taforát is” (Gombrich, 1994, 89. – kiemelés tőlem). IRODALOM Black, M. (1954): Metaphor. (Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, New Series, 55) 273–294. Carroll, N. (1994): Visual Metaphor. In: Hintikka, J. (ed.): Aspects of Metaphor. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 189–218. Danto, A. C. (1981): The Transfiguration of the Commonplace: A Philosophy of Art. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Magyarul (1996): A közhely színeváltozása. Művészetfilozófia (ford. Sajó S.). Budapest: Enciklopédia Kiadó Gombrich, E. H. (1985, 1951): Meditations on a Hobby Horse or the Roots of Artistic Form. In: Gombrich, E. H.: Meditations on a Hobby Horse and Other Essays on the Theory of Art. Lon- don: Phaidon Press. Magyarul Gombrich, E. H. (2003): Elmélkedés egy vesszőparipáról, avagy a művészi forma gyökerei. (ford. Rohonczi K.) In: Horányi Ö. (szerk.): A sokarcú kép. Váloga- tott tanulmányok a képek logikájáról. Budapest: Typotex Kiadó, 23–39. Gombrich, E. H. (1994, 1960): Art and Illusion: A Study in the Psychology of Pictorial Represen- tation. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Magyarul Gombrich, E. H. (1972): Művészet és illúzió. A képi ábrázolás pszichológiája (ford. Szabó Á.). Budapest: Gondolat Kiadó 996 TEMATIKUS ÖSSZEÁLLÍTÁS • A VIZUÁLIS TANULÁS PERSPEKTÍVÁI Magyar Tudomány 180(2019)7 Goodman, N. (1978): Ways of Worldmaking. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company Kelly, S. D. 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DOI: 10.2307/2678383 URL1: Pablo Picasso: Head of a Bull [Bikafej], 1943. https://www.pablopicasso.org/bull-head.jsp URL2: Pablo Picasso: Baboon and Young [Pávián és kölyke], 1951. https://www.pablopicasso.org/ baboon-and-young.jsp URL3: Claes Oldenburg: Giant Soft Drum Set [Óriás lágy dobok], 1967. http://www.artnetweb. com/oldenburg/musicale.html URL4: Claes Oldenburg: French Fries and Ketchup [Sült krumpli és ketchup], 1963. https://whit- ney.org/Exhibitions/Oldenburg URL5: Alessandro Martorelli: Frozen Peas [Borsóhüvely-jégtartó], 2014. https://cargocollective. com/alessandromartorellidesign/frozen-peas 
work_7b6553qcubbwrotiug55rlunuq	----	61 For four centuries, the pan-European art school has been built on the phased development of mas- tery, a curriculum which includes drawing classical plaster casts. Art historians and memoirists repeat- edly recall the initial stages of the biographies of many contemporary (in the broadest sense of the definition, as it is accepted today - starting almost from impressionists) artists who deny and, moreo- ver, reject this occupation as being a “meaningless” and “harmful” formation of artistic thinking. Mean- while, truly famous names, whose biographies para- Nina V. Getashvili Professor. Dean of the Faculty of Art History, Head of the Department of History of Art Ilya Glazunov Russian Academy of Painting, Sculpture and Architecturee-mail:ninagallery@yandex.ru Russia, Moscow ORCID 0000-0003-0113-3203 DOI:10.36340/2071-6818-2020-16-3-61-70 ALEXANDER BURGANOV. IN THE DEPTHS ABOVE REALITY. (ANTIQUE MOTIFS IN THE CONTEXT OF CREATIVE WORK) Summary: For decades, images of antiquity have ap- peared in the creative work of academician Alexander Burganov. The sculptor declaratively emphasizes his focus on the cultural tradition which evolved from the cradle of Antiquity and which is, therefore, understandable to an- yone who shares its humanistic ideals. The article refers to his personal exhibitions and events of the last decades: “Dreams Within Us. A Magic Crystal” at the Moscow Central House of Artists in 1987, “Magic Realism” in Germany in 1993, “Antique Motifs in Modern Sculpture” in the Burganov House Museum at which he presented his “legends and myths of Ancient Greece” in 2017, and the exhibition held in the Antique Hall in the Museum of Archeology of the Westphalian Wilhelm Uni- versity of Münster in 2013. Works and cycles, never directly illustrating ancient mythology but unconsciously translating the archetypal, the transcendental through personal experience, a sen- sory reaction, are considered. The frequent presence of Burganov’s works of art in an “intermediate” state, in the process of transformation, which makes it easy to de- tect the surreal component, is their feature. Burganov’s “antique” sculptures organically exist not only in exhibition halls but also outside them - be it the courtyard of the Burganov House Museum or the square in Brussels where the sculptures in the window display of the Burganov House at the Grand Place are no less eye-catching than the monument in the same square. Noble restraint (with clearly readable spectac- ularity), bearing in itself, within itself, dreams and pas- sions, reality and mysticism, gives Burganov’s “antique” images-metaphors a special feature that requires com- prehension of the slow, at the same time the reasonable and the emotional in order to be able to penetrate the limits of the immanent artist’s impermeability. Keywords: Alexander Burganov, antiquity, sculpture, surrealism, archetype, metaphor doxically indicate an inverse attitude, can be named. For example, Pablo Picasso, Salvador Dali, Giorgio de Chirico. Moreover, these masters, whose involve- ment in “modernity” cannot be doubted, interpret- ed their own, private mythology through the images of antiquity; often, they persistently included imag- es of ancient sculptural monuments, fragments of plaster casts in their compositions. Zadkine, Modi- gliani, Matisse can be included in a considerable list of masters of the European twentieth century in whose works antique motifs became noticeable and 62 63 important outside the space of neoclassicism. Over many decades of their stay in the Soviet space, art- ists of Russia show only rare examples (in my opin- ion, the creative work of S.Romanovich is the most striking one) of devotion to “European childhood”. Alexander Burganov’s appeal to mythological characters does not at all seem a speculative re- minder of “eternal images”. In today’s slang, this is a personal story. As evidenced not only by antique artifacts in the collection of his museum; and not only the exhibition-events of the last decade: “An- cient Motifs in Modern Sculpture” (the Burganov House Museum) at which he presented his “leg- ends and myths of Ancient Greece” in 2017 and a personal exhibition held in the Antique Hall of the Museum of Archeology of the Westphalian Wilhelm University in ancient Münster. Or one of the main exhibition spaces in the Burganov House is called Pegasus (I recall that the white Pegasus, a symbol of free creativity, on a high pedestal, in fact, reigns in the courtyard of the Burganov House). It is very important to realize that images of an- tiquity have been born for more than one decade in the creative work of Burganov who declarative- ly emphasizes his focus on the commonality of the cultural tradition that evolved from the cradle of Antiquity and which is, therefore, understandable to anyone who shares its high humanistic ideals 1. However, consanguinity with the European be- ginning is visible through the prism of other cultur- al kinship ties. Many of the artifacts he has created (the way how weightily and vividly Burganov’s sculp- tures present themselves to the viewer make it pos- sible to choose this definition without reference to the common word meaning and to speak of “the fact of art”) often shine with whiteness, highlight- ing the classic ideal surface of a generalized form. Their outline is melodious and flowing even when they appear in “fragments” as, for example, in The Fall of Icarus or in Ancient Dreams (Nymph Arethu- sa, Battle of the Amazons, Marathon). Burganov can be called a master in whose work it is difficult to distinguish the opus magnum, the work which makes you want to compare it with an integral novelistic form covering all periods of the master’s life. 1. Cit. by: Burganova M. “Experience of Exhibiting Modern Sculpture” // The Art of Sculpture in the 20th-21st Centuries: Masters, Trends, Problems. Moscow: BuksMArt, 2018. P.72. Alexander Burganov. Sphinx. Bronze The Trojan War. Clay, metal. 2013. The composition was created specifically for Alexander Burganov’s personal exhibition at the Wilhelm Museum of Archeology of the University of Westphalia in Münster. 2013  64 In most works, intrigue is preserved, visual im- ages do not allow the audience’s consciousness to be adequately realized in the commentary word, in the detailed determination. “Life situation”, “psy- chopathology of everyday life”, or, more impressive, - “national idea”... - Burganov creates in another dimension. Invisible concepts, containing deeper meanings, are embodied in reality. And Burganov’s “legends and myths of Ancient Greece” are by no means illustrations of such; they are rather very per- sonal experiences, a sensory reaction to the sub- consciously archetypal. The choice of such (from the multitude) is, in fact, an artistic message and it forms the basis for understanding the nature and mentality of our sculptor. A Bouquet - Daphne without tragedy. A short-term and unforgettable, literally, flowering of youth. Bur- ganov’s muses are the sculptor’s own improvisations. As a cultural phenomenon, Ovid’s Metamorpho- ses can be called the first experience of surrealism for which the transformation of familiar forms has be- come one of the main signs of the style. The specific- ity of the text encourages the reader to make efforts in order to imagine the moments of the intermedi- ate stages of reincarnation. Burganov demonstrates those for anyone to see firsthand. It becomes clear why Pierre Cardin recognized a surreal component in Burganov. (Since then, all of the completely valid at- tempts made before both by the artist and art critics to define the original, once a recognizable language, intonation, and meanings of his work, markings such as “magical realism”, “new romanticism” had been re- placed and “surrealism” became a universal tool for interpretation. Meanwhile, let’s ask a professional question: how far is, for example, Ernst Fuchs’s “mag- ical realism” from the surrealistic basis? May I remind you of some facts and events in the biography of our master: personal exhibitions “Dreams Within Us. A Magic Crystal” in the Moscow Central House of Art- ists in 1987, “Magic Realism” in Germany in 1993 and in MMoMA in 2016, participation in the general ex- hibition “Sleep Reveals the Nature of Things” at the State Tretyakov Gallery in 1993, allowing both to ask and confidently answer the question posed.) Consciousness and subconsciousness, the Apol- lonian and the Dionysian turn out to be alpha and omega in the interpretation of Burganov’s gallery of images. However, the environment of his Moscow Alexander Burganov. Medusa. 2008. Red wood 65 Alexander Burganov. Wind. Paper, ink 66 House-Museum, in which the layout of the halls was thought of as an analogy of a “labyrinth”, is easily associated in memory with the creation of his eldest contemporary, the Salvador Dali Theater-Museum in Figueres, which means with the whole range of cultural codes chosen from antiquity to discover- ies of the twentieth century. The variants of Chimera, not only the chthonic character of ancient myths but also one of the fa- vorite images of sur-reality, are an example of the Dionysian. Is it worth mentioning the relevance of chimeras in modern realities? As a rule, with all the artistry and elegant invention, lightweight carnival overtones do not sound in Burganov’s plastic in- tonation, the intonation is born from deep origins. On canvases enclosed in frames, and in graph- ics, sheets with margins, surreal dream paradoxes usually appear as if on screens outside the profane, conscious location of the viewer. The sculptural vari- ations, presenting themselves in the 3D dimension, Alexander Burganov. Medusa. 2008. Red wood even in distance affect directly, becoming a fact of the audience’s own participation in the “happening”. Charged with dense energy, expressive and ele- gant, Burganov’s sculptures organically exist not only in the exhibition halls but also outside them. They lit- erally burst into space, giving it structure and mate- riality be it the Moscow courtyard or in the Belgian capital where, in fact, sculptures in the window display of the Burganov House at the Grand Place are no less eye-catching than the monument in the same square. Perhaps the artist himself intuitively feels their foreign activity in the “proposed circumstances”, and, therefore, tactfully creates frames-limitations as if forming and fixing a zone of their own emanation, aura. (Such an intention is not articulated. In a ratio- nal, programmatic explanation of the idea of such a motive, he is not only a “frame” but also a “cage”, a tragic symbol of suffering and lack of freedom). In these structures, plastic motifs, even filled with bacchic frenzy, seem to resign, distance themselves from their surroundings, and make it easier for the viewer to read the “storyboard” of the composition, giving rise to a paradox: the fragmentation of com- positions in no way deprives the images of integrity. The art of the Russian sculptor with his inter- national recognition and, so to speak, adaptation by the international audience, nevertheless, in my opinion, is seen in an undeniable connection with the Moscow historical environment - the propor- tions and rhythms of the old quarters, the mysteri- ous romanticism, white empire columns, restrained expressiveness. It is this noble restraint (with clearly readable spectacularity), bearing in itself, within itself, dreams and passions, reality and mysticism, gives Burganov’s “antique” images-metaphors a special feature that requires a comprehension of the slow, at the same time the reasonable and the emotion- al in order to be able to penetrate the limits of the immanent artist’s impermeability. 67 REFERENCES 1. Burganova, M.A., Smolenkova, Ju.A. 2020. “Alexander Burganov: a New Code of Time and Space”, Nauchno- analiticheskiy zhurnal “Dom Burganova. Prostranstvo kul’tury” [Art Literature Scientific and Analytic Journal Burganov House. The Space of Culture], vol. 16, no, 1, pp. 19-37. DOI:10.36340/2071-6818-2020-16-1-19- 37 (in English) 2. Sakhno, I.M. 2020. “Alexander Burganov’s Alternative Worlds and Visual Ideograms“,Nauchno-analiticheskiy zhurnal “Dom Burganova. Prostranstvo kul’tury” [Art Literature Scientific and Analytic Journal Burganov House. The Space of Culture], vol. 16, no, 1, pp. 38-55. DOI:10.36340/2071-6818-2020-16-1-38-55 (in English) 3. Alexander Burganov. 2013. Ancient dreams. Catalog. Archaeological Museum. Munster. 4. Burganova, M. A. 2015. “Skul’ptor Aleksandr Burganov” [“Sculptor Alexander Burganov”], Nauchno-analitiches- kiy zhurnal “Dom Burganova. Prostranstvo kul’tury” [Art, Literature and Music Scientific and Analytical Journal “Burganov House. The space of culture”], no.1, pp. 223– 235. (in English) 5. Burganova, М.А. 2016. Скульптура Новейшего времени в музее Археологии Вестфальского университета им. Вильгельма в Мюнстере, Nauch- no-analiticheskiy zhurnal “Dom Burganova. Prostrans- tvo kul’tury” [Art Literature Scientific and Analytic Jour- nal Burganov House. The Space of Culture]. no. 3, pp. 39-50. (in Russian) 6. Burganova, М.А. 2010. “Syurrealizm. Russkaya tra- ditsiya” [“Surrealism. Russian tradition”], Nauchno- analiticheskiy zhurnal “Dom Burganova. Prostranstvo kul’tury” [Art Literature Scientific and Analytic Journal Burganov House. The Space of Culture], no. 4, pp. 34- 52. (in Russian) 7. Zhukovsky, V.I. 2014. “Vizual’noye myshleniye v protsesse khudozhestvennogo tvorchestva” [“Visual Thinking in the Process of Artistic Creation”], Filosofiya i kul’tura [Philosophy and Culture], no. 4, pp. 618–627. DOI:10.7256/1999–2793.2014.4.10770 (in Russian) 8. Portnova, T.V. 2019. “Plasticheskiye modifikatsii A. Bur- ganova: o vystavke «Teatr skul’ptur» v muzeye A.A. Bakhrushina” [“Plastic modifications by A. Burganov: about the exhibition “Theater of Sculptures” in the A. Bakhrushi- na”], Idei i idealy [Ideas and Ideals], vol. 11, no.1, part 2, pp. 406‐418. DOI: 10.17212/2075-0862-2019-11.1.2-406- 418 (in Russian) 9. Pogozhina, S.V. 2019. “Zapadnyye vozdeystviya na kul’tury Vostoka: kontakty i konflikty” [“Western influ- ences on the cultures of the East: contacts and con- flicts”], Oriyentalistika [Orientalism], vol.2, no. 2, pp. 457-471. DOI: 10.31696/2618-7043-2019-2-2-457-471 (in Russian) 10. Turchin, V.S. 2015. “Burganovskiye motivy: ataka obra- zov, deystvuyushchikh v prostranstve. Dialog s khao- som” [“Burganov’s motives: an attack of images acting in space. Dialogue with chaos”], Nauchno-analiticheskiy zhurnal “Dom Burganova. Prostranstvo kul’tury” [Art Lit- erature Scientific and Analytic Journal Burganov House. The Space of Culture], vol. 11, no. 1. pp. 236-259 (in Russian). 68 Нина Викторовна Геташвили Декан факультета искусствоведения, заведующая кафедрой всеобщей истории искусства, профессор Российской академии живописи, ваяния и зодчества Ильи Глазунова e-mail: ninagallery@yandex.ru Россия, Москва ORCID 0000-0003-0113-3203 DOI:10.36340/2071-6818-2020-16-3-61-70 АЛЕКСАНДР БУРГАНОВ. В ГЛУБИНЕ НАД РЕАЛЬНОСТЬЮ. (АНТИЧНЫЕ МОТИВЫ В КОНТЕКСТЕ ТВОРЧЕСТВА) Аннотация: Образы античности на протяжении не одного десятилетия рождаются в творчестве академи- ка Александра Бурганова. Скульптор декларативно подчеркивает свой ориен- тир на культурную традицию, выросшую из колыбели Античности и поэтому понятную всем, кто разделяет ее гуманистические идеалы. В статье упоминаются персональные выставки-со- бытия последних десятилетий, на которых демонстри- ровались его работы: 1987 года в московском ЦДХ «Сновидение внутри нас. Магический кристалл», 1993 года – «Магический реализм» в Германии, 2017 года – «Античные мотивы в современной скульптуре» (Дом-му- зей А.Н. Бурганова), на которой он выступил со своими «легендами и мифами Древней Греции», и прошедшая в 2013 году в античном зале Музея археологии Вестфаль- ского университете им. Вильгельма (WWU – Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität) в Мюнстере. Рассматриваются работы и циклы, никогда напрямую не иллюстрирующие античную мифологию, но через личное переживание, чувственную реакцию транслиру- ющие подсознательно архетипическое, трансцендент- ное. Особенностью художественных творений Бурганова является их частое пребывание в «промежуточном» со- стоянии, в процессе транс-формации, что позволяет легко обнаружить сюрреалистическую составляющую. Бургановские «античные» скульптуры органично су- ществуют не только в выставочных залах, но и за стенами таковых, будь это «московский дворик» собственного Дома-музея или площадь в Брюсселе, где скульптура в «витрине» Дома Бурганова на Гранд пляс притягива- ет взгляд с не меньшей властностью, чем монумент на той же площади. Благородная сдержанность (при явно считываемой зрелищности), несущая в себе, внутри себя, сны и страсти, реальность и мистику, придает бур- гановским «античным» образам-метафорам особость, требующую постижения медленного, одновременно разумного и эмоционального, чтобы суметь проник- нуть в пределы имманентной авторской герметичности. Ключевые слова: Александр Бурганов, античность, скульптура, сюрреализм, архетип, метафора Общеевропейская художественная школа че- тыре столетия строится на поэтапном освоении мастерства, учебной программы, включившей ри- сунок с «античных гипсов». Историки искусств и мемуаристы не раз вспоминают начальные этапы биографий многих современных (в самом широ- ком смысле этого определения, как это сегодня принято, – чуть ли не с импрессионистов) худож- ников, которые отрицают, более того отторгают это «бессмысленное» и «вредное» для формиро- вания художественного мышления занятие. А меж- ду тем можно назвать поистине звездные имена, биографии носителей которых парадоксально сви- детельствуют об обратном отношении. Например, – Пабло Пикассо, Сальвадор Дали, Джорджо де Кирико. Более того, эти мастера, в причастности к «современности» которых не приходится сомне- ваться, через образы античности интерпретирова- ли собственную, частную, мифологию, настойчиво и часто включали изображения античных скуль- птурных памятников, фрагменты гипсов в свои композиции. Цадкина, Модильяни, Матисса можно ввести в немалый список мастеров европейского ХХ века, в творчестве которых античные мотивы стали заметными и важными вне пространства неоклассики. Художники России же за долгие де- сятилетия пребывания в советском пространстве демонстрируют лишь редкие образцы (один из них, наиболее яркий, на мой взгляд, – творчество С.М. Романовича) преданности «европейскому детству». Обращение Александра Бурганова к мифологи- ческим персонажам вовсе не кажется умозритель- 69 ным напоминанием о «вечных образах». Говоря сегодняшним сленгом, это – личная история. О чем свидетельствуют не только античные артефакты в коллекции его музея; не только выставки-события последнего десятилетия: 2017 года – «Античные мо- тивы в современной скульптуре» (Дом-музей А.Н. Бурганова), на которой он выступил со своими «ле- гендами и мифами Древней Греции», и – персональ- ная, прошедшая в 2013 году в античном зале Музея археологии Вестфальского университете им. Виль- гельма (WWU – Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität) в древнем Мюнстере. Или – название одного из глав- ных выставочных пространств в «Доме Бургано- ва» – «Пегас» (напомню, что белый Пегас, символ свободного творчества, на высоком пьедестале, по сути, царит во дворе Дома Бурганова). Очень важно осознать, что образы античности на протяжении не одного десятилетия рождают- ся в творчестве Бурганова, который декларативно подчеркивает свой ориентир на общность куль- турной традиций, выросшей из колыбели Антич- ности, и поэтому понятны всем, кто разделяет ее высокие гуманистические идеалы 1. Кровное родство с европейскими истоками, впрочем, просматривается через призму других культурных родственных связей. Многие сотворен- ные им артефакты (то, как весомо и ярко скульптуры Бурганова предъявляют себя зрителю, позволяет избрать это определение без ссылки на общесло- варное значение, а говорить о – «факте искусства») часто сияют белизной, отсвечивая классицистиче- ской идеальной поверхностью обобщенной формы. Их абрис певуч и плавен, даже когда они оказыва- ются показанными во «фрагментах», как в «Паде- нии Икара», или в «Античных сновидениях (Нимфа Аретуза, Битва амазонок, Марафон)», например. Бурганова можно назвать мастером, в творчестве которого трудно выделить опус магнум, и которое хочется сравнить с цельной романной формой, ох- ватывающей все периоды жизни мастера. В большинстве работ сохраняется интрига, визуальные образы не позволяют зрительско- му сознанию адекватно осуществляться в ком- ментаторском слове, в детальной детерминации. «Жизненная ситуация», «психопатология обыден- ной жизни», или, внушительней, – «национальная идея»… – Бурганов творит в другом измерении. В реальности воплощаются невидимые понятия, 1. Цит. по: Бурганова М. Опыт экспонирования скульптуры но- вейшего времени //Искусство скульптуры в XX–XXI веках: ма- стера, тенденции, проблемы. М.: БуксМАрт, 2018. С. 72. содержащие более глубинные смыслы. И «леген- ды и мифы Древней Греции» у Бурганова отнюдь не иллюстрации таковых, скорее – очень личное переживание, чувственная реакция на подсозна- тельно архетипическое. Выбор такового (из всего множества), по сути, являет художественное по- слание и ложится в основу понимания характера и ментальности нашего скульптора. «Букет» – Дафна без трагизма. Кратковремен- ное и незабываемое, в буквальном смысле, цве- тение юности. Музы Бурганова также оказываются авторскими импровизациями. Овидиевские «Метаморфозы» как культурный феномен можно назвать первым опытом сюрре- ализма, для которого трансформация привычных форм стала одним из главных признаков стилевой принадлежности. Специфика текста побуждает чи- тателя совершать усилия, дабы представить себе моменты промежуточных стадий перевоплоще- ний. Бурганов же демонстрирует таковые воочию. Становится понятным, почему Пьер Карден рас- познал у Бурганова сюрреалистическую состав- ляющую. (С тех пор все до этого вполне валидные попытки, и самого автора, и искусствоведов-кри- тиков, определения самобытного, на раз узнавае- мого языка, интонации и смыслов его творчества, маркировки, как, например, – «магический реа- лизм», «новый романтизм», оказались вытеснен- ными, а «сюрреализм» сделался универсальным инструментом для интерпретаций. Между тем, за- дадимся профессиональным вопросом: насколько «магический реализм» Эрнста Фукса, например, удален от сюрреалистической основы? Напом- ню некоторые факты-события в биографии наше- го мастера: персональные выставки – 1987 года в московском ЦДХ «Сновидение внутри нас. Ма- гический кристалл», 1993 года – «Магический ре- ализм» в Германии и 2016 в ММоМА, участие в общей 1993 года в ГТГ экспозиции «Сон раскры- вает природу вещей», позволяющие и вопрошать и уверенно отвечать на поставленный вопрос.) Сознание и подсознание, аполлоническое и дионисийское оказываются альфой и омегой в толковании бургановской галереи образов. Но и среда его московского Дома-музея, в котором планировка залов мыслилась как аналогия «лаби- ринта», легко ассоциируется в памяти с творени- ем его старшего современника – Театром-музеем Сальвадора Дали в Фигерасе, значит, и со всем из- бранным рядом культурных кодов от античности до открытий ХХ столетия. 70 Примером «дионисийского» – варианты «Хи- меры», не только хтонического персонажа древ- них мифов, но и одного из излюбленных образов сюр-реальности. Стоит ли упоминать об актуаль- ности химер в современных реалиях? При всем артистизме и изящном изобретательстве, как пра- вило, легковесные карнавальные обертоны не зву- чат в бургановской пластической интонации, она рождается из глубинных истоков. На холстах, заключенных в рамы, и в графике, с полями листов, сюрреалистические сновидческие парадоксы предстают обычно как на экранах, за пределами профанной, осознаваемой локации зри- теля. Скульптурные же вариации, предъявляющие таковые в 3D-измерении, даже на дистанции воз- действуют непосредственно, становясь фактом соб- ственного зрительского участия в «происходящем». Заряженные плотной энергией, экспрессивные и элегантные бургановские скульптуры органич- но существуют не только в выставочных залах, но и за стенами таковых. Они буквально врываются в пространство, придавая ему структуру и мате- риальность, будь это «московский дворик» или в бельгийской столице, где скульптура, по сути, в витрине Дома Бурганова на Гранд пляс притяги- вает взгляд с не меньшей властностью, чем мо- нумент на той же площади. Пожалуй, и сам автор интуитивно чувствует их инородную активность в «предлагаемых об- стоятельствах», а потому тактично создает ра- мы-ограничения, словно образуя и фиксируя зону собственной их эманации, ауры. (Такое на- мерение не артикулируется. В рациональном, про- граммном объяснении идеи подобного мотива он не только – «рама», но и – «клетка», трагический символ страдания и несвободы.) В этих структурах пластические мотивы, даже исполненные вакхи- ческой исступленностью, словно смиряются, дис- танцируются от окружения и позволяют зрителю легче вчитываться в «раскадровку» композиции, рождая парадокс: фрагментарность композиций ни в коем случае не лишает образы цельности. Искусство русского скульптора, с его междуна- родным признанием и, если можно так выразиться, адаптацией интернациональным зрителем, тем не менее, на мой взгляд, видится в несомненной связи именно с московским историческим окружением – пропорциями и ритмами старинных кварталов, таинственным романтизмом, белыми ампирными колоннами, сдержанной выразительности. Имен- но эта благородная сдержанность (при явно счи- тываемой зрелищности), несущая в себе, внутри себя, сны и страсти, реальность и мистику, прида- ет бургановским «античным» образам-метафорам особость, требующую постижения медленного, од- новременно разумного и эмоционального, чтобы суметь проникнуть в пределы имманентной ав- торской герметичности. БИБЛИОГРАФИЯ 1. Бурганова M.A., Смоленкова Ю.A. Александр Бур- ганов: новый код времени и пространства // Науч- но-аналитический журнал «Дом Бурганова. Про- странство культуры». – 2020. – Т. 16. – №. 1. – С. 19– 37. DOI:10.36340/2071-6818-2020-16-1-19-37. 2. Сахно И.M. Альтернативные миры и визуальные идеограммы Александра Бурганова // Научно-а- налитический журнал «Дом Бурганова. Простран- ство культуры». – 2020. – Т. 16. – № 1. – С. 38–55. DOI:10.36340/2071-6818-2020-16-1-38-55. 3. Александр Бурганов. Античные сновидения: Каталог / Археологический музей. – Мюнстер, 2013. 4. Бурганова М.А. Скульптор Александр Бурганов // Научно-аналитический журнал «Дом Бурганова. Пространство культуры». – 2015. – № 1. – С. 223–235. 5. Бурганова М.А. Скульптура Новейшего времени в музее Археологии Вестфальского университета им. Вильгельма в Мюнстере // Научно-аналитический журнал «Дом Бурганова. Пространство культуры». – 2016. – № 3. – С. 39–50. 6. Бурганова М.А. Сюрреализм. Русская традиция // Научно-аналитический журнал «Дом Бурганова. Пространство культуры». – 2010. – № 4. – С. 34–52. 7. Жуковский В.И. Визуальное мышление в процессе художественного творчества // Философия и куль- тура. – 2014. –№ 4. – C. 618-627. DOI: 10.7256/1999- 2793.2014.4.10770. 8. Портнова Т.В. Пластические модификации А. Бур- ганова: о выставке «Театр скульптур» в музее А.А. Бахрушина // Идеи и идеалы. – 2019. – Т. 11. – № 1. – Ч. 2. – С. 406–418. DOI: 10.17212/2075-0862-2019- 11.1.2-406-418. 9. Прожогина С.В. Западные воздействия на культуры Востока: контакты и конфликты. Ориенталистика. 2019;2(2):457-471. DOI: 10.31696/2618-7043-2019- 2-2-457-471. 10. Турчин В.С. Бургановские мотивы: атака образов, действующих в пространстве. Диалог с хаосом // Научно-аналитический журнал «Дом Бурганова. Пространство культуры». – 2015. – № 1. – С. 236–259. 
work_7c2ri3cecverld743zahbx5obe	----	Homer Simpson as Outsider Artist, or How I Learned to Accept Ambivalence (Maybe) Homer Simpson as Outsider Artist, or How I Learned to Accept Ambivalence (Maybe) Author(s): Reva Wolf Reviewed work(s): Source: Art Journal, Vol. 65, No. 3 (Fall, 2006), pp. 100-111 Published by: College Art Association Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20068484 . Accessed: 23/02/2012 13:08 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org. College Art Association is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Art Journal. http://www.jstor.org http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=caa http://www.jstor.org/stable/20068484?origin=JSTOR-pdf http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp 3 Homer creates art in the "Mom and Pop Art" episode of The Simpsons on Fox. (The Simpsons &? I999TCFFC.AII rights reserved. ? Fox Broadcasting) Homer Simpson purchases a build-it-yourself barbecue pit and, with the help of his daughter Lisa, starts to assemble it. Not surprisingly (for anyone who knows Homer), he makes a mess of the project. Unsuccessful in his attempt to return the now-mangled item to the store, he tries to get rid of it in other ways, in vain. As he then drives down the street with the object tethered to the back fender of his car, it dislodges and crashes into a car behind him. When the driver of this car later shows up at his house, he is certain she is there to sue. Instead, she explains that she owns an art gallery where she would like to exhibit his object. These early scenes in a spring 1999 episode of the The Feature Simpsons, entitled "Mom and Pop Art," written by Al Jean and directed by Steven Moore, introduce the twin questions that reverberate throughout the episode: What is art? Who is an artist?' These old, seemingly worn-out Reva Wolf Homer Simpson as Outsider Artist, or How I Learned to Accept Ambivalence (Maybe) questions go back to Marcel Duchamp's readymades of the 191 os but are infused with new energy and meaning on The Simpsons. The incisive wit we encounter here punctures our staid judgments about art and artists, thereby releasing the latent ambivalence and confusion that we ought to welcome, confront, and enjoy. The ambivalence and confusion about the what and who of art first enter the picture when Homer responds to the gallery owner's enthusiastic labeling of his failed barbecue pit as art. "You mean this hunk o' junk?" he asks. "This isn't art; it's a barbecue pit that pushed me over the edge." His wife, Marge, agrees: "You? An artist?" For habitual viewers of The Simpsons, Marge s exclamation of disbelief is rich in association. We know Marge is perennially annoyed by Homer's aversion to any cultural activities that might be deemed "high art." We know, too, from the episode "Brush with Greatness" of exactly eight years earlier (to the day), that as a high school student Marge herself had aspired to be an artist, and had sent Ringo Starr a portrait she had painted of him.2 Marge's por traits stand for conventional artistic skill, while Homer's contraption represents an unintended alternative to convention. Yet Homer as a character does not fit the alternative bill. This incongruity, by disorienting us, contributes significantly to our confusion, since we are unable to fit the idea of "Homer the artist" neatly into our existing categories and stereotypes. Homer's initial disagreement with the art dealer's determination that his ruined barbecue pit is art sets the stage for a scene toward the end of the episode, in which Homer and Marge pay a visit to the local art museum. I will reveal a bit later what occasions this museum visit. For the present, I will zoom in on Homer's discovery, at the museum, of the comic-strip characters Akbar and Jeff, drawn by none other than the creator of The Simpsons, Matt Groening. Homer, 3 I presented an earlier version of this paper at the College Art Association Annual Conference ses sion "Comic Art," New York, February 20, 2003, chaired by Benjamin Binstock and Benjamin Lapp. Other versions of the paper were given at the Philosophy Club lecture series of the State University of New York, New Paltz (April 2003). and at the National Graduate Seminar of the Photography Institute, Columbia University (June 2004). Kristine Harris and Robert Polito provided numerous beneficial comments, and Eugene Heath prodded me to articulate what in an earlier draft I only hinted at. Steve Martits and Susan DeMaio generously assisted me with some unusual technological needs. Thanks to Alfred Bie and Andy Bandit for kindly offering their time and expertise in the area of reproductions and permissions. A United University Professions Professional Development Grant provided impor tant support for this project. I received the best assistance with my research from a Web site, Marge and Homer in the "Mom and Pop Art" episode of The Simpsons on Fox. (The Simpsons &? I999TCFFC.AII rights reserved. ? Fox Broadcasting) as an aficionado of popular culture, immediately recognizes the author of this drawing and is stunned. "Matt Groening!" he shouts, "What's he doing in a museum? He can barely draw!"This judgment parallels Homer's own gut response when the art dealer declares, on his doorstep, that Homer has made a work of art. An implication of this parallel is that neither Homer's nor Groening's productions qualify as art. (It is worth pointing out, at this juncture, that the M formed by Homer's hair, when viewed from the side, and the one formed by his open shirt collar are very likely synecdoches for "Matt"; Groening himself has said that he identifies with Homer.)3 Homer's judgment of Groening's work, however, is not merely an indirect reference to the cartoonist's identification with his character. This judgment also operates to convey the opinion that comic-strip drawings (and, by extension, cartoons) are not art (which happens to be Groening's own viewpoint).4 Homer's judgment is also consistent with his character. For example, in the 1991 episode "Mr. Lisa Goes to Washington," he tells Marge that "cartoons don't have any deep meaning. They're just stupid drawings that give you a cheap laugh."5 As the poet Robert Pinsky and other Simpsons fans have observed, the program regularly makes fun of, while simultaneously praising, its own genre.6 It does this with a striking economy of means?through a single sentence or a simple drawing. The economical drawing of Akbar and Jeff intimates that the label "art" constitutes a form of acceptance. Look carefully at the text in this drawing: "Wow. You Do Love Me." While we can take the recipient of these words to be either Akbar or Jeff?the two are identical?the recipient also may be you or me, in which case these words might signify that the comic strip is loved suffi ciendy to hang on the museum's walls. This association of art with love and acceptance is an important theme in the "Mom and Pop Art" episode of The Simpsons. Homer will go to great lengths, as the narrative progresses, to gain the love and acceptance that society lavishes on the successful artist. His actions pro voke our dormant ambivalence, as we ponder the implications of construing love and acceptance as criteria for defining art. We are able to experience this ambivalence because the episode itself refrains from presenting any clear judg ment or argument about these criteria. This generously nondogmatic approach provides ample room for our ambivalence and confusion to roam freely. It is the art dealer who first gives Homer a glimpse of how good it feels to have the love and acceptance of the "art world"?and how bad it feels to lose them. Who is this art dealer? Played by Isabella Rosellini, her name is Astrid Weller, which is an anagram for "sell weird art."7 Such anagrams have a vener able history in The Simpsons. The name of Homer's son, Bart, is an anagram for "brat." But Astrid Weller's name is more complex and has a pun embedded in it, beyond and at the same time about the anagram. This pun is in the surname "Weiler," which refers to the "wellerism," a figure of speech typical of the "The Simpsons Archive" (www.snpp.com)?a site that still makes me puzzle over whether a line really separates the scholar from the fan. Without the enthusiasm of a particular Simpsons fan, my nephew Marc Hartzman, this essay would not exist; I dedicate the essay to Marc. 1. "Mom and Pop Art," The Simpsons, originally aired on Fox Network, April 11, 1999. 2. Brian K. Roberts (writer) and Jim Reardon (director), "Brush with Greatness," The Simpsons, originally aired on Fox Network, April II, 1991. 3. Annemarie Wyley, "The Simpsons' Creator Groening Grows Up" (interview with Matt Groening), Reuters, September 3, 1999, available online at www.snpp.com/other/interviews/ groening99b.html. The schematic M of Homer's collar and hair (as well as Bart's hairdo) resem bles, in addition, the zig-zag pattern on the shirt of Charles Schulz's Peanuts comic-strip character Charlie Brown, and Groening has acknowledged the influence of Peanuts on his work; see Doug Sadownick, "Groening against the Grain: Maverick Cartoonist Matt Groening Draws in Readers with Gay Characters Akbar and Jeff" (interview with Matt Groening), Advocate 571 (February 26, 1991 ): 30-35, also available online at www.snpp. com/other/interviews/groening91 .html. Else where, Groening has commented that the charac ters in Peanuts are based primarily on "variations on hairdos"; quoted in Erik H. Bergman, "Prime Time Is Heaven for 'Life in Hell' Artist," TV Host, December 16, 1989, as transcribed by Bruce Gomes and available online at www.snpp. com/ other/interviews/groening89.html. 4. Groening has stated, for example, "I always think it's a mistake for cartoonists to demand car toons be treated as art. Cartoons are cartoons"; Brian Doherty, "The Mother Jones Interview: Matt Groening," Mother Jones, March-April 1999, available online at www.motherjones.com/arts/ 9a/1999/03/groening.html. 5. George Meyer (writer) and Wes Archer (direc tor), "Mr. Lisa Goes to Washington," originally aired on Fox Network, September 26, 1991. 6. Robert Pinsky, "My Favorite Show," New York Times Magazine, September 20, 1998, 55. 7.1 credit this observation to Haynes Lee (www.snpp.com/episodes/AABF 15). 3 3 eponymous character Sam Weller of Charles Dickens's Pickwick Papers (1836-37). The wellerism is distinguished by its use of irony, often in the form of a pun.8 Astrids designation of Homer's object as "outsider art" is a wellerism since her name embodies the anagram "sell weird art." The title of the episode is a meaningful, multilayered pun as well. The "mom" and "pop" of "Mom and Pop Art" refer to Homer and Marge in their distinct artistic careers. The title also contains the label "Pop art," alluding, appro priately, to the art movement of the 1960s that took some of its imagery from the comics and, according to one critic, rescued the comics from extinction.9 "Mom and pop," in addition, refers to the name of the hardware store at which Homer purchases the barbecue pit that will soon lead him to outsider-artist stardom. It's called "Mom & Pop Hardware," but the name is disingenuous, since the store is "a subsidiary of Global Dynamics" (it clearly is meant to resemble a Home Depot). Finally, "mom and pop" has a down-to-earth, folksy tenor that is contra dicted by Homer and Marge's artistic ambitions. None of these allusions, puns, and paradoxes is gratuitous; each one (and there are more still to come) is a miniature of and contributes to the complexity of the overall structure and sto ryline of the episode.lo It is a complexity that ultimately allows us to scrutinize our own judgments and distinctions, and that affords us the unusual experience of welcoming the ambivalence likely to result from such scrutiny. This complexity is especially clear when the episode turns its focus to the concept of "outsider artist." It is hard to imagine a more ideal outsider artist than Homer Simpson. He certainly is self-taught. And everything in his demeanor and dress is antithetical to the stereotypical art-world insider. Still, the paradox of the term "outsider art"?which as a label, a commodity, and a subject of intellectual inquiry is the creation of insiders?comes into full view as the episode unfolds and Astrid Weller includes Homer's barbecue pit in an exhibition of outsider art she holds at her gallery. " There, a sign in the storefront reads, "Inside, Outsider Art" (underneath which is added, "Louvre: American Style").12 Similarly, once we enter the gallery, this insider-outsider distinction seems to exist only so that we may question it. For example, at the exhibition opening, when Homer's sculpture is, sold, Weiler says, "Congratulations, Homer. You're now a professional artist." Being a professional, of course, is incompatible with being an outsider. To offer another example, at this same opening we find Homer?the outsider? doing what he does everywhere, namely, consuming as much food as possible, but we also spot the artist Jasper Johns filling his jacket pockets with refresh ments! The dialogue plays up the comparison of Simpson to Johns. When Lisa, trying to monitor her father's behavior, tells him that by chewing with his mouth open he will lose his "mystique," Homer replies, "Lisa, all great artists love free food. Check out Jasper Johns." In fact, Johns (the character's voice was recorded by the artist himself) is 3 8. The best-known example of a wellerism in The Pickwick Papers is Sam Weller's comment, "What the devil do you want with me, as the man said wen he see the ghost?" For more on the weller ism, see A Dictionary of Wellerisms, ed. Wolfgang Mieder and Stewart A. Kingsbury (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994). 9. Adam Gopnik, "Comics," in High and Low: Modern Art and Popular Culture, ed. Adam Gopnik and Kirk Varnedoe (New York: Museum of Modern Art and Abrams, 1990), 208. 10. Two insightful discussions of the use of allu sion in The Simpsons are William Irwin and J. R. Lombardo, "The Simpsons and Allusion: 'Worst Essay Ever,'" in The Simpsons and Philosophy: The D'oh! of Homer, ed. William Irwin, Mark T. Conard, and Aeon J. Skoble (Chicago and La Salle, IL: Open Court, 2001), 81-92, and Carl Matheson, "The Simpsons, Hyper-Irony, and the Meaning of Life," in The Simpsons and Philosophy, 112-13. 11. The term "outsider art" is considered to have originated with art critic Roger Cardinal's book Outsider Art (London: Studio Vista; New York: Praeger, 1972). Cardinal credits an editor at Studio Vista for coining the term; see Roger Cardinal, "Toward an Outsider Aesthetic," in The Outsider Artist Geativity and the Boundaries of Culture, ed. Michael D. Hall and Eugene W. Metcalf, Jr. (Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1994), 39, n. 2. 12. There is a growing literature about the "insid er" dimension of "outsider" art, and the use of these two terms (or comparable ones) in essay titles to highlight the paradox of the concept of outsider art is common. A few examples are: Eugene W. Metcalf, Jr., "From Domination to Desire: Insiders and Outsider Art," in The Outsider Artist, 213-27, and, from the pages of the present periodical, Mary-Beth Shine, "Us and Them, or, I'd Never Belong to a Club that Would Have Me as a Member" (review of the exhibition catalogue Self Taught Artists of the Twentieth Century), Art Journal 57, no. 4 (Winter 1998): 99-101. 3 made out to be a petty thief in other ways, too?a weakness also shared by Homer (as we know from several previous Simpsons' episodes).'3 We catch Johns stealing a light bulb from the gallery, an obvious allusion to Johns's own early sculptures, such as Light Bulb I, of 1958.The light bulb, like the barbecue pit, started out as an everyday object and ended up elevated to the status of art. Both the overt and the implied comparisons of the reserved, cerebral Johns to the loud, impulsive Simpson are absurd, yet the absurdity, in its hilarity, succeeds in disorienting and confusing us. The confusions about fine art and popular culture, and about insider and outsider, that awaken our ambivalence as we watch this episode of The Simpsons involve artistic identity, as we have just seen in the parallels drawn between Homer Simpson and Johns, or those drawn between Simpson and Groening. Fueled by his triumph at Weller's gallery, Homer soon takes on the artistic identity closest at hand that best suits his purposes. Listen to this discussion he has with his wife, Marge: Marge: Homie, I'm really happy you sold your sculpture, but don't you think it may have been a fluke? Homer: Hey, I've always had an interest in art, dating back to my schoolgirl days when I painted portrait after portrait of Ringo Starr. Marge: That's my life you're describing. Homer: I think I remember my own life, Marge! From this conversation, as Homer confuses himself with Marge, we realize that, in spite of the vagueness and ambiguities of art and artists, it actually is meaningful to draw distinctions. We see that the show makes fun not only of distinctions that may seem vague or arbitrary (about art and artists), but also of the inability to properly make distinctions, whether between people, as in the present case, or between types of objects. To discern differences, or not: either approach has its pitfalls and limitations. (For instance, if Homer decides Matt Groening's Akbar and Jeff drawing is not art because he thinks Groening cannot draw, then Homer is applying some criterion according to which an object may hang on the museum wall; yet the application of this criterion may limit his range of aesthetic experience.) It is with good reason that writers of divergent political stripes and wide-ranging professional backgrounds have called attention to how, on The Simpsons, all sides of an argument are scrutinized and laughed at. The New York Times film critic A. O. Scott has called the show "gleeful in its assault on every imaginable'piety."'4The conservative syndicated columnist Jonah Goldberg, writing in the National Review, has stated that "its satire spares nothing and no one." '5 Carl Matheson, a professor of philosophy, has observed in his 13. A conspicuous example is the episode, "Homer vs. Lisa and the 8th Commandment," by Steve Pepoon (writer) and Rich Moore (director), originally aired on Fox Network, February 7, 1991. 14. A. O. Scott, "How The Simpsons' Survives," New York Times Magazine, November 4, 2001, available online at www.nytimes.com/2001 / I l/04/magazine/04SIMPSONS.html. 15. Jonah Goldberg, "Homer Never Nods: The Importance of The Simpsons," National Review, May 1, 2000, available online at www.nationalre view.com/01 may00/goldbergprint050100.html. contribution to a collection of essays entided The Simpsons and Philosophy that "its humor works by putting forward positions only in order to undercut them.... It treats nearly everything as a target, every stereotypical character, every foible, and every institution."'6 In the "Mom and Pop Art" episode, Homer eventually manages to slip back into his own identity. He is led back there by what is most familiar to him: failure. The failure comes when Astrid Weiler, inspired by the sale of Homer's barbecue-pit sculpture, holds a one-person exhibition of his work at her gallery. Homer is thrilled. He has put all his energy into the production of a series of sculptures that resemble the barbecue-pit piece, thinking this is the sort of object his audience wants (it worked the first time around, after all), and he tides these sculptures accordingly (Botched Hibachi, Failed Shelving Unit with Stupid Stuck Chainsaw and Applesauce, and Attempted Birdhouse I). When the exhibition opens and his new objects are scorned by all present, poor Homer feels deeply dejected. He has lost the approval and love that he had gained, if only by accident, with his first sculpture. His strong desire to regain this approval and love lead him, finally, back to his own identity, which, in a new layer of confusion, is also that of a successful artist. To understand his paradoxical journey back to himself, we need to examine just where Homer failed, and then, how he found a way to overcome his failure. Astrid diagnoses the problem: "Homer, I'm afraid they only love what's new and shocking. These pieces are just like your earlier work." Apparently no longer judged by outsider-art standards, Homer is now expected to be avant-garde. Marge elaborates on Astrids diagnosis: "Homer [...] all of your ... things were kind of the same. [...] The point is, great artists are always trying new things, like Michelangelo or Shaquille O'Neal." (Not coincidentally, Marge had admired Michelangelo's David when it traveled to the Springsonian Museum in an earlier episode of the Simpsons.)'7 O'Neal, an NBA star, is always trying new things: in addition to basketball, he has taken up rap music, acting, writing, the restaurant business, law enforcement, and more. Because of these varied activities, he has sometimes been called a "renaissance man."l8 Perhaps this moniker is what Marge has in mind when she puts him in the same category as Michelangelo. Despite her own interest in "high" culture, Marge, like Homer, has a penchant for using categories in ways that mix up the accepted notions of art and popular culture. More mix-ups of this order occur when Homer, desperate to find some thing new to make, allows Marge to take him to the Springsonian Museum to seek inspiration. They look at paintings by Pablo Picasso and Joseph Turner. They see an abstraction by Piet Mondrian and a Campbell's Soup can by Andy Warhol, the latter distracting Homer from the subject of art and refocusing him on a sub ject he thinks about more often: food. "Mmm ... split pea ... [gasp] with ham! [drool]."'9 It is on this museum trip that Homer spots Groening's drawing of 3 16. Matheson, 120. Matheson argues that the undercutting of the viewpoints it puts forth is the basis for the humor of The Simpsons, and he calls this technique "hyper-ironism" (118). For a critical assessment of this aspect of the humor of The Simpsons, see James M. Wallace, "A (Karl, not Groucho) Marxist in Springfield," in The Simpsons and Philosophy, 235-51. 17. John Swartzwelder (writer) and Jim Reardon (director), "Itchy and Scratchy and Marge," origi nally aired on Fox Network, December 20, 1990. 18. For example, the biographical sketch of O'Neal on Celebopedia describes him as "truly a Renaissance man for the modern age" (www.cele bopedia.com/oneal/). Moreover, O'Neal has even referred to himself as a renaissance man; see Kevin Merida, "Shaq O'Neal, On the Ball," Washington Post, August 6, 1998, available online atwww.wpyellowpages.com/wp-srv/style/daily/ shaq.htm. Another detail of O'Neal's life that makes him an especially suitable reference on The Simpsons is his strong identification with a comic strip character (Superman); concerning this identi fication, see Rebecca Mead, "A Man-Child in Lotusland: Inside the Big World of Shaquille O'Neal." New Yorker, May 20 2002,48. 19. Earlier in the episode, a Mondrian painting is featured on the cover of an issue of Art in America that contains an advertisement for Homer's one person exhibition. Perhaps it is not a coincidence, then, that a real issue of Art in America includes an essay about Mondrian's interest in the Walt Disney cartoon Snow White. See Els Hoek, "Mondrian in Disneyland," Art in America 77 (February 1989): 137-43, 181. e S I ?1 Akbar and Jeff. As we know already, Homer objects to the presence of Groening's work in the museum. This is one instance in which he does make a judgment and in the process raises a distinction between art and comics. Yet as soon as Homer applies a distinction to Groening's drawing, he is unable to see one?this time between art and reality?in the next object he encounters, an enormous sculpture of a pencil by Claes Oldenburg. As the eraser end of the pencil approaches his head, Homer is convinced that he is about to be obliterated. "Oh no! I'm being erased!" he screams. Homer's fear is an allusion to Daffy Duck in the famous cartoon Duck Amuck (1953), in which Daffy's animator (later revealed to be Bugs Bunny) incessantly pesters him, including by erasing him.20 Suddenly, as far as Homer is concerned, everything has become a cartoon. The museum exhausts Homer, and he goes to sleep. In his dreams, he is attacked by art. Leonardo da Vinci's drawing of human proportions punches him; Picasso's three musicians shoot him with machine guns; a Salvador Dal? clock drips on him; Warhol throws soup cans at him. The dream represents for Homer the rejection he had felt after the failure of his one-person exhibition. Upon waking, he asks Marge, "Why does art hate me? I never did anything to art." (His question might be explained as Homer's response to an elitist disdain for unrefined types such as him.) Marge's quest to inspire Homer at the museum seems to have backfired. However, Turner's painting of the canals of Venice gives him an idea. Before seeing what Homer's idea entails, let's pause to look at the sign posted outside the museum. There, we read that the Springsonian Museum is "Where the Elite Meet Magritte." These words express bluntly what Homer's question ("Why does art hate me?") suggests: that there is a vexed connection between social class and art. This connection, a source of professional ambivalence for many artists, critics, and art historians, is a fascinating subtext of "Mom and Pop Art." Visual props, as well as narrative, are used to elaborate this subtext. Take, for example, the cars driven by Astrid Weller, by the so-called Euro-trash who fre quent her gallery, and by Homer Simpson. Weiler and the Euro-trash drive fancy, expensive European cars (a black BMW and a green Jaguar, respectively), while Simpson drives a pink, but otherwise generic, Detroit-made vehicle that's been around for some years (the bumper sticker on it reads, "Single 'n' Sassy," indicat ing he has owned the car since before he was married). The symbolism of these cars is obvious. No confusion exists about the particular socioeconomic position of each character, as it does with the categories insider-outsider or art-popular culture. Aesthetic distinctions are befuddling and difficult to get a handle on, whereas class distinctions are not. But how we interpret class distinctions is another matter, as the sociologist Pierre Bourdieu observes in his study of the intricate connections between taste and class; in fact, "Mom and Pop Art" is in many ways analogous to Bourdieu's analysis.2' 20. Michael Maltese (writer) and Chuck Jones (director), Duck Amuck, Warner Brothers, 1953. 21. Pierre Bourdieu, Distinction: A Social Gitique of the Judgement of Taste, trans. Richard Nice (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984). Worth highlighting here, for its fascinating connections to Homer's food consumption at the art gallery and his drooling before Warhol's Campbell's Soup can painting, is Bourdieu's dis cussion of the ramifications of the fact that the word "taste" applies to food as well as to culture (99-225). Bourdieu's exposure of how intellec tuals are implicated in the creation of taste and therefore of class equates with the ambivalence I wish to articulate in the present essay. The Simpsons takes up the issue of social class directly in the episode entitled "Scenes from the Class Struggle in Springfield," written by Jennifer Crittenden, directed by Susie Dietter, and first aired on Fox Network, February 4, 1996. Elzie Segar, Thimble Theatre, 1930 (? King Features Syndicate) The association of social class with artistic judgment has a long history in the comics and even in the past had been used by comic-strip creators to set their work against "fine art" while at the same time leaving the distinction open to question. An especially appealing example is an early Popeye strip, of 1930, in which Olive Oyl and her brother Castor, in an attempt to refine and polish the rough Popeye (not unlike Marge's attempts to refine Homer), take him to the home of a socialite, one Mrs. DeHotsy. When DeHotsy proudly shows them her new acquisition, a painting of a female nude, Popeye is dumbfounded, and informs DeHotsy that the figure is so bad that "they wouldn't print that in a funny paper." He then takes it upon himself to show her "a real piece of art": the tattoo of a woman emblazoned on his back. He explains that "it only cost five sinkers to get 'er stuck on there, too?an' mine's got a bathin' suit on which makes it more fitten to look at." Popeye responds to the painting in terms of the subject matter only, just as Homer does, initially, when looking at the Warhol soup can. But in the end Homer does recognize the originality of Warhol's pic ture; in the museum, he moans to Marge (in a brilliant ironical snippet) that Warhol was a "genius," and that he?Homer?could never come up with some thing like a soup can.22 We can attribute this difference between Homer and Popeye to the increasing popularization of fine art in the decades since the Popeye cartoon was written. To put it simply, since Popeye's day, art has gained a widespread appreciation (although its growing popularity has eliminated neither its elitist patina nor debates about what it is). Homer even dabbles in conceptual art, a contrivance to win back the love and affection of his audience, and the route that leads him back to his own iden tity. When he returns home from the museum more depressed than before, the precocious Lisa comes to his aid. She proposes that, since the museum didn't inspire him, he might "do something really radical, like Christo." She instructs her father on Christo 's wrapped Reichstag and Umbrellas project, even noting the accidental deaths caused by The Umbrellas. This unfortunate detail gets Homer's creative juices flowing, as he concocts a work of art that weds Christo 's environ mental projects with Turner's portrayal of the Venetian canals. Enlisting the help of Bart (and now behaving like the Homer Simpson we all know and ... love?), he steals all the doormats in town, uses them to cover up the street drains, and then opens all the fire hydrants. Soon the entire town of Springfield is flooded. All this makes even Bart a little nervous; he asks his dad, "Are you sure this is art and not vandalism?" A new spin on artistic judgment is introduced at this point, as Homer replies, "That's for the courts to decide, son." Homer's destructive impulse has kicked in as his best bet for reacquiring the attention he so craves, and in this he seems to be even more of a brat than Bart. If cartoons in some sense never grow up, as has sometimes been proposed (Homer may be an adult, but he is not grown up), neither do artists, at least in 3 22. Warhol's Campbell's Soup can paintings, like several other details in this episode of The Simpsons, also had made an appearance in "Brush with Greatness": here, one of the paintings on display at a school art fair is of a Campbell's Soup can. More extraordinary, though, is the existence of a collage-drawing of a Campbell's Tomato Soup can in an illustrated book of 1929 by the outsider artist Adolf W?lfli; see John Maizels, Raw Geation: Outsider Art and Beyond, intro. Roger Cardinal (London: Phaidon, 1996), 23. _ Thimble Theatre _^^ IPCPLfE.IF?O0U*MTMt) / VJLT&??6T0 6WC I I 8C NICE - OON T >fh X IH OTOLR VJOftObl [>?*U..?fcjOW M? 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Ji/ Vl/ jj^HB ** * cWB If ?V I I .^V T"R""'*** ̂ r ?^^^H^C% I I ' Y ̂ ^^^BFi jH&Sl I lift j^^ A Mil I 'iTPMai 'E I Hi -V f *T ^^H^k X\f\ ?^^M FT : ! 7^ \ ?I |?<noHWO?i Fwc VNKtfti/ .. , , ^i i I I f Moanc hot hy N /' atutstt, \ I I r?--1 ? f /\?? ?II ItO ?VCR STUCK ON .->' ~Xyr?F*\t$,'/S I / SuJKTV INKVMOfaE, I i^CsOT ] Msfl -? ( P0PE7E1 ?^ ?^stertrT^^^Sv^?^"- v>ii?*?*!?7 A*jssJ i- i < ̂rfi^s \ r^rt ,U*JGI| hwwww 'V^i> I i^' /jH " II ^-*? #-??-'-^ uS^sT^^I Matt Groening's view, as we see not only on The Simpsons but also in his comic strip Life in Hell.23 In a 1990 drawing from Life in Hell, he has portrayed the cover of a fictitious magazine called Annoying Performance Artist.24 The cover shows Binky, one of Groening's stock comic-strip characters, covering his body with red ants, while surrounding him are titles of the stories within the magazine, such as "How to Form Dramatic Flecks of Spittle in the Corners ofYour Mouth" and "How to Get Back at Your Parents for the Rest ofYour Life." In both Life in Hell and The Simpsons, the motivation to create as well as the form the creation takes have more than a little of the childish in them. Groening exposes us for who we are. Once exposed, we are left wondering how to judge what appears in front of us. If immaturity is a source of both big trouble and great creativity, do we give up creativity in order to eliminate immaturity? Once again, we are provided with ambivalent feelings rather than with an answer to the question. When Marge discovers the flooded Springfield and is mortified, Homer explains, "It's conceptual art. 'The Grand Canals of Springfield,' just like Venice." Marge remains unconvinced. Even when the art-world luminaries Astrid Weller and Jasper Johns love Homer's creation, Marge still hesitates and cautions Homer that "they're in the business. Real people might not be so understanding." The "real people," of course, are all the characters of Springfield that regular viewers know well, such as Bart's teacher, Edna Krabappel, and his school principal, Seymour Skinner. As it turns out, Edna, Seymour, and all the other "real people" rejoice at Homer's masterpiece. Where does this leave us? On the surface, it would seem that we are not the "real people," since we, like Weiler and Johns, are "in the business," and after all, the "real people," in this case, are cartoon characters.25 However, another answer can be found, I believe, in Groening's Akbar and Jeff drawing that hangs in the Springsonian Museum. I pointed out earlier that Akbar and Jeff are identical. Groening has stated that what appeals to him about these two is that "when they criticize each other, it's like when somebody exactly the same as you criticizes you. It's hilarious, like you don't see the mirror."26 In effect, Akbar and Jeff function in the same way as the opening sequence to each episode of The Simpsons, in which the family members, arriving home at the end of the day, make a beeline to the sofa to watch television. We watch this sequence from our sofas and on our TVs. The Simpsons are reflections of us. Our identification with them, as has been noted often, is central to our ability to enjoy this program.27They are like us, but different.The difference assists us to reflect more clearly on ourselves in ways we otherwise might not. When we can't help but worry about all the water damage Homer has inflicted on his town (a problem the citizens of Springfield do not seem the least bit concerned about), suddenly a door opens that allows us to understand, or at least appreciate, why some people resist art such as Christo 's. If we can ask whether it is worth the 3 23. See, for example, Yasco Horsman, "Will Comics Ever Grow Up?" paper in the session "Comic Art" of the 2003 College Art Association Annual Conference, New York, February 20, 2003. Even though Groening does not write the individual episodes of The Simpsons, which are collaborations involving many individuals, he over sees the program, and it is fully in his spirit. 24. "Annoying Performance Artist" is reproduced in Matt Groening, The Huge Book of Hell (New York: Penguin, 1979), 15. 25. For an attempt to tackle the difficult topic of realism on The Simpsons, see Jason Mittell, "Cartoon Realism: Genre Mixing and the Cultural Life of The Simpsons," The Velvet Light Trap 47 (Spring 2001): 15-28. 26. Quoted in Sadownick interview. 27. For example, Gilbert Adair proposes that we view Homer as "gross" but we nonetheless iden tify with him, in "Ecce Homer," The Independent (UK), June 21, 2000, as transcribed by Richard Copping and available online at www.snpp.com/ other/articles/eccehomer.html. The comic artist Scott McCloud offers an interesting "explanation" of why we identify with comic-strip and cartoon characters in his book Understanding Comics: The Invisible Art (New York: HarperPerennial, 1994), 30-32. For a different perspective on audience identification with television characters, see David Joselit, "The Video Public Sphere," in The Visual Culture Reader, ed. Nicholas Mirzoeff, 2nd ed. (London and New York: Routledge, 2002), 451-57. expense and destruction to create a flood, we also can ask whether it is worth the expense and destruction to install giant umbrellas in the landscape. Through this and many other implied and seemingly absurd comparisons, The Simpsons gives us the liberty to laugh at ourselves. The laughter, in turn, opens us to receive perspectives other than the ones we might think we should have or were trained to embrace.28 It can expand us in this way and, in the process, allow us to accept our ambivalence about who we are, precisely because it is a cartoon and we are not (just as Homer's life isn't Marge's). Each pun, contradiction, and paradox in The Simpsons stands on its own as a funny detail, and all, taken together in their totality, give us a complexity that approximates?but is not equal to? life. This cartoon complexity reminds us that we need our distinctions, but that we must recognize their limitations and dangers, too. The muddling of distinc tions in "Mom and Pop Art" has the potential to create a mental environment where our own confusion and ambivalence can wander with some degree of comfort?even if it is easier, and seems entirely more acceptable, to be crystal clear about our judgments. Reva Wolf is the author of Andy Warhol, Poetry, and Gossip in the 1960s (University of Chicago, 1997) and Goya and the Satirical Print (Godine, 1991 ). She is an associate professor of art history at the State University of New York, New Paltz. 3 28. As philosophy professor Jennifer L McMahon observes, "By displacing certain anxieties and dis abling habitual resistances, comedy can bring to light things that might otherwise be too comfort able to acknowledge." "The Function of Fiction: The Heuristic Value of Homer," in The Simpsons and Philosophy, 230. Article Contents p. [100] p. 101 p. 102 p. [103] p. 104 p. 105 p. 106 p. 107 p. 108 p. 109 p. 110 p. 111 Issue Table of Contents Art Journal, Vol. 65, No. 3 (Fall, 2006), pp. 1-128 Front Matter In This Issue: Remediations: Re-Viewing Art [p. 5-5] Alien Duration: Tehching Hsieh, 1978-99 [pp. 6-19] The Role of the University Art Museum and Gallery [pp. 20-39] Thematic Investigation: Forty Years of Video Art Grayscale Video and the Shift to Color [pp. 40-53] Video: From Technology to Medium [pp. 54-69] A Demo Tape on How to Play Video on the Violin [pp. 70-81] The Temporalities of Video: Extendedness Revisited [pp. 82-99] Homer Simpson as Outsider Artist, or How I Learned to Accept Ambivalence (Maybe) [pp. 100-111] Reviews Review: Orbiting Atlantis [pp. 112-117] Review: The Contested Terrain of Popular Culture [pp. 117-119] Review: The Body Is More than Flesh [pp. 120-122] Review: Art, Archaeology, and the Museum in India [pp. 123-125] Artist's Project [p. 126-126] Back Matter 
work_7hwd3gqirzbu5n2pvk7maimsve	----	A New Avant-Garde? This article was downloaded by: [University of Iowa Libraries] On: 19 April 2013, At: 11:44 Publisher: Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK Rethinking Marxism: A Journal of Economics, Culture & Society Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rrmx20 A New Avant-Garde? Gerald Keaney Version of record first published: 14 Sep 2011. To cite this article: Gerald Keaney (2011): A New Avant-Garde?, Rethinking Marxism: A Journal of Economics, Culture & Society, 23:4, 556-564 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08935696.2011.605288 PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms- and-conditions This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub- licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae, and drug doses should be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand, or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material. http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rrmx20 http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08935696.2011.605288 http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions Marx, K. 1974. Economic and philosophical manuscripts of 1844. Moscow: Progress. Marx, K., and F. Engels. 1976. The German ideology. Moscow: Progress. ______ 1984. The manifesto of the Communist party. In Marx-Engels collected works, vol. 6, 476� 519. Moscow: Progress. DOI: 10.1080/08935696.2011.605286 A New Avant-Garde? Gerald Keaney Many artists who identify as politically committed are suspicious of art due to the Situationist argument that revolutionary art is impossible. If right, the argument also rules out a future artistic avant-garde. I believe that, by concentrating on the truth- telling possibilities of art, we can meet the Situationist argument. To do so, it is necessary to change the relationship art has to everyday life. We can then speculate on the form of a future avant-garde. Key Words: Avant-Garde, Everyday Life, Truth, Situationist International, Surrealism Art is dead, long live the new machine art of Tatlin! *George Grosz and James Heartfield Avant-gardes have refreshed society in the past, and the promise lingers that they may do so again. The Surrealists, for instance, reinvigorated cinema, produced much emulated poets like Paul Eluard, and even gave us Elsa Schiaparelli’s shocking pink. Aficionados grasp hopefully at the excitement of avant-garde status for their favored forms, as we find (perhaps not unjustifiably) with Julien Temple’s (2000) treatment of punk. If such a remembrance is nostalgic, it is also ‘‘nostalgia for an age yet to come,’’ as the Buzzcocks sang in ‘‘Nostalgia.’’ A Dada intuition is that all art is conservative of the existing social order, and the Situationist International (1957� 71) argued that revolutionary art is a contradictio in adjecto. Yet, without such revolutionary possibility, the ambitious sense in which something can be avant-garde remains elusive. Hope for more seems the prerogative of a time when intuitions about art had yet to calcify into sober assessment. Avant-gardes react against existing formality (Burger 1974; Ades et al. 1993). It is then useful to follow a Kripkean strategy. At least this would allow anything with the right origins to count as art and permit an ‘open’ idea of art. Staged enactments of the everyday (Rasmussen 2009, 36) could be art as could an artifact like a urinal. I will assume that ‘revolutionary art’, if possible, uses art to encourage social revolution by telling otherwise obscured truths, much as left-wing realism has attempted to be revolutionary and Marxism itself claims to be objective. The ‘avant-garde’ adds 556 KEANEY D ow nl oa de d by [ U ni ve rs it y of I ow a L ib ra ri es ] at 1 1: 44 1 9 A pr il 2 01 3 systematic formal innovation.1 We can identify a strong lineage of twentieth-century artists. Dada, especially Berlin Dada, constructivism, surrealism, and then several smaller attempts lead up to the Situationist International. Though the Situationists themselves gave us systematic formal innovation (espe- cially détournement), they think of themselves as the last avant-garde and then only as theorists.2 If it is impossible to apply ‘avant-garde’ to politically ambivalent artists in anything but a faddish manner, as Dada intuition about revolutionary art congeals into Situationist theory, the avant-garde seems impossible. And, perhaps as influenced by Marx, and yet quickly commodified, the avant-garde itself becomes the last Dada suicide. Certainly, after the Situationists, artists seeking radical social change through art can waver between art and its supposed antithesis: revolution.3 I will begin by arguing that the avant-garde requires art to be truthful about the possibilities of everyday living. Finally, this becomes an extension of the truth-telling required for revolutionary art, and art must be honest about its own relationship to these possibilities. To repeal the Situationists’ verdict, I will argue that art can be truth-telling in the right way. This is in part because the avant-garde is not curtailed by realism (‘‘correspondence’’), and partly because it can negate denials of everyday possibility. The discussion permits speculation about a future avant-garde. The first section examines the Situationists’ argument for why revolutionary art is a contradiction. The second argues that leeway around the traditional correspondence idea of truth, suitable to an open idea of art, means that neither truth nor propositional content is problematic for the Situationist critique. The third section argues that what is problematic for the critique is that the failure of art to tell the relevant truths can be remedied. Revolutionary art is not a contradiction. This provides the departure point for speculation about future transformative art. Art is a pharmaceutical product for imbeciles. *Francis Picabia Chatty treatments of the Situationists (Marcus 1989; Winterbottom 2002) are unattractive, given recently circulated source material.4 There the message is clear: capitalism is the society of ‘The Spectacle,’ fetishizing the point of purchase. Parading as no more than a thing, a fetish obscures the nature of the relations that 1. This raises the problem of conservative movements, such as Italian and British futurists who formally and systematically introduced movement into static media. For my purposes they would be neither revolutionary art nor avant-garde, but ‘‘group innovators in the area of form.’’ 2. I will return to the problems with using the term ‘avant-garde’ for theory. 3. See Davidson (2009) for an example of this. Influenced by the avant-garde, the publication containing Davidson’s piece, Rivet, is riddled with the same tension. Art should be reclaimed as useful in radical political struggle, but at the same time is inextricably linked with conservative institutions. One soon begins to wonder what the artists associated with Rivet think they can achieve. 4. The recently available sources include an expanded edition of important Situationist documents (Knabb 2006). Also Keehan’s (2003) excellent on-line resource preserves the modified mass-media material that illustrated Internationale situationniste. REMARX 557 D ow nl oa de d by [ U ni ve rs it y of I ow a L ib ra ri es ] at 1 1: 44 1 9 A pr il 2 01 3 produced it as well as the possibility of the transformation of those relations. People are then passive consumers, conditioned in boring urban surroundings and sold pseudo innovations. The alternative is that, by controlling the entirety of the productive process, the people could make creative use of the productive means to live lives of their own invention. The Spectacle falsely conveys the idea that ‘There Is No Alternative’ to passive consumption. The Situationists considered propositions such as ‘‘a superior society in which all of life was under the creative control of the livers is possible’’ to be true. Equally, central falsities include the Spectacular idea that consumerism is a satisfying practice, and that cities can enjoyably house passive consumers. Even aleatory mass media images could then be assessed as proclaiming falsehoods. An analysis of the mode of production also yields true propositions about the function of these images (Debord 1977). This contrasts with thinkers like Baudrillard or Lyotard who believe such images to be transparently playful (Plant 1992). Yet the Situationists did not always care for rigorous argument or contest specific propositions. Art was one area in which they did (Rasmussen 2009, 35; Plant 1990). They argued that to make art is to falsely make an utterance to the effect that creativity is a specialization and cannot be the entirety of social life. This denies the truth that joie de vivre can be found only in generalized creativity. So-called revolutionary art is nothing more than a best-selling fetish wherein rebellion is itself commodified. Supposedly revolutionary art will then be adduced in support of false Spectacular claims (see the material on art throughout the sources already mentioned: Knabb 2006; Keehan 2003). To arrive at the idea that revolutionary art is a contradiction in terms, let us first consider how the Situationists thought art was doomed to be untruthful. The earlier avant-garde was already dedicated to remaking daily life creatively. Though paradigmatically modernist, their formal innovations attempted to push the boundaries of creativity into daily life (Burger 1974; Vaneigem 2001). The Surrealists, for instance, believed that art could utter truths about preconscious potential in the cause of rendering daily life dreamy (Breton 1998a; Wollen 1989). The Dadas thought that art failed to tell it like it was, about the trenches as much as about the restrictive inanity of workaday society and daily life. From the Situationist perspective, both Dada and surrealism enjoyed a heroic phase when they refused to be silenced by art institutions. These institutions also eventually recuperated both movements, and the Situationists believed such recuperation was inevitable. Any genuine insights that previous movements had about the transforma- tion of daily life were pretheoretic or early attempts at theorizing. Converted into art, these insights were implicitly addended with false propositions: it was ‘‘older art,’’ not passive consumption, that was the problem;5 creative fulfillment within the Spectacle is available to the ‘‘hip.’’ The problem here is not just the ill-fitting airs of revolutionary art. All art represents itself as a specialization in creativity outside the everyday, and all art can be commodified even if at a later date. We can then isolate a 5. This propositional view of art will be further discussed in the next section since it certainly would be strange to reduce art to true or false propositions. I am assuming that propositions are truth bearers; propositions are what can be true or false. 558 KEANEY D ow nl oa de d by [ U ni ve rs it y of I ow a L ib ra ri es ] at 1 1: 44 1 9 A pr il 2 01 3 proposition 1, both conjuncts of which are false by Marxist lights, and which the Situationists believed all art effectively uttered: 1: Creativity must take a commodified and specialized form. Thus, the Situationists thought of themselves as ending the avant-garde and such specialization (see especially the material on art in Keehan 2003 passim). For the Situationists, the link between falsity and art was stronger than for their predeces- sors. In particular, the surrealists thought it possible for art to tell the uncomfortable truth. They believed they produced a revolutionary art, or, as painter Max Ernst subtitled one of his works, a ‘‘revolution by night.’’ The Situationists thought that as a crucial part of Spectacular falsehood, art is systematically false. Art is a lie that brings us closer to the truth. *Pablo Picasso It could be objected that truth seeking is not the way to understand the avant-garde. Traditionally truth has been thought to be a correspondence relation. This requires structural similarity between the truth bearer and the world (Glanzberg 2006, sec. 1.1, pt. 2). Wittgenstein (1922) used pre-modern art to provide us with a picture theory of how this worked. Representational artworks become paradigmatic truth bearers or ‘‘mirrors of nature.’’ These works also come to seem paradigmatically true. Yet, for the avant-garde, endless depictions of bucolic scenes and polite society gave us a distorted view and the very realism the works espoused was inadequate. But rejecting correspondence and traditional realism does not mean rejecting truth. In fact, the form of the rejection adopted by the avant-garde can ground the Situationist arguments presented so far. Pre-modern art attempted to instantiate a correspondence relation (Reid 1964, 321� 2; Casey 1970, 352), but there are problems with thinking of correspondence in these pictorial terms. Correspondence does not require resemblance. In Morse code, beeps correspond to letters without the beeps sounding or looking like the letters. Resemblance is also a symmetrical relation since things resemble each other. Yet only a truth bearer can be or fail to be truthful, not that to which the truth bearer refers, so truthfulness is asymmetric (Casey 1970, 352� 3). Where art furnished Wittgenstein with a striking image of correspondence in action, resemblance between art and the life it supposedly imitates epitomizes difficulties with the correspondence theory of truth. Philosophers have tried to rehabilitate correspondence. Equations may ‘‘correctly’’ describe physical laws, being structurally similar to those laws without resemblance (353� 4). However, a ‘‘third man’’ regress looms as the correspondence relation needs itself to be correct. We need a ‘‘correct’’ standard to determine if we have rightly assigned correctness to the correspondence (354); this must be correct and so on. Further, it is unclear how any correspondence clarifies or adds the formal model of truth as p is true iff p (Tarsky 1944; Horwich 1998). This is an adequacy condition for any theory of truth (Fox 2008; Glanzberg 2006, sec. 2, pt. 2 ff.). Instead of further REMARX 559 D ow nl oa de d by [ U ni ve rs it y of I ow a L ib ra ri es ] at 1 1: 44 1 9 A pr il 2 01 3 attempts at rehabilitating correspondence, philosophers have sought an alternative account of truth. Any of these (see Blackburn 1999 for an overview) might be more compatible with art than correctness, since scientific equations are paradigmatic for correctness. Hegel’s historicism and Heidegger’s existentialism are well known (Campbell 1992, chaps. 13� 4). Althusser’s attempt to ground truth in a relationship to class struggle is still influential (Editors 2010). The pragmatists believe that truth is what is useful. Epistemic accounts of truth hold that truth is what ideal knowers would believe (Fox 2008). The minimum account denies that attributions of truth and falsity have any metaphysical substance, deflating ‘‘true’’ and ‘‘false’’ to semantic values enabling inference (Horwich 1998; Galnzberg 2006, 5.2� 5.3). So art can be true or false in a number of ways instead of just by virtue of resemblance (Reid 1964, 323; Casey 1970, 355; Roskill and Carrier 1983). Even a realistic medium could provide true or false propositions about, for instance, who was present at some event (Rosekill and Carrier 1983, ix� x; Malinas 1996)*true without necessary recourse to correspondence theory.6 The different theories of truth could be referenced by revolutionary artists to claim that propositions are true or false given Marxist theory. Roskill and Carrier take a Heartfield photomontage with Hitler depicted receiving cash from industrialists via one of his salutes to be ‘‘a truthful statement about Hitler’s backers’’ (1983, xi). Equally, they examine a Watteau in which the artificial and hence false view of society is paramount. These can be taken as examples of ‘‘framing’’ with respect to Marxism, which ‘‘turns the concern of the relativist, that each period be considered in its own terms, back upon itself. How each culture and society articulates its sense of truth is to be seen reflected in its images in the form of forces that are at work there to uphold the status quo or that struggle emergently against it’’ (iix). Without correspondence, art is no longer the ideal illustrative proposition of Wittgenstein’s picture theory. This creates an initial problem if we want to attribute propositions like 1 to artworks. How, then, is art propositional? Reducing art to propositions like those in critical thinking texts would certainly discount the important ‘surface’ of the artwork. Barbara Kruger explicitly uses propositions, yet her work is also medium-driven.7 Beside unusual work like Kruger’s, propositions are explicit only in literature (Casey 1970, 356) and even then problematically so.8 Fortunately, in following the avant-garde course detailed here, to be implicit is enough, and it is not necessary to reduce art to propositional content (359). Art can be taken at least to be uttering some truth-bearing propositions as well as furnishing surface experiences. As an example of how we can isolate implicit 6. Pragmatism, for instance, could suffice if it is defensible. Breton believed that James’s ideas could underwrite such surrealist escapades as the ‘‘contemporary myth’’ of invisible, undetectable beings (1998b). Arguably, since this myth is not of the right kind, a Heideggerian account of truth, for instance, might not be compatible with it. In any case it is tempting to simply opt for the minimum account. The arguments for it are strong, and it would equally underwrite the way various forms of art might tell the truth, avoiding unhelpful complications. 7. For example, Kruger uses contrasts to portray the proposition Your Body Is a Battleground (collage, 1989). 8. If fiction, propositions can be true as well as false only under interpretation (Ellis 1974). 560 KEANEY D ow nl oa de d by [ U ni ve rs it y of I ow a L ib ra ri es ] at 1 1: 44 1 9 A pr il 2 01 3 propositions, the Situationists determined 1 is present in art by critiquing the Spectacle. For the Situationists, the surface experiences of art were real enough, but the sensual mechanisms involved could and should (to avoid 1) be used in recreation of the entirety of the social space. The results would be the Constructed Situations after which the group was named (Debord 2006). So it is unnecessary to give an exhaustive analysis of truth in art or to rule out the surface effects for the avant-garde approach. There are no semantic reasons to doubt that art utters 1, but there may be reasons to doubt it has to. Revolution by Negation This doubt causes problems for the Situationist critique of art. Consider how, on an open idea of art, artwork seems ineluctable. Even a humble urinal was elevated to art status in the company of the avant-garde. Flamboyant Situationist tracts and détournement, including cut-up city maps, all have the right kind of origins to be regarded as art. This gives us an idea how we might rethink the Situationist accusation that all art effectively utters 1. In their tracts, the Situationists not only utter 1 but deny it is true, so they preface 1 with a negation sign. Any art aspiring to be revolutionary could do the same. No doubt so long as the Spectacle exists, art will be fending off a double negation of 1 accomplished by, for instance, placing art that utters �1 in a trendy gallery (giving ��1). But even so, there is no assurance that at any point in time informed art will fail to utter �1. What we could have is more like a Hegelian struggle for truth involving the negation of previous negations.9 The approach makes sense of Situationist interventions. Michele Bernstein mass circulated her straightforwardly anti-Spectacle potboiler (Bernstein 2008). Malcolm McClaren claimed Debord had rung him and thanked him for getting the Sex Pistols song ‘‘God Save the Queen’’ to number one (Agiugah and Tschudin 2000). Granted the do-it-yourself context of the song, implicitly ‘‘God Save the Queen’’ might be taken to be uttering �1.10 The Dadas knew that conservative institutions dictate what artists produce, and thought it was difficult for art to tell the truth. But no, even in commercial contexts, more than the pressures exerted by the Spectacle does this mean art must fail to utter �1. Social realism may no longer be enough to be 9. Initially we would have a dialectic where art utters 1, the antithetical Situationist response is no art and no utterance, and the synthesis is art uttering �1. This dialectic would then form the starting point for another in which the synthesis was the negation of the difference between art and life. Woollen shows how this is the prime attraction of Hegel for the avant-garde (1989). See Hegel (1977) for how such dialectic pans out more broadly. 10. We should note that, as the single rocketed up the charts, The Sex Pistols signed to a multinational record company rather than engaging in do-it-yourself praxis. However, the broader context of the band included groups of people involved in do-it-yourself creativity such as the Bromley Contingent, initially, at least, creating their own fashions, dances, and publications, while the Sex Pistols mocked and attempted to swindle companies such as Virgin and EMI. Marcus (1989) has some details. REMARX 561 D ow nl oa de d by [ U ni ve rs it y of I ow a L ib ra ri es ] at 1 1: 44 1 9 A pr il 2 01 3 revolutionary, but art does not have to mislead us about the possibilities of everyday life. Conclusion: The Next Avant-Garde? So there can be revolutionary art, and we can now undertake some concluding speculations about the form of a new avant-garde. Concrete examples are hard to come by since this avant-garde is yet to exist, but there can be a new avant-garde if revolutionary art includes systematic formal innovation. Consider a short recent intervention on the subject of a new humanities by Paul Magee. He begins with climate change, noting that metaphors of economic growth suffer by contrast with the scientific facts of ecological destruction. His diagnosis: ‘‘poststructuralist arguments based on the idea ‘that facts are made up, that there is no such thing as objective truth, that we are always prisoners of language, that we always speak from a particular standpoint . . .’ as . . . attacks upon objective truth concern scientific truth-claims . . . [are] embarrassing’’ (2009, 455). The debate over whether creationism should be taught further justifies Magee’s contention. Yet it is awkward to apply ‘‘avant-garde’’ to theorizing. Formal innovation does not have an obvious corollary in theory. The lack of creativity in daily life might be redressed directly by innovation (e.g., more exploratory punk fashion and graffiti art are attempts). At best, theorizing would reflect, owl-like, on the redress. But granted the avant-garde is truth-seeking, it must agree with Magee. Poststructuralism could not inform a new artistic avant-garde, as influential as it has been since Warhol. There are two ways to utter �1 and so satisfy the precondition of being revolutionary: explicitly or implicitly. If artists took up the explicit option, self- reference would be mandatory. Neoism is an indicator of how this might work, a movement interested in the editorial presentation of propositions of which could include �1.11 Implicitly, a Brechtian alienation effect is promising. Films along the lines of Being John Malkovich or The Truman Show could be at least revolutionary art if truth telling about society and �1 replaced any relativist ideas. The films could be avant-garde if part of a concerted exploration of form. Do-it-yourself rebellion could be either explicitly or implicitly truthful (hence revolutionary), and it suffers few formal constraints (hence avant-garde). The best of punk are preliminary indicators of how this might work*perhaps Nick Cave’s humorous self-deprecation (sometimes explicitly �1) or Jordan’s over the top fashion (implicitly �1). Zines may be better indicators still (Black 1994).12 11. Use of propositions and argument may be one thing physicist David Bohm has in mind when he advocates that art move away from symbolism (1998). 12. Black argues that zines have more content and that underground artists have more room to be both truthful and formally investigative than ‘‘alternative’’ figures in the entertainment industry. Findlay’s (2009) documentation of some unrecognized Australian do-it-yourself performance groups (e.g., Splinters Theatre of the Spectacle) suggests dramatic and innovative on-the-street statements of �1. 562 KEANEY D ow nl oa de d by [ U ni ve rs it y of I ow a L ib ra ri es ] at 1 1: 44 1 9 A pr il 2 01 3 Again, though, the new avant-garde does not yet exist. Indeed, we find content is often lacking in Neoism.13 This problem could be remedied by concentrating not just on �1 but on the importance of argument, an advance on the declamations of détournement. The aestheticization of formal logic would be a natural addition to the Neoist arsenal. Do-it-yourself is also often unreflective. This problem could be addressed if DIY as a learning process (see Keaney and Keaney 2007) aimed to be revolutionary and then avant-garde. There is no reason Marxist framing has to exclude other truth-seeking framings, such as a Darwinist one.14 Julie Rrap, for instance, already uses computer- manipulated graphics to contest the overuse of neo-Darwinism. She does not seem interested in �1, so could fail to be revolutionary. Even so, truth-seeking artists like her are not doomed to failure. Acknowledgements Thanks to Misbah Khokhar for suggestions, Cathy Legg for comments on a related blog, and the Ern Malley Foundation for discussion and support, including Anthony Hayes for access to his library and Rose Cook for discussion. References Ades, D., M. Bail, T. Baum, C. Chapman, J. Clark, H. Ennis, T. Gott, M. J. Jacob, A. Martin, and K. Wach. 1993. Surrealism: Revolution by night. Canberra: National Gallery of Australia. Agiugah, R., and P. Tschudin. 2000. Interview with Malcolm McClaren. http://www. archive.org/details/PatrikTschudinInterviewwithMalcolmMcLaren (accessed 15 November 2010). Bernstein, M. 2008. All the king’s horses. New York: Semiotext(e). Black, B. 1994. Beneath the underground. Port Townsend: Feral House. Blackburn, S. 1999. Truth. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Bohm, D. 1998. On creativity. London: Routledge. Breton, A. 1998a. Manifesto of surrealism. In Manifestos of surrealism, trans. H. Lane and R. Seaver, 1� 47. 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Reid, A. 1964. Art, truth and reality. British Journal of Aesthetics 4 (4): 321� 31. Roskill, M., and D. Carrier. 1983. Truth and falsehood in visual images. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press. Tarski, A. 1944. The semantic conception of truth. Philosophy and Phenomenological Research 4: 341� 75. Temple, J., dir. 2000. The filth and the fury. Film. Vaneigem, R. 2001. The revolution of everyday life. Trans. D. Nicholson-Smith. Welcombe: Rebel Press. Vienet, R., dir. 1973. Can the dialectic break bricks? Film. Winterbottom, M., dir. 2002. 24 hour party people. Film. Wittgenstein, L. 1922. Tractatus logico-philosophicus. New York: Harcourt, Brace. Wollen, P. 1989. The Situationist International. New Left Review no. 174: 67� 95. DOI: 10.1080/08935696.2011.605288 564 KEANEY D ow nl oa de d by [ U ni ve rs it y of I ow a L ib ra ri es ] at 1 1: 44 1 9 A pr il 2 01 3 
work_7l3qfqdo5ze2zlbrkyy723wyo4	----	Microsoft Word - Dnb-28_4_92.doc 343 Psychiatria Danubina, 2016; Vol. 28, No. 4, pp 343–348 View point article © Medicinska naklada - Zagreb, Croatia ARTS, BRAIN AND COGNITION Vida Demarin1, Marina Roje Bedeković2, Marijana Bosnar Puretić2 & Marija Bošnjak Pašić3,4 1Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Zagreb, Croatia 2University Department of Neurology, University Hospital Centre "Sestre milosrdnice", Zagreb, Croatia 3Department of Neurology, University Hospital Centre Zagreb, Croatia 4Faculty of Medicine, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Osijek, Croatia received: 5.5.2016; revised: 8.8.2016; accepted: 9.9.2016 SUMMARY Art is a product of human creativity; it is a superior skill that can be learned by study, practice and observation. Modern neuroscience and neuroimaging enable study of the processes during artistic performance. Creative people have less marked hemispheric dominance. It was found that the right hemisphere is specialized for metaphoric thinking, playfulness, solution finding and synthesizing, it is the center of visualization, imagination and conceptualization, but the left hemisphere is still needed for artistic work to achieve balance. A specific functional organization of brain areas was found during visual art activities. Marked hemispheric dominance and area specialization is also very prominent for music perception. Brain is capable of making new connections, activating new pathways and unmasking secondary roads, it is “plastic”. Music is a strong stimulus for neuroplasticity. fMRI studies have shown reorganization of motor and auditory cortex in professional musicians. Other studies showed the changes in neurotransmitter and hormone serum levels in correlation to music. The most prominent connection between music and enhancement of performance or changing of neuropsychological activity was shown by studies involving Mozart’s music from which the theory of “The Mozart Effect” was derived. Results of numerous studies showed that listening to music can improve cognition, motor skills and recovery after brain injury. In the field of visual art, brain lesion can lead to the visuospatial neglect, loss of details and significant impairment of artistic work while the lesions affecting the left hemisphere reveal new artistic dimensions, disinhibit the right hemisphere, work is more spontaneous and emotional with the gain of artistic quality. All kinds of arts (music, painting, dancing...) stimulate the brain. They should be part of treatment processes. Work of many artists is an excellent example for the interweaving the neurology and arts. Key words: arts – brain – creativity - music therapy - neuroplasticity * * * * * BRAIN FUNCTIONS, CREATIVITY AND ART Art is a product of human creativity. It is a superior skill that can be learned by study, practice and obser- vation. By means of art it is possible to record or describe objects, events and moments, but it is also possible to express feelings, opinions and attitudes. The Swiss painter Paul Klee said: “Art does not reproduce the visible; rather it makes the invisible, visible.” (Giedion-Welcker 1998). Modern neuroscience has the privilege to investigate the processes of artistic perfor- mance in a healthy brain by means of modern techno- logy techniques such as functional neuroimaging. Not so long ago scientists could only speculate what brain functions are involved in artistic processes by observing neurological patients. In the process of explaining the secret of creativity, a simplified theory starts with the known fact of cerebral hemisphere dominance; uncrea- tive people have marked hemispheric dominance and creative people have less marked hemispheric domi- nance (Katz 1978, York 2004). The right hemisphere is specialized, among other functions, for metaphoric thinking, for playfulness, solution finding and synthesi- zing. It is the center of visualization, imagination and conceptualization, but the left hemisphere is still needed for artistic work to achieve balance by partly suppressing creative states of the right hemisphere and for the exe- cutive part of a creative process (Hoppe 1998). Nume- rous studies investigating the brain function during the visual art activities have shown a very specific func- tional organization of brain areas. Different parts of visual cortex were activated, depending on the type of picture viewed (colors, objects, faces, position of objects in space, motion or static pictures) (Zeki 1991, 1998, 2004). Marked hemispheric dominance and area specialization is also very prominent for music percep- tion. Both brain hemispheres are needed for complete music experience, while frontal cortex has a significant role in rhythm and melody perception. The centers for perceiving pitch and certain aspects of melody and harmony and rhythm are identified in the right hemisphere. Left hemisphere is important for processing rapid changes in frequency and intensity of tune. Several brain imaging studies have reported activation of many other cortical areas beside auditory cortex during listening to music, which can explain the impact of listening to music on emotions, cognitive and motor processes (Tramo 2001, 2002, Janata & Grafton 2003). Where it comes from is crucial for some product to become a piece of art: the creativity arising from artist’s brain is necessary. But it is also interesting to establish Vida Demarin, Marina Roje Bedeković, Marijana Bosnar Puretić & Marija Bošnjak Pašić: ARTS, BRAIN AND COGNITION Psychiatria Danubina, 2016; Vol. 28, No. 4, pp 343–348 344 why a great number of people find a particular piece of art, music, dance or a poem beautiful. The saying “The beauty is in the eye of the beholder” is known from ancient times. Recently, T. Ishizu and S. Zeki conducted a study the results of which have revealed that a beauty experience is indeed in the beholder, though not in the eye, but in the brain. The study included 21 subjects in which brain fMRI scanning was performed during looking at something beautiful or listening to something that the subject liked. The results have shown that during these actions activation of medial orbitofrontal cortex occurred and it is assumed that also other stimuli that person finds beautiful would activate the same area (Ishizu & Zeki 2011). An another experiment from Zeki and Kawabata was aimed at finding the neural correlates of desire; fMRI of the brain was performed while subjects were watching three categories of pictures: events, objects and persons and they had to classify their impressions as desirable, indifferent or undesirable. Each category produced an activity in a distinct part of the visual brain, the superior orbito-frontal, the mid- cingulate, and the anterior cingulate cortex, reflecting its functional specialization. The conjunction analysis of the contrast “desirable – undesirable” revealed an activity in the superior orbito-frontal cortex, with a positive linear relationship to the declared level of desirability. The conjunction analysis of the contrast “desirable – indifferent” revealed an activity in the mid- cingulate cortex and in the anterior cingulate cortex. In the former, the activity was greater for desirable and undesirable stimuli than for stimuli categorized as indifferent (Kawabata & Zeki 2008). As well as for the art experience, Zeki pointed out in his book „A Vision of the Brain“ that all human experience is mediated through the brain and is not solely the product of the outside world. He says “The more important the expe- rience, the more it can reveal about the fundamental properties of the brain.” (Zeki 1993). THE INFLUENCE OF MUSIC AND ART ON BRAIN, HEALTH AND COGNITION The connection between music and brain functioning is not a modern idea. An ancient Chinese book, I Ching: “The Book of Changes/Wisdom”, that dates back to approximately 3000 years B.C. contains a saying: “Music has the power to ease the tension within the heart and to lessen and loosen obscure emotions.” In the 6th century B.C. Pythagoras was analyzing pleasant tunes and found that they represented particular mathematical relations which he recognized as harmony and he supported using this harmonic music in an attempt to achieve harmony of bodily functions. His followers prescribed specific tunes and dances as a cure for mood disorders (Karamanides 2006). Using modern technology in science, as was already pointed out, allows an almost direct insight into the changes that music makes in human brain. Music stimulates specific regions of the brain and it affects processes responsible for memory, motor control, timing and language. fMRI studies have shown reorganization of motor and auditory cortex in professional musicians. There are other studies that analyze the changes in neurotransmitter and hormone serum levels in correlation to music. Based on experience and on results of numerous studies, it is easier to understand that music is biologically a part of human life and not just aesthetically (Bever & Chiarello 1974, Otto 2000, Antić 2008, Jensen). Brain plasticity was mentioned for the first time over one hundred years ago by William James and Ramon y Cajal. ”Every man can, if he so desires, become a sculptor of his own brain.” (James 1840, Y Cayal 1955). After a long time, during the “Decade of the brain” scientists’ interest in brain plasticity rose again and a lot of experiments have shown that brain is capable of making new connections, activating new pathways and unmasking secondary roads. Brain is understandably adaptable during development, but neuroplasticity shows that an adult brain is also adaptable, as a response to new and persistent stimuli or to a lesion (Kaas 1991, Johansson 2004). Music is one of the most frequently investigated stimuli for neuroplasticity and undeniably very strong connection between them exists. A lot of data speak in favor of the exposure of pregnant women and neonates to music promoting the development of the brain and the inner ear of child. The exposure to musical training in early life reorganizes the brain connections with consequently improved coordination and other motor skills (Partanen et al. 2013, Schlaug 2015). Evidences of neuroplastic capacity of adult brain were again provided by music related studies that showed alteration of the auditory cortex after attentive listening to music for three hours a day for a longer period, superior spatial tuning in conductors and changes in motor cortical areas in adult musical learners. It was also found in injured brain (Johansson 2006, Demarin 2014). The most prominent connection between music and enhancement of performance or changing of neuropsychological activity was shown by studies involving Mozart’s music from which the theory of The Mozart Effect was derived. The basis of The Mozart Effect lies at the superorganization of the cerebral cortex that may resonate with the superior architecture of Mozart’s music (Campbell 2009). Other type of music, described as “brain music” that uses frequency, amplitude and duration of musical sound similar to Chopin music is able to move the brain from an anxious state to a more relaxed state and has positive effect on insomnia and fatigue (www.dhs.gov). The use of music as a cure showed its success in depressive patients after stroke. Sarkamo and colleagues conducted a study involving after stroke patients with mood dis- orders; one group selected for listening to self- elected Vida Demarin, Marina Roje Bedeković, Marijana Bosnar Puretić & Marija Bošnjak Pašić: ARTS, BRAIN AND COGNITION Psychiatria Danubina, 2016; Vol. 28, No. 4, pp 343–348 345 music one hour daily, one listening to language on audio books and control group without listening material. After two months in the group of the music listeners a significantly lower depression rate was registered, as well as lower irritability, inertia and fewer confusion states (Sarkamo 2008). The rehabilitation of stroke patients can be improved by incorporation of music listening in the therapy; the studies show that music stimulation increases blood flow in patients suffering from acute ischemic stroke and therefore enhances the post-stroke recovery (Antić 2012). Music is beneficial not only if listened to, but also if created, especially due to the lack of boundaries such as speech, language, psychological state or motor skills (Spintge & Droh 1992). The prospective study performed on hobby singers has shown the changes of physiologic markers of happiness during singing; the serotonin, nore- pinephrine and ß – endorphin levels were significantly higher after than before singing and stress hormone epinephrine was reduced by singing. (Biegl 2004). Neuroplasticity of the brain is crucial for rehabilitation of the patients after brain injury and it can be prompted by activity, but also by imaging of activity. In the experiment of Pascal-Leone and co-workers one group of subjects played the piano and the other one had to just imagine that they were playing piano, with their hands being still on the table. Transmagnetic stimulation presented that the active part of the brain was becoming larger with practice and on the fifth day in both groups the activation was similar (Pascal-Leone 2005). A fMRI study presented that watching of dance movement stimulates activation of motor and other brain areas of all after-stroke patients, but in larger extent in patients with dancing experience (ballet or capoeira dancers) (Calvo-Merino 2005). There is growing evidence that artistic training im- proves attention and cognition. These insights arise from numerous studies with both children and adults participating and are based beyond simplified understanding that improvement can be expected just from periodical exposure to arts (www.dana.org, Schellenberg 2004). The key point is again activity- dependent neuroplasticity; the focused training in any of the arts, music, dance or drama activates attention networks that are a crucial part in learning and memory process. The attention networks are easier to activate with the type of arts that person is really interested in. Music has a superior effect on brain plasticity, active music training in children for a longer period of time revealed significantly better results on general measures of intelligence, in reading fluency and in performance in the geometry skills compared to results of children that didn’t receive training (Hyde 2009, Posner 2009). Practicing some skill increases efficiency of attention networks what besides pure cognitive improvement can enhance the executive attention skills (emotion control, empathy, impulse control…) which are necessary for a successful learning process (Neville 2008). INTERWEAVING OF THE NEUROLOGICAL ILLNESSES AND THE ART When a person suffers a stroke, the symptoms de- pend on the site of injury. If there is right hemisphere lesion, impairment of spatial tasks, left-sided visuos- patial neglect, impaired facial recognition and spatial organization and perspective impairment are present. In painting style compensatory changes develop with the creation of the wider scenery of landscapes and larger figural compositions (Bäzner & Hennerici 2007). The German painter Anton Räderscheidt suffered the right hemisphere stroke after which a substantial change in his painting style is evident; noticeable is left sided hemianopia and neglect, and previously very realis- tically painted figures and persons after stroke are usually deformed, intense and in bright colors (www.raederscheidt.com). Federico Fellini, an Italian film director, painter and cartoonist suffered a stroke at the age of 73 in the right middle cerebral artery territory with the severe left - sided motor and sensory deficits, left inferior quadrantopia, but without anosognosia, pro- sopagnosia or cognitive deficits. These deficits manifes- ted on his sketches after stroke with the neglect of the left side of drawing area, but after two months the good recovery or compensation of vision is apparent in new drawings with equal amount of details on both sides of the area (Cantagallo & Sala 1998, Dieguez 2007). In the left hemisphere stroke patient aphasia, right sided hemiparesis and loss of executive functions are present. After starting to use nondominant hand, artistic work of many artists becomes disinhibited, more impres- sionist or more intense and expressive. Katherine Sher- wood, an American painter suffered a severe dominant hemisphere stroke at the age of 44. From then she paints with her left hand and these new paintings differ signi- ficantly from pre-stroke work, she herself claims that her early work was constricted, tripped up by conscious intent and recent work unburdened, flows freely from her subconscious, uninhibited by consciousness. She even achieved rather more acclaim and financial success after the stroke (Waldman 2000, Sherwood 2012). After a left hemisphere stroke the Swedish painter and sculptor Carl Fredrik Reutersward also experienced a more disinhibited work, which manifested as the use of brighter colors and „softer“ shapes. So, the effect of stroke on artistic performance depends on the site of the lesion; the right hemisphere lesion leads to the left sided visuospatial neglect, loss of details and significant impairment of artistic work while the left hemisphere lesions reveal new artistic dimensions, disinhibit the right hemisphere, work is more spontaneous and emotional with the gain of artistic quality. In patients with neurodegenerative disorders such as frontotemporal dementia some cases of emergence of creativity and talent are still possible, despite of frontal and temporal lobe atrophy and cognitive impairment Vida Demarin, Marina Roje Bedeković, Marijana Bosnar Puretić & Marija Bošnjak Pašić: ARTS, BRAIN AND COGNITION Psychiatria Danubina, 2016; Vol. 28, No. 4, pp 343–348 346 (Miller 1998). The preservation of the frontal and parietal lobes allows planning and execution of the work and patient’s art arises from the undamaged parietal and occipital lobes when freed from the inhibition of the anterior temporal lobes; paintings became freer and more original (Miller 1996). Some painters suffering corticobasal degeneration and Alzheimer’s disease sho- wed more creative artistic work during their illness, but due to visuoconstructive deficits, spatial errors, changes of color perception and cognitive deterioration, de- mentia often leads to loss of artistic skills, especially visible in self – portraits, like in William Utermohlen pictures (Blanke 2007). Louis Wain, an English artist, illustrator of children's books suffered from schizo- phrenia and dementia and during illness his earlier gentle and joyful artistic expression disappeared; shapes became disintegrated and ornament-like (Greicius 2009). With the support of other people some dementia patients can preserve their creative capacity for a longer time and use it as a sort of therapy, especially to alleviate neuropsychiatric symptoms such as depression, agitation, sleep impairment (Chancellor 2014). Willem de Kooning, Dutch abstract expressionist was diagnosed with Alzheimer’s dementia at the age of 66 years. Before illness his paintings were usually characterized by womanly curves with multiple dissonant color combinations, but after the first sign of Alzheimer’s disease he lost the interest in painting. Eight years after, with the great support of his wife, he started painting again and despite severe cognitive and semantic deficits, and incapacity to perform any of daily living activities, he created abstract compositions and transferred them to canvas (Espinel 1996). These paintings are classified among the most beautiful, sensual, and exuberant abstract work by any modern painter (De Kooning 1995). Other neurological conditions can also be found in artistic work. Epileptic and migraine aura, scotoma scintillans, splitting of image and zig-zag lines in visual field are elements that are continously present in paintings of several artists suggesting their own experiences. Giorgio de Chirico, Greek-Italian painter the founder of the ‘scuola metafisica’ art movement suffered from migraine and used some of his morbid manifestations, scotoma scintillas and photophobia as a source of his inspiration for his painting. Some scientists were assuming that this is predominantly the result of his migraine and others advocated more for temporal epilepsy theory (Blanke 2003, Bogousslavsky 2003). Hildegard of Bingen was German Benedictine abbess who suffered from migraine and she presented her visual migraine aura in her miniatures (www.relieve-migraine-headache.com). Because of his pictures with splitting faces and specific perception of female faces, it was speculated that Pablo Picasso was suffering from migraine also. Since no data to support this headache theory were found, it was concluded that this way of painting was just the introduction of new painting style, the Cubist movement (Ferrari & Haan 2000, Haan 2009). Francisco de Goya after developing auto-immune disorder, Vogt-Koyanagi syndrome, affecting inner ear and the uveal tract changed the way of painting. Instead to create portraits he started to paint pictures with motives as a shipwreck, prison, lunatic asylum or a fire at night (library.thinkquest.org). Vincent Willem van Gogh, a Dutch postimpressionist artist suffered from several illnesses. Many hypotheses have been put forward including epilepsy, bipolar disorder, sunstroke, acute intermittent porphyria, lead poisoning and Méni?re's disease. In 1928 the temporal epilepsy theory was introduced and it was assumed that a number of the motives in his pictures described epi- leptic aura (in Der Beeck 1982, Carota2005). One theory explains his famous preference for yellow by use of large amount of absinthe and by digitalis used for epilepsy treatment in 19th century; the overuse of digitalis leads to retinal dysfunction, xanthopsia (“yellow vision”) and absinthe contains chemical thujone, which is toxic for nervous system (Wolf 2005). He most likely suffered from the bipolar disorder with symptoms aggravated by alcohol and absinth abuse and he committed suicide in 1890 (Carota 2005). Sometimes brain and neurological illnesses itself can be an inspiration for art work. In his book „Brainy Drawings” the Croatian artist Ivan Šarić rises awareness of the brain complexity, neurological conditions and importance of prevention and the right treatment of brain disorders through numerous witty yet engaged sketches of the brain. CONCLUSION In the field of visual art it is obvious and encoura- ging that a disease is not an inevitably debilitating con- dition. On one side, an illness can seriously restrain living activities, but on the other, the creative side gives new opportunities for something that the conscious mind is not aware of. The connection between brain and music is strong and bidirectional. As Oliver Sacks, a professor of neuro- logy and a writer who extensively studied the effect of music on human health wrote: “We turn to the music, we need it, because of its ability to move us, to induce feelings and moods, states of mind.” (Sacks 2006). Acknowledgements: None. Conflict of interest: None to declare. Contribution of individual authors: The work is a product of the whole team; all members have contributed to the conception of the work. Vida Demarin and Marijana Bosnar Puretić were writing and drafting the work for intellectual content. Marina Roje Bedeković and Marija Bošnjak Pašić made literature search. All authors gave final approval of the version to be published. 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work_7nyvjiogy5a6xp2jp2zc7snwdm	----	43. sayı.indd Görsel Sanatlar Öğretmen Adaylarının Modern Resmi Algılamalarında Kolaj Tekniğinden Yararlanılması: Eylem Araştırması* Görkem Utku ALPARSLAN**, Ümran BULUT*** Öz Araştırmanın amacı, görsel sanatlar öğretmen adaylarının modern resmi algılamalarında, kolaj tekniğinin katkısını ortaya koymaktır. Araştırma nitel araştırma yöntemlerinden eylem araştırması biçiminde desenlenmiştir. Araştırma sekiz hafta süresince yürütülmüştür. Araştırmanın verileri, öğrenci günlükleri ve öğrencilerin uygulama öncesi, uygulama sırası ve uygulama sonrası yaptıkları resimler, DPA (Dereceli Puanlama Anahtarı, rubric) ile ölçülerek toplanmış ve değerlendirilmiştir. Araştırmada, öğrencilerin kolaj tekniğiyle yaptıkları resimlerin DPA değerlendirmeleri sonucunda modern resmi düşünsel ve biçimsel yönden yansıtma açısından gelişme kaydettikleri ortaya çıkmış ve nitel verilerin betimsel çözümlemesi sonucunda öğrencilerin modern resmin düşünsel ve biçimsel temelleri ile kolaj tekniği hakkında farkındalıklarının arttığı bulgusuna ulaşılmıştır. Araştırmanın sonucunda öğrencilerin çalışmalarında modern resmi ifade etme beceri düzeylerinde artış gözlemlenmiş ve öğrenciler modern resmin ve kolaj tekniğinin biçimsel, düşünsel yapısına yönelik farkındalıklarının özgünlük, eleştirellik ve yaratıcılık çerçevesinde arttığı belirlenmiştir. Anahtar Sözcükler: Kolaj tekniği, modern resim, asamblaj Use of Collage Technique in Modern Art Perceptions of Visual Arts Teacher Candidates: Action Research Abstract The purpose of the research is to demonstrate the contribution of the collage technique to modern art perceptions of visual arts teacher candidates. Research has been designed in the form of an action research from qualitative research methods. The study was conducted for eight weeks. The data of the study, the student journals and the pictures of the students before, during and after the application were collected and evaluated by rubric. In the study, it was found that students 'pictures of rubbing their images with rubbing techniques developed as a result of modern formal intellectual and formative reflection and as a result of the descriptive analysis of qualitative data, students' awareness of modern visual intellectual and formal foundations and collage technique increased. As a result of the research, the level of skill of expressing modern formal expression was observed in the students' work and it was determined that the awareness of students about the formal and intellectual structure of modern picture and collage technique increased in the frame of originality, criticism and creativity. Key words: Collage technique, modern painting, assemblage * Bu çalışma, Görkem Utku Alparslan’ın Prof. Dr. Ümran Bulut danışmanlığında yürüttüğü “Görsel Sanatlarda Anlatım Yöntemi Olarak Kolaj Tekniğinin Modern Resim Uygulamalarına Etkisi” başlıklı doktora tezinden alınmıştır. Bu çalışma, 28 Eylül – 01 Ekim 2017 tarihleri arasında CEAD 2. Uluslararası Çağdaş Eğitim Araştırmaları Kongresi’nde sunulmuştur. ** Arş. Gör., Pamukkale Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi, Denizli. E-Posta: gorkemutku@gmail.com *** Prof. Dr., Marmara Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi. İstanbul, E-Posta: umranbulut@gmail.com IS SN 1 30 1- 00 85 P ri n t / 13 09 -0 27 5 O n lin e © P am u kk al e Ü n iv er si te si E ğ it im F ak ü lt es i h tt p :/ /d x. d o i.o rg /1 0. 97 79 /P U JE 72 5 PAU Egit Fak Derg, 2018 (43): 77-91 Gönderme Tarihi: 09.11.2017 Kabul Tarihi: 20.12.2017 Araştırma Makalesi/ Research Article t Pamukkale University Journal of Education, Number 43 (January 2018/I)78 Görkem Utku Alparslan, Ümran Bulut Giriş Modern resim ile kolaj tekniği arasındaki düşünsel ve biçimsel ilişkiyi ortaya koymadan önce modernlik kavramını tanımlamamız gerekmektedir. Samir Amin’e göre modernlik en temel anlamda “gelenekten kopuş” anlamına gelir ve “insanların bireysel ve kolektif olarak kendi tarihlerini yaptıkları ilkesine dayanır” (Amin’den aktaran Helvacıoğlu, 2017, s. 10). Bu bağlamda; modern resmin “gelenekten kopuş” ilkesi temelinde bilimsel veriler ışığında gerçekliği yansıtma ilkesi çerçevesinde biçimlendiği söylenebilir. Modern resim özünde varlığın özünün araştırılması ve görselleştirilmesi çabası vardır. İki ana akıma ayrılır: olgucu akımlar ve dışavurumcu akımlar. Olguculuktan etkilenen en bilinen resim akımı izlenimciliktir. İzlenimcilik varlığı duyumlar bireşimi olarak görür. Dışavurumcu akımlar ise fizikötesidir; soyutlayıcı akımlar ve gerçeküstücü akımlar olmak üzere kendi içinde ikiye ayrılır. Vincent van Gogh (1853 – 1890) ile başlayan görüngüden kurtulma hareketi kübizm akımında nihai ereğine ulaşır: varlığın mantıksal özüne inme. Soyutlayıcı akımlar, varlığı geometrik - mantıksal biçimler olarak görürler. Usdışı akımlar ise – gerçeküstücülük gibi – varlığı saçma, usdışı biçimlerde ararlar (Tunalı, 2010). Bu ifadelerden sonra tek tek düşünürlerin modern resme etkileri incelenebilir. Modern resmi düşünsel açıdan etkileyen birçok düşünür vardır. Bunların önde gelenleri David Hume (1711 -1776), Immanuel Kant (1724 – 1804) ve Paul Cezanne (1839 – 1906) olarak sıralanabilir. David Hume, deneyimciliğin yol açtığı güçlük ya da sorunsallarla uğraşmak suretiyle modern düşün dünyasına çok önemli katkılarda bulunmuş İngiliz düşünürüdür (Cevizci, 2015, s. 214). Olgucu felsefenin oluşmasında önemli bir yeri olan “izlenim” kavramını felsefi alan yazına etkili bir biçimde kazandıran İskoç filozof David Hume’un bilgi bilimsel bu görüşleri; kendisinden sonra ortaya çıkacak olan izlenimcilik akımını derinden etkilemiştir. İzlenim (impression) kavramı, felsefede ilk olarak David Hume ile önem kazanmıştır. Hume, izlenim kavramını, bilgimizin en temel ve en özgün taşıyıcısı olarak anlamaktadır. Bilincimizi ve tasavvurlarımızı izlenimlerimiz, duyumlarımız oluşturur. Ancak bu duyumlar salt duyu organlarımız ile duyumsadıklarımız değil; aynı zamanda iç duyumuz yani psikolojik içeriklerimizdir (Tunalı, 2008). Bu bağlamda Hume’un temel düşüncesi olan; “gerçekliğe ancak ve ancak duyumlarla varılabilir” düşüncesi modern resmi izlenimcilik akımı bağlamında etkilemiştir diyebiliriz. Modern dönem ressamları, izlenimcilik akımından sonra düşün dünyalarına dönüş eğilimi göstermişlerdir. Bu eğilimin, Sanayi Devrimi sonrası ortaya çıkan üretim ilişkileri ve savaşların sonucunda, insanların ve özellikle ressamların düşün dünyasına yönlenmeleri biçiminde ortaya çıktığı söylenebilir. Bu dönemin resim dünyasını derinden etkileyen düşünce akımı Alman idealizmidir. Düşünce tarihinin en önemli figürlerinden olan Alman idealist filozof Kant, düşün dizgesinde ağırlıkla bilgi ve ahlak konuları üzerine eğilmiştir. Ona göre bilgimizin nesnelere uymasıyla ilgili geleneksel kabul geçersizdir: Nesneler bilgimize ya da zihinsel yapımıza uymak zorundadırlar. Kant kavramın deneyim ve bilginin önkoşulu olduğunu savunmuştur (Cevizci, 2015). Kavramın deneyim ve bilginin ön koşulu olma ilkesi, modern sanat yapıtlarının önemli bir bölümünün özünü oluşturur: kavram ressamlığı. Kavram ressamlığı dediğimiz şey, nesnelerin dış görünüşünü değil, özünü, değişmeyen yapısını yansıtmaktır (İpşiroğlu, 2009). Bu biçemin düşünsel temeli Kant felsefesinde yatmaktadır. Kant felsefesinden etkilenen kübizm, modern sanatta gerçek bir kırılma yaratmıştır. Bilinen doğa-nesne taklitçiliği parçalanmıştır. Kübizm bu parçalanmanın en önemli aşamasıdır. Kübizm akımında imge; sanatçı tarafından, düşünce temelli, yeniden oluşturulmuştur. Analitik kübizm imgeyi parçalarken, sentetik kübizm parçalardan yeni bir bütün oluşturur. Sentetik kübizm akımının başlıca resim tekniklerinden olan kolaj tekniği çeşitli kağıt ya da gazete parçalarının bir araya getirilerek yeni bir biçim oluşturma anlayışıdır. Öncüleri Pablo Picasso (1881 – 1963) ve Georges Braque’dır (1882 – 1963) (Antmen, 2010). Kübist ressamların Alman idealist düşünceden 79Pamukkale Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, Sayı 43 (Ocak 2018/I) Görsel Sanatlar Öğretmen Adaylarının Modern Resmi Algılamalarında Kolaj Tekniğinden Yararlanılması: Eylem Araştırması etkilendiğini gösteren önemli bir yapıt, Georges Braque’ın (1882 – 1963) 1909 – 1910 tarihleri arasında yaptığı Mandora adlı çalışmadır. Çalışmada yapılan çalgı, birçok açıdan resmedilmiştir. Bu anlayışın temeli, duyuların yanıltıcı olduğu, bu bağlamda duyularla algıladığımız dünyanın gerçekliği yansıtmadığı düşüncesidir. Söz konusu çalgı da duyuların algıladığı çerçevede değil, zihnin algıladığı çerçevede bilinen perspektif kuralları aşılarak, tek bakış açısı kırılarak, yansıtılmıştır. Resim 1: Georges Braque, Mandora, 1909 - 1910. Tuval Üzerine Yağlıboya, 71,1 x 55,9 cm. Modern ressamlara yeni ufuklar açan bir diğer kişi, Fransız ressam Paul Cezanne’dır (1839 – 1906). Cezanne, ürettikleri ile Modern Sanat’ı derinden etkilemiştir. Öğrencisi Emile Bernard’a yazdığı “Doğayı, silindir, koni ve küre gibi ele al ve bütünü öyle doğru bir perspektif içine koy ki, bir nesnenin, bir düzlemin her yanı bir merkez noktasına götürsün” sözleri yapıtlarında doğanın duyumsallıktan düşünselliğe doğru bir yol aldığını bize göstermektedir. Artık doğa duyusal değil, kurgusal – düşünseldir. Yapıtlara doğanın anlamı yansır. Bu anlam düşüncede somutlaşır. Böyle bir anlamın varlığı haline gelen sanat da duyusal doğanın karşıtı bir konuma yerleşir. Cezanne’ın sarf ettiği şu anıtsal söz modern resme ve kübist resme derinden işlemiştir: “Sanat doğaya koşut olan bir armonidir” (Tunalı, 2008, s. 123 – 124). Cezanne’ın bu görüşleri modern resmin kavram ressamlığına giden yolda önemli bir kilometre taşıdır denilebilir. Modern resmi düşünsel açıdan genel anlamda değerlendirdiğimizde; Sanayi Devrimi’nin de etkisiyle ve bilimin gelişmesiyle kavramsallığı ve gerçekliği; bilimi de kullanarak, özgür ifade olanaklarıyla yansıtmış, resim bilinen resim kavramını aşmıştır. Kolaj tekniği de bu bağlamda modern resmin önemli ifade yöntemlerindendir. Kolaj, bir resmin bünyesine uygun olarak yapıştırılan çeşitli kâğıt parçaları ya da buna benzer gereçlerle yapılan yapıttır. Çeşitli çağlardan kalan iki yapının birbirlerine uygun biçimde bir araya getirilmesi olarak tanımlanır (Turani, 1995). Günümüzde kolaj tekniği, elde bulunan her tür basılı, çizili ya da fotografik malzemeyi, bir yüzey üzerine (veya üç boyutlu bir şekilde) yeni bir kompozisyon oluşturacak şekilde yapıştırılması anlamına gelmektedir (Eroğlu’ndan aktaran Kaplanoğlu, 2008, s. 97). Kolaj tekniği eski bir teknik olmasına karşın, sanatsal anlamda ilk olarak kübistler tarafından kullanılmıştır. Kolaj tekniği, modern resmin özsel anlamda yansıtılmasında düşünsel ve biçimsel açıdan önem taşımaktadır. Şair Guillaume Apollinaire (1880 – 1918) modern bir kent insanının yaşantısını anlatmak için kolajın önemli bir teknik olduğu görüşündedir. Özellikle Picasso’nun kolaj tekniği hem düşünsel açıdan hem de biçimsel açıdan sade bir biçimde modern resmin büyük oranda özelliklerini taşımaktadır. Düşünsel açıdan kolaj tekniği zihinsel dünya tasarımı olarak, biçimsel açıdan ise biçimsel yapının kavramı ve gerçekliği güçlendirmeye hizmet etmektedir. Picasso, kübist kolaj tekniği ile yaptığı 1912 – 13 tarihli Şişe, Bardak ve Keman adlı yapıtındaki kemanın bir bölümü, bir gazete parçasına ve resmin yüzeyi olan bir kağıda karakalemle çizilmiş, öteki bölümü de ahşap görünümlü bir biçimle yapıştırılarak oluşturulmuştur. Onun hemen yanında keman çizgilerini belirten başka bir gazete parçasının üzerinde bardak işareti vardır. Solda bulunan şişe ise bir gazeteden kesilmiş, “JOURNAL” sözcüğünün harfleri de ayrıca resme yapıştırılmıştır (Lynton, 2009). Bu bağlamda kolaj tekniği ile oluşturulan bu resimde sezinleme yoluyla da olsa fizik bilimi ile ilişki kurulduğu görülebilir. Şöyle ki; atomun parçalanması ve genel görelilik kuramı dünyanın gördüğümüz anlamda olmadığını bizlere göstermektedir. Böylelikle kolaj tekniği ile oluşturulan bireşimci kübist resimler sezgi ile de olsa modern fizikten etkilendiği düşünülmektedir. Pamukkale University Journal of Education, Number 43 (January 2018/I)80 Görkem Utku Alparslan, Ümran Bulut Resim 2: Pablo Picasso, Şişe, Bardak ve Keman, 1912 - 13, Kolaj ve Karakalem, 47 x 62 cm, Modern Müze, Stockholm. Kolaj tekniğinin önemli uygulayıcılarından Kurt Schwitters (1887 – 1948), modern akımın en önemli yenilikçilerindendi. Buluşu olan “merzyapısı” resimden ve yontudan ayrı olan yeni bir sanat kategorisine doğru atılmış önemli bir adım olarak ifade edilebilir. Söz konusu “merzyapıları” uzamsal yanılsama olarak ifade edilen resim ile formların boşluk içinde kapladığı yerle ifade edilen yontudan ayrık olarak cisimlerin öz yapılarından gelen özelliklerle ilgili bir ifadedir. Merz, bu bağlamda yeni formları yeni biçimlendirme yöntemleriyle bir araya getirme olarak belirtilebilir (Thompson, 2014). Bu bağlamda dada içine de sokulabilen Schwitters, kolaj tekniğini öncü anlayışı için araç olarak kullandığı söylenebilir. Ressam, yapıtı ile bilinen resim anlayışını yıkarak, tepkisel olarak, gerçekliği karmaşa olarak yansıtmakta ve bilinen resmin gerçekliği yansıtmada eksik kalacağını vurgulamaktadır. Resim 3: Kurt Schwitters, Merz, Resim 12b, Aşk Planı, 1919 - 23, Kağıt Üzerine Karışık Teknik, 43 x 32,5 cm, Metropolitan Sanat Müzesi, New York. Max Ernst’in (1891 – 1976) kolaj tekniği, bir resim ya da bir çizime yapıştırılmış fotografik öğe, bir fotoğrafın üzerine eklenen resim ya da çizim öğesi, kesilip başka bir tabloya ya da resme yerleştirilmiş bir resim ve fotoğraf yoluyla anlaşılmaz kılınmış nesnelerden oluşmuş bir düzenlemenin yalın ve katıksız fotoğrafına dayanmaktadır (Aragon, 2015). Ernst, resim – romanlarında bilinen resme karşı savaş açarak yeni bir kurgusal dil oluşturuyordu. Bu bağlamda Ernst’in kolajlarının bilinçaltı kaynaklı bir gerçeklik peşinde olduğu söylenebilir. Modern resmin tüm bu bilgiler ışığında “gerçekliği yansıtma çabası güden ve bu çabası bağlamında düşünceyi güçlendirmek adına yeni malzemeler kullanan resim üretme etkinliği” olduğu ifade edilebilir. Kolaj tekniği de bu çabanın en göze çarpan yanıdır ve bu araştırmada da kullanılan temel modern sanat tekniğidir. Araştırmanın amacı, görsel sanatlar öğretmen adaylarının modern resmi algılamalarında, kolaj tekniğinin katkısını ortaya koymaktır. Araştırmanın alt problemleri şöyledir: 1. Etkinliğin, öğrencilerin modern resimden yararlanan çalışmalar üretmelerine etkisi ne olmuştur? 2. Etkinliğin, modern resim ile ilgili öğrencilerin farkındalık düzeylerine katkısı ne olmuştur? 3. Etkinliğin öğrencilerin kolaj tekniği ile ilgili farkındalıklarına katkısı ne olmuştur? Araştırmanın sınırlılıkları; zaman açısından, 2016 – 2017 eğitim – öğretim yılı ile, konu açısından çalışma grubunun Picasso’nun kolaj tekniği üzerine modern resim uygulamalarıyla, çalışma grubu açısından, Denizli ili, Pamukkale Üniversitesi, Eğitim Fakültesi Güzel Sanatlar Eğitimi Bölümü Resim – İş Öğretmenliği Anabilim Dalı anasanat atölye 3. sınıf 11 sayısı ile sınırlıdır. Yöntem Görsel sanatlar öğretmen adaylarının modern resmi algılamalarında, kolaj tekniğinin katkısını ortaya koymayı amaçlayan araştırma, nitel araştırma yöntemlerinden eylem araştırması biçiminde desenlenmiştir. Eylem Araştırması, bir program, örgüt ve topluluktaki özel 81Pamukkale Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, Sayı 43 (Ocak 2018/I) Görsel Sanatlar Öğretmen Adaylarının Modern Resmi Algılamalarında Kolaj Tekniğinden Yararlanılması: Eylem Araştırması sorunsalları çözmeyi amaç edinir (Patton, 2014). Bu amaç ışığında eylem araştırması, bir okulda çalışan öğretmen, yönetici, eğitim uzmanı ya da başka kurumlarda çalışan mühendis, yönetici, planlamacı ve insan kaynakları uzmanı gibi bizzat uygulamanın içinde olan uygulayıcının doğrudan kendisinin ya da bir araştırmacı ile birlikte uygulama sürecine ilişkin sorunların ortaya çıkarılması ya da mevcut bulunan bir sorunu anlama ve çözüm bulmaya yönelik sistematik veri toplamayı ve analiz etmeyi içeren bir araştırma türüdür (Yıldırım ve Şimşek, 2013). Bu çalışmada eylem araştırmasının uygulanmasının nedeni öğrencilerle birebir etkileşim içinde olmak ve her ders sonunda onlardan dönüt almaktır. Çalışma Grubu Araştırma Pamukkale Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Güzel Sanatlar Eğitimi Bölümü Resim – İş Eğitimi Anabilim Dalı’nda 2016 – 2017 Eğitim – Öğretim Yılı Bahar Dönemi 3.sınıf resim anasanat atölye dersinde gerçekleştirilmiştir. Resim anasanat atölye, Resim – İş Eğitimi Anabilim Dalı’nda anasanat atölye seçimleri sonunda yerleşen öğrencilerin 2., 3. ve 4. sınıflarda almak zorunda oldukları bir derstir. 3. sınıfta 2 saat kuramsal ve 4 saat uygulama olmak üzere toplam haftada 6 saat işlenen Resim anasanat atölye 4 kredilik bir derstir. Çalışmada, amaçlı örnekleme türlerinden durum örneklemesi kullanılmıştır. Bu örnekleme yöntemi araştırmaya hız kazandırmaktadır. Çünkü bu yöntemde araştırmacı erişilmesi kolay durumu seçer (Yıldırım ve Şimşek, 2013, s. 141). Çalışma grubu belirlenirken, her öğrencinin adları yerine kodlar kullanılmıştır. Bu kodlama, öğrencinin ilk üç harfi “ÖĞR” ile 1’den 11’e kadar olan sayıların birleştirilmesi biçiminde belirlenmiştir. Öğrencilerin, birinci öğrenciden on birinci öğrenciye kadar olan kodlamalarının örneği şöyledir: ÖĞR01, ÖĞR02, vb. Bu araştırmanın çalışma grubunu, 2016 – 2017 Eğitim Öğretim Yılı, 3. Sınıfta görülen anasanat atölye dersini alacak olan Pamukkale Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Güzel Sanatlar Eğitimi Bölümü Resim – İş Eğitimi Anabilim Dalı öğrencileri oluşturmaktadır. Araştırmada öğrenciler arasında on bir kişiden oluşan gönüllü bir grup oluşturulmuş ve öğrenci günlükleri ve program değerlendirme formu yöntemleriyle bu öğrencilerden veri alınmıştır. Veri Toplama Araçları Nitel veri toplama araçları; öğrenci günlüğü, görüşme, çalışma grubunun tasarım uygulamalarını değerlendirme formu, program değerlendirme formu olarak belirlenmiştir. Öğrenci günlükleri, ders sonunda öğrencilere gönderilen bazı sorulara öğrencilerin verdikleri yanıtlardan oluşmaktadır. Görüşme, yapılandırılmış görüşme tekniği ile yürütülmüştür. Yapılandırılmış görüşme, araştırmacı tarafından belirlenmiş soruların ilgili kişiye kısa bir zaman içinde sorulmasıdır (Sönmez ve Alacapınar, 2013). Çalışma grubunun tasarım uygulamalarını değerlendirme formu (DPA), araştırmacı tarafından uzman görüşü alınarak oluşturulmuştur. DPA, öğrenci durumunun belirlenmesinde ve izlenmesinde kullanılan puanlama kılavuzu olarak tanımlanır (Goodrich’ten aktaran Parlak ve Doğan, 2014, s. 190). Program değerlendirme formu ise öğrencilere etkinlikle ilgili sorulan sorulardan oluşmaktadır. Verilerin Toplanması Tablo 1’de görüleceği üzere; uygulama sekiz hafta ile sınırlıdır. Uygulama 3.sınıf anasanat atölye VI dersinde atölye ortamında yürütülmüştür. Uygulama ortamı soldan ışık almaktadır. Atölyedeki şövaleler halka biçiminde dizilmiştir. Ayrıca atölyede yansıtım cihazı mevcuttur. Uygulama sonunda öğrencilerden, modern sanatı ifade edebilen yapıtlar ortaya koyabilmeleri beklenilmiştir. Pamukkale University Journal of Education, Number 43 (January 2018/I)82 Görkem Utku Alparslan, Ümran Bulut Tablo: 1. Görsel Sanatlar Öğretmen Adaylarının Kolaj Tekniği Aracılığıyla Modern Resmi İfade Becerilerine Yönelik Olan Etkinlik Programı ETKİNLİK PROGRAMI DERSİN UYGULANACAĞI ÖĞRENCİ GRUBU Pamukkale Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Güzel Sanatlar Eğitimi Bölümü Resim – İş Öğretmenliği Anabilim Dalı Resim ASA 3. Sınıf Öğrencileri UYGULAMA SÜRESİ 8 Hafta HAFTALIK DERS UYGULAMA SÜRESİ Haftada 3 Ders Saati (İlk 6 hafta, haftada 3 saat kuramsal, son 2 hafta uygulamalı) DERSİN GENEL AMACI Öğrencilerin modern sanata, kolaj tekniği aracılığıyla düşünsel ve biçimsel olarak öykünmelerini sağlamak DERSİN GENEL ÖĞRENİM ÇIKTILARI Öğrenciler kolaj tekniği aracılığıyla modern sanatı yansıtan yapıtlar ortaya koyabileceklerdir. DERSİN YÖNTEMİ Kuramsal ve Uygulamalı UYGULAMA YÖNTEMİ Eylem araştırması yöntemlerine uygun olarak esnek, öğrenci performansı verileri doğrultusunda yenilenebilir haftalık çalışma dilimlerinin eğitsel düzenlemesi gerçek- leştirilecektir. Sekiz haftalık etkinlik programında öğrencilere ilk altı hafta sunu yoluyla kuramsal bilgi verilmiştir. Anlatılan kuramsal bilgiler modern sanatın düşünsel ve biçimsel temelleri, kolaj tekniğinin düşünsel ve biçimsel temelleri ve Picasso’nun kolaj tekniği ile modern resmin ilişkisi üzerinedir. Her ders sonunda öğrenciler öğrenci günlüklerini doldurmuşlardır. Dördüncü hafta işlenen ders sonunda bir “uygulama içi” çalışma ödevi yapmışlardır. Yedinci hafta “aydınlanma” konulu uygulama sonrası çalışması için eskiz çalışmadı yapmışlar, sekizinci hafta da uygulama sonu çalışmalarını yapmışlardır. Atrıca, sekizinci haftada program değerlendirme formunu doldurmuşlardır. Bunların yanında öğrencilerin uygulama öncesi, uygulama içi (4. Hafta) ve uygulama sonu ortaya koydukları aydınlanma konulu kolaj çalışmaları dereceli puanlama anahtarı ile değerlendirilmiştir. Geçerlikler, Lawshe Tekniği ile incelenmiştir. Lawshe Tekniği, altı aşamadan oluşmaktadır: alan uzmanlarının belirlenmesi, DPA formlarının hazırlanması, uzman görüşlerinin alınması, maddelere ilişkin kapsam geçerlik oranlarının ortaya konması, ölçeğe ilişkin kapsam geçerlik dizinlerinin elde edilmesi, kapsam geçerlik oranları dizini ölçütlerine göre gerçek formun oluşturulması (Lawshe’den aktaran, Yurdugül, 2005, s. 2). Tablo 2. Dereceli Puanlama Anahtarı (DPA) Güvenilirlik Sonuçları Uzman Araştırmacı Kendall’stau_b Uzman r 1,000 ,572** p . ,000 N 33 33 Araştırmacı r ,572** 1,000 p ,000 . N 33 33 Tablo 2 incelendiğinde dereceli puanlama anahtarı uzman ve araştırmacı değerlendir- mesine göre iki uygulayıcı arasındaki uyum katsayısı görülmektedir. bu doğrultuda iki uy- gulayıcı arasındaki uyum katsayısı .57 şeklinde belirlenmiştir. 83Pamukkale Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, Sayı 43 (Ocak 2018/I) Görsel Sanatlar Öğretmen Adaylarının Modern Resmi Algılamalarında Kolaj Tekniğinden Yararlanılması: Eylem Araştırması Tablo 3. DPA Geçerlik Hesaplaması GEREKLİ YARARLI/YETERSİZ GEREKSİZ KAPSAM GEÇERLİK ORANI 1.Madde 5 1,00 2.Madde 5 1,00 3.Madde 5 1,00 4.Madde 5 1,00 5.Madde 5 1,00 6.Madde 5 1,00 7.Madde 5 1,00 8.Madde 5 1,00 9.Madde 5 1,00 10.Madde 5 1,00 Uzman Sayısı 5 Kapsam Geçerlik Dizini 1,00 Tablo 3 incelendiğinde dereceli puanlama anahtarının kapsam geçerlilik hesaplamaları görülecektir. Bu bağlamda toplam 5 uzmandan elde edilen kapsam geçerlilik dizini 1,00 şeklinde belirlenmiştir. Tablo 4. Öğrenci Günlüğü Geçerlik Hesaplaması KAZANIMLAR GEREKLİ YARARLI/YETERSİZ GEREKSİZ KAPSAM GEÇERLİK ORANI 1.Hafta 1.Madde 5 1,00 2.Madde 4 1 0,60 2.Hafta 1.Madde 5 1,00 2.Madde 5 1,00 3.Madde 5 1,00 4.Madde 5 1,00 5.Madde 5 1,00 3.Hafta 1.Madde 5 1,00 2.Madde 4 1 0,60 4.Hafta 1.Madde 5 1,00 2.Madde 4 1 0,60 5.Hafta 1.Madde 5 1,00 2.Madde 4 1 0,60 6.Hafta 1.Madde 5 1,00 7.Hafta 1.Madde 4 1 0,60 8.Hafta 1.Madde 5 1,00 1.Madde 4 1 0,60 Uzman Sayısı 5 Kapsam Geçerlik Dizini 0,80 Tablo 4 incelendiğinde öğrenci günlüklerinin kapsam geçerlilik değerinin ise 5 uzman doğrultusunda 0,8 şeklinde olduğunu söylemek mümkündür. Pamukkale University Journal of Education, Number 43 (January 2018/I)84 Görkem Utku Alparslan, Ümran Bulut Tablo 5. Program Değerlendirme Formu Geçerlik Hesaplaması SORULAR GEREKLİ YARARLI/YETERSİZ GEREKSİZ KAPSAM GEÇERLİK ORANI 1.Madde 5 1,00 2.Madde 5 1,00 3.Madde 5 1,00 4.Madde 5 1,00 5.Madde 5 1,00 6.Madde 5 1,00 7.Madde 5 1,00 Uzman Sayısı 5 Kapsam Geçerlik Dizini 1,00 Tablo 5 incelendiğinde program değerlendirme formunun kapsam geçerliliğinim 1,00 olduğunu söylenebilir. Araştırmacı, uygulama sürecinin doğrudan yürütücüsü konumundadır. Uygulama ortamını düzenleme, sunu yöntemiyle kuramsal bilgi verme ve resim uygulamalarını araştırmacı doğrudan yürütmüştür. Verilerin Analizi Veriler çözümlenirken araştırmacı ve bir uzman, ayrı ayrı verileri çözümlemişlerdir. Öğrenci günlüğü ve program değerlendirme formunda araştırmacı ve bir uzmanın ortak betimsel analizleri yazılmıştır. DPA değerlendirmelerinde de yine aynı şekilde araştırmacı ve bir uzman öğrencilerin çalışmalarını değerlendirmiş ve iki değerlendirme tutarlı çıkmıştır. Bulgular Sekiz haftalık ders programı süresince öğrenci günlüklerinden edinilen veriler ışığında öğrencilerin modern resmin düşünsel ve biçimsel temelleri ve kolaj tekniği hakkında farkındalık edindikleri ortaya çıkmıştır. Edindikleri bu farkındalık yaptıkları resim çalışmalarına da yansımıştır. Etkinliğin Öğrencilerin Modernizmden Etkilenerek Resim Üretmelerine Etkisi Çalışma grubuna sekiz haftalık ders anlatımı öncesi, sırasında ve sonrasında “aydınlanma” konulu, Picasso’ya öykünecekleri biçimde kolaj çalışmaları yaptırılmıştır. Tablo 7’te de görüleceği gibi öğrencilerin UÖ (Uygulama Öncesi) zamanındaki çalışmalarının tamamı “BAŞARISIZ” iken, ÖĞR03 dışında diğer öğrencilerin Uİ (Uygulama İçi) ve US (Uygulama Sonrası) zamanlarındaki çalışmaları “BAŞARILI”dır. Söz konusu DPA sonuçları kolaj tekniği temelli ders programının öğrencilerin modern sanata öykünen çalışmalar ortaya koymalarında yararlı olduğunu ortaya koymaktadır. Uygulamadan altı ay sonra yapılan kalıcılık uygulaması sonucunda da ortaya konulan yapıtların yapılan DPA değerlendirmesi sonucunda kalıcı bir biçimde modern resmi ifade eden yapıtlar olduğu ortaya konulmuştur. Tablo 6. DPA Sonuçlarının Sınıflandırılması BAŞARISIZ VASAT BAŞARILI 0 – 0,99 1 – 1,99 2 – 3.00 Tablo 6’da görüleceği üzere DPA sonuçları “Başarısız”, “Vasat” ve “Başarılı” şeklinde sınıflandırılmıştır. 85Pamukkale Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, Sayı 43 (Ocak 2018/I) Görsel Sanatlar Öğretmen Adaylarının Modern Resmi Algılamalarında Kolaj Tekniğinden Yararlanılması: Eylem Araştırması Tablo 7. Çalışma Grubunun Kolaj Uygulamalarını Değerlendirme Sonuçları ÖĞRENCİ KODU UYGULAMA ZAMANI PUANI BAŞARI DERECESİ ÖĞR01 UÖ 0,1 BAŞARISIZ ÖĞR01 Uİ 2,5 BAŞARILI ÖĞR01 US 3,0 BAŞARILI ÖĞR02 UÖ 0,0 BAŞARISIZ ÖĞR02 Uİ 3,0 BAŞARILI ÖĞR02 US 3,0 BAŞARILI ÖĞR03 UÖ 0,0 BAŞARISIZ ÖĞR03 Uİ 1,2 VASAT ÖĞR03 US 1,5 VASAT ÖĞR04 UÖ 0,0 BAŞARISIZ ÖĞR04 Uİ 2,3 BAŞARILI ÖĞR04 US 2,4 BAŞARILI ÖĞR05 UÖ 0,6 BAŞARISIZ ÖĞR05 Uİ 2,0 BAŞARILI ÖĞR05 US 3,0 BAŞARILI ÖĞR06 UÖ 0,1 BAŞARISIZ ÖĞR06 Uİ 2,8 BAŞARILI ÖĞR06 US 2,8 BAŞARILI ÖĞR07 UÖ 0,7 BAŞARISIZ ÖĞR07 Uİ 2,9 BAŞARILI ÖĞR07 US 2,8 BAŞARILI ÖĞR08 UÖ 0,0 BAŞARISIZ ÖĞR08 Uİ 2,6 BAŞARILI ÖĞR08 US 3,0 BAŞARILI ÖĞR09 UÖ 0,0 BAŞARISIZ ÖĞR09 Uİ 2,9 BAŞARILI ÖĞR09 US 2,9 BAŞARILI ÖĞR10 UÖ 0,6 BAŞARISIZ ÖĞR10 Uİ 2,5 BAŞARILI ÖĞR10 US 3,0 BAŞARILI ÖĞR11 UÖ 0,5 BAŞARISIZ ÖĞR11 Uİ 2,9 BAŞARILI ÖĞR11 US 2,9 BAŞARILI DPA ölçümünün yanında bu çalışmada öğ- renci günlükleri ve program değerlendirme formu de kullanılmıştır. Öğrencilerin günlük- lere verdikleri yanıtlar “kolaj tekniği öğretim etkinliğinin onların bakış açılarını, imgelem güçlerini, eleştirel becerilerini geliştirdiği ve yaratıcılıklarını arttırdığı yönündedir. Etkinliğin Modern Resmin Biçimsel ve Dü- şünsel Yapısına Yönelik Farkındalığa Katkısı Modern resmin düşünsel ve biçimsel yapı- sı temasına bağlı olarak öğrencilere günlük formlarında 20.02.2017 tarihinde “İşlenen dersin modern sanatın düşünsel temellerine yönelik olarak farkındalığınıza ne gibi bir etkisi olmuştur?”, 27.02.2017 tarihinde “İşlenen ders, modern sanat ile klasik sanat arasındaki biçimsel farklılığa yönelik farkındalığınıza ne gibi bir etkisi olmuştur?” ve yine aynı ta- rihte “İşlenen ders, modern sanat ile klasik Pamukkale University Journal of Education, Number 43 (January 2018/I)86 Görkem Utku Alparslan, Ümran Bulut sanat arasındaki biçimsel farklılığa yönelik farkındalığınıza ne gibi bir etkisi olmuştur?” sorusu sorulmuştur. Öğrencilerin verdikleri yanıtlardan vurgulu olanlar seçilmiş ve aşağıda sıralanmıştır. Alıntı 1: ÖĞR04, 20.02.2017, Öğrenci Günlüğü ÖĞR04 kodlu öğrenci, modern sanat ve felsefenin iç içe olduğunun ayırtına vardığını ifade etmiştir. Bu bağlamda modern resmin felsefe ile derin ilişkisinin önemini kavradığı ifade edilebilir. Alıntı 2: ÖĞR04, 27.02.2017, Öğrenci Günlüğü ÖĞR04 kodlu öğrenci, modern sanatın klasik sanattan farklı olarak düşünce-kavram ressamlığı olduğunun ayırtına vardığını ifade etmiştir. Bu bağlamda ÖĞR04 kodlu öğrencinin modern resmin düşünsel ve biçimsel yapısı hakkında belirli bir farkındalığa vardığını ifade edebiliriz. Alıntı 3: ÖĞR07, 27.02.2017, Öğrenci Günlüğü ÖĞR07 kodlu öğrenci, modern sanatın biçimsel yapısını “doğanın kavram-düşünce” hizmetinde olduğunu ifade ederek biçimsel yapı hakkında farkındalığını ifade etmiştir. Öğrencilerin 10.04.2017 tarihinde bireysel görüşmelerdeki “Gördüğünüz derslerin Modern sanatın düşünsel ve biçimsel yapısına yönelik farkındalığınıza ne gibi bir etkisi olmuştur?” sorusuna verdikleri yanıtlar aşağıdaki gibidir. Daha yaratıcı düşünmemi sağladı. Özgünlüğüme katkı sağladı. Alıntı 4: ÖĞR03, 10.04.2017, Bireysel Görüşme ÖĞR03 kodlu öğrenci söz konusu derslerin yaratıcılığına ve özgünlüğüne katkı sağladığını ifade etmiştir. Daha farklı düşünmemi sağladı. Bence modern sanatın bi- çimsel yapısı daha düşündürücü, yorumlamaya daha çok açık. Düşünsel yapısı düşünceyi yansıtmaya yönelik. Alıntı 5: ÖĞR07, 10.04.2017, Bireysel Görüşme ÖĞR07 kodlu öğrenci, modern sanata daha farklı bakmaya başladığını ve düşünsel yapısının zihinselliği yansıtma çerçevesinde olduğunun ayırtına vardığını ifade etmiştir. 87Pamukkale Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, Sayı 43 (Ocak 2018/I) Görsel Sanatlar Öğretmen Adaylarının Modern Resmi Algılamalarında Kolaj Tekniğinden Yararlanılması: Eylem Araştırması Evet oldu diyebilirim. Çünkü bir resme baktığımda onu o şekilde incelemiyordum. Direk bana ne hissettirdiğini bakıyordum. Hisset- tirmiyorsa “ya bu ne?” diyebiliyordum. Ama artık biçimsel olarak da teknik ve malzeme hakkında farkındalığım arttı. Alıntı 6: ÖĞR11, 10.04.2017, Bireysel Görüşme ÖĞR11 kodlu öğrenci, modern resmin malzeme kullanımı ve düşünsel yapısı hakkındaki farkındalığının arttığını ifade etmiştir. Etkinliğin Kolaj Tekniğine Yönelik Farkındalığa Katkısı Picasso’nun kolaj tekniği ve imgelem gücü temasına bağlı olarak öğrencilere günlük formunda 20.03.2017 tarihinde “İşlenen dersin Picasso’nun kolaj anlayışına yönelik farkındalığınıza ne gibi bir etkisi olmuştur?” sorusu sorulmuştur. Bu soruya günlük formlarında verilen yanıtlardan seçilenler aşağıdaki gibidir. Alıntı 6: ÖĞR01, 20.03.2017, Öğrenci Günlüğü ÖĞR01 kodlu öğrenci kolaj tekniğinin düşünce ve içsellik yansıtımı olduğunu ifade etmiştir. Bunun yanında kolaj tekniğinin düşünceyi yansıtmada önemli bir araç olduğunun ayırtında olduğu verdiği yanıtlardan anlaşılmaktadır. Alıntı 7: ÖĞR02, 20.03.2017, Öğrenci Günlüğü ÖĞR02 kodlu öğrenci 20.03.2017 tarihli etkin- lik programında, Picasso’nun kolaj anlayışını etkinlik programından sonra daha iyi kavradı- ğını ifade etmiştir. Alıntı: 8. ÖĞR03, 20.03.2017, Öğrenci Günlüğü Pamukkale University Journal of Education, Number 43 (January 2018/I)88 Görkem Utku Alparslan, Ümran Bulut ÖĞR03 kodlu öğrenci, 20.03.2017 tarihli etkinlik programında Picasso’nun kolaj tekniğini öğrendiğini ve bu öğrendiklerinin kendisinin resim yapma etkinliğini etkilediğini ifade etmiştir. Alıntı 9: ÖĞR07, 20.03.2017, Öğrenci Günlüğü ÖĞR07 kodlu öğrenci, Picasso’nun kolaj tekniğinin imgelem gücünü zenginleştiren bir araç olduğunu ifade etmiştir. Öğrencilere program değerlendirme formunda 10.04.2017 tarihinde “Programın sizlerin modern sanatı biçimsel ve düşünsel açıdan kavramanıza etkisi olmuş mudur? Neden?” ve aynı tarihte “Programın modern sanata yönelik eleştirel bakışınıza ne gibi bir etkisi olmuştur?” soruları sorulmuştur. Eleştirellik, yaratıcılık ve özgünlük temalarına bağlı olarak verilen yanıtlardan seçilenler aşağıdaki gibidir. Alıntı 10: ÖĞR04, 10.04.2017, Program Değerlendirme Formu ÖĞR04 kodlu öğrenci, düşünsel açıdan daha eleştirel ve özgün yapıtlar yapmaya başladığını ifade etmiştir. Alıntı 11: ÖĞR05, 10.04.2017, Program Değerlendirme Formu ÖĞR05 kodlu öğrenci, etkinlik programının eleştirel bakışını geliştirdiğini ifade etmiştir. Yukarıdaki ifadeler göz önünde bulundurulduğunda, öğrencilerin modern resmin biçimsel ve düşünsel yapısına yönelik farkındalıkları artmıştır. Öğrenciler Picasso’nun kolaj tekniğine yönelik artan farkındalıklarının imgelem güçlerini arttırdığını ifade etmişler, bunların yanında işlenen derslerin, eleştirel, yaratıcı ve özgünlük yönlerine katkı sağladığını belirtmişlerdir. Tartışma Araştırmanın amacı, görsel sanatlar öğretmen adaylarının modern resmi algılamalarında, kolaj tekniğinin katkısını ortaya koymaktır. Bu amaç doğrultusunda yapılan çalışmada, kolaj tekniği temelli atölye etkinliğinin; öğrencilerin eleştirellik, yaratıcılık ve özgünlük yönlerini geliştirdiği yönünde dönütler alınmıştır. Araştırmanın birinci amaç sorusuna yönelik bulgularda öğrencilerin etkinlik sonunda, modern resme yönelik algılama ve yansıtma becerileri kazandıkları ortaya çıkmıştır. Araştırmanın ikinci amaç sorusuna ilişkin bulgulardan çıkan sonuç, öğrencilerin modern resmin düşünsel ve biçimsel boyutlarına yönelik farkındalığın arttığına yöneliktir. Araştırmanın üçüncü amaç sorusuna ilişkin bulgulardan çıkan sonuç ise öğrencilerin kolaj tekniği ile ilgili farkındalıklarının arttığı yönündedir. Bunların yanında işlenen derslerin genel olarak; imgelem güçlerine, yaratıcılıklarına ve eleştirel becerilerine katkı sağladığını ifade etmişlerdir. 89Pamukkale Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, Sayı 43 (Ocak 2018/I) Görsel Sanatlar Öğretmen Adaylarının Modern Resmi Algılamalarında Kolaj Tekniğinden Yararlanılması: Eylem Araştırması Kolaj tekniği ve modern resim konusunda alan yazın incelemesi yaptığımızda Erdoğan’ın (2007) ve Yaşar’ın (2014) çalışmaları dikkat çekmektedir. Erdoğan, ilköğretim okullarında kolaj tekniğinin eğitime katkısını araştırdığı çalışmasında kolaj tekniğinin yaratıcılığa ve özgünlüğe katkı sağladığını savunmuştur. Bu çalışma, Erdoğan’ın çalışmasıyla bu açıdan örtüşmektedir. Yaşar ise çalışmasında görsel sanatlarda anlatım biçimi olarak kolaj tekniğinin Yunan mitolojisinden Musalara öykünmeye etkisini araştırmıştır. Çalışmasında kolaj tekniğinin anlatımı güçlendirici etkisi olduğunu ortaya koymuştur. Bu çalışma da Yaşar’ın çalışmasında olduğu gibi, modern anlatımı güçlendirici bir araç olarak kolaj tekniğini görmektedir. Modern resim, sanatın geçirdiği evrimin bir sonucudur. Bu evrimin toplumsal, felsefi, bilimsel vb. kaynakları vardır. Söz konusu evrim, sanat tekniklerinde de evrime yol açmıştır. Kolaj tekniği de bu evrimin sonucudur. Bu teknik ile yapılan resimler modern resmin kavranmasına yardımcı olmaktadır. Bu bağlamda modern resmi özgürleşen ifade yoluyla gerçekliği yansıtma çabası olarak ifade edebilir, kolaj tekniğini bu yansıtma çabasının önemli bir aracı olarak ele alabiliriz. Kolaj tekniği ve modern resim arasındaki düşünsel ve biçimsel bağ hakkında kapsamlı bir çalışma bulunmamaktadır. Yalnızca modern resim ya da yalnızca kolaj tekniği üzerine çalışmalar bulunmaktadır. Bir sanat çağı olan modernizm ile bir teknik olan kolajın aralarındaki önemli bağlar bulunmaktadır. Bu bağların sanat eğitimine katkısı önemsenmesi gereken bir olgudur. Bu araştırma söz konusu durumu ortaya çıkarmaya çalışmıştır. Söz konusu çalışma; kolaj tekniğinin, öğrencilerin eleştirel becerilerini geliştirdiği gibi, özgünlüklerine, hayal güçlerine ve yaratıcılıklarına katkı sağlamakta olduğunu göstermektedir. Bunun yanında uygulama etkinliğinin, öğrencilerin modern resmi ifade etmelerine önemli katkı sağladığı ortaya çıkmıştır. Bu katkı DPA ile ortaya konmuştur. Sonuç olarak kolaj tekniği temelli Anasanat Atölye öğretiminin öğrencilerin modern resme öykünen yapıtlar ortaya koymasında etkin olduğu görülmektedir. Ayrıca kolaj tekniğinin, çalışma grubunun eleştirel bakış ve imgelem gücü gibi becerilerine olumlu katkı sağladığı izlenmiştir. Modern resim ile kolaj tekniği arasındaki sağlam ilişki, modern resme sanat eğitimi gören öğrencilerin öykünmesini sağlamada dikkate alınması gereken bir olgudur. Bu bağlamda lisans öğrenimini gören öğretmen adaylarının anasanat atölye derslerinde kolaj tekniğinden yararlanmaları önem arz etmektedir. Araştırmacılara, kolaj tekniği aracılığıyla modern resme öykünmenin ilişkisinin ilköğretim ve ortaöğretim ölçekli olarak da araştırılabileceği önerilebilir. KAYNAKÇA Antmen, A (2010). 20. Yüzyıl batı sanatında akımlar. İstanbul: Sel. Ashton, D. (2001). Picasso konuşuyor. Mehmet Yılmaz ve Nahide Yılmaz (Çev.). Ankara: Ütopya. Batur, E. (1997). Modernizmin serüveni. İstanbul: Yapı Kredi. Baudelaire, C. (2003). Modern hayatın ressamı. Ali Berktay (Çev.). İstanbul: İletişim. Berger, J. (1999). Picasso’nun Başarısı ve Başarısızlığı. Yurdanur Salman ve Müge Gürsoy Sökmen (Çev.). İstanbul: Metis. Beyoğlu, A. (2015). Sanat eğitiminde kolaj tekniği ve Richard Hamilton’un eser örneğinin incelenmesi. Ege Eğitim dergisi, 16 (2), 225-241. Cevizci, A. (2015). Felsefe sözlüğü. İstanbul: Say. Erdoğan, F. N. (2007). İlköğretim okullarında (6., 7. Ve 8. Sınıflarda) kolaj tekniğinin eğitime katkısı. (Yayımlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi). Marmara Üniversitesi/Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, İstanbul. https://tez.yok.gov.tr/UlusalTezMerkezi/TezGoster?key=wBmNpkQC9Nhi90NLW 7E7-dN4OVroGZKZGDv_Qqn5pqCZYcnxcs3ZXaA_ZBPshyVF Gombrich, E. H. (2007). Sanatın öyküsü. Erol Erduran (Çev.). İstanbul: Remzi. Helvacıoğlu, E. (2017). Modernite sahibini arıyor. Bilim ve Gelecek Dergisi, 163, 25-40. Pamukkale University Journal of Education, Number 43 (January 2018/I)90 Görkem Utku Alparslan, Ümran Bulut İpşiroğlu, N. ve İpşiroğlu, M. (2009). Sanatta devrim. İstanbul: Hayalbaz. Kaplanoğlu, L. (2008). Sanatsal bir değer olarak “Kolaj”. Sanat Dergisi, 13, 97-104. Klee, P. (2010). Bauhaus ders notları ve yazılar. Ulu Emre Özdil (Çev.). İstanbul: Hayalbaz. Lynton, N. (2009). Modern sanatın öyküsü. Cevat Çapan ve Sadi Öziş (Çev.). İstanbul: Remzi. Patton, M. Q. (2014). Nitel araştırma ve değerlendirme yöntemleri. Mesut Bütün ve Ahmet Selçuk Demir (Çev. ). Ankara: Pegem. Parlak, B. Doğan, N. (2014). Dereceli puanlama anahtarı ve puanlama anahtarından elde edilen puanların uyum düzeyleri. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 29 (2), 189-197. Sönmez, V. Alacapınar, F. G. (2013). Bilimsel araştırma yöntemleri. Ankara: Anı. Sözen, M. Tanyeli, U. (1994). Sanat kavramı ve terimleri sözlüğü. İstanbul: Remzi. Thompson, J. (2014). Modern resim nasıl okunur. Firdevs Candil Çulcu (Çev.). İstanbul: Hayalperest. Tunalı, İ. (2008). Felsefenin ışığında modern resim. İstanbul: Remzi. Tunalı, İ. (2011). Sanat ontolojisi. İstanbul: İnkilap. Yıldırım, A. Şimşek, H. (2013). Nitel Araştırma Yöntemleri. Ankara: Seçkin. Yaşar, T. (2014). Görsel sanatlarda anlatım biçimi olarak kolaj tekniği ve yunan mitolojisinden öykünmeler: Musalar. (Yayımlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi). Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi/ Güzel Sanatlar Enstitüsü, Isparta. https://tez.yok.gov.tr/UlusalTezMerkezi/TezGoster?key= 48XPj7KKQhKUgntkUiKO3KavxFP5tc0NPXyjLeqcqaGQ94Ubf3UUe4I2vA0-ydxR Yurdugül, H. (2005). Ölçek geliştirme çalışmalarında kapsam geçerliği için kapsam geçerlik indekslerinin kullanılması. XIV. Ulusal Eğitim Bilimleri Kongresi. Pamukkale Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi. Denizli. Summary Introduction The XIX and XX Centuries became a century of great change and transformations in science, philosophy, production relations, and social structures. These changes and transformations also seriously affected the art. This transformation demolished the classical concept of art, revealing a whole new form of understanding. This formal understanding is, of course, not independent of thought. Intellectual storms in the world led to serious breaks in art. A period of thought and concept painting in the art has begun. Cubism has created a real break in modern art. Known natural object imitation is fragmented. Cubism is the most important phase of this fragmentation. In Cubism, the image is reconstructed by the artist, based on thought. While analytic Cubism shreds the image, synthetic cubism creates a new whole from the pieces. The collage technique, one of the main artistic techniques of the synthetic cubism movement, is an understanding of creating a new form by combining various pieces of paper or newspaper. Its predecessors are Pablo Picasso (1881 - 1963) and Georges Braque (1882 - 1963). From 1912 Picasso started to print fabrics and paper on his paintings. The fact that collage becomes so active in XX.th century is the widespread use of mass cultural products such as newspapers, posters, postcards. The technique of collage is a technique that is like a quotation from the point of view of modern painting and intellectual and formal. It is expressed by Louis Aragon, who reflects the modern image of the collage. Therefore, this technique is important for students who are studying arts to adopt modern art. Methodology The research aimed to measure the “effect of the collage technique in improving the skills of the students in painting education to improve modern picture-painting skills” was designed in the form of research on action from qualitative research methods. Research T.R. Pamukkale University Faculty of Education, Fine Arts Education Department of Art Education Department in 2016 - 2017 Academic Year, 3rd Year Painting Workshop was held on the course. The study group of 91Pamukkale Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, Sayı 43 (Ocak 2018/I) Görsel Sanatlar Öğretmen Adaylarının Modern Resmi Algılamalarında Kolaj Tekniğinden Yararlanılması: Eylem Araştırması this research is composed of students from Pamukkale University Fine Arts Education Department Painting Education Department who will take the “Art Workshop” course seen in the 2016 - 2017 Education Year, 3rd Class. In the study, a group of eleven volunteers was formed and data were collected from these students by the method of student diaries. Findings The study group was given collage work on “enlightenment” before, during and after the eight-week lecture in a way that would emulate Picasso. As can be seen in Table 3, all of the students’ “Pre-Practice” time-outs are “FAILED”, while the other students in the “In-Practice” and “Post-Practice” times are “SUCCESSFULL”. The rubric results suggest that collage technique based course observation is useful for students to demonstrate empirical studies on modern art. In addition to rubric measurement, qualitative data collection tools such as student logs and weekly course evaluation form were also used in this study. The responses of the students to the diary; the collage technique has developed their gaze, imagination, critical skills, and creativity. Discussion The work of Erdoğan (2007) and Yaşar (2014) is remarkable when we examine the literature in the field of collage technique and modern painting. Erdoğan argued that collage technique contributed to creativity and originality in his study of primary education schools in the educational contribution of collage technique. This study overlaps with Erdoğan’s work in this respect. Yaşar investigated the effect of collage technique as a form of narration in visual arts in his work on fictional emulation of Greek mythology. In his work, he revealed that the collage technique is the empowering effect of narration. This work sees the collage technique as a means of reinforcing modern expression, as it is in Yaşar’s work. As a result, it is seen that the mainstream workshop based on the collage technique is effective for the students to reveal the emulate modern paintings. It has also been observed that the collage technique contributes positively to the working group such as critical vision and imagination. In addition to this, it is determined by the fact that this technique is written by the students in the diary, which makes it beneficial for the creativity and access to the material of the students. Thus, this is the technique that will contribute to the creativity of low income students. 
work_7o5vcdq4frblpbcmzvgvtuh5nq	----	DOI: 10.7816/ulakbilge-04-08-06 ulakbilge, 2016, Cilt 4, Sayı 8, Volume 4, Issue 8 263 www.ulakbilge.com 20. YÜZYIL RESİM VE HEYKELLERİNİN YUNAN MİTOLOJİSİ VE İKİCİLİK KAVRAMI AÇISINDAN DEĞERLENDİRİLMESİNE YÖNELİK BİR ARAŞTIRMA Gül ERBAY ASLITÜRK1, Ecem KÜÇÜKGÜNEY2 ÖZ Mitoloji düşünüldüğünde, akla ilk gelen Yunan mitolojisidir. Yunan mitolojisi ile ilgili konular; tuvalde ve heykelde yüzlerce yıllık bir geçmişe sahiptir. Bu anlamda literatür tarandığında; Yunan mitolojisi içeriğine sahip resim ve heykellerin, zihin felsefesinin alt kollarından biri olan ikicilik (dualizm) kavramı yönünden incelenmediği görülmüştür. Bu yüzden çalışmada; Yunan mitolojisinin betimlendiği resim ve heykeller, 20. yüzyıl ile sınırlandırılarak, ikicilikleri yönünden ele alınmıştır. Bu çalışmanın amacı; 20. yüzyıl resim ve heykel sanatında, Yunan mitolojisi kahramanlarının yer aldığı eserleri inceleyerek, ikiciliğin olduğu eserleri değerlendirmektir. Çalışma yöntemi olarak; ikicilik kavramı, mitoloji ve Yunan mitolojisi ile ilgili doküman incelemesi ve literatür taraması yapılmıştır. Yunan mitolojisi içerikli resim ve heykeller, müze koleksiyonlarından ve özel koleksiyonlardan araştırılarak deskripsiyonları hakkında bilgi toplanmıştır. Envanter çalışması yapılarak eserler kronolojik sıralandırılmıştır. Çalışmada altı heykel, on tablo ve bir de duvar freski olmak üzere toplam onyedi eser irdelenmiştir. Bu eserlerde ikiciliğin varlığı analiz edilerek, çalışma; resim ve heykele konu olan ikiciliğin, insan yaşamının bir parçası olduğunun vurgulanmasıyla sonlandırılmıştır. Anahtar kelimeler: Yunan mitolojisi, 20. yüzyıl resim ve heykel sanatı, ikicilik 1Yrd. Doç. Dr. Adnan Menderes Üniversitesi, Turizm Fakültesi, Aydın, gerbay(at)adu.edu.tr 2Adnan Menderes Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Turizm İşletmeciliği Anabilim Dalı Yüksek Lisans öğrencisi, gnyecem(at)gmail.com Erbay Aslıtürk, G. Küçükgüney, E. (2016). 20. Yüzyıl Resim Ve Heykellerinin Yunan Mitolojisi Ve İkicilik Kavramı Açısından Değerlendirilmesine Yönelik Bir Araştırma. ulakbilge, 4 (8), s.263-298. www.ulakbilge.com 264 AN INVESTIGATION ON DUALISM IN 20TH CENTURY PAINTINGS AND SCULPTURES ABOUT GREEK MYTHOLOGY ABSTRACT When considering mythology, Greek mythology is the first that comes into mind. The history of Greek mythology is written on sculptures and canvas for hundreds of years. A literature review on paintings and sculptures of Greek mythology reveals absence of mind dualism, a sub-branch of Greek phylosophy. This study concentrates on the dualism aspect of the 20th century paintings and sculptures about Greek mythology. Specifically, works of art which include heroes of Greek mythology were examined in respect to dualism. As working method; document analysis and review of the literature were conducted about dualism, mythology and Greek mythology. Greek mythology paintings and sculptures from museum and private collections were investigated and their description were gathered. An inventory of the works were made in which they were listed chronologically. As a result of this study, seventeen art works were examined: six sculptures, ten paintings and a wall fresco. These works were analyzed for the presence of dualism. This study concluded with emphasis that dualism as described in paintings and sculptures are part of human life. Keywords: Greek mythology, 20th century painting and sculpture art, dualism Erbay Aslıtürk, Gül. Küçükgüney, Ecem.“20. Yüzyıl Resim Ve Heykellerinin Yunan Mitolojisi Ve İkicilik Kavramı Açısından Değerlendirilmesine Yönelik Bir Araştırma”. ulakbilge 4. 8 (2016): 263-298. Erbay Aslıtürk, G. Küçükgüney, E. (2016). 20. Yüzyıl Resim Ve Heykellerinin Yunan Mitolojisi Ve İkicilik Kavramı Açısından Değerlendirilmesine Yönelik Bir Araştırma. ulakbilge, 4 (8), s.263-298. DOI: 10.7816/ulakbilge-04-08-06 ulakbilge, 2016, Cilt 4, Sayı 8, Volume 4, Issue 8 265 www.ulakbilge.com Giriş Mitoloji sözcüğü ‘myth’ ve ‘logia’ sözcüklerinin bir araya gelmesiyle oluşmuştur. Mtyh; söylenen söz, anlatılan hikâye anlamlarına gelirken, logos; bilim ve akıl anlamındadır (Tökel, 2000:5-6). Mitoloji ise ‘’mitoslar bilgisi, mitosların sistemli bir şekilde toplamı’’ demektir (Necatigil,1973:7). Mitoloji, bilimin henüz olmadığı zamanlarda, olayları açıklayamayan toplumların gerçek ile hayali harmanlayarak yarattıkları, evrenin yaradılışı ve sonu, tanrılar ve insanlarla ilgili olağandışı tüm öyküleri inceleyen bilim dalı şeklinde tanımlanmaktadır (Kaya, 2003:19). Mitolojilerdeki kişiler, doğaüstü varlıklardır ve temsil ettikleri nitelikleri ile tanınırlar. Mitoloji; insanların, etrafındaki olayların sebebini araştırmaya sevk eden içgüdüsel bir ihtiyaçtan doğmuştur. Yaşanılan bir geçmişin betimlenmesi ile ortaya çıkmaktadır (Köktan, 2014:262). Şefik Can’a göre her milletin kendine göre bir mitolojisi vardır. Bunlar Türk, Mısır, Hint, İran, Yunan vb. şeklinde örneklendirilebilir. Bu sayılan ulusların içerisinde, en çok incelenmiş ve üzerinde en çok fikir yorulan, Yunan mitolojisidir (Can, 2015:17). Yunan Mitolojisi, Eski Yunan’da oluşmuş mit ve öykülerden meydana gelen, tanrılar, tanrıçalar ve kahramanlar hakkındaki hikâyelerden oluşan, sözlü edebiyatla destanlaştırılmış ve yaygınlaşmış mitoloji şeklinde tanımlanmaktadır. Çalışmada, Yunan mitolojisi içeriği taşıyan 20. Yüzyıl resimleri ve heykelleri, ikicilik ile değerlendirilmiştir. Zihin felsefesinin inceleme alanlarından biri olan ikiciliği açıklamadan önce, zihin felsefesini tanımlamak gerekmektedir. Zihin felsefesi; zihin, zihinsel olaylar, zihinsel işlevler, zihinsel özellikler, bilinç ve bunların fiziksel beden ile özellikle de beyin ile ilişkisini inceleyen felsefenin alt araştırma koludur. Bedenin zihinle ilişkisi bakımından zihin-beden sorunu, zihnin doğası ve onun fiziksel bedenle ilişkili olup olmadığı gibi başka sorunlara rağmen, zihin felsefesinin odağında yer alan bir sorun olarak görülmektedir. İkicilik (dualizm) ve tekçilik (monizm) zihin-beden sorununun çözümüne yönelik ortaya çıkan iki büyük düşünce akımıdır (Schaffer, 2005’den akt. Beyaz, 2014:3). Zihin felsefesinin çözümüne yönelik akımlar içinde yer alan ikicilik; Hançerlioğlu’na göre, herhangi bir alanda birbirlerine indirgenemeyen iki karşıt ilkenin varlığını ileri sürmektir (Hançerlioğlu, 1985:32). Bayraktar’a göre ise ikicilik; birbirinden bağımsız, birbirinden farklı, birbirine dönüştürülemeyen, yan yana ya da birbirinin karşısında olan iki ilkeden bahseden, felsefi görüş olarak tanımlanmaktadır (Bayraktar, 2003:30). Hançerlioğlu; ikiciliğin, temelde tanrılık yer (Öte dünya) ile insanlık yer (Dünya) ayrımından oluşan, dinsel ikicilikten yansımış olduğunu ileri sürmektedir (Hançerlioğlu, 1985:38). İkicilik ile ilgili olan temel çalışma alanları teoloji (tanrıbilim) ve felsefedir. Dinsel alanda ikicilik, güçlüler ve güçsüzler yanında iyilik ve kötülük karşıtlığına http://www.mitolojitarihi.com/2014/01/mit-nedir.html https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kahraman Erbay Aslıtürk, G. Küçükgüney, E. (2016). 20. Yüzyıl Resim Ve Heykellerinin Yunan Mitolojisi Ve İkicilik Kavramı Açısından Değerlendirilmesine Yönelik Bir Araştırma. ulakbilge, 4 (8), s.263-298. www.ulakbilge.com 266 dayanmaktadır. Ölümsüz ruh inancıda ikicilik ile uyum içerisindedir (Beyaz, 2014:19). Hançerlioğlu, Sümerlerin yer ve gök tanrılarını, Eski Mısır’ın iyilikçi ve kötülükçü tanrılarını, İran’ın aydınlık ve karanlık ilkelerini bu karşıt ikiliklerin dile getirilmesi şeklinde ifade etmiştir (Hançerlioğlu, 1985:38). Hıristiyanlıkta, monofizit ve diofizit olarak görüş ayrılığına giden kiliselerden, diofizit görüşü savunanlar ikicilik kavramı içinde yer almaktadır. Çünkü diofizitler, monofizitlerin İsa’nın tek tabiatta birleştiği görüşünü reddeder. Onlara göre İsa, hem tanrı hem de insandır. Felsefede ikicilik; bilginin kaynağını ve doğasını tartışan bir dal olarak değerlendirilmektedir. Felsefe alanında ilk ikici, antik çağ Yunan düşünürü Anaxagaros (M.Ö 500- 428)’tur. Anaxagaros (M.Ö 500-428), varlık ile ruhu birbirinden ayırmış ve sonsuza kadar da birbirlerinden ayrı olarak kalacaklarını ifade etmiştir (Hançerlioğlu, 1985:38). Efesli Heraklitus (M.Ö 535-475)’a göre karşıtların savaşı, var olmak için zorunludur ve bu da tek koşuldur. Ona göre evren zıt elementlerden oluşmaktadır. Leicippus (M.Ö 450 civarında)’a göre her şey zorunlu olarak bir sebeple meydana gelmiştir. Varlık olduğu gibi yokluk da vardır. Yokluk, varlığın kaçınılmaz olan şartıdır. Sokrates (M.Ö 469-399), iyi ve kötü kavramları ile ilgili söylemler oluşturmuştur. Bu kavramların ruhta olduğunu savunmuştur. Platon (M.Ö 427-347) ruh ve beden ayrılığına temel oluşturmuştur. Platon (M.Ö 427-347)’a göre bedene karşıt olarak ortaya atılan ruh ölümsüzdür ve idealar dünyasından gelmektedir; bedene hapsolan ruh ölümle birlikte bedenden ayrılıp tekrar idealar dünyasına dönecektir. Aristoteles (M.Ö 384-322) ruh ve beden ikilisiyle ilgili, ruhun form, bedenin ise madde olduğunu söylemiştir (Kuriş, 2008:5). Aristoteles’den sonra bir süre duraklamaya giren felsefi gelişim, 17. yüzyıla kadar Plotinus (M.S 204-270), St. Augustinus (M.S 354-430) ve St. Thomas (1225-1274)’ın ruh ve beden hakkında düşünceleri ile devam etmiştir (Kuriş, 2008:6). 17. yüzyıla gelindiğinde Fransız düşünürü Descartes (1596-1650), karşımıza çıkar (Cevizci, 2001:41). Ona göre evrendeki bütün gerçekler, birbirine indirgenemeyen zihin - beden veya ruh - madde ikiliğinde toplamıştır (Altuner, 2013:58). Descartes (1596-1650)’ın ortaya koyduğu şekliyle ruh, bedenden tamamıyla ayrıdır ve beden var olmasa dahi ruh var olmaya devam eder. Leibniz (1646-1716) de ruh-beden ilişkisine katılarak dualist bir tutum sergilemiştir. Leibniz (1646-1716)’in ikiciliği, Descartes (1596-1650)’ın ikiciliğinden farklı olarak ruh ve beden arasındaki etkileşime değil, ruh ve beden paralelliğine dayanmaktadır. Düşüncelerini ikicilik üzerine oluşturmuş diğer bir filozof Henri Bergson (1859-1941)’dur (Aslıtürk, 2013). Bergson (1859-1941)’a göre ruhsal olgularla fiziksel olgular arasında, her basamakta karşılıklı bir ilişki bulunur (Timuçin, 2000:133). Katmanlı bir yapı ile ruh anlayışını dile getiren Bergson (1859- 1941)’un bu yaklaşımında, madde ve ruh birbirine indirgenemez gerçeklerdir. DOI: 10.7816/ulakbilge-04-08-06 ulakbilge, 2016, Cilt 4, Sayı 8, Volume 4, Issue 8 267 www.ulakbilge.com İkiciler; dualiteyi akıl ve bedenle sınırlandırmışlardır (Robinson, 1935’den akt. Aslıtürk, 2013). Maddenin karşısında birde ruhsal yapı olduğunu kabul ederler, bu yüzden ikicilerin tümü düşüncecidir yani idealisttir (Hançerlioğlu, 1985:38). İkicilik Çerçevesinde Ele Alınan Resim ve Heykeller 20. yüzyıl resim ve heykel sanatında Yunan mitolojisi içeriği taşıyan eserler, kronolojik sıra ile yer almaktadır. Eserlerin, mitolojik öyküleri anlatılarak, ikicilikleri yönünden değerlendirmeleri yapılmıştır. Eros ve Psyche Eros ve Psyche, Yunan mitolojisinin aşk kahramanlarıdır. Eros (aşk), Aphrodite’in oğludur. Taşıdığı oklarla ve sırtında kanatlarıyla tasvir edilir. Oklarını atarak tanrıların ve insanların kalbinde aşk ateşini yakar. Psyche (ruh) ise güzelliği ile Aphrodite’e benzetilen bir ölümlüdür. Onun güzelliğini duyan Aphrodite, oğlunu çağırarak: - Eros, oğlum, yapılacak bazı şeylerim var, bana yardım edeceğinden eminim. Bazı erkekler, benim güzelliğimle ölümlü bir kızın güzelliğini karşılaştırıyorlar. Oğlum, git; güzellikte bana eş saydıkları o kızın kalbini yarala ve onu dünyanın en çirkin erkeğine âşık et, der. Eros, annesinin isteği üzerine Psyche’nin yanına gider, kalbini yaralamak için okunu atmak üzere iken, onun güzelliğine hayran olur. Psyche’yi başkasına âşık etmek isterken kendisi âşık olur. Eros, Psyche’yi çok güzel ve ıssız bir saraya götürür. Geceleri sevgilisinin yanına gelerek hoş zamanlar geçirir. Psyche, sevgilisinin yüzünü aydınlıkta göremediği için tedirgindir. Eros’dan yüzünü göstermesini ister. Eros ona: - Aşkımızın sırrını kalbinde sakladığın sürece mutlu olacaksın; beni görmeyi aklından bile geçirme, benim kim olduğumu öğrenme. Bilmeden sev beni. Senden gizlenen şeyleri öğrenmeye çalışarak kendini ıstırap ateşi ile yakma, mutluluğunu bozma, diyerek cevap verir. Fakat Psyche bir gün kız kardeşlerinin söylemlerinden etkilenerek, sevgilisinin yüzünü görmeye karar verir. Eros, gece geldiğinde onun uyumasını bekler. Eros uyuyunca, sakladığı lambayı alarak onun yüzüne doğru tutar. Tarif edilemeyecek derecede güzel olan sevgilisini görünce, aşkı daha da alevlenir ve onu öpmek ister. Eğilirken elindeki lamba kayarak, içinden akan yağ Eros’un omzuna damlar. Eros, uyanır uyanmaz oradan kaybolur. Pscyhe gözyaşlarına boğulur. Tekrar bulurum umuduyla dünyayı dolaşmaya başlar. Bitkin halde, Eros’u kendisine göstereceğini sanarak Aphrodite’nin sarayına gider. Fırsatı değerlendiren Aphrodite onu kölesi yapar. Psyche her şeye katlanır. Eros kendisine bu derece bağlı sevgilisini kurtarmak için Olympos’a giderek baştanrı Zeus’a yalvarır. Psyche’nin kendisine eş olarak verilmesini ister. Zeus bu isteği kabul Erbay Aslıtürk, G. Küçükgüney, E. (2016). 20. Yüzyıl Resim Ve Heykellerinin Yunan Mitolojisi Ve İkicilik Kavramı Açısından Değerlendirilmesine Yönelik Bir Araştırma. ulakbilge, 4 (8), s.263-298. www.ulakbilge.com 268 ederek Psyche’nin Olympos dağına getirilmesini emreder. Olympos dağına gelen Pscyce ve sevgilisi Eros, tanrılar huzurunda evlenirler (Kozanoğlu, 1992:26-28). Eros ve Psyche tablosu, dışavurumculuk akımının en önemli temsilcilerinden olan, Norveçli Ressam Edvard Munch (1863-1944) tarafından, 1907 yılında yapılmıştır. Resim 1: Edvard Munch (1863-1944), Eros ve Psyche, 1907 Munch Museum, Oslo, Norway 119,5 x 99 cm, Tuval üzerine yağlı boya Kaynak:http://www.edvard-munch.com/gallery/love/amor&psyche.htm Yunan mitolojisinin aşk kahramanları Eros (aşk) ve Psyche (ruh), Edvard Munch (1863-1944)’ın eserine konu olmuştur. Eser, renkli çizgisel dokunuşların, kadın ve erkek figürlerini ortaya çıkarmasıyla oluşturulmuştur. Hikâyede Eros, kanatlı olarak betimlenmektedir. Fakat resimde, kanatlı haliyle görülmemektedir. Böylece eserde, fiziksel özelliklere vurgu yapılmadığını söyleyebiliriz. Eserde göze çarpan tek nokta, bakışlarla hissettirilen sevgidir. Sevgiyi yansıtan kadın ve erkek, resimdeki ikiciliği meydana getirmektedir. Hikâyeye göre; Psyche’nin, Eros’un yüzünü görmesiyle ayrılan âşıklar bir zaman sonra tekrar kavuşurlar. Böylece aşk, ruhun sonsuza kadar yoldaşı olur. Ayrılığın meydana getirdiği hüzün, kavuşmanın meydana getirdiği mutluluk, hikâyedeki ikicilik kurgusuna atıf oluşturmaktadır. DOI: 10.7816/ulakbilge-04-08-06 ulakbilge, 2016, Cilt 4, Sayı 8, Volume 4, Issue 8 269 www.ulakbilge.com Hera Kronos ve Rheia’nın üç kız (Hestia, Demeter, Hera), üç erkek (Hades, Poseidon, Zeus) olmak üzere, altı tane çocuğu olur. Kronos’un büyük kızı ve Zeus’un kız kardeşi olan Hera aynı zamanda Zeus’un da karısıdır. Zeus ıssız bir yerde dolaşan Hera’yı, guguk kuşu şekline girerek kendisiyle evlenmeye razı eder. Bu evlilik, iki kardeş ve iki tanrısal varlığın birleşmesidir. Hera, kocasının kölesi olmaz. İlahi otoriteyi kocasıyla birlikte sağlar. O, Olympos’ta oturan bütün tanrıçaların en güzeli, en hürmet gösterileni ve en büyüğüdür. Onun hiddeti, kocası Zeus’un hiddeti gibi korkunçtur. Sinirlendiği zaman bütün Olympos’u titretir. Zeus’un çapkınlıklarına rağmen Hera, hiddet ve kıskançlıktan deliye dönse de kocasına hep sadık kalmıştır. Bu yönüyle tanrıça Hera; evlilik tanrıçası, evli kadınların ve evlilik bağının temsilcisidir (Agızza, 2006:36). Hera, 1929 yılında Dadaizm’in ve Sürrealizm’in en önemli temsilcilerinden sayılan Fransız ressam, heykeltıraş, grafik sanatçısı ve yazar Francis Picabia (1879- 1953) tarafından yapılmış bir tablodur. Resim2: Francis Picabia (1879-1953), Hera, 1929 Özel Koleksiyon, Paris 103,4 x 74,9 cm, mukavva üzerine yağlı boya, guaş boya, karakalem Kaynak:http://www.christies.com/lotfinder/drawings-watercolors/francis-picabia-hera-5532312- details.aspx Erbay Aslıtürk, G. Küçükgüney, E. (2016). 20. Yüzyıl Resim Ve Heykellerinin Yunan Mitolojisi Ve İkicilik Kavramı Açısından Değerlendirilmesine Yönelik Bir Araştırma. ulakbilge, 4 (8), s.263-298. www.ulakbilge.com 270 Francis Picabia (1879-1953)’nın tablosu Hera, şeffaf olarak betimlenen figürlerden oluşmaktadır. Tek bir sanat eseri yaratılması için üç ayrı görüntü ve farklı duygu ifadeleri kullanılmıştır. Hera’nın; hem tanrıça, hem Zeus’un eşi, hem de Zeus’un kız kardeşi olması üç ayrı yüz ifadesini açıklıyor olabilir. Şeffaf ve ışık geçirgen olarak resmedilen Hera görüntüleri dışında görülen erkek figürünün de, Zeus olduğunu söyleyebiliriz. Yüzlerin arkasında görülen sırtı dönük çıplak kadın bedeni ve dokunma hissi veren eller, iç arzuları yansıtır niteliktedir. Mavi, yeşil ve mor renklerin kullanımının, resme hüzün kazandırdığı görülmektedir. Resmin temasını oluşturan kadın ve erkek figürleriyle, eril - dişil ikiciliği vurgulanmaktadır. Hikâyeye göre; baştanrı Zeus, karısı Hera’yı defalarca aldatmıştır. Buna rağmen Hera kocasına sadık kalmayı bilmiştir. Zeus ve Hera arasındaki sadakat ve sadakatsizlik ilişkisi ikiciliğin varlığını kanıtlar niteliktedir. Hera ve Zeus’un hem kardeş hem de eş olması ikiciliğin bir başka göstergesidir. Prometheus Titan İapetos ve Klymene’nin dört oğlu olur (Atlas, Menoitos, Prometheus, Epimetheus). Oğullarından Prometheus; bir Titan oğlu olduğu halde, Titanların isyanları sırasında kurnazlığını kullanarak Zeus’a başkaldıranlar arasında yer almaz. Zeus Prometheus’u ölmezler arasına, yani tanrıların yaşadığı Olympos dağına kabul eder. Fakat Prometheus, kendi ırkını mahveden Zeus ve çevresine kin beslemektedir. İnsanı yaratarak öcünü almayı düşünür. Prometheus ilk insanı, kendi gözyaşı ile kardığı balçıktan yaratır. Prometheus’un biçimlendirdiği insana, Athena’nın ruh vermesi sonucu, insan evrende varlığını sürdürmeye başlar. Bir gün tanrılar ve insanlar Mekone’de, kurbanın paylaşılıp yenmesi için toplanırlar. Prometheus kesilen kurbanı ikiye böler, bir tarafa kurbanın etini koyup gösterişsiz olsun diye üzerini deri ile örter. Diğer tarafa da kemikleri koyup dikkat çeksin diye üzerini yağ ile örter. Zeus, yağlı görülen kısımdan alıp kemiği yiyince öfkelenir ve insanlardan ateşi alarak onları cezalandırır. İnsan güçsüz, çıplak ve aciz kalır. Yarattığı insana acıyan Prometheus, onlara ateşi yeniden vermeyi düşünür. Hephaistos’un ocağına giderek kıvılcım çalar. İnsanlar tekrar ateşe kavuşmuştur. Bunu gören Zeus sinirlenir ve Prometheus’u zincirle kayalara bağlatarak karaciğerini kartala yedirtir. Kartal yedikçe karaciğer yeniden çıkar. Prometheus’un bu işkencesi otuz sene sürer. Daha sonra Zeus, Prometheus’a acır ve onu tekrar ölmezler arasına alır (Can, 2015:26-27 ve Grimal, 1953:40). Prometheus duvar freski, Meksikalı Ressam Jose Clemente Orozco (1883-1949) tarafından, 1930 yılında yapılmıştır. DOI: 10.7816/ulakbilge-04-08-06 ulakbilge, 2016, Cilt 4, Sayı 8, Volume 4, Issue 8 271 www.ulakbilge.com Resim 3: Jose Clemente Orozco (1883-1949), Prometheus, 1930 Pomona College, Frary Hall, Claremont, California, USA (Merkez Panel) 610 x 869 cm, duvar freski Kaynak:https://www.pomona.edu/museum/collections/jos%C3%A9-clemente-orozcos-prometheus Yunan mitoloji kahramanı Prometheus’un hikâyesi, Orozco’nun duvar freskine konu olmuştur. Bu freskte Prometheus, insanlığa getirmek istediği ateşe uzanırken gösterilmiştir. Prometheus’un ellerinin ateş ile birleştiği yerde ortaya çıkan kırmızılığın ateş izlenimini vermesi, ateşin etrafındaki ölümlülerde şaşkınlık, kargaşa, ayaklanma, çatışma, çileli haller, dua eder gibi ellerini kavuşturan kadınlar, kucaklaşmalar freskte diğer kısımları oluşturmaktadır. Siyah, kül rengi, ateş rengi ve toprak tonlarının kullanılması, eserin kurgusunda tamamlayıcı rolleri üstlenir. Mitos’a göre; Zeus, insanlardan ateşi mahrum etmişti, fakat Prometheus ateşi insanlara tekrar verdi. Yasak olan bir şeyden faydalanılması karşıtlıkların ikiciliğine yapılan bir atıftır. İnsanlığa verilen ateş hem iyilik ve aydınlanma, hem de bir lanettir. Çünkü aydınlanmaya ve iyiliğe sebep olan ateş, aynı zamanda felaketlere de sebep olabilir. Bu da iyi - kötü ikiciliğini vurgulamaktadır. Deniz Kabuğundaki Venüs Evrenin yaradılışında önemli rol oynayan Gaia (yer), doğurduğu her çocuğunun, kocası Uranos (gök) tarafından yerin dibine gönderilmesine dayanamayarak, öcünü almaya karar verir. Göğsünde taşıdığı çeliği çıkartarak, ondan keskin bir tırpan yapar. Çocuklarını da haberdar ederek yardım etmelerini ister. Sadece, en son doğan oğlu Erbay Aslıtürk, G. Küçükgüney, E. (2016). 20. Yüzyıl Resim Ve Heykellerinin Yunan Mitolojisi Ve İkicilik Kavramı Açısından Değerlendirilmesine Yönelik Bir Araştırma. ulakbilge, 4 (8), s.263-298. www.ulakbilge.com 272 Kronos annesine yardım edeceğini söyler. Akşam olduğunda Uranos uykuya dalar. Annesi tarafından çağrılan Kronos gelir, babasını tırpanla biçer ve et parçalarını denize atar. Dalgalar nedeniyle çalkalanan et parçalarından, deniz yüzeyinde beyaz köpükler meydana gelir. Bu beyaz köpüklerden güzel bir tanrıça doğar. Çok güzel olan bu tanrıçaya, denizköpüklerinden doğduğu için Yunanca Aphrodite, Latince Venüs denilmektedir. Doğar doğmaz Aphrodite’i, dalgalar bir deniz kabuğu içinde çiçeklerle süsleyerek Kıbrıs adasına götürürler. Ölümsüzlerin en güzeli Aphrodite; aşk, güzellik ve bereket tanrıçasıdır (Erhat, 1996:42ve Kozanoğlu, 1992: 22-23). Deniz Kabuğundaki Venüs, Fransız Ressam, Heykeltıraş Henri Matisse (1869-1954) tarafından 1930 yılında yapılmış bir heykeldir. Aphrodite; heykelde, deniz kabuğu içinden çıkışı ile tasvir edilmiştir. Resim 4: Henri Matisse (1869-1954), Deniz Kabuğundaki Venüs, 1931 The Museum of Modern Art, New York 31 x 18,3 x 20,6 cm, bronz Kaynak:http://www.moma.org/collection/works/81451?locale=en DOI: 10.7816/ulakbilge-04-08-06 ulakbilge, 2016, Cilt 4, Sayı 8, Volume 4, Issue 8 273 www.ulakbilge.com Deniz Kabuğundaki Venüs heykeli, Yunanca adıyla Aphrodite’nin doğuşunu tasvir eder. Efsaneye göre Aphrodite, köpüklerden doğar ve deniz kabuğu içinde götürülür. Bu heykelde Venüs, deniz kabuğu içindeki haliyle betimlenmiştir. Heykelde tek başına kadın betimlendiği için, biçimsel olarak ikicilikten söz edemeyiz. Fakat hikâyeye baktığımızda; Uranos oğlu tarafından öldürülmüş ve et parçaları denize atılmıştır. Çalkalanan et parçalarından meydana gelen köpükler, Venüs’ün doğmasına sebep olmuştur. Ölüm ve doğumun aynı anda yaşandığı bu hikâye, ikiciliğin göstergesidir. Minotaure Minotaure; Yunanca ‘Minos’un boğası’ anlamına gelen, baş kısmı boğa, gövde kısmı insan biçiminde olan, Yunan mitolojisi yaratığıdır. Efsaneye göre; Girit’te hüküm süren kral Minos, Helios ve Crete’in kızı olan Pasiphae ile evlidir. Bu evlilikten de dört kız, dört erkek çocukları olur. Kral Minos bir gün denizler tanrısı Poseidon’dan, kurban etmek üzere kendisine bir boğa vermesini ister. Poseidon, kral Minos’a beyaz bir boğa gönderir. Boğa Minos’un hoşuna gidince, Minos boğayı kurban etmekten vazgeçer. Onun yerine, başka bir boğayı kurban eder. Poseidon bunu anlayınca sinirlenir ve Minos’un karısı Pasiphae’yi boğaya âşık eder. Minos’un karısı Pasiphae, boğa ile birlikte olunca boğa başlı, insan bedenli Minotaure doğar. Minotaure başlangıçta diğer çocuklarla birlikte büyür. Zaman geçtikçe vahşileşerek insan eti ile beslenmeye başlayınca babası Minos, içinden çıkılması imkansız bir labirent inşa ettirir ve Minotaure’ı oraya kapattırır (Erhat, 1996:201 ve Ergüven, 2010:178). Pablo Picasso (1881-1973) Minotaure maketini, 1933 yılında kolaj olarak hazırlamıştır. Picasso (1881-1973) bu maketini, yapmış olduğu diğer Minotaure resimlerini toplayacağı kitabının kapağı için tasarlamıştır. Erbay Aslıtürk, G. Küçükgüney, E. (2016). 20. Yüzyıl Resim Ve Heykellerinin Yunan Mitolojisi Ve İkicilik Kavramı Açısından Değerlendirilmesine Yönelik Bir Araştırma. ulakbilge, 4 (8), s.263-298. www.ulakbilge.com 274 Resim 5: Pablo Picasso (1881-1973), Minotaure, 1933 (Minotaure kapağı için maket) The Museum of Modern Art, New York 48,5 x 41 cm, kolaj Kâğıt üzerine kalem, ipek kurdele, duvar kâğıdı, oluklu kâğıt, sararmış yapraklar, gümüş Kaynak:http://www.moma.org/collection/works/34095?locale=en Pablo Picasso (1881-1973), yapmış olduğu bütün Minotaure resimlerini toplayacağı kitabı için bir kapak tasarlar. Kolaj olarak hazırlanan kapağın temasını, kağıt üzerine çizilen minyatür Minotaure oluşturmaktadır (Resim 5). Minotaure, fiziksel özelliği ile hem hikâyede hem resimde ikiciliği oluşturur. Ölümlü olan annesinin boğa ile birleşmesi, bu birleşme sonucunda insan gövdesine, boğa başına ve kuyruğuna sahip efsanevi bir varlığın doğması, hikâyedeki ikiciliğe atıf yapmaktadır. Resimde Minotaure, aynen hikâyede anlatıldığı gibi boğa başı ve kuyruğu ile betimlenmiştir. Eserde ki Minotaure figürünün yanında, ipek kurdele, gümüş, duvar kâğıdı, oluklu kâğıt ve sararmış yaprakların kullanılması, hayatı karmakarışık olan Minotaure’u simgeler niteliktedir. Başka bir ifadeyle, fiziksel özelliği ile dışlanmış ve izole edilmiş olan korkutucu Minotaure, birbirinden değişik nesneler arasında betimlenerek, güzel gösterilmek isteniyor olabilir. Güzelliklerin, çirkinliğin etrafını sarması, resimdeki biçimsel ikiciliğin göstergesidir. DOI: 10.7816/ulakbilge-04-08-06 ulakbilge, 2016, Cilt 4, Sayı 8, Volume 4, Issue 8 275 www.ulakbilge.com Narcissus’un Metamorfozu Narcissus, çok yakışıklı bir avcıdır. Kendisine âşık olanlara aldırmaz ve onların aşklarını karşılıksız bırakır. Peri Ekho bir gün dağlarda dolaşırken geyiklerin peşinde koşan bir avcı görür. Bu avcı Narcissus’dur. Ekho, avcıya ilk görüşte âşık olur. Ancak Narcissus bu sevgiye karşılık vermez. Ekho, bu durum karşısında günden güne eriyerek ölür. Kendisinden geriye kemikleri ve sesi kalır. Vücudundan kalan kemikleri kayalara, sesi ise kayalarda ‘eko’ olarak bilinen yankılara dönüşür. Bu durum Olimpos dağındaki tanrıları kızdırır. Tanrılar Narcissus’u cezalandırmaya karar verirler. Narcissus bir gün susamış halde nehir kenarına gelir. Buradan su içmek için eğildiğinde, suda yansıyan kendi yüzünün ve vücudunun güzelliğini görür. Daha önceden fark etmediği kendi güzelliği karşısında büyülenir ve kendine âşık olur. Nehir kenarında, yerinden kalkamaz bir halde günden güne erimeye başlar. Sadece kendini seyrederek ömrünü tüketir. Öldükten sonra da vücudu nergis çiçeklerine dönüşür (Soylu, 2014). Narcissus’un Metamorfozu, Katalan sürrealist Ressam Salvador Dali (1904- 1989)tarafından 1937 yılında yapılmış resimdir. Resim 6: Salvador Dali (1904-1989),Narcisus’un Metamorfozu, 1937 Tate Museum, Londra 51,2 x 78,1 cm, tuval üzerine yağlı boya Kaynak:http://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/dali-metamorphosis-of-narcissus- t02343 Erbay Aslıtürk, G. Küçükgüney, E. (2016). 20. Yüzyıl Resim Ve Heykellerinin Yunan Mitolojisi Ve İkicilik Kavramı Açısından Değerlendirilmesine Yönelik Bir Araştırma. ulakbilge, 4 (8), s.263-298. www.ulakbilge.com 276 Narcissus’un Metamorfozu, yakışıklı genç Narcissus’un nergis çiçeğine dönüşmesinin, Dali (1904-1989) tarafından yorumlandığı eserdir. Tabloda, bir grup insan topluluğu, satranç tablasında bir erkek heykeli ve el figürleri görülmektedir. Ana figürler, diğer objelerden soyutlanarak daha belirgin bir şekilde, ön plana çıkarılmıştır. Eserin asıl kurgusu, ön plana çıkarılan figürler üzerine oluşturulmuştur. Resimde, karlı dağların ve kaya parçalarının arasında, su birikintisi yanına diz çöken Narcissus, kafasını dizine dayamış şekliyle tasvir edilmiştir. Narcissus’un bükülmüş görüntüsü çaresizliği ve ölümü anımsatır. Çünkü Narcissus, suda kendini görüp hayran olmuş ve yerinden kalkamaz halde, kendi güzelliğini seyrederek eriyip gitmiştir. Öldükten sonra, nergis çiçeğine dönüşmüştür. Narcissus’un karşısında betimlenen, taştan bir elin tuttuğu yumurtadan çıkan nergis, hikâyeyi vurgular niteliktedir. Dikkatle bakıldığında bu el, aslında Narcissus’un yansıması şeklindedir. Gerçek ve yansımanın aynı anda kullanılması, resimdeki ikiciliği oluşturmaktadır. Narcissus’un öldükten sonra nergise dönüşerek hayat bulması da hikâyedeki ikiciliğin göstergesidir. Pgymalion Pygmalion, Kıbrıs adasında bulunan Karpasia kentinin kurucusudur ve bir heykeltıraştır. Mermerden heykeller yaparak vaktini bu heykeller arasında geçirir, canlı insanlardan, özellikle de kadınlardan nefret ederdi. Kadınların bulunduğu yerden hep kaçardı. Hayalindeki ideal kadını beklerdi. Bir gün mermerden hayalindeki kadının heykelini yaptı. Bu heykel o kadar güzel olmuştu ki, Pygmalion yaptığı heykele âşık oldu ve her geçen gün heykele olan aşkı büyüdü. Ona çiçekler, deniz kabukları, değerli taşlar hediye etti. Pygmalion, bir gün cansız ve soğuk bedenli heykelini kolları arasında sıkar ve öperken, Aphrodite bu garip aşığın durumuna üzülerek, ıstırabına son vermek istedi ve Pygmalion’un heykeline can verdi. Pygmalion, heykelinin sevgi dolu gözlerle ona baktığını gördü ve beyaz tenli kadınına ‘beyaz’ anlamına gelen Galatha adını verdi. Sevdiğine kavuşan Pygmalion, Galatha ile evlendi (Milbourne&Stowell, 2011:286 ve Can, 2015: 120). Pygmalion tablosu 1939 tarihinde, Belçikalı gerçeküstücü ressam Paul Delvaux (1897-1994) tarafından yapılmıştır. DOI: 10.7816/ulakbilge-04-08-06 ulakbilge, 2016, Cilt 4, Sayı 8, Volume 4, Issue 8 277 www.ulakbilge.com Resim 7: Paul Delvaux (1897-1994) , Pygmalion,1939 Royal Museums Of Fine Art s Of Belgium, Brüksel 117 x 148 cm, ahşap üzerine yağlıboya Kaynak:https://www.fine-arts-museum.be/fr/la-collection/paul-delvaux-pygmalion Pygmalion, Yunan mitolojisinde yer alan bir heykeltıraştır. Yaptığı kadın heykelinin canlanması, ressam Delvaux (1897-1994)’un tablosuna konu olmuştur. Eserde, hikâyenin aksi yönüne yapılan betimleme dikkat çekmektedir. Hikâyeye göre; kadınların yaptıklarından nefret eden Pgymalion, onlarla birlikte olmamış ve hep hayalindeki kadını beklemiştir. Hikâyede ki Pgymalion’a göre kadınlar kötü iken, Delvaux (1897-1994)’un tablosundaki yorumuna göre hayal edilmesi gereken kişi erkektir. Sanatçı, cinsiyetleri yer değiştirerek, resme kendi yorumunu katmıştır. Hikâyenin tersine yapılan bu atıf, ikiciliği vurgulamaktadır. Tablonun ana temasını oluşturan erkek heykel figürü ve ona sarılmış olan kadın ile birlikte, arkası dönük başka bir erkek ve bitkilerle betimlenmiş başka bir kadın ile eril - dişil ikiciliği oluşturulmuştur. Arkada yer alan küçük kulübe içinde masa ve lambanın görülmesi ile iç - dış, gökyüzü ve üzerinde küçük taşların var olduğu zemin ile yer - gök kurgusu, ikiciliği oluşturan diğer betimlemelerdir. Erbay Aslıtürk, G. Küçükgüney, E. (2016). 20. Yüzyıl Resim Ve Heykellerinin Yunan Mitolojisi Ve İkicilik Kavramı Açısından Değerlendirilmesine Yönelik Bir Araştırma. ulakbilge, 4 (8), s.263-298. www.ulakbilge.com 278 Aphrodite II Aphrodite efsanesi daha önceki eser tanıtımında anlatılmıştır (bkz. Deniz Kabuğundaki Venüs). Anlatılan efsaneye ek olarak Aphrodite; yunus, ayna, deniz kabuğu ve güvercin ile sembolize edilmiştir (Ergüven, 2010:142). Aphrodite II heykeli, İngiliz Heykeltıraş Sir Charles Wheeler (1892-1974), tarafından 1943 yılında yapılmıştır. Heykelde Aphrodite; ayakucunda, sembolize edildiği hayvanlardan olan yunus ile görülmektedir. Resim 8: Sir Charles Wheeler (1892-1974), Aphrodite II, 1943 131,5 x 38,5 x 26,5 cm, Portland taş The Tate Gallery, London Kaynak:http://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/wheeler-aphrodite-ii-n05559 DOI: 10.7816/ulakbilge-04-08-06 ulakbilge, 2016, Cilt 4, Sayı 8, Volume 4, Issue 8 279 www.ulakbilge.com Sir Charles Wheeler (1892-1974)’ın eserine konu olan Aphrodite; heykelde, sembolize edildiği hayvanlardan biri olan yunus ile tasvir edilmiştir (Resim 8). Yunus, Yunan mitolojisinde doğurganlığı simgelemektedir. Yunus için ‘ana rahmi’ anlamına gelen Yunanca ‘Delphys’ sözcüğü kullanılmaktadır. Aphrodite doğumun bir parçası olarak düşünüldüğünden yunus ile ilişkilendirilmiştir. Güzelliğin, asaletin ve doğurganlığın simgesi olarak, ayakta betimlenen Aphrodite, biçimsel ikiciliği oluşturmamaktadır. Fakat ölüm ve doğumun aynı anda yaşandığı Aphrodite’nin Yunan mitolojisindeki hikâyesi, ikiciliğe bir atıftır. Çünkü Aphrodite, ölen Uronos’un, et parçalarının meydana getirdiği köpüklerden doğmuştur. Odysseus ve Kalypso Kalypso, Odysseus destanında adı geçen peridir. Yunanca ‘gizlemek’ anlamına gelen Kalypso, görenleri büyüleyecek kadar güzeldir. Odysseus ise Troia savaşı kahramanlarındandır. Evine ve karısı Penolope’ye kavuşmak için Troia savaşı sonunda eve dönüş yolculuğuna başlar. Bu yolculuk sırasında felaketler Odysseus’un peşini bırakmaz. Gemisi batar ve yanındaki tüm arkadaşlarını kaybeder. Odysseus bir süre denizde sürüklendikten sonra, kendini Kalypso’nun adasının kıyılarında bulur. Bir gün Kalypso, denizi seyrederken kıyıda Odysseus’u görür ve onu mağarasına götürür. Kalypso hemen ateş yaktırır ve yiyecek bir şeyler hazırlattırır. Odysseus, yemek yerken başından geçenleri anlatmaya başlar. Kahramanın ses tonuna hayran olan Kalypso’nun kalbinde büyük bir sevgi başlar. Odysseus’da, Kalypso’nun güzel kokan saçlarına ve büyüleyici bakışlarına hayran olmuştur. Odysseus ve Kalypso, kendilerini yedi yıl sürecek olan aşk macerasının içinde bulurlar. Fakat Odysseus yedinci yılın sonunda Kalypso’nun güzelliğinden bıkar. Gözyaşları dökerek karısını düşünmeye başlar. Tanrılar Odysseus’un haline acırlar ve Kalypso’ya, onu yurduna göndermesi için emir verirler. Kalypso’da tanrıların emrine boyun eğmek zorunda kalır. Odysseus’a sal yapması için yardım eder. Odysseus’un salını tamamlamasıyla Kalypso, gözyaşlarıyla yedi yıl geçirdiği misafirini uğurlar (Kahl, 2008:2 ve Can, 2015:390-392). Alman ressam, çizer, heykeltıraş ve aynı zamanda da yazar Max Beckmann (1884-1950), 1943 yılında Odysseus ve Calypso resmini yapmıştır. Erbay Aslıtürk, G. Küçükgüney, E. (2016). 20. Yüzyıl Resim Ve Heykellerinin Yunan Mitolojisi Ve İkicilik Kavramı Açısından Değerlendirilmesine Yönelik Bir Araştırma. ulakbilge, 4 (8), s.263-298. www.ulakbilge.com 280 Resim 9:Max Beckmann (1884-1950), Odysseus ve Calypso, 1943 Hamburg, Hamburger Kunsthalle 150 x 115,5 cm, tuval üzerine yağlı boya Kaynak:http://www.wikiart.org/en/max-beckmann/odysseus-and-calypso-1943 Odysseus ve Kalypso, Yunan mitolojisinde yolları tesadüfen kesişen aşk kahramanlarıdır. Max Becmann (1884-1950)’ın tablosuna konu olmuşlardır (Resim 9). Resimde Kalypso; bilezik, halhal ve tüylerden yapılan kolyesi, siyah saçları, pürüzsüz bedeni ile çıplak olarak resmedilmiştir. Odysseus’un önünde çıplak şekilde oturur durumdadır. Odysseus, kollarını başında birleştirmiş, arkasında duran kalkanına ve kılıcına yaslanmıştır. Kafasında miğfer, bacaklarında ise koruyucu parçalar vardır. Tabloda, Odysseus ve Kalypso dışında üç hayvan figürü dikkati çekmektedir. Odysseus, mürettebatını ve gemisini kaybedip denizde sürüklendikten sonra, Kalypso’nun adasına çıkar ve misafirliği karışık bir aşk esaretine dönüşür. Yılan, Odysseus’un bacağına dolanarak karışık olan ilişkilerini simgelemektedir. Yunan mitolojisinde perilere eşlik eden kuşlar olduğu söylenir. Efsaneye göre; Odysseus, Kalypso’yu ilk gördüğünde kendisiyle uyum içinde olan bir kuş, kafasının üstünde durmaktaydı. Resimde, kuşun gagası ve Odysseus’un sakalı aynı renkte betimlenmiştir. Resmin diğer figürünü oluşturan bu kuş, Odysseus’un esaretten kurtulmak istemesini simgeler niteliktedir (Kahl 2008:4). Kedi, nankörlük ile bağdaştırılmıştır. Çünkü Odysseus, çıkarı için yıllar süren esarete katlanmıştır. Hikâye DOI: 10.7816/ulakbilge-04-08-06 ulakbilge, 2016, Cilt 4, Sayı 8, Volume 4, Issue 8 281 www.ulakbilge.com ile paralel olarak resmedilen eserin ana kahramanları Odysseus ve Kalypso, eril - dişil kurgusu bakımından ikiciliği vurgulamaktadır. Uyuyan Venüs Yunanca adıyla Aphrodite’in, Latince adıyla Venüs’ün hikâyesi daha önceki eser tanıtımında anlatılmıştır (bkz. Deniz Kabuğundaki Venüs). Uyuyan Venüs, 1944 yılında, Belçikalı gerçeküstücü ressam Paul Delvaux (1897- 1994) tarafından yapılmış resimdir. Delvaux (1897-1994)’un en ünlü tablosu olarak nitelendirilmektedir. Resim 10: Paul Delvaux (1897-1994), Uyuyan Venüs, 1944 The Tate Gallery, London 199 x 173 cm, tuval üzerine yağlı boya Kaynak:http://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/delvaux-sleeping-venus-t00134 Erbay Aslıtürk, G. Küçükgüney, E. (2016). 20. Yüzyıl Resim Ve Heykellerinin Yunan Mitolojisi Ve İkicilik Kavramı Açısından Değerlendirilmesine Yönelik Bir Araştırma. ulakbilge, 4 (8), s.263-298. www.ulakbilge.com 282 Paul Delvaux (1897-1994) Uyuyan Venüs adlı eserinde, gözleri kapalı ve çıplak şekilde uzanırken, kâbus gören Venüs’ü betimlemektedir. Eserde; Venüs’ünde içinde yer aldığı altı çıplak kadın, modern giyimli bir kadın ve ölümü simgelediği düşünülen iskelet figürü yer almaktadır. Dikkati çeken nokta; Antik Roma mimarisinin varlığı ve yarım ay görüntüsüyle sezdirilen gecedir. Delvaux, resmi hakkında şöyle demiştir(Wilson, 1982:23’den akt. İşman,2007:72): İnancıma göre, belki de bilinçaltından gelen bir dürtüyle, bu temanın içine gizemli ve elle tutulamayan bir huzursuzluk koydum. Tapınakları ay ışığı ile aydınlanmış klasik bir kent, at başları olan garip bir bina (Brüksel’deki eski Kraliyet Sirki’nden esinlendim), bir iskelet ve bir terzi mankeninin izlediği sakince uyuyan Venüs... Venüs’ün ruh hali, etrafındaki huzursuz figürlerle çelişki içindedir. Bu resimde, karşıtlık ve gizem yaratmaya çalıştım. O dönemin psikolojisinin, çok sıra dışı, dramatik ve acılı olduğunu da eklemeliyim. Delvaux’un bu söyleminden yola çıkarak; Venüs’ün uyurken betimlendiği sakin haline karşılık, etrafındaki kadın figürlerinin telaşlı halleri biçimsel ikiciliğe yapılan bir atıftır. Ayrıca eserdeki canlılık hissi veren kadın figürleri ve ölümü hissettiren iskelet figürü, yaşam - ölüm ikiciliğinin göstergesidir. Leda Leda, Aetolia kralı Thestios'un kızı ve Sparta Kralı Tyndareos'un eşidir. Baş tanrı Zeus bir gece Olympos’dan çıkarak, gönül verdiği kız için Taygetos dağına iner. Karısı Hera’nın kıskançlığından korunmak için de bir kuğu şekline dönüşür. Leda’nın yanına geldiğinde kız uyumaktadır. Kuğu kanatlarını birbirine çırparak etrafa güzel kokular yayar. Bu sırada Leda uyanır, beyaz renkli ve parlayan kuğuyu görür. Kuğu, Leda’ya ‘’hiç bir şeyden korkma ben aydınlık tanrısıyım ve istiyorum ki, sen birbirinin eşi olan iki çocuğumun annesi ol’’ der. Kuğu şeklindeki Zeus ve Leda birlikte olurlar. Aynı gece Leda kocasıyla da birlikte olduğu için iki tane yumurta yumurtlar. Troia savaşına neden olacak olan, dünyanın en güzel kızı Helen ve Pollux’un babaları Zeus iken, Kastor ve Klytaimnestra’nın babaları Tyndareos’tur (Ergüven, 2010:123, Erhat, 1996:188 ve Can,2015:51). Leda, Belçikalı gerçeküstücü ressam Paul Delvaux (1897-1994)tarafından, 1948 yılında yapılmış resimdir. DOI: 10.7816/ulakbilge-04-08-06 ulakbilge, 2016, Cilt 4, Sayı 8, Volume 4, Issue 8 283 www.ulakbilge.com Resim 11:Paul Delvaux (1897-1994), Leda, 1948 The Tate Gallery, London 152,7 x 95 cm, tahta üzerine yağlı boya Kaynak:http://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/delvaux-leda-t03361 Leda adlı resim, Paul Delvaux (1897-1994) tarafından yapılmıştır. Resimde çıplak kadın olarak betimlenen Leda, beyaz bir kuğuya sarılmaktadır. Elektrik telleri ve fabrikayı andıran bacalar, modern kent yaşamını anımsatmaktadır. Yüzyıllar önce yazılmış bir hikâyenin modern görünüm ile birleştirilmesi, eski - yeni arasındaki Erbay Aslıtürk, G. Küçükgüney, E. (2016). 20. Yüzyıl Resim Ve Heykellerinin Yunan Mitolojisi Ve İkicilik Kavramı Açısından Değerlendirilmesine Yönelik Bir Araştırma. ulakbilge, 4 (8), s.263-298. www.ulakbilge.com 284 ikiciliği meydana getirmiştir. Tabloda; Leda ve kuğunun üzerinde durduğu yüzey, bacaların yükseldiği ve bulutlarla da netleştirilen gökyüzü, yer - gök ikiciliğine bir atıf oluşturmaktadır. Aynı zamanda Leda’nın ve kuğunun üzerinde durduğu kareli yüzey, siyah - beyaz renkleriyle ikiciliği oluşturmuştur. Hikâye düşünüldüğünde, kuğunun kılık değiştirmiş baştanrı Zeus olduğu anlaşılmaktadır. Kuğu şeklindeki Zeus ve ona sarılan Leda, hikâyedeki eril - dişil ikiciliğinin göstergesidir. Hektor ve Andromache’nin Kucaklaşması Andromache, Mysia bölgesindeki Thebai şehrinin kralı olan Eetion’un kızıdır. Troia kralı Priamos ve kraliçe Hekabe’nin en büyük oğlu olan Hektor ise, Troia savaşı kahramanlarındandır. Andromache ve Hektor evlidir. Onların bir oğlu olur, adını ‘şehrin efendisi’ anlamına gelen Astyanaks koyarlar. Efsaneye göre, Hektor’un kardeşi Paris, baştanrı Zeus’un emri ile Aphrodite, Athena ve Hera arasındaki güzellik yarışmasına jüri olur. Üzerinde ‘en güzele’ yazılı olan elmayı üç güzelden birine vererek en güzel olanı seçecektir. Paris elmayı, kendisine dünyanın en güzel kadınını vermeyi vadeden Aphrodite’e verir. En güzel olarak Aphrodite’i seçer. Aphrodite’de bunun üzerine dünyanın en güzel kadını olan Helen aşkını Paris’in gönlüne koyar. Paris, hiç görmediği Helena’yı bulmak için Sparta şehrine doğru yola koyulur. Helena, Sparta kralı Menelaus ile evlidir. Paris, Helena’yı bulur ve kaçırır. Bunun üzerine Menelaus, Troia’ya savaş açar. Troia ordusunun başına Hektor geçecektir. Andromache kocasının bu savaşta yer almasını istemez, çünkü onun öleceğinden korkar. Hektor, karısı ile vedalaşmaya geldiğinde Andromache gözyaşlarıyla kocasının ellerine sarılarak: - Hektor, bu cesaretin seni benden alacak. Bana acı ve çocuğunu düşün. Ne olur kendini tehlikeye atma. Beni yalnız, çocuğunu da yetim bırakmak istemiyorsan bu surlardan dışarıya çıkma, der. Hektor karısının bu sözlerinden sonra ona: - Karıcığım, korkak gibi savaştan kaçarsam, içine düşeceğim durumu düşünmek bile beni korkutuyor. Korkak gibi yaşamaktansa ölmeyi tercih ederim, diyerek cevap verir. Hektor oğlunu kucağına alır, onu öper ve ona sarılır. Andromache gözleri yaşlı, kocasına bakar ve gülümser. Karısının bu hali Hektor’u üzer. Andromache’yi okşar, elini tutar ve ona: - Andromache, kendini böyle kederlere kaptırma. Ecelim gelmeden önce beni kimse mezara sokamaz. Hiç kimse olacakların önüne geçemez. Güzel karıcığım şimdi sen beni düşünme, her gün yaptığın işlerinle uğraş ve hizmetçilerine emirler ver. Savaşın acılarını bırak erkekler çeksin, der. Hektor bunları söyleyerek karısının yanından ayrılır ve savaş meydanına doğru yol alır (Can, 2015:306). Hektor ve Andromache’nın Kucaklaşması heykeli; Yunanlı sürrealist ressam Giorgio De Chirico (1888-1978) tarafından, 1966 yılında yapılmıştır. DOI: 10.7816/ulakbilge-04-08-06 ulakbilge, 2016, Cilt 4, Sayı 8, Volume 4, Issue 8 285 www.ulakbilge.com Resim 12: Giorgio De Chirico (1888-1978), Hektor ve Andromache’nın Kucaklaşması, 1966 Fondazione Giorgio e Isa de Chirico, Rome 40 x 16 x 21 cm, bronz Kaynak:http://www.fondazionedechirico.org/collezione/sculture/?lang=en Chirico (1888-1978)’nun eserine konu olan Hektor ve Andromache, Yunan mitolojisinin hüzünlü aşk kahramanlarıdır. Chirico (1888-1978)’nun heykeli, kahramanların hikâyeleri ile örtüşmektedir. Eserde; yansıtılmak istenen hüzün, izleyiciye açıkça gösterilmektedir. Savaşa katılmak isteyen Hektor ve kocasının ölmesinden korktuğu için, onun gitmesini istemeyen Andromache; hikâyedeki veda anlarıyla eserde yer almaktadır. Hikâyedeki ikicilik, gitme ve kalma duygusu ile ön plana çıkmaktadır. Heykelde ise; kadın ve erkek figürünün varlığı, Andromache’nin Erbay Aslıtürk, G. Küçükgüney, E. (2016). 20. Yüzyıl Resim Ve Heykellerinin Yunan Mitolojisi Ve İkicilik Kavramı Açısından Değerlendirilmesine Yönelik Bir Araştırma. ulakbilge, 4 (8), s.263-298. www.ulakbilge.com 286 hüznünü yansıtan başı eğik duruşuna karşılık, Hektor’un dik ve kuvvetli duruşu ikiciliğin göstergesidir. Halüsinasyon Gören Toreador İspanyolca Toreador, Türkçe adıyla ‘boğa güreşçisi’ olarak bilinir. Dali (1904- 1989) bir gün sanat merkezi için alışveriş yaparken Venüs marka kalem kutusu satın alır. Kalem kutusunda gölgelerin içindeki Venüs’ü görür. Kalem kutusu, Dali (1904- 1989)’ye ilham kaynağı olmuştur (Salvador Dali Museum, 2016). Dali (1904-1989), Venüs heykellerine yer verdiği resminde, Türkçe adıyla ‘boğa güreşçisi’ olarak bilinen Toreador’u kullanarak, yaşadığı ülke İspanya’ya da atıf yapar. Birden çok özelliği kullanarak karmaşık tablolarından birinin oluşmasını sağlar. Halüsinasyon Gören Toreador, Katalan sürrealist ressam Salvador Dali (1904- 1989) tarafından 1968 yılında yapılmış resimdir. Resim 13: Slavador Dali (1904-1989), Halüsinasyon Gören Toredor, 1968 Salvador Dalí Museum, St. Petersburg, Florida 398,8 x 299,7 cm, tuval üzerine yağlı boya Kaynak:http://thedali.org/exhibit/hallucinogenic-toreador/ DOI: 10.7816/ulakbilge-04-08-06 ulakbilge, 2016, Cilt 4, Sayı 8, Volume 4, Issue 8 287 www.ulakbilge.com Halüsinasyon Gören Toreador, Salvador Dali (1904-1989) tarafından yapılan karışık bir tablodur. Eserini, sol üstte portresi bulunan eşi Gala’ya ithaf etmiştir. Eser sağ altta bulunan küçük çocuğun bakış açısını yansıtır nitelikte ele alınmıştır. Küçük çocuğun Dali olduğu düşünülmektedir. Resmin üst tarafında yer alan sahne, sarı kırmızı renkler ile ele alınmıştır. Bu renkler İspanyol bayrağını oluşturmaktadır. Sol altta, ölen bir boğanın başı betimlenmiştir. Boğanın ağzından akan kanlar; minik, sarı insan figürünün de girebildiği bir koy meydana getirmiştir. Boğanın üzerinde, Dali’nin İspanya’da yaşadığı yerleşim yerinden, bir dağ manzarası yer almaktadır. Resmin sağ tarafında dağ figürü tekrar ele alınmıştır. Buradaki dağ, Dali’nin çalışma stüdyosunun yakınındaki dağ ile benzerlik taşımaktadır. Eserde; kalem kutusundan esinlenerek yaptığı yirmi sekiz tane Venüs heykeli yer almaktadır. İkinci Venüs heykelinin vücudu; Toreador’un yüzünü, ikinci ve üçüncü Venüs heykelinin eteği; Toreador’un gömleğini, birinci Venüs heykelinin eteği ise Toreador’un kırmızı pelerinini oluşturmaktadır. İspanyol askerlerinin betimlendiği üst taraftaki sinekler, Toreador’un şapkasını meydana getirmiştir. Sağ taraftaki küçük noktalar da insan figürlerini anımsatmaktadır. Birden fazla özelliğin bir araya getirilmesi ile oluşturulan resimde; Toreador ve Venüs, eril - dişil bakımından ikicilik kurgusunu meydana getirmektedir (The Hallucinogenic Toreador, 2015). Paçavraların Venüs’ü Yunanca adıyla Aphrodite efsanesi daha önceki eser tanıtımında anlatılmıştır (bkz. Deniz Kabuğundaki Venüs). Paçavraların Venüs’ü heykeli, İtalyan ressam, eylem ve nesne sanatçısı, sanat kuramcısı Michelangelo Pistoletto (1933- ) tarafından 1974 yılında yapılmıştır. Erbay Aslıtürk, G. Küçükgüney, E. (2016). 20. Yüzyıl Resim Ve Heykellerinin Yunan Mitolojisi Ve İkicilik Kavramı Açısından Değerlendirilmesine Yönelik Bir Araştırma. ulakbilge, 4 (8), s.263-298. www.ulakbilge.com 288 Resim 14: Michelangelo Pistoletto (1933- ), Paçavraların Venüsü,1974 The Tate Gallery, London 212 x 340 x 110 cm, mermer ve tekstil Kaynak:http://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/pistoletto-venus-of-the-rags-t12200 Michelangele Pistoletto (1933- ), Venüs heykelini, canlı renklerle dolu bir paçavra yığınıyla birleştirir. Eserde Venüs, arkası dönük bir şekilde, paçavralardan oluşmuş bir yığının önüne yerleştirilerek kurgulanmıştır. Bir zamanlar hayranlık uyandıran, aşk ve güzellik tanrıçası olarak bilinen Venüs’ün, Pistoletto (1933- ) tarafından paçavralar arasında betimlenmesiyle, günlük hayatta kullanılan nesneler sanat eserleri içinde yer almıştır. Paçavraların Venüs’ü eserinde; değerli olan, estetik değeri olan ve tek renkten oluşan nesne (Venüs), değersiz olan, estetik değeri olamayan ve çok renkten oluşan nesneler (paçavralar), birbirlerinin tam tersi olmaları ile ve hareketlilik - durgunluk izlenimleri ile ikiciliği oluşturmaktadır. DOI: 10.7816/ulakbilge-04-08-06 ulakbilge, 2016, Cilt 4, Sayı 8, Volume 4, Issue 8 289 www.ulakbilge.com Pegasus’un Doğuşu Medusa güzelliği ile herkesi kıskandıran bir ölümlüdür. Kendisini tanrılara adayan Medusa, Zeus’un en sevdiği kızı olan Athena’ya ait bir tapınakta yaşardı. Denizler tanrısı Poseidon da Medusa’nın güzelliğinin farkındadır. Ona olan ilgisi tutkuya dönüşünce, gizlice girdiği Athena’nın tapınağında Medusa ile zorla birlikte olur. Bunu öğrenen Athena, Medusa’yı yılan saçlı yaratığa çevirerek cezalandırır. Siniri geçmeyen Athena, ona yine de bakmaya çalışan olursa diye, Medusa’nın gözlerine bakan herkesi taşa çevirmesini sağlar. Athena bunun ile de yetinmeyerek Yunan mitolojisindeki kahramanlardan biri olan Zeus’un oğlu Perseus’dan, Medusa’nın kafasını keserek kendisine getirmesini ister. Perseus, Athena’nın isteğini yerine getirmek için kılıcı ile Medusa’nın başını bedeninden ayırır. Medusa’nın, kafasından toprağa akan kanlardan, kanatlı at olarak bilinen Pegasus doğar (Erhat,1996:234). Kanadalı Ressam Andre Durand (1947- ), Pegasus’un Doğuşu resmini 1980 yılında yapmıştır. Resim15: Andre Durand (1947- ), Pegasus’un Doğuşu, 1980 Mucizeler ve Metomorfoz Sergisi, Edinburgh Festivali 120 x 110 cm, tuval üzerine yağlı boya Kaynak:http://www.maicar.com/GML/000PhotoArchive/Durand/slides/durand008.html Erbay Aslıtürk, G. Küçükgüney, E. (2016). 20. Yüzyıl Resim Ve Heykellerinin Yunan Mitolojisi Ve İkicilik Kavramı Açısından Değerlendirilmesine Yönelik Bir Araştırma. ulakbilge, 4 (8), s.263-298. www.ulakbilge.com 290 Andre Durand (1947- )’ın Pegasus’un Doğuşu tablosu, Medusa’nın başının kesilerek öldürülmesi ve akan kanlardan da Pegasus’un doğması teması üzerine kurulmuştur (resim 15).Tabloda; başı kesilen Medusa’nın bedeni, Medusa’nın kesilen başı, Pegasus ve Perseus görülmektedir. Tablodaki Medusa ve Perseus, kadın - erkek ikiciliğini oluşturmaktadır. Kafasında saç yerine yılanların dolaştığı Medusa, geleneksel insan tanımlamasına aykırı olması sebebiyle biçimsel olarak ikiciliğe vurgu yapmaktadır. Hikâye düşünüldüğünde ise; Medusa’nın öldürülmesiyle doğan Pegasus, ölüm ve doğum ikiciliğini temsil etmektedir. Uzay Venüs Yunanca adıyla Aphrodite’in, Latince adıyla Venüs’ün hikâyesi daha önceki eser tanıtımında anlatılmıştır (bkz. Deniz Kabuğundaki Venüs). Uzay Venüs, Katalan sürrealist Ressam Salvador Dali (1904-1989) tarafında, 1984 yılında yapılmış bir heykeldir. Dali (1904-1989), diğer resimlerinde kullandığı figürlerini bu heykelinde tekrar kullanmıştır. Karınca, yumurta ve saat Dali (1904- 1989)’nin diğer eserlerinde yer verdiği figürlerdir. Resim16: Salvador Dali(1904-1989), Uzay Venüs, 1984 Fine Arts Museums Of San Francisco, de Young Museum, San Fracisco, CA 65,5 x 35,5 x 35 cm, bronz döküm Kaynak:https://art.famsf.org/salvador-dali/space-venus-201066 DOI: 10.7816/ulakbilge-04-08-06 ulakbilge, 2016, Cilt 4, Sayı 8, Volume 4, Issue 8 291 www.ulakbilge.com Salvador Dali (1904-1989) Uzay Venüs heykelinde, diğer eserlerinde kullandığı unsurları ekleyerek bir kadın figürü yaratmıştır (Resim 16). Güzelliğin simgesi olan tanrıça Venüs’ü temel alarak, üç unsur ile birleştirmiştir. Bu unsurlar eriyen bir saat, yumurta ve karıncalardır (THE DALI UNIVERSE, 2016). Eriyen saat ve karıncalar; Dali (1904-1989)’nin ‘Belleğin Azmi’ tablosunda yer almaktadır. Eserde, yumuşak formda akan saat, zamanın akıp gittiğini vurgulamaktadır. Aynı resim içinde bulunan, ters çevrilmiş cep saati üzerindeki karıncalar, zamanı yiyerek ölümü ve aynı zamanda da üremeyi simgelemektedir. Yumurta figürü ise, Dali (1904-1989)’nin birçok resminde (Narcissus’un Metamorfozu, Yeni İnsanın Doğuşunu İzleyen Jeopolitik Çocuk, vb.) bulunmaktadır. Ona göre yumurta önemli bir metafordur. Çünkü içinde hayat vardır ve kabuğu kırıp dışarıya çıkmak, doğmak anlamına gelir. Salvador Dali (1904-1989) Uzay Venüs’ü eserinde; bu unsurları, diğer resimlerindeki anlamlarına paralel olarak kullanmıştır. Uzay Venüs heykelindeki eriyen saat figürü; zamanın ilerlemesiyle güzelliğin geçiciliğini, karınca figürü; ölümü ve aynı zamanda çoğalmayı, yumurta figürü ise; yaşamın devamını ve geleceği temsil etmektedir. Heykelde biçimsel ikicilik genel hatlarıyla görülmez. Fakat kullanılan unsurlar incelendiğinde, ölümün ve çoğalmanın betimlendiği karınca figüründe ölüm - doğum ikiciliğine vurgulama yapılmıştır. Gaia Evren yaratılmadan önce hiç bir şekil almamış Khaos, uçsuz bucaksız boşluğu ve karanlığı tanımlar. İlk olarak Khaos’dan her şeyin dayanağı olarak Gaia (yer) meydana gelir. Aynı zamanda Gaia ilk tanrısal varlıklardan biridir. Gaia, Uranos (gök)’u doğurur. Evren şekil almaya başladıktan sonra, onun üstünde yaşayacak olanları meydana getirmek gerekmektedir. Bunun içinde Gaia kendi öz oğlu Uronos ile birleşerek evrende yaşayacak canlıları meydana getirirler. Bu birleşmeden, on iki Titanlar, devler, yüz kolu ve elli başı olan değişik türde çocukları olur (Mılbourne&Stowell, 2011). Gaia ve Uranos, Yunan mitolojisinin ilk çifti olma özellikleriyle de bilinmektedir. Gaia heykeli, Mısırlı heykeltıraş William Tucker (1935- ) tarafından 1985 tarihinde yapılmıştır. Erbay Aslıtürk, G. Küçükgüney, E. (2016). 20. Yüzyıl Resim Ve Heykellerinin Yunan Mitolojisi Ve İkicilik Kavramı Açısından Değerlendirilmesine Yönelik Bir Araştırma. ulakbilge, 4 (8), s.263-298. www.ulakbilge.com 292 Resim17: William Tucker (1935- ), Gaia, 1985 Sanatçının koleksiyonu 221 x 140 x 127 cm, bronz Kaynak:Norbert Lynton (2015:342), Modern Sanatın Öyküsü William Tucker’in Gaia adlı çalışmasında (Resim 17), biçimsel olarak ikicilik göze çarpmazken, hikâyesine baktığımızda ikiciliğin varlığı net olarak görülmektedir. Gaia ve Uranos, hikayedeki eril - dişil ikiciliğini vurgulayan ilk noktadır. Yer veya toprak olarak da bilinen Gaia, ilk yaratılan tanrısal varlıklardandır. Uranos’u doğurarak evrende hüküm sürecek olanların meydana gelmesini sağlamıştır. Burada yer - gök birleşmesi, aynı zamanda birlikteliğin anne - oğul ilişkisine dayanması karşımıza ikicilik olarak çıkmaktadır. DOI: 10.7816/ulakbilge-04-08-06 ulakbilge, 2016, Cilt 4, Sayı 8, Volume 4, Issue 8 293 www.ulakbilge.com Sonuç Bu çalışmada, Yunan mitolojisi içeriği taşıyan 20. yüzyıl eserleri, mitolojik hikâyeleri anlatılarak ele alınmıştır. Eserler ve hikâyeler, hem biçimsel hem de içerik olarak ikicilik açısından değerlendirilmiştir. Değerlendirmeler sonucunda eserlerdeki ve hikâyelerdeki ikiciliğin, insan yaşamı izlerini taşıdığı görülmüştür. İlk olarak görülen ikicilik; ölüm ve doğumdur. Bu ikicilik; Deniz Kabuğundaki Venüs (1931) (Resim 4), Aphrodite II (1943) (Resim 8), Uyuyan Venüs (1944) (Resim 10) ve Pegasus’un Doğuşu (1980) (Resim 15) eserlerinde karşımıza çıkmaktadır. İkinci olarak yansıyan ikicilik; iyiliğe ve kötülüğe sebep olan ateşin betimlenmesidir. Orozco (1883-1949) ateşin iyiliğini ve kötülüğünü Prometheus (1930) (Resim 3) adlı eserinde vurgulamıştır. Görülen diğer bir ikicilik ise; kadın - erkek arasındaki aşk olgusudur. De Chirico (1888-1978), Hektor ve Andromache (1966) (Resim 12) eserinde; Munch (1863-1944), Eros ve Psyche (1907) (Resim 1) tablosunda; Delvaux (1897-1994), Pgymalion (1939) (Resim 7) ve Leda (1948) (Resim 11) adlı tablolarında; Francis Picabia (1879-1953), Hera (1929) (Resim 2); Max Backmann ( 1884-1950) ise, Odysseus ve Kalypso (1943) (Resim 9) adlı eserlerinde kadın ve erkeği açıkça göstererek, aşkın varlığını hissettirmişlerdir. Sanatçıların kendi bakış açıları ve üslupları ile yaklaştıkları eserlerde, üzerinde durulan ikiciliğin; iyi - kötü, ölüm - doğum ve çoğunlukla da eril - dişil olduğu görülmektedir. Ayrıca sanatçılar, insan yaşamının başrolü olan bu kavramlar dışında; fiziksel olarak farklı olan bedenlere (Resim 5), yer - gök formuna (Resim 7-10-11), karşıtlıkları çağrıştıran siyah - beyaz renge (Resim 11), yansıma ve gerçeğe (Resim 6), güzelliğe ve güzelliğin geçiciliğine (Resim 16), değerli ve değersiz olana (Resim 14) da değinmişlerdir. İkicilik düşüncesini yansıtan resimler; çağdaş sanatın her evresinde varlığını korumuştur. Erbay Aslıtürk, G. Küçükgüney, E. (2016). 20. Yüzyıl Resim Ve Heykellerinin Yunan Mitolojisi Ve İkicilik Kavramı Açısından Değerlendirilmesine Yönelik Bir Araştırma. ulakbilge, 4 (8), s.263-298. www.ulakbilge.com 294 KAYNAKLAR Agızza, Rosa. Antik Yunan'da Mitoloji. Gözden geçirilmiş 2. baskı. Çeviren Z. Zühre İlkgelen. İstanbul: Arkeoloji ve Sanat Yayınları, 2006. Altuner, İlyas. ‘’Kartezyen Dualizm ve Ruhun Kavramsal Değişimi’’. Iğdır Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi 4 (Ekim 2013): 55-67. Bayraktar, Levent. Bergson' da Ruh-Beden İlişkisi. Yayımlanmamış doktora tezi. Ankara: Ankara Üniversitesi, 2003. Beyaz, Mehtap. ‘’Monizm ve Dualizme Karşı Biyolojik Doğallık: John Searle’’. Yayımlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi. Yyy: Yıldırım Beyazıt Üniversitesi, 2014. Bulfinch, Thomas. Klasik Yunan ve Roma Mitolojisi. Çev. Özgür Umut Hoşafçı. İstabul: İnkılap Kitabevi, 2012. Can, Şefik. 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İstanbul: Remzi Kitabevi, 1985. Grimal, Pierre. Yunan Mitolojisi. 2. baskı. Çev. Işık Ergüden. Ankara: Dost Kitabevi, 2009. Hançerlioğlu, Orhan. Felsefe Ansiklopedisi. Cilt III. Yyy: Yy, 1985. İşman, Sibel Almelek. ‘’20.yy Batı Resim Sanatında Aşk Olgusu’’. Yayımlanmamış yüksek lisan tezi. İzmir: Ege Üniversitesi , 2007. Kahl, Joachim. ‘’Grenzen der Liebe. Zwischen Begehren und Verweigern Eine Bildmeditation zu Max Beckmanns ‘Odysseus und Kalypso’(1943)’’. (1 Haziran 2008) 24 Mayıs 2016. http://www.kahl-marburg.privat.t-online.de/beckmann.pdf Kaya, Korhan. Hint Mitolojisi Sözlüğü. Ankara: İmge Kitabevi, 2003. Kozanoğlu, Tahsin M. Yunan Mitolojisi. 1. baskı. İstanbul: Mitologya Yayıncılık, 1992. Köktan, Yavuz. ‘’Mitoloji Dans ve Müzik’’. Türük-Uluslararası Dil, Edebiyat ve Halkbilimi Araştırmaları Dergisi 2-3 (2014): 261-271. Erbay Aslıtürk, G. Küçükgüney, E. (2016). 20. Yüzyıl Resim Ve Heykellerinin Yunan Mitolojisi Ve İkicilik Kavramı Açısından Değerlendirilmesine Yönelik Bir Araştırma. ulakbilge, 4 (8), s.263-298. www.ulakbilge.com 296 Kuriş, Mehmet Tufan. ‘’Günümüz Zihin Felsefesi Bağlamında İman ve Akıl’’ Yayımlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi. İstanbul: Marmara Üniversitesi, 2008. Lynton, Norbert. Modern Sanatın Öyküsü. 5. baskı. Çev. Cevat Çapan ve Sadi Öziş. İstanbul: Remzi Kitabevi, 2015. Milbourne, Anna ve Stowell, Louıe. Yunan Mitolojisi. İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2011. Mythological Gallery. (ty) 20 Nisan 2016. http://www.maicar.com/GML/000PhotoArchive/Durand/slides/durand008.html Necatigil, Behçet. 100 Soruda Mitologya. İstanbul: Gerçek Yayınevi, 1973. pomona college museum of art. (ty) 25 Nisan 2016. https://www.pomona.edu/museum/collections/jos%C3%A9-clemente-orozcos- prometheus Royal Museums Of Fine Art s Of Belgium. (ty) 11 Mayıs 2016. https://www.fine-arts- museum.be/fr/la-collection/paul-delvaux-pygmalion Salvador Dali Museum. (ty) 5 Mayıs 2016. http://thedali.org/exhibit/hallucinogenic-toreador/ Salvador Dali Museum. ‘’The Hallucinogenic Toreador’’. (ty) 3 Mayıs 2016. http://thedali.org/exhibit/hallucinogenic-toreador/ Soylu, Çisem. ‘’Narsizm ve Narkissos'un Hikayesi’’. (7 Mayıs 2014) 10 Mayıs 2016. http://www.makaleler.com/narsizm-ve-narkissosun-hikayesi DOI: 10.7816/ulakbilge-04-08-06 ulakbilge, 2016, Cilt 4, Sayı 8, Volume 4, Issue 8 297 www.ulakbilge.com TATE. (ty) 3 Mayıs 2016. http://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/dali-metamorphosis-of- narcissus-t02343 TATE. (ty) 20 Nisan 2016. http://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/wheeler-aphrodite-ii-n05559 TATE. (ty) 11 Mayıs 2016. http://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/delvaux-sleeping-venus- t00134 TATE. (ty) 11 Mayıs 2016. http://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/delvaux-leda-t03361 TATE. (ty) 8 Mayıs 2016. http://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/pistoletto-venus-of-the-rags- t12200 THE DALI UNIVERSE. (ty) 26 Mayıs 2016)http://www.thedaliuniverse.com/en/sculpture- for-sale/space-venus-sculpture The Museum of Modern Art. (ty) 9 Mayıs 2016. http://www.moma.org/collection/works/34095?locale=en The Museum of Modern Art. (ty) 11 Mayıs 2016) http://www.moma.org/collection/works/81451?locale=en Timuçin, Afşar. Felsefe Sözlüğü. Genişletilmiş 5. baskı. İstanbul: Bulut Yayınları, 2000. Tökel, Dursun Ali. Divan Şiirinde Mitolojik Unsurlar. Ankara: Akçağ Yayınları, 2000. WikiArt. (ty) 24 Mayıs 2016. http://www.wikiart.org/en/max-beckmann/odysseus-and- calypso-1943 Erbay Aslıtürk, G. Küçükgüney, E. (2016). 20. Yüzyıl Resim Ve Heykellerinin Yunan Mitolojisi Ve İkicilik Kavramı Açısından Değerlendirilmesine Yönelik Bir Araştırma. ulakbilge, 4 (8), s.263-298. www.ulakbilge.com 298 WIKIPEDIA The Free Encyclopedia. (21 Ekim 2015) 24 Mayıs 2016. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hallucinogenic_Toreador Yunan Mitolojisi. (ty) 10 Mayıs 2016. http://www.yunanmitolojisi.com/tags/prometheus- kimdir.html 
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work_7pad5lddgndwzevwoxmpx4ys74	----	Finished and Unfinished Objects: Supporting Children's Creativity Through Materials Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 51 ( 2012 ) 721 – 727 1877-0428 © 2012 Published by Elsevier Ltd. Selection and/or peer review under responsibility of Prof. Ay e Çak r lhan doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.08.231 ARTSEDU 2012 Finished and unfinished objects: supporting children’s creativity through materials Monica Guerra a *, Franca Zuccoli b a“Riccardo Massa” Human Sciences for Education Department – University of Milano-Bicocca, Via Giolli, 20126, Milano, Italy b“Riccardo Massa” Human Sciences for Education Department – University of Milano-Bicocca, Via Giolli, 20126, Milano, Italy Abstract Experimenting with materials is something that all children do both at preschool and primary school. Working with mater ials at school is even more relevant in evaluating what has been produced and go beyond this inescapable frontier, already crossed by art, even in education.This paper presents the first results of an exploratory survey that investigated the meaning and effect of working with materials at schools, based on two parallel and complementary processes: finished and unfinished objects. This survey confirmed that working with different types of materials makes it possible for children to develop their creativity t hrough different but just as important pathways. Keywords: Objects, Materials, Creativity, Children, Education. 1. Introduction Objects and materials have been part of the educational philosophy of numerous thinkers, considered a fundamental aspect in active and proactive teaching, where the construction of knowledge becomes an element that is in turn part of the more general development of knowledge. Starting from reality, this process is divided into actions, observations, questions and reflections. Some initial reflections can help us to understand the pedagogical meaning of this proposal which does not have a single direction, but offers the chance to explore diverse educational dimensions. Within didactics, concrete objects and materials are multi-faceted and multi-dimensional aspects of reality, sort of holograms of the world surrounding us. This brief and partial survey is useful for understanding the value of the proposed actions and their history in past centuries. The first reference is found in Comenius, who underlined the necessity to start from things, objects of the intellect and of discourse, before using words (Comenius, 1993). Locke underlined how contact with objects and the appreciable world were the basis of m ost of our ideas (Locke, 1690), while de Condillac stressed how touch was a fundamental medium for any form of knowing (Condillac, after 1930). Rousseau was to develop in detail how, from infancy, direct experience and teaching- learning were linked. In the second book dedicated to the development of children from 3 to 12 years old, he explained: “Since everything that penetrates human intellect comes through the senses, the first human reason is the reason of the senses; this is the basis of intellectual reason: our first philosophy teachers are feet, hands, eyes. By * Corresponding Monica Guerra. Tel.: +39-02-64484830 E-mail address: monica.guerra@unimib.it © 2012 Published by Elsevier Ltd. Selection and/or peer review under responsibility of Prof. Dr. Ayse Cakir Ilhan Available online at www.sciencedirect.com © 2012 Published by Elsevier Ltd. Selection and/or peer review under responsibility of Prof. Ay e Çak r lhan Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license. Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/ 722 Monica Guerra and Franca Zuccoli / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 51 ( 2012 ) 721 – 727 substituting all this with books, we teach not to reason but to make use of others’ reasoning, to believe and not to ever know anything” (Rousseau, 1989, pp. 200-201). In considering the value of dealing with objects and materials, John Dewey cannot be left aside. His idea was that children must have experience in order to strengthen the creation of knowledge, and not as a mere exercise: “It is not enough to insist on the necessity of experience, nor on activity as part of an experience. Everything depends on the quality of experience. [...] Thus the main problem of education based on experience is to chose the type of experience the children can re-experience fruitfully and creatively in the experiences that follow” (Dewey, 1953, pp.15-16). Working with materials at school is even more relevant in evaluating what has been produced and go beyond this inescapable frontier, already crossed by art, even in education. It is not a choice dictated by idleness but it is a priority, not only from a pedagogical point of view aimed at supporting sustainability, but also for the surplus of creativity that comes from working with materials. This paper presents the first results of a theoretical and empirical survey that investigated the meaning and effect of working with materials in preschools and primary schools, based on two parallel and complementary processes: finished objects (daily or familiar objects reutilized and given new meanings, unknown objects with different meanings) and unfinished objects, using recognizable or unrecognizable materials which were either new or had been previously recycled or used (by the children or the teachers). This investigation was inspired by artists who use finished objects or parts of finished objects in their works, juxtaposing the objects or creating installations made of matter and materials. The analysis was carried out starting from a survey of existing pedagogical and artistic literature, as well as through direct experience and documenting experiences using both types of objects in both orders of schools, based on the hypothesis that both types of materials could support diverse creative processes. 2. Objects and materials in pedagogical thought The peculiarity of finished objects presented to children, meaning artistic, naturalistic, scientific and also daily objects, including waste materials, seemed like offering them a significant view of reality. By investigating the specificity of each object, we can always discover a range of possible explorations which refer to materials, colors, forms, uses, designs, thoughts, stories, people, relationships. They are pieces of the world which enter the classroom and offer new stimuli. Regarding this aspect, especially during early childhood, Fröbel talked about the objects collected by children and the relationships with these objects, which define the child’s very essence, creating the boundaries and giving the child an idea of him or herself (Fröbel, 1826). This same ideas were also pointed out by some pedagogues in the past, who confirmed the importance of concreteness and direct activity in education, and they listed which objects served to develop certain didactic proposals. Among them, Rosa Agazzi noted in detail what objects could be on show in her so-called Museum of “unpatented bric-a-brac”, a free Museum which housed “small boxes, buttons, seeds, little tubes, thread, nails, cord, cards, little bottles, corks, fabric samples, paper samples, little balls, small jars, packets, postcards; and various materials: wax, iron, tin, marble, wood, leather, glass, ... (Agazzi, 1938, p. 13). This varied collection of objects, thanks to a caring eye, can become a powerful means for enriching linguistic development, logic and reflection through manipulation, naming, dividing, creating categories, storytelling, modifications, for example. Often the items were things from the children’s pockets, which would usually be thrown away if found, together with other things collected and added by the teacher. For the purposes of research, it is useful to note the importance of the authorship of this action. The active parties can be divided into 5 categories, below we will cite just a few of the pedagogues linked with them. Those who can choose the objects are: the children themselves, spontaneously, using what they collect in a casual way; these objects are found and brought to school by the children due to their instinctive interest and only at a later time are they used with a didactic aim (Agazzi, Lodi, Malaguzzi, ...); the children themselves, intentionally, making a willing and specific choice regarding the choice of the objects brought to school, showing awareness of use and thought (Agazzi, Pizzigoni, Freinet, Lodi, ...); the children in response to the teacher’s specific request, in order to make use of these objects in a specific way in class (Agazzi, Pizzigoni, Freinet, Lodi, Malaguzzi, ...); the teachers, who bring materials to school for a specific didactic purpose (Gabelli, Agazzi, Pizzigoni, Freinet, Lodi, MCE, Malaguzzi,...); 723 Monica Guerra and Franca Zuccoli / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 51 ( 2012 ) 721 – 727 pedagogues or experts, who invent and create particular tools and materials to develop learning opportunities (Fröbel, Montessori, Pizzigoni, Kerschensteiner, Freinet, ...). If in the first cases the choice of objects can have various aspects, the selection carried out by adults also can be considered from many different points of view. Given that bringing objects to school is almost a daily occurrence, what actions can be carried out with these objects and what is the debt to modern and contemporary art? In reference to Montessori and her carefully designed materials (Cives, 2004), a few fundamental characteristics can be pointed out, useful for making comparisons, singling out the similarities and differences from other experiences that involve objects. There is the esthetic aspect, so that the objects are attractive and fascinating, they catch the eye and make you want to take them in your hand; the activity proposed, so that the objects are easy to use and transportable by children and offer the possibility to be used well; error control, so that the material is designed in such a way that errors are immediately evident and allow children to correct themselves; the limits, so that the material is circumscribed, and does not present excessive stimuli, aiming at creating mental order within variety. The possibility for exploration proposed by Montessori is based on the sensorial isolation of the specific qualities of each object, offered to the children in a par ticular order. On the contrary, many recent educational experiences provide for the free exploration of objects, and develop thematic investigations only afterwards. There are diverse experimental experiences in infant-toddler center settings, like the Treasure Basket and Goldschmeid’s heuristic play, where everyday objects are offered to children for tactile investigation (Goldschmied & Jackson, 1996). In this field, the study regarding children from ECE centers and preschools entitled “Di fronte agli oggetti” (Galardini, Giovannini, Mayer, Musatti, 1995), theorized that free exploration not only leads to individual learning, but also to broader reflections which are more articulated if children are allowed free reign. Susan Isaacs Sutherland (1971) in her school for children aged 2 to 8 managed to offer seemingly opposing proposals: objects of all types, together with didactic materials from Montessori and other pedagogues, with the declared objective of stimulating active research on the part of children, rather than teaching them. Reflecting on action made possible through objects and materials with older children, David Hawkins’ thought is useful. In order to make up for lacks in learning science, he theorized a fundamental phase of free exploration when children could freely explore objects and materials: the idea was to allow simply knowing a variety of things and their relationships, before undertaking thematic study. This initial phase required a good amount of time and was the fertile basis for all future learning (Hawkins, 1979). The methodology proposed by Mongay Maite Pujol and Cunill Nùria Roca (1995) included an initial phase of spontaneous action, where children moved in an unplanned space and had contact with unstructured materials and objects, leading to greater structuring and shared intentionality. A final reflection on objects and materials was made by Dewey, who criticized Froebelian gifts and Montessori’s materials, which he felt were too defined, also regarding the actions they could be used for. “It is true that those materials control the operations of the pupil to avoid errors […] But starting from raw materials and manipulating them intentionally, pupils’ intelligence took form in finished materials (Dewey, 1984, pp.254-255)”. The introduction in preschools and elementary schools of unusual, recycled and discarded industrial materials seems to go one step further, since children can explore and generate connections, transform and reinvent, promoting creative thought (Eckhoff & Spearman, 2009), as well as express and share feelings and thoughts (Gandini, 2005). The proposals, with differences and specificities, dedicated to bringing discarded and recycled materials into schools are present throughout the world. A bastion of working with discarded industrial materials in schools is Remida, part of the Reggio Emilia Approach, deeply interested in the connections between children and their environment (Edwards, Forman & Gandini, 1993). In this approach, children are encouraged to search for knowledge and understanding of the world through immerging themselves in it (Samuelsson, Sheridan & Williams, 2006), including recycled or discarded industrial materials. Remida "collects, displays and offers alternative and reclaimed materials obtained from unsold stock and rejects or discard and scrap materials from industrial and handicraft production, with the aim of reinventing their use and meaning" (Reggio Children, 2005, p. 9). Besides Remida, there are other similar organizations like Weave Recycle, a Creative Recycling Centre and Educational Training Provider, and the House of Objects, a centre offering reclaimed, reusable and recycled materials to its users, both in the UK; Reuse Alliance, a community of like-minded individuals and organizations across the USA 724 Monica Guerra and Franca Zuccoli / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 51 ( 2012 ) 721 – 727 dedicated to finding new uses for things and for waste; ArtsJunktion mb, a community-based organization committed to redistributing reusable materials. Working with recycled products, designed for specific purposes and apparently at the end of their useful life, and discarded industrial materials, which are new since they are unused due to production excess or defects, is a particularly interesting choice both in terms of sustainability, containment of waste and respect for the environment. This paper explores the use of these materials in education through their intrinsic adaptability, which is not only physical, but also from the point of view of the thought processes developed. Summarizing the various proposals made schematically, we can draw up a list of the points materials and objects used at school offer for consideration: the choice of materials, who uses them and why; the type (natural-artificial, simple-complex, structured-non structured, familiar-unknown, new-used, …); operative proposals (observation- description, structured and unstructured activities, free exploration, deconstruction, modification, transformation, ...); how the experience is elaborated (individually or in a group, re-proposal of similar materials with variables, discussions, …). 3. Objects and materials in art If we consider the aspects linked to art, it is interesting to notice how in these cases materials and objects have been able to invade this field in different ways. There are parallels to what takes place when these experiences are proposed in school settings. Looking closely at 19th century art, not necessarily in chronological order, especially at the use of objects (Francucci, 2009), we can reflect on the decontextualization first used by Marcel Duchamp (Marcel Duchamp, Bicycle wheel, 1913, New York, Janis Collection) and the Dadaists with ready-mades: objects extrapolated from their daily context inserted into another space appear under a new light, detached from function, with attention placed on the shapes, colors, materials, structures and all the potentials that we might otherwise have overlooked in the same way that every day objects inserted in school settings allow for new explorations, unusual thoughts that break away from the obvious and facilitate connections. Thanks to the cubist collages of Braque (Georges Braque, Still life (guitar), 1913, Philadelphia, Philadelphia Museum of Art) and Picasso (Pablo Picasso, Still life with chair, 1912, Paris, Musée Picasso), pieces of reality erupt from the painting, becoming a symbol for everything, where the newspaper headline represents the newspaper itself, the theater ticket glued on as is, permitting mixtures and contaminations where real and painted objects are equal, flowing between reality and fiction. The same can be said for children’s collages and installations, where real and recreated objects are part of a constant dialogue, where nothing is out of place. Going even further, in New Dada, Jasper Johns and Robert Rauschenberg (Robert Rauschenberg, Dylaby 1962, New York, Sonnabend Collection) entire objects are used. Sometimes found in the trash, they are united in a combined work where elements of painting, two-dimensional and three-dimensional images are placed into relation with one another, in a continuous relationship with life. Another important artist is Tony Cragg (Tony Cragg, Spectrum, 1982, Private Collection): He starts from objects (discarded and not) and then re-categorizes and reinvents a new order. In this profoundly objectified art, there are many stimuli for contamination with a certain type of scholastic planning and action, aimed primarily at increasing new ways of thinking and experimenting with day-to-day life. For a child involved in experimenting with objects, this becomes concrete not only in the vision but also in playing or in constructing. Working with finished objects seems to comment on their use, with a different function with respect to the usual one, new attention develops regarding what is already familiar, stimulating questioning, proposing reflections on the single parts of the whole, moving beyond new facets and breaking with the defined. As far as regards recognizable and unrecognizable finished materials, which are the fruit of an industrial practice which leads to production surplus, accumulation and discard, there are many examples of contemporary art we can consider. Attention towards these objects becomes tangible in an artistic practice which uses trash, rubbish and discarded materials (Vergine, 2006). Waste is an integral part of art, from futurists like Kurt Schwitters or Picasso or Marcel Duchamp, leading to the invasion of art forms that are more and more advanced and disruptive. Nobody thinks of contesting the first contamination of art with elements initially considered vile (ripped paper, cords, scrap metal, tickets). Some movements including Fluxus, Visual Poetry, Nouveau Réalisme and Pop Art use waste as a 725 Monica Guerra and Franca Zuccoli / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 51 ( 2012 ) 721 – 727 privileged element, a sharp criticism towards consumerism. In the ’80s and ‘90s contamination meant using hobbies, plagiarism, citations, creating new images or installations starting from existing ones and discarded elements. Waste has become a metaphor, a provocation, a reflection, a global process (for example: McCarthy, “Assortment- Daddies ketchup”, 1994, Courtesy Galerie Georges-Philippe et Natalie Vallois, Parigi-Kounellis, “Senza titolo”, 1993, Courtesy Christina Stein, Milan). This passage can be used in schools where use and reflection regarding these materials necessitates adult participation placed in relation to the constant and excessive consumption of our society and the giving of value and the re-appropriation of constructive and sensorial practices which involve children from a young age. 4. First questions from exploratory experiences The experience we will briefly discuss is an example of an exploration in light of the existing literature focused on a few educational-didactic projects which included workshops on objects and materials, carried out in a few pre- school and elementary school classes. The projects were similar in that the introduction of objects or materials through direct experimentation over a lengthy timeframe in a continuous way promoted learning in many directions and allowed for a variety of experiences which were not unidirectional with indications given by or led by adults. In this way, the offering of open situations allowed for experimentation and manipulation of reality, necessary to develop creative thinking in children (Munari, 2009). If, in fact, children do not know materials and their possibilities for use, creative relationships cannot come about. Creative thought is meant as a particular cognitive process which takes shape thanks to the ability to create relationships and transformations based on the knowledge that the subjects have regarding reality and their capacity to answer the questions it poses (Munari, 2010). Starting from these open proposals, each work process focused on a specific area of research over time for each group of children. Below we will summarize the main points which emerged from the documentation, showing possible hypotheses for new and more focused areas of research. The first results from the experiences carried out in preschools and primary schools with finished objects brought up the following points and questions. Finished objects, everyday objects, became interesting after they were recognized if de-contextualized and used for other purpose (ex. A fork used to decorate a surface). Shapes and materials opened to new horizons, moving from what was known by giving value to the sensorial aspects and using one’s hands in a different way. If the objects were strongly characterized from a disciplinary point of view (in particular in primary schools, for example with mathematical didactic materials used for playing and creating artistic compositions), they were “rethought” and opened to contaminations from various disciplines. If they were parts of unknown objects, the hypotheses after their having been manipulated led to articulated thoughts, which are concretized in experimental use and in words, raising more and more detailed questions and forming hypotheses. If known but used together, they lay the basis for metaphorical thought and planning: it was a question of pretending, where single or multiple elements created new possibilities for thought and play. Projects with finished objects, if appropriately supported and developed over a long enough period of time, can lead to a reflection about the relationship between function, form, esthetics as well as the chance to design new creative or functional objects, starting from the ones observed and manipulated, as emerged in the project “Giving Form to Ideas”, conducted with the Education Section of the Fondazione Arnaldo Pomodoro for Primary and Secondary schools. Regarding experiences with unfinished materials, workshops were run within a project in the Teacher Training Faculty at the University of Milan-Bicocca, in collaboration with the center for creative recycling Remida@Muba in Milan to educate adult teachers-in-training regarding materials and where to get them. There are numerous, documented, articulated experiences to recount, all exploratory despite focusing on diverse, specific aspects. Linguistic research was observed, where children were involved in singling out appropriate words to describe materials which were not immediately identifiable or nameable. In this case the focus was on the characteristics, qualities, uses which made it possible to distinguish what was not easily recognizable, re-elaborating and enriching verbal skills. In other cases, the studies were developed more around mathematical aspects, through 726 Monica Guerra and Franca Zuccoli / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 51 ( 2012 ) 721 – 727 classifications and cataloging materials according to their characteristics which at times were scientific, considering characteristics like surface, resistance, weight, strength or balance, or constructive aspects. The materials were an invitation to share ideas and compare hypotheses and also to form relationships, since they offered a common connection between children who would not have taken part in more structured experiences. In this sense, the exploration of materials was easily structured according to not only cognitive but also emotional logic, as described through the feelings that their use evoked or recalled. In this sense, we can agree that “listening to materials makes traces of their identity emerge and brings out our experiences” (Brighenti as cited in Gandini & Kaminsky, 2005). The symbolic potential of materials is evident in other areas (Kelly & Lukaart, 2005), especially when children use them in symbolic play or when narrating stories, expressing themselves though metaphoric thought which, like creative thought, singles out imaginary relationships between elements. Last but not least, visual, or sonorous or bodily esthetic characteristics have been analyzed within the artistic dimension according to logic which is less realistic-figurative and more expressive. Exploring materials together with an adult who supports without being directive towards a particular result over an ample period of time allows children to experience different possibilities, to study and develop multiple languages and different competences in a multidisciplinary perspective which is even more global since it is favored by deconstruction and versatility. The simultaneous possibilities offered by the use of materials, more so as they present indefinite characteristics and thus are more “open”, compared to the fragmentation of knowledge which results from more directed proposals, allows to embrace several ideas at the same time. Besides this, unusual materials allow children to discover explorations over time which are more congenial to them, responding to their interests and their competences and accompanying them into their zone of proximal development in a natural way. Unusual material allow for a vast range of interpretational possibilities, which becomes especially evident regarding discarded industrial materials: since this material does not have a specific, characteristic use, it naturally lends itself to questions and attempts to find solutions. The lack of direct, univocal function makes these materials particularly fertile for children to use, since it sustains them in their questions, investigations and natural problem solving strategies. In short, working with unfinished materials, as has been shown in the Remida project, supports children in using creative thought, meaning their capacity to generate new, original connections between information, thoughts and objects. The juxtapositions and the transformations of the objects allow new, meaningful and valuable attributes to be made, encouraging new and original viewpoints regarding everyday life (Taylor, 2006), making them material pretexts which naturally support creative research, typical of childhood, able to promote corporeal, symbolic, constructive, sonorous, sensorial, linguistic, mathematic and scientific explorations. Unfinished materials, especially recycled ones and industrial discards, are extremely interesting objects thanks to the creative possibilities which they offer to children, since using them involves fewer traditional formal, structural and functional references. This in turn leads to unusual and original connections which are not pre-definable, not only in terms of the actions of children exploring them, but also in the thoughts which accompany them and inspire reflection and discussion. 5. Conclusion Working with finished objects showed that using these materials with different functions than the usual ones allowed for the development of new ideas regarding already known objects, stimulating reflection on the single components which composed the whole, creating novelty and moving away from the expected. The use of unfinished objects highlighted the indefinite qualities of unstructured materials, especially materials discarded from industrial processes, offering new opportunities also both for the teachers leading the workshops, as well as creating very specific areas of investigation for the children who experimented with several languages and thus learned on different levels, stimulating them to find creative strategies to deal with the questions that came up. This exploratory survey confirmed that working with different types of materials makes it possible for children to develop their creativity through different but equally important pathways, useful to develop strategies for experimenting, broadening and deepening the use of materials at school both theoretically and methodologically, so that the choice of which materials to use is more and more intentional on the part of the teachers. 727 Monica Guerra and Franca Zuccoli / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 51 ( 2012 ) 721 – 727 References Agazzi, R. (1938), Come intendo il museo didattico nell'educazione della infanzia e della fanciullezza, Brescia, La Scuola. Cives ,G. (2004), Maria Montessori pedagogista complessa, Pisa, Edizione ETS. Comenio, J. A. (1993) (a cura di Biggio A.), Grande Didattica, Firenze, La Nuova Italia. Condillac, É. B. de. (dopo il 1930), Trattato delle sensazioni, Bologna, Licinio Cappelli. Dewey, J. (1953), Esperienza ed educazione, Firenze, La Nuova Italia. Duchamp, M. in Hopps, W., Linde, U., & Schwarz, A. (1964), Duchamp- Ready mades. Milano. Galleria Schwarz. Eckhoff, A., & Spearman, M. (2009), Rethink, Reimagine, Reinvent: The Reggio Emilia Approach to Incorporating Reclaimed Materials in Children's Artworks, Art Education, Vol. 62 Issue 2. Edwards, C., Forman, G., & Gandini, L. (Eds.) (1993). The hundred languages of children: The Reggio Emilia approach to early childhood education, Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing. Fröbel, F. (1993) (a cura di Flores d’Arcais G.), L’educazione dell’uomo. trad. it. Firenze. La Nuova Italia. Galandini, A. L.., Giovannini, D., Mayer, S., & Musatti., T. (Giugno 1995), “Di fronte agli oggetti. I primi passi dei bambin i nella sperimentazione scientifica”, Dossier in Bambini, XI, n.6, 1-32 Gandini, L. (2005) From the beginning of the atelier to materials as languages: Conversations with Reggio Emilia. In Gandini, Hill, Cadwell, & Schwall (Eds.), In the spirit of the studio: Learning from the atelier of Reggio Emilia (6-15). New York: Teachers College Press. Gandini, L., & Kaminsky, I. (2003), Remida, the creative recycling center in Reggio Emilia: An interview with Elena Giacopini, Graziella Brighenli, Arturo Bertoldi and Alba Ferrari. Innovations in Early Education. 12(3), 1-13. Goldschmied, E., & Jackson, S. (1994), People under three,Routledge, London. Kelly, D., & Lukaart., S. (2005), The hive project: Building community and supporting environmental awareness through recycled materials. Innovations in Early Education, 12, (3), 14-18. Locke, J. (2004), Saggio sull’intelletto umano. trad. it. Milano. Bompiani. Montessori, M. (1970), La mente del bambino. Mente assorbente. Milano. Garzanti. Montessori, M. (1969), La scoperta del bambino. Milano. Garzanti. Munari, B. (2010), Da cosa nasce cosa. Appunti per una metodologia progettuale, Roma-Bari, Laterza Munari, B. (1977), Fantasia, Roma-Bari, Laterza. Pujol, M., & Roca, C. (1995). Lavorare per progetti nella scuola materna, Firenze, La Nuova Italia. Rauschenberg, R. in Boatto, A. (1967), Pop Art in USA, Milano, Lerici editore. Reggio Children (2005), REMIDA day, Reggio Emilia, Reggio Children. Rousseau, J.J. (1989), Emilio o dell'Educazione, Roma., Armando. Samuelsson, I.P., Sheridan, S., & Williams, P. (2006). Five preschool curricula. Comparative perspective, International Journal of Early Childhood, 38(1 ) , 11 –30. Taylor, T. (2006), Vie Altered Object, New York, Lark Books. 
work_7qkrrpxgdfevncbo2wkxsowiau	----	Fatih ARSLAN ADIYAMAN ÜNİVERSİTESİ SOSYAL BİLİMLER ENSTİTÜSÜ DERGİSİ ISSN: 1308–9196 Yıl : 6 Sayı : 14 SOSYAL BİLGİLER ÖĞRETİMİ ÖZEL SAYISI 2013 ORTAÖĞRETİM ÖĞRENCİLERİNİN MİLLİYETÇİLİK VE KAHRAMANLIK ALGILARININ CİNSİYETE VE OKUL TÜRÜNE BAĞLI DEĞİŞİMİNİN SOSYOLOJİK ANALİZİ Hasan SUNGUR * Mehmet YILDIZ ** Öz Tarih dersleri ve ders kitapları toplumun değerlerini etkili ve hızlı bir şekilde şekillendiren ve gelecek kuşaklara aktaran araçlardır. Milliyetçilik ise devlet ideojisinin benimsediği resmi tarihin birincil öğelerinden biridir. Okullar bu bağlamda kahramanlık unsurlarını kullanarak milliyetçilik dahil olmak üzere çeşitli fikirlerin yayılmasına öncülük etmektedir. Bu araştırmanın amacı ortaöğretim öğrencilerinin milliyetçilik ve kahramanlık algılarının cinsiyetleri ve okul türlerine göre nasıl farklılıklar gösterdiğinin incelenmesidir. Bu amaçla araştırma Türkiye genelinde çeşitli liselerde öğrenim gören 628 lise öğrencisine uygulanmıştır. Veriler yapılan literatür araştırması sonucu ortaya çıkartılmış bir anket ile toplanmıştır. Araştırma sonucunda milliyetçi değerlerin erkek öğrencilerde kız öğrencilere oranla, devlet okulu öğrencilerinde ise özel okul öğrencilerine oranla daha egemen olduğu gözlemlenmiştir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Milliyetçilik, Kahramanlık, Cinsiyet, Okul Türü A SOCIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF DEPENDENCY OF HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS’ PERCEPTION OF NATIONALISM AND HEROISM ON GENDER AND SCHOOL TYPE Abstract History lessons and textbooks are the fastest and most efficient tools that shape and transmit social values. Nationalism is one of the major notions * Yrd. Doç. Dr. Tunceli Üniversitesi,Tarih Bölümü, sungur@bilkent.edu.tr ** Yale University, Lisans Öğrencisi mailto:sungur@bilkent.edu.tr Hasan SUNGUR-Mehmet YILDIZ Adıyaman Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, Yıl: 6, Sayı: 14, Sosyal Bilgiler Öğretimi Özel Sayısı, 2013 516 that state includes in the “official history”. Schools are the main instruments of the cultivation of nationalism through the use of heroism. This study is aimed to examine the differences among high school students’ perception of nationalism and heroism, focusing on the differences that have a meaningful correlation with gender and school type. For this purpose a test was executed to 628 students from different high schools in Turkey. Data were collected by a test which was created after researching on the issue. According to the results of the research, it is found that male students and state school students have more nationalist values than female students and private school students. Keywords: Nationalism; Heroism; Gender; School Type 1.GİRİŞ Devlet eğitiminin ulusal bütünlüğü koruyucu ve destekleyici rolü ulus-devletlerin yükselişini modern toplumların oluşumun arkasındaki tarihsel güçlere bağlayan pek çok çalışmada tekrar tekrar vurgulanmıştır (Gellner, 1983; Giddens, 1985; Green, 1990; Smith, 1998). Sosyolojik teori eğitimde vatanseverliğin rolüne sıklıkla atıfta bulunmuştur. Klasik fonksiyonalist teoriler okulların birleştirici bir kültürü korumak ve toplumdaki uyumu güvence altına almak adına vatanseverliği geliştirdiği düşüncesini korumaktadır. (Durkheim, 1956, 1961; Parsons, 1959; Dreeben, 1968; de Marrais& LeCompte, 1994). Çatışma ve direniş perspektifleri ise, diğer bir yandan, tarihin tek bir perspektifle şekillendirilmesinin içinde barındırdığı çelişkilere tekrar tekrar dikkat çekmiştir(Christou, 2007: 710)Eleştirel teorisyenler ise okulların politik mücadele alanları olduğunu, bu alanlarda vatanseverliğin sıklıkla egemen kültürün ideolojisinin etnik azınlıklar ve hak tanınmamış gruplara empoze edilmeye çalışıldığını savunmuştur (Apple, 1979; Giroux, 1987, 1997; McLaren, 1989). Okullarda öğretmenlerin anlatımları ve ders kitapları ile şekillenen dersler öğrencilerin özellikle tarihsel fikirlerinin oluşmasında önemli rol oynamaktadır. Michael H. Romanowski’ye göre “ABD vatandaşlarının pek çoğunun demokratik idealleri büyük oranda öğretilen tarihin versiyonu tarafından şekillendirilmiştir.Ve ABD tarihinin Ortaöğretim Öğrencilerinin Milliyetçilik ve Kahramanlık Algılarının Cinsiyete ve Okul Türüne Bağlı Değişiminin Sosyolojik Analizi Adıyaman Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, Yıl: 6, Sayı: 14, Sosyal Bilgiler Öğretimi Özel Sayısı, 2013 517 sınıflarda okutulan versiyonu büyük oranda ABD tarihi ders kitaplarınca şekillendirilmiştir” (1995: 38). Romanowski gibi, diğer pek çok müfredat analizcisi de kullanılan ders kitaplarının öğrencilerin tarihsel ve sosyal algılarının şekillenmesinde kritik rol oynadığını yazmıştır (Anyon, 1978, 1979; Apple & Christian-Smith, 1991). Loewen’e göre (Porat 2004: 964) ders kitapları sosyal norm ve inançları değiştirme kapasitesine sahiptir. Ders kitaplarında öğrencilere aktarılan bilgi onların üstün bir ulusa ait olduğu fikrini verir. Bu ders kitaplarında uluslar ve insanlar arası eşitlik, ya da farklı kültürlerin etkileşiminden ortaya çıkan bir ulus fikirleri bulunmamaktadır(Millas 1991: 24). Milas Türkiye ve Yunanistan üzerine yaptığı araştırmasında (Milas 1991: 25) her iki devlette de böylesi bir anlayışın “resmi tarih” olarak kabul edildiğini ve pek çok tarih kitabında bulunduğunu yazmıştır. Taraflı ders kitapları tarihsel fikirlerin oluşturulmasında büyük önem taşıyor, zira eğitim tüm ulusun tarih anlayışını etkiliyor (Milas 1991: 31-32). Fakat öğrenmek elbette ders kitaplarıyla sınırlı değildir: öğretmenler ve medya da bu konuda aktif rol oynamaktadır (Milas, 1991: 23) Milas’ın çalışmaları resmi tarihin Türkiye’de milliyetçi idealleri desteklemek için kullanıldığını göstermektedir. Bir millet çoğunlukla ortak bir dile, kültüre, etnisiteye, ataya ya da tarihe sahip olan bir grup insanın oluşturduğu bir topluluktur. Aynı zamanda her ne kadar çoğunlulukla bu ortak özelliklerle beraber kullanılıyor olsa da, millet, ortak bir vatanı ya da devleti paylaşan etnik etkenlerden bağımsız bir birliği de tanımlayabilmektedir. Milliyetçilik ise, Miller’e göre (Miller 1997: 167) birinin kendi ulusuna karşı iltimasıdır ve bu iltimas politik zorlamanın ciddi kullanımlarının desteklenmesiyle yakından ilişkilidir. Bu nedenle milliyetçi duygular devletin koyduğu vergilerin ya da milli bayramların kutlanmasının desteklenmesinden azınlık grupların toplama kamplarına gönderilmesini desteklemeye kadar pek çok eyleme neden olabilir (Miller 1997: 168). Dekker de benzer bir görüşü savunur; ona göre de milliyetçilik bireyin tutumu olarak değerlendirilmelidir (Dekker, Malova ve Hoogendoorn 2003: Hasan SUNGUR-Mehmet YILDIZ Adıyaman Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, Yıl: 6, Sayı: 14, Sosyal Bilgiler Öğretimi Özel Sayısı, 2013 518 346). Bu tutum bireyin belli bir objeye duyduğu çekimin miktarıdır, bu da “bir bireyin objenin iltimas geçilebilirliğine dair genel hisleridir (Ajzen ve Fishbein 1980: 54). Ders kitaplarından ulusal kutlamalardaki ritüel ve seremonilere kadar uzanan geniş bir düzlemde, okullar birleşmiş bir ulusun temel ideallerinin oluşturulması ve korunmasında her zaman önemli rol oynamışlardır (Christou 2007: 709). Eğitim kuruluşlarının önemli bir işlevi bu sivil kararlığı ve farkındalığı yaratan değer yönlendirmesinin ve ahlaki gelişimin gerçekleştirilmesidir (Lutovinov ve Meshkova 2009: 16). Fakat, her ne kadar bireyin ülkesine duyduğu bağlılık doğal ve bir ölçüde adil olsa da, okullarda milliyetçiliğin desteklenmesi eğitim amaçlarına uygunluğu bir tartışma konusudur (Merry 2009: 379). Milliyetçilik konusunda Benedict Anderson, Ernest Gellner, Eric Hobsbawm, Elie Kedourie Anthony Smith, Nev Nikolayeviç Gumilev gibi pek çok yazar teorik çalışmalar yürütmüştür; bu çalışmalarda vatanseverlik, militarizm, şovenizm, etnik aidiyet, dilsel aidiyet, ulusalcılık, faşizm, militancılık, dinselcilik, otoriterlik, ırkçılık, kahramanlık, maneviyat, atalar kültü, sadakat, egemenlik, ortak irade, vatan, romantizm, anti- emperyalizm, asabiyet, hayali cemaatler, tarihsel kimlik, tarih bilinci, kamusallık, kültürellik gibi kavramlar teoriler içinde sıklıkla kullanılmaktadır. Milliyetçilikle çok yakından bağı olan bir başka kavram ise okullarda milliyetçi eğitim için sıklıkla kullanılan unsurlardan biri de olan kahramanlıktır. Kahramanlık, alışıldık ya da alışılmadık özelliklerin alışılmadık derecede görülmesidir. Bir kahraman bu özellikleri, başarılı ya da tanınmış olsun ya da olmasın, hareketlerinde gösteren kişidir. (Howerth 1935: 18) Kahramanlar her zaman onlara tapan bir kitleye sahiptirler. Tapınma ise taklidi ve öykünmeyi beraberinde getirir. İnsanlar kahramanlarına benzemeye çalışır (Howerth, 18). Dolayısıyla kahramana tapınma her zaman sosyal teşvik ve kontrol aracı işlevi görür. Bu nedenle eğitime de dahil edilir (Howerth 1935: 19). Sonuçta, kahraman fikri, hem psikolojik hem de sosyal sebeplerden dolayı, öğretmenlerce ahlaki eğitim Ortaöğretim Öğrencilerinin Milliyetçilik ve Kahramanlık Algılarının Cinsiyete ve Okul Türüne Bağlı Değişiminin Sosyolojik Analizi Adıyaman Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, Yıl: 6, Sayı: 14, Sosyal Bilgiler Öğretimi Özel Sayısı, 2013 519 amacıyla etkili bir şekilde kullanılabilir, eğitimde, özellikle karakter gelişiminde kolaylıkla en güçlü faktörlerden biri haline gelebilir (Howerth 1935: 24). Dolayısıyla açıktır ki okullar devletin “resmi tarihinin” aktarılmasında ve kahramanlar aracılığıyla milliyetçiliğin desteklenmesinde önemli bir işleve sahiptirler. Okullarda aktarılan tarihin fikirsel ve betimsel yapısı binlerce öğrencinin yaşamları boyunca tarihsel bilgiyle etkileşime geçecekleri ana bakış açısını belirlemektedir (Porat 2004: 963). 2. YÖNTEM Araştırma Grubu: Türkiye genelinde farklı illerden (İstanbul, Ankara, İzmir, Diyarabakır, Elazığ, Mersin, Muş, Şırnak) Fen Lisesi, Anadolu Lisesi, Anadolu Meslek Lisesi, İmam Hatip Lisesi ve Özel Lise olmak üzere beş farklı okul türünde toplam 18 okulda öğrenim gören 628 öğrenci araştırma grubunu oluşturmuştur. Veri Toplama Araçları: Bu çalışmada veriler, literatür taramasının sonucunda oluşturulan, sıralama ve işaretleme türlerinde 12 sorudan oluşan bir anket ile toplanmıştır. Verilerin Analizi: Anket sorularına verilen cevaplar ile cinsiyet ve okul türü arasındaki farklar t-testi teknikleriyle çözümlenmiştir. 3.BULGULAR SORU 1: Sizce bir insanı kahraman yapan değerler aşağıdakilerden hangileridir. Aşağıdaki karakter özelliklerini önem sırasına göre 1‘den 9’a kadar numaralandırınız. (1:En önemli; 9:En az önemli)  Cesaret  Zeka Hasan SUNGUR-Mehmet YILDIZ Adıyaman Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, Yıl: 6, Sayı: 14, Sosyal Bilgiler Öğretimi Özel Sayısı, 2013 520  Hoşgörü  Hırs  Vatan Sevgisi  Karizma  Fedakarlık  Güç  İleri Görüşlülük Cinsiyet İlişkisi: Tablo 1 incelendiğinde, insanı kahraman yapan değerlerin karizma alt boyutunda erkekler lehine anlamlı bir fark bulunmuştur. Diğer değerlerde anlamlı bir farka rastlanmamıştır. Tablo 1. Araştırmaya Katılan Bireylerin Cinsiyet Durumu İle İnsanı Kahraman Yapan Değerler Değerlendirilmesi Arasındaki İlişkinin T Testi Sonuçlarının Dağılımı Değerler Kız (N=346) Erkek (N=282) Değişken Ortalama SD Ortalama SD t p Cesaret 2,8035 1,74675 3,0638 1,93014 1,772 ,077 Zeka 3,0434 1,86061 2,9149 1,97489 -,837 ,403 Hoşgörü 5,7139 2,45934 5,8546 2,41661 ,719 ,472 Hırs 5,3006 2,29980 5,2730 2,22887 -,151 ,880 Vatan Sevgisi 4,9451 2,50446 4,7340 2,71221 -1,012 ,312 Karizma 8,2861 1,57946 7,9043 1,72114 -2,894 ,004* Fedakarlik 4,5405 2,19217 4,8688 2,14438 1,885 ,060 Güç 5,0896 2,08252 5,3191 2,28664 1,315 ,189 İleri Görüşlülük 4,9306 2,23304 4,6738 2,06305 -1,483 ,138 *p<0,05 Ortaöğretim Öğrencilerinin Milliyetçilik ve Kahramanlık Algılarının Cinsiyete ve Okul Türüne Bağlı Değişiminin Sosyolojik Analizi Adıyaman Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, Yıl: 6, Sayı: 14, Sosyal Bilgiler Öğretimi Özel Sayısı, 2013 521 Okul Türü İlişkisi: Tablo 2 incelendiğinde, insanı kahraman yapan değerlerin cesaret alt boyutunda devlet okulu öğrencileri lehine, vatan sevgisi ve ileri görüşlülük alt boyutunda ise özel okul öğrencileri lehine anlamlı bir fark bulunmuştur. Diğer değerlerde anlamlı bir farka rastlanmamıştır. Tablo 2. Araştırmaya Katılan Bireylerin Okul Türü Durumu İle İnsanı Kahraman Yapan Değerler Değerlendirmesi Arasındaki İlişkinin T Testi Sonuçlarının Dağılımı Değerler Özel (N=189) Devlet (N=439) Değişken Ortalama SD Ortalama SD t p Cesaret 3,2381 1,92172 2,7836 1,78044 -2,864 ,004* Zeka 2,8889 1,73920 3,0273 1,98261 ,832 ,406 Hoşgörü 5,8466 2,45659 5,7472 2,43403 -,468 ,640 Hırs 5,1746 2,42684 5,3371 2,19490 ,824 ,410 Vatan Sevgisi 5,3810 2,70399 4,6219 2,52261 -3,384 ,001* Karizma 8,0000 1,75342 8,1640 1,60919 1,140 ,255 Fedakarlik 4,5661 2,26023 4,7403 2,13815 ,920 ,358 Güç 4,9577 2,11839 5,2938 2,19749 1,777 ,076 İleri Görüşlülük 4,3757 2,10158 5,0046 2,16024 3,374 ,001* *p<0,05 SORU 2: Aşağıdaki toplumsal değerleri kendi öncelik ve önem sıranıza göre 1‘den 7’ye kadar numaralandırınız. (1-en önemli; 7-en az önemli)  Din  Aile  Millet/Toplum  Kişisel Eşyalar  Devlet  Arkadaşlar  Milli Değerler Hasan SUNGUR-Mehmet YILDIZ Adıyaman Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, Yıl: 6, Sayı: 14, Sosyal Bilgiler Öğretimi Özel Sayısı, 2013 522 Cinsiyet İlişkisi: Tablo 3 incelendiğinde toplumsal değerlerin devlet alt boyutunda erkekler lehine, aile alt boyutunda ise kızlar lehine anlamlı bir fark bulunmuştur. Diğer değerlerde anlamlı bir farka rastlanmamıştır. Tablo 3. Araştırmaya Katılan Bireylerin Cinsiyet Durumu İle Toplumsal Değerler Değerlendirmesi Arasındaki İlişkinin T Testi Sonuçlarının Dağılımı Değerler Kız (N=346) Erkek (N=282) Değişken Ortalama SD Ortalama SD t p Din 3,4942 2,31723 3,5390 2,31048 ,241 ,809 Aile 1,6965 ,97078 1,28627 3,170 ,002* 1,9823 Millet 3,8931 1,49690 4,0496 1,45062 1,322 ,187 KişiselEşyalar 5,4740 1,71630 5,5355 1,73938 ,444 ,657 Devlet 5,1821 1,47984 4,7270 1,68938 - 3,597 ,000* Arkadaşlar 3,8786 1,59428 3,9504 1,71999 ,541 ,588 Milli Değerler 4,0896 1,73140 4,1135 1,77002 ,170 ,865 *p<0,05 Okul Türü İlişkisi: Tablo 4 incelendiğinde, toplumsal değerlerin din ve devlet alt boyutlarında devlet okulu öğrencileri lehine, aile, arkadaş ve kişisel eşyalar alt boyutlarında ise özel okul öğrencileri lehine anlamlı bir fark bulunmuştur. Diğer değerlerde anlamlı bir farka rastlanmamıştır. Ortaöğretim Öğrencilerinin Milliyetçilik ve Kahramanlık Algılarının Cinsiyete ve Okul Türüne Bağlı Değişiminin Sosyolojik Analizi Adıyaman Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, Yıl: 6, Sayı: 14, Sosyal Bilgiler Öğretimi Özel Sayısı, 2013 523 Tablo 4. Araştırmaya Katılan Bireylerin Okul Türü Durumu İle Toplumsal Değerler Değerlendirmesi Arasındaki İlişkinin T Testi Sonuçlarının Dağılımı Değerler Özel (N=189) Devlet (N=439) Değişken Ortalama SD Ortalama SD t p Din 5,1429 1,85819 2,8132 2,12974 -13,050 ,000* Aile 1,4021 ,76297 2,0068 1,21349 6,332 ,000* Millet 3,8201 1,45844 4,0251 1,48257 1,597 ,111 KişiselEşyalar 5,0212 1,83627 5,7084 1,63486 4,653 ,000* Devlet 5,3439 1,37347 4,8200 1,65437 -3,823 ,000* Arkadaşlar 3,2169 1,51956 4,2096 1,61664 7,184 ,000* Milli Değerler 3,8942 1,71645 4,1891 1,75517 1,944 ,052 *p<0,05 SORU 4: Aşağıdakilerden hangisi sizi duygusal olarak daha çok etkiler? Etki gücüne göre 1‘den 7’ye kadar numaralandırınız. (1-en önemli; 7-en az önemli ) • Askeri geçit ve törenler • Savaş sahneleri • Bir çocuğun ağlaması • Birinin ölümü • İstiklal Marşı • Aileden uzaklık • Türk Bayrağı Hasan SUNGUR-Mehmet YILDIZ Adıyaman Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, Yıl: 6, Sayı: 14, Sosyal Bilgiler Öğretimi Özel Sayısı, 2013 524 Cinsiyet İlişkisi: Tablo 5 incelendiğinde duygusal olarak etkileyen durumların İstiklal Marşı ve Türk Bayrağı’nın dalgalanması alt boyutlarında erkekler lehine, birinin ölümüve aileden uzak kalmak alt boyutlarında ise kızlar lehine anlamlı bir fark bulunmuştur. Diğer değerlerde anlamlı bir farka rastlanmamıştır. Tablo 5. Araştırmaya Katılan Bireylerin Cinsiyet Durumu İle Duygusal Olarak Etkileyen Durumlar Arasındaki İlişkinin T Testi Sonuçlarının Dağılımı Durumlar Kız (N=346) Erkek (N=282) Değişken Ortalama SD Ortalama SD t p Askeri Geçit 4,8468 1,75192 4,8475 1,77812 ,005 ,996 Savaş Sahneleri 3,9855 1,76679 1,28627 3,170 ,002* 1,9823 Bir Çocuğun Ağlaması 4,5087 1,99017 4,6383 1,94507 ,820 ,412 BirininÖlümü 2,4075 1,70892 2,9433 1,97592 3,642 ,000* İstiklal Marşı 4,3468 1,72314 3,9610 1,77625 - 2,753 ,006* Aileden Uzaklık 2,8092 1,91365 3,3440 2,05584 3,368 ,001* Türk Bayrağı 4,6936 1,79817 3,8404 1,96030 - 5,679 ,000* *p<0,05 Okul Türü İlişkisi: Tablo 6 incelendiğinde, duygusal olarak etkileyen durumların bir çocuğun ağlaması ve birinin ölümü alt boyutlarında özel okulu öğrencileri lehine anlamlı bir fark bulunmuştur. Diğer değerlerde anlamlı bir farka rastlanmamıştır. Ortaöğretim Öğrencilerinin Milliyetçilik ve Kahramanlık Algılarının Cinsiyete ve Okul Türüne Bağlı Değişiminin Sosyolojik Analizi Adıyaman Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, Yıl: 6, Sayı: 14, Sosyal Bilgiler Öğretimi Özel Sayısı, 2013 525 Tablo 6. Araştırmaya Katılan Bireylerin Okul Türü Durumu İle Duygusal Olarak Etkileyen Durumlar Değerlendirmesi Arasındaki İlişkinin T Testi Sonuçlarının Dağılımı Durumlar Özel (N=189) Devlet (N=439) Değişken Ortalama SD Ortalama SD t p Askeri Geçit 4,8155 1,79042 4,8155 1,79042 -,685 ,493 Savaş Sahneleri 4,1640 1,85070 4,0706 1,83498 -,584 ,560 Bir Çocuğun Ağlaması 4,2857 2,04805 4,6879 1,92452 2,356 ,019* BirininÖlümü 2,3333 1,76551 2,7836 1,87293 2,811 ,005* İstiklal Marşı 4,3069 1,76581 4,1162 1,75111 -1,249 ,212 Aileden Uzaklık 3,1905 1,96125 2,9886 2,00851 -1,163 ,245 Türk Bayrağı 4,4815 1,79714 4,2369 1,96625 -1,466 ,143 *p<0,05 SORU 8: Sizce aşağıdaki kişilerden hangileri kahraman olarak nitelenebilir? Kahraman olarak nitelediğiniz karakterlerin yanındaki kutucuğa çarpı(X) işareti koyunuz. • İsmet İnönü • Mimar Sinan • Çerkez Ethem • Thomas Edison • Fatih Sultan Mehmet • Sabiha Gökçen • Malcolm X • V. I. Lenin • Pablo Picasso Hasan SUNGUR-Mehmet YILDIZ Adıyaman Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, Yıl: 6, Sayı: 14, Sosyal Bilgiler Öğretimi Özel Sayısı, 2013 526 • II. Abdülhamit • Adnan Menderes • Yaşar Kemal • Adolf Hitler • Süperman • Atatürk • Kanuni Sultan Süleyman • Mevlana Celaleddin Rumi • Napoleon Bonaparte • Albert Einstein • Orhan Pamuk • Martin Luther King Jr. • Josef Stalin • Şeyh Bedrettin • Hz. Muhammed • Hiçbiri Cinsiyet İlişkisi: Tablo 7 incelendiğinde kahraman olarak nitelendirilen karakterlerin Çerkez Ethem, Malcolm, Lenin, II. Abdulhamit, Adolf Hitler, Napoleon, Martin Luther ve Lşeyh Bedrettin alt boyutlarında erkekler lehine anlamlı bir fark bulunmuştur. Diğer değerlerde anlamlı bir farka rastlanmamıştır. Ortaöğretim Öğrencilerinin Milliyetçilik ve Kahramanlık Algılarının Cinsiyete ve Okul Türüne Bağlı Değişiminin Sosyolojik Analizi Adıyaman Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, Yıl: 6, Sayı: 14, Sosyal Bilgiler Öğretimi Özel Sayısı, 2013 527 Tablo 7. Araştırmaya Katılan Bireylerin Cinsiyet Durumu İle Kahraman Olarak Nitelendirilen Karakterler Arasındaki İlişkinin T Testi Sonuçlarının Dağılımı Karakterler Kız (N=346) Erkek (N=282) Değişken Ortalama SD Ortalama SD t p İsmet İnönü ,3779 ,48557 ,4291 ,49582 1,299 ,194 Mimar Sinan ,3517 ,47821 ,3440 ,47588 -,203 ,839 Çerkez Ethem ,0901 ,28677 ,1844 ,38850 3,489 ,001* Thomas Edison ,2674 ,44327 ,2199 ,41489 -1,375 ,170 Fatih Sultan Mehmet ,7471 ,43531 ,8014 ,39964 1,612 ,108 Sabiha Gökçen ,2616 ,44016 ,1986 ,39964 -1,858 ,064 Malcolm ,0673 ,25082 ,1277 ,33430 2,576 ,010* Lenin ,0610 ,23976 ,1099 ,31336 2,210 ,027* Pablo Picasso ,1105 ,31393 ,0961 ,29523 -,585 ,559 II. Abdulhamit ,1108 ,31433 ,2376 ,42636 4,274 ,000* Adnan Menderes ,1948 ,39660 ,2420 ,42905 1,427 ,154 Yaşar Kemal ,1192 ,32448 ,0922 ,28982 -1,086 ,278 Adolf Hitler ,1137 ,31791 ,2163 ,41246 3,511 ,000* Süperman ,2267 ,41934 ,2376 ,42636 ,320 ,749 Atatürk ,8663 ,34085 ,8333 ,37334 -1,153 ,250 Kanuni Sultan Süleyman ,5510 ,49812 ,6277 ,48429 1,938 ,053 Mevlana ,3023 ,45993 ,3191 ,46698 ,452 ,651 Napoleon ,0904 ,28714 ,1702 ,37649 3,006 ,003* Albert Einstein ,3169 ,46593 ,3121 ,46416 -,129 ,898 OrhanPamuk ,0875 ,28293 ,1312 ,33823 1,761 ,079 Martin Luther ,1628 ,36971 ,2695 ,44449 3,279 ,001* Josef Stalin ,0436 ,20451 ,0745 ,26300 1,651 ,099 ŞeyhBedrettin ,0349 ,18375 ,1277 ,33430 4,400 ,000* Hz. Muhammed ,6773 ,46818 ,7234 ,44811 1,249 ,212 Hiçbiri ,0000 ,00000 ,0142 ,11846 2,221 ,027* *p<0,05 Okul Türü İlişkisi: Tablo 8 incelendiğinde kahraman olarak nitelendirilen karakterlerin Mimar Sinan, Çerkez Ethem, Fatih Sultan Mehmet, Adnan Menderes, Kanuni Sultan Hasan SUNGUR-Mehmet YILDIZ Adıyaman Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, Yıl: 6, Sayı: 14, Sosyal Bilgiler Öğretimi Özel Sayısı, 2013 528 Süleyman, Mevlana, Orhan Pamuk, Şeyh Bedrettin, Hz. Muhammedalt boyutlarında devlet okulu öğrencileri lehine, Malcolm, Lenin, Atatürk, Napoleon, Albert Einstein, Martin Luther, Josef Stalin alt boyutlarında ise özel okul öğrencileri lehine anlamlı bir fark bulunmuştur. Diğer değerlerde anlamlı bir farka rastlanmamıştır. Tablo 8. Araştırmaya Katılan Bireylerin Okul Türü Durumu İle Kahraman Olarak Nitelendirilen Karakterler Arasındaki İlişkinin T Testi Sonuçlarının Dağılımı Karakterler Özel (N=189) Devlet (N=437) Değişken Ortalama SD Ortalama SD t p İsmet İnönü ,3810 ,48691 ,4096 ,49233 ,671 ,503 Mimar Sinan ,2328 ,42374 ,3982 ,49008 4,032 ,000* Çerkez Ethem 189 ,0741 ,26259 ,36506 2,853 ,004* Thomas Edison ,2804 ,45040 ,2311 ,42203 -1,315 ,189 Fatih Sultan Mehmet ,6720 ,47075 ,8146 ,38903 3,946 ,000* Sabiha Gökçen ,2593 ,43939 ,2220 ,41605 -1,012 ,312 Malcolm ,1481 ,35619 ,0713 ,25756 -3,034 ,003* Lenin ,1534 ,36137 ,0526 ,22355 -4,249 ,000* Pablo Picasso ,1011 ,30222 ,1053 ,30724 ,157 ,875 II. Abdulhamit ,0265 ,16091 ,2294 ,42090 6,425 ,000* Adnan Menderes ,0904 ,28756 ,2700 ,44448 5,099 ,000* Yaşar Kemal ,0794 ,27103 ,1190 ,32415 1,473 ,141 Adolf Hitler ,2606 ,44016 ,1167 ,32144 -4,569 ,000* Süperman ,2646 ,44227 ,2174 ,41294 -1,284 ,200 Atatürk ,9048 ,29432 ,8284 ,37749 -2,475 ,014* Kanuni Sultan Süleyman ,4127 ,49363 ,6606 ,47407 5,928 ,000* Mevlana ,1799 ,38512 ,3661 ,48230 4,699 ,000* Ortaöğretim Öğrencilerinin Milliyetçilik ve Kahramanlık Algılarının Cinsiyete ve Okul Türüne Bağlı Değişiminin Sosyolojik Analizi Adıyaman Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, Yıl: 6, Sayı: 14, Sosyal Bilgiler Öğretimi Özel Sayısı, 2013 529 Napoleon ,2169 ,41325 ,0872 ,28239 -4,551 ,000* Albert Einstein ,3915 ,48939 ,2815 ,45023 -2,734 ,006* OrhanPamuk ,0688 ,25376 ,1239 ,32979 2,048 ,041* Martin Luther ,4392 ,49760 ,1121 ,31589 -9,888 ,000* Josef Stalin ,0952 ,29432 ,0412 ,19896 -2,678 ,008* ŞeyhBedrettin ,0265 ,16091 ,0984 ,29819 3,125 ,002* Hz. Muhammed ,4550 ,49930 ,8032 ,39803 9,278 ,000* Hiçbiri ,0106 ,10259 ,0046 ,06757 -,865 ,387 *p<0,05 SORU 9: Aşağıdaki olaylardan hangisi/hangileri tepki göstermenize yol açar? Aşağıdaki seçenekleri 1‘den 5’e kadar numaralandırınız. (1-en çok tepki; 5-en az tepki) • Türk Bayrağı’nınYakılması • Şehit Haberleri Almak • Okuldan atılmak • Bir arkadaşınızın haksızlığa uğraması • Ailenizden birinin zarar görmesine tanık olmak Cinsiyet İlişkisi: Tablo 9 incelendiğinde öğrencilerin tepki gösterdiği olayların okuldan atılma ve aileden birinin zarar görmesi alt boyutlarında kızlar lehine anlamlı bir fark bulunmuştur. Diğer değerlerde anlamlı bir farka rastlanmamıştır. Hasan SUNGUR-Mehmet YILDIZ Adıyaman Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, Yıl: 6, Sayı: 14, Sosyal Bilgiler Öğretimi Özel Sayısı, 2013 530 Tablo 9. Araştırmaya Katılan Bireylerin Cinsiyet Durumu İle Tepki Gösterilen Olaylar Arasındaki İlişkinin T Testi Sonuçlarının Dağılımı Olaylar Kız (N=346) Erkek (N=282) Değişken Ortalama SD Ortala ma SD t p Türk Bayrağı’nın Yakılması 2,1982 1,30477 2,0328 1,3863 6 - 1,51 6 ,130 Şehit Haberleri Almak 3,0206 1,16514 2,8650 ,97215 - 1,76 9 ,077 Okuldan Atılmak 3,8525 1,16992 4,0474 1,0866 9 2,11 7 ,035 * BirArkadaşınızınHaksızlığaUğr aması 4,0030 1,08537 3,8942 1,0825 5 - 1,23 5 ,217 Ailenizden Birinin Zarar Görmesi 1,8024 ,95731 2,1058 1,0859 3 3,67 4 ,000 * *p<0,05 Okul Türü İlişkisi: Tablo 10 incelendiğinde, öğrencilerin tepki gösterdiği olayların Türk Bayrağı’nın yakılması ve şehit haberleri almak alt boyutlarında devlet okulu öğrencileri lehine, bir arkadaşının haksızlığa uğraması ve aileden birinin zarar görmesi alt boyutlarında ise özel okul öğrencileri lehine anlamlı bir fark bulunmuştur. Diğer değerlerde anlamlı bir farka rastlanmamıştır. Ortaöğretim Öğrencilerinin Milliyetçilik ve Kahramanlık Algılarının Cinsiyete ve Okul Türüne Bağlı Değişiminin Sosyolojik Analizi Adıyaman Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, Yıl: 6, Sayı: 14, Sosyal Bilgiler Öğretimi Özel Sayısı, 2013 531 Tablo 10. Araştırmaya Katılan Bireylerin Okul Türü Durumu İle Tepki Gösterilen Olaylar Arasındaki İlişkinin T Testi Sonuçlarının Dağılımı Olaylar Özel (N=189) Devlet (N=439) Değişken Ortalama SD Ortalama SD t p Türk Bayrağı’nın Yakılması 2,5215 1,37234 1,9507 1,29430 -4,926 ,000* Şehit Haberleri Almak 3,3495 1,04049 2,7775 1,05913 -6,179 ,000* Okuldan Atılmak 3,3495 1,04049 1,21652 1,09735 1,763 ,078 BirArkadaşınızınHaksızlığaUğraması 3,7581 1,11528 4,0399 1,06088 2,976 ,003* Ailenizden Birinin Zarar Görmesi 1,5054 ,78670 2,1265 1,06278 7,160 ,000* *p<0,05 SORU 12: Çevrenizde saygı duyduğunuz kişilerin belirgin kişilik özellikleri arasında aşağıdakilerden hangisi/hangileri mevcuttur? 1‘den 7’ye kadar numaralandırınız. (1-en belirgin; 7-en az belirgin) • Bayrağına ve Ülkesine Bağlılık • Etrafındakilere Hoşgörü • Mantıkla Hareket Etme • Milletini Sevme • Yaptığı İşte Başarılı Olma • Ülkesi İçin Çalışma • İnsanları Sevme ve Sayma Cinsiyet İlişkisi:Tablo 11 incelendiğinde saygı duyulan kişilerin belirgin kişilik özelliklerinin ülkesi için çalışma alt boyutunda erkekler lehine, etrafındakiler hoşgörü, Hasan SUNGUR-Mehmet YILDIZ Adıyaman Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, Yıl: 6, Sayı: 14, Sosyal Bilgiler Öğretimi Özel Sayısı, 2013 532 mantıkla hareket etme ve insanları sevme sayma alt boyutlarında ise kızlar lehine anlamlı bir fark bulunmuştur. Diğer değerlerde anlamlı bir farka rastlanmamıştır. Tablo 11. Araştırmaya Katılan Bireylerin Cinsiyet Durumu İle Saygı Duyulan Kişilerin Belirgin Kişilik Özellikleri Arasındaki İlişkinin T Testi Sonuçlarının Dağılımı Kişilik Özellikleri Kız (N=346) Erkek (N=282) Değişken Ortalama SD Ortalama SD T p Bayrağına Ülkesine Bağlılık 3,7830 2,20823 3,4286 2,36505 - 1,927 ,054 Etrafındakilere Hoşgörü 3,6129 1,78960 3,9357 1,91658 2,166 ,031* Mantıkla Hareket Etme 3,4135 1,89636 3,7563 2,00846 2,180 ,030* Milletlerini Sevme 4,1799 1,60438 4,0358 1,73375 - 1,071 ,284 YaptığıİşteBaşarılıOlma 4,5425 1,91175 4,5000 1,91392 -,276 ,783 Ülkesi için Çalışma 5,1877 1,75398 4,6643 1,76834 - 3,687 ,000* İnsanları Sevme, Sayma 2,9589 2,01131 3,6786 2,00096 4,447 ,000* *p<0,05 Okul Türü İlişkisi: Tablo 12 incelendiğinde, saygı duyulan kişilerin belirgin kişilik özelliklerinin bayrağına ve ülkesine bağlılık, milletini sevmek ve ülkesi için çalışmak alt boyutlarında devlet okulu öğrencileri lehine, etrafındakilere hoşgörü gösterme, mantıkla hareket etme, yaptığı işte başarılı olma ve insanları sevme sayma alt boyutlarında ise özel okul öğrencileri lehine anlamlı bir fark bulunmuştur. Ortaöğretim Öğrencilerinin Milliyetçilik ve Kahramanlık Algılarının Cinsiyete ve Okul Türüne Bağlı Değişiminin Sosyolojik Analizi Adıyaman Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, Yıl: 6, Sayı: 14, Sosyal Bilgiler Öğretimi Özel Sayısı, 2013 533 Tablo 12. Araştırmaya Katılan Bireylerin Okul Türü Durumu İle Saygı Duyulan Kişilerin Belirgin Kişilik Özellikleri Durumu Arasındaki İlişkinin T Testi Sonuçlarının Dağılımı Kişilik Özellikleri Özel (N=189) Devlet (N=439) Değişken Ortalama SD Ortalama SD t p Bayrağına Ülkesine Bağlılık 4,2353 2,12467 3,3594 2,30369 - 4,447 ,000* Etrafındakilere Hoşgörü 3,4866 1,70502 3,8756 1,90373 2,408 ,016* Mantıkla Hareket Etme 2,9840 1,84763 3,8199 1,94600 4,983 ,000* Milletlerini Sevme 4,3262 1,69297 4,0232 1,64513 - 2,085 ,037* YaptığıİşteBaşarılıOlma 4,2834 1,88654 4,6267 1,91477 2,059 ,040* Ülkesi için Çalışma 5,4439 1,63326 4,7396 1,79785 - 4,600 ,000* İnsanları Sevme, Sayma 3,0000 1,94549 3,4055 2,06512 2,284 ,023* *p<0,05 TARTIŞMA VE SONUÇ Birinci soru örneklemin insanı kahraman yapan özelliklere bakış açısını analiz etmeye yönelik sorulmuş bir sorudur. Cevaplar doğrultusunda karizmanın erkek öğrenciler için kız öğrenciler için olduğundan daha önemli bir kahramanlık özelliği olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Bu durumda karizmanın toplumsal hayatta çoğunlukla erkeklerle ilişkili olarak kullanılıyor olmasının etkisi olmuş olabilir. Araştırma sonucunda cesaretin devlet okulu öğrencileri için özel okul öğrencileri için olduğundan daha önemli bir kahramanlık özelliği olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Vatan sevgisi ve ileri görüşlülük özellikleri ise özel okul öğrencileri için devlet okulu öğrencileri için olduğundan daha önemli bir kahramanlık özelliği olmuştur. Bütün örneklemin içerisinde en önemli kahramanlık özelliklerinin zeka ve cesaret olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Bu iki özelliğin kahramanlık algısının temellerini oluşturduğu savunulabilir. İkinci soru örneklemin toplumsal değerlere bakış açısını analiz etmeye yönelik sorulmuş bir sorudur. Cevaplar doğrultusunda devlet kavramının erkekler için kızlar için olduğundan daha önemli bir toplumsal değer olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Aile kavramı ise Hasan SUNGUR-Mehmet YILDIZ Adıyaman Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, Yıl: 6, Sayı: 14, Sosyal Bilgiler Öğretimi Özel Sayısı, 2013 534 kız öğrenciler için erkek öğrenciler için olduğundan daha önemli bir toplumsal değer olmuştur. Bu durumda erkek ve kadın için toplumsal olarak biçilmiş rollerin önemi olduğu söylenebilir. Türkiye’de kadının sosyo-ekonomik olarak aileye bağımlı görülüyor olmasının kız öğrencilerin tercihinde bir etkisi olabilir. Erkek öğrencilerin bu noktada aileden daha geniş ve güçlü bir yapı olan devlete önem veriyor olması, erkeğin hem sosyo-ekonomik hem de politik olarak aileye daha az bağımlı olmasından kaynaklanıyor olabilir. Araştırma sonucunda din ve devlet kavramlarının devlet okulu öğrencileri için özel okul öğrencileri için olduğundan daha önemli toplumsal değerler olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Aile, Arkadaş ve Kişisel Eşyalar kavramları ise özel okul öğrencileri için devlet okulu öğrencileri için olduğundan daha önemli toplumsal değerler olmuştur. Görülen net ayrım devlet okulunda okuyan öğrencilerin din ve devlet gibi toplumsal unsurlara görece daha çok önem verdiğini gösterirken özel okulda okuyan öğrencilerin aile, arkadaş ya da kişisel eşyalar gibi bireysel unsurlara görece daha fazla önem verdiğini ortaya koymaktadır. Toplumsal ve bireysel değerler arasında görülen bu dağılımın devlet okulu-özel okul ayrımından kaynaklandığını, ya da bu ayrımla ilişkili olduğu söylenebilir. Devlet okullarında milliyetçiliğin önemli elementleri olan din ve devlet unsurlarının görece daha önemli görülmesi not edilmesi gereken önemli bir bulgudur. Bütün örneklemin içerisinde en önemli toplumsal değerlerin aile ve din olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Dördüncü soru örneklemin duygusal olarak etkileyici durumlara bakış açısını analiz etmeye yönelik sorulmuş bir sorudur. Cevaplar doğrultusunda İstiklal Marşı’nın ve Türk Bayrağı’nın erkekler için kızlar için olduğundan daha etkileyici olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Birinin ölümü ve aileden uzak kalmak ise kız öğrenciler için erkek öğrenciler için olduğundan daha etkileyici olmuştur. Erkek öğrencilerin milli marş ve milli bayrak gibi milliyetçi etmenlerden daha çok etkileniyor olması milliyetçi düşüncelerin erkek öğrencilerde daha net görüldüğünü göstermektedir. Kız öğrencilerin bireysel Ortaöğretim Öğrencilerinin Milliyetçilik ve Kahramanlık Algılarının Cinsiyete ve Okul Türüne Bağlı Değişiminin Sosyolojik Analizi Adıyaman Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, Yıl: 6, Sayı: 14, Sosyal Bilgiler Öğretimi Özel Sayısı, 2013 535 meselelerden erkek öğrencilere oranla daha çok etkileniyor olması da bu düşünceyi desteklemektedir.Araştırma sonucunda bir çocuğun ağlamasının ve birinin ölümünün özel okul öğrencileri için devlet okulu öğrencileri için olduğundan daha etkileyici olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Bireysel olarak algılanabilecek bu durumların özel okul öğrencileri için görece daha etkili olması daha önceki bulguları destekler niteliktedir.Bütün örneklemin içerisinde en etkileyici durumun birinin ölümü olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Sekizinci soru örneklemin kimleri kahraman olarak gördüğünü analiz etmek için sorulmuş bir sorudur. Cevaplar doğrultusunda Çerkez Ethem, Malcolm, Lenin, II. Abdulhamit, Adolf Hitler, Napoleon, Martin Luther ve Şeyh Bedrettin kimliklerinin daha çok erkek öğrencilerce kahraman olarak nitelendirildiği tespit edilmiştir.Araştırma sonucunda Mimar Sinan, Çerkez Ethem, Fatih Sultan Mehmet, Adnan Menderes, Kanuni Sultan Süleyman, Mevlana, Orhan Pamuk, Şeyh Bedrettin, Hz. Muhammed kimliklerinin daha çok devlet okulu öğrencilerince kahraman olarak nitelendirildiği tespit edilmiştir. Malcolm, Lenin, Atatürk, Napoleon, Albert Einstein, Martin Luther, Josef Stalin kimlikleri ise daha çok özel okul öğrencilerince kahraman olarak nitelendirilmiştir. Bulgu analiz edildiğinde devlet okulu öğrencilerinin ulusal ya da dinsel kimlikleri görece daha çok kahramanlaştırdığı görülmüştür. Özel okul öğrencileri ise Malcolm, Lenin, Albert Einstein gibi daha uluslararası figürleri görece daha çok kahramanlaştırmışlardır. Aradaki ulusal-uluslararası ayrımı devlet okullarında dinselcilikten de beslenen milliyetçiliğin daha yaygın olduğunu göstermektedir. Atatürk, Fatih Sultan Mehmet, Hz. Muhammed, Kanuni Sultan Süleyman kimliklerinin bütün örneklemin içerisinde kahraman olarak en çok nitelendirilen kimlikler olmuşlardır. Dokuzuncu soru örneklemin tepki gösterdiği olayları analiz etmek için sorulmuş bir sorudur. Cevaplar doğrultusunda kız öğrencilerin okuldan atılma ve aileden birinin zarar görmesi durumlarına erkek öğrencilerden daha tepkili olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Bu kız öğrencilerin erkek öğrencilere oranla bireysel durumlardan daha çok etkilendiğini Hasan SUNGUR-Mehmet YILDIZ Adıyaman Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, Yıl: 6, Sayı: 14, Sosyal Bilgiler Öğretimi Özel Sayısı, 2013 536 destekler nitelikte bir bulgudur. Araştırma sonucunda devlet okulu öğrencilerinin Türk Bayrağı’nın yakılması ve şehit haberleri durumlarına özel okul öğrencilerinden daha tepkili olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Özel okul öğrencileri ise bir arkadaşının haksızlığa uğraması ve aileden birinin zarar görmesi durumlarına devlet okulu öğrencilerinden daha tepkilidir. Toplumsal ve bireysel değerler arasında görülen bu dağılımın devlet okulu-özel okul ayrımından kaynaklandığını, ya da bu ayrımla ilişkili olduğu söylenebilir. Devlet okulları öğrencilerinin milliyetçi düşüncenin tepkiyle karşılayacağı Türk Bayrağı’nın yakılması ve şehit haberleri gibi durumlarına özel okul öğrencilerine oranla daha fazla tepki veriyor olması milliyetçiliğin devlet okulu öğrencileri arasında daha egemen olduğunu göstermektedir. Bütün örneklem içerisinde en çok tepki gösterilen durumların aileden birinin zarar görmesi ve Türk Bayrağı’nın yakılması olduğu tespit edilmiştir. On ikinci soru örneklemin saygı duyduğu kişilerin belirgin kişilik özelliklerinin belirlenmesi için sorulmuş bir sorudur. Cevaplar doğrultusunda ülkesi için çalışmanın erkek öğrenciler için kız öğrenciler için olduğundan daha önemli olduğu görülmüştür. Etrafındakilere hoşgörü ile yaklaşma, mantıkla hareket etme, insanları sevme ve sayma özellikleri ise kızlar için erkekler için olduğundan daha önemli olmuştur .Araştırma sonucunda bayrağına ve ülkesine bağlılık, milletini sevme ve ülkesi için çalışma özelliklerinin devlet okulu öğrencileri için özel okul öğrencileri için olduğundan daha önemli olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Etrafındakilere hoşgörü gösterme, mantıkla hareket etme, yaptığı işte başarılı olma ve insanları sevip sayma özellikleri ise özel okul öğrencileri için devlet okulu öğrencileri için olduğundan daha önemli olmuştur. Doğrudan toplumsal faydaya ve milleti için çalışmaya dayanan özelliklerin devlet okulu öğrencilerince görece daha çok tercih edilmiş olması milliyetçiliğin devlet okulu öğrencilerinde daha yaygın olduğunu göstermektedir. Bireysel faydalara yönelik özelliklerin özel okul öğrencilerince görece daha yaygın bir şekilde tercih ediliyor olması da bu durumu desteklemektedir. Bütün örneklem içinde insanları sevme sayma, Ortaöğretim Öğrencilerinin Milliyetçilik ve Kahramanlık Algılarının Cinsiyete ve Okul Türüne Bağlı Değişiminin Sosyolojik Analizi Adıyaman Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, Yıl: 6, Sayı: 14, Sosyal Bilgiler Öğretimi Özel Sayısı, 2013 537 mantıkla hareket etme, etrafındakilere hoşgörü gösterme ve bayrağına ülkesine bağlılık özellikleri en çok öneme sahip olan özellikler olmuşlardır. Sonuç olarak araştırma milliyetçi değerlerin erkek öğrencilerde kız öğrencilere oranla, devlet okulu öğrencilerinde de özel okul öğrencilerine oranla daha egemen olduğunu göstermektedir. KAYNAKÇA Apple, M. (1979). Ideology and Curriculum. London: Routledge. Ajzen, I., ve M. Fishbein (1980). Understanding Attitudes and Predicting Social Behavior. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Anderson, Benedict (1995). Hayali Cemaatler. İstanbul: Metis Yayınları. Anyon, J (1959). “Ideology and United States History Textbooks.” Harvard Educational Review, 49(3): 361-386. Anyon, J (1978) “Elementary Social Studies Textbooks and Legitimating Knowledge.”Theory and Research in Social Education: 40-55. Apple, M. W., ve L.K. Christian-Smith (1991). “The Politics of the Textbook.”The Politics of the Textbook içinde, (Der.) M.W. Apple ve L.K. Christian-Smith, 1-21. New York: Routledge. Christou, M. (2007). “The Language of Patriotism: Sacred History and Dangerous Memories.” British Journal of Sociology of Education, Kasım: 709-722. Dekker, H., Darina M., ve Sander H. (2003). “Nationalism and Its Explanations.” Political psychology, Haziran: 345-376. Dreeben, R. (1968). On What is Learned in School. Boston: Addison-Wesley,. Durkheim, E. (1956). Education and Sociology. Glencoe: Free Press. Durkheim, E. (1961). Moral Education. Glencoe: Free Press. Gellner, E. (1983). Nations and Nationalism. Oxford: Blackwell. Hasan SUNGUR-Mehmet YILDIZ Adıyaman Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, Yıl: 6, Sayı: 14, Sosyal Bilgiler Öğretimi Özel Sayısı, 2013 538 Giddens, A. (1985). A Contemporary Critique of Historical Materialism. Vol. 2 The Nation State and Violence. Cambridge: Polity Press. Giroux, H. A. (1987). “Citizenship, Public Philosophy, and the Retreat from Democracy in the United States.” In the Nation's Image: Civic Education in Japan, the Soviet Union, the United States, France and Britain Atlanta, Georgia State University, Centre for Crosscultural Education. Green, A. (1990). Education and State Formation: The Rise of Education Systems in England, France and the USA. London: MacMillan. Hobsbawm, E.J. (2006). Milletler ve Milliyetçilik. İstanbul: Ayrıntı Yayınları. Hobsbawm, E.J (2008). Kısa 20. Yüzyıl - 1914-1991 Aşırılıklar Çağı. İstanbul: Everest Yayınları. Howerth, I. W (1935). “Heroism as a Factor in Education.” The Phi Delta Kappan, Eylül: 18-24. Kegler, S. B., ve John S. S. (1960). “Images of Hero -- Two Teaching Units.” The English Journal, Eylül: 409-417. Ledoux, M. W. ve Thomas M. (2010). “Can We Teach Patriotism in Schools?” Educational Horizons, Bahar: 146-150. Lutovinov, V.I., ve Meshkova, S.I. (2009). “Problems of the Teaching of Patriotism.” Russian Education and Society, Eylül: 15-21. Marrais, K. de, ve M. LeCompte (1994). The Way Schools Work. London: Longman. McLaren, P. (1989). Life in Schools: an Introduction to Critical Pedagogy in the Foundations of Education. New York: Longman. Merry, M. S. (2009). “Patritoism, History and the Legitimate Aims of American Education.” Educational Philosophy and Theory, Ağustos. Millas, H. (1991). “History Textbooks in Greece and Turkey.” History Workshop, Bahar: 21-33. Miller, R. W. (1997). “Killing for Homeland: Patriotism, Nationalism and Violence.” The Journal of Ethics, Güz: 165-185. Ortaöğretim Öğrencilerinin Milliyetçilik ve Kahramanlık Algılarının Cinsiyete ve Okul Türüne Bağlı Değişiminin Sosyolojik Analizi Adıyaman Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, Yıl: 6, Sayı: 14, Sosyal Bilgiler Öğretimi Özel Sayısı, 2013 539 Porat, Dan A (2004). “It's Not Written Here, but This is What Happened: Student's Cultural Comprehension of Textbook Narratives on the Israeli-Arab Conflict.” American Educational Research Journal, Vol. 41, No:4: 963-996. Romanowski, M. H. (1995 ). “In Textbooks We Trust.” Executive-Educator, 17(5): 38-41. Smirnov, O., Holy A., Douglas K., ve Orbell J. (2007). “Ancestral War and the Evolutionary Origins of "Heroism".” The Journal of Politics: 927-940. Stern, P. C. (1995). “Why Do People Sacrifice for Their Nations?” Political Psychology, Haziran: 217-235. Hasan SUNGUR-Mehmet YILDIZ Adıyaman Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, Yıl: 6, Sayı: 14, Sosyal Bilgiler Öğretimi Özel Sayısı, 2013 540 EXTENDED ABSTRACT The role of public education in preserving and promoting national unity has been high- lighted repeatedly in studies that connect the rise of the nation-state to the historical forces behind the formation of modern societies (Gellner, 1983; Giddens, 1985; Green, 1990; Smith, 1998). Sociological theory has often addressed the role of patriotism in education. Classic functionalist theories maintain that schools cultivate patriotism in order to preserve a cohesive culture and safeguard harmony in society (Durkheim, 1956, 1961; Parsons, 1959; Dreeben, 1968; de Marrais&LeCompte, 1994). Conflict and resistance perspectives, on the other hand, have repeatedly pointed out the inherent contradictions in the process of molding a single perspective on history(Christou, 2007: 710). Critical theorists argue that far from securing a homogeneous viewpoint, schools are spaces of political struggle where patriotism is oftentimes the imposition of the dominant culture's ideology on ethnic minorities and disenfranchised groups (Apple, 1979; Giroux, 1987, 1997; McLaren, 1989). Michael H. Romanowski, for one, wrote that "to a great degree, the democratic ideals of the mass of U.S. citizens are shaped by the version of history taught. ... And in turn, the classroom version of U.S. history ... is shaped largely by the U.S. history textbook" (1995: 38). Many curriculum analysts view textbooks as playing a critical role in shaping students' historical and social perceptions (Anyon, 1978, 1979; Apple & Christian-Smith, 1991). Loewen implies, have the capacity to alter social norms and beliefs; however, they fail to do so. (Porat 2004: 964) The basic belief which is impressed upon students is that they belong to a superior nation. Such notions as equality among nations and peoples, or that civilization can derive from the interaction of different cultures, are not to be found in these textbooks. (Milas 1991: 24) Such understandings are accepted respectively in Greek and Turkey as the 'official view of history', and can be found in many history books (Milas 1991: 25) Biased textbooks are only one of the ways in which opinion is formed, but one of the most important, since textbooks are central to the 'education' of the whole nation (Milas 1991: 31-32). Learning is of course not only a question of textbooks: teachers, the mass media, sermons and so on all play their part as well (Milas 1991: 23). One of the major notions that is used for the cultivation of nationalism in schools is heroism. Heroism is the display of unusual human qualities, or of usual qualities in an unusual degree. A hero is one who exemplifies these qualities in action, whether he is successful and is recognized or not (Howerth 1935: 18). But always the hero has his worshipers. Worship tends to produce imitation and emulation. The people tend to grow into the likeness of their hero (Howerth 1935: 18). Hero worship, then, has Ortaöğretim Öğrencilerinin Milliyetçilik ve Kahramanlık Algılarının Cinsiyete ve Okul Türüne Bağlı Değişiminin Sosyolojik Analizi Adıyaman Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, Yıl: 6, Sayı: 14, Sosyal Bilgiler Öğretimi Özel Sayısı, 2013 541 always been a means of social stimulation and social control. It should be employed also in education (Howerth 1935: 19). The conception of the hero, then, both for psychological and social reasons, may be employed by the teacher with great effect in moral training. It may easily be made one of the most powerful fac tors in education, particularly in character training (Howerth 1935: 24). As a result it is clear that from the writing of textbooks to the rituals and ceremonies on national celebrations, schools have always been important sites in defining and re- enacting the fundamental aspects of a unified national body. (Christou 2007: 709)"The conceptual and narrative framework of a basic textbook becomes, for thousands of students, the primary lens through which they incorporate historical knowledge for the rest of their lives"(Porat 2004: 963). In this context; nationalism and heroism becomes a subject of interest, as these are the major concepts schools cultivating in the society. The purpose of this investigation to examine the differences among high school students’ perception of nationalism and heroism, focusing on the differences that have a meaningful correlation with gender and school type. As school type is a major variable changing the education model, its aims and methods, a meaningful correlation between the nationalism and school type would support the theoretical framework presented in the case. In addition to school type comparison, an investigation on gender roles was a further supplement to this investigation which made it possible to analyze high school students’ nationalistic attitudes. For this purpose, a test was executed to 628 students from different high schools in Turkey. Data were collected by a test which was created after researching on the issue. According to the results of the research, it is found that male students and state school students have more nationalist values than female students and private school students. 
work_7zuvrdfg7vbbtkyhu3lttiqjjq	----	www.e-neurospine.org S17 Inside-Out and Outside-In Techniques in Endoscopic Spine Surgery: Are These Techniques Efficient Even for Pathology Irrelevant to the Intervertebral Foramen? “Inside-out (I-O)”—this simple phrase, which Yeung introduced in the 1990s, has be- come one of the standard terms used by endoscopic spine surgeons.1 Furthermore, the I-O technique has become a fundamental and popular technique in endoscopic transforaminal discectomy and decompression (ETD). The I-O technique enables better visualization of intradiscal conditions that cause pain, enabling the surgeon to perform intradiscal therapy. A comparative study2 in foraminal stenosis demonstrated that I-O had better long-term re- sults at a 5-year follow-up than the outside-in (O-I) technique. Yeung and Lewandrowski2 argued that the better outcomes of I-O were brought about by additional intradiscal thera- py during the early stage of an operation. However, the therapeutic effect of intradiscal treatment on backache when the I-O technique is used exceeds the scope of the current discussion. These techniques are mainly designated for the endoscopic management of pathology through the intervertebral foramen. There is no accessible route other than the through the foramen to approach pathology in the vertebral canal without laminectomy. Both techniques use a posterior and lateral incision from the midline of the back for skin access. The I-O technique is started by placing an endoscope in the disc, while the first step in the O-I tech- nique is localizing the foramen for foraminoplasty. In the final stage, the I-O technique leads to a widened foramen by successive decompressions.2 In contrast, the O-I technique results in free nerve roots by decompression in the last endoscopic view.3 According to these de- scriptions, I-O and O-I are surgical techniques for pathologies that are only accessible through the intervertebral foramen. I read 2 articles dealing with I-O and O-I in the management of endoscopic decompres- sion that were published in this special issue.4,5 These cases seemed to emulate Yeung’s con- cept when describing their endoscopic approach to a lesion. However, I did not find any critically different points, especially in the techniques used for the approach, between the 2 groups. They might not have a significant enough difference from each other for it to be appropriate to use different terminology. If pressed to find a difference between the tech- niques in these manuscripts, I might point out that they differ in terms of how to remove the ligamentum flavum (as a whole or piecemeal). In the article using the O-I technique,4 the author indicated that the O-I technique per- formed in their study was similar to “the over-the-top” technique.6 Using scientific termi- Neurospine 2020;17(Suppl 1):S17-19. https://doi.org/10.14245/ns.2040326.163 Neurospine eISSN 2586-6591 pISSN 2586-6583 Editorial Corresponding Author Chun-Kun Park https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4705-8034 Good Doctor Tn-Tn Hospital, 775 Kyeongsu-daero, Dongan-gu, Anyanag 14041, Korea E-mail: ckpmd@catholic.ac.kr See the article “Lumbar Endoscopic Unilateral Laminotomy for Bilateral Decompression Outside-In Approach: A Proctorship Guideline With 12 Steps of Effectiveness and Safety” via https://doi. org/10.14245/ns.2040078.039. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (https://creativecom- mons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Copyright © 2020 by the Korean Spinal Neurosurgery Society http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.14245/ns.2040326.163&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2020-07-31 Inside-Out and Outside-In Techniques in Degenerative Lumbar SpinePark CK Neurospine 2020;17(Suppl 1):S17-19.S18 www.e-neurospine.org nology, this technique can be referred to as unilateral laminoto- my with bilateral spinal canal decompression (ULBD), and an- other synonym in endoscopic surgery is “cross-over.” The origi- nal application of this technique was in open surgery.6 This technique, which is mainly used to decompress the contralater- al side of the canal, might have been carried out through ipsi- lateral single-incision skin access. In other words, although there are certain similarities between O-I and ULBD, O-I stands for a full series of endoscopic transforaminal techniques. There- fore a surgeon could divide the entire endoscopic procedure into several stages by time, whereas the “over-the-top” tech- nique is a specific way to handle a particular part of the entire endoscopic process.7 Consequently, It was improper to present the “over-the-top” technique as a similar procedure as the O-I technique, as each of these techniques plays a different role in the sequence of steps performed in an endoscopic procedure. In recent years, endoscopic decompression surgery has been used to treat central canal stenosis7 and other kinds of lumbar degenerative stenosis using newly designed endoscopes, with shorter and wider working channels, and surgical tools.8 The route approaching down from the skin via the lamina to the epidural space is anatomically more familiar to most spine sur- geons than the I-O technique in ETD. However, not a few en- doscopic spine surgeons, including Yeung, still place a high val- ue on I-O taking the foraminal route and insist that the ETD might be used for most lumbar spine pathologies, except for those that are unreachable. Accordingly, ETD cannot remain at the forefront in the field of endoscopic spine surgery, even if certain limited and specific pathologies may be managed better by ETD. The O-I and I-O techniques (mainly I-O), which are supposed to belong to ETD, should be appropriately applied in pathologies reachable by the transforaminal route. REFERENCES 1. Yeung AT, Tsou PM. Posterolateral endoscopic excision for lumbar disc herniation: Surgical technique, outcome, and complications in 307 consecutive cases. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 2002;27:722-31 2. Yeung AT, Lewandrowski KU. Five-year clinical outcomes with endoscopic transforaminal foraminoplasty for symp- tomatic degenerative conditions of the spine: a comparative study of inside-out versus outside-in techniques J Spine Surg 2020;6(Suppl 1):S66-83. 3. Hoogland T, van den Brekel-Dijkstra K, Schubert M, et al. Endoscopic transforaminal discectomy for recurrent lumbar disc herniation: a prospective, cohort evaluation of 262 con- secutive cases. Spine 2008;33:973-8. 4. Kim HS, Wu PH, Jang IT. Lumbar endoscopic unilateral laminotomy for bilateral decompression (LE-ULBD) out- side-in approach: a proctorship guideline with 12 steps of effectiveness and safety. Neurospine 2020;17(Suppl 1):S98- 108. 5. Lim KT, Meceda EJA, Park CK. Inside-out approach of lum- bar endoscopic unilateral laminotomy for bilateral decom- pression: a detailed technical description, rationale and out- comes. Neurospine 2020;17(Suppl 1):S87-97. 6. Ulrich NH, Burgstaller JM, Gravestock I, et al. Outcome of unilateral versus standard open midline approach for bilat- eral decompression in lumbar spinal stenosis: is “over the top” really better? A Swiss prospective multicenter cohort study. J Neurosurg Spine 2019;31:236-45. 7. Siepe CJ, Sauer D. Mayer D. Full endoscopic, bilateral over- the-top decompression for lumbar spinal stenosis. Eur Spine J 2018;27(Suppl 4):S563-5. 8. Lim KT, Nam HGW, Kim SB, et al. Therapeutic feasibility of full endoscopic decompression in one- to three-level lumbar canal stenosis via a single skin port using a new endoscopic system, percutaneous stenoscopic lumbar decompression. Asian Spine J 2019;13:272-82. Inside-Out and Outside-In Techniques in Degenerative Lumbar SpinePark CK Neurospine 2020;17(Suppl 1):S17-19. www.e-neurospine.org S19 Title: Child with a Dove Artist: Pablo Picasso Year: 1901 Child with a Dove is one of Picasso’s earliest works: he was twenty-one, or even less, but his own style is already apparent. He probably painted it in Paris during his second visit, when he was staying with Spanish friends. By that time he had seen, studied, and assimilated contemporary French painting: he had taken Toulouse-Lautrec’s way of rendering a visual impression rapidly with a few forceful lines and shrill spots of color, and made it his own. Also, he had learned from Degas how to observe a figure sharply and with detachment. In Child with a Dove, we see a new thoughtfulness, a poetic sympathy with the subject, qualities that were to dominate his work in the years that followed. More information: https://www.pablopicasso.org/child-with-a-dove.jsp © 2020 - Succession Pablo Picasso - SACK (Korea) 
work_a4abbpbgbffh7fq4yrnamnf2hm	----	Natalia Goncharova and Futurist Theater Natalia Goncharova and Futurist Theater Author(s): John E. Bowlt Source: Art Journal, Vol. 49, No. 1, From Leningrad to Ljubljana: The Suppressed Avant- Gardes of East-Central and Eastern Europe during the Early Twentieth Century (Spring, 1990), pp. 44-51 Published by: College Art Association Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/777179 . Accessed: 20/09/2011 17:17 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org. College Art Association is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Art Journal. http://www.jstor.org http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=caa http://www.jstor.org/stable/777179?origin=JSTOR-pdf http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp Natalia Goncharova and Futurist Theater By John E. Bowlt T he name of Natalia Sergeevna Goncharova (1881-1962; Fig. 1), one of the foremost Russian painters and designers of the twentieth century, has been linked inextricably to that of Mikhail Larionov (1881-1964; see Fig. 2). Whether we read contemporaneous descriptions (for example, the painter Alexander Gerasimov referred to her as Larionov's "companion and shadow")1 or more current assessments of her work, the mechanical articulation- Larionov and Goncharova, Goncharova and Larionov-continues to occur. We must therefore appraise her achieve- ments in terms of her own work rather than in those of Larionov. From her first published drawings in the journal Yunost [Youth] of 1907 to her illustrations for the Festschrift dedicated to Sofia Melni- kova in Tiflis of 1919, and from her enormous one-woman exhibitions in Moscow and St. Petersburg in 1913 and 19142 to her stage designs for Sergei Diaghilev's Saisons Russes, Goncharova manifested an original, forceful, even abrasive personality that sets her clearly apart (see Fig. 3). The principal area in which Goncharova excelled was the theater; thus, the focus of this essay is on her contribution to the aesthetic of performance. One of the most striking innovations of the artists of the Russian avant-garde was their transcendence of the tradi- tional dividing line between "life" (the social, ritualized conventions of private and public comportment) and "art" (the creation of aesthetic objects). The paint- ings, designs, and constructions of art- ists such as the Burliuk brothers, Pavel Filonov, Goncharova, Larionov, Ka- zimir Malevich, and Vladimir Tatlin so we cannot appreciate the exploits of the artists of the Russian avant-garde without understanding their total dedica- tion to the artistic act-i.e., their replace- ment of the calendar schedule by the boundless process of artistic creativity. In other words, if a "conventional" artist were asked whether he or she regarded activities such as walking and talking as constituent parts of his or her artistic expression, the response would probably be negative. If, however, Goncharova were asked the same question, chances are that she would answer affirmatively. Of course, the artists of the Russian avant-garde are not alone in this respect, but they seem to have established, or at least consolidated, a trend toward what the playwright Nikolai Evreinov called in 1910 the "theatricalization of life."3 Vincent van Gogh and Mikhail Vrubel Fig. 1 Natalia Goncharova, 1912, photograph. Courtesy of the late Mme Alexandra Larionova, Paris. were an integral part of their way of life; their clothes, human relationships, and even bodily movements expressed their artistic world views no less powerfully and provocatively than did their paint- ings and sculpture. The conventional formula "life and work," with its im- plied dichotomy, does not function here, for it is the inherence of art in life and life in art that makes individuals such as Goncharova so magnetic-and, for us today, so remote. Just as we cannot understand completely the resonance of contemporary rock culture without tak- ing into account the effect of narcotics, Fig. 2 Mikhail Larionov, Rayonist Portrait of Natalia Goncharova, 1913 (from M. Larionov, Luchizm, Moscow, 1913). 44 Art Journal Fig. 3 Unknown artist, Composite Portrait of Sergei Diaghilev and Natalia Goncharova, 1914, ink on paper, 12 x 8 inches (30.5 x 20 cm). Collection of Mr. and Mrs. Nikita D. Lobanov-Rostovsky, London. The rendering of Diaghilev on the left is taken from a caricature by Pavel Shcherbov called Salzburg (1898). The rendering of Goncharova on the right is taken from her Cubo-Futurist painting Lady in a Hat (1913; Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris). The text reads: "The famous Diaghilev, as drawn jokingly by P.E. Shcherbov, our famous caricaturist. This same Diaghilev has invited Mrs. Goncharova to paint the decorations for Rimsky-Korsakov's opera The Golden Cockerel. Her self-portrait, drawn not jokingly, is placed above the text. Dotted lines indicate what has been added by the artists working on the production." were touched by the same madness, and, nearer our time, Jackson Pollock, Jo- seph Beuys, and perhaps Andy Warhol were also victims of this attitude, burnt up on the altars of their own art. The entire macrocosm of Goncharo- va's life should be approached, from this perspective, as a work of art-a "play of device," as the Constructivists would have called it.4 Of course, she was active as a designer for the traditional disci- plines of the performing arts as well (e.g., for Alexander Tairov's Chamber Theater in Moscow and for Diaghilev's Ballets Russes in Paris), but primary attention must be given to Goncharova's own "living theater" before an adequate assessment of her involvement in estab- lished theaters can be undertaken. xWs rhat little we know of Goncharo- va's biographical chronology, as- sociations, and tastes reveals that, from the very beginning, she was a strong- willed, energetic, and unorthodox individual.5 Her enrollment at the Mos- cow Institute of Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture in 1898 was an un- usual step for a bourgeois young woman of only seventeen. Her cohabitation with Larionov stirred the indignation of both church and public. Her slacks, her emphatic manifestos, her two enormous one-woman exhibitions, and, of course, her attachments to, and confrontations with, the Moscow Cubo-Futurists-all these elements were, surely, symptoms of a histrionic personality. Certainly, in private relations and behavior, Gon- charova enjoyed a license that only actresses and gypsies were permitted, and perhaps because of this dubious social reputation rather than as the result of any apparent innuendos in her paintings, she was said to traverse the "boundary of decency"6 and to "hurt your eyes."7 These are characteristic reactions to the event of Goncharova's life ("event" in our contemporary theat- rical sense), to her acting and posturing, her masquerading and promenading- her own "theatralization of life." The artist's desire to transform herself into a moving artifact is nowhere more obvious than in her specific interest in face- and body-painting, as practiced by the Ray- onist circle of which she was a part.8 Goncharova even made several public appearances bare-breasted, with ab- stract designs painted on her body ( Fig. 4). In 1912 and 1913 Goncharova and her friends painted their faces and walked along Kuznetskii Most and the Petrovka in Moscow, the downtown district where the fashionable art stores of Avanzo and Khudozhnik, the respect- able private art galleries (the Lemercier Gallery and the Mikhailova Salon), and the center of Moscow's haute couture operated. The encroachment of Gon- charova and her Cubo-Futurist col- leagues into this milieu was a shock to the purveyors and purchasers of good taste on several occasions. A number of group and individual photographs of Konstantin Bolshakov, David Burliuk, Goncharova, Vasilii Ka- mensky, Larionov, Mikhail Le-Dantiu, and Ilia Zdanevich taken between 1912 C. Fig. 4 Natalia Goncharova, Designfor a Woman's Breast, 1913. Present whereabouts unknown. and 1914 illustrate Larionov's and Zdanevich's manifesto of 1913 called "Why We Paint Ourselves,"9 which refers to women's makeup, tattooing, and ancient Egyptian eye shadow as analogous activities: We paint ourselves for an hour, and a change of experience calls for a change of painting, just as picture devours picture, when on the other side of a car windshield storewindows flash by running into each other.... Facial expressions don't interest us. That's because people have grown accustomed to understanding them, too timid and ugly as they are. Our faces are like the screech of the trolley warning the hurrying passers-by, like the drunken sounds of the great tango.10 The painted faces of Goncharova, Lari- onov, and their friends sport abstract, weird designs-sometimes geometric symbols or letters of the alphabet or animals such as pigs and birds (see Fig. 5). The hieroglyph, the rebus, the chance item of graffiti, the secret mes- sage, and the in-joke were important components of the Cubo-Futurists' lexi- con, especially Goncharova's. They were part of the mumbo-jumbo and the spells of rituals that accompanied their out- landish behaviour. Goncharova, in par- ticular, was fond of the secret evocation Spring 1990 45 and the magical gesture, and her body- painting and studio paintings of 1912- 13 often carry hieroglyphic sequences that baffle the profane audience. The oblique signs of pictures such as The Bicyclist, Laundry, and Rebus (Fig. 6) seem to relate to some primitive, hieratic ceremony, evoking images of the voodoo and the shaman.11 Larionov and Zdanevich commented on their face-painting in an interview that they gave to the editor of the Moscow middle-class magazine Theater in Caricatures in 1913, and as an autobiographical commentary, it is espe- cially valuable: "We have come to tell you," says Larionov, "of the latest sensation in the field of Paris fashions. We Futurists are better understood and appreciated abroad. Certain actresses have introduced the fash- ion of powdering themselves with brown powder and of circling their eyes with green pencil. The result is very nice and original...." "Downright exotic!" the editor exclaims. Indignant and annoyed, Lari- onov goes on: "Just let me explain the mean- ing of our tattooing." The prophet takes a piece of charcoal and makes an incompre- Fig. 5 Mikhail Larionov, his face decorated with Rayonist designs, 1913, photograph (from Teatr v karrikaturakh [The Theater in Caricatures], Moscow, September 21, 1913, p. 9). Fig. 6 Natalia Goncharova, Rebus (Rayonist Garden: Park), ca. 1912, oil on canvas, 553/8 x 343/8 inches (140.6 x 87.3 cm). Collection of Sam and Ayala Zachs, Jerusalem. hensible hieroglyph on the face of his interlocutor. "What's that?"-one of the office workers speaks up. "A tango," says Larionov, "get it?",12 Obviously, this statement was made tongue-in-cheek and perhaps the artists in the Rayonist circle never really imparted special meaning to their facial hieroglyphs. On the other hand, it is not fortuitous that Larionov, both in his interview with the editor and in his manifesto, would identify face-painting with the tango. Once again, we are confronted with an unconventional artis- tic gesture (face-painting) within a theatrical context, i.e., the discipline of ballroom dancing. We should remember that between 1912 and 1914 the "in" dance was the tango, and one could learn its steps in a variety of Moscow dance studios, primarily that of the caricaturist and stage designer Pavel Ivanov who used the pseudonym Mak (see Fig. 7).13 Ivanov (whose portrait Goncharova painted in 1913) and his wife were the "best pair of tango dancers in Moscow,"14 and they in turn were close to the Cubo-Futurists and to the gilded youth that accompanied the Burliuks, Goncharova; Larionov, and Vladimir Mayakovsky on their esca- pades. For example, there was Ivanov's student Antonina Privalova (see Fig. 8), a "primary follower of Futurist novelties"15 and a tango dancer who was a proponent of Rayonist face- and body-painting; her husband is identified as the Moscow businessman G. Privalov, who collected modern Russian art, in- cluding works by Goncharova. For that select few, the tango, encouraging rhyth- mical abandon and the wearing of masks, was, like the new painting, an iconoclastic emblem of sexual emancipation.'6Another photograph of a couple dancing the tango17 accompa- nied the manifesto of face-painting published in December 1913-surely an indication of the special status that the tango enjoyed among the avant-garde. The ramifications are many-from the Cubo-Futurist book of poems Tango s korovami [Tango with Cows] published by the Burliuks and Kamensky18 and the photographic fragment of a tango cou- ple in Kazimir Malevich's Woman at an Advertisement Column'9 to Alexander Rodchenko's tango photomontage for Mayakovsky's Pro eto [About It].20 Like the tango, which derives from an African drum dance, Rayonist face- painting can be regarded as a modern extension of an ancient rite, i.e., ritualis- tic face- and body-painting in primitive societies. True, there is no documentary evidence that Goncharova and Larionov Fig. 7 Pavel Ivanov and the celebrated cabaret artist Elsa Kriiger dancing the Tango of Death, 1913, photograph (from Teatr v karrikaturakh [The Theater in Caricatures], Moscow, December 25, 1913, p. 24). KrUger wore dresses designed by Goncharova. 46 Art Journal Fig. 8 The Moscow socialite Antonina Privalova, her shoulder decorated with Rayonist designs, 1913, photograph (from Teatr v karrikaturakh [The Theater in Caricatures], Moscow, September 21, 1913, p. 14). painted their faces and danced the tango with awareness of such precedents, but it is known that they were well informed about black African and American Indian body-painting, Polynesian tinc- turing, and the tattooing of the Scyth- ians. For the Rayonists, as for their primordial predecessors, these chamele- onic gestures were made for, or during, the dance; the jagged lines and cryptic letters, the animals and grid composi- tions sported by David Burliuk, Gon- charova, Larionov, and Zdanevich at this time required the complement of a theatrical environment as much as did the rhythmical convolutions of the swirl- ing witch doctor. The ancillary parapher- nalia of masks, effigies, and talismans were also of great interest to Gon- charova, as is evident from some of her theater work done in Paris in the early 1920s. Indeed, Goncharova advanced her hieroglyphic system of face-painting into real theater, too, i.e., the Pink Lantern cabaret and the Tavern of the 13, active in Moscow in 1913, where improvisational dance was a principal attraction.21 During the decade before 1917 there were many little theaters, nightclubs, and restaurants in Moscow and St. Petersburg that called themselves caba- rets. The functions and artistic levels at these institutions varied considerably. Some relied for their effect on "singers, nude dancers, choirs, circus numbers, and gypsy choruses";22 others focused on particular artistic groups such as the Cubo-Futurists; and their collected names constitute a kaleidoscope of the most exotic epithets-the Bat, Bi-Ba- Bo, the Blue Bird, the Green Lamp- shade, the Pink Lantern, the Stable of Pegasus, Petrouchka, etc. In general, the Russian (and Western) cabarets confronted artists with a set of circum- stances that forced them, uniformly, to rethink the question of design and actor-audience response. The proximity of the auditorium to the scenic action, the miniature stage, the ever-changing repertoire, the need to change sets and costumes rapidly, the extension of the decorative scheme to the walls, to the ceiling, and even to the audience itself- such conditions prompted the critic Andre Boll to observe that this kind of theater was the ultimate challenge for a designer's imagination.23 The short-lived Pink Lantern cabaret, a parody of the famous literary gather- ing place of Pushkin's time called the Green Lantern, opened in Moscow in October 1913. Contemplated as a Futur- ist theater by Goncharova, Larionov, and Zdanevich, along with the poets Bolshakov, Anton Lotov, and Maya- kovsky, the Pink Lantern was to have had a Futurist dramatic repertoire and the stage design was to have been Rayonist and zaum [alogical] with: .. . the stage mobile and moving to different parts of the auditorium. The decor moves also, following the actor ... the audience lies in the middle of the auditorium dur- ing the first act, and in a net, suspended below the ceiling, in the second. In the play VA-DA-PU the music and lighting play an impor- tant role, corresponding to free movements of the dance. In many plays the language is beyond the limits of ... ideas, being a free and invented onomatopoaeia.24 During the evenings, Goncharova and Larionov managed to paint the faces of members of the audience, although, as one correspondent noted, the result was not especially "Futurist."25 The public responded in much the same way that it did to the painted faces of circus clowns refusing or accepting the invitation to have a pig painted on a cheek or forehead, and certainly not regarding these actions as "art." One correspon- dent described such an evening: The Futurists abused the "crowd" with all the words at their disposal, and the audience tormented these "clowns of art" mercilessly ... as a result the artist Goncharova slapped a certain barrister. A disgraceful, brazen, and tal- entless can-can reigns dissolutely in the temples of art, and grimac- ing and wriggling on its altars are these shaggy young characters in their orange shirts and painted physiognomies.26 W hen the Pink Lantern closed after only a few performances, Goncharova and Larionov replaced it immediately with another "wild pantomime"27-the Tavern of the 13 in November 1913. Projected as a "purely Futurist cabaret,"28 the Tavern was to have hosted disputes by "Rayonists, Victorianians [sic], Cubists and extreme- rightist Futurists, ego-poets, and every- thingists."29 Entrance was by a ten- ruble note or by letter of recom- mendation, and the kind of poetry declaimed-by Bolshakov, Lotov, and L. Frank-was zaum, fragments of Spring 1990 47 Fig. 9 Frame from the film Drama in the Futurists' Cabaret No. 13 (from M. Calvesi, L'Arte Moderna [Milan: Fabbri, 1967], p. 314). It is assumed (perhaps falsely) that the two actors in this frame are Mikhail Larionov and Natalia Goncharova. which often appeared in the artists' face-painting. Here is a typical sound poem by Frank called "In the Restaurant": Kardamash, mash, sharash, Trendi, buli Uuu Agva, kimeva Farmenzon Steno, bri tarelbi Kriuki, kriuki, kriuki Mamsi, mamsa, mamsu, Olnigidza kravdoi. Fi, fa, fu Vot!? Nashi priekhali.30 The Tavern, open for only a few weeks, survived long enough for a movie to be made of it under the title Drama in the Futurists' Cabaret No. 13, released in January 1914 with Goncharova and Larionov said to be the main characters.31 While no copy of this movie has ever surfaced in Soviet or Western repositories, a single frame survives (Fig. 9).32 According to one source, the movie was 431 meters (20 minutes) in length, was directed by Vladimir Kasianov, and "attracted full houses and ... scandals."33 This is understandable from the bizarre plot: The premises of the cabaret. The Futurists are preparing for a fes- tive party. They are painting each other's faces, while the artist Gon- charova is even decolletee. As these preparations are com- ing to an end, a title appears on the screen: "The hour 13 has struck. The Futurists are gathering for a party." One of the secondary person- ages, apparently, a poet, waves a sheet of paper that is marked all over with zig-zags and with letters that are scattered about in disor- der. This is a poem dedicated to Goncharova. While reading the poem, he keeps on turning one side, then the other, then his backside, to the audience. Then comes the turn of a very tall woman-the danseuse Elster. Dressed in a white costume slit to the waist, she dances the "Futurist tango."... Elster likewise dedi- cates her performance to Gon- charova, and, therefore, upon com- pleting her dance, she gets down on her knees before the artist and kisses her foot. Later, Goncharova herself arises and, teamed with some sort of decorated character, she dances the chechetka, quite clumsily and fussily.... After a new declamatory item on the program comes the turn of the main "sensation," which is the proper beginning of the "drama." This is the "Futuredance of death," during which one partner must kill the other. The Futurists draw lots. It falls to thefuturistka Maximov- ich. She climbs onto a table with a man whose eye-sockets are thickly smeared with black paint, and [the couple] are given crooked daggers. The Futuredance consists of [the] man tossing the woman from arm to arm, raising the dagger threat- eningly and striking her, not yet with the blade, but with the handle of the knife. The man gradually flies into a rage and finally plunges the blade into the woman's chest, killing her outright. A title appears: "A Future- funeral.". .. There exist several versions of the story and some critics maintain that Gon- charova and Larionov were the only actors in the movie, but whoever kills whom, this movie, once again, connects face-painting and the tango within a theatrical genre. It also presents Gon- charova as actress, dancer, and emanci- pated muse.35 In the light of Goncharova's antics in the Moscow cabaret scene of 1913-14 and of her public notoriety, it is not surprising to find that her one and only contribution to "straight" dramatic the- ater-Alexander Tairov's production of Carlo Goldoni's II Ventaglio of January 1915-was greeted as "clownish tricks" and "too leftist."36 Judging by the set for Goldoni's play, it is clear that Gon- charova wished to evoke associations with Russian folk art, as she had done in designs for Le Coq d'Or for Diaghilev in Paris the year before.37 Although Gon- charova was familiar with eighteenth- century Venetian culture, her percep- tion was Muscovite rather than northern Italian, and she was applying the same primitive, popular imagery that she had used, for example, in Neoprimitivist paintings such as Spring Gardening (1908).38 Tairov himself had mixed feelings about Goncharova's design, as he mentioned later in his Notes of a Director: The joyful decorations and cos- tumes of Natalia Goncharova ... were, for me, merely the ultimate compromise (a bitter truth, of Fig. 10 Natalia Goncharova, Costume for a Spanish Dancer in "Espaha" (not produced), 1916, pochoir, 191/2 x 123/4 inches (49.5 x 32.5 cm) (from Natalia Gontcharova and Mikhail Larionov, L'Art decoratif moderne [Paris: La Cible, 1919). 48 Art Journal course, that was softened by Gon- charova's enchanting talent), be- cause, for all their "leftism," they were very much a reflection of the Conventional Theater.39 Despite her training as a sculptress, Goncharova was not truly an artist of three dimensions, and she tended to use the backdrop, wings, and costumes as pictorial surfaces rather than as projec- tions into public space; thus, her stage design functioned typically as a conven- tional, illustrative vehicle, not as a volumetric architectural complex. For that reason, from 1916 onward, Tairov welcomed the three-dimensional designs of artists such as Alexandra Exter, the Stenberg brothers (Georgii and Vladimir), and Alexander Vesnin. iaghilev did not share Tairov's reservations about Goncharova's abilities, and, working with her in Lausanne and San Sebastien in 1915- 16, he encouraged her to prepare four ballets-Liturgie, Espaha (see Fig. 10), Triana, and Foire Espaghole-not one of which, unfortunately, was ever imple- mented. Goncharova's intense activity produced not only numerous designs for sets and costumes but also three portfo- lios of pochoirs-Liturgie (Lausanne, Fig. 11 Natalia Goncharova, Portrait of Sergei Diaghilev, ca. 1916, pochoir, 1 9/4 x 121/4 inches (50 x 31 cm) (from Natalia Gontcharova and Mikhail Larionov, L'Art decoratif moderne [Paris: La Cible, 1919). Fig. 12 Natalia Goncharova, cover for Clotilde et Alexandre Sakharoff, by Emile Vuillermoz (Lausanne: Editions Centrales, 1935). 1915), Album de 14 Portraits Theatraux (Paris, 1916), and L'Art Theatral Deco- ratif Moderne (Paris, 1919; see Fig. 11)-the last two being joint enterprises by Goncharova and Larionov. From 1914 Goncharova was involved directly in the activities of the Ballets Russes, a collaboration that has been documented and discussed in many recent publications.40 She also worked for other troupes and for impresarios such as Ida Rubinstein and Clotilde and Alexandre Sakharoff (see Fig. 12). Goncharova and Larionov partici- pated in less orthodox forms of theater in Paris during the 1920s, helping to organize at least four charity balls: the Grand Bal des Artistes, or Grand Bal Travesti Transmental (February 23, 1923), the Bal Banal (March 14, 1924; Fig. 13), the Bal Olympique, or Vrai Bal Sportif (July 11, 1924), and the Grand Ourse Bal (May 8, 1925). The Grand Bal des Artistes was the most ambitious, and, as the flyer proclaims, it was intended as a fair, not simply a ball.41 The program included four dance bands and two bars serving "pommes frites anglaises et cocktails," and the dancing was supplemented by all kinds of happenings: Goncharova and her boutique of masks, Delaunay and his Transat- lantic Company of pick-pockets, Larionov and his Rayonism, Leger and his orchestra decor, Cliazde Spring 1990 49 Fig. 13 Natalia Goncharova, entry ticket and publicity for the Bal Banal at the Salle Bullier, Paris, March 14, 1924, printed in brown and gray on buff paper, 12 x 61/4 inches (30.5 x 15.7 cm) (from M. Chamot, Goncharova [London: Oresko, 1979], p. 73). Fig. 15 Natalia Goncharova, marionette for Yuliia Sazonova's Theatre des Petits Comediens, Paris, 1923 or 1924. vage, and Ilia Zdanevich. In addition to costumes, Goncharova and Larionov designed much of the publicity material, including the program, the flyer, the ticket, and the large poster. They also invited Russian and French colleagues, the "greatest geniuses in the world"- including Bart, Albert Gleizes, Juan Gris, Fernand Leger, Pablo Picasso, and Survage-to sponsor and design forty loges, which were then sold in aid of the Union. As with her publicity materials for the Bal Banal (flyer) and the Bal Olym- pique (poster, program, and ticket), Goncharova incorporated motifs from her paintings and ballet designs into the Grand Bal poster; in style and composi- tion it brings to mind a number of canvases such as Bathers (1917-23) and her several renderings of Spanish women.43 Goncharova's boutique of masks included designs reminiscent of African ceremonial masks (see Fig. 14).44 For the most part, the Grand Bal des Artistes maintained the courtly tradition of the costume ball, especially of the Viennese ballo in maschera, which made extensive use of sophisti- cated masks to conceal a person in an erotic game of hide-and-seek, rather than to superimpose a new one. But Goncharova's masks, like African ones, seem to represent other faces, and to serve as vehicles of ritualistic transformation. At the 1923 ball Goncharova also sold wooden dolls-effigies-that she had been making for Yuliia Sazonova's Theaitre des Petits Comediens, which opened in Paris in 1924 (see Fig. 15). They included marionettes intended to illustrate Rural Holiday-a pantomime by Larionov with music by Nikolai Cherepnin produced by Sazonova dur- ing the Christmas season in 1924. Once again, these images draw on a primitive tradition of lapidary figures and witch imagery from Russian mythology. They have little in common with the marionet- tic finesse of the puppet tradition ex- plored by other Russian artists of the time such as Nina Efimova-Simonovich, Exter, Nikolai Kalmakov, El Lissitzky, Liubov Popova, and Elizaveta Yakun- ina. In fact, Goncharova's figures seem Fig. 14 Natalia Goncharova, mask for her boutique at the Grand Bal des Artistes, Paris, February 23, 1923. [Ilia Zdanevich] and his 41- degree fevers....42 The Grand Bal was a philanthropic venture for the Union of Russian Art- ists, a society that brought together many Russian emigre painters and critics, such as Viktor Bart, Sonia Delaunay, Serge Romoff, Leopold Sur- Fig. 16 Natalia Goncharova, Stage Design for Scene 2 of "The Firebird," 1926, watercolor, 28 x 40 inches (71 x 101.5 cm). Collection of Mr. and Mrs. Nikita D. Lobanov-Rostovsky, London. 50 Art Journal to express the essentially fetishistic function that Sazonova associated with the puppet: Just as algebraic signs substitute certain desired quantities, so the conditional flesh of the marionette substitutes for real human flesh.... The infinite variety of the puppet repertoire [has] one basic characteristic: indifference to the prose of everyday life and to the manifestation of the eternal qualities of the human soul.45 Goncharova returned to wooden mar- ionettes and toys in her prepara- tions for a number of Parisian chamber productions in the 1930s, including the inanimate ballet Jouets of 1934. She also continued to work for the "adult" theater, including the ballet, until 1961 when, bedridden with arthritis on the rue Jacques Callot, she advised for the Royal Ballet production of The Firebird (see Fig. 16). That collaboration- which has been described as showing quintessentially "how the decor of an imaginative artist can enhance the dra- matic and emotional effect of music and dancing"46-might well be interpreted as Goncharova's last tango in Paris. Notes 1 Alexander Gerasimov, "Iz vospominanii," in Nina Moleva (ed.), Konstantin Korovin. Zhizn i tvorchestvo (Moscow, 1963), p. 39. 2 The exhibitions were held at the Art Salon and the Dobychina Art Bureau, respectively. 3 Evreinov explained his theory of the "theater in life," the "theatricalization of life," and the "conditional theater" in several publications, e.g., Teatr kak takovoi (St. Petersburg, 1912), Teatr dlia sebia, 3 vols. (Petrograd, 1915-17), and Teatralizatsiia zhizni (Moscow, 1922). For commentary see Spencer Golub, Evreinov, The Theatre of Paradox and Transformation (Ann Arbor, 1984). 4 Kornelii Zelinsky and Ilia Selvinsky (eds.), Gosplan literatury. Sbornik literaturnogo tsen- tra konstruktivistov (Moscow, 1924), p. 10. 5 See, for example, the personal reminiscences of Goncharova by critics and fellow artists in Tatiana Loguine (ed.), Gontcharova et Lari- onov (Paris, 1971). 6 Goncharova's studies and decorations dis- played at the Society of Free Aesthetics in Moscow in March 1910 were criticized as such. See Golos Moskvy (Moscow), March 25, 1910, p. 3. 7 E.N., "Na vystavke kartin Natalii Goncharovoi," Teatr v karrikaturakh (Mos- cow), no. 5 (October 6, 1913), p. 14. 8 Larionov defined Rayonism as forms created from the intersection of light rays reflected by contiguous objects. 9 Some of the photographs are in the Burliuk family archive in Hampton Bay, Long Island, New York; the manifesto of 1913 is translated in John Bowlt (ed.), Russian Art of the Avant-Garde: Theory and Criticism, 1902- 1934 (New York, 1976), pp. 80-83. 10 Ibid., p. 81. 11 The Bicyclist is reproduced in Camilla Gray, The Great Experiment (London, 1962), pl. 20; Laundry is reproduced in Mary Chamot, Goncharova (Paris, 1972), p. 51. The latter first appeared as a "Futurist painting" next to zaum poetry by Anton Lotov in Teatr v karrikaturakh (Moscow), no. 1 (September 8, 1913), p. 15. 12 "Poslednii krik Parizhskoi mody, Ubezhdennye grimasniki," Teatr v karrikaturakh (Moscow), no. 14 (December 8, 1913), p. 14. 13 Ivanov (c. 1886-c. 1960) worked as a caricatur- ist for several St. Petersburg and Moscow journals, including Satirikon and Teatr v karrikaturakh. 14 Natalia Serpinskaia, "Memuary intelligentki dvukh epokh," MS in Central State Archive of Literature and Art, Moscow, f. 1604, op. 1, ed. khr. 1248, p. 46, 1. 90. Ivanov's portrait-now lost-was listed in the catalogue of Goncharo- va's exhibitions in 1913-14 (cited in n. 2 above). 15 Privalova is described as such in Teatr v karrikaturakh (Moscow), no. 3 (September 21, 1913), p. 14. 16 For comments on the tango, see: Z., "E.A. Kriiger o 'tango,'" Teatr v karrikaturakh (Moscow), no. 16 (December 25, 1913), p. 24. 17 The photograph is published in Argus, Decem- ber 1913, p. 115. 18 Vasilii Kamensky, Tango s korovami (Mos- cow, 1914). 19 Woman at an Advertisement Column ( 1914) is reproduced in Wim Beeren et al., Malevich, exh. cat. (1988-89) for State Russian Museum (Leningrad), State Tretiakov Gallery (Mos- cow), and Stedelijk Museum (Amsterdam), pl. 48. 20 Vladimir Mayakovsky, Pro eto (Moscow- Leningrad, 1923), opp. p. 30. 21 P.K., "Rozovyi fonar," Teatr v karrikaturakh (Moscow), no. 6 (October 13, 1913), p. 15. 22 Evgenii Gershuni, Rassakazyvaiu ob estrade (Leningrad, 1968), p. 16. 23 Andre Boll, Du decor de theatre (Paris, 1926), p. 69. 24 "Okolo khudozhestvennogo mira. Grimasy v iskusstve. K proektu futuristicheskogo teatra v Moskve," Teatr v karrikaturakh (Moscow), no. 1 (September 8, 1913), p. 14. 25 See article cited in n. 21 above. 26 Anon., "Opiat futuristy (vmesto peredovoi)," Akter (Moscow), no. 4 (1913), pp. 1-2. 27 "Okolo khudozhestvennogo mira" (cited in n. 24 above). 28 "Kabak trinadtsati," Teatr v karrikaturakh (Moscow), no. 11 (November 17, 1913), p. 10. 29 Ibid. For a discussion of Everythingism, see: Mikhal Le-Dantiu, "Zhivopis vsekov," Minu- vshee (Paris), no. 5 (1988), pp. 183-204. Le-Dantiu was the defendant in a court case involving face-painting and public propriety. See: Zhizn i sud (St. Petersburg), May 9, 1913, p. 10. 30 L. Frank: "V restorane," Teatr v karrikatu- rakh (Moscow), no. 3 (1914), p. 12. The poem is meaningless except for the last two lines, which can be translated as: "Here they are!?/Our guys have arrived." 31 I am indebted to Jerry Heil for information about the movie Drama in the Futurists' Cabaret No. 13. See his article "Russian Futurism and the Cinema: Majakovskij's Film Work of 1913," Russian Literature (Amster- dam), no. 19 (1986), pp. 175-92. 32 The frame is reproduced, for example, in Maurizio Calvesi, "II Futurismo Russo," in L'Arte Moderna (Milan) 5, no. 44 (1967), p. 314. 33 Heil (cited in 31 above). 34 The translation is in ibid. The "danseuse Elster" is probably a reference to the tango dancer Elsa Kriiger, one of Mak's favorite partners. 35 For other versions of the plot, see ibid. 36 Alexander Tairov, Zapiski rezhissera. Stati. Besedy. Rechi. Pisma (Moscow, 1970), p. 103. 37 Prince Sergei Volkonsky (Otkliki teatra [Petrograd, ca. 1922], p. 57) said of Le Coq d'Or: "Mrs. Goncharova, our famous Futurist painter, has gone beyond all confines of what a child's fantasy can construct!" 38 Reproduced in Chamot (cited in n. 40 below), p. 33. 39 Tairov (cited in n. 36 above). 40 See, for example, Mary Chamot, Goncharova: Stage Designs and Paintings (London, 1979), passim. 41 "Foire de nuit" is inscribed on the flyer, a copy of which is reproduced in Loguine (cited in n. 5 above), p. 132. 42 Ibid. "Forty-one degrees" refers to an avant- garde group of poets and artists that Zdanevich and his friends founded in Tiflis in 1917. 43 The Grand Bal poster is reproduced in Loguine (cited in n. 5 above), p. 132. Bathers and portrayals of Spanish women appear in Chamot (cited in n. 40 above), pp. 69 and 71-74. 44 Natalia Goncharova, preface to the catalogue of her exhibition at the Art Salon (Moscow, 1913), p. 3. Goncharova had known about such masks since at. least 1912 or 1913, judging from a statement published here in which she maintained that the "Aztecs, Negroes, Austra- lian and Asiatic islands-the Sunda (Borneo), Japan, etc., these, generally speaking, represent the rise and flowering of art." The catalogue also includes a portrait of Goncharova with Larionov in "masquerade costume" (where- abouts unknown). 45 Yuliia Slonimskaia [Sazonova], "Marionetka," Apollon (Petrograd, 1916), no. 3, p. 30. 46 Chamot (cited in n. 40 above), p. 81. John E. Bowlt is professor of Russian language and literature and director of the Institute of Modern Russian Culture at the University of Southern California in Los Angeles. He is the author of numerous articles and books on the Russian and Soviet avant-garde. Spring 1990 51 Article Contents p.44 p.45 p.46 p.47 p.48 p.49 p.50 p.51 Issue Table of Contents Art Journal, Vol. 49, No. 1, From Leningrad to Ljubljana: The Suppressed Avant-Gardes of East-Central and Eastern Europe during the Early Twentieth Century (Spring, 1990), pp. 1-81 Front Matter [pp.1-80] Editors' Statement From Leningrad to Ljubljana: The Suppressed Avant-Gardes of East-Central and Eastern Europe during the Early Twentieth Century [pp.7-8] Confrontation and Accommodation in the Hungarian Avant-Garde [pp.9-20] Avant-Garde Tendencies in Yugoslavia [pp.21-27] Art between Social Crisis and Utopia: The Czech Contribution to the Development of the Avant-Garde Movement in East-Central Europe, 1910-30 [pp.28-35] The Ukrainian Studio of Plastic Arts in Prague and the Art of Jan Kulec [pp.36-43] Natalia Goncharova and Futurist Theater [pp.44-51] The Ghost of Representation, or the Masque of the Red Death [pp.52-55] The Avant-Garde in Central and Eastern European Literature [pp.56-62] Book Reviews untitled [pp.63-68] untitled [pp.69-70] Museum News untitled [pp.71-75] Books and Catalogues Received [pp.77-81] Back Matter 
work_aexde55a3vc75pp7mznajqeg7a	----	Frida Kahlo and her doctors 369Launer J. Postgrad Med J June 2018 Vol 94 No 1112 On reflection Frida Kahlo and her doctors John Launer The two great Mexican painters, Frida Kahlo and her husband Diego Rivera, were among the earliest media celebrities. They were so widely known in the 1930’s and 40 s that people across America and in Europe often referred to them just by their first names, and would have instantly recognised any image of them. Visually, they were a spectacular couple. Frida was small, delicate, androgynous and arrest- ingly beautiful. Diego was twenty years older, three times her weight, bulbous- eyed and impressively ugly. While pursuing their respective careers as the greatest self-portraitist and muralist of their age, they each led luridly promiscuous love lives. They set the trend for future celebri- ties by divorcing and then remarrying. They both confabulated outrageously, telling melodramatic and contradictory versions of their own or each others’ stories. Among their acquaintance they included Pablo Picasso, the billionaire John D Rockefeller, and the Russian revo- lutionary Leon Trotsky, with whom Frida had an affair while he was their house guest. Frida’s medical history was notoriously tragic. She was born in 1907 with an undi- agnosed scoliosis. At the age of six, she contracted polio (or a polio-like illness) that affected the muscles of her right leg.1 With characteristic will-power, she recov- ered well enough to run and dance, but at 18 she was a passenger in a catastrophic collision, when a bus she was travelling on was sliced in two by a tram. Frida was impaled by a severed handrail that pierced the left side of her abdomen and emerged through her pelvic outlet. She sustained multiple fractures including eleven in her weak right leg, dislocation and crush fractures of her right foot, as well as frac- tures of her lumbar spine that were only discovered some months later. The acci- dent determined the rest of her life. She gave up an ambition to study medicine, and taught herself painting instead. In the course of her life she underwent at least thirty orthopaedic and other opera- tions, although many appear to have been unnecessary or unsuccessful. For intermit- tent periods she was encased in plaster or in metal corsets, or kept in traction. She had several abortions and at least one devastating miscarriage. As well as relieving her pain and despair with alcohol, Frida eventually became addicted to morphine. She smoked constantly. She contracted probable syph- ilis. In her forties she developed gangrene, for which she needed amputation of her right foot and then the leg. In spite of all this horrendous adversity, she carried on almost to the end of her life with a youth- fulness, grace and energy that would be literally unbelievable if these had not been recorded on film and photographs.2 3 Leo eLoesser ‘my best Friend’ Frida’s experience of illness, injury, pain and suffering were often at the centre of her work. Her paintings offer a visual chronicle of this, as well as encompassing her family, marriage, relationships, dedication to communism and love for Mexican scenery, culture and costume. She saw scores of doctors over the years, but two of these had a significant pres- ence in her paintings, as they did in her treatment. Her relationship with these men was of a piece with everything else she did, bringing together expertise with intimacy, and transcending the separation of art and life. The most important of her medical atten- dants was Leo Eloesser. He was an renowned thoracic surgeon whom she first consulted in San Francisco in 1930. She came to trust his judgement so completely that she confided in him for the rest of her life, writing him long, affectionate letters asking for medical guidance and advice about her personal life.4 She addressed him as ‘Dearest Doctorcito’ and held back little or nothing from him. During her period of divorce he wrote to her about Diego: ‘He has never been, nor ever will be, monogamous, some- thing that is imbecilic and anti-biological.’ Eloesser’s life was as unconventional as his advice. He owned a sloop called ‘The Flirt’, which he would take out sailing all night in the Pacific between shifts at the hospital, and in which he often took out women friends. He was an accomplished musi- cian, and spoke at least twelve languages, including Chinese and Japanese. During the Spanish civil war, he volunteered with the loyalists against General Franco and set up a military hospital. After retirement in 1945 he worked for the United Nations Relief Organisation in China, but quietly went over to the communists, living like a peasant and teaching ‘barefoot doctors’ for 4 years before returning to America.5 Frida once painted his portrait, showing him alongside a model of his sloop.6 A far more impressive work, however, is the self-portrait she dedicated to him during the year of her divorce – one of the most striking she ever did in her career (see figure 1). Frida’s portrayal of herself in the painting is typical, with her eyebrows meeting in the middle, a faint moustache and full lips, and characteristic olive complexion. (She was Spanish Aztec on her mother’s side, and Hungarian Jewish on her father’s). She presents herself as a martyr, wearing Christ’s crown of thorns as a necklace that pierces her skin and draws blood. The extravagant bouquet in her hair and lush foliage in the back- ground are offset by long, dry, brown twigs on either side of her. A hand-shaped earring suggests emotional and phys- ical amputation. A hand-shaped brooch matches it, holding a ribbon on which she has written “I painted my portrait in the year 1940 for Dr. Eloesser, my doctor and my best friend. With all love, Frida Kahlo.’ Her expression is sad, haughty and vulner- able. It depicts both her suffering and her mastery of it. The portrait was a expres- sion of how she saw herself and wished her American doctor to see her. In the words of her biographer Hayden Herrera, ‘she turns herself into an icon that she – and Associate Editor, Postgraduate Medical Journal, London, UK Correspondence to Dr John Launer; johnlauner@ aol. com Figure 1 Self-portrait dedicated to Dr Leo Eloesser, 1940. © Banco de México Diego Rivera Frida Kahlo Museums Trust, Mexico, D.F. / DACS 2018. o n A p ril 5 , 2 0 2 1 b y g u e st. P ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://p m j.b m j.co m / P o stg ra d M e d J: first p u b lish e d a s 1 0 .1 1 3 6 /p o stg ra d m e d j-2 0 1 8 -1 3 5 7 0 5 o n 3 1 M a y 2 0 1 8 . D o w n lo a d e d fro m http://pmj.bmj.com/ http://pmj.bmj.com/ 370 Launer J. Postgrad Med J June 2018 Vol 94 No 1112 on reflection others – can worship, thus transcending pain.’ Juan FariLL ‘the most serious’ doCtor At the time she did the portrait, Frida had also begun to consult with an orthopaedic surgeon in Mexico City called Juan Farill. He was himself a painter and, like Eloesser, became her close friend. He carried out her last seven operations, including removal of a spinal plate and insertion of a bone graft from her pelvis. Later, he was also to take charge of her amputations. She wrote to Dr Eloesser to say that she trusted Farill because he seemed the ‘most serious’ of the five local doctors she had recently seen. He certainly looks serious in a remarkable photo that he and Frida posed for in her studio with her in a wheelchair and him standing protectively behind her (see figure 2). On an easel in the back- ground there is a votive self-portrait she completed in thanks for recovering from her bone graft. It shows her sitting in front of a further easel displaying a painting of Farill.7 Each of the three nested images are rich in meaning. Farill gazes into the distance in both of his images, while Frida engages the viewer directly: somewhat contemplatively in the self-portrait, but with a little more sadness in real life, and possibly defiance. In the painted version of Farill, his eyebrows are joined together just like Frida’s, as if he had absorbed part of her identity. The poses in the photo carefully mirror those in the self-portrait. However, in the photo Frida is holding her everyday artist’s palette, while in the self-portrait it is painted over with a anatomical depiction of a heart. This looks as if it has been torn from her chest, and she seems to be offering it directly to Farill in the manner of an Aztec sacri- fice to the gods. The brushes in her other hand are like arrows or scalpels and drip with blood. The floral blouse that Frieda is wearing for the photo contrasts with the austere white one with silk tassels that she wears in the portrait. It is hard to imagine that Frida herself did not take charge of the entire composition in order to convey, as she always did, a sense of profound artistic control over the threats she faced of phys- ical and psychological disintegration. Three years after the photo was taken, Frida died at the age of only 47. She had developed bronchopneumonia and possibly suffered a pulmonary embolus. She may also have taken an intentional or accidental overdose of morphine. Leo Eloesser had moved to Mexico by this time, setting up a clinic to treat the disadvantaged, and donating his fees to charity. Dr Juan Farill pioneered contrast myelography for disc lesions, and arte- riography for bone tumours, as well as the skeletal traction Frida had used. He went on to publish a total of 87 scientific and popular works. As well as being one of the most exceptional cultural figures of the twentieth century, Frida Kahlo had chosen as her chief doctors, as confidants and companions, and as subjects for her own portraits, two quite extraordinary men. Competing interests None declared Patient consent Not required. Provenance and peer review Commissioned; internally peer reviewed. © Article author(s) (or their employer(s) unless otherwise stated in the text of the article) 2018. All rights reserved. No commercial use is permitted unless otherwise expressly granted. to cite Launer J. Postgrad Med J 2018;94:369–370. Received 5 March 2018 Accepted 5 March 2018 Postgrad Med J 2018;94:369–370. doi:10.1136/postgradmedj-2018-135705 RefeRences 1 Herrera H. Frida: the biography of Frida Kahlo. New York: Harper and Row, 1983. 2 Open Culture. Watch moving short films of Frida Kahlo and Diego Rivera at the “Blue House”. 2013 http://www. openculture. com/ 2013/ 01/ emotionally- moving_ short_ film_ of_ frida_ kahlo_ and_ diego_ rivera_ at_ the_ blue_ house. html (accessed 24 Feb 2018). 3 De Cortanze G, Audric L. Frida Kahlo: the Gisèle Freund photographs. New York: Abrams, 2015. http://www. missmoss. co. za/ 2015/ 03/ 31/ frida- kahlo- the- gisele- freund- photographs/ (accessed 24 Feb 2018). 4 Reef C. Leo and Frida: the doctor and the artist. Stanford Medicine 2013 http:// sm. stanford. edu/ archive/ stanmed/ 2013summer/ article8. html (accessed 24 Feb 2018). 5 Blaidsdell W. Leo Eloesser: the remarkable story of a medical volunteer in Spain. The Volunteer 2016 http:// www. albavolunteer. org/ 2016/ 12/ leo- eloesser- the- remarkable- story- of- a- medical- volunteer- in- spain/ (accessed 24 Feb 2018). 6 Frida Kahlo: Paintings, Biography, Quotes. Portrait of Dr Leo Eloesser, 1931 - by Frida Kahlo. https://www. fridakahlo. org/ portrait- of- dr- leo- eloesser. jsp (accessed 24 Feb 2018). 7 Frida Kahlo: Paintings, Biography, Quotes. Self-portrait with the portrait of Doctor Farill, 1951 - by Frida Kahlo. https://www. fridakahlo. org/ self- portrait- with- the- portrait- of- doctor- farill. jsp (accessed 24 Feb 2018). Figure 2 Frida Kahlo in her studio with Dr Juan Farill, photographed by Gisèle Freund, 1951.   © Banco de México Diego Rivera Frida Kahlo Museums Trust, Mexico, D.F. / DACS 2018. o n A p ril 5 , 2 0 2 1 b y g u e st. P ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://p m j.b m j.co m / P o stg ra d M e d J: first p u b lish e d a s 1 0 .1 1 3 6 /p o stg ra d m e d j-2 0 1 8 -1 3 5 7 0 5 o n 3 1 M a y 2 0 1 8 . D o w n lo a d e d fro m http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1136/postgradmedj-2018-135705&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2018-05-28 http://www.openculture.com/2013/01/emotionally-moving_short_film_of_frida_kahlo_and_diego_rivera_at_the_blue_house.html http://www.openculture.com/2013/01/emotionally-moving_short_film_of_frida_kahlo_and_diego_rivera_at_the_blue_house.html http://www.openculture.com/2013/01/emotionally-moving_short_film_of_frida_kahlo_and_diego_rivera_at_the_blue_house.html http://www.missmoss.co.za/2015/03/31/frida-kahlo-the-gisele-freund-photographs/ http://www.missmoss.co.za/2015/03/31/frida-kahlo-the-gisele-freund-photographs/ http://www.missmoss.co.za/2015/03/31/frida-kahlo-the-gisele-freund-photographs/ http://sm.stanford.edu/archive/stanmed/2013summer/article8.html http://sm.stanford.edu/archive/stanmed/2013summer/article8.html http://www.albavolunteer.org/2016/12/leo-eloesser-the-remarkable-story-of-a-medical-volunteer-in-spain/ http://www.albavolunteer.org/2016/12/leo-eloesser-the-remarkable-story-of-a-medical-volunteer-in-spain/ http://www.albavolunteer.org/2016/12/leo-eloesser-the-remarkable-story-of-a-medical-volunteer-in-spain/ https://www.fridakahlo.org/portrait-of-dr-leo-eloesser.jsp https://www.fridakahlo.org/portrait-of-dr-leo-eloesser.jsp https://www.fridakahlo.org/self-portrait-with-the-portrait-of-doctor-farill.jsp https://www.fridakahlo.org/self-portrait-with-the-portrait-of-doctor-farill.jsp http://pmj.bmj.com/ Frida Kahlo and her doctors Leo Eloesser ‘my best friend’ Juan Farill ‘the most serious’ doctor References 
work_afvq3evub5di5amme7aycjh3je	----	105 2 / 2018 ISSN 2533-2899 https://doi.org/10.26375/disegno.2.2018.13 The Perspective. A Matter of Points of View Federico Fallavollita Introduction The starting point of the research was a lesson for chil- dren aged between 8 and 14 years under Unijunior. “Uni- que in Italy, Unijunior was born with the ambitious goal of bringing the youngest children closer to study important subjects, using simple and familiar tools to the child such as practical experience, play and entertainment. Unijunior sti- mulates the curiosity of the child by leveraging the natural instinct of exploration that spurs him to know the world, finding answers to his endless questions and fulfilling his priority needs” [1]. The occasion was an opportunity to gain some expe- riences of perspective and stereotomy. To illustrate the properties of the perspective and, at the same time, to illustrate some characteristics of the human perception of space, a plastic of polystyrene was designed, which was then realized by means of a numerical control wire cutting machine. The intent is twofold: the first, to explain to children, through the design of the room, what the drawing of ar- chitecture is and how it differs from the commonly un- derstood drawing; the second, equally important, consists in demonstrating the illusory power of perspective, which derives from the modalities of visual perception. The first part of the article, briefly describes the lesson given to the children, with some other insights on the theoretical issues addressed, which obviously could not be included in the lesson. The second part describes the design and construction of the Ames room. Abstract This article presents a study that preceded a lesson for the Department of Architecture of Bologna held to children between eight and fourteen years of age, , as part of an initiative by the University for the dissemination of science. The study presents some expe- riences of perspective and stereotomy. Among the objectives of the research is to explain to children, through playing, the illusory power of perspective and, therefore, the deceptions to which the human perception of space is subjected. For this purpose a small Ames room was built, studying its decomposition in parts, in a sort of contemporary stereotomy. In the first part of the article, the lesson given to the children is briefly presented, as well as some insights on the theoretical issues addressed, which obviously could not be included in the lesson. In the second part, of the study, design and construction of the Ames room are described. Keywords: Ames Room; Descriptive Geometry; Mirror; Perception; Stereotomy 106 2 / 2018 Synopsis of the Lecture for Children The original title of the lesson for children (The world as it is and the world as it appears) is inspired by methods of representation of architecture. As is known, these methods are used to accurately descri- be and transmit forms in space and also allow us to study the mutual relations and the properties of these forms. The graphic methods are: representation in double or- thogonal projections, axonometry and perspective. These methods have been complemented by digital representa- tions: numerical and mathematical. We will not talk about the latter, because their peculiar characteristics do not change the substance of the topics covered [2]. The first two methods, i.e. the so-called parallel projections, serve to describe the ‘world as it is’. The third method, or per- spective, serves to describe the ‘world as it appears’. In fact, the architect uses the plan, the section and the ele- vation to design and measure space. He also uses axono- metry to understand the relationship between volumes and the mechanism of relationships between shapes in space. Parallel projections serve, therefore, to control the metric and formal aspects of space in an environment that is isotropic and homogeneous as space itself. But man does not see three-dimensional forms as they are: man sees space through the filter of perspective, that is, of projection that transforms the three-dimensional world into the images collected by the eye [3]. And so it beco- mes vital to be able to describe space as it actually appears to the human eye and for this purpose the architect em- ploys perspective. To explain what a perspective is, just think of a photo- graph, and the functioning of the eye is analogous to that of a camera. However, it would be wrong to think that the phenomenon of vision is limited to these passages of optical-mechanical nature, because, as we shall see shortly, it is the brain that processes the images collected by the eye and it is in the brain that the deceptions of perspective are produced. In truth, the perspective question we have just touched is very controversial. We can say that there are two main distinct schools of thought. The first considers perspective (linear and relief) only a scientific method to produce images (static or dynamic) that have the right to exist only as a product of human ingenuity, but which are not able to evoke the perception of space. Fig. 1. Pablo Picasso, Guitar with violin, 1913. Violin by Antonio Stradivari, technical drawing. 107 2 / 2018 The second, on the other hand, considers perspective as a scientific method capable not only of describing the forms in space, but also of describing them in such a way as to evoke, in the observer, the natural vision. In other words, according to the first school, the perspecti- va naturalis, i.e. the vision, and the perspectiva artificialis, i.e. the perspective representation, are distinct and in conflict, because vision is conditioned by peculiarities, such as the curvature of the retina, that the perspectiva artificialis does not simulate (but the question would take us too far and refer to the bibliography for further study). The second school, on the other hand, affirms that the perspectiva artificialis, discovered in the Italian Renaissance and developed to this day, is one and corresponds to the natural vision of man, being perfectly able to imitate it in its many forms, also through stereoscopy and the dynamics of cinematographic images. In theory, an experiment could be carried out that would put an end to the dispute, but we are currently unable to put it into practice [4]. The experiment would consist in taking two photographs from a certain point of view. The first natural photograph should be taken by our eye and proposed in the mental processing of the observer. The second artificial one could be taken through a camera or built, geometrically, using the perspective method. The author is convinced that the overlapping of the two pho- tographs, the natural and the artificial ones, would be per- fect. Something very similar to this experiment was done by Filippo Brunelleschi in the early years of the fifteenth century [Fields 2005]. The difference between the two schools of thought is not a minor difference, as it involves a different vision of the history of representation and architecture. There is an important literature on this subject and the well-known essay Perspective as Symbolic Form of Erwin Panofsky of 1927 could be considered the progenitor of the long dispute [Panofsky 1961]. Today, the most recent studies on human visual perception affirm that man interacts with his surrounding reality throu- gh the five senses but sees reality through his own brain [5]. In other words, we never see the world as it is but we see it as our brain reconstructs it, comparing the images it receives from the eye with the models it has memorized in the evolutionary age [6]. The science that describes the methods of representation is descriptive geometry. This name is due to a French engineer and mathematician of the revolution, Gaspard Monge [7]. For years this discipline has been taught in schools and universities by engineers and then mathematicians. In the last forty years, however, especially in Italy, descriptive geometry is studied and taught only by architects and engineers. We do not want to elaborate Fig. 2. The mirror image and the ‘twin game’. 108 2 / 2018 Fig. 3. The real world where our ‘alter ego’ is and the reflected world where our ‘twin’ is. 109 2 / 2018 here the historical motivations of this change: let’s just say that mathematicians have lost interest in the drawing and power of vision, even if, in the last years, thanks to the advent of digital technology, they show curiosity, if nothing else in the evocative power of images, whether realistic or symbolic. What is the difference between the drawing of an archi- tect and the drawing commonly understood as that of an artist or a painter? To respond effectively (to children) it was decided to com- pare two representations of the same object. If we look at Pablo Picasso’s Guitar and Violin painting we might think, at first glance, that the painter was not good at drawing or did not really like musical instruments [8]. Naturally, neither of the two statements are true. Picasso was a great drawer and was a great lover of music. The other figure shows the technical drawing of a violin by Antonio Stradivari (fig.1). The difference between the two drawings, that is between that of a painter and that of an architect (or a designer), is that the former interprets the form in a subjective way and transmits this emotion to the observer for empathy, while the latter, the technical drawing, measures the form and transmits it as an objective datum, aiming to remove any margin of ambiguity. This drawing must be transmis- sible and have a bijective relationship with the reality it represents: in other words, given a plan representation and elevation, to that correspond, in reality, the object repre- sented and, vice versa, given a real object, it is possible to draw a plan and an elevation that match it. Likewise, the fundamental characteristic of architectural drawing is to incorporate the code that allows us to move from reality to model and vice versa. But can an architect use the free sketch to express his ideas as a painter? Yes, even the architect can use the drawing in a freer way, but only to follow with his mind, as with a pencil or computer, the representation of that space that can and must be measured and constructed. Therefore, when designing a house, the method of dou- ble orthogonal projections is generally used to invent and measure space. It is also possible to accompany this study with axonometric representations to well define the vo- lumes, the relationships between the parts and to better analyse the space. Furthermore, it is often advisable to construct a physical model, to check volumes and propor- tions in scale. The perspective, instead, is used to study the perception of space, or to understand how that space will be seen and experienced, even from an emotional point of view. The children seem to have appreciated the scientific part of the class in which the projective principles of drawing are described. The operations that define drawing are the projection and the section. To get a drawing, we have to imagine that the sheet of paper is the picture plane, like the screen of the cinema or the computer, and there is a projection centre out of the picture plane. The image is obtained by projecting the object through the centre and dissecting the line star that derives from the picture. There may be two Fig. 4. The size of our mirror image is always equal to the half of our real height. 110 2 / 2018 Fig. 5. Rendering of the constrained view of the Ames room digital model. cases: in the first one the projection centre is a point that has a finite distance from the picture; in the second case, the projection centre has an infinite distance from the pic- ture, i.e. it is very far : it is the direction of the projecting straight lines. In the first case the drawing is a perspective, otherwise called the central projection. In the second case, i.e. the parallel projection, the drawing can be a plan, a prospect or an axonometry. In conclusion, the former case serves to study the world as it appears and the latter serves to study the world as it is. A good architect is able to manage both situations well. However, the perspective view can be misleading, because sometimes the world is not exactly what it looks like! What is the perspective machine we use every day? The first answer that comes to mind might be the mobile phone camera. Well no, there is a perspective machine that we use every day from before the advent of mobile pho- ne; this machine is the mirror (fig. 2). The mirror recreates a parallel world beyond the glass, still three-dimensional, which is exactly symmetrical of the real world. In the mor- ning, when we wash or get dressed, we all usually mirror each other. Have you ever wondered how big your mirror image is? Well, this image is no smaller when we move away and neither is it bigger when we approach the mirror. Our reflected image is always the same size and measures a specific quantity. To understand the problem we can ima- gine to observe our alter ego in front of the mirror and reconstruct the virtual world that is created beyond the mirror (fig. 3). There are two worlds: in the real one there are us and in the virtual one there is our twin. The only difference is that if we are right-handed our twin will be left-handed or vice-versa. In other words, in the symmetry of the mirror the right and the left exchange roles. If we look at the figure, it is easy to see that the distance betwe- en us and the mirror, and between this and our twin is the same and does not change with our distance from the mirror : if we approach the mirror, even our twin will ap- proach the mirror in equal measure. If we now look at the projective triangle that forms our image, it is equally easy to see that the height of our image does not change with the change of the distance from the mirror : this height is a constant and is always half of the real one. To conclude, the measurement of our mirror image is always equal to half our height (fig. 4). To test this surprising truth, all we need to do is measure our own image on a mirror : two small si- gns are enough, above and below, to prove that this image will always be half our height whether we move away or approach the mirror. The second experience, which I want to propose, to test the illusory power of the perspective vision is Ames room. Fig. 6. Fig. 6. Projective construction of the Ames room model. 111 2 / 2018 Fig. 7. The mathematical model of the Ames room. 112 2 / 2018 Adalbert Ames Jnr. was an American ophthalmologist expert in optics. He is known for his experiments on visual perception which explained some fundamental principles of the visual perception. Demonstrations began in Hanno- ver in 1938 and were carried out with the University of Princeton. These experiments are still reproduced in many departments of psychology and museums worldwide. Among these experiments, the best known and particularly peculiar is the Ames room. The existence of this space was theorized for the first time by Fiermann von Helmholtz in 1866. He realized that objects of a multitude of different shapes and sizes can re- turn to the eye the same image , and that a distorted room, constructed to return to the eye the same image of a rectangular room, may result in the perspective view iden- tical to a regular room. The merit of Ames was to have built this distorted room and to have included two subjects in the room, studying its effects also on a group of volunteers. Observing the space of the room from the special hole, one gets the impression of being in front of a perfectly regular room. But if we put two subjects inside the room or facing the two windows at the back, we realize that so- mething is wrong (fig. 5). One seems to be much bigger than the other or, conversely, if they change place, the they also change size. We are so used to perceiving size and space in a certain way, that at first we cannot see that space is deformed and that we are not facing a regular space but a trapezoidal room. This space is specially constructed according to the projection centre which is positioned exactly in the centre of the hole. The illusion of finding ourselves in front of a perfectly regular space is disorienting; we just need to ob- serve the space on the opposite side to immediately realize the trick. But the most unusual feature of this experience is that even if the trick is known, the illusion does not lose its effecti- veness at all: we cannot see the distortion of the room and we continue to perceive the two subjects one much smaller than the other or, vice versa, one much larger than the other. Ames is convinced that there is a memory of perception that conditions human perception, that is, the habit of living in regular spaces influences our vision and our perception. There are other theories and explanations in this regard but until now a conclusive and convincing the- ory that can explain this phenomenon well has not been formulated [9]. As far as we are concerned, these two experiences tell how important it is for an architect to know how to obser- ve and represent shapes in space, both in their real form and in their appearance. Fig. 8. Images of the constrained view of the polystyrene model of the Ames room. 113 2 / 2018 The Construction of the Ames Room Compared to the many Ames room models built in mu- seums, this Room was designed in parts and made of a single material. This choice, as mentioned, was dictated by the need to test the use of polystyrene and make the mo- del safe for children. To model the Ames room, the following procedure must be followed. You design a regular room as you like, that is, a rectangular prismatic space that has all the walls perpendicular to each other. To make the illusion more effective you can design two regular openings on the front wall of the room. On the opposite side, on the anterior wall, chose the position of the optical hole and projection centre of the transfor- mation. It would be a good idea to choose the height of the projection centre at the height of a man’s point of view. In the case study examined this height was calculated at the height of a child. In order to construct the transformed prism, or Ames room, it is necessary to respect the planarity of all the faces. This geometric characteristic is respected if the four faces perpendicular to the front plane, once the prism has been transformed, belong to a pyramid which has the apex on the axis perpendicular to the front wall passing through the projection centre (fig. 6). In fact, only respecting this geometric condition the four faces will all be flat: otherwi- se, one or more of the faces will turn into hyperbolic paraboloids. Ultimately, in order to easily control the transformation, you can draw the pyramid axis first. The vertex of the pyramid can be chosen on this axis: the more the ver- tex will be close to the anterior wall, the more impor- tant the projective transformation will be and vice versa. You choose a vertical edge of the front wall to maintain a fixed position. You select an upper (or lower) vertex of the other vertical edge and project it (from the projection centre) until you meet the straight line passing through the apex of the pyramid and the upper (or lower) vertex of the anterior wall. This sets the position of the transformed vertical corner. The remaining side faces must all belong to the apex of the pyramid, or pass through that point; while the anterior and front faces are sections, always flat, of the pyramid. To construct the windows of the wall placed in front of the observer it is possible to project (from the centre of projection) on the transformed wall itself the vertices of the edges. All edges parallel to the axis of the regular prism are transformed into lines that still belong to the apex of the pyramid. The model was designed with ashlars so that it can be assembled and disassembled (like a dry-stone wall) in a short time. To construct the room, a mathematical model was first created and from this model the measurements of the in- dividual ashlars were obtained (fig. 7). The scale of the mo- del was dictated by two factors. The first was to make the children protagonists of the experience and to do so the model of the room had to be large enough. The second was dictated by reasons of external space, i.e. the model had to be small enough to easily enter inside the entrance space of the main hall of the Psychological Faculty of the University of Bologna. The final model is a room of about two meters by three, inside of which it is not possible to walk (as in the original Ames room) but it is possible to look out of the windows and observe the space directly (fig. 8). Another fundamental choice was to build the model entirely in polystyrene in order to experiment with the construction of the ashlars using a wire cutting machine; moreover, as I already said, polystyrene is a light and safe material for children [10]. Each ashlar has been designed and modelled conside- ring the projection centre: observing the space from the projection centre , the ashlars appear to divide the space in a regular way according to the conventional horizontal and vertical directions. In reality, the ashlars are all skewed and the faces that form such parts are not perpendicular to each other. Initially we tried to realize the skewed segments making only two cuts. This solution, however, was immediately dis- carded after the first attempt. In fact, to obtain this result, the machine for processing the oblique cut had to move the two motors that carry the wire independently; doing this, however, the wire stretched too much, until it breaks. Consequently, we decided to let the motors work to- gether and in parallel so as to avoid breaking or loosening the wire. To obtain this result, we had to calculate the angle betwe- en the planes that form the various individual ashlars and the exact size of the regular volume that enclose each pie- ce (fig. 9). Starting with a piece of regular polystyrene, equal to the overall volume of the single ashlar, the various cuts were made separately, each time placing a worked piece in the 114 2 / 2018 machine chamber according to the calculated angles. The cuts were also designed to fit the various dry-ashlars to- gether. The final model is dry-mounted in about twenty minutes and can be dismantled just as easily to transport it (fig. 10). The floor has been designed as a checkerboard to accen- tuate the illusion of a regular space. Conclusions Through the game and the direct experience of space, we illustrated the illusory power of perspective and experien- ced the stereometric construction of a small Ames room. The children’s response was positive, that is they seemed to have understood and appreciated the experiments on perspective. The lesson on the world as it is and the world as it appears will be repeated next year for the new edition of Unijunior 2018. In the future, the idea is to be able to design and construct other models that can stimulate the study of visual perception and space. Regarding the question of perspective and vision, there are still open questions that would be interesting to investigate. Perspective continues to be a stimulating and mysterious theme: each time it is dealt with, it reveals its elusive and profound nature that has ancient roots. Today, living in the digital age, we have the opportunity to simulate the construction of various models and can study their potential. However, the need to physically build models that allow direct experience of those deceptions is even more surprising. Perhaps one day we will be able to definitively unravel the question of perspective artificialis and naturalis. Or the case will simply remain a matter of perspective points of view. However, we cannot forget that the experiences and research described here have been realized thanks to the geometric theory of perspective. The fact that the two experiments, the twins and the Ames room, are effective seems to bring a further element in favour of the existence of a single perspective that corresponds to the human sensible vision. Fig. 9. Schematic illustration of the cutting stages for the construction of a polystyrene ashlar. Fig. 10. Building of the polystyrene model at the entrance hall of the Aula Magna of Psicology faculty, University of Bologna. 115 2 / 2018 Acknowledgments I would like to thank the architect and technical manager Davide Giaffreda and the collaborator Marika Mangano for the indispensable help in the de- sign and construction of Ames Room’s polystyrene model. The model was built entirely with the tools of the Department of Architecture; in particular, the model was realized within the Laboratory Lamo of the Department of Architecture of Cesena, scientific director Francesco Gulinello. Thanks to Fabrizio Ivan Apollonio and Riccardo Foschi for the publication of the photos. Thanks also to Valentina Orioli who has supported the initiative. Notes [1] The internet website of the Unijunior association is: <http://www.uniju- nior.it/> (accessed 2018, February 20). [2] The digital methods are basically two: the method of mathematical re- presentation and the method of numerical representation. The mathema- tical method describes continuously and accurately the geometric shapes in space. NURBS mathematics is the most widely implemented to describe curves and surfaces in mathematical modeling programs. On the other hand, the numerical or polygonal method describes the shapes in space in a discrete and approximate way. Polygonal shapes or mesh shapes are used to describe curves and surfaces in polygon modeling programs. Of course the two methods have advantages and disadvantages that make them suitable for some purposes. Mathematical modeling is generally used in the design phase and to accurately construct and measure shapes in space. In this sense we can say that mathematical representation is the equivalent of the two parallel projections in classical methods, namely the representation in plan and elevation and axonometry. While numerical re- presentation is generally used to visualize and formally study shapes in spa- ce, ie to construct static and dynamic perspective and static and dynamic rendering. In this sense we can say that numerical representation is the equivalent of perspective in classical methods. Today we speak commonly of BIM or of the generative parametric representation (for example the use of visual programming languages like Grasshopper). The latter digital representations can be considered as digital representation techniques and not real methods. They do not change the geometric nature of the objects described; which can be mathematical, polygonal and hybrid. Furthermore, both techniques can be used to obtain accurate or approximate models. Unfortunately, at the state of the art there is no univocal consensus on the classification of digital methods at national and international level. The reason is naturally due to the novelty of these methods and techniques and the rapid development that these techniques are having over the years. [3] In this context ‘perceiving’ has the meaning proposed by Italian Dictio- nary Zinagarelli 2018, that is: ‘grasp the data of reality through the senses’. To avoid misunderstandings in this article I will use the terms ‘to see’ and ‘perceive’ strictly with the first meaning reported in the Italian language dictionary. It is natural that man is able to imagine and see space also in axonometry (and in double orthogonal projections). For some cultures such as Asian, in particular the Chinese and Japanese, the parallel projection method has been the main method of representing the surrounding world. And perhaps it is no coincidence that when man designs and analyses space, he is naturally led to use and prefer parallel projections. [4] There is an episode of a British television series, Black Mirror, released in 2011 in which a situation is described that recalls the experiment men- tioned. The third and final episode of the first season, entitled Hazardous Memories, is set in an alternative reality, where most people have a grain implanted behind the ear, which records everything that is done, seen or heard. This allows memories to be played in front of the owner’s eyes or on a screen through a process known as ‘re-do’, just like videos. It seems that this grain is implanted since newborns, but that a person can decide to have it removed. [5] Here the verb ‘to see’ is to be understood in a broader sense. [6] In this sense it is sufficient to think about how natural it is for man to imagine and read space in axonometry. Beau Lotto, in his essay [Lotto 2017], while not making any direct reference to the perspective, describes numerous examples that demonstrate how man reconstructs in his mind what he sees. In conclusion, even the latest theories of perception do not seem to help us on the question of perspective. Nevertheless, the scientific theses supporting the existence of a naturalis perspective different from the artificialis one are not conclusive [Gioseffi 1957]. [7] To deepen the notions and the history of Gaspard Monge and descrip- tive geometry refer to Cardone [Cardone 2017]. With regard to descripti- ve geometry and the ‘scuola romana’ refer to Migliari [Migliari 2010]. [8] Picasso’s painting is from 1912. While the technical drawing of the violin refers to one of the instruments construct by the well-known Italian luthier Antonio Stradivari (1644-1737). [9] Gregory says that with the Ames room it is possible to put in place an experiment that is perhaps even more disturbing and it is able to challenge a fundamental law of physics. Simply take two objects, like two balls, and drop them. We will then see the two spheres falling at different times defying the gravitational law. Even in this case, at first glance, the impression is to be in front of objects that do not respect the same physical laws and we can not perceive that the height from which the two objects were dropped were different [Gregory 1994]. [10] The machine of the Laboratory Lamo (Laboratorio modelli di Ar- chiettura) of University of Bologna is the model 120P Box of Nettuno Sistemi; <http://www.nettunosistemi.it/120pbox.php> (accessed 2018, February 20). Author Federico Fallavollita, Department of Architecture, University of Bologna, federico.fallavolllita@unibo.it 116 2 / 2018 Reference List Cardone, V. (2017). Gaspard Monge padre dell’ingegnere contemporaneo. Roma: DEI Editore. Gioseffi, D. (1957). Perspectiva Artificialis. Per la storia della prospettiva. Spigo- lature e appunti. Trieste: Istituto di Storia dell’Ar te Antica e Moderna, n. 7. Gregory, R.L. (1994). Even odder perceptions. London and New York: Routledge. Fields, J.V. (2005). Piero della Francesca. A Mathematician’s Art. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. Lotto, B. (2017). Percezioni. Come il cervello costruisce il mondo. Torino: Bollati Boringhieri. Migliari, R. (2010). La scuola romana della Geometria descrittiva nella Facoltà di Architettura (1920-2000). In Carlevaris, L., De Carlo, L., Migliari, R. (eds.). Attualità della geometria descrittiva, pp. 89-96. Roma: Gangemi editore. Panofsky, E. (1961). La prospettiva come forma simbolica e altri scrit- ti. Milano: Feltrinelli. [Fir ts ed. Die Perspektive als “symbolische Form”. Leipzig-Berlin 1927]. 105-116_Fallavollita_ENG_20180618 (1) 
work_ajmbjncxtjef3nro377lbzpggy	----	CSE 2020.1 PUBLISH.pdf 110 Weak #Preemies are #MIRACLES #FIGHTERS: Hashtaged Coupling-Metaphors as Instantiations of Bonding Affiliation Rania Magdi Fawzy* 1. Introduction choose how to respond to our hardships. In unfortunate circumstances we can et al. 2018, p. 267). This paper aims to explore the functions of coupling metaphors tweets and the resulting ambient affiliation bonding. In other words, the study seeks to shed some light on the different constructions of tagging practices that help in identifying conceptual metaphors related to the target domain of PREEMIES. The analysis of metaphors in the context of hard situations and human emotions is gaining more attention recently (Black, 2016; Kovecses, 2003; Otis, 2019). Central to Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT) (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980) is the notion that metaphorical references give expression to people usually evaluate the situation using emotionally-laden metaphors (Hendricks et al., 2018). Scholars have investigated the ways in which metaphors have an influential role in shaping the ways through which people emotionally appraise and cope with hard situations. Hendricks et al. (2018), for instance, nce that the person can make peace with their illness. However, less attention has been given to metaphors function in invoking attitude (Liu, 2018) and the resulted affiliated bonds of their employment. This gap is the focus in this paper. Hashtags are clear examples of the alignment resources embedded in social media platforms. In this regard, the current paper aims to examine how hashtags are used to negotiate a coupling metaphorical instantiation of the values positioned in corpus of Twitter posts about preemies. The study attempts to explore how parents and families of preemies employ attitudinal couplings as * Lecturer in the College of Languages and Communication (CLC), Arab Academy for Science, Technology and Maritime Transport, Egypt. Cairo Studies in English 2020(1): https://cse.journals.ekb.eg/ Rania Magdi Fawzy 111 2018) of emotional support and hope. In doing so, the paper extends the work of Knight (2010a, 2010b, 2013) on coupling and the work of Zappavigna and Martin (2018) on communing affiliation so as to account for the negotiated affiliation and social bonding in preemie tweets. Hashtags afford interpersonal alignment, which, in turn, invokes a potential network of ambient community (Zappavigna, 2015; Zappavigna and Martin, 2018). They coordinate and emphasize the values constructed in a given Twitter post (Zappavigna and Martin, 2018). Nevertheless, hashtags carry heteroglossic (Bakhtin, 1981) realisations, positioning online communities around particular values, events and themes. Commenting on the functionality of hashtags, Zappavigna and Martin (2018) argue that hashtags facilitate the analysis of particular discourse when used as a search term for sampling posts over a specific time period from the social stream. That said, this paper considers hashtags for their interpersonal and ideational functions in expressing attitudinal stance (Zappavigna, 2012, 2015, 2017, 2018). Ideational/Interpersonal functions positioned as socially alignable. Following Zappavigna and Martin (2018), the current article examines hashtags as in-text annotators which are used to enhance social affiliation around values about preemies. 2. Background Information Premature birth describes the condition when a baby is born too early, before 37 weeks of pregnancy have been completed. The earlier a baby is born, the higher the risk of death or serious disability. Babies who survive can have breathing issues, intestinal problems, and brain bleeding. Such babies also may develop long-term problems like developmental delay and lower performance in school. Premature babies are most often confined in a Neonatal Intensive Care Unit to catch up in growth. Babies may stay in the hospital until they reach the pregnancy due date. They may be cared for in a neonatal intensive care unit (NICU). According to Zappavigna (2011, 2012, 2014), affili refers to online social bonding where individuals interact indirectly and engage in mass practices such as hashtagging so as to experiencing particular kinds of Hashtaged Coupling Metaphors 112 3. Hashtags from a Linguistic Lens Hashtags can be perceived as narrative resources (Giaxoglou, 2018, p. 13). They are used as resources for sharing and story making (Androutsopoulos, 2014). Hashtags can be used to classify content into topics or areas of interest, performing both linguistic and metalinguistic functions (Giaxoglou, 2018, p. 13). Importantly, they serve as bonding affiliation for networked publics, enacting ambient community (Zappavigna, 2015, 2018). Hashtags can be identified as metalanguage markers which carry all the three metafunctions of Textual, Ideational and Interpersonal. Textually, they perform the role of punctuation and contextualising devices. Inserted and integrated into the content of a post as a prefix, infix or suffix (Tsur and Rappoport, 2012) or even as quotation marks (Heyd, 2014), hashtags classify, frame and contextualize contents (Martin and Zappavigna, 2018; Scott, 2018). Therefore, the Textual function of the hashtags relates to the organization of the post where hashtags function as a form of punctuation (Zappavigna 2015, p. 6). Furthermore, hashtags have Ideational and Interpersonal meaning relations. Ideationally, they indicate and highlight the topic of the post. Interpersonally, (Zappavigna 2015, p. 11). Significantly, due to their semiotic technological which enables online communities to be bonded by feelings of belonging and solidarity. From an Interpersonal perspective, hashtags link a given post with other posts sharing the same stance. Page (2012) calls these Ideational and - 187). Summing up and contextualizing the three metafunctions of hashtags, Wikstrom (2014, p. 130) argues that hashtags have eight social discursive functions: a. Topic tags, where the topic is determined by the hashtag: re I am awake because of stimulants, but actually b. Hashtag games, similar to topic hashtags in terms of classification function, but with the aim of participating in a social game: fake a great smile c. Meta-comments, where the hashtag makes a comment on the content of the tweet itself rather than creating an association with other tweets: Rania Magdi Fawzy 113 Yeah I order a small coffee at the daily drip but grab a large cup, so what? d. Parenthetical explanations/additions, where the hashtag adds information explaining the tweet: e. Emotive usage, where the hashtag supports emotional expression that might otherwise be realised through some form or paralinguistic cue: When I worked in offices, I felt like I was the ONLY ONE who ever made f. Emphatic usage, where the hashtag realises some form of intensification: g. Humorous and playful usage, including hashtags that support some form of joke structure, hyperbole, or self-conscious humorous self-reference, for example through excessive hashtaging: Guys my h. memes and popular culture references, where knowledge of a particular trend is needed to interpret the tag. An example of this kind of hashtaging is smploying the fail meme as a kind of humorous self-deprecation: 4. Research Questions Focusing on Twitter discourse about preemie, the study seeks to answer the following research questions and their sub-questions: 1. How do Twitter hashtags about preemies forge ambient online networks of hope and support? a. How do hashtaged couplings of Interpersonal attitudes and Ideations instantiate an ambient bond of affiliation among the preemi families? b. What are the encoded metaphoric repertoire resulted from the coupling instantiations? 2. How do preemie hashtags discharge participants from the position of sufferers and recharge them as supporters? a. How do Finessing networks converse the cognitive evaluation of the emotionally distressing situation of having a preemie? Hashtaged Coupling Metaphors 114 5. Methodology and Methods 5.1. Data Collection Stories and events on Twitter tend to be centred on a hashtag. Accordingly, data for the analysis are retrieved from Twitter research engine using the analysis 25 tweets qualitatively. Data are then captured by making screen shots of the entire thread. The author then copied the tweets into Microsoft Word to code the instances and linguistic triggers of Interpersonal attitudes and Ideation appearing in the texts, e.g., [positive Judgement: capacity] and [negative Ideation: painful experience]. Coding annotation is done following Martin and White (2005). 5.2. Research Procedures To answer the research questions, the study draws on the concepts of Coupling (Knight 2010a, b) and Communing Affiliation (Zappavigna and Martin, 2018) as its theoretical basis. It deploys these concepts to decode the Conceptual Metaphor (Lakoff, and Johnson, 1980) constituting the ambient udy comprises two main stages based on the adopted framework. In the first stage, the coupled resources of Interpersonal attitudes and Ideations are identified. In stage two, the resulted cognitive conceptualisation of these couplings is highlighted to decode the cognitive features of establishing an affiliated community of sufferers. For the purpose of the analysis, the tweets under - sections provide a detailed account of the adopted framework. 5.3. Theoretical Framework The general linguistic theory this paper draws on is Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) (Halliday, 1994). Of particular relevance within the tenet of SFL is the affiliation cline which assigns the evaluative couplings of [ATTITUDE + IDEATION], constructing a community of shared values and networks of bonding affiliations (see Figure 1 below). Accordingly, metaphorical encodings of the experience of having a preemie are discussed in terms of the couplings of Interpersonal and Ideational meanings. The ATTITUDINAL resources are defined within the Appraisal System as having three discursive regions: AFFECT (expressing emotion, e.g., love, disgust, fear, etc.), JUDGEMENT (assessing behaviour, e.g., competent, ethical, Rania Magdi Fawzy 115 trustworthy, etc.) and APPRECIATION (estimating value, e.g., beautiful, valuable, noteworthy, etc) (see Marin and White, 2005). When the network of evaluation is achieved through the shared couplings of [ATTITUDE + IDEATION], it constructs potential bonds calling together communities of shared ideological positioning. A bond in this context is by which we discursively construe our communal identities by laughing at, communing around or rejecting them through discourse in the p. 42). Such bonds can reach different levels of communities, from local communities to general communities (Knight, 2010b; Liu, 2018). Figure 2 is illustrative. Zappavigna and Martin (2018) apply the model of discursive system to reveal how particular values about depression are negotiated as bondable through social tagging practices (see Figure 3 in the next seciton). Their model identifies the key ways in which fered and modulated as part of They examine the role of social tagging in aligning networks of solidarity about depression. A detailed account of the theoretical framework adopted in the current study is presented in the following subsections. Figure 1. The affiliation cline of relations (Knight, 2010b) Figure 2. Affiliated coupling (Knight, 2010b) Hashtaged Coupling Metaphors 116 5.3.1. Coupling: Some Reflections on Lexical Metaphors. Coupling a 2008, p. 39). actualized as patterns of couplings of Ideation and Attitudinal resources. Knight (2010, p. involves a coupling of the I A [IDEATION: apple pie / ATTITUDE: positive Appreciation] The symbo I and infused together to instantiate a value that can be shared and negotiated by interlocutors. The following table is illustrative: Table 1 Positive evaluation of a pie party in a casual conversation (cited in Zappavigna and Martin, 2018 as adapted from Knight, 2010b). commune around a bond realised by a coupling of intensified positive appreciation of a pie party that they regularly p 2010b, p. 219). Combining Attitudinal resources with Ideation, couplings can tell about how interactants share and interpret values (Knight 2010b, p. 40). Therefore, analysing couplings enables one to come up with the aspects of identity negotiated through social networking and shared values. The concept of coupling is of a particular relevance to the current study since tweets. The type of coupling the paper focuses on is that instantiated between the Interpersonal system of discourse, particularly the Attitudinal and the Engagement resources, and the Rania Magdi Fawzy 117 Ideational system. The couplings of choices from these discourse systems, the paper argues, negotiate a metaphorical parents and families into shared community of hope. As is the case of the built in coupling, metaphors accumulation constructs affiliative bonds for writers and readers for com p. 3). 5.3.2. Bonding Affiliation. Zappavigna and affiliation identifies how values are positioned, through hashtags, as socially alignable in three ways: by being directed at particular communities (Convoking), entering into relationships with other potential value positions (Finessing) and being foregrounded interpersonally in various ways (Promoting), (see Figure 3). The values of Convoking, Finessing, and Promoting are presented as shareable through hashtags that convoke or call together potential personae or communities. Convoking marks the network of meaning concerning the ways in which a Twitter post brings together a community to bond around a coupling. According to Zappavigna and Martin (2018, p. convocation) alludes to the role that systems of address (e.g., vocatives) play for directing proposals and propositions at particular interlocutors in dialogic exchange . Tweeting, in this sense, convokes a community or, in the words of Zappavigna and oying hashtags. Within the convoke system, hashtags have both Ideational and Interpersonal functions. For example, the hashtag #depression, if viewed from an Ideational perspective, indicates that this Figure 3.. The system of communing affiliation (Zappavigna & Martin, 2018) Hashtaged Coupling Metaphors 118 post is about depression. If viewed from an Interpersonal perspective, hashtag then functions as a link that relates the post with other posts sharing the same stance. Essentially, the concept of communing affiliation, as suggested by Martin and Zappavigna, enacts p. 64) which positions users of the ambient environments around aligned values. In this regard, hashtags emphasize how values are negotiated in interaction. This is related to the notion of Finessing which is concerned with how Ideation-evaluation values are modulated through heteroglossic contraction (Not) coupling: and Martin, 2018, p. 9), (see Figure 4). Hashtags also can interpersonally promote, or in other words emphasize, a coupling in a tweet, performing the same function of upscaling attitude within the resources of Graduation proposed by Martin and White (2005). 6. Analysis 6.1. Convoking Communities of SUPER PREEMIES Hashtaging the word preemie convokes a potential ambient community that has the same parental experience and use the same tag. The convoking metaphorical network is achieved in the tweets tagged #preemie through the coupling formulation of [negative Ideation: health problem/Attitude: positive Judgement(capacity) and/or positive Appreciation (valuation)]. Such a metaphorical coupling instantiates an ambient community which believes in PREEMIES AS SUPERHEROES. The following examples are illustrative: a. Your strength [positive Judgement: capacity] has taught [positive Appreciation: insightful experience] us the meaning of patience, And not to rush things that need time to grow. As we breathe in the delicate NICU air [negative Appreciation: hard experience], We are forever changed by your early arrival [negative Ideation: health problem]. [negative Ideation: health problem] [positive Appreciation: valuation] Figure 4. Invoking an opposing coupling through engagement together with a hashtag Rania Magdi Fawzy 119 b. 2 years ago we were told our 1 Ib baby [negative Ideation: physical deficieny] superhero [positive Judgement: capacity] defied the odds then and continues to do so now c. fighter [positive Judgement: capacity] Although acknowledged ideationally as being both physical deficiency and distressing parental experience, preemie babies are metaphorized positively as insightful experience, superheroes and fighters. Accordingly, tweets about preemies convoke a community that shares the view of preemies as strong human beings and sometimes superheroes that can defeat all the odds and survive. Hashtags of the previous examples act as topic tags, contextualizing the topic of the utterance. Moreover, the tweets under discussion convoke associations of SUPER POWERS by negotiating metaphorical religious references. Consider the following tweets: a. Happy Birthday to my little angel [positive Judgement: veracity] Maya. This time 4 years ago Maya weighed 940g [negative Ideation] and was fighting for her life. Thank you @WestHertsNHS Watford SCBU Team for saving my little angel s life. [positive Judegement: capacity] b. We are surrounded by miracles [positive Judgement: veracity] everyday. c. [negative Ideation]. Look how grown up he looks now :) In the words of Delmy: Miracles [positive Judgement: veracity] d. Hashtaged Coupling Metaphors 120 The couplings of these examples draw on quasi-religious metaphors to forge social affiliation of believers in the religious message behind having a preemie. This metaphorical coupling of [positive Attitudinal religious values (angels and miracles) + Ideation experience of preemies] construes an ambient community of believers in the religious values. The fourth example, which is worth to be screenshot as it is, carries a metaphorical orientation to dictionaries. Such a dictionary-like simile acts as a Promotion technique, upscaling the containned religious references (heaven and miracle). Thus, the tweets carry the stance that delivering a preemie is a message from God to make people believe that miracles do happen. Significantly, p. 141), - along the entire clause of the tweet. It is worth noting that the Convoking system in these examples assumes the role of a dialogic exchange and incorporates named social interlocutors in the form of other users as exemplified in the first example with reference to the @ mention convention. In the first example, the tweet draws on the @ character to refer to Watford SCBU user account in a manner similar to face-to-face conversation (Zappavigna and Martin, 2018). However, the @ character is used to emphasize the metaphorical conceptualization in the following example: a. @BrunoMars [positive Judgement: capacity] [negative Ideation] to speak. To clarify, this dialogic exchange of @BrunoMars is not conversational in nature; rather it indicates an intertextual orientation. The preemie hashtag here intertextually mentions Bruno, a famous song writer, singer, record producer and chareographer. Interestengly, Bruno-Mars has his good reputation for doing many things at a time. For this particular characteristic, Bruno-Mars is intertextually mentioned in this tweet as a metaphor ease their sense of guilt for being unable to protect their infants from early arrivals. In the same vein, the following tweets aim at freeing moms from their sense of guilt and regret by foregrounding the metaphorical proposition of a. The fasted path [positive Appreciation: valuation (journey metaphor)] to healing is not to avoid the harsh realities, but to own them, Rania Magdi Fawzy 121 say them out loud, let them flow through you and then release the. [negative Ideation]. b. to overcome the burden of guilt and self-blame [negative Ideation: Distressing experience] you can find peace [positive Appreciation: valuation] no matter wht hurdles lie ahead. Interpersonally, the hashtags of these examples link the post to other potential users in the ambient online domain who are experiencing the same emotions of feeling guilty and suffer from negative self-assessment. However, the deployed metaphorical conceptualizations of PATH/JOURNEY and PEACE intend to mitigate such guilty feelings. Metaphorizing the experience of having a preemie as a JOURNEY is also evident in the following tweets: a. 5 years ago, our little preemie wonder was born at 28 weeks [negative Ideation] almost 12 weeks early. The road was challenging but the journey [positive Appreciation: valuation]has been so rewarding b. To honor my sweet baby girl and the journey [positive Appreciation: valuation] In the following tweets the users employ the hashtag #famouspreemies to support the metaphorical couplings regarding the SUPER MENTAL POWER of premature babies. a. Pablo Picasso, famous [positive Judgement: capacity] Spanish painter and sculptor regarded as one of the most influential artisits of the 20th century, was born premature [negative Ideation] in 1881. b. Influential scientist [positive Judgement: capacity], Sir Issac Newton, weighed onlly three pounds [negative Ideation] at birth Christmas day c. Anna Pavlova, world famous ballerina [positive Judgement: capacity], was born two months early [negative Ideation] in 1885. Hashtaged Coupling Metaphors 122 In all of the examples cited above, the hashtag #preemie serves as a topical entity that links the tweet with an external community or audience. Even when accompanied by other words such as strong, fighter or so they appear as one word. , FamousPreemie as one word promots and upscales the conceptualized metaphors. Furthermore, considering the position of the sentences where these hashtags occur, it is found that they are placed as suffix. This serves to bracket and foreground the Interpersonal/Ideation coupling and the resulting metaphorical orientation. In other words, hashtags of the tweets under study act as metaphorical stance marker. They are deployed as an evaluating resource for form that marks the point in the text where the metadiscourse lies (Zappavigna, 2017, p. 445). 6.2. Finessing: Hashtags as Discharging and Recharging Devices This section revolves around the source metaphor A LIGHT AT THE END OF THE TUNNEL, marking what may be labelled as a conversed cognitive evaluation, so to speak. A conversed cognitive evaluation of the emotionally distressing situation of having a preemie baby may help in mitigating and coping with the associated feelings. In the words of Hendricks et al. (2018, p. 268, s. The process of reappraisal allows us to change the way we feel about something Applying this notion of cognitive conversion to the ambient environment of Twitter can be related to Zappavigna Finessing. Finessing network is closely related to the Engagement resources of the Appraisal System. As explained by Martin and White (2005), Engagement resources deal with the interplay of voices within a es by which the speaker/writer negotiates relationships of alignment/disalignment vis-à-vis the various value positions referenced by the text and hence vis-à-vis the socially constituted communities of shared attitude and belief associated with those posi , p. 95). However, while Engagement accounts for the patterning of attitude, Finessing deals with how the ideation-evaluation resources are infused and modulated. Interestingly, deployment of Finessing in the tweets about preemies corresponds conversed cognitive evaluation by retelling the experience of having a preemie as an exciting and sometimes blessing one, which in turn, discharges the experience from negative Judgements and recharges it with positive Rania Magdi Fawzy 123 assessments. The Finessing resources negotiated in the tweets forge social affiliation around values of hope and support. In so doing, the Finessing network follows the coupling formulation of [Dialogic Expansion/Dialogic Contraction: Disclaim: Deny or Counter] (see Martin and White, 2005 for more on the Engagement resources). The Finessing netwrok employs Expansion resources that associate negative values with preemies and contraction systems that challenge and refute such values. Such dialogic coupling is brought together along with negative Ideation. Triple coupling is then evident. Example instantiations of hope to cite are represented in the tweets below: a. 21 years ago, my son was born as a 25wk @820g [negative Ideation]. He had a ventricular bleed, retinopathy and BPD [negative Ideation]. For all the parents in an who are sick with worry, in 4th y university now [Contraction: Counter]. Keep your hopes up. b. Our pre-term baby is seven today! [Contraction: Counter] Eternal thanks to @NHS_Lothian for everything they did that frightening night and in the bewildering days [negative Ideation] that followed c. When [Expansion: Attribute] less than a 50% chance [negative Ideation] to make it out of the NICU and are now [Contraction: Counter] healthy today [Contraction: Counter] d. My precious grandson... He [Contraction: Deny] look like what been through [Expansion: Attribute/negative Ideation] e. Today [Contraction: Counter] is my sons 6th Bday! He was born at 21wks [negative Ideation]. Under a LB when born [negative Ideation]. Part of me [Expansion: entertain] thought make it here today. and The contraction here is established between was and now and the antonyms relations between worry and hope . The dialectical tension between now and then carries a challenging tone against the negative Ideation values. A holds an opposing positive view is then convoked. The use of this particular heteroglossic contraction instantiating positive Judgement (e.g., strength) Hashtaged Coupling Metaphors 124 together with the hashtag #preemie is a typical repeated pattern in the tweets under discussion. The dialectical tension that exists between positive and negative social esteem resources of capacity further reinforces the source metaphor of LIGHT AT THE END OF A TUNNEL. This notion is evident in the following example: a. After spending her first year of life visiting numerous doctors, undergoing tons of testing, and experiencing significant delays [negative Ideation] taking risks and playing BIG in life! [invoked Contraction: Counter] ignificant delay taking risks and playing BIG in life enacts a dialectical tension. Such a tension is realised by discordant evaluative couplings (Martin, 2000a) in the texts. The Finessing hashtags of the tweets under discussion discharge assessment of preemies as negative Capacity. Consider the following two tweets: a. Although [Contraction: Counter] your arrival was chaotic and shaky [negative Ideation], you are thriving now [Contraction: Counter]! We b. Happy 5th birthday to our warrior princess! Our miracle baby girl was a 1 O2, wires, feeding tubes, blood transfusions, blood gasses, and feeding clinics [negative Judgement: Capacity] were never [Contraction: Deny] stopped fighting! [positive Judgement: Capacity] and blessed to be mommy! The Finessing resources in these examples are expressed through the Disclaim values of dialogic counter and deny respectively. These resources reject the dialogic alternative of despair and losing hope, instantiating a metaphorical coupling of a community of hope. Correspondingly, the dialogic alternatives of helplessness and despair associated with the experience of having a preemie are challenged and excluded, entering the putative readers into an - and White, 2005). Significantly, Finessing network in the tweets about preemies presents the addresser as having great experience, allowing him/her to cognitively take the part. A cognitive role of supporter rather than sufferer is then established. Rania Magdi Fawzy 125 Interestingly, identifying oneself with a larger community of supporters may be of a significant importance for participants to be able to move on and coping with the hard situation. Finessing is conveyed via the deployment of conjunctions and connections such as However, the finessing resources of countering are established as well by the use of the comment adverbials and Comment adverbials carry a counter expectational aspect to their meaning. a. I allowed Mo for the best and he was eating a lot sooner! Never underestimate the 7. Conclusion This paper examined the role performed by Twitter hashtags in forging ambient online networks of hope and support about preemie - a distressing experience for the parents and the families. It investigated how hashtaging the word preemie convokes a potential ambient community that has the same parental experience and uses the same tag. The study took the concepts of Coupling (Knight 2010a,b) and Communing Affiliation (Zappavigna and Martin, 2018) as its theoretical basis. It deployed these concepts to reveal the Conceptual Met families. It was found that tweets about preemies align participants with an affiliated community of believers in hope, miracles, and superheroes. The analysis also revealed that hashtags in the context participants from the position of sufferers and recharge them as supporters and experienced persons who provide advice. The convoking metaphorical network is achieved in the tweets tagged #preemie through the coupling formulation of [negative Ideation: health problem/Attitude: positive Judgement(capacity) and/or positive Appreciation (valuation)]. This metaphorical coupling instantiates an ambient community which believes in PREEMIES AS SUPERHEROES. As for the finessing values of Disclaim (counter and denial), it is affiliative in that it invokes a community of hope that presents itself as countering and negating beliefs and claims that having a preemie is a hopeless situation. the Finessing network follows the coupling formulation of [Dialogic Expansion/Dialogic Contraction: Disclaim: Deny or Counter]. The dialectical tension resulted from the coupling of two opposing propositions construes the source metaphor of A LIGHT AT THE END OF THE TUNNEL, marking what may be labelled as a conversed cognitive evaluation. Hashtaged Coupling Metaphors 126 The framework of Coupling (Knight 2010a, b) and Communing Affiliation (Zappavigna and Martin, 2018) that the author used is based on SFL. As for the cognitive interpretation, it is influenced approach to Conceptual Metaphor. Although appearing as somewhat incompatible on an epistemological level, these frameworks, when combined, can be a valid tool for analyzing a social cognitive concept such as in-group identity formation in the process of constituting an affiliated community. This study raises implications for the applications of these SFL-oriented approaches to reveal cognitive conceptualisations rather than being confined to investigating textual negative/positive evaluations. Accordingly, the study calls for replicating this approach of qualitative analysis to a larger corpus of tweets that voice other painful experiences such as mental illness and chronic diseases. References Androutsopoulos, Jannis. (2014) Journal of Pragmatics, 73, 4- 18. Bakhtin, Michael. (1981). The Dialogic Imagination. NY and Austin: University of Texas Press. Black, Jonathan. (2016). Fire Metaphor: Discourse of Awe and Authority. London: Bloomsbury Publishing PIc. Flack, Marlene Johansson. 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work_ajo2gm5whvdxbjdsbxcq4nwhdy	----	When a Picasso is a “Picasso”: The entry point in the identification of visual art Acta Psychologica 133 (2010) 191–202 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Acta Psychologica j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w . e l s e v i e r . c o m / l o c a t e / a c t p s y When a Picasso is a ‘‘Picasso”: The entry point in the identification of visual art B. Belke a,*, H. Leder a, G. Harsanyi b,c, C.C. Carbon b a Faculty of Psychology, University of Vienna, Liebiggasse 5, 1010 Vienna, Austria b Department of Psychology, University of Bamberg, Markusplatz 3, 96047 Bamberg, Germany c Institute of Psychology, Humboldt University, Berlin, Rudower Chaussee 18, 12489 Berlin, Germany a r t i c l e i n f o Article history: Received 30 December 2008 Received in revised form 10 November 2009 Accepted 13 November 2009 Available online 24 December 2009 PsycINFO classification: 2323 2340 2610 Keywords: Art perception Classification Identification Style-based recognition Aesthetic experience 0001-6918/$ - see front matter � 2009 Elsevier B.V. A doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2009.11.007 * Corresponding author. E-mail address: benno.belke@gmail.com (B. Belke) a b s t r a c t We investigated whether art is distinguished from other real world objects in human cognition, in that art allows for a special memorial representation and identification based on artists’ specific stylistic appearances. Testing art-experienced viewers, converging empirical evidence from three experiments, which have proved sensitive to addressing the question of initial object recognition, suggest that identi- fication of visual art is at the subordinate level of the producing artist. Specifically, in a free naming task it was found that art-objects as opposed to non-art-objects were most frequently named with subordinate level categories, with the artist’s name as the most frequent category (Experiment 1). In a category-ver- ification task (Experiment 2), art-objects were recognized faster than non-art-objects on the subordinate level with the artist’s name. In a conceptual priming task, subordinate primes of artists’ names facilitated matching responses to art-objects but subordinate primes did not facilitate responses to non-art-objects (Experiment 3). Collectively, these results suggest that the artist’s name has a special status in the memo- rial representation of visual art and serves as a predominant entry point in recognition in art perception. � 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction People have an astonishing ability to identify objects in a fast, automatic, and very efficient way. This behavior is an evolution- based adaptation for accessing memory representations involving the identification of objects and the corresponding demands for specific actions (Rosch, 1975). In their seminal studies, Rosch, Mer- vis, Gray, Johnson, and Boyes-Braem (1976) determined the princi- ples by which humans divide up the world the way they do. There is now a substantial body of research suggesting that most objects are initially classified at a particular level of abstraction, called the basic level (for a review, see Rosch et al., 1976). The basic level is defined as (a) the level at which most knowledge is organized and the highest level of abstraction at which a single mental image can be formed, (b) category members share a similar shape, and (c) similar motor actions are used to interact with category members (Tanaka, 2001). Rosch (1975) argued that the basic level of catego- rization provides the entry point in human classification and repre- sents the level at which objects are first recognized and proposed: ‘‘in the perceived world, information rich bundles of perceptual or functional attributes occur that form natural discontinuities, and ll rights reserved. . that [. . .] basic cuts in categorization are made at these discontinu- ities” (p. 31). The authors empirically demonstrated the special sta- tus of the basic level by interpreting participants’ naming preferences and category membership verification times as indi- cating that people first identify objects at the basic level and then access the superordinate level or subordinate level categories. According to Rosch et al. (1976), basic level categories are noted by a balance between informativeness or ‘‘cue validity” (the num- ber of attributes the concept conveys) and ‘‘cognitive economy” (a sort of summary of the important attributes that distinguish it from other categories). Informativeness is lacking at the highest le- vel because few attributes are conveyed, and economy is missing at the lowest level because too many attributes are conveyed. Later, Jolicoeur, Gluck, and Kosslyn (1984) proposed that the en- try point in recognition corresponds to the level where ‘‘contact is made first with semantic memory” (p. 272) and where the percep- tual stimulus first makes contact with its underlying memorial representation. Importantly, Jolicoeur et al. (1984) noted that the entry point often corresponds to the basic level, but in many in- stances of object identification it does not. Research on human ob- ject identification demonstrated that the entry point could be modulated by at least two factors: domain-specific expertise and typicality of an exemplar for its corresponding basic level. Con- cerning the former, expertise in a particular field is likely to shift http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2009.11.007 mailto:benno.belke@gmail.com http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/00016918 http://www.elsevier.com/locate/actpsy 192 B. Belke et al. / Acta Psychologica 133 (2010) 191–202 entry level of many objects towards the subordinate level (Rosch et al., 1976). Tanaka and Taylor (1991), for example, found that a bird expert is able to recognize a picture of a sparrow as a ‘‘spar- row” as quickly as he recognizes it as a ‘‘bird”. In the domain of face perception, Tanaka (2001) suggested a general basic level shift in human perception towards subordinate classification of familiar faces. Thus, a face will more likely be identified at the unique level of identity (e.g., as ‘‘Bill Clinton” rather than as a ‘‘face” at the basic level). Similar downward shifts in recognition were found by Gau- thier and Tarr (1997) after participants were trained in the identi- fication of artificial objects. On the basis of these findings, Jolicoeur et al. (1984) concluded ‘‘for many objects (and perhaps many situ- ations) we use identification routines at levels other than the basic level” (p. 272). 1.1. Special features of art-objects What might be the entry point in the identification of visual art? Up to this point research in the domain of object recognition has been concerned with object classes such as furniture (Rosch et al., 1976), faces (e.g., Tanaka, 2001), every-day objects (Op de Beeck & Wagemans, 2001) and even artificial objects (e.g., Gauthier & Tarr, 1997) but very little is known about the representation and initial identification of visual art. For instance, what might be the first access to semantic memory when a person identifies Pablo Pi- casso’s ‘‘Dora Maar seated”? This painting might be initially recog- nized as a deformed depiction of a ‘‘woman’s head” or simply as a ‘‘human”. Alternatively, it might be identified as ‘‘Dora Maar seated”, a ‘‘Picasso”, a ‘‘Cubist painting”, or even more general, as a ‘‘work of art”. These numerous classification options reveal dif- ferent taxonomies applicable to art-objects. We propose that visual art is distinguishable from many other object classes, since it matches at least two taxonomies that may affect its identification. The first is based on depictive content (what is represented) and the second on stylistic representation (how it is represented), such as the corresponding art school or artist’s name (cf. Augustin, Le- der, Hutzler, & Carbon, 2008). In this respect, artworks are multidi- mensional stimuli that can be placed in numerous classifying contexts and therefore provide a challenge for initial recognition. The idea of multiple classification options for art-objects was proposed within a framework model of aesthetic experience, in which explicit identification is one of the cumulative stages of information processing that are involved in aesthetic experiences (Leder, Belke, Oeberst, & Augustin, 2004). The model states that, depending on the viewer’s experience, explicit classification could be based on style or representational content. For instance, in the case of René Magritte’s painting ‘‘Ceci n’est pas une pipe” it is pos- sible to identify either a depiction of a ‘‘tobacco pipe” or a painting by ‘‘René Magritte”, with both referring to a similar level of abstrac- tion. Consequently, the investigation of a possible entry point in vi- sual art must take into account at least two conceptual hierarchies, one content-related and the other art-specific, which allow for hier- archical relationships between categories (superordinate, basic, and subordinate level categorization). Moreover, in many cases of modern and contemporary art (e.g., Abstract Art, Minimalism) ex- plicit semantic references are often completely absent. In these cases, the identification has to rely on syntactic qualities (Berlyne, 1971) such as stylistic or expressive information rather than its semantic content (e.g. subject matter, represented object). Analyses of modern and contemporary art reveal that a persis- tent feature of art is stylistic variety, which refers to single artists as the main proponents (Leder et al., 2004). The stylistic diversity in art is propelled by artists’ attempts to distinguish themselves from others in the art market. In order to be successful artists’ styles have to be distinctive as well as novel or innovative. This strong individualization makes the art world special in that production structures still are very individual, but create forces that not only call for idiosyncratic objects, such as single artworks, but also encourage the establishment of individual styles – which are recognizable and attributable to single artists over different works of art (Grasskamp, 1994). This style-based appearance may be reflected in human recog- nition and presumably allows for a style-based type of processing (Leder, 2003; Leder et al., 2004; Winston & Cupchik, 1992). As a re- sult, the initial identification might yield cognitive processing that differs from other object domains (but might be comparable to the domain of architecture or design as well, see Carbon & Leder, 2005). Memory representations of artworks may be closely linked in semantic memory with the creating artist, as single works often contain elements which share ill-defined features of style that are similar throughout one artist’s style (Hartley & Homa, 1981). These artist’s specific stylistic features could serve as ‘‘basic-cuts” (Rosch et al., 1976) in categorization and provide an entry point (Tanaka, 2001) of recognition for artworks. We assumed that the impor- tance of style-based processing and stylistic diversity in the visual arts makes it likely that artworks might most efficiently be recog- nized with respect to single artists, e.g. a particular painting being considered a ‘‘Picasso”. This means that a Picasso painting might not initially be recognized as a ‘‘portrait” nor as a ‘‘Cubist painting”, but rather as a painting ‘‘by Picasso” or a ‘‘Picasso-esque” painting. Alternatively, from the way that people gather knowledge and expertise in art (see Parsons, 1987), it might be possible that art- works are initially identified on a more general level of abstraction. Art historians propose the use of art-styles to categorize artworks of the same historical period (e.g., ‘‘Expressionism”), of groups of closely related artists (e.g., ‘‘Bauhaus”), or of a common visual ap- proach to depiction (e.g., ‘‘Pointillism”). These concepts applied by art historians to categorize art might not be reflected in the initial human identification of artworks. We assume that they are of min- or relevance compared with a more specific artist-related categori- zation (Hasenfus, Martindale, & Birnbaum, 1983). 1.2. The present study We investigated whether there is a particular entry point in the identification of visual art that is different from other object classes, and if so, whether this entry point is at a medium (basic) level of abstraction as proposed for many object classes. In three experi- ments, initial identification of artworks was investigated by testing the relationship between art-related categories and art identifica- tion by relative art experts. Using tasks such as speeded naming, category verification, and visual matching, paradigms were applied that had been predominantly used in the domain of object and face identification (e.g., Rosch et al., 1976; Segui & Fraisse, 1968; Tanaka, 2001). Performances on works of art were tested against every-day objects, for which entry points are well investigated by a substan- tial body of research. According to our hypotheses about style- based representation in art, it was assumed that an entry point is based on recognition of style and shows up at a subordinate level of the creating artist with highest frequency proportion in naming (Experiment 1), with the fastest verification speed (Experiment 2), with the largest amount of priming in a visual matching task (Experiment 3). Alternatively, according to a structural definition of a basic level, artworks should be identified first at a more general level (such as artistic genre, e.g. ‘‘landscape”) and are more fre- quently named as such, are verified faster and yield higher priming gains on such basic level categories than at subordinate level cate- gories (of the artist’s name). In contrast to these two hypotheses, art — due to its complexity, ambiguity and stylistic representation — may only allow for idiosyncratic recognition, so that a general entry point as revealed for many other object domains (e.g., Rosch et al., 1976; Segui & Fraisse, 1968) may simply not exist. B. Belke et al. / Acta Psychologica 133 (2010) 191–202 193 For methodological reasons, the three experiments required participants to have some professional art training, as art recogni- tion relies on previous experience and knowledge. For example, a person who has never encountered a painting by Gerhard Richter and who is not familiar with his name would neither be able to classify it as such in a naming task nor to identify Richter’s name in a matching task nor respond to it in a priming task. Therefore, it was necessary to test participants with some academic back- ground in art history, as ensured by at least one year of study. 2. Experiment 1: Free Naming task A free naming task (Rosch et al., 1976; Tanaka & Taylor, 1991) was carried out as the initial experiment. Participants were asked to name each object as fast as possible with the first noun that came instantaneously to mind. In order to analyze a broad spec- trum of categories and concepts applied in the domain of art, paintings from a wide range of art-historic genres, artistic styles, and artists were used. Non-art-objects served as control stimuli. These consisted of artifacts and natural object classes, such as cars and dogs, for which effects of identification and explicit categoriza- tion are already well established and for which identification at a ‘‘basic level” was proposed and expected (e.g., Jolicoeur et al., 1984; Mervis & Rosch, 1981; Murphy & Brownell, 1985; Rosch et al., 1976; Tanaka, 2001; Tanaka & Taylor, 1991). By analyzing naming frequencies, the aim of this experiment was to reveal at which level of abstraction artworks are initially identified compared with every-day objects. Previous research has shown that participants use basic level names (e.g., ‘‘bird”, ‘‘dog”, ‘‘chair”, and ‘‘hammer”) when asked to spontaneously iden- tify pictures of common objects (e.g., Tanaka & Taylor, 1991). This finding has been used as evidence that the most accessible level of abstraction for categorizing objects is the ‘‘basic level”. For free naming frequencies it was assumed that art-objects might be iden- tified based on their corresponding artistic styles that are either at level of the individual artists or according to art-schools. Through- out the analyses we will refer to every-day objects as ‘‘non-art- objects” and to works of art as ‘‘art-objects”. Moreover, findings were taken into account that demonstrated effects of domain-specific expertise on object recognition. These studies showed that experts are more likely to classify objects in their domain of expertise at a more specific level of abstraction (e.g., Tanaka & Taylor, 1991). Therefore, each participant’s level of art expertise, as reflected by academic training in the arts, was assessed to reveal potential influences on the level of identification and nature of concepts applied to categorize art-objects. 2.1. Method 2.1.1. Participants Twenty students (17 female) studying for a MA degree in art history at the Freie Universität Berlin took part in the experiment. Mean age was 24.0 years (SD = 2.73) ranging from 21 to 33 years. Students had been enrolled between two semesters (1 year) and 12 semesters (6 years) (Mean = 6.45, SD = 3.36). Each participant was tested individually and received 5€ for participation. All partic- ipants had normal or corrected-to-normal vision. 2.1.2. Stimuli The stimuli consisted of 42 pictures, half of which were from art and half from non-art categories. Seven pictures were selected from the non-art categories ‘‘dog” (Saint Bernard, Boxer, Collie, Dalmatian, Fox terrier, Poodle, and German Shepherd Dog), ‘‘car” (Audi A8, Mercedes-Benz E Class, BMW 5 series, Volkswagen Golf, Porsche 911, MCC Smart, and Volkswagen Polo), and ‘‘home fur- nishings” (office chair, bread bin, dining table, folding chair, desk, desk lamp, and table lamp). No furnishings by well-known design- ers were used (such as Eames chairs) to prevent familiarity effects with those objects. For the same reason, the trademarks and logos of cars were erased from the pictures. The criterion for the classes of non-art-objects was that they had been used in previous studies on human object identification studies (e.g., Rosch et al., 1976). Moreover, they belong to the most common (most frequently men- tioned) categories of nouns in Germany. Exemplars of ‘‘dog” and ‘‘home furnishings” categories were among the ten most fre- quently mentioned category norms in Mannhaupt (1983) (the Ger- man equivalent of Battig & Montague, 1969) and selected car brands were among the ten most familiar brands in Germany as determined by a recent market study of AC-Nielsen (2004). Art-objects were selected from various artists in the genres ‘‘landscape” (Paul Cézanne, André Derain, Caspar-David Friedrich, Wassily Kandinsky, Claude Monet, Vincent van Gogh, and John Constable), ‘‘portrait” (Max Beckmann, Paul Klee, Gustav Klimt, Roy Lichtenstein, Edvard Munch, Pablo Picasso, and Gerhard Rich- ter), and ‘‘still life” (Salvador Dali, Albrecht Dürer, Gerhard Richter, Vincent van Gogh, Andy Warhol, and two paintings by René Mag- ritte). See Appendix 1 for a list of titles and artists. Four additional pictures served as practice trials (i.e. wristwatch, racing bike and painting by Edgar Degas and Lyonel Feininger), which were se- lected from other object classes that were used in the experimental trials. Each picture was standardized to 380 square centimeters with the original width-to-height ratio maintained. 2.1.3. Procedure The experiment consisted of four practice and 42 experimental trials. At the beginning of each trial, a short instruction appeared on the screen asking participants to name each of the stimuli as fast as possible with the first noun that comes to mind. After a 1000 ms interval, the written instruction was replaced with a 800 ms blank screen, which was then followed by a 2000 ms pic- ture-stimulus (either a non-art-object or art-object), which in turn was followed by another blank screen. After 1500 ms, the partici- pants were asked to start the next trial by pressing any key on the keyboard. The stimulus order was randomized. The experimenter sat behind the participant and noted down the verbal responses for each experimental trial. Instructions and stimuli were presented on a Macintosh Powerbook with a 15” monitor (resolution 1024 � 768 pixels). The procedure was con- trolled by the software PsyScope 1.2.5 (Cohen, MacWhinney, Flatt, & Provost, 1993). Viewing distance to the screen was approxi- mately 70 cm. Visual angles ranged from approximately 10.93� to 13.36�. In order to exclude the possibility that basic level categories were used due to a lack of familiarity with subordinate level cate- gories, a post-experimental questionnaire explicitly tested whether participants were able to identify each stimulus on a very specific (subordinate) level. In this paper and pencil questionnaire, participants were asked to name each object on a printed-paper version at a specific level of categorization. For example, they were asked to specify the particular kind of car (e.g. BMW or Audi). For art-objects, participants were asked to indicate the artist’s name, painting’s title, or specific artistic style. Stimuli that could not be identified correctly at a subordinate level were excluded from the main analysis for the corresponding participant. 2.2. Results and discussion 2.2.1. Data correction Before the actual analyses, all incorrect responses were elimi- nated according to three criteria. First, verbal classifications were excluded from analyses if a person could not name an object cor- Object Domain P er ce nt R es po ns es Art Non-Art 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Basic level Subordinate level Fig. 1. The results from Experiment 1 showing the percentage of basic level and subordinate level labels used to name art-objects and non-art-objects. Error bars represent within-subjects confidence intervals (Loftus & Masson, 1994). 194 B. Belke et al. / Acta Psychologica 133 (2010) 191–202 rectly at a subordinate level in the post-experimental question- naire. In the case of art-objects, this task required labeling of the specific painting with the artist’s name, artistic style, or title of the painting. If participants could not provide any of these informa- tion the corresponding trial was omitted (e.g., if the painting ‘‘Hampstead Heath” by Constable could not be labeled as ‘‘a Con- stable”, ‘‘Hampstead Heath”, or ‘‘English Romantic”). Second, if an object was named wrongly in the experiment, the response was considered as incorrect (e.g. a painting by ‘‘Klee” labeled with ‘‘von Stuck”). Third, verbal classifications, which were not in accor- dance with the instructions as decided by two judges, such as adjectives (e.g., ‘‘yellow” and ‘‘linear”) or free associations (e.g., ‘‘my favorite painting”) were eliminated from the data set. Given these three exclusion criteria, participants responded to 93.0% of art-objects and 95.5% of non-art-objects. Thus, participants were very familiar with the subordinate level terms of the objects. All correct responses were post hoc classified into three levels of abstraction (i.e., superordinate, basic, and subordinate levels). Re- sponses to non-art-objects were classified similar to those classi- fied by Tanaka and Taylor (1991). For example, the term ‘‘dog” was regarded as a basic level concept and ‘‘German Shepherd” as a subordinate level concept. While the level of abstraction for non-art-objects is quite clear by virtue of the level of inclusiveness and a host of empirical research (e.g., Jolicoeur et al., 1984; Mervis & Rosch, 1981; Murphy & Brownell, 1985; Rosch et al., 1976; Tana- ka, 2001; Tanaka & Taylor, 1991), the level of abstraction for art- object categories is less evident. Therefore, a special rating proce- dure was necessary in which naming responses were classified according to their level of abstraction. Five independent expert rat- ers received a non-redundant list of all categorizations in order to rate naming responses as referring to superordinate, basic, or sub- ordinate levels. A concordance criterion (degree of inter-rater agreement) was set to .8 of response-categorization. In other words, four of five raters had to agree that the given verbal re- sponse belonged to a superordinate, basic, or subordinate level. In 74.59% of post hoc response labeling, there was an inter-rater- agreement of at least 80%. The remaining naming responses were classified through expert discussion.1 2.2.2. Analysis of variance The dependent variable of interest was percentages of frequen- cies. Independent variables were object domain (i.e., art-object or non-art-object) and level of categorization (i.e., superordinate, ba- sic, or subordinate). Fig. 1 shows that participants classified non- art-objects in 54% of the trials at the basic level and 44% at the sub- ordinate level. Artworks were classified in 35% of the trials at the basic level and 65% at the subordinate level. No verbal responses were given at the superordinate level for art-objects, and only 2% of verbal classifications at superordinate level for non-art-objects. Given the lack of superordinate level re- sponses, verbal responses were analyzed by 2 � 2 analysis of vari- ance with object domain (art-object vs. non-art-object) and level of categorization (basic vs. subordinate). As expected, the effect of le- vel of categorization in this analysis was not significant, F(1, 19) < 1, p = 0.414, n.s. Critically, the object domain � level of cate- gorization was significant, F(1, 19) = 18.9, p < 0.001, g2p = 0.498. The interaction indicated that non-art-objects were more fre- quently named at the basic level than were art-objects, F(1, 1 Notably, the inter-rater agreement about response classifications for style-related categories (such as ‘‘Impressionism”) was below the consistency criteria of .8. After expert-discussion it has been decided that style-related classifications were to be regarded as subordinate level categories, since the criteria for basic level categories according to Rosch’s definition (see this article page 3) did not apply to style categories, but seemed more specific. However, it seems worth mentioning that the pattern of results in Experiment 1 did not significantly differ when artistic style was treated as a basic level category. 19) = 18.2, p < 0.001, g2p = 0.489, whereas art-objects were more frequently named at the subordinate level than non-art-objects, F(1, 19) = 17.8, p < 0.001, g2p = .4983. The interaction between level of categorization and object domain confirms previous findings, namely that the basic level (Rosch et al., 1976) is important in the identification of every-day objects. In contrast, participants cat- egorized art-objects more specifically with subordinate categories rather than applying basic level categories. In a more detailed analysis, possible influences of relative art expertise were considered as indicated by the duration of academic training in the arts. Based on the number of semesters of enroll- ment in a MA degree in art history a post-hoc median split divided participants into groups of low and high art expertise. The median for semesters of enrolment for both groups was 5.5. The resulting medians were 3.5 and 9.5 for the low expertise and high expertise group, respectively. To reveal possible differences due to art exper- tise, we ran a 2 � 2 � 2 analysis of variance with object domain (art-objects and non-art-objects) and level of categorization (basic and subordinate) as within-subjects factors and expertise (high and low) as between-subjects factors. Again, the only significant effect was the object domain � level of categorization interaction, F(1, 18) = 18.6, p < 0.001, g2p = 0.507. Neither a main effect of art expertise nor any interaction with any other factor was found (all Fs < 1.4). The lack of art expertise effects suggested that the preferred level of categorization of art-objects was not directly af- fected by differences in academic training. 2.2.3. Type of categories applied to categorize art-objects To further explore the nature of concepts participants applied in naming of art-objects, in subsequent analyses art-related classifi- cations were distinguished from content-related classifications. B. Belke et al. / Acta Psychologica 133 (2010) 191–202 195 These analyses of frequency were carried out independently of the level of abstraction. Art-related classifications comprised using the artist’s name, artistic genre, artistic style, or title of the painting. Content-related classifications consisted of naming referring to the depicted object of the painting (e.g., ‘‘eye”, ‘‘pipe”). In total, par- ticipants used 162 (61%) art-related and 117 (39%) content-related categories, v2 (1) = 7.3, p < 0.007. Furthermore, specific types of art-related naming were investigated. Among art-related catego- ries, the artist’s name was most frequently mentioned (135 in- stances, 83.3%), followed by the title of the work (20 instances, 12.4%), style (5 instances, 3.0%), and genre (2 instances, 1.2%). Thus, the artist’s name was the predominant art-related category, which was mentioned significantly more frequently than the works’ titles, t(19) = 5.9, p 6 .001. Titles were more frequently mentioned than artistic style, t(19) = 3.0, p = 0.007. The difference between style and genre was not significant, t(19) = 1.4, p = 0.174, n.s. In more detailed analyses, we also investigated whether relative levels of art expertise influenced the level of specificity within art- related classifications. Specifically, we tested whether free naming would shift towards the more particular level of titles with in- creased academic training in the arts. For identifying art-objects, more art-trained students used the artist’s name in 83 trials (86.5%) and applied titles in 13 trials (13.5%), while less art-trained students used the artist’s name in 52 trials (88.1%) and titles in se- ven trials (11.9%). Percentages of frequencies of naming were sub- jected to a mixed design ANOVA with type of subordinate classification (artist’s name vs. title) as within-subjects factor and art expertise (high vs. low expertise) as between-subjects factor. The analyses confirmed the above reported finding that artists’ names were significantly more often used than titles, F(1,18) = 34.1, p = 0.001, g2p = 0.654. The main effect of art expertise indi- cated that the differences of art expertise were marked by a higher frequency of art-related categories when compared to less trained participants, F(1,18) = 6.2, p = 0.023, g2p = 0.255. Critically, the interaction was not significant, F(1,18) < 1, p = 0.406, g2p = 0.039, n.s., indicating that the artist’s name was the predominant category in both expertise groups. To summarize the findings of the free naming task, it was found that speeded naming of art-objects differed from non-art-objects. As expected, non-art-objects were classified at a more general (ba- sic) level of abstraction, while art-objects were named at a more specific (subordinate) level, with the artist’s name as the predom- inant category. In respect to the kind of categories, it was found that participants used art-related categories (artist’s name, style or genre terms) more often than content-related categories. More- over, advanced academically trained students used more art-re- lated classifications compared to less academically trained students, while both groups showed equally high frequencies of identifying art-objects with their corresponding artists’ names. Re- sults are in accordance with the assumption that art-objects allow for a special kind of identification (and memory representation) based on individual artists’ styles that may serve as an entry point in recognition. In order to show that the findings of the free naming task did not simply reflect naming preferences of participants or social convention rather than initial memory access, the accessibil- ity of representations related to the artists’ names was explicitly tested in a speeded verification task (Experiment 2) and in category verification and priming facilitation tasks (Experiment 3). 2 It seems noteworthy to mention that portrait paintings differ from portrait photography, as their visual representation is more strongly shaped by a style. Therefore, findings of face recognition might not apply to recognition of portrait paintings. 3. Experiment 2: Speeded category-verification task Experiment 2 employed a speeded category-verification task similar to that used by Tanaka (2001, Experiment 2) in the domain of face recognition. Participants were presented with a superordi- nate, basic, or subordinate level category term and were subse- quently shown a picture, and were asked to indicate whether the picture was an exemplar of that category. The results were compared between two different object domains: Portraits as a representative of art-objects and cars as a sample of non-art-ob- jects. The choice of stimuli classes and selection of verbal catego- ries was oriented on the findings of Experiment 1. Portraits were selected because they are considered one of the most important genres in fine art.2 Moreover, according to a post hoc questionnaire of Experiment 1, the set of portrait paintings received the highest familiarity with the corresponding subordinate level terms which ensured that par- ticipants were familiar with the corresponding artists’ names or ti- tles (participants correctly named portraits, still life and landscape paintings at subordinate level in 84%, 77%, and 58%, respectively). Cars were selected as the appropriate contrast category because they represent a widely known class of every-day objects, for which specific familiarity data of a current survey were at hand (see AC-Nielsen, 2004). The task required participants to verify portraits and cars at the superordinate level (‘‘artwork” or ‘‘vehicle”), basic level (‘‘portrait” or ‘‘car”), and subordinate level (‘‘artist’s name” or ‘‘brand mark”). Reaction times were measured as the dependent variable. Accord- ing to a ‘‘basic-first” hypothesis (Tanaka, 2001), it could be rea- soned that portraits, like cars, should be identified at the basic level first and therefore categorized faster at a medium (basic) le- vel of abstraction than on a subordinate level. This would mirror findings obtained for many everyday object classes (cf. Rosch et al., 1976), namely that the entry point of recognition occurs at a basic level of abstraction. Alternatively, according to Experiment 1 and our hypothesis on an artist-specific recognition of art, we ex- pected participants to verify portraits faster on the subordinate le- vel (with the artist’s name) than on the basic level (as a ‘‘portrait”). 3.1. Method 3.1.1. Participants Sixteen (14 female) students of art history participated in this experiment. The mean age was 25.7 (SD = 3.94) ranging from 22 to 36 years. Participants were enrolled between three semesters (1.5 years) and 12 semesters (6 years) (mean = 6.63, SD = 2.75). Participants were tested individually and received payment for participation. None of them participated in Experiment 1. Each had normal or corrected-to-normal vision. 3.1.2. Stimuli Pictures were taken from two categories, cars and portraits. The car category consisted of eight brands: Audi, Mercedes Benz, BMW, Volkswagen, Fiat, Ford, Peugeot, and Opel. According to AC-Nielsen (2004), these car brands are among the ten most familiar brands within the German population. Eight portraits by the artists Leo- nardo da Vinci, Paul Klee, Gustav Klimt, Roy Lichtenstein, Anselm Feuerbach, Pablo Picasso, Jean-Honoré Fragonard, and Vincent van Gogh represented the portraits category. It was expected that paint- ings by these artists would be familiar to students of art history. In order to reduce expectancy effects, pictures from two contrast- ing categories, ‘‘bicycles” and ‘‘still life”, were used as filler trials. The contrast categories shared the same superordinate level as the target categories (i.e., cars and bicycles are vehicles and portraits and still lifes are artworks). The bicycle pictures consisted of eight different types of bicycles: mountain, racing, trekking, BMX, collapsible, fit- ness, women’s, and children’s bicycles; as still life paintings depic- 196 B. Belke et al. / Acta Psychologica 133 (2010) 191–202 tions were used from Pierre Chardin, Albrecht Dürer, Jean Metzinger, René Magritte, Gerhard Richter, Vincent van Gogh, Andy Warhol and Georges Braque (for a complete list of artists and works see Appen- dix 2). Additionally, four pictures from categories other than those used for the experimental trials were selected as practice trials. All pictures were standardized to 380 square centimeters with the ori- ginal width-to-height ratio of the paintings maintained. 3.1.3. Procedure At the beginning of the experimental session, participants re- ceived a written list of subordinate level terms for all of the 16 tar- get exemplars. Terms were presented in a random order one after the other on a monitor for 2500 ms each (after a fixation cross). Subsequently to an inter-stimulus interval of 800 ms, a fixation cross marked the beginning of each trial which remained for 1000 ms. Next, a blank screen appeared for 1000 ms, followed by a category word that remained for 2500 ms. After a 500 ms blank interval, the category name was replaced with a picture. Partici- pants were instructed to verify whether the preceding word label matched the picture (e.g., ‘‘Does the following picture show a por- trait?”) and to give their response (true or false) by pressing the corresponding ‘‘true” or ‘‘false” buttons. The picture remained on screen until participants responded. Assignments of ‘‘false” or ‘‘true” to a left or right key on the keyboard were fully balanced across participants. Trial order was fully randomized. Each of the eight portraits and eight cars was shown with two response types (true and false) and three levels of categorizations (superordinate, basic, and subordinate) resulting in 96 experimental trials. In the superordinate level and true condition, the category-word was either ‘‘artwork” or ‘‘vehicle”. In the basic level and true re- sponse condition, ‘‘portrait” or ‘‘car” and in the subordinate level and true condition the corresponding artist’s name (e.g., ‘‘Picasso” and ‘‘Van Gogh”) or the brand of the car (e.g., ‘‘VW and ‘‘Porsche”). In the false conditions category words were taken from a different exemplar of the same higher-order level category. For instance, a ‘‘Porsche” letter string and an ‘‘Audi” picture stimulus were paired, with both referring to the more inclusive level category ‘‘car”. In the basic level condition, a false word label that shared the same super- ordinate category was provided (e.g., the letter string ‘‘landscape painting” was presented with a ‘‘portrait” picture stimulus, with both referring to the superordinate category ‘‘artwork”). False trials were designed with the restrictions that each word-picture combi- nation at the subordinate level would appear only once during the experiment and each word within a level of categorization would appear with the same frequency in order to prevent response bias. In addition to the 96 experimental trials, the procedure con- tained 32 filler trials. The filler trials contained the foil categories bicycle and still life at the basic level of categorization and at two response types (true and false). True/false responses and reac- tion times were recorded. 3.2. Results The analyses were based on reaction times of correct true and (separately) correct false responses. Responses to the cars category showed that participants correctly responded ‘‘true” to 97%, 98%, and 77% of the trials for superordinate, basic, and subordinate lev- els, respectively. For false trials, participants responded correctly to 99%, 98%, and 87% of the trials for superordinate, basic and subor- dinate levels, respectively. To portraits, participants responded correctly to 99%, 83%, and 95% of the trials for superordinate level, basic level and subordinate level, respectively. For false trials, par- ticipants falsified correctly to 98%, 97% and 98% for superordinate, basic, and subordinate level categorizations, respectively. Reaction times were adjusted by setting boundaries to elimi- nate outliers. The lower boundary was set to 300 ms and the upper boundary was set to 3000 ms, which is equivalent to approxi- mately 2.5 standard deviations from the mean (MRT = 1098 ms, SDRT = 807 ms). Thus, 3.32% of correct experimental trials (in the true and false conditions) were regarded as outliers. 3.2.1. Analysis of true responses Mean adjusted RTs were analyzed as the dependent variable in a 2 x 3 repeated-measures analysis of variance with object domain (portrait and car) and level of categorization (superordinate, basic, and subordinate) as independent variables. The main effect for ob- ject domain was significant, F(1, 15) = 7.6, p = 0.015, g2p = 0.336, indi- cating that portraits were verified faster than cars. The main effect for level of categorization was also significant, F(2, 30) = 26.8, p < 0.001, g2p = 0.641, indicating slower responses for a more specific level of categorizations. Importantly, the critical domain � level interaction was also significant, F(2, 30) = 21.6, p < 0.001, g2p = 0.590. As shown in Fig. 2, the interaction indicates that cars were categorized faster at the basic level than at the subordinate level, F(1, 15) = 32.8, p < 0.001, g2p = 0.686. On the other hand, RTs for por- traits at the subordinate level (i.e., the artist’s name) and basic level did not differ significantly, F(1, 15) = 1.4, p = 0.254, g2p = 0.086, n.s. The interaction indicates that participants were faster to verify cars on the basic level than on the subordinate level, which confirms the assumption of a general basic level advantage (Rosch et al., 1976) for non-art-objects. In contrast, a different pattern was found for works of art. At the subordinate level (the artist’s name) works of art were categorized as fast as at the basic level (artistic genre). In sum, this task demonstrated that art-objects were verified differently from non-art-objects. People are just as fast to catego- rize artworks (with the artists’ names) at a level subordinate to the basic level, as they are to categorize artworks at the basic level. By contrast, verification times in the contrast category (‘‘car”) were faster at the basic level than at the subordinate level. This pattern of results is similar to findings in face perception, where verifica- tion times were as fast on the sub – as on the basic level for faces, while objects in the contrast category (‘‘dog”) were verified faster on the basic level (Tanaka, 2001). The results indicated that repre- sentations of artworks are highly accessible at a specific level of abstraction related to the artists’ names. This provides further evi- dence for an artist-specific style-based recognition of art-stimuli. 3.2.2. Analysis of false responses The results of responses in the false condition were in accordance with effects obtained in the true condition. Reaction times of correct falsification responses depending on object domain and level of cat- egorization are displayed in the lower panel of Fig. 2. The resulting mean reaction times were analyzed in a repeated-measures analysis of variance with object domain (portrait and car) and level of cate- gorization (superordinate, basic, and subordinate) as within-partic- ipant factors. The main effect of object domain was significant, F(1, 15) = 7.1, p = 0.019, g2p = 0.321, indicating that portraits were veri- fied faster than cars. The main effect of level of categorization was also significant, F(2, 30) = 11.4, p < 0.001, g2p = 0.431, indicating slower responses for more specific level of categorizations. The crit- ical object domain � level of categorization interaction was also sig- nificant, F(2, 30) = 35.6, p < 0.001, g2p = 0.704. This interaction indicates that cars were categorized faster at the basic level than at the subordinate level, F(1, 15) = 50.6, p < 0.001, g2p = .772, whereas portraits were categorized faster at the subordinate level than at the basic level, F(1, 15) = 9.8, p = 0.007, g2p = 0.393. 4. Experiment 3: Conceptual priming task The results from Experiments 1 and 2 suggested that partici- pants have detailed perceptual representations related to single Fig. 2. The results from Experiment 2 showing the mean response times collapsed by participants for categorizing portraits and cars at the superordinate, basic, and subordinate level in the true and false conditions. 3 According to biological taxonomies spiders are of course not insects but arachnids. However, it is common usage to identify spiders as insects in Germany , as documented in production norms (Mannhaupt, 1983). B. Belke et al. / Acta Psychologica 133 (2010) 191–202 197 artists that can be quickly accessed during initial processing. In Experiment 3, such perceptual representations of art-objects were directly examined using a conceptual priming task. Participants were presented with a word prime, a basic level prime, a subordi- nate level prime, or a neutral category prime (consisting of the letter string ‘‘blank”). Two simultaneously presented pictures followed the word primes. Participants were asked to judge whether the two pictures were identical or different. As suggested by Tanaka (2001), cross-modal priming effects were measured by the difference in reaction time between primed trials and neutral trials in the same picture conditions. According to Posner (1969) and Posner and Mitchell (1967), such an identity-priming paradigm allows for the investigation of participants’ visual repre- sentations that are activated by the word prime. The stronger the priming is, the shorter the reaction times will be. The degree of facilitation depends on the match between mental representations, as elicited by the word stimulus and its correspondence with the physical picture stimulus. Thus, ‘‘the closer the match between the mental representation and the visual percept, the faster the matching response” (Tanaka, 2001, p. 540). In comparison with Experiment 2, Experiment 3 considered a broader range of catego- ries. Art stimuli were selected from four artistic genres (portraits, landscapes, nudes, and still life paintings) and compared with four classes of every-day objects (cars, insects, furniture and dogs). Assuming that participants have developed elaborated repre- sentations related to artworks of single artists priming effects with artworks should be strongest at the subordinate level. For non-art- objects such effects were not expected. 4.1. Method 4.1.1. Participants Fourteen (12 female) students in art history from the Freie Uni- versität Berlin participated in the experiment. Mean age was 25.7 (SD = 2.02) ranging from 23 to 30 years. They were enrolled be- tween eight semesters (4 years) and 11 semesters (5.5 years) (mean = 9.92, SD = 1,20) in a MA degree in art history. None of the students participated in Experiment 1 or 2. Participants were tested individually and received allowance for participation. Each participant had normal or corrected-to-normal vision. 4.1.2. Stimuli Art stimuli were selected from four art categories, each contain- ing four paintings: nudes (Francois Boucher, Lucas Cranach the El- der, Rembrandt, and Peter Paul Rubens), landscapes (Paul Cézanne, Caspar-David Friedrich, Claude Monet, and Vincent van Gogh), por- traits (Leonardo da Vinci, Anselm Feuerbach, Jean-Honoré Frago- nard, and Pablo Picasso) and still life paintings (Jean-Baptiste Chardin, Albrecht Dürer, René Magritte, and Andy Warhol); see Appendix 3 for a full list of artists and titles. Non-art stimuli were selected from four categories, cars (Audi, Mercedes, BMW, and Volkswagen), arthropods (ant, fly, butterfly, and spider3) furniture (bed, couch, cupboard, and table) and dogs (Collie, Dalmatian, Poo- dle, and German Shepherd). Exemplars of the categories furniture, dogs, and insects were among the ten most mentioned, as indicated in the linguistic production norms for the German population (Mannhaupt, 1983). Car stimuli were examples of the ten most men- tioned brands in a recent market analysis (AC-Nielsen, 2004). Four exemplars were selected from each category resulting in 32 picture stimuli. Stimuli were standardized to 320 square centimeters with original width-to-height ratio maintained. 4.1.3. Procedure and apparatus Participants were instructed to judge whether two simulta- neously presented stimuli were identical or different. Afterwards, they performed eight practice trials followed by 192 experimental trials. Each trial began with the presentation of a fixation cross in the center of the screen for 1000 ms, which was then replaced with a word prime for 2500 ms. Subsequently, a 300 ms blank screen interval was shown and then followed by the simultaneous appear- ance of two pictures, which remained on screen until participants pressed one of two marked buttons (indicating that paintings were Table 1 Mean reaction times in milliseconds (and standard errors of the mean) depending on prime type and object category. Object category Neutral Basic level Subordinate level Cars 857 (69) 837 (46) 934 (68) Dogs 685 (42) 653 (46) 636 (35) Furniture 687 (31) 635 (29) 621 (38) Insects 738 (65) 655 (45) 681 (43) Landscape paintings 708 (47) 745 (53) 708 (53) Nude paintings 745 (31) 707 (46) 750 (47) Portraits 744 (49) 702 (44) 690 (55) Still lifes 824 (95) 791 (70) 660 (26) Domain A m ou nt o f P rim in g (m s) Art Non-Art 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Fig. 3. The results of Experiment 3 showing the amount of facilitation for basic and subordinate level words for art-objects and non-art-objects. Error bars represent within-subjects confidence intervals (Loftus & Masson, 1994). 198 B. Belke et al. / Acta Psychologica 133 (2010) 191–202 either ‘‘the same” or ‘‘different”). Word primes appeared either at basic level, subordinate level, or in a neutral condition. Basic level primes for art-objects were ‘‘landscape”, ‘‘nude painting”, ‘‘por- trait”, and ‘‘still life”. Basic level primes for non-art-object were ‘‘car”, ‘‘furniture”, ‘‘dogs”, and ‘‘insects”. In the neutral word prime condition, the word ‘‘blank” was presented on the screen. The two pictures presented simultaneously in the ‘‘same” con- ditions were either two paintings or two non-art-objects. In the ‘‘different” conditions, the two pictures shared the same basic level (e.g., two different landscapes or two different cars) with the restrictions that each combination appeared only once and all stimuli appeared with equal frequency. Participants were asked to judge ‘‘as accurately and as fast as possible” whether the stimuli were the same or different by pressing one of two buttons with the right or left index finger. Assignment of ‘‘same” or ‘‘different” responses to the left or right key was balanced among participants. Key responses and reactions times were recorded by the experi- mental control software PsyScope 1.2.5 (Cohen et al., 1993), running on a Macintosh G4 with a 19” monitor (resolution 1024 � 768 pixels). Participants were tested individually. Thirty- two stimuli (art-objects and non-art-objects) combined with three levels of categorization primes (basic, subordinate, and neutral) in two response conditions (same or different) yielded a total of 192 experimental trials altogether. The visual angle was approximately 6.64� with a viewing distance of about 70 cm. 4.2. Results The following analyses were based on priming scores for correct ‘‘same” responses. Reaction times were adjusted based on data cor- rection as described in Experiment 2. Table 1 shows mean reaction times depending on prime level and object category. To measure the amount of priming effects, differences in reaction times were calculated between responses in the neutral conditions and correct the same responses in the priming conditions. To obtain individual priming scores for each object category and participant, differences in reaction times were calculated between the neutral condition and either the basic level condition or subordinate level condition. Mean priming scores for art- and non-art-objects were analyzed and compared. As carried out by Tanaka (2001, Experiment 4, p. 541) differ- ences were tested among the four art categories. Mean priming scores for category at the two levels of abstraction were subjected to a 4 (category: nude, landscape, portrait, or still life) � 2 (level of categorization: basic or subordinate) within-participants ANOVA. The main effect of level of abstraction was significant, F(1, 13) = 5.1, p = 0.042, g2p = 0.280. Neither the main effect for category, F(1, 13) < 1, p = 0.512, g2p = 0.057, n.s., nor was the interaction sig- nificant, F(3,39) = 2.1, p = 0.124, g2p = 0.136, n.s. Due to the lack of the main effect for category and interaction, the four art categories were collapsed to obtain one individual mean priming scores for the art-domain. To test differences among the four non-art-catego- ries, mean priming scores at the two levels of abstraction were submitted to a 4 (cars, dogs, furniture, insects) � 2 (basic, subordi- nate) within-participants ANOVA. Neither any main effects nor the interaction was significant (all Fs < 1.37). Consequently, non-art- object categories were collapsed to obtain individual mean prim- ing scores for the non-art domain. Priming scores (differences in RTs between neutral and treat- ment conditions) were collapsed and analyzed across participants. The amount of facilitation (based on reaction times) in the differ- ent conditions is shown in Fig. 3. A 2 � 2 repeated-measures analysis of variance was performed with object domain (art-object, non-art-objects) and level of catego- rization (basic, subordinate). This revealed a significant domain � level of categorization interaction by participants F(1, 13) = 8.3, p = 0.013 g2p = .391. No other effects were significant. The interaction indicates that additional priming effects were found at the subordi- nate level for art-objects but not for non-art-objects. Consistently, a post hoc comparison of priming effects at subordinate level and basic level primes showed a significant difference for art-objects, t(13) = 2.3, p = 0.043, g2p = 0.280. For non-art-objects the difference was not significant, t(13) = �1.1, p = 0.292, g2p = 0.085, n.s. Thus, peo- ple recognized artworks fastest with the artist’s names and were able to access elaborated artist-related visual representations when primed with a matching artist’s name. To summarize the findings of Experiment 3, subordinate prim- ing of the artist’s name facilitated a visual comparison task for the corresponding paintings by the artists, but when participants were primed with subordinate terms of non-art-objects, no such additional facilitation on recognition was observed. According to the logic of the word-picture priming task (the stronger the match between word and picture the faster the visual comparison reaction time) this result indicates that participants activated art- ist-specific visual representations triggered by the artist’s name. These primed representations could be either based on an artist’s characteristic style or alternatively, given that the selected art- works were typical examples by each of the painters, consist of ico- nic representations of individual works. Taking into account that a painter such as Picasso has produced a substantial range of well- known works, and participants could not anticipate which painting by the artist is being shown, it is reasonable to conclude that participants activated style-related representations that facilitated visual comparison. This explanation is in line with the notion that artists try to establish highly recognizable individual styles that are B. Belke et al. / Acta Psychologica 133 (2010) 191–202 199 also represented in the cognitive structure of the beholder (for a theoretical explanation, see Leder et al., 2004). In sum, consistent with the results of Experiments 1 and 2, the results of Experiment 3 suggest that art-objects are identified at a specific level of iden- tity and that detailed representations related to a single artist could be rapidly assessed. In order to provide additional empirical evidence, absolute priming effects for each priming condition were analyzed with four one-sample t-tests (sampled over subjects). The pattern of results confirmed the results of analysis of variance described above. Prim- ing facilitation for non-art-objects at the basic level was significant t (13) = 2.4, p < 0.001 g2p = 0.312 one-tailed, 4 whereas priming facilita- tion for non-art-objects at subordinate level was not t (13) < 1, p = .150, g2p = 0.058, n.s., one-tailed. Thus, every-day objects were identified at a basic level of abstraction. Critically, priming facilitation for art-objects at subordinate level (artist’s name) was significant t (13) = 1.9, p = 0.009, g2p = 0.199, one-tailed, whereas priming facilita- tion at basic level (artistic genre) was not, t (13) = 1.0, p = 0.124, g2p = 0.067, n.s., one-tailed. This test provided further empirical evi- dence that priming of artist’s name produces a significant amount of priming and suggested that participants possess fine-grained vi- sual representations linked to individual artists’ names. 5 The definition of an entry point as an object concept in this study is based on literature on conceptual hierarchies in the tradition of Rosch et al. 1976 (and many followers). In line with these approaches, the levels of abstraction and entry points in the categorization of objects were consistently defined and investigated as cognitive reference points. However, it seems likely, that such explicit classifications are preceded by perceptual analysis and implicit memory integration effects (see Leder et al., 2004 for a framework model of hierarchical processing stages) that may be linked to evaluations of the target stimulus (e.g., Scherer, 2003). Therefore, the early analysis of shape, form, content and style could be affectively experienced as e.g. ‘‘tender, disturbing, and fascinating”. The informational value of such affective evaluations for the recognition of artistic objects could be that they may serve as prototypical or 5. General discussion The purpose of the study was to present empirical evidence for a special art-related entry point in the identification of visual art. Converging empirical evidence from three experiments, which have proved sensitive to addressing the question of object identifi- cation suggested that initial recognition is at the level of the pro- ducing artist. In particular, the results of a speeded naming task (Experiment 1) showed that participants categorized a familiar painting with its matching artist’s name (subordinate level) more often than with any other art-related concept. In a category-verifi- cation task (Experiment 2), it was shown that works of art were processed as fast with the artist’s name (at the subordinate level) as with artistic genre (at the basic level). Verification times for ar- tists’ names were even faster compared to verification times of cat- egories at the subordinate level for non-art-objects. In a conceptual priming experiment (Experiment 3), artists’ names produced stronger RT facilitation compared to priming of artistic genre (basic level) terms. In this priming task, word-primes served as semantic cues in which visual representations specific to the subsequent stimulus had to be activated, in order to facilitate the visual match- ing response (cf. Posner, 1969; Posner & Mitchell, 1967; Tanaka, 2001). Therefore, the results suggested that participants possess of elaborate, fine-grained visual representations linked to individ- ual artists’ names. Given that each of the painters investigated in the present study has produced a substantial oeuvre of well-known single works of art, it seems implausible to assume that priming ef- fects resulted from the priming of single iconic representations of single artworks. Rather, the pattern of cross-modal priming effects is best explained by the activation of artist-specific memorial rep- resentations, which presumably consist of a kind of style-related visual prototype linked to individual artists. This interpretation is in accordance with a central assumption of a model of aesthetic experience – that processing of visual art comprises processing of style, which separates art perception from many other domains of perception (Belke & Leder, 2006; Leder et al., 2004). The idea that the identification of art is at the subordinate level of the corresponding artist is further sustained when considered in 4 One-sample t-tests were analyzed one-tailed because the priming hypothesis clearly predicts the direction of priming facilitation (decrease in RTs as compared to neutral conditions). light of a ‘‘cognitive economy” argument often made for the human cognitive system (e.g., Rosch et al., 1976). Such a classification is in between an ‘‘entry-level” of unique identity (Tanaka, 2001) such as titles (which might be too demanding, see Leder, Carbon, & Ripsas, 2006), and more inclusive art categories, such as genres and broad art schools (which might be inefficient for identifying a particular piece of art). Therefore, identification at the level of the producing artist may allow for an optimum level. Moreover, the often-high de- gree of semantic ambiguity (or even absence of any representa- tional information) often defies a clear semantic determinacy, which is why explicit classification based on artists’ specific styles might provide the most efficient in the identification of art. Given the wide range of artistic ‘strategies’ for depiction such as alien- ation, distortion and abstraction and therefore often highly stylized representations (of objects, themes or subject matters), the recogni- tion of visual art may most efficiently rely on reoccurring, salient stylistic features. These artist-specific prototypical style features might serve as ‘‘discontinuities” (Rosch et al., 1976) on which ‘‘ba- sic-cuts” in perception are made, and which provide an entry point in recognition. Due to these arguments and findings of the study, we propose that art has a special status amongst external-world ob- jects since it allows for a memorial representation based on stylistic features that are linked in semantic memory to the creating artist.5 Another contributing factor as to why the subordinate level pro- duced superior performance in the paradigms applied may be that perceptual similarity for art-objects does not increase with the level of specificity in the same way as it does for every-day object classes. For every-day objects research has shown that subordinate-level classifications require additional perceptual processing to extract features that are needed to go beyond the basic-level of processing (Op de Beeck, Béatse, Wagemans, Sunaert, & Van Hecke, 2000; Gau- thier, Anderson, Tarr, Skudlarski, & Gore, 1997). Compared to per- ceptual similarity within common object classes utilized in our study, paintings from a particular artistic genre might be generally more distinctive from each other. This increased distinctiveness might lower perceptual effort to discriminate amongst works of art and as a result favors a subordinate level of identification. Our study revealed a processing advantage on the subordinate level of the creating artist for viewers with a considerable range of academic training in the visual arts, varying from one year to six years of full-time studies. This result provides some evidence that an artist-based recognition reflects a processing characteristic that is not restricted to advanced levels of art expertise, but may be a hallmark of art perception itself. However, due to methodological reasons, performances of the free naming, category verification and visual identity task were not compared with performances by art- lay people, since these tasks required participants to possess of some declarative knowledge about artists, genres and styles. Although one could argue that viewers with only a passing famil- iarity with artists, styles or genres would show a classic basic level advantage (and identify an artwork at a medium level of abstrac- defining attributes (e.g., a painting by Mark Rothko may appear affectively ‘‘warm”, ‘‘floating” and spatially ‘‘immersive”, which might be crucial attributes for the artist’s memorial representation as a ‘‘Rothko”). If such affective and evaluative information is accessible in early processing stages, it might be possible that these affective attributes play a significant role in the identification of artistic objects. 200 B. Belke et al. / Acta Psychologica 133 (2010) 191–202 tion based on membership of a certain genre, broad art style or art school), we propose that the mental representation of visual art (due to the above-mentioned specificities) is generally organized around the subordinate level of the producing artist, even when art expertise is limited.6 This assumption is supported by Supplementary data which were obtained from people without formal art training and which we have not reported in this study. In a feature listing task people had to list as many attributes of given art-related categories as they could think of (see Rosch et al., 1976, for details of the method). The results indicated that art-lay people list significantly more items for the subordinate level terms of the artist’s name and spe- cific art-styles compared to basic level terms such as the artistic- genre. This result is in accordance with the assumption that art- specific declarative knowledge may be generally organized at the subordinate level of the producing artist. Clearly, future research is needed to investigate this hypothesis further. Moreover, relative levels of art expertise did not show up as a contributing factor on the finding that the artist’s name was the predominant category in naming art-objects in Experiment 1. Therefore, art expertise effects were not investigated further in Experiments 2 and 3, since they were not the primary focus of this study. However, it cannot be excluded that more advanced art expertise may modify the entry-level and provoke a downward shift in recognition (subsidiary to the artist’s name) to the level of a painting’s title, as the level of unique identity (Tanaka, 2001). The assumption of titles as an alternative (art-related) entry point was not investigated in Experiments 2 and 3, as frequencies of categorizing art-objects with their corresponding titles were rather marginal in Experiment 1, regardless of the level of partici- pant’s background in academic training in the arts. Future research may address the possible occurrence of such a downward shift more closely. The results also indicated that expert viewers were able to ac- cess artist-specific representations as fast as basic-level represen- tations of every-day objects, meaning that a painting by Picasso was identified as a ‘‘Picasso” within the same time frame as a depiction of a car was identified as a ‘‘car”. Although converging evidence of the three experiments suggested the artist’s name as a candidate for an entry point in art-recognition, we did not address the exact time-course involved, whether identification on the level of the artist precedes the identification of depictive content or vice versa. Therefore, we cannot rule out that the ini- tial contact between stimulus and semantic memory might be on the level of depictive content (Augustin et al., 2008). However, this might be possible for representational art but is less likely with Abstract, Minimal or Conceptual art, which often lack unam- biguous semantic references and often disrupt processing rou- tines that are prevalent in every-day perception, such as object recognition (Leder et al., 2004). Furthermore, art-related genre la- bels provided in Experiments 2 and 3 contained explicit refer- 6 It is important to note that exposure to art, unlike encounters with every-day objects, is a rather exclusive event and often restricted to a museum or gallery context; hence art can be regarded as an expertise domain per se. For many object categories a non-expert would still be able to name and identify an instance of such categories with an appropriate basic level and subordinate level concept. This is unlikely in the case of art, which represents a more specialised domain of knowledge. This study did not address the question how people without relevant art-specific categories and whose memorial representations have not been shaped by previous encounters with instances of a particular artist, genre or style, would identify an artwork. However, it seems likely that under these conditions, identification may more strongly rely on recognition of external-world object references (provided that representational information can be extracted from the work) and this may characterize a transfer of everyday processing strategies into the realm of art (Cupchik & Gebotys, 1988). Presumably, repeated exposure to works of art may foster the fast implicit learning of styles (Gordon & Holyoak, 1983) and the formation of style based memorial representations (Belke, Leder, & Augustin, 2006), which may evolve around single artists. ences to the paintings’ depictive content (e.g., the category ‘‘landscape painting” contained the word landscape) but were of lesser importance for identification than artists’ names. Future studies may address the exact time-course involved in content vs. style-based recognition and may reveal additional evidence (or boundary conditions) for the status of a subordinate artist- based recognition as the predominant entry point in the identifi- cation of visual art. Acknowledgements This research was supported by a Grant to Leder (SFB 626 C5) from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) and by a Grant to Leder and Carbon by the FWF ‘‘Fonds zur Förderung der wissens- chaftlichen Forschung” (National Austrian Scientific Fund; P18910). We would like to thank Johan Wagemans, Slobodan Markovic and two anonymous reviewers for their valuable com- ments on an earlier version of this article. Appendix 1 List of paintings used in Experiment 1. Artist Title Style Paul Cézanne ‘‘Mont Saint-Victoire” Postimpressionism John Constable ‘‘Hampstead Heath” Realism André Derain ‘‘Landscape in southern France” Fauvism Caspar-David Friedrich ‘‘Solitary tree” Romanticism Claude Monet Detail of ‘‘Water lilies 1906” Impressionism Vincent van Gogh ‘‘Starry Night” Postimpressionism Wassily Kandinsky ‘‘Murnau” The Blue Rider Max Beckmann ‘‘Self-portrait with a cigarette” New Objectivity (Neue Sachlichkeit) Paul Klee ‘‘Senecio” Expressionism Gustav Klimt Detail of ‘‘Judith” Art Nouveau Roy Lichtenstein Detail of ‘‘That’s The Way—It Should Have Begun! But It’s Hopeless.” Pop-Art Edvard Munch ‘‘The Scream” Symbolism Pablo Picasso ‘‘Portrait de Dora Maar”1937 Synthetic Cubism Gerhard Richter ‘‘Emma” Photorealism Salvador Dali ‘‘Persistence de la Memoire” Surrealism Albrecht Dürer ‘‘The Hare” Renaissance René Magritte ‘‘Le Faux Miroir” Surrealism René Magritte ‘‘Ceci n’est pas une pipe” Surrealism Gerhard Richter ‘‘Skull 1983” Photorealism Vincent van Gogh ‘‘Sunflowers” Postimpressionism Andy Warhol ‘‘Campbell’s Soup” Pop-Art Jean-Honoré Fragonard ‘‘Diderot” Rococo Pablo Picasso ‘‘Portrait de Dora Maar” Synthetic Cubism Roy Lichtenstein Detail of ‘‘That’s The Way – It Should Have Begun! But It’s Hopeless” Pop-Art (continued on next page) B. Belke et al. / Acta Psychologica 133 (2010) 191–202 201 Appendix 1 (continued) Artist Title Style Leonardo da Vinci ‘‘De Benci” High-Renaissance Gustav Klimt ‘‘Judith” (part of it) Art Nouveau Anselm Feuerbach ‘‘Nanna” Classicism Paul Klee ‘‘Senecio” Expressionism Vincent van Gogh ‘‘Armand Roulin” Postimpressionism Appendix 2 List of paintings used in Experiment 2. Artist Title Style Jean-Honoré Fragonard ‘‘Diderot” Rococo Pablo Picasso ‘‘Portrait de Dora Maar” Synthetic Cubism Roy Lichtenstein Detail of ‘‘That’s The Way – It Should Have Begun! But It’s Hopeless.” Pop-Art Leonardo da Vinci ‘‘De Benci” High-Renaissance Gustav Klimt Cut-out of ‘‘Judith” Art Nouveau Anselm Feuerbach ‘‘Nanna” Classicism Paul Klee ‘‘Senecio” Expressionism Vincent van Gogh ‘‘Armand Roulin” Postimpressionism Appendix 3 List of paintings used in Experiment 3. Artist Title Style Francois Boucher ‘‘Reclining Girl” Rococo Lucas Cranach the Elder ‘‘Venus 1532” Early Renaissance Painting Rembrandt ‘‘Bathsheba” Baroque Peter Paul Rubens ‘‘Leda and the Swan” Baroque Paul Cézanne ‘‘Mont Saint- Victoire” Postimpressionism Caspar-David Friedrich ‘‘Solitary Tree” Romanticism Claude Monet ‘‘Water lilies 1906” Impressionism Vincent van Gogh ‘‘Starry Night” Postimpressionism Leonardo da Vinci ‘‘De Benci” High-Renaissance Anselm Feuerbach ‘‘Nanna” Classicism Fragonard ‘‘Diderot” Rococo Pablo Picasso ‘‘Portrait de Dora Maar” Synthetic Cubism J. B. S. Chardin ‘‘Silver Tumbler” Rococo Albrecht Dürer ‘‘The Hary” Renaissance René Magritte ‘‘Ceci n’est pas une pipe” Surrealism Andy Warhol ‘‘Campbell’s Soup” Pop-Art Appendix A. Supplementary data Supplementary data associated with this article can be found, in the online version, at doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2009.11.007. References AC-Nielsen (2004). ‘‘Markenwert PKW 2003” – Eine Studie der Zeitungsgruppe BILD [‘‘Brand value of private cars 2003” – A study of the newspaper association BILD]. Augustin, M. D., Leder, H., Hutzler, F., & Carbon, C. C. (2008). Style follows content. On the microgenesis of art perception. Acta Psychologica, 128, 127–138. Battig, W., & Montague, W. (1969). Category norms of verbal items in 56 categories: A replication and extension of the Connecticut category norms. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 80, 1–46. Belke, B., & Leder, H. (2006). Annahmen eines Modells der ästhetischen Erfahrung aus kognitionspsychologischer Perspektive [trans. Assumptions of a model of aesthetic experience from a cognitive scientific perspective]. In Sonderforschungsbereich 626, Ästhetische Erfahrung: Gegenstände, Konzepte, Geschichtlichkeit [trans. Special research division 626, Aesthetic experience: Objects, Concepts, Historicity]. Belke, B., Leder, H., & Augustin, M. D. (2006). Mastering style. Effects of explicit style-related information, art knowledge and affective state on appreciation of abstract paintings. Psychology Science, 48(2), 115–134. Berlyne, D. E. (1971). Aesthetics and psychobiology. New York: Appleton-Century- Crofts. Carbon, C. C., & Leder, H. (2005). The Repeated Evaluation Technique (RET). A method to capture dynamic effects of innovativeness and attractiveness. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 19(5), 587–601. Cohen, J. D., MacWhinney, B., Flatt, M., & Provost, J. (1993). PsyScope: A new graphic interactive environment for designing psychology experiments. Behavioral Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers, 25(2), 257–271. Cupchik, G. C., & Gebotys, R. J. (1988). The search for meaning in art: Interpretive styles and judgments of quality. Visual Arts Research, 14(2), 38–50. Gauthier, I., Anderson, A. W., Tarr, M. J., Skudlarski, P., & Gore, J. C. (1997). Levels of categorization in visual recognition studied with functional MRI. Current Biology, 7, 645–651. Gauthier, I., & Tarr, M. J. (1997). Becoming a ‘greeble’ expert: Exploring mechanisms for face recognition. Vision Research, 37(12), 1673–1682. Gordon, P., & Holyoak, K. (1983). Implicit learning and generalization of the ‘mere exposure’ effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45(3), 492–500. Grasskamp, W. (1994). Die unbewältigte Moderne. Kunst und Öffentlichkeit. [The unaccomplished Modernity. Art and Public]. München: Beck. Hartley, J., & Homa, D. (1981). Abstraction of stylistic concepts. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 7, 33–46. Hasenfus, N., Martindale, C., & Birnbaum, D. (1983). Psychological reality of cross- media artistic styles. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 9(6), 841–863. Jolicoeur, P., Gluck, M. A., & Kosslyn, S. M. (1984). Pictures and names – Making the connection. Cognitive Psychology, 16(2), 243–275. Leder, H. (2003). Familiar and fluent! Style-related processing hypothesis in aesthetic appreciation. Empirical Studies of the Arts, 21(2), 165–175. Leder, H., Belke, B., Oeberst, A., & Augustin, D. (2004). A model of aesthetic appreciation and aesthetic judgments. British Journal of Psychology, 95, 489–508. Leder, H., Carbon, C. C., & Ripsas, A.-L. (2006). Entitling Art: Influence of different types of title information on understanding and appreciation of paintings. Acta Psychologica, 121, 176–198. Loftus, G. R., & Masson, M. E. J. (1994). Using confidence intervals in within-subjects designs. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 1, 476–490. Mannhaupt, H. R. (1983). Produktionsnormen für verbale Reaktionen zu 40 geläufigen Kategorien [German category norms for verbal items in 40 categories]. Sprache & Kognition, 2, 264–278. Mervis, C. B., & Rosch, E. (1981). Categorization of natural objects. Annual Review of Psychology, 32, 89–115. Murphy, G. L., & Brownell, H. H. (1985). Category differentiation in object recognition: Typicality constraints on the basic category advantage. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 11(1), 70–84. Op de Beeck, H., Béatse, E., Wagemans, J., Sunaert, S., & Van Hecke, P. (2000). The representation of shape in the context of visual object categorization tasks. NeuroImage, 12, 28–40. Op de Beeck, H., & Wagemans, J. (2001). Visual object categorization at distinct levels of abstraction: A new stimulus set. Perception, 30, 1337–1361. Parsons, M. J. (1987). How we understand art: A cognitive developmental account of aesthetic experience. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Posner, M. (1969). Abstraction and the process of recognition. In G. H. In, G. H. Bower, & J. T. Spence (Eds.), The psychology of learning and motivation. Oxford, England: Academic Press. Posner, M., & Mitchell, R. (1967). Chronometric analysis of classification. Psychological Review, 74(5), 392–409. Rosch, E. (1975). Principles of categorization. In E. Rosch & E. Lloyd (Eds.), Cognition and categorization (pp. 27–48). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Rosch, E., Mervis, C., Gray, W., Johnson, D., & Boyes-Braem, P. (1976). Basic objects in natural categories. Cognitive Psychology, 8(3), 382–439. Scherer, K. (2003). Introduction: Cognitive components of emotion. In R. J. Davidson (Ed.), Handbook of affective sciences (pp. 563–673). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Segui, J., & Fraisse, P. (1968). Le temps reaction verbale. III Réponses spécifiques et réponses catégorielles à des stimulus objets Verbal reaction times. III Specific http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2009.11.007 202 B. Belke et al. / Acta Psychologica 133 (2010) 191–202 responses and categorical responses to stimulus objects]. Année Psychologique, 68(1), 69–82. Tanaka, J. W. (2001). The entry point of face recognition: Evidence for face expertise. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 130(3), 534–543. Tanaka, J. W., & Taylor, M. (1991). Object categories and expertise: Is the basic level in the eye of the beholder? Cognitive Psychology, 23(3), 457–482. Winston, A. S., & Cupchik, G. C. (1992). The evaluation of high art and popular art by naive and experienced viewers. Visual Arts Research, 18, 1–14. When a Picasso is a “Picasso”: The entry point in the identification of visual art Introduction Special features of art-objects The present study Experiment 1: Free Naming task Method Participants Stimuli Procedure Results and discussion Data correction Analysis of variance Type of categories applied to categorize art-objects Experiment 2: Speeded category-verification task Method Participants Stimuli Procedure Results Analysis of true responses Analysis of false responses Experiment 3: Conceptual priming task Method Participants Stimuli Procedure and apparatus Results General discussion Acknowledgements Appendix 1 Appendix 2 Appendix 3 Supplementary data References 
work_allww2nryncrbi5vriu4kn7upm	----	This is the author's manuscript of the article published in final edited form as: Gunderman, R. B., & Idahosa, A. O. (2018). How Art Can Educate the Radiologist’s Eye: Duchamp’s “Nude Descending a Staircase.” Academic Radiology, 25(1), 136–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acra.2017.08.006 How Art Can Educate the Radiologist's Eye: Duchamp's “Nude Descending a Staircase” Richard B. Gunderman, MD, PhD, Aimebenomon O. Idahosa, BS Indiana University School of Medicine 702 North Barnhill Drive, Room 1053, Indianapolis, IN 46077 Key Words: Art, perception, Duchamp, education, radiology, radiologists Duchamp's “Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2” was dubbed one of the most famous and controversial paintings of its day (1. Along with the cubist school of which it was a part, it helped to change the way artists and the public perceived art, and its influence persists down to the present day (2. Less known but no less notable is the fact that “Nude Descending” also offers important educational insights to radiologists, particularly regarding the daily work of radiologic interpretation. The Nude Born in Normandy, France, in 1887, Marcel Duchamp grew up in a household filled with paintings by his grandfather, Emile Nicolle (3. Three of his brothers also became successful artists. As a student, Duchamp excelled in mathematics and art, and after graduation he sold cartoons that combined verbal and visual puns. After service in the military, he began exhibiting his paintings and participating in regular discussions with cubist painters. In 1912, he painted “Nude Descending.” Duchamp intended to exhibit “Nude Descending” at an art show in Paris, but it was rejected by his cubist peers. The hanging committee deemed it “ridiculous” to paint a nude descending a staircase, claiming instead that a nude should be “respected” by a more dignified pose. However, it was exhibited later in 1912 in Barcelona and the next year in New York, where it provoked harsh criticism. Teddy Roosevelt claimed that it might just as well be called, “A Well-Dressed Man Going Up a Ladder.” The painting, which measures approximately 57 × 35 inches and features mainly ochre and brown hues, depicts a figure composed of geometrical shapes that seems to be moving in a time-lapse fashion https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acra.2017.08.006 2 down some stairs (Fig 1). The figure appears in sufficiently abstract form that its gender and age are impossible to determine. At the bottom of the painting appears, in block letters, a phrase in French, “NU DESCENDANT UN ESCALIER.” Cubism “Nude Descending” both inhabits and transcends the cubist vision. The Cubists, including founders Georges Braque and Pablo Picasso, abandoned the Renaissance's emphasis on perspective, which sought to capture the three-dimensionality of a figure or scene as viewed from a particular point of view (4. They also moved away from the realistic depiction of figures, instead creating images the likes of which the human eye had never beheld in the real world. Like the impressionists, the cubists seem to have been striving to portray reality in a new way that would reveal aspects of the world not directly captured by the retina. One such aspect was space, the possibility of depicting an object as seen from multiple perspectives at once. The two-dimensional surface of the canvas depicted a three-dimensional reality in a new way, as though the spectator were moving around the object, seeing it from multiple different points of view. Duchamp's “Nude Descending” extends this effect even further in space and time. The figure is no longer depicted as static but as moving, thereby combining multiplicity of perspectives in both space and time. The effect can be likened to a series of motion picture frames, except instead of unreeling over a span of time, the entire sequence is captured in a single image. All stages in the movement seem to be equally present in a single instant. Radiologic Perspectives “Nude Descending” invites a radiologist to reflect on some essential features of our daily work that have become so deeply embedded in habit that they can be difficult to recognize. One is the fact that Duchamp's figure is fragmented, a feature of essentially every radiologic image. Radiologists also see 3 patients not as wholes but as parts, whether as body regions (chest, abdomen, etc.), anatomic slices (ultrasound, computed tomography, etc.), or physical properties (density, echogenicity, etc.). Just as “Nude Descending” was rejected as an affront to the dignity of the nude, so radiologic images can fragment, partition, and undermine the integrity of a physician's perception of the whole human patient. For physicians in other fields who encounter the whole patient face to face, the danger of fragmentation may be somewhat mitigated, but for diagnostic radiologists who do not meet the patient, it takes effort to synthesize the images, the patient's story, and the patient. Some investigators and clinical sites have attempted to catalyze this synthesis by adding to radiologic image sets a photograph of the patient (5. Even where such photographs and direct patient contact are not possible, however, radiologists can still connect images to patients at least in the imaginative sense, bearing in mind that every set of radiologic images corresponds to someone's parent, spouse, sibling, child, or friend. Another radiologically notable aspect of “Nude Descending” is its depiction of the figure from multiple spatial points of view. The cubists remind us that, depending on the perspective from which a figure is viewed, different features are either revealed or obscured. And to multiple spatial perspectives, Duchamp adds multiple temporal points of view. At one point, Duchamp's figure appears to be leaning forward and at another point back. Radiologists need to remember that the patient looks different to different people at different times. For example, a cardiologist might view the patient through the lens of the cardiovascular system, whereas the pulmonologist might focus primarily on the respiratory system. Likewise, a patient viewed at the moment of an acute, life-threatening event may look quite different at a later point, when a multidisciplinary group has assembled for an unhurried discussion of the case. Another feature of “Nude Descending” of special note to radiologists is the interplay it depicts between static and dynamic reality. A sequence of movements of a body through space appears to be 4 frozen in a single instant of time. So, too, radiologic images tend to capture but a single moment in the unfolding of a disease and its treatment through space and time. In both situations, the implication is the same: at no single point in time are we able to see the whole picture. In this sense, the challenge to radiologists can be likened to that of a person listening to a symphony. To be heard, the music must unfold in time, and the whole work is never apparent at any moment. The same can be said for the health and diseases of patients: what the radiologist glimpses is like a still photograph or a series of such photographs, but the reality of the patient persists between the intervals, and the radiologist needs to be imaginatively engaged with that unfolding reality. For example, suppose frontal and lateral chest radiograph show a bullet superimposed over the right ventricle of the heart. How could a bullet be lodged in the right ventricle of a living patient? The answer of course, is that the radiographic snapshot represents a single frame of an unfolding motion picture, and the bullet traveled as an embolus from another point in the body via the systemic venous system. Again, radiologists perceive still images but must think in motion pictures. Another feature of Duchamp's painting is the fact that, when represented geometrically, a human being can become depersonalized. We cannot tell the gender or the age of the figure. We cannot discern the figure's identity, or whether it represents any particular person. We cannot make inferences about the figure's character, or how he or she might be feeling. The painting merely shows us a figure in motion. The same can be said, by extension, about the figures depicted in radiologic images. We may be able to diagnose an intracranial hemorrhage, a bronchogenic carcinoma, or appendicitis, but the image itself tells us little or nothing about the identity of the patient or the life the patient has led. Likewise, the radiologist is called upon to avoid depersonalizing or dehumanizing the patient, making sure never to see in any radiologic image just a biologic specimen and nothing more. By giving us so little in the way of personalizing features, Duchamp both shows us the inherent limitations of cubism and invites us to enter the painting, imagining for ourselves features that the 5 painting cannot supply. Peering inside the human body tells us a great deal about the biologic organism whose images we are viewing, but the radiologist needs to recollect that they correspond to a person with a biography that is still in progress. A fifth and overarching insight of “Nude Descending” is the fact that, like every piece of art, including non-representational art, it is in fact a depiction or representation of something, either real or imagined. An image is never the same as what it represents. This point is illustrated effectively in a story once told by Pablo Picasso. One day, a US serviceman complained to Picasso that his paintings seemed inaccurate, not corresponding to the reality that meets the eye (6. Picasso responded You mentioned earlier that you are engaged to be married. Do you have a photograph of your fiancée? May I see it? [Viewing the photograph, he expresses great surprise, perhaps even horror.] She's kind of small, isn't she? Although radiologists have good reason to take great pride in the many important medical insights radiology can provide, we also need to heed Duchamp's warning that images are never as important or real as the human reality they depict. Radiology is in large part a representational medical art, and we need to bear in mind that representation also necessarily simplifies and abstracts. Behind every static radiologic image is a living, breathing human being with a still-unfolding life story. 6 References 1. Duchamp M. Nude descending a staircase, No. 2. 1912. Oil on canvas. Philadelphia Museum of Art. 2. Kushner, M.S. and Orcutt, K. The armory show at 100: modernism and revolution. D. Giles, London; 2013 3. Tomkins, C. Duchamp: a biography. Holt, New York; 1998 4. Golding, J. Cubism: a history and analysis. Boston Book and Art Shop, Boston; 1968 5. Krupinski, E., Chung, A., Applegate, K. et al. Impact of patient photographs on radiologists' visual search of chest radiographs. Acad Radiol. 2016; 23: 953–960 6. Solso, R. Cognition and the visual arts. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA; 1996: 236 7 Figure 1. Marcel Duchamp, Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2, 1912. Oil on canvas. Philadelphia Museum of Art. 
work_alm4rbnm3nbl5btsezm7k36qmi	----	3월호.indd 1. INTRODUCTION Art and architecture had the similar cultural impact in the Old Regime. However, in the age of enlightenment and secularization, art was dissociated from political and religious influence, and more and more became the object of aesthetic desire. Art was in the hands of high culture and dissociated from the everyday life. Architecture, more or less, followed the similar track, and at the same time, was disregarded as a mere background for the arts. With the Avantgarde modernist in the European continents, the redemption of total works of art and architecture began to take various approaches such as Russian constructivists, German workers’ group, Dutch rationalists and so on. Among many approaches through Modern architecture that combine art and architecture, the envisioning case for this research’s topic is the Jose Luis Sert’s Spanish Pavilion at Paris World Fair at 1937. This paper will reinterpret the imp ortance of museums in modern architecture in the viewpoint of the unity of art and architecture and will propose a new form of museums that include current media art and installation art. A New Museum for New Forms of Art - Focused on “Museum without Walls”, and the relationship between art and architecture - Hayub Song Department of Architecture, Chung-Ang University, Seoul, Korea Abstract To design and construct a museum of art involves the interest of artists, architects, curatorship, management, and local government. More than this direct relationship, museum obliges the public a mission of delivering genuine public experience through art and architecture. However, most of Modern and contemporary architecture has not delivered genuine public experience of integrated art and architecture. Conceptual message of art and perceptual architectural exhibition space has not been integrated easily. Picture frame canvas initiated this schism and institutionalized museum management hampered the creativity of artists. This schism was overcome through artists’ questioning of museum culture and creative works that embrace work and its environment. In contemporary culture, installation art and media art necessitates a new museum format which needs not only exhibition, but laboratory and interface space with viewers. This paper will regroup the existing museum according to its use and strategy, and reinterpret progressive museums that fosters young artists, and more than this, will introduce successfully established museums for new forms of art, which are equipped with versatile exhibition spaces, innovative interface between works and viewers, and own laboratory that can produce works of art. These examples will envision a creative method of art and architecture production that can achieve genuine public experience. Keywords : Public Experience, White Cube, Museum Without Walls, Museum as Medium of Art ARCHITECTURAL RESEARCH, Vol. 13, No. 1(March 2011). pp. 3-9 ISSN 1229-6163 DOI : 10.5659/AIKAR.2011.13.1.3 Figure 1. Spanish Pavillion , Paris World Fair, 1937 Column Totem (Upper Right, Lower Right) 1 see Joseph Rykwert, The Judicious Eye, (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 2008) Corresponding Author: Hayub Song, Professor Department of Architecture, ChungAng University Heukseokdong, Dongjakgu, Seoul, 156-756, Korea Tel :+82 2 820 5264 e-mail: hysong@cau.ac.kr ©Copyright 2011 Architectural Institute of Korea. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial License (http://creativecommons. org/licenses/bync/3.0/) which permits unrestricted noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Hayub Song4 ( 1 ) P R O D U C T I V E C O M B I NAT I O N O F A RT A N D ARCHITECTURE - SPANISH PAVILION AT 1937 The Spanish Pavilion at Paris World Fair at 1937 incandescently fused architecture, painting and sculpture. It was one of the major attractions, although it was small compared to the large buildings of the Soviet Union and Germany.The pavilion was designed by Jose Luis Sert, years after the Spanish Civil War. The building is covered by photomontages that inform the effect of the war. The column-totem created by Alberto Sanchez Perez was placed next to the ramped entrance. Its inscription reads, “The Spanish people have a path, it leads to a star.” Also the poster reads, “More than half a million Spaniards are standing ready with their bayonets in the trenches, they will not be walked over.” by President Azana. These descriptions make visitors aware of Spanish Civil War status. This political conjunction brought forth well-fit artistic and architectural resp onse. Notably, Picasso’s Guernica expresses a dis astrous bombing of a Basque town by the German air force. In the ground hall of the pavilion, Guernica dominated a focus on an entire wall. It fuses the pavilion and itself into one entity of Spanish anguish over the war. Art and architecture all together, made vivid a public experience. Currently, Guernica and models of the building and the sculpture is housed in the Reina Sofia museum (designed by Jean Nouvel) in Madrid. This does not create the authentic public experience once held in the pavilion. ( 2 ) A RT A S C O N C E P T A N D A RC H I T E C T U R E A S PERCEIVED BACKGROUND A go o d work of ar t cre ates public mess age, and t hus it is conceptual. Although techniques in making a work have been changing, the primary purpose of art in modern times lies in the conceptual realm. More than aura that Walter Be njamin named for the authenticity of a work of art, the attention by art dealers and spectators and the discussion the work makes becomes the value of a work of art. The process that becomes the master work of art has considerably changed. As well, the medium of a work is not limited to conventional canvas, stone, wood, and metal. Immaterial electronic production itself became a work of art. However, still a work of art is differentiated from a mere design by that fact that a good work of art creates a new dimension of thought, concept or metaphoric public message. The difference between art and architecture persists in this dimension. While art maintains cultural attention by way of its conceptual dimension, architecture is perceptual, often unnoticed, and does not get much attention. The background quality of a building does not guarantee cultural attention from the public. Stylistic difference of modern architecture from traditional architecture did not create veritable cultural contribution to the public. In the situation where conceptual realm of art and perceptual dimension architecture is separated, it is notable to search for an integrated public experience that is provided with new form of art combined with new architectural setting. 2. ARCHITECTURE FOR THE MUSEUM OF ARTS 2.1. MUSEUM WITH FUNCTION Around 1930s when the museology becomes progressive with modernization, museum architecture was belated with old Beaux Arts planning and anachronic classical style. Issues of changes were like visitor circulation, display of works of arts, space for public education, storage, and so forth. Curators and museum professionals insisted the functional efficacy over considerations of museum styles. During the 1930s, curators opposed to palatial museum architecture. Following Le Corbusier’s notion of house as “a machine for living,” museum became an educational machine for the public. At a 1934 conference on museums in Madrid, Philip Youtz, director of the Brooklyn Museum, delivered an opening lecture criticizing the “infatuated architect” who repeats B eaux Arts planning and classical styles.2 This mood brought modernist design of neutral space, so called “white cubes” that represent modern museum in general. (1) “WHITE CUBE” MUSEUM In 1936, the Philadelphian architects Howe and Lescaze initiated the commission from the Museum of Modern Art in New York. Lescaze and Howe wrote, “Every Architectural pretense should be avoided. A museum is best which is seem least, for it exists to Figure 2. Guernia, Pablo Picasso, 1937 Left : Original Exhibition at Spanish Pavillion Right: Present Installation at Reina Sofia Museum Figure 3. Museum of Modern Art, George Howe & William Lescaze, 1936 Figure 4. Museum of Modern Art, Philip Goodwin & Edward Stone 1939 2 see Andrew McClellan, The Art Museum From Boullee to Bilbao, (University of California Press, Berkeley, 2008) A New Museum for New Forms of Art 5 display collections and it must not obtrude itself on them. It should focus attention on its contents by making itself least conspicuous.”3 In t he Howe and L es caze’s prop os al, t he mus eum was not configured in the manner of monument setting in the park. It was blended in the urban setting in the 53rd street in Manhattan. Wi ndow s and bl an k w a l l s w r app e d t he f a c a de w it hout any reference to classical styles, and the entry did not have a temple front. However, the commission went to the firm of Goodwin & Stone. The final design did not create much distinction in compared to t he repres entative Mo dern architecture. It did not cre ate theoretical issue among architectural circle and the public. Typical curtain walls and plain abstract composition did not propose any innovative feature of Modern architecture. From the street, it had tripartite elevation schema, the transparent show windows in the ground floor, curtain walls in the middle, and the eave in the top. The interior space was painted white and spatially neutral. Howe’s remark aimed against B eaux Arts style, and yet architectural challenge was avoided for the sake of white background quality. (2) MUSEUM AS CIVIC PROFILE Against the neutral character of “white cube”, in 1939, around the time of New York World’s Fair, Henry-Russell Hitchcock wrote, A museum’s purposes are best served, indeed can only be truly served, if it is…entertaining and appealing… The museum…belongs in the field of democratic adult education. Its public ought to be a voluntary one. Therefore, it must practice a judicious showmanship and not be ashamed to entertain in order to teach.”4 In the same vein of reasoning on the issue of character, Frank Lloyd Wright did not follow the anonymity and characterlessness of Modern architecture, and imbued a modernized emblem in Guggenheim Museum, New York (1959). Wright described it as a “temple in a park” which escalates the sense of décor next to the Central Park. The building itself caused much attention than the works of art in exhibits. Consequently, a coherent balance between works of art and architecture was not achieved. The museum houses collections of art, but does not catalyze art in its exhibition. In the opposite spectrum of architectural styles, Mies van der Rohe’s National Galler y in Berlin create similar problem with Guggenheim Museum. Mies created a black hovering roof in response to the site and the grandiose universal space for the exhibition of works of arts. However, the large space dwarfed most paintings. As well the transparent windows allow unnecessary bright light in the periphery of the museum and contrastingly dark interior in the middle. In the above two opposite styles of museum, more than the function of museum as display of arts, the buildings performs civic profile in the city. 2 . 2 . M U S E U M W I T H A R C H I T E C T U R A L P E R - FORMANCE ( 1 ) M U S E U M W I T H T E C H N O L O G I C A L P E R - FORMANCE After the social unrest in 1968, museum boom embraced popular culture that was fostered by public culture. Museums became cultural centers for high and popular arts. Especially, the Pompidou Center opened in Paris, after the international competition in 1977. The innovative design by Renzo Piano and Richard Rogers focused on maximum interior space for housing the works of high and popular art, as well as a multimedia library, a performing arts space, a cinema, cafes, and gift shops. The building created an open space next to the escalators and provided monumental shape with high-tech architecture and public space for performance on the street. This building satisfies many aspects of contemporary museum; 1) its high-tech factory-like form waged controversy whether a museum can have a shape like a shed or not. Eventually, the shape was compensated for the ample space it contains. 2) The building’s vivid colors enliven interests in arts as public culture, 3) the works of art it exhibits range from works of masters to innovative media arts. Jean Baudrillard mentioned that the true contents of the museum “are the masses themselves” “flowing through the transparent space.” The Pompidou Center is a catalyst to the city, as does Eiffer Tower. However, one drawback would be that the spatial quality with transparency and openness does not satisfy the exhibition of conventionally canvas framed paintings. (2) MUSEUM WITH STYLISTIC PERFORMANCE Since the success of the Pompidou Center, the idea of catalyzing the city with a museum was prevalent when museum clientele gave design commissions to world famous architects. Exhibition spaces and the style of building were equally important. In the 1980s, I.M.Pei established himself as a master of museum design. He designed Washington’s National Gallery (1978), Boston’s Museum of Fine Arts (1981), and Louvre Pyramid (1989). Through these works, he created canonic modern style museums. With the famous collections, the Louvre is distinctive. Richard Meier applied his white cube style to the museum design from the 80s. High Museum (1983) in Atlanta entitled whiteness to downtown. Museum of Contemporary Art (1995) in Barcelona is a jewel in the gritty El Raval section in the city. Most prominently, Getty Center (1997) on a hill of California shows off its cultural status. World famous architects such as Frank Gehry, Daniel Libeskind and Santiago Calatrava designed museums that guarantee the attraction points in a city. Their buildings energize local donors and citizens. These buildings work as attraction points in the city, which are similar to Hitchcock’s comment on educationally entertaining museum. Through their collection and architectural signature, these museums’ top priority is the number of visitors. The city that has one of these museums experienced the boom of tourism, and thus curating cannot ignore the business side of exhibition schedules. The popularity of exhibitions is highly influential to the revenue of tourism in town. 2.3. MUSEUM WITHOUT WALLS While the above museum types were initiated from architectural difference, the concept of ‘museum without walls’ originates from 3 William Lescaze, “A Modern Housing for a Museum,” Parnassus 6 (Nov, 1937), p.14 4 Henry-Russell Hitchcock, “Museums in the Modern World,” Architectural Review 86 (Spe, 1939), p.148 Hayub Song6 the changes of medium in art works. With the proliferation of contemporary art market, art fairs, and auctions, the division between the public and private market sectors has been blurred. Accordingly, the role of museum has changed to support the artists, not merely exhibit the works of arts. Artists are often invited to sit on exhibition committees, act as consultants on building projects and so on. Their works are commissioned by museum to exhibit temporarily in the lobby and on the site of the museum. Often the image of this setting is transmitted via the Internet and media globally. These phenomena propose the idea of a ‘museum without walls.’ This concept of museum without walls also started its beginning with Land Art in 1970s. Robert Smithson’s infamous work, Spiral Jetty in Salt Lake City was initiated from the idea of museum without walls. Smithson denied institutionalization of works of art in the system of museum and historical implication in the subject of art works. His work gradually became extinct and remain as copies of photograph. However, in contemporary culture, Smithson’s radical action against museum culture is rarely repeated. Instead, the aesthetic effect of the Land Art specific to a site is pursued and reproduced via media and presented at even bus stop and public spaces. This trend also changes the space quality of museum from neutral space to a grand scale empty box that can attract media attention and capture public imagination. Throughout the above critical survey on museum architecture, we can observe that the relationship between artworks and museum has changed even after art and architecture was separated. While the use of canvas picture frames dissociated art from architecture, ne w medium such as l and ar t, site-sp ecif ic work, electronic image, and etc, provide unimagined possibility to bring forth a participatory environment that embraces art and architecture as public experience. For this analysis, the artistic transformation about the concept and usage of museum needs to be explored. This categorization will envision the idea on a new museum for new forms of art. 3. MUSEUM AS MEDIUM OF ART As Joseph Rykwert analyzed, before enlightenment in the Western civilization, art and architecture in a combined setting had an equal cultural impact. With the beginning of picture frame presentation, the schism between conceptual realm of art and perceptual realm of architecture was initiated. This schism has been taken for granted since a work of art can travel museums while a building cannot move. The criticism of artists about the institutional authority on museums initiated a new concept of exhibition and eventually museum architecture. It is not limited to the planning aspect of museum spaces, but geared to the very existence of museum itself. This criticism on the institutionalized museum became the indirect subject of the work in the display of the work. In other words, artists questioned exhibition itself and displayed their works in an architectural way. Artists’ practices based on this criticism bring forth a renewed interest in the combined setting of art and architecture. (1) EXHIBITION SPACE AS WORK ITSELF Kurt Schwitters created rooms of sculpture and his various objects in his home at Hanover, Germany from 1920s to 1936. Schwitters used his own rooms as medium of art in order to create a composite of sculpture and his various objects. It was named as Merzbau. In Merzbau, he developed various ‘caves’ and ‘grottoes’ which is dedicated either to people or to topographical subjects. The house itself was destroyed in a raid and yet the image remains as still shots. It could be an exemplary case which excludes institutionalized museum space and yet operates as a space for the exhibition of a work. This work can be interpreted in both ways; the criticism on the notion of museum space, and the emulation of Baroque space where painting, sculpture, and architecture are depicted as one piece of a work. ( 2 ) P O R TA B L E M U S E U M A S W O R K I T S E L F : DUCHAMP’S BOITE-EN-VALISE (PORTABLE MUSEUM) Marcel Duchamp, as a representative Dada artist, challenged directly the notion of institutionalized museum with his Boite- en-valise , portable museum. Duchamp used attaché case to house miniature copies of his collection. He developed a retrospective of his works with miniature representations of paintings, graphics and Ready-mades to fit inside an attaché case. Between 1935 and 1960s, he created many variations of this box. Each box unfolds to reveal various works which are rearrangeable. Artist himself can display his own work in an ambulatory manner. This work marginalized the role of architecture. Schwitters’ work and Duchamp’s work illustrates totally opposite spectrum of the role of exhibition space. While Schwitters utilized everyday space as medium of his work, Duchamp’s attaché case is both art collections and exhibition spaces. Like his other Dada art works, Boite-en-valise leaves a question on the museum space and exhibition method. (3) SPACE & PLACE EFFECT AS MEDIUM OF ARTWORK In a typical neutral white wall exhibition space, works of art maintains a singular effect in relationship to the space around it. In the 1960s, with the rise of minimal art, this relationship was avoided by artists since the space did not create aesthetically pertinent space for the work. Against the neutral white wall museum space, Donald Judd created his own ideal museum in the small town of Marfa, Texas. Judd was critical of characterless museum space and exhibited his aluminum box works in aircraft hangars, barracks, and other former military buildings in Marfa. He purchased many buildings in town and established the Chinati Foundation and displayed works of other artists such as Dan Flavin, Figure 5. The Merzbau, Karl Schwitters, Hanover, 1933 Figure 6. Boite-en-Valise, Marcel Duchamp, 1935-41 A New Museum for New Forms of Art 7 John Chamberlain, Claes Oldenburg and Ilya Kabakov. The overall aesthetic experience is dissociated from everyday atmosphere of a town and is like a world for art, according to Kabakov.5 Work and its setting, however, became each dependent with achieving conceptual and perceptual aspects. Many of minimalists’ sculpture attempted to spatially dependent relationship between the work and the exhibition space. While minimal art works are often regarded as individual pieces, much of works are site-specific in the context that can highlight the effect of works and space simultaneously. Richard S erra’s many installation works within and outside the museum illustrate his pursuit of the effect that artworks and place creates. However, Serra’s works did not need phenomena of changing illumination, while Judd’s works are sensitive to light effect. The customization of background space worked as medium of artworks. (4) SPACE & PLACE AS SUBJECT OF ARTWORK As mentioned earlier, Robert Smithson’s Spiral Jetty used earth as a subject of work. Michael Heizer’s Double Negative is one of the largest, 1500 ft in length, work of land art. These are against museum culture and explore alternatives to it. In recent, medium of art and space of museum are incorporated to create an atmospheric difference from ever yday life. Olafur Eliasson’s Weather Project (2003) in the Turbine Hall at Tate Modern utilized museum space as a productive medium of the work itself. With the emulated sun which radiates single frequency yellow light, the air is conditioned to create a fine mist via a mixture of sugar and water. The ceiling of the hall is covered with a huge mirror, in which visitors could see themselves as small objects when they look up the above. The height of the sun, the mist and the mirror make the visitor to lie down to experience the work. This type of effect creating installation art overcomes institutionalized museum culture through blurring the boundary between museum and a work of art. ( 5 ) V I R T UA L S PA C E & P L A C E A S S U B J E C T O F ARTWORK More than this type of works that aim for the special effect, Jeffrey Shaw demonstrates a presentation method that features 3D computer-generated museum. In the Virtual Museum(1991), the viewer can control the journey through virtual five rooms i nte r a c t i ve l y t h rou g h t he s c re e n i n a re a l ro om w it h s ame appearance. The viewer faces both the real and virtual monitor screens with the realities are exactly aligned. Shaw explores the boundary between virtual and real world through his consecutive works and his website (w w w.jeffre y-shaw.net, w w w.icinema. unsw.edu.au) offers internet users works of art that do not need the physical museum. In doing so, he opened a challenge to the authority of the art museum. Artists who use the internet create works for digital production for digital collecting and archiving; through this way the works are not likely possessed by collectors or institution. The internet can convey “original” art in the medium for which it is created and possibly the viewers can alter and adopt a work of art for one’s own purpose. Communication space in the web initiated a new interface between viewers and artists. 4. MUSEUM FOR A NEW FORM OF ART, ALMOST LIKE ART PRODUCING LABORATORY In the above mentioned approaches, the schism between art and architecture is being narrowed down through the productive use of museum space as a medium of art, and, in a challenging way, through the intermingle of real and virtual spatial perception through media art. A renowned art historian, Ernst Gombrich questioned the meaning of modern art museums, “I think that a museum of modern art is a contradiction in terms. Museums used to exist to preserve the treasures of the past and to save them.”6 Gombrich’s questioning anticipates a current fashion of renouncing an archiving function of museums. While traditional museums have multiple functions of exhibiting, archiving and preserving, current proliferation of new museums and exhibitions accelerated the amount of works by artists and eventually faced the problem of storing. In order to avoid this issue, museums often use off- site storage and increase exhibition spaces, serving the purpose of museum to accommodate new forms of art such as media art, big installation and the collaboration works of art and technology. For example, the Palais de Tokyo, Paris, puts forward the agenda as an arts laborator y that has no permanent collection, but a series of temporary exhibits in a large open space that looks like an installation place. The New Museum, New York, designed by Kazuyo Sejima and Ryue Nishizawa has no permanent collection, and its mission proposes the exhibition of young artists’ works. As well, for the digital art, there are museums that do not have permanent physical location. Their mission is to engage the public and artists in the creation, understanding and appreciation of digital art. The Austin Museum of Digital Art, Texas (www.amoda.org) Figure 7. Untitled, Donald Judd, 1982-86 Figure 9. The Virtual Museum, Jeffery Shaw, 1991 Figure 8. The Weather Project, Olafur Eliasson, 2003 5 Judd’s contribution to Marfa, Texas remains now as a foundation, http:// www.chinati.org/index.php 6 2nd quoted from, James Putnam, Art & Artifact, (London : Thames & Hudson, 2009), p.209 Hayub Song8 has no gallery or office space. Its exhibition is held in temporary location. For artists, the submission of art works is done through email and website link only. The Digital Art Museum, Ber lin(www. dam.org) is an on-line museum that exhibits digital fine art works of leading artists in this field since 1956. The Museum of Computer Art, New York (www.moca.virtual.museum) has a small permanent exhibition space of 1,200 ft2 at Brooklyn and more eminently easily uploadable web space to exhibit one’s works. It is located at an anonymous neighborhood setting where all mixed use is allowed. Eyebeam Museum in New York (www.eyebeam.org) combines art and technology through supporting fellowships and residencies. The experience of art becomes one of everyday activities. 5. EXAMPLARY NEW MUSEUMS FOR A NEW FORM OF ART In the following, new museums that foster a new form of art, the process of art making, artist-in-residence program, and the interaction between viewers and the work, will be introduced. The selection cannot encompass a whole scope of new museums but will envision a new pattern of public experience through art and architecture. (1) ZKM IN GERMANY As a cultural institution, the Center for Art and Media (Zentrum fur Kunst und Medientechnologie, ZKM) combines production of artworks and research, exhibitions and events, coordination and documentation. The museum is composed of 5 centers: the Museum of Contemporary Art, the Media Museum, the Institute for Visual Media, the Institute for Music and Acoustics and the Institute for Media, Education, and Economics. The C enter for Art and Media in ZKM prob es ne w media i n t h e o r y a n d p r a c t i c e, t e s t s t h e i r p o t e nt i a l w it h i n h o u s e developments, presents possible uses in exemplary form. Working closely with the State Academy for Design (Staatliche Hochschule fur Gestaltung) in Karlsruhe and other institutes, the Center for Art and Media provides a forum for science, art, and even politics. The Museum of Contemporary Art features a typical exhibition of works of contemporary arts and the works from private collections. Media Museum features interactive media art and the recording of it is stored in the Media Library. Through artist-in-residence program, Music and Acoustics, and Laboratory are maintained to experiment a new combination of art, music and science. The building itself is an experimentation through the reuse of an old building. Instead of a new site for the building, a historic monument of a former munitions factory was chosen. Architects S chweger & Partner undertook planning, reconstruction and renovation, converting the factor y structure into a building ideally suited to presenting advanced technologies and artistic experiments. In a spacious ambience, visitors can enjoy events and tours, view public exhibitions or visit the Mediathek. The Center is a platform for experimentation and discussion, with a mission to participate actively in working towards the future forms of art and engage in the ongoing debate about the use of technology. (2) ICC (INTER COMMUNICATION CENTER) IN JAPAN ICC (Inter C ommunication C enter) was t hought out by a Japanese telecommunication company, NTT in 1990 and was constructed in 1997. ICC has been actively introducing media art works which employ the newest electronic technologies such as virtual reality and interactive technology. Special exhibitions that transcend genres have also been held. Through various programs such as workshops, performances, symposiums, and publishing, ICC introduces new forms of art to Japan, and explores further possibilities of communication. Research department makes database of 20th century art and related technology, as well as works of media art in Japan. With the established database, specialists on art and general public can have an access to the data. This research works are cooperated with the research center of NTT, International Electronic Communication Research Center in Kyoto, and Kyoto City University of Arts and etc. ICC facility occupies 4th~6th floors of Tokyo Opera City Tower, which boasts of 54th floor skyscraper and has cultural complex facilities in Tokyo. Thus, ICC operates as one of components of cultural facilities in the building and architecturally is not distinctive compared to other museums. Floor Area 16,224 m2 1st Floor Museum of Contemporary Art, Media Theater, Main Hall, Lecture Room, Museum shop 2nd Floor Media Museum, Institute for Visual Media, Media Library, Institute for Music and Acoustics, Multimedia Laboratory 3rd Floor Media Museum, Media Library, Institute for Music and Acoustics, Music Studios Table 1. ZKM Space Program Table 2. ICC Space Program Figure 10. Zentrum fur Kunst und Medientechnologie, Schweger & Partner Floor Area 3,000 m2 approximately 4th Floor Entrance, Information, Shop, Cafe 5th Floor Galleries, Technoart Archive, Lounge 6th Floor Media Library A New Museum for New Forms of Art 9 (3) THE NATIONAL MEDIA MUSEUM IN ENGLAND NMM(The National Media Museum) in Bradford, England specialized its exhibition in media related works. Film, television, radio and photography are the items that are featured in the 7-story building. NMM shows the development of exhibition subjects in museum. NMM’s history shows how this museum adapted to the changing media of arts. In 1983, it opened as the National Museum of Photography, Film and Television that specialized in the art and science of images and image-making. In 1989, to celebrate the 150th anniversary of photography, Kodak Gallery was added and has its collection of more than 10,000 items. Later, a television studio was installed and became the first live broadcasting studio in a museum. This and other studio together are used to co-teach University of Bradford students who attend majors in media and television. The new building that was refurbished and extended at 1999 by English design firm, Austin-Smith: Lord. New and old parts of the building were linked by a 14m high curved glazed concourse which provides large foyer and retail spaces. Through the increase of floor space, the museum also projects its future to develop internet gallery, to have a satellite museum at London, and etc. Although this museum features media-related arts only, NMM shows a model of evolving museum over the time. Table 3. NMM Space Program Figure 11. Inter Communication Center, 1997 Figure 12. The National Media Museum, 1999 Floor Area 20,000 m2 approximately LG Floor Kodak Gallery Insight Ground Floor IMAX Cinema, Pictureville Cinema, Café, Shop, Games Lounge, Picnic Area 1st Floor Gallery 1, Cubby Brocolli Cinema, Picnic Area, Meeting Point 2nd Floor Gallery 2 3rd Floor Experience TV 4th Floor The Magic Factory 5th Floor Animation Gallery, Families on Five 6th Floor Profiles Gallery 7th Floor Conference Suite Learning Rooms 6. CONCLUSION Museum architecture has been a charming topic to architects since it challenges architectural aesthetics and techniques. “Bilbao effect”, that Frank Gehry’s Guggenheim Museum at Bilbao initiated the change of small city into a tourist attraction, is being pursued by many cities and clients. In doing so, art works and museum has its own cause of production, and rarely thought out simultaneously in the beginning of museum construction. This is a modern condition that is different from Old Regime before Enlightenment period. With the above mentioned examples of art and architecture that stitches their divided status, we observed various approaches achie ved primarily by the initiatives of artists and museums alone. In these cases, architecture was merely thought as given condition or medium of arts. This approach transforms given architecture in an unthought-of way. Perhaps this might be a healthy way in contemporary condition where art and architecture is commissioned separately. More important than this issue of bridging the gap of art and architecture is museum’s acceptance of a new form of art. Art and architecture can achieve public experience only through mutual response to each with creative method of production. REFERENCES Andrew McClellan, The Art Museum From Boullee To Bilbao, (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008) Joseph Rykwert, The Judicious Eye, (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2008) James Putnam, Art & Artifact, (London : Thames & Hudson, 2009) Philip Jodidio, Architecture Now! Museums (Köln ; London : Taschen, 2010) (Date of Submission : 2010.10.12) 
work_asbekyygujcsbflm6xjclgg5qi	----	infe2-03 www.sochinf.cl 151 y la cultura Claude Debussy, Maurice Ravel, Erik Satie, Richard Strauss y Manuel de Falla, así como los pintores Pablo Picasso y Georges Braque. Su estilo se inscribía en el movimiento de vanguardia y explotaba cierto sabor exótico, con coreografías alejadas de los cánones del ballet clásico. En 1909, un joven compositor ruso, llama- do Igor Stravinsky, recibió de Diagilev el encargo de componer un ballet. Es así como nacen El pájaro de fuego y posteriormente Petruchka. Paulatinamente Stravinsky va de- rivando de los temas rusos a lo que sería la más fenomenal y violenta ruptura con los cánones musicales de la época, donde cla- ves diferentes se encuentran extrañamente yuxtapuestas y superpuestas unas sobre otras, para lograr un acre efecto politonal. Todo estaba preparado para lo inevita- ble: la noche del 29 de mayo de 1913 sube al podio del Teatro de los Campos Elíseos de París el director Pierre Monteaux para dirigir el estreno del ballet La consagración de la primavera, por los bailarines rusos con mú- sica de Stravinsky y coreografía de Nizhinski. Esta obra puede considerarse como una pie- za inicial de la música clásica del siglo XX. A partir de ella, el estilo rupturista domina el panorama musical europeo en todas sus di- La consagración de la primavera y el nacimiento de la música contemporánea europea mensiones, como la melodía, la forma y el timbre y su estreno suscitó el mayor escán- dalo de la historia, en la ejecución de una obra musical. El argumento trata del sacrificio ritual de una joven virgen, bailando hasta la muerte ante su tribu, para celebrar la llegada de la primavera, en la Rusia arcaica, pagana y pri- mitiva. La atrevida coreografía de Nizhinski, el vestuario ligero de los bailarines y los decorados modernistas de Roerich resulta- ron demasiado provocativos para la conser- vadora sociedad parisina. A medida que se desarrollaba, la música constituía una tre- menda sacudida para los oyentes. Stravinsky utiliza unos medios de expre- sión extraños y mucho más violentos que los acostumbrados en las salas de París. La melodía apenas existe y se mueve en tonali- dades extrañas: escalas orientales, modali- dades litúrgicas y acentuados cromatismos; las armonías son audaces y provocadoras; el carácter principal es rítmico, un ritmo bár- baro, fantástico y estimulante. Posteriormente, Stravinsky abandonaría la vanguardia y optaría por formas neo- clásicas, al tiempo que negros nubarrones se cernían sobre Europa preludiando el co- mienzo de la primera guerra mundial.Igor Stravinsky (1882-1971). Wikimedia Commons. Teatro de los Campos Elíseos, París. Wikimedia Commons. En el París de comienzos del siglo XX destacaban los ballets rusos del empresario Sergei Diagilev, quien había encargado pie- zas para la escena a los más importantes músicos de la época. Colaboraron con él El escándalo Desde el primer compás empezaron a oírse en el público expresiones de desaprobación. Las protestas aumentaron cuando se levantó el telón y apareció el decorado del pintor Nicolás Roerich. Más tarde, la orquesta fue ahogada por un furibundo griterío de protestas. Los compositores Camille Saint Saëns y Theodor Dubois expresaron su repulsa en voz bien alta y clara, llamando farsante a Stravinsky, mientras que Maurice Ravel, amigo del compositor, gritaba que era una obra genial; Claude Debussy pedía silencio para que pudiera oírse aquella música maravillosa, y Florent Schmidt llamaba cretino al embajador austríaco. Fue una batalla campal en la que participaron incluso las damas, llegan- do a concertarse varios duelos que al día siguiente se llevaron a efecto. Referencias 1.- Untermeyer L. Igor Stravinsky en Forjadores del mundo moderno: Editorial Grijalbo, 1960, México D.F. 2.- Salaberri S. Igor Stravinsky. La consagración de la primavera. http://www.tolosa 750.net/es/IgorStravinsky.pdf. (Accedido el 4 de marzo de 2009). Texto: Ernesto Payá G. Rev Chil Infect 2009; 26 (2): 151 
work_atq7e2le75evrg5gshtpk5k2ay	----	UEF//eRepository DSpace https://erepo.uef.fi Artikkelit Filosofinen tiedekunta 2019 Cartographies of Paris: Everyday Mobilities in Michèle Rakotoson's Elle, au printemps and Alain Mabanckou's Tais-toi et meurs Toivanen, Anna-Leena Intellect Tieteelliset aikakauslehtiartikkelit © Ingenta All rights reserved http://dx.doi.org/10.1386/jucs_00003_1 https://erepo.uef.fi/handle/123456789/7801 Downloaded from University of Eastern Finland's eRepository 1 The version record of this manuscript has been published in The Journal of Urban Cultural Studies 6.1 (2019): 59-78. doi: 10.1386/jucs_00003_1 Cartographies of Paris: Everyday Mobilities in Michèle Rakotoson’s Elle, au printemps and Alain Mabanckou’s Tais-toi et meurs Literary representations of postcolonial subjects’ concrete mobility practices beyond migrancy have not received much critical attention. In order to fill this void, this article analyses the representations and poetics of urban everyday mobilities in two Francophone African diasporic novels, Michèle Rakotoson’s Elle, au printemps (1996) and Alain Mabanckou’s Tais-toi et meurs (2012), through a mobility studies perspective. I focus on the protagonists’ use of urban mobility systems and the narratives’ ways of producing urban cartographies as means for inscribing the newly arrived irregular African migrants in the metropolis, and argue that the texts give articulation to a practical cosmopolitanism. The texts’ poetics of mobility – manifest in their uncanny and thrilleresque qualities – and the protagonists’ journeys to peripheral dead-ends convey the anxious aspects of their attempts to claim Paris as their city through mobility. Keywords: African diasporic literature; cosmopolitanism; everyday mobilities; Alain Mabanckou; Michèle Rakotoson; urban spaces Urban spaces play a central role in the postcolonial literary imaginary. The idea of the Global South city as a place of (post)colonial modernity is a longstanding theme in African literatures (see, e.g. Primorac 2010; Bede 2014; Williams 2016). Literary representations of European metropolises like London and Paris, on the other hand, frequently foreground the figure of the migrant as a postcolonial city-dweller, and explore the hybrid qualities of the metropolis (see, e.g. McLeod 2004; De Souza & 2 Murdoch 2013; Perfect 2014; Amine 2018). The emphasis on migrancy in studies focusing on postcolonial literary representations of Western metropolises reflects the general tendencies of postcolonial studies, which is a field that has paradigmatized the figure of the migrant. The figure of the migrant embodies such central postcolonial concerns as displacement, transculturation, and (un)belonging. These themes are also central when analyzing the postcolonial aspects of urban spaces. However, literary representations of cities also illustrate the importance of everyday mobility practices for the construction of (postcolonial) urban spaces and identities (see Jensen 2009: 140; Beck 2013: 111; Murray & Upstone 2014b: 193; Prytherch & Cidell 2015: 19-20). Until now, studies on postcolonial literary cities have not paid much attention to everyday urban mobilities. This is mainly because in postcolonial studies, the concept of mobility is understood from a migrant studies perspective. The migration studies approach tends to result in a static, nation-based view on issues such as integration, and to erase the notions of mobility and journeying that the concept of migration does actually entail (Mainwaring & Bridgen 2016: 247, 251; Cresswell 2010: 18). Indeed, it can be argued that postcolonial studies promote a restricted understanding of mobility: the term ‘mobility’ is often reductively used as a synonym for global migratory movements, or as an intangible metaphor for ‘the migrant condition’. Portrayals of concrete forms of physical mobility, in contrast, tend to go unnoticed by mainstream postcolonial literary studies.1 It is therefore not surprising that racialized/postcolonial subjects are only rarely recognized as mobile subjects or travelers beyond being migrants (Loingsigh 2009: 2- 3). In order to fill in this void, the present article demonstrates how two Francophone diasporic African novels, Michèle Rakotoson’s Elle, au printemps (1996) and Alain Mabanckou’s Tais-toi et meurs (2012), use everyday urban mobilities in their 3 constructions of the postcolonial metropolis and the metropolitan postcolonial mobile subject. In order to move beyond the migration studies-oriented approach and promote a wider understanding of postcolonial mobilities that takes ‘the actual fact of movement seriously’ (Cresswell 2010: 18) and ‘in a highly literal sense’ (Greenblatt 2010: 250), and that challenges the idea of space as a static container (Jensen 2009: 140; Murray & Upstone 2014b: 193; Sheller 2017: 628), I read Rakotoson’s and Mabanckou’s representations of Paris through a mobility studies lens. The novels in question feature complex portrayals of urban everyday mobility, in addition to which mobility is also pivotal for their plot development and the construction of the fictional characters. The foregrounded role of urban everyday mobilities makes these novels ideal objects of inquiry for a critical endeavor that sets out to apply a mobility studies perspective on fiction. The mobility studies paradigm is a ‘a movement-driven social science’ (Urry 2007: 18) which puts mobility at the centre of theorising (Sheller 2014: 45) by focusing on diverse, interdependent forms of actual and imagined mobilities. With its emphasis on mobilities, connections, and flows, mobility studies have also generated a new way of understanding space – urban spaces in particular (Jonas 2015: 281). From a mobility studies perspective, ‘space, subjectivity, […] and mobility are best understood as interdependent categories’ (Beck 2013: 110). While Rakotoson’s and Mabanckou’s texts could be read as traditional ‘migrant novels’ addressing ‘the migrant condition’, they feature portrayals of what mobility studies scholars refer to as ‘local processes of daily transportation’ (Hannam, Sheller & Urry 2006: 1) whose meanings cannot be reduced to migration. It is through a mobility studies approach that these representations of urban everyday mobilities can be fully appreciated. 4 When reading mobility from a postcolonial perspective2, one cannot ignore the fact that mobility is an unevenly distributed resource: mobilities are shaped by markers of difference such as race, nationality, gender, class, and ability (Cresswell 2006: 178; Upstone 2014: 40). Mobility studies scholars refer to the ways in which mobilities are both productive of and produced by power structures as politics of mobility (Cresswell 2010: 21) or as mobility politics (Nicholson & Sheller 2016: 5). When studying literary texts, however, it does not suffice to look at the politics but also at the poetics of mobility for the obvious reason that literary texts are products of artistic creation.3 In this respect, I find Ian C. Davidson’s (2017) concept of ‘mobilities of form’ and Chris Ewers’s (2018) study on mobility in British 18th century novel, which both explain how literary form and genre can be shaped by mobility practices, inspiring. Davidson’s and Ewers’s formulations resonate with my conception of poetics of mobility, by which I refer to the ways in which thematic treatment of mobility is reflected in the form – in this case, how the generic features of the thriller in Mabanckou’s novel and the uncanny qualities (as a sense of estranged familiarity and eerie repetition) of Rakotoson’s novel translate the mobility theme into form.4 By focusing on the representation and poetics of everyday urban mobility in African diasporic fiction, this article contributes to the topical endeavour of enhancing further dialogue between mobility studies and humanities (Merriman & Pearce 2017), and, in particular, to the relatively recent interest in applying mobility studies to the analysis of postcolonial fiction (Upstone 2014; Author 2017; Lagji 2018). Finally, the article contributes to ‘mobilizing’ literary urban studies by focusing on the representations of urban transport and mobility in the process of making meaning of the city and urban identities (see e.g. Thornbury 2014). Elle, au printemps and Tais-toi et meurs – novels that, to my knowledge, have not received critical attention until now – feature African migrants who have recently 5 arrived in Paris under irregular conditions. Rakotoson’s protagonist Sahondra, a young Madagascan woman, leaves Antananarivo in an unorganized attempt to pursue her studies in France: she travels to Paris without being enrolled to a university, relying entirely on the help her French pen friend Marie to whom her only link is their sporadic correspondence. The plot is driven by Sahondra’s search for Marie, who has promised to help her settle in France. The novel, giving articulation to the postcolonial urban uncanny (see Johnson 2010; Wolfreys 2008), foregrounds the mobility theme by depicting Sahondra’s travels in detail. Mabanckou’s thriller features a young Congolese man who goes to Paris to work in a diasporic Congolese underworld community. As typical of crime fiction and the thriller genre, the novel’s plot and imaginary rely heavily on mobility and suspense (see Rubin 1999 5; Huck 2012): being an irregular migrant and a petty criminal, the protagonist is constantly on the run. Both novels depict the protagonists’ struggles to make sense of the postcolonial metropolis. I read the protagonists’ use of mobility systems and the narratives’ production of urban cartographies as a means of inscribing their newly established migrant selves in the metropolitan space. I posit that the protagonists embody a practical cosmopolitan attitude necessary in performing successful border-crossings in a new environment (see, e.g. Beck 2006: 101-103; Mbembe 2008: 109; Werbner 2011: 110-113). This pragmatic cosmopolitanism – a grassroot version of traditional elite cosmopolitanisms (see Vertovec & Cohen 2008: 5) – is part of the process of becoming a modern postcolonial metropolitan subject,5 and it attests to the transformative power of mobility (Berensmeyer & Ehland 2013: 13). Simultaneously, the texts highlight the anxious aspects of the irregular African newcomers’ everyday mobilities, which translates into form in the texts’ uncanny and thrilleresque qualities that capture the alienating aspects of the postmodern city (see Rubin 1999: 10-11; Wolfreys 2008; Eckhard 2011; Beville 6 2013). The anxiety reaches its peak as the protagonists’ metropolitan pursuits end up in peripheral dead-ends, symbolizing the failures of the newcomers’ attempts to make Paris their city, and underlining its role in their newly established mobile subjectivities. Cartographies of Paris In what follows, I analyze the novels’ ways of producing mobile cartographies of Paris by portraying the protagonists’ travels in urban public transports. I argue that this cartographic impulse conveys the protagonists’ struggles to claim the postcolonial metropolis as theirs, and that this anxiety also finds its articulation on the formal scale. Paris has occupied a special place in the Francophone African literary imaginary since the mid-twentieth century (see, e.g. Bennetta 1998; De Souza 2012; Braddock & Eburne 2013). Typically, the Paris-centered paradigm articulates the collision between migrants’ high hopes and the harsh realities of the (post)colonial metropole (Treiber 2014). Elle, au printemps and Tais-toi et meurs rely on the Paris-centered paradigm, but also revise it by setting some events in provincial and sub-urban loci. Rakotoson’s protagonist Sahondra and Mabanckou’s Julian Makambo/José Montfort (who undergoes a change of identity when he arrives in Paris: his forged identity documents feature the name José Montfort) are somewhat conventional African migrant figures in the sense that they arrive in Paris for the first time without having realistic ideas about the city. Similar initially naïve and eventually disappointed newcomers have featured in, for instance, Ousmane Socé’s Mirages de Paris (1933) and J.R. Essomba’s Le paradis du nord (1996). Rakotoson’s and Mabanckou’s newcomers’ lives in Paris are represented from a pronouncedly mobile perspective; travelling in public transports in particular is portrayed minutely. By describing the protagonists’ mobilities in a detailed manner, the narratives produce literary cartographies of the postcolonial metropolis. The cartographic impulse is so foregrounded that Paris is not simply a passive stage on 7 which the events take place, but instead a space actively produced through everyday mobilities. In this sense, the novels’ cartographies are not mere re-imaginings of space (Tally 2014, 4), but attest to the way in which space itself is mobile (Murray & Upstone 2014b: 193), and highlight mobility’s role in constituting subjectivity (Prytherch & Cidell 2015: 19-20). In short, by embedding their cartographies of Paris into mobile practices, the novels ‘free […] space from static representation’ (Murray & Upstone 2014a: 5). Cartography has a history as a colonial means of control. In the postcolonial era, the practice of mapmaking has gained new meanings. As Caterina Romeo (2015: 101) notes, ‘If the necessity to impose control and surveillance over colonized countries was central in colonial Empires, at the time of postcolonial and global migrations this necessity travels together with migrants to the heart of Fortress Europe.’ Urban cartographies in postcolonial literary texts and film are frequently interpreted as ‘rewritings’ of former colonial centers as hybrid spaces (see e.g. McLeod 2004; Orlando 2014). Rakotoson’s and Mabanckou’s literary cartographies of Paris, however, are less motivated by the need to portray the city as ‘a subversive site […] in which processes of cultural signification [are] redefined by new cultural actors […] who claim belonging to the city’ (Romeo 2015: 110), than by the purpose of using the cartographies as allegories for the protagonists’ struggles for survival and their desire to make sense of the city. From the perspective of survival, it is noteworthy that sometimes mobility is less a matter of ‘flow’ than a task that demands efforts: ‘Using a city requires knowledge and skill’, writes Franz Buhr (2018: 339). In other words, walking in the city and travelling by different means of transportation necessitate knowledge which is acquired through practice, or what Buhr (2018: 340) calls ‘urban apprenticeship’. According to Buhr (2018), urban apprenticeship through mobility is important in 8 migrants’ integration into their new environments. As narrative strategies of urban survival, Rakotoson’s and Mabanckou’s cartographies of Paris rely on the underground network – a system that shapes cities’ and individuals’ conceptions of themselves as urban. Modern cities are complex spaces, and not least because of their mobile networks that urbanites have to master in order to ‘work the city’ (Buhr 2018: 340). Transit maps help city dwellers achieve this goal as they ‘mitigate that complexity [and] assure urbanites that the city is conceptually manageable’ so that they can find a ‘coherent place for [themselves] within it […] by travelling the rail network’ (Schwetman 2014: 87; 100). The cartographic impulse in Rakotoson’s and Mabanckou’s novels can therefore be read as an element that captures the protagonists’ attempts to manage the complexity of their mobile metropolitan lives. Tais-toi et meurs is a typical thriller in the sense that its events take place in a modern, urban setting that the narrative invests with a sense of adventure (see Rubin 1999: 14-15; see also Knight 2016). The adventurous spirit is conveyed in the narrative’s cartographic impulse, already manifest in the titles of chapters such as ‘La ligne 12’ ‘Line 12’; ‘Bienvenue à Montparnasse’ ‘Welcome to Montparnasse’; and ‘Montreuil-sur-Bamako’. The narrative does not get enough of urban Parisian itineraries: street names and districts keep recurring throughout the text. The most important role in this cartography is given to the underground. Julien Makambo’s aka José Montfort’s initiation into the Parisian railway network is facilitated by Pedro, one of the leading figures of the underground milieu, with whom he takes a RER train (Réseau Express Régional; the Paris metropolitan and regional rail system) for the first time. At the Gare du Nord station, Pedro, who ‘connaissait Paris comme sa poche’ (Mabanckou 2012: 40) ‘knew Paris inside out’6, explains to Julien/José how the system works, telling him that he should travel alone and get lost in order to better understand 9 the city. He also teaches Julien/José how to travel without paying the fare. After this initiation, the protagonist becomes a frequent métro passenger. Consequently, the cartography that the narrative produces mimics the Parisian underground map: Le parcours que j’avais à suivre était des plus compliqués depuis la station Cadet. D’abord, de Cadet, il me fallait aller jusqu’à Gare de l’Est, prendre ensuite la ligne 5 en direction de Bobigny-Pablo Picasso jusqu’à Gare du Nord, puis la ligne 4 en direction de la Porte de Clignancourt jusqu’à Marcadet- Poissonniers, et la ligne 12 en direction de Porte de la Chapelle pour arriver enfin au métro Marx Dormoy. (Mabanckou 2012: 169) The trajectory I had to follow was one of the most complicated ones from the Cadet station. First, from Cadet, I had to go to Gare de l’Est, then take line 5 in the direction of Bobigny-Pablo Picasso until Gare du Nord, then line 4 in the direction of Porte de Clignancourt until Marcadet-Poissonniers, and line 12 in the direction of Porte de la Chapelle in order to arrive, at last, to the station Marx Dormoy. The novel is full of such detailed itineraries representing urban spaces as interconnected through mobility. By locating the protagonist on the mobile map of Paris, the narrative suggests that he is actively trying to ‘handle’ the city by orienting himself in its complex mobile networks. This urgency to handle the city turns into a concrete question of survival in the aftermath of a murder for which the protagonist is framed by his community. Escaping the crime scene, he feels that the metro does not move fast enough, and questions whether he had made the right choice by taking the underground at a specific station: ‘Certes, il y avait d’autres possibilités : les stations La Chapelle, 10 Riquet, Crimée ou Porte de la Chapelle’ (Mabanckou 2012: 28) ‘Surely there were other possibilities: la Chapelle, Riquet, Crimée or Porte de la Chapelle.’ From here on, the protagonist’s mobility is shaped by his being a fugitive for whom ‘sa propre ombre devient suspecte’ (Mabanckou 2012: 28) ‘his own shadow becomes suspicious’ and who is perplexed by the question, ‘Où aller à présent ?’ Mabanckou 2012: 75) ‘Where to go now?’ The conspiracy plot adds a pronouncedly thrilleresque character to his mobility, generating a very anxiety-ridden poetics of mobility. While the narrative is particularly interested in reproducing the Parisian underground map, similarly detailed descriptions accompany the protagonist’s most banal displacements: ‘Je suis sorti de l’hȏtel et ai emprunté la rue de Paris en direction de la Porte de Montreuil pour aller chez Carrefour’ (Mabanckou 2012: 91) ‘I got out of the hotel and took the rue de Paris in the direction of Porte de Montreuil to go to Carrefour [supermarket].’ Descriptions of such simple itineraries when there is no risk of getting lost betray the protagonist’s increasing insecurity in the metropolis as he hides from the police and his community: it is as if the protagonist was constantly mapping out a potential, symbolic emergency exit. The protagonist’s being in a constant ‘cartographic mode’ is symptomatic of his fear of falling off the map and is linked to his status as an outlaw. The cartographies produced by foot are associated with the protagonist’s withdrawal from intramural Paris and convey his reduced mobility as a fugitive and failure to ‘manage’ central Paris outside the criminal community. Therefore, while the narrative speed slows down in the passages that represent the protagonist’s walks in the suburb, the suspense related to the risk of getting caught is still present: as a pedestrian, the protagonist seems to be an easier ‘prey’. In this way, different mobility practices contribute to the novel’s thrilleresque narrative rhythm. Furthermore, the constant preoccupation with street names can also be understood in the 11 light of Julien’s background; as mentioned earlier in the novel, he comes from a place where not all streets have names. The cartographic impulse, then, also articulates the epistemological shift that the process of becoming a modern postcolonial metropolitan subject entails. The cartographic impulse is equally present in Elle, au printemps. The protagonist’s arrival in Paris is defined by the unpleasant surprise of Marie not showing up at the airport, leaving the protagonist alone in the new environment. After the initial shock, she recalls that she has distant relatives in Paris, and decides to go to see them. As she sets out to take a bus, she finds herself tormented by questions as follows: ‘… mais comment prendre le bus en France ?’ (Rakotoson 1996: 36) ‘… but how to catch the bus in France?’7 and ‘comment allait-elle trouver son bus… ?’ (Rakotoson 1996: 37) ‘how was she going to find her bus?’ Taking the bus in Paris is an eerie experience: ‘Tout était étrange’ (Rakotoson 1996: 37) ‘everything was strange’, Sahondra observes as she realizes that there is no-one to tell the passengers where each bus is going. The sense of strangeness persists during the ride as the bus speeds forward with silent passengers. Sahondra’s eerie experiences of urban public transports can be read as manifestations of the urban uncanny (Wolfreys 2008; Johnson 2010). The Freudian concept of the uncanny captures the idea of ‘the destabilization of certain boundaries’ – the boundary between the familiar and the strange in particular (Eckhard 2011: 35). The uncanny entails doubt and ambiguity and a sense of a lack of orientation or of not being totally ‘at home’, as Unheimlich, the original German term, suggests (Eckhard 2011: 37, 39). The uncanny is often considered a ‘constitutive aspect of our experience of the modern’ (Collins & Jervis 2008: 2), and as Julian Wolfreys (2008: 177) posits, the uncanny is associated with urban spaces where the sense of familiarity is constantly disturbed by ‘the possibility of unfamiliarity, estrangement, and eruption.’ 12 The ‘urban uncanny’ in Rakotoson’s novel is related to the protagonist’s experiences of travel in Parisian urban mobility systems, and, more specifically, with the silence that characterizes this form of travel. The uncanniness of silence springs from the fact that Sahondra associates silence with Madagascar, a country under a repressive military rule. Erica L. Johnson’s (2010: 224) formulation of the urban uncanny builds on the idea that ‘postcolonial time is uncannily repetitive and endlessly layered.’ Consequently, distant places that are connected through their shared colonial pasts become each other’s ‘spatial and social repetitions’ (Johnson 2010: 211). The uncanny repetition not only underlines the entangled pasts and presents, but also highlights the poetics of deception (Treiber 2012) that shapes much of Francophone African literature’s representations of newcomers’ travel to Paris: in Sahondra’s words, ‘quelque chose ne collait pas’ (Rakotoson 1996: 27) ‘something was not quite right’. The novel represents Paris as an alienating environment. Sahondra’s sense of being lost is conveyed by the narrative by showing that her urban itineraries are not planned by herself, but based on advice by random by-passers: ‘Oh, mais c’est facile ça… Il vous suffit de prendre la navette, vous demandez au chauffeur de vous arrêter à Denfert et de là vous prenez le métro… La ligne est directe, vous n’aurez pas à prendre de correspondance… Tenez, la navette est à la sortie, […] vous changez pour le métro, direction Nation où vous vous arrêtez à la station Porte d’Italie, pour la correspondance… ‘ (Rakotoson 1996: 36) ‘Oh, but that is easy… You just take the shuttle, you ask the driver to stop at Denfert and you take the metro from there… It is a direct line, no need to change… You see, the shuttle is next to the exit, […] you take the metro in the direction of Nation and you stop at the Porte d’Italie station for the transfer…’ 13 While such advice is supposed to help Sahondra navigate in the urban environment and make it ‘manageable’, they generate further confusion. This sense of anxiety is conveyed by the narrative through the broken exchanges that Sahondra has with booking clerks or random by-passers. Sahondra’s lines are reduced to one-word questions and end with three dots and question marks, as in the following example at a metro ticket sales counter: - Un ticket ou un carnet ? - … - Combien de zones ? - … C’est-à-dire que… (Rakotoson 1996: 39) - A ticket or a book of tickets? - … - How many zones? - … This is to say… Such failed dialogues recur frequently in chapters depicting Sahondra’s arrival in Paris, and they show how out of place she is when it comes to urban mobility. Against the metropolitan context of hyper-mobility, these broken dialogues, Sahondra’s silences and her confused questions convey the idea of an interrupted movement. With such literary means, the narrative highlights the discrepancy between Sahondra’s interrupted mobility and the speed characteristic of the mobility systems that surround her. Practices that are evident for anyone else seem absurd to Sahondra. She is not familiar with the names of the stations – for example, she mistakes Denfert for l’Enfer (hell). She does not know what the métro looks like and is surprised to learn that is just a train. She struggles with automatic doors, the buttons she is supposed to press, telephone cards, telephone boxes and so on. In short, she has constant trouble with modern mobile 14 technologies. As ‘mobility is central to what it takes to be modern’ (Cresswell 2006: 20), it is clear that Sahondra’s struggle with mobile technologies can be equated with the struggle of becoming a modern, metropolitan postcolonial mobile subject. This is a demanding process that reflects the idea of mobility as transformative and therefore as a source of anxiety (Cresswell 2006: 17; Berensmeyer & Ehland 2013: 22; Davidson 2017: 552). Sahondra’s becoming a modern, metropolitan postcolonial mobile subject is grounded on a very fragile basis. The narrative captures this fragility in a small piece of handwritten paper that Sahondra’s cousin hands to her prior to one of her first Parisian metro journeys. The piece of paper lists the names of the stations through which Sahondra should travel to reach her destination. This piece of paper, that could so easily get lost and whose readability suffers each time it is unfolded open, is a subtle metaphor for the challenges the protagonist faces in her newly found life in Paris. Much as in Mabanckou’s novel, then, Elle, au printemps articulates the anxious aspects of migrant newcomers’ urban everyday mobilities. The thrilleresque features of Tais-toi et meurs and the urban uncanny in Rakotoson’s text translate this mobility-related anxiety into form. Débrouillardise cosmopolitanism: Survival in a new environment In this section, I focus on the ways in which Rakotoson’s and Mabanckou’s protagonists’ attempts to ‘manage’ Paris through everyday urban mobility gives articulation to a practical cosmopolitan attitude. Cosmopolitanism is commonly conceived as an elite mobile position and ‘world citizenship’ of those who transgress boundaries with ease thanks to their ‘badge of privilege’ (Robbins & Lemos Horta 2017: 3). Alternatively, cosmopolitanism is seen as a form of global political solidarity (Cheah 2006) or a set of (utopian) ideals generating ‘planetary consciousness’ (Gilroy 15 2005; see also Spencer 2011: 2), and shaped by an ethics that entails openness to alterity (see, e.g. Appiah 2006). It is also associated with metropolitan, multicultural settings where cosmopolitanism is supposed to ‘happen’ – an idea that has been challenged because visual diversity alone only rarely leads to openness to alterity (Papastephanou 2012: 119). Besides its elitist connotations, utopian aspirations and the too easily made topographical associations, cosmopolitanism can also be understood as ‘actually existing’ processes (Robbins 1998). According to Vered Amit and Pauline Gardiner- Barber (2015: 543), ‘cosmopolitanism requires a capacity and willingness to imagine that there may be other forms of subjectivity, sociality and engagement beyond the already familiar.’ Understood along these lines, cosmopolitanism is not so much a utopian stance or a ethical aspiration, as an active engagement and a ‘mundane practice’ (Amit & Gardiner-Barber 2015: 543). To highlight the ‘mundane’ dimension of cosmopolitanism, Ulrich Beck (2006: 101) has introduced the term cosmopolitanization by which he refers to ‘a “forced” cosmopolitanism’ generated ‘at the level of practice.’ This pragmatic interpretation of cosmopolitanism strips the concept of its elitist connotations as privileged classes’ easygoing ways of being ‘at home in the world’. By understanding cosmopolitanization as a practical process that entails an effort to cross boundaries in order to engage with ‘the world beyond one’s immediate milieu’ (Spencer 2011: 4), it is possible to use the concept to analyze how Rakotoson’s and Mabanckou’s protagonists orient and reinvent themselves in the new environment they have been ‘thrown into’. Beck (2006: 103) suggests that migrants often have to ‘become […] acrobats in the manipulation of boundaries’ in order to survive: this is exactly what Rakotoson’s and Mabanckou’s protagonists’ practical cosmopolitanisms are about. The key aspect in the novels’ conceptualizations of practical cosmopolitanism as a means of survival is débrouillardise, which is a French term that refers to 16 resourcefulness in situations that may set severe limits to one’s agency. The term débrouillardise keeps recurring in both texts, although in a slightly different sense. In Mabanckou’s thriller, it is tied to the operations of the delinquent milieu. Julien Makambo’s arrival in Paris has been organized by the members of the underworld community; he owes his diasporic existence to Pedro, who ‘[l]’avait aidé à [s]e débrouiller dans Paris’ (Mabanckou 2012: 34) ‘had helped him manage in Paris.’ It is Pedro who tells Julien/José to immerse himself in the city that he himself handles perfectly. When Pedro sends Julien/José on a mission to test his loyalty and capacities, he says, ‘Cette mission, c’est donc un test pour toi, je veux voir comment tu te débrouilles’ (Mabanckou 2012: 67) ‘This mission is a test for you, I want to see how you manage.’ Débrouillardise here refers to one’s capacities to manage the city’s mobile network while being in an irregular condition as a delinquent and an undocumented migrant. It entails taking the metro without buying a ticket – and without getting caught. Travelling without a ticket comes with specific risks for someone who lives outside the official society. Indeed, the protagonist acknowledges that some stations are riskier than others in this respect – including Montparnasse Bienvenüe where many ‘compatriotes […] avaient été arrêtés […] et expulsés du jour au lendemain au pays’ (Mabanckou 2012: 67) ‘compatriotes had been arrested and deported overnight.’ Indeed, the test that Pedro wants Julien/José to pass exposes the fragility of the latter’s sense of being at home in Paris and shows him that he does not ‘manage’ the city as well as he thinks; this tension between control and vulnerability constitutes a key dialectic of the thriller form (Rubin 1999: 7). The control/vulnerability nexus culminates in a passage in which the protagonist is spotted and chased by inspectors in the labyrinth of an underground station. He tries to escape, but only encounters metro carriage doors closing in his face and ‘No Exit’ signs. That he wears a pair of slippery 17 luxury brand shoes – the hallmark of his sapeur8 identity – does not facilitate his task. His flight takes thrilleresque tones: J’ai emprunté le premier sens interdit que j’ai vu à ma droite. Encore un couloir ! Un long couloir ! Plus je courais, plus le couloir se rétrécissait et s’assombrissait. Le pas du [contrôleur] résonnait derrière moi comme dans un film d’horreur. (Mabanckou 2012: 70) I took the first « Prohibited Direction » exit that I saw on my right. Again a corridor! A long corridor! The more I run, the narrower and darker the corridor became. The sound of the inspector’s footsteps behind me echoed as in a horror movie. In the end, the protagonist finds himself in a cul-de-sac, with a gleeful black inspector – for whom the pursuit becomes a personal battle against fraudulent African metro users who, according to him, ruin the reputation of all black urbanites – exclaiming, ‘Fils de bâtard, tu croyais connaître cette station mieux que moi, hein ?’ (Mabanckou 2012: 70) ‘Son of a bitch, did you really think you knew this station better than I do, did you?’ This passage captures the limits of the protagonist’s practical cosmopolitanism. As a member of a parallel society, he is in no position to claim the city and its mobile networks as his own. According to John D. Schwetman (2014: 96-97), ‘to travel on the grade-separated transit system is to leave the plane of the actual city and enter the alternative universe’; the underground is, in other words, ‘another world detached from the real life of the city.’ This quotation draws attention to the way in which Mabanckou’s text uses the Parisian métro as a metaphor for the underworld society. The protagonist’s failure to handle the ‘alternative universe’ of the underground is, therefore, a metaphor for his failure to handle Paris as a subordinate member of a parallel society. 18 In Elle, au printemps, the débrouillardise dimension of everyday mobility is even more pronounced as the protagonist is left alone to ‘handle’ Paris. The verb se débrouiller (‘manage’) keeps recurring in the text. Sahondra’s arrival at Orly airport marks her loss of all her points of reference. Despite the shock caused by Marie’s absence, Sahondra acknowledges that she does not have any other solution but to manage: ‘T’as voulu aller à Paris, tu y es, débrouille-toi…’ (Rakotoson 1996: 34) ‘You wanted to go to Paris, you’re there, you will have to manage…’ Sahondra lacks the privilege of accustomed world travelers who transgress cultural, national, and linguistic boundaries with ease. Already at Antananarivo airport, she does not quite identify with the nonchalant elite. On the airplane, she feels that she is being looked down at by the airhostesses and fellow passengers because of her cheap clothes and her lack of ‘high society’ manners. Her way of being out of place among frequent ‘world class travellers’ creates certain expectations with regard to her capabilities of ‘handling’ the metropolitan space, and the warnings by a fellow passenger about what could happen to a young woman travelling alone without money further add to these expectations. Rakotoson’s novel, however, defies clichéd plots: the narrative refers to the protagonist’s mobile pursuit as ‘l’aventure […] avec une valise’ (Rakotoson 1996: 9; 18) ‘adventure with one suitcase’, and portrays Sahondra as anything but a helpless young woman losing herself in the city while facing its ‘dangers’. The narrative not only conveys Sahondra’s frustration with urban mobile networks, but also her perseverance in learning to ‘work’ Paris. Her urban apprenticeship (Buhr 2018) entails moments of desperation: ‘Elle va pleurer, elle va pleurer…’ (Rakotoson 1996: 55) ‘She is going to cry, she is going to cry…’, and ‘elle va se perdre à Paris, elle va mourir dans Paris, elle va…’ (Rakotoson 1996: 59) ‘she is going to get lost in Paris, she is going to die in Paris, she is going to…’ While others 19 give credit to her débrouillardise, she is less convinced of how it is even possible to manage the alienating universe of urban mobility networks: Tu te débrouilles bien, tu te débrouilles bien, facile à dire, trois niveaux, plusieurs lignes, RER… comment « se débrouillait-on bien » dans ce labyrinthe ? Vie sous terre, lumière glauque, odeur de l’huile de moteur chaude et de sueur, et foule qui ne regarde nulle part. (Rakotoson 1996: 82) You are doing well, you are doing well, it is easy to say, three levels, several lines, RER… how does one ‘manage well’ in this labyrinth? Underground life, dim light, a smell of hot motor oil and sweat, and a crowd that does not look anywhere. Simultaneously, she is equally determined to manage the city on her own, and, indeed, after hours of drifting, she ‘resort [...] saine et sauve du métro’ (Rakotoson 1996: 55) ‘exits the underground safe and sound.’ There is a certain defiance in her declaration of not being an accustomed traveler or urbanite: ‘Paysanne ! Oui, et alors ?’ (Rakotoson 1996: 38) ‘A peasant girl ! Yes, so what?’ Such bursts of self-confidence, represented as the protagonist’s internal monologues and often accompanied by exclamation marks, convey her determination. Sahondra’s débrouillardise in the urban space is the result of her determined effort to ‘dompter la peur […] et s’habituer à Paris’ (Rakotoson 1996: 60) ‘tame her fear and get used to Paris.’ At one point, she fiercely declares that ‘Paris n’a presque plus de secrets pour elle’ (Rakotoson 1996: 56) ‘Paris has almost no secrets left for her’. This marks the turning point in the mobility-driven narrative, as the protagonist decides to travel from Paris towards peripheral, provincial spaces in an attempt to find Marie. Just as Mabanckou’s novel, Elle, au printemps revisits the notion of cosmopolitanism by conceiving it as a practical survival strategy that migrant newcomers adopt in their new urban environments. 20 Peripheral dead ends Now I move on to analyzing Rakotoson’s and Mabanckou’s portrayals of peripheral journeys, which I argue are symptomatic of the protagonists’ failures to handle Paris perfectly. Interestingly enough, these journeys also highlight the central role that Paris plays in the texts: while the protagonists leave intramural Paris because they have no other option, it simultaneously seems that the metropolis has a hold on them as it constitutes such an elementary part of their newly established mobile subjectivities. While the concept of the periphery can be valued positively or negatively, depending on the context and the purposes it is used to serve, Rakotoson’s and Mabanckou’s texts invest marginalized loci with negative meanings such as neglect and lack of vitality – features that are commonly associated with peripheral spaces (see Peeren, Stuit & van Weyenberg 2016: 3-4). While I read the protagonists’ partly forced displacements from the metropolitan space to the periphery as the anxious culmination of their mobilities as irregular migrants in France, these peripheral mobilities also reveal that metropolitan Paris is itself shaped by what Lieven Ameel, Jason Finch and Markku Salmela (2015: 6) refer to as ‘urban peripherality’. This concept conveys the idea that peripheries are present in places that are considered central. In Rakotoson’s and Mabanckou’s novels, the idea of urban peripherality is manifest in the irregular migrants’ marginalized presence in the metropolis. Peripheries, in these novels, are therefore both topographical and conceptual/symbolic. Sahondra travels to the provincial town of Valenciennes in order to find Marie, whom the narrative conceives as the prime mover of Sahondra’s metropolitan pursuit. From Gare du Nord, Sahondra takes a train that ‘l’emmènait vers Dieu sait où’ (Rakotoson 1996: 84) ‘took her God knows where.’ As Paris has become slightly more manageable for her, the idea of travelling ‘God knows where’ indicates her being, yet 21 again, out of her comfort zone. In this sense, the trip to Valenciennes resembles her departure for Paris. As the train runs through the countryside, ‘Un peu de brume voilait tout le paysage’ (Rakotoson 1996: 89) ‘Some mist veiled the entire landscape’, which suggests that the trip makes Sahondra lose the fragile points of reference that she has acquired with difficulty in Paris. The peripheral town is an Elsewhere that Sahondra has to face and that frightens her. Through the train window, the landscape looks monotonous; it stands in contrast to Paris and its complex world of mobile networks. The train trip itself is an awkward experience. Sahondra is the only black person on the wagon, and she feels the other passengers’ eyes on her. Again, the uncanny finds its manifestation in the silence of public transports: nobody speaks and even the train seems to move without making any noise. This time, Sahondra does not care about the uncanny feeling generated by the realization of how ‘voyager était vraiment différent en France’ (Rakotoson 1996: 81) ‘travelling was really different in France.’ She breaks the silence by talking to a fellow passenger about her home in Madagascar in a strange, loud voice. Her awkward monologue in the otherwise silent wagon further intensifies the eerie, unreal feeling as it immerses Sahondra in vivid memories, evoking her home country in the grey and monotonous rural landscape in a way that draws parallels between two distant locations. Valenciennes is a place of uncanny silence and as such, reminiscent of the protagonist’s home town. Upon her arrival, Sahondra observes that the streets are empty and quiet, the railway station is grey, and ‘seul un bruit de moteur symbolisait la vie’ (Rakotoson 1996: 93) ‘only the sound of an engine signified life.’ This eerie impression resonates with the narrative’s portrayal of the Madagascan ‘atmosphère de répression’ (Rakotoson 1996: 20) ‘atmosphere of repression’ and the overwhelming greyness that Sahondra associates with everything she dislikes in the country. In this way, the 22 narrative underlines a ‘spatial sameness’ that is generated as former colonial and metropolitan spaces ‘overlap and repeat one another in a mutual confrontation of unexpected, eerie sameness’ (Johnson 2010: 221, 223). In Sahondra’s mind, Valenciennes is like ‘une ville morte […] dans un de ces moment de couvre-feu’ (Rakotoson 1996: 106) ‘a dead city […] under one of those moments of curfew’. The allusion to curfew creates an explicit parallel between the protagonist’s Madagascan home town and the former mining town of Valenciennes. The parallels between these two locations are further underlined by narrative as it mentions their distance from Paris, their histories as sites of exploitation and/or colonization, as well as their presents as peripheries ‘oubliés par le développement’ (Rakotoson 1996: 111) ‘forgotten by the development’. Through repetition, the postcolonial uncanny highlights how the similarities between peripheries located on both sides of the former colonial divide become exposed as a subject from a postcolonial periphery travels to a periphery located in the assumed center. Making the journey represents a personal victory for Sahondra: ‘Si elle était restée si longtemps à Paris sans bouger réellement, c’était pour se protéger, pour ne pas avoir à affronter un avenir en forme de cauchemar ou au moins d’interrogation’ (Rakotoson 1996: 92). ‘If she had stayed in Paris for such a long time without really moving, it was to protect herself, not to have to face a future in the form of a nightmare or at least full of questions.’ As this quotation suggests, Paris, despite all its challenges, has slowly started to become a place that the protagonist can – at least to a very limited extent – handle. The journey to Valenciennes advances the plot by forcing the protagonist to face her uncertain future in France. By stating that her urban mobility was not really about movement at all, the narrative suggests that the real challenge of her migrant journey is still to be addressed: how to be able to settle in France so as to 23 pursue her studies, find a job, and a place to live. As Marie seems to be the key to finding answers to these questions, the stakes of the journey to the periphery are high. It turns out that Marie no longer lives in the address she mentioned in her letters. Consequently, the trip to the periphery represents a dead end that leaves Sahondra’s future in France suspended in a state of ambiguity. At this point, the reader starts to have doubts about whether Marie even exists. Marie is the reason for Sahondra’s being in France, and Sahondra’s failure to find her and the consequent lack of closure that characterize Sahondra’s peripheral journey underline the uncertainty informing her aspirations to settle in France. Sahondra’s peripheral journey exposes the fragile premises of her belonging in Paris, and, in this way, draws attention to how the Paris she inhabits as an irregular migrant has been, from the very beginning, a conceptual margin or a periphery itself (see Ameel, Finch & Salmela 2015: 6). Before returning to Paris the next day, Sahondra goes for a late-night walk. This solitary nocturnal walk in the peripheral town that reminds Sahondra of her home town in Madagascar is a gesture of claiming public space as a female mobile subject; back home, walking alone during the night was considered too dangerous for women. Interestingly enough, this time the narrative does not depict the details of Sahondra’s walk; only her departure from and her return to her host’s place are mentioned. This is where the novel’s portrayal of the protagonist’s walk differs from Mabanckou’s novel in which the cartographic impulse prevails, to a certain degree, even during the protagonist’s walks in the peripheral space. Clearly, walking in the peripheral space has an empowering effect on Sahondra. In contrast to her travels in public transports – and contrary to Mabanckou’s protagonist – there is no anxious aspect in walking. Through her nocturnal walk in Valenciennes, Sahondra symbolically reclaims her native Antananarivo. The fact that this walk escapes the cartographic impulse differentiates it from her Parisian displacements which 24 are framed as her survival strategy in the metropolis. In so doing, the narrative underlines Sahondra’s mastery instead of portraying her as a lost newcomer struggling to not to fall off the map. On her return, it is already morning, and her host tells her that she should not have gone for a night walk on her own. Sahondra does not care about his reproach, and later, when she tells him that she will return to Paris right away, she rejects his offer to give her a lift to the station by saying that she needs to walk. This suggests that while the novel’s ending remains open when it comes to Sahondra’s future and while the anxiety informing her mobile position does not therefore loosen its grip, she has learned how to handle the uncertainties that being a not entirely regular migrant in France entails. In this sense, the trip to the periphery, while being a dead end in the sense of not finding Marie, seems to have had an empowering effect on Sahondra’s mobility. In Tais-toi et meurs, the protagonist’s becoming subject of conspiracy forces him to escape Paris and hide in a cheap hotel in Montreuil, an Eastern Parisian banlieue – a locus which resonates with stereotypical images of French suburbs as socially deprived environments of ‘banishment and exclusion’ (Horvath 2011: 93) inhabited principally by North and Sub-Saharan African migrants. As in Rakotoson’s novel, Mabanckou’s protagonist’s relegation in the periphery underlines the fact that ‘his Paris’, the criminal underworld milieu, was already an urban periphery – certainly related to the center while not entirely part of it (see Ameel, Finch & Salmela 2015: 6). The protagonist’s banishment from the center – albeit from a symbolically peripheral one – is an ironic turn of the plot in the sense that a subject from a postcolonial periphery, who has dreamed of reaching the center, ends up relegated to a metropolitan periphery. The chapters narrating his life at the peripheral hotel rely on the generic conventions of the thriller by representing the protagonist as a solitary individual who is 25 ‘cut from his previously secure bearings of community’ (Rubin 1999: 11). By referring to the hotel as a ‘trou’ (Mabanckou 2012: 81) ‘hole’, the narrative represents the displacement as a form of downgrading, and also, so to speak, a return to square one, as suggested by the fact that the protagonist checks in the hotel under his own name, not the one given to him by the community. The use of his own name conveys the idea that he is no longer under the protection of the community that ‘created’ him. The defeat of being relegated to the periphery is further conveyed in how the protagonist, previously a ‘real Parisian’ dandy wearing expensive luxury suits and shoes, starts to wear track suits, grows a beard and wears long hair. The change of style is yet another step in his mobility-related transformation process: the protagonist turns form a sapeur into a banlieusard. The narrative invests the banlieue setting with negative meanings so that it becomes the ultimate manifestation of the protagonist’s failure to handle Paris – that is, the peripheral, underworld version of Paris that the criminal community has created. The protagonist’s relegation to the margins of the metropolis affects his mobility. The chapters depicting his stay in the hotel no longer feature travel in urban public transports: Julien Makambo’s displacements are restricted to his immediate suburban milieu during his daily errands on foot. Still, as a matter of routine, the narrative keeps recording his simple itineraries in the vicinity, which conveys the protagonist’s increased sense of insecurity due to his banishment from the community and intramural Paris. From the perspective of this insecurity, it is significant that the protagonist hides in a hotel. The hotel, as Mimi Sheller and John Urry (2006: 213; 219) posit, can be seen as a transfer point and a ‘place[…] of intermittent movement.’ Hotels are spaces of in-between-ness not only as ‘gateways’ between the public and the private (Davidson 2006: 169), but also because motels and budget hotels ‘collect[..] deviancy’ (Treadwell 2005: 215). In Tais-toi et meurs, the hotel is a space of deviancy as a refuge 26 for a fugitive whose current compromised mobility can be summarized in the question, ‘Où irais-je puisque je ne connaissais personne en France en dehors de mon milieu ?’ (Mabanckou 2012: 90) ‘Where would I go as I knew no-one in France outside my milieu?’ While the protagonist refers to his room as a ‘refuge’, he cannot entirely feel at home in that space either. In terms of narrative speed, the hotel passages are characterized by slowness and relative immobility, which stand in contrast to the thrilleresque hyper-mobility of the protagonist’s previous intra-Parisian itineraries. The narrative underlines this contrast with a meta-literary commentary by alluding to a receptionist reading Marcel Proust’s narratively slow, multivolume novel À la recherche du temps perdu. Yet, there is a constant tension in this immobility: while at one moment, the protagonist claims that the longer he stays at the hotel, the more secure he feels, in the next instance he is convinced that he should leave the place immediately. The instability and in-between- ness of the hotel both as a refuge and an impasse gives articulation to this insecurity and the suspense it generates. In his current situation, the hotel, as a transitory space between dwelling and movement, is the only possible way for the protagonist to remain at least partially mobile. The hotel also marks a certain rupture in the narrative’s mostly (intramural) cartographic impulse, which has now become reduced to the protagonist’s walks in the vicinity. This reflects his eventually arrested mobility outside the criminal community. As the story proceeds, the protagonist no longer feels safe in the hotel and decides to leave. Yet, the question of where to go persists. Julian Makambo’s desperate situation gains its full meaning with his impulsive decision to leave for Nantes. He has never been to Nantes and does not know anyone from there, so the destination is entirely haphazard. In the ambiguous refuge/impasse of the hotel room, the provincial 27 town of Nantes represents his last hope for reinventing himself. Ultimately, this plan to travel to Nantes fails as the protagonist is arrested not far from the hotel. That his movement is literally arrested by the police underlines the constant risks of interruption that, from the very beginning, have shaped his metropolitan mobile position outside the official society. Due to his detention – the culmination of his arrested mobility – the speed of the narrative rhythm slows down drastically. Nantes, a destination he never reaches and of which he knows nothing, becomes the symbol for his impossible wish to exist on his own outside the criminal community that has created him. This highlights the elementary role of Paris in the construction of his postcolonial metropolitan subjectivity. Conclusion My analysis of Rakotoson’s and Mabanckou’s representations and poetics of everyday mobilities demonstrates how applying a mobility studies perspective to postcolonial literary texts that could easily be defined as ‘migration novels’ allows for a reading that recognizes African migrants as urban mobile subjects who actively engage in concrete everyday urban mobility practices. The characters are mobile not only in the sense of being part of transnational migration movements, but as urban travelers in the metropolitan space. Rakotoson’s and Mabanckou’s texts’ ways of producing mobile urban cartographies and portraying newly arrived African migrants as practical cosmopolitans trying to survive in the metropolis and to make sense of it through mobility widen the scope of how the concept of mobility can be understood in postcolonial contexts. The plot twists with peripheral journeys/dwelling in both texts attest to the importance of Paris for the protagonists’ mobile subjectivities. 28 I have used the notion of poetics of mobility to refer to the ways in which the mobility theme translates into form. While the notion of poetics of mobility can be applied to different literary texts, its manifestations inevitably vary according to the literary means employed by specific literary texts. By paying attention to literary features, my analysis points out that poetics of mobility essentially contribute to the texts’ representations of mobility. Becoming a modern, metropolitan postcolonial mobile subject is a process of transformation – a profoundly anxiety-generating one. In Elle, au printemps, the anxious aspects of this transformation translate into form through a mobility-related urban uncanny which is generated through the protagonist’s eerie, strangely familiar experiences. The postcolonial urban uncanny in Rakotoson’s novel establishes links between France and Madagascar by highlighting their shared colonial past. Poetics of mobility in Rakotoson’s novel are also manifest in how the narrative adopts different means (broken dialogues, silence, and unanswered questions) for conveying the anxious aspects of protagonist’s attempts to ‘manage’ Paris through urban mobility. In Tais-toi et meurs, poetics of mobility pertain to the use of the generic features of the thriller form: the narrative structure and the plot development reflect the protagonist’s urban (im)mobilities, generating a sense of suspense. It can be concluded that Rakotoson’s and Mabanckou’s protagonists’ struggles in the urban space, its mobile networks, and their peripheral journeys show how central a role mobility plays in the process of becoming a postcolonial metropolitan mobile subject and in the attempt of trying to claim the postcolonial metropolis as one’s own. Funding acknowledgement This project has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under Marie Skɫodowska-Curie grant agreement No 701238. 29 Author bio Dr. Anna-Leena Toivanen is a senior researcher at the University of Eastern Finland, and a former Marie Skɫodowska-Curie Fellow (MSCA-IF) at CEREP (Centre d’Enseignement et de Recherche en Etudes Postcoloniales), University of Liège, Belgium. Her research focuses on mobilities and cosmopolitanisms in contemporary Franco- and Anglophone diasporic African literatures. Her recent work has been published in Studies in Travel Writing, Journal of Commonwealth Literature, Research in African Literatures, Journal of African Cultural Studies, and Matatu. Her chapter on mobility and labour in contemporary African diasporic fiction features in The Routledge Handbook of African Literature (2019). Address: Anna-Leena Toivanen University of Eastern Finland School of Humanities, Agora 233 P.O. 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Urry, John (2007), Mobilities, Cambridge: Polity. 36 Vertovec, Steven and Cohen, Robin (2008), ‘Introduction; Conceiving Cosmopolitanism,’ in Steven Vertovec and Robin Cohen (eds), Conceiving Cosmopolitanism: Theory, Context, and Practice, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp.1-22. Werbner, Pnina (2011), ‘Paradoxes of Postcolonial Vernacular Cosmopolitanism in South Asia and the Diaspora’, in Maria Rovisco and Magdalena Nowicka (eds), The Ashgate Companion to Cosmopolitanism, Farnham: Ashgate, pp.107-123. Williams, Patrick (2011), ‘What is the city in Africa?’, in Jeremy Tambling (ed), The Palgrave Handbook of Literature and the City, London: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 527-544. Wolfeys, Julian (2008), ‘The urban uncanny: The city, the subject, and ghostly modernity’, in Jo Collins and John Jervis (eds), Uncanny Modernity: Cultural Theories, Modern Anxieties, Basingstoke: Palgrave, pp. 168-180. 1 Besides the paradigmatization of the migrant figure in the field of postcolonial literary studies, the scarcity of critical attention given to literary representations of concrete forms of mobility results also from the fact that mobility is such an integral part of modern life that it easily goes unnoticed as a literary theme. 2 Adopting a postcolonial lens for mobility studies is useful in exploring how race, ethnicity, and the aftermath of colonialism shape (im)mobilities (see, e.g. Upstone 2014; Carpio 2019). Enhancing dialogue between mobility studies and postcolonial studies is important because not much work has been done on the intersections between mobility and race (Nicholson & Sheller 2016: 5). 37 3 Mobility studies are associated with social sciences and ‘real life’ mobilities, whereas literary texts produce representations of mobility. Arts and literature have the capacity to render mobility – which is often considered to escape representation – ‘representable’ (Cresswell 2006: 47; Murray & Upstone 2014a: 2-3). However, fictional texts do not merely replicate social realities, but actively produce meanings and in so doing, ‘shape […] and facilitate […] the image and understanding of a mobilised world’ (Berensmeyer & Ehland 2013: 22). 4 My formulation of poetics of mobility here is grounded on my reading of two specific literary texts, in which the mobility theme is translated into form through the thriller form and the uncanny. This obviously does not mean that poetics of mobility would be limited to particular genres or styles, or texts discussing urban mobilities in (post)colonial metropolises. Poetics of mobility can take a variety of forms, and my analysis is only one possible way of defining what poetics of mobility could be. My aim is not to produce a pattern that could be applied to all literary texts (which would, of course, be impossible), since literary texts are unique and follow their own logics. Any attempt to outline a poetics of mobility has to spring from the uniqueness of the literary text in question. 5 My use of the notion of ‘modern postcolonial metropolitan subject’ is not to imply that non-metropolitan, postcolonial mobile subjectivities would be somehow automatically ‘premodern’ or ‘traditional’. Rather, there is a variety of different, co-existing modernities that transform each other (see Ashcroft 2009). 6 All translations of Mabanckou’s novel are mine. 7 All translations from Rakotoson’s novel are mine. 8 La Sape (Société des Ambianceurs et des Personnes Elégantes; ‘Society of Ambiance-Makers and Elegant People’) is a form of Congolese dandyism which entails 38 wearing luxury brand clothing and accessories. Sapeur figures feature throughout Mabanckou’s production. 
work_atyd6nwgdjf6ja4fsan6pzkt2u	----	Hedonic Eating: How the Pleasure of Food Affects our Brains and Behaviour | Semantic Scholar Skip to search formSkip to main content> Semantic Scholar's Logo Search Sign InCreate Free Account You are currently offline. Some features of the site may not work correctly. DOI:10.1080/09638237.2016.1276544 Corpus ID: 47558364Hedonic Eating: How the Pleasure of Food Affects our Brains and Behaviour @article{Rozehnalov2017HedonicEH, title={Hedonic Eating: How the Pleasure of Food Affects our Brains and Behaviour}, author={Jana Rozehnalov{\'a}}, journal={Journal of Mental Health}, year={2017}, volume={26}, pages={388 - 388} } Jana Rozehnalová Published 2017 Psychology, Medicine Journal of Mental Health Obesity represents a world-wide health problem with a number of serious health risks. Despite public health warnings, the availability of diet books and the stigma associated with excess weight, many people still find it difficult to achieve and maintain healthy body weight. While many books focus on need-based eating, the psychobiological factors of pleasure-driven excessive food intake are rarely considered. Yet, the changing landscape of our food environment suggests that obesity and… Expand View on Taylor & Francis ncbi.nlm.nih.gov Save to Library Create Alert Cite Launch Research Feed Share This Paper 3 CitationsBackground Citations 1 View All Topics from this paper Amazona Avena (plant) Obesity Psychiatry Specialty eyespot apparatus Cautionary Warning Review [Publication Type] 3 Citations Citation Type Citation Type All Types Cites Results Cites Methods Cites Background Has PDF Publication Type Author More Filters More Filters Filters Sort by Relevance Sort by Most Influenced Papers Sort by Citation Count Sort by Recency Behaviour and Neural Indices of the Abuse Liability associated with Intraoral Self-administration of High Fructose Corn Syrup A. Levy Medicine 2018 View 2 excerpts, cites background Save Alert Research Feed Stressing diets? Amygdala networks, cumulative cortisol, and weight loss in adolescents with excess weight C. Martín-Pérez, O. Contreras-Rodríguez, J. Verdejo-Román, R. Vilar-López, R. González-Pérez, A. Verdejo-García Medicine International Journal of Obesity 2020 Save Alert Research Feed Selection of Antiobesity Medications Based on Phenotypes Enhances Weight Loss: A Pragmatic Trial in an Obesity Clinic A. Acosta, M. Camilleri, +7 authors Matthew M Clark Medicine Obesity 2021 Save Alert Research Feed References SHOWING 1-5 OF 5 REFERENCES Can food be addictive? Public health and policy implications. A. Gearhardt, C. Grilo, R. Dileone, K. Brownell, M. Potenza Medicine Addiction 2011 252 PDF View 1 excerpt, references background Save Alert Research Feed Cream and sugar: Human preferences for high-fat foods A. Drewnowski, M. C. Greenwood Psychology, Medicine Physiology & Behavior 1983 349 View 1 excerpt, references background Save Alert Research Feed Binge eating disorder and food addiction. A. Gearhardt, M. White, M. Potenza Psychology, Medicine Current drug abuse reviews 2011 125 PDF View 1 excerpt, references background Save Alert Research Feed Common cellular and molecular mechanisms in obesity and drug addiction P. Kenny Psychology, Medicine Nature Reviews Neuroscience 2011 285 PDF View 1 excerpt, references background Save Alert Research Feed Familial risk for alcohol dependence and developmental changes in BMI: the moderating influence of addiction and obesity genes. S. Lichenstein, B. Jones, +4 authors S. Hill Medicine Pharmacogenomics 2014 12 View 2 excerpts, references background Save Alert Research Feed Related Papers Abstract Topics 3 Citations 5 References Related Papers Stay Connected With Semantic Scholar Sign Up About Semantic Scholar Semantic Scholar is a free, AI-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the Allen Institute for AI. Learn More → Resources DatasetsSupp.aiAPIOpen Corpus Organization About UsResearchPublishing PartnersData Partners   FAQContact Proudly built by AI2 with the help of our Collaborators Terms of Service•Privacy Policy The Allen Institute for AI By clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our Privacy Policy, Terms of Service, and Dataset License ACCEPT & CONTINUE 
work_ayimb26c6rc33jzuioo3i4fmim	----	Despair and Hope | Semantic Scholar Skip to search formSkip to main content> Semantic Scholar's Logo Search Sign InCreate Free Account You are currently offline. Some features of the site may not work correctly. DOI:10.4103/HEARTVIEWS.HEARTVIEWS_58_17 Corpus ID: 5062276Despair and Hope @article{Hajar2017DespairAH, title={Despair and Hope}, author={R. Hajar}, journal={Heart Views : The Official Journal of the Gulf Heart Association}, year={2017}, volume={18}, pages={66 - 67} } R. Hajar Published 2017 Medicine Heart Views : The Official Journal of the Gulf Heart Association View on Wolters Kluwer doi.org Save to Library Create Alert Cite Launch Research Feed Share This Paper Topics from this paper Feeling despair Related Papers Abstract Topics Related Papers Stay Connected With Semantic Scholar Sign Up About Semantic Scholar Semantic Scholar is a free, AI-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the Allen Institute for AI. Learn More → Resources DatasetsSupp.aiAPIOpen Corpus Organization About UsResearchPublishing PartnersData Partners   FAQContact Proudly built by AI2 with the help of our Collaborators Terms of Service•Privacy Policy The Allen Institute for AI By clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our Privacy Policy, Terms of Service, and Dataset License ACCEPT & CONTINUE 
work_azsquoo4ybddhh7wob4bwhhqhy	----	Cilt: 12 Sayı: 66 Ekim 2019 www.sosyalarastirmalar.com Issn: 1307-9581 Volume: 12 Issue: 66 October 2019 www.sosyalarastirmalar.com Issn: 1307-9581 Doi Number: http://dx.doi.org/10.17719/jisr.2019.3599 MODERN SANAT SÜRECİNDE KADIN İMGESİNİN RESİMSEL VE TOPLUMSAL AÇIDAN İNCELENMESİ THE PICTURE AND SOCIAL ANALYSIS OF WOMAN IMAGE IN MODERN ART PROCESS Kader AYDIN** Ayşegül KARAKELLE*** Öz Modern sanat sürecinde kadın imgesinin resimsel ve toplumsal açıdan incelenmesi olarak adlandırılan bu araştırmada, kadın imgesinin modern sanat sürecinde gerçekleşen sanatsal ve toplumsal değişimi göz önünde bulundurularak başlıca sanatçılar ve e serleri üzerinden etkileri incelenmiştir. Modern sanat sürecinde gerçekleşen sosyo-ekonomik gelişmeler, Fransız Devrimi ve sanayi devrimi ile değişmeye başlayan yeni dünya anlayışı beraberinde pek çok toplumsal yeniliklere kapı açmıştır. Özellikle batıda başlayan v e tüm dünyaya yayılmaya başlayan bu yeni oluşum sanat, edebiyat, bilim, teknoloji gibi olguları da beraberinde getirmiştir. Bu yeni oluşum ışığında sanatsal anlamda pek çok yenilik meydana gelmiştir. Sanatçılar yeni arayışlar içerisinde bireyselliğe yönelm işlerdir. Sanatçıların özgün tarzda resmettikleri bu eserleri, içinde bulundukları toplumun dönem özellikleri ile doğru orantılı olmuşt ur. Bu yeni oluşumlar içerisinde sanatçılarda biricik imge olma özelliği taşıyan kadın imgesi de yadsınamaz bir yere gelmiştir. Bir toplumdaki gelişmişlik seviyesinin ispatı olan kültürel gelişmeler ışığında modern sanat içerisinde önemli bir yere sahip olan kadın img esinin resimsel ve toplumsal açıdan değerlendirilmesi gerektiği düşünülmektedir. Bu bağlamda elde edilen mevcut kaynaklar taranarak modern sanat sürecinde kadın imgesi konusunda yoğun çalışmalar sergileyen sanatçıların başlıca eserleri ışığında dönemin sana t anlayışı ve gerçekleşen toplumsal gelişmelerin etkisi irdelenmeye çalışılmıştır. Anahtar Kelimeler: Modern Sanat, Kadın İmgesi, Toplum. Abstract In this study, which is called as the examination of the image of woman in the modern art process from a pictorial and socia l perspective, the effects of the image of woman on the main artists and their works are examined considering the artistic and social change taking place in the process of modern art. The socio-economic developments taking place in the process of modern art, the new world understanding that has started to change with the French Revolution and the industrial revolution have opened the door to many social innovations. This new formation, which started especially in the west and started to spread all over the world, brough t about phenomena such as art, literature, science and technology. In the light of this new formation, many artistic innovations have taken place. The artists have turned to individuality in their new quests. These works, which artists paint in original style, are directly proportional to the period features of the society in which they live. Within these new formations, the image of woman, which is the unique image of the artists, has come to an undeniable place. In the light of cultural developments that are proof of the lev el of development in a society, it is thought that the image of woman, which has an important place in modern art, should be evaluated from a pictorial and social perspective. In this context, the existing sources obtained were searched and the effect of the social understanding and art developments of the period was tried to be examined in the light of the main works of the artists who exhibited intense studies on the image of woman in the modern art process. Keywords: Modern Art, Woman Image, Society.  Bu makale, Kader Aydın’ın Hatay Mustafa Kemal Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Güzel Sanatlar Eğitimi Bölümü, Resim Anasanat Dalı, Modern Sanatta Kadın İmgesi adlı yüksek lisans tezinden üretilmiştir. ** Kastamonu Üniversitesi, Güzel Sanatlar ve Tasarım Fakültesi, Sanat ve Tasarım Sanatta Yeterlilik Öğrencisi, e-posta: kaderaydin1783@hotmail.com *** Doç. Dr., Hatay Mustafa Kemal Üniversitesi, Eğitim Fakültesi, Güzel Sanatlar Eğitimi Bölümü, Resim-İş Öğretmenliği Anasanat Dalı, e-posta: burtugakademi25@gmail.com Uluslararası Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi Cilt: 12 Sayı: 66 Ekim 2019 The Journal of International Social Research Volume: 12 Issue: 66 October 2019 - 476 - 1.GİRİŞ Gelişen ve değişen dünya görüşü ile birlikte sanatın boyutu da onunla doğru orantılı bir ivme kazanmıştır. Eskinin kuralcı oranları, rengi, bakışları yerini daha etkili ve kışkırtıcı imgelere bırakmıştır. iBunların en bariz örneklerini sanatın içine giren kolaj-montaj, afiş, gazete gibi ürünlerde görmek mümkün olmuştur. Yine bunun temelinde yatan sebep elbette fotoğraf makinasının icadı ve beraberinde getirdiği kolaylıklar olmuştur. Toplumsal ve kültürel değerler zamanla evrilmeye ve hızlı tükenir hale gelmeye başlamıştır. Sanayileşme ile ortaya çıkan bu hızlı tüketim furyası en çok reklam afiş gibi görsel objelerle kendini ilerletebilmiştir. Üst ya da alt tabaka fark etmeksizin modern ve popüler olan ne ise ona sahip olma arzusu sanatsal boyutun da tüketim kültürü içerisine kaymasını sağlamıştır. Sanat da artık tüketim kültürünün bir parçası olmuştur. Kadın, sanatsal, görsel ve bedensel anlamda tüketilen şeyler arasında kendine önemli bir pay edinmiştir elbette. Gelişen ve değişen her şey ile doğru orantılı olarak değişmeye başlamıştır. İmgeleşen kadın kimine göre değerine değer katarak kimine göre ise sıradanlaşarak metalaşmaya başlamıştır. Reklam, afiş, poster, video gibi olgularla eskinin kutsal imajından soyutlanan kadın artık göze hitap eden bir meta haline bürünmüştür. Kısaca modernleşmenin getirdiği tüketim kültürü ile payına düşen değişimi yaşamıştır ve yaşamaya devam etmektedir. 2.YÖNTEM 2.1. Amacı Bu araştırmanın amacı modern sanat akımları içerisinde kadın imgesinin resimsel ve toplumsal açıdan gelişim ve değişimini belirlemektir. Bu bağlamda modern sanat kapsamında önemli yere sahip olan başlıca sanatçılar ve eserleri üzerinde değerlendirmeler, irdelemeler ve yorumlamalar yaparak kadın imgesinin değişimine ilişkin bir sonuca varılmaya çalışılmıştır. 2.2. Önemi Modern sanatta ön plana çıkan kadın imgesinin, nasıl güçlü ve etkili bir kültürel imaj haline geldiğinin anlatılmaya çalışılmasının resim sanatı açısından önemli olduğu düşünülmektedir. 2.3. Konusu Modern sanatın gelişim ve değişim döneminde ele alınan önemli konulardan biri imge arayışı olmuştur. Pek çok sanatçı için önemli bir kaygı ve arayış sebebi olan imge kavramının en etkili imajı konumundaki kadın imgesi temsil ilişkisi bağlamında değerlendirilirken dönemin önemli sanatçılarının başlıca eserleri üzerinden araştırılması bu çalışmanın konusu olmuştur. 2.4. Yöntemi Bu araştırmanın yöntemi tarama modelidir. Araştırmada, bir kavram olarak imge ve temsil ilişkisi bağlamında mevcut kaynaklar taranarak, modern sanatta imge, kadın imgesi gibi başlıklar, sanatçılar ve eserleri ışığında incelenerek elde edilen veriler araştırmanın amacı doğrultusunda yorumlanarak sonuca varılmaya çalışılmıştır. 3. BULGULAR VE YORUM 3.1. Kavram Olarak İmge Modern sanat ve kadın imgesi konusuna değinmeden önce imge kavramının terimsel olarak incelenmesi yararlı olacaktır. Aslında imgeler nispeten toplumların ve kültürlerin gelişiminin göstergeleridir. Bu bağlamda imgeleri özümlemek için öncelikle bu değişimleri anlamak gerekmektedir. Bu sebeple ilk önce imgeyi en basit haliyle tanımlamak gerekmektedir. Türk Dil Kurumu’nun sözlüğünde (2012) imge; 1. Zihinde tasarlanan ve gerçekleşmesi özlenen şey, hayal, hülya. 2. Genel görünüş, izlenim, imaj. 3. Duyu organlarının dıştan algıladığı bir nesnenin bilince yansıyan benzeri, hayal, imaj. 4. Duyularla algılanan, bir uyaran söz konusu olmaksızın bilinçte beliren nesne ve olaylar, hayal, imaj. İmge, birçok sanat ve bilim alanı içerisine dahil edilmekte, ve içlerinde yer almakta olup anlamca çok zengin bir kavram olma özelliği taşır. Terim olarak tanımlanması zor bir kavramdır. Bu tanımlardan bazıları şunlardır: Eğitim terimleri sözlüğüne göre; Uluslararası Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi Cilt: 12 Sayı: 66 Ekim 2019 The Journal of International Social Research Volume: 12 Issue: 66 October 2019 - 477 - “Ortada açık bir uyaran olmadan, eski bir duygusal-algısal yaşantının zihinde yeniden canlanan biçimi” olarak ifade edilmektedir Edebiyat ve söz sanatları sözlüğüne göre; “Bir şeyi daha canlı ve daha duygulu bir halde anlatmak için onu başka şeylerin çizgileri ve şekilleri içinde tasarlayış” olarak tanımlanmaktadır. Yazın terimleri sözlüğüne göre; “Var olan ya da varmış gibi tasarlanan nesnelerin zihinde canlandırılışı” olarak ifade edilmektedir. Felsefe terimleri sözlüğüne göre ise; “Bir nesneyi doğrudan doğruya yeniden tanıtmaya yarayacak bir biçimde göz önüne seren şey, duyu organları ile algılanmış olan şeyin somut ya da düşünsel kopyası” olarak tanımlanmaktadır” (Dolaş, 2010, 16, 17). Ele alınan sözlüklerin imge tanımları incelendiğinde gerçek dünyada var olsun ya da olmasın bir imgenin zihinde canlandırılması ve somut ya da düşsel kopyası olması özelliklerinin ortak olduğu söylenebilir. İmge farklı sanat ve bilim alanına hizmet eden bir kavram olma özelliğine sahip olmaktadır. Nitekim imge kavramını bu düşünsel ya da görüntüsel anlamlarından arındırıp salt bir anlam yüklemek olası bir tutumdur. Sonuç olarak zihinde canlanan şey ya da şeylerin imgesi bir görüntü düzlemine yansıtılmaktadır. Bu gerek yazınsal gerekse resimsel boyutta olsun. Sonuç itibariyle gözle görünür bir imge gerçeği söz konusudur. 3.2. Temsil İlişkisi Bağlamında İmge Temsil kısaca yeniden yapılandırma ve sunma biçimidir. Temsil edilen imge, görüşsel ya da duyuşsal yollarla oluşan ilişkilerin sistemli bir şekilde kendini sanatta ifade etme biçimidir. Bu bağlamda sanat imgesinin değişim ve gelişim sürecinin insanın gelişim ve değişim sürecine bağlı olduğunu söyleyebiliriz. İnsanda meydana gelen tarihsel değişimler onun algılayış biçimindeki değişimle doğru orantılıdır. Sanatsal sürecin ilk dönemlerinden beri üzerinde durulan konu sanat öğesinin gerçek görüntüye sadık kalınarak üretilen yansıtma oluşudur. Sanatta temsil ilişkisi tamamen bulunduğu döneme bağlıdır. İçinde bulunduğu dönemin gerçeklik anlayışı ile şekillenir. Yansıttığı gerçeklik, imgenin ortaya çıkmasına ve onun ne olduğunu neyi yansıtması gerektiğini belirleyen niteliğe sahiptir (Özşen, 2013, 10). Bu durumu Richard Leppert kitabında şöyle ifade eder: “İmgeler bize asıl dünyayı değil, dünyalardan bir dünya gösterir. Gösterilen şeyler değil, bunların temsilleridir imgeler: Temsil, yani yeniden- sunum. Hakikaten, imgelerin temsil ettiği şeyler “gerçeklik”te olmayabilir; sadece muhayyile, kuruntu, arzu, rüya ya da fantezi dünyasında var olabilir. Fakat tabii, öte yandan, dünyaya şu ya da bu şekilde dahil olan bir nesne olarak vardır her imge. İster fotoğraf, ister film ya da video, isterse de resim olsun, imgelere baktığımızda gördüğümüz şey insan bilincinin ürünüdür. İnsan bilinci ise kültür ve tarihin ayrılmaz bir parçasıdır. Burada şu sonuç çıkıyor: İmgeler, maden cevheri gibi kazılıp çıkarılan şeyler değil, belli bir sosyal- kültürel ortam içerisinde belli bir işlev görmesi için inşa edilen şeylerdir” ( Leppert, 2002, 14) “Sanatsal imge, doğayı temsil ettiği için el işçiliğinden farklıdır; doğayı temsil edeceğine doğal bir beceriye dayanan imgeyse zenaattır” (Sayın, 2003, 47). Temsil ile görünene ait olmayan ve olması istenilen görüntüleri sağlama durumu ve temsilin gerçeklikle olan ilişkisi imgenin çok anlamlılığını destekler (Özşen, 2013, 12). Jacques Ranciere imge ve görüntünün iki farklı şeyi ifade ettiğini savunur: “… sanat ve gerçeklik arasında, sanatsal imgeyi ve görüntüyü farklı kılan ilişkilerden birinin orijinalin benzerini üreten basit ilişki, bu benzerin illaki orijinalin sadık kopyası değil, ama onun yerini tutabilecek bir şey olduğu şeklindedir; diğerinin ise sanat dediğimiz şeyi üreten işlemlerin oyunudur: ki örneğin, tam da bir benzerliğin başkalaşıma uğratılması” (Ranciere, 2008, 15). Jacques Ranciere’nin vurguladığı şey başkalaşıma uğrayan bu sanatsal imge sanatçının duygu ve düşüncelerinin etkilendiği bellekte oluşmasıdır. Sanatçının belirtmek istediği şey ise ifade edilen şeyin gerçeklikle olan ilişkisinin bir yanılsaması olarak temsil edilmesidir (Özşen, 2013, 12). 4.1. Kadın İmgesi Nedir? İmge arayışına giren sanatçı için elinin altında dolaşan kadın en ulaşılabilir imgedir. Annedir, eştir, hizmetlidir, gönül verilen genç kızdır. Erkek egemen toplumun en ulaşılası imgesidir. Bu yüzdendir ki Uluslararası Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi Cilt: 12 Sayı: 66 Ekim 2019 The Journal of International Social Research Volume: 12 Issue: 66 October 2019 - 478 - sanatçı ister sosyal yaşam olsun isterse cinsel dürtülerini ya da kadın sorunsalını yansıtıp eleştirmek anlamında olsun başvurduğu tek imge konumundadır kadın. Çoğu eserde görüldüğü üzere çalışan kadın, anne olan kadın, güzel-soylu kadın vs. vs. Kadın hep vardır ve hep var olacaktır sonsuz doğasıyla. Kadının varlığı sanat tarihi boyunca şiddetli bir gerçeklikle göze çapmaktadır. Asırlar boyunca kadının güzelliği, sevgisi, şefkati, anneliği, kutsallığı, iç dünyası, kısaca özü sanatsal uğraşların temel imgesi olmuştur. Kadın sanatçılara sessiz bir model olurken erkek ise ondan ilham alan ve dış dünyaya sesini duyuran olmuştur. Kadın imgesini betimleme birçok ressam için aranılan konu olmuştur. Sanat tarihi sürecini incelediğimizde bunun ne kadar etki alanına sahip olduğunu görürüz. Her dönemin sahip olduğu özel bir kadın imgesi vardır. Bu imaj o dönemin toplumsal yapısının kadına biçtiği rolle doğru orantılıdır. Her dönem kendi içerisinde ideal olan kadın imajını arar. Bunu daha iyi anlayabilmek için tarihsel süreçlere ve onların barındırdığı ideal kadın kavramlarına şöyle bir göz atmakta fayda vardır. Sanat tarihi boyunca ideal kadın kriterleri sürekli değişim göstermiştir. Bunun altında ise o dönemin güzele biçtiği değer yatmaktadır. Tarih öncesi dönemde ideal kadını sağlamlık, güç ve dayanıklılık temsil ederken, Mısır döneminde ise uzun boylu güzel tanrıçalar ideal kadını temsil ediyordu. Eski Yunan’da ise erkeksi vücut yapısına sahip ancak onurlu ve cesur kadın imajı ideal kadın kimliğini temsil ediyordu. Orta çağ sürecinde ideal kadını duruluğu, saflığı, bedensel arılığı temsil ediyordu. Bekaret ve masumiyet ideal kadında aranan yegane unsur olmuştur. Klasik dönemde zarafetiyle tanınan ideal kadın aydınlanma döneminde özüne dönmüş ve doğallıktan yana olmaya çalışmıştır. Fransız devrimine kadar olan süreçte ise abartılı makyaj, peruk, vücudu sıkan korseler güzellik unsuru olarak öne çıkmaya başlamıştır. Bu dönemde sanatçılar kadın figürlerini çıplak resmetmekten çekinmemekle birlikte onların dişiliğini öne çıkarma çabasına düşmüşlerdir. Devrim sonrası kadında abartı olan unsurlar kalmamıştır. Empresyonizmle birlikte ise bunun yerini sağlıklı kadın imgesi almıştır. Kadın daha sağlıklı ve daha mutludur artık. İkinci dünya savaşından sonra ise kadının etine dolgun olması tercih edilmiştir. Yuvarlak hatlara sahip kadın sağlığı ve güzelliği temsil etmiştir bu dönemde. İlerleyen yıllarda ise ideal kadın imajını daha çok sinema ve reklamlarda görülen özgür kadın temsil etmiştir. Bu yeni imaj daha özgür, daha dolgun ve güzel vücutlu, eskinin aksine bronzlaşmış tene sahip olan kadın almıştır. Burjuva kadınlarının yerine mini etek giyen kadın daha asil kabul edilmiştir. Günümüzde ise bu durumlar tamamen değişim göstermiştir, kadın halen sanatın önemli bir konusuyken sanatın kendisi daha çok ön plana çıkarılmaya çalışılmaktadır. Özellikle 20.yy’da çokça resmedilen kadın imgesi hemen hemen tüm sanatçıların temel imgesi durumuna gelmiştir. Sanatçılar kendi tarzlarına paralel olarak kendi kadın imgelerini yaratmışlar ve çeşitlemeler yaparak farklı yaklaşımlar elde etmişlerdir. Bu farklı üslup ve düşünce tarzına sahip yeni yaklaşımlar, sanatçıların form anlayışı ile kendilerine ait üslupla özdeşleşmiştir. 4.2. Kadın İmgesi ile İlgili Örnek Çalışmalar 4.2.1. Gustave Klimt (1862-1918) 1862 yılında Viyana’da dünyaya gelen sembolist ressam, Viyana Uygulamalı Sanat Okulu’ da eğitim görmüştür. İlk resimlerinde neoklasik tarzda çalışan sanatçı daha sonra empresyonist akımın etkisinde kalmıştır. Sanatçı yaşadığı dönemin sosyo-kültürel, ekonomik, siyasi yapısından etkilenmiş ve bu etkiler altında eserler oluşturmuştur. Kadın imgesi hemen her dönem resim sanatına konu olmuştur. Kadın vücudunun estetik ve çekici görüntüsü birçok sanatçının ilgisini çekmiştir. Gustave Klimt de diğer sanatçılar gibi kadın imgesinin etkisinde kalmıştır. Dönemin tutucu dünya görüşü, sanatçının özgün imge üretimini olumsuz yönde etkilemiştir ve çoğunlukla kadın imgesi üzerine çalışan sanatçı toplumun estetikten uzak bu yoz yargıları ile sınırlandırılmaya çalışılmıştır. “Klimt’in resimlerinde ‘kadın’ her şeyden önce estetik bir imgedir, ressamın görme biçimidir ve resim yoluyla izleyiciye gönderme yapmaktadır” (Uz, 2012, 58). ‘Kadın İmgesi’ sanatçının gözde konuları arasında yer alırken aynı zamanda onun görme şekli ve kendini ifade biçimidir. Dönemin kadına bakış açısını derinden sarsan sanatçı kadın imgesini tuallerinde hiçbir sansüre boyun eğmeden özgürce kullanmıştır. Bu imgelerin en önemlilerinden biri olan Danae ise tarihinde bu tarz yapılan çalışmalara önemli bir örnek oluşturmuştur. Çalışma üçgen bir kompozisyondan oluşmaktadır. duygusal kalmayı temsil etmektedir. Esere adını veren Danae’nin yüzünde kaybolmayan bir masumiyet ve çocuksuluk göze çarpar. sol göğsünün açık olması ise masumiyetini ifade etmektedir. Cenin pozisyonunda uyuyor halde resmedilen genç kadın, yaşadığı acıları rüyalar omuzlarından dökülmesi sıkıntılı geçmişini ifade ederken hayatta içinde bulunduğu karmaşık dünyayı ifade etmektedir. resimdeki beyaz ve yeşil lekelerden yaşanan olumsuzluklara rağmen hala umut dolu olduğunu gösterirken sahip olduğu karamsar ve derin düşüncel Klimt 1907 portresini yapmıştır. O yıl içerisinde taslaklar hazırlamaya başlayan sanatçı eseri ancak üç yıl sonunda tamamlayabilmiştir. Kare şeklindeki esere bakıldığında göze çarpan hüzü Klimt’in bu eserde gerçek altın kullanmıştır. Arka fonu ve resimde yer alan model hemen hemen aynı renk tonlarıyla yansıtılmıştır. Öyle ki figürle zemin bütünlük sağlamıştır. Kadın imgesi üzerindeki göz desenli Resim Çalışma üçgen bir kompozisyondan oluşmaktadır. duygusal kalmayı temsil etmektedir. Esere adını veren Danae’nin yüzünde kaybolmayan bir masumiyet ve çocuksuluk göze çarpar. l göğsünün açık olması ise masumiyetini ifade etmektedir. Cenin pozisyonunda uyuyor halde resmedilen kadın, yaşadığı acıları rüyalar omuzlarından dökülmesi sıkıntılı geçmişini ifade ederken hayatta içinde bulunduğu karmaşık dünyayı ifade etmektedir. resimdeki beyaz ve yeşil lekelerden yaşanan olumsuzluklara rağmen hala umut dolu olduğunu gösterirken uğu karamsar ve derin düşüncel Resim 2: Klimt, “Adele Bloch Bauer’in Portresi”, 1907, TÜYB. 138X138 cm. Neue Galerie, Kaynak: Erden, E. Osman (2016). Klimt 1907 yılında yakın arkadaşı Ferdinand Bloch’un ricası üzerine Bloch’un eşi portresini yapmıştır. O yıl içerisinde taslaklar hazırlamaya başlayan sanatçı eseri ancak üç yıl sonunda tamamlayabilmiştir. Kare şeklindeki esere bakıldığında göze çarpan hüzü Klimt’in bu eserde gerçek altın kullanmıştır. Arka fonu ve resimde yer alan model hemen hemen aynı renk tonlarıyla yansıtılmıştır. Öyle ki figürle zemin bütünlük sağlamıştır. Kadın imgesi üzerindeki göz desenli Uluslararası Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi Cilt: 12 Sayı: 66 Ekim 2019 Resim 1: Klimt, Danae Çalışma üçgen bir kompozisyondan oluşmaktadır. duygusal kalmayı temsil etmektedir. Esere adını veren Danae’nin yüzünde kaybolmayan bir masumiyet ve çocuksuluk göze çarpar. İçindeki acıları parçalayarak atmak istercesine sağ elini kalbine götürmüştür. Yine l göğsünün açık olması ise masumiyetini ifade etmektedir. Cenin pozisyonunda uyuyor halde resmedilen kadın, yaşadığı acıları rüyalar omuzlarından dökülmesi sıkıntılı geçmişini ifade ederken hayatta içinde bulunduğu karmaşık dünyayı ifade etmektedir. resimdeki beyaz ve yeşil lekelerden yaşanan olumsuzluklara rağmen hala umut dolu olduğunu gösterirken uğu karamsar ve derin düşüncel Klimt, “Adele Bloch Bauer’in Portresi”, 1907, TÜYB. 138X138 cm. Neue Galerie, Kaynak: Erden, E. Osman (2016). yılında yakın arkadaşı Ferdinand Bloch’un ricası üzerine Bloch’un eşi portresini yapmıştır. O yıl içerisinde taslaklar hazırlamaya başlayan sanatçı eseri ancak üç yıl sonunda tamamlayabilmiştir. Kare şeklindeki esere bakıldığında göze çarpan hüzü Klimt’in bu eserde gerçek altın kullanmıştır. Arka fonu ve resimde yer alan model hemen hemen aynı renk tonlarıyla yansıtılmıştır. Öyle ki figürle zemin bütünlük sağlamıştır. Kadın imgesi üzerindeki göz desenli Uluslararası Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi Cilt: 12 Sayı: 66 Ekim 2019 Klimt, Danae, 1907. TÜYB. Kaynak: Çalışma üçgen bir kompozisyondan oluşmaktadır. duygusal kalmayı temsil etmektedir. Esere adını veren Danae’nin yüzünde kaybolmayan bir masumiyet ve İçindeki acıları parçalayarak atmak istercesine sağ elini kalbine götürmüştür. Yine l göğsünün açık olması ise masumiyetini ifade etmektedir. Cenin pozisyonunda uyuyor halde resmedilen kadın, yaşadığı acıları rüyalar aleminde yaşamaya devam etmektedir. omuzlarından dökülmesi sıkıntılı geçmişini ifade ederken hayatta içinde bulunduğu karmaşık dünyayı ifade etmektedir. resimdeki beyaz ve yeşil lekelerden yaşanan olumsuzluklara rağmen hala umut dolu olduğunu gösterirken uğu karamsar ve derin düşünceleri ifade eder. Klimt, “Adele Bloch Bauer’in Portresi”, 1907, TÜYB. 138X138 cm. Neue Galerie, Kaynak: Erden, E. Osman (2016). Modern Sanatın Kısa Tarihi, yılında yakın arkadaşı Ferdinand Bloch’un ricası üzerine Bloch’un eşi portresini yapmıştır. O yıl içerisinde taslaklar hazırlamaya başlayan sanatçı eseri ancak üç yıl sonunda tamamlayabilmiştir. Kare şeklindeki esere bakıldığında göze çarpan hüzü Klimt’in bu eserde gerçek altın kullanmıştır. Arka fonu ve resimde yer alan model hemen hemen aynı renk tonlarıyla yansıtılmıştır. Öyle ki figürle zemin bütünlük sağlamıştır. Kadın imgesi üzerindeki göz desenli Uluslararası Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi Cilt: 12 Sayı: 66 Ekim 2019 The Journal of International Social Research Volume: 12 Issue: 66 October 2019 TÜYB. 77x83 cm. Galerie Wurthle, Viyana, Avusturya Kaynak: http://commons.wikimedia.org Çalışma üçgen bir kompozisyondan oluşmaktadır. duygusal kalmayı temsil etmektedir. Esere adını veren Danae’nin yüzünde kaybolmayan bir masumiyet ve İçindeki acıları parçalayarak atmak istercesine sağ elini kalbine götürmüştür. Yine l göğsünün açık olması ise masumiyetini ifade etmektedir. Cenin pozisyonunda uyuyor halde resmedilen aleminde yaşamaya devam etmektedir. omuzlarından dökülmesi sıkıntılı geçmişini ifade ederken sahi hayatta içinde bulunduğu karmaşık dünyayı ifade etmektedir. resimdeki beyaz ve yeşil lekelerden yaşanan olumsuzluklara rağmen hala umut dolu olduğunu gösterirken eri ifade eder. Klimt, “Adele Bloch Bauer’in Portresi”, 1907, TÜYB. 138X138 cm. Neue Galerie, Modern Sanatın Kısa Tarihi, yılında yakın arkadaşı Ferdinand Bloch’un ricası üzerine Bloch’un eşi portresini yapmıştır. O yıl içerisinde taslaklar hazırlamaya başlayan sanatçı eseri ancak üç yıl sonunda tamamlayabilmiştir. Kare şeklindeki esere bakıldığında göze çarpan hüzü Klimt’in bu eserde gerçek altın kullanmıştır. Arka fonu ve resimde yer alan model hemen hemen aynı renk tonlarıyla yansıtılmıştır. Öyle ki figürle zemin bütünlük sağlamıştır. Kadın imgesi üzerindeki göz desenli The Journal of International Social Research Volume: 12 Issue: 66 October 2019 77x83 cm. Galerie Wurthle, Viyana, Avusturya http://commons.wikimedia.org Bu kompozisyon, hayatın zorluklarına rağmen duygusal kalmayı temsil etmektedir. Esere adını veren Danae’nin yüzünde kaybolmayan bir masumiyet ve İçindeki acıları parçalayarak atmak istercesine sağ elini kalbine götürmüştür. Yine l göğsünün açık olması ise masumiyetini ifade etmektedir. Cenin pozisyonunda uyuyor halde resmedilen aleminde yaşamaya devam etmektedir. sahip olduğu yüz ifadesi hem rüyada hem gerçek hayatta içinde bulunduğu karmaşık dünyayı ifade etmektedir. resimdeki beyaz ve yeşil lekelerden yaşanan olumsuzluklara rağmen hala umut dolu olduğunu gösterirken Klimt, “Adele Bloch Bauer’in Portresi”, 1907, TÜYB. 138X138 cm. Neue Galerie, Modern Sanatın Kısa Tarihi, İstanbul: Hayalperest Yayınevi, s: 115 yılında yakın arkadaşı Ferdinand Bloch’un ricası üzerine Bloch’un eşi portresini yapmıştır. O yıl içerisinde taslaklar hazırlamaya başlayan sanatçı eseri ancak üç yıl sonunda tamamlayabilmiştir. Kare şeklindeki esere bakıldığında göze çarpan hüzü Klimt’in bu eserde gerçek altın kullanmıştır. Arka fonu ve resimde yer alan model hemen hemen aynı renk tonlarıyla yansıtılmıştır. Öyle ki figürle zemin bütünlük sağlamıştır. Kadın imgesi üzerindeki göz desenli The Journal of International Social Research Volume: 12 Issue: 66 October 2019 77x83 cm. Galerie Wurthle, Viyana, Avusturya http://commons.wikimedia.org Bu kompozisyon, hayatın zorluklarına rağmen duygusal kalmayı temsil etmektedir. Esere adını veren Danae’nin yüzünde kaybolmayan bir masumiyet ve İçindeki acıları parçalayarak atmak istercesine sağ elini kalbine götürmüştür. Yine l göğsünün açık olması ise masumiyetini ifade etmektedir. Cenin pozisyonunda uyuyor halde resmedilen aleminde yaşamaya devam etmektedir. p olduğu yüz ifadesi hem rüyada hem gerçek hayatta içinde bulunduğu karmaşık dünyayı ifade etmektedir. resimdeki beyaz ve yeşil lekelerden yaşanan olumsuzluklara rağmen hala umut dolu olduğunu gösterirken koyu kahve tonlarındaki bölüm ise Klimt, “Adele Bloch Bauer’in Portresi”, 1907, TÜYB. 138X138 cm. Neue Galerie, İstanbul: Hayalperest Yayınevi, s: 115 yılında yakın arkadaşı Ferdinand Bloch’un ricası üzerine Bloch’un eşi portresini yapmıştır. O yıl içerisinde taslaklar hazırlamaya başlayan sanatçı eseri ancak üç yıl sonunda tamamlayabilmiştir. Kare şeklindeki esere bakıldığında göze çarpan hüzünlü, zarif ve asil bir kadındır. Klimt’in bu eserde gerçek altın kullanmıştır. Arka fonu ve resimde yer alan model hemen hemen aynı renk tonlarıyla yansıtılmıştır. Öyle ki figürle zemin bütünlük sağlamıştır. Kadın imgesi üzerindeki göz desenli The Journal of International Social Research Volume: 12 Issue: 66 October 2019 77x83 cm. Galerie Wurthle, Viyana, Avusturya Bu kompozisyon, hayatın zorluklarına rağmen duygusal kalmayı temsil etmektedir. Esere adını veren Danae’nin yüzünde kaybolmayan bir masumiyet ve İçindeki acıları parçalayarak atmak istercesine sağ elini kalbine götürmüştür. Yine l göğsünün açık olması ise masumiyetini ifade etmektedir. Cenin pozisyonunda uyuyor halde resmedilen aleminde yaşamaya devam etmektedir. Saçlarının dağılarak p olduğu yüz ifadesi hem rüyada hem gerçek hayatta içinde bulunduğu karmaşık dünyayı ifade etmektedir. resimdeki beyaz ve yeşil lekelerden koyu kahve tonlarındaki bölüm ise Klimt, “Adele Bloch Bauer’in Portresi”, 1907, TÜYB. 138X138 cm. Neue Galerie, New York İstanbul: Hayalperest Yayınevi, s: 115 yılında yakın arkadaşı Ferdinand Bloch’un ricası üzerine Bloch’un eşi portresini yapmıştır. O yıl içerisinde taslaklar hazırlamaya başlayan sanatçı eseri ancak üç yıl sonunda nlü, zarif ve asil bir kadındır. Klimt’in bu eserde gerçek altın kullanmıştır. Arka fonu ve resimde yer alan model hemen hemen aynı renk tonlarıyla yansıtılmıştır. Öyle ki figürle zemin bütünlük sağlamıştır. Kadın imgesi üzerindeki göz desenli - 479 - Bu kompozisyon, hayatın zorluklarına rağmen duygusal kalmayı temsil etmektedir. Esere adını veren Danae’nin yüzünde kaybolmayan bir masumiyet ve İçindeki acıları parçalayarak atmak istercesine sağ elini kalbine götürmüştür. Yine l göğsünün açık olması ise masumiyetini ifade etmektedir. Cenin pozisyonunda uyuyor halde resmedilen nın dağılarak p olduğu yüz ifadesi hem rüyada hem gerçek hayatta içinde bulunduğu karmaşık dünyayı ifade etmektedir. resimdeki beyaz ve yeşil lekelerden ise tüm koyu kahve tonlarındaki bölüm ise yılında yakın arkadaşı Ferdinand Bloch’un ricası üzerine Bloch’un eşi Adele’nin portresini yapmıştır. O yıl içerisinde taslaklar hazırlamaya başlayan sanatçı eseri ancak üç yıl sonunda nlü, zarif ve asil bir kadındır. Klimt’in bu eserde gerçek altın kullanmıştır. Arka fonu ve resimde yer alan model hemen hemen aynı renk tonlarıyla yansıtılmıştır. Öyle ki figürle zemin bütünlük sağlamıştır. Kadın imgesi üzerindeki göz desenli - Bu kompozisyon, hayatın zorluklarına rağmen duygusal kalmayı temsil etmektedir. Esere adını veren Danae’nin yüzünde kaybolmayan bir masumiyet ve İçindeki acıları parçalayarak atmak istercesine sağ elini kalbine götürmüştür. Yine l göğsünün açık olması ise masumiyetini ifade etmektedir. Cenin pozisyonunda uyuyor halde resmedilen nın dağılarak p olduğu yüz ifadesi hem rüyada hem gerçek ise tüm koyu kahve tonlarındaki bölüm ise ’nin portresini yapmıştır. O yıl içerisinde taslaklar hazırlamaya başlayan sanatçı eseri ancak üç yıl sonunda nlü, zarif ve asil bir kadındır. Klimt’in bu eserde gerçek altın kullanmıştır. Arka fonu ve resimde yer alan model hemen hemen aynı renk tonlarıyla yansıtılmıştır. Öyle ki figürle zemin bütünlük sağlamıştır. Kadın imgesi üzerindeki göz desenli Uluslararası Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi Cilt: 12 Sayı: 66 Ekim 2019 The Journal of International Social Research Volume: 12 Issue: 66 October 2019 - 480 - kumaş parçası ise kendisine bakan seyirciye karşılık verir niteliktedir. Bir kadının çıplak olmadan da zarafetini yansıttığı nadir eserlerden biridir Adele Bloch Bauer. Çoğunlukla imgesi kadın olan sanatçı, eserlerinde kadının masalsı iç dünyasını bir ışıltı içerisinde vermeye çalışır. Onun kadınları narin, hassas ve duygusaldır. Bu duygusal ve narin varlıklar onun eserlerinde her zaman başkarakter olma rolünü üstlenmişlerdir. Sanatçı, kadınlarını gerek form anlayışı, gerekse renk kullanışı olarak estetik bir üslupla resmetmiştir. Sanatçının kadına yüklediği ince ve güzel anlam onun hayali ve bir o kadar görkemli iç dünyasının birer göstergesi olmuştur. Kadınların iç dünyalarına bu kadar hassas bir şekilde dokunan sanatçı, tuvallerindeki renk seçimi ile de kadınlarının yüreğindeki çocuksu sıcaklığı yansıtmaya çalışmıştır. Çoğunlukla sıcak tonlar kullanan sanatçı, bu renklerle adeta onları koruyarak kucaklamıştır. 4.2.2. Pablo Picasso (1881-1973) Birinci dünya savaşına kadar olan süreçte özellikle Avrupa başta olmak üzere dünyanın birçok yerinde herhangi olağanüstü bir durumdan söz edilemez. 1914’te Birinci Dünya Savaşı’nın başlaması ile tüm dengeleri alt üst edecek sosyal ve siyasi gelişmeler söz konusuydu fakat değişimler bunlarla sınırlı değildi. Yeni icatlar, keşifler, kültürel ve ekonomik bazı yenilikler cereyan etmeye başlamıştı. “Einstein’ın teorileri dünya hakkında bilgilerimizin dayandığı ana ilkelere meydan okumaktaydı. Motorlu uçuşun, sinemanın, kablosuz iletişimin (telsiz) ve daha birçok buluşun ortaya çıkışı, 20. yüzyılın ilk on yılında yaşayanların akıllarının alamayacağı kadar büyük bir etki bırakacaktı. 1907’de Pablo Picasso resim sanatının son 500 yıldaki tüm kurallarına karşı gelen bir resim yapmıştı. Avignon’lu Genç Bayanlar tablosu dönemin buluşları kadar önemli bir etkiye sahip olacaktı” (Spence, 2001, 2). Resim 3: Picasso, “Avignonlu Kızlar”, 1907, Tual üzerine yağlıboya, 243.9x233.7 cm. Modern Sanatlar Müzesi, Newyork Kaynak: David Spence, (2001).Picasso, İstanbul: Alkım Yayınevi s: 25 İşte bu kadar büyük etki uyandıran Avignonlu Kızlar ( Avignon’lu Genç Bayanlar) adlı bu çalışma dönemin en önemli buluşları arasında idi. Onu bu kadar özel kılan şey ise kübizmin ve bağlantılı olarak modern sanatın doğuşunu simgelemesiydi. Bu eserdeki beş kadın normal beden ölçülerinin dışındaydı, resme bakan kişiye gözlerini dikerek insanlarda büyük etkiler uyandırıyordu. Sanatçı Afrikan masklarından çok etkilenmiş ve bunun üzerinde çok yoğun çalışmalar yapmıştı. Sanat dilini özgün bir biçimde kullanan sanatçı bu resim üzerinde de aylarca çalışıp 800 civarı taslak meydana getirmişti. Başlangıçta Avignon Genelevi olarak adlandırdığı bu eserde, bir denizci ve bir öğrenci yer almaktaydı. Daha sonra eser Avignonlu Kızlar adını alarak, içinde beş kadının bulunduğu bir hal almıştı. Rönesans geleneğine tepki olan Avignonlu Kızlar, kübizm akımın başlangıç noktası olmuştur. Uluslararası Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi Cilt: 12 Sayı: 66 Ekim 2019 The Journal of International Social Research Volume: 12 Issue: 66 October 2019 - 481 - Resim 4: Picasso, “Ağlayan Kadın”, 1937 Tual üzerine yağlıboğa, 60x49 cm. Tate Gallery, Liverpool Kaynak: Turan, Adnan (2010). Dünya Sanat Tarihi. İstanbul: Remzi Kitabevi, s: 591 26 nisan 1937’de nazi Almanyası’na ait 28 bombardıman uçağı İspanya’nın Guernica kasabasında 1000 kişinin ölümüne neden olan bir hava saldırısı gerçekleştirdi. Picasso bu duruma tepkisiz kalamadı ve sanatıyla bu kıyıma karşı bir sanat anıtı gerçekleştirdi. Bu eserin adı Guernica idi. Sanatçı bu eserin üzerinde çalışmalar yapmaya başladı. Bu çalışmalar arasında üzerinde çalıştığı bir ‘ağlayan kadın imgesi’ vardı. 1937’nin mayıs ve ekim ayları arasında 36 tane ağlayan kadın imgesi resmetti. Picasso’nun renkli yaşamına pek çok kadın girmiştir. Belki de bu yüzden sanatçının o yıllarda resimlerinin hemen hemen hepsi kadınlar üzerinedir. O dönem resimleri içerisinde en bilineni ‘ağlayan kadın’ eseridir. Pek çok kaynakta ağlayan bu kadının ünlü fotoğrafçı Dora Maar olduğundan bahsedilmektedir. Sanatçının hayat arkadaşı konumuna gelen Dora, onun hayatındaki tek kadın olamamaktan yakınmakta ve üzüntü yaşamaktadır. Sanatçı, Guernica tablosunu resmederken pek çok resmini çektiği Dora’nın gözlerindeki yaşı olduğu gibi yansıtmıştır. Gerçek göz yaşlarını tüm çıplaklığıyla Sanatçı Guernica isimli tablosuna ön hazırlık olan bu eserinde, kadının duyduğu derin acıyı şiddetli fırça darbeleri ve sert renkler kullanarak yansıtmıştır. Eserde dikkati çeken unsurlardan biri ağız çevresinde oluşturduğu mavi ve beyaz soğuk etkiler ile yer değiştirmiş olan alın ve gözlerdir. Bu kadın imgesinin böylesine parçalanarak resmedilmesi Picasso için olağan bir şeydir. 1937 yılına ait ağlayan bir kadını betimleyen bu yağlıboya tablo, yalnızca İspanya İç Savaşı’nı değil aynı zamanda zulmün evrensel tanımını yansıtmaktadır. 4.2.3. Paul Gauguin (1848-1903) Fransız izlenimci ressamı Gauguin, Fransa’daki maddi kaygılarını taşımayacağı Tahiti’ye göç ederek hayatını orada sürdürmeye başlamıştır. Buradaki doğal yaşamın etkisiyle sanatçının ilkel sanata duyduğu ilgi kendisini İzlenimcilikten uzaklaştırmıştır ve üslubunda yeni yaklaşımlar geliştirmesine vesile olmuştur. Yeni hayatı ve ilkel resim tarzıyla sanatçının kadınlara duyduğu ilginin de etkisiyle Tahiti’deki çoğu eserinde kadın imgesine rastlanmaktadır. Aralarında çocuk yaşta denecek metresler edindiği genç kadınlar sanatçının gözde modelleri olmuştur. (Spence, 2001, 25). Resim 5 : Paul Gauguin, Yelpazeli Genç Kız, 1902, Tual Üzerine Yağlıboya, 91x73 cm., Museum Folkwang, Essen Uluslararası Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi Cilt: 12 Sayı: 66 Ekim 2019 The Journal of International Social Research Volume: 12 Issue: 66 October 2019 - 482 - Kaynak: David Spence, (2001).Gauguin, Cennete Kaçış. İstanbul: Alkım Yayınevi s: 25 Tohotaua adlı Markiz Adaları yerlisi olan bu genç kız, sanatçının birçok resmine modellik etmiştir. “Yelpazeli Genç Kız” diye adlandırdığı bu resmini sanatçı, kendi evinde çektiği bir fotoğraftan yapmıştır. Sanatçı burada orijinal fotoğrafa sadık kalmayarak bazı değişiklikler yapmıştır. Modelin gözleri seyirciye değil de boşluğa odaklandırılırken üzerindeki örtü sıyrılarak göğüsleri ortaya çıkarılmıştır. Aynı zamanda elinde tuttuğu yelpaze ile çıplaklığı kısmen örtülerek kadına gizemli bir çekicilik verilmeye çalışılmıştır. Bu resim tamamıyla Gauguin’e ait bir kadın imgesiyken günümüzde Güney Denizi Adaları’nın sembolu haline gelmiştir (Spence, 2001, 25). Primitif insanların doğal yaşamlarını saf ve yalın bir üslupla yansıtabileceğine inanan sanatçının eserleri incelendiğinde bu konuda haklı olduğu görülmektedir. Resim 6: Paul Gauguin, Cavalı Annah, 1894, Tual Üzerine Yağlıboya, 116x81 cm. Kaynak: David Spence, (2001).Gauguin, Cennete Kaçış. İstanbul: Alkım Yayınevi s: 25 Sanatçının "Cavalı Anna" adlı resmi ise, Tahiti'nin doğallığını yansıtan Anna’nın nü resmidir. Sanatçı bu eserinde doğal çıplaklık duygusunu yakalamaya çalışmıştır, nitekim başarılı olamamıştır. Doğanın saflığına bürünmüş bu kadın, sanki soyunmamış ama erkek toplumunun açgözlü bakışlarıyla 'soyulmuş' gibi görünmektedir. Buna rağmen Anna'nın vücudu resme egzotik bir hava katmakmıştır. Ayak ucunda duran maymun ise doğal yaşamın ve Anna’nın şahsına özgü bir durum olarak karşımıza çıkmaktadır. Gauguin’in eserlerindeki kadın imgesi kullanımı şu şekilde açıklanabilir; ilkel hayatın rahatlığını ve özgünlüğünü, kendi doğasında varolmuşçasına hisseden sanatçı Tahiti Adası’nda pek çok genç kadın imgesi resmetmiştir.Onun kadınları doğallığın, temizliğin, arılığın ve masumiyetin birer simgesi haline gelmiştir. Kadın imgesine farklı bir bakış açısı getiren sanatçı onları her ne kadar doğal yaşam örüntüleri içinde resmetmeye çalışsa da eserlerindeki kadınlar narinlikten yoksundur. Kullanılan renk, biçim açısından cazip gelmeyen kadınlar form olarak da erkeksi vücut hatlarına sahiptirler. Picasso’nun “Avignonlu Kızlar” adlı eserinde olduğu gibi Gauguin’in kadınlarında da erkeksi bir üslup göze çarpmaktadır. 4.2.4. Wilhelm de Kooning (1904-1997) Sanatçıya özgür düşünme ve dile getirme olanağı sunan 20. yüzyıl sanat akımlarından Kübizm, Dışavurumculuk ve Soyut Sanatın özelliklerini bir arada kullanan sanatçılardan biri olan Wilhelm De Kooning, figüratif ve soyut sanatın aynı düzlemde kullanılmasını sağlayan örnek sanatçılardan biridir. Sanatçı kadınları konu alan resimlerini 1940’lı yıllarda yapmaya başlamıştır. Aralıklı olsa da kadın konusuna değinmeye devam etmiştir. 1940’lı yıllardaki kadınlar daha çok görgü kurallarına uygun bir şekilde oturmaktadırlar. Sanatçının kadın figürleri zamanla Picasso’nun 1929 dönemindeki yırtıcı kadınları gibi gittikçe ateşli ve heyecanlı hale gelmeye başlamıştır. Sanatçı bu dönemde elleri ve omuzları oluşturmakta kararsızdır ve bu da resimlerine eksik ve kısa çizgiler atmasına neden olmuştur. Düzensiz saçlar ve deformasyona uğramış vücutlar dikkat çekmektedir (Lynton, 2009, 235). Sanatçının 1940 yılında yaptığı ‘Oturan Kadın’ adlı eseri diğer tüm eserlerinde olduğu gibi bitmemişlik hissi vererek sanatçının üslubunu yansıtmaktadır. Bu eserde de sanatçının soyut figüratif tarzı göze çarpmaktadır. Renkleri canlı ve yoğun kullanmıştır. Kolları belli belirsiz olarak betimlenen kadın figürünün elleri yoktur, resimde dikkat çeken resmin tam ortasına denk gelen taşmış haldeki kadın göğüsleridir (Fineberg, 2014, 80). Uluslararası Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi Cilt: 12 Sayı: 66 Ekim 2019 The Journal of International Social Research Volume: 12 Issue: 66 October 2019 - 483 - Resim 7: Wilhelm de Kooning “Oturan Kadın”, 1940, masonit üzerine karakalem ile yağlı boya, 137.8x91.4 cm. Phiadelphia Museum of Art Kaynak: Fineberg, Jonathan (2014). 1940’tan Günümüze Sanat, İzmir: Karakalem Kitabevi Yayınları s: 80. Kooning resim yüzeyinde yeni arayışlar içerisine girmeye başlamıştır, ezici, korkunç ve etkileyici kadınlar yapmaya başlamıştır. Kooning’in kadınlarında dikkati çeken unsur parçalara ayırdığı cinsellik unsuru değil, kadınlarındaki ölüm temasıdır. Kadınlarındaki ölüm olgusu cinsellikten daha üstündür. Cinselliği ikinci plana atan sanatçı bize çoğunlukla kadın vücudu üzerinden ölümü hatırlatmaktadır. Resim 8: Wilhelm de Kooning, Kadın ve Bisiklet, 1952-53, 194x124 cm. Tuval Üzerine Yağlıboya, Whitney Museum of Amerikan Art, New York Kaynak: Jonathan Fineberg (2014) 1940’tan Günümüze Sanat İzmir: Karakalem Kitabevi Yayınları s: 78. Resmin geneline bakıldığı zaman resmin üst orta düzlemindeki iri kadın göğüsleri dikkat çekmektedir. Resmin geneline hakim olan bu görüntü tualden fışkıracakmış hissi vermektedir. Pembe tonlarda resmedilen göğüslerin hemen üzerinde iki adet ağız dikkat çekmektedir. İkisi de birbirinin aynı olan ağız yapısı açık ve dişler görünecek şekilde resmedilmiştir. Anatomik farklılıklar gösteren resmin üst orta kısmında ise dikkat çeken bir çift göz yer almaktadır. Resmin alt orta kısmında ise siyah konturlerle dış Uluslararası Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi Cilt: 12 Sayı: 66 Ekim 2019 The Journal of International Social Research Volume: 12 Issue: 66 October 2019 - 484 - hatları belirginleştirilmiş bacaklar dikkat çekmektedir. Resmin üst yarısında bulunan bu kadın figürü sanatçının diğer tipik kadın figürleri gibidir. Alt yarısı ise renk seçimi ve uygulayış biçimi olarak sanatçının ‘Oturan Kadın’ eserini andırmaktadır. Kooning’in eserlerindeki kadın imgesi kullanımı şu şekilde belirtilebilir; kadınları oldukça kaba ve hoyrat bir ifadeyle resmetmektedir. Yoğun renk ve zemin arayışlarının içinde yer yer kaybolmuşluk etkisi yaratan kadınlarının göğüs, kalça, ağız, bacak göz gibi unsurları daha belirgin bir ifade ile dikkat çekmektedir. Kooning’in kadınları onun hayata bakışının ve arayışlarının izlerini taşımaktadır. Döneminin sanatsal beklentilerini karşılama kaygısı gütmemiştir. Arayış içinde olduğunun en belirgin özelliklerinden biri ise aynı yüzey üzerine onlarca katman uygulayışı olmuştur. Ayrıca tüm resimlerinde bitmemişlik etkisi göze çarpmaktadır. Bu bitmemişlik etkisi aslında sanatçının eserlerinin güncel oluşunu ve üslubunun devamlılığını sağlamıştır. Kooning’i günümüzün önemli sanatçıları içerisinde görmemizin asıl sebebi olabilir. Soyut sanat dönemi sanatçılarından olan Kooning, yoğun yüzey araştırmaları ile birleştirdiği figüratif resimleriyle döneminin en öne çıkan ismi olmuştur. Kaba bir üslupla tasvir edilen kadınları, cinsellik gibi çekici unsurlar sergilemenin aksine ölüm ve yok oluş gibi olguları yansıttığı için olumsuz ama bir o kadar dikkat çekici imgeler olmuşlardır. 4.2.5. Frida Kahlo (1907 - 1954) Frida Kahlo Meksikalıdır. Hem feminist, hem komünist hem de sanatçı bir kimliğe sahiptir. Meksika yerli kültürüyle gerçekçi, sembolist ve sürrealist üslubu birleştirmiştir. Çocukken geçirdiği çocuk felci yüzünden tek bacağı gelişmemiştir. Üniversite yıllarında geçirdiği trafik kazası ise dinmeyecek yeni acıların başlangıcı olmuştur. Onlarca kez ameliyat olan sanatçı, uzun yıllar yatağa mahkum yaşamak zorunda kalmıştır. Hasta yatağında yattığı bir gün annesinin kendisi için tavana büyük boylu bir ayna taktırması sonucu kendi portrelerini yapmaya başlamıştır. Yatağının tavanındaki aynaya bakan Kahlo için parçalanmış bedeni ile yüzleşmek kolay olmamıştır fakat bu duruma zamanla alışmaya çalışmıştır. Bu dönemde resim yapmaya başlayan Kahlo, ilk tablosunu o dönem aşık olduğu adam Alejandro için yapmıştır. Resim 9: Frida Kahlo, Kadife Elbiseli Kadın. 1926, 79x60 cm. TÜYB. Özel Koleksiyon Kaynak: https://www.drozdogan.com/frida-kahlo-kimdir-hayati-resimleri-kaza/ Kendisini kırmızı kadife elbise içerisinde resmeden Kahlo, geçirdiği korkunç kazadan geriye kalan enkaza rağmen dimdik ayağa kalkacağını belli ispatlamaya çalışmıştır adeta. Van Gogh’un gökyüzüne benzeyen arka fondaki kasvetli girdaplar iç dünyasının acılarını ve çektiği zorlukları gösterme konusunda ipuçları verirken fazlaca ön planda tutulan ve olduğundan büyük resmedilen sağ eli ise sevdiği tarafından tutularak teselli edilmek hatta güven duyulmak istemektedir. Modigliani’nin kadınlarını andıran ince ve narin boynu ise hala zarafetinden ve alımlı bir kadın oluşundan hiçbir şey kaybetmediğini ispatlar niteliktedir. Tüm bu çabalara rağmen sevgilisi ailesinin etkisiyle Meksika dışına çıkmış ve Kahlo’nun aşkına cevap vermemiştir. Bu durum hali hazırda acı çeken sanatçının acılarına yeni bir acı daha eklemiştir. Özellikle kendi portrelerinde, çektiği fiziksel acıları simgesel bir üslupla tuvale yansıtmada eşsiz bir ressam olduğu kabul edilir. Uluslararası Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi Cilt: 12 Sayı: 66 Ekim 2019 The Journal of International Social Research Volume: 12 Issue: 66 October 2019 - 485 - Resim 10: Frida Kahlo: Diken Kolye ve Sinek Kuşları ile Otoportresi. 1940, 47x61 cm. University of Austin, Texas. Kaynak: Farthing, Stephen (2017). Sanatın Tüm Öyküsü, Çin: Hayalperest Yayınevi, s: 442 “Devrimin ardından bir kimlik inşa etme sürecine girilen Meksika’da aktif siyasi roller üstlendi. Yarı Avrupalı yarı Kızılderili kökeni yüzünden Kahlo kendini melez Meksika’lı anlamına gelen mestiza olarak tanımlıyordu. Kolomb öncesi halk sanatına ve Hristiyan imgelerine ilgi duyan ressam, Dikenli Kolye, Otoportre ve Sinekkuşu adlı bu resimde kendini İsa ile bir Aztek tanrıçasının karışımı şeklinde betimleyerek hem kurban hem de her şeye gücü yeten bir kadın olduğunu vurguluyordu” (Farthing, 2017, 442). Oldukça cesur bir kadın imajı çizen sanatçı bunu hem siyasi duruşu hem de toplumsal olaylara karşı güçlü duruşuyla her zaman göstermiştir. Feminist hareket içerisinde de önemli bir yere sahip olan sanatçı dönemin güçlü kadın öncülerinden biri olmuştur. Diego ile evli olduğu süre zarfında üç defa anne olma şansını kaybeden sanatçı duygusunun kendinde açtığı yaralarla birlikte kadınlık ve annelik temalı pek çok resim yapmıştır. Onun çalışmalarında salt gerçeklik ve çekilen acıları tüm yalınlığı ile görmek mümkündür. Üretken bir kadın olan sanatçı kendi iç dünyasının yanı sıra yaşamsal deneyimlerini her zaman bitmez tükenmez birer kaynak olarak kullanmayı bilmiştir. 4.2.6. Kate Kollwitz Kate Kollwitz, barışseverliği ve hümanistliği ile tanınmış bir sanatçı olmakla birlikte feminist yönüyle de tanınmış bir sanatçıdır. Dönemini ve sonraki dönemleri aydınlatmıştır. İşçi sınıfı mücadelelerini eserlerine yansıtmıştır. Kate Kollwitz’in eserleri, o dönemde yaşadığı toplumsal olayların bir uzantısıdır. Çünkü yaşamı boyunca bu toplumsal tarihin en engebeli yıllarını yaşamış ve bu durum sanatçıda fazlasıyla etki bırakmıştır. Sanatçı gençlik yıllarında yaşadığı toplumdan ötürü birey olma bilincini tam anlamıyla yaşayamamakla beraber uzunca bir sürede bu durumun etkisinde kalmıştır. Çünkü yaşadığı dönemde cinsel ayrımcılık boy göstermiştir. Örneğin dönemin anlayışı, özellikle de eğitim sisteminde cinsel ayrımı gerektirmiştir. Örneğin kızlar ve erkeklerin ayrı şartlarda eğitim görmesiyle birlikte erkeklerin eğitim şartlarından daha fazla yararlanması ve aydınlık seviyesinin daha üst düzeye taşınmasının hedef olarak alınması gibi (…) Neyse ki Kollwitz’in babası dönemin anlayışının gerektirdiğinden daha ileri görüşlü olmuştur ve sanatçı bu sorunu atlatabilmiştir. Ancak yine de ilerdeki evlilik unsurlarının onu sanatından alıkoyacağını, anneliğin sanat hayatına engel olacağını düşünmüştür. Bu dönemle ilk eserleri de bu durumu açıklar nitelikte olmuştur. (Ayan, 2008, 3) Evliliğinden sonra sanatçı sanatsal yaratıcılığını ve edebi öğeleri geliştirme çabasına girmiştir. Eşi doktor olan sanatçı toplumsal olaylara daha yakından şahit olmak zorunda kalmıştır ve buna bağlı olarak Uluslararası Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi Cilt: 12 Sayı: 66 Ekim 2019 The Journal of International Social Research Volume: 12 Issue: 66 October 2019 - 486 - sanatın toplum için olması gerektiğini savunmuştur. Sanatçı, hayatı boyunca kadınların yaşadıklarını ve ezilişlerini eserlerinde vurgulamıştır. Sanatçının küçük oğlu Birinci Dünya Savaşı’na gönüllü olarak katılmış ve orada vefat etmiştir. Bu durumdan derin yara alan sanatçı, eserlerinde daha çok savaşa duyduğu nefrete ve ölüm temalarına yer vermiştir. Resim 11: Kate Kollwitz, “ Ölü Çocuk ve Annesi ” Desen, 1903, 39x48 cm. ARS Art Resource, New York Kaynak: https://www.artsy.net/artwork/kathe-kollwitz-woman-with-dead-child “Kollwitz ‘in toplumsal içerikli çalışmalarının ilk örneklerinden olan “ölmüş çocukla kadın ’’ adlı eseri, dönemin annelik ve kürtaj sorunlarına dair en iyi dile getirilmiş bir çalışmasıdır. Eserde çocuğunu kaybeden kadının her şeye rağmen vahşi görünümüyle güçlü olduğu vurgulanmaktadır. Elleri yaşlı ve buruşuk, ama kolları ve bacakları adaleli olarak tasvir edilen eserde ışık oyunuyla ifade daha da çarpıcı hale getirilmiştir. Gölgede kalan kadının elindeki çubuğun yüzü yukarı doğru ve ışığa yönlendirilerek masumiyeti öne çıkarmıştır” (Ayan,2008, 7) . Sanatçı, yalnızca toplumsal sorunları ele almamıştır aynı zamanda barışsever tutumlarıyla da bu düşünceyi topluma aktarmaya çalışmıştır. Bu tür toplumsal gerçeklik kökenli eserleri ele almasının tek nedeni toplumsal sorunları göz önünde tutmak olmamıştır, gözler önüne serdiği sorunlara kendi imkanlarıyla çözüm bulmaya da çalışmıştır. 1890’dan 1914’e kadar olan sürede ve özellikle Weimar döneminde politik, cinsellik ve annelik konularına karşı sürekli duyarlı olmuştur. Dönemin kadınlarının pasif ve seks objesi olarak görülmesine tahammül edemeyip karşı duran ilk kadın sanatçısı olması, Kollwitz’in ününü daha da arttırmış ve onu 20.yüzyılın dışavurumcu sanatçısı tarihe yazdırmıştır (Ayan, 2008, 14). Sosyal adaletsizliğe ve sınıf ayrımcılığına karşı radikal kişiliği ile adından çokça söz ettirmiştir. Sürekli anneliği, kadın haklarını ve ezilen insanları da beraberinde konu alması sanatçının adalet anlayışını da yansıtmaktadır. Birçok yapıtında anne-çocuk konusunu ele almıştır. “1933’te yapıtları Naziler tarafından YOZ SANAT ilan edilerek akademideki görevine son verilmiştir. İkinci dünya savaşının acılarını da yaşayan ve 1943’ te evi ile atölyesinin bombalanması sonucu, yapıtlarının çoğunu yitiren Kollwitz, bütün sanatsal gücünü yaşamın sonuna değin açlık, yoksulluk, savaş ve faşizmle mücadeleye adamıştır” (E.S.A, 1997, 1035). Almanya I. Dünya savaşının etkilerini çok derinden hissetmiştir. Birçok felakete sahne olan bu ülke toplumsal olarak ta çok büyük yaralar almıştır. Toplumsal farkın daha derin olmasına neden olan kapitalizm ve onun getirdiği eşitsizlik toplum içinde çalışan, fakir, hasta pek çok insan manzaralarına sebep olmuştur. Soylu bir aileden gelen ve refah bir hayat süren Kollwitz’in hem sanatçı hem de kadın olması, eserlerindeki kadın imgelerinin ön plana çıkmasının asıl sebebidir. Onun kadınları hayatın tek düze kadın manzaralarından farklıdır. Çalışan ve anne olma özelliğini taşıyan kadın imgeleri hayatın yoruculuğunun, ezilmişliğinin verdiği etkiyle daha karamsar bir şekilde tasvir edilmiştir. Kollwitz’in resimlerinde renkli ve cıvıltılı bir yaşam manazarası görmek mümkün değildir. Genelde acıyı simgeleyen kömür, karakalem ve gravür baskı tekniklerini kullanmıştır. Sanatçının bu teknikleri kullanmasının sebepleri arasında alt tabakadaki insanlara ulaşması kaygısı da yatmaktadır. Birçok eserine konu olan çalışan ve sefalet çeken anne Uluslararası Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi Cilt: 12 Sayı: 66 Ekim 2019 The Journal of International Social Research Volume: 12 Issue: 66 October 2019 - 487 - figürü, sanatçının bu dönemdeki eserlerinin ana konusudur. Kadınların sıcacık evlerinden iş sahasına akışlarını, soğuk ve çetin hayat şartlarını onun resimlerinde görmek ve dahası hissetmek mümkündür. Sanatçının kadınlarında endüstri devrimiyle birlikte bazı değişimler göze çarpmaktadır. Başta eğitimsiz ve işçi hakları konusunda yeterli bilgiye sahip olmayan bu fakir kesim toplumun üyeleri endüstri devriminin etkisiyle bilinçlenmeye başlamıştır. Kapitalizmin şartları zamanla değişmiş, halk yavaş yavaş bilinçlenmeye başlamış ve sınıf mücadeleleri başlamıştır. Bu mücadelelerin arasında en dikkat çekici olan tabi ki batı toplumlarında tohumu atılan kadın hareketleri olmuştur. çalışan kadınlar erkeklerle aynı şartlarda çalışmalarına rağmen ikinci sınıf muamele görmenin etkisiyle bir baş kaldırış göstermişlerdir. Feminizm olarak adlandırılan bu hareket birçok çalışan kadının haklarını savunmasına ve öz güven kazanmasına sebep olmuştur. Bu süreçten sonra ise sanatçının kadınlarında kapitalizme karşı gelen, devrimci, yenilikçi, feminist hatta liderlik heyecanıyla dolup taşan kadınlara rastlanmaktadır. Eserlerindeki çaresiz, zavallı kadınlar artık yerini savaşçı, azimli, devrimci ruhlu kadınlara bırakmıştır. SONUÇ İlk insanla birlikte ortaya çıkan ihtiyaçlar ve gereklilikler neticesinde var olan sanat, zaman içerisinde çok değişim göstermiştir. Meydana gelen bu değişimler arasında ise dikkat çeken en önemli süreç modern sanat süreci olmuştur. Bilimsel, düşünsel, mekanik ve otomatik alanda gerçekleşen bu değişimler sanat alanında da kendisini göstermiştir. Sanatın her alanına yansıyan bu değişimler dönemin önemli unsurlarından biri olan resim sanatında başlı başına yeni bir sürecin başlangıcı olmuştur. 19. yüzyılda başlayan bu süreç tüketim kültürü ve onun getirisi olan tüketim toplumunun etkisiyle resim sanatında yepyeni bir boyut kazanmıştır ve etkileri 20. yüzyılda daha belirgin bir şekilde görülmüştür. 20. yüzyılda gerçekleşen değişim tarihin hiçbir döneminde gerçekleşmemiştir. Hayatın her alanında gerçekleşen bu değişimler dünyanın çehresini değiştirmiştir ve bu bağlamda sanat da bu değişimden payına düşeni almıştır. 20. yüzyıl içerisinde pek çok olay ve olgu cereyan etmiştir; teknolojik gelişmeler, ekonomik ve kapitalist düzen, savaşların getirdikleri-götürdükleri ve toplumsal olaylar örgüsü içerisinde cinsellik kavramı da bu yüzyılda ön plana çıkan unsurlar arasında yerini almıştır. Toplumların sahip olduğu ahlaki değerleri zedeleyen bu yüzyıl yerini tamamen özgür bir dünya görüşüne bırakmıştır. Bu da sınırsız üretim ve tüketim nesnelerinin oluşmasına neden olmuştur. Bu çalışmanın ana konusunu oluşturan ‘sanatta kadın imgesi’ 19. ve 20. yy. modern sanatı içerisinde kadında çıplaklık ve teşhir nesnesi olması özellikleri ile genel anlam çerçevesinden çıkıp sanatta bir üslup haline gelmiştir. Tüm bunlar göz önünde bulundurulduğunda 20. yüzyıl modern sanatında onlarca imge arasından bariz bir yere sahip olan ‘kadın imgesi’ de bir değişim sürecine girmiştir. Nitekim modern sanat süreci bunun başlangıç noktasıdır denebilir. Tarlada, evde, işte resmedilen kadın artık sıradan kadın değil, sanat öznesi konumundadır. Kadına, dolayısı ile kadın imgesine yapılan bu bakış ile tarihteki olgunlaşma sürecinde alınan yol kadının daha üstün bir yere taşınmasına sebep olmuştur. KAYNAKÇA Ayan, Müjde (2010). Weimar Dönemi Kadın Devrimci Ruhu ile Kathe Kollwitz. İstanbul: Sone Yayınları. Dolaş, Hülya (2010). İmgenin Modernizm ve Postmodernizm Bağlamında Değişim Sürecinin Resim Sanatı Üzerinden İncelenmesi. Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Mustafa Kemal Üniversitesi, Hatay. Eczacıbaşı Sanat Ansiklopedisi (1997). İstanbul: YEM Yayınları Farthing, Stephen (2017). Sanatın Tüm Öyküsü. (Çev: Gizem Aldoğan, Firdevs Candil Çulcu) Çin: Hayalperest Yayınevi Fineberg, Jonathan (2014). 1940’tan Günümüze Sanat. İzmir: Karakalem Kitabevi Yayınları Leppert, Richard (2002). Sanatta Anlamın Görüntüsü. (Çev.: İsmail Türkmen), İstanbul: Ayrıntı Yayınları Lynton, Norbert (2009). Modern Sanatın Öyküsü. (Çev.: Prof. Dr. Cevat Çapan ve Prof. Dr. Sadi Öziş), İstanbul: Remzi Kitabevi Özşen, Derya (2013) 20. Yüzyıl Sanatında Nesne Kullanımı ve İmgeye Yaklaşım, Sanatta Yeterlik Eser Metni, İstanbul, Mimar Sinan Güzel Sanatlar Üniversitesi. Ranciere, Jacques (2008). Görüntülerin Yazgısı. İstanbul: Versus Kitap Sayın, Zeynep (2003). İmgenin Pornografisi. İstanbul: Metis Yayınları Spence, David (2001). Gauguin, Cennete Kaçış. (Çev: Semih Aydın), İstanbul: Alkım Yayınevi Spence, David (2001). Picasso, Resim Kurallarına İsyan. (Çev: Semih Aydın), İstanbul: Alkım Yayınevi Uz, Ayfer (2012). Gustav Klimt’in Tuvale Yansıttığı Renkli Işıltılı Masalsı Bir Dünya ve Kadın İmgesi. Batman Üniversitesi 
work_b47i4e7syfbkxmt4tmw7enfmfq	----	www.e-neurospine.org 331 COVID-19 and the Role of Spine Surgeons Nickul S. Jain1, Jeffrey C. Wang2 1Southern California Orthopedic Institute, Van Nuys, CA, USA 2University of Southern California Spine Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA In December of 2019, a novel coronavirus, referred to as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 or coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) was discovered in Wuhan, People’s Republic of China and has since been declared a global pandemic by the World Health Or- ganization. As of April 17th, 2020, there have been more than 2 million confirmed worldwide cases with more than 150,000 deaths due to this novel pandemic.1 In the past few months, the world has radically changed in response to this global out- break. Schools have been closed, public gatherings limited, worldwide travel severely re- stricted, families driven apart, businesses closed, and significant shifts in medical care have occurred. Hospitals, outpatient clinics, and medical delivery systems have all devoted near full force into combatting this new epidemic. Elective surgeries for nonurgent/emergent conditions have been curtailed throughout the world. In the modern era, the scale and se- verity of the COVID-19 pandemic is unprecedented for both society and health care deliv- ery systems. During this crisis, spine surgeons have a duty and obligation as physicians to focus care dedicated to protecting and advancing human health on both individual as well as systemic and global scales. During a time where health care resources are limited and being depleted at exponential rates, cautious and judicious utilization of these resources is critical. Spine surgeons have a crucial role to play whereby they still treat patients with urgent and emer- gent spinal pathology while maximizing patient and provider safety and minimizing health- care resource utilization. This is particularly important as many spine patients (older age with medical comorbidities) may be at increased risk of progressing to a severe and poten- tially lethal stage of COVID-19. With regards to healthcare utilization, as the number of COVID-19 cases continues to rise throughout the world, there is growing concern that health-care systems may reach surge capacity and be unable to care for patients with moderate to severe symptomatology, particularly patients requiring mechanical ventilation. By delaying elective procedures, spine surgeons can help to preserve several hospital resources which are expected to be limited for the foreseeable future including healthcare providers who would otherwise be in the operating room (OR), inpatient beds, intensive care unit ventilators, blood bank reserves, and personal protective equipment (PPE) that would otherwise be consumed during sur- gery. Furthermore, delaying elective surgery avoids potential prolonged postoperative inpa- tient stays, decreases the risk of nosocomial transmission of COVID-19 and avoids having to treat postoperative complications in a setting where healthcare resources are already lim- ited. Neurospine 2020;17(2):331-333. https://doi.org/10.14245/ns.2040202.101 Neurospine eISSN 2586-6591 pISSN 2586-6583 This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (https://creativecom- mons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Copyright © 2020 by the Korean Spinal Neurosurgery Society Editorial Corresponding Author Jeffrey C. Wang https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6297-7410 University of Southern California Spine Center, 1450 San Pablo Street, Suite 5400, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA E-mail: Jeffrey.Wang@med.usc.edu http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.14245/ns.2040202.101&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2020-06-30 COVID-19 and the Role of Spine SurgeonsJain NS, et al. https://doi.org/10.14245/ns.2040202.101332 www.e-neurospine.org The identification and triaging of patients with spinal pathol- ogy that need emergent or urgent surgery versus those who can be delayed several months is a gray zone without clear consen- sus. Spine surgery triage has its own unique set of challenges and the acuity of cases may be higher than many other surgical specialties. However, the North American Spine Society has published guidelines on triaging spine case priority during this pandemic and should serve as a general guideline for most spine practitioners for judicious case selection.2 Recent publications have also suggested that the rates of as- ymptomatic carriers of COVID-19 can be up to 20%–41% of total patients and COVID-19 positive patients undergoing elec- tive surgical procedures can have disastrous outcomes with po- tentially up to 20% mortality.3-5 However, it is almost certain that treatment delays will increase morbidity among those with severe or debilitating degenerative spine pathology. This trade- off is at the heart of the matter and emphasizes the critical role spine surgeon decision making plays during this global pan- demic. We encourage surgeons to continue to provide direct patient care via telemedicine and outpatient management of painful and debilitating conditions to avoid hospital and clinic visits while limiting patient morbidity. When surgery is required, spine surgeons should take an ac- tive role taking the viral threat seriously and encourage appro- priate perioperative and intraoperative precautions. Special con- sideration should be given to OR setup, negative pressure rooms, limiting OR personnel, preoperative testing, minimizing blood loss, minimally invasive techniques, appropriate PPE use, and intubation and extubation precautions. As we become more aware of the disproportionate morbidity and mortality of COVID-19 among healthcare workers, new challenges will arise. As frontline treating physicians succumb to COVID-19 or are forced to self-quarantine due to exposures, hospitals will face increased needs for physicians. As spine sur- geons, being available and trained for redeployment into medi- cal or COVID wards can help offset the burden of hospitalists, internists and intensivist physicians. Spine surgeons can, in ad- dition to urgent and emergent spine care, potentially aid in doc- umentation, follow-up medical care, screening, and maximiz- ing time for these critical frontline physicians. During these difficult times, it is important that we all take a few minutes for self-care as well. Making time for family, con- necting with colleagues and friends, and getting some form of physical activity can be effective stress mitigation strategies and should not be forgotten while societal limitations are in place. Academic productivity is another potential use of newfound time during the pandemic. As the number of COVID-19 cases plateaus, a slow return to elective spine surgery will be both necessary and feasible. How- ever, as we adapt to a new way of life, we must remain both vig- ilant and flexible– always prioritizing health, safety, and wellbe- ing of patients above all else. REFERENCES 1. Johns Hopkins University & Medicine. Coronavirus Re- source Center [Internet]. Baltimore (MD): Johns Hopkins University & Medicine; c2020 [cited 2020 Mar 26]. Available from: https://coronavirus.jhu.edu/. 2. North American Spine Society (NASS). Burr Ridge (IL): NASS; 2020 Apr 22 [cited 2020 Mar 26]. Available from: https://www.spine.org/Portals/0/assets/downloads/Publica- tions/NASSInsider/NASSGuidanceDocument040320.pdf. 3. Mizumoto K, Kagaya K, Zarebski A, et al. Estimating the as- ymptomatic proportion of coronavirus disease 2019 (COV- ID-19) cases on board the Diamond Princess cruise ship, Yokohama, Japan, 2020. Euro Surveill 2020;25:2000180. https://doi.org/10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2020.25.10.2000180. 4. Nishiura H, Kobayashi T, Miyama T, et al. Estimation of the asymptomatic ratio of novel coronavirus infections (COV- ID-19). Int J Infect Dis 2020;94:154-5. 5. Lei S, Jiang F, Su W, et al. Clinical characteristics and out- comes of patients undergoing surgeries during the incuba- tion period of COVID-19 infection. EClinicalMedicine 2020:100331. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eclinm.2020.100331. [Epub]. COVID-19 and the Role of Spine SurgeonsJain NS, et al. https://doi.org/10.14245/ns.2040202.101 www.e-neurospine.org 333 Title: The Old Guitarist Artist: Pablo Picasso Year: 1903-1904 The Old Guitarist was painted in 1903, just after the suicide death of Picasso's close friend, Casagemas. During this time, the artist was sympathetic to the plight of the downtrodden and painted many canvases depicting the miseries of the poor, the ill, and those cast out of society. He too knew what it was like to be impoverished, having been nearly penniless during all of 1902. This work was created in Madrid, and the distorted style (note that the upper torso of the guitarist seems to be reclining, while the bottom half appears to be sitting cross-legged) is reminiscent of the works of El Greco More information: https://www.pablopicasso.org/old-guitarist.jsp © 2020 - Succession Pablo Picasso - SACK (Korea) 
work_b4nytp5k35gqrjthqmywcrrctm	----	Braque and Kokoschka: Brain Tissue Injury and Preservation of Artistic Skill behavioral sciences Article Braque and Kokoschka: Brain Tissue Injury and Preservation of Artistic Skill D. W. Zaidel Department of Psychology, University of California at Los Angeles, 405 Hilgard Avenue, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA; dahliaz@g.ucla.edu Received: 29 June 2017; Accepted: 17 August 2017; Published: 19 August 2017 Abstract: The neural underpinning of art creation can be gleaned following brain injury in professional artists. Any alteration to their artistic productivity, creativity, skills, talent, and genre can help understand the neural underpinning of art expression. Here, two world-renown and influential artists who sustained brain injury in World War I are the focus, namely the French artist Georges Braque and the Austrian artist Oskar Kokoschka. Braque is particularly associated with Cubism, and Kokoschka with Expressionism. Before enlisting, they were already well-known and highly regarded. Both were wounded in the battlefield where they lost consciousness and treated in European hospitals. Braque’s injury was in the left hemisphere while Kokoschka’s was in the right hemisphere. After the injury, Braque did not paint again for nearly a whole year while Kokoschka commenced his artistic works when still undergoing hospital treatment. Their post-injury art retained the same genre as their pre-injury period, and their artistic skills, talent, creativity, and productivity remained unchanged. The quality of their post-injury artworks remained highly regarded and influential. These neurological cases suggest widely distributed and diffuse neural control by the brain in the creation of art. Keywords: brain and art; neuropsychology and art; brain damage; artists 1. Background The recent decade has seen a remarkable expansion in the understanding of the neural underpinning of the arts. This can largely be attributed to a major conceptual breakthrough in which the aesthetic reaction of viewers (aesthetic experience) to art was determined to be separate from the art creation/production process. The techniques for measuring these two aspects of art apply different scientific strategies. Functional neuroimaging of healthy viewers reacting to artwork provides inroads into the neural underpinning of aesthetic evaluation [1–5]. The general consensus from these studies is that multiple brain regions and pathways are involved in aesthetic evaluation. This suggests that layers of our concepts of art aesthetics need to be peeled in order to understand how each active brain region contributes to the aesthetic experience. In this special issue, “Neuropsychology of Art,” three papers emphasize the viewers’ aesthetic reactions through the examination of neuroimaging empirical data [6], the examination of neuroimaging literature [7], and the examination of the reactions in light of mirror neurons and psychoanalytic considerations [8]. For the creation of the art itself, observations of established artists with acquired brain injury provide the insights necessary to explore the nature of the neural underpinning of the production aspect. The questions pursued concern whether or not single or multiple neural circuitries are involved, the hemispheric specialization role [9], as well as any post-injury alterations in the artist regarding skill, talent, personal oeuvre, and creativity [10–12]. The focus in the present paper is on the creation aspect of art through a discussion of world-renown artists, Braque and Kokoschka, both of whom sustained penetrating head injuries in World War I (WWI). Behav. Sci. 2017, 7, 56; doi:10.3390/bs7030056 www.mdpi.com/journal/behavsci http://www.mdpi.com/journal/behavsci http://www.mdpi.com http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/bs7030056 http://www.mdpi.com/journal/behavsci Behav. Sci. 2017, 7, 56 2 of 7 Inferring cognitive functions of the mind from patients with brain lesions has been a widely accepted method in brain research. The same strategy applies to art. An early assumption, not founded on empirical studies, was that the right hemisphere specializes in producing and aesthetically reacting to art. Unfortunately, the assumption became prevalent, and eventually was challenged [13]. Indeed, close examination of the artworks of artists with brain injury revealed otherwise [10,14–17]. What was unraveled from such artists suggests that unilateral injury in the right hemisphere does not abolish the ability to produce art, something one would expect if the right hemisphere specialized in this function, and that damage in either hemisphere does not lead to deficits in the artistic ability, talent, skill, or creativity of established professional artists [10]. The current emerging view is that artworks tap functions specialized in both hemispheres and involve widely distributed neural pathways that contribute to its production. The effects of brain injury on artists continue to fascinate and provide insights. In the cases described below, the main interests lie in any alteration of their pre-injury genre, their artistic skills, and their creativity. The neurological cases of Braque and Kokoschka have not been discussed in detail previously. They are important because both were highly accomplished and influential artists, both before and after their brain injury. 2. Georges Braque Georges Braque (1882–1963) was an innovative, world-renown, and highly influential French artist linked mainly with the school of Cubism. He was a painter, draughtsman, sculptor, and engraver whose early interest in Cubism reflected the influence of artist Paul Cezanne [18]. “Braque found in Cezanne a fragmented plane, straddling nature and painting that was to become the principles governing his own oeuvre” [18] (p. 25). In his own Cubist art, Braque expressed the idea of object fragmentation combined with emphasis on geometrical forms. Through his personal and professional relationship with Pablo Picasso, for over six years Cubist characteristics were enriched and developed [19]. The volume of Cubist artworks produced by these two artists was prolific, innovative, and influential [20,21]. Then, in 1914, WWI broke out, and in August of that year Braque enlisted in the French army [22]. On 11 May 2015, in one of the battles in France, he sustained a head wound from a piece of shrapnel in a section of the battlefield that lay outside the trench. When he lost consciousness as a result of the shrapnel, he was thought to have died. Only a day later, a search party found and rescued him. The medical treatment in the hospital consisted of drilling a hole into his skull (a procedure known as trepanation), which resulted in Braque experiencing temporary blindness and a two-day coma from which he recovered only around 13 May [22]. His physical recovery lasted nearly a year, and during that time reportedly he did not paint. A formal neurological report of his hospital treatment has not been published, but details of his medical and physical condition are known from descriptions offered by himself, several of his friends, and his wife [19,21,23,24]. Importantly, further critical clues can be deduced from a single photograph: At one point in 1915, when Braque was convalescing in Sorgues, a photograph of a seated Braque was taken at Henri Lauren’s studio in the same town [21]. We can see a rather thick absorbent gauze pad over a circumscribed area in the left side of his head, suggesting that it covered the wound. The gauze was held in place by a large bandage wrapped around his head. Assuming that the published photograph was not mirror-reversed, the wound was in the left side of the head. The gauzed region appears to correspond roughly to the left parietal lobe and possibly the superior temporal lobe. It does not appear to cover the left temple behind which Broca’s area lies, nor is it positioned so far back in the head to include the occipital lobe. Indeed, there has not been any mention by his friends and associates of aphasia or any other language disturbances, and similarly no reports of right hand or leg paralysis. Those are symptoms we would expect from damage to the left hemisphere. There has also been no mention of right spatial hemi-neglect, prosopagnosia, spatial agnosia, or left hand and leg paralysis, all symptoms we would expect if the right hemisphere were damaged. Whatever the localization of the damage in the left hemisphere, Braque did not paint for nearly a year afterwards. Behav. Sci. 2017, 7, 56 3 of 7 Some comments on the medical practice of trepanation and head wounds in WWI are worthwhile. The practice then was applied to alleviate pressure caused by blood clots, to remove shell fragments, bullets, hair, abscesses, or to drain built-up liquid forming under the skull bone [25]. After burring, sometimes surgeons used their own fingers to remove foreign bodies, but if not done gently enough, this could cause injury to the brain tissue. Magnets were also used to remove metallic pieces. It is not known for certain how many holes were actually burred in his skull, but since with trepanation the goal was not to injure cerebral tissue, we should assume that no substantial tissue damage was inflicted in Braque’s case. When he did resume painting, which was around the summer of 1917 [26], he picked up artistically where he left off at the start of the war, namely, his characteristic oeuvre of Cubism, and more particularly what is known as synthetic Cubism [18,22]. Not only were the geometric forms produced again, straight lines made with a ruler, objects overlapping each other, both animate and inanimate, but the pre-war technique of papier collé was applied as well [19]. “For although the picture space [in Cubism] had become independent of external reality, the subject matter had lost none of its rights. Quite the opposite—it had a greater function than ever, it was simply that the subject matter no longer had any meaning outside the picture. That was the fundamental principle that governed Braque’s work from 1914 until the end. The interruption caused by the First World War did not affect his development in any way, as has often been said” [18] (p. 124). Significantly for the present discussion, after the war he did not produce an entirely new artistic genre, nor did he return to his pre-Cubist genres (i.e., Fauvism, Neo-Impressionism). Indeed, he proceeded to develop and expand his artistic expression within the Cubist tradition for many years. One can reasonably argue that his brain injury did not produce extensive tissue damage to have inflicted major deficits on his artistic cognition. With the absence of detailed medical reports of his case, the extent of the damage cannot be ascertained with certainty. However, from available non-medical behavioral descriptions made around the time of his injury, it is clear that he was unable to create art. This suggests that neural damage was present. Upon neural recovery, he returned to his art seemingly unscathed. 3. Oskar Kokoschka Oskar Kokoschka (1886–1980) was a well-known Austrian artist who painted in the Expressionist tradition. He was also a poet and a playwright. In WWI, he fought on the side of Austria and suffered a head wound. On 29 August 1915, a bullet penetrated his skull during a Russian ambush on his troops in Sikiryczy, Ukraine. This wound, together with a bayonet lance into his lung, rendered him unconscious long enough to have been thought dead by others on his side of the battle. The bullet was not lodged in his brain, but had exited. In his autobiography [27], he describes the events that transpired during that battle: his left hand became paralyzed, presumably as a result of the head wound to the right hemisphere (he does not actually report the head side). Following his rescue, he reported that he had difficulties in walking and seeing. Both his balance and vision were affected by the head wound, and for the rest of his life he suffered from bouts of vertigo. After a few months in the hospital, and despite all of his symptoms, he was considered fit to return to the battlefield, this time on Hungarian territory fighting against Italian troops. There, shells exploding near his position rendered him shell-shocked. Hungarian orderlies transported him to a hospital in Vienna where lesions in his cerebellum were inferred from X-rays. Normal gait balance is maintained by the cerebellum. To restore his balance, he underwent countless sessions of therapy consisting of induced painful spasms, which he found hard to endure to such an extent that thoughts of suicide formed in his mind [27]. In the fall of 1917, he was again subjected to painful experiments, this time in the Swedish laboratory of Nobel Prize winner Robert Barany. He reports that he stayed in Sweden for that purpose for a period of six to eight weeks, and during that time he continued to paint new works, still in the style of Expressionism. Behav. Sci. 2017, 7, 56 4 of 7 To the best of my knowledge, the exact point of bullet penetration and its path of destruction in his brain have not been reported. The left hand paralysis he experienced on the battlefield was reversible. No mention of neuropsychological right hemisphere symptoms appears in the writings about him by others or in his own observations of himself. Whatever the nature of brain tissue damage caused by the bullet, it did not hamper his artistic talent and skills. Unlike Braque, who did not paint for a whole year following his injury, Kokoschka never ceased to paint and write, even while receiving medical treatments and convalescing from his wound. In hospitals in Vienna and Dresden he wrote plays and painted paintings, and similarly while in the hospital in Sweden he continued to paint. Important to the main argument here is that, despite damage to brain tissue, he continued with the same genre he had practiced prior to the war. He did not create new genres or new styles, and his motivation to create and innovate did not wane. 4. Other Established Artists As with Braque and Kokoschka, numerous other professional prolific artists with damage to brain tissue continued to create art without loss of talent or skill [11]. One of these was a French artist P.A. from Marseilles. His case was described by Vigouroux et al. [28]. At the age of 66 years, he had a right hemisphere stroke that resulted in paralysis in the left side of his body as well as in a left hemi-neglect of space. The effects of the neglect were reflected in not painting in the spaces positioned to the left side of the canvas. Neurological patients with right hemisphere damage, especially if the parietal lobe is involved, commonly suffer from this condition; they attend only to the right half of their space, including their imaginary space formed in their mind’s eye [29,30]. There are classic examples of this phenomenon: Patients draw only the right half of a clock, flower, house, face, and other objects. They also fail to orient in the direction of a speaker who stands in their left side. In most such cases, the hemi-neglect is relatively short-lived, and this seems to have been the case with P.A. Prior to the cerebral stroke, P.A. created paintings and drawings depicting scenery, everyday interactions of people, as well as nude women; some were painted with bright colors while some were in pale shades or as line drawings. In his post-injury artistic life, there was no alteration in these choices nor in his genre [28]. This case, too, shows that artistic talent and skill are not mediated by neural pathways specialized unilaterally in one hemisphere and that, instead, they are diffusely controlled by neural pathways in the brain. 5. General Discussion Despite serious brain injury, the established and highly regarded visual artists described here resumed making their art without noticeable alterations in their personal oeuvre, talent, skill, or creativity—all elements that define the artistic endeavor. The genre represents the principle artistic choice of expression through the themes, concepts, ideas, design structure, organization, appearance, colors, and many more elements. The genre of choice communicates what is in the mind of the artist. At the cultural historical times of their work, their artworks continued to be highly regarded and influential. Braque, in particular, was a major figure in the art world at that time and his stature continued unabated. Previously, Boller reported preserved artistic abilities following a stroke in a French artist [15] and Vigouroux [28], reporting on artist P.A., remarked that his artistic interests and skills were not altered post-injury. Similarly, a review of many other post-injury artists revealed lack of alterations whether in the visual, musical, or literary arts, and regardless of etiology [10]. Importantly, the hemispheric laterality of the damage has not been found to cause detrimental effects on artistic abilities [11,13,31]. Ultimately, subjecting paintings and other visual artworks of artists with brain injury to microscopic computer digital analysis has the potential for revealing details in the artists’ pre- compared to post-injury methods. This has not yet been applied in the artists under discussion here. Future studies of digital analyses (e.g., [32,33]), might unravel additional interesting information. Behav. Sci. 2017, 7, 56 5 of 7 Motoric hand use problems may arise as a result of the hemispheric side of the damage. With left hemisphere damage leading to right hand paralysis, right-handed artists switch to the use of the non-dominant hand (e.g., [31,34,35]). In such cases, the artistic cognition per se is not altered; the left hand lacks the same steady control and muscle strength exhibited pre-damage by the right hand, and the consequences of the switch to the non-dominant hand is reflected in brush pressure, stroke thickness, line curvature, or clay consistency (by sculptors), as well as in other features. Accommodation to the control of the hand itself is incorporated into the final appearance of the artwork. In such cases, the effect on the art, if any, is not central to the principle artistic cognition, which drives the artwork; peripheral motoric issues can be observed in manual activities in non-artists with similar brain injury as well. In any case, there was no switch of handedness as a result of the brain injury with Braque, Kokoschka, or P.A. Similarly, brain injury can lead to specific perceptual deficits that are not unique to art or to artists. An example of this is hemi-neglect for the left half of space following right hemisphere injury. Visual artists with this type of injury typically do not paint in the left half of the canvas [11,14,16,31]. However, these cannot be considered to be art-related effects since the neglect symptoms are present in non-artists as well, and in many such cases the phenomenon is not permanent. Consequently, eventually, with the passage of post-injury time, artists fill in the left half of their canvas. Furthermore, artists’ production abilities appear unaffected by this type of brain injury. There is no loss of artistic talent and expressive abilities. This outcome suggests that the artistic cognitive endeavor, which includes the units listed above, can be controlled by undamaged regions and pathways and are likely to be neurally distributed in the brain. In the great majority of cases, artists go on producing their works despite their brain injury [10]. What is it about the neural underpinning of the creation aspect of art that spares it from serious brain injury, unlike the brain localized effects on language, for example? A critical feature of the human brain is that it supports cognitive symbolic and abstract thinking as well as referential communicative abilities more than any other animal [36–38]. This is the underpinning of humans’ sophisticated language. Vocabulary and syntax together allow humans to make an infinite number of combinations that together convey a wide range of meaningful utterances. Furthermore, abstract and symbolic thinking is also the bases for art creation and appreciation. This can explain partly why only humans make art; it does not fully explain why brain injury largely spares the production of it. The answer may lie in what role art has come to play in human society. We need to take a broader perspective through the exploration of the evolutionary pressures on the human brain. The evolutionary trajectory that led to the eventual emergence of Homo sapiens [39,40] involved overcoming survival hurdles in which social groups with emphasis on unity-for-survival played a major role [41,42]. Of all the hominins, Homo sapiens seem to be the only ones to make art [39]. For socially-oriented early human groups language became a highly efficient method of communication, and its evolution has deep roots going back to non-human primates tens of millions of years. Art, too, is a communicative system, but its roots cannot simply be traced to other primates; they do not produce art. Art supplements language by facilitating the sharing of emotions, experiences, ideas, thoughts, and symbols of social identity, and for these probable reasons it promoted bonding among the early group’s members in efforts to survive harsh environmental conditions with limited food sources. These could be some of the underlying reasons for how art became a form of communication that supplements language. Unlike language, where neural control in the brain is highly localized (mainly in the left hemisphere), the advantage of art’s communicative format is that humans have increased their ability to express their inner and external life’s experiences through widely distributed systems in the brain. It explains in part why brain injury of the kind described here does not lead to significant alterations in art expression. Acknowledgments: I thank the anonymous reviewers for their thoughtful input and useful comments on the earlier version of the manuscript. Behav. 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work_bdgouxk4a5fqve3cmyifkucwra	----	Artificial Intelligence, Deepfakes and a Future of Ectypes EDITOR LETTER Artificial Intelligence, Deepfakes and a Future of Ectypes Luciano Floridi1,2 Published online: 1 August 2018 # Springer Nature B.V. 2018 The art world is full of reproductions. Some are plain replicas, for example the Mona Lisa. Others are fakes or forgeries, like the BVermeers^ painted by Han van Meegeren that sold for $60 million (Kreuger and van Meegeren 2010). The distinction between a replica and a fake is based on the concept of authenticity. Is this artefact what it claims to be?1 The answer seems simple but, in reality, things are complicated. Today, the paintings of the forger John Myatt are so famous that they are valued at up to $40,000 each, as Bgenuine fakes^ (Furlong 1986). They are not what they say they are, but they are authentically painted by him and not by another forger. And they are beautiful. A bit as if one were to utter a beautiful lie, not any ordinary lie. And an artist like Magritte seems to have painted not only false Picassos and Renoirs during the Nazi occupation of Belgium (Mariën 1983), but also faked his own work, so to speak, in the famous case of the two copies of the painting BThe Flavour of Tears^ (1948), both by Magritte, but one of which he passed off as false—partly as a surrealist act and partly to make money. In this mess, and as if things were not confusing enough, digital technologies further reshuffle what is possible and our understanding of it. Thanks to digital technologies, today it is much easier to establish the authenticity of a work. There are databases where you can check authors’ signatures, and millions of images that can be viewed with a few clicks. Selling a fake is more difficult. Figure 1 shows a reproduction of the BLodge on Lake Como^ by Carl Frederik Peder Aagaard (1833–1895), a Danish landscape painter and decorative artist. It was on sale in 2016 on eBay. The painting is very popular on the web, and there are plenty of good replicas. Nothing wrong with them. However, if you check Fig. 1 carefully, you will notice that this is sold as an unsigned Boriginal^, which is misleading to say the least. Both the quality of the painting and the price are suspicious, and a Google image search quickly Philos. Technol. (2018) 31:317–321 https://doi.org/10.1007/s13347-018-0325-3 1I have discussed the nature of questions and epistemic relevance in (Floridi 2008). * Luciano Floridi luciano.floridi@oii.ox.ac.uk 1 Oxford Internet Institute, University of Oxford, 1 St Giles, Oxford OX1 3JS, UK 2 The Alan Turing Institute, 96 Euston Road, London NW1 2DB, UK http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1007/s13347-018-0325-3&domain=pdf mailto:luciano.floridi@oii.ox.ac.uk reveals that this is a mere replica. At the time of writing, the painting was no longer available and the seller did not seem to be active on eBay anymore. Of course, fakes are not always reproductions; they can also be Bnew works^ by a famous artist, like Pollock or Van Gogh. In this case, sophisticated scientific techniques to establish authenticity include tests run using AI. A research paper, published last November by Ahmed Elgammal, Yan Kang and Milko Den Leeuw (Elgammal et al. 2017) proposed Ba computational approach for analysis of strokes in line drawings by artists^, based on neural networks. The training collection consisted of a dataset of 300 digitised drawings with over 80,000 strokes, by Pablo Picasso, Henry Matisse and Egon Schiele, and a few works by other artists. By segmenting individual strokes, the system learned to quantify the characteristics of individual strokes in drawings, thus identifying the unique properties for each artist. The software managed to classify Bindividual strokes with accuracy 70%-90%, and aggregate over drawings with accu- racy above 80%, while being robust to be deceived by fakes (with accuracy 100% for detecting fakes in most settings)^. It turns out that the way in which individuals draw lines is as unique as their fingerprints or their gait, and AI can help one to discover it, as if it were a microscope. But AI is not just for identifying fakes. Let us stay in the Netherlands, a very interesting project2 by Microsoft, in collaboration with the Rembrandt House Museum, has led to the creation of a portrait of a gentleman, which both is and is not a Rembrandt (see Fig. 2). Figure 1 A fake, the original is BLodge on Lake Como^ by Carl Frederik Peder Aagaard (1833–1895) 2 See https://news.microsoft.com/europe/features/next-rembrandt/ 318 L. Floridi https://news.microsoft.com/europe/features/next-rembrandt/ Analysing the known works of Rembrandt, an algorithm identified the most com- mon subject (a portrait of a Caucasian man, 30–40 years old), the most common traits (facial hair, facing to the right, wearing a hat, a collar and dark clothing, etc.), the most suitable style to reproduce these characterising properties, the brushstrokes, in short, all the information needed to produce a new painting by Rembrandt. Having created it, it was reproduced using a 3D printer, to ensure that the depth and layering of the colour would be as close as possible to Rembrandt’s style and way of painting. The result is a masterpiece. A Rembrandt that Rembrandt never painted, but which challenges our concepts of Bauthenticity^ and Boriginality ,̂ given the painting’s strong link with Rembrandt himself. I do not know the value of the painting. My bet is that it would be quite expensive if it were auctioned as reliably authenticated as that unique Microsoft’s Rembrandt. We do not have a word to define an artefact such as Microsoft’s Rembrandt. So let me suggest ectype. The word comes from Greek and it has a subtle meaning that is quite useful here: an ectype is a copy, yet not any copy, but rather a copy that has a special relation with its source (the origin of its creation), the archetype. In particular, an ectype is the impression left by a seal. It is not the real thing, but it is clearly linked in a significant, authentic way with the real thing itself. Locke used Bectypes^ to refer to ideas or impressions that correspond, although somewhat inadequately, to some exter- nal realities (the archetypes) to which they refer (Locke 2008). Digital technologies are able to separate the archetypal source—what was in the mind of the artist, for example—from the process (style, method, procedure) that leads from the source to the artefact (Floridi 2017). Once this link is severed, one can have ectypes that are Bauthentic^ in style and content, but not Boriginal^, in terms of archetypal source, like Microsoft’s Rembrandt. But one can also have ectypes that are Boriginal^ in terms of archetypal source (they do come from where they purport to come) yet not Bauthentic^ in terms of production, performance, or method (they are not the ones used by the source to deliver the artefact). In other words, ectypes can be authentic but unoriginal artefacts, like Microsoft’s Rembrandt, or inauthentic but original artefacts. A great example of an inauthentic original ectype was provided in March by an audio recording of John F. Kennedy’s last speech. Despite being an ordinary speech from a decades-old campaign trail, it suddenly made headline news. Because it was the Dallas Trade Mart Fig. 2 The Rembrandt that is not a Rembrandt. Microsoft Project with the Rembrandt House Museum Artificial Intelligence, Deepfakes and a Future of Ectypes 319 speech of 22 November 1963, the text that JFK would have read, had he not been assassinated mere moments before, on his way to deliver it. The text is original: it comes from the source. But the voice that recites is inauthentic, because it was synthesised by software that analysed 831 recordings of Kennedy’s speeches and interviews, in order to Blearn^ how to speak like him. The software finally gave voice to JFK’s last speech 55 years late. So here is a Kennedy who is and is not a Kennedy, similar and yet different from the Rembrandt that is and is not a Rembrandt. They are both ectypes (see Table 1). We saw that the production of ectypes does not stop at the work of art, but involves any artefact, from texts to photos, from audio recordings to videos. It is well known that the history of manuscripts, printing, photography, cinema and television is paved with fakes. Expect more ectypes too. In particular, artists love to break boundaries and it is easy to imagine that, like Magritte faking his own painting, they will start producing their own ectypes. Imagine a painter using the software developed by Microsoft to produce her own new works. It would still be an ectype, and this would explain why (with qualifications) the process would capture some authenticity. The reproduction of the work of art by mechanical means will have acquired a new meaning (Benjamin 2008). With ectypes, we usually know where things stand. But someone could cheat. Last May, Google presented Google Duplex, a version of its AI assistant that simulates being human to help users with simple interactive tasks, like booking a restaurant table. The company was quick to state that it will not intentionally mislead anyone, and that it will make sure always to clarify when a user is interacting with an artificial agent. But someone else could use these technologies for criminal or evil purposes. This is what happens with Deepfake, a set of techniques used to synthesise new visual products, for example by replacing faces in the originals. The typical cases involve porn movies in which the faces of famous actresses like Gal Gadot or Scarlett Johansson (this is regularly about women’s faces) are used to replace the original faces. In this case too, large databases are needed to instruct the software (which is available for free, and there is also an app), so if you are not a public figure the risks are lower. Deepfake also concerns politicians, like President Obama, for example. What is the future ahead of us? Digital technologies seem to undermine our confidence in the original, genuine, authentic nature of what we see and hear. But what the digital breaks it can also repair, not unlike the endless struggle between software virus and antivirus. In our case, in addition to educating people, acquiring new sensitivities and having the right legal framework, there are at least a couple of interesting digital strategies. For artefacts that are already available, it is easy to imagine Table 1 Archetype, fake and ectypes Original source Authentic production Leonardo’s Mona Lisa Yes Yes Han van Meegeren’s forged Vermeers No No Microsoft’s Rembrandt No (Qualified) Yes JFK’s Trade Mart speech Yes No 320 L. Floridi AI systems that give us a hand. It would be interesting to analyse Microsoft’s Rembrandt and Kennedy’s speech with an artificial system to see whether it discovered them to be ectypes. Research is already available on methods to expose Deepfake videos generated with neural networks (Li et al. 2018). In short, let us remember the software developed to analyse drawings: there are plenty of sophisticated tools for detection of image forgery. And more are likely to be developed as the demand for them increases. Next, as regards new artefacts, because originality and authenticity are also a matter of provable historical continuity from the source to the product through the process of production, the much-vaunted blockchain, or a similar solution, could make a big difference. Blockchain is like a register that stores transactions in an accruable, safe, transparent and traceable way. As a secure and distributed register of transactions, blockchain is being explored as a means of reliably certifying the origins and history of particular products: whether in terms of securing food supply chains, or in recording the many linked acts of creation and ownership that define the provenance of an artwork. In the future, we may adopt the same solution wherever there is a need to ensure (or establish) the originality and authenticity of some artefact, be it a written document, a photo, a video or a painting. And of course, a future artist may want to ensure, through a blockchain, that her work of art as an ectype is really what it says it is. At that point we shall have travelled full circle, for we shall have Bgenuine ectypes^, like the Microsoft’s Rembrandt, or Kennedy’s speech. References Benjamin, W. (2008). The work of art in the age of mechanical reproduction. London: Penguin. Elgammal, A., Kang, Y., & Den Leeuw, M. (2017). Picasso, matisse, or a fake? Automated analysis of drawings at the stroke level for attribution and authentication. arXiv preprint arXiv:1711.03536. Floridi, L. (2008). Understanding epistemic relevance. Erkenntnis, 69(1), 69–92. Floridi, L. (2017). Digital’s cleaving power and its consequences. Philosophy & Technology, 30(2), 123–129. Furlong, M. (1986). Genuine fake : a biography of Alan Watts. Portsmouth: Heinemann. Kreuger, F. H., & van Meegeren, H. (2010). Han van Meegeren revisited : his art & list of works. Delft: F.H. Kreuger. Li, Y, Chang, M.-C., Farid, H., & Lyu, S. (2018). In Ictu Oculi: exposing AI generated fake face videos by detecting eye blinking. arXiv preprint arXiv:1806.02877. Locke, J. (2008). An essay concerning human understanding. New York Oxford: Oxford University Press. Mariën, M. (1983). Le radeau de la mémoire : souvenirs déterminés. Paris: Pré-aux-Clercs. Artificial Intelligence, Deepfakes and a Future of Ectypes 321 Artificial Intelligence, Deepfakes and a Future of Ectypes References 
work_bewbmanmg5exlod3rtc3ecmohq	----	energies Article Stochastic Evaluation of Landscapes Transformed by Renewable Energy Installations and Civil Works G.-Fivos Sargentis * , Panayiotis Dimitriadis , Romanos Ioannidis, Theano Iliopoulou and Demetris Koutsoyiannis School of Civil Engineering, Laboratory of Hydrology and Water Resources Development, National Technical University of Athens, Heroon Polytechneiou 9, Zographou 157 80, Greece * Correspondence: fivos@itia.ntua.gr Received: 11 June 2019; Accepted: 14 July 2019; Published: 22 July 2019 ���������� ������� Abstract: Renewable energy (RE) installations and civil works are beneficial in terms of sustainability, but a considerable amount of space in the landscape is required in order to harness this energy. In contemporary environmental theory the landscape is considered an environmental parameter and the transformation of the landscape by RE works has received increasing attention by the scientific community and affected societies. This research develops a novel computational stochastic tool the 2D Climacogram (2D-C) that allows the analysis and comparison of images of landscapes, both original and transformed by RE works. This is achieved by a variability characterization of the grayscale intensity of 2D images. A benchmark analysis is performed for art paintings in order to evaluate the properties of the 2D-C for image analysis, and the change in variability among images. Extensive applications are performed for landscapes transformed by RE works. Results show that the 2D-C is able to quantify the changes in variability of the image features, which may prove useful in the landscape impact assessment of large-scale engineering works. Keywords: renewable energy; stochastic analysis of images; landscapes transformation; landscape visual impact assessment; optimizing landscape architecture 1. Introduction Globally, the scale of the transformation caused to landscapes from renewable energy (RE) developments is larger than ever. Indicatively, in countries with high wind energy utilization rates, the percentage of land area in which wind turbines are clearly visible is 18% in Spain [1], 21% the Netherlands [2], and 46% in Scotland [3]. Regarding solar parks, the percentage is 4.8%, in the only national-scale study, to date, with data from Spain. These studies demonstrate the scale of the visual intrusion of wind and solar energy into landscapes and justify why strong opposition on visual-impact grounds has emerged against RE projects [4,5]. This friction, between RE and landscape has consistently been the cause of delays in the development of RE projects and has raised the issue of landscape management in Europe [6] and globally. It is important to note that 40% of the citizens in Greece think that RE infrastructure causes significant visual disturbance in the landscape [7] and the prospect of installing RE infrastructures in Greece has led to the formation of many opposing activist groups, e.g., in south Aegean islands [8], Crete [9], Pindos [10], Pilio [11], and Samothraki [12]. Some basic contributors to the generation of significant visual impact from RE projects are the large requirements of land use, more evident in the case of solar energy [13,14], as well as the great dispersion of facilities and equipment that is characteristic of wind energy [15]. However, these characteristics are also present, to an extent, in hydroelectric projects, which in contrast to wind and solar developments have not been opposed significantly from a landscape-impact perspective, even though hydroelectricity is the type of RE with the highest installed capacity globally [16]. One important aesthetic difference Energies 2019, 12, 2817; doi:10.3390/en12142817 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies http://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies http://www.mdpi.com https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0555-4021 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4956-8820 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7053-4348 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6226-0241 http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en12142817 http://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/12/14/2817?type=check_update&version=2 Energies 2019, 12, 2817 2 of 13 between solar and wind developments on the one hand and hydroelectric developments on the other hand, is that hydroelectricity produces a new landscape which is to a great degree seemingly natural. The hydroelectric landscape mainly consists of an artificial lake—a reservoir, in contrast to wind and solar developments, in which the new landscapes developed, are dominated, visually, by human-made industrial machines. Thus, wind and solar energy projects have been significantly critiqued on industrializing landscapes. To mitigate this industrial intrusion and facilitate the expansion of RE, several different objective methods have been developed to quantify and evaluate visual impact from RE, ranging from photomontage and digital representation to GIS viewshed analyses [17]. These methods can be divided into two broad categories, those focusing mainly on the quantitative aspect of landscape impact and those that focus on qualitative. Qualitative methods commonly focus on the identification and explanation of the aesthetic elements of renewable energy landscapes. They include several different approaches, such as the evaluation of the psychometric effect of transformations of landscapes [18], visualization techniques [19], and multicriteria analysis that include both qualitative and quantitative analysis [20,21]. Quantitative methods are usually based in visibility analyses using GIS, to calculate the extents of the area affected [22,23]. In these methods the basic parameters that are considered determinant of this impact are: viewing distance, atmospheric clarity, and color contrast with background [24,25]. They are used mostly to optimize the sitting of a new RE project or to evaluate its landscape impact in the form of an environmental impact analysis. Other methods to evaluate the landscape and visual impact assessment [26–31] rely on an appreciation of the existing landscape, a holistic understanding of the developed proposals considering the original landscape character, the magnitude of change, the sensitivity to change and the potential to mitigate impacts. The proposed method of image analysis, aims to analyze the landscape transformation caused by the installation of RE infrastructures and other civil works in the natural landscape, through stochastic analysis. Based on this methodology, we examine the impact of RE works in a given landscape by visualizing and analyzing edited versions of original landscapes. This transformation of images is not uncommon as it is typical to create 3D or 2D images in architecture and landscape design of future works prior to construction in order to evaluate their landscape integration. Here however, we provide an additional tool that may aid in the characterization of the degree of the integration. 2. Methodology 2.1. Stochastic Analysis in 2d Image processing typically involves filtering or enhancing an image using various types of functions in addition to other techniques to extract information from the images [32]. Image segmentation is one of the basic problems in image analysis. The importance and utility of image segmentation has resulted in extensive research and numerous proposed approaches based on intensity, color, texture, etc., which are both automatic and interactive [33]. A variety of techniques have been proposed for the quantitative evaluation of segmentation methods [34–41]. This analysis for image processing is based on stochastic tool based in climacogram (variability vs. scale). Stochastic calculus helps in developing a unified perception of natural phenomena and expel dichotomies like random vs. deterministic. It seems that rather both randomness and predictability coexist and are intrinsic to natural systems which can be deterministic and random at the same time, depending on the prediction horizon and the time scale [42,43]. A variety of processes exhibit Long-Term Persistence (LTP) behaviour [43] such as temperature, humidity, surface wind, precipitation, atmospheric pressure, river discharges etc. [44]. Particularly, all these processes are characterized by high unpredictability due to the clustering of events. The behavior of some processes to exhibit high unpredictability due to the clustering of events was first identified in Energies 2019, 12, 2817 3 of 13 nature by H.E. Hurst in 1951 while working at the River Nile, although its mathematical description is attributed to A. N. Kolmogorov who developed it while studying turbulence in 1940. Koutsoyiannis [42] named this behavior as Hurst-Kolmogorov dynamics (HK), to give credit to both contributing scientists. The proposed methodology for image processing, the 2D-Climacogram (2D-C), has been developed within the context of LTP and has been successfully applied to images for the analysis of geophysical properties of rocks and geological formations [45] and Earth topography [46] but it is the first time that this methodology has been employed to analyze the transformation of the landscape, whether this transformation significantly alters the natural variability. For this purpose, each image is digitized in 2d based on grayscale color intensity and the climacogram is calculated based on the geometric scales of adjacent pixels. Assuming that our sample is an area n∆ × n∆, where n is the number of intervals (e.g., pixels) along each spatial direction and ∆ is the discretization unit (determined by the image resolution, e.g., pixel length), the empirical classical estimator of the climacogram for a 2d process can be expressed as: γ̂(κ) = 1 n2/κ2 − 1 n/κ∑ i=1 n/κ∑ j=1 ( x(κ)i, j − x )2 (1) where the “ˆ” over γ denotes estimate, κ is the the dimensionless spatial scale, x(κ)i, j = 1 κ2 ∑κj ψ = κ(j−1)+1 ∑κi ξ = κ(i−1) + 1 xξ,ψ is the sample average of the space-averaged process at scale κ, and x = ∑n i, j=1 xi, j/n 2 is the sample average. Note that the maximum available scale for this estimator is n/2. The LTP or HK behaviour can be summarized by the Hurst parameter as follows. The isotropic HK process with an arbitrary marginal distribution (e.g., for the Gaussian one, this results to the well-known fractional-Gaussian-noise, Mandelbrot and van Ness, [47]), i.e., the power-law decay of variance as a function of scale, is defined for a 1d or 2d process as: γ(k) = λ (k/∆)2d(1−H) (2) where λ is the variance at scale k = κ∆, d is the dimension of the process/field (i.e., for a 1d process d = 1, for a 2d field d = 2, etc.), and H is the Hurst parameter (0 < H < 1). For 0 < H < 0.5 the HK process exhibits an anti-persistent behaviour, H = 0.5 corresponds to the white noise process, and for 0.5 < H < 1 the process exhibits LTP. The algorithm developed by Dimitriadis [45] processes in MATLAB rectangular images. In particular, for the current analysis, the images are cropped in 400 × 400 pixels, 14.11 × 14.11 cm, in 72 dpi. 2.2. Illustration of Stochastic Analysis in 2d The pixels analyzed are actually represented by numbers based on their grayscale color intensity. Figure 1 present the steps of analysis, Figure 1a shows an example of pixels in 2d picture, Figure 1b shows grouped pixels at scale k = 2 and Figure 1c shows grouped pixels at scale k = 5 used to calculate the climacogram. An example of climacograms generated by data sets with different statistical characteristics is presented in Figure 2a,c. Typical examples of the results related to data are presented in Figure 2b,d. Figure 2a,c show a random time series in red and time series partly shifted in blue showing clustering behavior which mimic LTP. The presence of clustering in the blue series is demonstrated by the climacogram behavior which shows a marked difference for the random series (in red). Specifically the variance of the standardized series is notably higher than that of the random series at all scales, indicating a greater degree of variability of the process (Figure 2b,d in blue). Likewise between the two Energies 2019, 12, 2817 4 of 13 shifted series (Figure 2a,c in blue) the one with the more pronounced clustering behavior (Figure 2a, in blue) is also characterized by a greater degree of variability (Figure 2b in blue).Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 14 (a) (b) (c) Figure 1. Steps of image analysis. (a) Example of pixels in 2d picture; (b) grouped pixels at scale k = 2; (c) grouped pixels at scale k = 5 used to calculate the climacogram. (a) (b) (c) (d) Figure 2. (a,c) Examples of data series with different statistical characteristics in one dimension; Colum (b,d) Standardize climacograms of data series of (a,c). 3. Benchmark Application in the Analysis of Art Paintings The following evaluation of art paintings is intended as a benchmark for the study of the variability behavior of landscape images. In order to assess the algorithm’s performance, we use as a basis the results from analysis of well-known art paintings arising from different artistic movements, whose characteristics are well understood [48]. This analysis examines six important painters based in chronological order: Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci (1452–1519) Figure 3 and Figure S3, Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio (1571–1610) Figure S4, Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn (1606– Figure 1. Steps of image analysis. (a) Example of pixels in 2d picture; (b) grouped pixels at scale k = 2; (c) grouped pixels at scale k = 5 used to calculate the climacogram. Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 14 (a) (b) (c) Figure 1. Steps of image analysis. (a) Example of pixels in 2d picture; (b) grouped pixels at scale k = 2; (c) grouped pixels at scale k = 5 used to calculate the climacogram. (a) (b) (c) (d) Figure 2. (a,c) Examples of data series with different statistical characteristics in one dimension; Colum (b,d) Standardize climacograms of data series of (a,c). 3. Benchmark Application in the Analysis of Art Paintings The following evaluation of art paintings is intended as a benchmark for the study of the variability behavior of landscape images. In order to assess the algorithm’s performance, we use as a basis the results from analysis of well-known art paintings arising from different artistic movements, whose characteristics are well understood [48]. This analysis examines six important painters based in chronological order: Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci (1452–1519) Figure 3 and Figure S3, Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio (1571–1610) Figure S4, Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn (1606– Figure 2. (a,c) Examples of data series with different statistical characteristics in one dimension; Colum (b,d) Standardize climacograms of data series of (a,c). 3. Benchmark Application in the Analysis of Art Paintings The following evaluation of art paintings is intended as a benchmark for the study of the variability behavior of landscape images. In order to assess the algorithm’s performance, we use as a basis the results from analysis of well-known art paintings arising from different artistic movements, Energies 2019, 12, 2817 5 of 13 whose characteristics are well understood [48]. This analysis examines six important painters based in chronological order: Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci (1452–1519) Figure 3 and Figure S3, Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio (1571–1610) Figure S4, Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn (1606–1669) Figure S5, Vincent van Gogh (1853–1890) Figure S6, Pablo Picasso (1881–1973) Figure 4 and Figure S7, Wassily Kandinsky (1866–1944) Figure S8. Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 14 1669) Figure S5, Vincent van Gogh (1853–1890) Figure S6, Pablo Picasso (1881–1973) Figure 4 and (a) (b) Figure 3. (a) Paintings of Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519); (b) Standardized climacograms of the art paintings of Leonardo da Vinci. (a) (b) Figure 4. (a) Paintings of Pablo Picasso (1881–1973); (b) Standardized climacograms of the art paintings of Picasso. Averages of the climacograms of the examined artworks of the painters are presented in Figure 5. It appears that the works by Leonardo da Vinci and Kandinski, even if they have totally different content, exhibit stochastic similarity (Figures S3 and S8). Instead, Picasso’s artworks (in stochastic view) display a wide range of fluctuations (Figure 4). Patterns can be observed in terms of the dependence structure among the different artistic movements as well, with Renaissance and Baroque painters having a strong persistence structure (average H ≈ 0.89), and modern works by Van Gong, 0.1 1 1 10 100 γ( k) k White noise 0.1 1 1 10 100 γ( k) k White noise Figure 3. (a) Paintings of Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519); (b) Standardized climacograms of the art paintings of Leonardo da Vinci. Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 14 1669) Figure S5, Vincent van Gogh (1853–1890) Figure S6, Pablo Picasso (1881–1973) Figure 4 and Figure S7, Wassily Kandinsky (1866–1944) Figure S8. (a) (b) Figure 3. (a) Paintings of Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519); (b) Standardized climacograms of the art paintings of Leonardo da Vinci. (a) (b) Figure 4. (a) Paintings of Pablo Picasso (1881–1973); (b) Standardized climacograms of the art paintings of Picasso. Averages of the climacograms of the examined artworks of the painters are presented in Figure 5. It appears that the works by Leonardo da Vinci and Kandinski, even if they have totally different content, exhibit stochastic similarity (Figures S3 and S8). Instead, Picasso’s artworks (in stochastic view) display a wide range of fluctuations (Figure 4). Patterns can be observed in terms of the dependence structure among the different artistic movements as well, with Renaissance and Baroque painters having a strong persistence structure (average H ≈ 0.89), and modern works by Van Gong, 0.1 1 1 10 100 γ( k) k White noise 0.1 1 1 10 100 γ( k) k White noise Figure 4. (a) Paintings of Pablo Picasso (1881–1973); (b) Standardized climacograms of the art paintings of Picasso. Averages of the climacograms of the examined artworks of the painters are presented in Figure 5. It appears that the works by Leonardo da Vinci and Kandinski, even if they have totally different Energies 2019, 12, 2817 6 of 13 content, exhibit stochastic similarity (Figures S3 and S8). Instead, Picasso’s artworks (in stochastic view) display a wide range of fluctuations (Figure 4). Patterns can be observed in terms of the dependence structure among the different artistic movements as well, with Renaissance and Baroque painters having a strong persistence structure (average H ≈ 0.89), and modern works by Van Gong, Picasso and Kandinski corresponding to a weaker (but still HK-type) structure (average H ≈ 0.85). Although we see many different stochastic structures of the examined paintings which are generally accepted as great artworks (Figure 5), therefore a general stochastic structure of beauty is not revealed by 2D-C. Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 14 Picasso and Kandinski corresponding to a weaker (but still HK-type) structure (average H ≈ 0.85). Although we see many different stochastic structures of the examined paintings which are generally accepted as great artworks (Figure 5), therefore a general stochastic structure of beauty is not revealed by 2D-C. (a) (b) Figure 5. (a) Averages of the climacograms of the artworks; (b) Averages of the standardized climacograms of the artworks. Thus, we can see that evaluating the image with climacograms provide us with insights in to the stochastic properties of artworks and justifies the further analysis of a more practical problem as the transformation caused to landscapes from RE installations. 4. Application in Analysis of the Transformation of Landscape by RE Installations and Civil Works In order to analyze the transformation produced by RE technologies to landscapes, images of natural landscape are used. The selected landscapes are suitable for the installation of RE projects, and we add RE installations of civil works to transform them. Climacograms of the transformed landscape describe some aspects of the landscape transformation. Figures S10–S24 in supplementary material of the paper show the variation of the climacograms corresponding to different RE installations and civil works. Figures S12–S16, S18 and S19 show that when the natural landscape is replaced by either the city landscape or RE installations the variability of the original image is decreased at scale κ = 1 as expected. Instead, if the RE installation has a “smooth” landscape background as wind turbines in the sky (Figures S23 and S24) solar panels in fields (Figures S21 and S22) or solar panels in the desert (Figure S20), the variability of the original image is increasing. We also notice that the results are related to the shape and the nature of the landscape but a general rule cannot be obtained by these case studies. For example, there is a different stochastic behavior in solar panels. Standardized climacograms of solar panels show stronger dependence structure (Figures S17 and S20–S22) compared to the natural landscape, and weaker in Figures S15, S18 and S19. Οn the contrary, standardized climacograms of wind turbines in the landscape show weaker dependence structure compared to the original landscape, i.e., clustering behavior (Figures S14, S18, S19, S23 and S24). 4.1. Evaluating Future Scenarios of Landscape Transformations by Civil Works 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 γ( κ) κ 0.1 1 1 10 100 γ( k) k Caravagio Da Vinci Rebrand Van Gong Kadinski Picaso White noise Figure 5. (a) Averages of the climacograms of the artworks; (b) Averages of the standardized climacograms of the artworks. Thus, we can see that evaluating the image with climacograms provide us with insights in to the stochastic properties of artworks and justifies the further analysis of a more practical problem as the transformation caused to landscapes from RE installations. 4. Application in Analysis of the Transformation of Landscape by RE Installations and Civil Works In order to analyze the transformation produced by RE technologies to landscapes, images of natural landscape are used. The selected landscapes are suitable for the installation of RE projects, and we add RE installations of civil works to transform them. Climacograms of the transformed landscape describe some aspects of the landscape transformation. Figures S10–S24 in supplementary material of the paper show the variation of the climacograms corresponding to different RE installations and civil works. Figures S12–S16, S18 and S19 show that when the natural landscape is replaced by either the city landscape or RE installations the variability of the original image is decreased at scale κ = 1 as expected. Instead, if the RE installation has a “smooth” landscape background as wind turbines in the sky (Figures S23 and S24) solar panels in fields (Figures S21 and S22) or solar panels in the desert (Figure S20), the variability of the original image is increasing. We also notice that the results are related to the shape and the nature of the landscape but a general rule cannot be obtained by these case studies. For example, there is a different stochastic behavior in solar panels. Standardized climacograms of solar panels show stronger dependence structure (Figures S17 and S20–S22) compared to the natural landscape, and weaker in Figures S15, S18 and S19. On the contrary, standardized climacograms of wind turbines in the landscape show weaker dependence Energies 2019, 12, 2817 7 of 13 structure compared to the original landscape, i.e., clustering behavior (Figures S14, S18, S19, S23 and S24). 4.1. Evaluating Future Scenarios of Landscape Transformations by Civil Works In the first application of the methodology, we examine the impact of RE works in a given landscape by considering edited versions of the original landscape [49]. Thus, in the original landscape Figure 6 and Figure S11–S24 we transform using Photoshop CS5 software and we evaluate them according 2D-C. Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 14 In the first application of the methodology, we examine the impact of RE works in a given landscape by considering edited versions of the original landscape [49]. Thus, in the original landscape Figure 6 and Figure S11–S24 we transform using Photoshop CS5 software and we evaluate them according 2D-C. 1 2 3 4 5 (a) (b) (c) Figure 6. (a1–a4) Transformed landscape (a5) Original landscape (b) climacograms of images (a1–a5) (c) standardized climacograms of images (a1–a5). Figure 6b shows that replacing this natural landscape by either the city landscape or RE installations, the variability of the original image is decreased at scale κ = 1, as expected. Furthermore, in order to make a fair comparison of the depended structure associated with each transformation, we evaluate the standardized climacograms of Figure 6c. It can be seen that the city landscape shows the weaker dependence structure, i.e., clustering behavior, compared to the natural landscape, whereas the RE installations exhibit a weaker dependence than that of the natural landscape yet as stronger one compared to a highly urbanized landscape. 4.2. Landscape Analysis, the Case of Plastiras Lake The Plastiras Lake is an artificial lake in central Greece constructed in 1959. The concept of the specific dam construction was the production of electricity and the irrigation of the Thessalic Plain. The water levels of the lake showed many fluctuations due to water abstractions for hydroelectricity and irrigation proposes. Consequently, not long after its construction, the aesthetic degradation occurring when the water level drops and the dead zone is revealed, became part of different studies concerning the lake [50–53]. The Plastiras Lake landscape can be generally separated in two parts, the northern and southern, which have a totally different morphology. The northern part resembles a natural lake Figure 7a (in which when the level of the lake is decreased the observer sees a subnormal dead zone) and the south 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 γ( κ) κ 1. City 2. Wind turbine 3. Lake 4. Solar panels 5. Landscape 0.3 1 10 100 γ( k) k 1. City 2. Wind turbine 3. Lake 4. Solar panels 5. Landscape White noise 1 Figure 6. (a1–a4) Transformed landscape (a5) Original landscape (b) climacograms of images (a1–a5) (c) standardized climacograms of images (a1–a5). Figure 6b shows that replacing this natural landscape by either the city landscape or RE installations, the variability of the original image is decreased at scale κ = 1, as expected. Furthermore, in order to make a fair comparison of the depended structure associated with each transformation, we evaluate the standardized climacograms of Figure 6c. It can be seen that the city landscape shows the weaker dependence structure, i.e., clustering behavior, compared to the natural landscape, whereas the RE installations exhibit a weaker dependence than that of the natural landscape yet as stronger one compared to a highly urbanized landscape. 4.2. Landscape Analysis, the Case of Plastiras Lake The Plastiras Lake is an artificial lake in central Greece constructed in 1959. The concept of the specific dam construction was the production of electricity and the irrigation of the Thessalic Plain. The water levels of the lake showed many fluctuations due to water abstractions for hydroelectricity Energies 2019, 12, 2817 8 of 13 and irrigation proposes. Consequently, not long after its construction, the aesthetic degradation occurring when the water level drops and the dead zone is revealed, became part of different studies concerning the lake [50–53]. The Plastiras Lake landscape can be generally separated in two parts, the northern and southern, which have a totally different morphology. The northern part resembles a natural lake Figure 7a (in which when the level of the lake is decreased the observer sees a subnormal dead zone) and the south part of the landscape which is closer to that of an artificial lake Figure 8a (in which when the level of the lake is decreased the observer sees a normal dead zone) [54]. Through the attempt to evaluate the differences in the landscape, and due to the change of the water level, the southern part of the lake was considered more interesting than the northern part in terms of landscape quality. The above phenomenon was discussed and interpreted in related papers [55,56]. Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 14 part of the landscape which is closer to that of an artificial lake Figure 8a (in which when the level of the lake is decreased the observer sees a normal dead zone) [54]. Through the attempt to evaluate the differences in the landscape, and due to the change of the water level, the southern part of the lake was considered more interesting than the northern part in terms of landscape quality. The above phenomenon was discussed and interpreted in related papers [55,56]. 1 2 3 (a) (b) (c) Figure 7. (a1–a3) Transformation of landscape of Plastiras caused by the fluctuation of the lake water elevation in the area of subnormal dead zone; (b) climacograms and (c) standardized climacograms of images (a1–a3). 1 2 3 (a) 0.02 1 10 100 γ( κ) κ 1 2 3 0.05 0.5 1 10 100 γ( k) k 1 2 3 White noise 1 Figure 7. (a1–a3) Transformation of landscape of Plastiras caused by the fluctuation of the lake water elevation in the area of subnormal dead zone; (b) climacograms and (c) standardized climacograms of images (a1–a3). Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 14 part of the landscape which is closer to that of an artificial lake Figure 8a (in which when the level of the lake is decreased the observer sees a normal dead zone) [54]. Through the attempt to evaluate the differences in the landscape, and due to the change of the water level, the southern part of the lake was considered more interesting than the northern part in terms of landscape quality. The above phenomenon was discussed and interpreted in related papers [55,56]. 1 2 3 (a) (b) (c) Figure 7. (a1–a3) Transformation of landscape of Plastiras caused by the fluctuation of the lake water elevation in the area of subnormal dead zone; (b) climacograms and (c) standardized climacograms of images (a1–a3). 1 2 3 (a) 0.02 1 10 100 γ( κ) κ 1 2 3 0.05 0.5 1 10 100 γ( k) k 1 2 3 White noise 1 Figure 8. Cont. Energies 2019, 12, 2817 9 of 13 Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 14 (b) (c) Figure 8. (a1–a3) Transformation of landscape of Plastiras caused by the fluctuation of the lake water elevation in the area of normal dead zone; (b) climacograms and (c) standardized climacograms of images (a1–a3). According to the analysis made based on the physical properties, the appearance of the landscape and the questionnaires of the observers, the result was that between normal dead zone and subnormal dead zone, the transformation of the latter zone when the level of the lake decreased was a problem for the aesthetic value of the landscape [57]. Applying 2D-C in transformed images of the Plastiras landscape, a change of the landscape due to the appearance of the subnormal dead zone is noticed despite being small (Figure 7). On the contrary, the climacograms of the lake without dead zone and of the lake with normal dead zone are almost identical (Figure 8). 5. Discussion and Conclusions The meaning of beauty is linked to the evolution of human civilization. Since the beginning of civilization, human minds have been embodying their creativity in different forms of art or architecture in the search for beauty, from prehistoric cave paintings to the various forms of contemporary art. These works of art create feelings and disseminate ideas and messages, underlying or upfront, through their communication with the intellect. In different stages of history, the meaning of beauty has even been in the frontline of the struggle of human civilizations for progress, expressing social and political ideas that were far from being implemented in the societies of those times [48]. But what does it mean that something is more beautiful than something else and how more beautiful is it? If this concept has to do with nature, the problem is unresolved because (according to Kant) nature is the pinnacle of beauty [58]. Moreover, Kant noted that “no objective rules of taste can be given which would determine what is beautiful through concepts” [59]. Nonetheless, our work aims at comparative analysis of transformations of natural landscapes that are considered of high aesthetic value, and not to draw universal aesthetic conclusions. Thus, this paper examines the transformation of the landscape and not the beauty of the landscape per se. In landscape analysis, the transformation of the landscape is against the concept of sustainability as “there is an additional focus on the present generations’ responsibility to regenerate, maintain and improve planetary resources for use by future generations.” [60]. In modern environmental analysis, the natural landscape is also considered an environmental resource. Therefore, the transformation of the landscape with RE installations, needs to be taken into account as a parameter of the multicriteria design of the RE projects. This paper introduces a new computational tool (2D-C), as opposed to subjective evaluation, in comparative landscape analysis. 2D-C is a tool capable of characterizing the degree of variability in images using stochastic analysis, and thus, the change in variability vs. scale, among images. As a benchmark, the 2D-C was tested in images of art paintings and subsequently, it was applied to landscapes transformed by new RE installations of civil works in order to quantitatively characterize 0.02 1 10 100 γ( κ) κ 1 2 3 0.05 0.5 1 10 100 γ( k) k 1 2 3 White noise 1 Figure 8. (a1–a3) Transformation of landscape of Plastiras caused by the fluctuation of the lake water elevation in the area of normal dead zone; (b) climacograms and (c) standardized climacograms of images (a1–a3). According to the analysis made based on the physical properties, the appearance of the landscape and the questionnaires of the observers, the result was that between normal dead zone and subnormal dead zone, the transformation of the latter zone when the level of the lake decreased was a problem for the aesthetic value of the landscape [57]. Applying 2D-C in transformed images of the Plastiras landscape, a change of the landscape due to the appearance of the subnormal dead zone is noticed despite being small (Figure 7). On the contrary, the climacograms of the lake without dead zone and of the lake with normal dead zone are almost identical (Figure 8). 5. Discussion and Conclusions The meaning of beauty is linked to the evolution of human civilization. Since the beginning of civilization, human minds have been embodying their creativity in different forms of art or architecture in the search for beauty, from prehistoric cave paintings to the various forms of contemporary art. These works of art create feelings and disseminate ideas and messages, underlying or upfront, through their communication with the intellect. In different stages of history, the meaning of beauty has even been in the frontline of the struggle of human civilizations for progress, expressing social and political ideas that were far from being implemented in the societies of those times [48]. But what does it mean that something is more beautiful than something else and how more beautiful is it? If this concept has to do with nature, the problem is unresolved because (according to Kant) nature is the pinnacle of beauty [58]. Moreover, Kant noted that “no objective rules of taste can be given which would determine what is beautiful through concepts” [59]. Nonetheless, our work aims at comparative analysis of transformations of natural landscapes that are considered of high aesthetic value, and not to draw universal aesthetic conclusions. Thus, this paper examines the transformation of the landscape and not the beauty of the landscape per se. In landscape analysis, the transformation of the landscape is against the concept of sustainability as “there is an additional focus on the present generations’ responsibility to regenerate, maintain and improve planetary resources for use by future generations.” [60]. In modern environmental analysis, the natural landscape is also considered an environmental resource. Therefore, the transformation of the landscape with RE installations, needs to be taken into account as a parameter of the multicriteria design of the RE projects. This paper introduces a new computational tool (2D-C), as opposed to subjective evaluation, in comparative landscape analysis. 2D-C is a tool capable of characterizing the degree of variability in images using stochastic analysis, and thus, the change in variability vs. scale, among images. As a benchmark, the 2D-C was tested in images of art paintings and subsequently, it was applied to Energies 2019, 12, 2817 10 of 13 landscapes transformed by new RE installations of civil works in order to quantitatively characterize the degree of visual change by each intervention, with respect to the natural variability of the original landscape. This methodology can be applied in image processing comparing RE installations and civil works in order to quantitatively evaluate the transformation in variability vs. scale of the landscape. The analysis allows for the following observations. 1. The evaluation of images with 2D-C can be useful in landscape aesthetics problems as the quantitative analysis can serve as a basis for objectivity in the evaluation of landscape changes. 2. 2D-C can evaluate one image of the landscape by a specific view point in a specific time. Thus, we cannot have a holistic approach of the landscape. However, as methods of the landscape analysis seek a global approach identifying landscape with multicriteria analysis, 2D-C could serve as a new quantitative criterion. 3. 2D-C provides only a relative score among the transformed images, while sources of uncertainty relating to objective segmentation of images need also to be further studied. Nevertheless, 2D-C can serve as a robust stochastic tool for comparisons, with promising results regarding the possible generalized application to image analysis. At present this paper provides a methodological contribution which is novel. Therefore, conclusions mainly relate to the insights we gain from specific case studies. A big data analysis would be required in order to move from the methodological contribution to factual information on the impact of RE installations. More data and studies are necessary to examine whether these results are positively correlated with aesthetical parameters. Supplementary Materials: This supplementary material contains image analysis climacograms of art paintings and landscapes transformed by renewable energy installations and civil works. The following are available online at http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/12/14/2817/s1. Figure S1: Landscapes. withought renwable energy instalations, Figure S2: Transformation of the landscape of Plastiras lake, Figure S3: (a) Paintings of Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519); (b) Standardized climacograms of the art paintings of Leonardo da Vinci; (c) climacograms of the art paintings of Leonardo da Vinci, Figure S4: (a) Paintings of Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio (1571–1610); (b) Standardized climacograms of the art paintings of Caravaggio; (c) climacograms of the art paintings of Caravaggio, Figure S5: (a) Paintings of Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn (1606–1669); (b) Standardized climacogram of the art paintings of Rembrandt; (c) climacograms of the art paintings of Rembrandt, Figure S6: (a) Paintings of Vincent van Gogh (1853–1890); (b) Standardized climacogram of the art paintings of Vincent van Gogh; (c) climacograms of the art paintings of Vincent van Gogh, Figure S7: (a) Paintings of Pablo Picasso (1881–1973); (b) Standardized climacogram of the art paintings of Picasso; (c) climacograms of the art paintings of Picasso, Figure S8: (a) Paintings of Wassily Kandinsky (1866–1944); (b) Standardized climacogram of the art paintings of Kandinsky; (c) climacograms of the art paintings of Kandinsky, Figure S9: (a) Averages of the examinee paintings by different artists; (b) Standardized climacogram of the art paintings; (c) climacograms of the art paintings, Figure S10: (a1) Shape of the landscape; (a2) Landscape withought sky; (a3) original landscape (b); (c) standardized climacograms of images (a1)–(a3); (d) climacogram of images (a1)–(a3), Figure S11: (a1) (a2 (a3) Landscape with different sky; (b) (c) standardized climacograms of images (a1)–(a3); (d) climacogram of images (a1)–(a3), Figure S12: (a1) City above the horizon; (a2) City below the horizon; (a3) original landscape; (b) standardized climacogram of images (a1)–(a3); (c) climacogram of images (a1)–(a3), Figure S13, (a1)–(a4) Cities in the landscape (a1) Original landscape; (b), (c) standardized climacograms of images (a1)–(a5); (d) climacogram of images (a1)–(a5), Figure S14: (a1)–(a4) Wind turbines in the landscape; (a5) Original landscape; (b) standardized climacograms of images (a1)–(a5); (d) climacogram of images (a1)–(a5), Figure S15: (a1) Solar panels in the landscape; (a2) Original landscape; (b) standardized climacograms of images (a1)–(a2); (c) climacogram of images (a1)–(a2), Figure S16: (a1) Lake in the landscape; (a2) Original landscape; (b) standardized climacograms of images (a1)–(a2); (c) climacogram of images (a1)–(a2), Figure S17: (a1) Lake in the landscape; (a2) Solar panels in the landscape (3); Original landscape (b) standardized climacograms of images (a1)–(a2); (c) climacogram of images (a1)–(a3), Figure S18: (a1) Wind turbine in the landscape; (a2) Lake in the landscape; (a3) Solar panels in the landscape; (a4) original landscape; (b), (c) standardized climacograms of images (a1)–(a4); (d) climacogram of images (a1)–(a4), Figure S19: (a1) Lake in the landscape; (a2) Solar panels in the landscape; (a3) Wind turbine in the landscape; (a4) original landscape; (b) standardized climacograms of images (a1)–(a4); (c) climacogram of images (a1)–(a4), Figure S20: (a1) Solar panels in the landscape; (a2) original landscape; (b) standardized climacograms of images (a1)–(a2); (c) climacogram of images (a1)–(a2), Figure S21: (a1) Solar panels in the landscape; (a2) original landscape; (b) standardized climacograms of images (a1)–(a2); (c) climacogram of images (a1)–(a2), Figure S22: (a1) Solar panels in the landscape; (a2) original landscape; (b) standardized climacograms of images (a1)–(a2); (c) climacogram of images (a1)–(a2), Figure S23: (a1) Wind park in the landscape; (a2) landscape without renewable energy installations; http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/12/14/2817/s1 Energies 2019, 12, 2817 11 of 13 (b) standardized climacograms of images (a1)–(a2); (c) climacogram of images (a1)–(a2), Figure S24: (a1) Wind park in the landscape; (a2) landscape without renewable energy installations; (b) standardized climacograms of images (a1)–(a2); (c) climacogram of images (a1)–(a2), Figure S25: (a1)–(a3) Transformation of landscape of Plastiras caused by the balance of the lake in the area of subnormal dead zone; (b) (c) standardized climacograms of images (a1)–(a3); (d) climacogram of images (a1)–(a3), Figure S26: (a1)–(a3) Transformation of landscape of Plastiras caused by the balance of the lake in the area of normal dead zone; (b) (c) standardized climacograms of images (a1)–(a3); (d) climacogram of images (a1)–(a3). 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In European Geosciences Union General Assembly 2019; Geophysical Research Abstracts, EGU2019-11403; European Geosciences Union: Munich, Germany, 2019; Volume 21. 50. Panagiotakis, K.A. Research of tourist development of lake Megdoba. Report for the Hellenic Tourism Organization. 1967. 51. Zaharatos, G.A. Program for the Touristic Development of the Plastira Lake (Megdova); KPOE: Athens, Greece, 1986. 52. Life Program. Lake Plastira Area, A Pilot Sustainable Touristic Interference; ANKA City: Karditsa, Greece, 1994. 53. Life Program. Lake Plastira Area, A Pilot Sustainable Touristic Interference 6; ANKA City: Karditsa, Greece, 1995. 54. Sargentis, G.-F. The Aesthetic Element in Water, Hydraulics and Dams. Master’s Thesis, Department of Civil Engineer, NTUA, Athens, Greece, 1998. 55. Sargentis, G.-F.; Hadjibiros, K.; Christofides, A. Plastiras Lake: The impact of water level on the aesthetic value of the landscape. In 9th International Conferenceon Environmental Science and Technology; Department of Environmental Studies, University of the Aegean: Mytilene, Greece, 2005. 56. Sargentis, G.-F.; Hadjibiros, K.; Papagiannakis, I.; Papagiannakis, E. Plastiras Lake: influence of the relief on the revelation of the water presence, In 9th International Conference on Environmental Science and Technology, Rhodes Island; Department of Environmental Studies, University of the Aegean: Mytilene, Greece, 2005. 57. Christofides, A.; Efstratiadis, A.; Koutsoyiannis, D.; Sargentis, G.-F.; Hadjibiros, K. Resolving conflicting objectives in the management of the Plastiras Lake: Can we quantify beauty? Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 2005, 9, 507–515. [CrossRef] 58. Beardsley, M.C. Aesthetics from Classical Greece to the Present: A Short History; University of Alabama Press: Tuscaloosa, AL, USA, 1975. 59. Guyer, P. Kant and the Claims of Taste, 2nd ed.; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 1997. 60. Donovan, F. Our Uncertain Future: Can Good Planning Create Sustainable Communities; University of Illinois: Champaign-Urbana, IL, USA, 2009. © 2019 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0031-3203(93)90135-J http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/TSMC.1978.4310038 http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/hess-14-585-2010 http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02626667.2015.1034128 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.spasta.2018.11.002 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2010.12.012 http://dx.doi.org/10.1137/1010093 http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/hess-9-507-2005 http://creativecommons.org/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Introduction Methodology Stochastic Analysis in 2d Illustration of Stochastic Analysis in 2d Benchmark Application in the Analysis of Art Paintings Application in Analysis of the Transformation of Landscape by RE Installations and Civil Works Evaluating Future Scenarios of Landscape Transformations by Civil Works Landscape Analysis, the Case of Plastiras Lake Discussion and Conclusions References 
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work_bmexjj4vujemdjpthmsprsijoy	----	Microsoft Word - 270_EEKHOUT_6_.doc Challenging Glass 2 – Conference on Architectural and Structural Applications of Glass, Bos, Louter, Veer (Eds.), TU Delft, May 2010. Copyright © with the authors. All rights reserved. Transparent Cubical Glass Building in Madrid Mick Eekhout Chair of Product Development, Faculty of Architecture, TU Delft, Octatube International bv, Delft, The Netherlands, m.eekhout@octatube.nl, www.mickeekhout.nl, www.octatube.nl Luis Weber Octatube International bv, Delft, The Netherlands, l.weber@octatube.nl, www.octatube.nl An ultimately transparent glass building in almost cubical form of 30x30x21 m, to function as the future entrance building of the Santander Bancopolis complex southwest of Madrid. Conceptual design by architect Alfonso Millanes and structural design by Octatube. The structure is composed of ultra slender cable stayed tubular columns and trusses placed in a grid of 5m and cladded with insulated glass made from fully tempered outer panels and heat strengthened laminated inner panels. Size of all glass panels is 2.5 x 2.5 m². The insulated glass ensures additional stabilisation of the overall enveloping structure. The roof panels are partly twisted to obtain a fluent slope for drainage. The roof gutters are positioned at 2.5 m from the roof edge, thus creating a free glass edge. The side walls of the gutters are made of insulated glass panels. The glass type chosen is ‘extra-white’, emphasizing the glass cube as a sparkling crystal in the landscape. Keywords: Quattro nodes, insulated glass, Tensile structural systems 1. Introduction This paper describes the gradual and steady development in different areas of expertise in two decades, which has lead to the current state of the art building fabrication techniques for glass structures.. 1.1. History of design of different glass cubes In the history of the design & build company Octatube of Delft NL we have designed, co-designed and engineered, produced and built a number of cubical glass volumes. The cube is a prime and basic symbol if geometry in architecture, very recognizable ,but difficult to make in glass, especially in the larger volumes as construction (the way you put things together) and structure (the way loadings are forwarded from the glass panels to mother earth). We have designed these glass cubes as architects, structural engineers and industrial designers integrally in one. The prehistory of the Galss Cube Entrance in Madrid started 2 decades before. The use of cubes in art and architecture refers back one century to one of the first ‘Cubist’ paintings by Pablo Picasso: Les demoiselles d’Avignon’ (1907). It shows a primary geometrical influence of the work of Paul Cézanne, who defended in his life compositions made entirely of simple geometrical forms, like cubes, cylinders, cones. It was Picasso, who took up this inspiration and Challenging Glass 2 used them for around a decade in a style which was called by art-critics as ‘Cubism’. Around that time he started to paint elevations combined with side elevations in detail. A front body and a side head, trying to make the 2D painting 3-dimensional. It took up to the 1980s before architects took up that idea in the so-called ‘De-constructivism’, in which buildings seem to have been formed from exploded parts of recognizable building segments, put together in a non-logical way. Coop Himmelb(l)au realized one of their first roof top office buildings in the Flackestrasse in Vienna in 1983 and in 1993 the Groninger museum. Currently their design for the Musée des Confluences in s under construction, an architectonic variation on the Cubist style of Picasso and Georges Bracque one century before. Cubes can go form simple cubes to complex assemblies of cubes and cubical segments. As a structure and a construction the lessons have to start form the simple cube, leaving the more complicated cubical arrangements for the higher classes of enlightenment. Figure 1: Design proposal for the European Business School in Wiesbaden by structural designer Mick Eekhout and sculptor Marijke de Goey as a composition of tumbling cubes. 2. Glass cube in Goor The smallest cube measures 600x600x600 mm and is composed of 6 mm thick fully tempered glass panels, where the vertical corners are held together by glued stainless steel rods 6x6mm2. The upper panel is just glued on top of the wall panels. This cube houses a piece of art, in this case a neon sculpture designed by artist Marijke de Goey. This prototype was part of a series in glass cubes with different neon glass sculptures in the town hall of the Dutch town of Goor. The beauty was in the corner detail. The stainless steel rod was strengthening the cube against vandalism (fig.1). Figure 2: Glass cube in Goor. Transparent Cubical Glass Building in Madrid 3. Glass cube proposal for the Centraal Museum in Utrecht and the Flower shop in Rotterdam In 1988 cubical glass pavilions were designed by architect Wiek Röling and structural Mick Eekhout as pavilions for a Dutch Museum in Utrecht. The project was not realised. Just before we had that developed a method in which we could joint 3 x 3 panels into one big glass panel. Our target at the time was a stable glass plane of 6 x 6 m2, structurally bonded together by connectors, cables and compression rods. The fist step was not even prototyped properly when the idea came up to make a 3D cubical pavilion. However, we did not know how to do it. From the drawings one could analyse that the corners, where the roof plane would lay upon the wall elements and the corner between two vertical walls were not solved. How to introduce larger forces from one plane into another? We did not know, 20 years ago (fig.2). Hardly one year later architect Kas Oosterhuis came to Octatube and together we conceived a glass flower shop on the famous Lijnbaan, where the problem of the connection between roof plane on the wall plane and the wall-to-wall connection was neatly solved as a separate cubical tubular structure was safely introduced. The cube measured 12x12x6m in height and was subdivided into units we knew of 6x6m2, weach composed of 3x4 or 4x4 panels. The design drawing indicated that the roof panels were 1.5x1.5m2, smaller that the maximum panels available form the industry of 2.14x2.14m2. We were not sure structurally. But the ambition, the dream was on the table. This structure was conceived in single glass panels, fully tempered. Also this structure was not realised, but their publication in a book as the starting point of Dutch Glass structures [Ref.1: Stressed Glass, Zappi or Product Development for the Nai.] served its purpose (fig.3). Figure 3: Glass cube proposal for the Centraal Museum in Utrecht. Figure 4: Flower shop on the famous Lijnbaan in Rotterdam. 4. Glass Music Hall in the Exchange of Berlage, Amsterdam In 1989 Mick Eekhout designed the structural scheme for an all-glass envelope for architect Pieter Zaanen to house the concert and rehearsal hall for the Chamber Music Orchestra of the NedPhO, the Dutch Philharmonic Orchestra. Pieter came to Mick after a modest publication of the study model of Rik Grashoff, one of Mick’s early students at Civil Engineering. The model was built for a Boosting publication [Ref.2: Tussen traditie en experiment].(fig.4). Challenging Glass 2 Figure 5 Experimental model of glass. Structural glass panels 1989. This hall had to measure 10x22m in plan and around 10 m in height. Architectonically, built inside of the famous exchange building of dr.H.P.Berlage from 1903, it had to be a built volume completely independent of the existing building. Also maximum transparency was required. Built on separate piles driven through the cellar floor, the concrete floor structure would enable a completely independent glass box, a reversed giant glass battery box. During a number of design brainstorms with Pieter Zaanen, the idea came up to have one of the two walls not parallel, to improve the acoustics as flutter would be minimised. The structural system of tiny cables or tensile rods and short compression studs was designed pre-stressed between the roof and concrete floor structure. Figure 6 Model of Glass music hall, Amsterdam. It was not the floor, but the roof structure that gave the greatest worries. Parallel to the Glass flower shop in Rotterdam, the first idea was to make a tubular structure in the ribs, but the fire brigade officer did not allow for a structural glass roof, without abundant experiences or self-confidence proven or engineered. They were right, one could add later. So the roof structure was taken as an ordinary space frame structure, stiff, supported on six columns only, stabilised with wind bracings and covered with laminated glass panels. Opened in 1990, it was the first structural glass building in the Netherlands. All glass panels were suspended vertically form one another. So the highest glass panels, 8 mm thin and fully tempered, carried the dead weight of the lower panels and the vertical trusses of 8 mm rods stabilised the facades horizontally, against leaning architects, as there was not much wind to be analysed, apart form the overpressure of the air-conditioning. That was the invention. It was a giant step forward. A book was written about this adventure [Ref.3: Product Development in Glass Structures]. Transparent Cubical Glass Building in Madrid Figure 7: Glass music hall, Amsterdam. Figure 8: Interior view. 5. Glass Roof on Brick Cubes in Hulst NL However, the roof, built as a conventional space frame, was a source of annoyance. A few months after the design was approved by the fire brigade a young Belgian / Dutch architect, Walter Lockefeer came to Octatube to co-design a glass roof in a double cubical pavilion with dimensions, derived from the golden rule: 6.870 x 6.870 x 6.870m. The walls, in his architectural philosophy, were overruling and the roof was unimportant. So the roof had to be invisible and made of glass, preferably without any steel. So he stimulated the development of the first glass panel roof, stabilised as a bicycle wheel with vertical compression studs and tensile cables underneath the glass panels. The first Dutch tensile stabilised roof had been realised. The roof was composed of double glass panels with laminated lower panes. All glass plates were fully tempered. The stainless steel connectors on the lower side of the roof panels were glued between roof panel and connector. In this case the deadweight was more than the eventual uplift, so even a glued connector without glue would have worked, as the panels were fixed horizontally between the roof edges. This experiment gave us enough confidence that a tensile under-spanned structure would work, even if a surrounding steel tubular steel frame balanced the tensile cables. The second profit was the glued experiment. It was just a project invention, nothing more. The pavilion was published in colour and attracted much interests [Ref.3]. The roof leaked for a number of years, but the cause was in the surrounding brickwork. The silicone sealant worked quite satisfactorily for a roof with a pitch of only one single degree (fig.8,9). Figure 9 and 10: Flower shop in Hulst. Challenging Glass 2 6. Prinsenhof Glass Museum Hall in Delft The next step was, of course, to make a completely chemically bonded system. The glued connection was developed initially for roofs, where the tangential loads were restricted and uplift could be avoided by choosing thicker and heavier glass panels, the first one in a Court of Justice in Maastricht, 1995. (Fig.12) Figure 11: Court of Justice in Maastricht. Figure 12: Prinsenhof Glass Museum hall in Delft The first frameless façade was built in the Prinsenhof Glass Museum hall in Delft one year later, in 1996. The extra problems structurally for the glued connections were the vertical deadweight of the glass panels and the quite large distances between the panels and the Quattro nodes. In first instance the distance were too large, causing large bending moments in the connection bolts. A number of panels broke during the initial installation. Soon enough it was discovered that the cause of breakage was mainly in the diagonally stressed wind bracings, as a result of which the Quattro nodes were not accurately positioned. It was mid winter, her majesty the Queen came for the inauguration and the installation was too hastily done. For security reason the deadweight of the glass saddles, fixed on the Quattro nodes, carried the panels. In other vertical facades, the distance s between the glass panels ant the Quattro nodes were held as short as possible. Glass panels in their glued connections can take as large an amount of compression as (roughly) as tension and shear, but glass panels are only capable of carrying 10% of these forces in bending (fig.13). 7. Glass Cube of Museon in Tel Aviv In this short history of incremental product development successively the material glass, single panels and laminated and double panels, the Quattro nodes, welded and later stainless steel, the tensile trusses form 8 mm in Amsterdam to a heavily typhoon loaded project in Hongkong 2x 30mm, the glued connections and the architectural detailing were developed to the current level of design perfection. The entrance cube of the Museum of Modern Art of Tel Aviv offered the opportunity to make single span cube with only the tubular compression frame elements in the corners. The size is roughly 12x12x12m3. The system worked, be it here in single laminated glazing and a little building physical problem with the abundant solar radiation coming into the building part, in the Israeli desert climate. (fig.14,15). Transparent Cubical Glass Building in Madrid Figure 13 and 14: Entrance cube of the Museum of Modern Art of Tel Aviv 8. Glass Cube Hall of the Synagoge, The Hague NL The synagogue of the Liberal Jewish Community in The Hague was built in the midst of the 18th century and is regarded as a monument. The synagogue complex needed an extension between the street front ‘gracht’house and the hidden synagogue with a glass hall for social gatherings and festivities. Mick Eekhout was invited as the architect and he designed a cubical glass construction with an apex almost as high as the existing synagogue monument. The structure is a tubular structure, covered with a glass roof and 4 glass façades. The 4 legs stand alone in the ground floor level, connected to the walls and of the premises by an acoustically perforated flat metal roof. The glass cube embraces, as it were, the front part of the synagoge monument. The new technology embracing the classical building with respect. Figure 15: Interior of the Glass Cubical Hall for the synagogue in The Hague 9. The Santander Glass Cube of Madrid The apotheosis of this contribution, and its main subject is the cubical glass building serving as the entrance building for the Santander ‘Bancopolis’ in Boadilla del Monte, near Madrid. The Bank town has been designed by 85 years old Kevin Roche from New York, Pritzker Architectural Award winner 1982. In 2003 a 30 m diameter circular glass roof was deigned by his office and detailed and realised by Octatube. The structure was post-stressed 36 pieces of bicycle wheel principle with multiple compression studs and stainless steel tensile rods of 30 mm diameter. It opened the eye of the client for lightweight tender structures. Some years later he issued an order for a cubical glass building as the entrance cathedral for the bang premises as a maximally glass building. Challenging Glass 2 Madrid architect Alfonso Millanes was the architect who developed the cube, much in the line of the above-described know-how with the engineering office of Typsa and Octatube. The predominant features of this building are: overall size 30x30m floor plan, 21,4m height; large insulation glass units (IGU), 2,5x2,5m2; large custom designed Quattro® nodes 350x350mm; compression tube grid of 5x5m; integrated wind braces- glass supporting structure; mechanical connection of glass to nodes through the inner plate of each IGU; twisted roof panels; insulated glass roof gutter; integrated water drainage system. Figure 16 and 17: Design of the Glass Cube by architect Millanes and engineers Typsa and Octatube. Integration of several functions into the components comprising the structure of this particular cube was imperative to reach the accomplished transparency level. For instance, the wind bracings of the main structure not only serve to stabilize the structure against horizontal external forces, but are also designed to support the glass panels of the façade. Figure 18: Installation of the Glass Cube The roof has also a unique feature: a completely flat roof can only exist in theory; when put into practice, rainwater needs to be drained to prevent stains on the glass, or even worse, excessive accumulation of water on the surface of the roof. The roof is designed to drain water to the gutter running on all four sides, thus raising the central point. The glass panels of the roof are twisted to avoid the use of triangular glass panels. The glass gutter is positioned directly above one of the compression tubes of the main steel structure. This not only disguises the gutter, but also leaves the corner of the roof-façade connection to be very transparent as well; no structure other than a mechanical glass-on- Transparent Cubical Glass Building in Madrid glass connection is used to support this corner. The vertical corners of the cube are designed in a similar fashion; the main difference being a vertical corner profile is used to support the weight of the glass panels (another example of integration of functions). Although here the profile has a different function, it can be compared with the corner profile of the 600x600x600mm glass cubes in Goor described earlier. Figure 19: Inside view Figure 20: Glass Cube Santander Bank, Madrid In true Octatube style, the structure is prefabricated to the maximum possible extent in the factory in Holland. This, together with the just-in-time arrival of components on the building site leads to a short and effective assembly. This also applies to the glass panels; freights of glass are called to arrive on site with little advance to minimize the risks of damage during storage on the building site. This approach results is the total assembly of all glass panels (516 in total) without any damage. Figure 21-24: Details of the Glass Cube. Challenging Glass 2 10. Conclusion The Santander Glass Cube in Madrid is an example of high tech know-how on different levels that has been obtained grossly on a project-to-project base. This careful incremental approach took place on different scale levels: • Glass and glass panels • Connections glass to Quattro nodes • Tensile structural systems • Refinement of constructions • Industrialisation/prefab components. At the engineering department there is a general feeling that the resulting glass cube structure is the about lightest possible. Next step could be to use glass panels also to function as shear force holders in the plane of the façade and the roof and or to have the glass panels provided with internal tubes so that vertical pre-stressed cables could be inserted through the panes to stabilize the façade against wind pressures. It is yet a few steps from the ideals that are put by the Cubism of Pablo Picasso and the contemporary translations of painters’ Cubism into architects’ Cubism like Coop Himmelb(l)au. But ambitions show the direction to be followed. 11. References [1] Eekhout, M., ‘Stressed Glass, Zappi or Product Development for the Nai’, NAi Publishers, 1990. ISBN:90- 72469-78-x. [2] Westra, J.(eds.),’Tussen traditie en experiment’, 010 Publisher, Rotterdam, 1990. ISBN:90-6450-096-7. [3] Eekhout, M., ‘Product Development in Glass Structures’, 010 Publisher, Rotterdam, 1989. ISBN:90- 6450-111-4. 
work_bq4wh2vkuza6jlxtghx5b45sry	----	SÖZ VARLIĞI Turkish Studies International Periodical For the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 5/2 Spring 2010 İKİNCİ YENİ ŞİİRİ ve RESİM Alâattin KARACA* ÖZET İkinci Yeni, 1950’li yılların ikinci yarısında ortaya çıkmış bir şiir hareketidir. İlhan Berk, Cemal Süreya, Edip Cansever, Turgut Uyar, Ece Ayhan ve Sezai Kara- koç, bu şiir hareketinin önde gelen şairleridir. Söz ko- nusu şairler, şiir yanında müzik, sinema, resim, tiyatro gibi diğer sanatlarla da ilgilenmişler ve şiirde bu sanat- ların olanaklarından yararlanmaya çalışmışlardır. Sa- yılan sanatlardan resmin, İkinci Yeni şiiri üzerindeki etkisi göz ardı edilemeyecek ölçüde önemlidir. Bu yazıda İkinci Yeni şairlerinin resme bakışı, 1950’li yıllarda resmin poetikasında yaşanan değişimin İkinci Yeni poetikasıyla benzerliği, şiir-resim ilişkisi gibi konular üzerinde durulacak ve İkinci Yeni şiirinde resmin poetik ve pratik etkisi irdelenecektir. Anahtar Kelimeler: İkinci Yeni, resim, İlhan Berk, Ece Ayhan, Cemal Süreya, Edip Cansever, Paul Klee. THE SECOND NEW POETRY AND PAINTING ABSTRACT The Second New is a poetical movement which came out in the second half of 1950s. The leading figures of the movement are İlhan Berk, Cemal Süreya, Edip Cansever, Turgut Uyar, Ece Ayhan and Sezai Karakoç. These poets have also concerned themselves with music, cinema, painting, drama and other fields of art and literature. In some cases they have benefited from these * Doç. Dr., Yüzüncü Yıl Üniveristesi Fen-Edebiyat Fakültesi Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı Bölümü, vankaraca@hotmail.com. 282 Alâattin KARACA Turkish Studies International Periodical For the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 5/2 Spring 2010 arts in their poems. Particularly painting has had a great influence in their woks. In this article the view(s) of The Second New, the reflection of the changes in painting in 1950s in their poetry, the relation of poetry and painting, the poetic and practice effect of painting were examined. Key Words: The Second New Poetry, painting, İlhan Berk, Ece Ayhan, Cemal Süreya, edip Cansever, Paul Klee. İkinci Yeni, 1950’lerde filiz vermeye başlayan bir şiirsel devinim. İlk örnekleri de Yeditepe, Yenilik, A, Şiir Sanatı, Kaynak gibi dergilerde yayımlanmış. Öncüleri İlhan Berk, Cemal Süreya, Ece Ayhan, Turgut Uyar, Edip Cansever ve Sezai Karakoç. Ancak asıl toplanma ve poetik oluşum Pazar Postası adlı haftalık gazetede 1956’dan sonra gerçekleşiyor. İkinci Yeni şiiriyle beraber Türk şiirinin poetik ve pratik anlamda büyük bir değişim yaşadığı kesin. İkinci Yeni her şeyden önce, alışılmış, egemen poetikadan ve felsefeden kopuştur. Şöyle ki, Türk şiiri Tanzimat’tan sonra Ahmet Haşim’e değin genelde ‘yansıtmacı poetika’nın izindedir; kısacası doğa veya toplum gerçeğine bağlıdır. Ahmet Haşim, bir ölçüde bu doğal ve toplumsal gerçeği yansıtma amaçlı poetikadan kopar; deyim yerindeyse doğa onda yalnızca gözle algılanan bir görüntü değildir; araya bir ‘iç göz’ girmiştir ve bu iç göz, doğayı deforme ederek imgesel bir gerçek yaratır. Ancak asıl ve köklü kopuş, kuşkusuz 1950’li yıllarda İkinci Yeni ile olmuştur. İkinci Yeni şairleri, her şeyden önce Türk şiirine Tanzimat’tan sonra egemen olan bu ‘yansıtmacı’ poetikayı kökten sarsarlar. Amaçları, beş duyuya bağlı bir gerçekliği yansıtmak değildir. Bunu Sezai Karakoç, ‚Ben bu şiire ‘Yeni Gerçekçi şiir’ diyorum. Orhan Veli şiiri, şiirimizin gerçekçi (realist) akımıydı; bu akım ise yeni gerçekçi (neo realist) akım.‛1 tümceleriyle net biçimde saptamıştır. Nitekim İlhan Berk de; ‚Ozan, bir şiirin iyi ya da kötü bir şiir olduğunu doğayla karşılaştırarak, onunla benzerlik ölçüleri kurarak, yaşadığına, yaşanana bakarak ölçüler kuramaz.‛2 diyerek ‘yansıtmacı poetika’ya karşı olduğunu belirtmektedir. İşte gerçeklik anlayışındaki bu kopuş nedeniyle İkinci Yeni şairlerinin çoğu, ilkin şiiri us ve mantığın güdümünden kurtarmayı amaçlamışlardır. Bu konuda en uçtaki şair ise, İlhan Berk’tir. Amacı usun egemenliğini ortadan http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote1sym#sdfootnote1sym http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote2sym#sdfootnote2sym İkinci Yeni Şiiri ve Resim 283 Turkish Studies International Periodical For the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 5/2 Spring 2010 kaldırmak, usu allak bullak etmektir. Berk, buna bağlı olarak da anlam, konu ve öyküyü şiirin asıl öğeleri saymaz. Çünkü ona göre şiiri us yürütmez, usun girdiği yerde şiirin varlığı kuşkuludur. Bu poetik anlayışa koşut biçimde, İkinci Yeni şairleri, alışılmış algılama tarzına ters gelen şiirler yazarlar. Zaten amaç da Ece Ayhan’ın ısrarla vurguladığı üzere alışılmış algılama tarzını yıkmak, var olan şeylere tersten bakmak ya da ayna tutmaktır. Karşılarında kökleşmiş bir geleneksel, egemen poetik iktidar vardır. Bu poetik iktidar, yansıtmacıdır; şairi yalnızca edilgen bir yansıtıcı nesne olarak görür, doğanın, us ve mantığın güdümündedir; doğallıkla buna uygun mimetik bir dil kullanır. İşte İkinci Yeni, bu poetik iktidara saldırır ve sonuçta Roland Barthes’in dediğiyle uyumlu bir şekilde, önce bu poetik iktidarın dilini yıkmayı amaçlar. Böylece, alışılmış şiir dili değişir; öncekilere göre ‘ters bir dil’dir bu. Alışılmamış bağdaştırmalar, alışılmamış imgeler, alışılmamış ton, şaşırtmaca, sıçrama, birden yol değiştirme, türetilmiş yeni sözcükler< Sonuçta İkinci Yeni, 1956’dan sonra –her yenide olduğu gibi- çoğunlukça yadırganır, yadsınır hatta. Ortak tepki şudur: Bu şiir anlamsızdır, saçmadır, toplumdan, yaşamdan kopuktur vs. Şimdi birkaç örnekle ortak tepkiyi özetlemek istiyorum. Daha 1956 yılının sonlarında; yani İkinci Yeni’yle ilgili tartışma- ların henüz alevlenmeye başladığı yıllarda, zaman zaman Pazar Postası’nda yazıları çıkan Orhan Duru, özellikle Ece Ayhan’ın şiirlerinin bir şey söylemediğini ileri sürer. Bunu, o yıllarda âdeta İkinci Yeni’nin savunuculuğunu üstlenen Muzaffer Erdost’un şu sözlerinden çıkarıyoruz: ‚Geçen akşam Orhan Duru ile konuşuyorduk. Bize ‘Ece Ayhan’ın şiirlerini basacağınıza, Ümit Oğuzcan’ın daha başkalarının şiirlerini basın’ dedi, bunu biraz da eğlenerek söyledi. Çünkü Ece Ayhan’ın şiirleri bir şey söylemiyormuş, ortaçağ şiirine gidiyormuş.‛3 Orhan Kutlugil’in Pazar Postası’nda yayımlanan İkinci Yeni şiirlerine ilişkin sözleri de, o yılların ortak tepkisini yansıt- masını bakımından ilginç. Şöyle diyor Kutlugil, Pazar Postası gazetesinin Sanat-Edebiyat sayfasını yönetenlere seslenerek: http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote3sym#sdfootnote3sym 284 Alâattin KARACA Turkish Studies International Periodical For the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 5/2 Spring 2010 ‚Pazar Postası’nın birçok sayfaları ise, kâğıt üzerinde şaircilik oynayan bir koloninin yani ‘İkinci Yeni’cilerin şiir ve hikâyeleri ile dolup taşıyor.‛4 Benzer bir tepkiyi Necati Cumalı, Yeditepe dergisinin 1960’ta ‚İkinci Yeni ve Eleştirmeciler‛ başlığı altında açtığı so- ruşturmaya verdiği yanıtta gösteriyor: ‚Bunların her sözü bir dizi içinde başlayıp bitiyor. Şiirlerindeki her dizinin kendinden önce, kendinden sonra gelen öbür dizilerle hiçbir ilişiği, hiçbir bağlantısı yok. Hayatı, konuşma dilini bıraktılar. Şiir dilinden dem vuruyorlar. Söyledikleri anlaşılmaz, kuş dili cinsinden bir şey.‛5 Aynı soruşturmaya yanıt veren Hikmet Dizdaroğlu da üç aşağı beş yukarı aynı tepkiyi şu tümcelerle ifade ediyor: ‚İkinci Yeni yarım doğmuş bir çocuktu. Ona gerçekten bağlı olanlar bulunduğu gibi, güç- süzlüklerini anlamsızlık perdesi arkasına sak- layarak, saçmaları cevher gibi sunmak isteyenler de vardı.‛6 Bu örnekleri çoğaltmak mümkün; ancak gerek yok. İkinci Yeni’ye gösterilen tepki belli: Dilin bozulması, anlamsızlık, zor anlaşılırlık, toplumdan ve yaşamdan kopukluk vs. Bu tepkiler, aslında bir gerçeği ortaya koyuyor: İkinci Yeni alışılmış bir şiir değil; dili, gerçek anlayışı, imge kuruşu farklı. Tepkiler de bundan dolayı. ‘Yansıtmacı poetika’ya alışmış okur ve eleştirmen, şiirde öncelikle bir anlam, bir öykü, bir konu; resmin diliyle söylersek; figür arıyor ve tabii ki doğa gerçeğine uygun bir kurgu ve bütünlük bulmak istiyor. Oysa İkinci Yeni’de bunlar yok. Sonuç: Şok, yadırgama ve yadsıma. Şimdi iki örnek şiir üzerinde, İkinci Yeni ile kendinden önceki ‘yansıtmacı poetika’ arasındaki farkı görelim. İlk şiir Yahya Kemal’den; http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote4sym#sdfootnote4sym http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote5sym#sdfootnote5sym http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote6sym#sdfootnote6sym İkinci Yeni Şiiri ve Resim 285 Turkish Studies International Periodical For the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 5/2 Spring 2010 Mehlika Sultan Mehlika Sultan’a âşık yedi genç Gece şehrin kapısından çıktı: Mehlika Sultan’a âşık yedi genç Kara sevdalı birer âşıktı. Bir hayalet gibi dünya güzeli Girdiğinden beri rü’yâlarına: Hepsi meshûr, o muamma güzeli Gittiler görmeğe Kaf dağlarına. Hepsi, sırtında abâ, günlerce Gittiler içleri hicranla dolu: Her günün ufkunu sardıkça gece Dediler: ‘Belki son akşamdır bu.’7 << Şiir, aynı alışılmış dil ve ritimle devam ediyor. Bu ne- denle hepsini almaya gerek yok. Ancak yukarıdaki dörtlüklerde bile, şiirin apaçık, duru bir dille yazıldığı, bir anlamı, konusu ve öyküsü olduğu belli. Usu allak bullak etmiyor, şiirde düzenli bir ritim var ve bu ritim üzere yürüyorsunuz; ton dışılık, şaşırtma, yol değiştirme yok; hatta şiirde klasik şiir anlayışından kaynaklanan bir sözcük hiyerarşisi var. Kısacası figüratif bütünlük, doğaya uygunluk, açık konu, anlaşılır ve rafine bir dil ve tamamlanmış bir biçim, bu şiirin başlıca özellikleri. Bu nedenle klasik şiir anlayışına sahip okuru şok etmiyor; bu tür eleştirmenler ya da okurlarca yadırganmıyor. Ayrıca bu şiirin resmi yapılabilir; çünkü figürleri belli, açık ve tam: Uçta, ulaşılmak istenen klasik bir sevgili tipi, diğer yanda ona ulaşmak isteyen âşık yedi genç ve aralarında aşmaları gereken uzun ve belirsiz bir yol ya da dipsiz bir kuyu< Şiiri okuyunca, gözümüzün önünde halk hikâyesi kitaplarının kapaklarındaki gibi bir resim canlanıveriyor hemen. Şimdi İkinci Yeni’den; Ece Ayhan’dan bir şiir alalım: Kınar Hanımın Denizleri Bir çakıl taşları gülümseyişi ağlarmış karafaki rakısıyla şimdi dipsiz kuyulara su olan kınar hanım’dan http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote7sym#sdfootnote7sym 286 Alâattin KARACA Turkish Studies International Periodical For the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 5/2 Spring 2010 düz saçlarıyla ne yapsın şehzadebaşı tiyatrolarında şapkalarını tüketemezmiş hiç İşte kel hasan bu kel hasan karanlığı süpürürmüş ters yakılmış güldürmemek için serkldoryan sigaralarıyla işte masallara da girermiş bir polis o zamanlardan beri sürme kirpiklerini aralayarak insanları çocukların Ve içinde birikmiş ut çalan kadın elleri olurmuş hep gibi bir üzünç sökün edermiş akşamları ağlarken kuyulara kınar hanım’ın denizlerinden8 Bu şiirde ise, her şeyden önce alışılmış şiir dili yok; söz- dizimi parçalanmış, dizeler arasında gramatikal ve anlamsal bağ kurmak zor. O nedenle okuru zorluyor, şaşırtıyor ve şok ediyor kimi zaman. Yahya Kemal’in şiiri bütünlük taşıyan bir figüratif tablo, Ece Ayhan’ın şiiri ise, non-figüratif ve parça parça; alışılmış bütünlükten yoksun; dolayısıyla anlam ve konu bakımından net değil. ‚Mehlika Sultan‛da alışılmış bir ton var, okur, baştan bir ritme sokuluyor ve şiirin sonuna değin bu ritim üzere, bildik bir yolda, hiç yoldan çıkmadan, bildik bir ritimle devam ediyor yoluna. Rahat; çünkü nerede yavaşlayacağını, nerede duracağını, nereye gideceğini biliyor. Oysa Ece Ayhan’ın şiiri ton dışı; atonal müzik gibi, belli bir yolu izlemiyor, aniden yol değiştiriyor, sıç- ramalarla rahatsız oluyorsunuz, baş ve son yok, biçim bakımından da sonlandırılmamış. Ayrıca Ayhan’ın şiirini resmetmek zor; ilkin şiiri çerçeveye almak zor, resmedilse dahi bu resimden apaçık bir anlam, bir öykü çıkaramazsınız. O nedenle sınırları belirsiz, ucu açık ve kaotik bir şiirdir İkinci Yeni. Yahya Kemal’in şiirinde ‘kaos’ yok; her şey yerli yerinde; nesneler, varlıklar, imgeler usa ve mantığa uygun konumdalar, figürler net, şiir alışılmış bir ‘âhenk’ ve biçim üzere yürüyor ve belli bir sona ulaşıyor. Doğaya uygunluk, bütünlük, âhenk ve düzen, altın denge, bu şiirin temel nitelikleri. İşte budur İkinci Yeni ile kendinden önceki şiirler arasın- daki fark. Şimdi resimle ilgi kurmak bakımından Suut Kemal Yetkin’in şu tümcelerini alıntılayalım: http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote8sym#sdfootnote8sym İkinci Yeni Şiiri ve Resim 287 Turkish Studies International Periodical For the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 5/2 Spring 2010 ‚< bugünün anlamsız şiiri, II. Dünya Savaşı’ndan sonra Avrupa’da dahi baş göstermiş ve büyük ölçüde non-figüratif resimden etkilenmiştir. Mademki demişler, bir ressam hiçbir konuyu almadan, alışmış olduğumuz biçimi tuvali üzerine koymadan, yalnız renklerin birbirine girişi, birbirini tamamlayışı ile eser veriyor, o hâlde şair bunu niçin yapmasın. (<) Non-figüratif resimde ise, unsurlar dışarıdan alınmış değildir, hepsi kendilerinindir. Bunun için de yüzde yüz kendinden çıkmıştır ve onun için dümdüz renklerden ibaret düşündüğümüz. İşte buna dayanarak ben diyorum ki, bugünkü anlamsız şiir non-figüratif resmin ta kendisidir.‛9 Burada Yetkin’in asıl amacı İkinci Yeni şiirini eleştirmek; ancak İkinci Yeni ile çağdaş resim arasında kurduğu koşutluk önemli. Konumuz bakımından, Yetkin’in tümcelerinin altı çizil- meli. 1950’li Yıllar: Şiir ve Resimde Görülen Benzer Poetik Değişim Buraya değin, kısaca İkinci Yeni’yi poetik ve pratik açı- dan tanımlamak ve betimlemekti amacım. Kendinden önceki egemen poetika ile karşılaştırarak da, Türk şiirinin İkinci Yeni ile beraber nereden koptuğunu; daha doğrusu bu büyük kırılmayı saptamak istedim. Ama asıl niyetim bu saptamayla beraber sözü resme getirmek, İkinci Yeni şiiri ile o yıllardaki resim poetikası arasındaki koşutluğa dikkati çekmek. Evet, 1950’li yıllarda şiirde bu büyük kırılma ve kopuş yaşanırken, resimde; hatta müzik ve öyküde aynı doğrultuda bir değişimin ortaya çıktığı göze çarpıyor. Nitekim Ahmet Oktay’ın şu tümceleri buna işaret ediyor: ‚Değişim/dönüşüm elbette sadece popüler kültür alanına özgü değildi.Caz müziğinin yanı sıra Atonal müzik de sınırları aştı. 1948’de Adnan Çoker ve Lütfü Günay ilk soyut sergiyi açtılar. Sait Faik yarı gerçeküstücü, yarı fantastik sayılabilecek ve yürürlükteki anlatım tekniklerini dışlayan http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote9sym#sdfootnote9sym 288 Alâattin KARACA Turkish Studies International Periodical For the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 5/2 Spring 2010 öykülerini bir araya getiren Son Kuşlar’ı 1952’de, Alemdağı’nda Var Bir Yılan’ı 1954’te yayım- lamıştı.‛10 Sezer Tansuğ ise, Türk Resminde Yeni Dönem adlı yapı- tında, 1950’li yıllarda resimdeki değişimle Türk şiirindeki değişim arasındaki koşutluğa şu satırlarıyla dikkati çekiyor: ‚Resim sanatımızın 1950’li yıllardan bu yana gelişmesi, diğer sanat ve edebiyat alanlarında görülen tavır ve yaklaşım farklılıklarıyla da paralellik gösterir. Garip ve özellikle ikinci yeni hareketleri, şiir sanatı alanında bu paralel değişimin çarpıcı bir örneğini oluşturur.‛11 Kuşkusuz bunlar, genel yargılar. Resim ve şiirdeki koşut değişimi daha somut ve açık biçimde saptamak için, o yıllarda yayımlanan, resmin poetikasına ilişkin yazılara göz atmak gerek. İkinci Yeni’nin oluşumunda önemli bir işleve sahip Pazar Postası, bu konuda da önemli ipuçları içeren yazılara kaynaklık ediyor. Bu nedenle resim ve şiir poetikasındaki koşutluk Pazar Postası’ndan izlenebilir. Örneğin Metin Eloğlu’nun ilk sergisi dolayısıyla yaptığı konuşmada söylediği şu sözler, resimde de İkinci Yeni şiirindekine benzer bir değişimin yaşandığını göstermekte: ‚Ziyaretçilerin bir kısmı fazla soyut resimlerin izahını istiyorlar. İlle de bir öykü arıyorlar onlarda. Bildikleri, ezberledikleri bir anlatım düzeni bulamayınca yadırgıyorlar.‛12 Pazar Postası’nda resimle ilgili en kapsamlı değerlendir- meleri yapan yazarlardan biri ise Mete Şar. Resimde, 1956’dan sonra göze çarpan bu poetik değişmeyi, onun yazılarından izle- mek mümkün. Şar’ın ‚Yenilik Resim Üzerine Konuşular 1‛ başlıklı yazısındaki şu tümceler, Eloğlu’nunkilerle aşağı yukarı aynı ve resimdeki değişimi bir başka açıdan yansıtması nedeniyle önemli: ‚Oysa yenilik yapıtlarda yalnızca gözle görü- lebilecek biçimlerin kaybolması sonucu, resim sanatına karşı apaçık bir dudak büküş ortaya çıktı. Alıştığı biçimleri bulamayan gözlemci neye güzel diyecekti. Gözlemcilerin bunu bir türlü http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote10sym#sdfootnote10sym http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote11sym#sdfootnote11sym http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote12sym#sdfootnote12sym İkinci Yeni Şiiri ve Resim 289 Turkish Studies International Periodical For the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 5/2 Spring 2010 çözememesi sonucu, yenilik resim ancak mutlu azınlıkça kanıksamadan ilginçlikle gözlendi. Büyük gözlemci toplumu, yenilik yapıtların tümünü sevmedi. Yerdi. Resimde, doğadakinin aynı; bir ağaç, bir kuş, bir ev bulamayan gözlemci, onu saçma buluyordu. (<) Resimde biçimler, hiçbir konuya bir hikâyeymişçesine bağlanmadan, salt çizgiyle renk olarak çıktığında, yaşanılan gerçeğe en yakın durumdadır. (<) ‚Eleştirmecilerin pek çoğu, resim sanatının bu ferdiyetçilik sonucu bir soysuzlaşmaya gittiğini söylüyorlardı. Salt kendi iç dünyasını veren sanatçı, toplumun malı değildir diyorlardı. Oysa yenilik resmin yıllardır hızını kaybetmeden gelişmesi bu sözleri yanıltıyor.‛13 Şar, bu tümcelerinde, modern resmin, doğaya, nesneye, konuya, anlama ve bir öyküye bağlı klasik resim algılamasına bağlı izleyicilerce yadırgandığını, kısacası, soyut ve non-figüratif resmin onlarca ‘saçma’ bulunduğunu ileri sürüyor. Çünkü onlar, resimdeki figürlerin doğadaki gerçeğe uygun olmasını istiyorlar. Oysa Şar, modern resmin doğru yolda olduğunu; çünkü hiçbir konuya bağlanmadan, salt çizgi ve renk olarak çıktığında gerçeğe en yakın durumda bulunduğunu savunuyor. Şimdi İkinci Yeni’nin de, bu tür ‘saçma’, ‘toplumdan kopuk’, ‘bireyci’, ‘konusuz’, ‘anlamsız’ gibi suçlamalarla karşı karşıya kaldığını anımsayalım. Mete Şar, yalnız bu yazıyla kalmıyor; Pazar Postası’nda kaleme aldığı ‚Yenilik Resim Üzerine Konuşular 2: Yenilik Re- simde Konu‛14, ‚Yenilik Resim Üzerine Konuşular 3: Yenilik Akımlarının Evrensel Görüşü‛15, ‚Yenilik Resmin Dili‛16, ‚Gerçek Resmin Evrimi 1‛17, ‚Gerçek Resmin Evrimi 2‛18, ‚Gerçek Resmin Evrimi 3‛19 başlıklı yazılarında da modern resmin doğal gerçekten, koptuğunu, konu ve öykünün arka plâna atıldığını; dolayısıyla resimde de ‘gerçek’ anlayışının değiştiğini ve buna bağlı olarak, resmin dilinin (renk ve biçim) de değiştiğini belirtiyor. Mete Şar’ın yazılarının yanı sıra, Pazar Postası’nda isimsiz olarak yayımlanan ‚Soyut Sanat‛ başlıklı yazı da resimdeki de- http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote13sym#sdfootnote13sym http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote14sym#sdfootnote14sym http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote15sym#sdfootnote15sym http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote16sym#sdfootnote16sym http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote17sym#sdfootnote17sym http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote18sym#sdfootnote18sym http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote19sym#sdfootnote19sym 290 Alâattin KARACA Turkish Studies International Periodical For the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 5/2 Spring 2010 ğişimi yansıtması bakımından önemli. O nedenle şu tümcelerin altını çiziyorum: ‚Gerçekten de bugün resimlerin yarısı soyut sanat resimleridir. Ressamların yarısı, resim meraklılarının manzara, kişi, natürmort, deniz, mitolojik, dini, işçi veya askeri gibi şimdiye kadar bizzat resim yapmanın doğrulaması olan figüratif unsurların hiçbirini bulamadıkları eserleri meydana getirmektedirler. Soyut sanatı geleneksel sanattan ayıran temel özellik şudur: Soyut sanat, tuval üzerinde ‘hayatımızın doğal çevresini meydana getiren nesnel gerçek’in herhangi bir unsurunu tanımamıza imkân verecek her şeyden kaçınır.‛20 O dönemde Pazar Postası’nda, sergilere ilişkin yazılanlar da, resimdeki değişimi yansıtması bakımından dikkate değer olabilir. Örneğin Nuri Abaç’ın 22 Mayıs 1957’de açtığı sergi üze- rine Orhan Çetinkaya’nın kaleme aldığı ‚Abaç’ın Sergisi‛ başlıklı yazıda, Abaç’ın hazırladığı broşürden söz edilir. Bu broşür, Abaç’ın resim anlayışını vermesi bakımından önemlidir. Şöyle diyor Abaç broşürde; ‚Biz, resim sanatında maddeciliği, eğilmez bi- çimciliği artık bıraktık. (<) Maddenin çizgilerini tuvale geçirirken kenarlarından canhıraş feryatlar sızıyor. Dimağımızın şuuraltı refleksleri çalışmaya başlayınca boya selleri tuvale akmaya başlar, birbirini takip eden bu selleri tabiatın yerçekimi yasası yoluna koyuyor<. Ressam, şairin dimağında beliren, şuuraltında yeşeren kelime yığınlarına karşılık, renk yığınlarına imgeler ve bu saf renk kümelerinden derlediği salkımları o andaki reflekslerine ve yerçekimi yasalarına biçimler ve tuvaline yerleştirir< En güç iş başarılmıştır. Çünkü sanatçı, ancak yogileşme diyebileceğimiz (şuurlu şuursuzluk), şuur altına inme esnasında, konsantrasyon derecesine göre, en bakir anlamını yaşayacaktır.‛21 http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote20sym#sdfootnote20sym http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote21sym#sdfootnote21sym İkinci Yeni Şiiri ve Resim 291 Turkish Studies International Periodical For the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 5/2 Spring 2010 Yine aynı tarihlerde Pazar Postası’nda, F. Güden’in Ali Helvacı’nın sergisi dolayısıyla kaleme aldığı yazı da Türk res- mindeki değişimi yansıtması nedeniyle ilginç. Güden’in ‚Ali Büyükhelvacı’nın Resimleri ya da Paul Klee’ye Selâm‛22 adlı yazısı ilkin başlığıyla bize Türk ressamlarının etkilendiği resim anlayışını vermesi bakımından önemli. Başlıktan da anlaşıldığı üzere Ali Büyükhelvacı Paul Klee’den etkilenmiş bir ressam. Bu önemli; çünkü Paul Klee, İkinci Yeni’yi de etkilemiş bir sanatçı. Güden, Klee’nin resimleri için şu saptamaları yapıyor yazısında: ‚Klee dünyasını elma, ayvanın dış görünüşüyle, çıplak insan suretleriyle kurmuyordu. Simgelerinde, düzeninde aklı allak bullak eden bir yön vardı.‛23 Usun allak bullak edilmesi, başta İlhan Berk olmak üzere, çoğu İkinci Yeni şairince benimsenmiş bir poetik anlayış. Güden aynı tavrı, Helvacıoğlu’nun resimlerinde de görmekte. Nitekim şöyle diyor Helvacıoğlu’nun resimleri için: ‚Bakın Çiçek Bahçesi’ne, Paul Klee’nin portresine, kolay yenilikçi resimleri görmeye alışmış gözler onlarda hiçbir şey göremeyecek.. (<) Ağaç suretlerinden kasımpatının sarısından, papatyanın beyazından kaçıyor o. Biliyor ki bütün bunların renklerini değiştirmekle boylarını kısaltıp genişletmekle yani bir ‘deformation’la herkesin anlayabileceği resimlerden kaçıyor.‛24 Türk resminde, 1950’li yıllardaki değişimi göstermek için seçtiğim son örnek yazı, Cemil Eren’in Türk-Amerikan Der- neği’nde açtığı kişisel sergi dolayısıyla Kaya Özsezgin tarafından kaleme alınmış. Özsezgin yazısında ressam Cemil Eren’in gö- rüşlerine de yer vermiş. Cemil Eren, soyut resmin, çağın bir gereği olduğu inancında ve çağdaş resmin en büyük sorununun renk, biçim ve kişilik olduğunu belirtiyor25. İkinci Yeni şiirinde de dil ve kişiliğin çok önemli olduğunu anımsarsak, o yıllarda resim ile şiirin ortak bir poetik alanda buluştuğunu rahatlıkla söyleyebiliriz. Mete Şar’ın resimde doğal gerçek ve konuya ilişkin olarak söylediği; ‚İlkin sanatçının, daha doğrusu dünkü sanatçının; kendine hareket noktası olarak doğa biçimlerinin dış görünüşünü seçmesi, halk http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote22sym#sdfootnote22sym http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote23sym#sdfootnote23sym http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote24sym#sdfootnote24sym http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote25sym#sdfootnote25sym 292 Alâattin KARACA Turkish Studies International Periodical For the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 5/2 Spring 2010 arasında resimde konunun her şeyin başı olduğu sanısını uyandırdı. Oysa sanatçı için konu, yapıtında bir fırça, bir palet gibi, bir araçtan farksızdı. İşte dünkü sanatçının bu yolda ilerlemesi, konunun halka daha ilginç olmasını, dolayısı ile yanlış bir resim diline ulaşmasını sağladı.‛26 biçimindeki tümceler, modern resimde konunun başat öğe olmaktan çıktığını gösteriyor. İlhan Berk de aşağıdaki tümcelerinde, şiir için aynı düşünceleri ileri sürüyor: ‚Gerçek şiir aslını ararsak, konuda değildir bir kere. (<) Beş altı yıl önce şiiri şiir yapanın konu olduğunu ben de buz gibi söylerdim. Bugün iyi şiirin, gerçek şiirin konuyla ilgisi olmadığını söylüyorum.‛27 Bütün bunlar, 1950’li yıllarda ortaya çıkan değişik resim ve şiirlerin ‘anlamsız, konusuz, us ve mantığa aykırı, alışılmış algılama tarzına ters’ gibi nitelemelerle, ortak bir tepkiye maruz kaldıklarını göstermektedir. Aslında yalnızca bu tepkiler bile, 1950’li yıllarda şiir ve resmin ortak bir poetik alanda buluştuğunu kanıtlar. Kısaca söylemek gerekirse, o yıllarda Türk resmi ve Türk şiiri, ‘doğaya bağlı, doğaya uygun gerçeklik’ anlayışını hızla aşındırmaya, yıkmaya başlamış; dili ve algılama tarzını değiştirmiştir. Bu ise, temelde ‘yansıtmacı poetika’dan kopuşun göstergesidir. İkinci Yeni Şairlerinin Resme İlgisi Buraya değin, 1950’li yıllarda resim ile İkinci Yeni şiirinin benzer bir değişim içinde olduklarını ve bu nedenle genel anlamda ortak bir poetik alanda buluştuklarını ifade etmeye çalıştım. Şimdi daha somut olarak, İkinci Yeni şairlerinin resim ilgisi üzerinde durmak istiyorum. Ancak burada örneğin İlhan Berk’in resimlerini ya da Cemal Süreya’nın desenlerini söz konusu edecek değilim. Amacım, aslında; ‚İkinci Yeni şiiriyle resim sanatı arasında bir etkileşim olmuş mu? Bir etkileşim varsa, -en azından şiir açısından bir etkilenme söz konusuysa- bunun somut örnekleri neler? İşte bu sorulara yanıt bulmaya çalışmak. Söz konusu soruların yanıtlarını bir ölçüde, Cemal Süreya’nın günlüğündeki şu satırlarda bulabiliyoruz. Süreya, bize İkinci Yeni şairlerinin kimilerinin resim sanatıyla olan ilgileri hakkında şu bilgileri veriyor: http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote26sym#sdfootnote26sym http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote27sym#sdfootnote27sym İkinci Yeni Şiiri ve Resim 293 Turkish Studies International Periodical For the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 5/2 Spring 2010 ‚Birkaçımızda büyük resim tutkusu vardı. Boyuna albümleri karıştırırdık. Sözgelimi, Edip Cansever’le ben. Sezai Karakoç, resme başka bir açıdan bakardı, ama bakardı. (Mülkiye Dergisi’nde onun Mona Roza’larını ben desenlemiştim, takma adım da Charles Suarez, yani C:S.) Ece’nin resme önem verdiğini biliyordum. Metin Eloğlu, zaten ressamdı. Karıştırırdık albümleri (ne albümler ama): Chagall ne yapmış? Yüksel Arslan? Arkadaşımızdı Yüksel Arslan. Edgü de arkadaşımız< Edip’le resmin sorunları üzeride çok konuştuk. Onun Kapalıçarşı’da, Sandal Bedesteni’ndeki dükkânının üst katındaki masasının bir bölümünde resim albümleri Himalayalar gibi yükselirdi. Çoğu da İngilizce. (<) Soyuta da vakit ayırmışızdır. Yine de Edip’le figürsüze pek yanaşmadığımız kalmış aklımda (yanaşamıyorduk belki de). Öyle bir kültürümüz oluşmamıştı. (<) 1957’de miydi? Michel Seuphor’un Soyut Resim Sözlüğü’nü (Dictionnaire de La Peinture Abstraite) almıştım. Kitabın gerçekten çok önemli (benim için bugün daha önemli) önsözünü Edip’e çevirerek okumuştum. Unutamam o önsözü önemli bulmuştuk da, sözlükteki resim örneklerinin üzerinde fazlaca durmamıştık. Yine de figürü tam anlamıyla yitirmemiş sanatçılar (Kandinsky vb.) ilgimizi çekiyordu. Bir de, her şeyin ötesinde, Klee. Çok başkaydı, hayatımızda bizim Klee. Klee’yi an- layabiliyorduk.‛28 Bu sözler şunu gösteriyor: 1950’li yıllarda Cemal Süreya, Edip Cansever, Sezai Karakoç, resim sanatına ilgi gösteriyorlar. Hatta Süreya desenler dahi yapıyor, resmin sorunlarıyla kuramsal düzeyde ilgileniyor da. Paul Klee, Marc Chagall ve Kandinsky, ilgilerini çeken başlıca ressamlar. Ancak İkinci Yeni şairleri içinde resim sanatıyla –şiirle ilişki kurmak veya pratik anlamda- en çok ilgilenen şair, İlhan Berk’tir kuşkusuz. Abidin Dino’nun verdiği http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote28sym#sdfootnote28sym 294 Alâattin KARACA Turkish Studies International Periodical For the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 5/2 Spring 2010 bilgiye göre, şairin resim tutkusu 1939’da başlıyor. Şöyle anlatıyor Dino, Berk’teki resim tutkusunun başlangıcını: ‚1939 senesi idi İlhan Berk İstanbul’a geldiğinde, güleç bir dikey olarak Komando Han’daki atölyemin demirbaşları arasında karıştı. Galata Kulesi çizgisinde, en üst katta bulunan iş yerim, eşgüdümlü bir resim ve şiir üretme fabrikası olmuştu çabucak. (<) Korkarım ki İlhan Berk’in kaderi, -hele ressam olarak- her duvarı ayrı bir renge boyanmış Komando Han’da ‘bağlandı’. Orada tutuldu resim denen ince hastalığa.‛29 Bu ince hastalık, Berk’te daha sonra da yıllarca sürüp gi- decektir< Ancak bu bir yana, şairin resmin olanaklarını şiire taşıma çabası dikkat çekicidir. Nitekim o, ‚Bir şiir yazacağım zaman, şiirin konusuyla ilgili resimlere bakmaya bayılırım.‛30 diyerek bu çabasını açıklar. Örneğin bir gün Max Ernst’in Le Chevalier Polonais adlı tablosunu keser, ona uzun uzun bakar, resimdeki belirsizliktir, usu hiçe saymadır Berk’i çeken, onda ayrıca bir şiir bulur31. Bir başka gün Carpaccio’nun Kötü Kadınlar resmidir ilgi- sini çeken32, kimi zaman Picasso’ya vurulur; Leda’yı yazabilmek için, onun çıplak resimlerine33 bakar, Delvaux’nun Leda’sına bulur34. Io’nun öyküsünü yazmak için de Le Correge’in Io resmini ele geçirip ona bakar günlerce35, Io’nun desenini çizer. Ardından Cranash’ın Diane Endormie adlı tablosunu inceler, ondan etkilenir, Cranash’a baka baka bir desen çizer36. Bütün bunlar Berk’in, yazacağı şiirin konusuyla ilgili resimleri incelediğini, resimler aracılığıyla şiirin evrenine girmeyi denediğini gösteriyor. Dolayısıyla resim, onun için şiir yazmada bir esin kaynağı olabiliyor. İşte bu nedenle önemlidir resim İlhan Berk’te. Kuşkusuz Berk, şiirde resmin olanaklarından yararlanma konusunda İkinci Yeni’nin en uçtaki şairi ve bizi ilgilendiren de asıl bu yönüdür. 1950’lerde Türk resmine olduğu gibi, Berk’in şiirine somut olarak etkiyen ressamlardan biri de, kuşkusuz Paul Klee. Klee, Berk için önemli bir ressam. Şair, Klee’ye olan hay- ranlığını düzyazılarında da sık sık dile getirmiştir. Örneğin El Yazılarına Vuruyor Güneş’te şunları söylüyor onun için: http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote29sym#sdfootnote29sym http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote30sym#sdfootnote30sym http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote31sym#sdfootnote31sym http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote32sym#sdfootnote32sym http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote33sym#sdfootnote33sym http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote34sym#sdfootnote34sym http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote35sym#sdfootnote35sym http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote36sym#sdfootnote36sym İkinci Yeni Şiiri ve Resim 295 Turkish Studies International Periodical For the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 5/2 Spring 2010 ‚İşte o günlerin birinde Paul Klee’nin resimlerini gördüm. Bu arada Salvador Dali de var, var ya onu eskiden biliyordum. Klee, galiba şimdilerde adı en çok geçen ressamlardan. Adı, daha 1944’te öldüğü hâlde, şimdi duyuldu diyeceğim neredeyse. Bunu biraz da suretsiz resmin yayılmasına borçluyuz belki. (<) Klee soyut resmin bir bakıma Picasso’dan sonra biricik büyük ustası galiba. Picasso gibi bir ressam yaşarken onu hâlâ soyut resmin ustalarından biri gibi görmek belki güç bir şey, ama Klee’nin böyle bir yönü var işte. Klee, o köylünün dediğini yapıyor: Olmayanı. Sarı kuşlu manzarası böyle bir resim. Sonra Ad Marginem, Garip Bahçe, Vahşi Adam. Öteki resimleri tüm bilmediğimiz biçimlerin resimleri hep. Ad Marginem’in bir baskısını aldım. Bir on beş gündür de hep ona bakıyorum. Bakmaya doyamıyorum.‛37 Bu satırlarda, Berk’in Klee’ye olan ilgisi açık. Ancak şair yalnızca izleyici olarak bakmıyor onun resimlerine; şiirlerine de etkiyor, esin kaynağı oluyor Klee’nin resimleri. Örneğin ‚Paul Klee’de Uyanmak‛ adlı şiirinin esin kaynağı, Klee’nin Ad Marginem adlı tablosu. Berk, bunu bir yazısında şöyle açıklıyor: ‚Resimlerden yıllardır duygulanırım. Şimdi Klee’nin bana yaptığı bir bakıma bu. Bir haftadır Klee beni coşturuyor. Duvardaki o resmi büyük bir şiire doğru götürüyor beni. Adını buldum bile: Klee’de Uyanmak. Belki de son mısraı şöyle olacak: A’lar U’lar, V’lerle olmak, Paul Klee’de uyanmak.‛38 Tablo ile şiir yan yana konunca, Klee’nin tablosundaki renk, ışık ve görüntünün; ama daha da önemlisi düşsel atmosferin, Berk’in şiirine ne denli yansıdığı daha açık biçimde fark ediliyor. Şiir şöyle: Paul Klee’de Uyanmak Uyandım çiçek gibi dayanılmaz kızlar Ad Marginem’den asma köprüler kurmuşlar İstanbul’a Nehirler, aylar çevirmişler o Ayla’lar, Münibe’ler http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote37sym#sdfootnote37sym http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote38sym#sdfootnote38sym 296 Alâattin KARACA Turkish Studies International Periodical For the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 5/2 Spring 2010 Tümü bir uzak denizde A’lar, V’ler, U’larla Gece sarı bir evde bir iki yaprak evlerinin önünde Açtı açacaklar dünyamızı açtı açacaklar Bu denizi Ayla ayaklarını soksun diye getirdim Bu dünyaları onun için açtım bu balıkları tuttum Bir sabah çıkmak güneşler, aylar bir sabah çıkmak Bir ağacı bu evleri sarı ters bir kuşu düzeltmek Edibe bu sokağı al götür görmek istemiyorum Edibe bu evleri Edibe bu göğü bu güneşleri Edibe A’lar V’ler U’larla olmak Paul Klee’de uyanmak39 Resim 1: Paul Klee, Ad Marginem Şimdi, bir de Ad Marginem’e bakalım. Ad Marginem, Paul Klee’nin saf psikolojik doğaçlama (emprevizyon) değerlerine bağlı kalarak, bilinçaltı bunalımlarını dile getirdiği lirik bir yapıt. Schönberg’in besteleriyle benzerlikler gösteren Klee resimleri, minyatür anlayışında yapılandırılmıştır. Resimde kullanılan harfler, birer değer simgesidir. Bu simgeler, insanın kendisini var ettiği yaşamın ve edimin simgeleri. Mısır resim yazısında kullanılan kuş, düşünceden özgürleştirilerek, doğadaki varlığına kavuşturulurken, uzaklardaki erişilmez güneş, yaşamın ortasında http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote39sym#sdfootnote39sym İkinci Yeni Şiiri ve Resim 297 Turkish Studies International Periodical For the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 5/2 Spring 2010 masum bir duygulanım simgesine dönüşmüştür. Resmin her yanına serpiştirilmiş gözler, ürkek modern insanın korkularını taşır. Paul Klee, bu tabloda sanki Buda’nın; ne özdekte ne de ruhta hiçbir şey sürekli değildir, ne biçim ne de öz sürekli değildir. Her şey gelip geçicidir. Evrende ancak olaylar vardır. Bunlar da geçici olarak bir araya gelip, yalan ve boş bir ben’ le, yalan ve boş bir dünya yaratırlar, deyişini resmetmiştir. Tabloda, biçimler aracılığıyla kurulan, geçici olarak bir araya gelmiş, yalan ve boş bir ‘ben’le, yalan ve boş bir dünya, geçici/düşsel bir atmosfer hemen göze çarpmaktadır. Şimdi, Berk’in, Paul Klee’nin resimlerine neden ilgi duy- duğu sorusu akla gelebilir. Bana kalırsa Klee ile Berk, sanat anla- yışı bakımından akraba. Paul Klee’nin resimleri de usa, mantığa bağlı değil, usu allak bullak eden cinsten. Doğaya bağlı, yansıtmacı klasik figüratif anlayış yok Klee’de, figürler doğadan koparılmış, yerlerinden oynatılmış, belli bir konu veya öyküye dayanmıyor; zengin çağrışımlarla yüklü soyut bir evren var onun resimlerinde. Kısacası Klee, görüneni değil görünmeyeni göstermek peşinde. Burada söylediklerimizi daha anlaşılır kılmak için bir ressam ile bir köylü arasında geçen şu konuşmaları aktarmalıyım: Ormanda ağaç resmi yapan bir ressama, köylü sorar: - Ne yapıyorsunuz? Ressam - Şu gördüğün ağacı, der. Köylü karşılık verir: - O, zaten var. Klee, ‚zaten var‛ olanın peşinde değildir resimde. Berk’in deyişiyle; ‚Klee, o köylünün dediğini yapıyor: olmayanı.‛ Nitekim ‚Sanat görüneni kopya etmek değil, görünmeyeni gösterebilmektir.‛ diyor ressam. İlhan Berk’in şiirleri de öyle; alışılmamış, us dışı ve özgür imgelerle soyut bir dünyaya, ‘var olmayan’a, ‘düşsel evren’e açılıyor. Hatta bunu; yani var olandan kopup var olmayana ulaşma ve onu dile getirme isteğini, ‚Paul Klee’de Uyanmak‛ başlıklı şiirinde; ‚Edibe bu sokağı al götür görmek istemiyorum/Edibe bu evleri Edibe bu göğü bu güneşleri Edibe‛ dizelerinde dile getiriyor 298 Alâattin KARACA Turkish Studies International Periodical For the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 5/2 Spring 2010 da. İşte Berk, bundan dolayı Klee’ye yakın. Nitekim kendisi de Klee’ye olan ilgisinin nedenini şu tümcelerinde açıklıyor: ‚Her gün biraz daha düşsever bir ozan olmaya doğru gidiyorum: Usu hor görüyorum. Klee’yi, Max Ernst’i, Miro’u sevişimi böyle açıklıyorum. Figüratif resime bakamaz oldum.40 Berk’i Klee’yle aynı düzlemde buluşturan bir başka yön; biçim anlayışları. Klee, biçime ilişkin düşüncesini; ‚Hiçbir zaman ve hiçbir yerde eksiksiz sonuç, eksiksiz bitirme, eksiksiz son de- ğildir. Biçimi oluş olarak (tekevvün) devinim olarak düşünmek gerekir.‛ tümceleriyle özetliyor. Belli ki o, geleneksel sanatın tamamlanmış biçim savının olanaksızlığına inanıyor; Bergson’ un 1910 yılında yayımlanan ‚Yaratıcı Evrim- Evolution Creative‛ adlı yapıtından esinlenen kavramlarla devinim olgusunu anlamlandırma çabasında. Buradan yola çıkarak Klee’nin resimlerine, sonuçtan çok sürecin önem kazandığı biçim anlayı- şının egemen olduğu söylenebilir. Sonuçta bu süreç, bitmemiş biçim, onun resimlerine eylem (action) ve mekanik olmayan or- ganik bir devinim olarak yansımaktadır. Aynı şeyleri Berk’in şiirleri için de söyleyebiliriz. Onun şiirlerinde de sonuç değil, süreç vardır, tamamlanmamış, dağınık, geçici olarak var olmuş, hatta raslantısal informal bir devinim. Ayrıca Klee, Berk’te harf sevgisi uyandırmıştır. Gerçekten de o, kimi resimlerinde, harfleri bir çağrışım uyandıracak biçimde kullanmıştır. Bu tarz, ondan Berk’e de geçer. İlhan Berk, şiirlerinde harfleri, biçimlerinden yola çıkarak bir çağrışım aracı olarak kullanır. Şair, Klee’nin bu etkisini; ‚Bana harf sevgisini düşünüyorum da, Klee verdi diyorum. 6 yıldır Klee’nin Ad Marginem’i karşımda durur; bakmaya doyamamışımdır. İlk o, galiba V’de, U’da, r’de, L’de plastik bir güzellik olduğunu bulmuş; onları tablosuna saçmış. Ben harflere resimden başka bir gözle bakamam oldum bittim. Alfabelere doyamam. (<) Latin alfabesinde, en sevdiğim harfler: A, f, M, U, r, C, e. Bu harfler resimden başka bir şey düşündürmez bana.‛41 sözleriyle belirtiyor. ‚A’lar V’ler U’larla olmak Paul Klee’de uyanmak‛42, ‚E sesinde yüzlerce trenler yürürdü Galile’de‛43, ‚Böyle bütün gece konuştu bütün gece f bütün gece bindi on/bindi yüz bindi baktık‛44, ‚Sonra büyük bir T çizdi ne güzel çizdi büyük bir T büyük/kuşlar geçiyordu‛45, ‚A harfinden bir http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote40sym#sdfootnote40sym http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote41sym#sdfootnote41sym http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote42sym#sdfootnote42sym http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote43sym#sdfootnote43sym http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote44sym#sdfootnote44sym http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote45sym#sdfootnote45sym İkinci Yeni Şiiri ve Resim 299 Turkish Studies International Periodical For the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 5/2 Spring 2010 çarşı güneşi yüzünüzde‛, ‚Bir f’ydinizi Önasya’larda o şey evlerde‛, ‚Şimdi h şimdi M sesi ilk nasıl karanlık‛46 gibi dizeler, Klee resimlerinin Berk’teki etkisini gösteren örnekler. Resim 2: Paul Klee Resim 3: Paul Klee Berk ayrıca Paul Klee’nin resimlerinin adlarından da et- kilenmiş. Siyah Hâlâ Yerinde, Artık Gün Üstüne Natürmort, Sonbahar Elçisi gibi tablo adlarında bir şiir buluyor şair. Hatta Klee’nin resimlerini bir şiir olarak değerlendiriyor. Onun tablolarının usu yıktığını, dağıttığını, parçaladığını söylüyor47. Berk, bunların dışında çeşitli sergiler üzerine de yazılar kaleme almış. Örneğin ‚‚Orhan Peker‛48, ‚Turan Erol Resmi‛49, ‚Türemen’in Resimleri Üzerine‛50, ‚Sessiz Tenha Bir Çekirdek‛51, ‚Yves Klein/ Orhan Peker‛52 başlıklı yazıları bu türden. Kuşkusuz söz konusu yazılar da İlhan Berk’in resim ilgi- sinin bir başka kanıtı. Tabii bu tür yazılar bir ilginin göstergesi ama; başta da söylediğimiz gibi, biz asıl resmin şiire yansımaları üzerinde duruyoruz. Yukarıda söylendiği gibi, İlhan Berk’in ‚Paul Klee’de Uyanmak‛ başlıklı şiiri, bunun en somut örneği. Ancak başka şiirler de var. Örneğin ‚Pablo Picasso‛. Şiirin ‚Nu au fauteuil noir‛ başlıklı bölümünde, Picasso’nun aynı adlı tab- losunun etkisi hemen göze çarpıyor: Pablo Picasso < Nu au fauteuil noir http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote46sym#sdfootnote46sym http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote47sym#sdfootnote47sym http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote48sym#sdfootnote48sym http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote49sym#sdfootnote49sym http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote50sym#sdfootnote50sym http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote51sym#sdfootnote51sym http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote52sym#sdfootnote52sym 300 Alâattin KARACA Turkish Studies International Periodical For the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 5/2 Spring 2010 Bir ağaç gördüğü pencerenin Çiçeğe durdu duracak Koltuğunki eller saçlar gözler Eller saçlar gözler bir başına Kadın bir gökyüzüne bakıyor Kadın hiç kımıldamıyor hiç konuşmuyor bakıyor Bakıyor bakmakla bitecek gibi değil gökyüzü diyor Pencere bir daha böyle durmam diyor Ne maviler ne karalar bilin ki bir daha böyle durmayız diyorlar Binde bir bu dünyada beklediğimiz o binde bir söylediği şairlerin bu işte Böyle duracağız diyor eller Bizi hiç kimse bir daha yerimizden oynatayım demeyecek Saçlar böyle kalacağız diyor İlk bu mutluluk her şeyi ilk görüyoruz diyorlar Odada ne varsa soba, ayna ve daha ne varsa bunun gibi bunun gibi bir kıyıda duran Bunu diyor. Hepsi bir şey söylüyor Hepsi bir şeye bakıyor Picasso yalnız onlara. <<<<<<<<..53 Resim 4: Paul Klee, Nu Au Fauteuil Noir Picasso’nun ‚Nu au fauteuil noire‛ adlı resmi ile bu şiir yan yana getirildiğinde, Berk’in söz konusu tabloyu şiirleştirdiği, bu tablonun, ruhunda uyandırdığı duyguları dile getirdiği açık http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote53sym#sdfootnote53sym İkinci Yeni Şiiri ve Resim 301 Turkish Studies International Periodical For the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 5/2 Spring 2010 biçimde görülecektir. Türkçeye ‚Siyah Koltuktaki Çıplak Kadın‛ diye çevirebileceğimiz tabloda, Berk’in şiirinde betimlediği gibi, pencerenin gördüğü, çiçeğe durdu duracak bir ağaç ve siyah koltukta gökyüzüne hiç kımıldamadan, konuşmadan bakan bir kadın vardır. Bu tablo, Berk’in şiirine esin kaynağı olmuştur. Şair, Picasso’dan ‚Guernica‛ adlı şiirinde de söz ediyor. Bilindiği üzere ‚Guernica‛, Picasso’nun, Alman ordularının Guernica kasabasını bombalamasını betimleyen en ünlü yapıtla- rından biri. 1937’de yapılmış. Picasso, bir sergisi sırasında kendi- sine, ‘Bu resmi siz mi yaptınız?’ diye soran bir Alman generaline, ‘Hayır, siz yaptınız!’ diye yanıt verdiği rivayet olunur. Berk, bu şiirinde de Picasso’nun ‚Guernica‛54 adlı tablo- suna bakarak, savaşı, boğazlaşmayı, insanların birbirlerini katle- dişini anlatıyor. Önce resimdeki ‘ampul’ ve onun uyandırdığı tehlike ve korkunun şiire yansıması: ‚Yüz mumluk lamba bir yandı bir söndü Öldü dirildi Guernica‛ Ve resimdeki boğa figürüyle birlikte, savaşın dehşet ve karmaşası şiire şu sözcüklerle yansıyor: ‚Daha sabah Ağaç kararmamıştı Boğayı gördüm Boğayla beraber yüzlerce adamı gördüm ilk defa Guernica ana baba günüydü‛ http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote54sym#sdfootnote54sym 302 Alâattin KARACA Turkish Studies International Periodical For the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 5/2 Spring 2010 Resim 5: Picasso, Guernica Resim bir saldırıyı, katliamı betimliyor. Bu karmaşa, saldırı ve katliam, Berk’te şiirsel imgelere şöyle dönüşüyor: ‚Su gerisingeriye akıyor Kuş gerisingeriye uçuyor Ağaç gerisingeriye Bir fırtına bir yangın Öyle bir şey Göz gözü görmüyor göz tabaktaki uskumruyu boyun boyuna biberi domatesi görmüyor Belli savaş Belli ölüm‛ Tabloda elinde lâmbayla bir kadın figürü var. Berk, bu figürü şiir diliyle şöyle betimlemiş: ‚Daha sabah Ananın uykusu var Elinde bir lamba dolaşıyor habire dolaşıyor Kırmızılar sarılar siyahlar konuşuyor‛ Sonuçta, İlhan Berk’in bu şiiri, insanların birbirlerini nasıl acımasızca katlettiğini, savaşın dehşetini, acısını, diğer yanda kimi insanların vahşi duygularını anlatıyor. Ancak şairin bu duyguları, Picasso’nun ‚Guernica‛ adlı tablosundan hareketle vermesi İkinci Yeni Şiiri ve Resim 303 Turkish Studies International Periodical For the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 5/2 Spring 2010 önemli. Dolayısıyla bu örnek bize, bir resmin Berk’in şiirine nasıl esin kaynağı olduğunu, şiir diliyle nasıl betimlendiğini gösteriyor. Berk’in Galile Denizi adlı yapıtında, kimi şiirlerinde adı geçen ressamlardan biri de İvi Stangali. Sezer Tansuğ’un verdiği bilgilere göre, Bedri Rahmi Eyüboğlu’nun atölyesinde yetişmiş bir Rum ressam. Kent atmosferine masal duyarlığıyla yaklaşmış bir sanatçı55. Ece Ayhan ve Nevin Çokay’dan öğrendiğimize göre, 1963-64’te yurt dışına çıkarılmış56, Yunanistan’a göç etmek zorunda kalmış ve orada ölmüş. Berk, ilkin ‚İvi Stangali‛57 başlıklı şiirinde söz ediyor ondan: ‚Her şeyimiz alınmış bir dünyadaydık Umutsuzduk, yitiktik. <<. Baksak nereden Ufuk yıkık, ütüktü Birden İvi Stangali’nin resimleri çıktı geldi Yalnız değildik artık Gittik ağaçlarla sularla namuslu bir yerde durduk İlk kez mutlu.‛ Şiirdeki dizelerden anlaşıldığına göre, Stangali’nin re- simleri aydınlık ve umut yüklü, insana umut aşılıyor. Şairin İvi’den söz ettiği ikinci şiir, ‚İvi Sabahı‛58. Bu şiirde de büyük olasılıkla Stangali’nin resimlerinin kendi üzerinde uyandırdığı duyguları dile getiriyor Berk. Aşağıdaki dizelerden İvi’nin resimlerinin aydınlık, umut dolu, mutluluk saçan yapıtlar olduğu anlaşılıyor: İvi Sabahı İvi uyandı Bıçak pencere onunla uyandı İlk gök yüzü geçti önünden İvi güldü Çingene kızları denizi dört ucundan tutup getirdiler Dürüp bıraktılar Sarı erikler geldi odayı sarıya boyadı İvi gökyüzünü alıp İstanbul’a indi Bir sevinç İvi’yi gören İstanbul’da http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote55sym#sdfootnote55sym http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote56sym#sdfootnote56sym http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote57sym#sdfootnote57sym http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote58sym#sdfootnote58sym 304 Alâattin KARACA Turkish Studies International Periodical For the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 5/2 Spring 2010 Baktığı her şey beni çiz diyor İvi’ye Bir yüz para çiz diyor Bir rüzgâr Galata Kulesi’ne çarpıp geçiyor İvi ışıyor. Berk’in İvi Stangali’den söz ettiği bir başka şiir ‚İvi Işığı‛59 başlığını taşıyor. Şiirin esin kaynağı, belli ki yine Stangali’nin resimleri. Şu dizeler, İvi Stangali’nin resimlerini özetlemekte: İvi Işığı <<< İvi yaptığı resimleri düşündü Karaları aklara çevirdiği resimleri düşündü Bir başına bir karayı bir akı nereye getirip koyduysa Para etmiyordu Gördü yalnızlık Nereye konursa neresinden tutulursa nereye götürülürse Bir sokağa çıkarılsın bir pencereye konsun denize çıkarılsın ister Gidecek şey değildi insana. Kuleyi anladı İvi Denizi tutup ayağına getirdi. <<<.. İvi insanları aldı Yaşamaya çalışmaya yolladı.‛ Bu örnekler Berk’in bir esin kaynağı olarak ya da yaza- cağı şiir üzerinde yoğunlaşmak için, resimden yararlandığını gösteriyor. Bir anlamda kimi resimler onun şiirine yansıyor, şiirle dile geliyor. Berk’in yanı sıra resimle ilgilenen; hatta şiirlerinde resmin olanaklarından yararlanan bir başka şair Cemal Süreya. Onun daha Siyasal Bilgiler Fakültesi’ndeyken Charles Suarez takma adıyla desenler çizdiğini biliyoruz. Sezai Karakoç’un Mülkiye dergisinde çıkan ‚Mona Roza‛larını desenleyen Süreya. Berk’i etkileyen ressamlardan Paul Klee ve Marc Chagall, Cemal Süreya’nın da en çok ilgisini çeken sanatçılar. Bu ilgiyi; ‚Daha sonra Klee’nin albümünü karıştırdım. Bir zamanlar Edip Cansever’le ne çok bakardık Klee’ye! Chagall’dan sonra ona yönelmiştik.(<) Yemek http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote59sym#sdfootnote59sym İkinci Yeni Şiiri ve Resim 305 Turkish Studies International Periodical For the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 5/2 Spring 2010 masasının üzerine sarkan yeni abajurun camına suluboya ile Klee’nin iki deseninin kopyasını yaptım. Biri Donkişot’un atı Rosinante.‛ 60 sözleriyle açıklıyor şair. Chagall içinse şunları söylüyor: ‚Kaç zamandır Chagall’dayım. Az bir şair değil o. ‘Yazmam daha aşk şiiri’ adlı şiirimi onun etkisinde yazdım. Ressamlar kadar şairlerin de çok öğreneceği şey var ondan. Ben kendi payıma, kimsedeki Chagall’daki kadar adamı çarpan, bozan, alıp götüren şiirsel çağrışımlar görmedim. (<) Yeni şiir, yeni şiirin birçok olanakları var onda. (<) < şiir için Chagall çok iyi ve güzel. Chagall.‛61 Bu satırlarda dikkati çeken bir bilgi daha var. Cemal Süreya’nın da bir resimden etkilenerek şiir yazdığı. Şairin verdiği bilgiye göre ‚Yazmam Daha Aşk Şiiri‛ adlı şiirini Marc Chagall’ın bir resminden esinlenerek yazmış. Şu iki dizesindeyse yine aynı ressam karşımıza çıkıyor: Sığınacak yer kalmadı Chagall’daki eşeğin gözünden başka62 Bu beytin esin kaynağı ise, Chagall’ın ‚I and the village‛ adlı tablosu. Resim 6: Cahagall, I and The Village Cemal Süreya’nın şiirlerinde, az da olsa kimi ressamlara rastlamak olası. Örneğin ‚Dalga‛63 şiirinde; ‚İki gemiciynen Van Gogh’dan aşırılmış/ Bir kadının yüzü ha ha ha.‛ dizelerinde Van Gogh http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote60sym#sdfootnote60sym http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote61sym#sdfootnote61sym http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote62sym#sdfootnote62sym http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote63sym#sdfootnote63sym 306 Alâattin KARACA Turkish Studies International Periodical For the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 5/2 Spring 2010 karşımıza çıkıyor, ‚Aslan Heykelleri‛64nde ise, nüleriyle tanınan Amadeo Modigliani’nin adı; üstelik nülerini çağrıştıracak bir biçimde kullanıyor bu adı Süreya: ‚Bir senin gözlerin var zaten daha yok Ya bu başını alıp gidiş boynundaki Modiglianı oğlu Modigliani‛ Resim 7: Amadeo Modigliani Cemal Süreya’nın şiirlerinde erotizmin geniş bir yer tut- tuğu anımsanırsa, neden Amadeo Modigliani’ye ilgi duyduğu açığa kavuşur sanırım. Süreya’nın yanı sıra şiirle resim arasında ilgi kuran şair- lerden biri de Edip Cansever. Bu ilgide sanırım, 18 yaşındayken ilk şiirlerini gösterdiği Ahmet Hamdi Tanpınar’ın önerilerinin payı var. Çünkü Tanpınar, ilk şiir denemelerini okuduktan sonra Cansever’in önüne birçok resim yayar ve ona resme nasıl bakıl- ması gerektiğini anlatır. Şair de bu öneriye uyarak bir sürü resim alır65. Bunun dışında kızı Nuran Birol’un aktardığına göre, ressam Orhan Peker’e hayrandır66. Ancak İlhan Berk, Cemal Süreya gibi Cansever’in de en çok ilgi duyduğu ressamlardan birinin Marc Chagall olduğunun altı çizilmelidir. Bu ilgi, Cansever’in ‚Chagall‛67 adlı şiirine doğrudan yansımıştır: http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote64sym#sdfootnote64sym http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote65sym#sdfootnote65sym http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote66sym#sdfootnote66sym http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote67sym#sdfootnote67sym İkinci Yeni Şiiri ve Resim 307 Turkish Studies International Periodical For the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 5/2 Spring 2010 Chagall Bir testi bir tabak Şinana Chagall Üstünde balık içinde balık Şinana Chagall Altında yanında tatlı kuruluk Şinana Chagall Şu kasap dediğin ne kötü mahluk Şinana Chagall Bir bitki yürümüş gitmiş Şinana Chagall Atlardan uzunca böcekten küçük Şinana Chagall Burası ne dünyada bir yer Şinana Chagall Asım Bezirci ise, şairin ‚Kesin‛, ‚Aaaa‛, ‚Horozla Mer- diven‛, ‚Var Var‛, ‚Uyanınca Çocuk Olmak‛ adlı şiirlerinde resme özgü teknikleri kullandığını ileri sürer; hatta Marc Chagall’ın ‚Femme Enceint‛ adlı tablosuyla ‚Var Var‛ şiiri ve Miro’nun ‚peintüre‛ü ile de ‚Uyanınca Çocuk Olmak‛ adlı şiirleri arasında benzerlikler bulur. İkinci Yeni’nin bir başka şairi Ece Ayhan’a gelince< Ay- han, başta müzik olmak üzere sinema ve resim sanatıyla da ilgili çok yönlü bir şair. Kuşkusuz onda daha çok müzik sanatının; özellikle de atonal müziğin etkisi fazla. Ancak şair, resimle de ilgili. Çeşitli ressamlarla, bu sanat üzerine söyleşileri dikkat çekici. Cihat Burak, Ömer Uluç, Mehmet Güleryüz, Komet, Cihat Özegemen, Neşe Erdok, Orhan Taylan ve Aydın Ülken bunlardan bazıları.. Onun en çok sevdiği ve ilgilendiği ressamların başındaysa, Kandinsky, Miro ve Klee geliyor; Hatta Ayhan’a göre İkinci Yeni aynı zamanda ‚Kandinsky, Miro ve Klee’dir‛68. Chagall da ilgi duyduğu bir ressam. Örneğin Chagall hakkında, bir sergi dolayısıyla şunları yazmış: ‚Ve Chagall’lar. Tabii başka bir salonda. Öyle bir gürültü var ki solda dışarıda. Chagall’ları yine de ezemedi, ezemiyor bu korkunç gürültü. Enfes renkler, şiirler havada dolaşıyor!‛69 http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote68sym#sdfootnote68sym http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote69sym#sdfootnote69sym 308 Alâattin KARACA Turkish Studies International Periodical For the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 5/2 Spring 2010 Türkiye’den ise, Cihat Burak, Aktedron Fikret (Andoğlu), Fikret Ürgüp, Ömer Uluç sık sık sözünü ettiği ressamlar. Çünkü onları marjinal buluyor. Bu bakımdan o, resme de şiir gibi bakıyor; yani marjinal, sıkı ve sivil bir resim peşinde. Kandinsky’yi, Chagall’ı, Klee’yi sevmesi, resimde alışılmışı yıkmaları ve marjinal oluşlarından. Onun için; ‚<ben her zaman resimde de ‘tehlikeli resimler’den yana oldum, olurum. Şerif Mardin, ‘Türkiye’de hep ‘uslu resimler’in yapılması ilginçtir’ diyor.‛70 sözlerinin altı çizilmeli. Bunlar, şunu gösteriyor. İkinci Yeni şairlerinin çoğu, şiir dışında, resim, müzik, sinema gibi diğer güzel sanatlarla ilgi- lenmişler; hatta bu sanatların olanaklarını şiire taşımaya çalış- mışlar. Modern resim onların şiirlerine hem kuramsal hem de pratik açıdan etkimiş. 1950’li yıllarda İkinci Yeni’nin şiir poetikasıyla, non-figüratife doğru kayan resim poetikası arasında koşutluklar var. Ayrıca bu şairlerin, resimde kendilerine Paul Klee, Marc Chagall, Amadeo Modigliani, Max Ernest, Kandinsky, Miro, Picasso gibi poetik akrabalara ilgi göstermesi de bu koşutluğun bir başka kanıtı. DİPNOTLAR 1 Sezai Karakoç, ‚Galile Denizi‛, Edebiyat Yazıları II, Diriliş Yay., İstanbul, 1986, s.30-31. 2 İlhan Berk, Şairin Toprağı, Simavi Yay., İstanbul, 1992, s. 13. 3 Muzaffer Erdost, ‚Bir Şey Söylemeyen Şiir‛, Pazar Postası, 23 Aralık 1956, s. 6. 4 Orhan Kutlugil, ‚Asalaklar‛, Pazar Postası, 27 Temmuz 1958, s.8. 5 Necati Cumalı, ‚İkinci Yeni ve Eleştirmeciler‛ (Soruşturma), Yeditepe, S.19, 1960. 6 Hikmet Dizdaroğlu, ‚İkinci Yeni ve Eleştirmeciler‛, Yeditepe, S. 22, 1960. 7 Yahya Kemal, Kendi Gök Kubbemiz, YKY, İstanbul, 2003, s. 79. 8 Ece Ayhan, Bütün Yort Savul’lar!, YKY, İstanbul, 2004, s. 38. http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote70sym#sdfootnote70sym http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote1anc#sdfootnote1anc http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote2anc#sdfootnote2anc http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote3anc#sdfootnote3anc http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote4anc#sdfootnote4anc http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote5anc#sdfootnote5anc http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote6anc#sdfootnote6anc http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote7anc#sdfootnote7anc http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote8anc#sdfootnote8anc İkinci Yeni Şiiri ve Resim 309 Turkish Studies International Periodical For the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 5/2 Spring 2010 9 ‚Tartışma: Çağdaş Türk Şiiri Üstüne‛, (Konuşan: Suut Kemal Yetkin), Türk Dili, S. 212, 1969, s. 139, 141. 10 Ahmet Oktay, ‚Kimsenin İlgilenmediği Olayların Tarihçisi‛, İmkânsız Poetika, Alkım Yay., İstanbul, 2004, s. 172-173. 11 Sezer Tansuğ, Türk Resminde Yeni Dönem, Remzi Kitabevi, İstanbul, 1988, s. 7. 12 Metin Eloğlu, ‚İlk Sergisi Dolayısıyla: Metin Eloğlu’nun Konuşması‛, Pazar Postası, 29 Nisan 1956. 13 Mete Şar, ‚Yenilik Resim Üzerine Konuşular 1: Yenilik Res- min Gerçeği‛, Pazar Postası, 5 Ağustos 1956, s.7,11. 14 Mete Şar, ‚Yenilik Resim Üzerine Konuşular 2: Yenilik Re- simde Konu‛, Pazar Postası, 12 Ağustos 1956, s.7,11. 15 Mete Şar, ‚Yenilik Resim Üzerine Konuşular 3: Yenilik Akımlarının Evrensel Görüşü‛, Pazar Postası, 19 Ağustos 1956, s.7,11. 16 Mete Şar, ‚Yenilik Resmin Dili‛, Pazar Postası, 2 Eylül 1956, s. 7,11. 17 Şar, ‚Gerçek Resmin Evrimi 1‛, Pazar Postası, 13 Ocak 1957, s. 7. 18 Şar, ‚Gerçek Resmin Evrimi 2‛, Pazar Postası, 24 Şubat 1957, s. 7, 11. 19 Şar, ‚Gerçek Resmin Evrimi 3‛, Pazar Postası, 3 Mart 1957, s. 7. 20 İsimsiz, ‚Soyut Sanat‛, Pazar Postası, 13 Temmuz 1958, s. 9. 21 Orhan Çetinkaya, ‚Abaç ve Resimde Yogicilik‛, Pazar Pos- tası, 9 Haziran 1957, s. 7. 22 F. Güden, ‚Ali Büyükhelvacı’nın Resimleri ya da Paul Klee’ye Selâm‛, Pazar Postası, 23 Şubat 1958, s. 10. 23 Güden, a.g.m., Pazar Postası, 23 Şubat 1958, s. 10. 24 Güden, a.g.m., Pazar Postası, 23 Şubat 1958, s. 10. http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote9anc#sdfootnote9anc http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote10anc#sdfootnote10anc http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote11anc#sdfootnote11anc http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote12anc#sdfootnote12anc http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote13anc#sdfootnote13anc http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote14anc#sdfootnote14anc http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote15anc#sdfootnote15anc http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote16anc#sdfootnote16anc http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote17anc#sdfootnote17anc http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote18anc#sdfootnote18anc http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote19anc#sdfootnote19anc http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote20anc#sdfootnote20anc http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote21anc#sdfootnote21anc http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote22anc#sdfootnote22anc http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote23anc#sdfootnote23anc http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote24anc#sdfootnote24anc 310 Alâattin KARACA Turkish Studies International Periodical For the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 5/2 Spring 2010 25 Kaya Özsezgin, ‚Resim: Cemil Eren‛, Pazar Postası, 28 Aralık 1958, s. 16. 26 Mete Şar, ‚Yenilik Resmin Dili‛, Pazar Postası, 2 Eylül 1956, s. 7. 27 ‚İlhan Berk’le Konuştuk‛, Yeditepe, S.38, 7 Haziran 1953. 28 Cemal Süreya, 999.Gün, Broy Yayınları, İstanbul (t.y), s. 331- 332. 29 Sezer Tansuğ, Türk Resminde Yeni Dönem, Remzi Kitabevi, İstanbul, 1988, s. 66. 30 İlhan Berk, Kült Kitap, YKY, İstanbul, 2001, s. 88. 31 Berk, El Yazılarına Vuruyor Güneş, YKY, İstanbul, 1997, s. 29- 30. 32 Berk, 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http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote41anc#sdfootnote41anc http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote42anc#sdfootnote42anc http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote43anc#sdfootnote43anc http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote44anc#sdfootnote44anc http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote45anc#sdfootnote45anc İkinci Yeni Şiiri ve Resim 311 Turkish Studies International Periodical For the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 5/2 Spring 2010 46 Berk, ‚Siz Ne Güzeldiniz Benimle Bilemezsiniz‛, a.g.e., s. 250. 47 Berk, Kült Kitap, YKY, İstanbul, 2001, s. 223. 48 Berk, a.g.e., s. 171. 49 Berk, a.g.e., s. 178. 50 Berk, a.g.e., s. 335. 51 Berk, a.g.e., s. 342. 52 Berk, a.g.e., s. 435. 53 Berk, ‚Pablo Picasso‛, Eşik, YKY, İstanbul, 2001, s. 210-211. 54 Berk, ‚Guernica‛, Eşik, YKY, İstanbul, 2001, s. 232-234. 55 Sezer Tansuğ, Türk Resminde Yeni Dönem, Remzi Kitabevi, İstanbul, 1988, s. 62-63. 56 Ece Ayhan, Şiirin Bir Altın Çağı, YKY, İstanbul, 1993, s. 244- 245. 57 İlhan Berk, ‚İvi Stangali‛, Eşik, YKY, İstanbul, 2001, s. 211. 58 Berk, ‚Galata Kulesi, I İvi Sabahı‛, a.g.e., s. 222. 59 Berk, ‚İvi Işığı‛, a.g.e., s. 228. 60 Cemal Süreya, 999. 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http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote68anc#sdfootnote68anc http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote69anc#sdfootnote69anc 312 Alâattin KARACA Turkish Studies International Periodical For the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 5/2 Spring 2010 70 Ece Ayhan, Şiirin Bir Altın Çağı, YKY, İstanbul, 1993, s. 203. http://docs.google.com/RawDocContents?docID=ddmn6wjg_33ffm9mxdh&justBody=false&revision=_latest&timestamp=1205934285265&editMode=true&strip=true#sdfootnote70anc#sdfootnote70anc 
work_bqtjrjgjyrhfpe4y2deciwefwe	----	Improved spectral imaging microscopy for cultural heritage through oblique illumination Oakley et al. Herit Sci (2020) 8:27 https://doi.org/10.1186/s40494-020-00369-0 R E S E A R C H A R T I C L E Improved spectral imaging microscopy for cultural heritage through oblique illumination Lindsay Oakley1, Stephanie Zaleski1, Billie Males1, Oliver Cossairt2 and Marc Walton1* Abstract This work presents the development of a flexible microscopic chemical imaging platform for cultural heritage that utilizes wavelength-tunable oblique illumination from a point source to obtain per-pixel reflectance spectra in the VIS–NIR range. The microscope light source can be adjusted on two axes allowing for a hemisphere of possible illu- mination directions. The synthesis of multiple illumination angles allows for the calculation of surface normal vectors, similar to phase gradients, and axial optical sectioning. The extraction of spectral reflectance images with high spatial resolutions from these data is demonstrated through the analysis of a replica cross-section, created from known painting reference materials, as well as a sample extracted from a painting by Pablo Picasso entitled La Miséreuse accroupie (1902). These case studies show the rich microscale molecular information that may be obtained using this microscope and how the instrument overcomes challenges for spectral analysis commonly encountered on works of art with complex matrices composed of both inorganic minerals and organic lakes. Keywords: Spectral imaging microscopy, Oblique illumination, Optical sectioning, Surface shape, Dictionary learning, Micro analysis, Picasso © The Author(s) 2020. This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creat iveco mmons .org/licen ses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creat iveco mmons .org/publi cdoma in/ zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data. Introduction The technical study of objects from art and archaeology often involves the removal of microsamples for chemical analysis and imaging, which provide fundamental micro- structural information to explore how these objects were created and to determine how their constituent materi- als may deteriorate over time [1, 2]. Cross-sections of artworks often present a complicated heterogeneity of organic and inorganic components, and it is therefore beneficial to identify each component with spatial sen- sitivity. Analytical techniques such as scanning electron microscopy/energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (SEM/ EDS) can provide element analysis at high resolution, but molecular information and the identity of organic constituents must be obtained from other analytical methods such as Raman or Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) microspectroscopy [3–5]. While Raman or FTIR instruments have been configured for high-resolution imaging [6–9], these measurements can be time con- suming and consequently within most cultural herit- age laboratories these techniques are primarily used for point analysis rather than molecular mapping. Elemen- tal images created via EDS mapping routines requires exposure of a sample to an electron beam while achiev- ing sufficient counting statistics. These conditions often cause radiative damage that precludes further imaging and analysis of the same sample location [1, 10]. As an alternative to these traditional workhorse techniques of analysis, here it is shown that microscale chemical maps can be produced using less damaging optical wavelengths through a spectral imaging microscope. We build on pre- vious work in cultural heritage [11] towards highly sen- sitive spectral reflectance imaging at the microscale by Open Access *Correspondence: marc.walton@northwestern.edu 1 Center for Scientific Studies in the Arts, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA Full list of author information is available at the end of the article http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4436-3546 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/ http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/ http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1186/s40494-020-00369-0&domain=pdf Page 2 of 11Oakley et al. Herit Sci (2020) 8:27 producing an instrument that provides both traditional optical images of microscopic features, as well as material maps, with as little as possible radiative damage to the sample. We also demonstrate the use of computational techniques to obtain diffraction-limited chemical images of both organic and inorganic materials present in cross- sections in a single experiment. The majority of optical microscopy experiments in cultural heritage are performed in reflection where the cross-section is prepared as a thick polished slab [1]. Because polished cross sections are excellent specular reflectors, it is necessary to configure the sample illumi- nation to suppress such reflections which carry none of the desired molecular information. While it is possible to avoid specularity using a transmission illumination geometry, this method requires thin sections prepared by microtomy. Although possible, the material properties of some samples can make them challenging to section and often the necessary cutting instrumentation is not readily available in art conservation laboratories [12–14]. Care- ful consideration of the limitations and advantages of specular suppression methods informed the design of the spectral microscope described here in order maximize signal and spatial resolution. One method to eliminate specular reflections is through the use of cross-polarization filters. Specular reflections that retain the polarization state of the source light are efficiently rejected by a second filter oriented orthogonally to a source filter, while randomly polarized light rays associated with diffuse scattering are allowed [15, 16]. However, precise crossed alignment is required to achieve peak efficiency and maximize the number of photons collected for imaging [17, 18]. More importantly, neither the extinction nor transmission efficiency of most polarization filters is uniform across the visible range which is not ideal for spectral microscopy over wide wavelength ranges (e.g., 400–1000  nm). Standard wide- field polarized light microscopes also have a large depth of field which contributes to a large volume of forward scattered light (on the order of 10–100 s of microns) and significantly increases spectral blur based on the absorp- tion properties of the sample matrix. To our knowledge, these large interaction volumes inherent to axial reflec- tion-geometries of a standard widefield microscope are the main reason spectral microscopy has not been adopted as a micron-resolution analytical technique in cultural heritage science. As an alternative to bright field microscopy, dark field (DF) spectral microscopes have been demonstrated in the context of biological applications with excellent spa- tial resolution, contrast, and shallow light penetration depths, providing a promising avenue for the exami- nation of cross-sections [19–25]. In DF microscopy, a hollow cone of light with a numerical aperture (NA) larger than the objective illuminates the sample. Usu- ally a beam stop is placed in the illumination path to match the size of the back aperture to create these con- ditions. Progressively dimmer images are produced with increasing magnification as the diameter of the beam stop must increase with the NA of the objective. Such a light path can be problematic when trying to efficiently recover light reflected from a highly absorb- ing sample, such as pigments routinely encountered in objects from cultural heritage. Additionally, while the DF setup should prevent diffracted light (less than first order) from entering the objective [26], certain orien- tations of microfacets due to surface roughness can still guide light into the objective and contaminate the image with specular reflections. Recent innovations have achieved enhanced contrast and spatial resolution through tunable-angle oblique- illumination (OI) as an alternative to DF illumination [26, 27]. OI from a single point source can increase con- trast and enhance details in the direction of incident illumination [27]. It has also been demonstrated that optimizing the angle of OI increases sensitivity based on the particle size and shape of the scattering ele- ment [28, 29]. Ma et  al. has drawn on recent advances in oblique ptychographic illumination from an annular array of lights to improve the confocal gate of a stand- ard brightfield microscope [30]. They demonstrated that individual point sources (LEDs) of monochro- matic light retain partial coherence and thus improve the lateral resolution of the microscope. When multi- ple sub-images from each illumination direction were synthetically combined, the contrast of the in-focus ele- ments was strongly enhanced while out-of-focus back- ground was smeared, thus improving the microscope’s overall axial sectioning capabilities. Using these princi- ples, an OI spectral imaging microscope will allow for enhanced absorption contrast at the sample surface, thus overcoming out-of-plane contributions to spec- tral blurring that are encountered in standard widefield microscopes. The spectral microscope we present here implements OI using mobile axes of illumination, as demonstrated by the analysis of paint cross sections of both known refer- ence materials and a sample from an early twentieth cen- tury painting by Pablo Picasso. These samples provide challenging case studies with complex heterogeneity at the microscale and imperfect surface features, which aids in highlighting the usefulness of OI in separating sub- surface light/matter interactions from the image plane of interest. In addition, OI successfully captures spectral signatures of organic pigments that would have been oth- erwise missed by elemental analysis alone. Page 3 of 11Oakley et al. Herit Sci (2020) 8:27 Results and discussion OI microscope design approach A schematic of the microscope is shown in Fig. 1, where the motorized movement of the illumination optics is indicated as “rotation angle α”. This illumination arm is decoupled from the detection axis of the microscope in order to send incident light to the sample obliquely from adjustable polar angles. Illumination around the speci- men was achieved by rotating the sample to multiple azimuthal angles (“rotation angle β”, Fig. 1) and taking an image at each position. Altogether, this multi-angle dome of illumination positions produces a large solid angle of light delivered to the sample in reflection and enables extraction of diffuse reflection measurements from mul- tiple views of the specimen. We implement a tunable light source not only for the advantageous possibility to conduct excitation and emission studies to image the spectral luminescence of the specimen. Also, on account of this configuration, the reflected light is then collected directly by the camera without  the need for additional dispersive optical elements or specialized objectives. The key idea behind the design of the microscope is that light reflected and scattered from sample’s surface is dependent on the oblique angle of illumination. The effect of illumination angle on acquired spectral data is illustrated  with the cross-section in Fig.  2 which was removed from the tacking edge of Pablo Picasso’s 1902 painting entitled La Miséreuse accroupie, painted dur- ing his Blue Period. From this cross-section, spectral image stacks were collected, and two illumination angles were selected and used to calculate  RGB images  using CIE 1931  color  matching functions: Fig.  2a, b show the sample illuminated at β = 0° and 180°, respectively. Some significant differences between the 0° and 180° views are indicated by arrows in the enlarged insets: the orange arrow shows dissimilar interreflection highlights caused by surface concavities around a void, and the blue arrow indicates a feature below the embedding resin missing in the 0° image yet appearing at 180°. The green arrow points toward a yellow-orange particle from which the reflectance spectra, shown Fig.  2c, were extracted. The spectrum at β = 0° has a shoulder at 535  nm which is greatly diminished at 180°. These observed changes in reflectance can be attributed to interreflections, subsur- face scattering, and volumetric scattering that fluctuate with the illumination angle (Additional file 1: Movie S1). Fig. 1 Schematic of the oblique illumination spectral microscope. The tunable illumination angle can be adjusted to change the angles of light in the polar direction as indicated by “rotation angle α” and the sample can be rotated in the azimuthal direction (“rotation angle β”) to produce multiple views of the specimen with different lighting angles Page 4 of 11Oakley et al. Herit Sci (2020) 8:27 However, diffusely reflected light from the in-focus plane should remain constant at all angles in our observation geometry, provided that the sample is topographically flat and the surface normal vector is aligned with the optical axis [31]. Here, following a simple calibration procedure, we suggest that a minimum projection through all images can provide an upper bound on the estimated value of directly reflected diffuse light based on the premise that these other scattering mechanisms listed above only add to the intensity of a given pixel [32]. It corresponds that taking the difference of a maximum and minimum image provides an estimation of these effects [33, 34]. The capability to separate light scattered from different focal planes is of significance to the design of our microscope because this light is responsible for undesired spectral blurring and prevents the collection of reflectance spec- tra at the highest possible spatial resolutions [35–38]. Surface shape estimation and min–max projections Although careful sample preparation can produce sam- ples with mirror-like finishes to the unaided eye, based on the resolution of our microscope, even techniques like microtomy or mechanical polishing with fine dia- mond slurries will leave cross sections with surface microfacets that can introduce angle dependent high- lights and shadow artifacts. Light reflection from these facets can contribute to an over- or under-estimation of diffusely reflected light depending on whether it is a topographical peak or valley, respectively, in the mini- mum projection of the image stack. Likewise, depend- ent on the orientation of the illumination arm to the detection axis, there will be a cosine falloff of illumina- tion, following Lambert’s law, that requires calibration to compensate. Such topography and sample orienta- tion, however, can be computationally flattened by nor- malizing the images to the surface shape gradient at each angle of illumination. Here we estimate the surface shape by using uncali- brated photometric stereo [39] given by Eq. 1: In this parameterization, the albedo (diffuse color) k is absorbed into the surface normal so |N | = k . I is the image intensity given by I (x, y) under the illumina- tion vector L · N is recovered by solving Eq.  1 via least squares given the known lighting directions. Figure  3a shows a series of RGB images of a reference cross-section comprised of four layers with pigment compositions indicated in Additional file  2: Table  S2. From these images, a normal vector map was calculated which demonstrates that there is measurable surface tex- ture in all four layers, even after polishing with slurries down to 0.5 μm. The most significant texture seems to be isolated to the second layer which contains a high con- centration of the organic pigment, madder lake. Based on this observed morphology, the polishing procedure (1)I = N · L , N = kN Fig. 2 RGB images of a cross section from Picasso’s La Miséreuse accroupie acquired at a β = 0° and b β = 180°. The arrows highlight distinct differences between images due to illumination direction. c Reflectance spectra extracted from the yellow-orange particle at β = 0° (red trace) and β = 180° (black trace). See Additional file 1: Movie S1 for multiple illumination angles of this sample Page 5 of 11Oakley et al. Herit Sci (2020) 8:27 employed may have selectively dissolved the water-solu- ble organic components. In addition to qualitative shape information provided by the normal map, surface gradients, which are the dot product of the surface normal vector and lighting direc- tion ( N · L ), were calculated for each illumination direc- tion. These gradients were then used to normalize the input images prior to calculating the output average, minimum, and difference as presented in Fig.  3b. More formally, the diffuse color is calculated for every illumi- nation angle (l) and wavelength (j) following, where Nxyz is the normal vector calculated from the RGB images using Eq.  1. Then the minimum intensity image is computed over all illumination angles at a given wave- length to filter out the interreflections and subsurface contributions: The per wavelength difference image is, (2)klj = Ilj ( Nxyz · Ll )−1 (3)min ∑ l k l j = I min j This difference image provides information about interreflections around pigment particles as well as multibounce light at layer interfaces: note, for instance, in Fig.  3b the blue scattered light between bottom lay- ers 1 and 2 as well as the orange scattered light between the top layers 3 and 4. In Fig.  3c and the corresponding inset detail, the average image is blurry at high magnifi- cations, yet the minimum projection (Fig. 3d) has resolv- able features below 1 µm, as demonstrated by the cluster of three pigment particles marked with a red arrow. This sub-micron resolution is at the theoretical Rayleigh dif- fraction limit of our imaging system using a ×20, 0.42 NA objective (~ 0.78 µm at λ = 535 nm). The explanation for this increase in the observed resolution between the average and minimum projections is provided schemati- cally in Fig. 3e. Two light rays incoming at oblique angles illuminate the sample surface. The forward scattering of the material matrix will produce lobes of volumetri- cally scattered light which is delineated by dashed lines. In the average projection image, which is the equivalent to standard darkfield illumination (See  Additional file  2: (4)differencej = Imaxj − I min j Fig. 3 Spectral image processing workflow of a reference cross-section. a Images were acquired in 10 angle increments from β = 0 to 360°, aligned, and used to calculate a surface normal vector map. Using this normal map, gradients were calculated for every illumination angle and then used to normalize the input images. b From the surface shape corrected image set, an average projection (darkfield equivalent), minimum projection (focal plane diffuse scattering only), and max–min (extraneous additional scatter) images were created. c Detail of the average image shows blur in the 1–10 µm range, but the minimum image d displays pigment particles with resolvable features below 1 µm. e The schematic diagram represents the overlap of two scattering paths which is explained in more detail in the text below. The minimum projection provides a measure of the overlap between the scattering regions (gray region) Page 6 of 11Oakley et al. Herit Sci (2020) 8:27 Figure S2 for more detail), patches adjacent to the overlap between the two lobes contain scattered contributions from both directions of illumination which contributes to blur. However, with the minimum projection method, all the light except that confined to the overlap region (gray shaded region, Fig. 3e) is computationally removed. Thus, in the minimum image, light scattered in the axial and lateral directions is effectively confined to a smaller interaction volume which serves to increase spatial reso- lution. This observed improvement in resolution over traditional Köhler illumination closely matches the reso- lution improvements detailed by Ma et al., who describe annular illumination from an array of point sources in transmission [30]. Also, in comparison to other advanced imaging techniques that can achieve high spatial resolu- tions, such as 2-photon or confocal methods, our method offers comparable optical sectioning and spatial resolu- tions for cultural heritage materials [40]. Mapping pigment distributions with sparse modeling While the multiple sample views can be used to extract structural and shape information, the spectral stack contains important information about the artist’s pro- cess based on the identity and distribution of colorants in the sample which we can calculate. A set of refer- ence reflectance spectra for the pure pigments included in the layered mock-up were formed into a diction- ary to perform a sparse linear unmixing and create pigment distribution maps. Our approach has been previously described [41] where we find a sparse rep- resentation w of the spectral stack x with respect to a dictionary D composed of known spectral signatures. This is achieved by solving a constrained optimization problem: Here, the l0 pseudo-norm counts the number of non- zero elements in w . Equation  5 was solved by using a greedy algorithm, orthogonal matching pursuit (OMP), where the number of non-zero elements for each pixel was set to two for this example and optimized sequentially. The resultant pigment distribution maps for the mockup sample are shown in Fig.  4. Based on the known content of the layers, the algorithm successfully isolated pigments to the correct strata. The only excep- tion is where the algorithm incorrectly identified Prus- sian blue in layer 2 of the specimen. This false positive result is not surprising since the dense mixture of mad- der and ultramarine in this example is highly absorb- ing and exhibits a spectral shape with an appearance similar to Prussian blue: an almost flat, near zero reflec- tance profile across the visible range. However, the loading of these high tint pigments in this mockup is extreme, and such a scenario is unlikely to be encoun- tered in a real sample. (5)Minimize �w0� such that x = Dw Fig. 4 Cross-section of the multi-layered mockup sample including the reconstructed RGB image and the corresponding pigment maps created by sparse modeling of the diffuse spectral dataset. The maps were created using an orthogonal matching pursuit (OMP) algorithm with a dictionary comprised of pure pigment spectra (ultramarine, cadmium yellow, vermillion, madder lake, zinc white, and Prussian blue). Distribution weights are normalized between 0 and 1 on a per pixel basis Page 7 of 11Oakley et al. Herit Sci (2020) 8:27 The limitations of the method The false positive result discussed above is a general limitation of visible spectral imaging with either highly absorbing or reflecting pigments and such spectra showing minimal spectral features should be examined carefully. The IR range (~ 900–1800 nm) of the source could also be utilized for a more detailed identifica- tion of pigments by a modular switching of the camera sensor and lenses appropriate for those wavelengths. However, perhaps the most significant step for creat- ing accurate maps of pigment distributions is the crea- tion of the database of potential pigments that could be found in the sample which requires some intui- tive or historical knowledge of likely artist materials. Finally, the current microscope design requires a long working distance objective in order to properly illumi- nate the sample and access multiple angles of illumina- tion. A higher NA objective would provide increased resolution but would also reduce the working distance and consequently the number of available angles for oblique illumination. Case study using a cross‑section from picasso’s La Miséreuse accroupie In 1902, the artist Pablo Picasso (1881–1973) painted a crouching woman on top of a landscape scene of a park. This hidden scene was discovered during routine exami- nation by X-radiography (see Fig.  5a, where the X-radi- ograph is rotated by 90°) conducted by the Art Gallery of Ontario, where the painting currently resides. To bet- ter understand the pigments used to paint the sky of the hidden painting, a small sample was removed from the tacking edge of the painting as indicated by the arrow in Fig. 5a. The sample was embedded in resin and the surface in Fig.  5b was revealed by cutting away excess resin using ultramicrotomy. Using the same procedure as described for the mockup cross-section, the spectral microscope was implemented to interrogate the identity and spatial distribution of the pigments distributed in four layers as indicated by the minimum projection image through 10 illumination angles shown in Fig.  5b. Figure  5c provides the surface normal vector map which reveals grooves cut into the sample by the microtomy knife. The image in Fig.  5d compliments this information and demonstrates surface interreflections from these grooves. In addition, Fig. 5 a Photograph of Pablo Picasso’s La Miséreuse accroupie (1902) and its corresponding X-radiograph rotated by 90° to reveal an underlying landscape painting (image courtesy of the Art Gallery of Ontario). The cross section was removed from the upper right tacking edge, indicated by the white arrow in a, imaged and decomposed into the b minimum projection, c surface shape components, and d the maximum-minimum. e–h Representative spectra are compared to references from each of the non-white paint layers Page 8 of 11Oakley et al. Herit Sci (2020) 8:27 features below the top surface of the transparent resin may be observed as a blurry orange or white glows (cor- responding to the top and bottom of the section) that are removed from the minimum image using our filtering procedure. Average area spectra were extracted from each layer as shown in Fig.  5e–h and pigment identifications were proposed based on comparison with reference paint mix- tures. A summary of the complimentary analytical tests that were performed and the proposed pigment identi- fications can be found in Additional file  2: Table  S1. In every layer, the microscope allowed for the complete complex heterogeneity of the sample to be examined in detail. In the top layer 4 it was proposed, based on the ele- mental information from SEM–EDS, that there might be more than one blue pigment present. Although many of Picasso’s blue period paintings are known to have uti- lized Prussian blue, the simultaneous use of ultramarine has only been documented in rare instances [42]. A com- parison of a reference paint created with a 180:1:1 w/w ratio of lead white: ultramarine: Prussian blue produces an excellent spectral match which was confirmed using Raman spectroscopy (Fig. 5e). In the thickest subsequent red layer 3, the spectral signature is dominated by the presence of vermilion (Fig.  5f ). However, upon closer inspection there is an anomalous yellow particle as pre- viously highlighted in Fig.  2. The spectrum of the region (Fig.  2c) displays a shoulder at 535  nm and matches a cadmium yellow reference (not shown); this was cor- roborated by the presence of cadmium from SEM–EDS, which demonstrates the effectiveness of identifying sin- gle particles in a complex matrix with our instrument. In the purple layer 2, the extracted spectrum clearly repre- sents a mixture with multiple absorption bands observed at 540, 567, and approximately 630  nm (Fig.  5g). SEM– EDS indicated that this layer was aluminum-rich, previ- ously inspiring the hypothesis that this layer contained an organic lake pigment. Consequently, a reference sample containing a 180:1:1 w/w mixture of lead white: ultra- marine: carmine naccarat was created. This reference matched the spectral features observed in the historical sample. Indeed, when spectra were extracted from iso- lated red particles (Fig.  5b, inset) in both the historical and reference samples, as viewed in Fig. 5h, characteristic absorption bands can be observed; these are separated by approximately 35–40 nm due to the nature of the ground and excited electronic states of the anthraquinone col- orant present [43]. Moreover, recent work on improved protocols for identifying organic reds from reflectance data pushes this identification further to support the specific presence of a cochineal based rather than plant based (madder) pigment and suggest that the substrate used for precipitation was aluminum rather than tin [44]. The unambiguous presence of single cochineal lake pig- ment particles is clearly indicated from the micro-spec- tral imaging; the only other technique currently capable of such sensitivity to organic-based colorants is surface- enhanced Raman spectroscopy [45]. Lastly, the presence of ultramarine, indicated by the band at 630  nm, was also confirmed by Raman spectroscopy. The sparse mod- eling of pigment distributions in all the layers is shown in Fig. 6. In this instance the number of non-zero elements in w, from Eq.  5, was constrained to three. This dataset demonstrates the power of OI spectral microscopy as a sensitive, low-dosage method to characterize pigments in cross-section microsamples that may be challenging to detect with alternative analytical techniques. Conclusions The OI spectral imaging microscope demonstrated in this work effectively captures the sample heterogene- ity observed in complex cultural heritage objects. The spatial distribution of chemical information from reflec- tance spectra can be routinely captured in addition to surface shape information made possible by the multi- axis movement of the illumination. Also, the hyperspec- tral datasets are generated using low intensity radiation, which translates to decreased potential for sample dam- age. Ultimately, as demonstrated from the case study of a cross section sample from La Miséreuse accroupie, the OI spectral imaging microscope provides a wealth of molec- ular data on microscale features and material properties that can be mined computationally. Materials and methods OI spectral microscope The OI spectral microscope was built on a Cerna modu- lar microscope frame (Thorlabs). A tunable light source consisting of a 300-watt xenon light source filtered through a monochromator (Newport TLS260-300X), enabling down to 5  nm wavelength resolution, was used to illuminate the sample. The broad nature of absorption bands for most pigments in this wavelength range means that the 5  nm resolution is sufficient to capture any unique and identifying spectral features. A 4f arrange- ment of achromatic lenses (Thorlabs AC254-06/30-A- ML) were used to refocus the beam to a point at a far distance from the focal plane (~ 20  mm) as is shown in Fig. 1. Two DT-80 stages (Physik Instrumente) were used to rotate the sample platform and the illumination arm via a microprocessor board (Tiny-G CNC controller) pro- grammed with custom Python scripts. We implemented a scientific complementary metal oxide sensor (sCMOS, Photometrics PrimeBSI) with a 4.2-megapixel array. To optimize data management, most experiments utilized Page 9 of 11Oakley et al. Herit Sci (2020) 8:27 an annular array of azimuthal lighting positions col- lected at a fixed polar angle of 50° relative to the sample surface normal. To accommodate for the movement of the illumination arm and stage, a long working distance objective (MY20X-804-20X Mitutoyo Plan Apochromat Objective, 0.42 NA, 20 mm WD) was used to collect the sample scattering. Spectral image stacks were collected across the visible and near-infrared (430–1000  nm) with an image captured at 2 or 5 nm increments. Image post‑processing In a typical experiment, 115 sub images are collected from 430 to 1000  nm before the sample stage is rotated to 9 additional azimuthal angles (every 36°) for a total of 1150 images. The images at each wavelength form a wavelength or lambda stack. For each azimuthal angle, the lambda stacks are registered by the known rotation angle as well as small translations due to micron scale wobble and center- ing misalignments of the sample platform. The translation transform is determined by a scale-invariant feature trans- form (SIFT), template matching, or by hand labelling fea- tures in each image. The translation is determined on RGB images calculated from each lambda stack: the wavelength images are first collapsed into a XYZ tristimulus image by multiplying each wavelength by a color matching function and summing across all wavelengths to produce X, Y, and Z bands prior to a transformation into RGB color space [46]. After the translation transform is known for each sample rotation angle, it is then applied to all 1150 images to produce a well-aligned four dimensional dataset com- posed of 2 spatial dimensions plus wavelength and lighting angles. After registration, these multiple angled views of the sample are collapsed into a single image by calculating an average or minimum composite image. This procedure is repeated for each wavelength and the minimum projec- tions are concatenated to create a spectral stack of diffuse- only scattered light. All registration, color transformation, photometric stereo, and matching pursuit steps are imple- mented as custom written Python scripts in the Fiji image processing suite which are available in the NU-ACCESS Github repositories (https ://githu b.com/NU-ACCES S/) [47]. Extracting spectral information To extract spectral information, a white reference target of fused silica (Heraeus, HOD®–High Purity Fused Silica Diffusor, 25  mm diameter × 1  mm thick), was used to normalize the obtained reflectance data between 430 and 1000 nm [48–50]. Noise in the measurement increases as the sensitivity of the camera decreases in the NIR range. Fifty dark images obtained with the source shuttered were averaged and then subtracted from both the reflec- tion and white reference images to mitigate the effect of background noise from the sensor. The reflectance for each wavelength at each pixel was calculated using Eq. 6, where I is the intensity of the pixel values for the sample Fig. 6 Images of a cross section from La Miséreuse accroupie (1902): reconstructed RGB image (top left) and the pigment maps for Prussian blue, vermilion, carmine naccarat (an aluminum lake of carminic acid), ultramarine, and lead white. Distribution weights are normalized between 0 and 1 https://github.com/NU-ACCESS/ Page 10 of 11Oakley et al. Herit Sci (2020) 8:27 images and white reference and D is the average pixel intensity of the set of dark images. Complementary analytical techniques SEM images were acquired on a Hitachi S-3400  N-II using a 20  kV accelerating voltage and 50  μA probe cur- rent. EDS maps were constructed using a higher probe current (70  μA) and a minimum of 30,000 counts per spectrum were required for analysis. Samples were coated in carbon tape to mitigate charge accumulation. Raman spectra were acquired on a Horiba LabRAM HR Evolution Confocal Raman instrument. The excitation wavelength was λex = 633  nm, using ×50 or ×100 LWD objectives and a 600  gr/mm grating. Acquisition times ranged from 5 to 50 s with 3.2–5% of the maximum laser power delivered at the sample. Painting cross sections Reference paintouts were prepared by mixing pigments obtained from Kremer with Galkyd Medium (Gamb- lin Artist’s Colors). Pigment mixtures were based on weight percentages shown in Additional file  2: Table  S2 and the alkyd medium was added dropwise until a work- able, homogeneous paint mixture was achieved by grind- ing pigment and medium together on a glass plate. Paint layers were applied evenly to glass slides and dried in ambient conditions or at 40 ℃. A multi-layered mockup was prepared by painting additional layers with a brush so that each underlying layer was not visible. When dry, samples were excised with a scalpel, mounted as a cross- section in an epoxy resin (Epo-Thin 2, Buehler) and pol- ished using a series of diamond suspensions in water to finish. The sample extracted from La Miséreuse accroupie was also mounted in an epoxy resin and an exposed sam- ple surface was achieved by microtomy using a glass knife. Supplementary information Supplementary information accompanies this paper at https ://doi. org/10.1186/s4049 4-020-00369 -0. Additional file 1. Movie showing registered RGB images of the Picasso cross sectional sample from 10 different lighting angles. Additional file 2. Supplemental information including an image of the OI microscope, images of a 1951 Air Force Resoultion target and compari- sons to traditional brightfield and dark field microscopy as well as tables summarizing the results of complimentary analyses of the Picasso cross section and compositional information about the prepared mock-up. (6)Refl (�,x,y) = ( I image (�,x,y) − Davg (x, y) ) ( [I white (�, x, y) − Davg (x, y)]� ) Abbreviations DF: Dark field; FTIR: Fourier transform infrared; LWD: Long working distance; NA: Numerical aperture; OI: Oblique illumination; SEM/EDS: Scanning electron microscopy/energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy; SIFT: Scale-invariant feature transform; VIS-NIR: Visible through near infrared. Acknowledgements This collaborative initiative is part of the Center for Scientific Studies in the Arts broad portfolio of activities, made possible by the Andrew Mellon foundation. In addition this work made use of the EPIC and Keck II facilities of Northwestern University’s NUANCE Center, which has received support from the Soft and Hybrid Nanotechnology Experimental (SHyNE) Resource (NSF ECCS-1542205); the MRSEC program (NSF DMR-1720139) at the Materials Research Center; the International Institute for Nanotechnology (IIN); the Keck Foundation; and the State of Illinois, through the IIN. This work also made use of the MatCI Facility supported by the MRSEC program of the National Science Foundation (DMR- 1720139) at the Materials Research Center of Northwestern University. We thank Sandra Webster-Cook and Kenneth Brummel at the Art Gallery of Ontario for the motivation to better understand Picasso’s painting materials and methods using a cross-section removed from their painting. The authors also wish to thank Eme- line Pouyet for help in preparing the Picasso cross-section through microtomy. Authors’ contributions LO, SZ, OC, and MW designed the research; LO, BM and MW performed the research; LO, MW, OC, and SZ analyzed data. LO, SZ, and MW wrote the paper. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Funding This research was made possible by the Andrew Mellon foundation. Availability of data and materials Image processing scripts are available through the NU-ACCESS GitHub linked in the Materials and Methods section. Image stacks are available upon request. 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Reflectance imaging spectroscopy and synchrotron radia- tion X-ray fluorescence mapping used in a technical study of the blue room by Pablo Picasso. Herit Sci. 2017;5:13. 43. Morales KM. a note on characterization of the cochineal dyestuff on wool using microspectrophotometry. E Preserv Sci. 2015;12:8–14. 44. Fonseca B, Patterson CS, Ganio M, MacLennan D, Trentelman K. Seeing red: towards an improved protocol for the identification of madder- and cochineal-based pigments by fiber optics reflectance spectroscopy (FORS). Herit Sci. 2019;7(1):92. 45. Pozzi F, et al. Surface-enhanced raman spectroscopy: using nanoparticles to detect trace amounts of colorants in works of art. In: Dillmann P, Bellot- Gurlet L, Nenner I, editors. Nanoscience and cultural heritage. Paris: Atlantis Press; 2016. p. 161–204. 46. Berns RS. Digital color reconstructions of cultural heritage using color- managed imaging and small-aperture spectrophotometry. Color Res Appl. 2019;44:531–46. 47. Rueden CT, et al. Image J2: imageJ for the next generation of scientific image data. BMC Bioinform. 2017;18:529. 48. Mason JD, et al. Robust commercial diffuse reflector for UV-VIS-NIR applica- tions. Appl Opt. 2015;54:7542–5. 49. ElMasry G, Sun DW. CHAPTER 1—Principles of hyperspectral imaging tech- nology. In: Sun DW, editor. Hyperspectral imaging for food quality analysis and control. Cambridge: Academic Press; 2010. p. 3–43. 50. Chang CI, editor. Hyperspectral data exploitation: theory and applications. Hoboken: Wiley; 2007. Publisher’s Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in pub- lished maps and institutional affiliations. Improved spectral imaging microscopy for cultural heritage through oblique illumination Abstract Introduction Results and discussion OI microscope design approach Surface shape estimation and min–max projections Mapping pigment distributions with sparse modeling The limitations of the method Case study using a cross-section from picasso’s La Miséreuse accroupie Conclusions Materials and methods OI spectral microscope Image post-processing Extracting spectral information Complementary analytical techniques Painting cross sections Acknowledgements References 
work_buvggge5uffi7o7mdbpk6oxbgu	----	www.e-neurospine.org 695 Commentary: Artificial Intelligence for Adult Spinal Deformity This superb summary emphasizing that predictive modeling, analytics, and machine learning forming a foundation for artificial intelligence (AI) will play a critical role in the evaluation and treatment of adult spinal deformity (ASD) is quite logical.1 ASD is one of the most complex medical problems seen as it involves not only evaluation of the entire spinal column from the upper cervical spine to the sacrum, but also the entire skeleton from the skull to the feet for radiographic completeness. It also has tremendous heteroge- neity in its clinical presentations, extensive variability in current nonoperative and opera- tive treatments prescribed with uncertain clinical outcomes, high complication rates and high costs associated with these treatments. There is no universally accepted ASD classifi- cation scheme, no accepted surgical algorithm for the most common types of pathologies seen, no accepted complication scheme to standardize the seriousness of adverse events nor their impact on recovery any required interventions or outcomes, and no definitive way to accurately predict who is going to do well with a major surgical intervention at a specific time in the patient’s life. Thus, it seems logical that computational data analytics using AI would be quite helpful for the personalized treatment of the unique ASD patient that suf- fers from this often heavy disease burden. So far, all of the work using predictive analytics and early AI for ASD has been done by a few individuals and study groups intimately involved in ASD surgical treatment. The ability of cluster AI algorithms to group these heterogenous ASD patients into specific categories of similar attributes seems logical and will be very helpful. Also, the ability to use various patient demographics to create a risk stratification based on the preoperative patient condi- tion, the surgical invasiveness, and the treatment team has been done and will only improve over time. However, since this data generation is coming from only a few specific centers and surgeons, one of the unknowns is whether pooled data from purported centers of ex- cellence in ASD care can be generalizable to all centers, surgeons and physicians evaluating and treating ASD patients around the world? Will this group data suffice or will more per- sonalized data from individual centers and surgeons be required for the type of individual- ized health care that these unique patients require? Having travelled extensively to many spine centers both in North America and also to many countries around the world, I have had first-hand experience in the extreme variability that exists in the provision of nonoper- ative and operative care of ASD patients. Truthfully, the benefits of AI are obvious at face value, but the implementation of optimal care models may be much more difficult in the “real world” given the unique health care delivery models seen globally. One other concern that we must always remind ourselves is that not only is every ASD patient truly unique, but so is every ASD spinal surgeon and spine center providing the care. So will optimal care pathways for the evaluation and treatment of ASD patients require in- put for both the patient and surgeon/center provider? Any spinal fellowship director knows that the spinal surgeons that are trained around the world finish their training with differ- Neurospine 2019;16(4):695-696. https://doi.org/10.14245/ns.19edi.020 Neurospine eISSN 2586-6591 pISSN 2586-6583 Editorial Corresponding Author Lawrence G. Lenke E-mail: LL2989@cumc.columbia.edu https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5595-4958 The Daniel and Jane Och Spine Hospital at New York-Presbyterian/Allen, New York, NY, USA See the article “Artificial Intelligence for Adult Spinal Deformity” via https://doi. org/10.14245/ns.1938414.207. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecom- mons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Copyright © 2019 by the Korean Spinal Neurosurgery Society http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.14245/ns.19edi.020&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2019-12-31 Commentary: Artificial Intelligence for Adult Spinal DeformityLenke LG https://doi.org/10.14245/ns.19edi.020696 www.e-neurospine.org ent skill sets even with the same training program. The early data suggests that the complication profiles and ultimate patient outcomes from ASD surgery seem to correlate almost entirely from the patient demographic and psychosocial profile along with the surgical invasiveness, and not from the surgeon or cen- ter where the surgery was performed. However, this seems coun- terintuitive to almost all surgical disciplines where surgeons and centers with high volume performing the same procedure have lower complication rates and better outcomes. Why would ASD surgery be any different? If anything, because of the admitted high technical complexity, it would seem logical that the sur- geon performing the operation and the facility caring for the patient following surgery would play an even more significant role in the early complication rates and outcomes. So, there is no doubt that we are headed towards a new era of personalized medicine and ASD is the prototypical spine dis- ease where AI and all of its computational benefits will provide truly revolutionary changes and improvements to our patients. My personal theory is that these types of efforts will need to be performed on a microscale and not a macroscale. So eventually, AI programming will be needed for both the patient presenting with ASD, but also the surgeon and center providing the care for the patient. This will mandate that those surgeons and cen- ters taking care of these challenging patients with such complex procedures have the necessary computational resources to ad- just the personalize care required to decide who to operate on, when the best time to perform the procedure (e.g., following a prescribed set of patient optimizing nutritional, therapeutic, psychosocial, and other requirements), the optimal procedure performed in the most standardized manner (e.g., use of robot- ic and navigational technologies among others), and a postop- erative individualized protocol to ensure a safe and expedient recovery. This will certainly all be possible with AI technology and the future is certainly bright for all ASD patients and pro- viders when these conditions have been met. CONFLICT OF INTEREST The author has a royalty and consulting relationship with Medtronic, and a consulting relationship with EOS Technolo- gies, and Acuity Surgical. REFERENCE 1. Joshi RS, Haddad AF, Lau D, Ames CP. Artificial intelligence for adult spinal deformity. Neurospine 2019;16:686-94. Title: Ma Jolie Artist: Pablo Picasso Year: 1911-12 Ma jolie (My pretty girl) was the refrain of a popular song performed at a Parisian music hall Picasso frequented. The artist suggests this musical association by situating a treble clef and music staff near the bold, stenciled letters. Ma jolie was also Picasso’s nickname for his lover Marcelle Humbert, whose figure he loosely built using the signature shifting planes of Analytic Cubism. This is far from a traditional portrait, but there are clues to its representational content. The central triangular mass subtly indicates the shape of a woman’s head and torso, and a group of six vertical lines at the painting’s lower center represent the strings of a guitar, which the woman strums. In Cubist works of this period, Picasso and Georges Braque employed multiple modes of representation simultaneously: here, Picasso combined language (in the black lettering), symbolic meaning (in the treble clef ), and near abstraction (in the depiction of his subject). More information: https://www.moma.org/collection/works/79051 © 2019 - Succession Pablo Picasso - SACK (Korea) 
work_c4m7dj54afentm3f2i2segh5ny	----	A Smart Phone Tool to Create Photo Collages Procedia Computer Science 15 ( 2012 ) 159 – 162 1877-0509 © 2012 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of the scientifi c programme committee of VS-Games 2012 doi: 10.1016/j.procs.2012.10.067 Virtual Worlds for Serious Applications (VS-GAMES'12) A Smart Phone Tool to Create Photo Collages Asier Marzoa*, Oscar Ardaiza aPublic University of Navarre, Campus de Arrosadía, Pamplona,Spain 31006 Abstract This paper presents the application PhotoPieces, a software tool which allows people to create photo collages on the fly in a camera-equipped handheld device using predefined or custom templates. Users can also create their own templates on-the- fly taking a photo and transforming it into a multi-region image template. A preliminary study with different types of users has been conducted to evaluate its value as a creative tool. © 2012 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of the scientific programme committee of VS-Games 2012 Keywords: Collage; photography; smart phone; creativity 1. Introduction New digital technologies can be used for reducing required technical level to perform certain creative activities or to increase the quality of the creations. New interaction technologies encourage the creation of digital counterparts derived from traditional artistic techniques. SandCanvas [1] tries to emulate sand painting in a multi-touch table. Glowdoodle [2] overlays on the captured video stream the brightest parts of each frame, creating an effect similar to exposing cellulose film with a distant directional light. A collage is an artistic composition made by assembling different parts. They are often composed of pieces from other works of art, ribbons, bits of colored paper or newspaper clippings glued on a canvas. This technique is formally established in modern art and used by both renowned artists (e.g. Pablo Picasso and Marcel Duchamp) and amateurs. Lately different photo collages creation tools have been implemented using digital technologies: f.e. Collage Machine [3] allows creating collages with images fetched automatically from websites. Stained glass photo collages are created from a set of photos laid out by a placement algorithm [4]. Nowadays mobile devices come equipped with a camera and have great computing power. Cameras in smart mobiles have been used in several applications: as sensor of colors, movement or barcodes that signals some input; to augment reality displaying objects in the real world or to take photos which become items in * Corresponding author. Tel.: +34-662-259-371; fax: +34-948-168-055. E-mail address: asier.marzo@unavarra.es. Available online at www.sciencedirect.com © 2012 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of the scientifi c programme committee of VS-Games 2012 Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license. Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/ 160 Asier Marzo and Oscar Ardaiz / Procedia Computer Science 15 ( 2012 ) 159 – 162 augmented reality games [5]. A few applications modify photographs taken on mobile devices using different types of filters or image processing algorithms [6] producing original images with artistic results. Up to our knowledge apps for creating photo collages in smart phones, are only used to create photo-stories with basic squared templates as in the Diptic App. We propose to take advantage of the ubiquity and processing capabilities of these camera-equipped devices in order to facilitate the creation of photo collages using pictures taken with the device itself while doing the activity. We designed and developed a mobile application to create collages whereby a template segmented into different regions is presented to the user; the collage must be completed by filling each of these regions that compose the template with a picture taken at the time. The users have also the possibility of making their own templates at any time taking photos and applying to them image processing functions to create an image with different regions. We conducted a preliminary study with two different groups of users, computers science students and art workshop participants, to determine the creativity support of the tool using the CSI survey [7]. 2. PhotoPieces PhotoPieces has been designed to permit creating photo collages using mobile devices endowed with a camera. It has also follows many of the design principles for creative tools reported in [8]: support exploration, low barriers, support open interchange, make it as simple as possible, invent things that you would want to use yourself, iterating and evaluation of the tool. Unlike other photo composition applications, PhotoPieces allows taking pictures and creating collages while on the move. Creators can experience context and create at the same time. As a result we expect that creations will have distinctive nuances. Furthermore the possibility of letting the users to create their own templates adds a level of sophistication to the creative process and in turn, enhances the creative possibilities of the tool. We expect that users will make arrangements with physical objects such as post-it notes, in order to take a picture and transforming it into a template. We have implemented and released for free an application for the iOS platform. The implemented app allows the user to choose the desired template from a predefined set of templates or from previously created ones. A template is composed of different regions, each region will be sequentially filled with a photograph. This simple creative process is depicted in Fig 1.a The user can take photos in different locations and the resulting photo collage can be saved and shared. Fig. 1. (a) an ongoing PhotoPieces creation: the user is taking a picture to fill the area 2, area 1 contains a fragment of a photograph taken earlier and zone 3 will be filled with a fragments to take in a later time; (b) a picture taken with the camera: the upper slider will choose the sensitivity level with which the image will be segmented; (c) resulting template with one solid color per detected region. 161 Asier Marzo and Oscar Ardaiz / Procedia Computer Science 15 ( 2012 ) 159 – 162 PhotoPieces allows creating templates on the fly by simply taking a picture and transforming it with an image processing algorithm into another image with a limited number of regions (Fig 1.b and 1.c). Templates are created based on an original image taken with the camera or previously stored in memory. An image processing function segments the original image with one solid color per detected region. The image processing algorithms is a modification of an efficient flood fill algorithm [9] using the sum of squares of differences between the color channels as a measure of inequality between pixels. 3. Evaluation Two groups of users tested PhotoPieces. The first group was composed of 6 students from a master degree in Computer Science (age M=27), the experience was conducted on the university campus. The second group consisted of 10 teenagers (age M=15), participants of an art workshop held in a museum of contemporary art. The activity was performed individually in group 1 whereas in group 2 it was done in pairs. In the first phase, it was explained to the users how to use the tool for filling a predefined template, 10 minutes were assigned to make as many creations as they wish. In the second phase it was shown how to create your own template and another 10 minutes were allotted to produce and fill one. Afterwards they were asked to fill in a specific form to evaluate creative tools, the CSI questionnaire [7]. A small group of participants underwent an interview to elaborate on how their creative process went off during the use of the tool. Photo collages in Fig 2 left and center were taken by computer science participants and art workshop participants. Users from the first group created an average of 2.33 collages, whereas the second group of participants created an average of 1.5 collages. Fig 2.right shows two templates created at each group. Quantitative results for CSI indicators were (W weight from 1 to 5 refers to the importance that users gave to a particular aspect of the creative process; V from 1 to 10 value of its score): Exploration W=2.33 and V=9.33, Collaboration W=0.50 and V=5.50, Expressiveness W=3.83 and V=8.75, Enjoyment W=4.16 and V=9.08, Immersion W=1.50 and V=8.75, Results worth effort W=2.66 and V=8.83. Using the formula in [7] PhotoPieces gets a CSI of 88.39, the index ranges from 0 to 100. This value is higher than other applications: symShow: 72.94 and iPhoto: 62.81 [7], however since those applications are not similar and the CSI is not a standard metric yet, this result is only a mere indicator which suggest that PhotoPieces is a useful creative tool. questionnaire, and as was communicated in the interviews. Collages made with the application have a distinguishable style from traditio - the tool following behaviors like: an user starts taking any picture for the first piece of the template and then moves and look around for other pieces that match the first picture. Creating custom templates produced an unexpected result, because it adds a new level of creativity in choosing the means to make them, the participants spontaneously used different methods: logos, organic shapes (Fig 2.right top), signals (Fig 2.right bottom), or post-it notes. All participants commented on the final interview that this f left botton collage in Fig 2), I imagined in the template a face, then started looking for elements that matched a hat inspire but at the same time allow high degree of freedom when taking images. Many participants made more than one template when they were only asked to create one. Some users suggested the integration of the application with social networks to share content. Additionally have done. 162 Asier Marzo and Oscar Ardaiz / Procedia Computer Science 15 ( 2012 ) 159 – 162 Fig. 2. (left) computer science students ; (center) art workshop participants ions; (right) custom made templates. References [1] R.H. Kazi, K. Chua, S. Zhao, R.C. Davis, K. Low. SandCanvas: A Multi-touch Art Medium Inspired by Sand Animation. ACM SIGCHI, p 1283-1292. 2011. [2] Rosenbaum E. Glowdoodle: A medium for expressive inquiry. Proc. ACM Creativity and Cognition. Berkeley, p 469-470. 2009. [3] Kerne A. Collage Machine: Temporality and Indeterminacy in Media Browsing via Interface Ecology. Proc. SIGCHI Extended Abstracts. Atlanta. 1997. [4] Girgensohn A, Chiu P. Stained glass photo collages. Proc. ACM Symposium on User Interface Software and Technology (Posters), ACM Press, NY. 2004. [5] Kuikkaniemi K, Seppälä L.. Mobile Camera Gaming: Using Camera Enabled Mobile Phones for Photo Playing. Proc. GI Jahrestagung. 2009. [6] Lappin T. Strolling Artists, Bearing Iphones. New york times (25-August-2011) http://nyti.ms/rtua5q. [7] Carroll EA, Latulipe C, Fung R, Terry M. Creativity Factor Evaluation: Towards a Standardized Survey Metric for Creativity Support. Proc. ACM Creativity & Cognition. Berkeley , USA, p 127-136. 2009. [8] Shneiderman B, Fischer G, Czerwinski M, Resnick M, Myersand B et al. Creativity Support Tools: Report from a U.S. National Science Foundation Sponsored Workshop. International Journal of Human Computer Interaction 20, p 61-77. 2006. [9] Heckbert P. Graphics Gems IV, Academic Press Morgan Kaufmann. 1994. 
work_c5danpwdkvb2zlb4kpflghwg7a	----	[PDF] Factors Influencing Physical Therapists' Use of Standardized Measures of Walking Capacity Poststroke Across the Care Continuum | Semantic Scholar Skip to search formSkip to main content> Semantic Scholar's Logo Search Sign InCreate Free Account You are currently offline. Some features of the site may not work correctly. DOI:10.2522/ptj.20140267 Corpus ID: 207402092Factors Influencing Physical Therapists' Use of Standardized Measures of Walking Capacity Poststroke Across the Care Continuum @article{Pattison2015FactorsIP, title={Factors Influencing Physical Therapists' Use of Standardized Measures of Walking Capacity Poststroke Across the Care Continuum}, author={Kira M. Pattison and D. Brooks and J. Cameron and N. Salbach}, journal={Physical Therapy}, year={2015}, volume={95}, pages={1507 - 1517} } Kira M. Pattison, D. Brooks, +1 author N. Salbach Published 2015 Medicine Physical Therapy Background The use of standardized assessment tools is an element of evidence-informed rehabilitation, but physical therapists report administering these tools inconsistently poststroke. An in-depth understanding of physical therapists' approaches to walking assessment is needed to develop strategies to advance assessment practice. Objectives The objective of this study was to explore the methods physical therapists use to evaluate walking poststroke, reasons for selecting these methods, and… Expand View on APTA academic.oup.com Save to Library Create Alert Cite Launch Research Feed Share This Paper 16 CitationsHighly Influential Citations 1 Background Citations 6 Methods Citations 2 View All Topics from this paper Neck Pain Cerebrovascular accident Interquartile Range podofilox Sleep Apnea Syndromes Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia Captopril Health Care Evaluation procedure Description physical hard work Note (document) 16 Citations Citation Type Citation Type All Types Cites Results Cites Methods Cites Background Has PDF Publication Type Author More Filters More Filters Filters Sort by Relevance Sort by Most Influenced Papers Sort by Citation Count Sort by Recency Use of Standardized Assessments and Online Resources in Stroke Rehabilitation S. H. Lin, P. Bosch, V. Rowe, S. Fasoli, J. Langan Medicine 2019 PDF View 1 excerpt, cites background Save Alert Research Feed Assessing the Use of Standardized Outcome Measures for Stroke Rehabilitation among Physiotherapists in Ghana Seth Kwame Agyenkwa, C. Yarfi, +4 authors E. Ofori Medicine Stroke research and treatment 2020 1 PDF View 1 excerpt Save Alert Research Feed Considerations for the Selection of Time-Limited Walk Tests Poststroke: A Systematic Review of Test Protocols and Measurement Properties N. Salbach, K. O'Brien, +5 authors J. Howe Psychology, Medicine Journal of neurologic physical therapy : JNPT 2017 14 View 3 excerpts, cites background Save Alert Research Feed Every person is an individual: physical therapist clinical reasoning used in inpatient rehabilitation for walking assistive device prescription in patients with stroke and brain injury S. O'Brien, Katherine Durr, +8 authors Drew Simoneau Medicine Disability and rehabilitation. Assistive technology 2019 Save Alert Research Feed Facilitated interprofessional implementation of a physical rehabilitation guideline for stroke in inpatient settings: process evaluation of a cluster randomized trial N. Salbach, S. Wood-Dauphinée, +10 authors M. Bayley Medicine Implementation Science 2017 15 View 1 excerpt, cites background Save Alert Research Feed Design features of a guideline implementation tool designed to increase awareness of a clinical practice guide to HIV rehabilitation: A qualitative process evaluation. N. Salbach, P. Solomon, +8 authors Nicole Gervais Psychology, Medicine Journal of evaluation in clinical practice 2018 1 Save Alert Research Feed Disability of Gait in Stroke Survivors: Physiotherapy Clinical Use of Visual Gait Analysis in Lusaka, Zambia B. Chiluba, Mulenga Gideon Mwansa Medicine 2019 2 PDF View 1 excerpt, cites methods Save Alert Research Feed Therapists’ experience of the cognitive orientation to daily occupational performance (CO-OP) approach: Shifting from conventional practice A. Chui, Daniela Mazzitti, E. Nalder, D. Cameron, H. Polatajko, D. Dawson Psychology, Medicine Scandinavian journal of occupational therapy 2018 1 Save Alert Research Feed Current use of measurement instruments by physiotherapists working in Germany: a cross-sectional online survey T. Braun, A. Rieckmann, F. Weber, C. Grüneberg Medicine BMC Health Services Research 2018 10 PDF View 2 excerpts, cites background Save Alert Research Feed Barriers to Using Balance and Gait Assessment Tools by Physical Therapists in Patients with Neurological Impairments: A Systematic Review Ho Young Jang, You Lim Kim, Jung Lim Oh, S. Lee Medicine 2017 2 Highly Influenced View 7 excerpts, cites background and methods Save Alert Research Feed ... 1 2 ... References SHOWING 1-10 OF 50 REFERENCES SORT BYRelevance Most Influenced Papers Recency Physical therapists' perceptions and use of standardized assessments of walking ability post-stroke. N. Salbach, S. Guilcher, S. Jaglal Medicine Journal of rehabilitation medicine 2011 37 PDF Save Alert Research Feed Factors Influencing the Use of Outcome Measures for Patients With Low Back Pain: A Survey of New Zealand Physical Therapists Janet Copeland, W. Taylor, S. Dean Medicine Physical Therapy 2008 72 PDF Save Alert Research Feed Outcome measures in physiotherapy management of patients with stroke: a survey into self-reported use, and barriers to and facilitators for use. R. V. van Peppen, François Maissan, F. V. van Genderen, Rob van Dolder, N. V. van Meeteren Medicine Physiotherapy research international : the journal for researchers and clinicians in physical therapy 2008 91 PDF Save Alert Research Feed From continuing education to personal digital assistants: what do physical therapists need to support evidence-based practice in stroke management? N. Salbach, P. Veinot, S. Jaglal, M. Bayley, D. Rolfe Medicine Journal of evaluation in clinical practice 2011 27 Save Alert Research Feed Outcome Measures for Individuals With Stroke: Process and Recommendations From the American Physical Therapy Association Neurology Section Task Force J. Sullivan, Beth E Crowner, +4 authors Genevieve Pinto Zipp Medicine Physical Therapy 2013 83 PDF Save Alert Research Feed Weighing the Evidence: Clinical Decision Making in Neurological Physical Therapy Mandy McGlynn, C. Cott Medicine 2007 28 PDF Save Alert Research Feed Measuring Physical Impairment and Disability With the Chedoke‐McMaster Stroke Assessment C. Gowland, P. Stratford, +7 authors N. Plews Medicine Stroke 1993 755 PDF Save Alert Research Feed Physiotherapy practice in stroke rehabilitation: a survey S. Lennon Medicine Disability and rehabilitation 2003 59 Save Alert Research Feed Measurement of health outcomes in the clinical setting: applications to physiotherapy P. Beattie Medicine 2001 55 Save Alert Research Feed Factors influencing the use of outcome measures in physiotherapy management of lung transplant patients in Australia and New Zealand C. Maher, M. Williams Medicine Physiotherapy theory and practice 2005 23 Save Alert Research Feed ... 1 2 3 4 5 ... Related Papers Abstract Topics 16 Citations 50 References Related Papers Stay Connected With Semantic Scholar Sign Up About Semantic Scholar Semantic Scholar is a free, AI-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the Allen Institute for AI. 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work_cdmwfeoywbentpsugpvzujatxe	----	The Deep Order Called Turbulence: The Three Faces of Dramaturgy The Drama Review 44, 4 (T168), Winter 2000. Copyright © 2000 New York University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 56 The Deep Order Called Turbulence The Three Faces of Dramaturgy Eugenio Barba There exists an invisible revolt, apparently painless yet infusing every hour of work, and this is what nourishes “technique.” Artistic discipline is a way of refusal. Technique in theatre and the attitude that it presupposes is a continual exercise in revolt, above all against oneself, against one’s own ideas, one’s own resolutions and plans, against the comfort- ing assurance of one’s own intelligence, knowledge, and sensibility. It is the practice of a voluntary and lucid disorientation in the search for new points of orientation. Apart from nourishing the work, revolt is also nourished by it. I do theatre because I want to preserve my freedom to refuse certain rules and values of the world around me. But the opposite is also true: I am forced or encouraged to refuse them because I do theatre. Storm and Meticulousness The choice to do theatre is often a difficult answer to a difficult situation. It is a way to live a freedom that is only free if the results of our own work suc- ceed in influencing other people and winning them over to our side. It is a way of inventing our own identity, which is revealed to us through work that is both meticulous and stormy. Some people believe that storm and meticulousness belong in two separate worlds; that technical problems, professionalism, and the craftsman’s precision have nothing to do with turbulence and with the impulse towards freedom, destruction, revolt, and refusal. This is not true. Extracting the Difficult from the Difficult Extracting the difficult from the difficult is the attitude that defines artistic practice. On this depend the incisiveness, the complexity, the dense quality of Three Faces of Dramaturgy 57 1. Technique in theatre and the attitude it presupposes is a continual exercise in revolt, above all against oneself, against one’s own ideas, one’s own resolutions and plans, against the comforting assurance of one’s own intelligence, knowledge, and sensibility. Above, Roberta Carreri performs in Mythos (1998), directed by Eugenio Barba. (Photo by Jan Rüsz) 58 Eugenio Barba the result, as well as the moments of difficulty, suffering and illumination, dis- orientation and reorientation that make up the process. This attitude illustrates the difference between the organic character of art and the organization of daily tasks which are all the better for having the easy extracted from the difficult. Scylla and Charybdis Order and disorder are not two opposing options, but two poles that coex- ist and reinforce one another reciprocally. The quality of the tension created between them is an indication of the fertility of the creative process. When we attempt to describe this tension, however, the discussion be- comes hesitant. The more our explanations stick to what we have experienced in the work, the more they appear fantastic and exotic to the listener. And in trying to transmit experience, there is a risk of misunderstanding. The easiest way of escaping these problems is through silence. Otherwise we have to navigate between Scylla and Charybdis. On the one hand there is Scylla, representing the risk of straightening out the route, thus transforming the intricacy of the many paths into one direct line running in the right direction. Everything then becomes clear, even though it does not correspond to our experience. Within the reality of work, creativity is like a stormy sky. It is perceived as disorientation, doubt, frustration, discomfort. To be master of one’s craft signifies above all knowing how to prepare for the storm that will threaten us, and how to resist without resorting to easy or familiar solutions. “Storm” also means that problems do not present themselves one after an- other—as when we talk about them—but all or many simultaneously. When the sea and the waves are merely images of the route, every step becomes comprehensible. Everything turns out to be true, yet so abstract that it makes a mockery of experience. On the other hand, there is Charybdis, with the risk of speaking only of storms and forgetting about the geometry of the compass and the sextant, which make the route possible. It is the risk of becoming anecdote or confes- sion: the process is shown as a random path, confused and shadowy, like magma flowing almost involuntarily into a result without knowing how or why. This too is an aspect of truth, one of its profiles. To discover the true face behind the reality of the artistic process, you must focus first on one and then the other profile. The Secret Complexity of Bios In spite of the disturbing fluctuation between Scylla and Charybdis, with all the misunderstandings that it entails, it is worthwhile to attempt to talk about the way in which a performance grows, takes form, and is transformed. It means questioning oneself about something that has to do with life itself. One has the sensation that they are the same questions as the ones posed by those who investigate the secret complexity of bios. It is this that justifies the interest and the curiosity surrounding the artistic process, with its paradoxes and obstructions. It explains the persistence of cer- tain people to speak of it although well aware that their words will be opaque and the questions will almost always lack answers. Art and Living Matter In artistic terms, the contraposition “organic” and “inorganic” distinguishes work that seems alive, credible, and coherent from that which appears forced, Three Faces of Dramaturgy 59 mechanical, arousing in us a reaction of rejection and annoyance. In the natu- ral sciences, however, the contraposition organic-inorganic serves to distin- guish the realm of the bios from the mineral realm. There is an important difference between discussions on nature and on art: in the first case the difference between “organic” and “inorganic” is objective, while in the second it has a purely subjective basis and only acquires an ap- pearance of objectivity when it concerns an opinion shared by many. Or, to express it in terms that might appeal both to skeptics and relativists: discussions on nature have the presumption to be objective, whereas those on art pre- sume that objectivity does not exist. Another difference is that while the complexity of the natural processes de- termining life often appear as an admirable order, the paths which lead to the life of a work of art seem to be dominated by disorder and fortuitousness. Forging Fortuitousness Many of the solutions that make an impression on the spectator and help to determine the significance of a performance seem to be suggested by fortu- itousness. But what we call “fortuitousness” is a complex order in which sev- eral forces act simultaneously, a system of relationships that cannot be explored at a single glance. We could say that in the creative process we must forge our own fortu- itousness, just as the Romans used to say that we are the forgers of our own good or bad fortune. But we must not forget the words of Pasteur: “Chance only favors minds which are prepared.” Catastrophe and Density From a technical point of view, how can we disrupt the direction of the work? One way is to concentrate not just on one objective, but to aim in two, three, four different directions simultaneously. Like a sailing boat that wants to go west, while the wind is blowing from the south and the currents are carrying it towards the east. The equilibrium between these tensions is the creative route. The tensions between forces that are divergent, opposed to one another or simply contiguous, can lead to catastrophe. But if we succeed 2. Order and disorder are not two opposing options, but two poles that coexist and reinforce one another reciprocally. The quality of the tension created between them is an indication of the fertility of the creative pro- cess. Torgeir Wethal (left) and Tage Larsen in Mythos (1998). (Photo by Jan Rüsz) 60 Eugenio Barba in keeping these forces at bay and discovering the kind of relationship that ex- ists between them—in other words, if we can get them to coexist, interweav- ing and rearranging them—then we will attain density instead of catastrophe. Density disorientates the spectators, forcing them to extract the difficult from the difficult and shaking them out of the familiar trains of thought, which constitute a safe home for their ideas. The Technique of Disorientation During rehearsals, the technique of disorientation consists in giving space to a multiplicity of trends, narratives and directions without bending them, right from the start, beneath the yoke of our choices and intentions. We must fol- low different tracks, diverging themes, and unconnected associations contem- poraneously, and make sure that the stories pursued by the individual actors do not correspond to those of the director and the other actors. It is an attitude that stimulates and generates a contiguity of material, pros- pects, and proposals. It is a means of trying out a labyrinthine path between chaos and cosmos, with sudden swerves, paralyzing stops, and unexpected solu- tions. It is the growth of a profusion that for a long time appears to obscure the explanatory and narrative clarity in the course of the process. In this way an apparent confusion is created, a magnetic field with differing forces for each individual actor and for the director, but where each of them can find pretexts, bonds, justifications, interests, obstacles, challenges, and resonances related to the main theme or the nucleus of questions constituting the point of departure. It implies the creation of a chaotic panorama with many underground rivers along which everyone is free to follow a different route. This freedom already constitutes the seed of a dramaturgy because, if they all navigate according to their own choice, the obligation to follow a common path necessitates the discovery of relationships between the various personal motivations. This search for coherent re- lationships is already a search for a narrative plot, a coherent dramaturgy. Three Dramaturgies Working on the dramaturgy does not only involve the text or the story that we want to tell and make visible to the spectators. There are three different dramaturgies, which should happen simulta- neously but can each be worked on separately: 1. An organic or dynamic dramaturgy, which is the composition of the rhythms and dynamisms affecting the spectators on a nervous, sensorial and sensual level; 2. A narrative dramaturgy, which interweaves events and characters, informing the spectators on the meaning of what they are watching; 3. And lastly, the one that I call dramaturgy of changing states, when the entirety of what we show manages to evoke something totally different, similar to when a song develops another sound line through the harmonics. In a performance, this dramaturgy of changing states distills or captures hidden significances, which are often involuntary on the part of the actors as well as the director, and are different for every spectator. It gives the performance not only a coherence of its own but also a sense of mystery. The dramaturgy of changing states is the most elusive. There are no techni- cal rules. Furthermore, it is difficult to explain what it involves beyond the perceptible effects: leaps from one dimension to another. For the spectator, actor, and director it is a spring from one state of consciousness to another Three Faces of Dramaturgy 61 with unforeseeable and extremely personal consequences, both sensorial and mental. This leap from one context to another is a perturbation, a change in the quality of energy, which produces a double effect: enlightenment or a sudden vortex that shatters the security of comprehension and is experienced as turbulence. Turbulence Turbulence appears to be a violation of order; in fact it is order in motion. It engenders vortexes that upset the current of narrative action. In the absence of these vortexes the continuity, rhythm, and narrative risk lapsing into the obvious, into mere illustration. It is like a succession of notes making a melody, but one which is sung without the wealth of harmonics that bring the voice to life, allowing it to enchant and move. 3. There is no creative work without waste. The propor- tion between that which is produced and that which is finally used could be said to correspond to the dispropor- tion of the seeds that are dispersed in nature in order that a single fertilized cell may succeed in engendering a new individual in the animal or plant world. Torgeir Wethal and Iben Nagel Rasmussen in Mythos (1998). (Photo by Tony D’urso) 62 Eugenio Barba The dramaturgy of changing states concerns the performance as a physical and sensorial event, as an organism-in-life. It has nothing to do with the writ- ten text, with the dramaturgy of the words, in the same way that the vibratory quality of the singing voice has nothing to do with the score. All this is not possible without the availability of many elements and differ- ent seeds, without the will to encourage contiguity and to spread out in sev- eral directions simultaneously. This abundance of elements and materials creates confusion, yet its aim is simplicity and coherence. Coherence “A writer may well build castles in the air, but they must rest on founda- tions of granite.” This declaration by Ibsen refers to the dramaturgy of words, but emphasizes the dialectic of independence and dependence, anarchy and discipline, on the one hand revolt and on the other the authority of a unifying principle which characterizes every aspect of the three dramaturgies. The actions of the actors should possess a coherence independent of their context and their “meaning.” They should appear credible on a sensorial level and be present on a pre-expressive one. The granite foundations are their qual- ity of credibility, their ability to stimulate the attention of the spectator and to be rooted in the body-mind of the actor. They should be based on their own particular independent logic. There are and have always been actors of prodigious effectiveness who have never fixed the pattern of their actions onstage, who have never thought in terms of a score, who have never consciously worked on a level that they called pre-expressive, avoiding every sign of visible precision that might be controlled from outside. Why then do I insist so strongly on the work of the actor at a pre-expres- sive level; on the importance of precision in fixing and knowing how to re- peat the precise pattern of the actions; on the value of one’s independence from the intentions of the director and the writer; on the coherence of one’s score and subscore? I insist not only because I have observed what it is that makes the actor ef- fective, but because the autonomous coherence of the actions (independently of the significance that they assume in the context of the performance) be- stows a particular and precious gift on the material which the actor has as- sembled: it becomes amphibious, capable of passing from one context to another without withering away, and able to mutate without losing the roots that keep it alive. Confusion and Con-fusion During the rehearsal stage, when the actors only follow a personal and co- herent thread in their scores, the dramaturgy as a whole may remain confused, even chaotic, for a long time. Confusion, when it is sought after and practiced as an end in itself, is the art of deception. This does not necessarily mean that it is a negative state, one to be avoided. When used as a means, confusion constitutes one of the compo- nents of an organic creative process. It is the moment in which material, pros- pects, contiguous stories, and diverse intentions become con-fused, i.e., fuse together, mixing with one another, each becoming the other face of the other. The intricate lines of the route do not mean that the route aims at intricacy. The profusion and confusion of material and trends is the only way to arrive at the bare and essential action. Three Faces of Dramaturgy 63 Craft and Genius When the work is almost finished, he stops and says that now it can really begin. Those around him express stupor and incomprehension. Meanwhile he disarranges and destroys everything he has done up to that moment. He draws other scenes and figures, which he interweaves or superimposes on the pre- ceding ones, canceling them out. He takes another canvas and on it paints the picture that he has mentally extracted from the difficulties with which he was confronted while working on the previous canvas. He started out from a dynamic and asymmetric division of a white rectangle, with lines pointing in six directions. Then he peopled it, filled it, applied col- ors, blotted out forms, reapplied new colors, invented new figures, and trans- formed others. He painted in haste, then stopped to reflect, began again, glimpsed a solution, and changed his mind. On the canvas, the sun shone on an azure sea. He had made night fall and the entire canvas gradually had become dark. At that precise moment he saw the right path: “Now I can begin. All the mistakes I have made up to now are teaching me the picture I must paint.” In the summer of 1955 Pablo Picasso agreed, contrary to all expectations, to make a film. It was Georges Clouzot, the French director, who had con- vinced him. The film was to show the painter at work. Contrary to his nor- mal daily schedule, for a whole month Picasso got up early in the morning to go to the film studio in Nice. He agreed to submit to all the technical de- mands of the filmmaker. He worked in the presence of crowds of “specta- tors,” lighting and sound technicians, electricians, photographers, production staff, director—all the numerous members of a film team. The film, Le mystère Picasso, is a classic of its genre today. It is presented as a document that allows us to observe what goes on in the head of a genius. He was undoubtedly a genius. But the film reveals above all the craftsman Picasso. What is the difference? Humble Procedures In the 1970s, a series of film sequences rejected by Charlie Chaplin was dis- covered. They were supposed to have been destroyed but had been kept by mistake. With them Kevin Brownlow and David Gill put together a television program that became famous: Unknown Chaplin. It showed us Chaplin impro- vising, searching for a theme for one of his films, starting from nothing, con- structing complicated scenes and then discarding them until the right road opened up before him. Meanwhile the camera continued to record hundreds of meters of film which now reveal to us what was going on in the head of that genius. The craftsman yet again. If we watch Le mystère Picasso or Unknown Chaplin in order to deduce something that might be of interest from a professional point of view, we must not allow ourselves to be dazzled by their extraordinary creativity. Their exceptional qualities disclose the humble procedures on which the artist’s work is based, whatever the level of the results. Waste There is no creative work without waste. The proportion between that which is produced and that which is finally used could be said to correspond to the disproportion of the seeds that are dispersed in nature in order that a single fertilized cell may succeed in engendering a new individual in the ani- mal or plant world. 64 Eugenio Barba There is no creative work without waste and there is no waste without the high quality of that which is wasted. Kipling used to say that you cannot learn to write if you do not learn to dis- card, and in order to cut a text in a way that is beneficial, the rejected parts must be of an equally high quality as those which remain. In other words, it is no use writing something with the idea that what you write may be thrown away. Extracting the difficult from the difficult involves creating complexity. This is not an objective in itself but aims at guiding us towards further choices and revealing paths we did not know existed. This is a paradoxical way of reasoning according to the criteria of economy and accumulation. But it is simple good sense if the criteria are those of the artistic crafts. In theatre this paradox is mainly present on two different levels of organiza- tion: that of the actor and that of the narrative dramaturgy. Extracting Error from Confusion At a certain point in Clouzot’s film Picasso appears confused. He is not sure that he will be able to dominate the difficulties that he has created for himself. Slowly, in his eyes, the confusion is transformed into an obvious spider’s web of errors. At this point he gets his breath back: at last he can begin. “Truth emerges more often from error than from confusion,” said Francis Bacon (not the contemporary painter but the 17th-century philosopher). To extract error from confusion, and then our own truth from the error, could be a somewhat philosophical way of saying: extract the difficult from the difficult. 4. Turbulence appears to be a violation of order; in fact it is order in motion. Kai Bredholt, Roberta Carreri, Torgeir Wethal, and Jan Ferselev in motion in Mythos (1998). (Photo by Jan Rüsz) Three Faces of Dramaturgy 65 Constructing Confusion The capacity to construct confusion is crucial in the theatre’s creative process. From a dramaturgical point of view it implies not being satisfied with what we already know about the performance on which we are working, its story or non-story, the meaning that the writer has given to the text or that we want to express and make visible. It means doing everything to escape the temptation to carry out a previously defined plan, which we usually call “in- terpretation.” When we work on a text, it is important to know how to dis- tance ourselves from it. But the purpose of this detachment, this straying from the path, or pilgrimage, is not to use the text as a pretext. It must be a road which carries us in unimagined directions in order that everything we have discovered while exploring the territories and the themes that have been car- rying us away or contradicting our points of departure, may build a network of difficulties when we return to face the writer’s dramaturgy, confronting us with new questions and unexpected perspectives. This rule of behavior towards the text or the original theme, towards the meaning that these assumed for us initially, corresponds to a rule guiding the movements of the body: the impulse to move in one direction is preceded by an impulse in the opposite direction, a sats. This law of movement of the liv- ing organism is amplified by the actor at the pre-expressive level and trans- formed into one of those stimuli, leaps of energy or micro-vortexes which hold and steer the attention of the spectator sensually and kinesthetically. Errors As Walls and Errors As Doors If it is true that it is essential to extract the error from confusion, then we have to ask ourselves what, from a technical point of view, is error. There are sterile errors that every theatre craftsman has to learn to recog- nize and correct. These are errors that block the process, like blind walls. On the other hand, there are other types of errors which, as doors, are a thresh- old, temporary yet fertile. If we have been able to work at different levels of organization of the per- formance, then each of these has a life and function of its own. When put together, however, they do not make for harmony but confusion. Every level of organization limits itself to following its own course, and has a cer- tain centrifugal tendency, jealous of its own autonomy. That which possesses its own effective coherency on a particular level of organization—e.g., that of the dynamo-rhythm—loses it on another level, that of the narrative drama- turgy. And vice versa: some actions, a passage or an entire scene, which are essential to the story we are presenting, become an obstacle and counterpro- ductive to the pace of the performance. A performance is built up according to different logics. Something that is right from the point of view of one of these logics becomes “error” when considered from another standpoint. These “errors” guide us, obliging us to extract a new complexity from those that constituted the previous stages of the work. It is by attempting to respond to these new difficulties, to break down these “doors,” that we may experience leaps in perception in ourselves or in the spectator: the dramaturgy of changing states. At this point a phenomenon occurs which seems strange when we speak of it, but is a sign that the work is on the right course. It is as though the work no longer belongs to us but starts to speak with its own autonomous voice and language, which we have to decipher. Something similar happens with the work of the individual actors when their physical scores are interwoven with the scores of their fellow actors, with the words of the text, and with the demands of the dramaturgy. 66 Eugenio Barba Work Tires and Sometimes Hurts It is easy to read storm and meticulousness, disorientation and confusion, turbulence and chance which is not fortuitous as formulas for extracting the difficult from the difficult. At the same time it is easy to imagine how, in the reality of the work situation, this process is experienced as doubt, discomfort, and sometimes pain. During rehearsals, when what seemed already to be a difficult result is treated as a point of departure, some of the actors lose heart. It is always a critical moment for the ensemble. Sometimes the irritation of each against the others prevails and destroys. Yet even this is craftsmanship. Work does not only tire, but sometimes it hurts. Sadism and masochism are of no use in the artistic process. If they emerge in the web of relationships that make up a group, the result is immediate and bitter destruction. The Drop of Water Why, then, do I work in a way which may bring me distress, cause me un- ease or wound me or my companions? In order to create a work that lives and stands alone, that belongs to me, in which I recognize myself, yet which does not need my presence to go on ex- isting in the senses, the memory, and the actions of others. In order to give the spectators something to remember even after they have forgotten it. Because I long for the bare and essential action: the drop of water that makes the jar run over. —translated by Judy Barba Eugenio Barba is the founder and director of Odin Teatret in Holstebro, Denmark, and of the International School of Theatre Anthropology, as well as a TDR Contrib- uting Editor. His most recent book is Theatre: Solitude, Craft, Revolt (Black Mountain Press, 1999). 
work_ceaip4jx5ngfrblooel4zn46xu	----	Crónicas; Exhibition reviews ARCHIVO ESPAÑOL DE ARTE, XCI, 364 OCTUBRE-DICIEMBRE 2018, pp. 435-442 ISSN: 0004-0428, eISSN: 1988-8511 Copyright: © 2018 CSIC. Este es un artículo de acceso abierto distribuido bajo los términos de una licencia de uso y distribución Creative Commons Reconocimiento 4.0 Internacional (CC BY 4.0) CRÓNICAS Velázquez and the Celebration of Painting: the Golden Age in the Museo del Prado Tokyo: The National Museum of Western Art, 24-II a 27-V-2018 Kobe: Hyogo Prefectural Museum of Art, 13-VI a 14-X2018 Hasta el próximo mes de octubre se celebra en Japón una nueva exposición del Museo del Prado. Des- de que en 2002 el National Museum of Western Art de Tokio celebró la exposición “Obras maestras del Museo del Prado” se han presentado varias muestras igualmente compuestas de sus colecciones: “From Titian to Goya. Masterpieces of the Museo del Prado” (Tokyo Metropolitan Art Museum y Osaka Munici- pal Museum of Art, 2006), “Goya: Luces y Sombras. Obras Maestras del Museo del Prado” (National Museum of Western Art, 2011) y “Captive Beauty. Treasures from the Prado Museum” (Mitsubishi Ichi- gokan Museum, 2015). Todas estas exposiciones consiguieron hacer pública la existencia de un destacado grupo de pintores españoles. La exposición consiste fundamentalmente en 61 pinturas realizadas por artistas europeos de los si- glos XVI y XVII, en las que se incluyen siete obras de Velázquez: Adoración de los Reyes Magos, Felipe IV cazador, El príncipe Baltasar Carlos, a caballo, Juan Martínez Montañés, El Niño de Vallecas, Marte y Menipo. Para acompañar al sevillano se han elegido no sólo piezas de sus compatriotas, sino también de varios pintores extranjeros. De los últimos se destacan 2 franceses (Lorrain y Lemaire), 6 de Países Bajos (Mor, Jan Brueghel el Viejo, Alsloot, Rubens, De Vos y Van Dyck) y 10 italianos (Tiziano, Bril, Gentiles- chi, Reni, Lanfranco, Stanzione, Rosa, Giordano, etc.). Esta mezcla de nacionalidades diferencia esta ex- posición de otras realizadas en Japón, que intentaron historiar el arte español desde su perspectiva exclusi- vamente endógena. En esta ocasión, con un nuevo criterio, se muestra lo muy rico que era el panorama artístico en el que vivió Velázquez, quien desde su llegada a la corte madrileña trabajó al servicio del monarca Felipe IV, uno de los coleccionistas más entusiastas en el siglo XVII aficionado a obras de arte producidas tanto dentro como fuera de España. Este enfoque se ha visualizado mediante la agrupación de obras en secciones temáticas. La estructura- ción sobre la base de asuntos tiene varias ventajas, como explica Javier Portús, comisario español de la exposición. Por un lado, “el visitante de la exposición no se enfrenta solo a problemas estilísticos o de lenguaje pictórico, sino que se va introduciendo también al ambiente político, científico e intelectual de la época, y reconoce a algunos de los personajes y escenarios vinculados con Velázquez”. Sin embargo, lo que nos parece más novedoso es la integración de obras velazqueñas en secciones temáticas, lo cual nos permita compararlas a la vez con obras de otros pintores, españoles y extranjeros. Cuando se situaba a Velázquez en un contexto exclusivamente español, comprenderíamos la extraordinaria versatilidad temáti- ca de sus obras, que abarcan géneros pictóricos poco cultivados por sus compatriotas, pero con más fre- cuencia por artistas renacentistas o barrocos foráneos. Lo mismo pasaba con la pintura mitológica, las es- cenas costumbristas o el paisaje. Gracias a la selección y la disposición temática de las obras, comprobamos que el pintor formaba parte de un ambiente internacional de la corte madrileña bajo el reinado de Felipe IV y estaba guiado por intereses parecidos a los que movían a numerosos artistas europeos, y que su afán de originalidad narrativa le llevó a plantear alternativas singulares a las propuestas de artistas foráneos en los campos del retrato, el paisaje o la pintura mitológica. En la exposición se han establecido siete capítulos presididos en general por uno o dos cuadros de Velázquez: “El arte” (Juan Martínez Montañés), “El saber” (Menipo), “La mitología” (Marte), “La corte” (Felipe IV, cazador y El Niño de Vallecas), “El paisaje” (El príncipe Baltasar Carlos, a caballo), “El bo- Archivo Español de Arte, vol. XCI, n.º 364, pp. 435-442, octubre-diciembre 2018 ISSN: 0004-0428, eISSN: 1988-8511 436 CRÓNICAS degón” (excepcionalmente carente de piezas de Velázquez) y “La religión” (Adoración de los Reyes Ma- gos). Entre esas secciones se han intercalado también nueve libros artísticos, que consisten en tratados de pintura como el Arte de la pintura de Pacheco, descripciones de monumentos como la de El Escorial por la mano de Francisco de los Santos, o un relato minucioso sobre la gran fiesta conmemorativa de la cano- nización del rey Fernando III de Castilla por el sacerdote sevillano Fernando de la Torre Farfán. A través de ellos, en palabras de Portús, “el visitante entra en contacto con varios de los principales instrumentos del Siglo de Oro para la reflexión y la difusión de temas de carácter artístico”. Esta exposición, que conmemora el 150 aniversario del establecimiento de relaciones diplomáticas entre España y Japón, nos presenta una perspectiva más abierta del arte hispano. La convivencia de pintu- ras velazqueñas con obras de artistas contemporáneos nos revela tanto la existencia de opciones estéticas e intereses temáticos parecidos como la singularidad y riqueza de la producción del pintor de tanta inven- ción. Yui Toyoda Universidad Waseda aTempora. Talavera de la Reina. Seis mil años de cerámica en Castilla-La Mancha Talavera de la Reina (Toledo): Iglesia de Santa Catalina, Museo Ruiz de Luna, Centro Cultural Rafael Morales, Claustro de La Colegial, IX-2018 a I-2019 Ninguna ciudad española tan emblemática para presentar una exposición de largo recorrido sobre ce- rámica como la significada Talavera de la Reina. De manera que, en efecto, la localidad castellano-man- chega ha sido en esta ocasión la acertada anfitriona de una nueva edición de la marca “aTempora”, la cual ya cobijó en 2016 la exposición del artista Ai Weiwei, La poética de la libertad, instalada en la Catedral de Cuenca, y la muestra — conmemorativa del cuarto centenario del doble fallecimiento— De Cervantes a Shakespeare, 1616-2016, exhibida en la Catedral de Sigüenza. Como cabía esperar al acercar la temática a los intereses regionales, la nueva muestra allí inaugurada el 21 de septiembre ha estado dedicada al desarrollo del arte del barro en el ámbito castellano-manchego. Así, a través de la exhibición de más de 1200 piezas y reproducciones fotográficas, en ella se abarca un amplísimo arco cronológico que recorre desde el asentamiento de las primeras civilizaciones en este terri- torio hasta esa actualidad que, seis mil años después, representan los trabajos en cerámica de la Escuela de Arte de Talavera. Organizada por la Junta de Comunidades de Castilla-La Mancha, con la colaboración de diversas instancias y entidades, en su horizonte sin duda planea el servir de base al Gobierno Regional para proponer ante la UNESCO la consideración de la cerámica de Talavera de la Reina y Puente del Arzobispo como Patrimonio Inmaterial de la Humanidad. El comisario de la exposición ha sido Alfonso Caballero — hasta su reciente jubilación director-conservador del Museo de Santa Cruz-Santa Fe de Toledo—, quien ha contado con el proyecto museográfico del equipo del arquitecto Juan Pablo Rodríguez Frade. El plan- teamiento y contenido de la muestra lo han repartido éstos en cuatro grandes sedes talaveranas, que dividen y estructuran temáticamente tan amplia extensión espacio-temporal. En este sentido, el corazón y mayor recorrido cronológico de la muestra se ubica en la Iglesia de San- ta Catalina, de donde arranca una revisión histórica contada a los largo de seis grandes apartados (Prehis- toria y Protohistoria; la cerámica ibérica, romana y visigótica; la Edad Media cristiana e islámica; la etapa de esplendor de las cerámicas de Talavera y Puente y, finalmente, los inicios del taller de Juan Ruiz de Luna); revisión que además hace especial hincapié en el referido período de mayor brillantez e influencia de la cerámica talaverana y de Puente (los siglos XVI a XIX). De este modo, se presta especial atención a las principales series de esta cerámica: la serie azul, de las mariposas, del esponjado, de las ferroneries, la tricolor, la alcoreña, de la encomienda, la chinesca, la polícroma, del encaje de bolillos, de la línea vermi- culada, del chaparro, del ramito, de las guirnaldas y pabellones, del pino, de la Virgen del Prado, de la pajarita, de la de la Guerra de la Independencia, etc. Algunos significativos espacios del edificio, como la destacable sacristía de planta octogonal y su acceso (en el que sobresalen los pioneros paneles de azuleje- ría de Jan Floris, el panel del escudo de los Jerónimos de Santa Catalina o el frontal de altar de la iglesia de Marrupe), se convierten en núcleos privilegiados con la exhibición de varios ejemplos notables de pilas bautismales. Aunque presenta mayor interés en las vitrinas de la nave central el contraste de alfares que se fueron instalando en Talavera: La Menora, Ruiz de Luna, Guijo, Nivero, Arroyo, El Pilar, Ginestal, Mon- temayor, La Nueva Menora, La Purísima, El Carmen, La Talabricense, etc. Archivo Español de Arte, vol. XCI, n.º 364, pp. 435-442, octubre-diciembre 2018 ISSN: 0004-0428, eISSN: 1988-8511 CRÓNICAS 437 La segunda de las sedes de la exposición se halla en el propio Museo Ruiz de Luna. Allí sobre todo se ha querido dejar constancia del renacer de la cerámica talaverana que supuso la instalación en la ciudad del fotógrafo y emprendedor que hoy da nombre a ese espacio museístico, quien mantuvo en la ciudad entre 1907 y 1961 el trascendente taller de cerámica Ruiz de Luna. De forma epilogal, no obstante, también se hace un pequeño guiño en esta sede a la cerámica y diseños que salen hoy de la Escuela de Arte de Tala- vera. Sin embargo, es en la tercera de la sedes, ubicada en el antiguo Hospital de la Misericordia, hoy Centro Cultural Rafael Morales, donde se ha querido dar cabida a lo producido por los talleres que se de- sarrollaron en Talavera y Puente desde fines del siglo XIX hasta alcanzar a los creadores actuales. Final y complementariamente, el claustro de La Colegial, cuarta de las sedes, se ha reservado para la exhibición de la cerámica y azulejería talaverana de gran formato que, por su tamaño y características, no resultaba factible trasladarlas para su exhibición en la muestra. Representa este largo recorrido que hoy nos presenta la llamada Ciudad de la Cerámica, en consecuen- cia, una loable empresa de acercamiento al ciudadano de un arte que siempre le ha sido muy cercano y que, al mismo tiempo, ha venido constituyendo desde los más remotos tiempos una de sus manifestaciones creativas más significativas y elocuentes sobre su vivir y devenir. A partir de febrero y hasta mayo de 2019, además, sucederá a la actual en la Iglesia de Santa Catalina una nueva exposición sobre cerámica popular; muestra que rema en el mismo sentido y con la misma intención de lograr el citado reconocimiento de la UNESCO. Ojalá se logre y se premien los esfuerzos institucionales, aunque más importante que ello posi- blemente sea el hacer sentir al público la cerámica, su oficio, tradición y consumo como un arte propio, vivido y cercano, un arte en el que los castellano-manchegos han tendido y tienen mucho que decir. Miguel Cabañas Bravo Instituto de Historia, CSIC Picasso, Braque, Gris, Blanchard, Miró, Dalí. Grandes figuras de la vanguardia. Colección Masaveu y Colección Pedro Masaveu. Oviedo: Museo de Bellas Artes de Asturias, 25-VII-2018 a 6-I-2019 La elección de las obras que componen esta exposición de cámara constituye en primer lugar un ejer- cicio de decantación: ocho piezas de extraordinaria calidad, representativas del arte de vanguardia europeo hasta la Segunda Guerra Mundial y concretadas en los dos ismos que marcaron los extremos de este perío- do: Cubismo y Surrealismo. En segundo término, el montaje aborda también una reflexión sobre el mode- lo de coleccionismo burgués que imperó en España en los siglos XIX y XX, concretado en el gusto perso- nal de la familia Masaveu, saga de empresarios y filántropos de origen catalán afincada en Asturias en 1840. Formada a lo largo de varias generaciones, la Colección Masaveu fue especialmente enriquecida du- rante los años en que Pedro Masaveu Peterson estuvo a su frente, adquiriendo entre otras obras Tête (Per- sonnage), de Picasso; Atelier VIII, de Braque y Le violon, de Gris. Tras su fallecimiento, se añadiría a la Colección otro picasso: Tête de femme (Jacqueline). Las cuatro obras conforman la mitad de Grandes fi- guras de la Vanguardia. En paralelo, Masaveu Peterson fue creando su colección personal, que pasó por dación al Principado de Asturias en 1994 y en 2011 fue adscrita de manera definitiva al Museo de Bellas Artes de Asturias. De ella se exponen Mousquetaire à l’epée et amour, de Picasso; Nature morte, de Blan- chard; La Grande Écaillère, de Miró y Metamorfosis de ángeles en mariposa, de Dalí. Si bien la exhibición tiene un carácter autónomo, ubicada en la sala 23 de la primera planta del Edificio Ampliación del Museo, culmina a la vez el relato cronológico del Arte Nuevo y de vanguardia que articu- la toda la planta y se individualiza gracias a su diseño: tonalidad de las paredes, gráfica bilingüe e incluso una pequeña arquitectura efímera, otorgan individualidad al espacio sin interrumpir la perspectiva del re- corrido histórico. En cuanto a su disposición interna, la exposición puede entenderse como un juego de diálogos y con- traposiciones: entre colecciones, ismos, períodos de producción, soportes, técnicas y esquemas de color. Así, Pablo Picasso preside el bloque cubista con Mousquetaire à l’epée et amour (1969). Su brillante contraste de rojo, amarillo y azul se destaca de las sobrias gamas cromáticas — grises, negros, blancos y verdeazulados— con las que representó a sus dos esposas. A la derecha, Olga Khokhlova, en el sintético busto bifronte Tête (Personnage) (1926), en el que la bailarina parece casi presta a ser devorada por la mitad del rostro que representa al artista. A esta agresividad se contrapone, a la izquierda de Mousquetaire, Archivo Español de Arte, vol. XCI, n.º 364, pp. 435-442, octubre-diciembre 2018 ISSN: 0004-0428, eISSN: 1988-8511 438 CRÓNICAS el sosiego del retrato de Jacqueline Roque Tête de femme (Jacqueline) (1962), asimismo de clara raigambre cubista, pero con reminiscencias de la época azul. En los muros perpendiculares a este “tríptico”, se exponen las obras de Braque, Gris y Blanchard, con un lapso de cuarenta años entre su ejecución. La más tardía es el magnífico Atelier VIII (1954-1955) de Georges Braque, de su célebre serie Ateliers (1949-1956), en los que el creador reflexiona sobre su lugar de trabajo. Seleccionado para la retrospectiva de Braque celebrada en el Grand Palais entre 2013 y 2014, destaca en Atelier VIII la consecución de la especialidad, combinando dos y tres dimensiones, y el lirismo de la escena, sobrevolada por uno de los icónicos pájaros del creador. No en vano, en 1953 Braque había completado Les Oiseaux, tres paneles para el techo renacentista de la, entonces, sala etrusca del Louvre. Frente a Braque, dos obras de la década de 1910: la calidez casi monocromática del papier collé Le violon (1914) de Juan Gris donde se advierte, además de la del cubismo sintético, la herencia de Seurat y Signac en la miríada de pinceladas turquesas, y la riqueza de color de Nature morte (c. 1918) de Marie Blanchard. El bodegón de Blanchard está dispuesto en su clásico formato vertical y en él se destaca la profunda su- perposición de planos geométricos, frente a la maestría de Gris para colocar objetos en un espacio de es- casa profundidad. Las dos obras restantes se adscriben al Surrealismo y comparten el mismo motivo principal: la mujer. En la litografía La Grande Écaillère (1975) de Joan Miró, la figura, reducida a esquemáticas formas curvas, aparece rodeada de elementos propios del universo iconográfico del artista, destacándose la estrella en tres formas distintas. El cuerpo femenino compone también el eje central del gouache de Salvador Dalí Meta- morfosis de ángeles en mariposa (1973), flanqueado por dos seres seráficos, anunciador y narrador, comu- nicándose este último, a través de su mano alzada contra la “cuarta pared”, con el espectador. La obra parece constituirse en metáfora del cledalismo, concepto que el artista definió en su novela Rostros ocultos como la absoluta identificación trascendente con el objeto del placer. Con motivo de la exposición se ha editado un pequeño catálogo y se ha diseñado una programación complementaria, con conferencias, visitas guiadas y talleres educativos. Gretel Piquer Viniegra Fundación Museo Evaristo Valle Joan Miró, la couleur de mes rêves París: Grand Palais, 3-X-2018 a 4-II-2019 Ceci est la couleur de mes rêves es el título de uno de los cuadros de la serie pinturas-poemas que Joan Miró expuso en la galería Pierre de París en 1925. La obra, actualmente en el Met Museum de Nueva York, ha vuelto a la capital francesa para dar forma y nombre a la exposición retrospectiva que ofrece el Grand Palais. Con esta muestra, la institución también hace regresar al artista cuarenta y cuatro años después de la primera panorámica que organizó en sus salas en 1974, ahora de la mano de Jean-Louis Prat, gran co- nocedor del catalán, miembro del Comité Miró y comisario de la misma. Como en aquella ocasión, el público tiene la oportunidad de contemplar el reencuentro de campesinos catalanes con paisajes de su Montroig natal, de La casa de la palmera (1918) o La masía (1921-1922), dispersos por museos de todo el mundo y varias colecciones privadas. Hombres y mujeres que pasan de la plenitud de sus formas, tan visibles en Nu debout (1918), al planismo de unos trazos que también configu- ran estrellas y pájaros. Más animales que habitan paisajes, Paysage au coq o Paysage [Le liévre](1927)… Un Perro ladrando a la luna (1926) o el del Intérieur hollandais I (1928). Constelaciones que hacen abundar el negro a partir de 1939. El marrón de los cuadros pintados sobre masonita el verano que estalla- ba la guerra civil española o el azul de los sueños, también dueño de la superficie del tríptico de 1961. El blanco de La esperanza del condenado a muerte (1974) con el que denunciaba la sentencia al último eje- cutado de la Dictadura Franquista, Puig Antich. “Miró ne peint jamais bleu-ciel, rose-amor, ni noir-chagri”, apuntaba Hans Arp en 1933. Las dieciséis zonas en las que se subdivide el discurso expositivo también recogen los trabajos en es- cultura y cerámica. La presentación de esta última, con una museografía casi arqueológica, pone de mani- fiesto la esmerada escenografía que firma el Atelier Maciej Fiszer, blanca y de geometrías equilibradas, con una evocación mediterránea a la que se puede añadir la de la arquitectura de Josep Lluis Sert para la sede de la Fundación Miró en Barcelona. A la cita al mundo mediterráneo se une la de la propia ciudad de aco- gida: el París de las vanguardias, preconizado en sus años formación por la evidencia del influjo cubista o Archivo Español de Arte, vol. XCI, n.º 364, pp. 435-442, octubre-diciembre 2018 ISSN: 0004-0428, eISSN: 1988-8511 CRÓNICAS 439 fauvista. París de amigos, poetas y escritores, cuya presencia en la muestra, mediada por paneles y foto- grafías, funciona como bisagra literal del camino a su vertiente surrealista. Finalmente, París también como sede de la Exposición Internacional de 1937 en la que Miró tomó partido con su colaboración en el Pabe- llón de la República Española, recogida con otro interesante juego de espacios en comunicación con las pinturas más afectadas por la situación de la Europa de los fascismos y los conflictos bélicos. En general, la relación de Miró con la Francia de principios de siglo se mantiene en toda la exposición a través de la reproducción de fragmentos audiovisuales, de entrevistas o su incesante colaboración en la ilustración de poemarios, como los de Paul Eluard (1958) o Tristan Tzara (1948-1950). La poesía, indiso- luble de su concepción artística, subraya el carácter interdisciplinar de una producción que, a pesar de la ausencia en esta cita, también abarcó la escenografía. Las 150 obras recopiladas para la ocasión permiten, no obstante, una inmersión profunda en ese mundo mironiano que, como el propio encabezamiento de la exposición indica, se antoja siempre onírico. Tras hacerlo, retornan también las palabras que le dedicó Pierre Alechinsky: “Les deux pieds dans le rêve, Terre de tableau” (Ad Miro, 1971). Raquel López Fernández Instituto de Historia, CSIC Bartolomé Bermejo Madrid: Museo Nacional del Prado, 9-X-2018 a 27-I-2019 Miguel Ángel y Lutero se equivocaron al ignorar el arte más allá de Italia y Flandes. Inmersos como estaban en el fracaso de las utopías y el surgimiento de los nacionalismos, no llegaron a comprender que asistían a la génesis de la primera globalización de la historia. Un panorama cosmopolita que hoy comien- za a comprenderse a través de historias imbricadas, redes y nodos, de nuevos puntos de vista que cuestio- nan las coordenadas de centro-periferia y el discurso jerárquico tradicional. Una realidad en la que los viejos y los nuevos mundos tensionaron e hibridaron, fluyendo en constante transformación de horizontes culturales. Bartolomé de Cárdenas vivió este juego de espejos en el que un artista castellano trabajaba para clien- tes aragoneses e italianos, sabía adaptarse a sus gustos sin menoscabo de un modo de hacer personal, vivía a caballo del cristianismo y de las prácticas judaizantes o coqueteaba con la élite y con la clandestinidad. Sin duda, ingredientes para la novela histórica, pero que Joan Molina, comisario de la exposición, ha sabi- do reconducir hacia un ponderado equilibrio entre divulgación y rigor científico. Molina combina paráme- tros como maestría técnica, genio indómito, fascinación y creatividad, con las últimas tendencias en el estudio. De tal modo la exposición refleja la realidad de un artista itinerante y en interacción con la cultu- ra cosmopolita de su época, las tensiones políticas o religiosas, los cambios en la espiritualidad y las nece- sidades de oferta-demanda de un mercado artístico competitivo. La muestra del Prado supone un hito sobre Bermejo y el arte del siglo XV hispano desde La pintura gòtica hispanoflamenca. Bartolomé Bermejo i la seva época (MNAC, 2003). Ahora la novedad es la pre- sencia de la recién restaurada Piedad Desplà, culmen del recorrido expositivo y obra que ha determinado la viabilidad del evento. Ello hace al cabildo catedral de Barcelona merecedor de un agradecimiento par- ticular, máxime cuando el cuadro se acompaña de la Piedad de Michael Lochner. Tal circunstancia bastaría para que la exposición del Prado fuera una ocasión única, pero incluso se ha completado la visión de conjunto con la Piedad de Fernando Gallego (Prado) y con un clasicista relieve italiano inserto en nicho gótico del antiguo lapidario de Desplà (MNAC). Así, se manifiesta la pluralidad artística de la época y sus convergentes intereses anticuarios, humanistas y devocionales. Por otro lado, la restauración de la Piedad Desplà ha demostrado que la inscripción del marco es original, con lo que se confirma el gentilicio cordo- bés de Bermejo. Los iconos de esta muestra son, además de la Piedad Desplà, el — también restaurado recientemente— San Miguel (National Gallery), el Santo Domingo de Silos (Prado) y la Virgen de Montserrat (Acqui Ter- me), sin olvidar los temas cristológicos del MNAC, Instituto Amatller y Peralada. Estas obras permiten recrearse en los efectos ilusionistas y refinamientos ópticos de la técnica al óleo que Bermejo manejó de modo semejante a los pintores flamencos coetáneos, lo cual invita a preguntarnos si pudo formarse en Flandes o si bien aprendió tales recursos en el cosmopolita puerto de Valencia, como sugiere Molina. La exposición permite asimismo pivotar entre el mundo judío y la Granada andalusí a través de las inscripciones hebraicas y los objetos nazaríes recogidos en varias obras de Bermejo. A este respecto, des- Archivo Español de Arte, vol. XCI, n.º 364, pp. 435-442, octubre-diciembre 2018 ISSN: 0004-0428, eISSN: 1988-8511 440 CRÓNICAS tacamos la inclusión en el discurso expositivo de una seda y de un arnés de caballo nazaríes (IVDJ), así como azulejos de Manises (MAN), que permiten una mejor comprensión del paisaje artístico del pintor, con significados polisémicos. El carácter híbrido de la producción de Bermejo se refleja también a través de sus relaciones con Italia, particularmente en el tríptico de Acqui Terme y su colaboración con Rodrigo de Osona. Estas múltiples relaciones nos introducen en el mundo del taller, subrayando las colaboraciones con artistas como Martín Bernat, así como el uso de libros de modelos y estrategias publicitarias o de reafir- mación como la firma. La pluralidad de enfoques relacionados con la producción artística es patente a lo largo de la muestra, que pone el acento en la capacidad de Bermejo para reinventar iconografías. Por otro lado, destaca la valoración de los mercaderes no sólo como intermediarios, sino como mecenas y árbitros del gusto, así como la importancia del comitente-iconógrafo. Lejos de sobreinterpretaciones, Molina invita a la comprensión de la experiencia ecfrástica contemplativa patente en las obras de Bermejo. Sin duda, hemos de reflexionar sobre las corrientes hispanas de espiritualidad de los siglos XV-XVI y su impacto internacional en el contexto de la devotio moderna, panorama que aún ofrece amplias posibilidades. Este hecho se explora en la muestra, de visita obligada, que el Prado dedica paralelamente a la Fuente de la Gracia. Manuel Parada López de Corselas Instituto de Historia, CSIC España. Vanguardia artística y realidad social. 1936-1976 Valencia: Institut Valencià d’Art Modern, 13-IX-2018 a 14-I-2019 Pocas exposiciones han supuesto tanto para el relato sobre la historiografía del arte del pasado si- glo como la Bienal de Venecia celebrada en 1976 y dirigida por Carlo Ripa di Meana. Y pocas han ocasio- nado polémicas de tal magnitud. A estas dos caras presta atención España. Vanguardia artística y realidad social. 1936-1976, un proyecto comisariado por Sergio Rubira para el Institut Valencià d’Art Modern (IVAM) que rememora la aportación española al evento italiano tras la muerte de Franco. Lo significativo provino no tanto de lo que esta empresa pudo decir, como contra qué o contra quién: la colección de obras que en ella se expusieron supuso un alegato contra la concepción del arte vanguar- dista defendida por los sectores próximos al régimen. Frente a un abstraccionismo reduccionista que sos- layaba la realidad histórico-política de la que partía como manifestación principal, se procedió a la mostra- ción de un arte antifascista que cohonestaba con la decisión de los organizadores italianos de no invitar a España de manera oficial durante los últimos estertores dictatoriales. En su lugar, encomendaron la orga- nización de la sala a un comité compuesto por Valeriano Bozal, Tomás Llorens, Antoni Tàpies, Josep Re- nau o el Equipo Crónica, entre otros. Además de un tablón de madera con escritos antifascistas como indicio de la actitud defendida que ya pudo verse en 1976, respeta el IVAM la organización de las diferentes secciones originales: las tres prime- ras, “I. Imágenes de la Guerra Civil”, “II. El pabellón de 1937” y “III. La derrota y el exilio”, las consti- tuyen obras de claro sesgo propagandístico como Aidez l’Espagne, de Joan Miró, y Sueño y mentira de Franco, de Pablo Picasso, junto con esculturas como Tête de Montserrat criant, de Julio González y una selección de carteles de Josep Renau, entre los que se encuentran Subvención al infierno y Conversaciones Truman-Hitler; “Entre testimonio y libertad: 1954-1964” alberga algunas de las producciones de Equipo 57 y de Antoni Tàpies; protagoniza “Zona del realismo: 1959-1964” la Crucifixión informalista de Saura; en “Arte y compromiso político (límites del sentido): 1964-1972” se incluyen autores como Joan Brossa y muestras de Estampa popular de València; “Pintura, crítica, significación: 1967-1976” pone el acento sobre Pintura 264 de Jordi Teixidor; “Hors texte” da fin a la exposición con El día que aprendí a escribir con tinta, de Equipo Crónica, y la Sama de Langreo, de Eduardo Arroyo, acompañadas de portadas de ABC de los días 1 de abril y 18 de julio entre 1939 y 1949 sustentando las elucubraciones teóricas de Bozal contra el realismo pretendidamente objetivo de la fotografía. La presencia de textos teóricos, críticos — fundamentalmente, de Bozal y Llorens— e históricos ya desde la entrada de la galería 3 del IVAM facilita y orienta la interpretación del espectador al tiempo que evidencia una voluntad manifiesta por reconstruir el ambiente de la Bienal, una actitud que sirve de hilo de Ariadna para la comprensión conjunta de propuestas estéticas tan disímiles y casa con las pretensiones éticas del proyecto: entender las obras expuestas en unas coordenadas históricas concretas y delimitadas, Archivo Español de Arte, vol. XCI, n.º 364, pp. 435-442, octubre-diciembre 2018 ISSN: 0004-0428, eISSN: 1988-8511 CRÓNICAS 441 una intencionalidad reforzada por una proyección en bucle con imágenes del Pabellón de 1937 y de la época. Esto llega hasta el punto de que se ha optado por situar en el centro de la sala, significativamente, tres vitrinas con numerosos documentos relativos a la conocida polémica. En ellas se encuentran cartas como la de Julián Pacheco ordenando la retirada de sus obras por la presencia de artistas patrocinados en su momento por el régimen o declaraciones de Vicente Aguilera Cerni y José María Moreno Galván acer- ca del breve conato de proyecto alternativo al de “los diez”. De esta forma, la propuesta actual revive no solo la sala de la bienal veneciana, sino su agitada recep- ción — motivo por el que algunos de sus organizadores, como el propio Llorens, se vieron obligados a reconocer el fracaso de la empresa, tal y como recuerda Rosalía Torrent en el catálogo de la exposición—, mostrando cómo ambas dimensiones del acontecimiento han resultado indisociables para su devenir histó- rico. El proyecto se acompaña, precisamente, de un catálogo compuesto, además del ya mencionado, por artículos como el de Paula Barreiro López, acerca de los referentes de los que parte la sala española, “Do- cumentos para una cronología”, de Valeriano Bozal, y el texto del comisario de la exposición, Sergio Ru- bira, “Instalando la vanguardia”. Finaliza con una relación de las obras de las que consta el proyecto y una excelente bibliografía aducida por Manuel García. En definitiva, dos fenómenos imprescindibles, la expo- sición y su consiguiente polémica, que dan forma a uno de los grandes hitos de la historiografía del arte del siglo XX. Alain Iñiguez Egido Instituto de Historia, CSIC Colección Santamarca. Esplendor barroco: De Luca Giordano a Goya y la pintura romántica Zaragoza: Palacio de Sástago, 10-X-2018 a 6-I-2019 La Diputación Provincial de Zaragoza ha presentado en el Palacio de Sástago de la capital aragonesa una exposición antológica de la pintura de la Colección Santamarca de Madrid, propiedad de la Fundación de Santamarca y de San Ramón y San Antonio (FUSARA). La colección debe su nombre a su fundador, Bartolomé de Santamarca y Donato (1806-1874), conde de Santamarca desde 1863 (título pontificio luego convertido en título del reino), hombre de negocios y rico propietario, consejero del Banco de España y senador. Hacia mediados de siglo comenzó a coleccionar tanto pintura antigua como contemporánea, de los paisajistas Vicente Camarón, los hermanos Antonio y José Brugada, y Jenaro Pérez Villaamil. A la muerte del I conde de Santamarca, heredó su hija Carlota (1849-1914) el título, la fortuna y el palacio familiar de la calle de Alcalá, en el que se encontraba la co- lección. Como su padre, incrementó la colección adquiriendo cuadros a otros artistas contemporáneos como la pareja de Escenas de galanteo de Dióscoro de la Puebla, entre otros. Por su matrimonio, en 1870, con el futuro duque de Nájera, también heredó la serie de cuadros de gabinete formada por 6 escenas de Juegos de niños pintadas por Francisco de Goya, hacia 1785-1786, las obras más valiosas y raras de la colección. A la muerte de la condesa, viuda y sin hijos, y por disposición testamentaria, todos sus bienes ‒la colección incluida‒ se destinaron a la creación de un asilo para huérfanos de padre y madre hijos de Madrid, institu- ción todavía hoy en activo. La exposición, comisariada por el Dr. Wifredo Rincón García y Ricardo Centellas Salamero, muestra una selección de casi un centenar de pinturas de la colección, además del busto en mármol de Carrara del I conde de Santamarca ejecutado en París por Anthony-Samuel Adam-Salomon, Adama (1876), dos años después del fallecimiento del retratado. También se ha elegido una mesa italiana del ochocientos de estilo neobarroco tallada en palo santo y dorada con tablero de mármol y scagliola con una exuberante decoración de flores y pájaros, muestra eficaz de la colección de artes decorativas. La elección realizada pone de ma- nifiesto la calidad de la colección integrada principalmente por pinturas de la escuela española de los siglos XVII a XIX con una importante representación de las escuelas italiana y flamenca barrocas. También destaca la variedad de asuntos donde descuellan el paisaje, el bodegón y la pintura de género y religiosa, así como los retratos familiares ejecutados por artistas destacados de la época como Bernardo López, Ri- cardo de Madrazo o José Moreno Carbonero. La escuela española es la mejor representada en la exposición integrada por pintura barroca de icono- grafía cristiana obra de los italianos afincados en la Corte los hermanos Bartolomé y Vicente Carducho, y Archivo Español de Arte, vol. XCI, n.º 364, pp. 435-442, octubre-diciembre 2018 ISSN: 0004-0428, eISSN: 1988-8511 442 CRÓNICAS Lucas Jordán así como de los madrileños o activos en la Villa: Bartolomé Román, José Leonardo, Francis- co Collantes, Francisco Camilo y los hermanos José y Francisco Antolínez; también sobresalen los bode- gones de Alejandro de Loarte (firmado y fechado en 1623) y Andrés Deleito, y la pareja de floreros de Arellano. Del setecientos además de la serie de Goya mencionada resalta un gran cuadro de tema eucarís- tico firmado por Clemente Rodil, yerno del escultor José de Churriguera. La pintura romántica está mag- níficamente representada por los paisajes de los hermanos Brugada y los cuatro óleos de J. Pérez Villaamil, verdaderas obras maestras, dos de ellas de tema orientalista. De la italiana sobresalen una pareja de grandes floreros de Margherita Caffi o la interesante obra anó- nima (h. 1671-1676) que representa la Cabalgata de caballeros de la embajada de obediencia de Pedro Antonio de Aragón al papa Clemente X en 1671 en Roma de casi 3,5 metros de longitud. También resalta la escuela flamenca con la Jauría acosando a un ciervo y Jauría acosando a un jabalí de Frans Snyders, los dos sobresalientes bodegones y el León atacado por una jauría de su discípulo Paul de Vos y el país de Jan Wildens, el gran paisajista colaborador de Rubens y Snyders. Aparecen firmados un par de cobres de batallas navales de Guilliam Forchondt y una pareja de guirnaldas Jan Philip van Thielen. La exposición se acompaña de una monografía que describe la historia de la colección y la biografía de sus propietarios a cargo de Wifredo Rincón García, editor de la publicación, y las fichas catalográficas de las mejores pinturas (un total de 104) a cargo de Ismael Gutiérrez Pastor (escuelas españolas e italiana), Ricardo Centellas (escuela española), Arturo Ansón Navarro (Goya), Enrique Arias Anglés (pintura espa- ñola del siglo XIX) y Matías Díaz Padrón (escuelas flamenca y holandesa). Cierra el libro el inventario completo de la colección compuesto en la actualidad por 230 pinturas. Ignacio Peiró Martín Universidad de Zaragoza 
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work_cejwynuejrck7ewoii7hr5u3fq	----	doi:10.1016/j.websem.2008.08.001 Please cite this article in press as: G. Schreiber, et al., Semantic annotation and search of cultural-heritage collections: The MultimediaN E-Culture demonstrator, Web Semantics Sci Serv Agents World Wide Web (2008), doi:10.1016/j.websem.2008.08.001 ARTICLE IN PRESSG ModelWEBSEM-146; No. of Pages 7 Web Semantics: Science, Services and Agents on the World Wide Web xxx (2008) xxx–xxx Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Web Semantics: Science, Services and Agents on the World Wide Web j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w . e l s e v i e r . c o m / l o c a t e / w e b s e m Semantic annotation and search of cultural-heritage collections: The MultimediaN E-Culture demonstrator Guus Schreiber a,!, Alia Amin b, Lora Aroyo a, Mark van Assem a, Victor de Boer c, Lynda Hardman b, Michiel Hildebrand b, Borys Omelayenko a, Jacco van Osenbruggen b, Anna Tordai a, Jan Wielemaker c, Bob Wielinga c a VU University Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands b Centre for Mathematics and Computer Science CWI, Amsterdam, The Netherlands c University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands a r t i c l e i n f o Article history: Received 30 July 2008 Accepted 19 August 2008 Available online xxx Keywords: Semantic search Digital heritage Semantic annotation Virtual collections a b s t r a c t In this article we describe a Semantic Web application for semantic annotation and search in large virtual collections of cultural-heritage objects, indexed with multiple vocabularies. During the annotation phase we harvest, enrich and align collection metadata and vocabularies. The semantic-search facilities support keyword-based queries of the graph (currently 20 M triples), resulting in semantically grouped result clusters, all representing potential semantic matches of the original query. We show two sample search scenario’s. The annotation and search software is open source and is already being used by third parties. All software is based on established Web standards, in particular HTML/XML, CSS, RDF/OWL, SPARQL and JavaScript. © 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction The main objective of the MultimediaN E-Culture project is to demonstrate how novel Semantic Web and presentation technolo- gies can be deployed to provide better indexing and search support within large virtual collections of cultural-heritage resources. The architecture is fully based on open Web standards, in particular XML, RDF/OWL and SPARQL. The central hypothesis underlying this work is that the use of explicit background knowledge in the form of ontologies/vocabularies/thesauri is in particular useful for infor- mation retrieval in knowledge-rich domains. The cultural-heritage domain is such a knowledge-rich domain. Collection holders traditionally spent considerable effort on the (manual) indexing process of collection objects. Many institutions use and develop controlled vocabularies to standardize the index- ing process. The result is that the domain is dominated by a multitude of vocabularies for different subareas in many different languages. Some efforts have been made to develop collection- spanning vocabularies, such as the Getty vocabularies (see further), but it is clear that the domain is too large and diverse to be covered by a single (set of) vocabulary(ies). There is also significant vari- ! Corresponding author. Tel.: +31 20 598 7739/7718. E-mail address: schreiber@cs.vu.nl (G. Schreiber). ation in the annotation structure for collection objects, although many institutions use a format that is, or can be interpreted as, a specialization of Dublin Core. Due to the abundance of vocabularies, the availability of exist- ing semantic annotations of cultural objects, and the fact that this is mainly publicly accessible information (or at least a willingness to make it accessible), cultural heritage appears to be an ideal candi- date for application of Semantic Web technology. With the growth of the World-Wide Web collection holders have been increasingly interested in making their collections available online. There are large international initiatives to make inter-collection access pos- sible, for example the European “Europeana” initiative.1 The key problems in inter-collection search lie in the different annotation formats and vocabularies used by collection holders. The E-Culture project started out with the goal to show that inter-collection search can be achieved at relatively low cost with Semantic Web technology. The approach that we have taken roughly consists of three elements: (i) Providing facilities for harvesting, enriching and aligning col- lection metadata and vocabularies. 1 http://www.europeana.eu. 1570-8268/$ – see front matter © 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.websem.2008.08.001 file://localhost/Users/guus/Downloads/dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.websem.2008.08.001 file://localhost/Users/guus/Downloads/dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.websem.2008.08.001 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/15708268 mailto:schreiber@cs.vu.nl http://www.europeana.eu/ Please cite this article in press as: G. Schreiber, et al., Semantic annotation and search of cultural-heritage collections: The MultimediaN E-Culture demonstrator, Web Semantics Sci Serv Agents World Wide Web (2008), doi:10.1016/j.websem.2008.08.001 ARTICLE IN PRESSG ModelWEBSEM-146; No. of Pages 7 2 G. Schreiber et al. / Web Semantics: Science, Services and Agents on the World Wide Web xxx (2008) xxx–xxx (ii) Providing facilities for semantic search through the result- ing graph, including various presentation mechanisms for the search results. (iii) Providing facilities for users to add metadata and/or content. In this article we report on the results with respect to the first two components; work on the third component in under way and is discussed under future work. The following premises underly our approach: • The project does not develop new ontologies/vocabularies but solely uses existing ones. The project may develop however vocabulary extensions, in particular through vocabulary align- ments. • The project uses existing metadata of multiple collections. The online version of the demonstrator can be found at: http://e- culture.multimedian.nl/demo/search. Readers are encouraged to first take a look at the demonstra- tor before reading on. We suggest you consult the tutorial (linked from the online demo page) which provides a sample walk-through of the search functionality. Please note that this is a product of an ongoing project. Visitors should expect the demonstrator to change. We are incorporating more collections and vocabularies and are also extending the annotation, search and presentation function- ality. We are incorporating more collections and vocabularies and are also extending the annotation, search and presentation func- tionality. We are incorporating more collections and vocabularies and are also extending the annotation, search and presentation functionality. Due to space limitations this article is basically a summary of the key ingredients of the MultimediaN E-Culture demonstrator, which won the Semantic Web Challenge in 2006. Readers should consult the references provided for details. Section 2 describes the semantic annotation process of collections. In Section 3 we discuss the search architecture and some details of the graph-search algorithm. Sec- tion 4 provides a peek at the demonstrator through two sample search scenario’s. Research issues arising from the endeavour are discussed in Section 5. 2. Semantic annotation: collection data, metadata and vocabularies A this point we have collected descriptions of 200,000 objects from six collections annotated with a range of thesauri and sev- eral proprietary controlled keyword lists, which adds up to 20 million triples (detailed statistics are available from http://e- culture.multimedian.nl/demo/). The objects in the collections come from the Rijksmuseum Amsterdam,2 the National Museum of Ethnology,3 the Royal Tropical Institute,4 the Netherlands Insti- tute for Art History,5 the Royal Library,6 and the Web collection Artchive.7 We assume this material is representative for the described domain. The demonstrator hosts four general thesauri, namely the three Getty vocabularies,8 i.e., the Art & Architecture Thesaurus (AAT), Union List of Artists Names (ULAN) and the Thesaurus of Geo- 2 http://www.rijksmuseum.nl. 3 http://www.volkenkunde.nl. 4 http://www.kit.nl. 5 http://www.rkd.nl. 6 http://www.kb.nl. 7 http://www.artchive.org. 8 http://www.getty.edu/research/conductingresearch/vocabularies/. Fig. 1. Four steps of the harvesting, enrichment and alignment process of collection metadata and vocabularies. graphical Names (TGN), as well as the lexical resource WordNet, version 2.0. The Getty thesauri were converted from their original XML format into an RDF/OWL representation using the conversion methods principles as formulated in Ref. [10]. The RDF/OWL ver- sion of the data models is available online.9 The Getty thesauri are licensed.10 The RDF/OWL conversion of WordNet is documented in a publication of the W3C Semantic Web Best Practices and Deploy- ment Working Group [9]. It is an instructive example of the issues involved in this conversion process, in particular the recipes for publishing RDF vocabularies [6]. In addition, the MultimediaN E-Culture demonstrator contains collection-specific metadata and vocabularies. We assume that the collection owner provides a link to the actual data object, typically an image of a work such as a painting, a sculpture or a book. When integrating a new collection into the demonstrator we typically receive one or more XML/database dumps containing the metadata and vocabularies of the collection. The harvesting and enrichment process consists of four steps and is summarized in Fig. 1. Details of the process with a full case study can be found elsewhere [8]. The project is developing support software for this process, of which the first version has been released as open source under the name AnnoCultor.11 Step 1: Make vocabulary(ies) interoperable. Thesauri are trans- lated into RDF/OWL, where appropriate with the help of the SKOS format for publishing vocabularies [7]. The same principles are fol- lowed as sketched above for the Getty and WordNet vocabularies. Step 2: Align metadata schema. As a second step, the metadata schema of the collection is mapped to VRA,12 a specialization of Dublin Core for visual resources.13 This mapping is realized using the dumb-down principle by means of rdfs:subPropertyOf and owl:equivalentProperty relations. A full example can be found in the paper by Tordai et al. [8]. Step 3: Enrich metadata. Collection metadata are first trans- formed in a purely syntactic fashion to RDF/OWL triples, thus preserving the original structure and terminology. Sub- sequently, the metadata go through an enrichment process in which we process plain-text metadata fields to find match- ing concepts from thesauri already in the demonstrator. For example, if the dc:creator field contains the string “Pablo Picasso”, we will add the concept Pablo Picasso from ULAN 9 http://e-culture.multimedian.nl/resources/. 10 The partners in the project have acquired licenses for the thesauri. People using the demonstrator do not have access to the full thesauri sources, but can use them to annotate and/or search the collections. 11 http://sourceforge.net/projects/annocultor. 12 Visual Resource Association core categories, see http://www.vraweb.org/ projects/vracore4/. 13 An unofficial OWL specification of the VRA elements, including links to Dublin Core, can be found at http://e-culture.multimedian.nl/resources/. http://e-culture.multimedian.nl/resources/ file://localhost/Users/guus/Downloads/dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.websem.2008.08.001 http://e-culture.multimedian.nl/demo/search http://e-culture.multimedian.nl/demo/ http://www.rijksmuseum.nl/ http://www.volkenkunde.nl/ http://www.kit.nl/ http://www.rkd.nl/ http://www.kb.nl/ http://www.artchive.org/ http://www.getty.edu/research/conductingresearch/vocabularies/ http://e-culture.multimedian.nl/resources/ http://sourceforge.net/projects/annocultor http://www.vraweb.org/projects/vracore4/ Please cite this article in press as: G. Schreiber, et al., Semantic annotation and search of cultural-heritage collections: The MultimediaN E-Culture demonstrator, Web Semantics Sci Serv Agents World Wide Web (2008), doi:10.1016/j.websem.2008.08.001 ARTICLE IN PRESSG ModelWEBSEM-146; No. of Pages 7 G. Schreiber et al. / Web Semantics: Science, Services and Agents on the World Wide Web xxx (2008) xxx–xxx 3 Fig. 2. ClioPatria architecture of the demonstrator. to the metadata. Most enrichments concern people, places and materials. Step 4: Align vocabulary(ies). Finally, the thesauri are aligned using owl:sameAs and skos:exactMatch relations. For exam- ple, the art style Edo from a local ethnographic collection was mapped to the same art style in AAT (see the second search scenario for an example of why such mappings are useful). Our current database (April 2008) contains 38,508 owl:sameAs and 9635 skos:exactMatch triples and these numbers are growing rapidly. Within the Getty vocabularies one set of links is system- atically maintained: places in ULAN (e.g., place of birth of an artist) refer to terms in TGN. Within the project we are adding impor- tant sets of links. For example, links between art styles in AAT (e.g., “Impressionism”) and artists in ULAN (e.g., “Monet”) have a high added value for certain search strategies. de Boer [3] has worked on deriving these semi-automatically from texts on art history. After this harvesting process we have a graph representing a connected network of works and thesauri lemmas that provide background knowledge. VRA and SKOS provide a – albeit weak – semantics, and underneath the richness of the original data is still preserved. 3. Semantic search 3.1. Technical architecture The technical baseline of the MultimediaN E-Culture demon- strator is formed by the ClioPatria software, built on top of SWI-Prolog and its (Semantic) Web libraries.14 Fig. 2 gives an overview of the architecture. The reader is referred elsewhere for detailed information about ClioPatria [11–13]. The software is freely available under a GPL license.15 ClioPatria provides two APIs on top of the SWI-Prolog Semantic Web libraries: (i) A SPARQL API which supports database queries of the RDF graph. (ii) A graph-search API which provides limited RDF/OWL reasoning. 14 http://www.swi-prolog.org. 15 See http://e-culture.multimedian.nl/software/ClioPatria.shtml. The graph-search algorithm for keyword-based search is briefly described in the next subsection. OWL reasoning is limited to three OWL features: symmetry (owl:inverseOf, owl:SymmetricProperty), transitivity (owl:Transitive- Property), and resource equivalence (owl:sameAs). The algo- rithm also interprets similar SKOS relations (skos:broader, skos:exactMatch). ClioPatria provides the application logic for constructing the MultimediaN E-Culture demonstrator. Basically, it provides a client–server architecture which supports the search and presen- tation facilities with the help of standard Web components, in particular HTML + CSS, AJAX and the Yahoo! Widget library. Example search scenario’s with the demonstrator are shown in Section 4. Third parties are using the ClioPatria search API for other applications, for example the CHIP Rijksmuseum tour wiz- ard [2] and the European digital heritage portal “Europeana”.16 For details of ClioPatria the reader is referred to the ISWC’08 paper of Wielemaker et al. [11]. 3.2. Keyword search with semantic clustering One of the goals of the demonstrator is to provide users with a familiar and simple keyword search, but still allow the user to benefit from all background knowledge from the underlying the- sauri and taxonomies. The underlying search algorithm consists of several steps, that can be summarized as follows (for details see [11]). First, it checks all RDF literals in the repository for matches on the given keyword. Second, from each match, it traverses the RDF graph until a resource of interest is found, we refer to this as a target resource. Finally, based on the paths from the matching literals to their target resources, the results are clustered. To improve performance in finding the RDF literals that form the starting points, the RDF database maintains a btree index of words appearing in literals to the full literal, as well as a Porter- stem and metaphone (sounds-like) index to words. Based on these indexes, the set of literals can be searched efficiently on any logical combination of word, prefix, by-stem and by-sound matches.17 16 http://www.europeana.eu. 17 See http://www.swi-prolog.org/packages/semweb.html#sec:3.8. http://www.swi-prolog.org/packages/semweb.html file://localhost/Users/guus/Downloads/dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.websem.2008.08.001 http://www.swi-prolog.org/ http://e-culture.multimedian.nl/software/ClioPatria.shtml http://www.europeana.eu/ Please cite this article in press as: G. Schreiber, et al., Semantic annotation and search of cultural-heritage collections: The MultimediaN E-Culture demonstrator, Web Semantics Sci Serv Agents World Wide Web (2008), doi:10.1016/j.websem.2008.08.001 ARTICLE IN PRESSG ModelWEBSEM-146; No. of Pages 7 4 G. Schreiber et al. / Web Semantics: Science, Services and Agents on the World Wide Web xxx (2008) xxx–xxx In the second step, which resources are considered of interest is currently determined by their type. The default settings return only resources of type artwork (vra:Work), but this can be overrid- den by the user. To avoid a combinatorial explosion of the search space, a number of measures had to be taken. Graph traversal is done in one direction only: always from the object in the triple to the corresponding subject. Only for properties with an explicit owl: inverseOf relation is the graph also traversed in the other direction. While this theoretically allows the algorithm to miss out many relevant results, in practice we found that this is hardly an issue. In addition to the direction, the search space is kept under control by setting a threshold. Starting with the score of the literal match, this score is multiplied by the weight assigned to the prop- erty being traversed (all properties have been assigned a (default) weight between 0 and 1), and the search stops when the score falls under the given threshold. This approach not only improves the efficiency of the search, it also allows filtering out results with paths that are too long (which tend to be semantically so far apart, that users do not consider them relevant any more). By setting the weights to non-default values, the search can also be fine tuned to a particular application domain. In the final step, all results are clustered based on the path between the matching literal and the target result. When the paths are considered on the instance level, this leads to many different clusters with similar content. We found that clustering the paths on the schema level provides more meaningful results. For example, searching on keyword “fauve” matches works from Fauve painters Matisse and Derain. On the instance level, this results in different paths: while on the schema level, this becomes a single path: The paths are translated to English headers that mark the start of each cluster, and this already gives users an indication why the results match their keyword. The path given above results in the cluster title “Works created by an artist with matching AAT style”. To explain the exact semantic relation between the result and the keyword searched on, the instance level path is displayed when hovering over a resulting image. 4. Sample search scenario’s In this section we give two sample scenario’s of the use of the MultimediaN E-Culture demonstrator. The reader is invited to try these out him/herself (see the link in Section 1). It should be noted that the collection is continuously extended, so the actual search results are likely to vary over time. 4.1. Scenario 1: “Picasso” Assume a user is typing in the query “Picasso”. Although the name Picasso is reasonably unique in the art world, the user may still have many different intentions with this simple query: a paint- ing by Picasso, a painting depicting Picasso, the styles Picasso has worked in? Without an elaborate disambiguation process it is impossible to tell in advance. Fig. 3 shows part of the results of this query in the Multime- diaN demonstrator. We see several clusters of search results. The first cluster contains works from the Picasso Museum. The second cluster contains works by Pablo Picasso (only first five hits shown; clicking on the arrow allows the user to inspect all results). Fur- ther down we see clusters of surrealist and cubist paintings (styles that Picasso worked in; details not shown for space reasons), and works by George Braque (a prominent fellow cubist painter, but the works shown are not necessarily cubist). Other clusters (not present in the figure) are works made from Picasso marble and works with Picasso in the title (includes two self-portraits). We are aiming to create clusters such that the user can afterwards choose herself what she is interested in. We have found that even in relatively small collections of 100 K objects users discover interesting results that they were not ware of that existed. We have termed this type of search tentatively “post-query disambiguation”: in response to a simple keyword query the user gets (in contrast to, for exam- ple, Google image search) semantically grouped results that enable further detailing of the query. It should be pointed out that the knowledge richness of the cultural-heritage domain allows this approach to work. In less rich domains this approach is less likely to provide added value. Next to the result clustering ClioPatria support carious other presentation facilities, such as showing the results on a Google map. 4.2. Scenario 2: “Tokugawa” Another typical search scenario concerns the exploitation of vocabulary alignments. As mentioned before, many collection owners have their own homegrown vocabulary variants. Con- sider the situation in Fig. 4, which is based on real-life data. A user is searching for “Tokugawa”. This Japanese term has actu- ally two major meanings in the heritage domain: it is the name of a 19th century shogun and it is a synonym for the Edo style period. Assume for a moment that the user is interested in find- ing works of the latter type. The National Museum of Ethnology in Leiden actually has works on this style in its digital collec- tion, such as the work shown in the top-right corner. However, the Dutch ethnographic thesaurus SVCN, which is being used by the museum for indexing purposes, only contains the label “Edo” for this style. Fortunately, another thesaurus in our col- lection, the aforementioned AAT, does contain the same concept with the alternative label “Tokugawa”. In the harvesting process we learned this equivalence link (quite straightforward: both are Japanese styles with matching preferred labels). The existence of this link allows us to retrieve the painting as a result of the “Tokugawa” query, despite the fact that it is not indexed with this term. Although this is actually an almost trivial alignment, it is still extremely useful. The cultural-heritage world (like any knowledge domain) is full of such small local terminology differences. Multi- lingual differences should also be taken into consideration here. If Semantic Web technologies can help making such matches, there is a definite added value for users. 5. Discussion Over the past 2.5 years the E-Culture demonstrator has grown from 4000 to 200,000 objects. We are now planning large-scale deployment in the context of the European digital heritage portal file://localhost/Users/guus/Downloads/dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.websem.2008.08.001 Please cite this article in press as: G. Schreiber, et al., Semantic annotation and search of cultural-heritage collections: The MultimediaN E-Culture demonstrator, Web Semantics Sci Serv Agents World Wide Web (2008), doi:10.1016/j.websem.2008.08.001 ARTICLE IN PRESSG ModelWEBSEM-146; No. of Pages 7 G. Schreiber et al. / Web Semantics: Science, Services and Agents on the World Wide Web xxx (2008) xxx–xxx 5 Fig. 3. Selection of clustered search results for query “Picasso”: works from the Picasso Museum, works by Picasso, works of art styles used by Picasso (cubist, surrealist, for space reasons only heading shown), works by professional relations of Picasso (George Braque, colleague cubist painter). europeana.eu where we intend to grow to a collection of 12–14 M objects from musea, libraries and archives. We discuss here the lessons we learned so far, including the main research challenges we see from our perspective. 5.1. Semantic annotation When we started the semantic annotation process with the first collection (the Artchibe collection) it was mainly a manual Fig. 4. A user searches for “Tokugawa”. The Japanese painting in the top-right matches this query, but is indexed with a thesaurus that does not contain the synonym “Tokugawa” for this Japanese style. Through a “same-as” link with another thesaurus that does contain this label, the semantic match can be made. file://localhost/Users/guus/Downloads/dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.websem.2008.08.001 Please cite this article in press as: G. Schreiber, et al., Semantic annotation and search of cultural-heritage collections: The MultimediaN E-Culture demonstrator, Web Semantics Sci Serv Agents World Wide Web (2008), doi:10.1016/j.websem.2008.08.001 ARTICLE IN PRESSG ModelWEBSEM-146; No. of Pages 7 6 G. Schreiber et al. / Web Semantics: Science, Services and Agents on the World Wide Web xxx (2008) xxx–xxx Fig. 5. Autocompletion facility: potential matches are grouped in respective types. art. However, while adding more collections we got more grip on the process for making a collection “ready” for the Semantic Web. The four-step process model (Fig. 1) supported by the AnnoCultor toolkit is the tangible result. In general, it takes us now 1–3 weeks to include a new collection. This may seem like a long time, but the result is a set of tools that can be run automatically each time a collection owner has to update the collection data. Only in case of (in practice relatively infrequent) changes in the schema of the metadata or of the vocabularies, additional manual work is needed. Thesaurus conversion (step 1) is usually simple, certainly given the fact that vocabulary owners are routinely starting to “skossify” their vocabularies. Representing the interoperability of metadata schema’s through a RDF property hierarchy (step 2) is a big plus for the cultural-heritage field, where up till now cumbersome XSLT techniques prevail. The enrichment of metadata (step 3) is basically an information- extraction task, which is by its nature simpler than general IE in document collections, due to the structured nature of the data. Rec- ognizing “Amsterdam” as a particular location is easier when it is a string value in a dc: location field. The main research challenge here is identity resolution of works (e.g., the Night Watch appears in multiple collections). This is actually a complex problem, as we see not just simple “same-as” relations, but also “X detail of Y”, work series, etc. With respect to vocabulary alignment (step 4) we are at the moment just looking at the “low hanging fruit”, e.g., simple syntac- tic alignments such as the Tokugawa example. Much more can be done here; we see this as a second critical area of research. However, Hendler’s adagium “a little semantics goes a long way” is certainly true in this domain: the current limited set of alignments boosts already the search results. The information-retrieval nature of our task helps here: the results do not have to be perfect, as long as a sufficiently large set is relevant. One statistical fact is worthwhile to mention: on average we 17–18 metadata triples per collection object. It should be noted that these are mainly museum objects: for library and archive objects the numbers may be different. 5.2. Semantic search The current RDF/OWL graph with 200 K objects and multiple (some quite large) vocabularies already poses enormous search challenges. The vocabulary concepts generate many potential graph paths (for example, check the website of ULAN to see for yourself how much information is linked to an artist). For the moment we are still using a relatively straightforward graph-search algorithm [11], but this will likely need rethinking when the number of col- lection objects goes up an order of magnitude. This is definitely an important research challenge. We mention two avenues one could explore. Hollink et al. [5] has done an experiment where she tried to discover graph patterns in WordNet which increase recall with- out jeopardizing precision. This led to six preferred WordNet path patterns, most of these using some combination of hyponym and meronym relations. Such patterns may also exist for other vocab- ularies or combinations of vocabularies. Secondly, one can try to exploit metaknowledge of the hierarchy of metadata schema prop- erties to drive the search. In a sense, semantic search in large collections is still for the most part unexplored terrain. The problems we are facing are similar to the issues in the Linked Data initiative.18 Of course, our dataset is smaller, but on the other hand the branching factor in the graph is likely to be much higher due to the knowledge-rich nature of the area. In this article we have only addressed keyword-based search. We have experienced that users tend to prefer this type of search, because they have grown accustomed to the Google-type search. This does not mean we think this should necessarily be the only search paradigm. For example, we have experimented with faceted search [4]. We have also tentatively explored relation search: find interesting relationships between two URIs, e.g., between two artists or between an artist and a location. This is potentially an area where semantics can provide functionality that cannot be provided by standard IR techniques. 5.3. User involvement Cultural-heritage partners have been sitting at our work table from the beginning. This has been an enormous help in steering the project. We have done a number of user studies, for example examining search behaviour of cultural-heritage experts [1]. User involvement is a key theme in cultural heritage. Many musea are interested in tagging (cf. Steve Museum,19 Powerhouse Museum,20 but are unsure how to combine this with their in-house 18 http://linkeddata.org/. 19 http://www.steve.museum/. 20 www.powerhousemuseum.com. http://www.powerhousemuseum.com/ file://localhost/Users/guus/Downloads/dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.websem.2008.08.001 http://linkeddata.org/ http://www.steve.museum/ Please cite this article in press as: G. Schreiber, et al., Semantic annotation and search of cultural-heritage collections: The MultimediaN E-Culture demonstrator, Web Semantics Sci Serv Agents World Wide Web (2008), doi:10.1016/j.websem.2008.08.001 ARTICLE IN PRESSG ModelWEBSEM-146; No. of Pages 7 G. Schreiber et al. / Web Semantics: Science, Services and Agents on the World Wide Web xxx (2008) xxx–xxx 7 annotation practices. Musea have many objects in their collection which require annotation, for which they do not have the necessary resources. At the same time they are afraid of the quality of user annotations. We are now exploring some mixed schemes in which Web users can annotate collection objects with “semantic” tags. When a user types in a term, an autocompletion facility allows her to pick the right concept. Fig. 5 shows an example of this (the auto- completion mechanism is here used in combination with keyword search, but is essentially the same). We are currently performing a case study with the Rijksmuseum to explore interactive anno- tation facilities. The main problems are not technical, but social: how should external user annotations be handled? This is a sub- ject where Web 2.0 issues get intermingled with issues related to quality and trust. For example, it requires mechanisms for exter- nal annotations to be “approved” by museum professionals and for Web users to be acknowledged as experts by musea. There is still a lot of work to be done here, which brings us well out of the context of the present paper. We view the work described in this paper as a step towards showing that the Semantic Web endeavour has a chance of suc- ceeding, at least in knowledge-rich web “islands” such as cultural heritage. It is fair to say that in some areas we have only scratched the surface, but there are sufficient positive pointers to continue this effort. Similar encouraging experiences have been reported by the MuseumFinland project21 which won the second prize in the 2004 Semantic Web Challenge. Acknowledgements We are grateful to Marco de Niet, Annelies van Nispen (Digital Heritage Netherlands22), Marie-France van Orsouw and Annemiek Teesing (Netherlands Institute for Cultural Heritage23) for their valuable input. This research would not have been possible without the gracious support of the collection owners: the Rijksmuseum Amsterdam, the National Museum of Ethnology, the Royal Tropi- cal Institute, The Netherlands Institute for Art History, the Royal Library, and the Web collection Artchive. The E-Culture project is a subproject of the MultimediaN (“Multimedia Netherlands”24) project funded by the Dutch BSIK Programme. 21 http://www.museosuomi.fi. 22 http://www.den.nl. 23 http://www.icn.nl. 24 http://www.multimedian.nl. References [1] A. Amin, J. van Ossenbruggen, L. Hardman, A. van Nispen, Understanding cul- tural heritage experts’ information seeking needs, in: Proceedings of the Eighth ACM/IEEE-CS Joint Conference on Digital Libraries, JCDL’ 08, ACM, New York, NY, USA, 2008. [2] L.M. Aroyo, N. Stash, Y. Wang, P. Gorgels, L.W. Rutledge, CHIP demonstrator: semantics-driven recommendations and museum tour generation, in: Proceed- ings of the Sixth International Semantic Web Conference and Second Asian Semantic Web Conference, ISWC2007 + ASWC 2007, vol. 4825 of LNCS, Busan, Korea, November 11–15, 2007, Springer, Berlin, 2007. [3] V. de Boer, M. van Someren, B. Wielinga, Extracting instances of relations from web documents using redundancy, in: Proceedings of the Third European Semantic Web Conference (ESWC’06), Budvar, Montenegro, 2006. [4] M. Hildebrand, J. van Ossenbruggen, L. Hardman, Facet: a browser for hetero- geneous semantic web repositories, in: Proceedings of International Semantic Web Conference ((ISWC2006), LNCS, 2006. [5] L. Hollink, G. Schreiber, B. Wielinga, Patterns of semantic relations to improve image content search, J. Web Semant. 5 (3) (2007) 195–203. [6] A. Miles, T. Baker, R. Swick, Best practice recipes for publishing RDF vocabularies, Working draft, W3C, http://www.w3.org/TR/2006/WD-swbp- vocab-pub-20060314/ (March 14, 2006). [7] A. Miles, S. Becchofer, SKOS simple knowledge organization system reference, W3c working draft, World-Wide Web Consortium (January 25, 2008). [8] A. Tordai, B. Omelayenko, G. Schreiber, Semantic excavation of the city of books, in: Proceedings Semantic Authoring, Annotation and Knowledge Markup Work- shop (SAAKM2007), vol. 314, CEUR-WS, 2007, http://ceur-ws.org/Vol-314. [9] M. van Assem, A. Gamgemi, G. Schreiber, Conversion of wordnet to a standard RDF/OWL representation, in: Proceedings of LREC 2006, 2006. [10] M. van Assem, M. Menken, G. Schreiber, J. Wielemaker, B. Wielinga, A method for converting thesauri to RDF/OWL, in: S.A. McLlraith, D. Plexousakis, F. van Harmelen (Eds.), Proceedings of the Third International Semantic Web Conference ISWC2004, vol. 3298 of LNCS, Hiroshima, Japan, Springer-Verlag, Berlin/Heidelberg, 2004. [11] J. Wielemaker, M. Hildebrand, J. van Ossenbruggen, G. Schreiber, Thesaurus- based search in large heterogenous collections, in: A. Sheth, et al. (Eds.), Proc. The Semantic Web - ISWC 2008 7th International Semantic Web Confer- enc, Karlsruhe, October 2008, vol. 5318 of LNCS, Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg, 2008. [12] J. Wielemaker, G. Schreiber, B. Wielinga, Using triples for implementation: the Triple20 ontology-manipulation tool, in: Y. Gil, E. Motta, R. Benjamins, M. Musen (Eds.), The Semantic Web—ISWC2005: Proceedings of the Fourth International Semantic Web Conference, vol. 3729 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Galway, Ireland, November 6–10, 2005, Springer-Verlag, 2005. [13] J. Wielemaker, G. Schreiber, B.J. Wielinga, Prolog-based infrastructure for rdf: performance and scalability, in: D. Fensel, K. Sycara, J. Mylopoulos (Eds.), The Semantic Web—Proceedings of ISWC’03, vol. 2870 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Sanibel Island, FL, Springer-Verlag, Berlin/Heidelberg, 2003, ISSN 0302- 9743. http://ceur-ws.org/Vol-314 file://localhost/Users/guus/Downloads/dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.websem.2008.08.001 http://www.museosuomi.fi/ http://www.den.nl/ http://www.icn.nl/ http://www.multimedian.nl/ http://www.w3.org/TR/2006/WD-swbp-vocab-pub-20060314/ Semantic annotation and search of cultural-heritage collections: The MultimediaN E-Culture demonstrator Introduction Semantic annotation: collection data, metadata and vocabularies Semantic search Technical architecture Keyword search with semantic clustering Sample search scenario's Scenario 1: "Picasso" Scenario 2: "Tokugawa" Discussion Semantic annotation Semantic search User involvement Acknowledgements References 
work_cichnl6usrfy3hohcv75qvk3ty	----	Diagnostic Art: A Tribute to Professor Gérard Simon J. Allan Tucker Department of Pathology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, Alabama, USA Dr. Gérard Simon enjoyed a highly successful and memorable career in electron microscopy, and was a founding member and major contributor to the Microscopical Society of Canada, which currently offers two awards in his honor. In his leisure time, he enjoyed painting and sketching. This presentation in his honor explores an experience in both fine art and in the art of electron microscopy. In diagnostic pathology, ultrastructural findings are utilized to gain an impression of a disease state. As one example, a two year-old boy presented with a perplexing mass in the right mastoid region. A small biopsy was performed, and the light microscopy revealed a small blue cell tumor. Lymphoma was suspected, and a number of immunohistochemical studies were performed. These were not diagnostic, and regrettably depleted the block. Fortunately, a tiny aliquot of the biopsy had been submitted for electron microscopy. Ultrastructural examination revealed tumor cells with cell processes containing numerous microtubules. This appearance alone would be diagnostic of neuroblastoma, but in addition, numerous neurosecretory granules could be identified. As would not have otherwise been possible, a definitive diagnosis of neuroblastoma was rendered, which was clinically unsuspected. Impressions also exist as works of art  prints produced by pressing paper against an inked matrix. This technique provided artists with the opportunity to produce many art products from a single effort prior to the development of other techniques to reproduce works. One of the best-known artists to utilize impressions  specifically etchings  was Rembrandt. He had a room in his home with a press to produce etchings. His last documented etching, produced in about 1665, was a portrait of the physician Jan Antonides van der Linden, and was intended as the frontispiece for a book on Hippocrates by that physician, but was not used. Continuing on the theme of impressions, one major post-impressionistic artist was Henri de Toulouse- Lautrec. This artist suffered from pyknodysostosis, resulting in a short stature. As a result, he often did not include the full length of subjects’ legs in his works. While known for his excesses  he died of alcoholism and syphilis  he had an interest in medicine. His works include a drawing of the surgeon Jules-Émile Péan, inventor of the hemostat. As another example of an ultrastructural impression, a 79 year-old man presented with a 4 cm testis mass. He underwent unilateral orchiectomy, and the testis contained an epithelioid tumor suspected to represent some sort of germ cell tumor, but the light microscopy and immunohistochemistry were inconclusive. The case was sent in consultation. While no tissue had been submitted in glutaraldehyde, electron microscopy on formalin-retrieved tissue revealed that the tumor cells exhibited long, sometimes largely circumferential microvilli, and tonofilament bundles were seen. The possibility of a tumor growing into the testis had not been considered, but these finding revealed that the lesion actually represented a malignant mesothelioma of the tunica albuginea. Regarding impressions, one particularly noteworthy art period was that of the Impressionists. These artists painted more of an impression of the subject rather than an attempt to replicate it. Interestingly, the term originated from a derisive review of their work. One of these artists was Berthe Morisot. These artists knew one another well; Morisot married Eugène Manet, brother of the artist Édouard Manet, so her daughter Julie was Julie Manet (Morisot’s only child). She sometimes used her daughter and a niece as her subjects. Further, she was good friends with Pierre-Auguste Renoir, and they sometimes traveled 1170 doi:10.1017/S1431927614007582 Microsc. Microanal. 20 (Suppl 3), 2014 © Microscopy Society of America 2014 https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1431927614007582 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:41:04, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S1431927614007582 https://www.cambridge.org/core together. He completed a number of works featuring these same two girls. Morisot and Renoir were such good friends that when Morisot died at a young age, having already lost her husband, she named Renoir as her daughter’s guardian. Other areas of tumor diagnosis in which the ultrastructural impression can be critical include alveolar soft part sarcoma and acinar cell carcinoma. Another artist along the previous theme is Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot, a teacher of Morisot. And Pablo Picasso, an artist and philosopher, left a lasting impression. Figure 1. A. Small biopsy of a mastoid lesion in a two year-old boy. The light microscopy and immunostains were inconclusive. B. Electron microscopy revealed cell processes with microtubules; the impression gained from electron microscopy was diagnostic of neuroblastoma. Figure 2. An impression (etching) by Rembrandt of the physician Jan Antonides van der Linden. 1171Microsc. Microanal. 20 (Suppl 3), 2014 https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1431927614007582 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:41:04, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S1431927614007582 https://www.cambridge.org/core 
work_cmopimwcyracvctyn5t5huws34	----	Vol. 15, № 2, 2018: 159-176 Marija Đekić*12 UDC 005.963 Nenad Ravić** Pregledni naučni rad Primljen 27.07.2017. Odobren 08.09.2017. KORPORATIVNI UNIVERZITETI KAO SAVREMENA PARADIGMA PROFESIONALNOG RAZVOJA ZAPOSLENIH U savremenim uslovima privređivanja znanje i inovacije bazirane na znanju pred- stavljaju ključni resurs organizacija u borbi za sticanje konkurentske prednosti. U nasto- janju da izgrade korporativnu kulturu u kojoj se akcenat stavlja na znanju i veštinama zaposlenih, kompanije su uvele sopstvene korporativne univerzitete. Koncept korporativ- nih univerziteta razlikuje se od klasičnih programa obuke i treninga u mnogim aspek- tima. Kompanije koje razumeju moć znanja u modernoj ekonomiji I koje imaju proak- tivan pristup učenju i obrazovanju formiraju korporativne univerzitete ne posmatrajući ih kao trošak, već kao ulaganje u ljudski potencijal koji će svojim znanjem poboljšati per- formanse i konkurentnost organizacije. Univerziteti predstavljaju sredstvo za postizanje strateških ciljeva kompanije. Problem istraživanja odnosi se na analiziranje koncepta korporativnih univerziteta u smislu razvoja korporativne kulture i razvoja zaposlenih, čime se stvaraju kompetitivne prednosti organizacije u visoko konkurentskom globalnom okruženju. U radu se polazi od osnovnih teoretskih postavki učenja, obrazovanja, doprinosa zaposlenog organiza- ciji i organzacije zaposlenom kroz procese razvoja i napredovanja. Zaključak istraživa- nja je da korporativni univerziteti zaista imaju strateški značaj i da mogu doneti brojne benefite kompanijama koje ih osnivaju, ali samo u slučaju kada u kompanijama postoje realne potrebe za takvim vidom edukacije. Ključne reči: obrazovanje, znanje, veštine, kompanije, univerziteti, konkurentnost. * Visoka škola za poslovnu ekonomiju i preduzetništvo, Beograd; djekic.maja90@hotmail.com ** Visoka škola za poslovnu ekonomiju i preduzetništvo, Beograd; nenad.ravic@vspep.edu.rs Marija Đekić, Nenad Ravić Megatrend revija ~ Megatrend Review 160 1. Uvod U eri globalizacije smatra se da je organizacija efektivnog permanentnog obrazovanja ključni faktor ekonomskog razvoja, gde su ljudski resursi daleko značajniji u stvaranju komparativnih prednosti u poređenju sa drugim resur- sima. Performanse kompanija velikim delom zavise od sposobnosti zaposlenih, pa obrazovanje zaposlenih sve više postaje strateški cilj kompanija koje uviđaju da kontinuirano ulaganje u znanje i veštine zaposleniih više nije trošak nego investicija koja ostvaruje višestruke benefite. Kvalitet edukacije zaposlenih, nji- hove veštine i odgovornost za profesionalni razvoj predstavljaju ključ uspeha svake institucije ili organizacije. U cilju kvalitetnog razvoja zaposlenih, mnoge kompanije su primenile koncept korporativnih univerziteta. Korporativni uni- verziteti su strateški orjentisani, pomažu u razvoju korporativne kulture, a naj- uspešnije svetske kompanije uveliko primenjuju ovaj koncept. Analiziranjem i proučavanjem ovog koncepta trebalo bi doprineti da se što bolje shvati značaj obrazovanja zaposlenih i da se na adekvatan način prikažu benefiti koje kompa- nije imaju od ulaganja u zaposlene i korporativne univerzitete. Motivacija autora rada za istraživanjem ove teme ogleda se u neospornom zna- čaju korporativnih univerziteta za profesionalnu edukaciju i razvoj zaposlenih, kao i u nedostatku kvalitetnih istraživanja ovog koncepta u Srbiji i u čitavom regionu. 2. Znanje kao najvredniji resurs u modernoj ekonomiji Znanje predstavlja skup ideja, iskustava, intuicija i veština koje se koriste u stva- ranju nove vrednosti. Najveća konkurencija između razvijenih zemalja odvija se na polju razvoja i primene znanja i inovacija zasnovanih na znanju. Stručnjaci kao nosioci znanja postali su ključni resurs savremenih organizacija u tržišnoj borbi za sticanje održive konkurentske prednosti1. Sve viši nivo globalizacije, brzina teh- nološkog razvoja i naglašenost ekonomije znanja nameću državama i savremenim organizacijama sve veću neophodnost unapređenja obrazovanja i konstantnog razvoja veština stanovništva i zaposlenih. Društvo znanja i ekonomija utemeljena na znanju podrazumevjua kvalitetno obrazovanje za sve, jer se tokom obrazovnog procesa ljudi osposobljavaju za proi- zvodnju novog znanja i za njegovu primenu putem obrazovanja. Znanje je dinamički fenomen koji se tokom vremena menja. Uspon znanja je sličan usponu naučnih informacija koje rastu eksponencijalnom funkcijom tokom vremena. U razvijenim privredama znanje je glavni pokretač ekonomskog razvoja, generator zapošljavanja i ključni činilac za stvaranje dodatne vrednosti. Osnovni infrastrukturni elementi za 1 Ravić Nenad (2016): Savremene tendencije rasta i razvoja malih i srednjih preduzeća u Republici Srbiji. Doktorska disertacija. Fakultet za primenjeni menadžment, ekonomiju i finansije, Beograd, 108-109. Vol. 15, № 2, 2018: 159-176 Korporativni univerziteti kao savremena paradigma profesionalnog razvoja... 161 prosperitet u ekonomiji znanja su: znanje kao izvor ekonomskog razvoja, inovacije kao najvredniji izvor stvaranja nove vrednosti i stvaranje promena. Doba znanja postavlja temelje novog ekonomskog poretka i priliku za kreiranje budućnosti koja će u prvi plan stavljati ljudski potencijal.2 Organizacije svoju konkurentsku prednost sve više zasnivaju na intelektualnom kapitalu i neopipljivoj imovini koju, između ostalog, čine: know-how organizacije, brend, tržišna reputacija, informacije i drugo. Journal of Intellectual Capital daje sledeću definiciju intelektualnog kapitala: “Intelektualni kapital je znanje, prime- njeno iskustvo, procesi preduzeća i tehnologije, odnosi sa potrošačima i profesio- nalne veštine koje predstavljaju dragocena sredstva organizacije”.3 Učenje, u uslovima visokih turbulencija i promena u poslovanju, sve više postaje neophodan uslov da organizacije razvijaju suštinu svoje kompetentnosti kako bi uspele da odgovore novim izazovima. Za organizacije koje grade svoju konkurentnost generisanjem i implementacijom znanja kaže se da primenjuju koncept koji se naziva „organizacija koja uči“. Ovaj koncept se u savremenim uslovima privređivanja nameće kao imperativ, jer su tržišni lideri upravo one organizacije koje razvijaju inovacije bazirane na znanju. Upravljanje znanjem može se definisati kao stvaranje stimulativnog okruženja u okviru organizacije koje će ohrabriti sticanje znanja i njegovo deljenje. To često podrazumeva promenu organizacione kulture i stvaranje vizionarskih lidera, motivisan kadar, lolajne kupce i sistem koji će podržati sve navedene aspekte. Upravljanje znanjem pretpostavlja motivisanje zaposlenih da stiču nova znanja i da učestvuju u deljenju znanja kroz organizaciju. Razmena znanja je ključna aktivnost u upravljanju znanjem u organizaciji. Ulaganje u razvoj ljudskog kapitala u kompaniji može se posmatrati kao investicija koja je analogna ulaganju u fizički kapital. Shodno tome, menadžeri procenjuju ulaganje u obrazovanje kadrova na isti način kao i ulaganje u nabavku nove tehnologije. Ono što obe odluke čini kompleksnim je činjenica da investicija u oba slučaja proizvodi trenutne troškove zarad budućih koristi, tako da postoji potreba za kreiranjem metodologije za doslednu procenu novčanih tokova tokom dužeg vremenskog perioda.4 U modernom dobu ljudski resursi postali su najmoćnija poluga društvenog i ekonomskog razvoja. Nacije koje su prepoznale značaj i snagu obrazovanja za suštin- ski i sveobuhvatni društveni progres postale su najnaprednije svetske ekonomije.5 2 Radovanović Vladimir, Gordana Rendulić (2014): “Znanje-put ekonomskog razvoja”, Tehnika i informatika u obrazovanju, 5. Međunarodna konferencija, Fakultet tehničkih nauka, Čačak. 511. 3 Villanueva Rodrigez, C. A. (n.d.): “Corporate Knowledge Initiatives”. https://www.scribd. com/document/234373616/Corporate-Universities (19.10.2016.) 4 Popov Dejan (2014): “Economics of education in Serbia: between human capital and sig- naling and screening theories”, Megatrend Review, 1/2014, 243. 5 Damjanović Mijat (2013): “The importance of ethics and moral in eudcational sphere”, Megatrend Review, 4/2013, 5. Marija Đekić, Nenad Ravić Megatrend revija ~ Megatrend Review 162 2. Pojam korporativnog univerziteta Pojam korporativnog univerziteta je novijeg datuma, tako da ne postoji opšte prihvaćena definicija ovog pojma. Pojedine uspešne kompanije ili uspešni ljudi iz poslovnog sveta davali su svoja viđenja pojma, načina funkcionisanja i svrhe korporativnih univerziteta. Često se korporativni univerziteti drugačije zovu, ali svrha im je ista, kao na primer: korporativne akademije, korporativni instituti, koledži, centri za učenje, koledži osoblja i drugo. Ono što je zajedničko svim ovim terminima jeste da doprinose opštem uspehu kompanije i da bi tre- balo da budu strateški orjentisani. Neke od definicija korporativnih univerziteta su: - Meridith Levinson: “Korporativni univerzitet/akademija je proces upravljanja znanjem pomoću kojeg organizacije generišu vrednost od ili do njihovih intelektualnih i na znanju zasnovanih sredstava. Korpora- tivni univerziteti nude vredne treninge i edukaciju zaposlenih, a takođe pomažu organizacijama da zadrže i promovišu ključne zaposlene.” - Korporativni univerziteti/akademije su organizacioni entiteti posvećeni pretvaranju i vođenju poslovnog učenja u akcije. Korporativni univerzitet je dizajniran, vođen i usko povezan sa poslovnom strategijom u cilju posti- zanja korporativne izvrsnosti kroz poboljšanje performansi zaposlenih i kulture kompanije u kojoj inovacije mogu da napreduju. Pored stvaranja vrednosti iz intelektualne svojine, pomaže organizacijama da identifikuju, zadrže i promovišu ključne zaposlene, u isto vreme obezbeđujući vredno poslovno učenje i mogućnosti razvoja karijere za ostale zaposlene.6 Ove definicije objašnjavaju korporativne univerzitete, međutim potrebno je uzeti u obzir razlike u terminologiji ovog naziva. Na primer, u SAD “univer- zitet” je često korišćen termin. Međutim, u Evropi “univerzitet” je više pove- zan sa dugom istorijom akademskih dostignuća. Na primer, u Nemačkoj termin “univerzitet” je zaštićen zakonom i ne može se koristiti ni za šta drugo osim za akreditovane akademske institucije (tako je do nedavno bilo i u Velikoj Britaniji). Zbog različitih očekivanja u različitim organizacijama, više se koriste termini “akademija” ili “institut”, nego “univerzitet”. Tako je Dell promenio ime svog “Dell University” u “Dell Learning”. U Evropi još uvek postoje različita imena koja kompanije koriste za inicijative učenja u organizacijama. Takođe, neop- hodno je imati u vidu da li se obrazovanje koje nude korporativni univerziteti odnosi samo na menadžment ili na sve zaposlene.7 6 Abu Hassan Ramli (2006): “An Overview of Corporate Universities”. https://www.scribd.com/doc/9407517/An-Overview-of-Corporate-Universities#scribd (30.09.2016.) 7 Ibid Vol. 15, № 2, 2018: 159-176 Korporativni univerziteti kao savremena paradigma profesionalnog razvoja... 163 Kompanije u SAD češće koriste termin “univerzitet” za fenomen korpora- tivnog obrazovanja. Prema istraživanju ovaj termin je korišćen u 53% kompa- nija u uzorku istraživanja, dok je od njih ukupno 86% bilo iz SAD. Prema tome, Evropa pokazuje određenu uzdržanost od korišćenja ovog termina sem u slučaju visokog obrazovanja. Od trideset korporativnih univerziteta u Evropi koji su bili predmet proučavanja, 14 koristi termin “univerzitet”, 5 koristi termin “centar”, 4 koriste termin “institut”, 3 koriste “akademija”, a jedan “škola biznisa”. Ostale kompanije koriste ime u vezi sa lokacijom, kao što je Unilever’s “Four Acres“, ili naziv koji se ne odnosi na organizacionu strukturu, kao na primer, “Simens Management Learning” ili “Vivendi Universal Management”. U poređenju sa SAD, Evropa ostaje konzervativna u korišćenju ovog termina.8 3. Sistem funkcionisanja korporativnih univerziteta Da bi se razumeo značaj korporativnih univerziteta, trebalo bi razumeti i ekonomske faktore koji su uzrokovali njihov nastanak. Poslovanje se odvija u globalnoj ekonomiji koja je dovela do povećane konkurencije. Da bi uspele u svo- joj borbi za konkurentnost, kompanije moraju da razvijaju ono što čini njihovu najveću snagu i što ih razlikuje od drugih, a to su pre svega, zaposleni. Uspešne kompanije su prepoznale potrebu da neguju i podstiču individualne sposobnosti radnika, a u tome im pomažu korporativni univerziteti.9 Globalizacija utiče na zaoštravanje konkurencije na tržištu, stvarajući poslovni ambijent u kome mogu opstati samo one organizacije koje ulažu u zna- nje i veštine svojih zaposlenih10. Iako korporativni univerziteti donose komparativnu prednost organizaciji, pogrešno bi bilo misliti da su korporativni univerziteti potrebni svakoj organi- zaciji. Prvo, nije razumno primeniti ovaj koncept iz marketinških razloga. Ljudi jednostavno mogu tada smatrati da korporativni univerziteti nemaju dovoljnu vrednost, a posledično, neće smatrati bitnim aktivnosti koje oni sprovode, pa će ih i izbegavati. Drugo, često u kompaniji ne postoji jasan i ubedljiv razlog za uvođenje korporativnih univerziteta. Može se desiti da inicijative za kreiranje korporativnih univerziteta dolaze od pojedinih ljudi u kompaniji koji u suštini ne razumeju sam koncept, ali su pročitali nešto o tome, pa im se učinilo da bi to trebalo njihove kompanije da imaju. Bez smislenih ciljeva u vezi sa organizacio- nom strategijom, nije dobra ideja stvaranje korporativnog univerziteta tek da bi 8 Allen Mark (2002): The Corporate University Handbook: Designing, Managing and Growing a Successful Program. New York: American Management Association, 223. 9 Schugurensky Daniel (2002): “History of education: Selected Moments of the 20th Century”. http://schugurensky.faculty.asu.edu/moments/1961mcdonalds.html (07.12.2016). 10 Cunningham Stuart (2000). The business of borderless education. Canberra: Evaluations and Investigations Programme, Higher Education Division, Dept. of Education, Training and Youth Affair. Marija Đekić, Nenad Ravić Megatrend revija ~ Megatrend Review 164 se imao jedan u okviru organizacije. Jedan od razloga je što ukoliko zaposleni zapamte takav neuspeli koncept i marketinški trik, neće prihvatiti taj koncept ni kada se pojavi realna potreba za njihovim uvođenjem. Ovo upućuje na sledeće – korporativni univerziteti su strateški alat koji pomaže organizacijama u ostva- rivanju svojih misija, strategija i ciljeva. Korporativni univerziteti obezbeđuju centralizovanu “in-house” edukaciju koja omogućava kompanijama da usklade obuku i razvoj zaposlenih sa svojim potrebama i poslovnim strategijama11. Osnovni ciljevi postojanja univerziteta u okviru kompanija odnose se na sle- deće: 1. Organizovanje obuka zaposlenih; 2. Promovisanje kontinuiranog učenja; 3. Pokretanje i podržavanje promena u organizaciji; 4. Ostvarivanje što veće koristi od ulaganja u obrazovanje; 5. Podržavanje zajedničke kulture, lojalnosti i pripadnosti kompaniji; 6. Ostvarenje i održavanje konkurentske pozicije u privredi; 7. Zadržavanje radnika, odnosno smanjenje f luktuacije radnika. Iako postoji puno dobrih razloga za kompanije da investiraju u korpora- tivne univerzitete, ipak i oni imaju svojih ograničenja. Možda najveći nedostatak je to da se potroši mnogo novca na korporativne univerzitete, a skoro je nemo- guće meriti koji je minimalni efekat koji oni donose kompanijama. Veoma često kompanije ne urade ništa da bi pokušale da izmere ove efekte, sem popunjava- nja ankete o tome koliko učesnici smatraju korisnim ceo koncept. Korporativni univerziteti obično dolaze pod okriljem sektora ljudskih resursa, koji često nisu u mogućnosti da sprovedu rigorozniju analizu onoga što su postigli.12 Korporatino obrazovanje ima određene distinktivne karakteristike, uključu- jući proaktivan pristup i metode obrazovanja, povećanje motivacije zaposlenih u vezi sa mogućnostima njihovog profesionalnog rasta i razvoja, kontinuitet u sticanju ključnih kompetencija, prilagodljivost na brze promene u društvu, nauci i tehnologiji, praktična orjentacija u skladu sa zahtevima i potrebama kompanije, inovativnost formi, metoda i tehnologija učenja, fokus na razvoju kompanije13. Pojedine kompanije su uvidele druge benefite razvoja upravljanja u “kući”. Poznato je da kompanije koriste ponudu obrazovanja od strane prestižnih poslov- nih škola, bilo da se radi o master stepenu studija ili kraćim kursevima, kao način 11 Meister C. Jeanne (1998): Corporate Universities: Lessons in Building a World-Class Work Force. New York:McGraw-Hill. 12 The Economist. (2015): “Keeping it on the company campus”. http://www.economist.com/news/business/21651217-more-firms-have-set-up-their-own- corporate-universities-they-have-become-less-willing-pay (10.10.2016.) 13 Iryna Lytovchenko (2016.): Corporate university as a form of employee training and deve- lopment in American companies. Advanced Education, 35-41. Vol. 15, № 2, 2018: 159-176 Korporativni univerziteti kao savremena paradigma profesionalnog razvoja... 165 za usavršavanje ljudi. Čak i kada potrebe posla za dodatnim usavršavanjem nisu toliko izražene, obrazovanje menadžera može uticati na njihovo zadovoljstvo i, još važnije, lojalnost kompaniji. Na žalost, ovo često može imati suprotan efekat, odnosno tako najpametniji i najbolji zaposleni sa visokim kvalifikacijama su više skloni preuzimanju od strane tržišnih rivala. Korporativni univerziteti su foku- sirani na potrebe kompanije koja ih je osnovala, pa su time njihovi sertifikati i kompetencije stečene na njima manje privlačne konkurentima. Na osnovu istraživanja koje je obuhvatilo 210 različitih korporativnih uni- verziteta iz različitih industrija i različitih delova Severne Amerike, identifiko- vane su strateške oblasti na koje se korporativni univerziteti najčešće fokusiraju. Rezultati ukazuju na pet suštinskih strateških oblasti na koje korporativni uni- verziteti treba najviše da budu usmereni: 1. Poravnanje i izvršenje (korporativnih ciljeva i strategije); 2. Razvijanje veština koje podržavaju poslovne potrebe; 3. Procena učenja i performansi; 4. Korišćenje tehnologije za podršku funkcije učenja; 5. Partnerstvo sa akademijom (akademskim institucijama).14 Prema istraživanju Global Learning Resources iz 2005.godine, korporativni univerziteti bi trebalo da rukovode na tri nivoa: Nivo 1: planiranje talenata i strategije – naglasak je na identifikovanju potrebnih veština i ključnih trendova na tržištu radne snage (tako se u korporativnim univerzitetima potrebne veštine podudaraju sa zahtevima spoljašnjeg okruženja); Nivo 2: istraživanje – korporativni univerziteti se fokusiraju na značaj prikupljanja i tumačenja podataka istraživanja (potrebno je da se identifikuju oblasti slabosti koje mogu da budu ispravljenje odgo- varajućim treninzima i razvojnim aktivnostima); Nivo 3: dizajniranje i implementacija razvojnih aktivnosti – usmeren je na značaj sprovođenja obuka i razvojnih inicijativa, a naglašava i metodologije koje se mogu koristiti za proširenje koncepta obuke, kao što je e-učenje i tradicionalno učenje u učionicama.15 14 Li Jessica, Lui Abel Amy (2011). “Prioritizing”, American Society for Training & Development, 54-57. 15 Pillay K, Wijnbeek Dannie. (2006). “The Corporate University Training and Learning Solution for a South African Airline Industry”. SA Journal of Human Resource Management, Vol. 4, No. 2, 29-30. Marija Đekić, Nenad Ravić Megatrend revija ~ Megatrend Review 166 Slika 1. Model korporativnog univerziteta.16 4. Razlika između korporativnog univerziteta, centra za učenje i trening programa Kada se govori o korporativnim univerzitetima, često se kod ljudi pojav- ljuje zbunjenost da su takvi oblici obrazovanja zaposlenih zapravo trening centri. Činjenica da korporativni univerziteti postoje u isto vreme u kompaniji kada postoje zasebni trening centri dokazuje da se oni razlikuju. Najjednostavnije objašnjenje razlike trening centra i korporativnih univerziteta bi bilo: trening centri obezbeđuju treninge i obuke, međutim korporativni univerziteti, pored toga što pružaju treninge i obuke, pružaju još mnogo drugih stvari u vezi sa razvojem ljudi i organizacija. Iz definicija koje objašnjavaju koncept korporativ- nih univerziteta može se zaključiti da je najvažniji fenomen u ovom konceptu strategija, odnosno strategijski. Za razliku od toga, iako su trening centri zna- čajni, oni su obično taktički i operativno orjentisani i nisu direktno povezani sa organizacionom strategijom. Trening centri ili odeljenja za treninge (obuke) su često decentralizovani ili ograničeni u okviru odgovornosti tradicionalnih modela treninga, gde odeljenja upravljaju programima koji su široko primenjivi u organizaciji. Funkcija učenja može biti u toku posla na strateškom projektu, ali ima ograničenu kontrolu nad izborom poslodavca. Ovde je učenje i razvoj na poslednjem mestu jednog stra- teškog projekta. Program treninga je sastavljen od rasporeda aktivnosti sa ciljem treninga, ciljevima učenja, predmetnom oblasti, metodama, trenerima, učesni- cima treninga, metodama ocenjivanja i određenom lokacijom. Dobri treninzi su 16 Ibid Vol. 15, № 2, 2018: 159-176 Korporativni univerziteti kao savremena paradigma profesionalnog razvoja... 167 osmišljeni sa ciljem da reše određene postojeće probleme kompanije i poboljšaju performanse određenog segmenta organizacije. Na slici 2 prikazan je proces odvijanja treninga, počevši od identifikacije problema, preko procene potreba, održavanja treninga i ocene rezultata tre- ninga, pa sve do promena u ponašanju koje rezultira u boljim performansama. U modelu korporativnog univerziteta postoji velika razlika u strategiji orga- nizovanja funkcije učenja. Ovaj model je rezultat organizacione posvećenosti uče- nju i upravljanju talentima, a strateški je angažovan da pokreće programe misije. Funkcija učenja se posmatra kao poslovni partner u organizaciji, a pruža struk- turu za upravljanje sadržajem, iskustvima i resursima u vezi sa učenjem. Ovaj pristup dozvoljava učenju i razvoju da dođe u prvi plan strateških projekata.17 Slika 2. Trening proces za poboljšanje performansi Organizaciona pripadnost trening centra nema veliku političku i stratešku dimenziju, odnosno trening centar nije centrar moći i odlučivanja. Postojanjem ovog centra, kompanije se ne suočavaju sa velikim rizicima u realnom delovanju, jer učesnici treninga obično rade na studijama slučajeva, a ne na profesionalnim problemima, tako da ne mogu da menjaju organizaciju. Funkcionalna uloga tre- ning centra je udaljena od operativnih aktivnosti, a često ne daje strateška znanja za kompaniju. Pristup trening centara nije usmeren na timove, već na pojedince, međutim, oni mogu da pomognu ljudima da napreduju, oni im obezbeđuju nove veštine i održvaju njihovo zaposlenje. Treninzi su generalno zatvoreni u okviru korporacije, odnosno veoma retko su usmereni i van granica kompanije, kao što je dovođenje stranih govornika ili učenje stranih predmeta. U okviru ovih treninga održavaju se seminari sa unapred pripremljenim temama u vezi sa upravljanjem, rukovodstvom, poznavanjem rada na računaru, administracijom 17 Joy Joseph (2012). Corporate Universities: Aligning Learning to the Business. (M. Eggleston, Interviewer) Marija Đekić, Nenad Ravić Megatrend revija ~ Megatrend Review 168 kancelarije, kontrolom upravljanja i drugo. Ove činjenice nisu argumenti protiv trening centara, naprotiv, oni su jako bitni za sticanje sposobnosti i znanja neop- hodnih za upravljanje karijerom, kao i za sticanje individualnog učenja gene- ralno. Međutim, korporativni univerziteti imaju mnogo veći potencijal, zato što je to prostor za primenjeno obrazovanje i primenjene strategije, gde se prednost daje timovima, tako da se postiže razumevanje dimenzija kompanije, sada i u budućnosti, poznatih i nepoznatih elemenata. Kompanija na taj način prevazi- lazi već utabane staze krećući se novim putem.18 Tabela 1. Razlike tradicionalnog trening odeljenja i korporativnog univerziteta19 Tradicionalno odeljenje za trening/obuku Korporativni univerziteti Reaktivni Proaktivni Decentralizovani Centralizovani Širok auditorijum Prilagođeni, strateški fokus za specifični auditorijum Funkcionalne informacije sa malom dubinom Odgovarajuće informacije povezane sa poslovnom strategijom Taktički obim Strateški obim Ambijent učionice Različiti formati – virtualna učionica, kompjuterizovano okruženje, web okruženje, e-učenje na daljinu Ne bavi se kulturom kompanije Oblikuje kulturu kompanije Strukturisan format – jasan početak i kraj Pristup doživotnom učenju Zasnovan na veštinama Razvija neopipljive veštine kao što su liderstvo, kreatino razmišljanje, rešavanje problema Poboljšava veštine za određeni posao Poboljšava performanse posla Posluje kao poslovna funkcija osoblja Posluje kao poslovna jedinica 5. Kompanije koje su primenile koncept korporativnih univerziteta Kako korporativni univerziteti egzistiraju već decenijama, postoje mnogi primeri kompanija koje mogu biti modeli najbolje prakse. Iako su neke kom- panije koje imaju svoje korporativne univerzitete već pomenute, neke od naji- staknutijih korporativnih univerziteta su svakako Charles Schwab University, Disney University, General Electric’s Crotonville, McDonald’s Hamburger Uni- versity, Motorola University, Oracle University and University of Toyota. 18 Renaud-Coulon Annick (2008): Corporate Universities: a lever of Corporate Responsibility. Paris: Global CCU Publisher. 19 Schugurensky Daniel (2002): “History of education: Selected Moments of the 20th Century”. http://schugurensky.faculty.asu.edu/moments/1961mcdonalds.html (07.12.2016). Vol. 15, № 2, 2018: 159-176 Korporativni univerziteti kao savremena paradigma profesionalnog razvoja... 169 Većina velikih korporacija u Evropi, Aziji ili Sad imaju sada sopstvene kor- porativne univerzitete. Jedan od najupečatljivijih je Accenture in St Charles, koji je veoma sličan velikom kampusu jer ima 2000 soba, 700 stalno zaposlenih i ugosti godišnje oko 6000 ljudi. Neke od poznatih kompanija na evropskom prostoru koje su ustanovile aktivnosti korporativnih univerziteta su: Alcatel University (France), Union Fenosa Corporate University (France), Allianz Management Institute (Ger- many), BMW (Germany), Daimler Chrysler Services Academy(Germany), Deu- tsche Bank University (Germany), Lufthansa School of Business (Germany), Sie- mens Business Services (Germany), Volkswagen Coaching (Germany), ISVOR- Fiat (Italy), Heineken University (The Netherlands), Shell Open University (The Netherlands), Holcim (Switzerland), Union Bank of Switzerland LeadershipIn- stitute (Switzerland), Unilever (UK), Honda (Europe). Takođe, još neke od poznatih kompanija na prostoru Severne Amerike koje imaju neki obik korporativnog univerziteta su: Bank of Montreal (Canada), Intel Virtual CU (USA), Boeing Leadership Development Centre (USA), National Semiconductor (USA), Chase Manhattan Bank (USA), Cisco (USA), General Motors University (USA & Europe), VISA (USA), HP (USA), World Bank (USA), Dell Learning (USA), Ford University (USA), Electrolux Univerity (USA). U nastavku rada biće predstavljen Apple University, iako se informacije o ovom korporativnom univerzitetu veoma dobro čuvaju od javnosti. 5.1. Apple University Prema podacima specijalizovanog časopisa “Forbs” za 2016. godinu, brend “Apple” je daleko najvredniji brend u svetu biznisa. Tabela 2. Najvredniji brendovi sveta20 Rang Brend Vrednost brenda (u milijardama $) Godišnja promena vrednosti Prihod brenda (u milijard. $) Industrija 1 Apple 154,1 6% 233,7 Tehnologija 2 Google 82,5 26% 68,5 Tehnologija 3 Microsoft 75,2 9% 87,6 Tehnologija 4 Coca-Cola 58,5 4% 21,9 Napici 5 Facebook 52,6 44% 17,4 Tehnologija Apple University je objekat za obuku kompanije Apple Inc., sa sedištem u Kaliforniji. Ovaj korporativni univerzitet dizajniran je da uputi zaposlene u Apple-u sa različitim aspektima tehnologije i korporativne kulture kompanije. 20 Forbes (2016): “The World’s Most Valuable Brands”. http://www.forbes.com/powerful-brands/list/#tab:rank (20.12.2016.) Marija Đekić, Nenad Ravić Megatrend revija ~ Megatrend Review 170 Steve Jobs je osnovao Apple University 2008.godine iz nastojanja da uključi zaposlene u poslovnu kulturu kompanije i edukuje ih o istoriji kompanije, pogo- tovo zato što je kompanija sve više rasla, a tehnologija se menjala. Ovaj program obuke pod nazivom Apple University imao je za cilj za zaposleni nauče da raz- mišljaju kao Steve Jobs. Program je aktivno krenuo sa realizacijom nastave 2009. godine. Iako mnoge kompanije imaju svoje interne programe, verzija koju je Apple uveo je često tema nagađanja i fasciniranosti u tehničkom svetu. Jobs je identifikovao načela za koja veruje da će pokretati inovacije i održati uspeh kom- panije – odgovornost, posvećenost detaljima, perfekcionizam, jednostavnost, tajnost, i to je želeo da objedini jedinstvenom izgradnjom korporativne kulture i programa usavršavanja. Program je kreirao Joel Podolny, tadašnji dekan Yale School of Management (takođe profesor i na Harvardu i Stanfordu). Podolny je ostao odgovoran za program, efektivno je obavljao funkciju dekana, a pored toga bio je i potpredsednik Apple-a. Stalni članovi fakulteta su kreirali i vodili nastavu. Članovi fakulteta su uključivali profesore sa različitih univerziteta, kao što su: Yale, Harvard, The University of California – Berkeley, Stanford i M.I.T. Instruktori programa su bili: 1. Tim Cook, CEO; 2. Joel Podolny, bivši dekan Yale School of Management; 3. Richard Tedlow, istoričar sa Harvard University; 4. Randy Nelson, radio u studiju animacija Pixar; 5. Joshua Cohen, profesor sa Stanford-a; 6. Morten Hansen, sa Berkley-a. Osnovna premisa interne škole obuke, odnosno univerziteta kompanije Apple je: “Geniji se ne rađaju, oni se stvaraju”. Učešće na kursu može biti samo na osnovu poziva, a uglavnom su namenjeni rukovodiocima kompanije, počevši od direktora pa naviše. Većina učesnika su potpredsednici ili senior potpred- sednici. Ukoliko je neko na nižem nivou menadžmenta, može biti pozvan da prisustvuje ponekom času u okviru sesije (sednice), a kako napreduje, tako može povećati učešće u broju časova ili zasedanja. Nije poznato kako se biraju učesnici kursa, ali se predpostavlja da viši menadžeri često odaberu zaposlene sa potenci- jalom, a onda kontaktiraju dekana. Pozivi za učešće stižu direktno od Podolny- ja. Nastava obično traje nekoliko sati, a održava se dva do tri dana nedeljno u studentskom gradu Apple-a. Pored učenja o istoriji i kulturi kompanije, veoma je izražen naglasak na specijalizaciji, odnosno bitno je da svako odradi perfek- tno svoj konkretan zadatak, a ne mora da širi svoja umeća na više elemenata. Takođe, kompanija proučava razloge uspeha i padova drugih kompanija.21 21 Colt Sam (2015). “Here’s what it’s like to attend Apple’s secret university”. http://uk.businessinsider.com/heres-what-its-like-to-attend-apples-secret-university- 2015-2?r=US&IR=T (05.12.2016.) Vol. 15, № 2, 2018: 159-176 Korporativni univerziteti kao savremena paradigma profesionalnog razvoja... 171 Za razliku od mnogih korporacija, Apple održava obuku “u kući”, tokom cele godine. Univerzitet radi tokom cele godine, uključujući instruktore, pisce i urednike koji kreiraju i održavaju kurseve. Pojedini profesori prelaze sa poznatih univerziteta, dok drugi dolaze da rade za Apple, ali i dalje imaju radna mesta u svojim školama. Nastava se izvodi u Apple-ovom studentskom gradu, u delu zgrade koji se naziva City Center. Prostorije su dobro osvetljene i izgrađene u obliku trapeza, a mesta u zadnjim redovima su uzdignuta, tako da svako ima jasan pogled u pravcu instruktora. Povremeno, nastava se održava i u inostranstvu u prosto- rijama Apple, kao na primer u Kini, gde dolaze profesori koji vode program nastave. Zaposleni kompanije generalno ne govore o kompaniji, a još manje o časo- vima u okviru programa. Kompanija ne objavljuje slike učionica javno. Na internom sajtu dostupnom samo članovima Apple-a, zaposleni se prijavljuju za kurseve u skladu sa njihovim pozicijama i pozadinom posla. Takođe, zastupnici kompanije često ne daju intervjue u vezi sa ovom temom. 5.1.1. Picasso i Apple Apple je jedina tehnološka kompanija koja sebe poredi sa Picasso-om. U ovom internom programu obuke gde instruktor poredi Apple sa Picasso-om, koristi se niz od 11 litografskih crteža bika koje je stvorio umetnik pokazujući prefinjenosti sa puno detaljnih skica bika u karakterističnim linijama. Na obuci prikazuje se slajd bika, odnosno delo Picasso-a koje je on stvarao oko mesec dana, počevši od kraja 1945.godine. Bik ima njušku, ramena, trup i kopita, ali tokom iteracija ti detalji nestaju. Poslednja slika je je samo figura iz nekoliko linija, ali i dalje predstavlja bika. Onako kako se Picasso-ov bik prikazuje u 11 litografija, tako Apple gradi svoje pametne telefone i uređaje. Zapravo, ideja je da dizajneri budu usmereni ka jednostavnosti, kao što je Picasso eliminisao detalje u kreiranju velikih umetničkih dela. Takva nastojanja su u Apple-u često uoč- ljiva, kao na primer, u marketingu proizvoda, dizajnu i ergonomiji miša, i drugo. Reč koja opisuje ovaj proces je apstrakcija. Picasso je o tom procesu rekao sledeće: “Da bi se došlo do apstrakcije, uvek je potrebno početi sa konkretnom realnošću...uvek se mora početi sa nečim. Kasnije možete ukloniti sve tragove realnosti. Tada opasnosti nema jer će, u svakom slučaju, ideja objekta ostaviti neizbrisiv trag”. Ovaj stav prema jednostavnosti je nešto što je odlika Apple-a, a koja je omogućila da tehnologija bude toliko atraktivna ljudima. Marija Đekić, Nenad Ravić Megatrend revija ~ Megatrend Review 172 Slika 5. Picasso-ov bik u litografijama22 6. Zaključak Ljudi predstavljaju najveći potencijal uspeha kompanije, odnosno njenu stvaralačku i pokretačku snagu. U novije vreme sve više značaja se pridaje upravljanju ljudskim resursima, kao aktivnošću koja stvara pozitivan uticaj na opstanak, rast i razvoj kompanije. Kako zaposleni kompanije predstavljaju naj- značajniji resurs za ostvarivanje konkurentske prednosti na tržištu, sve se više pažnje posvećuje razvoju ljudskih resursa i poboljšanju komparativnih predno- sti kompanije u ovom smislu, a naročito ulaganjem u obrazovanje zaposlenih. Zaposleni predstavljaju odlučujući faktor i glavni nosilac uspeha kad su u pitanju inovacije i prilagodljivost kompanija i institucija novim uslovima poslovanja. Rezultat sve veće brige kompanije za svoje zaposlene predstavljaju razni tre- ninzi, obuke i drugi oblici obrazovanja koje kompanije obezbeđuju jednokratno ili u dužem roku. Korporativni univerziteti su upravo jedan od rezultata nasto- janja kompanija da svoje zaposlene učine što sposobnijim, lojalnijim i eduko- vanijim. Iako su kompanije veoma različito primenile koncept korporativnih univerziteta i prilagodile ih svojim potrebama, suština ovih univerziteta ostaje ista, a njihova najvažnija karakteristika je da su strateški orjentisani u postizanju ciljeva kompanije. 22 Baer Drake (2014) “Why Apple employees learn design from Pablo Picasso”. http://uk.businessinsider.com/why-apple-employees-learn-design-from-pablo-picasso- 2014-8?r=US&IR=T 24.11.2016. Vol. 15, № 2, 2018: 159-176 Korporativni univerziteti kao savremena paradigma profesionalnog razvoja... 173 U poslovnom svetu vlada mišljenje da korporativni univerziteti zaista imaju strateški značaj i donose brojne benefite. Međutim, postoje slučajevi kada nije poželjno uvoditi ovaj koncept u organizaciju, a najčešći takav slučaj je kad kor- porativni univerziteti nisu rezultat potrebe zaposlenih i organizacije za takvim vidom edukacije, već rezultat marketinških nastojanja menadžmenta. Neosporno je da postojanje adekvatnih korporativnih univerziteta donosi brojne prednosti za organizaciju i njene zaposlene. Međutim, do sada ne postoje opsežnija istraživanja u smislu efekata koji oni ostvaruju na učesnike, odnosno, postoje samo pretpostavke koje nemaju naučnu osnovu ili oskudnija istraživanja koja ne mogu biti pouzdan pokazatelj za opravdanost uvođenja ovog koncepta u konkretnu oranizaciju. U budućnosti bi svakako trebalo bolje ispitati efekte koje ostvaruju korporativni univerziteti, kako bi se mogao poboljšati pristup ovom konceptu i uporedila ulaganja i koristi od ovakvog načina razvoja zaposlenih. Literatura • abu Hassan Ramli (2006): “An Overview of Corporate Universities”. ht t ps://w w w. s c r ib d .c om /do c /9 4 07517/An- O ve r v ie w- of- C or porate - Universities#scribd (30.09.2016.) • Baer Drake (2014) “Why Apple employees learn design from Pablo Picasso”. http://uk.businessinsider.com/why-apple-employees-learn-design-from- pablo-picasso-2014-8?r=US&IR=T 24.11.2016. • Colt Sam (2015). “Here’s what it’s like to attend Apple’s secret university”. http://uk.businessinsider.com/heres-what-its-like-to-attend-apples-secret- university-2015-2?r=US&IR=T (05.12.2016.) • Forbes (2016): “The World’s Most Valuable Brands”. http://www.forbes.com/ powerful-brands/list/#tab:rank (20.12.2016.) • Joy Joseph (2012). Corporate Universities: Aligning Learning to the Business. (M. Eggleston, Interviewer) • Li Jessica, Lui Abel Amy (2011). “Prioritizing”, American Society for Training & Development, 54-57. • Pillay K, Wijnbeek Dannie. (2006). “The Corporate University Training and Learning Solution for a South African Airline Industry”. SA Journal of Human Resource Management, Vol. 4, No. 2, 29-30. • Renaud-Coulon Annick (2008): Corporate Universities: a lever of Corporate Responsibility. Paris: Global CCU Publisher. • Schug u rensk y Da niel (20 02): “Histor y of educat ion: Selec ted Moments of the 20th Century”. http://schugurensky.faculty.asu.edu/ moments/1961mcdonalds.html (07.12.2016). • Villanueva Rodrigez, C. A. (n.d.): “Corporate Knowledge Initiatives”. https:// www.scribd.com/document/234373616/Corporate-Universities (19.10.2016.) Marija Đekić, Nenad Ravić Megatrend revija ~ Megatrend Review 174 • The Economist. (2015): “Keeping it on the company campus”. http://www. economist.com/news/business/21651217-more-firms-have-set-up-their- own-corporate-universities-they-have-become-less-willing-pay (10.10.2016.) • Lytovchenko Iryna (2016.) 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(2006): “The Corporate University Training and Learning Solution for a South African Airline Industry”, SA Journal of Human Resource Management, Vol. 4, No. 2, 29-3. • Ravić Nenad (2016): Savremene tendencije rasta i razvoja malih i srednjih preduzeća u Republici Srbiji. Doktorska disertacija. Fakultet za primenjeni menadžment, ekonomiju i finansije, Beograd, 108-109. • Damjanović Mijat (2013): “The importance of ethics and moral in eudcatio- nal sphere”, Megatrend Review, 4/2013, 5. • Allen Mark (2002): The Corporate University Handbook: Designing, Mana- ging and Growing a Successful Program. New York: American Management Association, 223. • Radovanović Vladimir, Gordana Rendulić (2014): “Znanje-put ekonomskog razvoja”, Tehnika i informatika u obrazovanju, 5. Međunarodna konferen- cija, Fakultet tehničkih nauka, Čačak. 511. Vol. 15, № 2, 2018: 159-176 Marija Đekić UDC 005.963 Nenad Ravić Pregledni naučni rad Primljen 27.07.2017. Odobren 08.09.2017. CORPORATE UNIVERSITIES AS A CONTEMPORARY PARADIGM OF THE EMPLOYEES PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT In modern economic conditions, innovations that are based on the knowledge are the key resources of companies in their fight for gaining competitive advantage. While striving to develop the corporate culture in which the emphasis is on the knowledge and skills of employees, some companies have introduced their own corporate universities. The concept of corporate universities differs from classical training courses in a number of aspects. The companies that understand the power of knowledge in modern economy and have a proactive approach to learning and educating are establishing their own corporate universities. The universities are not considered to be an expense, but rather an invest- ment in human potential that will eventually improve the performances and competi- tiveness of the organizations. These universities are the means for achieving the strategic objectives of companies. The research analyses the concept of corporate universities in terms of the develop- ment of the corporate culture and employees skills that lead to the creation of organiza- tion’s competitive advantage in a highly competitive global environment. It also concentrates on the basic theoretical hypotheses of learning, educating, and employees’ contribution towards an organization through the process of development and progress. The conclusion of this research is that corporate universities do have strategic signifi- cance and that they can bring numerous benefits to the companies that have established them, but only when there is an actual need for that type of the education. Keywords: education, knowledge, skills, companies, universities, competitiveness. 
work_cr4klrboxbdnfbqwjjdqhgztpa	----	www.e-neurospine.org 251 Human Craniovertebral Alignment as a “Tertiary Curvature” Understanding the normal craniovertebral junction (CVJ) alignment and segmental mo- tion in human is paramount to better understand CVJ deformity and to decide on a more appropriate surgical strategy according to the pathologies of CVJ. During fetal development, the spine assumes the shape of the letter “C,” with the curved side facing toward the back, while the open side faces the front of the fetus. This C-shaped curve is the primary curve of the spine and is well-suited to the cramped confines of the womb. Newborn infants retain this primary curve and, with growth and maturity, develop secondary curves, first in the neck and later in the lower back. Of the 2 secondary spinal curves, the cervical curve in the neck region develops first. This curve develops in the op- posite direction from the primary spinal curvature and allows the infant to have visual ac- cess to his surroundings.1,2 This secondary cervical curvature is also found in quadrupedal animals as well as in humans. However, there is a significant difference between humans and animals with respect to this curvature: the upper cervical alignment compared to the cranium. It is because the location of the human foramen magnum is quite different from any other kind of animals. In humans, the foramen magnum is anteriorly positioned and is inferiorly oriented (open- ing directly downward). Contrastingly, in apes, the foramen magnum is more posteriorly positioned, the foramen magnum in apes is more vertically oriented (opening backwards and downwards, rather than directly downwards).3-5 Positional difference of the foramen magnum causes a difference of CVJ alignment be- tween humans and other quadrupeds with respect to the C0–1 segment. When humans are at rest in standing position, the C0–1 articulation is held rather flexi- bly, whereas the C1–2 joints are held slightly in an extended position. This is because the human cervical spine is located inferior to the foramen magnum, and these characteristics ensure an energy-saving balance of the head and neck when at rest, allowing humans to maintain horizontal vision effectively without significant effort of the neck extensor muscle. However, quadrupeds with posteriorly positioned foramina magna require well-developed nuchal musculature and ligaments to bear the weight of the head to maintain horizontal gaze. Therefore, the demands on the neck musculature differ between humans and qua- drupedal mammals (Fig. 1). Radiographically, the C1 slope is backwardly slanted and kyphotic angulation of the C0–1 segment allows some degree of freedom for neck extension as the space between the oc- ciput and C1 posterior arch allows for upper cervical extension (Fig. 2). Although asymptomatic population may have different types of cervical alignment, such as “straight” or “kyphotic” cervical spines ranging from 7% to 40% (Fig. 2), it has been well accepted that a large percentage (about 75%–80%) of cervical lordosis is localized to the C1–2 segment, only a small percentage (15%) of cervical lordosis exists in the lower cervi- Neurospine 2019;16(2):251-254. https://doi.org/10.14245/ns.19edi.010 Neurospine eISSN 2586-6591 pISSN 2586-6583 This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecom- mons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Copyright © 2019 by the Korean Spinal Neurosurgery Society Editorial Corresponding Author Jae Taek Hong E-mail: jatagi15@gmail.com https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6453-0439 Department of Neurosurgery, Eunpyeong St. Mary’s Hospital, The Catholic University of Korea, 1021 Tongil-ro, Eunpyeong-gu, Seoul 03312, Korea http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.14245/ns.19edi.010&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2019-06-30 Tertiary CurvatureHong JT https://doi.org/10.14245/ns.19edi.010252 www.e-neurospine.org Fig. 1. Magnetic resonance sagittal images show that relative volume of the rectus capitis muscle (white arrows) is quite dif- ferent between humans (A) and quadrupeds (B). A B Fig. 2. Lateral X-rays show various alignment of the cervical spine. In most occasions, cervical lordosis occurs at the C1–2 segment. C0–1 segment is kyphotic and C1 slope is always posteriorly slanted not only in lordotic cervical spine (A), but also in straight (B) and kyphotic cervical spine (C). A B C cal levels and the C0-1 segment is kyphotic.6,7 When patients have kyphotic deformity in the cervical spine or thoracolumbar spine, C0–1 segment can hold up the head to compensate for distal kyphosis, maintaining the sagittal balance and horizontal gaze (Fig. 3). Therefore, a normal kyphotic an- gulation of C0–1 segment could be referred to as a “tertiary curvature” to characterize human CVJ alignment, to differenti- ate between upper cervical spine alignment and primary/sec- ondary curvature of the human spine as well as differentiate between the cervical spine curvature of humans and that of quadrupeds including apes. The loss of subaxial lordosis has been reported in CVJ fixa- tion in which excessive hyperlordosis is created at the C0–2 segment. Moreover, craniometrics studies revealed that an ex- cessive CVJ kyphosis can cause subaxial compensatory lordo- sis.8,9 The anatomy of the cervicothoracic junction (CTJ) has been shown to be as the main determining factor for cervical lordo- sis.10 However, the angle of CVJ has also been shown to signifi- cantly be related to the angle of subaxial cervical spine.11 These findings suggest that reciprocal interaction may likely affect not only global balance, but also regional balance. Another interesting finding is that neck flexion and exten- sion movement are initiated primarily by motions between the head and C1.12,13 As the head approaches full flexion and exten- sion, contributions from the upper cervical segments decreases, whereas contribution from the lower cervical segments increas- es.14 In addition, our previous studies showed that C0–1 segment is dominant segment for compensatory motion to prevent post- operative dysphagia caused by upper cervical fixation and the C0–1 segmental motion with or without occipital fixation is as- sociated with subaxial kyphotic change after upper cervical fix- ation.15-17 So, it is important not to include occipital fixation as much as possible not only to preserve C0–1 segmental motion to pre- vent postoperative dysphagia but also to avoid abnormal ky- photic alignment of the subaxial cervical spine after surgery. Tertiary CurvatureHong JT https://doi.org/10.14245/ns.19edi.010 www.e-neurospine.org 253 CVJ malalignment is a rare and challenging pathology that can result in progressive deformity, myelopathy, severe neck pain, and functional disability, such as difficulty swallowing. The most common causes of CVJ deformity include rheuma- toid arthritis, trauma, neoplasm, infection, and congenital bony malformation. This deformity may alter the quality of life be- cause of the neck pain, disabling headache, dysphagia, and my- elopathy. Surgical management of CVJ pathology could be complex for various reasons; given the sensitive relationships involved in the surrounding neurovascular structures and intricate biome- chanical issues, access to this region is relatively difficult and there are many risks involved.16,18-23 Recently, there have been tremendous advances in CVJ sur- gery. However, understanding normal alignment, segmental motion, compensatory reaction and anatomical variation around CVJ is critical not only to decide optimal surgical option but also to prevent complications and improve surgical outcomes. REFERENCES 1. Been E, Gómez-Olivencia A, Shefi S, et al. Evolution of spi- nopelvic alignment in hominins. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2017; 300:900-11. 2. Cil A, Yazici M, Uzumcugil A, et al. The evolution of sagittal segmental alignment of the spine during childhood. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 2005;30:93-100. 3. Russo GA, Kirk EC. Foramen magnum position in bipedal mammals. J Hum Evol 2013;65:656-70. 4. Richards GD, Jabbour RS. Foramen magnum ontogeny in Homo sapiens: a functional matrix perspective. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2011;294:199-216. 5. Penin X, Berge C, Baylac M. Ontogenetic study of the skull in modern humans and the common chimpanzees: neoten- ic hypothesis reconsidered with a tridimensional Procrustes analysis. Am J Phys Anthropol 2002;118:50-62. 6. Abelin-Genevois K, Idjerouidene A, Roussouly P, et al. Cer- vical spine alignment in the pediatric population: a radio- graphic normative study of 150 asymptomatic patients. Eur Spine J 2014;23:1442-8. 7. Diebo BG, Challier V, Henry JK, et al. Predicting cervical alignment required to maintain horizontal gaze based on global spinal alignment. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 2016;41:1795- 800. 8. Passias PG, Wang S, Zhao D, et al. The reversibility of swan neck deformity in chronic atlantoaxial dislocations. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 2013;38:E379-85. 9. Smith JS, Klineberg E, Shaffrey CI, et al. Assessment of sur- gical treatment strategies for moderate to severe cervical spinal deformity reveals marked variation in approaches, osteotomies, and fusion levels. World Neurosurg 2016;91: 228-37. Fig. 3. Lateral X-rays show various kinds of the cervical deformities. Posttraumatic craniovertebral junction (CVJ) deformity patient shows a kyphotic CVJ alignment and hyperlordotic compensation in the C0–1 segment (reversed C1 slope) and subaxial cervical spine (A). C1 slope is reversely slanted and C0–1 segment is hyperlordotic to maintain horizontal gaze even in subaxial cervical kyphotic deformity patients caused by infectious spondylitis (B) and cerebral palsy (C). A B C Tertiary CurvatureHong JT https://doi.org/10.14245/ns.19edi.010254 www.e-neurospine.org Title: Head of a woman (Olga Picasso) Artist: Pablo Picasso Year: 1935 Picasso really believed her to be his love forever. The evidence was a marriage settlement where all his paintings were to be divided equally between them. Having settled in Paris, Olga furnished the house in a glamorous and luxurious manner, in the high of fashion. They had a car with a driver, an art studio that occupied the entire second floor, highbred dogs; they threw receptions, dinner parties and social functions. Olga liked expensive clothes, caviar and champagne. Pablo also was not averse to ordering a suit at a high-end couturier. He had golden watch in a vest pocket. He was proud of his wife, of her manner to behave in a high society, of her unconventional beauty and fine demeanor, and humored her in her wish to live in grand style. More information: https://www.pablo-ruiz-picasso.net/theme-olga.php © 2019 - Succession Pablo Picasso - SACK (Korea) 10. Knott PT, Mardjetko SM, Techy F. The use of the T1 sagittal angle in predicting overall sagittal balance of the spine. Spine J 2010;10:994-8. 11. Kim JT, Lee HJ, Choi DY, et al. Sequential alignment change of the cervical spine after anterior cervical discectomy and fusion in the lower cervical spine. Eur Spine J 2016;25:2223- 32. 12. Anderst WJ, Donaldson WF 3rd, Lee JY, et al. Continuous cervical spine kinematics during in vivo dynamic flexion- extension. Spine J 2014;14:1221-7. 13. Anderst WJ, Donaldson WF 3rd, Lee JY, et al. Cervical mo- tion segment contributions to head motion during flexion\ extension, lateral bending, and axial rotation. Spine J 2015; 15:2538-43. 14. Takeshima T, Omokawa S, Takaoka T, et al. Sagittal align- ment of cervical flexion and extension: lateral radiographic analysis. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 2002;27:E348-55. 15. Kim JY, Hong JT, Oh JS, et al. Influence of neck postural changes on cervical spine motion and angle during swal- lowing. Medicine (Baltimore) 2017;96:e8566. 16. Yi HJ, Hong JT, Lee JB, et al. Analysis of risk factors for pos- terior C1 screw-related complication: a retrospective study of 358 posterior C1 screws. Oper Neurosurg (Hagerstown) 2019 May 6 [Epub]. pii: opz068. https://doi.org/10.1093/ ons/opz068. 17. Kim HS, Lee JB, Park JH, et al. Risk factor analysis of post- operative kyphotic change in subaxial cervical alignment af- ter upper cervical fixation. J Neurosurg Spine 2019 Apr 26: 1-6 [Epub]. https://doi.org/10.3171/2019.2.SPINE18982. 18. Hong JT, Kim IS, Kim JY, et al. Risk factor analysis and de- cision-making of surgical strategy for V3 segment anomaly: significance of preoperative CT angiography for posterior C1 instrumentation. Spine J 2016;16:1055-61. 19. Takigawa T, Simon P, Espinoza Orías AA, et al. Biomechan- ical comparison of occiput-C1-C2 fixation techniques: C0- C1 transarticular screw and direct occiput condyle screw. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 2012;37:E696-701. 20. Hong JT, Takigawa T, Udayakunmar R, et al. Biomechanical effect of the C2 laminar decortication on the stability of C2 intralaminar screw construct and biomechanical compari- son of C2 intralaminar screw and C2 pars screw. Neurosur- gery 2011;69(1 Suppl Operative):ons1-6. 21. Hong JT, Takigawa T, Sugisaki K, et al. Biomechanical and morphometric evaluation of occipital condyle for occipito- cervical segmental fixation. Neurol Med Chir (Tokyo) 2011; 51:701-6. 22. Hong JT, Kim TH, Kim IS, et al. The effect of patient age on the internal carotid artery location around the atlas. J Neu- rosurg Spine 2010;12:613-8. 23. Hong JT, Lee SW, Son BC, et al. Analysis of anatomical vari- ations of bone and vascular structures around the posterior atlantal arch using three-dimensional computed tomogra- phy angiography. J Neurosurg Spine 2008;8:230-6. 
work_d7r5hqxejbfzxgrzluzmapzqve	----	The Journal of Academic Social Science Studies International Journal of Social Science Doi number:http://dx.doi.org/10.9761/JASSS7225 Number: 63 , p. 243-254, Winter II 2017 Yayın Süreci / Publication Process Yayın Geliş Tarihi / Article Arrival Date - Yayınlanma Tarihi / The Published Date 02.08.2017 25.12.2017 GÖRSEL SANATLARDA AVANGARD VE KİÇ OLGUSU AVANT-GARDE AND KITSCH PHENOMENON IN VISUAL ARTS Yrd. Doç. Dr. Gökçen Şahmaran Can ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9435-6697 Van Yüzüncü Yıl Üniversitesi Güzel Sanatlar Fakültesi Resim Bölümü Öz Fransızca askeri bir terim olup öncü birlik sözcüğünden gelen avangard, başta Fransızca olmak üzere hemen hemen her dilde kültür, sanat ve politika ile bağlantılı, deneysel, yenilikçi işler veya kişiler olarak tanımlanmaktadır. Kültür, sanat gerçeklik ta- nımları içinde kabul gören kural olarak benimsenmiş ilkeleri sarsıp sınırlarını değiştir- meyi amaç edinir. Bu ilkeler sosyal reformlardan estetik deneyimlerin değişimine kadar çeşitlilik gösterebilir. İlk ortaya çıkışı Romantizm ve Sanayi Devrimi ile başlayan, ticarileştirme, ba- yağılaştırma, ucuzlatma ve estetik uygunsuzluk gibi kavramlarla tanımlanan kiç formlar kitlesel olarak üretilip dağıtılma imkanı bulur. Zenginleşen orta sınıf kendi tercihleri doğrultusunda edebiyat, müzik, resim gibi çeşitli ürünleri sipariş ederek talepte bulu- nur. Bu yapılanma da sanatın satılmak için yapılmasına, ticarileşmesine neden olur. Mo- dernistlerce kiç, bilinçli olarak kültür endüstrisinin ideolojisi doğrultusunda kar etmek amacıyla üretime sunulur. Modernist sanat yaratıcılığa, biricikliğe, eşsizliğe dayanan ya- şamdan ayrı, kurmaca ve özerk bir evrensel estetik kurma amacındaydı. Bu anlayış dı- şındaki girişimleri reddedip kiç olarak tanımladılar. Kulka, kiçi sanat olmayan farklı bir estetik grupta tanımlar ve tanım için net bir formül önerir. 1950-1960'lı yıllarda başladığı düşünülen postmodern dönüşüm, Modernizmin tüm değerlerine saldırarak ona sırt çe- virir. Başlarda Modernizmin kötü, tehlikeli, zararlı saydığı tüm formlar, özellikle popü- ler kültür geniş bir kabul görüyordu. İlk kırılma noktası, Pop-art'ın kiç olarak kabul gö- ren ticari kültürü sanata dahil etme girişimiydi. Son aşamada ise Modernizm, kiçi red- derken, postmodernizm ona kucak açtı ve sanatın sınırlarını kiçi de içine dahil ederek genişletti. Anahtar Kelimeler: Modernizm, Postmodernizm, Avangard, Kiç Abstract Avant-garde is a French military term referring to advance guard. Meaning in- novative or experimental works or people in connection with the culture, art and policy terms in French or in other languages, avant-garde aims to modify the recognized norms https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9435-6697 244 Gökçen Şahmaran Can within the art, culture, and reality definitions. These norms may vary from social reform to change of aesthetical experiences. First emergence of the kitsch forms described with cheapening, desublimation, commercialization, aesthetical inappropriateness, goes back to Romanticism and Indus- trial revolution. Together with the Industrial revolution kitsch forms find a chance to be produced and distributed in mass, and the flourishing middle class requests different types of products (painting, literature, music) by order based on their own preferences. And this causes art to be commercialized and produced for sale. According to modern- ists, kitsch is produced intentionally for profit in line with the ideology of the culture in- dustry. Modernism was aiming to establish an autonomous art, a fictional and universal aesthetics based on creativeness and uniqueness irrespective of life. They discredited the initiatives other than this and defined those as kitsch. Kulka defines the kitsch as a dif- ferent aesthetic category, which is not art, and provides a clear formula for the defini- tion. Postmodern transformation considered to have started in 1950-60s, has attacked all values of Modernism. All forms accepted as bad by Modernism, particularly popular culture, used to have a broad recognition. The first fraction was the initiative of pop-art to include the commercial culture recognized as kitsch in art. While Modernism rejected kitsch, post-modernism embraced it and widened the borders to the extent of the kitsch. Keywords: Modernism, Post-modernism, Avant-garde, Kitsch Giriş Fransızca askeri bir terim olan ve ön- cü birlik sözcüğünden gelen Avangard, (Avant-garde), öncülük eden kimse, düşünce ya da sanat akımları için kullanılır. Bu sözcük, hemen hemen her dilde kültür, politika ve sanatla bağıntılı olarak, yenilikçi, deneysel veya kişiler anlamında kullanılmaktadır. Avangard sanat, kültür, gerçeklik tanımları içindeki genel kabul görmüş ilkeleri sarsıp sınırlarını değiştirmeyi amaçlar. Bu ilkeler, sosyo-kültürel reformlardan estetik deneyim- lerin değişimine kadar geniş bir yelpazeye yayılmaktadır. Clement Greenberg'e göre, Batılı bur- juva toplumu şimdiye kadar duyulmamış avangard (öncü) kültür diye birşey üretmiştir. Bunu, tarihsel bir eleştiri diyebileceğimiz yeni bir tür toplum eleştirisi, yüksek bir tarih bilin- ci yaratmıştır (Yılmaz, 2004: 246). Bu tanımlar çerçevesinde, Avangard'ın ne olduğunun tam olarak anlaşılması için, tarihsel süreç içinde ne anlama geldiğine ve nasıl geliştiğine bakılma- lıdır. Sanat tarihindeki estetik gruplar ara- sında, değillemeye hizmet eden bir sınıflama kurmak adına en kapsamlı açılımı gerçekleş- tirmiş olan kiç kavramının kökeni ise, 1860 yılında Münih sanat piyasasında kolaylıkla pazarlanabilen ucuz resim ve eskizlere da- yanmaktadır. Olayın sosyo-kültürel ve sosyo- lojik tarafına yoğuşan yazarlar, kiçin üretim ve tüketim için gerekli olan şartlarının mo- dernizm öncesine kadar var olmadığını vur- gulamaktadır. Köylü nüfusun kentlere göç etmesiyle orta sınıfın ortaya çıkışı, işçi sınıfları arasında okur yazarlık seviyesinin artması, halk sanatı ve halk kültürünün birbirinden ayrılması, insanların boş vakitlerinin daha fazla olması ve teknolojik ilerlemenin seyri kiçe zemin hazırlamıştır. Kiçin ortaya çıkışıy- la modernizmin aynı zamanda oluştuğunu düşünen Clement Greenberg, kiçi endüstri devriminin bir eseri olduğunu iddia etmekte- dir (Kulka, 2014: 26). Orijini Alman çıkışlı olmakla birlikte, İngilizce ile diğer dillere geçiş yapan "kiç" kavramının, estetik olarak başarısız olanı ifa- de eden estetik bir kategori olarak sanat eleş- tirisinde herkesçe tanınması, 1930 yılında Clement Greenberg, Theodor Adorno, Her- mann Broch gibi teorisyenlerin bu kavramı avangartın karşısında konumlandırmaları yüzünden ortaya konmuştur. Dönemin geçer- li durumunda "kiç" yer yer kitle kültürüne yönelik eleştiriler bağlamında, "kapitalist yabancılaştırma" ve "kültür endüstrisi" kav- ramlarıyla birlikte, asıl görevi karşı gelmek Görsel Sanatlarda Avangard ve Kiç Olgusu 245 olarak görülen sanatın karşısına yerleştirilir- ken; kimi zaman da estetiğe karşı bir olum- suzlama eleştirisi bağlamında, sığ bir güzelli- ğin kurulmasına hizmet eden bir kategori olarak, yaratıcı ve avangart sanatın karşısında tanımlanıyordu. 1. Peter Bürger'in Avangard Kuramı Peter Bürger'in "Avangard Kura- mı"nda Avangard, bir askerlik terimi olarak, bir ordunun bir birliğin öncü koludur. 1830- 1840'lı yılların ütopik düşünce döneminde siyaset dilinde kullanıma giriyor ve radikal dönüşümlerin bayraktarları olarak kullanılı- yor. Saint-Simon, Fourier, Louis Blanc, Marx/Engels, Proudhon, Blanqui, Tocqueville tahakküm edeceklerine inandıkları program- larını hep bu yıllarda tasarlarlar. Modernliğin fikir hayatını, insanların hayallerini kurar, tarihin menzillerini canlandırırlar. Bu teoris- yenlerin sosyalist ütopyaları, insanlığın bir sanat dünyasına ulaşacağını vaat ederler. Bu sanat dünyasına yolculuğun yine sanatın reh- berliğinde yapılması umut edilir. Bu bağlam- da sanat hem araç hem de araçtır. Avangard terimi, ilk kez ütopik düşünür sosyalist Saint- Simon'un topluluğunda, büyük toplumsal projenin gerçekleşmesinde sanata verilen öncü rolü ifade etmek üzere sirkülasyona girer. Sanat, sanatçılardan çok ondan fayda- lanmayı umut eden siyasetçiler tarafından yüceltilir, bu yüceltmeden dolayı sanat yüz- yıllık bir kült havasına bürünür. Bu tür hayal- ler, 1848 yılı Haziran ayında Paris'te yaşanan şiddetin ardından son bulur. Baştan beri sa- natçılar arasında pek ilgi uyandırmayan sos- yal sanat siyasetleri, bir sonraki devrime (1871 Paris Komünü'ne) kadar ilgi çekmez. 1848 yılında düş kırıklığı yaratan şiddetin ardın- dan sanat ve edebiyat, Baudelaire'in dile ge- tirdiği özerkleşme ihtirasına kapılır. Çağdaş ahlak, bilim ve siyaset söylemleri dışında popüler kültürden ve geleneğinden de kendi- ni yalıtır. Bunların dışında estetik değerler üzerine de anti-estetik oluşumlar geliştirirler (Artun, 2004: 10-13). Bürger kuramında avangardı, iki dö- nemde inceler: İlki, I. Dünya Savaşı ve sonrası dönemde oluşan dada, sürrealizm gibi tarih- sel avangardlar ve II. Dünya Savaşı sonrası oluşan Fluxus gibi neo-avangardlar. Özellikle bu iki dünya savaşı arasında gelişen süreçte, avangard üzerine yapılan tartışmalar da ol- dukça artmıştır. Başta Frankfurt okulu teoris- yenleri, bu avangard tartışmaların merkezin- de bulunurlar. Peter Bürger de avangardı çok yoğun olarak iki dünya savaşı arası süreçle sınırlandırmıştır; ancak sonradan oluşan avangard hareketlerin önceki avangard ruhu yakalayamadığını düşünür. Sanatın yaşam pratiğinden, siyasetten, toplumdan aşırı yalıtı- larak estetize olması sonucunda, sanatın özerkleşmesi, avangardın meydana gelmesin- de önemli bir rol üstlenir. Bu anlamda sanatla yaşamın tekrar buluşması, yakınlaşması gere- ğini ve mecburiyetini gündeme getirir. Peter Bürger'in avangard kuramında ele aldığı avangard hareketler, sanatla yaşam pratiğini buluşturmak isteyen, gelenekselleşmiş sanatın bizzat kendisine saldıran, sanatsallaşarak sanatı yok etmeye çalışan tam anti-sanat ha- reketleridir. Ancak, karşı çıktıkları ve savaş- tıkları sanatsal değerlerin içinde yine sergiler, müzeler, eleştirmenler derken amaçlarının dışında sanatsal değerler gelişir. Yani, sistem karşısında yenik düşerler. Bürger'e göre, avangard hayallerini gerçekleştirmeyi başa- ramazlar. Bürger'in kuramında avangard, sanatın kurumsallaşmasına karşı bir saldırı- dır. Kendi kendini özgürce yönetmenin, özerkleşmenin terk edilerek, sanatın yeniden yaşama sindirilmesi savaşımıdır (Artun, 2004: 21). Peter Bürger kuramında, "Avangardist Sanat Eseri" başlıklı bölümde eser kategorisi sorunsalına değinirken, artık eser kategorisine dahil edilemeyecek gösteriler, hazır-yapım nesneler için; avangardistlerin, sanatın olum- suzlanmasına, ortadan kaldırılmasına uğra- şırken eser kategorisiyle oynadıklarını ama eser kategorisini tamamen yok etmek, ortadan kaldırmak gibi bir düşüncelerinin olamayaca- 246 Gökçen Şahmaran Can ğını söyler. Avangard hareketlerin, en tepe noktasındaki oluşumlarında bile hala değil- leme yoluyla eser kategorisine göndermede bulunduklarını belirtir. Örneğin, Duchamp'ın hazır nesneleri, ancak sanat eseri kategorisine atıfta bulunarak değer kazanır. Duchamp'ın gelişigüzel seçtiği seri üretim nesnelerini im- zalayıp sanatsal sergilere göndermesindeki kışkırtıcı durum, öncelikle neyin sanat olup olmadığı konusunda bir anlayışın varlığını gerektirir. Hazır nesneleri imzalaması, eser kategorisine açık bir göndermedir. Eserin bireysel ve biricik olduğunu bir seri üretim nesnesinin üzerine atılan imza belgelemekte- dir. Böylece, sanatın doğasına dair Röne- sans'tan beri gelişmiş olan bir anlayış yani eserlerin bireysel ve biricik olduğu görüşü kışkırtıcı bir şekilde sorgulanır (Bürger, 2004: 104). Tarihsel avangard hareketlerinin, yalnız- ca geleneksellikten kopuşu değil, sanat kuru- munun tamamen ortadan kaldırılmasını amaçladıkları dikkate alınırsa, "yeni" katego- risinin bu açıdan daha da namüsait olduğu görülür. Burada "yeni" bir oluşum söz konu- sudur, ancak bu yenilik, sanat tekniklerinden ve temsil sistemindeki bir değişimden de nite- lik bakımından farklıdır (Bürger, 2004: 120- 123). Resim 1. Marchel Duchamp, Dönen Tekerlek, 1913 Modernizmin "yeni" kavramıyla olan ilişkisi bilinmektedir. Tüm sanat tarihi içinde biçimler biçimleri izler; bu anlamda yenilik birbirini izleyen akımların her biri için temel- dir. Ancak modernizmin "yeni" kavramına imtiyazlı bir düşkünlüğü vardır. Eski olanı imha etmek, yeniyi yaratmak açısından son derece üretkendir. Modernizm içindeki "Avangard" ve "Neo-Avangard" karşılaştırması kısa ve öz biçimde şu maddeler halinde verilebilir: AVANGARD *Askerlik terimi olarak siyasal dönü- şümleri anlatır * Başkaldırı * Politik ve sanatsal ilericilik * Avangardist: Lanetli, asi, serkeş, ha- yalperest, anarşist * Şok etme, şaşırtma, skandal yaratma * Özgürleştirici bir edim * Egemen olana diklenip onu bastır- mak zorunlu koşulu * Radikalizm onun enerji kaynağı Görsel Sanatlarda Avangard ve Kiç Olgusu 247 * Her tür provokasyona açık * Yaratıcı sürece dahil olmaya bir çağ- rı * Sanat aracılığıyla toplumu dönüş- türmeyi umar * Gelenekten koparak gerçekleştirilir * Reddetme zorunluluğundan kay- naklanır * Sanat sorgulanır * Her yenilik avangard değildir * Avangardist eser, anlamının yorum- lanmasına izin verecek bütünsel bir izlenim bırakmaz. * Avangardist sanatçının amacı, an- lamın reddedilmesidir. Şok yaratarak yaşama tarzının değiştirilmesi amaçlanır. Tarihsel dönüşüm açısından bakıldı- ğında: * 1848 öncesi: Topluma yönlendirilmiş başkaldırı. Courbet. * 1868: Burjuvaya, burjuva sınıfında sanatın statüsüne yönlendirilmiş başkaldırı. Varoluşları sorunlu, topluma ve ken- dilerine yabancılaşmış sanatçılar: Manet, Baudelaire. * 1920'ler: Sanatın kendisine ve ku- rumlarına başkaldırı. İki Dünya Savaşı arası yaşanan Dadacılık, Gerçeküstücülük. İkinci Dünya Savaşı ertesi Letrizm akımı. NEO-AVANGARD * Mevcut politik, kültürel, toplumsal yapının meşrulaştırılmasını sağlayan bir tavır izler. * Sanat ile sanat yönetimi birbirine ka- rışır; sanatçılar kurumların düşmanı değil sorumlularıdır * Savaştığı kurumlara yenik düşmüş- lerdir. Geriye şoke etme, şaşırtma ve skandal yaratma teknikleri kalmıştır. * Duchamp'ın pisuvarı müze ve sergi salonu kurumlarının yıkımını hedefliyordu. Happening'ler, Dadaist gösterilerin isyan değerine ulaşamamaktadır, şoke etme etkisini kaybetmişlerdir. * Ama, uyandırdığı umut ve tehdit kalıcı olmuştur (Kavrakoğlu, 2017: 1) 2. Clement Greenberg'ün "Avangard ve Kiç" Kuramı Clement Greenberg'e göre, Batı bur- juva toplumunda ortaya çıkan avangard kül- tür, tarihe ilişkin üstün toplum eleştirisinin meydana gelmesine neden olmuştur. 1850- 1860'lı yılların entelektüel kültür bilincinin bir parçası haline gelen avangard bakış açısı, sanatçılar tarafından bilinçli olmasa da içsel- leştirilmişti. Sanatta avangardın fonksiyonu "deney yapmak" değil, ideolojik kaos ve şid- detin ortasında kalmışken, kültürün gelişme- sini sağlayacak bir yol bulmak olduğu görül- dü. Halktan uzaklaşan avangard sanatçı, sa- natını sınırlayarak onun yüce ve erişilmez konumunu korumaya çabaladı. Sanat sanat içindir anlayışı ortaya çıktı. Böylece konu veya içerik kaçınılması gereken bir durum haline geldi. Avangard, salt bağımsız olanın arayışında iken "nesnel olmayan" soyut sanata ulaştı. Sanayileşmiş Batı'da yeni bir kültürel olgu olarak "kiç" ortaya çıktı (Renkli baskılar, dergi kapakları, illüstrasyonlar, reklamlar, çizgi romanlar, Tin Pan Alley Müziği, step dansı, Hollywood filmleri, ticari sanat ve ede- biyat). Kiç, Amerika ve Batı Avrupa'da şehir- leşmeye neden olan ve okur-yazarlığı yaygın- laştıran sanayi devriminin bir eseri oldu. Kiç ile toplum boş vakitlerini diledikleri gibi de- ğerlendirebiliyordu. Şehirlere yerleşen köylü- ler okuma yazma öğrendiler ama şehrin gele- nekselleşmiş kültüründen tat almalarını sağ- layacak boş vakti ve konforu temin edemedi- ler. Taşralı olan halk kendi kültürlerini yitirdi ve şehirli yeni topluluk tüketim alışkanlıkla- rına uyacak bir çeşit yeni kültür için toplum üzerinde baskı uygulamaya başladı. Avan- gard'a karşı bilgisiz, cahil, sadece bir kültürün sunabileceği eğlence için aç olan kimselere hitap eden taklit kültürdür artık "kiç". Aka- demik olan herşey kiçtir ve kiç bilgisizliği 248 Gökçen Şahmaran Can körükler. Sanayinin ilerlemesiyle toplum ye- rel sanatların ürünlerine karşı fotogravür gibi makine yapımı ürünleri, el yapımı bir ürün- den daha düşük fiyata alınabilir olanı tercih etti. Daha ucuza yeniden üretilebilen kiç, Rembrandt'tan daha çok kar getiren birşey oldu. Cahil köylüler akademik kiçin önde gelen temsilcilerinden sosyal gerçekçi ressam İlya Repin'i kendi ilkel halk sanatlarına daha yakın bulurlar. Bu resimler, dramatik doğal bir gerçekliğe sahiptirler ve bir hikaye anlatır- lar. Resimle ilgili yeterli bilgiye sahip olmayan köylüler ya da halk tarafından kolayca anlaşı- labilmektedirler. Pablo Picasso'nun realist olmayan soyut resimleri köylüler için zor anlaşılır bulunmaktadır. Bu resimleri anlaya- bilmek için sanat hakkında yeterli bilgiye sahip olmaları gerekmektedir. Taşralı halk bu nedenlerden dolayı İlya Repin'in resimlerini talep etmektedir. Kitleler biçimcilikten (for- malizm) kaçmaya ve "sosyalist realizm"e karşı hayranlık duymaya şartlandıkları için Tretya- kov'a (Moskova'nın Çağdaş Rus Sanatı Müze- si: Kiç) giderler. Kiç, demokratik hakların baskı altında tutulduğu, totaliter devletlerin kendilerini halka beğendirmelerinin ucuz yollarından biridir. Kiç ile toplumun kültür seviyesi yükselemez. Bu nedenden dolayı avangard yasak edilir. Faşist düşünceye sahip olanların ve Stalin yanlılarına göre, avangard sanatın temel sorunu aşırı eleştirel olmaları değil de aşırı saf olmalarıdır. Öyle ki, avan- gard ile etkili bir propaganda yapmak dahi zordur (Greenberg, 1939: 5). Resim 2. İlya Repin, Küçük Kız, 1892 Resim 3. Pablo Picasso, portre, 1946 Kiç'in tarif edilmesi kadar örneklendi- rilmesi de, yoğun hiyerarşileri gündeme geti- ren bir sınıflamayla, büyük çeşitlilik içinde gerçekleştiriliyordu. 1939 tarihli "Avangard ve Kiç" adlı sanat tarihinde konuyla ilgili önemli bir yere sahip olan makalesinde Gre- enberg, kiçe ait özellikleri ortaya koyarken, onu sadece orta sınıf zevksizliği değil, aynı zamanda Akademik Sanat'la de eşdeğer ko- numda görüyordu. Greenberg'e göre, 19. yüz- yıl Akademik Sanatı'ndaki geleneksel kurallar ve formüller, ayrıca sanatı kolay öğrenilebilir ve kolay ifade edilip, anlaşılabilir bir konuma indirgeyen akademik yaklaşımla kiç benzer şeylerdi. Aldığı ciddi eleştiriler üzerine belir- lediği alanı daraltmak ve geri adım atmak zorunda kalan Greenberg, makalesinde kiç'le ilgili büyük bir teorik saldırıya geçiyordu. Kiç, mekanik ve formüllere dayanan bir fenomendi; vekaleten tecrübe edilen sahte hislerdi; üsluba göre değişiklik gösteren, fakat özde hep aynı olandı. Makalesinde Pablo Picasso ile İlya Repin'i karşılaştıran Green- berg, Picasso'nun eserlerini sanat, Repin'inki- leri ise kiçe örnek olarak gösteriyordu. Mo- dernizmin önemli isimlerinden Avusturyalı Görsel Sanatlarda Avangard ve Kiç Olgusu 249 yazar Hermann Broch, Greenberg'le aynı ko- nuyu ele alan 1933 yılında yazdığı makalesin- de, aynı yaklaşımla "kiç"i yeryüzüne inmiş bir "illet" olarak tanımlamıştır (Broch, Yazın Eleş- tirisi Üzerine Makaleler, II. Paragraf). Kiçin abartılmış bir duygusallıkla iliş- ki içinde olması, onu, aklı ön planda tutan modernist düşünceden kesin bir şekilde ayı- rır. Kiçin özünde barındırdığı duygusallık, izleyene, dolaylı yollardan değil, doğrudan iletilmelidir. Duygusallığı yaratan öğeler bireysel tercihlerle belirlenen şeyler değil, evrensel olarak kabul gören şeyler olmalıdır. Duygusal diye kabul gören kavramları sorgu- lamamıza yol açan değil, onların duygusallık- larını bir kez daha anlamamızı sağlayan şey- leri kapsamalıdır Kiç (Kahraman, 2004: 239). Kısacası kiç, güzel ya da çirkin gibi bir estetik kategoridir. Estetik bir tüketilme sürecine sahiptir. Kiç, kendi özgül koşulları, öğeleri ve özellikleriyle ele alınması ve tartışılması gere- ken bir gerçekliktir. 3. Postmodernizm ve Kiç Formlarının ilk ortaya çıkışı Roman- tizm ve Sanayi Devrimi'yle görülen, bayağı- laştırma, ucuzlatma, ticarileştirme, estetik yozluk gibi kavramlarla açıklanan kiç, zengin- leşen orta sınıf tercihleri doğrultusunda kitle- sel olarak üretilip dağıtılma imkanı bulur. Orta sınıf, resim, müzik, edebiyat gibi ürünle- ri sipariş yoluyla talep eder. Bu oluşum da sanatın satılmak için yapılmasına ve ticari- leşmesine yol açar. Modernistlere göre, kiç kültür endüstrisinin istekleri doğrultusunda kar amacıyla, bilinçli olarak üretilir. Moder- nizm yaratıcılığa, biricikliğe dayanan özerk, yaşamdan ayrı, kurmaca bir evrensel estetik kurmak amacındaydı. Bunun dışındaki olu- şumları reddedip kiç olarak tanımladılar. Tomas Kulka kiçi sanat olarak kabul etmez ancak farklı bir estetik kategori olarak tanımlar ve tanım için net bir formül önerir. 1950-1960'lı yıllarda başladığı düşünülen postmodern dönüşüm, Modernizmin tüm değerlerine saldırır. Modernizmin kabul et- meyip, kötü gördüğü tüm biçimler, özellikle popüler kültür geniş bir alanda kabul görü- yordu. İlk kırılma noktası, kiç olarak kabul gören ticari kültürü, pop-art'ın sanata dahil etme girişimiydi. Modernizm, kiçi reddeder- ken, pop-art ona kucak açtı. Dolayısıyla, pop- art'ın sanat ile kiç arasındaki ayırımı gözardı ettiği ve ortadan kaldırdığı söylenebilir. Andy Warhol, Elvis Presley'in, Elizabeth Taylor'ın, Marilyn Monroe'nun, Mona Lisa'nın, Cocaco- la şişelerinin ve kağıt dolarların imgelerini, seri halde üretip, sergiledi. Bir diğer sanatçı Mel Ramos, Ingres'in Grand Odalisque'sunu, Manet'in Olympia'sını, ve Vlazquez'in Venus with Cupid eserlerini, playboy'un düzenlediği posterler gibi, vücutlarındaki bikini izleriyle ve yeni saç modelleriyle yeniden resmetti. Bu yönüyle, Mel Ramos tüketim toplumlarına ve onların değerlerine dikkat çekmek için kiç yöntemlerden yararlanır (Kulka, 2014: 150). 250 Gökçen Şahmaran Can Resim 4. Mel Ramos, Cocacola, 1965 Resim 5. Andy Warhol, Marilyn Monroe, 1965 Postmodernizmin en büyük ve en önemli hedefi, yüksek kültürle alçak kültür arasındaki ayırımı ortadan kaldırmaktı. Bu- nun temeli eklektisizme dayanan bir oluşum- du. Postmodernizm sanatın sınırlarını kiçide içine dahil edecek şekilde genişletti. Moder- nizmin, yaratıcılık, biriciklik, otantiklik kav- ramlarını parçalayıp yok etmek için her türlü yeniden üretimi, kopyayı, alıntılamayı meşru saydılar. Postmodern sanatçılar geçmişin tüm biçimlerini diledikleri gibi kullanarak yan yana getiriyorlardı. Artık herşey mübahtı, herşeye izin vardı. Kiç de bunlardan biriydi. Kiç, bazen kavramsal bir yapının içinde farklı bağlamlarda yeniden sunularak, bazen de geleneksel resim yoluyla kullanılıyordu. Jeff Koons, Odd Nedrum, Melamid ve Komar bunlara örnek teşkil eder. Kiç, modernist kar- şıtı bir form olarak, sanata dahil edilmişti (Aslışen, 2006:1). Postmodernist teorisyenlere göre, iler- lemeden yana olan sanat söylemi bağlamında bir sorunu ele alış biçimleriyle tarif edilen ve örneklenen kiç kavramı, modernizmin seçkin- ci ve dışlayıcı araçlarının başında gelir. Mo- dernizm bağlamında üstlenilmesi ya da mü- dafaa edilmesi çok zor olan bu kavram, post- modernizmle beraber pek çok açıdan tekrar ele alınmıştır. Kiçin ilk olarak müdafaası ya da ter- cih edilmesi, estetik bir sınıflandırma onayla- masını dağıtma, beğeninin ya da zevkin hiye- rarşi fikrine tecavüz etme ve modernizmin çoğu zaman yok saydığı formsal beceri, teknik ustalık gibi kavramları yeniden sahiplenme bağlamında, postmodern görüş tarafından benimsenmiştir. Buna, Odd Nerdrum'un 1999 ve 2000 yıllarında yazdığı manifesto niteli- ğindeki kiçi savunan makaleleri örnek olarak verilebilir. Odd Nerdrum'a göre, eğer insan bir atın sırtında uykuya dalarsa, at kayaya çarpmadan duracaktır. Burada araba bir sa- nat, at ise kiçtir. Ve yine, sanat yalnızca kendi mevcudiyeti için vardır ve işaret ettiği top- lumdur. Kiç, yaşama, hizmet etmekte, özen göstermektedir ve birey için vardır (Nerdrum, 1999: 7). 1990'lı yılların sanat piyasası bağla- mında pek çok küratör/eleştirmen tarafından günah keçisi ilan edilen, görsel karizmasını hedef alan ya da eski üstatları kaynak kabul eden bir teknik beceri anlayışı, Nerdrum tara- fından sahiplenilirken, aslında ironik olan, Nerdrum'un sanatının pek çok eleştirmen tarafından kiç olarak görülmeyecek oluşudur. Yinede Odd Nerdrum'un konumunu post- modernist anlayıştan ayıran ince bir ayrım olduğunu belirtmek gerekir. Postmodernizm kiçi başarı gösteremeyen bir güzellik gayreti- nin ironisi ve estetik bir başarısızlık dahilinde takdir ederken, Nerdrum'un tanımında kiç, gerçek, samimi bir güzelliğe hizmet etmekte- dir. Nerdrum'dan farklı olarak, eski üstadlara ait formsal teknikleri ve el becerisini kaynak almakla birlikte, spekülasyona sırtını dayayan bir anlayışla kendine mal ettiği (temellük) üslupları yüzeyselleştirerek kiç formüllere dönüştüren Glenn Brown ise bu yaklaşımın negatif bir örneği olarak gösterilebilir. Görsel Sanatlarda Avangard ve Kiç Olgusu 251 Kiç ikinci olarak, pop sanatının kalıtı ile ilişki içinde, tüketim toplumunun temsil ettiği ve postmodern süjeler tarafından özüm- senmiş olan değerleri bazen eleştirerek bazen selamlayarak gündüme getirmek için ele alınmıştır. Buna örnek olarak, Jeff Koons'un pornografik, bayağı kompozisyonları, kucağı- na bir maymunu oturttuğu cilalı, altın kapla- ma Michael Jackson heykelleri ile sergi alanı- na taşıdığı parlak kırmızı boyalı tencereleri veya lav lambaları ile Haim Steinbach verile- bilir. Resim 6. Jeff Koons, Michael Jackson, 1988 Son olarak ise, kiçin meydana gelme- sine neden olan öğelerin bilinçli bir şekilde taklit edilmesine dayanan ve bu biçimde plan- lanmış bir estetik yetersizliği, zevke dönüştü- rülmüş bir zevksizliği, takdir edilen bir baya- ğılığı hedef alan bir kategori olarak "Camp"in oluşması bağlamında, bu kavram, postmo- dern teori tarafından yeniden ele alınmıştır. Günümüz ortamında, yüksek sanatla kiçi karşılıklı konumlandıran ve ilkinin müda- faasını modernizme, ikincisininkini ise post- modernizme yönelten görüş de pek çok eleşti- riye neden olmuştur. Seçkinci yaklaşımların karşısında kiçin anti-estetik duruşunu takdir eden postmodernist görüşlere aykırı olarak, aslında bu iki kavramdan herhangi birinin değil, ikisinin ayrıştırılmasının yarattığı ikici- liğin yapı-bozumuna uğratılması gerektiğini müdafaa eden görüşler savunulmaktadır. Bu görüşler, Greenberg'ün yüksek sa- nat-popüler sanat ayrımının öngördüğü este- tik saflaştırma idealinin, aslında modernizmin belirleyici ya da tanımlayıcı bir niteliği olma- dığını ve önde gelen modernist sanatçıların da Greenberg'ün ana hatlarını belirlediği bu şiar kapsamında, yaşamdan ve popüler kültürden ayrıştırdıkları bir yüksek sanat anlayışı için uğraşmadıklarını dile getirmektedir. Bu çer- çevede, Amerikalı yazar Jonathan Fineberg modernizmin en önemli öğelerinden birinin, modernist sanatçıların içeriği oluşturan çeşit- liliğe karşı gösterdikleri kökten açıklık ve sergiledikleri "eklektisizm" olduğunu belirt- mektedir. Fineberg'e göre, Baudrillard ve Jameson gibi bazı teorisyenler sanatçıların eserlerini dikkatli bir şekilde incelemek yeri- ne, Greenber'ün teorileştirdiği yüksek sanat- düşük sanat düalizmini modernizmin belirle- yici bir öğesi olarak kabul ettiler ve daha son- ra yanlış bir düşünceyle postmodernizmi buna bir saldırı olarak nitelendirdiler (Fine- berg, 2014: 17). Bu görüşe koşut olarak, pop ya da kiç anlayışına dayanan öğelerle avan- gart ya da kavramsal sayılabilecek öğeleri yapıtlarında kullanan bazı sanatçılar, erken postmodernist yaklaşımların sergilediği ko- laycılığa kıyasla daha çapraşık ve karmaşık örnekler üretebilmişlerdir. Gerçekleştirdiği filmlerden, bunlara dair fotoğraf, enstelasyon ve performanslar- dan oluşan "Cremaster" serisinde; zaman za- man kiçe, mitsel ve masalsı öğelere, popüler 252 Gökçen Şahmaran Can muhayyilelere yer vermekle birlikte, son de- rece orijinal bir biçimsel anlayış ve varolan tasarım planını zorlayan kurgusuyla kişisel bir sanat dili geliştirmiş olan Matthew Barney, yüksek sanat ve düşük sanata dair unsurların karşılaştırıldığı fikrine örnek olarak gösterile- bilir. Matthew Barney'den çok daha farklı ve postmodernist bir anlayışla, kiç ve avangart ikiciliğini bilimsel bir ciddiyetle ele alır gibi görünerek bu ayırımın ulaşabileceği sonuçlar- la bir anlamda dalga geçen rus kökenli sanat- çılar Vitaly Komar ve Alex Melamid, birçok ülkede istatiki araştırmalar sonucu gerçekleş- tirdikleri "En Çok İstenilen Resimler" serisin- de, o ülkenin vatandaşlarına uyguladıkları anketlerle, o ülkenin sözde en beğenilecek ideal resmi ile en kötü resmini oluşturmuşlar- dır. Bilimsellik ve sosyoloji ile kurduğu sahte ve çarpık ilişkiyle kiç-avangard ikiciliği üzeri- ne eğlenceli bir yaklaşım olan bu çalışmalar, kiçin postmodernizm bağlamında yeniden ele alınmasının, klişe olmayan, orijinal bir örneği olarak durmaktadır. ______________________________ *Camp: Anti-estetik sınıflandırmaları oluşturan diğer kavramlara nazaran izafi bir güncelliğe sahip olan ve estetik terimce orijin olarak 1950 yılında eşcinsel argosundan geçiş yapan camp teriminin, kiç ile ortak bir payda üzerinden şekil aldığı söylenebilir. Yaratıcı olmaktan ziyade herkesçe benimsenen olduğu varsayılan formüllerin tekrarına dayanan, çoğu zaman ciddiye alınarak ve uğraşılarak ortaya konulan bir güzellik çabasının, amaç- lanmadan, farkına varmadan içine düştüğü zevksizliği işaret eden kiç kavramının bağıntı- lı masumiyeti yanında, camp, kendisini so- kakta taşlayıp sahnede alkışlayan kalabalık- tan, orantısız gösterişliliği ve cafcaflı bayağılı- ğıyla inkitam almaya çalışan bir travesti kadar edepsiz durmaktadır.(Bkz. Sonntag, 1964: 1) Resim 7. Matthew Barney, Cremaster Cycle, 1994-2002 Görsel Sanatlarda Avangard ve Kiç Olgusu 253 Resim 8. Vitalay Komar ve Alex Melamid, En Çok İstenilen Resimler, 1989 SONUÇ Modernizmde Avangard sanat, kül- tür, hakikat tanımları dahilinde kabul edilmiş kuralları sarsıp sınırlarını değiştirmeyi amaç edinmişti. Ve otonom bir sanat olarak, yaratı- cılığa, biricikliğe dayanan yaşamdan ayrı, kurmaca bir evrensel estetik oluşturmak ama- cındaydı. Sanatçılar ve teorisyenler bunun dışındaki girişimleri kötüleyip kiç olarak ta- nımladılar. Örneğin Kulka, kiçi sanat olmayan farklı bir estetik kategori olarak tanımlar. 1950'li ve 1960'lı yıllarla birlikte başladığı düşünülen post-modern dönüşüm, Moder- nizmin tüm normlarına, değerlerine saldırdı. Modernizmin iyi olmadığını düşündüğü tüm formlar, özellikle popüler kültür geniş bir kabul görüyordu. İlk kırılma noktası, pop- art'ın kiç olarak kabul gören ticari kültürü sanata dahil etme girişimiydi. Modernizm, kiçi reddederken, pop-art onu kabul etti. Do- layısıyla, pop-art'ın sanat ile kiç arasındaki ayırımı ortadan kaldırdığı söylenebilir. İlerici sanat söylemi bağlamında çeşitli yaklaşımlar- la tarif edilen kiç kavramı, postmodernist teorisyenlere göre, modernizmin seçkinci ve dışlayıcı araçlarının başında gelir. Modernizm dahilinde müdafaa edilmesi çok zor olan bu kavram, postmodernizmle birlikte pek çok açıdan tekrar ele alınmıştır. Kiçin müdafaa edilmesi ya da tercih edilmesi, estetik bir hiyerarşi kabulünü da- ğıtma, beğeninin ya da zevkin sınıflandırıl- ması fikrine saldırma ve modernizmin çoğu zaman inkar ettiği biçimsel beceri, teknik us- talık gibi kavramları yeniden sahiplenme bağlamında, postmodern görüş tarafından sahip çıkılmıştır. Ancak, günümüzde yüksek sanat ile kiçi karşılıklı konumlandıran ve yük- sek sanatın müdafaasını modernizme, kiçi ise postmodernizme atfeden düşünce anlayışları da pek çok eleştiriye maruz kalmıştır. Seçkinci yaklaşımların karşısında kiçin anti-estetik duruşunu takdir eden postmodernist düşün- celere karşıt olarak, aslında bu iki kavramdan herhangi birinin değil, ikisinin ayrıştırılması- nın yarattığı ikiciliğin yapı-bozumuna uğra- tılması gerektiğini müdafaa eden görüşler dile getirilmektedir. KAYNAKÇA Artun, A. (2004). Peter Bürger'in Avangard Kuramı Üzerine Sunuş Yazısı, İstan- bul: İletişim Yayınları. Aslışen, M. (2006). Postmodern Süreçte Kitsch Olgusu, (Yayınlanmış Y.L.T.). İzmir: Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Güzel Sanatlar Enstitüsü. Broch, H. Yazın Eleştirisi Üzerine Makaleler. II. Paragraf Burger, P. (2004). Avangard Kuramı, Çev: Erol Özbek. İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları. Fineberg, J. (2014). 1940'tan Günümüze Sa- nat, İzmir: Karakalem Kitabevi Yayın- ları, Çev: Göral Erinç Yılmaz, Simber 254 Gökçen Şahmaran Can Atay Eskier. Greenberg, C. (1939). Avangard ve Kitsch, New York: Partisan Review. Kahraman, H. B. (2002) Sanatsal Gerçeklikler, Olgular ve Öteleri, İstanbul: Everest Yayınları. Kulka, T. (2014). Kitch ve Sanat, İstanbul: Altıkırkbeş Yayın. Nerdrum, O. (1999). Kitsch The Difficult Path, Artnews Kasım. Sonntag, S. (1964). Notes on "Camp", New York: Partisan Review. Yılmaz, M. (2004). Sanatın Felsefesi Felsefenin Sanatı, Ankara: Ütopya Yayınevi. Kavrakoğlu, F. (2017). Avangard ve Neo- Avangard Karşılaştırması, http://blog.kavrakoglu.com/avangard-ve-neo- avangard-karsilastirmasi/ adresinden 16.12.2016 tarihinde erişildi. http://blog.kavrakoglu.com/avangard-ve-neo-avangard-karsilastirmasi/ http://blog.kavrakoglu.com/avangard-ve-neo-avangard-karsilastirmasi/ 
work_dahsj7f3qreqpf4wxbhqcgjpbe	----	www.sochinf.cl 51 y la cultura La pintura histórica The historical painting Un género muy particular de la pintura es aquel que relata o representa una historia. Durante el renacimiento, el neoclasicismo y el romanticismo es cuando encontramos las obras más importantes, en las que se representaban historias bíblicas o de la antigüedad, así como leyendas de la mitología. Posteriormente fueron los hechos históricos los más recurrentes. Las obras tenían por objeto resaltar algún valor moral de la situación o de sus personajes y debido a su gran formato, servían para la decoración de espacios públicos, palacios o edificios de gobierno. Por la riqueza de sus detalles, tienen un gran valor educativo, ya que relatan en una sola escena lo que puede ser dicho en mil palabras. La muerte de Sócrates, obra del pintor francés Jacques-Louis David, es un ejemplo del neoclasicismo; en ella, el filósofo domina la escena, rodeado de sus discípulos. Platón se encuentra a la izquierda, de espaldas al maestro, quién se apresta a tomar la copa de cicuta, luego de pronunciar su discurso sobre la inmortalidad del alma. La obra El tres de mayo de 1808 en Madrid de Francisco de Goya, es notoriamente realista, y representa el horror de la guerra; en este caso, los fusilamientos de los madrileños sublevados contra Napoleón. El héroe, en el centro, con camisa blanca y los brazos hacia el cielo, contrasta con los tonos oscuros hasta el negro, de la noche y los fusileros. Otra obra importante del género es La libertad guiando al pueblo, de Eugène Delacroix, pintor francés del romanticismo. Esta es una obra alegórica, en que se representa un valor, en esta caso la libertad, en forma de mujer, evocando a la Atenea griega. La muchedumbre es difusa, apreciándose La Bastilla a la derecha, y el cielo tricolor, como reflejo de la bandera de Francia. Luego de la declinación del academicismo, parecía que la pintura histórica no vería más íconos; sin embargo en 1937, Pablo Picasso pinta Guernica, una de sus obras maestras, y quizás la última gran obra del género. En ella, junto con el toro, la paloma y el caballo, podemos apreciar a la derecha, al mismo héroe trágico del cuadro de Goya, con los brazos hacia el cielo. Ernesto Payá Hospital de Carabineros Figura 4. Guernica. Pablo Picasso. 1937. Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía. Madrid. Figura 1. La muerte de Sócrates. Jacques-Louis David. 1787. Museo Metro- politano de Arte, Nueva York. Figura 2. El tres de mayo de 1808 en Madrid. Francisco de Goya y Lucientes. 1814. Museo del Prado, Madrid. Figura 3. La libertad guiando al pueblo. Eugène Delacroix. 1830. Museo del Louvre. París. Rev Chilena Infectol 2013; 30 (1): 51 
work_dbwq3dz3anfjflwo5s36pxljky	----	Logos and pathos in the paintings of Sandro Botticelli 1/6 www.jpnim.com Open Access eISSN: 2281-0692 Journal of Pediatric and Neonatal Individualized Medicine 2019;8(2):e080227 doi: 10.7363/080227 Received: 2019 Sept 10; accepted: 2019 Sept 11; published online: 2019 Oct 23 Logos and pathos in the paintings of Sandro Botticelli Giuseppe Di Giacomo Faculty of Philosophy, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy Abstract The Author focuses on the representation of the anatomical defects detected in Botticelli’s paintings as a process of individualization of the sitter. It seems coherent with the non idealistic patterns brought about by the newest acquaintance with the Flemish painture, pursued in Italy thanks to the innovative style of Antonello da Messina. It is seen as closely related with the dramatization and the emotional effect of the portrayal, a challenge between logos and pathos, between drawing and color, rationale and emotional. Keywords Botticelli, Portrait of a Young Man, Italian Renaissance, facial deformity in art, non idealistic naturalism. Corresponding author Giuseppe Di Giacomo, Professor of Aesthetics, Faculty of Philosophy, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy; email: giuseppe.digiacomo@uniroma.it. How to cite Di Giacomo G. Logos and pathos in the paintings of Sandro Botticelli. J Pediatr Neonat Individual Med. 2019;8(2):e080227. doi: 10.7363/080227. Original article 2/6 Di Giacomo Journal of Pediatric and Neonatal Individualized Medicine • vol. 8 • n. 2 • 2019www.jpnim.com Open Access In his remarkable essay “Cranio-facial deformity in the Botticelli’s ‘Portrait of a Young Man’ (NG626)” [1], Francesco Velardi, Pediatric Neurosurgeon, speculates that, in this young man’s portrait painted in 1483, Sandro Botticelli reveals an anatomical defect of the sitter, a “cranio-facial deformity”. Keeping in mind that his investigation is dealing with a portrait and not with a real man, Velardi has the capacity to confirm the evidences he claims through a detailed analysis, inclusive of a comprehensive 3-dimensional reformatting of the face, together with diverse modelling. In this paper, the highlighting of the facial deformity of the sitter appears very stimulating, as it converts the subject in a determined individual character, even without taking into account his identity. This process of individualization appears of utmost importance when referred to the Italian Renaissance, a period in which it was clear that the art of painting was operating within an idealistic realm. The urgency to idealize is evident in Raffaello’s “Stanza della Segnatura” (1508-1511), where the artist syntetises in a mythological contest the figurative representation of the philosophical, theological and artistic Platonic ideals during the Florentine Renaissance. From this point of view, it is possible to state, according to the Hegel’s notion, that Man pursues the Truth just through Art, Religion and Philosophy. This perspective is adherent to the standpoint of humanistic Artists, Literates and Philosophers; hence, it was allowed to represent the great founding Platonic-humanistic ideas in the form of myths and images, other than through concepts. In the Botticelli’s portrait, the “Ideal” was not overshadowed. Instead, it is coupled and melted within a framework of reality. As Velardi emphasizes, the onset of this perspective, in connection with the Neo-Platonic ideal of Beauty theorized in Florence by Marsilio Ficino, is undoubtedly the effect of the newest acquaintance with the Flemish painture, pursued in Italy thanks to the innovative style of Antonello da Messina. This groundbreaking Northern pattern is remarkably dominated by the depiction of deformities and, more in general, by a naturalism that remains totally outside the ideal Beauty. Undeniably, Ratio and Harmony, founded upon the rules of perspective established by Piero della Francesca, are the canons of Beauty determining the pictorial language in the Italian Renaissance, most of all when it comes to represent the human physiognomy. In Northern European countries, the search for a “non idealistic naturalism”, that can be defined “fabulous” or “fantastic”, was fostered instead: it is thanks to this “naturalism” that the Flemish style appears as revolutionary, compared with the Neo-Platonic Italian models. Hence, in the art-works by Bruegel and Bosch we find, indeed, a “fantastic naturalism”. Nonetheless, in these masterpieces the “subject” of the painting has to be considered “fantastic”. That is to say, “what” the painter represents is fantastic, not “how” he depicts it, since the style refers to the traditional naturalism. On the contrary, analyzing “Guernica”, a modern masterpiece by Pablo Picasso, we realize that, in this case, what we recognize as “anti-naturalistic” is not the “subject”, that appears realistic – the condemnation of violence – rather the “form”, that appears cracked and discontinuous. More in general, it is possible to state that, with the Flemish paintings, the depiction of an imperfect humanity earns in dignity. The rendering of imperfect bodies or deformities is not an exception, it becomes obvious that Beauty manifests even through imperfections and asymmetries, because Beauty belongs not to the subject itself, instead to its “form”. Once Antonello da Messina settled in Venice in 1475, hailing from the Flemish countries, Venetian painters, Giovanni Bellini first within others, learned to favour oil instead of tempera. Indeed, oil-binded colors, used by Flemish painters, enable overlapping layers of paint, ensuring subtle color tone gradients and never-perceived-before light effects. In addition, they begin to experience the use of canvas as painting support, in the place of the more traditional ones, namely wood. In actual facts, the expressive potential of the combined effect between oil (as a binder) and canvas (as a support) becomes increasingly striking. Although clearly defined lines were at the basis of the Florentine draughtsmanship, in accord with the artistic concepts argued by Vasari, painters no longer favour forms laid out by markedly defined outlines. Venetian artists, Giorgione and Sebastiano del Piombo in the first place and Titian masterfully thereafter, handle their weightless brush to spread thin coatings of saturated color tonalities, perfectly suitable for replicating the shades of the sitter’s complexion. This relevance of color and attention to its handling becomes the dominating style in Venice, in contrast with the Florentine draughtsmanship. Two antipodal attitudes: markedly defined outlines for the 3/6 Journal of Pediatric and Neonatal Individualized Medicine • vol. 8 • n. 2 • 2019 www.jpnim.com Open Access Logos and pathos in the paintings of Sandro Botticelli Florentine style, splashes of warm color tones typical of the Venetian patterns. Nevertheless, after the introduction in Italy of the Flemish style, operated by Antonello da Messina, the “imperfection” is not regarded any more as a negative point within representations. According to the Aby Warburg’s claims [2], the “Pathosformeln” (“forms of pathos”) derived from the Greek art may be recognized in the Italian Renaissance paintings. Italian painters would renew these elements to express “pathetic” scenarios and to emphasize individual idiosyncrasies, albeit within defined human types. In Botticelli’s paintings the connection between logos and pathos, i.e. between “Ideal” and “Real”, is worked out from these perspectives. With good reasons, Velardi considers Botticelli’s style as new and, at the same time, ancient, typical as well as individual. Displaying the physical defect, the Painter underlines the individuality of his depiction, closely related with the dramatization and the emotional effect of his portrayal, indeed the true elements of “pathos”. For these reasons the challenge logos-pathos, i.e. drawing-color, is predominant in Botticelli, even though the feature expressing the logos, thus the drawing, has always been considered predominant in his art production. As such, a peculiar balance between line and color can be observed specifically in Botticelli, so much that it is impossible to make clear where the line vanishes and the color dawns. This balance create the living source for the “gracefulness” expressed by the Painter. Not surprisingly, it is possible to perceive, in Botticelli’s paintings, a sense of melancholy, expressed with different connotations in all his works, both secular and religious. This emotion may be the source of the mysterious fascination differentiating Botticelli from his coeval artists. The emotion that arises while regarding at his lines and volumes, at his depthless compositions, at his hesitation between the earthly and the celestial world, even that melancholy, are perceived as the awareness of the forever-lost heaven. As regards the lack of deepness in the Botticelli’s picture arrangements, it should be observed that space and time are never presented in a preset form in his paintings. The Painter defines an “anti-prospectic” type of representation as the key benchmark to set-up vision. As well, he shrinks time within an “atemporal” scale. Therefore, such an arrangement of spatial representation prevents any illusion of deepness. Space shows no adequately perceivable depth. Likewise, volume and masses of the figures are underemphasized. Along with human figures, perspective space is nothing more than an impression and a symbol as well. Thus, we are confronting with a bi-dimensional figuration and a depiction finalized at creating the illusion of depth. Botticelli, “neglect and transgress” the rules of perspective he is certainly familiar with. More than that, he goes beyond, he “transcends” within an essentially “a-phisical” dimension, virtually as a definite compositional choice, antithetical to the one adopted by Leonardo. As a result, Botticelli’s paintings are strongly “a-prospectic”, with an “evocative” more than “descriptive” style. Botticelli represents the characters within the framework as they had no body-weight. This attitude clearly manifests the painter’s detachment from the physical elements of reality. Even colour fades away and vanishes in his textural components, to be given back as pure “quality”, whereas light itself loses essence, density and source, and remains only as a vague, poorly defined, “spiritual” irradiation. Warburg [2, 3] emphasizes the occurrence of “pathetic” characters in Botticelli’s paintings. He underlines that Italian Renaissance artists refers to the Classic Greek motifs because of their Apollonian as well as Dionysian character, thus, as such, heavy with “pathos”. Accordingly, the Italian artists of the 13th century mention the ancient Greek models for reasons in contrast with the image of the classical sculpture left behind by Johann Winckelmann. While, according to Winckelmann, the majesty of antiquity entails the “stillness” and a kind of “unabashed serenity”, Warburg claims that in 1400’s the interest for antique models is closely related to those “Pathosformeln” from which the artists of Italian Renaissance derived their images of passion and sorrow. Thus, the “noble simplicity” (peaceful grandness) that Winckelmann observed in the Greek statuary is not the rule, at least not the only rule, for the Greek style. From this point of view, according to Warburg, Botticelli produced pictures representing from within a connection between “Pathetic” (or Psychological) and “Apollonian” (or Formal) realms, being such a relationship the equivalent of the ratio between “colour” and “line”. The relationship and the ever-unstable balance between these two concepts give place to a kind of “disquiet”, distinctive of Botticelli’s works. Following Warburg’s advice, this is the origin for the “dreamy” or “pensive” beauty of his characters, 4/6 Di Giacomo Journal of Pediatric and Neonatal Individualized Medicine • vol. 8 • n. 2 • 2019www.jpnim.com Open Access who look as they were just waking up from a dream, with their conscience still permeated by oneiric images. Warburg, referring to the “Primavera” (1478-1482) and the “Birth of Venus” (1484- 1486) [2], debates on a certain dualism between “Involvement” and “Detachment”, i.e. between “Pathetic” and “Apollonian” elements. He states that in those figures “the eyes, it’s true, appear turned toward the objects of the world outside, but not exactly staring at any of those”. In this way, the “Placid Beauty” of Botticelli paintings brings some remnants of sleep, allowing glimpses of the nightlife. This is a way, for the ancient “Pathos”, to be revealed. Therefore, whatever is “intelligible” (i.e. the Apollonian elements) may not be conceived before having been grouped and unified with its “pathos- sensible” elements (i.e. with his Dionysian characters). Thereby, “Beauty” itself turns out to be drenched with “pathetic” elements, the ones that Warburg recognizes as signs of the “surviving paganism”. In his opinion, “observing” an image is not merely “looking at” something. Instead, it entails a process of “bringing back to memory”, through which the impact of primal forces and emotions do not dissolve, rather manifest in ever new and always different forms. This memory, embodied in the picture, or rather in his perceptible components, provides reasons for the multi-layered stratification of different values (i.e. depiction). The opportunity to find an ultimate and definitive meaning, manifestly evident within the image, is precluded, since it would have granted merging the “Sensible” into the “Intelligible”. The denial of the ultimate meaning is also the denial to “Enlighten” and to provide a meaning for the “Beginning”, for the “Origin”, that have proved to be unavailable for the human understanding. The “Origin” may be included only in “Myths”. As for a mythical source it may just be narrated, again and forever. “The Birth of Venus” is a testimony. Warburg describes the Botticelli’ Venus – actually the concept also applies to all the Botticelli’s figures, including the “Portrait of a Young Man” that is the topic of Velardi’s essay – as she were arousing from a fading-away dream. He describes her gaze as suspended between waking and sleeping, wobbling amidst dreams and reality. Warburg knows that Botticelli was aware of the details and the deep meanings related to the mythology of the Goddess birth. Botticelli knew it through the description that Angelo Poliziano replicated from Hesiod. According to the legend, Venus rises from the foam of the sea, that represents the seminal fluid of Urano, burst out from his phallus, when cut away with a scythe by his son Chronos. The “Birth of Venus” is preceded by horror and violence. This implies that “Beauty” emerges from a foreground of cruelty, since it is strictly related to that irredeemable imperfection. Erwin Panofsky, in “Renaissance and Renascences in Western Art” [4], agrees with the theory of Warburg. He emphasizes that Venus plays in the “Primavera” and in the “Birth of Venus” as the main character. Both paintings, based upon the “Giostra” by Poliziano, are closely bound together and form an indissoluble unity. The two works should be intended as representing “the Two Venuses” mentioned by Plato and the Neo-Platonists. The “Birth of Venus” would represent the “Heavenly Venus” and should be understood as a glaring theophany. Conversely, in the “Primavera” we faces the “Venus Naturalis”, or “Venus Humanitatis”, as referred to by Marsilio Ficino. In this case, the scene is to be intended as a great celebration rather than a theophany. Edgar Wind, in “Pagan Mysteries in the Renaissance” [5], states that the theories expressed by Ficino, Poliziano, and even Botticelli himself, may help to clearly understand Botticelli’s works. Accordingly, the role of Mercurius in the “Primavera” should not be interpreted as representing a complete detachment from the mundane passions, rather in a dynamic relationship with Zephyrus. They represent the two complementary forces of love. Mercurius, the power of reason, indicating the path, Zephyrus indicating the strength of passion. Venus negotiates between the two forces. According to the idea of Nietzsche, asserted in “Die Geburt der Tragödie aus dem Geiste der Musik” [6], the two foundations presiding over an artwork, the “Apollonian” or “Figurative” one and the “Dionysian” or “Aniconic” one, are never separated. No matter how hard Dionysus, God of Music, would hesitate and shy away from any image Apollo, God of the Image, would give him. Nonetheless, it is impossible to conceive Music not bringing with it an Image or a figure. It does not mean that Music is the Image of something external. Images are inspired by the Music, even though no one of those images shall be capable to decipher it totally. Since Dionysus, God of Pathos, inextricably linked with the emotional feature of images, eludes any image that Apollo attempts to assign him, in the world of emotions it “implies” that something fatally eludes the “Transvaluation” (“Umwertung” in German) within the realm of the “Intelligible”. 5/6 Journal of Pediatric and Neonatal Individualized Medicine • vol. 8 • n. 2 • 2019 www.jpnim.com Open Access Logos and pathos in the paintings of Sandro Botticelli For Dionysus, the No-Face, no “migration” may be foreseen from the “a-idios” to the Apollonian “eidos”. Nevertheless, Art is the combined domain of both Dionysus and Apollo. There is no “Formless” without “Form”, there is no “A-idios” without “Eidos”, there is no “Sensible” without “Idea”, there is no “Shadow” without “Light”, just because even the contrary is true as well. Hence, Beauty is drenched with pathetic features, rather than complying with the Neo- Classic ideals outlined by Winckelmann. For these reasons, Warburg claims that the influences of primordial forces and emotions never dissolve, rather mutate during the following ages, still persisting as a basilar element of the representation. Indeed, the Warburg’s concept “Pathosformeln” comes from here, images archetypically displaying the “pathetic” element within the “sensible “ones. The reputation and majesty of Botticelli came back to light at the end of 17th century. In England the Pre-Raphaelites loved in his works the close connection between corporeity and spirituality. As well, in France the link between Marcel Proust and Botticelli, declared by the Author in the “Recherche”, specifically in the chapter entitled Swann’s Way, helps to grasp the deeper meaning of the Proustian masterpiece. Swann is writing an essay about Botticelli. He will never finalize the work, due to his compulsion toward the aestheticism, opposed by Proust himself, which forces him to overlap art with real life. Art in not a “different issue”, completely separated from Life. As Proust alleges and declares in the “Recherche” [7], Art is nurtured by Life, but may never become confused with it. This same interconnection between Art and Life, intended as a link between eternity and ephemerality, may be found in Botticelli. Swann meets Odette at the Verdurin house. At the beginning he recognizes she is not pretty and rather boring. All of a sudden, he realizes that her profile resembles that of Sephora, the daughter of Jethro depicted by Botticelli in the Sistine Chapel. Henceforth he falls in love with her. In the “Recherche” the allusion to Botticelli is not coincidental. The Proust work represents the effort, pursued for four thousands pages, to attain “Absolute” and “Eternity”, to redeem the “Bounded” and the “Ephemeral”, i.e. the “Accidental”, to assert and give the life an ultimate “Sense”. On the other hand, the Author realizes that “Eternity” cannot be achieved unless going through “Time”. The paintings by Botticelli are distinguished by the same imperative connection between “Eternity” and “Ephemerality”, from which the melancholy for losing the no more attainable “Paradise”, the “Eternity”, comes. According to the Warburg’s analysis of the Botticelli’s paintings, in Proust the “Wakening” represents the striving between memory and neglect, visible and invisible, discernible and indistinct, since images have no permanence at that stage. As this appears to be the scope of the Proustian narrative, the “Story-Teller” is forced to reveal his “inadequacy to disclose everything”, that he may testify with his work. With Albertine’s death, the “Story-Teller” assumes to be able to overcome time, reaching in this way the “Absolute”, since Albertine represents for him the “Great Goddess of Time”. Conversely, the death of Bergotte occurs in front of “A view of Delft” by Vermeer, a picture the “Story-Teller” considers endowed with an absolute, thus perpetual, beauty. Thence, he discards the idea of “Beauty” as an ultimate purpose, and indicates that “Beauty” and “Eternity” are permeated by “Time”. Once the “Story-Teller” recognizes that “Beauty” is revealed through “Time” and that his work should connect “Eternity” and “Ephemerality”, most predictably he may eventually finalize his narration. All these remarks may be applied also to the Botticelli’s paintings, remarkably to the “Portrait of a Young Man”, exhibited in London at the National Gallery. In this portrait the representation of the physical defect combines “pathos” with “logos”, both expressed through the majesty of draughtsmanship. The coupling between “Ephemerality” and “Eternity” generates a “disquiet”, that is expressed by his nearly absent-minded gaze that watches without seeing. It is a kind of “voyance”, turning in to “present” whatever is “absent”, although still unintelligible. It allows us to “perceive” the “invisible” and “indiscernible” in the realm of the “visible” and “discernible”, leaving everything as it is, invisible indeed. Declaration of interest The Author declares that there is no conflict of interest. References 1. Velardi F. Cranio-facial deformity in the Botticelli’s “Portrait of a Young Man” (NG626). J Pediatr Neonat Individual Med. 2019;8(2):e080226. 6/6 Di Giacomo Journal of Pediatric and Neonatal Individualized Medicine • vol. 8 • n. 2 • 2019www.jpnim.com Open Access 2. Warburg A. Sandro Botticellis Geburt der Venus und Frühling: eine Untersuchung über die Vorstellungen von der Antike in der italienischen Frührenaissance. Hamburg: L. Voss, 1893. 3. Warburg A. Francesco Sassetti letztwillige Verfügung. Leipzig: Hiersemann, 1907. 4. Panofsky E. Renaissance and Renascences in Western Art. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1960. 5. Wind E. Pagan Mysteries in the Renaissance. London: Penguin, 1969. 6. Nietzsche F. Die Geburt der Tragödie aus dem Geiste der Musik. Oder: Griechenthum und Pessimismus. Leipzig: E. W. Fritzsch, 1886. 7. Proust M. La fugitive, in A la recherche du temps perdu, 3 voll. Paris: Gallimard, 1950. Abstract Keywords Corresponding author How to cite Main text Declaration of interest References 
work_dcrzpqbnajhntbziepkctbmvhi	----	The New Educator, 6:297–309, 2010 Copyright © The City College of New York ISSN: 1549-9243 online 297 Address correspondence to Lynn D. Dierking, Sea Grant Professor in Free-Choice Learning, Science & Mathematics Education Department, Oregon State University, 235 Weniger Hall, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA. E-mail: dierkinl@science.oregonstate.edu Readers are free to copy, display, and distribute this article as long as it is attributed to the author(s) and The New Educator journal, is distributed for non- commercial purposes only, and no alteration or transformation is made in the work. More details of this Creative Commons license are available at http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/. All other uses must be approved by the author(s) or The New Educator. The New Educator is published by the School of Education at The City College of New York. A Comprehensive Approach to Fostering the Next Generation of Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Education Leaders LYNN D. DIERkING Oregon State University, USA This paper describes an innovative education program launched in 2004 by Oregon State University Science and Mathematics Education Department, with leadership from Oregon Sea Grant, and funding from NOAA. Program development is described as well as the impact of it on participants. The program represents one vision for how to transform research and education practice to better support lifelong STEM learning. There is always one unexpected little moment in life when a door opens and lets the future in. Graham Greene A quiet revolution in education is underway worldwide. Lifelong learning opportunities abound, supported by a vast infrastructure of learning organizations. Rarely acknowledged at policy levels though, the centers of this learning revolution are not the traditional educational establishment of schools and universities, but a vast network of informal education entities: museums, zoos/aquariums, nature centers, national parks and increasingly the Internet, podcasts, and other social networking media (Falk & Dierking, 2002; Pew 2006). This educational shift calls 298 Lynn D. Dierking into question the school-first paradigm so pervasive in discussions of educational policy, the preparation of STEM educators and assessment (Falk & Dierking, in press). Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) learning is at the heart of this shift. People engage in STEM learning everyday, across their life spans—at home, at work, and out in their community and world (Falk et al., 2007; Dierking & Falk, 2009; NRC, 2009). Much of this learning is free choice1 in nature and the learners are anything but the usual suspects. In addition to k-16 students, they include increasing numbers of home educators, post-high school adults, some of whom either are not privileged enough or do not choose to further their schooling at university or community college, adults who did not graduate from high school at all, increasing numbers of young elders, only rising in number each year, and school-age children during out-of-school time. The traditional boundaries and roles that have distinguished various groups of science educators are also disappearing and those of us engaged in the work of developing a new generation of STEM educators need to take these changes into account as we design our “teacher” preparation programs. Whether someone is preparing to be a “teacher” in a k-16 classroom or at a museum or nature center, as s/he learns to develop STEM interest, knowledge, and understanding among the learners s/he will support, being aware of the vast number of ways, ages, and places in which a person learns STEM across their lifetime is an increasingly critical skill. The implication, of course, is that we need to create new “teacher” preparation programs that actually incorporate these emerging realities. Oregon State University (OSU), Corvallis, OR, with leadership from Oregon Sea Grant, and initial funding from the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), has taken on the challenge of preparing a new generation of STEM learning leaders by launching an innovative science and mathematics education graduate program in 2004. Initially begun in the OSU College of Science, this program is now a partnership between OSU College of Science and College of Education. The program’s premise is that as the world transitions into a STEM- dependent learning society, citizens of all kinds need ever better STEM learning support, not only at K-16 levels, but throughout their lifetimes. This is the first STEM education graduate program in the country to provide such a comprehensive approach to science and mathematics education. In addition to k-12 teacher preparation, the program offers two additional areas of concentration for graduate study, Collegiate Teaching and Free-Choice Learning (FCL). 1 About a decade ago, John Falk and I began advocating free-choice learning as a preferred term to the more commonly used informal learning. We recommended this change for two reasons: (1) political— “informal” connotes potentially unimportant which was perhaps why this learning was under-valued and under-investigated, and (2) conceptual--we chose to define the learning by its characteristics--non-linear, personally motivated and involving considerable choice on the part of the learner as to the “what, why, when, where, and with whom” of learning, rather than by what it is not (formal), or where it occurs. Good classrooms employ free-choice learning principles and not all “informal” learning experiences really are! A Comprehensive Approach to Fostering the Next Generation of Science 299 The program offers 3 degree options: (1) a M.S. in Science Education or Mathematics Education with a teaching credential for grades 6–12; (2) a M.S. in Science Education or Mathematics Education, with either k-12 or FCL focus; (3) a Ph.D. in Science Education or Mathematics Education with a k-12, FCL, or Collegiate Teaching focus. Recognizing that teachers working in all parts of the educational infrastructure can benefit from understanding some basic principles about the nature of learning and how it occurs and connects across settings, ages, and time of day, core Master’s and Ph.D. courses are taken by all graduate students together, whether they are k-12, FCL, or Collegiate Teaching. This fosters a community of educators and researchers that crosses settings, ages, and backgrounds, fostering cross-disciplinary and cross-institutional learning. Students in each area of concentration (K-12, FCL, or Collegiate Teaching) also build specific knowledge and expertise. The program represents a vision for how to transform research and education practice in order to better understand and support lifelong STEM learning. This overall vision was created in a highly collaborative manner with all members of our department but it took a few years to envision fully. Initially, when I came to OSU from the east coast of the U.S in 2006 along with my husband and colleague, John H. Falk, the task was far more focused--to further develop an FCL area of concentration within the Science and Mathematics Education Department which our colleague, Dr. Shawn Rowe, Assistant Professor, had begun (though both John and I had been working with OSU from afar since 2001 to help conceptualize and develop the program; I was on the search committee that had hired Shawn). This opportunity was a dream come true for John and me—he had recently stepped down as Executive Director of the Institute for Learning Innovation, a not-for-profit research and development organization in Annapolis, MD that he had founded, with a mission of understanding, facilitating, and advocating for free-choice learning. I also worked at the Institute as a Senior Researcher and Associate Director for Strategic Initiatives. Both of us were looking for the next professional challenge and when the opportunity came along to further develop a graduate program focused on free-choice STEM learning, we jumped at the chance to play a role in fostering the next generation of FCL leaders. We also were pleased by the university commitment to the idea—we accepted Full Professor positions (with tenure) in the College of Science (thanks to the leadership of Oregon Sea Grant and initial seed monies from NOAA). Soon after arriving in Corvallis though, we discovered that there was a great deal of work to do, even more than anticipated initially. Although it existed on paper, and students were already enrolled in the program, there were only two introductory courses in place and the program as a whole was not “officially” present in the university catalog. We were consumed the first year by the tasks of developing courses and creating a full-fledged, Graduate School-approved program. 300 Lynn D. Dierking We made a strategic decision at that moment to focus on the development of the Master’s program and to develop it as an online program. This decision was due in part to the availability of funding; OSU’s Extended Campus was offering competitive grants to departments throughout the university in FY 2006–2007 to fund the development of new online programs. We collaborated on the writing of a proposal with our k-12 colleagues and successfully procured funding ($75,000) to support the development of an online Master’s of Science degree program with two options: one that would serve k-12 science and mathematics teachers in schools and another that would be for mid-career professionals working in free-choice learning settings (science centers, museums, zoos and aquariums, national and state parks, nature centers and other outdoor settings, STEM-based positions in new media, university outreach programs, and family- and youth-serving organizations). We also chose to make the program online because of the history of the existing k-12 program, which required an on-campus presence, thus limiting its pre- eminence regionally, nationally, and internationally. We felt that an online Master’s of Science in Science Education and Master’s of Science in Mathematics Education degree would make the program uniquely competitive and extend its intellectual reach to students in the region, specifically in rural areas of the Pacific Northwest, and throughout the country and world. We knew that an online degree was particularly critical for the FCL option, since earlier research conducted when John and I were still at the Institute for Learning Innovation approximately five years before had suggested a need for a graduate and research/development program in free-choice learning with high interest from a national and international pool of mid-career professionals. More than half of those participating in the Institute study indicated that either they, or someone they knew, would be interested in pursuing such a degree and participating in research and development in this arena. One-fifth of the people interviewed specifically indicated the need for a master-level program. The existing on-campus Master’s degree program had always served a variety of educational professionals other than k-12 teachers, community college, and university faculty. However, the courses were not designed to accommodate the specific needs of the diverse learners FCL educators serve. In the course of a day, she/he may interact with youth in a Boys and Girls Club afterschool program, seniors in an Elderhostel program, and family members of various ages attending a Math Activity Night at a local science center. Because of the diversity of learners and FCL settings and configurations, educators focused on facilitating FCL need to learn about how people of a variety of ages, backgrounds, and interests learn, how an educator appeals to an individual or group interests, personal curiosities, and motivations for learning, and ultimately how one creates learning experiences that are self-directed, voluntary, and lifelong. Given these parameters, it was important to us that the FCL option be a dynamic and vibrant learning experience—online and in the real world—that A Comprehensive Approach to Fostering the Next Generation of Science 301 deeply engages students in the program. Consequently, we designed the program with a working professional in mind, purposefully building strong ties to their day- to-day workplace activities so they would be able to apply and shape what they were learning. The degree also has a project option—rather than a thesis, students complete a final project which though theoretically grounded, is a more practical, hands-on activity such as completing an evaluation, developing a new program or creating a professional development activity for staff in their institution. As with our on-campus degree programs, we worked closely with our k-12 colleagues who were creating the online k-12 option to ensure that core courses could be taken by both FCL and k-12 students together. We began program development in Winter 2007 and completed it in Fall 2008, conducting an initial evaluation in Fall 2009. With the focus in the FCL program on learning rather than teaching, we needed to work with our k-12 colleagues to revise core courses and create new FCL courses to emphasize the personal, socio-cultural, and physical dimensions of learning across the lifespan. To this end, we developed three core FCL courses, which serve as electives for k-12 students, which focus on an in-depth look at one of the aspects of free-choice learning (personal, socio- cultural, and physical). The three courses were envisioned to support future education leaders’ understanding of the critical and unique ways in which individuals come to know and utilize STEM in their daily lives. In the pilot year, there were 5–7 students enrolled per course, three of whom were enrolled in the FCL Master’s program option. FCL Doctoral students, Environmental Sciences, and Marine Resource Management (MRM) Master’s students were also enrolled. Most of these pilot students were on campus so we were able to receive on-going feedback from them, both online and in person. The first official cohort of 8 began in the fall of 2008. This group included a diverse group of FCL professionals from science centers, outdoor schools, environmental centers, national parks, and even a veterinary assistant who quipped that she spent most of her time “educating her patients’ owners about their pets health!” She clearly needed to understand something about learning, but did not need to know how to design a lesson plan or a test. Students in this year were primarily from OR, but but there was one student each from Virginia and Montana as well. There were also students enrolled in the fall course offering who were “trying out” the program, as well as two FCL doctoral students and two k-12 Master’s students. A few of these students were on campus also, so we continued to receive on-going feedback to improve the courses and communication among students. In fall 2009, another cohort of 7 students began the program. Again, it was a diverse group from Florida, New Mexico, Massachusetts, and Nevada and included professionals working in science centers, marine education centers, national parks, home education and online learning venues. The first cohort of students was also completing their final projects, and the first three FCL students graduated this past academic year. One student completed a front-end evaluation 302 Lynn D. Dierking project at the Oregon Zoo, another worked with children in a local one-room schoolhouse in Friday Harbor, San Juan Islands to develop a marine invertebrate guide using a community of practice model and Personal Meaning Mapping assessment tools, in collaboration with the San Juan Nature Institute and University of Washington’s Friday Harbor Lab, and the third student completed a project investigating emotions in the Goosebumps: Science of Fear exhibition at the California Science Center in Los Angeles. Another cohort of approximately 8 students will begin this fall, again a diverse group, professionally and geographically. Enrollment is on-going throughout the year so many students start in January or even in the spring quarter. Our major concern as new online instructors was whether the online-only format would afford the kind of vigorous interchange of ideas we believe is essential for graduate study, as well as build a community of learners among each cohort of students. We have been pleased that students are very engaged and find the classes highly interactive even though they are not face to face. Some of our students who are geographically close have managed to connect, including students from Seattle, WA and Portland, OR meeting midway. Three educators from Great Basin National Park in Nevada are all enrolled in the program and they work together on some assignments and have also expanded their community of learners to include others in their workplace by conducting seminars and involving other staff in projects. We even had a student drop out of the program last year because “it was too interactive.” In probing a bit more, I discovered she was expecting a more traditional distance program with taped lectures and a series of tests. Given the success of the program, we were able to hire a new faculty member (non-tenure track) in spring 2009 to assist with the coordination and further development of the program. Dr. John Baek, Assistant Professor and Senior Researcher, oversees the coordination, advising, and teaching within the FCL option of the online Master’s Program. With Dr. Baek’s arrival and leadership (he is a distance learning expert), we have been able to add and experiment with many more interactive elements including an opening conference call to provide a more personal course orientation, discussion of syllabus, introduction to instructors and other students, live chat sessions with guest speakers using Blackboard’s chat feature, periodic conference calls with as many students participating as is able, as well as “virtual group” projects and feedback sessions. The live chat sessions using Blackboard’s chat feature did not work well, so with Baek’s guidance and piloting by him and Rowe in the fall, this past year we introduced a live web-based radio program into each course. These occur every two weeks throughout the course and include invited guest speakers, some of whom have been international guests. Students can participate live, even calling into ask questions should they choose, and the programs are also archived for students unable to participate during the “live” program. These radio programs have introduced a degree of fun, spontaneity, and interactivity into courses, as well as A Comprehensive Approach to Fostering the Next Generation of Science 303 provided additional opportunities for students to personalize their own learning experience. All of these are efforts to build community and increase the interactive nature of the learning, critical to model for FCL professionals. Despite this positive feedback, we continue to work on building community and interactivity within the program. For example, we have contemplated offering the program to a core set of staff at an institution; for example, we discussed this idea with Oregon Museum of Science and Industry (OMSI) at one point, with the thought that if there were 5 students or more, we could envision FCL faculty making at least one physical visit to the institution, regardless of where the program is (we were only thinking of domestic travel though). FCL students also have had successful experiences in some of the elective courses, particularly the Inquiring into Science and Mathematics Learning and Teaching course, which engages students in designing their own inquiries into science and mathematics learning and teaching and is a flexible-enough course to accommodate the needs of both k-12 and FCL students. As the program matures, we also anticipate that the Engineering and Science in the Lives of Students, the Science Materials and Labs: Nature of Science, and the Designing of Problem- Based Curricula courses will also be good options for FCL students depending upon their specific interests, backgrounds, and career trajectories. The FCL option is also adding depth to the overall Master’s program. Students in both the k-12 and free-choice learning options take some of the same core courses, and k-12 teachers also have been encouraged to take FCL courses as electives, which they have. Collaboration between FCL and k-12 faculty has integrated free-choice learning principles, content, and activities into relevant course syllabi and assignments. This has helped to expand k-12 teachers’ ideas about the personal, socio-cultural, and physical dimensions of learning, while also helping them to think about the experiences their students bring to the classroom from interactions with their families, friends, and other significant adults (scout leaders, neighbors, and so on) during their out-of-school time. It has also helped them think of themselves as lifelong learners, as well as teachers. FCL courses are also being taken regularly by Master’s students in the Environmental Sciences program at the College of Science, MRM program at the College of Oceanic and Atmospheric Science, and the Design and Human Environment Department at the College of Health and Human Sciences. These students are expanding the organizations and institutions with which our program is connected and some of these, though getting a degree in a different program, are asking FCL faculty members to sit on their committees, and in a few cases, particularly with environmental sciences and MRM students, actually asking FCL faculty to chair their committee. This has been an intensive experience for the FCL faculty involved in designing and offering an online master’s program. We have had to learn many new skills 304 Lynn D. Dierking with respect to the use of Blackboard (our only platform option for the program given a contract that OSU has with Bb) and in the design of learning experiences that do not include face-to-face interaction and discussions. We have also enjoyed the collaboration with our k-12 colleagues, which this program necessitated. One issue that did arise for the FCL program, as it was piloted, was the need for some of the core courses to have special sections for free-choice learning students. In particular, the assessment course, SED 595, and the curriculum course, SED 598, did not work as well for FCL students, since not all FCL professionals deal with schools and teachers at all, or find themselves in a traditional teaching role that requires lesson planning and traditional assessment. Last fall, FCL faculty created special sections of these two core courses with the needs of FCL professionals more central; for example, alternative assessment was one small component of the existing assessment course but such assessment is critical to FCL experiences and so makes up most of the course; and FCL curriculum includes exhibition and radio program scripts among others, depending upon the venue in which the professionals work. In addition, FCL faculty plan to work to make some of the elective courses more accessible and meaningful to FCL students, particularly Engineering and Science in the Lives of Students, Science Materials and Labs: Nature of Science, and Designing Problem-Based Curricula. Because of faculty connections and the fact that students conduct course projects and their final master’s projects in a variety of settings, the program is building strong relationships with a number of FCL institutions and organizations in the state, region, and nationally. Dr. Rowe is housed at the Hatfield Marine Science Center campus of OSU in Newport, OR, and many of our students have conducted research there. In addition, students are helping to build relationships with the Oregon Aquarium in Newport, OR; the Oregon Zoo, Portland, OR; and OMSI, also in Portland. Students have also conducted projects at Science Factory, Eugene, OR; the Boys and Girls Club in Corvallis; the backyard of students (for a project that focused on home education); the Franklin Institute Science Museum, Philadelphia, PA; Pacific Science Center, Seattle, WA; Virginia Science Museum, Richmond, VA; the Smithsonian Marine Ecosystems Exhibit, Smithsonian Marine Station, Fort Pierce, FL; the Nashua River Watershed Association, Groton, MA; Glacier National Park, MT; Great Basin National Park, NV. One other interesting finding has emerged. Although from the start we had envisioned the program’s primary audience to be mid-career professionals who are interested in becoming more knowledgeable and research-based practitioners, two other types of students have emerged. First, about a third of our students are choosing this program as an entry point into the field. Some of them are former (or in one case current) k-12 teachers, interested in a career change, but the vast majority are science majors interested in teaching, but not in traditional classrooms. Interestingly, the other group of students is emerging from the program itself. Although few in number, these are students who are “catching the research and A Comprehensive Approach to Fostering the Next Generation of Science 305 evaluation bug” as we call it. They are deciding to pursue careers as evaluators and researchers. One Master’s student who just graduated in June 2010 is doing contract museum evaluation while she seeks a position in a museum or evaluation firm and two students have chosen to pursue doctoral programs in science education research (one starts this fall at OSU). Both of these groups have slightly different needs than the students for whom we conceived the program, and we have had to adapt some of our courses and develop others to meet their specific needs. As suggested, this initial effort to create an online Master’s program provided a rich context in which to collaborate with our k-12 and Collegiate Teaching colleagues, and in doing so, spawned the idea to not merely add FCL as an area of concentration in isolation, but to take the opportunity to step back and rethink the Department’s mission and approach. Consequently, in the midst of the intense development of the online Master’s with k-12 and FCL options, Department faculty also engaged in a number of discussions and two retreats in the first year of my arrival focused on how to articulate, and most importantly, “walk the talk” of a STEM Department committed to lifelong STEM learning. It was important to involve our doctoral students in this effort and so in spring 2007 John Falk and I led a doctoral seminar entitled: What Role Can Lifelong Learning in Science and Mathematics Play in Building Vibrant Sustainable Communities? Participants included all doctoral students (k-12, FCL, and Collegiate Teaching) and all faculty members. Through background reading, presentations by two panels of experts from the university and greater community (one panel focused on unpacking sustainability and the other on lifelong learning), discussion, and group work focused on these presented ideas and readings, the group explored and developed a new mission/vision and policy statement for our Department, outlining lines of research and theoretical frameworks that could support a better understanding of the ways in which lifelong science and mathematics learning can support the development and maintenance of vibrant sustainable communities. This work resulted in a new Department mission: “Better understand and facilitate the variety of ways in which people of all ages and backgrounds engage in science and mathematics learning throughout their day and lifespan.” To this end, our Department is committed to understanding the role of lifelong science and mathematics learning in the development and maintenance of vibrant sustainable communities and strives to foster scholarship, openness, intellectual stimulation, flexibility, and a sense of community around these ideas. This may seem like a subtle difference but it has been a sea change, requiring rethinking and changing the syllabi and readings of all the core doctoral courses and learning how to respectfully incorporate and discuss the ideas and learning principles of k-12, FCL, and Collegiate Teaching throughout all of our Department’s programs. One of the courses that benefited from this comprehensive approach is the Learning Theory class, a core course taken by all doctoral students regardless of focus. Rich discussions and projects have resulted as students in the three areas of 306 Lynn D. Dierking concentration read about, think about, and talk about learning theories and their application to the specific learning settings of interest to each of them. The final project requires that they develop a position paper that presents their theoretical stance on learning, an approach appropriate to each student’s research interests and supported with key empirical research findings. The conclusion needs to make a clear argument for why this approach to learning is relevant to his/her research interests and what the implications of this approach are for practice. These papers have been greatly enhanced by the cross-fertilization of ideas across the areas of concentration. Another course that has benefited from this partnership is the one offered in collaboration with OSU’s Physics Department, a four-credit physics course in which the emphasis is on questioning, predicting, exploring, and discussing what one thinks of and why. It is a class that pre-service teachers are encouraged to take. Through the leadership of one of our FCL Master’s students, some of the assignments in the course were designed to involve friends and family in ways that were expected to enhance the prospective teachers’ competence and confidence. For example, at the beginning of a new topic, prospective teachers were asked to interview two friends or family members about their current understanding of the science topic. The prospective teachers created the questions and decided how to respond to the answers given. In addition, at the point when students began to feel comfortable with the new material, they were asked to conduct an experiment with friends and family members and had the choice to conduct a similar experiment to the one done in class or to create their own. They were in total control of how they approach teaching the material and with whom they facilitate the exploration, thus integrating “free-choice” elements into their own learning. The assignments represent one way to begin helping science learners to use their knowledge across contexts in appropriate ways. The notion was that because these experiences outside of class are facilitated with friends and family, learning to teach science does not seem as intimidating as being in front of a class full of students. The notion was that prospective teachers could potentially be more comfortable testing this new role of facilitator in a more informal setting. The student used this experience as a final project for her Master’s in Science Education and the study documented the influence that these kinds of assignments can have on student learning.. Of course the addition of the FCL option to the Department has also supported the preparation and research of doctoral students committed to lifelong learning. Current or recently competed research projects by FCL doctoral candidates include a study of (1) handheld use in a marine science center, (2) STEM learning across a range of home-educating families, (3) Koi fish hobbyists, (4) whale-watching tours in the context of ecotourism, (5) a citizen science project, and (6) informal staff- family interactions in a science center. One of these students has already graduated and is working in the Evaluation and Research in Learning Division of the Science Museum of Minnesota. Another student will graduate this fall. A Comprehensive Approach to Fostering the Next Generation of Science 307 Now that work to transform the Master’s and Doctoral program is well underway, we are undertaking the next challenge, the Department’s Master’s of Science in Professional Teacher Education Licensure program, which prepares science and mathematics teachers in grades 6–12, emphasizing the development of research-based teaching strategies that make science and mathematics accessible to diverse learners. The program results in (1) a Master’s of Science degree in Science Education or Mathematics Education; (2) an Oregon Teacher Standards and Practices (TSPCs) Initial License with authorizations to teach at the middle and high school levels; (3) one or more subject matter endorsements which can include the following: Biology, Chemistry, Physics, Integrated Science, Basic Mathematics and/or Advanced Mathematics. This is an intensive year-long program with an introductory summer that includes three practica: one involves a quarter in which students do their student teaching and the other two are introductions to teaching. FCL faculty members are working with Licensure faculty to make one of these practica more free choice in nature, building on the successful partnerships we have fostered with organizations in our community. For instance, we have an on-going relationship with the Boys and Girls Club in Corvallis and this represents a valuable venue in which a preparing teacher can learn about their future students in an informal, out-of-school context. Hatfield Marine Science Center or the Oregon Aquarium in Newport, OR also would be great practicum locations. We have piloted this idea with a few licensure students who were interested in exploring FCL. I worked with one student, in particular, who tried to expand the science fair experience by creating an after-school club designed to support students’ ideas and abilities to create a science fair project of quality. It was an excellent experience for this student and demonstrated the application of FCL principles into the regular activities of schooling. As we have done with the core courses in our Master’s and Doctoral programs, we are also helping licensure faculty integrate FCL principles into the curriculum of the program. We have conducted (or provided resources in support of) sessions about conducting effective field trips and using other community resources in teaching, organizing family science/math nights, and generally improving parent involvement. We are also trying to share our resources throughout the department. For instance, this past spring, Dr. Janette Griffin, a visiting scholar from the University of Technology, Sydney, Australia, worked with me and Shawn Rowe. Janette has worked internationally in the informal learning field and has taught students from k to 12 in schools, museums, environmental, and science center venues. Her research interests include learning in informal settings, teaching and learning science in and out of the classroom, and teacher professional development. She was a guest speaker in the licensure program and also conducted a brown-bag discussion for the whole Department and worked with Shawn at Hatfield on a Mathematics-Science Partnership project funded by the U.S. Department of Education. 308 Lynn D. Dierking Our future plans include contemplating the creation of an undergraduate degree in FCL, as well as further integrating FCL into science and mathematics teacher preparation programs for k-5 teachers, as we work to build our nascent partnership with OSU College of Education. The university has approved the hire of a faculty member with elementary science expertise and we want to include a preference for someone who has some out-of-school experience or research interest in the position description. We also will be hiring another mathematics educator and hope to find someone with research interests in both K-12 and after-school venues. We also have plans pending at the university level to create a Center for the Study of Lifelong STEM Learning. This center would operate at the university level and would enable us to collaborate with interested faculty in other colleges, institutes, and units across campus, all of whom are engaged in lifelong STEM learning research though they may not use that term. As stated at the beginning of this article, this partnership is attempting to position OSU faculty members, and most importantly our graduates, as future learning leaders who have a broad understanding of the nature of lifelong learning, and of where, when, how, and with whom it occurs. We have just begun this great experiment but feel that our program represents a potential model that other science and mathematics education departments might choose to replicate, if only portions of the grand design. I invite visits, feedback, and also would be delighted to be a resource if other teacher preparation programs are interested in pursuing this idea or others discussed in this special issue of The New Educator. I feel passionately that as educators we need to create new models and this program represents one possible vision of how to transform research and education practice in order to better understand and support lifelong STEM learning. Most importantly, we need to work together to educate administrators and politicians about this broader perspective of lifelong science learning. By more clearly identifying and describing the vast number of ways and places in which people of all ages learn STEM, we stand a much greater chance of transforming education and subsequent learning to meet the demands of a changing world. Everything you can imagine is real. Pablo Picasso REFERENCES Dierking. L. D. & Falk, J. H. (2009). Learning for life: The role of free-choice learning in science education. In Roth W.-M. & Tobin, k. (Eds.) World of science education: North America. Rotterdam, NL: Sense Publishing. Falk, J. H. & Dierking, L. D. (2002). Lessons without limit: How free-choice learning is transforming education. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press (Roman & Littlefield). A Comprehensive Approach to Fostering the Next Generation of Science 309 Falk, J. H., Dierking, L. D., & Storksdieck, M. (2007). Investigating public science interest and understanding: Evidence for the importance of free-choice learning. Public Understanding of Science, 16(4): 455–469. Falk, J. H. & Dierking, L. D. (in press). Questioning the school-first paradigm for public science literacy. American Scientist. Horrigan, J. (2006). Home broadband adoption. Washington, DC: Pew Internet & American Life Project, An initiative of the Pew Research Center. http://www.pewinternet.org/ Reports/2006/Home-Broadband-Adoption-2006.aspx http://www.pewinternet.org/Reports/2006/Home-Broadband-Adoption-2006.aspx http://www.pewinternet.org/Reports/2006/Home-Broadband-Adoption-2006.aspx 
work_diomb2b5bbd2pdxmgmq53tz5zq	----	Art via Architecture ‘Lukisan Kajian’ Style in Hybrid Model ‘A+AGPD’: Observation ‘Garisan stroke line’ (gSLine) Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 195 ( 2015 ) 473 – 479 Available online at www.sciencedirect.com ScienceDirect 1877-0428 © 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). Peer-review under responsibility of Istanbul Univeristy. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.06.490 World Conference on Technology, Innovation and Entrepreneurship Art via Architecture ‘Lukisan Kajian’ Style in Hybrid Model ‘A+AGPD’: Observation Maria Mohammada, Md.Nasir Ibrahima , Mohamad Rusdi Mohd Nasira Kasran Mat Jiddinb, Mohamad Faisal Ahmadab* aUniversiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris(UPSI), Fakulti Seni,Pengkomputeran dan Industri Kreatif, 35900 Tanjong Malim, Perak Darul Ridzuan bInstitut Perguruan Ipoh,Perak (IPIP), abUniversiti Kebangsaan Malaysia(UKM), Fakulti Pendidikan, Bangi,Selangor Darul Ehsan Abstract This research explores production styles stroke line and pen hatching effects of free hand drawing in 3 dimensional 3(D) illustration drawing called lukisan kajian. The purpose of the study is to compare line hatching effects 'Garisan stroke line’ (gSLine) between the Art painting drawing with Architecture Graphic Presentation Drawing. Limitation of respondents from the artist's artistic and architectural illustration painter who actively produce illustration 3(D) drawing and reference art book at Malaysian. SIX experts respondents were used as limitation of the study. Issues 'free hand' drawing that is not proportion or ‘kejung’ among students of art and architecture 'under-graduate' often discussed in journals within and outside Malaysia started in 2007 to 2014. This qualitative research using a phenomenological study design with methodology through triangulation of observation, visual recordings and literature review. Phenomenon (gSLine) was analysed based on the elements of art: line, shape, form, texture and color in creating 3 (D) illustrations lukisan kajian in free hand drawing style. The findings in the literature, find artistic work known as lukisan pengkaryaan. The paintings drawing by artist illustration graphics architecture, graphics known as lukisan perekaan. The findings of the SIX respondents found that there are three differences (gSLine) between the two disciplines of visual art which in the proportion (visualization), emotion (emosi) and aesthetic (estetik) which are summarized as (dVEE). Research findings found that 4 difference in the quality of the line drawings lukisan perekaan. The findings of the study were collected in order to produce a hybrid model of researchers 'Art + Architecture Graphic Presentation Drawing' (A + AGPD). The study used case study in order to production model process (gSLine) in explaining the 'how' a 3 (D) illustration lukisan kajian (dVEE) can be produced. © 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Peer-review under responsibility of Istanbul University. Keywords: Architectural Graphics Presentation Drawing, ‘Lukisan Kajian’. * Corresponding author. Tel.:00245 2102211 E-mail address: mariafaisal2001m@gmail.com, kasran@ipip.edu.my, mam_1177@yahoo.com.my © 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). Peer-review under responsibility of Istanbul Univeristy. http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.06.490&domain=pdf http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.06.490&domain=pdf 474 Maria Mohammad et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 195 ( 2015 ) 473 – 479 Architectural Graphics Presentation Drawing(AGPD): Free hand drawing in architectural style by using the medium dry like wet ink pen or felt-tip pen charcoal pencil or water color tools. ‘Lukisan Kajian’ or Study drawing. According to (Richard Box,Denis John-Naylor,Carole Massey 2012) study drawings is a type of drawings to study the shape of the object for research purposes. Custom drawings objects study examines the subject of plants and natural forms. Research will also explore the concept intensity of color and 3 (D) form with color tone of the concentration for the purpose of explaining the objects that are in the foreground or background setting in the middle of the back. 1. Introduction During the twentieth century, in the year 1919, design has been strongly influenced by the Bauhaus, a schools founded by Walter Gropius in Weimar, Germany. Working as inspired team, the Bauhaus brought together many leading artist, architects, and designers. They combined the study of fine arts such as drawing and painting with crafts, and developed an aesthetic based on visual structured and sound craftsmanship. The school’s mission was to improve society through design, bringing humanistic and artistic sensitivity to industrial society (Preble 1994). Later in 1920s, the school of Bauhaus attracted students from all over the world. Bauhaus was closed when Hitler degenerate political agenda in 1933. Some faculty in Bauhaus moved to the United States. The Institute of Design in Chicago was officially opened by Laszlo Moholy-Nagy to continue Bauhaus goals and objectives. The teaching of design in the United States continues to reflect the influence of the Bauhaus philosophy, with its emphasis on formal visual structure and functional simplicity. Impact, all-embracing design concepts of the Bauhaus diverse in specific disciplines as architecture, industrial design, textile design, typography and painting. The Bauhaus was not only a design movement but also a social movement as well (Ocvirk et al. 2013; Mohd Johari 2010; Preble 1994). The nature of drawing has long been acknowledged as cognitive tool to stimulate an artist’s creativity (Mayo 2012; Acton 2010; Woon 2008). According to (Carswell 2013)models of designed process have to be clear in order to create a virtual learning environment. In Art Drawing (AD) or Architecture Graphic Presentation Drawing (AGPD) discipline encourages us to experience our lives more vividly by causing us to re-examine our thoughts and renew our feelings. Art is the quality, production, or expression of what is beautiful, appealing, or of more than ordinary significance. In the visual arts, we seek awareness through or sense of sight and through the development of visual thinking (Mayo 2012; Preble 1994). As an art, architecture is concerned with the design of the space. Architecture is the art and science of designing and constructing building for practical, aesthetic, and symbolic purposes (D.K.Ching 2009). In these two design disciplines designing is a process basic to all the visual arts. A painter begins with a need to express a personnel idea or to fulfill a personally expressive mode. Architect is a professional designer’s role to enhance living by applying a developed sense of aesthetics and utility. This study aims to combine style 3 (D) drawings manually with two disciplines in the art of painting 'Art' and 'Architecture Drawing Graphic Presentation' to generate a process model 'A + GPD'. The ‘lukisan kajian’ drawing painting is a technique which an image is described, drawn on a flat surface. According to (Ben-Shalom & Ganel 2012), drawing painting is a line drawing, ink, pen, pencils, crayons, charcoal and chalk as the main media. In production drawings can be made with any combination of paint, dry media and dry media. This statement is supported (Potamianos 2009), statement that the painting contains the soul and spiritual values that will enable the production of works of art that can be appreciated. According to (Ocvirk et al. 2013), a work of art is divided into two parts, namely the actual illustrations and artwork. Art illustration involves drawing, painting, photography, printmaking, graphic design and more. Real works of art, including the sculptures, architecture, metalwork, glass design, ceramics, fiber works, designs and other products. Illustration drawing painting even though it may be, but can exist in a 2 (D) and 3 (D) illustration by illustration artist (Zakaria 2013a). Flat surface is where the artists perform their image. Flat surfaces can also represent an imaginary reference plane where artists can create the illusion of space. 475 Maria Mohammad et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 195 ( 2015 ) 473 – 479 (D.K.Ching 2009) share the opinion with (Ocvirk et al. 2013) that as a component of art, design refers to the wording and order of the whole work of art. The principles of art is a work of art by setting elements of art or design element. These elements consist of line, shape, form, texture and color to develop in the form of illustrations and objects organic or geometric. Worlds of art explore the human visual art skills naturally skills in drawing, processing, and has a multi- disciplinary work such as sculptors, architects, musicians, writers, sculptors and painters. Among the artists in the world who great natural skills in the work are Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475- 1564), Rembrandt Harmenszoon Van Rijn (1606-1669), JMW Turner (1775-1851) Pablo Picasso (1881-1973) and Claude Monet (1840-1926). The art of human history has been discussed in the literature (Zakaria 2013b; Wahiza 2011; Mitchell 1995; Preble 1994). 2. Literature Review And Hypotheses This study aims to combine style 3(D) drawings manually with two disciplines in 'Art' and 'Architecture Drawing Graphic Presentation' drawing painting style to generate a model process 'A + AGPD'. This model contain with drawing painting ‘lukisan kajian’ with visualization, aesthetic and emotional style (dVEE). According to (Ben- Shalom & Ganel 2012) drawing painting ‘lukisan kajian’ is a line drawings, ink, pen, pencils, crayons, charcoal and chalk as the main media technique described, drawn on a flat surface. In production drawings can be made with any combination of paint, dry media and dry media. This statement is supported (Potamianos 2009) statement that the drawings contains the soul and spiritual values that will enable the production of works of art that can be appreciated. In Malaysia, there is still lack of research on the issue of 3(D) objects illustration. Previous studies conducted stated that, there is still room for researchers to develop hybrid models to address this issue. In the year 2008, (Azahar Harun, Haslinda Abd Razak, Ariff Ali 2008) administered a survey to 110 respondents was conducted to students from the Faculty of Art, students of Digital Media Design, Fine Art and Photography. Issues were related to the potential of online media issues and self online- teaching. Result shows that 75% of the students watched, listen, compare, and contrast on the topics taught. Only 40% of the students watched and listen. (Harun et al. 2012) conducted study to find ways of solving an insulated line optimization for 3 (D) of objects from the 2 line of hidden dimensions. Review the line stroke (gSLine) or impact point pen in the practice studio became the main focus of this study. The issue of the impact of currency effects scratch or pen style that the artist studied painting style building in (gSLine). Style pen eye can distinguish between seorag artists with other artists. The line style can also distinguish between painting style between the arts and other arts in their approach. lukisan kajian (Md.Nasir 2013) in his writings, considers the production and creation of a work of art in the drawing painting aspect of life, economy, religion and culture. Imagery paintings based on three components, namely visualization, aesthetic and emotional (Mayo 2012; Harun et al. 2012). Visualization component in the production of evaluated results audience visually shape and color with (gSLine) in art field. While the aesthetic power of art valued at the principal refined setting. There are three components of the emotion in the art will be evaluated based on the interaction swabs of color, line and effect linkages that can talk about something to the audience. Constraints one of these three components, will make the results of the drawing painting less attractive to viewers in Malaysia (Saedah Siraj & Faridah Abdullah 2005). (Abdullah 2012) states that instructional materials development tools need to be improved in order to produce students who are knowledgeable in practical work or ‘hands-on’ with (gSLine). 476 Maria Mohammad et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 195 ( 2015 ) 473 – 479 3. Methodology 3.1. Research Goal In this study, researchers explore the comparison architecture drawings with artist (gSLine). 1. Identify and compare the (gSLine) between architecture and artist drawing to produce 3 (D) drawings painting ‘lukisan kajian’ with (dVEE). 3.2. Sample and Data Collection This study used a qualitative approach to understand the phenomenon of the problem naturally without altering the existing location set. Design studies using phenomenology in the process model. The steps of this model's earnings follow the steps as proposed by Dick Carey and Carey Model. This model complements Organic Composite Model (Ocvirk et al. 2013; Ocvirk , Stinson , Wigg , Bone 2002) which discusses the concept of what, why and how. The scope of the research study is to explain the how or how the painting studies do not disturb visual literacy 'audience' is produced. This model is intended for graduates in arts, especially architecture to help produce (gSLine) drawing painting ‘lukisan kajian’ proportion with have (dVEE). This knowledge will hopefully help to produce paintings art graduate study did not look stiff by using swabs strokes and perfect color to produce the form or forms within the scope of practice studio. The findings also useful to erode the negative perceptions among the 'audience' to recognize all the graduates can basically paint (gSLine) 3(D) form aesthetic value. Two areas of innovation hybrid model is expected to serve as a guide for individuals who want to learn to paint 3(D) shape of the object with a force (dVEE). 3.3. Analyses and Results The AGPD syllabus for students of Diploma in Architecture, Polytechnic is a core course of CA103 in Polytechnic, Malaysia. Students are taught using the medium of drawing tools, guidelines and specific techniques to create geometric objects and organic architectural style.(Rudy Adipranata et al. 2008) spell out that many students of Diploma in Architecture encounters problems to understand the basic process of painting in the style of architecture. They are influenced by the styles of painting in the school environment. (Abdullah 2012; Acton 2010) stated that many students studies CA103 are weak in the drawing skills from technical aspects, fundamental and basic process of creating a good drawing. The Academic Committee of Architecture (ACA) in 2012, in the agenda of 7. 9 stated that “The meeting agreed that the students of Diploma in Architecture (DA) need to sit for drawing test and interview session before they are selected to the field of Architecture (Zhao & Chan 2010). This is due to the basic requirement of DA in the Polytechnic system for students to have a pass in English with five credits only including one credit from the science/technology/vocational subject without considering other requirement. These cause students to quit and change their course of learning when they realized that they are not able to draw drawing painting ‘lukisan kajian’ in CA103. Based on researcher’s experience after teaching the students of Polytechnic in Malacca for more than 9 years, it was found that these students were considered as less skilled in drawing painting using ‘free hand’ technique. (Aboalgasm & Ward 2014) added that these students were influenced by the drawing style from the secondary schools’ techniques. Statistically, on session of January 2012-December 2014, 8-17% of the students will begin quit their studies. Among the reasons, they were not able to paint in the style of architecture, failure to manage time of studies, and unable to complete all assignments. 477 Maria Mohammad et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 195 ( 2015 ) 473 – 479 Both disciplines design and the employment of research drawing. In explaining how painting drawing ‘lukisan kajian’ with (dVEE) is still untapped. In the study (Mohd Zahuri 2011) argues, if two fields able to produce a multidisciplinary hybrid model that benefits both disciplines.(Zakaria 2013a) argues that organic work has an aesthetic and emotional and proportion summarized as aesthetic and emotional power of visualization is summarized as (dVEE). Fig. 1. Summaries of conceptual framework study 4. Findings lukisan pengkaryaan lukisan perekaan. Table 1. Summaries of the (gSLine) observation Item Tools/finding Item Tools/Finding Gaya Stroke line (gSLine) Artistic drawing ‘Lukisan Pengkaryaan’ Gaya Stroke line (gSLine) Illustration graphics architecture drawing ‘Lukisan Perekaan’ Line and shape. Felt-tip Pen -Rubbing technique (gSLine) discontinuities to visualized proportion 3 (D) object Line and shape. Feltip Pen -Continuous line, rhythm line, balanced line and cross line to visualized proportion 3 (D) object Drawing in Art Drawing in Architecture Study Drawing ‘Lukisan Kajian’ AGPD with (dVEE) FORM ‘How’ SUBJECT ‘What’ CONTENT ‘Why’ Drawing with Visualization, aEsthetic, Emotional (dVEE) 478 Maria Mohammad et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 195 ( 2015 ) 473 – 479 Line and value Charcoal pencil -Rubbing technique (gSLine) discontinuities to show aesthetic value Line and value Pencil/ -Continuous line, rhythm line, balanced line and cross line to show aesthetic value Line and texture Water color/brush line -Brush Stroke to developed 3 (D) with emotional value. Line and texture Marker /feltip pen -Line stroke with structure texture to developed 3 (D) object Line and color Water Color - The color is more emotional and realistic effects for 3 (D) Line and color Water Color/ Feltip pen -The effect is more proportion and emotional 5. Conclusion The findings of the SIX respondents found that there are three differenced (gSLine) between the two disciplines of visual art which in the proportion (visualization), emotion (emosi) and aesthetic (estetik) which are summarized as (dVEE). Research findings found that 4 difference in the quality of the line drawings painting lukisan perekaan and lukisan pengkaryaan. The findings of the study were collected in order to produce a hybrid model of researchers 'Art + Architecture Graphic Presentation Drawing' (A + AGPD). The study used case study in order to production model process (gSLine) in explaining the 'how' a 3 (D) illustration lukisan kajian (dVEE) can be produced. The process model can be used by students, lecturers, and the public to improve their understanding of the drawings and independently. This study contributes to the 'how' or how the drawings has a 3 (D) illustration (dVEE) in the field of architecture and construction engineering drawing manually. Acknowledgement Deep appreciations are dedicated to everyone who is directly or indirectly involved in this study. The study was funded by the Higher Education Sector, Ministry of Education, Malaysia. 479 Maria Mohammad et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 195 ( 2015 ) 473 – 479 References Abdullah, S. (2012). Art Criticism Versus Art Writing: The Malaysian Situation. Memanuasiaan Vol.19,No.2,(2012),, 19(Art Criticism versus art Writing), pp.63–78. Available at: http://web.usm.my/kajh/vol19_2_2012/KAJH 19 2 Art 3 (63-78).pdf [Accessed June 17, 2013]. Aboalgasm, A.S., & Ward, R. (2014). The Potential of Digital Tools in Art Lessons at Junior School Level to Improve Artistic Ability Using Tamazight Fonts. International Journal of Sosial, Management, Economics and Business Engineering, Vol:8 No:3(3), pp.853–857. Acton, M. (2010). Learning To Look At Modern Art Second Edi., Routledge Taylor& Francis Group. Azahar Harun, Haslinda Abd Razak, Ariff Ali, F.M. (2008). Potensi Media Online Sebagai Medium Pengajaran & Pembelajaran Bagi Program Diploma Seni Lukis Dan Seni Reka Di FSSR UiTM Melaka. Institut Penyelidikan,Pembangunan Dan Pengkomersilan Universiti Teknologi Mara,40450 Shah Alam,Selangor,Malaysia, (Potensi Media Online ’Sebagai Medium Pengajaran & Pembelajaran Bagi Program Diploma Seni Lukis dan Seni Reka Di FSSR UITM Melaka). Ben-Shalom, A. & Ganel, T. (2012). Object representations in visual memory : Evidence from visual illusions. Journal of Vision, 12(7), pp.1–11. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22836656. Carswell, J. (2013). Preparing Detailed 3D Building Models for Google Earth Integration. In Dublin Institude Of Technology Arrow@Dit, ed. Digital Media Centre. Dublin I, pp. 62–76. D.K.Ching, F. (2009). Architectural Graphics Fifth Edition Fifth Edit., Canada: John Wiley&Sons,Inc.,Hoboken,New Jersey. Harun, N.B., Tahir, A.B., & Rahman, M.H.B.A. (2012). Kajian Persepsi Pelajar Semester Satu Terhadap Pembelajaran Secara Atas Talian, Politeknik Sultan Idris Shah. Mayo, N. (2012). Drawing into Practice. , 11(1), pp.75–81. Md.Nasir, I. (2013). KUpas Seni Jurnal Seni Dan Pendidikan Seni. Bahasa Visual, Vol.1(2013, pp.19–25. Mitchell, W.J. (1995). Interdisciplinarity And Visual Culture. Art Bulletin, 77(4), p.540. Available at: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=f5h&AN=9512181238&site=ehost-live. Mohd Johari, A.H. (2010). Asas Seni Visual Keempat., Tanjung Malim: Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris,35900 Tanjung Malim,Perak Darul Ridzuan, Malaysia. Mohd Zahuri, K. (2011). Contemprory Art,Craft And Hybridity: Malaysian Ecounters and Responses. Sheffield Hallam University. Ocvirk , Stinson , Wigg , Bone, C. (2002). Art Fundamentals Ninth Edition. Theory & Practice Ninth Edit., New York: Mc Grow- Hill Companies,Inc.,1221 Avenue of The Americas,New York,NY 10020. Ocvirk et al. (2013). Art Fundamentals Theory And Practice Twelfth Ed., Mc Grow- Hill Companies,Inc.,1221 Avenue of The americas,New York,NY 10020. Potamianos, G. (2009). Audio-visual automatic speech recognition and related bimodal speech technologies: A review of the state-of-the-art and open problems, Ieee. Available at: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/lpdocs/epic03/wrapper.htm?arnumber=5373530. Preble, D., & S. (1994). Art Forms Fifth Edit., Harper Collins College Publishers. Richard Box,Denis John-Naylor,Carole Massey, S.M. dan R.S. (2012). Lukisan Langkah Demi Langkah K. L. Institut Terjemahan & Buku Malaysia, ed., Kuala Lumpur: Elpos Print Sdn.Bhd.No 6&8 Jalan P/9A(Peti Surat 37), Kawasan Perusahaan seksyen 13, 43650 Bandar Baru Bangi, Selangor. Rudy Adipranata, Kartika Gunadi & Victor Julian Lipesik. (2008). Rekonstruksi Obyek Tiga Dimensi Darri Gambar Dua Dimensi menggunakan Metode Generalized VoxelColoring-Coloring-Layerd Depth Image. Jurnal Informatika, 9(1). Available at: http://puslit2.petra.ac.id/ejournal/index.php/inf/article/view/16894. Saedah Siraj & Faridah Abdullah. (2005). Jangkaan Masa Depan Terhadap Aplikasi Teknologi dalam Kandungan Kurikulum dan Penilaian Sekolah Menengah: Satu Kajian Delphi. Jurnal Pendidikan, 25 (Malay , pp.5–26. Available at: http://myais.fsktm.um.edu.my/5387/. Wahiza, A.W. (2011). Sejarah Seni Lukis&Seni Reka-Suatu Pengenalan Edisi Kedu., Bandar Baru Bangi: PST Enterprise Sdn.Bhd.No 33,Jalan 9/2, Taman IKS Seksyen 9,43650 Bandar Baru Bangi,Selangor Darul Ehsan. Woon, C.H. (2008). Teori Seni Visual Edisi Kedua Edisi Kedu., Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa Dan Pustaka. Zakaria, A. (2013a). Estetik Edisi Pert., Tanjung Malim: Paksi Press,158 Jalan Bunga Raya 2,Diamond Creeks,Behrang Ulu,35900 Tanjung Malim,Perak. Zakaria, A. (2013b). Sejarah Seni Dunia Edisi Pert., Tanjung Malim: Paksi Press,158 Jalan Bunga Raya 2,Diamond Creeks,Behrang Ulu,35900 Tanjung Malim,Perak. Zhao, Y., & Chan, D.W. (2010). The Relationship Between Drawing Skill and Artistic Creativity: Do Age And Artistic Involvement Make A Difference? Creativity Research Journal, 22(1), 27–36. 
work_dpukmp5hp5fgzcjtodasq7fjxm	----	University of Birmingham Was nicht im “Baedeker” steht Smith, Camilla DOI: 10.1215/0094033X-4269910 License: None: All rights reserved Document Version Peer reviewed version Citation for published version (Harvard): Smith, C 2018, 'Was nicht im “Baedeker” steht: exploring art, mass culture and anti-tourism in Weimar Germany', New German Critique, vol. 45, no. 1, 133, pp. 207-245. https://doi.org/10.1215/0094033X-4269910 Link to publication on Research at Birmingham portal Publisher Rights Statement: Checked for eligibility: 05/09/2018 General rights Unless a licence is specified above, all rights (including copyright and moral rights) in this document are retained by the authors and/or the copyright holders. 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Take down policy While the University of Birmingham exercises care and attention in making items available there are rare occasions when an item has been uploaded in error or has been deemed to be commercially or otherwise sensitive. If you believe that this is the case for this document, please contact UBIRA@lists.bham.ac.uk providing details and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate. Download date: 06. Apr. 2021 https://doi.org/10.1215/0094033X-4269910 https://doi.org/10.1215/0094033X-4269910 https://research.birmingham.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/was-nicht-im-baedeker-steht(5094e8c3-e54e-4cf6-981a-219fd7fde871).html Pre-proof stage, accepted article. Was nicht im “Baedeker” steht: Exploring Art, Mass Culture and Anti-tourism in Weimar Germany Deutschland scheint das klassische Land der Reisebücher und Reiseführer zu sein. Das hängt damit zusammen, dass der Deutsche seit alten Zeiten den Drang in die Welt hat, und ebenso, wie er sich fremde Literaturen aneignet, sammelt er auf jährlichen Reisen ferne Städte und Landschaften. [Germany appears to be the classic country of travel books and tourist guidebooks. This is because Germans have always felt the urge to explore the world. And just as they collect foreign literature, they also gather distant towns and landscapes on their annual travels]. - Albert Goldschmidt, “Grieben Verlag” in Der Querschnitt 1929.1 On a single magazine-page from 1930, the viewer is confronted with two photographic images of a Venetian street peddler and a German tourist, both captured by the photographer Margherita Stevenson-Heinsheimer. The German tourist holds a Baedeker guidebook in his left hand, surveying the site before him. He is seemingly unaware of the photographer (Fig. 1). Contrastingly, the street peddler is caught sucking on his pipe, his goods slung over his shoulder. Slightly bent, he turns to look off-camera. His unshaven face, peek cap and ill-fitting trousers differ markedly from the smart suit and trilby sunhat of the Baedeker tourist. Considered together, as the viewer is invited to do, these two photographs signify the differing attitudes towards travel developing during the closing years of the Weimar Republic. Stevenson- Heinsheimer’s image of the German tourist viewing popular attractions signaled a figure to be mocked. Conversely, the photograph of the anonymous Venetian street peddler represented a form of “authenticity” sought by a traveler hoping to experience the city “off-the beaten track”. Both Stevenson-Heinsheimer’s photographs appeared on a single-page in the journal Der Querschnitt next to an article entitled, “Italiener in Venedig” (“Italians in My thanks go to peer reviewers from New German Critique for their helpful comments. 1 Goldschmidt, “Grieben Verlag,” 758. 1 Venice”), by Pietro Solari.2 In this article Solari argues that Italians who visit Venice hate to use guidebooks, as they feel self-conscious. Non-Venetian Italians want to appear like locals and strive to “blend in”. Despite expecting its readers to draw analogies between articles on diverse topics that the journal offered, these analogies ultimately tended to lean towards familiar conceptual categories, one of which was travel.3 In this case, the layout of the article suggests the reader should firmly consider Stevenson-Heinsheimer’s photographic images as part of Der Querschnitt’s narrative sequence about Italian tourism. Her photograph unambiguously labeled “Deutscher” (a German), suggests the extent of debates regarding the function and status of the guidebook in post-war Germany, which appeared in a journal that sold some 20,000 copies a month by 1925.4 Perhaps Germany could no longer lay claims to being this “classic land” of travel books and tourist guidebooks during the 1920s. Or the type of travel experience Baedeker offered was simply too old-fashioned. As one of Germany’s longest running “dynasties”, Baedeker travel literature continued to uphold its dominance within the tourist industry during the embryonic years of the Republic.5 With their high-quality maps, lengthy indices, detailed historical descriptions and star-ranking system, the middle class reader could “trust” the precise and authoritative descriptions found in Baedeker guidebooks. But by the late 1920s a backlash had developed. In 1927 three years before Stevenson- Heinsheimer’s photograph appeared in Der Querschnitt, the Reichstag Deputy Social Democrat, Anna Siemsen, had scathingly noted how Baedeker guidebooks offered only a certain view of a place that almost entirely ignored its “darker sides”.6 As a result, that same year, a series of alternative travel guidebooks appeared on the market published by the Piper Verlag based in Munich. This series self-consciously attacked the Baedeker monopoly branding itself Was nicht im “Baedeker” steht (What’s not included in “Baedeker”). Despite adopting the same red and gold-embossed covers as Baedeker, rather than focusing on canonical historical sites, the Nicht “Baedeker” 2 Solari, “Italiener in Venedig,” 760-62. 3 For a lucid discussion of the journal’s editorial strategy and how this relates more generally to the cross-section and montage as coding forms of knowledge in both cultural and sociological fields see, Cowan, “Cutting through the Archive”, 1-40. 4 Sicks, “Der Querschnitt oder: Die Kunst des Sporttreibens”, 33. 5 Parsons, Worth the Detour, 13 and 194. 6 Koshar, German Travel Cultures, 65. 2 series deliberately foregrounded contemporary cultural, social and political developments.7 The first Nicht “Baedeker” guidebook from 1927 was written by the Hungarian writer and journalist, Eugen Szatmari (1892-1952), and focused on Berlin (Fig. 2). It was priced at 3.60 RM and enjoyed a print-run of 10,000 copies.8 Its apparent success was marked by advertisements in Der Querschnitt and the subsequent publication of other Nicht “Baedeker” guidebooks; Vienna (1927) by Ludwig Hirschfeld; Munich (1928) by Peter Scher; and three further works on cities Cologne (1928), Paris (1929) and London (1930) that were written by Hans (Hermann) von Wedderkop. These guidebooks were entirely different to Baedeker in that they offered subjective, sometimes humorous anecdotes about important intellectual circles. In the Munich guidebook for example, the reader is introduced to the séances of parapsychologist Albert von Schrenck-Notzing and the Schwabing artist circles. And in Paris, the bohemian circles of Picasso and Montmartre are explored. The series likewise contravened guidebook conventions by containing solely caricature drawings produced by well-known artists such as Rudolf Großmann, Heinrich Zille and Benedikt Fred Dolbin (Figs. 3, 4, 7 and 9). Indeed, the guidebook’s cover, featuring a drawing by well-known artist Walter Trier, depicting a bear leading a suited-tourist trotting cheekily up the arm of a grinning traffic policeman, signals the subversive nature of the guide (Fig. 2). To date, discussions of the Nicht “Baedeker” guidebook series feature only briefly in historical surveys of travel cultures. Rudy Koshar’s seminal study of the history of German tourist guidebooks features valuable discussions on Baedeker, as well as Nazi tourist sites and West Germany.9 Koshar’s history is crucial in revealing the tensions and conflicts within the middle class Bildungsreise, which resulted in a plethora of new forms of travel experience and specialized guidebooks during the early twentieth century in Germany. More recent research by Daniel Kiecol, Christopher Görlich and Jill Smith investigates the importance of tourism and Berlin in the Weimar Republic, revealing how Berlin consciously sought to cash-in on and 7 Referred to as Nicht “Baedeker” throughout this article. 8 The print run is stated at the front of Szatmari’s guidebook. 9 The series is mentioned briefly in Koshar, Travel Cultures, 77-79 and also in Parsons, Detour, 344. 3 promote, existing tourist attractions in difficult post-war environments.10 Smith’s scholarship in particular demonstrates how the extensive focus on the text and image from one subversive form of guidebook, yields crucial insights into contemporary German attitudes towards sexual identity. Other scholars, whose research has broadened investigations of Weimar tourism to include the study of queer politics and art history, have likewise adopted this model.11 However, such forms of in-depth investigation have yet to include the Nicht “Baedeker” series and suggest how it differed from mainstream guidebooks including Baedeker; what sorts of experience it offered; and what types of readers it was supposed to address. Moreover, the series’ use of caricatures, as well as editorial connections with contemporary journalists and art-dealer circles, has never formed the focus of scholarly investigation. By exploring Eugen Szatmari’s guidebook to Berlin in detail, this article proposes that the Nicht “Baedeker” series shared its readership with the journal Der Querschnitt, set up by the well-known art dealer Alfred Flechtheim in 1921.12 The journal played a formative role in defining attitudes towards both “high” and “low” cultures during the interwar period and contained work by international figures such as Ezra Pound, Marcel Proust and Pablo Picasso. I suggest how Szatmari’s guidebook placed emphasis on cultural discernment, humor and linksbürgerlich sentiment likewise found in the journal, and later reinforced by Hans von Wedderkop’s involvement with both publishing ventures. By highlighting the similarities between travel literature and cultural journals, this article places Der Querschnitt in a new frame of reference and suggests that far from losing an appetite for travel, an important modern art-loving traveller emerged in Weimar Germany. Considerations of the complex ways in which culture - particularly art and visual culture - and guidebooks intersect in this article, raises important questions as to how and what types of works engender forms of viewing allied with, or critical of mass tourism during this period. By the early twenties art criticism had developed a longstanding connection with guidebooks. Baedeker guidebooks in particular served 10 Kiecol, “Berlin und sein Fremdenverkehr,” 161-174, Görlich, “Berlin, die geteilte Stadt” and Smith, “Just how naughty was Berlin,” 53-77. 11 Prickett, “‘We will show you Berlin,’” 157-77 and Smith, “Challenging Baedeker through the Art of Sexual Science,” 231-256. 12 Der Querschnitt was published between 1921 and 1936 and consisted in total of 152 editions. During this period it was published by four different presses, including Galerie Flechtheim Berlin-Düsseldorf between 1921 and 1925. 4 as important bulwarks of German art collections and often contained “choice” reproductions considered representative of Germany’s “best” artists. The Baedeker guidebook effectively promoted a form of cultural elitism, but on a mass scale. As well as this, art and architectural critics such as Adolf Behne (1928), Rudolf Wittkower (1927) and Max Osborn (1928) had contributed to, or written their own guidebooks.13 By exploring the role that art illustrations played in the conception and function of the Nicht “Baedeker” series, this article posits that caricatures by artists such as Rudolf Großmann and Fred Dolbin were deliberately used to draw attention to the limited types of image found in mainstream tourist guidebooks. Such investigations also foreground research dilemmas regarding the function of artwork printed in the press during the Weimar period, and more recently explored in the 2013 Berlinische Galerie exhibition, Strassen und Gesichter (Streets and Faces). This exhibition included a number of original drawings by Großmann and Dolbin, both of whose artwork now fetches high prices on the art market. Consequently, (art)historians sometimes under-emphasize that during the 1920s, these artists’ works in fact served to convey day-to-day realities as cheaply produced Gebrauchsgrafik (commercial graphic art) found in journals, books or newspapers.14 Through a sustained focus on both the text and illustrations found in Eugen Szatmari’s guidebook to Berlin, this article seeks to firmly place these caricatures (back) into their original printed context. Quer durch Berlin as an “Anti-tourist” In one of the first sections of Was Nicht im “Baedeker Steht”: Das Buch von Berlin (The Berlin that’s not in “Baedeker”), entitled “Zwischen Wilhelmstrasse und Platz der Republik-Regierungsviertel und Parlament” (“Between Wilhelmstrasse and the Republican Square-Government District and Parliament”) Eugen Szatmari witheringly describes the German parliament’s ineffectual position: Die Stimmung wechselt alle fünf Minuten. Bald ist alles zerschlagen, bald wieder alles “in Butter”. [...] Was machen die Sozis? Sie sitzen beisammen. So viel wie im Reichstag wird vielleicht nirgends beisammen gesessen. Was 13 For Behne see, Vetter, Offizieller Führer für Berlin, 50-52; for Wittkower in Baedeker on art in Rome in 1927 see, Parsons, Detour, 207 and see, Osborn, Kennen Sie Berlin? 14 Korzen, “On the trail of Dolbin”, 100. 5 geschieht? Wird man ablehnen, oder gibt man nach? Man kann es nicht wissen. Hier kann man es nie wissen.15 “Die deutsche Downingstreet” (the German Downing Street), Szatmari goes on, has its own hairdressing salon, swimming pool and gym.16 His account immediately highlights the Reichstag’s manifest disengagement with the “outside world” and with it, the realities facing Weimar Berlin. By the time Szatmari’s guidebook appeared in 1927, the parliament was on its fifteenth cabinet lead by the Chancellor Wilhelm Marx after Hans Luther had resigned the previous year following a vote of no confidence. To make matters worse, this minority cabinet had little power at all as Article 48 - governing by decree without parliamentary approval - was now in effect, making parliamentary democracy a sham.17 Artist Erich Godal’s accompanying illustration depicting a group of heckling, self-complacent politicians is further indicative of the candid version of Berlin Szatmari’s guidebook constructs for his readers (Fig. 3). This version is not afraid to mock the current state of the Republic and its capital, and was written by a journalist who, having moved to, and reported on events in the city since 1925, was well aware of its failings.18 In contrast, Weimar’s tourist industry was booming. By 1927 tourist revenue had begun to appear on the annual reports issued by Germany’s Chamber of Commerce and Industry for the first time.19 And in order to consolidate and expand its own market, Berlin’s municipal tourist office had taken on the running of the city’s exhibition center, becoming the Ausstellungs-, Messe- und Fremdenverkehrs-Amt (AMFA) (Exhibition, Trade Fair and Tourist Authority). The AMFA’s first official guidebook, Offizieller Führer für Berlin und Umgebung Potsdam und seine Schlösser (Official Guide to Berlin and the Surrounding Areas of Potsdam and its Castles) was quick to follow in 1928. The city boasted a multitude of tourist attractions - the 15 “The mood changes every five minutes. One moment everything is ruined and the next it is all hunky-dory. [...] What are the Social Democrats up to? They are sitting together. Nowhere else do they possibly sit together as much as they do in the Reichstag. What happens? Will they reject or will they concede? One cannot know. One can never know here.” Szatmari, Was nicht im Baedeker Steht. Das Buch von Berlin, 44-45. Referred to as Nicht “Baedeker”: Berlin. All translations are the author’s own, unless otherwise stated. 16 Ibid. 55. 17 For Article 48 see, McElligott, “Political Culture”, 26-40. 18 In the online Berlin addressbook, Szatmari is listed as living at Kurfürstendamm no. 234 in 1925. See Berliner Adressbuch 1925, under ‘Szatmari’, 3228 http://digital.zlb.de/viewer/image/10089470_1925/3262/#topDocAnchor (accessed February 20, 2015). 19 Kiecol, “Berlin und sein Fremdenverkehr,” 164. 6 http://digital.zlb.de/viewer/image/10089470_1925/3262/%23topDocAnchor Kaiser-Friedrich-Museum; the Royal Palaces; the Treptow and Lietzensee Parks and the evening entertainments of Wintergarten theatre - expressly promoted by AMFA’s new guide. Unsurprisingly, the Republic’s capital managed to attract annual tourist figures in the region of 1,600,000, which undoubtedly made the Piper Verlag’s decision to begin their own guidebook series with a candid vision of Berlin, a lucrative one.20 But far from simply advertising tourist sites, Szatmari’s pithy writing style, coupled with the omission of any maps, photographs or currency convertors, suggests that Nicht “Baedeker”: Berlin was aimed at a different type of Germanophone reader. By marketing a series of guidebooks as self-consciously modern equivalents of Baedeker, the Piper series was likely to have attracted Der Querschnitt readers. The scope of Der Querschnitt had broadened during the 1920s from discussing art, to articles exploring all forms of cultural life; with the section “Marginalien” (“At the Margins”) taking a deliberate interest in what was considered Nichtsalonfähig (inappropriate for polite company).21 Consequently, the journal covered both popular and more elite forms of culture. The journal’s editor explained in relation to literature, “Die alten Literatur begreift nicht daß ihre Todesstunde längst geschlagen hat, daß die neue Generation es in erster Linie liebt zu tanzen, Sport zu treiben, zu Reisen und auf ingeniöse Weise Geschäfte zu machen.”22 Travel literature and tourist guidebooks were important topics therefore, as they addressed a type of modern readership, but one that also recognized long-standing German enthusiasm for travel. On the first few pages of the guidebook Szatmari’s reader is confronted with a tangle of congested streets and baffling pedestrian regulations. Both the visual and aural assault of Berlin traffic chaos is vividly described: Wer auf Bahnhof Friedrichstraße ankommt, den setzt der Zug gleich inmitten des heftigsten Verkehrsorkans ab und selbst, wenn er die allerehrwürdigste Autodrosche aufgefischt haben sollte, wird er sogleich ein Bild von dem mörderischen Spektakel bekommen, mit dem Berlin sein Arbeitsjoch zieht, 20 Szatmari, Nicht “Baedeker”: Berlin, 6. 21 For the scope see, Hermann (Hans) von Wedderkop, “Der Siegeszug des Querschnitt”, 91. 22 “Old literature does not understand that its time is up and that a new generation above all else, loves to dance, do sport, travel and do business in an ingenious manner.” Wedderkop quoted in Haacke and Baeyer, Facsimilie Querschnitt, 11. 7 um seine Ohren werden die Schreie der Autohupen gellen, die toten und grünen Lichter der Verkehrssignale in seine Augen blinken.23 By 1920 Berlin was a city of over four million and had expanded to incorporate eight Stadtgemeinde (city districts) creating an urban sprawl that many Berliners themselves felt was frenetic and unconquerable. Szatmari immediately connects this pace to forms of anonymity. No one walks in Berlin, he complains: a Berliner would probably rush past Foreign Minster, Gustav Stresemann, on the street before stopping to recognize him. Conversely, Szatmari’s readers are invited to embark on a “Vormittagsspaziergang durch Berlin” (morning walk through Berlin), but are not offered a pre-planned tourist route, which might have seen them stringently marching along Unter den Linden towards the Brandenburg Gate at one end, and then back towards Berlin’s cathedral at the other.24 Instead the reader should stroll “off the beaten track” in order to avoid the baffling pedestrian regulations and near-fatal numbers of cars in busy tourist areas, and concentrate on the intoxicating effects of urbanity manifest beneath their feet: …denn nichts ist ansteckender als das Pflaster dieser Stadt, der Asphalt ebenso wie die Kopfsteine, und wer erst Jahre hindurch über dieses Pflaster spaziert, von Straßenbahnen darüber hingeschüttelt worden ist, der weiß nichts mehr anderes als Berlin, Berlin.25 It is only through walking therefore, that Szatmari’s reader will get to know the “real” Berlin. During this period, articles on tourism found in Der Querschnitt shared similarities with the Nicht “Baedeker” series. In particular, the journal likewise promoted modes of walking to experience Berlin. In an English-language article from 1929, David Fish proclaimed Berlin “the bummel town”, (“bummeln” meaning to meander), which should be explored “indefinitely” during the evening when “one’s stamina depended entirely upon one’s capacity for drink”. In order to experience the real Berlin nightlife, Fish tells the reader he: 23 “Whoever arrives in Friedrichstraße station is dropped by the train into a whirlwind of traffic and even if he were to find the most venerable taxicab, he would get an immediate impression of the murderous spectacle, the burden of which is dragged by Berlin’s yolk. His ears would be surrounded by car horns and the dead and green traffic signals would flash in his eyes.” Szatmari, Nicht “Baedeker”: Berlin, 4. 24 For an example see, Osborn, Kennen Sie Berlin? 4. 25 “For nothing is more contagious than the pavements of this city, the tarmac as well as the cobbles; and whoever has travelled these streets over the years, whether on foot or rattling over them by tram, will know nothing other than Berlin, Berlin.” Szatmari, Nicht “Baedeker”: Berlin, 195. 8 must avoid the eternal round of the bars and dancing places in the West, these are too international […]. One must explore, get away to the East, South and North; in fact, one must go on a bummel through the city. Only by meandering is Fish able to discover the local pub of famed Berlin caricaturist Heinrich Zille, a student fraternity house full of drunken habitués and an intimate transvestite bar with Japanese interiors.26 Likewise Johannes von Jensen’s article that appeared in the journal the same year describes similar forms of walking on his trip to the city of Jerusalem. In this satirical article Jensen vividly portrays his nightmare- traveling companion, Reinhold Hüttel, who insists on going to all of the main tourist sites and tramping obsessively behind their Greek tour guide. Jensen is mortified by such “Gaukelei” (folly) and scathingly notes, “Hüttel aber nahm es wie ein Evangelium aus dem Munde des Griechen entgegen und memorisierte, bewegte die Lippen wie ein Schulkind das lernte” (Hüttel took every word of the Greek as Gospel and memorized it, moving his lips like a schoolchild who was learning.) 27 Everything that he and Hüttel were told could be ascertained by reading Baedeker and consequently, Jensen concludes, they had probably learned nothing about the city at all. Both the journal and guidebook advocate a similar engagement with quotidian life as a crucial way of extending vision beyond typical tourist sites to perceived forms of authenticity. Jensen’s traveling companion sees nothing of Jerusalem as the tour guide tells him precisely what to view. Jensen’s disapproving article anticipates Roland Barthes recognition that guidebooks likewise provide a filtering experience for their readers. Writing about Guides Bleu (Blue Guides) (first published in 1918 in English and French respectively) Barthes argued that by focusing solely on “sites”, guidebooks reduced tourist experience to the contrived essence of a place and as a result, they perversely did the exact opposite of what they advertised.28 As Barthes explained, “to select only monuments suppresses at one stroke the reality of the land and that of its people, it accounts for nothing of the present, that is, nothing historical, and as a consequence, the monuments themselves become undecipherable, therefore senseless.”29 Barthes’ compelling comments could certainly be applied to editions of Baedeker describing Germany during the 1920s. The 1927 Baedeker guidebook to 26 Fish, “Berlin’s the Bummel Town”, 244-46. 27 Jensen, “Touristen in Jerusalem,” 709-14. 28 Barthes “The Blue Guide”, 74-77. 29 Ibid. 76. 9 Berlin notably almost entirely ignored the young, post-war capital with its new political and economic challenges and instead foregrounded the Rococo interiors of Sanssouci, the late Rococo organ in St. Mary’s Church and the Tea Pavilion at the Belvedere in Schloss Park Charlottenburg. Historic sites such as these were what a German tourist like Hüttel expected to see. However, by doing so, Baedeker was simply out-of-date for Der Querschnitt readers as Stevenson-Heinsheimer’s photograph unambiguously suggests (Fig. 1). Nicht “Baedeker”: Berlin seeks to construct a vision of the city that deliberately eschews focus upon standard tourist sites. The reader is encouraged not only to experience the attractions of glittering, well-off West Berlin, but also investigate the working class districts of Moabit, Lichtenberg and Wedding. A quintessential Berlin weekend into the surrounding greenery at Teupitz, Zeuthener Lake and Saarow is outlined and the Berlin dialect “Argot” explained.30 Szatmari also offers descriptions of the typical Berliner: he is hardworking, heavy drinking and both “cheeky” and “cold” in manner.31 Moreover, the reader might also be swayed to get up during the early morning darkness at 5 a.m. to witness real Berliners trudging to work. Tourists, Szatmari explains, wrongly continue to overlook this side of Berlin: Ein Fremder, der nach Berlin kommt, sieht freilich so gut wie nichts von diesem wahren Wesen der vier Millionen, wenn er nur Unter den Linden spazieren geht, auf dem Kurfürstendamm flaniert, und ganz im Zeichen der sogenannten Sehenswürdigkeiten lebt, als ob der Berliner, als ob das Volk, das wirkliche Volk von Berlin nicht auch sehenswert wäre.32 Szatmari’s emphasis on the quotidian is emphasized through the guidebook’s use of illustrations, a point to which the last part of this article returns in detail. Suffice to say at this stage, the images of hoards of blue-collar “weekenders” lying in the greenery or disheveled touts taunting the police by the Berlin artist Heinrich Zille (1858-1929) that appear in the guidebook, might be understood as tragic and gently mocking expressions of quotidian life (Fig. 4). In 1927 Zille was sixty-nine years old 30 See, “Berliner Wochenende” and “Berliner Redensarten”, in Szatmari, Nicht “Baedeker”: Berlin, 216-17 and 207-13 respectively. 31 Ibid, 195-206. 32 “A stranger who comes to Berlin sees of course as good as nothing of the real existence of its four million inhabitants. If he only walks down Unter den Linden, or meanders down the Kurfürstendamm and concentrates on the so-called landmarks; as if the Berliner, as if the people, the real people from Berlin were not also worth seeing.” Ibid, 195. 10 and his unflinching engagement with Berlin proletariat as artistic subject matter, was well known. The use of his work in Szatmari’s guide powerfully reinforces the guidebook’s professed claims to exploring precisely what Baedeker does not. The visual sensibility expected of the Querschnitt and the Nicht “Baedeker” traveler share characteristics with the flâneur, a figure of resurgent interest during the 1920s. As scholars have pointed out, in outlining their flâneurial experience, writers Joseph Roth and Franz Hessel are quick to establish the flâneur’s visual discernment (and familiarity) of the city, in opposition to the tourist figure.33 The flâneur is drawn to the “dark, seamy corners [of the city] and its neglected populations” and the seemingly mundane, which he purposefully investigates at a slow pace.34 Indeed, for Joseph Roth it is the inconspicuous Berlin newspaper seller and the aimless rise and fall of a swarm of mosquitoes that deserve to be observed.35 By inviting the reader to see Berlin modern types - the “Wirtin” (landlady), the “Spanner” (peeping toms), “Männer in Frauenkleidung” (transvestites), “Berliner Gesellschaft” (Berlin’s high society) and “Künstlervolk” (arty types), Szatmari’s guidebook likewise demands that this reader should “not simply be looking, but be looking at looking” in order to differentiate themselves from the tourist.36 These Berlin “types” are also captured in Zille’s illustrations throughout the guide, thus reminding the reader that this guidebook’s particular authenticity stems from its focus on Berlin residents (Fig. 4). However, as compelling studies on the flâneur have suggested, the figure occupies a complex relationship to mass forms of urban, cultural life. Although the flâneur considers himself distanced and above such (capitalist) structures, the recording and selling of his peripatetic observations reveals his dialectical relationship with them.37 A similar dialectical engagement exists between Nicht “Baedeker”: Berlin and Der Querschnitt readers in relation to forms of mass tourism, which is caught up in the term “anti-tourism”. Dean MacCannell’s formative work on tourism and authenticity from the 1970s moved beyond the polarity of tourism and non-tourism and has 33 Hessel,“Rundfahrt”, 52-134. 34 Susan Sontag, On Photography (New York: Dell, 1977) 55ff as quoted in Gleber, The Art of Taking a Walk, 131. 35 Roth, “Going for a Walk”, in Berliner Börsen-Courier (1921) and “The Ride Past the Houses”, in Berliner Börsen-Courier (1922), both reprinted in Roth, What I saw: 26 and 90 respectively. 36 Fritzsche, “Readers, browsers,” 98. 37 Buck-Morss, “The Flâneur,” 113. 11 subsequently informed discussion relating to the anti-tourist.38 MacCannell argues that in modern society, the notion of authenticity is challenged by unstable social and interpersonal relationships, which break down clear categories of “truth” and “reality”. But, he notes a simultaneous emergence of a fascination for “real life”, which extends towards tourist experience. Achieving authenticity outside of a tourist setting is difficult. More often than not, tourist settings promote a type of conspicuous “backdoor” experience – an experience that is ultimately “staged”. Yet as MacCannell points out, whilst tourists do sometimes see routine aspects of life as it is really lived in the places they visit, “in the give-and-take of urban street life in tourist areas, the question of who is watching whom and who is responding to whom can be as complex as it is in the give-and-take between ethnographers and their respondents.”39 [my emphasis] Szatmari’s guidebook complicates MacCannell’s discussion of authenticity – on the one hand sometimes moving way beyond the structure of any tourist settings completely, but on the other, recording them self-consciously in a guidebook. At no point is Szatmari’s reader asked to relinquish the guidebook format entirely. By using a self-professed “alternative” guidebook, the reader remains wedded to mass tourist infrastructures. Such dialectical engagement is reinforced further by the reader’s encounter with cross-sections of Berlin. Szatmari glides seamlessly from enthusiastic portrayals of popular [tourist] attractions like the six-day cycling races, to discussions of (seemingly authentic) working class drudgery. Likewise Der Querschnitt did not shy away from promoting Grieben or Ullstein guidebooks or package holidays.40 In an article describing German travelers in Italy, it suggested that whilst readers must visit the overlooked towns of Gubbio and Arezzo, they should also partake in tourist kitsch, which took the form of; lying in the sun; drinking wine; eating gnocchi and spaghetti. Doing these things is, “ein viel gedeihlicheres Tun, als in den Galerien die Sternbilder abzuklappern” (something far more beneficial than trudging through 38 MacCannell, “Staged Authenticity”, 91-107. 39 MacCannell, “Staged Authenticity”, 106. 40 For example the advertisement, “Mit Ullstein durch die Welt”, in Der Querschnitt, Band 7, 1927, Heft 4, April; Der Querschnitt, Band 5, 1927, Heft 7, Mai. Advertisements for package deals to Ascona, Bad Ems and the Sanatorium at Grotenburg are abundant in the journal between 1927 and 1928. 12 galleries looking at star-ranked images).41 The journal’s deliberate juxtapositions of mass and elite travel encouraged critical readership. Consequently, Wedderkop and Szatmari ask their readers to become “anti-tourists” a term, which, unlike “flânerie” self-consciously acknowledges this dialectical position.42 And in effect, they ask readers to become aware of the complex ontologies of “truth” that MacCannell associates with modern tourism. This is perhaps not unsurprising, as subsequent studies exploring the term emphasize that “anti-tourism” is not necessarily a position always adopted by an individual traveler, but rather a (temporary) persona that many travelers aspire to achieve.43 In this sense, both movement and consumption remain deliberate for the anti-tourist, whereas for the flâneur, they do not. Within a year of the first Nicht “Baedeker” guidebook, advertisements for the series started appearing in Der Querschnitt and a four-page extract from the second edition – to cities Cologne, Düsseldorf and Bonn – was reprinted.44 The chosen extract, “Köln bei Nacht” (“Cologne at Night”), was reminiscent of Szatmari’s candid descriptions of Berlin and contained details of table dancing, overweight bar- owners and flirtateous New Women prowling around Cologne’s market areas.45 This guidebook was written by Hans von Wedderkop who, since 1923, had also become the editor in chief of Der Querschnitt.46 And his work on both publishing ventures proved fruitful. While remaining the journal’s editor until 1931 Wedderkop also continued to produce guidebooks to Paris, London, Rome and parts of Italy, indicating why, perhaps, Der Querschnitt maintained an interest in anti-tourist and particularly anti-Baedeker forms of travel throughout the late 1920s. The notable commission of journalists as guidebook authors is further indicative of emerging travel trends in Weimar Germany, which reveal an increased appetite for the (re)discovery of attractions closer to home. 41 Wedderkop, “Auch das Alte Italien ist Neu zu Entdecken” [sic] (“Even old Italy is to be Discovered Anew”), 764. 42 For the term, Urry, The Tourist Gaze, 13-14. 43 For interpretations of forms of anti-tourism see, Buzard, The Beaten Track, 6 and Herbert, Monet on the Normandy Coast, 4. 44 Besides the guidebook to Cologne, Düsseldorf and Bonn, there are also advertisements for other editions from the series. For Paris, see, Der Querschnitt, Band 9, 1929, Heft 5, Mai, 365 and Der Querschnitt, Band 9, 1929, Heft 6, Juni, 435. 45 Wedderkop, “Köln bei Nacht,” 707-10. 46 Haacke and Bayer, Facsimilie Querschnitt, 9 and 12 respectively. 13 Das Romanische Café: the Reporter and Travel Writer In a photomontage published in the Berlin Wochen-Spiegel in 1926, a year before Nicht “Baedeker”: Berlin was published, Eugen Szatmari’s head appears alongside fourteen other journalist colleagues, most notably Egon Erwin Kisch, Leo Heller, Karlernst Knatz-Werle, Alfred Kerr and Kurt Pinthus (Fig. 5). Szatmari’s inclusion amongst such well-known figures suggests that by 1926, having regularly contributed to Berlin’s 8-Uhr-Abendblatt, Berliner Tageblatt and Uhu, he was a celebrated member of the city’s writer-critic circles. Indeed, playful descriptions of Victor Hahn, (owner of the 8-Uhr-Abendblatt), Paul Godmann, (correspondent for the Wiener Neuen Freien Presse), and Fred Hildenbrandt, (the feuilleton editor of the Berliner Tageblatt), in a theatre audience described in Szatmari’s guidebook, signal familial connections.47 As a writer and journalist from Bohemia, Szatmari quickly found himself amongst the intellectual circles in the Romanische Café.48 Szatmari notably begins his residency in Berlin in 1925 on Kurfürstendamm, not far from this café. As Shachar Pinsker observes, this part of West Berlin became nothing short of an unofficial “Jewish colony, with the Romanische Café as its parliament”.49 In this same café Hans von Wedderkop, Joseph Roth and Max Herrmann-Neiße, might be found sitting in a room in which complex conversations about “Picasso, chocolate and fascism all ran fast into the other.”50 This intellectual mixture was formative in influencing Szatmari’s alternative vision of Berlin. Appearing half way through the guidebook and designated its own chapter, “Das Romanische Café” or “Der romanische Parnass” (“Romanic Parnassus”) as Szatmari playfully calls it, could be considered to form the (literal) nodal point around which his vision of Berlin converges.51 In a letter written in June 1924, the author and critic Max Herrmann-Neiße proclaimed that the café was now where most of Berlin’s literati spent their time and where he too had whiled away most of a recent bank holiday evening.52 Likewise, journalist Karlernst Knatz-Werle attests to the 47 See, “Wenn der Vorhang sich hebt”, in Szatmari, Nicht “Baedeker”: Berlin, 84-95. 48 Allen Literary Life, 72 and 298 ff. 47. 49 “Berlin between the Scheunenviertel and the Romanisches Café”, in Pinsker, Literary Passports, 124. 50 Weitz, Weimar Germany, 77. 51 Szatmari, Nicht “Baedeker”: Berlin, 114-15. It is noteworthy that more contemporary scholarship draws upon Szatmari’s description of the café as important source material. See, Schebera, Damals im Romanischen Café. 52 The letter dated 16.6.1924 is reprinted in Völker, Max Herrmann-Neisse, 86. 14 importance of the café, composing a song in which the café is deemed a place of “überhitzten Denkens” (heated thinking) and frequented by writers, their pockets bulging with unpublished manuscripts.53 Alongside Knatz-Werle, the heads of two other notable café regulars, Egon Erwin Kisch and Leo Heller, appear in the photomontage (Fig. 5).54 As a Hungarian immigrant who had formally written for the German-Czech Prager Tagblatt during the early 1920s, it is possible that Szatmari found the reporting style of both Czech writer-immigrants Kisch and Heller formative for his guidebook writing.55 Kisch, like Szatmari, had started his career writing for the Prager Tagblatt and after his move to Berlin, appeared regularly in the café between 1921 and 1930.56 Nicht “Baedeker”: Berlin was published the same year as Kisch’s Wagnisse in aller Welt (Ventures around the World). Although not a tourist guidebook - rather a travelogue written under various pseudonyms - Kisch’s work chronicled his travels across the globe with a pronounced anti-tourist emphasis. In Rotterdam, for example, Kisch describes the cheap hotels, sleazy bars and the black quarter of the city and how he mixes with sailors and old prostitutes.57 1927 also saw the publication of Leo Heller’s So siehste aus - Berlin! Skizzen und Bilder aus Berlin von heute [sic], (So it seems-Berlin! Sketches and Images from the Berlin of Today) comprising a series of short reports, recording the extent of the social depravity in the city. Heller traces the fates of the homeless criminal, the suicidal prostitute, the abused tenement housewife and the cocaine dealer. Like Kisch, Heller’s writing was sober and determined, but also full of wit. Heller wrote with an underlying sympathy for the Berlin types he described. Although not traditional guidebooks, Kisch’s and Heller’s commentaries encouraged their readers to explore quotidian urban life in all its complexities. Szatmari likewise deliberately explores Berlin’s social conditions, taking his reader to “Die Unterwelt Berlins” (Berlin’s Underworld) where he visits Kaschemmen 53 Karlernst Knatz-Werle, “Romanisches Café”, in Berlin Wochenspiegel. Berliner Messeamt 11, 1925, 8 and quoted in full in Schebera, Damals im Romanischen Café, 62. 54 See, Quinz, “Das Romanische Café”, 608-10, which offers a compelling description of Kisch’s presence in the café. 55 The Prager Tagblatt reported on political events for the estimated 25,000 Germans who lived in Prague at the beginning of the twentieth century. Segal, Egon Erwin Kisch, 95. 56 Segal, Egon Erwin Kisch, 93-94. 57 Kisch, Wagnisse in aller Welt, 68-69. 15 (low-class pubs) in poorer city areas around Alexanderplatz, Janowitzbrücke, Schlesischer Bahnhof and the working class district of Wedding. He describes the pimps and the prostitutes who sit together in the Uhu bar, as well as the Hundegustav bar owner who wears pyjamas all day under her waitress overall. Here, the young criminals sporting their faded soldiers uniforms, sit alongside the elderly women taking a break from soliciting. The figures Szatmari meets move around the streets after midnight. The prostitutes slink around street corners, whilst the criminals plunge their hands deep into their pockets, pulling their peak caps tightly down over their faces (Fig. 4). And like Heller - who Szatmari notably praises in his guidebook as being: “der größte Kenner und treueste Chronist der Berliner Verbrecherwelt” (the greatest knower and most sincere chronicler of the Berlin underground), the author’s sympathy is made apparent. The reader of Szatmari’s guidebook should not visit such places in order to gawp and judge (like a tourist), instead they should understand the hardships of these Berliners in order to experience what the author claims is “vollkommen echt” (completely real).58 The engagement of journalists in guidebook writing and forms of literary reporting helps draw attention to notable changes in post-war travel trends. Germany saw an increased (re)discovery of one’s hometown or country born out of economic necessity and post-war standardized working models. The latter encouraged the notion that it was one’s “Recht auf Freiheit” (right to freedom), and therefore “Urlaub” (holiday).59 Accordingly, a manifest increase in advertisements appearing for Berlin travel maps in Der Querschnitt coincided with the growing popularity of the journal amongst urban audiences after its production had moved from Frankfurt to Berlin in 1925.60 An excerpt from an advert for Griebens Reiseführer in the journal demonstrates that the important new function of a guidebook was to attract a local audience: Es gibt keinen besseren Maßstab für den Wert von Reiseführern, als das Nachlesen der Daten über eine Stadt, die man selbst genau kennt. Der Führer durch Berlin und Umgebung bietet dem alteingessenen Berliner soviel 58 Szatmari on Heller and on authenticity, Nicht “Baedeker”: Berlin, 135 and 152 respectively. 59 Koshar, Travel Cultures, 74-75 and Keitz, Reisen als Leitbild, 31. 60 For the advertisement for both the Autokarte for Berlin and “Ein Heimatbuch” to explore the city, (528); the new BZ Karte of Berlin, (530) all in Der Querschnitt, 1927, Heft 7, Juni. Noticeable readerships: Kurfürstendamm, Dahlem and Grünewald in Dascher, Alfred Flechtheim, 144. 16 Überraschendes und Wissenwertes in praktischer Anordnung und sachlicher Form, daß man schon daraus den Wert für den Stadtfremden ermessen kann.61 Moreover, commissioning a journalist like Szatmari, whose work was well known to Berliners through his contributions to the 8-Uhr-Abendblatt, potentially guaranteed the guidebook’s further success. By the beginning of the twentieth century it was the newspapers that Berliners turned to first for advice on how to navigate the city.62 As Peter Fritzsche contends, the flâneurial movements of Walter Benjamin and Franz Hessel were already long established journalistic practices. These reporters and feuilletonists avidly collected the debris of the city-occasionals, incidentals and chance encounters, and wrote these up in an unsystematic way as “snapshots” and “sketches”.63 These practices increased during the 1920s with the development of the extended form of literary reportage through writers such as Kisch and Heller. Literary reportage, travel and guidebook writing moved closer together therefore, and potentially sought to address similar readerships, a role likewise acknowledged in visual culture. Otto Umbehr’s photomontage Der rasender Reporter (Racing Reporter) (1926) shows Kisch striding over city and mountain-landscape – master of time and space – his majestic body constructed out of both writing and travel aids (Fig. 6). Umbehr’s image can be considered a celebration of modern technology in the Weimar era, in which the amalgamation of reporter and travel writer played a pivotal role. Similar amalgamations inform Szatmari’s guidebook. Newspaper bylines, “Ziehen Sie keinen grauen Anzug an, der ist Monopol!” (Don’t wear a grey suit, this is boring!), or “Ihre Reisegepäck gefällt auch andere Leute!” (Your luggage will attract other people!) are used as effective warning messages. These are combined with Szatmari’s acute, satirical observations. His comments on contemporary journalists, desperately trying to record up-to-date developments in the Reichstag, are not without a degree of self-irony: Ein Journalist flitzt durch die Wandelhalle und verkündet eine Neuigkeit: in dem Fraktionszimmer der Demokraten hat soeben ein Kompromißvorschlag 61 “There is no better way of judging the value of a guidebook than by reading the information about one’s own city. The guidebook to Berlin and its surrounding areas offers the old-established Berliner so much surprising and useful, practical instruction and factual detail, that this alone could be the measure of its worth for the city’s strangers.” Der Querschnitt, 1927, Heft 7, Juli, 530. 62 Fritzsche, “Readers, browsers”, 92. 63 Ibid. 95. 17 das Licht des parlamentarischen Tages erblickt. Bis er aber zum Telephon stürzt, um die Sensation zu melden, ist die Sache nicht mehr wahr. Der Vorschlag ist nämlich schon abgelehnt.64 Whether Szatmari’s writing-style might be considered politically motivated, is less clear. Notwithstanding his own interest and sympathy for working class Berliners demonstrated in his guidebook, there is little evidence to suggest that Szatmari’s work followed a similar vein to that of Kisch, whose writing became increasingly informed by his Marxist beliefs.65 Neither does Szatmari appear to have been a member of the German or Hungarian Communist parties. Yet his previous publication, Das Rote Ungarn; Der Bolschewismus in Budapest (Red Hungary; Bolshevism in Budapest) (1920), is unambiguously political. Das Rote Ungarn describes the catastrophic trajectory of the Hungarian Soviet Republic, written in Germany in November 1919, after revolutionary insurrection in both countries had failed. Szatmari charts how Hungary’s new centralized forms of power caused food shortages and high inflation, and recounts how counter-revolutionaries were brutally executed. After the Republic collapsed, a wave of further violence virtually eradicated former Communist leaders and their supporters. Szatmari’s book unequivocally concludes, “Ungarn war das Versuchslaboratorium Europas für die bolschewistische Seuche” (Hungary became Europe’s experiment laboratory for the Bolshevist disease). However, he admits that the processes of implementation were mostly to blame for this devastating outcome; the political ideals are not necessarily at fault.66 Eight years on, Szatmari’s criticisms of Germany’s own new form of social democracy appear more guarded. As part of the Romanische Café’s journalist circles, he was fully ensconced in Republican intellectual life. Yet, if Nicht “Baedeker”: Berlin functioned as an anti-tourist guidebook, Szatmari’s lengthy description of these circles suggests a recognition of the ideological “dilemma” he and fellow café occupants suffered; beholden to, and writing for, the post-war capitalist (tourist) 64 “A journalist shoots through the hallways and announces a new development: in the debating chamber of the Democrats a suggestion for compromise has to come to light. But by the time he lunges for the telephone in order to report the sensation, this is no longer the case. The compromise has already been refused.” Szatmari, Nicht “Baedeker”: Berlin, 45. 65 Despite emphasizing the impartiality of his reporting, Kisch made no secret of his political affiliations. Alfred Flechtheim recalls how he had in fact encountered him reading Marx in the Romanische Café. Schebera, Damals im Romanischen Café, 53-54. 66 Szatmari, Das Rote Ungarn, 4. 18 structures of which they disapproved. Indeed, the café shrewdly even marketed itself as the: “Olymp der brotlosen Künste, der Sitz der Berliner Boheme” (Olympia of starving artists, the throne of Berlin bohemians), and thereby enjoyed the attention and revenue of bus-loads of tourists who came to gawp at the regulars.67 Nicht “Baedeker: Berlin enabled Szatmari to reveal his criticisms of Weimar Berlin from within (the security of) such structures. And in particular Szatmari’s disapproval is notably directed towards both American tourists and models of production and consumption. The consolidation of the Dawes Plan in 1924 had helped Germany secure both substantial loans and corporate investment, as well as stabilize the Rentenmark. However, from the outset, American influence on economic, social and cultural structures was met with varying degrees of censure. In the same year that Nicht “Baedeker”: Berlin was published and less than 20 years after Henry Ford had introduced the moving production line, Fritz Lang visualized the machine as man- eating Moloch in his film Metropolis. Two years later, Kisch went to witness the Detroit Moloch for himself and was duly appalled.68 The impact of America was certainly felt within the tourist industry. Thomas Cook travel (founded 1845) organized some 32 package tours during 1925, 19 of which were directed specifically towards Americans wanting to visit Germany. This figure was set to increase a year later.69 Unsurprisingly, many of these American tourists flocked to Berlin, as is scathingly noted by Szatmari. The author tells his readers that tourists from “Yankeeland” ambush five o’clock tea dances at the Adlon hotel and that the city is now home to a rapidly growing number of (American-style) entertainment venues. Consequently, Berlin is now the most “Americanized city” in Europe.70 Yet upon arriving in the city, Szatmari’s reader is neither greeted with the Fordist efficiency, nor the advertising glamour that he might be led to expect. Rather he encounters the dilapidated “Autos Noahs” (Noah’s cars) and “Klappermühle” (rust buckets) lined up outside Berlin’s main train stations.71 If traveling in such a rust bucket is indeed essential, it is at the reader’s own peril. They should expect to spend hours stuck in 67 Paul Marcus, “Romanisches Café. Der Berliner Olymp der brotlosen Künste”, in the Münchner Illustrierte Presse 14. 4 1929, as quoted in Schebera, Damals im Romanischen Café, 40. 68 Kisch, “Bei Ford in Detroit”, in Paradies Amerika, 259-66. 69 Koshar, Travel Cultures, 76-77. 70 Szatmari, Nicht “Baedeker”: Berlin, 74 and 190 respectively. 71 Ibid. 2-3. 19 traffic on Leipziger Straße one of Berlin’s busiest places, and where the traffic police are utterly helpless.72 Conrad Neubauer’s pen and ink drawing of the traffic interchange at Potsdamerplatz, in which a traffic policeman salutes a defeated colleague standing helplessly under Berlin’s (clearly inadequate) first set of American traffic lights, compellingly reinforces Szatmari’s damning revelations (Fig. 7). Szatmari’s criticism of capitalism extends towards the ubiquitous forms of advertising promoted by the tourist industry. Rather than offering the reader full-page, glossy photographic advertisements for reputable credit institutions or exclusive restaurants like those found in Max Osborn’s Kennen Sie Berlin? (1928), or full-page advertisements for luxury German products such as the AEG (Allgemeine Elektrizitäts-Gesellschaft) Vampyr (AEG vacuum cleaner), Protos Bügeleisen (Protos iron), or Folio-Heizkissen (electric heated cushion) all promoted in AMFA’s 1928 guidebook, Szatmari instead acknowledges the callous determinacy of money (Fig. 8). What sites are visited and where the reader eats and sleeps is governed entirely by financial means; diplomats dine at Hotel Bristol and stockbroker-magnets at the exclusive Restaurant Peltzer. Here, Szatmari tells his reader with scorn, menus are in French and there is simply too much choice. Correspondingly the less well-off eat at the dining chain Aschingers, where there is little choice at all.73 Although Baedeker considered itself above such forms of marketing, the overriding use of full-page advertisements by other mainstream guidebooks during the Weimar period sought to promote Germany as an “incubator of modern lifestyles” and a place worthy of financial speculation thanks to American investment.74 As Szatmari’s guidebook readily implies however, in reality, things were quite different. World trade grew far less quickly than before the First World War and the “hate discount” imposed by the Allies meant that German export markets rapidly shrank.75 Moreover, Germany’s high tax regime meant in fact that the car could only be developed for the mass market during the 1930s and as a result, Berliners had no choice but to continue to drive their antiquated “rust buckets”.76 For all of the opportunities capitalism 72 Ibid. 31-32. 73 Ibid. 66-69. 74 Baranowski, Strength through Joy. 14. 75 Even in 1929 the German share of British and US imports was still only three-fifths of its pre-war level. James, “The Weimar Economy”, 106-7. 76 Ibid.104-5. 20 afforded, Szatmari’s guidebook reveals that the average Berliner did not often experience these. Similar to the writing of Kisch and Heller, Szatmari’s guidebook acknowledged degrees of social reality, made apparent through capitalist disparity. Although Szatmari’s political sympathies remain unclear, his notable inclusion of illustrations by Pressezeichner (press illustrators), as opposed to the usual guidebook glossy advertisements and photographs, could be construed as anti-tourist. Just as literary reportage moved noticeably closer to the guidebook genre during the 1920s, so too did press illustration, which acted as a compelling way to deconstruct the sensual framing of the city through the types of maps and the photographs often found in mainstream guides. The Art of Travel Besides brief discussions about traffic and politics, the focus of Szatmari’s guidebook for the most part, promotes entertainment in all its forms: the cinema; five o’clock tea dances; nightclubs; low-class pubs; theatres; gambling and sporting events. Szatmari excitedly recounts the gold curtains and light effects in the Ufa cinema.77 Readers should witness the stampedes in Berlin’s theatre cloakrooms; the costumes and “pretty legs” of the revue-hall girls and the squabbling amongst actors and critics over beef steaks in the wine bar Schwannecke.78 This season’s theatrical highlights - Austrian operetta diva Fritzi Massay – are also not to be missed.79 Original illustrations by artists Zille, Godal and Conny, as well as Alois Derso, Benedikt Fred Dolbin and Rudolf Großmann reinforce the author’s enthusiasms.80 The subject matter of these illustrations varies considerably. The reader encounters Großmann’s pen and ink drawing of six-day cycling “gladiators” sitting around their changing room (Fig. 9); Zille’s shirking criminal (Fig. 4); Godal’s caricature of the po-faced theatre critic Alfred Kerr and Conny’s ink drawing of a dynamic Jazz band, among many others. These artists were collectively known as Pressezeichner (press illustrators), due to their prolificacy in the contemporary press.81 Indeed, by the time 77 Szatmari, Nicht “Baedeker”: Berlin, 109. 78 Ibid. 85, 106 and 127-31, respectively. 79 Ibid. 112. 80 The front page of the book proudly announces “Mit Originalzeichnnungen” (with original drawings). 81 For the term see, Wirth, Berliner Pressezeichner der Zwanziger Jahre. 5-6. 21 Szatmari’s guidebook was published, the acclaim for Dolbin’s caricature portraits of Weimar celebrities was nothing short of “epidemic” amongst his fellow artists, who were desperately trying to imitate his style.82 Yet the lack of photographs in Szatmari’s guidebook – neither advertising nor otherwise - is unusual during the 1920s. John Urry contends that the ubiquitous use of photographs in guidebooks, points towards persistent belief in the medium’s veracity. Photographs become a powerful determinant of tourist experience by putting a (positive) “spin” on the destination.83 Urry’s comments are certainly relevant to guidebooks in Weimar Germany; both the AMFA’s and Max Osborn’s contemporaneous guidebook Kennen Sie Berlin? (Do you know Berlin?) contained full-page b/w photographs of tourist sites, as well as images of luxury products. A b/w aerial photograph of a sprawling Berlin, alongside a full-page reproduction of Walther Firle’s state portrait of President Paul von Hindenburg, both at the beginning of Berlin’s AMFA guidebook, are examples of illustrations the reader might expect to encounter in a publication trying to promote a modern Germany in tandem with its powerful past (Fig. 10). Both AMFA’s and Osborn’s guidebooks to Berlin also boasted full-page photographs of tourist sites (Fig 11). For example, the photograph of Berlin’s Cathedral in Osborn’s guide connotes an atmosphere of serenity and mystique, rather than the crowded, frenetic character perhaps expected at the heart of a Republic’s capital city. These types of images are decidedly lacking in Nicht “Baedeker”: Berlin and this lack stems from the questions of visual sensibility raised at the beginning of this article. The pitfalls of what was perceived as photographic realism during the 1920s - as photography moved away from Pictorialist imitation of paintings – were certainly recognized at the time by Walter Benjamin and Siegfried Kracauer amongst others.84 82 Quinz, “Das Romanische Café,” 609. 83 Urry, Tourist Gaze, 86. 84 For example see, Benjamin’s essay, “A Short History of Photography” (1931) and Kracauer’s essay, “Photography” (1927). For more recent compelling discussions on photography and assumed veracity in the press, see chapters 2 and 5 in Daniel H. Magilow, The Photography of Crisis: The Photo Essays of Weimar Germany. In his discussion on the photojournalist Erich Salomon’s series Berühmte Zeitgenossen in unbewachten Augenblicken (Famous Contemporaries in Unguarded Moments), Magilow explores how these visual Augenzeugenberichte (eyewitness reports) carefully constructed images of politicians as a means of countering the widespread perceived ineffectualness of Weimar-era institutions. 119-46. 22 If photographic representations in guidebooks conditioned tourist expectations prior to travel, a type of “non-looking” could occur upon arrival. For Kracauer writing in 1927, the saturation of the press – the Bilderflut – with travel images provided a way of masking social relations entirely. Not only is the traveler himself in a perpetual state of “absentmindedness”, but the photographs of the world’s “geographic hideouts” might serve to “occlude one’s perspective with impressions; […] so the world’s ugliness goes unnoticed.”85 Placed next to each other, Margherita Stevenson- Heinsheimer’s contrasting photographs of peddler and pinstriped Baedeker-reader appear to illustrate similar concerns deliberately (Fig. 1). Other photographs by her in the same Querschnitt edition showcase an interest in quotidian Venetian life. No less constructed, her photographs of domestic houses and backstreets full of stray cats demand that readers at least question the types of idealised photographic ‘impressions’ encountered in mainstream guides. Further strategies utilized by the journal involved cleverly juxtaposing so-called documentary “high-brow” photographs alongside artificial forms of entertainment. In one edition from 1927, a view of the row of walled arches and uniform mosaic saints from the Byzantine basilica Sant’ Apollinare Nuovo in Ravenna, is placed on one page beneath the line formation of identical girl dancers ‘Melle Jolly’, on the stage in modern Paris. On a previous page, a photograph of carefree beach gymnastics with protagonists in bathing suits, contrasts starkly with a line of uniformed boys trudging their way through the rain and slush to rescue the spectators of a rainy summer’s sporting event in England.86 Whilst initially absurd, rather than a mindless Bilderflut, these juxtapositions demanded that the reader question the origin and nature of such photographs. The unusual ways in which the journal also included photographic representations of “exotic” places like the Middle East or Asia underscore this further. How articles, graphics and photographs were randomly interspersed in the journal meant that the hierarchical distinction between the “European” and the “exotic,” the “primitive” and the “modern,”’ were often (positively) eradicated.87 Perhaps unsurprisingly, the comic photographic juxtapositions outlined above appeared in the same edition alongside modernist works by artists Juan Gris and Pablo Picasso and 85 See the subsection in Kracauer’s main essay “The Little Shopgirls go to the Movies,” entitled “The World Travelers,” 298-99. 86 For these photographs see, Der Querschnitt Band 7, 1927, Heft 7 Juli. The photos discussed are unpaginated and appear between pages 550 and 551. 87 Michael Cowan explores this idea of the ‘exotic’ in the journal and also compares this briefly to other media. See, ‘Querschnitt Montage’, 35. 23 photographs of anonymous orange sellers from Damascus and shoe sellers from China.88 This use of images contrasted markedly with Baedeker and other contemporaneous mainstream guides, in which comic juxtapositions of this nature did not occur, nor did this seemingly egalitarian attitude towards world culture. In doing so, the journal asked its readers not only to explore questions of photographic veracity, but also think about the context in which photographs appeared and how this might ultimately shape their meaning. Szatmari’s guidebook appeared during the same year as Kracauer’s essay on photography. If the author was likewise encouraging his readers to develop different degrees of visual sensibility, then the caricature drawings found at regular intervals throughout his guidebook might be considered a deliberate strategy. Despite high numbers of photographs in the media during the 1920s, the press often preferred to use drawings, as they were easier to print, keeping costs to a minimum.89 Such ubiquity, coupled with the sustained political failings of the republic, significantly impacted upon widespread belief that caricatures were in fact a more honest representation of contemporary society.90 Indeed, the artist Erich Godal’s notoriety was affirmed by the state’s attack on his work as being dangerously “viel zu echt” (far too realistic).91 Therefore Szamari’s use of Godal’s caricature depicting beady-eyed Reichstag politicians meant that his guidebook immediately conveyed different forms of exposure for its readers (Fig. 3). Such exposure is reinforced by Szatmari’s insistence that Godal could often be found locked in political discussions with fellow artist, Conny, in the Romanische Café.92 In contrast to photographs of disembodied tourist sites, ambiguities surrounding the “real” and ideal do not arise and tourist expectation is likewise not positively framed. Rather the waspish, dynamic lines of the caricature pen-drawings – be they images of traffic wardens, criminals, politicians or cyclists – consistently demand the reader’s critical viewing perspective, thereby continually reinforcing the guidebook’s anti-tourist text.93 88 All of the images discussed above appear in Der Querschnitt Band 7, 1927, Heft 7 Juli. 89 On printing, Korzen, “On the trail of Dolbin”, 98-101, (101 ff. 2). 90 Gay, Weimar Culture, 70. 91 Szatmari, Nicht “Baedeker”: Berlin, 118. 92 Ibid, 118. 93 It should also be noted that some of the other projects with which many of the artists used in Szatmari’s guidebook were involved, offered far more overt social and political criticisms of the Republic. For example, Erich Godal’s series, Revolution (1920) and Rudolf Großmann’s series Cocain- Eine Orgie des modernen Lebens (1925). 24 The championing of press illustrators like Großmann can also be understood as deliberately promoting non-elitist attitudes towards culture that both journal and guidebook shared. The Nicht “Baedeker”: Berlin artists Conny and Godal, along with the artists Großmann and Dolbin, were all associated with the “Flechtheimtisch” (Flechtheim table) in the Romanische Café.94 The table was named after the art dealer and original editor of Der Querschnitt, Alfred Flechtheim, who established a similar artist-table in the Café du Dôme in Montmartre, before the war.95 By the mid-1920s, artists from that circle including Rudolf Levy, Großmann and later Flechtheim himself, had moved to Berlin, where they reconvened in the Romanische Café. The café effectively became an “office” where Flechtheim and Wedderkop regularly met.96 Indeed, the utilisation of café-spaces for the promotion of art and artists was not unusual: dealer Herwarth Walden’s circle had regularly met in Café des Westens before the war and Berlin Dadaists converged around the Schlichter-owned restaurant on the Lutherstraße-corner of Ansbacher Straße. In such spaces, cultural projects were both conceived and managed: in Restaurant Schlichter for example, artist Rudolf Schlichter covered the walls of the dining area with his saleable paintings.97 Crucially, the articles and photographs documenting the Romanische Café - and the Café du Dôme before it – in Der Querschnitt, confirm the importance of the café to the cultural debates throughout the 1920s.98 The numerous articles, photos and drawings by Großmann, Godal and Dolbin that were likewise included, attest to the trenchant role these artists played in the journal’s artistic vision.99 As a regular in the same café who observed Flechtheim’s “big nose”, it might be surmised that Szatmari purposely chose artists connected with this Flechtheim circle and in so doing, cleverly distanced the guidebook from the more elitist forms of culture promoted by Baedeker. 100 Der Querschnitt had in fact begun as an idiosyncratic guide to Alfred Flechtheim’s art dealership in Düsseldorf, and despite its subsequent much-expanded 94 Korzen, “On the trail of Dolbin,” 98. 95 Dascher, Alfred Flechtheim, 170. 96 For office see, Allen, Literary Life, 72. 97 Schebera, Damals im Romanischen Café, 93. 98 For example, Quinz, ‘Das Romanische Café,’ 609 as before and M. Kogan, “Café du Dôme,” 611- 12. See further photographs and drawings of the café in Der Querschnitt, Band, 8, 1928, Heft 3, März. 99 The journal even printed a caricatural portrait of Wedderkop by Großmann with elf-like ears, bulbous shoulders and pursed lips. Wedderkop,“Der Siegeszug des Querschnitt,” 92. 100 Szatmari, Nicht “Baedeker”: Berlin, 123. 25 remit by the mid 1920s; the journal’s underlying emphasis always remained fine art. Monthly editions boasted a dozen or more full-page art reproductions and photographs, as well as articles on artists and adverts for art books and dealers.101 Flechtheim quickly established Der Querschnitt’s orientation towards contemporary French and German modernist artists, with Wedderkop likewise maintaining alliances with what he boasted were the “geistige Elite des Auslandes” (foreign intellectual elites).102 Through its professed cosmopolitanism, both Wedderkop and Flechtheim were keen to differentiate Der Querschnitt from elite art journal predecessors such as Kunst und Künstler. Originally founded by Bruno Cassirer in 1902, Kunst und Künstler was later published by the art critic Karl Scheffler and predominantly promoted German artists influenced by French naturalism.103 Its remit was small, its focus fine art, and it was written by, and mostly for, art critics and dealers. Scheffler and Cassirer also had a regular table in the Romanische Café, which they notably did not share with the Flechtheim circle.104 Conversely, Der Querschnitt promoted developments in art, both old and new, and did so in what was self-consciously classed as a non-elite fashion. Wedderkop explained: Kunsthistorische Beiträge sind unter allen Umständen verpönt, insbesondere solche analytischer Natur, es sei denn, das darin etwas gesagt ist, was bisher noch nicht gesagt wurde, und was sehr lebendig ist.105 In other words, Der Querschnitt’s attitude towards the inclusion of both mass and elite forms of culture extended towards the ways in which the journal should write about art. Accordingly, it promoted cosmopolitan modernist developments in art, alongside photographs, Gebrauchsgrafik (commercial graphic art) and 101 Wedderkop claimed art and its reproductions remained central to the journal’s focus. See, “Der Siegeszug des Querschnitt,” as before, 91. 102 Ibid. 91. Contemporary French writers André Gide, Roger Martin du Gard and René Crevel contributed to the journal. 103 Malcolm Gee, “The ‘cultured city,’” 154. Interestingly, Cassirer and Scheffler collaborated to produce their own guidebook of sorts for the Berlin National Galerie in 1912. Like their art journal, this guidebook foregrounded the work of German naturalists such as Adolph Menzel, Anseln Feuerbach and Max Liebermann. 104 Quinz, “Das Romanische Café,” 609. Karl Scheffler’s autobiography indicates that these café meetings were part of their daily routine (not unlike Wedderkop and Flechtheim in fact). Scheffler, Die fetten und die mageren Jahre, 186-87. 105 “Art historical contributions are ridiculed in all circumstances, particularly those of an analytical nature, except for when the text contains something that has not been said before and something that is very lively.” Wedderkop’s attitude is recounted in an article by Albert Dreyfus, “Picasso (1922),” 56. Malcolm Gee also interprets this article as indicative of the journal’s contrasting attitude towards art and art history, Gee, “The ‘cultured City’”, 167, ff. 39. 26 advertisements.106 As press illustrators regularly contributing to mass cultural journals, as well as artists selling original works, the artists Großmann, Godal and Dolbin were an important part of such cultural inclusivity. Szatmari’s guidebook does not offer lists of famous German collections, star-rank museums, nor does it reproduce choice art from historic collections found in Baedeker. The font size of the text does not change to signal the importance of historic sites. The recommended literature listed in the introduction to Baedeker’s 1927 guide to Berlin places art historian Max Osborn’s 1909 book, Berlin Seine Kunststätten (Berlin’s Art Sites) on the top of its list, followed by books on Prussian palaces and their architects during the late eighteenth century.107 Osborn’s art historical expertise was styles of Empire: Rococo and Baroque, indicating why his foray into guidebooks promoted the city in similarly limited terms. Moreover, in Baedeker’s list of “most important German artists, sculptors and architects since the 1800s”, academic artists such as Walther Firle, Max Klinger, Fritz von Uhde, Adolf Menzel and Anton von Werner constitute the predominant focus, whilst the artistic avant-garde, or artists producing work for the illustrated press are barely represented.108 When modern art is discussed in Baedeker, it is the naturalist artists from the Berlin Secession, and notably those artists associated with the previously discussed Kunst und Künstler, that are foregrounded.109. The use of Der Querschnitt artists and press illustrators remained a characteristic part of the Nicht “Baedeker” guidebook’s overall uniqueness. Szatmari’s guidebook established both the format and emphasis that Wedderkop’s editions to Cologne, Paris and London would go on to maintain. These guidebooks contain no maps, or photographs and also few advertisements. Wedderkop notably includes references to a city “Bummel”, signalling the sustained conflation of the reader and flâneur. Upon 106 Pinsker correspondingly interprets the Romanische Café as a place where both high- and low-brow forms of culture met, in marked contrast to the elite, pre-war Expressionist gatherings of dealer Herwarth Walden in Café des Westens. Pinsker, Literary Passports, 121. 107 See the section “Kunstgeschichte”, in Baedeker, Baedekers Berlin, XI. 108 See, “Verzeichnis”. Ibid. 211-18. 109 Ibid. 39-40. The closeness of Scheffler’s and Osborn’s attitudes towards naturalist artists are emphasised by a page of photographs that appeared in Die Dame journal in 1924 entitled “Kunstschriftsteller” (Art Critics), depicting Scheffler’s image alongside Max Osborn, Paul Westheim and Wilhelm von Bode in their respective homes. Illustrated and briefly discussed by Malcolm Gee, “‘Cultured City’”, 162-63. 27 visiting Paris, Wedderkop declares that he is not interested in listing the ‘best’ works in the Louvre, nor does he wish to spend time admiring some of the gallery’s most renowned historical works by Nicholas Poussin or Frau Angelico.110 Instead, he prefers to explore the bohemian artist circles of Montmartre. In London, Wedderkop likewise does not wish to see the well-known “Schinkenmaler” (chocolate-box artists) in the National Gallery, such as Pollaiuolo, Ghirlandaio and Perugino; instead he focuses on the work of J. M. W. Turner and the cruelty of Hogarth in the Tate. In his guidebook to Cologne, Wedderkop shows off his intimacy with the Flechtheim’s artist circle and takes his reader on a tour of small art dealerships found amongst the city’s backstreets.111 Wedderkop’s simultaneous involvement with Der Querschnitt and guidebook series from 1928 onwards, ensured that their modern art-loving readerships continued to overlap. Nicholas Parsons posits that our choice of guidebook, and the ways in which we choose to use one – dutifully, with skepticism, with blind obedience or even with mockery - reveals a good deal about the cultural attitudes to which we instinctively subscribe.112 With regards to the readership of the Nicht “Baedeker” series in Weimar Germany and its crossover with the journal Der Querschnitt, its readers often looked towards the press in the first instance, to help (re)discover German cities. Such a crossover reveals how the figure of the journalist – a figure so intimately connected with the city - became synonymous with the respected travel writer who could offer his reader different forms of authenticity, thus providing important new ways of thinking about feuilleton literature and the familiar theme of the flâneur. Moreover, through its focus on cultural diversity and contemporary press illustrators, the Nicht “Baedeker” series acknowledged a more modern readership and intellectual milieu developing during the 1920s, one which wanted to distance itself from the limited cultural view of Baedeker by self-consciously assuming the position of an anti-tourist. An in-depth study of Nicht “Baedeker”: Berlin significantly reveals that there was a lesser-known side of the travel industry that was not so commercially orientated rapidly developing in Germany. For art and cultural historians in particular, this side 110 Wedderkop, Das Buch von Paris, 133-41. 111 Wedderkop, Das Buch von Köln, Düsseldorf, Bonn, 161-62. 112 Parsons, Detour, 14. 28 also uncovers a marked interest in diverse forms of culture, including an emphasis on graphic art and caricature to encourage increased visual sensibilities and challenge the veracity of photographic representations (still) used by the industry. Today, there are a great number of alternative guidebook series such as; Lonely Planet (founded 1972); Dorling Kindersley. Eyewitness Travel (founded, 1974); Rough Guides (founded 1982); and more recently Not for Tourists - or simply NFT - (founded 2000), each professing to offer different forms of authentic experience, some more overtly anti- tourist than others. However, during the 1920s, producing a series that successfully boasted a challenge to the Baedeker international monopoly on travel guides was no easy task. Nonetheless, with its guidebook to Berlin, the Nicht “Baedeker” series succeeded in doing just that and should be understood as an important presage to “alternative” guidebooks we use today. In 1929, the series even managed to gain a foothold in the international market through the English translation of Vienna that’s not in the “Baedeker”, by Thomas W. MacCalum. However, whilst the series’ professed claims to anti-tourism were formed through degrees of exposure and self-irony, its very existence relied upon the mass tourist infrastructures it tried to critique. Rather tellingly, as the Baedeker’s dynasty gradually faded throughout the 1920s, in 1931 both the Nicht “Baedeker” and the original Baedeker series ceased publishing altogether.113 Yet through close links to Der Querschnitt, the series as a whole also symbolized an important move towards more specialized forms of travel in Germany. Thus, more diverse guidebooks began to flourish on the German market, including Curt Moreck’s Führer durch das “Lasterhafte” Berlin (Guide to “Depraved” Berlin) (1931), which showcased the city’s nightlife, including its gay bars, and Dietz working class guidebooks (1932) for the traveler with a limited budget. As such, the Nicht “Baedeker” series did not signal the end of Germany as the “classic land” of travel guides and guidebooks, rather a new beginning cut short, only to resume again after the decline of the monolithic travel forms introduced by the National Socialists. Reference list 113 Koshar, Travel Cultures, 81. 29 Allen. Roy F. 1983. Literary Life in German Expressionism in the Berlin Circles, Ann Arbor, Michigan: UMI Research Press. Baedeker, Karl. 1927. Baedekers Berlin und Umgebung. Leipzig: Baedeker. Baranowski, Shelley. 2004. Strength through Joy. Consumerism and Mass Tourism in the Third Reich. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 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Dreyfus, Albert. 1923. “Picasso (1922).” Der Querschnitt, Band 3, Heft 1/2: 56-59. 30 Fritzsche, Peter. 2002. “Readers, browsers, strangers, spectators: narrative forms and metropolitan encounters in twentieth-century Berlin.” In Printed Matters: Printing, Publishing and Urban Culture in Europe in the Modern Period, edited by Malcolm Gee and Tim Kirk, 88-104. Aldershot: Ashgate. Gay, Peter. 1968. Weimar Culture: The Outsider as Insider. London: Norton. Gee, Malcolm. 2002. “The ‘cultured city’: the art press in Berlin and Paris in the early twentieth century.” In Printed Matters: Printing, Publishing and Urban Culture in Europe in the Modern Period, edited by Malcolm Gee and Tim Kirk, 150-73. Aldershot: Ashgate. Gleber, Anke. 1999. The Art of Taking a Walk: Flânerie, Literature and Film in Weimar Culture, Princeton: Princeton University Press. Goldschmidt, Albert. 1929. “Grieben Verlag.” Der Querschnitt, Band 9, Heft 10, Oktober: 758. Görlich, Christopher. 2007. “Berlin, die geteilte Stadt: Ein Topos in deutschen Reiseführern des 20. Jahrhunderts.” Studies in Contemporary History, 4, Heft. 3, URL: http://www.zeithistorische-forschungen.de/16126041-Goerlich-3-2007 Haacke, Wilmont and Alexander von Baeyer. 1968. Facsimilie Querschnitt durch den Querschnitt 1921-1936. München, Bern, Wien: Scherz Verlag. Heller, Leo. 1927. So siehste aus - Berlin! Skizzen und Bilder aus Berlin von heute [sic]. München: Verlag Parcus & Co. Herbert, Robert L. 1994. Monet on the Normandy Coast: Tourism and Painting, 1867-1886. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press. Hessel, Franz. [1929]. “Rundfahrt.” Edited by Friedrich Seidenstücker. 2009. Ein Flaneur in Berlin. 52-134. Berlin: Arsenal. 31 http://www.zeithistorische-forschungen.de/16126041-Goerlich-3-2007 James, Harold. 2009. “The Weimar Economy.” In Short Oxford History of Germany. Weimar Germany, edited by Anthony McElligott, 127-45. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Jensen, Johannes von. 1929. “Touristen in Jerusalem.” Der Querschnitt, Band 9, Heft 10, Oktober: 709-14. Keitz, Christine. 1997. Reisen als Leitbild: die Entstehung des modernen Massentourismus in Deutschland. München: DTV. Kiecol, Daniel. 2008, “Berlin und sein Fremdenverkehr: Imageproduction in den 1920er Jahren.” In Selling Berlin. Imagebildung und Stadtmarketing von der preußischen Residenz bis zur Bundeshauptstadt, edited by Thomas Biskup and Marc Schalenberg, 161-174. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag. Kisch, Egon Erwin. 1927. Wagnisse in aller Welt. Berlin: Universum-Bücherei für Alle. Kisch, Egon Erwin. [1930]. Paradies Amerika. Berlin: Erich Reiss. Bodo Uhse and Gisela Kisch eds. 1984. Gesammelte Werke, vol. IV. Berlin and Weimar: Aufbau Verlag. Kogan, M. 1926. “Café du Dôme.” Der Querschnitt, Band 6, Heft 8, August: 611-12. Korzen, Christina. 2013. “On the trail of Dolbin, the prowling head-hunter.” In Strassen und Gesichter. Berlin 1918-1933, by Annelie Lütgens, 98-101. Exhib. Cat. Berlinische Galerie Museum für Moderne Kunst. Bielefeld/Berlin: Kerber Verlag. Koshar, Rudy. 2000. German Travel Cultures. London: Berg. Kracauer, Siegfried. [1927]. “Photography.” Translated and edited by Thomas Levin 1995. The Mass Ornament: Weimar Essays. 47-63. London and Cambridge Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. 32 Kracauer, Siegfried. [1927]. “The Little Shopgirls go to the Movies.” Translated and edited by Thomas Levin 1995. The Mass Ornament: Weimar Essays. 291-304. London and Cambridge Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. MacCannell, Dean. 1976. “Staged Authenticity.” In The Tourist. A New Theory of the Leisure Class. 91-105. New York: Schocken Books Inc. Magilow, Daniel H. 2012. The Photography of Crisis: The Photo Essays of Weimar Germany. University Park, PA: Penn State University Press. McElligott, Anthony. 2009. “Political Culture.” In Short Oxford History of Germany. Weimar Germany, edited by Anthony McElligott, 26-40. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Osborn, Max and Werner Rades. 1928. Kennen Sie Berlin? Stettin: F. Hessenland. Parsons. Nicholas T. 2007. Worth the Detour. A History of The Guidebook. Stroud: The History Press Ltd. Pinsker, Shachar. 2011. Literary Passports: The Making of Modernist Hebrew Fiction in Europe. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. Prickett, David James. 2011. ‘“We will show you Berlin”: Space, leisure, flânerie and sexuality.” Leisure Studies, vol. 30, no. 2: 157-77. Quinz, Matheo. 1926. “Das Romanische Café.” Der Querschnitt, Band 6, Heft 8, August: 608-10. Roth, Joseph. 2010. What I saw: Reports from Berlin. Translated and edited by Michael Hofmann, London: Granta. Schebera, Jürgen. 1988. Damals im Romanischen Café: Künstler und ihre Lokale im Berlin der zwanziger Jahre. Braunschweig: Westermann. 33 Scheffler, Karl. 1946. Die fetten und die mageren Jahre: ein Arbeits- und Lebensbericht. München: P. List. Segal, Harold B. 1987. Egon Erwin Kisch, The Raging Reporter: A Bio-anthology, West Lafayette: Purdue University Press. Sicks, Kai Marcel. 2005. “Der Querschnitt oder: Die Kunst des Sporttreibens”. In Leibhaftige Moderne: Körper in Kunst und Massenmedien 1918 bis 1933, edited by Michael Cowan and Kai Marcel Sicks, 33-47. Bielefeld: Transcript Verlag. Smith, Camilla. 2013. “Challenging Baedeker through the Art of Sexual Science: An Exploration of Homosexuality in Curt Moreck’s Guide to “Depraved” Berlin (1931).’ Oxford Art Journal, vol. 36, no. 2: 231-256. Smith, Jill. 2010. “Just how naughty was Berlin: The geography of prostitution and female sexuality in Moreck’s erotic travel guide.” In Spatial Turns: Space, Place, and Mobility in German Literary and Visual Culture, edited by Jaimey Fisher and Barbara Mennel, 53-77. Amsterdam: Rodopi. Solari, Pietro. 1930. “Italiener in Venedig.” Der Querschnitt, Band 10, Heft 11, November: 760-62. Szatmari, Eugen. 1920. Das Rote Ungarn; Der Bolschewismus in Budapest. 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work_dqud2adhprei3jnj4zdro365pa	----	First principles study of the optical emission of cadmium yellow: Role of cadmium vacancies AIP ADVANCES 8, 065202 (2018) First principles study of the optical emission of cadmium yellow: Role of cadmium vacancies Laura Giacopetti,1,2,a Austin Nevin,3,b Daniela Comelli,4,c Gianluca Valentini,4,d Marco Buongiorno Nardelli,5,e and Alessandra Satta1,f 1CNR-IOM Cagliari, c/o Dipartimento di Fisica, Università di Cagliari, Cittadella Universitaria, 09042 Monserrato, Italy 2Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche e Geologiche, Università di Cagliari, Cittadella Universitaria, 09042 Monserrato, Italy 3CNR-IFN Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci, 20133 Milano, Italy 4Dipartimento di Fisica, Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci, 20133 Milano, Italy 5Department of Physics, University of North Texas, Denton, Texas 76203, USA (Received 7 December 2017; accepted 18 May 2018; published online 1 June 2018) We study the role of structural defects in the CdS-based cadmium yellow paint to explain the origin of its deep trap states optical emission. To this end, we com- bine a first principles study of Cd- and S- vacancies in the wurtzite (101̄0) CdS surface with experimental photoluminescence spectroscopy of the commercial hexag- onal CdS pigment. Computational results clearly state that the presence of cadmium vacancies in the pigment surface alters the electronic structure of cadmium sulfide by forming acceptor levels in the gap of the semiconductor. Such levels are consis- tent with the optical emission from trap state levels detected in the CdS pigment. This finding provides a first step towards the understanding of the photo-physical mechanisms behind the degradation of this modern pigment, widely used in impres- sionist and modernist paintings. © 2018 Author(s). All article content, except where otherwise noted, is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5018512 Metal-based semiconductors have been widely used as colour pigments in impressionist, post- impressionist and early modern works from the 1880s through the 1920s. In particular, the brilliant yellow pigment takes its colouration from cadmium sulfide (CdS), a II-VI wide-gap semiconducting compound. The strong yellow colouration appeared in the works of Vincent van Gogh followed by prominent artists such as Claude Monet, Pablo Picasso and Henry Matisse. It was early recognised that poor quality Cadmium yellow tended to loose its colour in light, and recommendations to insure the absence of free sulphur in cadmium yellows were made.1 Various cadmium yellow pigments undergo an irreversible degradation process, causes of which are still unclear. Discolouration (fading and darkening), formation of crumbly surfaces and of whitish semitransparent globules have been reported. Recent microscopy and spectroscopy studies on Ensor, Matisse, and Van Gogh paints2–6 have partially elucidated the chemistry behind discoloration mechanisms, with the identification and mapping of different photo-oxidation products in altered paint layers, cadmium carbonates, sulfates and oxalates. However, the trigger mechanism for this irreversible degradation is still unknown. It has been suggested that paint alteration could be ascribed to an initial photo-oxidation of CdS:7 excitation of the material by visible light results in the formation of electron/hole pairs which, following surface migration, produce redox chemistry and organic oxidation. Cadmium sulfide is observed in many pigments in the hexagonal wurtzite phase6,8 - that is confirmed to be the main crystalline constituent alaura.giacopetti@dsf.unica.it baustin.nevin@ifn.cnr.it cdaniela.comelli@polimi.it dgianluca.valentini@polimi.it eMarco.BuongiornoNardelli@unt.edu falessandra.satta@cnr.it; Corresponding author 2158-3226/2018/8(6)/065202/8 8, 065202-1 © Author(s) 2018 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5018512 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5018512 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5018512 mailto:laura.giacopetti@dsf.unica.it mailto:austin.nevin@ifn.cnr.it mailto:daniela.comelli@polimi.it mailto:gianluca.valentini@polimi.it mailto:Marco.BuongiornoNardelli@unt.edu mailto:alessandra.satta@cnr.it http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1063/1.5018512&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2018-06-01 065202-2 Giacopetti et al. AIP Advances 8, 065202 (2018) of the yellow paint. Beyond the specific field of Cultural Heritage, the physical properties of CdS have been widely studied due to their importance in fundamental science as well as in optoelectronic applications like solar cells,9,10 lasers,11,12 and recently in nanotechnology.13,14 In this Letter, we study the role of structural defects in hexagonal CdS to explain the origin of its well-known optical emission from deep trap states. Indeed, these crystal defects could be the precursors of the CdS degradation process. Among native defects we focus on cation and anion vacancies since other types of intrinsic defects were shown to give a yield that is not compatible with a deep trap state.15–17 In particular, we focus on the role of Cd- and S- vacancies in the most stable CdS surface, namely the {10.0}. Their influence on the electronic structure of cadmium sulfide is studied by means of a first principles method in combination with experimental photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopy measurements on the commercial undeteriorated hexagonal CdS pigment. Photoluminescence emissions due to deep trap states are observed both in pure commercial18–20 and historical degraded pigments18,21 supporting the basic idea that traps are intrinsic to CdS. The identification of these trap states is an essential step to understand the chemical reactivity of the unaltered pigment and to provide a reliable starting point for future studies on the complex mechanisms involved in the deterioration of a CdS paint. In the present work, PL spectroscopy has been performed on hexagonal CdS-based pigment by employing a compact spectrometer and UV-laser excitation. Details on the employed PL spec- trometer and on analysis of experimental data are provided in the supplementary material. First principles calculations have been carried out within the density functional theory in the generalized gradient approximation (DFT-GGA) as implemented in the quantum-ESPRESSO22 package, using ultrasoft-PBE pseudopotentials.23,24 To improve the description of the electronic properties and to correct the band gap we used ACBN0, a novel pseudo-hybrid Hubbard density functional that was recently developed by some of us.25 Additional details on the computational set up are given in the supplementary material. The relaxed clean (101̄0) CdS surface showed the typical ridged profile where both cations and anions occupy two non-equivalent lattice sites, namely top and hollow positions (see supplementary material). We will refer to V top Cd , Vhollow Cd and to V top S , Vhollow S to indicate cadmium and sulfur vacancies, respectively. We focused first on cadmium vacancies since they were shown in benchmark calcula- tions26–28 to play a key-role in the surface reactivity. As for V top Cd , the corresponding density of states (DOS) (top panel in Fig. 1c) shows that the defective surface and the clean one (shaded area) differ in the presence of two states in the band gap due to a residual of the spin-down contribution: a shallow level close to valence band edge and a deep one. The projected DOS (central panel) reveals that this defect states are two acceptor levels, two electron holes, originating from the 3p-dangling bonds of sulfur nearest neighbours (SNN ) lying in-plane. No contribution is detected from S⊥ atoms in the inte- rior layers (bottom panel), as well as equally negligible are the contributions from Cd⊥. Similarly, for Vhollow Cd a double acceptor level appears on top of the valence band maximum. In Fig. 2c), top panel, the vacancy DOS (red curve) follows different spin up and down profiles and still, the acceptor state is a p-like spin-down residual due to SNN . At variance with what is shown for V top Cd , the S⊥ undergoes a remarkable upward relaxation where the 3p-states (green line in the bottom panel of Fig. 2c) partic- ipate to the formation of the acceptor level. Interior sulfur atoms lying in the bulk region of the slab (violet line in the bottom panel) do not show any spin-asymmetry and no contribution to the extra level in the gap confirming that unpaired p electrons of sulfur atoms decorating the vacancy site are solely responsible for: i) the formation of trap states in the gap; ii) a localised ferromagnetic behaviour. In fact, the total magnetic moment calculated in the defective surface, 1.45µB and 1.72µB for top and hollow cadmium vacancies, respectively, results only from the contributions of SNN . While the structural properties are reliably predicted in DFT-GGA, the electronic structure suffers the underesti- mation of the bandgap. To improve such a description the band structure and the DOS were also deter- mined, in few relevant cases of the present study, by the use of the ACBN0 functional that was recently successfully applied, among others, to CdS bulk.29 The calculated energy gap EACBN 0g =2.30 eV differs by 5% compared to the experimental one E exp g =2.42 eV with a remarkable improve of the the standard DFT-GGA value (EDFT−GGAg =1.19 eV). The recalculated band structure and the DOS are reported in Figure 3, where the deep trap electron state is confirmed to be located in the bandgap. It is interesting to note that there are several analogies with the isoelectronic ZnO {10.0} surface ftp://ftp.aip.org/epaps/aip_advances/E-AAIDBI-8-108805 ftp://ftp.aip.org/epaps/aip_advances/E-AAIDBI-8-108805 ftp://ftp.aip.org/epaps/aip_advances/E-AAIDBI-8-108805 ftp://ftp.aip.org/epaps/aip_advances/E-AAIDBI-8-108805 065202-3 Giacopetti et al. AIP Advances 8, 065202 (2018) FIG. 1. V top Cd - Top-view of unrelaxed (a) and relaxed (b) geometry of the CdS {10.0} defective surface. In red, vacancy surrounding bonds. Total DOS of clean (shaded area) and defective surface, and PDOS of S-3p dangling bonds (c). for which it was demonstrated30 that the green luminescence is only assigned, in the presence of Zn vacancy, to the unpaired O p-electrons that give rise to empty states in the gap and to a residual spin magnetisation. Sulfur vacancies both in top and hollow positions lead (see supplementary material) to a slight rearrangement of the band edges but no remarkable effects within the gap region. For this reason we will focus henceforth on cadmium vacancies. The presence of electrically active defects may affect recombination rates and cause optical absorption or luminescence. As already mentioned, a considerable underestimation of semiconduc- tor band gap is a shortcoming of the DFT approach.31 The moderately large size of the defective surface considered makes the use of proper GW32 and recent hybrid functionals33 computationally prohibitive. To estimate the optical transitions we adopted an affordable method based on the for- malism of formation energies, successfully applied in a variety of wide gap semiconductors and insulators34 that required some a posteriori corrections35 to remove long-ranged Coulomb interac- tions between charged-defects images due to the periodic boundary conditions. More specifically, we combined the formation energies of V top Cd and Vhollow Cd defects in the neutral and negative charge states, namely q = 0, −1, −2. The vacancy formation energies, Ef , were calculated in both S-rich and Cd-rich growth conditions. Results are summarised in Table I where Ef for V bulk Cd calculated in a bulk contain- ing up to 128 lattice sites is reported as reference. Formation energies for neutral surface vacancies are lower, as expected, than those calculated in the bulk. The value obtained with similar studies,36 2.26 eV for neutral Cd vacancies in hexagonal bulk under S-rich conditions, is in fair agreement with our model. Discrepancy is due to the different chemical potential adopted. In average, vacancy formation energies calculated under Cd-rich growth conditions (∼3.59 eV) are higher than those in S-rich (∼2.40 eV). Such values related to the non entropic part of the Gibbs free energy of formation ftp://ftp.aip.org/epaps/aip_advances/E-AAIDBI-8-108805 065202-4 Giacopetti et al. AIP Advances 8, 065202 (2018) FIG. 2. Vhollow Cd - Top-view of unrelaxed (a) and relaxed (b) geometry of the CdS {10.0} defective surface. In red, vacancy surrounding bonds. Total DOS of clean (shaded area) and defective surface, and PDOS of S-3p dangling bonds (c). allow us to have an estimate of the concentration of vacancies per cm3 (number of defects/number lattice sites) at thermal equilibrium through to the Law of Mass Action, i.e. ceq ∝e −Ef /kB T . It turns out that at calcination temperature (∼600◦C) the ratio ceq[S-rich] ≈ 10 9 cm−3 vs. ceq[Cd-rich] ≈ 102 cm−3 emphasizes that yellow pigments grown under Cd-rich environmental conditions are more stable than those created under S-rich. We found a deep acceptor level in PL measurements of the hexagonal CdS-based pigment: in experimental data, beside the narrow emission peak centered at 2.41 eV (see supplementary material) ascribed to radiative emission via near-band edge recombination, we have detected a broad near- infrared asymmetric emission (generically centered around 1.57 eV), ascribed to the presence of multiple energy levels inducing optical transitions in the range 1.4 - 1.8 eV (Figure 4). The emission lifetime τ = 6.0 µs (see supplementary material) confirms that this optical transition occurs from trap state levels. Also, part of an emission centered at energies lower than the ones achievable with the available detector (> 1.3 eV) is visible in Figure 4. The reported experimental results are in good agreement with the few research studies carried out on the near-infrared optical emission of cadmium- based pigments associated with trap states.18–20 Rosi et al.,20 following analysis of the commercial pigment based on hexagonal CdS, has reported two distinct trap state peaks at 1.24 eV and 1.64 eV. Interestingly, in the analytical-grade hexagonal CdS reference sample they detected only a single peak at 1.57 eV. Commenting on the observed difference, authors suggested that crystalline composition is not the only factor affecting the PL emission properties but the location of defects (bulk vs surface), the concentration, and the defect structure itself play a relevant role. In Cesaratto et al.19 the kinetic emission properties of commercially available cadmium-based pigments has been first reported, with near-infrared optical transitions from trap state levels being characterized by emission lifetimes on the order of tens of microseconds uncorrelated with pigment chemical composition. ftp://ftp.aip.org/epaps/aip_advances/E-AAIDBI-8-108805 ftp://ftp.aip.org/epaps/aip_advances/E-AAIDBI-8-108805 065202-5 Giacopetti et al. AIP Advances 8, 065202 (2018) FIG. 3. ACBN0 for V top Cd : Band structure (left) and DOS (right) of defective surface. Red and black curves represent spin up and down electron states, respectively. Dotted line at E=0 represents the Fermi energy. Different colours in the DOS refer to different chemical elements around the vacancy. The theoretical optical emission (luminescence) energy �opt (q/q′) due to the recombination from the defect level into the valence band maximum (VBM) was calculated as a linear combination of the formation energies of the defect in different charge states as illustrated in Refs. 34 and 37. Also, spurious electrostatic interactions of charged defects due to the periodic boundary conditions were removed in the calculations of formation energies. The ACBN0 gap for CdS (Eg = 2.30 eV) is here assumed as the gap amplitude. Fig. 5 summarises Ef [VCd ], calculated for top and hollow Cd-vacancies under S-rich (shaded area) and Cd-rich conditions, versus the chemical potential of the electron reservoir denoted as the Fermi energy offset from VBM up to conduction band minimum CBM = Eg. The white vertical region encloses the experimental range (1.4 - 1.8 eV) of the broad measured PL emission detected in our sample. TABLE I. Formation energies, Ef (eV), for surface top and hollow Cd vacancies both in neutral and negatively charged states, under S-rich and Cd-rich conditions. Ef computed in bulk CdS are also reported. V top Cd Vhollow Cd Vbulk Cd q 0 -1 -2 0 -1 -2 0 S-rich 2.12 3.09 4.83 2.68 3.80 5.30 2.81 Cd-rich 3.31 4.29 6.02 3.87 4.99 6.48 4.12 065202-6 Giacopetti et al. AIP Advances 8, 065202 (2018) FIG. 4. PL emission Spectrum of the hexagonal CdS pigment following continuous-wave excitation with a power density of 0.1 W/cm2. V top Cd under S-rich conditions appears as the most favoured defect inducing an optical transition state �opt (−1/ − 2)=1.74 eV in excellent agreement with our experimental result. Also Vhollow Cd shows the same kind of transition at 1.50 eV consistently with the measurements but at higher formation energies. Further, calculated optical transitions at 0.97 and 1.12 eV for top and hollow, respectively, attributed to transitions 0/− are consistent with the emission detected at energy < 1.3 eV. Under Cd-rich conditions we find the same behaviour with V top Cd favorite to Vhollow Cd and still, the transition (−1/ − 2) is the one compatible with the deep trap emission. As for the sample of hexagonal CdS examined in this work, information on the process used for its synthesis is not accessible, but is likely to be based on the use of excess sulfuric acid to yield CdSO4 which is then reacted with an alkali sulphide to precipitate CdS. Calcination of the precipitate converts cubic to hexagonal CdS.38 Thus it is not clear, in general, if synthesis results in the formation of Cd or S vacancies, both of which are reported in literature for CdS-based materials.38 In both cases, FIG. 5. Ef vs. Fermi energy for Cd vacancies in CdS surface under S-rich (shaded region) and Cd-rich simulated environmental growth conditions. Red and blue curves refer to hollow and top Cd vacancies, respectively. The zero of Fermi level corresponds to the valence band maximum. The slope of segments indicates the charge state. Kinks in the curves indicate transitions between different charge states. 065202-7 Giacopetti et al. AIP Advances 8, 065202 (2018) assuming unintentionally doped sample as an n-type,39 an excess of free electrons, i.e. donor states, would raise the Fermi level just below the CBM. We can propose two different scenarios: i) Cd-rich - the n-type sample would contain an excess of S vacancies (and/or Cd interstitials). From our calculations, the formation energy for S vacancies is the lowest (highest concentration), both in the bulk and in the surface. The surface Cd vacancies show the highest formation energy (lowest concentration). Their presence in the surface can be ascribed to oxidation mechanisms occurring after the growth. We determined the formation energies of V top Cd considering different chemical potentials for Cd calculated from solid CdO and CdO2. The values obtained, 1.23 and 1.63 eV, respectively, are significantly lower with respect to those reported in Table I. Similarly, considering cadmium chemical potential obtained from typical secondary compounds observed in historical deteriorated paints,40 i.e. CdCl2, CdSO4, CdCO3, Ef for V top Cd resulted in 0.21, 3.01 and 3.60 eV, respectively. Hence, we speculate that oxygen and chlorine present in the environment likely form Cd-based secondary compounds. CdSO4 and CdCO3, with higher formation energies, may support the hypothesis of residual starting reagents. ii) Cd-poor (S-rich) - the n-type sample would have an excess of free electrons but the concen- tration of S vacancies at thermal equilibrium in the as-grown sample would be lower while the concentration of surface Cd vacancies would be higher (lower formation energy) than those in Cd-rich. Further oxidising reactions would increase the level of superficial damage. In summary, we have combined a first principles study at different levels of theory on surface intrinsic defects with photoluminescence spectroscopy in hexagonal CdS in order to interpret the origin of a deep trap state often detected through photoluminescence both in commercial and historical deteriorated yellow pigments. Results clearly show, for the first time, that such emission represents an electron/hole recombination occurring in the presence of surface cadmium vacancies: the sulfur 3p dangling bonds created by the missing cation are the origin of the deep acceptor level in the gap experimentally observed. See supplementary material for a complete description of both experimental and theoretical setups. Additional theoretical results on S vacancy and Cd and S self-interstitial are also reported. L.G. and A.S acknowledge RAS (Regione autonoma della Sardegna) and Fondazione Banco di Sardegna for partial financial support. They also acknowledge the CINECA award under the ISCRA initiative, for the availability of high performance computing resources and support. Also, a part of the theoretical modelling was carried out using the HPC infrastructures of CRS4, Pula (Ca), Italy. A.S. acknowledges CNR award under the Short Mobility Program 2017. 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work_dqxbod6vcjfupilxcqnvzdeamu	----	Truth Selection for Truth Discovery Models Exploiting Ordering Relationship Among Values HAL Id: hal-01912290 https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01912290 Submitted on 6 Nov 2018 HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci- entific research documents, whether they are pub- lished or not. The documents may come from teaching and research institutions in France or abroad, or from public or private research centers. L’archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, émanant des établissements d’enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés. Truth selection for truth discovery models exploiting ordering relationship among values Valentina Beretta, Sébastien Harispe, Sylvie Ranwez, Isabelle Mougenot To cite this version: Valentina Beretta, Sébastien Harispe, Sylvie Ranwez, Isabelle Mougenot. Truth selection for truth discovery models exploiting ordering relationship among values. Knowledge-Based Systems, Elsevier, 2018, 159, pp.298-308. �10.1016/j.knosys.2018.06.023�. �hal-01912290� https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01912290 https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr Accepted Manuscript Truth Selection for Truth Discovery Models Exploiting Ordering Relationship Among Values Valentina Beretta, Sébastien Harispe, Sylvie Ranwez, Isabelle Mougenot PII: S0950-7051(18)30332-0 DOI: 10.1016/j.knosys.2018.06.023 Reference: KNOSYS 4396 To appear in: Knowledge-Based Systems Received date: 19 December 2017 Revised date: 25 June 2018 Accepted date: 28 June 2018 Please cite this article as: Valentina Beretta, Sébastien Harispe, Sylvie Ranwez, Isabelle Mougenot, Truth Selection for Truth Discovery Models Exploiting Ordering Relationship Among Values, Knowledge-Based Systems (2018), doi: 10.1016/j.knosys.2018.06.023 This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.knosys.2018.06.023 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.knosys.2018.06.023 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT A CC EP TE D M A N U SC RI PT Truth Selection for Truth Discovery Models Exploiting Ordering Relationship Among Values Valentina Berettaa,∗, Sébastien Harispea, Sylvie Ranweza, Isabelle Mougenotb aLGI2P, IMT Mines Ales, Univ Montpellier, Ales, France. bUMR 228 Espace Dev UM, Maison de la Télédétection, 500 rue JF Breton, 34093 Montpellier Cedex 5, France. Abstract Data veracity is one of the main issues regarding Web data. Truth Discovery models can be used to assess it by estimating value confidence and source trustworthiness through analysis of claims on the same real-world entities provided by different sources. Many studies have been conducted in this domain. True values selected by most models have the highest confidence es- timation. This naive strategy cannot be applied to identify true values when there is a partial order among values that is considered to enhance the final performance. Indeed, in this case, the resulting estimations monotonically increase with respect to the partial order of values. The highest confidence is always assigned to the most general value that is implicitly supported by all the others. Thus, using the highest confidence as criterion to select the true values is not appropriate because it will always return the most general val- ues. To address this problem, we propose a post-processing procedure that, leveraging the partial order among values and their monotonic confidence estimations, is able to identify the expected true value. Experimental results on synthetic datasets show the effectiveness of our approach. Keywords: Truth Identification, Truth Discovery, Conflicting values, Value Relationships, Ontology ∗Corresponding author Email addresses: valentina.beretta@mines-ales.fr (Valentina Beretta), sebastien.harispe@mines-ales.fr (Sébastien Harispe), sylvie.ranwez@mines-ales.fr (Sylvie Ranwez), isabelle.mougenot@umontpellier.fr (Isabelle Mougenot) Preprint submitted to Knowledge-Based Systems July 30, 2018 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT A CC EP TE D M A N U SC RI PT 1. Introduction Developing systems able to automatically evaluate the veracity of the avalanche of data produced by modern information society is of critical im- portance. Data veracity can be determined comparing information provided by multiple sources on the same subject [1–3]. Numerous scientific commu- nities contribute to studying this complex issue, most notably with respect to (w.r.t.) data integration in information systems and databases.Among the several difficult tasks that data integration addresses and the different approaches that can be used to solve them [4–7], this paper focuses on auto- matic truth discovery for solving situations in which different sources provide potentially conflicting data about a specific property of an entity of interest, e.g. on the place of birth of a person. Truth Discovery (TD) consider the accuracy associated with the data sources as an important factor to discriminate data veracity [6, 7]. The main aim of the TD models is to identify true information. They in- tend to automatically solve, in an unsupervised manner, conflicts that may occur among claims. They leverage both the redundancy of the data and the information that is possible to derive from sources (particularly their relia- bility). More precisely, the backbone of TD is based on the postulate that reliable sources provide true information and that, conversely, true informa- tion is given by reliable sources [3]. To identify reliable sources and true information, TD approaches estimate both source trustworthiness and value confidence; the true value is then considered to be the one with the high- est confidence. Note that approaches that leverage information about data sources to check data veracity are currently the focus of a lot of attention in several domains such as social sensing[7] and question-answering [8]. Here we address the problem of selecting the truth for functional predicates when a priori knowledge in the form of a partial order of values (e.g. sub- sumption relationship in an ontology) is considered to improve value con- fidence and source trustworthiness estimations. A partial order highlights when different values are not conflicting, but they represent the same con- cepts with different levels of granularity. Indeed, conflict and granularity are two different aspects to consider when identifying the most reliable informa- tion. While conflict values produce inconsistency, different granularities only indicate imperfection in data [9]. In formal logic, a predicate p is consid- 2 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT A CC EP TE D M A N U SC RI PT ered functional if for any subject there is a unique value v ∈ V for which p(subject,v) is true1 – birthplace is an example of a functional predicate. Note that this definition does not take subsumption relationships among val- ues into account. This is in accordance to the fact that, for instance, everyone was born in a specific location, but it does not consider that this place can be described using different levels of precision, e.g. district or region. In this case, multiple values can be true given the same subject. Thus, consider- ing partial order of values and closed world assumption (our knowledge of the world is complete), a predicate is functional if for any subject there is a unique value v ∈ V , for which p(subject,v) is true, such that there is not another value v′ ∈ V subsumed by v for which p(subject,v′) is true. As far as we know, we are the first to propose to take ontologies (as a priori knowl- edge) into account [10]. In this situation, the traditional final value selection step in the majority of TD approaches cannot be applied. Indeed, in this case, since more abstract values will de facto be associated with a higher confidence value in accordance with the partial ordering of values modeling implications among them, the true value cannot be defined as that with the highest confidence. This is due to the hypotheses used by approaches that leverage information related to the structure that may exist among values. Briefly, sources that explicitly claim a value implicitly support all of its gen- eralizations. Therefore, if a source claims that ”Pablo Picasso was born in Malaga”, it also implicitly supports the assertion that he was born in Spain, Europe, etc (considering that it is in agreement with the ontology). Thus the most general value is implicitly supported by all the others. Hence, its confidence will always be the highest. However, considering the most gen- eral value to be the only truth is not trustworthy (since it is a tautology), e.g. stating that Pablo Picasso was born in a Location is not meaningful. This paper proposes to overcome this problem by studying a solution able to identify more specific true answers (than the most general one) that may exist. Our contribution consists of: • proposing a post-processing approach able to identify the truth given the confidence estimations returned by any TD model that considers structured values; 1Elements of V are here considered to be independent. 3 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT A CC EP TE D M A N U SC RI PT • performing empirical experiments on synthetic datasets – this evalua- tion uses estimations returned by an adaptation of Sums able to take prior knowledge in the form of a partial order among values into ac- count [10] – and comparing the proposed approach with existing ones evaluating identified true values. The rest of the paper is structured as follows. Section 2 presents an overview of TD approaches taking advantage of potential relationships among sources or claims. This section ends with a discussion about the consequences of using a partial order among values as relationship information. In Section 3, notations are introduced and the problem is formalized. The solution strategy we propose is detailed in Section 4. The model is assessed via sev- eral experiments reported in Section 5 and discussed in Section 6. Section 7 summarizes the main findings of the study and the results that have been obtained; while the perspectives opened by our contribution are finally dis- cussed. 2. Related work Truth discovery aims to solve conflicts among data provided by several sources. The data treated in this domain consists of claims specifying the values that sources associate with certain data items (i.e. a data item repre- sents a particular aspect of a real-world entity). Values can be numerical or categorical/strings. The main assumption of TD is that true information is provided by reliable sources and reliable sources provide true information ( [3, 11]). This rationale can be modeled by defining the value confidence and source trustworthiness. Many studies have been proposed in this field [3]. The baseline model con- sists of a voting strategy. For each data item it regards the value which is the most frequently claimed as truth. All sources are therefore implicitly considered similarly in this model. Otherwise TD estimates for each source a different trustworthiness level based on the claims it provides. Some models deal with numerical values [12], others with categorical claims [7, 13–15] and others with both [11, 16, 17]. While basic TD models limit their complexity to correctly estimate confidence and trustworthiness with different formulas, other approaches incorporate additional information to improve the overall performances. The latter group of approaches is the most relevant for our study and is detailed hereafter. 4 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT A CC EP TE D M A N U SC RI PT Among all of these methods, we focus our attention on those that use, as additional knowledge, correlations2 that may exist among sources ([17–19]), data items ([7, 20, 21]) or values ([11, 22]). The first class is related to source interdependences. These models consider source relationships mainly by analyzing the pattern of similar claims with correlated accuracy estimations. They also usually assume that sources shar- ing common false values are more likely to be dependent than sources sharing common true values. Indeed, it is difficult to identify dependencies between sources stating different false values [23]. Most of these studies only analyze static correlations. To the best of our knowledge, time-course dependency relationship patterns has been only considered in [24]. In this case, depen- dency among sources is captured by studying the similarity between patterns of updates associated with sources [23]. Several methods take advantage of dependency in terms of the copying relationship [17–19, 22]. Other corre- lations among sources may also occur, such as the common errors made by different extractors that use the same extraction rules or the common values identified by the extractor that use different rules, and so on[17]. Moreover, the dependence relationship is often considered between source pairs, but dependencies may also occur at the group level [18]. The second correlation class is related to data items. The first body of works in this context proposed to deal with the social sensing problem. In crowd sensing, humans coupled with their smartphones become sensors that ex- plicitly or implicitly provide observations about their physical environment. Then it becomes necessary to understand the validity of data sent by sensors. TD models applied to this domain take advantage of both physical [25] and temporal [26] correlations as well as causal relationships [21]. For physical correlations, they assume that co-located data items should have similar val- ues. For instance, gas stations located in the same area should have similar gas prices. For temporal correlations, the assumption is that two temporally close observations cannot have very different values. This kind of correla- tion is especially useful when analyzed data has a long-tail characteristic, i.e. many data items observed by few sources and few data items observed by many sources. Indeed, in this case the estimations can easily deteriorate if the few sources that provide claims for a data item are also unreliable. Using 2We mean by correlation the interdependences between entities, the relationships that may influence them. 5 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT A CC EP TE D M A N U SC RI PT correlations, information associated with data items having a high number of observations provided by reliable sources can be propagated to data items having only a few claims associated with them. The findings of the two studies [25] and [26] permit to partition data items into small groups with- out considering any dependency among groups, but the complexity of their solutions is exponential w.r.t. the maximum group size. Alternative models have been proposed to overcome this limitation to be able to deal with a large number of dependencies, e.g. [20] [21]. The former classifies the prob- lem as an optimization problem, and the latter, modelling the problem as a Bayesian network, leverages potential conditional independences among data items. Moreover, in this study they also take into account a second kind of correlation related to the data items: i.e. the category. In this case, a trust- worthiness level may be attributed to each source w.r.t. the category a data item belongs to. The main limitation of this approach is that the Bayesian network has to be known or empirically learned from historical data by spe- cific algorithms. The third type of correlation regards the values. The basic idea is that two correlated values support each other. If one of them is considered true, then the other has a high probability to be true. In order to evaluate value corre- lations, previous studies such as [11], [22], and [16] use value similarity. For instance, they compute the edit distance of strings, similarity among sets, and difference among numerical values. Otherwise, in our previous study we took advantage of value correlations in the form of partial ordering that may exist among the provided values [10]. An example of partial order is shown in Fig. 1. Given this partial order, we adapted the Sums approach to incorporate this new information. The rationale is that if a source associates the value Spain to an aspect of a real-world entity, then it also implicitly supports all more general values, e.g. Europe. Thus we modified the formula to estimate the confidence of a value changing the set of sources used for the calculus. In Sums, confidence is computed by considering all sources that pro- vide an analyzed value, while in the adapted model (AdaptedSums) sources that explicitly claim a more specific value than the one being analyzed are also taken into account as well. Indeed, these sources implicitly support all more general values than the one they provide. Using the adapted approach, at the end of the iterative procedure, the value confidence estimations mono- tonically decrease w.r.t. the partial order among values. In other words, for each value more specific than another, the confidence of the former is lower than or equal to the confidence of the latter. As a result, when considering 6 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT A CC EP TE D M A N U SC RI PT Figure 1: Example of a partial order that may exist among values. the partial order of values, the highest confidence score will be always as- signed to the most general value. In this context, using the usual strategy adopted by the existing models is not worthy. Indeed, selecting as truth the value having the highest confidence, they will always return as true value the most general one. In the rest of the paper, we describe a refined post- processing strategy able to select the true value leveraging these monotonic estimations. 3. Problem Formulation Let’s consider a set of data items D such that each d ∈ D is composed of a pair (subject,predicate) where the subject represents a real-world entity and the predicate represents its aspect of interest, e.g. (picasso,bornIn). S denotes the set of sources, V the set of values, V s ⊆ V the set of values provided by s ∈ S (for each data item for which s provided values), and Vd ⊆ V the set of values associated with data item d ∈ D. Formally, TD models first aim to identify the set of true values V ∗d ⊆ V for each data item d ∈ D. In the case of a data item d characterized by a functional predicate, we have |V ∗d | = 1 if elements from V are disjoint, i.e. ∀(v,v′) ∈ V 2,¬(v =⇒ v′) ∧¬(v′ =⇒ v). Note that a value v implies 7 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT A CC EP TE D M A N U SC RI PT ( =⇒ ) a value v′ when v is subsumed by v′. To ease the formal introduction, and in accordance with the literature, we will as often as possible consider the special case of data items associated with the functional predicate. Dealing with data items composed of functional predicates TD identifies the true values v∗d ∈ V for each data item d estimating value confidences c : V → [0, 1] – how an information is likely to be true – and source trust- worthiness t : S → [0, 1] – how reliable is a source. This is done through an iterative procedure that alternatively estimates them. The execution of the model finishes when the stopping criteria is verified, e.g. convergence of estimations, maximum number of iterations, and so on. Hence, each value vd ∈ V (w.r.t. a data item) is associated with a confidence level c(vd) and each source s ∈ S with a trustworthiness level t(s). Existing approaches usually assume that for a specific data item d, elements of Vd are disjoint/independent and they therefore recognize the true value of d is that with the highest confidence score. This straightforward procedure cannot be applied using adapted models that consider ordering among val- ues. Incorporating this information into the model, each value more general than a true value can only be considered as true as well3. Therefore, consid- ering all values associated with a data item, the estimated confidence scores monotonically increase w.r.t. the partial ordering of values, i.e. ∀v,v′ ∈ V : if (v =⇒ v′), then c(v) ≤ c(v′). Consequently, the highest confidence score is always assigned to the most general value (that is implicitly supported by all provided claims). To solve this problem, we propose a post-processing procedure able to select the true value for each data item given the estimated confidence scores and the relationships that may exist among values. We assume that the value dependencies are known a priori in the form of a partial order modelled by an ontology O = (�,V ). Note that even if the domain knowledge is not available, partial order can be automatically con- structed [27]. The partial order � can be represented by a Directed Acyclic Graph (DAG), GO = (V,E), where V = {v0,v1, · · · ,vm} is the set of values representing our vocabulary according to our knowledge of the world (all pos- sible values that can be claimed by sources), and E = {(x,y) ∈ V ×V |x � y} is the set of edges specifying the partial ordering that exists between values. Specifically x � y when there is a directed path from x to y in the DAG; i.e. when y is reachable from x [28]. Note that a path from x to y is defined 3Assuming that the value ordering is consensual. 8 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT A CC EP TE D M A N U SC RI PT as a non-empty sequence of n different nodes 〈v0,v1, · · · ,vn−1〉 with x = v0, y = vn−1 and for which ∀i ∈ [0,n− 2] (vi,vi+1) ∈ E. An important charac- teristic of the graph GO is that it has to be transitively reduced. This is not a problem because by considering any DAG its transitive reduction can be obtained [29]. Here we introduce several functions that will be useful for manipulating the graphs (with G a set of graphs): • ancestors: G×V →P(V ) such that ancestors(GO,x) = {y|x � y}. • children : G×V →P(V ) designed as children(GO,x) = {z|(z,x) ∈ E} • root : G → V such that as root(GO) = {x|∀y ∈ V,y � x} These properties enable us to easily explain our procedure to traverse the partial value ordering graph in the next section. Further important information that can be derived from any ontology is the Information Contents (IC) of its concepts (e.g. [30]). This quantity, related to the concept specificity (see Section 3.3 in [31]) represents the degree of abstraction/concreteness of a concept w.r.t an ontology. One of main IC property is that the IC score monotonically decreases from the root to the leaves, i.e. if x � y, then IC(x) ≥ IC(y) (IC(root) = 0). This score will help us to discriminate between different values w.r.t. their granularity. All of the elements presented in this section will help define the approach used to select the true values that is described in Section 4. 4. Proposed Approach The entire truth-discovery procedure, from the input consisting of a set of claims to the output consisting of the true values and the degree of reliability associated with each source, is presented in Fig. 2. In this section, we propose a post-processing procedure that selects the true values given the estimations obtained by TD models that relax the assumption related to the disjointness of values. It involves three steps: (i) selection of the best true value candidates; (ii) ranking of selected values; and (iii) filtering of ranked values w.r.t. defined desirable properties. For instance it may be useful to return a set of solutions that share an ordering relationship or, on the contrary, to return a value set composed only of “alternatives” that are not ordered. The choice related to 9 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT A CC EP TE D M A N U SC RI PT the appropriate features of the solution set depends mainly on the application scenario. The first step of the process: (i) permits to retrieve the most specific possible true value(s) and all of its ancestors using available information, such as confidence scores and partial ordering of values. The second step: (ii) orders the selected values based on predefined criteria. The third step: (iii) is required to filter the top k results. For TD, the final aim k should be equal to 1, but in cases where there is uncertainty it may be useful to return a set of values, even if the predicate is functional. Moreover, answers that do not have defined desirable properties (see Section 4.3 for further details) are removed from the result list. Those three steps are detailed hereafter. 4.1. True value selection The first part of the post-processing procedure concerns the selection of the promising candidate(s) as the most expected value(s) for each data item. We have defined a selection strategy that takes advantage of the partial order of values and step by step refines the granularity of the correct value asso- ciated with each data item. Now we will give an overview of the approach followed by Algorithm 1. Figure 2: Diagram of the overall TD procedure. 10 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT A CC EP TE D M A N U SC RI PT Starting from the most general value (implicitly supported by all provided values and surely true), the process aims to detect the most specific expected value(s). A traversing procedure was thus applied on the graph that repre- sents the partial order of values. It starts from the root, it selects the best alternatives among the children of the considered node and moves forward through the selected values. Our assumption is that values with the highest confidence locally should be the most likely to be true. Therefore the choice of the best alternative(s) is done by comparing the confidence scores associ- ated with the children of the previously selected node. In the case of functional predicate, the values can be partially ordered by their granularity, see Fig. 1. Therefore the selection procedure refines, at each step, the level of precision used to describe the single true value associ- ated with a data item. The semantics of each selected node expresses the fact that the node subsumes the correct solution (i.e. the expected true value). The last selected nodes should correspond to the most specific answers that can be identified through the selection process. The selection process has to handle two main undesirable situations that may occur: (1) selection of values with a confidence score too low to be considered as true, and (2) difficulty in discriminating the best alternative(s) among the children of a node since their confidence scores are not significantly different. As a solution, two thresholds have been defined: θ and δ. The threshold θ ∈ (0, 1] enables us to specify the confidence lower bound required for a value to be part of the set of true values. Note that the value 0 is not included in the θ interval. Indeed, considering claims with confidence scores equal to 0 makes no sense because it would mean considering, as truth, values provided by totally unreliable sources (all with trustworthiness equal to 0). The confidence score that is compared to θ has to be previously nor- malized w.r.t. each data item, i.e. the confidence score associated with the most general value of each data item always has to be equal to 1. This nor- malization step is required to avoid the definition of an inconsistent threshold w.r.t. the different data items. The threshold δ ∈ [0, 1] represents the minimum difference that has to exist among values with the highest confidence and all the others so that one pre- vails over the others. In particular, if the difference between the confidences of two values is less than or equal to δ, then it is hard to make a choice among them. This comparison is done among values that are children of the same father to select the best alternatives. The definition of different parameter settings produces different behaviours 11 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT A CC EP TE D M A N U SC RI PT Table 1: Interesting settings for the selection procedure. Config θ δ Selection procedure behaviour 1 α 0 Naive greedy procedure that maximizes the confidence score at each step. 2 α 1 Greedy procedure that selects all values greater than α. Since δ is equal to 1, all values with confidence higher than α are selected. 3 α β At each iteration a value is collected only if the difference of its confidence and the highest confidence at the current step is lower or equal to β. All values in the returned set have confidence that is greater than α. of the selection phase ending in the possibility of obtaining different kinds of solution sets. The main parameter settings are summarized in Table 1. Configuration 1 (θ = α,δ = 0) reproduces a naive greedy algorithm that, at each step, selects values with the highest confidence greater than α without performing any other control. Configuration 2 (θ = α,δ = 1) is able to return all claimed values with confi- dence higher than α. It may seem useless, but it is a selection configuration necessary to obtain a particular set of values at the end of the post-processing procedure. A set composed of “promising” alternatives that allow to report values that are, as much as possible, fine-grained and semantically different. In this way, we increase the probability of finding the correct value since we increase the number of different concepts that are considered. Therefore this strategy is useful to deal with cases in which there is a lot of uncertainty. The idea is to return all claimed values and their ancestors and then, using the ranking phase to position in the first places, the most promising alternatives with the properties we have just explained. Configuration 3 (θ = α,δ = β) is a generalization of the two previous con- figurations. It selects the set of values that are greater than a threshold θ and they differ, at each step, more than δ from the confidence of the other alternatives. Algorithm 1 reports the pseudo-code of the selection procedure. The algo- rithm starts performing a transitive reduction of the graph representation of the partial ordering (line 2). We thus ensure that the choice of the best al- ternative is done among a set of children that do not share ordered relations. Moreover, this avoids useless comparison of a large number of confidence 12 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT A CC EP TE D M A N U SC RI PT Algorithm 1 True value set computation for any d ∈ D considering a partial order of values represented as a DAG GO = (V,E), a threshold θ ∈ (0, 1], a threshold δ ∈ [0, 1], and a function c : V → [0, 1], i.e. confidence of each value 1: procedure SelectionTrueValues(d,GO,c,θ,δ) 2: G ← transitive reduction(GO) 3: V ∗visited ←{ } 4: queue ← list(root(G)) 5: while !(queue.isEmpty()) do 6: v ← queue.pop() 7: V ∗visited ← V ∗visited ∪{v} 8: Vch ← children(G,v) 9: confmax ← max child∈Vch (c(child)) 10: Vch∗ = {v ′ ∈ Vch : c(v′) ≥ θ ∧ (confmax − c(v′)) ≤ δ} 11: queue.addAll(Vch∗ \V ∗visited) 12: return ⋃ v∈V ∗ visited ancestors(G,v) scores. Then, at each iteration, the algorithm applies a greedy search by maximizing the confidence of the values (lines 5 – 9). It selects all values having confidence higher than or equal to θ whose scores are not significantly different from the highest confidence (line 10). Then, it adds them to the queue (line 11). Note that the the confidence scores were computed applying AdaptedSums. This model computes the value confidences summing up all trustworthiness of those sources providing the considered value or one of its possible specializations. The procedure stops when the last selected value has no more specific values to be visited. In order to be in accordance with our assumption and problem settings, all values that are more general than that selected will compose the set of true values – due to multiple inheritances some of those values may not have been visited by the greedy procedure (line 12). The fact that confidence score monotonically increases w.r.t. the partial order ensures that the scores related to ancestors of the visited values are higher than or equal to θ. The termination of Algorithm 1 is ensured by line 6 and line 11. The com- plexity of the selection of the true value algorithm is related to the number of comparisons required to find the maximum value confidence traversing graph GO. Therefore, the complexity of the algorithm is O(E) which in turn 13 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT A CC EP TE D M A N U SC RI PT is O(V 2). At each step, a number of comparisons equal to the number of node children is required. The worst case scenario is verified when the following conditions holds at the same time: (i) graph GO has depth 2, (ii) its nodes are uniformly distributed between level 2 and 3, (iii) nodes at the same level have the same fathers and the same children and, moreover, (iv) they have equal or not significantly different confidence scores. The conditions related to the morphology of the DAG ensure that the number of comparisons is maximum, and the condition on the confidence score guarantees that the procedure traverses all nodes. All of the configurations of the algorithm input parameters enable us to se- lect a set of possible true values. Since the aim of TD is to find the most expected solution, a method able to choose it is required. The ranking phase described in the next section is devoted to this. 4.2. True value ranking Given the true value set selected in the previous step, we have to define a ranking method in order to select the k ∈ N+ most expected values where k is a fixed number. In our investigations, k is experimentally set, at the most, at 5. The solution set of most expected true values is indicated as V ∗ ⊆P(V ∗candidates), where V ∗candidates is the value set returned by the selection phase. Now we propose to rank the values based on rather: • their IC. This method is useful for situations in which specific answers are expected and when there is not much uncertainty on the data item under consideration. Note that in the following experiments IC is a measure computed according to the definition provided by Seco based on the analysis of the partial ordering topology [30]. In particular, it takes advantage of the number of descendants of a value: ICSeco(v) = 1 − log(|descendants(v)| + 1) log(|V |) (1) where |V | is a non-empty set since an ontology is considered to have at least one concept, i.e. the root value. IC has been proposed because the user generally expects very precise answers. Often general true values for a data item are well known a priori, i.e. it is well known that a person is born in a place. If two or more true values have the same IC, then random selection can be 14 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT A CC EP TE D M A N U SC RI PT done or, alternatively, another criterion can be used to rank this value subset. • their source average trustworthiness, denoted WAtrust(v). The ratio- nale is that if a lot of unreliable sources support a false value A (in- creasing its confidence score – Sums does not normalize based on the number of sources claiming a value, therefore its confidence estimation is biased), and there are only a few reliable sources that support a true value B, then sources providing B should have higher average trust- worthiness scores. This measure is obtained by computing the average trustworthinesses associated with sources that explicitly or implicitly claim to have a particular value v and by weighting it by a normaliza- tion factor: WAtrust(v) = (1 − 1 η + |Sv+|) ∗avgtrust(v) (2) where the average of source trustworthiness is represented by avgtrust(v), Svd+ is the set of sources that implicitly or explicitly provide the value vd and η is a small number used to avoid that WAtrust(v) = 0 when v is provided by only one source. The first factor, i.e. normalization, was introduced in order to tune the average w.r.t. the number of sources providing the value. Indeed, inspired by the study presented in [32], the higher the number of sources providing a value, the higher our con- fidence in the computed average should be. Moreover in this case, if two values have the same WAtrust, then an- other criterion can be used to rank them. Once the values are ranked, the next and final step of the post-processing procedure can be performed. 4.3. Filtering of top-k true values The filtering phase collects the top k values in the rank and returns them to end-users. Before performing selection of the top k values, all the ranked ones have to be controlled. This is necessary because truth discovery models can be applied to different scenarios: high or low uncertainty situations, high or low risky cases in which making an error is, respectively, very dangerous or not. For instance, if truth discovery models are used to populate a medical knowledge base containing, for each symptom, all possible correlated diseases, 15 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT A CC EP TE D M A N U SC RI PT then the end-users want to be really careful in accepting a value as true. Therefore, based on the possible application contexts, different properties that the solution set V ∗ has to respect can be defined. In this way various true value sets with different characteristics can be identified: • the solution set V ∗ord contains only values sharing partial ordering rela- tionships; formally ∀(x,y) ∈ V ∗ord ×V ∗ord,x � y∨y � x. The procedure to create a set containing values that respect this property is as follows: it iteratively selects and removes the first element in the ranked list. Then it adds this value to the solution set only if it is an ancestor or descendant of all elements that are already present in it. • the solution set V ∗disj is composed of values that do not share any partial ordering relationships; formally ∀(x,y) ∈ V ∗disj×V ∗disj,¬(x � y)∧¬(y � x)∧@ w,z ∈ V ∗candidatesw � x∨z � y. This means that all values in the solution set are the most specific among those returned by the selection phase. Indeed, only values that do not have descendants in the returned true value set belong to the solution. The procedure used returns a set of alternatives that are as much as possible very specific and different. In other words, this set of values consists of elements that do not have any of their exclusive descendants in the sorted list. For example, if the values returned by the previous step are Europe, Continent, Country, City, Location, then, in accordance with the partial order in Fig. 1, the V ∗disj is composed only of Europe, Country and City. The first kind of solution can be desirable when there is not much uncer- tainty (end-users expect to easily find the true answers) or the end-users do not want to deal with potentially different values in a domain where they are not experts. The second property can be adopted when there is a lot of un- certainty and especially when the application context could result in making errors without dangerous consequences. Indeed, when there is uncertainty, to postpone the selection of true values to the end-users, avoiding to auto- matically select only a specific value and its ancestor, may be useful. In order to support the end-users final choice, returning a set of values composed of the most promising alternatives is important. Obtaining V ∗ord is suitable when δ = 0. Indeed, taking the value with the highest confidence at each step, the process ends with the selection of only one specific true value (and its ancestors). Considering this set of returned values, the first property is often verified without filtering any value out. In 16 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT A CC EP TE D M A N U SC RI PT any case, very general values often are not returned since only the top-k val- ues are selected after the verification of the property. Otherwise, the second property, i.e. V ∗disj, is not useful considering δ = 0. Only the single most specific value contained in the set of returned values is selected when this property must hold. Indeed, all of the others share partial ordering relation- ships. This corresponds to consider that δ = 0, k = 1 and a solution set V ∗ord. Obtaining V ∗disj is preferable when δ = 1. Indeed, in those cases all values having confidence higher than θ are returned by the selection phase, but for the final aim of truth discovery (finding the truth) it is suitable to only keep the set of “promising” alternatives that correspond to a set of values that are different and specific as much as possible. 5. Experiments In this section we describe all experiments performed on synthetic datasets to confirm the validity of our approach. First, we focus on the synthetic datasets: how we generated them and what are the parameter settings we tested. Then, we present the evaluation methodology we used to evaluate the approach and to compare it with existing models. 5.1. Datasets In order to assess the behaviour of our approach w.r.t. the ontology used to derive the relationship among values, we integrate preliminary experiments carried out using the synthetic birthPlace datasets (see [10] for further details related to their generation) with additional ones performed using different partial ordering structures. Each synthetic dataset contains a set of claims concerning a specific predi- cate, a set of sources and the subset of claims provided by each source. We Table 2: Features of the different partial order structures. Features CC MF BP genre birthPlace Values 3984 10243 28822 1838 682658 � depth (max depth) 12 15 16 8 14 Average depth 5,223 5,610 6,906 3,93 5,424 Average # of children 1,451 1,196 1,898 1,041 1,535 Max # of children 466 291 451 824 160194 Leaves 3016 8192 14797 1563 663373 17 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT A CC EP TE D M A N U SC RI PT (a) # of sources per data item (b) # of dataitems per source Figure 3: Statistics of sources-data items for the CC datasets. generate 5 different datasets considering the predicates birthPlace and genre from DBpedia [33], and the predicates Cellular Component(CC ), Molecular Function (MF ) and Biological Process (BP) from Gene Ontology [34]. All the datasets are randomly generated based on a ground truth (containing a set of true claims, for each predicate), a partial order among the values contained in the ground truth (an example is shown in Fig. 1) and a set of factitious sources. Note that Table 2 reports the features associated to the different partial ordering structures that we use. Given these elements the generation process can start. First, a trustworthiness level is associated with each source. We assume that the majority of sources are sufficiently reliable and only a few of them are al- ways or never correct. A Gaussian distribution with an average and standard deviation equal to, respectively, 0.6 and 0.4 was used to model the described behaviour. Second, we reproduce the long-tail phenomena [35] for which many sources provide values for a few data items and a few sources provide values for many data items. This is modelled using a simple exponential distribution. It associates, with each source, the number of data items on which it has to provide a value. The statistic that confirm that this behaviour is respected by the datasets that were generated are reported in Fig. 3. In Fig. 3a we observe that approximatively 80% of data items are claimed by less than 500 sources. Fig. 3b shows that most of sources have provided at least 1000 data items. Third, each source claims a true or false value for a specific data item w.r.t. 18 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT A CC EP TE D M A N U SC RI PT its trustworthiness. In case of true claims, the value is selected among the inclusive ancestors of the value contained in the data item. In the case of false claims, it is selected from the set of values that are neither inclusive an- cestors nor descendants of the true one denoted v∗d. In both cases the values are selected w.r.t. a similarity measure between the values and v∗d. For the selection of the true values, three different strategies were adopted: EXP, LOW E, UNI (Fig. 4). EXP simulates cases in which sources are quite sure about the true values, so they tend to claim values similar to the ex- pected one (contained in the ground truth) when they have to provide a true value. UNI reproduces a world where there is a lot of uncertainty, then the sources tend to indiscriminately select the value from the entire set of possible true values. LOW E is a trade-off between the previous two types. Sources uniformly select the value from the set of possibilities, but there is a slightly higher probability of choosing values similar to the expected one. For instance, Fig. 4 reports, on the x axis, the values of Fig. 1 ordered according to their similarity measures w.r.t. the true value Malaga. Considering that v∗d is Malaga and the EXP law, sources will more often provide values such as Malaga, Spain and City than values like Continent or Location. Otherwise, considering the UNI distribution, the probability of claiming these values will be the same. For the selection of the false values, only a single strategy was considered. A source that has to provide a false claim tends to provide a false value that is Figure 4: Distributions used to select true values. 19 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT A CC EP TE D M A N U SC RI PT Table 3: Set of experiments performed for each predicate. Conf. θ δ Rank Filter Name 1st 2nd TSbCtrust 0,..., 0.5 0 WAtrust ICSeco V ∗ ord TSbCIC 0,..., 0.5 0 ICSeco WAtrust V ∗ ord TSaCtrust 0,..., 0.5 1 WAtrust ICSeco V ∗ disj TSaCIC 0,..., 0.5 1 ICSeco WAtrust V ∗ disj similar to the expected true value. For instance, if the true value is Malaga, then a source provides the value Portugal with an higher probability than the value Brazil. Moreover, sources tend to claim the same false values. There- fore, the probability of a value to be selected as false one increases w.r.t. the number of sources that previously claimed it. For each predicate, 20 datasets were produced w.r.t. the different laws that can be used to select the true values provided by sources. Further details on the generation of the ground truth and how the partial order of values has been derived are provided with the datasets at www.github.com/lgi2p/TDSelection. 5.2. Experiment settings In order to provide robust results, considering each predicate, we gener- ated 60 synthetic datasets (20 for each different distribution used to select the true values). Several experiments were conducted on them. Table 3 reports all of the experimental settings in which the datasets were tested. The name associated with each configuration indicates the delta setting. When δ = 0 the approach is called TSbC (Truth Selection of the Best Child). Indeed, the selection algorithm chooses, at each step, the value with the highest con- fidence. In other words, it selects the best node among the children of the considered one. Otherwise, when δ = 1 the approach is called TSaC (Truth Selection of all Children). Indeed, using this configuration the algorithm se- lects, at each step, all the children of the considered nodes. Moreover, the subscript specifies the first ranking criteria used, i.e. TSbCIC means that IC is used for the ranking phase as first criteria to order the values. For all the experiments, different threshold θ values were used: 0, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5. Note that when δ is equal to 0, we test only the property of the solution set indicating that its values share ordering relationships. Indeed, the selection procedure in this case chooses, at each step, only values having the highest confidence and therefore only a single most specific value and its ancestors 20 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT A CC EP TE D M A N U SC RI PT can be returned. No alternatives to the most specific value can be selected. When δ is equal to 1, we test only the property indicating that the values in the solution set do not share a partial order. The procedure may select more than one branch. In this situation, if we force the returned true values to share an ordering relationship, we oblige the algorithm to select only one path. Thus, the main advantage of this configuration, i.e. to propose a set of alternatives, is wasted. For the confidence and trustworthiness estimations, we initialize the confi- dence value at 0.5 in order to start the iterative procedure, i.e. Adapted- Sums. The stopping criteria used for the iterative procedure is the same as that used in the original paper of Sums[36]: the procedure was stopped after 20 iterations. The algorithms were implemented in Python 3.4. The experiments were performed on a PC with an Intel Core 2 Duo processor (2.93GHz×8GB). To give an idea, using the codebase developed for these experiments4, memory consumption varies from 1.6 to 4.3 GB depending on the number of values composing the partial order. Using TSbC and TSaC, running times were, respectively, around 0.24 and 1.7 milliseconds per data item. Note that running times may increase significantly when partial or- ders have specific topological properties. In particular, optimizations have to be studied when dealing with partial orders having values with numerous children (hubs). For instance, the partial order used for the birthPlace pred- icate contains the value ”Settlement” with 160 thousands children; running times using this partial order were 0.02 and 0.8 seconds per data item for TSbC and TSaC respectively. The source code and datasets associated with this study are open-sourced and published on the Web at the following link www.github.com/lgi2p/TDSelection. Note that for Sums and AdaptedSums, we used the code developed by [10]. Otherwise, for the experiments related to the other existing models, we used the DAFNA-EA5 implementation [37]. This API provides the source code for the main existing models. 5.3. Evaluation The evaluation of the model we proposed to select the true values was carried out using both traditional and hierarchical performance measures of classification problems. 4Note that this codebase has been developed for experimental purpose and was not optimized to lower memory consumption and running time. 5www.github.com/daqcri/DAFNA-EA 21 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT A CC EP TE D M A N U SC RI PT Among traditional metrics, precision and recall were mainly used to compare our approach with the existing models that do not consider the partial order. Our positive class consists of all pairs (d ∈ D,v∗d ∈ Vd) where v∗d is the value contained in the ground truth for the data item d, and the negative class is composed of all pairs (d ∈ D,vd ∈ Vd − v∗d). Therefore, the precision is the proportion of pairs (d,v∗d) returned by the approach among all the pairs it returns. The recall is the proportion of pairs (d,v∗d) returned by the approach among all pairs contained in the ground truth. The hierarchical evaluation measures (HEM) were used to analyse the be- haviour obtained by different parameter settings of our approach. Indeed, hierarchical metrics distinguish the severity of different errors taking the hierarchy of classes into account. Reasonably if Malaga is the true value, then an approach that returns Portugal should be less penalized than an- other that returns Brazil. Indeed Portugal is in the same continent than Malaga, i.e. Europe, while Brasil is in a different continent, i.e. America. A detailed study related to hierarchical measures was presented in [38]. They distinguish the main dimensions that characterize hierarchical classification problems and suggest, for each possible combination, which are the best evaluation metrics to use. They recommend FLCA,PLCA,RLCA and MGIA when dealing with single-label problem and DAG hierarchy. This situation corresponds to our initial problem settings: for each data item there is a single expected true value and our partial order among values is represented using a DAG. FLCA,PLCA and RLCA are set-based measures. They use hi- erarchical relations to augment the sets of returned and true values and to compute precision and recall. Since adding ancestors over-penalize errors that occur to nodes with many of them, FLCA,PLCA,RLCA use the notion of the Lowest Common Ancestor to limit this undesirable effect. MGIA is a pair-based metric that uses graph distance measures to compare returned and true values. Its limitation is that it does not change with depth. For further details related to the computation of these measure please refer to [38]. Now, we briefly describe the main characteristics of these hierarchical measures through an illustrative example. This enable the reader to better understand the result discussion in the next section. Considering the DAG in Fig. 1 and Malaga as the true value, the HEMs related to several returned values are reported in Table 4. As shown, if the returned value is more gen- eral than the expected one, then PLCA is not affected, while RLCA decreases when increasing the distance from the expected value. Otherwise, if the re- turned value is an error (neither the expected value nor more general one), 22 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT A CC EP TE D M A N U SC RI PT Table 4: Example of HEM considering the DAG in Fig. 1 and Malaga as the true value. Returned value PLCA RLCA FLCA MGIA Malaga 1 1 1 1 Spain 1 0.5 0.7 0.9 Country 1 0.3 0.5 0.8 Madrid 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.8 France 0.5 0.3 0.4 0.7 Figure 5: Recall obtained by applying our approaches TSbCIC (dotted line) and TSaCtrust (dashed line), both with k = 1 and θ = 0, and the models provided by DAFNA API (solid lines) on the synthetic datasets. then PLCA and RLCA decrease w.r.t. the position of the returned value in the partial order. MGIA indicates the distance among the returned value and the expected one without considering if one value is more general or specific than the other. Figure 6: Recall obtained by applying our approach and the proposed models (with θ = 0) on the synthetic datasets w.r.t. the dataset type and number of returned values. 23 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT A CC EP TE D M A N U SC RI PT 6. Results All of the experimental settings presented in Section 5 were tested. Here, the results are presented and discussed. Note that a robust analysis were conducted given the artificial nature of the synthetic datasets. Results show that our approach enables successfully addressing the problem of selecting true values. Recall that our study considers a setting where value confidence estimations w.r.t. the partial order of values monotonically increases. The most effective configuration settings of our selection proce- dure were TSaCtrust and TSbCIC as shown in Fig. 6. These settings coupled with the AdaptedSums model were able to outperform, in terms of recall, ex- isting truth discovery methods on the different datasets and predicates that were used for the experiments, see Fig. 5. Note that in these experiments we compared our post-processing strategies considering k = 1 with the other models. Indeed, the general aim of TD is to return a single answer for each data item. In the rest of this section we detail the comparison of the proposed approach with existing truth discovery models and we study different configuration settings of the post-processing procedure analysing its behaviour considering different k, δ and θ values. Both TSaCtrust and TSbCIC obtained good performance, but TSaCtrust was the most robust approach independently of the predicate and dataset type, as shown in Fig. 5. It resulted to be only slightly influenced by source dis- agreement increase (UNI dataset case). Indeed, TSaCtrust aimed to analyse and compare the trustworthiness of sources providing the most specific val- ues that do not share partial order relationships. This was done selecting and returning all provided values higher than θ, i.e. δ = 1. Then ranking the values according to the weighted average trustworthiness of sources claiming them. Finally, filtering the first k values that did not share ordering rela- tionships. Following this post-processing procedure, TSaCtrust performance was not affected when the number of sources providing true general val- ues increased (UNI dataset). Precisely, analysing the recall obtained by the different models from EXP to UNI dataset types, we observed that, when increasing sources that provided general true values, TSaCtrust had a recall drop equal to 0.073 against a recall drop around 0.528 obtained by exist- ing truth discovery models. Indeed, the average recall, over the different predicates, obtained by TSaCtrust was 0.954, 0.912 and 0.881 respectively for EXP, LOW E and UNI dataset types. The average recall achieved by 24 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT A CC EP TE D M A N U SC RI PT existing truth discovery models was 0.595, 0.243 and 0.067 respectively for EXP, LOW E and UNI dataset types. On the contrary TSbCIC performance was more influenced by source dis- agreement increase than TSaCtrust performance. It is the post-processing strategy that employed the greedy algorithm to select the true value, i.e. at each step the selection phase chooses the values with the highest confidence. Then it ordered them w.r.t. their IC. Finally, it kept only values that shared a partial order. Therefore, it used as selection criterion, at each step, the value confidence. When sources provided more general true values the infor- mation associated to these claims were propagated to less values. Thus the confidence estimations were less informative in the last steps of the proce- dure. Anyway, also TSbCIC outperformed existing methods obtaining recall levels that were equal to 0.889, 0.670 and 0.531 for EXP, LOW E and UNI dataset respectively (thus with a recall drop of 0.358). Observing Fig. 5 we analysed for which predicates our approaches, TSaCtrust and TSbCIC, obtained slightly lower performances. Even in these cases our models stills outperformed existing ones. Considering TSaCtrust, the worst recall performance were achieved for birth- Place and BP predicate. Analysing the features shown in Table 2 related to the different predicate partial order, it is clear that this configuration setting was influenced by the average number of children in the partial order. Indeed birthPlace and BP were the two predicates with the highest children average number. Moreover, the ranking of predicates w.r.t. their recall corresponded to the predicate ranking w.r.t. the children average number in decreasing order. Otherwise, when considering TSbCIC approach the worst performance in terms of recall were obtained considering genre and BP predicate. We found out that TSbCIC performance depended both on the children average num- ber and the average depth of expected solutions w.r.t. the maximum depth. Indeed, at each step of TSbCIC the probability of error is related to the number of alternatives among which the procedure can select a value. More- over, it also related to the percentage of the partial order that the selection procedure has to traverse in order to reach the expected solutions w.r.t. the maximum depth. The probability of error increased when the part of the graph to traverse augmented. For instance genre predicate had the lowest children average number, but it obtained performance lower than MF, CC and birthPlace predicate. This because its expected values had a depth that required to traverse a bigger part of the partial order than in the other cases. 25 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT A CC EP TE D M A N U SC RI PT To better understand the best parametrization for the post-processing proce- dure several experiments were conducted w.r.t. the different settings reported in Table 3. First of all, we compared the different post-processing strategies we proposed, evaluating the recall at different levels of k. The results are reported in Fig. 6. Note that we show the results for the predicates genre and MF, but a similar behaviour was obtained with all the others. We observe that the best results were obtained by the TSaCtrust for any k value. It took advantage of the fact that it returned a set of alternatives as different as possible from each other and, at the same time, as specific as possible. Usually TSbCIC also outperformed the baseline model (Sums), but for higher values of k it was worse than Sums. This is because we forced the result of TSbCIC to share ordered relationships, while in the case of Sums, k values with the highest confidence were returned (no additional filter was ap- plied on these values). Note that the recall of TSbCIC did not improve when increasing the value of k. This means that a situation in which a returned value is more specific than the expected one never occurs. This is in accor- dance with the policy we adopted to generate the synthetic datasets. Given the expected value, we cannot say anything about its descendants. Each of them may be a true specification of the expected truth or not. Consequently, we removed all of the descendants from the set of possible true and false values. In other words, no sources provide a claim that contains one of the descendants of the expected value associated with the considered data item. Otherwise, in all the other configurations, increasing the number of values returned (k) enhanced the recall. The TSaCIC and TSbCtrust configurations were for the majority of cases worse than those of the baseline approaches. TSaCIC consists of the selec- tion strategy with δ = 1, i.e. all provided values having confidence higher than θ are selected, and the use of IC as first ranking criterion. It obtained low performance because ICSeco was not a good discriminator among values that did not share ordering relationships. Indeed it is based on the number of descendant values and it may happen in situations in which x is the expected value and y has the same father as x. If x has descendants, while y has none, y will be preferred by the ranking based on the ICSeco even if it is not a true value. Thus, the WAtrust ranking is more suitable in these cases. Otherwise TSbCtrust is a post-processing strategy with δ = 0, i.e. at each step of the selection process only one value is selected, with the use of source average as ranking criterion. Obtaining low recall for this model means that 26 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT A CC EP TE D M A N U SC RI PT T a b le 5 : H E M o b ta in ed fo r th e d iff er en t p re d ic a te s w .r .t . th e m o d el a n d th e th re sh o ld θ co n si d er ed . M o d e l T S b C I C T S a C T R U S T P r e d ic a te H E M θ θ 0 0 .1 0 .2 0 .3 0 .4 0 .5 0 0 .1 0 .2 0 .3 0 .4 0 .5 C C F L C A 0 .8 3 6 0 .8 2 6 0 .7 7 0 0 .6 9 4 0 .6 1 7 0 .5 6 1 0 .9 5 8 0 .8 9 0 0 .7 8 3 0 .6 9 0 0 .6 1 3 0 .5 6 0 P L C A 0 .8 2 4 0 .8 7 4 0 .9 4 3 0 .9 8 6 0 .9 9 1 0 .9 8 8 0 .9 5 9 0 .9 5 4 0 .9 6 7 0 .9 8 5 0 .9 8 9 0 .9 8 9 R L C A 0 .8 6 2 0 .8 1 2 0 .6 9 3 0 .5 6 8 0 .4 6 9 0 .4 0 7 0 .9 5 9 0 .8 6 1 0 .7 0 1 0 .5 6 3 0 .4 6 5 0 .4 0 6 M G IA 0 .8 7 9 0 .9 1 0 0 .9 0 7 0 .8 9 0 0 .8 5 5 0 .8 1 8 0 .9 6 3 0 .9 4 5 0 .9 1 7 0 .8 8 7 0 .8 5 1 0 .8 1 6 M F F L C A 0 .8 7 8 0 .8 6 5 0 .8 0 0 0 .6 9 7 0 .6 3 7 0 .5 7 2 0 .9 6 2 0 .9 1 4 0 .8 0 7 0 .6 9 5 0 .6 3 6 0 .5 7 2 P L C A 0 .8 7 0 0 .9 0 7 0 .9 6 0 0 .9 9 0 0 .9 9 4 0 .9 9 4 0 .9 6 4 0 .9 6 5 0 .9 7 1 0 .9 8 9 0 .9 9 4 0 .9 9 4 R L C A 0 .8 9 8 0 .8 5 0 0 .7 2 9 0 .5 6 8 0 .4 9 2 0 .4 1 4 0 .9 6 3 0 .8 9 3 0 .7 3 4 0 .5 6 7 0 .4 9 1 0 .4 1 4 M G IA 0 .9 0 9 0 .9 3 7 0 .9 2 6 0 .8 9 2 0 .8 6 2 0 .8 2 4 0 .9 6 6 0 .9 5 8 0 .9 2 8 0 .8 9 0 0 .8 6 0 0 .8 2 4 B P F L C A 0 .7 4 5 0 .6 8 9 0 .6 2 0 0 .5 4 0 0 .4 8 4 0 .4 3 8 0 .8 8 1 0 .7 2 5 0 .6 0 7 0 .5 2 7 0 .4 7 7 0 .4 3 6 P L C A 0 .7 3 2 0 .8 5 9 0 .9 5 7 0 .9 7 9 0 .9 7 6 0 .9 6 8 0 .8 8 6 0 .9 3 5 0 .9 6 3 0 .9 7 6 0 .9 7 4 0 .9 6 7 R L C A 0 .7 8 3 0 .6 2 4 0 .4 9 4 0 .3 9 1 0 .3 3 5 0 .2 9 3 0 .8 8 2 0 .6 4 2 0 .4 8 1 0 .3 7 9 0 .3 2 9 0 .2 9 1 M G IA 0 .7 9 2 0 .8 5 3 0 .8 3 6 0 .7 7 4 0 .7 0 7 0 .6 4 1 0 .8 8 1 0 .8 6 5 0 .8 1 5 0 .7 5 4 0 .6 9 6 0 .6 3 5 b ir th P la ce F L C A 0 .7 9 1 0 .7 7 3 0 .7 0 9 0 .6 4 0 0 .5 8 7 0 .5 3 2 0 .9 4 6 0 .8 5 5 0 .7 1 3 0 .6 2 7 0 .5 7 6 0 .5 3 0 P L C A 0 .7 8 8 0 .8 4 1 0 .9 3 6 0 .9 8 8 0 .9 9 3 0 .9 9 0 0 .9 4 8 0 .9 4 1 0 .9 5 3 0 .9 8 8 0 .9 9 1 0 .9 8 9 R L C A 0 .8 0 0 0 .7 4 4 0 .6 0 1 0 .4 8 3 0 .4 2 4 0 .3 7 2 0 .9 4 6 0 .8 1 3 0 .6 0 2 0 .4 6 9 0 .4 1 4 0 .3 6 9 M G IA 0 .9 0 9 0 .9 1 2 0 .8 9 7 0 .8 7 7 0 .8 4 5 0 .8 0 7 0 .9 6 8 0 .9 4 8 0 .9 0 0 0 .8 6 9 0 .8 3 8 0 .8 0 5 g e n re F L C A 0 .7 8 4 0 .7 7 5 0 .7 0 8 0 .6 5 7 0 .6 1 7 0 .5 7 1 0 .9 6 3 0 .9 3 0 0 .7 2 9 0 .6 5 7 0 .6 1 7 0 .5 7 1 P L C A 0 .7 8 1 0 .7 9 1 0 .8 5 5 0 .9 7 9 0 .9 9 5 0 .9 9 7 0 .9 6 6 0 .9 5 2 0 .8 7 8 0 .9 8 0 0 .9 9 4 0 .9 9 7 R L C A 0 .7 9 3 0 .7 7 4 0 .6 4 1 0 .5 0 5 0 .4 5 4 0 .4 0 9 0 .9 6 2 0 .9 2 0 0 .6 6 0 0 .5 0 5 0 .4 5 4 0 .4 0 9 M G IA 0 .9 0 3 0 .9 0 4 0 .8 8 9 0 .8 8 7 0 .8 6 7 0 .8 3 3 0 .9 7 4 0 .9 6 7 0 .8 9 7 0 .8 8 7 0 .8 6 7 0 .8 3 3 27 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT A CC EP TE D M A N U SC RI PT WAtrust was not a good discriminator to rank the values sharing partial order relationships returned by the selection phase. Moreover, Fig. 6 shows that when disagreement among sources providing true values increased these two latter approaches (TSaCIC and TSbCtrust) could be useful anyway. The recall they obtained for k = 1 was higher than the recall of Sums model. Therefore in case of high level of disagreement also a not optimal procedure can be advantageous. As expected, in all the cases, the precision always decrease when increasing k. Moreover, comparing the different settings of the proposed approach, we ob- served that the ranking based on their precision performances was the same that the one obtained w.r.t. their recall. Therefore, we omit these repetitive results. Our further analysis focused on models TSaCtrust and TSbCIC since they were the models among the proposed ones that achieved the best perfor- mances. We examined the impact of different threshold values, setting k = 1, w.r.t. the hierarchical evaluation metrics: FLCA,PLCA,RLCA and MGIA. The results are reported in Table 5. Considering TSbCIC, we noticed that, when slightly increasing θ, MGIA increased in the majority of the cases. This occurred because there are expected values (supported by few reliable sources) with a confidence lower than false ones (supported by many unreli- able sources), even though the former have a higher WAtrust than the latter. Thus, using TSbCIC and θ = 0, these values were selected as true values. Increasing θ allows the procedure to avoid a part of these errors. Indeed, eliminating the values with confidence score very low enables the procedure to return, with high probability, the father of the expected value. Anyway, further increasing the threshold caused a loss of MGIA because the returned values result to be very general. This does not happen with TSaCtrust since this kind of errors are already overcome considering WAtrust as first ranking criterion. Moreover, we observed that, in the majority of cases, when increasing θ the RLCA always decreased, while the PLCA always increased. Precisely, the highest RLCA for both TSaCtrust and TSbCIC was obtained with θ = 0. The highest PLCA was obtained for both approaches with different θ values de- pending on the predicate as shown in Table 5. Summarising, the most effective configuration settings were TSaCtrust and TSbCIC. They were both able to obtain better performance than existing truth discovery models. We noted that increasing the number of values re- turned for each data item allow increasing the performance. Nevertheless 28 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT A CC EP TE D M A N U SC RI PT this can be applied only in the case where a group of experts can select the true values among the ones proposed by the proposed approach for each data item. Otherwise, we have to force the parametrization k = 1. Regarding the threshold θ, a high θ value is recommended when the application scenario does not permit to assume many risks. In this case it is important to have a high precision. In other words, obtaining a general true value than the spe- cific false one is preferred. Therefore, the different parameter settings of the proposed post-processing procedure allow dealing with different application scenarios taking their requirements into account. 7. Conclusion In this paper, we have presented a post-processing procedure able to select true values after estimation of the value confidences using the Adapt- edSums approach we proposed in our previous work. This general procedure can be used with any TD approach when partial order of values is taken into account as a priori knowledge. The post-processing process involves three main steps. The first one consists of the selection procedure. It aims to identify the set of possible true values using relationships among them and includes two parameters (δ and θ). Based on their tuning, different be- haviours of the selection process can be obtained. The second step ranks the returned values of the selection phase. Finally, the third step permits to filter the top k values and ensure desirable properties (values that share or not relationships). The results confirmed our preliminary finding: using partial ordering of values helps to improve both source trustworthiness esti- mation, as already demonstrated by our preliminary study [10], and the true value identification. More precisely, the best results are obtained with the configuration of the algorithm that selects a set of alternatives, not sharing ordering relationships, and ranks them through the average trustworthiness of sources claiming those values. The results showed a similar behaviour on the datasets obtained by the two different ontologies (DBpedia and Gene Ontology). As prospects, we envisage to incorporate our framework by adapting it to another existing model. Indeed we would like to show the flexibility of our approach and further enhance the results. Moreover, we intend to explore other kinds of additional information such as correlations among data items and values. For instance, usually the birth location of people is correlated with the language they speak. Therefore, if we know that a person speaks 29 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT A CC EP TE D M A N U SC RI PT Italian, we can increase the confidence in those claims that contain Italy as value for the bornIn predicate. More precisely, we plan to design a model that integrates, into existing approaches, information extracted from exter- nal knowledge bases in the form of rules. 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Srivastava, Integrating conflicting data: the role of source dependence, Proceedings of the VLDB Endowment 2 (1) (2009) 550–561. [23] L. Berti-Equille, A. D. Sarma, Xin, Dong, A. Marian, D. Srivastava, Sailing the Information Ocean with Awareness of Currents: Discovery and Application of Source Dependence, CIDRarXiv:0909.1776. [24] X. L. Dong, L. Berti-Equille, D. Srivastava, Truth Discovery and Copy- ing Detection in a Dynamic World, Vldb 2 (1) (2009) 562–573. [25] D. Wang, T. Abdelzaher, L. Kaplan, R. Ganti, S. Hu, H. Liu, Exploita- tion of physical constraints for reliable social sensing, Proceedings of the 2013 IEEE 34th Real-Time Systems Symposium, RTSS ’13 (2013) 212–223. 32 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT A CC EP TE D M A N U SC RI PT [26] S. Wang, D. Wang, L. Su, L. Kaplan, T. F. Abdelzaher, Towards cyber- physical systems in social spaces: The data reliability challenge, Real- Time Systems Symposium (RTSS), 2014 IEEE (2014) 74–85. [27] A. Bronselaer, M. Szymczak, S. Zadrony, G. D. Tr, Dynamical order construction in data fusion, Information Fusion 27 (Supplement C) (2016) 1 – 18. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.inffus.2015.05.001. URL http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/ S1566253515000391 [28] D. C. Kozen, The Design and Analysis of Algorithms, Springer-Verlag New York, Inc., 1992. [29] A. V. Aho, M. R. Garey, J. D. Ullman, The transitive reduction of a directed graph, SIAM J. Comput. 1 (2) (1972) 131–137. [30] N. Seco, T. Veale, J. Hayes, An intrinsic information content metric for semantic similarity in wordnet, Proceedings of the 16th European conference on artificial intelligence (2004) 1089–1090. [31] S. Harispe, S. Ranwez, S. Janaqi, J. Montmain, Semantic similarity from natural language and ontology analysis, Synthesis Lectures on Human Language Technologies 8 (1) (2015) 1–254. [32] P.-A. Jean, S. Harispe, S. Ranwez, P. Bellot, J. Montmain, Uncertainty detection in natural language: a probabilistic model, in: Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Web Intelligence, Mining and Semantics, WIMS 2016, Nı̂mes, France, June 13-15, 2016. [33] S. Auer, C. Bizer, G. Kobilarov, J. Lehmann, R. Cyganiak, Z. Ives, Dbpedia: A nucleus for a web of open data, in: Proceedings of the 6th International The Semantic Web and 2Nd Asian Conference on Asian Se- mantic Web Conference, ISWC’07/ASWC’07, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, 2007. [34] M. Ashburner, C. A. Ball, J. A. Blake, D. Botstein, H. Butler, J. M. Cherry, A. P. Davis, K. Dolinski, S. S. Dwight, J. T. Eppig, et al., Gene ontology: tool for the unification of biology, Nature genetics 25 (1) (2000) 25–29. 33 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT A CC EP TE D M A N U SC RI PT [35] Q. Li, Y. Li, J. Gao, L. Su, B. Zhao, M. Demirbas, W. Fan, J. Han, A confidence-aware approach for truth discovery on long-tail data, Pro- ceedings of the VLDB Endowment 8 (4) (2014) 425–436. [36] J. Pasternack, D. Roth, Knowing what to believe (when you already know something), Proceedings of the 23rd International Conference on Computational Linguistics, COLING ’10 (2010) 877–885. [37] D. A. Waguih, L. Berti-Equille, Truth discovery algorithms: An experi- mental evaluation, CoRR abs/1409.6428. [38] A. Kosmopoulos, I. Partalas, E. Gaussier, G. Paliouras, I. Androut- sopoulos, Evaluation measures for hierarchical classification: a unified view and novel approaches, Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery 29 (3) (2015) 820–865. 34 
work_dt5lpkr3zrgsvhuvb4ouu72zji	----	nature biotechnology volume 26 number 9 september 2008 9 7 5 and disrupt field research that they deem unacceptable. There are important lessons here. First, you don’t conciliate thugs by capitulating to them. Second, the problem would have been avoided entirely, had public policy been crafted intelligently in the first place. And third, when universities permit intimidation to compromise academic freedom and the safety of their faculty and students, they become part of the problem. Henry I Miller The Hoover Institution, 434 Galvez Mall, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305- 6010, USA. e-mail: miller@hoover.stanford.edu 1. Anonymous. Nat. Biotechnol. 25, 950 (2007). 2. Schiermeier, Q. Nature 453, 263 (2008). for field testing with recombinant DNA– modified plants. In contrast, plants with similar or even identical traits that were created with less precise techniques, such as hybridization or mutagenesis, are subject to no government scrutiny or requirements (or publicity or vandalism) at all. And that applies even to the numerous new plant varieties that result from ‘wide crosses’ with embryo rescue, hybridizations that move genes from one species or genus to another; that is, across what used to be thought of as natural breeding boundaries. If recombinant DNA–modified plants were treated appropriately—that is, no differently from other new varieties—their testing would not need special warning signs or public announcements of test sites. There would be no way for the vandals to target ‘degenerate research’, and allowing persecution of practitioners of certain intellectual approaches, such as the use of the most precise and predictable techniques for genetic modification, the stridency and absolutism of the activists’ pronouncements—and their violent tendencies—will only increase. It is not hard to draw parallels with some of the excesses of intellectual persecution in the 1930s, when the regime’s objections to Entartete Kunst, or ‘degenerate art’, drove out such great minds and innovators as Albert Einstein, Emil Nolde, Max Beckmann, Marc Chagall, Vincent van Gogh, Henri Matisse, Edvard Munch and Pablo Picasso. Those who ignore the mistakes of history are destined to repeat them. But Herr Hormuth has a different take on Germany’s past. In an e-mail to me, he wrote: “If we look at history then we should have also learned that we have to act responsibly with the results and possibilities of scientific research and are accountable to society.” A quite extraordinary statement. Given the existing achievements of recombinant DNA–modified plants—economic benefits to farmers, less use of chemical pesticides, more environment-friendly farming practices—he appears to have a peculiar view of what constitutes acting “responsibly with the results and possibilities of scientific research” and being accountable to society. Could anyone argue seriously that delaying or abandoning a demonstrably safe technology that is environmentally friendly and enhances food (and potentially, biofuel) production is beneficial to society? This time around, the German government is not directly culpable for the current situation, but it certainly has failed to protect freedom of expression and the personal safety and property of plant scientists against assaults by antitechnology activists. (In the United States, such groups have been officially designated as terrorist organizations.) How have we arrived at a position in the 21st century where thugs and vandals dictate the research and syllabus of the academic institutions of a major Western European democracy? One reason is that policy makers in both the European Union (EU) and in individual European countries like Germany have consciously and purposefully chosen not to apply scientific and risk-based regulatory policies to the oversight of recombinant DNA–modified plants. Flying in the face of the scientific consensus—including the EU’s own risk assessments—current EU and national regulations cast a veil of suspicion over agbiotech by requiring case-by-case government environmental assessments Trace and traceability—a call for regulatory harmony To the Editor: Genetically modified (GM) crops were grown commercially in 23 countries in 2007, with a further 29 allowing the import of GM crops for food and/or feed use and release into the environment1. Despite encouraging evidence concerning the positive socioeconomic and environmental benefits brought about by the adoption of GM technology1,2, we wish to highlight the fact that further development is being hampered by a lack of harmonization among national regulatory frameworks relating to research, biosafety and to the trade and use of GM crops. Nowhere is this more apparent than in the laws and regulations governing the tolerance levels for GM material in non-GM food and in the labeling and traceability of GM products. The definition of what is considered GM and non-GM food varies from country to country, with some nations enshrining precise tolerance targets in their GM regulations and some overlooking this important criterion. The European Union (EU; Brussels) follows the ‘precautionary approach’ and the consumers’ ‘right to know’, with stringent approval, labeling and traceability standards on any food produced from or derived from GM ingredients3. In contrast, US regulations are based on differences in the end product, and include a voluntary safety consultation and voluntary labeling guidelines for GM food4. Most other developed countries, including Japan, Canada, Australia and New Zealand, have introduced regulations that share features of both the EU and US systems4. Developing countries often base their regulatory frameworks on models promoted by developed nations without considering the potential socioeconomic impact of such decisions, and the negative consequences of an overcautious regulatory environment on the health and well-being of their populations. The regulatory frameworks of selected countries are compared in Table 1. In the United States and Canada, as well as Japan and Taiwan, food and feed can be classed as non-GM, even if they contain up to 5% GM material. In contrast, other countries set much lower limits (e.g., 0.9% in the EU or 1% in Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Brazil and China). The EU actually has a two-tier tolerance policy, with the 0.9% limit applied to approved GM organisms, and a stricter 0.5% limit applied to GM organisms that have yet to be approved, but which have received favorable risk assessments. In many developing countries, there appears to be no established tolerance limit, which calls into question how such countries will distinguish GM and non-GM food and feed. Similarly, this global regulatory discord begs the question of how nominally GM-free food and feed imported from countries with high tolerance will be handled in stricter countries when it may breach local regulations concerning GM tolerance. This inevitably will c o r r e S p o N D e N c e © 2 0 0 8 N a tu re P u b li s h in g G ro u p h tt p :/ /w w w .n a tu re .c o m /n a tu re b io te c h n o lo g y mailto:miller@hoover.stanford.edu 9 7 6 volume 26 number 9 september 2008 nature biotechnology As the prevalence of GM crops continues to grow, we foresee real problems with the trade and use of food and feed if the regulations are not harmonized on a global level. US food exporters and biotech companies have already complained about the EU’s slow and obscure approval process, and bans by individual EU countries on GM products approved by the EU as a whole5. This ongoing dispute has been intensified by by disharmonious regulations concerning the labeling and traceability of GM food. The USA, Canada, Mexico, Argentina, The Philippines and South Africa have voluntary labeling practices, whereas the EU, Australia, New Zealand, China, Chile, Brazil and Taiwan require the mandatory labeling of GM produce. Still other countries, including Bangladesh, Egypt and Kenya, have no requirements for labeling at all. lead to disputes and the impounding of food and feed. The potential confusion caused by these conflicting tolerance levels will only become worse as more countries join the ‘GM club’. It is projected that the number of countries growing GM food and feed commercially will double over the next 10 years in line with the amount of land given over to GM crops1. The potential for conflict is compounded Table 1 Current GM biosafety regulations for selected countries Country Governing bodies/agencies Regulations/laws Product/ process based Transparency Labeling and traceability Tolerance levels Argentina comisión Nacional Asesora de Biotecnología Agropecuaria, Servicio Nacional de Sanidad y calidad Agroalimentaria, Instituto Nacional de Semillas, Direccion Nacional de Mercados Agroalimentarios Law 18284 on Argentine Food codex, Decree 1585/96, Decree 4238, Decree 815/99, resolution 289/97, resolution 511/98, resolution 1265/99 product Yes Voluntary n.d. Australia office of the Gene Technology regulator, Food Standards Australia New Zealand Gene Technology Act 2000, Standard 1.5.2- Food produced Using Gene Technology process Yes Mandatory 1% Bangladesh Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of Science and Information & communication Technology, Ministry of environment & Forest Draft Biosafety Guidelines product n.d. No labeling regulation n.d. Brazil conselho Nacional de Biosegurança, comissão Técnica Nacional de Biossegurança Biosafety Law Number 11.105 process n.d. Mandatory 1% Burkina Faso National Biosafety Agency Decree 2003-208-/preS/pM/MAecr/ MFB/MecV process No n.d. n.d. canada canadian Food Inspection Agency consumer packaging & Labeling Act, Feeds Act, Fertilizers Act, Food & Drugs Act, Health of Animals Act, Seeds Act, plant protection Act product Yes Voluntarya 5% Health canada Food & Drugs Act, canadian environmental protection Act, pest control products Act environment canada canadian environmental protection Act chile Advisory committee for the release of Transgenics (Ministry of Agriculture, Agricultural and Livestock Service, National Agricultural research Institute, National commission on Scientific and Technical research) resolution of exemption 1927/93 Decree- Law 3554/81 n.d. n.d. Mandatory n.d. china Administration for Quality Supervision, Inspection and Quarantine State environmental protection Administration, Ministry of Science and Technology, Ministry of commerce, Ministry of Health Under discussion process n.d. Mandatory 1% egypt National Biosafety committee No proper biosafety regulation but Ministerial decree No. 1648 (1998) is for commercialization of imported products; National Biosafety committee guidelines occur, however, not legally binding process n.d. No labeling required (no framework) Not estab- lished eU Member states’ competent authorities and european commission eU Directive 2001/18/ec (2001), ec regulation 258/97 (1997) process Yes Mandatoryb 0.9%; 0.5% food and feed India Ministry of environment & Forests, Department of Biotechnology epA 1986 &1989 rules process Yes proposed legis- lation for man- datory labeling occurs n.d. Japan Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare, Ministry of the environment, Ministry of education, culture, Sports, Science and Technology Law concerning the conservation & Sustainable Use of Biological Diversity through regulations on the Use of LMos, Food Sanitation Law, Feed Safety Law process Yes Mandatory for selected prod- ucts 5% (continued) c o r r e S p o N D e N c e © 2 0 0 8 N a tu re P u b li s h in g G ro u p h tt p :/ /w w w .n a tu re .c o m /n a tu re b io te c h n o lo g y nature biotechnology volume 26 number 9 september 2008 9 7 7 earned $27 billion from the technology, split almost equally between developed and developing countries2. As well as direct economic benefits, GM crops reduce pesticide use, and reduce the use of fossil fuels in agriculture2. These benefits could be lost, or curtailed, if the regulations in different parts of the world are not brought into line, or at least made mutually compatible. It is also important to base the global regulations on scientific principles rather than unrealistic expectations of risk avoidance. Currently, many countries have in place regulations that erect unnecessary hurdles to the further development of the technology, especially banning GM products all together, even after they have been approved as safe by European Food Safety Authority (Parma, Italy), the EU’s own regulatory agency on GM6. Developing countries have also been drawn into this dispute as both sides try to win their support. Many developing countries have banned GM products owing to consumer and environmental concerns, only to find themselves excluded from markets and refused financial support from industrialized nations to conduct research and build human capital for biotech activities. In the decade since GM crops were first adopted, it is estimated that farmers have the EU’s introduction of mandatory labeling. The role of the World Trade Organization’s (Geneva) legal framework regarding trade in GM products (the Sanitary and Phytosanitary Agreement, and the Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade; http://www. wto.org has played a significant role in stifling the opportunities offered by GM products. Strict labeling, identity preservation and import requirements impose additional costs and reduce public confidence, which in turn affects trade. The decline in US corn exports to the EU has been blamed on the EU’s strict approval and labeling requirements, with some EU countries Table 1 Current GM biosafety regulations for selected countries (continued) Country Governing bodies/agencies Regulations/laws Product/ process based Transparency Labeling and traceability Tolerance levels Kenya National Biosafety committee, National environmental Management Authority, Kenya Bureau of Standards, Kenya Animal plant Health Inspectorate Services, Kenya Standing committee on Imports and exports, public Health Department, Department of Veterinary Services, pest control products Board Kenyan Draft Biosafety Bill of 2003, eMcA Act process Yes No labeling addressed in draft bill Not estab- lished Mexico Secretaria de Agricultura, Ganaderia, Desarrollo rural, pesca y Alimentacion, Secretaría de medio ambiente y recursos naturales, Secretaria de Salud, comision Federal para la proteccion contra riesgos Sanitarios, comisión Intersecretarial de Bioseguridad de los organismos Genéticamente Modificados Biosafety Law of Genetically Modified organisms (2005) process Yes Mandatory n.d. New Zealand environmental risk Management Authority, New Zealand Food Safety Authority, Food Standards Australia New Zealand, Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry The Hazardous Substances & New organisms Act 1996 (HSNo Act) process Yes Mandatory 1% Nigeria Federal Ministry of environment, National Biosafety committee Nigeria Biosafety Guidelines, Draft biosafety bill process Yes (planned in draft bill) Mandatory as planned in draft n.d. South Africa executive council of Genetically Modified organisms, Department of Agriculture, Department of environment and Tourism, Department of Health GMo Act, 1997 (Act No. 15 of 1997), amended 2007; National Biodiversity Act product Yes Voluntary 1% Taiwan Taiwan Department of Health; council of Agriculture Article 14 of the Law Governing Food Sanitation product Yes Mandatory 5% The philippines National committee on Biosafety of the philippines (Departments of Agriculture, Science and Technology, Health, and environment and Natural resources), Institutional Biosafety committee e.o. 430 (1990) DA-A.o. No. 8 (2002) product Yes Voluntary 5% UK Health and Safety executive, Department for environment, Food, and rural Affairs Directive 2001/18/ec process Yes Mandatory c Food Standards Agency, Advisory committee on releases to the environment regulation (ec) No 1829/2003 USA US Department of Agriculture Federal plant protection Act product Yes Voluntarya 5% environmental protection Agency Federal Insecticide Fungicide and rodenticide Act, Federal Food Drug and cosmetic Act, Toxic Substances control Act Food and Drug Administration Federal Food Drug and cosmetic Act Zambia National Biosafety Authority, Scientific Advisory committeed National Biotechnology & Biosafety Bill process Yes n.d. n.d. aLabeling required if safety concerns (allergenic, change in nutritional composition) exist. bLabeling required at a 0.9% threshold for approved GM organisms or 0.5% for GM organisms given a favorable risk assessment but not yet approved (called ‘adventitious presence’) and 0% for unapproved GMos. cTo be established by the biosafety bill, however, the parliamentary committee on education, Science and Technology currently is in rule. dLabeling is required of seeds used for planting—the characteristics of the acquired genetic combination, implications with regard to special conditions and growing requirements, and changes in reproductive and productive characteristics should be stated. n.d., not disclosed. c o r r e S p o N D e N c e © 2 0 0 8 N a tu re P u b li s h in g G ro u p h tt p :/ /w w w .n a tu re .c o m /n a tu re b io te c h n o lo g y 9 7 8 volume 26 number 9 september 2008 nature biotechnology have neglected to consult a comparative pathologist during the evaluation of such manuscripts. One must wonder whether such a practice would be allowed if a submitted manuscript contained complex statistical analyses and no statistician was involved during the preparation or review of the manuscript, or crystallography was used to resolve a molecular structure but no expert was asked to check the X-ray diffraction data. Yet, it appears that when it comes to evaluation of human tissues and genetically engineered mouse (GEM) phenotypes, which is no less complex than statistics or X-ray diffraction, unvalidated1 DIY pathology’ has become common— and frequently accepted—practice2. We have previously noted the dwindling number of comparative pathologist- scientists who are qualified to coordinate and critique the pathological interpretation and the basic science in a manuscript3,4. There is an urgent need to make use of existing experts and encourage the growth of this discipline5. We recognize that a qualified expert may not be available for journal editors in some instances. However, when a pathologist-scientist who can review the entire manuscript is not available, both journal editors and grant study sections should, at least, seek the expert opinion of a pathologist to perform a fact and/or quality check of the pathology data, without necessarily commenting on the basic science. Implementing such a policy routinely during manuscript reviews in Nature journals would have an immense positive impact for the future health of scientific research. We, a group of concerned investigator-pathologists, have formed a nonprofit educational foundation, Center for Genomic Pathology (CGP; Davis, CA, USA; http://www. ctrgenpath.org/) to address these issues. We invite others who are interested in this issue to participate in a comprehensive debate to develop standards for the manuscript and the grant review process involving human and genetically engineered mouse tissues and use of pathology in research. We note that this letter represents a consensus opinion of the faculty of CGP and other cosigners below. Tan A Ince1, Jerrold M Ward2, Victor E Valli3, Dennis Sgroi4, Alexander Yu Nikitin5, Massimo Loda1,6, Stephen M Griffey7, Christopher P Crum1, James M Crawford8, Roderick T Bronson9 & Robert D Cardiff10 1Department of Pathology, Harvard Medical School, Division of Women’s and Perinatal 1Departament de Produccio Vegetal I Ciencia Forestal, University of Lleida, Avenue Alcalde Rovira Roure 177, E-25198 Lleida, Spain. 2Department of Biology, University of York, Heslington, York YO10 5DD, UK. 3Department of Biology, Calvin College, 1726 Knollcrest Circle, S.E., Grand Rapids, Michigan 49546-4403, USA. 4Institucio Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avancats, Passeig Lluís Companys, 08018, Barcelona, Spain. e-mail: christou@pvcf.udl.cat 1. James, c. ISAAA Brief No. 37. (ISAAA, Ithaca, NY, USA, 2007). 2. Brookes, G. & Barfoot, p. ISAAA Brief No. 36. (ISAAA, Ithaca, NY, USA, 2006). 3. Gruère, G.p. Food Policy 31, 148–161 (2006). 4. carter, c.A. & Gruère, G.p. in Regulating Agricultural Biotechnology. Economics and Policies (eds. Just, r., Alston, J.M. & Zilberman, D.) 459–480 (Springer publishing, New York, USA, 2006). 5. Fransen, L., La Vina, A., Dayrit, F., Gatlabayan, L., Santosa, D.A. & Adiwibowo, S. Integrating Socio- Economic Considerations into Biosafety Decisions: The Role of Public Participation (World resources Institute White paper, WrI, Washington, Dc, USA, 2005). 6. Bernauer, T. Genes, Trade and Regulation: The Seeds of Conflict in Food Biotechnology (princeton University press, princeton, NJ, USA, 2003). 7. christou p. & Twyman, r.M. Nutrition Res. Rev. 17, 23–42 (2004). 8. Bernauer, T. Intl. J. Biotechnol. 7, 7–28 (2005). developing countries where the benefits are most needed7. Several policy tools have been used to accommodate, reduce or eliminate international regulatory diversity8. One realistic approach is ‘mutual recognition’, where countries agree to recognize each other’s regulations; for example, the US and EU could agree to allow imports of each other’s products (GM and conventional) produced and marketed under home regulations, giving consumers on both sides of the Atlantic the choice. Perhaps if Europe and the US were to show such leadership, this type of compromise could be rolled out globally. Whatever the case, as more and more countries cultivate GM varieties, and national and international bodies continue to promulgate diverging regulatory approaches, there is little doubt that a more harmonious future for GM food and feed regulation would be in the interests of all. Koreen Ramessar1, Teresa Capell1, Richard M Twyman2, Hector Quemada3 & Paul Christou1,4 Do-it-yourself (DIY) pathology To the Editor: An exchange of correspondence in your November issue highlighted the importance of precise terminology for pathology data and terminology in scientific research and literature1. In the past few decades, several developments in technology have significantly increased the use of pathology in basic and translational research. For example, the development of genetically engineered mice has resulted in the creation of an ever-increasing variety of murine disease models. And more recently, availability of new technologies, such as mRNA expression arrays and tissue microarrays, has allowed basic researchers to work with patient tissue samples. Even so, the application of these technologies appears to have outpaced our ability to properly evaluate the resulting data2. The systematic analysis of disease phenotypes in mice, and their correlation with human disease, requires expertise in ‘comparative pathology’, encompassing training both in mouse and human gross anatomy, microscopic analysis of tissues (histopathology and immunopathology) and disease mechanisms (pathobiology), which even the most accomplished basic or clinical scientists frequently lack2. Formal training in one field of pathology might prepare one to become a self-taught expert in another field of pathology. However, we find it unlikely that one can become an expert pathologist with no prior formal training. Those of us with comparative pathology expertise have collectively noted that numerous tissue-based research studies have been published over the past decade without a pathologist among the authors, collaborators or consultants2. Furthermore, based on the frequently inaccurate use of pathology terms and misinterpretation of data in many of these studies, it appears that not only the authors but also the reviewers and editors often c o r r e S p o N D e N c e © 2 0 0 8 N a tu re P u b li s h in g G ro u p h tt p :/ /w w w .n a tu re .c o m /n a tu re b io te c h n o lo g y http://www.ctrgenpath.org/ http://www.ctrgenpath.org/ 
work_dzmsk45m5jceng2tmjddueulkm	----	RevMedNoviembre 2004 121 ARTÍCULO ESPECIAL Rev Méd Chile 2009; 137: 121-126 Crear o copiar… ¿Cuál es la diferencia? Ricardo López P1,2,a. Create or copy... Which is the difference? Creating and copying are two different processes; we must not confuse creativity with plagiarism. However, this distinction is problematic, because there is no possibility of creating from scratch, this implies that any creative act necessarily arises from accumulative experience, inevitably producing a continuity between old and new. Even so it is necessary to establish clearly the difference between creating and copying. It is not desirable that a matter of such importance remains in the nebula or that the relationship between creativity and ethics is kept unaware. There are many cases of plagiarism, but this cannot be a consolation. There is no gain when the existence of a plagiarism is ignored or concealed and less when it is unjustified (Rev Méd Chile 2009; 137: 121-6). (Key words: Ethics; Manuscripts; Plagiarism) Recibido el 20 de agosto, 2008. Aceptado el 26 de septiembre, 2008. 1Facultad de Psicología, Universidad Diego Portales. 2Departamento de Educación en Ciencias de la Salud, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Chile. Santiago de Chile. aDoctor en Filosofía Plagio es el acto de apropiación de una obraajena con el propósito de presentarla como propia. Equivale a copiar, esto es, tomar algo de un lugar y reproducirlo en otro, borrando o cambiando el nombre del autor. Una mezcla de hurto y engaño, y seguramente también de autoengaño. Una decisión deliberada y plena- mente consciente de apropiación ilegítima, in- aceptable desde la perspectiva de la creatividad. Para la percepción corriente existe una gran diferencia entre crear y copiar, como dos procesos muy distintos, aunque expresados con palabras que formalmente sólo cambian por apenas unas letras. Aun así, esta distinción es problemática desde el momento en que ningún mortal puede crear de la nada. Es preciso asumir, por tanto, que toda creación presupone la utilización de algo conocido, lo que determina cierto tipo de continuidad entre lo antiguo y lo nuevo. Con todo, la diferencia entre crear y copiar puede y debe ser establecida. “En un lugar de la Mancha de cuyo nombre no quiero acordarme, frente al pelotón de fusilamiento, el coronel Aureliano Buendía había de recordar aquella tarde en que, al despertar de un sueño agitado, Gregorio Samsa se encontró en su cama transformado en un horrible insecto”. Copyright. Jorge Maronna y Luís María Pescetti Correspondencia a: Dr. Ricardo López Pérez. E mail: ricardo.lopez@udp.cl - rlopezp@med.uchile.cl 122 Desde el punto de vista conceptual, precisa- mente, el hecho fundamental que permitió el uso de la palabra “creador” para referirse a los seres humanos, lo constituye el paso desde la creación como algo que surge de la nada (creatio ex nihilo), a la creación como un fenómeno que parte de lo existente. Eliminada esta condición que sólo podía cumplir Dios, los seres humanos se convierten en creadores, pero esta vez a partir de su mundo de experiencia. No se crea en el vacío ni con el vacío. El mismo Hermes, aun siendo inmortal, para fabricar la primera lira debió utilizar un caparazón de tortuga y unos restos de intestino de buey adaptados como cuerdas1. Este hecho de apariencia obvia es medular, porque permite entender que la creatividad es una manera de utilizar provechosamente lo que está disponible. En el acto creativo siempre se encuentra un conjunto de recursos o hechos conocidos, pero proyectados en una nueva di- mensión. Sin duda, crear tiene mucho de recrear. Los griegos del período clásico decían: “Había un Pilos antes de Pilos, y un Pilos aun anterior”2; y Nietzsche llegó a decir: “No es ser el primero en ver algo nuevo, sino en ver como si fuesen nuevas las cosas viejas y conocidas, vistas y revistas, lo que distingue a los cerebros verdaderamente originales”3. Metafóricamente, muchos creadores represen- tan esta situación. Por ejemplo, Pablo Picasso decía irónicamente que si había algo que robar, lo robaba4; Martha Graham a su vez afirmaba, “robo lo mejor donde quiera que esté (Platón, Picasso, Bertram, Ross), soy una ladrona y me honro de ello... pienso que conozco el valor de lo que robo y lo atesoro como una herencia y un legado”5; y el iconoclasta Marcel Duchamp suponía que, eligien- do algo perteneciente a un periodo anterior y adaptándolo al trabajo propio, se podían conse- guir líneas creadoras6. Otros autores han puesto el acento en el modo en que continuamente los hombres se sirven de la naturaleza. Demócrito, en el siglo V aC, afirmaba: “Los hombres son en las cosas más importantes discípulos de los animales: de la araña en el tejer y remendar; de la golondrina, para la construcción de viviendas; y en el canto, del cisne y del ruiseñor, todo ello por vía de imitación”7. La misma idea está expresada mucho después por Ralph Emerson: “El cuerpo humano es el depósito de las invenciones, la oficina de patentes en que están los modelos de los que se tomó cada sugestión”8. Los testimonios son múltiples: los Cabiros, hijos de Hefesto, observaron a un cangre- jo para fabricar las tenazas9; el más importante estadio de los Juegos Olímpicos de Beijing 2008, fue fabricado a imagen de un nido de pájaros; y la teoría de la tecnología de Marshall McLuhan sugiere que todas ellas son extensiones (copias) del cuerpo humano10. Algo de esta problemática se manifiesta de singular manera en una pequeña historia asociada a Charles Chaplin. Cansado de tantos imitadores, resolvió demandar a uno de ellos, de apellido Amador, que había copiado su apariencia y sus rutinas; pero el hábil abogado que tomó su defensa logró demostrar que la indumentaria de Charlot no tenía nada de original, puesto que él mismo la había copiado: en 1899, un actor llamado George Beban utilizaba un bigote seme- jante; en 1892, un tal Harry Morris usaba unos inmensos zapatos; en 1898, el cómico Lenox salía a escena con un sombrero de hongo, y así sucesivamente11. Charlot es el resultado de un largo proceso, al que contribuyen elementos habituales de la vida cotidiana, en eso tiene razón el abogado, pero sería muy injusto olvidar lo que Chaplin agrega. Este magnífico personaje corres- ponde a una inesperada articulación de elementos conocidos, es cierto, pero ahora con un sabor propio y en un ambiente de delicadeza y magia que no existían. Con un tono de ironía, Voltaire afirmó en una oportunidad: “La originalidad no es más que una imitación inteligente”12. Alfred Whitehead llevó el argumento a su mayor tensión, al afirmar que toda la filosofía occidental no es más que un conjunto de anotaciones en los márgenes de los diálogos de Platón13. Así, con este criterio, muchos han negado, por ejemplo, el valor de los poetas trágicos, porque recogen una y cien veces los temas que siglos antes proponían Homero y Hesíodo, o la creatividad de las obras de Shakes- peare, surgidas de muchas lecturas previas. Este es el escenario en el que aparecen las acusaciones de plagio. La primera querella de este tipo se desata cuando Talos, sobrino del gran artesano Dédalo, toma casualmente una mandíbu- la de serpiente (otra versión dice un espinazo de pescado) y la utiliza para cortar una rama. Luego, A R T Í C U L O E S P E C I A L Rev Méd Chile 2009; 137: 121-126 123 habiendo advertido la potencia de su hallazgo, la reproduce en metal originando la primera sierra. Esta y otras invenciones le proporcionaron una gran reputación entre sus contemporáneos, ex- cepto con su tío, quien afirmaba que el mérito de forjar la primera sierra le pertenecía. Dédalo resolvió la diferencia empujando a su sobrino desde lo alto de la Acrópolis14. De allí en adelante, acusaciones semejantes se han multiplicado; algunas más celebres que otras. Newton y Leibniz se acusaron recíprocamente a propósito de la creación del cálculo infinitesimal, sin que sepamos a la fecha si fue efectivamente un plagio o un caso de descubrimiento simultáneo. Nada para sorprenderse, porque el mismísimo Descartes es sospechoso de plagiar las leyes de la refracción, relacionadas con el cambio de direc- ción de un rayo de luz al pasar de un medio a otro, formuladas por el matemático holandés Willebrord Snell15. La publicación de la Encyclopédie, esa gigan- tesca obra ilustrada, aparece asociada a una acusación de plagio. El cura jesuita Berthier, escribió un artículo en el Journal de Trévoux, en el cual se afirma que la clasificación del conoci- miento humano publicado en el Prospestus que precede a la Encyclopédie, está plagiado de una obra de Francis Bacon. Con prontitud Denis Diderot rechaza la acusación, alegando que el nombre del filósofo inglés se encuentra en las referencias16. Para mayor certeza, Jean D‘Alambert agrega un apartado al Discurso Preliminar, centra- do en la división de las ciencias de Bacon, en donde se lee: “No debe permitirse que se nos acuse de plagiarios ni siquiera sospechosos de tales”17. Los hermanos Wright llegaron a los tribunales para evitar el plagio de su flamante máquina voladora. Sostuvieron una extensa batalla legal en contra de Glenn Curtiss, que recién en 1914, a once años del primer vuelo controlado y dos años después de la muerte de Wilbur Wright, dio por resultado una sentencia favorable en la Corte de Apelaciones de Dayton18. En el último tiempo se han multiplicado las acusaciones de plagio contra el escritor peruano Alfredo Bryce Echenique. Recientemente la pren- sa de ese país informaba de un total de veintisiete acusaciones, todas ellas orientadas a denunciar la apropiación ilegítima de diversos textos, tomados especialmente de intelectuales españoles. La pe- riodista chilena María Soledad de la Cerda docu- mentó la existencia de dieciséis casos, entre los cuales se cuentan los plagios al periodista Juan Carlos Ponce y al escritor John Steinbeck. Junto con alegar que en algunos de éstos se trataría de errores lamentables, de responsabilidad de su secretaria, Bryce Echeniche avanzó también hacia una provocativa justificación: “El plagio es un homenaje”19. Esto es, al plagiar a un autor, al hacer desaparecer su nombre y de paso agregar el propio, se materializa realmente una especial muestra de respeto. Chile no carece de célebres historias al respec- to. Pablo de Rocka hizo público el plagio en que habría incurrido su enemigo literario y homónimo Pablo Neruda, al tomar el poema 30 de Rabindra- nath Tagore y convertirlo en su poema 1620. El primero de ellos dice: “Tú eres la nube del crepúsculo que flota en el cielo de mis sueños, te dibujo según los anhelos de mi amor, eres mía, mía y habitas en mis sueños infinitos”. Y el segundo: “En mi cielo al crepúsculo eres como una nube y tu color y forma son como yo los quiero. Eres mía, eres mía, mujer de labios dulces y viven en tu vida mis infinitos sueños”. Como sea, plagio o no, a partir de la tercera edición Neruda agregó un encabezado al poema en donde se lee: “Paráfrasis a R. Tagore”21. Desde luego, la existencia de muchos casos de plagio, con diferentes matices y en distintas épocas, lugares y campos de actividad humana, no puede ser un consuelo ni una justificación. Ello sólo revela la complejidad del hecho y a su manera plantea un imperativo de claridad. No es deseable que la diferencia entre crear y copiar quede reducida a un valor cero, o que las relaciones entre creatividad y ética se den por descontadas. El Gran Hacedor es el único creador que observa todo sin necesidad de mirar hacia atrás, ni asumir deudas en su producción creativa. El resto, simples mortales, trabajan invariablemente a partir de numerosos antecedentes previos, de modo que la continuidad y, a ratos, la ruptura con alguna tradición no pueden exhibirse como factor que rebaja la creatividad, más bien debe entenderse que la respalda. Cualquier manifestación creativa pone a la vista la presencia de alguna mezcla, combinación o articulación entre elementos pre- A R T Í C U L O E S P E C I A L CREAR O COPIAR... ¿CUÁL ES LA DIFERENCIA? - R López 124 viamente distanciados. En particular, la creatividad supone, y ciertamente exige, un activo diálogo entre fantasía y lógica. Muchos grandes creadores han sido conscien- tes de este tipo de continuidad. Isaac Newton, considerado el científico más grande de la histo- ria, llegó a decir: “Si pude ver más lejos que mis predecesores, fue porque ellos, gigantes de talla, me levantaron sobre sus hombros”22. Con esto en realidad sólo parafraseaba (tal vez plagiaba) al filósofo neoplatónico Bernardo de Chartes, quien en el siglo XII escribió: “Somos enanos encarama- dos en los hombros de gigantes. De esta manera vemos más y más lejos que ellos, no porque nuestra vista sea más aguda o nuestra estatura más alta, sino porque ellos nos sostienen en el aire y nos elevan con toda su altura gigantesca”23. En este marco, se puede observar con algún detenimiento el caso de los poetas trágicos y el de Shakespeare. El género trágico surgió a finales del siglo VI aC, como un espectáculo de poderosas resonan- cias emocionales, combinando el canto, la música y la danza. Con la única excepción de Los Persas de Esquilo, que pone en escena la batalla naval de Salamina ocurrida ocho años antes, las restantes tragedias conservadas giran en torno a temas tomados principalmente de los relatos de Homero y Hesíodo. La tragedia obtiene sus contenidos de fuentes tradicionales, pero no simplemente para evocarlos, sino como un pretexto para debatir los asuntos propios de la polis; como la justicia, el poder, la guerra, el crimen, la culpa o el castigo. Tomar estos temas y proponerlos para enfocar situaciones nuevas, una crisis o un problema que exige solución, hacen de la tragedia un recurso para presentar los antiguos mitos desde una perspectiva ciudadana. Fuertemente vinculada a las preocupaciones de la polis, la tragedia marca una etapa en la formación del hombre cívico y del ciudadano responsable. No es sólo un fenómeno artístico, es también una institución política unida al curso de la democracia24. El poeta Esquilo, por ejemplo, escribió una obra trágica dedicada a Prometeo, personaje de dos poemas de Hesíodo. Lo mismo respecto de la Orestíada, en donde se recrea la muerte de Agamenón a manos de su esposa Clitemnestra y su amante Egisto, asunto anticipado tres siglos antes por Homero. Ambos casos, sin embargo, están desarrollados en un formato y con una intención que no tienen relación con sus versio- nes originales. Prometeo deja de ser un astuto engañador de los dioses, de perfil soberbio, para convertirse en un héroe cultural, lúcido y autode- terminado. En tanto que el asesinato de Agame- nón es ahora utilizado para plantear un asunto de la mayor importancia para el destino de la democracia, como es el paso de la venganza a la justicia. Por su parte, Shakespeare escribió Hamlet a partir de una historia tradicional danesa que ya tenía dos versiones. La primera en el siglo XII, escrita en latín por Saxo Grammaticus y la siguien- te por Francois de Bellesforest en el XVI. Esta obra cumbre de la creatividad literaria no surgió de la nada, sino de un relato tradicional. Shakespeare efectivamente recibió el asunto principal de su ambiente, pero eso no es todo, porque agregó escenas y personajes. Desde luego, incorporó el fantasma del padre de Hamlet, la llegada de los actores, la representación de una obra dentro de la obra para observar la reacción del rey Claudio, el asesino sospechoso, la escena entre Hamlet y su madre después de la representación, la locura de Ofelia y su suicidio por inmersión, los persona- jes Osric y Fortinbras, el papel de Laertes como vengador, el sepulturero y el funeral en el cemen- terio de la iglesia, entre otros elementos25. Sobre todo, convirtió a Hamlet en un personaje de insondable subjetividad, un verdadero paradigma de la indecisión envuelto en un mar de dudas, con la voluntad paralizada en medio de una confusa avalancha de pensamientos. Todos los logros creativos arrancan de alguna realidad previa; del aporte de la cultura, de las generaciones anteriores, de aprendizajes que ni siquiera se recuerdan como tales. La cuestión crucial está en la posibilidad de ir más allá a partir de aquello que se ha recibido, descubierto o seleccionado. Crear y copiar son procesos muy distintos, sin duda, a condición de que aceptemos que la creatio ex nihilo está negada a los hombres y podamos observar cada creación en el contexto en que surge. Con propiedad, esto último ha generado las condiciones para hablar de intertextualidad en conexión con los fenómenos creativos. Unos textos habitan en otros textos; todo el tiempo hay una relación, directa o sutil, de un texto actual con A R T Í C U L O E S P E C I A L Rev Méd Chile 2009; 137: 121-126 125 muchos otros anteriores, conocidos o no por el autor. Apunta a un fenómeno evidente de la creación intelectual, que de paso abre otra ver- tiente para el debate sobre las diferencias y los límites entre crear y copiar, pero ello no significa que la distinción se haya esfumado. De alguna manera éste es el contenido de la “ley fundamen- tal de la Biblioteca” formulada por Jorge Luis Borges. Esta ley reconoce que todos los libros, sin excepción, tienen los mismos elementos: puntos, comas, espacios y, por cierto, las letras del alfabeto. Aun así, “no hay en la vasta Biblioteca, dos libros iguales”26. Se puede crear hasta el infinito, sin necesidad de llegar al plagio, a la réplica astuta, a la copia mecánica. Margaret Boden, especialista en psico- logía cognitiva e inteligencia artificial, ha dicho: “Aun si supiésemos el contenido completo de la mente de alguien, la complicación derivada de sus poderes asociativos impediría una predicción de- tallada de sus pensamientos”27. Así, una concepción en extremo purista anula la posibilidad de crear, porque nada podrá ser com- pletamente original. Inversamente, una visión de- masiado indiferente a los matices arroja todo a un campo de arbitrariedad. La fórmula parece estar en la capacidad para advertir que ni la originalidad ni la relevancia, propias de un resultado creativo, son criterios absolutos. La creatividad siempre implica un juicio, a la vez personal y social. Más aún, pone en juego algún sistema de preferencias; es expre- sión de un propósito, de una opción, en suma, es un gesto asociado a la libertad. Al hilo de estas reflexiones, existe una certeza: la creación personal o colectiva supone llevar lo conocido más allá, elevarlo a otra dimensión, ponerlo en otro contexto, aplicarlo de nueva manera, en fin, proyectarlo de un modo parcial- mente inédito. En modo alguno puede tratarse de una mera reproducción, de un movimiento vacío. En el trabajo intelectual la originalidad nunca es absoluta; no puede serlo. Homero no fue plenamente original, no lo fue Platón, ni Freud, ni Heidegger. Al mismo tiempo, las ideas que nos brinda con generosidad la historia del pensamien- to, de la filosofía, la ciencia o la literatura, están para ser usadas. Cumplen su mejor función cuan- do las personas las recogen, las discuten o bien las transforman; cuando son llevadas al dominio de la experiencia. Es preciso apropiarse de ellas y convertirlas en orientaciones para vivir, en crite- rios para razonar y para decidir. Son una vía de acceso al sentido del mundo privado y del mundo en que vivimos. Hasta este punto no hay problema, pero una cosa distinta es recoger furtivamente un texto, borrar el nombre del autor y agregar el propio. Borges cuenta que sólo Pierre Menard pudo ser considerado autor del Quijote, sin que alguien tuviese autoridad para insinuar siquiera que se trataba de un saqueo. En este caso no cabe confundirse: “Su admirable ambición era produ- cir unas páginas que coincidieran palabra por palabra y línea por línea con las de Miguel de Cervantes”28. Ironías aparte y especialmente pensando en la universidad: ¿Qué ganancia se puede obtener cuando se desconoce, suaviza u oculta la existen- cia de un plagio, y todavía cuando se le procura una metafísica? REFERENCIAS 1. GRIMAL P. Diccionario de Mitología Griega y Roma- na. Buenos Aires: Paidós. 2006. 2. JOHNSON P. Creadores. Buenos Aires: Vergara. 2007; 13. 3. LÓPEZ R. Prontuario de la Creatividad. (3ª Edición). Santiago: Bravo y Allende. 2008; 90. 4. WALTER I. Picasso. Colonia: Taschen. 1995. 5. GARDNER H. Mentes Creativas. Barcelona: Paidós. 1995; 322. 6. LÓPEZ R. Prontuario de la Creatividad. (3ª Edición). Santiago: Bravo y Allende. 2008; 5. 7. LLANOS A. Los Presocráticos y sus Fragmentos. Buenos Aires: Juarez. 1968; 241. 8. LÓPEZ R. Prontuario de la Creatividad. (3ª Edición). Santiago: Bravo y Allende. 2008; 64. 9. GRIMAL P. Diccionario de Mitología Griega y Roma- na. Buenos Aires: Paidós. 2006. 10. MCLUHAN M. El Medio es el Masaje. Buenos Aires: Paidós. 1969. 11. VILLEGAS LÓPEZ M. Charles Chaplin. El Genio del Cine. Barcelona: Folio. 2003; 207-8. A R T Í C U L O E S P E C I A L CREAR O COPIAR... ¿CUÁL ES LA DIFERENCIA? - R López 126 12. LÓPEZ R. Prontuario de la Creatividad. (3ª Edición). Santiago: Bravo y Allende. 2008; 225. 13. WHITEHEAD A. Proceso y Realidad. Buenos Aires: Losada. 1956. 14. GRAVES R. Los Mitos Griegos. Buenos Aires: Ariel. 2007; 102-3. 15. ALLÉGRE C. Un Poco de Ciencia Para Todo el Mundo. Barcelona: Paidós. 2005; 44 y 63. 16. BLOM P. Encyclopédie. Barcelona: Anagrama. 2007; 121-2. 17. D’ALEMBERT J. Discurso Preliminar de la Enciclope- dia. Madrid: Aguilar. 1985; 181. 18. TOBIN J. Los Hermanos Wright. Buenos Aires: El Ateneo. 2003; 425. 19. www.latercera.cl. Martes 8 de abril de 2008 (Acc. 08/2008). 20. www.sandovalsignpost.com (Acc. 08/2008). 21. NERUDA P. Obras Completas. Buenos Aires: Losada. 1967; 1; 98. 22. LÓPEZ, R. Prontuario de la Creatividad. (3ª Edición). Santiago: Bravo y Allende. 2008; 58. 23. LE GOFF J. Los Intelectuales en la Edad Media. Barcelona: Gedisa. 1996; 31. 24. VERNANT JP, VIDAL-NAQUET P. Mito y Tragedia en la Antigua Grecia. Barcelona: Paidós. 2002; 1: 33. 25. JOHNSON P. Creadores. Buenos Aires: Vergara. 2007; 99. 26. BORGES JL. La Biblioteca de Babel. En Ficciones. Buenos Aires: Emecé. 1971; 89. 27. BODEN M. La Mente Creativa. Barcelona: Gedisa. 1994; 313. 28. BORGES JL. Pierre Menard, Autor del Quijote. En Ficciones. Buenos Aires: Emecé. 1971; 49-50. A R T Í C U L O E S P E C I A L Rev Méd Chile 2009; 137: 121-126 
work_e3gpzlqr7fhmpav3kao675k2qa	----	Picasso's El Bobo | Gastronomica | University of California Press Skip to Main Content Close UCPRESS ABOUT US BLOG SUPPORT US CONTACT US Search search input Search input auto suggest search filter All Content Gastronomica Search User Tools Register Carnegie Mellon University Carnegie Mellon University Sign In Toggle MenuMenu Content Recent Content Browse Issues All Content Purchase Alerts Submit Info For Authors Librarians Advertisers Reprints & Permissions About Journal Editorial Team Contact Us Skip Nav Destination Article Navigation Close mobile search navigation Article navigation Volume 1, Issue 3 August 2001 Previous Article Next Article Article Navigation Research Article| August 01 2001 Picasso's El Bobo Deborah Rothschild Deborah Rothschild Search for other works by this author on: This Site PubMed Google Scholar Gastronomica (2001) 1 (3): 10–13. https://doi.org/10.1525/gfc.2001.1.3.10 Split-Screen Views Icon Views Article contents Figures & tables Video Audio Supplementary Data PDF LinkPDF Share Icon Share Facebook Twitter LinkedIn Email Guest Access Tools Icon Tools Get Permissions Cite Icon Cite Search Site Citation Deborah Rothschild; Picasso's El Bobo. Gastronomica 1 August 2001; 1 (3): 10–13. doi: https://doi.org/10.1525/gfc.2001.1.3.10 Download citation file: Ris (Zotero) Reference Manager EasyBib Bookends Mendeley Papers EndNote RefWorks BibTex toolbar search Search search input Search input auto suggest search filter All Content Gastronomica Search This content is only available via PDF. Regents of the University of California Article PDF first page preview Close Modal Send Email Recipient(s) will receive an email with a link to 'Picasso's El Bobo' and will not need an account to access the content. *Your Name: *Your Email Address: CC: *Recipient 1: Recipient 2: Recipient 3: Recipient 4: Recipient 5: Subject: Picasso's El Bobo Optional Message: (Optional message may have a maximum of 1000 characters.) Submit × Citing articles via Google Scholar CrossRef Latest Most Read Most Cited Lunch Interrupted! COVID-19 and Japan’s School Meals “If you haven’t shaoguo’ed, you haven’t eaten”: Sensorial Landscapes of Belonging in the Kitchens of Rural China “Muita Galinha, Pouco Ovo”: Food, COVID-19, and the Screen That Separates Us Editorial Letter Contributors Email alerts Article Activity Alert Latest Issue Alert Close Modal Recent Content Browse Issues All Content Purchase Alerts Submit Info for Authors Info for Librarians Info for Advertisers About Editorial Team Contact Us Online ISSN 1533-8622 Print ISSN 1529-3262 Copyright © 2021 Stay Informed Sign up for eNews Twitter Facebook Instagram YouTube LinkedIn Visit the UC Press Blog Disciplines Ancient World Anthropology Art Communication Criminology & Criminal Justice Film & Media Studies Food & Wine History Music Psychology Religion Sociology Browse All Disciplines Courses Browse All Courses Products Books Journals Resources Book Authors Booksellers Instructions Journal Authors Journal Editors Librarians Media & Journalists Support Us Endowments Membership Planned Giving Supporters About UC Press Careers Location Press Releases Seasonal Catalog Contact Us Acquisitions Editors Customer Service Exam/Desk Requests Media Inquiries Print-Disability Rights & Permissions Royalties UC Press Foundation © Copyright 2021 by the Regents of the University of California. All rights reserved. Privacy policy   Accessibility Close Modal Close Modal This Feature Is Available To Subscribers Only Sign In or Create an Account Close Modal Close Modal This site uses cookies. By continuing to use our website, you are agreeing to our privacy policy. Accept 
work_e6bg65k22zgo5apvhvssjow42a	----	Microsoft Word - BD_formatted.docx ATOL: Art Therapy OnLine, 11 (1) 1 ‘Skin’ and Pigment: a glance back at the nature and use of the oil pastel Barrie Damarell ISSN: 2044-7221 Date of Publication: 28/4/2020 Citation: Damarell, B. ‘Skin’ and Pigment: a glance back at the nature and use of the oil pastel. ATOL: Art Therapy OnLine 11 (1). Available at: http://doi.org/10.25602/GOLD.atol.v11i1.1390 This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License http://www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ ATOL: Art Therapy OnLine ATOL: Art Therapy OnLine, 11 (1) 2 Intriguingly, I find myself recalling the birth of ATOL, of which I was a part, happening in a church or church rooms, although I think this unlikely. But, this miss remembering, if it is, carries an interestingly symbolic resonance in so far as the depth of belief that was felt at the time. A belief that art therapy and its representation(s) needed to be as broad and as creative as possible. Over the ensuing decade this was a guiding light and I feel proud to have been part of the nurturing process that enabled authors to develop their work and to publish freely to anyone who had access to the internet. I retired from practice over six years ago and stepped back from ATOL in the last two. When I received an invitation to contribute to this tenth anniversary edition I was both flattered and, to be completely honest, a little daunted feeling that my distance from practice starved me of relevant material. After a period of mild paralysis I recalled a piece I had written for an exhibition on art therapy curated by Dave Edwards and held in Sheffield in 2018. It describes my recollections of people’s use of the oil pastel in a learning disability context. The piece was structured in an attempt to make my thoughts and memories as accessible as possible. Keywords: Learning disability, Loss, Damage, Creative Process The exhibition piece In one form or other, the pastel has been in human use for at least 10,000 years and most probably significantly longer. The oil pastel however, is a mere infant by comparison having been developed in the early twentieth century for use by children on one hand and artists such as Pablo Picasso on the other. ATOL: Art Therapy OnLine, 11 (1) 3 Its composition is a mixture of wax, oil and pigment and once formed into a cylinder is wrapped in a paper sheath, or skin, presumably to add strength and to protect the users’ fingers. In use, the medium is characteristically dynamic in colour and possesses the innate ability to blend either by smudging or through the use of solvents. The oil pastel, often in a cardboard box containing others just like it in various hues and tones, is frequently found in the art therapy room as part of the art therapists’ basic toolbox. What interested me when I practiced as an art therapist was the regard shown by individuals’ to the medium in three particular situations; the new box; the ‘old’ box and the behaviour of the oil pastel under creative use. The new box is a beautiful thing. Its contents arranged in tonal gradation ranging from cadmium yellow through to burnt sienna. In some ways it appears to echo the satisfying primary object of analytic theory. Of course difficulties, for some, seem to arise when the pastel is first used. Use inevitably impacts on the idealness of the whole object- crayon changing its form and appearance, much like our first projections upon our primary objects during infancy. If the pastel should break, a not unusual occurrence during the creative process, regret and grief–like reactions may follow. These observations are drawn from my work with people with learning disabilities and I wonder if notions of ‘the ideal’ and ‘the broken’ are perhaps intensified by experiences of difference and prejudice. It is as-if, for some, the pastel both embodies and enacts painful experiences associated with damage and disability. The ‘old box’ with its broken fragments of once whole oil pastels was often rejected (not unlike the life-experience of the learning disabled) in favour of more integrated media such as the fibre-tip pen. Of course, some of this might be related to the ‘dirtiness’ of the ‘skinless’ pigment. The loss of the barrier between the container and the contained seemed to bring about an anxiety for some that the pigment, and it’s unconscious associations, would indelibly, and perhaps toxically, stain their fingers and by extension, their essential personal and public sense of self. It’s hard to say what lay beneath this phenomena, but I’m left wondering about the discomfort that might be associated with things tainted and the tension between order and disorder that play upon the inner resonances that ripple in the unconscious of the individual. ATOL: Art Therapy OnLine, 11 (1) 4 And there this piece hangs. Much as it did during the exhibition in Sheffield. Alone amongst others. Floating words seeking location in a new narrative landscape. A containing virtual home. By way of illustration, I have created a short video of my working process with oil pastels (iPhone 11 pro, x2 speed). This, I suspect, will be familiar to both observing therapists and individual art-makers. 
work_eas6axtsbjhfljsqjnpedinjg4	----	141 © 2017 EX-LIBRIST Bölüm 7 - Haziran 2017, Sayın, “Sanatçı Göstergesi Olarak Ekslibris” International Journal of Ex-libris / Vol.4 / Part 7 Uluslararası Ekslibris Dergisi / Cilt 4 / Bölüm 7 Özet “Ekslibris”in sanatçı göstergesi yönüyle araştırılarak irdelendiği bu makalede; 1) Kitaplarına ve sanata değer veren kimi insanların, önemsedikleri kitaplarının kapaklarına ekledikleri ekslibrisler; gelişim sürecinden de hareketle çeşitli boyutlarıyla tanımlanarak açıklanmaya çalışılmaktadır. 2) Eklendiği kitabın kapağından daha büyük olmayan bu sanatsal yapıtların (ekslibrislerin); onları tasarlayan kişiler ile adına tasarlandıkları kişilerin birer göstergesi olarak önemleri ve anlamları üzerinde durulmaktadır. 3) Ekslibrislerin, hem onları tasarlayan sanatçıların hem de adına tasarlandıkları kişilerin göstergeleri olduğu savımdan hareketle, çeşitli ekslibris örnekleri; onları tasarlayan sanatçı ile adına tasarlandıkları sanatçının göstergesi olarak ele alınarak; olası anlamlarına yönelik göstergebilimsel irdelemeler yapılmaktadır. Anahtar Sözcükler: Ekslibris, Göstergebilim, Gösterge, Sanat, Sanatçı, Grafik Tasarım, Görsel İletişim Tasarımı Yrd. Doç. Zülfikar Sayın Hacettepe Ünv., Güzel Sanatlar Fak., Grafik Bölümü Öğretim Üyesi ve İstanbul Ekslibris Derneği Üyesi zulfikar.sayin@gmail.com Makalenin tamamı 30 Haziran 2017’de kabul edildi Sanatçı Göstergesi Olarak Ekslibris 142 © 2017 EX-LIBRIST Bölüm 7 - Haziran 2017, Sayın, “Sanatçı Göstergesi Olarak Ekslibris” International Journal of Ex-libris / Vol.4 / Part 7 Uluslararası Ekslibris Dergisi / Cilt 4 / Bölüm 7 Giriş Grafik tasarımın önemli uygulama ulamlarından (kategori) biri de, ‘adına tasarlandığı kişi’ye ait olduğunun imlenmesi için, genellikle sahibi tarafından önemsenen kitabın ön kapağının arkasına yapıştırma yöntemiyle eklenen ekslibrislerdir. Bu özelliğiyle ekslibrisler, ön kapağının arkasına eklendikleri kitabın kime ait olduğunu belirtirler. Bu küçük boyutlu sanatsal yapıtlar, özellikle kitaplarına değer veren insanların kütüphanelerindeki özellikli kitaplarının kendilerine özel, dolayısıyla da değerli olduğunu imlemek amacıyla genellikle kitapların ön kapaklarının arkasına yapıştırılmak üzere tasarlandığına göre, boyutlarının kitap kapaklarında kendilerine yer bulabilecek büyüklükte olması gerekir. Ekleneceği kitabın kapağından taşmayacak ölçülerde çoğaltılan bu sanatsal ürünler yaşamakta olan kişiler adına tasarlanırlar. Artık hayatta olmayanlar için ekslibris tasarlanmaz; çünkü, kapağına ekslibris ekleyebilecekleri kitaplardan oluşan kendilerine özel kütüphaneleri yoktur. Ekslibrisler yaşamaktaki bireyler adına tasarlansalar da, hayatta olmayan insanlar, değerler ve / veya izlekler ekslibris tasarımına konu olabilmektedir. Kişiye özel olarak tasarlanan biricik (özgün, tek) ekslibrisler, çeşitli baskı yöntemleriyle çoğaltılıp, her bir kopyası, adına ekslibris yapılan kişinin farklı kitaplarına ayrı ayrı eklenerek, yönelik oldukları güzelduyusal (estetik) yaşama karışırlar. Ancak, -zamanla- yalnızca bir kitaba özgü ekslibrislerin tasarlanarak, kapağın matbaada basımı aşamasında ya da daha sonra sadece o kitabın kapağının arkasına çeşitli baskı teknolojileriyle uygulanacağı örneklerle karşılaşmak da olasıdır. Hatta, yapılan çalışmalardan da görüldüğü üzere, uygulayımbilim (teknoloji) alanındaki gelişmeler o kadar hızlı yaşanmaktadır ki, kitabın iç kapağına yapıştırılan geleneksel ekslibris uygulamalarının, yerini -yüksek oranda- sanal ortamlardaki elektronik kitaplara eklenmiş canlandırma / hareketli örneklere bırakacağı da söz konusu olabilecektir. Ekslibrisler, ana ilkeleri gereği kitap kapaklarının arkasına eklenmek amacıyla sipariş üzerine tasarlanan yapıtlar olsa da, yeterince talep edilmeyen toplumlarda, ekslibris sanatçıları, bu sanatsal göstergelerin yaşamını sürdürmesi ve yaratılarını bu dille ortaya koyma gereksinimi içinde olmaları nedeniyle, çoğu kez sadece diğer ekslibris sanatçılarıyla takas etmek, kendi biriktirilerine (koleksiyonlarına) eklemek ve sergilemek amacıyla da değer verdikleri kişilerin adına ekslibris tasarlamaktadır. Biricik yapıttan çoğaltılarak, her biri sanatçısının özgün el yazısıyla adlandırılan ve imzalanan; kimi sanatçılar tarafından ise kendilerine özel kaşeleriyle mühürlenen ekslibrisler, küçük boyutlu olmaları nedeniyle değiş-tokuşa en 143 © 2017 EX-LIBRIST Bölüm 7 - Haziran 2017, Sayın, “Sanatçı Göstergesi Olarak Ekslibris” International Journal of Ex-libris / Vol.4 / Part 7 Uluslararası Ekslibris Dergisi / Cilt 4 / Bölüm 7 uygun sanat ögeleri olduklarından, -özellikle ekslibris sanatçıları arasında el değiştirerek- hızla önemli biriktirilerin parçası olabilmektedir. Tanım Latince bir sözcük olup, Türkçe karşılığı “...nın kütüphanesinden” (Pektaş, 2003), “...nın kitaplığından” (Pektaş, 2014) olarak anlamlandırılmaya çalışılan Ekslibris göstergesi ile ilgili olarak, diğer kavram ve terimlerde de olduğu gibi, çok çeşitli tanımlar yapılmıştır. Sözgelimi, Türkiye’de ekslibrisin yerleşmesi için çok önemli ve de değerli sorumluluklar üstlenen, bu bağlamda uluslararası tanınmışlığa ve başarılara sahip grafik / görsel iletişim tasarımcısı, ekslibris sanatçısı, akademisyen Hasip Pektaş, ekslibrisi, “… kitapların iç kapağına yapıştırılan, üzerinde sahibinin isminin yer aldığı küçük boyutlu baskıresimlerdir.” (Pektaş, 2015, s. 78) olarak tanımladığı gibi; “kitapseverlerin kitaplarının iç kapağına yapıştırdıkları, üzerinde isimlerinin ve değişik konularda resimlerin yer aldığı küçük boyutlu baskıresimlerdir” (Pektaş, 2003, s. 11) olarak da açıklamıştır. Yine Pektaş’a göre (2015, s. 81), “ekslibrisler, yaşayan kişi ya da kurumlar için siparişle yapılır, onların özelliklerini yansıtır. Ekslibris, gravür, ağaç, linolyum, litografi, serigrafi, ofset, fotograf teknikleri ile çoğaltılıp, bilgisayar destekli tasarlanabilir. Ekslibris herkesin sahip olup, dokunabileceği, taşıyabileceği ve paylaşabileceği bir sanat eseridir”. Ekslibris üzerine araştırmaları ve bu bağlamda uygulamaları da olan akademisyen / görsel iletişim tasarımcısı Banu İnanç Uyan Dur’a göre “Ekslibris bir kişi veya kuruma yönelik yapılmakla birlikte … kitabın mülkiyet işareti olarak, kitap sahibini tanıtan bir sanat yapıtıdır. Bu nedenle kimin adına yapılıyorsa onun özelliklerini yansıtacak bir çalışma ortaya koyulmaya çalışılmaktadır.” (İnanç Uyan Dur, 2016, s. 123). İstanbul Ekslibris Derneği web sayfasında (http://www.aed.org.tr/tr/); kitapların iç kapağına yapıştırılan bir mülkiyet işareti olarak imlenen ekslibris; kitap sahibinin ilgisi ve beğenisi doğrultusunda yapılan -yazarı adına değil; kütüphanesinde kitapları olan kişi ya da kurum adına- ödünç verilen kitapların geri getirilmesi konusunda uyarıcı, “hırsızlığa” karşı bir önlem alma belgesi, hatta kitabın tapusu olarak da tanımlanmaktadır. Ekslibrislerde, genellikle tasarımdaki görsel verilerle uyumlu bir şekilde ya da tasarımcının özgün yaklaşımlarıyla; adına tasarım yapılan kişinin isminin önüne ya da sonuna veya tasarımdaki başka bir yere “ekslibris / exlibris” sözcüğü yazılırken, bu bağlamda kural dışı (istisnai) uygulamalarla karşılaşmak da olasıdır. Söz gelimi George Hering adına tasarlanmış olan Görsel 1: George Hering adına tasarlanmış ve “ekslibris / exslibris” sözcüğü yerine “onun kitaplarından biri / one of his books” yazılı olan ekslibris tasarımından bir görüntü. 144 © 2017 EX-LIBRIST Bölüm 7 - Haziran 2017, Sayın, “Sanatçı Göstergesi Olarak Ekslibris” International Journal of Ex-libris / Vol.4 / Part 7 Uluslararası Ekslibris Dergisi / Cilt 4 / Bölüm 7 yapıt (Görsel 1); “ekslibris / exlibris” sözcüğü yerine, üzerindeki “onun kitaplarından biri / one of his books” tipografik göstergesi ile bu örneklerden biridir. Kitaba yapıştırılan etiketler olarak da değerlendirilebilecek bu izlekli (temalı) tasarımlar, dünyada yaygın olarak “Exlibris” sözcüğüyle imlenirken; İngilizce karşılığı “bookplate” olarak geçmektedir. Türkçe anlatılarda çoğunlukla “Ekslibris” olarak geçmekte olan bu sanatsal yapıtların yüksek estetik kaygıların öne çıktığı özgün yapıtlar olarak tasarlanması; kitap okurlarının sanatsal niteliği yüksek yapıtlarla karşılaşması, dolayısıyla da sanata, sanat galerilerine özendirilmesi açısından oldukça önemlidir. Yukarıda yapılan tanımlardan da kolaylıkla anlaşılabileceği gibi, kuramsal ya da kılgısal olarak konu ile ilgili bir çaba içinde olan herkes “Matbanın icadı ve kitapların çoğaltılabilmesiyle bir aidiyet ihtiyacı olarak ortaya çıkan ekslibris”e (Öz Pektaş, 2017), kendilerine özgü tümcelerle farklı farklı değinse de, Ekslibris ile ilgili yapılmış olan tanımların hepsi özde şu ana izlekte buluşmaktadır: Ekslibris, eklendiği kitabın kime ait olduğunu söyleyen küçük boyutlu sanatsal yapıttır. Ekslibrisler, eklendiği kitabın kime ait olduğunu imleyen göstergeler olduğuna göre, kısaca gösterge kavramına da değinmekte yarar vardır: Gösterge, anlamlı birimdir. Çeşitli kaynaklarda (Berger, 2016; Başkan, 1988; Rifat, 2000; Sayın, 2001) yapılan tanımlamalar ve açıklamalardan hareketle özetlemek gerekirse; kendi dışında bir şeyi anlatan her öge bir göstergedir. Göstergebilim üzerine olan araştırmaları, kitapları, çevirileri ile bilinen Mehmet Rifat’a göre, yansıttığı içeriğin yerini alabilecek nitelikte olan “… olgular, nesneler, biçimler”in her biri (Rifat, 2000, s.129) anlam yüklü ögeler olduklarından, gösterge olarak tanımlanmaktadır. Göstergeleri kendi içinde ve başka göstergeler ile olan ilişkileri yönünden inceleyen bilim ise Göstergebilim (Semiology) dir (Guiraud, 2016). Göstergelerin anlamları, ancak, göstergebilimsel yaklaşımlarla irdelenebilir ve belirlenebilir. Göstergebilimsel irdelemelerde başvurulan yaklaşımlar da (Parsa ve Parsa, 2012) anlambilimsel (semantik), imgedizimsel (sentaktik) ile işlev ve yarar yönünden irdeleyici pragmatik yaklaşımlardır. Anlambilimsel yaklaşımla, göstergenin ne anlama ya da anlamlara gelip gelmediği; imgedizimsel yaklaşımla, göstergeyi oluşturan ögelerin birbirleriyle olan dizimsel ilişkileri bağlamında kompozisyonun nitelikleri ve etkileri; pragmatik yaklaşımla ise, göstergelerin işlevini ne ölçüde yerine getirdiği, amaçlanan faydayı ne derece sağladığı irdelenebilir (Sayın, 2007, s. 1018). 145 © 2017 EX-LIBRIST Bölüm 7 - Haziran 2017, Sayın, “Sanatçı Göstergesi Olarak Ekslibris” International Journal of Ex-libris / Vol.4 / Part 7 Uluslararası Ekslibris Dergisi / Cilt 4 / Bölüm 7 Önem Ekslibrisler, çoğunlukla kitap ön kapaklarının hemen arkasına eklenen tasarımlar olmaları nedeniyle, özellikle kitapseverlerin sanatla karşılaşması ve tanışması açısından çok önemli işlevlelere sahiptir. Yapılan tanımlar ve açıklamalardan da görülmektedir ki, ekli oldukları kitapların kime ait olduğunu imleyen ekslibrisler; - Kapağında yer aldıkları ‘kitap’ın, sahibi için çok özel olduğunu, - Söz konusu ‘kitap sahibi’nin, sanata / tasarıma değer ve önem verdiğini, - Kapağında ekslibris bulunan kitabı bulan ya da elinde bulunduran kişinin onu sahibine ulaştırması gerektiğini, - Sanatta boyutun belirleyici bir değer ölçütü olmadığını; küçük boyutlu yapıtların da çok değerli olabileceğini, - Küçük boyutlu olmaları nedeniyle kolaylıkla biriktirilebileceğini ve takas edilebileceğini, - Sanatsal paylaşım açısından rahatlıkla yaygınlaşabilen özelliklere sahip olduğunu, - Üzerinde yer aldıkları ‘kitap’ın tapusu, etiketi olarak da işlev gördüğünü, - Okurların, kitapseverlerin sanatla karşılaşması açısından çok önemli işlevlere sahip olduğunu; böylece sanata ilginin artmasına katkıda bulunabileceğini, - Onu tasarlayan kişi hakkında bilgiler veren çeşitli göstergeler taşıdığı için tasarımcısının çok önemli bir göstergesi olduğunu, - Onu yaptıran ve kitaplarına ekleyen kişi hakkında bilgiler veren çeşitli belirtgeler taşıdığı için adına yapıldığı kişinin de çok önemli bir göstergesi olduğunu imleyen ve sağlayan sanatsal göstergeler olarak oldukça nitelikli işlevlere sahip olduklarından, çağcıl yaşam için son derece önemli, dolayısıyla da gerekli olan değerli yapıtlardır. Kısaca Gelişim ve İrdelemeler Çeşitli kaynaklara göre (Pektaş, 2003; 8_Keenan, 2003), şimdiye kadar karşılaşılan en eski ekslibris’in; MÖ 1400 yıllarına tarihlenen, Mısır kralı III. Amenhotep kitaplığı (bazı kaynaklarda III Amenhopsis olarak da geçmektedir) için, açık mavi bir fayans yüzeyine uygulanmış yapıt olduğu söylenmektedir (Görsel 2). Henüz matbaa yokken, sadece elle yazılan çok az sayıdaki kitaptan bazılarının kapak içlerinde, kitap sahibine özel bazı göstergeler (armalar vb) eklendiği (Pektaş, 2014; Hanrath, 1977) söylenegelir. 1400’lü yıllara tarihlenen ilk ekslibrislerden birinin de, kirpici (Igler) takma adıyla bilinen Alman papaz Johannes Knabensberg için tasarlanmış; çayırda gezinirken çiçek ısırmakta olan bir kirpinin imlendiği (Görsel 3) (Hanrath, 1977) yapıt Görsel 2: 1400 yıllarında III. Amenhophis kitaplığı için fayans üzerine yapılmış olan ekslibristen bir görüntü. (62 x 38 x 4,5 mm). 146 © 2017 EX-LIBRIST Bölüm 7 - Haziran 2017, Sayın, “Sanatçı Göstergesi Olarak Ekslibris” International Journal of Ex-libris / Vol.4 / Part 7 Uluslararası Ekslibris Dergisi / Cilt 4 / Bölüm 7 olduğu söylenmektedir. Bu tasarımda kirpi göstergesinin kullanılması ile, adına ekslibris yapılan kişinin takma adına göndermede bulunulurken, tasarımın üst tarafındaki boşluğa çizilen bir bant içerisinde yer alan “Hans Igler, kirpi sizi öpebilir / Hans Igler, das dich ein Igel kuss” tümcesi ile, kitabı ödünç alan kişiye -geri getirmesi ya da getirmemesi durumunda- ne ile karşılaşabileceğinin imlendiği bir iletide bulunulmaktadır. Bugüne kadar yapılmış yaklaşık üç milyonun üzerinde ekslibrisin, iki binden fazla da ekslibris biriktirisinin (koleksiyonun) olduğu öngörülmektedir (Pektaş, 2015, s. 81). Albrecht Dürer, Paul Klee, Pablo Picasso, Gustav Klimt gibi isimler, yaşadıkları dönemde ekslibris de tasarlamış sanatçılardan bazıları olup, Julian Dimitrov Jordanov, Yuri Nozdrin, Oleg Denisenko, Martin R. Baeyens, Hasip Pektaş gibi kimi isimler ise günümüz ekslibris sanatçılarından bazıları olarak sıralanabilir. Başlangıcından günümüze kadar tasarlanmış ekslibris örnekleri incelendiğinde, biçem (tarz, üslup) ve tasarımcı adı / mührü gibi tasarımcısı hakkında fikirler veren ama adına yapıldığı kişi ile ilgili adı dışında belirgin herhangi bir ileti algılanamayan örnekler olduğu gibi; adına yapıldığı kişi hakkında rahatlıkla algılanabilecek içerikler imleyen göstergelerden oluşan çok sayıda örneklerle karşılaşmak da olasıdır. Hatta, ekslibris tasarımcılarının, adına eklibris tasarladıkları kişileri tasarımlarında belirtme kaygısı o kadar artmaya başladı ki, özellikle son yıllarda, adına eklibris yapılan kişinin portresinin tasarıma egemen kılındığı örneklerle karşılaşmak da söz konusu olmaya başlamıştır (Görsel 4). Görsel 3: 1450’li yıllarda Hans Igler için tasarlanan ekslibrisden bir görüntü, 140x190 mm. 147 © 2017 EX-LIBRIST Bölüm 7 - Haziran 2017, Sayın, “Sanatçı Göstergesi Olarak Ekslibris” International Journal of Ex-libris / Vol.4 / Part 7 Uluslararası Ekslibris Dergisi / Cilt 4 / Bölüm 7 Şükrü Ertürk tarafından, hassas işçilik ve nesnel gerçekçi bir yaklaşımla Luc Van Den Briele adına 2000 yılında tasarlanan ekslibrisde (Görsel 4), ilk görüşte dairelerden oluşturulmuş bir düzen içinde, bize bakan bir insan portresi sözkonusudur. İncelendiğinde, bu portrenin kitaplık sahibi Luc Van Den Briele’i imleyen bir imge olduğu açıkça görülebilmekte ise de dairelerin neyi imlediği ilk bakışta pek algılanmamaktadır. Tasarımın yapıldığı tarih olan 2000 yılı da dikkate alınarak (ki, kendisiyle yapılan görüşmede, Şükrü Ertürk tarafından o süreçte gezegenlerin sıralı bir diziliş içinde olduğu söylenmiştir) özenle incelendiğinde; dairelerin dünyayı ve gezegenleri imleyen birer gösterge olduğu, bu bağlamda tasarımcının, adına ekslibris tasarladığı kişiyi bir ‘evrendaş’ olarak gördüğü ve göstermek istediği anlamları çıkarılabilir. Aynı zamanda, bağlama çalıp türküler söylemeyi de seven tasarımcının; Aşık Daimi’nin “Kainatın aynasıyım madem ki ben bir insanım” sözlerinden de esinlendiği, söz konusu tasarımın ayna biçeminde bir biçime sahip olmasından sezilebilmektedir. Tasarımın başat göstergesi olan portreyi çevreleyen dairesel alanın dokusunun ise, Selçuklu yıldızlamaları olarak değerlendirilebilecek göstergeler içerdiği ayrıca söylenebilir. Adına ekslibris tasarlanan sanatçıyı imlemek amacıyla çeşitli belirtgelerden oluşturulan binlerce ekslibris örneği söz konusu iken, ekslibris tasarımcısı Hasip Pektaş Tarafından; Türkiye’de klasik müziğin yerleşmesine değerli katkıları olan, uluslararası tanınmışlığa ve başarılara sahip müzisyen, orkestra şefi, akademisyen, devlet sanatçısı Hikmet Şimşek için tasarlanan ekslibris (Görsel 5), bu bağlamda ayrıntılı bir şekilde irdelenmeye değer göstergelerden biridir. Sanatçı Göstergesi Olarak Ekslibris izleğinde yaklaşılacak olursa, söz konusu tasarımda “sanatçı” göstergesi iki ayrı başlık altında ele alınarak irdelenmelidir: a) Ekslibrisi tasarlayan sanatçı / ekslibris sanatçısı; b) Adına eklibris tasarlanan sanatçı / kitaplık sahibi sanatçı. Ekslibrisi tasarlayan sanatçı Ekslibris sanatçısı; yaşamaktaki bireyler için kitaplarına ekleyecekleri ekslibrisler tasarlayan grafik sanatçısı, görsel iletişim tasarımcısı, ressam vd yoğrumsal (plastik) sanatlar alanında özgünlüğü kanıtlanmış kişidir. Ekslibris sanatçıları, eklibris tasarlama sürecinde, adına ekslibris tasarlayacağı kişiyi imleyen göstergeler geliştirirken bu imgeleri kendine özgü bir görselleştirme anlayışı ve gerekli tipografik ögelerle düzenleme / bütünleştirme çabası içinde olur. Sanatçılığın temel ilkesi; kendini kanıtlamış yeni, özgün bir anlatım biçemine sahip olmayı gerektirdiğinden, ekslibris tasarlayan bir kimseye ekslibris sanatçısı demenin temel koşulu da özgün ekslibrisler ortaya koyması ve bu anlamda bir sürekliliğinin olmasıdır. Bu bağlamda, nasıl ki her resim yapan resim sanatçısı değilse, ekslibris tasarlayan herkesin de ekslibris sanatçısı olmadığını belirtmekte yarar vardır. Görsel 4: Banknot tasarımcısı olarak da bilinen Şükrü Ertürk tarafından, 2000 yılında ekslibris kuramcısı ve biriktiricisi Luc Van Den Briele için tasarlanan ekslibrisden bir görüntü, 100x80mm. 148 © 2017 EX-LIBRIST Bölüm 7 - Haziran 2017, Sayın, “Sanatçı Göstergesi Olarak Ekslibris” International Journal of Ex-libris / Vol.4 / Part 7 Uluslararası Ekslibris Dergisi / Cilt 4 / Bölüm 7 Adına eklibris tasarlanan sanatçı Ekslibris sanatçısı tarafından adına ekslibris tasarlanan sanatçılar, sanatsal uğraşıları çerçevesinde sanatçı nitelikleriyle öne çıkmış kimselerdir. Bunlar resim, heykel, grafik, seramik vb gibi yoğrumsal alanlardan olabileceği gibi, şiir, öykü, roman vd yazın (edebiyat) alanlarından da olabilir. Sinema, tiyatro, müzik, kısaca tüm sanat alanları bu bağlamda değerlendirilmelidir. Yine bu bağlamda bilinmesi gerekenler, sanatçı olarak nitelendirilebilecek kişilerin; sanatsal niteliği / dehası kabul görmüş ve özgün yapıtlar ortaya koyan bireyler olması gerektiğidir. Ekslibris, elbette kitapları olan ve bu kitaplarına “mülkiyet” göstergesi estetik etiketler eklemek isteyen herkes için yapılabilir ama bu araştırmanın ana konusu “sanatçı göstergesi olarak ekslibris” izleğinde belirlendiğinden, ayrıntılı irdeleme için adına ekslibris çalışılan sanatçılar seçilmiştir. Ekslibrisler, sanatçının göstergesi olarak, yukarıda açıklanan iki açıdan yaklaşılarak irdelendiğinde; onları tasarlayan sanatçılar hakkında çeşitli anlamlar taşıyan göstergeler olduğu kadar, adına tasarlanan sanatçılar hakkında çeşitli anlamlar taşıyan göstergeler olarak da ele alınabilecek anlam yüklü göstergeler olarak karşımıza çıkmaktadırlar. Tasarlayan sanatçının göstergesi olarak ekslibrisler, sanatçının diğer yapıtlarıyla taşıdığı biçem (tarz) benzerlikleri ve farklılıkları yönünden, başka ekslibris sanatçılarının yapıtlarıyla benzerlikleri ve farklılıkları yönünden, sanatçının sanat anlayışı / biçemi yönünden ve biricik yapıt olarak taşıdığı nitelikler yönünden irdelenebilir. Adına tasarlanan sanatçının göstergesi olarak ise onun hangi özelliklerini imlediği yönünden irdelenebilir. Bu özellikler; adına ekslibris yapılan sanatçının adı, düşünceleri, inançları, beğenileri, eğilimleri, cinsiyeti, yaşam biçemi, ırkı, uğraşısı, başarıları vb olabilir. Yukarıda yapılan açıklamalardan yola çıkılarak, irdelenecek ekslibrislerin kim tarafından tasarlandığı, kim için tasarlandığı, tasarım yılı, tekniği, boyutları, kaç tane basıldığı ve basılanlar arasında kaçıncı sırada olduğu, bir kitaba ekli mi yoksa bir biriktiri ögesi mi olduğu, kitaba ekli ise kitap hakkında bilgi, bir biriktiri ögesi ise kimin hangi biriktirisinin parçası olduğu gibi bilgilerin öncelikle belirlenmesi gerekir. Yapılan bu belirlemelerden sonra ekslibrisi tasarlayan sanatçının ve adına eklibris tasarlanan sanatçının göstergesi olarak yapıt irdelemesine geçilebilir. Yukarıda verilen bilgilerden hareketle, Hasip Pektaş tarafından Hikmet Şimşek kitaplığı için tasarlanan ekslibris (Görsel 5) şu şekilde irdelenebilir: 149 © 2017 EX-LIBRIST Bölüm 7 - Haziran 2017, Sayın, “Sanatçı Göstergesi Olarak Ekslibris” International Journal of Ex-libris / Vol.4 / Part 7 Uluslararası Ekslibris Dergisi / Cilt 4 / Bölüm 7 Ekslibrisi tasarlayan sanatçı: Hasip Pektaş Adına ekslibris tasarlanan sanatçı: Hikmet Şimşek Ekslibrisin tasarlandığı tarih: 1997 Ekslibrisin tekniği: X3 / linolyum baskı Ekslibrisin boyutları: 100x75 mm Ekslibrisin kaç eşlem (kopya) çoğaltıldığı: 100 tane İmzalananlar arasında kaçıncı sırada olduğu: Bilinmese de olur. Kitaba ekli mi / biriktiri ögesi mi: 51 tanesi adına tasarlandığı Hikmet Şimşek’e verilmiş ve bunların çoğu kitaba ekli olup, diğerleri Danimarka’daki Frederikshavn Müzesi’nde, Belçika’daki Sint-Niklaas Müzesi’nde, Türkiye’deki İstanbul Ekslibris Müzesi’nde, tasarımcısında ve kimi ekslibris biriktiricilerinde güzelduyusal yaşama katkı sağlamaya devam etmektedir. Ekli olduğu kitap / kitaplar: Bilinmese de olur. Hangi biriktirinin ögesi olduğu: Bilinmese de olur. Hikmet Şimşek hakkında öz bilgi Türkiye’de klasik müziğin yerleşmesine değerli katkıları olan, uluslararası tanınmışlığa ve başarılara sahip müzisyen, orkestra şefi, akademisyen, devlet sanatçısı. Hasip Pektaş hakkında öz bilgi Türkiye’de ekslibrisin yerleşmesi için başat rol oynayan, uluslararası tanınmışlığa ve başarılara sahip ekslibris sanatçısı, grafik tasarımcı / görsel iletişim tasarımcısı, akademisyen. Değerlendirme Grafik tasarım yapıtlarına ve/veya ürünlerine yönelik nitelikli göstergebilimsel değerlendirmeler yapılabilmesi için öncelikle irdeleme konusu tasarımlardaki göstergelerin belirlenmesi ve tanımlanması gerekir. Bu bağlamda Hasip Pektaş tarafından tasarlanan Hikmet Şimşek izlekli ekslibris ile ilgili nitelikli bir değerlendirme yapılabilmesi için en azından irdeleme konusu tasarımdaki temel göstergelerin belirlenmesi ve açıklanmasında yarar olacaktır. İrdeleme için gerekli verilerden devinimle, Görüntü 5’de sunulan irdeleme konusu ekslibris tasarımının temel göstergeleri “Exlibris Hikmet Şimşek” yazısı, “HP” logosu, hem sağ hem sol kanadı açık bir pencere, açık pencerenin üst yarısını kaplayacak şekilde yatay çizgiler ve bu çizgilerin üzerine kondurulmuş kuş betimgeleri ile pencereye yönelmiş bir orkestra şefi belirtgesi olarak sıralanabilir. Bu göstergelerin olası anlamları da şu şekilde açıklanabilir:Görsel 5: Hasip Pektaş tarafından Hikmet Şimşek kitaplığı için tasarlanan ekslibrisden bir görüntü , X5, 100x75mm, 1997 150 © 2017 EX-LIBRIST Bölüm 7 - Haziran 2017, Sayın, “Sanatçı Göstergesi Olarak Ekslibris” International Journal of Ex-libris / Vol.4 / Part 7 Uluslararası Ekslibris Dergisi / Cilt 4 / Bölüm 7 “Exlibris Hikmet Şimşek” yazısı: Hikmet Şimşek adına tasarlanmış bir ekslibris anlamına geleceği gibi; kapağına bu ekslibris eklenmiş olan kitabın Hikmet Şimşek’in kitaplığından olduğu anlamına da gelir. “HP” logosu: Hasip Pektaş adının ve soyadının ilk harflerinden oluşturulmuş olan bu gösterge, sözkonusu ekslibrisin Hasip Pektaş tarafından tasarlandığı anlamına gelir. Tamamen açık pencere: İçeriden dış dünyaya; herkese ve her şeye yönelik bir kişiliği ve etkinliği imler. Açık pencerenin üst yarısını kaplayan yatay çizgiler: Dört eşit aralık ve beş çizgiden oluşan bu göstergeler dizgesinin, dizek (porte) anlamında kullanıldığı söylenebilir. Yatay çizgilerin üzerindeki kuş betimgeleri: Kargagilleri imleyen bu göstergeler orkestrayı oluşturan “korist”leri imler. Orkestra şefi belirtgesi: “Korist”leri kargalardan oluşan bir orkestrayı yönetmekte olan şef (Hikmet Şimşek) olarak ele alınmıştır. Yukarıdaki gösterge anlamlandırmalarından da hareketle Hasip Pektaş tarafından Hikmet Şimşek için tasarlanmış olan ekslibris; adına tasarlanmış kişinin göstergesi olarak, kısaca şu şekilde değerlendirilebilir: Adeta konser salonunda orkestra yönetirken, etkinliği dinlemek üzere duydukları sese gelerek pencereye konmuş kargalara dönerek, onlarla da müzik yapan bir şefin imlendiği bu tasarımda; Müziğin, evrensel bir sanatsal etkinlik olarak, kapalı uzamlarla (mekanlarla) sınırlı olmayan nitelikli bir sanatsal etkinlik olduğu; dış dünyaya açılan pencere ile, Hikmet Şimşek’in her yerde etkinliklerde bulunmak üzere dünyaya açılan evrensel bir sanat insanı olduğu; iki tarafa açılmış pencere kanatları üzerinde iki yana açılmış kollar gibi dizilen “EXLIBRIS HİKMET ŞİMŞEK” yazısı ile ise, öncelikle ekslibrisin Hikmet Şimşek adına tasarlandığı imlenmekteyse de, adeta Mevlana’nın o değerli evrensel söylemi ile “…ne olursa ol; gel…” der gibi, istekli olduktan sonra kargalarla da güzelduyusal çalışmalar yapılabileceği ve / veya kargaların bile güzel olana yönelebileceği belirtilmeye çalışılmıştır. Söz konusu ekslibrisi tasarlayan kişinin (Hasip Pektaş’ın) göstergesi olarak da; Tasarımcının, siyah-beyazın yalın niteliği ve etkisinden yararlanarak net göstergeler kullandığı bu tasarımı ile, yalın bir anlatım diline sahip (yani, az daha çoktur / less is more; savunucusu), sanatın evrenselliğine ve yaşamı güzelleştiriciliğine inanan, çağcıl yaşama, sanata ve sanatçıya değer veren nitelikli evrensel değerler savunucusu bir kişilik sahibi olduğu anlamında yorumlanabilir. Sanatçının bu tasarımı için, yalın anlatım dili kullanma bağlamında, temel ilkeler bakımından benzeri diğer yapıtlarıyla örtüşen özellikler taşımakta olup, sanatçıya özgü bir anlatım biçemine sahip olduğu söylenebilir. 151 © 2017 EX-LIBRIST Bölüm 7 - Haziran 2017, Sayın, “Sanatçı Göstergesi Olarak Ekslibris” International Journal of Ex-libris / Vol.4 / Part 7 Uluslararası Ekslibris Dergisi / Cilt 4 / Bölüm 7 Ekslibrisi sanatçının göstergesi olarak irdeleme yaklaşımını pekiştirmek amacıyla, özne ilişkinliği ve farklılığı da göz önünde bulundurularak, bir ekslibris örneğinin daha incelenerek konunun daha anlaşılır hale getirilmesinde yarar vardır. Özne ilişkinliği açısından, yukarıda ele alındığı gibi, başka bir sanatçı adına ekslibris tasarlayan Hasip Pektaş; bu kez adına ekslibris tasarlanan sanatçı olarak ele alınabilir. Hasip Pektaş; ekslibris tasarımcısı, ekslibrisi sevdirme ve yaygınlaştırma konusundaki çok önemli çabaları ve İstanbul Ekslibris Derneği’nin başkanı da olması nedeniyle adı öne çıkan biri olarak, Türkiye’de adına en çok ekslibris tasarlanan kişilerin başında gelir. Yukarıda açıklanmaya çalışılan izlekte, Hasip Pektaş için tasarlanan onca ekslibris arasında, Sofya’da düzenlenen BIWC 2014 Tasarım kategorisinde altın madalya ve Saint Petersburg Birinci Uluslararası Ex Libris Yarışmasında birincilik ödülü alan İrem Çamlıca tarafından tasarlanan ekslibrisi (Görüntü 6) ele almakta yarar vardır. Ekslibrisi tasarlayan sanatçı: İrem Çamlıca Adına ekslibris tasarlanan sanatçı: Hasip Pektaş Ekslibrisin tasarlandığı tarih: 2012 Ekslibrisin tekniği: CGD Ekslibrisin boyutları: 95x73 mm Ekslibrisin kaç eşlem (kopya) çoğaltıldığı: 20 tane İmzalananlar arasında kaçıncı sırada olduğu: Bilinmese de olur. Kitaba ekli mi / biriktiri ögesi mi: Bilinmese de olur Ekli olduğu kitap / kitaplar: Bilinmese de olur. Hangi biriktirinin ögesi olduğu: Bilinmese de olur. Hasip Pektaş hakkında öz bilgi Türkiye’de ekslibrisin yerleşmesi için başat rol oynayan, uluslararası tanınmışlığa ve başarılara sahip ekslibris sanatçısı, grafik tasarımcı / görsel iletişim tasarımcısı, akademisyen. İrem Çamlıca hakkında öz bilgi Yaptığı tasarımlar, gerçekleştirdiği etkinlikler ve aldığı uluslararası ödüllerle genç yaşta dikkatleri üzerine çeken görsel iletişim tasarımcısı. Değerlendirme İrdeleme için gerekli verilerden hareketle, Görüntü 6’da sunulan irdeleme konusu ekslibris tasarımının temel göstergeleri “Exlibris Hasip Pektaş” ile “Less is more” yazıları, ışıldayan bir elmas belirtgesi, bir fötr şapka, Görsel 6: İrem Çamlıca tarafından Hasip Pektaş kitaplığı için tasarlanan ekslibrisden bir görüntü , CGD, 95x73mm, 2012 152 © 2017 EX-LIBRIST Bölüm 7 - Haziran 2017, Sayın, “Sanatçı Göstergesi Olarak Ekslibris” International Journal of Ex-libris / Vol.4 / Part 7 Uluslararası Ekslibris Dergisi / Cilt 4 / Bölüm 7 şapkadan taşan uzun ve dalgalı saçlar, bir fular, bir kravat, damlacıklar ve vitray biçemli geometrik biçimlere dayalı çok ögeli / çok renkli bir grafik anlatım biçemi olarak sıralanabilir. Bu göstergelerin olası anlamları da şu şekilde açıklanabilir: “Exlibris Hasip Pektaş” yazısı: Hasip Pektaş adına tasarlanmış bir ekslibris anlamına geleceği gibi; kapağına bu ekslibris eklenmiş olan kitabın Hasip Pektaş’ın kitaplığından olduğu anlamına da gelir. “Less is more” yazısı: ‘Az daha çoktur’ anlamındadır. Işıldayan Elmas: ‘Değer’ anlamında yorumlanabilir. Fötr Şapka: “Tarz” göstergesi olarak yorumlanabilir. Fular: “Tarz” göstergesi olarak yorumlanabilir. Kravat: Tasarıma konu olan kişinin resmi bir işte çalıştığı ve / veya resmi giyindiği ya da kravat taktığı anlamında yorumlanabilir. Uzun ve dalgalı saçlar: Hasip Pektaş’ın bir dönem sahip olduğu saç biçemini imler. Damlacıklar: “Su”, “ter”, “enerjik olma hali” ve “hareketlilik” göstergeleri olarak değerlendirilebilir. Vitray biçemindeki geometrik biçimlere dayalı çok ögeli / çok renkli anlatım biçemi; Ekslibrisi tasarlayan kişinin tasarım dilini ve belki de adına tasarım yapılan kişinin kişiliğini imleyen göstergeler olarak değerlendirilebilir. Yukarıdaki gösterge anlamlandırmalarından da hareketle İrem Çamlıca tarafından Hasip Pektaş için tasarlanmış olan ekslibris; adına tasarlanmış kişinin göstergesi olarak, kısaca şu şekilde değerlendirilebilir: Hasip Pektaş için tasarlanmış olan bu ekslibrisde; Fötr şapka ve fuların, Hasip Pektaş için vazgeçilmez derecede önemli giysiler (giyim tarzı) olduğu; kravat göstergesi ile, resmi bir işte çalıştığı ve/veya zaman zaman resmi giyindiği ya da kravat taktığı; arkadan uzattığı dalgalı saçlara ve enerjik bir yapıya sahip olan sözkonusu kişinin oldukça hareketli ve renkli bir karaktere sahip olduğu; “Less is more / Az daha çoktur” yazılı gösterge ile, anlatımda yalınlığı, az gösterge ile çok şey anlatmanın oldukça önemli olduğunu savunan bir düşüncede olduğu; ışıldayan elmas göstergesi ile de çok değerli biri olduğu (hatta, ekslibrisin tasarımcısı İrem Çamlıca, bu konuda “… portresinin üstünde bulunan elmas, sayısız öğrencisi için taşıdığı değeri sembolize eder.” demiştir) vurgulanmaya çalışılmıştır. Söz konusu ekslibris, onu tasarlayan kişinin göstergesi olarak değerlendirildiğinde ise; İrem Çamlıca’nın, vitray biçemindeki geometrik biçimlere dayalı çok ögeli / çok renkli anlatım biçemi ile, tasarımlarında, genellikle sentezci bir çözümleme anlayışıyla konuları ele alan ve çok renkli, çok sesli dillendirme gizilgücüne (potansiyeline) sahip olup, bu bağlamda, 153 © 2017 EX-LIBRIST Bölüm 7 - Haziran 2017, Sayın, “Sanatçı Göstergesi Olarak Ekslibris” International Journal of Ex-libris / Vol.4 / Part 7 Uluslararası Ekslibris Dergisi / Cilt 4 / Bölüm 7 izleyici dikkatine odak yaratmaya eğilimli ama oval kıvrımlar ve bükmelerle oluşturduğu biçimleri ile de, olabildiğince alçakgönüllü (mütevazı) bir öznelliğe sahip olduğu söylenebilir. Sonuç ve Öneriler Yapılan açıklamalar ve irdelemelerden de anlaşıldığı üzere, ekslibrisler hem onları tasarlayanların hem de adına tasarlandıkları kişilerin nitelikli birer göstergesi olarak görüldüklerinde; insanların (özellikle kitapseverlerin) sanatla, sanat yapıtlarıyla hiç beklemedikleri anlarda karşılaşabilecekleri en önemli sanatsal göstergelerdendir. Kitaplarına ekslibris ekleyenler, okumayı, yazmayı, kitap sahibi olmayı, sanatı, dolayısıyla da insanları / yaşamı seven kimselerdir; Böylesi niteliklere sahip öznel kimselerin başkalarına kötülüğü zaten olmayacağı gibi, okuyarak ve okutarak edinilen bilgiler üzerine nitelikli söyleşi ortamları yaratılmasına neden olarak, alınan emanetin getirilmesinin önemi bağlamında farkındalıklar yaratarak ve ekslibris ekledikleri kitapları sayesinde, sanatın diliyle karşılaşma ortamı bulan insanların sayısının artmasına neden olarak empati düzeyi yüksek, çağcıl insanların artmasına katkıda bulunurlar. Kitaplarına ekslibris ekleyen insanlar, yukarıda sıralanmaya çalışılan yararlar dışında çok önemli bir toplumsal faydaya daha neden olurlar ki, bu da ekslibris sanatçılarına ekslibrisler yaptırarak, daha çok kitabın sanatsal yapıt taşıyan ve bu bağlamda insanların daha çok sanatla karşılaşmasını sağlayan ekslibris tasarımcılarını özendirmektir. Ekslibrisler, yapanın da, adına yapılanın da güzelduyusal (estetik) göstergeleridir. Dolayısıyla, ekslibris tasarlama gizilgücüne sahip olanların da, sipariş beklemeden; kitaba ve sanata değer veren bilim, sanat, kültür insanlarına, nitelikli değerlerle tanışmayı hak eden kitaplık sahibi herkese ekslibrisler tasarlayıp söz konusu kimselere sunarak, gerektiğinde armağan ederek, değiş-tokuş yoluyla biriktirilere katkıda bulunarak, bu bağlamda sergiler açarak, ekslibris tasarlamayı bir yaşam biçemi olarak sürdürülebilir kılması, güzelduyusal yaşama katkı açısından son derece önemlidir. Kaynaklar Başkan, Özcan. (1988). Bildirişim; İnsan Dili ve Ötesi. İstanbul; Altın Kitaplar yayınevi Berger, John. (2017). Görme Biçimleri (Y. Salman, Çev.). İstanbul: Metis Yayıncılık. 24. Baskı Guiraud, Piere. (2016). Göstergebilim. (M.Yalçın, Çev.). Ankara; İmge Kitabevi Yayınları, 3. Baskı 154 © 2017 EX-LIBRIST Bölüm 7 - Haziran 2017, Sayın, “Sanatçı Göstergesi Olarak Ekslibris” International Journal of Ex-libris / Vol.4 / Part 7 Uluslararası Ekslibris Dergisi / Cilt 4 / Bölüm 7 Hanrath, J. J. (1977). EXLIBRIS WERELD. , Amsterdam, Driemaandelijks tijdschrift van de Exlibriskring der W.B.-Vereniging. Twintigste jaargang - nr. 4- Winter. İnanç Uyan Dur, Banu. (2016). Metaphor and Exlibris, Ex-librist, International Journal of Ex-libris / Vol.3 / Part 5 (Ex-librist, Uluslararası Ekslibris Dergisi / Cilt 3 / Bölüm 5), Erişim: 09.11.2017 http://dergipark.gov.tr/download/article-file/213347 İstanbul Ekslibris Derneği Web Sayfası. Erişim: 26.10.2017, http://www.aed. org.tr/tr/ Keenan, J. P. (2003). The Art of the Bookplate. New York: Barnes&Noble Books. Öz Pektaş, Hatice. (2017). Süper Ekslibris. Ex-librist, International Journal of Ex-libris / Vol. 3 / Part 6 (Ex-librist, Uluslararası Ekslibris Dergisi / Cilt 3 / Bölüm 6). Erişim: 16.11.2017, http://exlibrist.net/index.php/exlibrist/article/ view/41/pdf_24 Parsa, S ve Parsa, A.F. (2012). Göstergebilim Çözümlemeleri. İzmir: Ege Üniversitesi Basımevi Pektaş, Hasip. (2003). Exlibris. Ankara: Ankara Exlibris Derneği Yayınları, 2. Baskı Pektaş, Hasip. (2014). Ekslibris. İstanbul: İstanbul Ekslibris Derneği Yayınları, 3. Baskı Pektaş, Hasip. (2015). Bir Üniversite Müzesi: İstanbul Ekslibris Müzesi, Ex-librist, International Journal of Ex-libris / Vol.2 / Part 4 (Ex-librist, Uluslararası Ekslibris Dergisi / Cilt 2 / Bölüm 4), Erişim: 18.11.2017 , http:// exlibrist.net/index.php/exlibrist/article/view/30/pdf_18 Rifat, Mehmet. (2017). 20. Yüzyılda Dilbilim ve Göstergebilim Kuramları I; Tarihçe ve Eleştirel Düşünceler. Ankara: Yapı Kredi Yayınları. 6. Baskı Sayın, Zülfükar. (2001). Göstergelerin Göstergebilimsel (Semiotik) Açıdan Değerlendirilmesi: “Ankara Büyükşehir Belediyesi’nin “Ankara” Amblemine Bir Yaklaşım”, Sanat Yazıları 8, Ankara: Hacettepe Üniversitesi Güzel Sanatlar Fakültesi Yayınları Sayın, Zülfükar. (2007). Gösteren-Gösterilen İlişkisi Açısından Grafik Göstergeler ve Göstergeleri Algılayış Farklılıkları, Semio İstanbul 2007 (“Görünürün Kültürleri” Konulu 8. Uluslararası Görsel Göstergebilim Kongresi kitabı), Cilt 2, İstanbul: İstanbul Kültür Üniversitesi Yayınları 
work_efwj4bfogvfmpmkvb46xfmczpa	----	www.e-neurospine.org S3 Essay Corresponding Author Hyeun-Sung Kim https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5361-5234 Department of Neurosurgery, Nanoori Hospital Gangnam, 731 Eonju-ro, Gangnam-gu, Seoul 06048, Korea E-mail: neurospinekim@gmail.com Received: April 10, 2020 Accepted: May 10, 2020 * Hyeun-Sung Kim and Pang Hung Wu contributed equally to this study as co-first authors. Development of Endoscopic Spine Surgery for Healthy Life: To Provide Spine Care for Better, for Worse, for Richer, for Poorer, in Sickness and in Health Hyeun-Sung Kim1,*, Pang Hung Wu1,2,*, Il-Tae Jang1 1Nanoori Gangnam Hospital, Spine Surgery, Seoul, Korea 2National University Health System, JurongHealth Campus, Orthopaedic Surgery, Singapore INTRODUCTION In part of the wedding vow, when partners commit to support each other in various times of their lives, a common phrase is “to hold from this day forward, for better, for worse, for richer, for poorer, in sickness and health, to love and to cherish, until we are parted by death.” Spine conditions affect most people with age, in both high-income and low-income countries, including both people who are healthy and athletic and people with complex medical problems and those who are home-bound. Robust treatment strategies are needed for this diverse variety of patients with different needs presenting with various degenerative and injury-related spine conditions. Recent advances in endoscopic spine surgery are a tes- timony to the integration of modernised spine surgical skills with technological advances. In this Neurospine Special Issue: Endoscopic Spine Surgery Part II: Visualized Surgical Pro- cess, we put together articles from a team of established endoscopic spine surgeons around the globe to provide a technical update and share their experiences on how they handle various spinal conditions in various clinical scenarios with the aim of adding quality years of healthy life and providing spinal care for better, for worse, for richer, poorer, in sickness, and in health (Fig. 1). FOR BETTER SPINE CARE: MINIMISING TISSUE DAMAGE IN PROLAPSED INTERVERTEBRAL DISCS DURING ENDOSCOPIC DISCECTOMY Prolapsed intervertebral disc is a common spinal problem affecting young and active in- dividuals, as well as older patients with degenerative spinal conditions. It affects 1%–3% of the population in their lifetime. Conservative treatment fails in roughly 10% of patients with a prolapsed disc, who then require consideration for surgical intervention.1 Conven- tional open discectomy requires ipsilateral laminotomy or complete laminectomy, resection of the ligamentum flavum, and subsequent discectomy. Although it is an effective treatment Neurospine 2020;17(Suppl 1):S3-8. https://doi.org/10.14245/ns.2040188.094 Neurospine eISSN 2586-6591 pISSN 2586-6583 This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (https://creativecom- mons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Copyright © 2020 by the Korean Spinal Neurosurgery Society http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.14245/ns.2040188.094&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2020-07-31 Development of Endoscopic Spine Surgery for Healthy LifeKim HS, et al. Neurospine 2020;17(Suppl 1):S3-8.S4 www.e-neurospine.org with favourable patient-reported outcomes, it changes the para- spinal musculature, soft tissue, and the bony and ligamentous anatomy of the affected level, and causes epidural fibrosis fol- lowing spinal surgery because fibrotic tissue replaces epidural fat.2,3 Endoscopic discectomy has practical advantages. By using a safe surgical corridor in the transforaminal route with various techniques to approach the disc, it is possible to minimise bony resection and ligamentous disruption while reaching the site of the prolapsed intervertebral disc.4-7 The benefits of these tech- niques also extend to the thoracic and cervical regions.8-10 The delivery of magnified endoscopic vision close to the pathologi- cal area, bypassing soft tissue and bony obstacles along the path to the pathology, enables the targeted delivery of thermal ener- gy, mechanical debridement of soft tissue, bony resection, and removal of pathology with less collateral damage. These tech- niques epitomise the principles of minimally invasive surgery, providing solutions for many types of prolapsed discs with po- tentially difficult access issues.11,12 The long-term outcomes are comparable to those of open discectomy, but with a shorter hospital stay.13 As the techniques of endoscopic spine surgery evolved, surgeons’ focus shifted to providing better spinal surgi- cal treatment with less damage to local anatomy, minimising recurrence, and easing the learning curve of endoscopic spine surgery.12,14,15 FOR WORSE CASE SCENARIOS (REVISION SURGERY, COMPLICATIONS, AND EXPANSION OF INDICATIONS): SOLUTIONS OFFERED BY ENDOSCOPIC DECOMPRESSION AND INTERBODY FUSION Population aging has been accompanied by an increase in the incidence and prevalence of lumbar degenerative spine condi- tions. With a high prevalence of these conditions, such as spinal stenosis, spondylolisthesis, degenerative disc disease, and their associated spinal conditions, there is a demand for surgical tech- niques to provide effective decompression and fusion.16 In head- to-head comparisons with open and minimally invasive micro- scopic decompression and fusion, full endoscopic uniportal and endoscope-assisted biportal decompression and interbody fu- sion achieved equivalent patient-reported outcomes, with bet- ter facet preservation, shorter hospital stays, improved periop- erative pain management, and a lower infection rate.17-19 With the wide application of open and endoscopic spine decompres- sion and fusion surgery in patients with degenerative spine dis- ease, there has been a corresponding increase in patients who present with conditions requiring revision surgery. Similarly, recurrence of prolapsed disc is a common long-term complica- tion of discectomy. Performing revision surgery using endo- scopic discectomy, decompression, and fusion techniques has the following benefits: (1) As minimally invasive techniques re- sult in a smaller wound and less soft tissue dissection, there is a lower chance of wound dehiscence and infection.20 Constant ir- rigation during endoscopic spine surgery is likely to reduce this risk even further. (2) A magnified endoscopic view with dissec- tion done lateral to the dural scar tissue may decrease the risk of incidental durotomy.21 (3) The reduced extent of soft tissue and bony dissection under endoscopic vision can potentially preserve enough tissue to prevent instability and the need for fusion.22-24 (4) Alternative approaches to the same target site are Fig. 1. Introduction of the Neurospine Special Issue: Endosco- pic Spine Surgery Part II: Visualized Surgical Process of En- doscopic Spine Surgery. Development of Endoscopic Spine Surgery for Healthy LifeKim HS, et al. Neurospine 2020;17(Suppl 1):S3-8. www.e-neurospine.org S5 possible with endoscopic spine surgery. For example, a contra- lateral approach can reach the same foraminal region in a pre- vious surgical site where a paraspinal approach or transforami- nal approach was used.23 However, amid the optimism regard- ing the expansion of indications for endoscopic spine surgery to encompass increasingly challenging cases, one needs to be cautious of the potential complications of endoscopic surgery, such as incidental durotomy, neurological sequelae, and inade- quate decompression, all of which are confounded by a steep learning curve.24-26 FOR RICHER: COST OF ENDOSCOPIC SPINE SURGERY-RELATED EQUIPMENT Worldwide, 266 million individuals (3.63%) have degenera- tive spinal conditions and suffer from lower back pain each year. The highest and lowest estimated incidence rates were found in Europe (5.7%) and Africa (2.4%), respectively. The distribution of cases depends on demographics, as low- and middle-income countries have 4 times as many cases as high-income countries.27 Endoscopic spine surgery is dependent on technological devel- opments. Advances in the endoscopic camera optical system and the development of endoscopic instruments and thermal energy delivery techniques such as side-firing lasers and radio- frequency coagulators present a double-edged sword. On one hand, these technological advances provide a safer platform to achieve the objectives of endoscopic spinal surgery, but on the other hand, using novel equipment increases the cost of endo- scopic spine surgery. The way to resolve this dilemma is the more widespread usage of endoscopic spine surgery equipment, which —together with mass production—will hopefully drive the cost of surgery down. It is important for industry, health care policy- makers, and endoscopic spine surgeons to be aware of the so- cial responsibility of reasonable costs in the provision of endo- scopic spine surgical care, in order to fulfil the objective of pro- viding similarly effective minimally invasive spinal surgery re- gardless of the social background of the presenting patient.28 FOR POORER: ADAPTATION OF TECHNOLOGIES USED BY OTHER DISCIPLINES IN SPINAL SURGERY While various players attempt to reach an equilibrium to con- tain the costs of endoscopic equipment, we can draw comfort from the fact that endoscope-assisted surgery can adopt equip- ment that is available for use by our orthopaedic and neurosur- gical colleagues and apply it to endoscope-assisted procedures such as unilateral biportal endoscopic (UBE) decompression and fusion. The camera system used in orthopaedic arthrosco- py (e.g., for knee and shoulder surgery) can be used for UBE with some minor modifications. In a similar vein, some open spinal decompression and fusion equipment can be used in UBE surgery.29 While there are debates on the approaches, ben- efits, and outcomes of uniportal versus biportal endoscopic spine surgery, evidence exists that both types of surgery yield favour- able outcomes.17,30 The ability to use locally available equipment would certainly encourage attempts to develop endoscopic prac- tice despite variations in wealth and policies due to geographi- cal differences. IN SICKNESS: THE ROLE OF ENDOSCOPIC SPINE SURGERY IN PATIENTS WITH COMPLEX MEDICAL PROBLEMS As it is increasingly frequent for complex medical problems to be well managed by other medical specialties, it is increas- ingly common for patients with multiple complicated comor- bidities to require spinal operations. Some of these patients have a high risk of anaesthesia-related complications, which discour- age both the patients and the treating physicians from pursuing surgical treatment.31 General anaesthesia may cause issues in elderly patients, with postoperative complications including cognitive dysfunction and immobility-related complications such as deep vein thrombosis and sacral sores. However, these complications can be potentially avoided with various endoscop- ic spinal procedures that can be done under local anaesthesia and epidural anaesthesia, which allow for early postoperative recovery and mobility without a significant effect on the central nervous system.32-36 IN HEALTH: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ON ADDING QUALITY YEARS OF HEALTHY LIFE BY ENDOSCOPIC SPINE SURGERY The ultimate aim of all medical specialties is to add more qual- ity years of healthy life for our patients. As patients have a lon- ger life expectancy, it is important to treat their disabling spinal conditions appropriately to enable patients to live a satisfying, functional, and relatively pain-free life as long as possible. En- doscopic spine surgery closely follows the ethical principles of Development of Endoscopic Spine Surgery for Healthy LifeKim HS, et al. Neurospine 2020;17(Suppl 1):S3-8.S6 www.e-neurospine.org nonmaleficence, beneficence, justice, and respect for autonomy of the patients. One of the main principles of endoscopic spine surgery is minimising the collateral damage of surgery. With more experience, and hopefully with a magnified view of the structures in the endoscopic operating field, one can reduce the complications and tissue damage related to spine surgery. These efforts follow the principles of nonmaleficence. The positive outcomes of well-executed endoscopic spine surgery are well documented in the literature. With a further understanding of the indications and limitations of endoscopy, it will be possible to safely and effectively provide equivalent and possibly superi- or outcomes to patients in comparison to open surgery, thereby fulfilling the principle of beneficence. Justice of care is a com- plex issue in endoscopic spine surgery. There is a heavy depen- dence on advanced equipment to provide safe endoscopic care to patients, resulting in a risk that patients from places with lim- ited resources may have problems accessing endoscopic care. The spine surgery community should work together with in- dustry and healthcare facilities to tackle this issue. The ultimate aim is to provide the option of endoscopic spine surgery regard- less of economic and social circumstances. With development of endoscopic training, the widespread availability of literature, and sharing of technical pearls, more surgeons will be trained to be proficient in endoscopic spine surgery. This development of skills, with an appropriate understanding of the limitations of endoscopic spine surgery, will provide an alternative option for both surgeons and patients to consider based on their per- sonal values and beliefs. As such, endoscopic spine surgery al- lows more tailored treatment options for specific conditions, ul- timately fulfilling the principle of respecting patient autonomy. CONFLICT OF INTEREST The authors have nothing to disclose. REFERENCES 1. Jordan J, Konstantinou K, O'Dowd J. Herniated lumbar disc. BMJ Clin Evid 2009;2009:1118. 2. Dobran M, Brancorsini D, Costanza MD, et al. Epidural scar- ring after lumbar disc surgery: Equivalent scarring with/with- out free autologous fat grafts. Surg Neurol Int 2017;8:169. 3. Bouche KG, Vanovermeire O, Stevens VK, et al. Computed tomographic analysis of the quality of trunk muscles in as- ymptomatic and symptomatic lumbar discectomy patients. BMC Musculoskelet Disord 2011;12:65. 4. Kambin P, Sampson S. 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Percutaneous bipor- tal endoscopic decompression for lumbar spinal stenosis: a technical note and preliminary clinical results. J Neurosurg Spine 2016;24:602-7. 30. Lee CH, Choi M, Ryu DS, et al. Efficacy and safety of full- endoscopic decompression via interlaminar approach for central or lateral recess spinal stenosis of the lumbar spine: a meta-analysis. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 2018;43:1756-64. 31. Zambouri A. Preoperative evaluation and preparation for anesthesia and surgery. Hippokratia 2007;11:13-21. 32. Kim JH, Kim HS, Kapoor A, et al. Feasibility of full endoscop- ic spine surgery in patients over the age of 70 years with de- generative lumbar spine disease. Neurospine 2018;15:131-7. 33. Guan Y, Huang T, An G, et al. Percutaneous endoscopic in- terlaminar lumbar discectomy with local anesthesia for L5- S1 disc herniation: a feasibility study. Pain Physician 2019; 22:E649-54. 34. Oksar M. Sedation for percutaneous endoscopic lumbar dis- cectomy. ScientificWorldJournal 2016;2016:8767410. 35. Wang MY, Grossman J. Endoscopic minimally invasive trans- foraminal interbody fusion without general anesthesia: ini- tial clinical experience with 1-year follow-up. Neurosurg Focus 2016;40:E13. 36. Ito F, Ito Z, Shibayama M, et al. Step-by-step sublaminar ap- proach with a newly-designed spinal endoscope for unilat- eral-approach bilateral decompression in spinal stenosis. Neu- rospine 2019;16:41-51. Development of Endoscopic Spine Surgery for Healthy LifeKim HS, et al. Neurospine 2020;17(Suppl 1):S3-8.S8 www.e-neurospine.org Title: Girl Before A Mirror Artist: Pablo Picasso Year: 1932 © 2020 - Succession Pablo Picasso - SACK (Korea) 
work_efxvmz7njvhulken3xhwaaz3uy	----	Pablo Picasso’s Mother and Child by the Sea (1902): report on the hyperspectral near-infrared reflectance imaging survey of Picasso’s newspaper use Vol.:(0123456789) SN Applied Sciences (2020) 2:1474 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-03277-x Research Ar ticle Pablo Picasso’s Mother and Child by the Sea (1902): report on the hyperspectral near‑infrared reflectance imaging survey of Picasso’s newspaper use Keiko Imai1  · John K. Delaney2 · Sandra Webster‑Cook3 · Reyes Jiménez Garnica4 Received: 4 February 2019 / Accepted: 28 July 2020 / Published online: 4 August 2020 © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 Abstract Picasso reused the canvas of Mother and Child by the Sea (1902) several times. A hyperspectral near-Infrared (960–1680 nm) reflectance imaging survey of the painting revealed newsprint text from Le Journal of January 1902. Newsprint from Le Journal was identified as well in two other paintings, Jaume Sabartés with Pince-Nez (1901) and Portrait of Mateu Fernández de Soto (1901). Picasso transported these two portraits from Paris to Barcelona along with Mother and Child by the Sea. In all cases, the newsprint letters appear reversed. This presumably was the result of newspaper being applied, for the purpose of transport, to the surface of paintings that were not entirely dry. Inspection of the painting and the infrared hyperspectral images suggest that once this ‘ink transfer’ occurred it appears that Picasso left the newsprint text in place when he went on to complete the painting. Although Picasso’s use of newspaper in his compositions is not unusual, further investigation of the presence of newsprint letters in Blue Period works is of interest. Moreover, the survey’s iden- tification of the particular date of the newspaper in question provides important information regarding the timing of Picasso’s movement from Paris to Barcelona, and concerning his repainting and completion of each work. Keywords Pablo Picasso · Blue period · Painting · Hyperspectral near-infrared reflectance imaging · Reused canvas · Newspaper 1 Introduction Picasso’s Blue Period painting Mother and Child by the Sea (1902, oil on canvas, 81.7 × 59.8 cm, Pola Museum of Art, Hakone, Z. VI, 478) (Fig. 1) is dedicated to Dr. Josep Font- bona (1876–1940), brother of Picasso’s friend and sculptor Emile Fontbona (1879–1938) of Barcelona. The image is modeled after a woman Picasso encountered in 1901 at the Prison of Saint-Lazare in Paris where women would be incarcerated with their infants. Picasso continued painting on the Saint-Lazare prison ‘mother and child’ theme even after moving from Paris to Barcelona in January 1902 [3, 4].1 * Keiko Imai, k-imai@pola-art-foundation.jp; John K. Delaney, J-Delaney@NGA.GOV; Sandra Webster-Cook, Sandra.Webster-Cook@ago.ca; Reyes Jiménez Garnica, rjimenezga@bcn.cat | 1Pola Museum of Art, Hakone, Japan. 2National Gallery of Art, Washington, USA. 3Art Gallery of Ontario, Toronto, Canada. 4Museu Picasso, Barcelona, Spain. 1 Pierre Daix relates Picasso’s comment concerning these paint- ings: “Picasso, en lisant la première édition de Picasso 1900–1906, et surtout après la révélation par la radiographie de la Femme au bon- net sous le portrait de Sabartés, m’a expliqué que les toiles bleues que nous avions placées à Barcelone étaient précisément la suite des maternités de Saint-Lazare, bien qu’il n’eût plus travaillé d’après les modèles.” Daix P (1977) p. 57, Note 1. http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1007/s42452-020-03277-x&domain=pdf http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3352-8496 Vol:.(1234567890) Research Article SN Applied Sciences (2020) 2:1474 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-03277-x Mother and Child by the Sea is thought to have been completed in Barcelona in January 1902. It may be the Bar- celona coast seen in the background. The Fontbona family let go of the painting in 1957, after which it appeared in auctions and changed hands among different collectors. Tsuneshi Suzuki (1930–2000), owner of the Pola-Orbis Group and an avid collector, acquired the painting in the 1980s. His collection opened to the public in 2002, with the establishment of the Pola Museum of Art. The condition of Mother and Child by the Sea is as it was at the time of the Pola acquisition, including the pres- ence of a linen backing. Recent inspection shows there are traces of restoration and a surface coat of varnish. The painting surface appears uneven, even to the naked eye, and unrelated texture suggests a composition beneath the surface. Three optical surveys on Mother and Child by the Sea have been done. The first was in 1997 by Ms. Ann Hoenigswald of the National Gallery of Art, Washington DC, who took an X-ray radiograph and infrared photos at the time of the Picasso: The Early Years exhibition at the National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC and the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. In 2005, the Pola Museum of Art collected an X-ray radiograph image of Mother and Child by the Sea in coop- eration with Tokyo National Research Institute for Cul- tural Properties. The radiograph revealed a previously hidden female figure [7, 11] (Fig.  2). In addition, the 2005 radiograph revealed an absinthe glass and spoon. These recall Picasso’s paintings of women in Paris bars in the fall and winter of 1901. The radiograph images also showed the image of a head of a second female figure likely to be in a lower paint layer, suggesting composi- tional revision. In April 2018 near-infrared reflec tance imaging spectroscopy (NIR-RIS) was done on Mother and Child by the Sea using a hyperspectral camera system from the National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC, in order to further the understanding of the history of this painting in preparation for the Art Gallery of Ontario (AGO) and The Philips Collection joint exhibition. Sandra Webster- Cook and Kenneth Brummel of AGO proposed the survey to the Pola Museum of Art. All participated in the current survey. Near-infrared reflec tance imaging spec troscopy has been shown in prior studies to provide improved Fig. 1 Pablo Picasso, Mother and Child by the Sea, 1902, oil on can- vas, 81.7 × 59.8  cm, Pola Museum of Art, Hakone © Pablo Picasso’s Estate. VEGAP. Madrid, 2020. Permission to reproduce courtesy of VEGAP Fig. 2 X-ray radiograph, Mother and Child by the Sea © Pola Museum of Art/National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Tokyo Vol.:(0123456789) SN Applied Sciences (2020) 2:1474 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-03277-x Research Article visualization of earlier painted compositions in Blue Period paintings by Picasso [6]. A large number of hyperspectral near-infrared reflectance image cubes were collec ted and mosaicked together to create one large image cube from which false color images were created to make the newsprint letters clearer to see.2 Near-infrared reflectance imaging spectroscopy often provides complementar y information to X-ray radiography since it is sensitive to infrared absorbing pigments not detected by X-ray radiography. 2 Hyperspectral near‑infrared reflectance imaging survey results 1. The newsprint letters seen on the facial area of Mother and Child by the Sea (Fig. 3) allowed the identification that they were from page 3 of the January 18th, 1902, edition of the French newspaper Le Journal (Fig. 4).3 This newsprint letters were not readily detected from visual inspection of the surface of the painting by eye. The infrared images showed aside from the newsprint text in the area of the faces and hand, there are also traces in the lower section of the painting. The news- print letters seen in the lower section of the painting Fig. 3 Detail of Infrared false color image of Mother and Child by the Sea © John K. Delaney, National Gallery of Art, Washington, 2018 Fig. 4 [Left]: Le Journal, January 18, 1902, page 3, Bibliothèque nationale de France, Source gallica.bnf.fr/BnF, [Right]: Reversed detail of Infrared false color image of Mother and Child by the Sea © John K. Delaney, National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC 2018 Fig. 5 [Left]: Le Journal, January 18, 1902, page 8, Bibliothèque nationale de France, Source gallica.bnf.fr/BnF, [Right]: Reversed details of Infrared false color image of Mother and Child by the Sea © John K. Delaney, National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC 2018 2 Near-infrared reflectance imaging spectroscopy [2] was per- formed with a high sensitivity customized scanning hyperspectral camera that has been previous described [6]. The camera is opti- mally sensitive from 967 to 1680  nm and has a spectral sampling of 3.4  nm. The spatial sampling is 0.17  mm per pixel at the paint- ing. In brief the camera consists of imaging spectrometer with an internal scan mirror that collects image cubes (640 × 640 spatial pixels by 256 spectral) in 3  min at an illumination level of ~ 700  lx at the painting from two incandescent lamps on a rheostat. Some 180 image cubes where collected and registered with a true color image to create the mosaicked image cube using the NGA-GWU- HSI-Registration algorithm [5]. The resulting data was analyzed in ENVI (Harris, USA). ENVI was also used to make false color images and principal component (PC) images that were found to improve the visibility of the newspaper text or prior painted compositions. PC imaging processing has been found to aid in recovering lost text in palimpsest as well as improving the visibility of painted over fea- tures when applied to multi band images. 3 Hyperspectral Imaging clearly showed the words “l’Automobile” and “président.” After searching in the "Gallica", the digital library of the Bibliothèque nationale de France (BnF), the archives of Le Jour- nal, known to be familiar to Picasso. It was possible to identify an issue from January 18, 1902, which revealed an exact match of the text visible in the hyperspectral images. Vol:.(1234567890) Research Article SN Applied Sciences (2020) 2:1474 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-03277-x were identified as being from page 8 of the January 18th edition of Le Journal (Fig. 5). 2. The research allowed a more detailed understanding of Picasso’s female images and motifs of his paintings of women in Paris bars (Fig. 6). The Principal Compo- nent Analysis (PCA) images support the presence of multiple repaintings. 3. A clear image of the signature “-Picasso-”, inscribed upside-down underneath the upper right corner of Mother and Child by the Sea, was confirmed in the under layer of the painting. This suggests that this had been a completed painting previous to the portrait of the woman seated in a bar. It was also discovered that Picasso rotated the canvas 180 degrees before creating the portrait from later in his Paris period. According to the findings of our hyperspectral near- infrared reflectance imaging survey, the newsprint is from a January 18, 1902 French newspaper (Fig. 7). This strongly supports the theory that Picasso moved to Barcelona in the latter half of January. Prior to the newsprint discov- ery, it was thought that Picasso moved to Barcelona in early January, according to Picasso’s friend Sabartés [10].4 The current research conclusively affirms that Mother and Child by the Sea was transported from Paris to Barcelona by Picasso, no earlier than January 18th. 3 Identification of newsprint letters In summary during the hyperspectral near infrared reflec- tance image survey, newsprint letters were identified over wide areas of the painting, specifically, throughout the mother and child, the seashore, and in parts of the sky. The newsprint letters appeared over roughly half of the painting, particularly in the central and lower sections. It is also important to note that all newsprint letters found appear in reverse. We initially assumed newspaper was physically attached to the underlayer painting and represented a part of Picasso’s production process. However close inspection, guided by the infrared images and with optical magnification, found that red, yellow, and white colors can Fig. 6 Composite image of principal component analysis of infra- red hyperspectral imaging and X-ray radiograph of Mother and Child by the Sea © John K. Delaney, National Gallery of Art, Washing- ton, DC 2018, © Pola Museum of Art/National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Tokyo Fig. 7 Le Journal, front page, January 18, 1902, Bibliothèque nation- ale de France, Source gallica.bnf.fr/BnF 4 Sabartés J (1996) Picasso: Portraits et souvenirs, pp 110–111. Vol.:(0123456789) SN Applied Sciences (2020) 2:1474 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-03277-x Research Article be seen through surface cracks on the painting, and the reversed letters “sid” of the word “président” could be seen on the Mother’s face. Physical evidence of newspaper has not been detected. Interestingly, the reversed newsprint letters seemed to be only from one side of the newspaper page. To further understand these findings an investigation was carried out on two Picasso paintings from the same time period, Jaume Sabartés with Pince-Nez (1901, oil on canvas, 46 × 38  cm, Museu Picasso, Barcelona, Z. I, 87) (Fig. 8), and Portrait of Mateu Fernández de Soto (1901, oil on canvas, 46 × 38 cm, Private collection, Z. I, 86) (Fig. 9). The two paintings of Picasso’s close friends are roughly the same size and share much in common. They both seem to have been painted in 1901. The canvas of the Mother and Child by the Sea and these two portraits were among the few paintings carried by Picasso from Paris to Barcelona in January 1902. A prior X-ray radiograph of Jaume Sabartés with Pince- Nez revealed a portrait of a woman from the Saint-Lazare prison in the layer beneath the surface. High-resolution color imaging of the two paintings revealed as well news- print letters on the surface of the two portraits. According to Reyes Jiménez who has long studied Jaume Sabartés with Pince-Nez, newsprint letters from Le Journal detected on the surface is from page 2 of January 18th, 1902, the same day as the edition identified in Mother and Child by the Sea (Figs. 10, 11). In both cases, the newsprint appears in reverse and the physical newspaper is not found.5 Fig. 8 Pablo Picasso, Jaume Sabartés with Pince-Nez,1901, oil on canvas, 46 × 38  cm, Museu Picasso, Barcelona © Pablo Picasso’s Estate. VEGAP. Madrid, 2020. Permission to reproduce courtesy of VEGAP Fig. 9 Pablo Picasso, Portrait of Mateu Fernández de Soto,1901, oil on canvas, 46 × 38  cm, Private collection © Bridgeman Images, © Pablo Picasso’s Estate. VEGAP. Madrid, 2020. Permission to repro- duce courtesy of VEGAP Fig. 10 Detail of Jaume Sabartés with Pince-Nez © Pablo Picasso’s Estate. VEGAP. Madrid, 2020. Permission to reproduce courtesy of VEGAP 5 Delaney, Jiménez, and Imai carried out a survey on Jaume Sabar- tés with Pince-Nez, including a hyperspectral near-infrared reflec- tance imaging survey on December 1st 2018 at the Museu Picasso Barcelona. Reversed newsprint lettering was detected and some newsprint ink was observed on the surface of the painting. Vol:.(1234567890) Research Article SN Applied Sciences (2020) 2:1474 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-03277-x John Richardson, in Picasso, the Early Years, cites Mari- lyn McCully mentioning traces of newspaper buried in the Portrait of Mateu Fernández de Soto [9].6 Richardson thought it could be a result of  recycling an old canvas and that the portrait could be a repainted one. The high- resolution color image of this portrait shows newsprint letters that appear in reverse on the surface of the painting (Fig. 12). The high-resolution color image allowed us to clearly identify the newsprint letters as page 4 of the Janu- ary 9th, 1902 edition of Le Journal (Fig. 13).7 The two portraits of Picasso’s friends share many simi- larities. Wrinkling of the surface paint from pressing news- paper onto the still wet surface of the paintings is thought to be unintentional, rather than deliberate. This time, how- ever, Reyes Jiménez conducted a simulation to see if ink from a newspaper could be transferred to a wet canvas and thus create reverse newsprint letters on a painting using present day newspaper (Fig. 14). Jiménez found that ink of the letters was transferred on the wet paint layer.8 This suggests that the newspaper was applied to the paintings before the oil paint was dry, and later removed. Jiménez suggests that the matte surface of Jaume Sabar- tés with Pince-Nez is possibly a result of the newspaper absorbing oil from the wet painting. The simulation relates also to Jaume Sabartés with Pince-Nez and Portrait of Mateu Fernández de Soto. According to the research, it seems that Picasso completed these two paintings and surprisingly let the newsprint ink and wrinkled newspaper texture remain. Fig. 11 [Left]: Le Journal, January 18, 1902, page 2, Bibliothèque nationale de France, Source gallica.bnf.fr/BnF, [Right]: Reversed detail of Jaume Sabartés with Pince-Nez © Pablo Picasso’s Estate. VEGAP. Madrid, 2020. Permission to reproduce courtesy of VEGAP Fig. 12 Detail of Portrait of Mateu Fernández de Soto © Bridgeman Images, © Pablo Picasso’s Estate. VEGAP. Madrid, 2020. Permission to reproduce courtesy of VEGAP Fig. 13 [Left]: Le Journal, January 9, 1902, page 4, Bibliothèque nationale de France, Source gallica.bnf.fr/BnF, [Right]: Reversed detail of Portrait of Mateu Fernández de Soto © Bridgeman Images, © Pablo Picasso’s Estate. VEGAP. Madrid, 2020. Permission to repro- duce courtesy of VEGAP 8 Jiménez conducted the simulation of the transfer of the news- print letters in November 2018 and suggested that Picasso most likely applied the newspaper to the paint when it was still wet. The simulation was done with oil on canvas diluted with walnut oil. 6 Concerning the Portrait of Mateu de Soto, "McCully has discovered traces of newspaper buried in the underpaint of this portrait-possi- bly the consequence of  recycling an old canvas." See Richardson J (1991) A Life of Picasso, chapter 14, "Painter of Human Misery" note 49, p. 500. 7 Newsprint letters observed on the Portrait of Mateu de Soto were clearly matched with the issue of the January 9th, 1902 edition of Le Journal in two sections (Fig. 13). However, the space between the matched two sections is much closer together on the painting than on the original newsprint. Therefore, the newspaper could have been torn and wrinkled before being applied on the painting. Vol.:(0123456789) SN Applied Sciences (2020) 2:1474 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-03277-x Research Article Picasso once tried to give Jaume Sabartés with Pince-Nez to Sabartés’ family but finally he decided kept it for himself. He also kept Portrait of Mateu Fernández de Soto for himself for the rest of his life.9 The canvas of Mother and Child by the Sea is 2.8 times larger than the two portrait paintings. Some of the texture of the painted surface might be due to application of the newspaper when the paint was not quite dry. There are ripples and compression cracks on the painted surface, particularly at the position of the child’s head and the mother’s chin which suggest rolling with the paint side in, but the cracks do not extend across the painting. The upper paint layers appear to be not well adhered to the underlayer. The irregular condition of the newsprint letters in Mother and Child by the Sea and Portrait of Mateu Fernández de Soto suggests that the newspaper applied to Portrait of Mateu Fernández de Soto was creased or wrinkled and that more than two sheets of the newspaper were applied to Mother and Child by the Sea. Le Journal newspaper con- sists of two sheets and each sheet has been folded in half to create a folio. Each folio has two leaves that make up the pages of the newspaper. One sheet, or folio, from the January 18 edition of le Journal was cut down the fold to separate the leaves, the leaf labeled as page 8 was applied to the lower section of Mother and Child by the Sea, and the other leaf, labeled as page 2 was placed on the surface of Jaume Sabartés with Pince-Nez. The canvas of Mother and Child by the Sea was transported from Paris to Barce- lona along with at least these other two paintings. We can assume that the newspaper was applied to the still wet paintings to facilitate transport. We intend to further inves- tigate each of the works in consideration of these findings. 4 La Flor del mal and newsprint letters Because the transferred newsprint lettering is not clearly exposed on the surface of Mother and Child by the Sea, it was not clear which paint layer contained portions of actual newsprint letters, unlike the other two paint- ings. However, in November 2018, following the results of the hyperspectral Near-infrared reflectance imaging survey, historian Francesc Fontbona, successor of the Fontbona family that long held the painting, related that Fig. 14 Simulation of the transfer of newspaper letters on to a painted copy of Jaume Sabartés with Pince-Nez by Reyes Jiménez Garnica, oil on canvas, 2018 Fig. 15 Mother and Child by the Sea, detail of photo by Francesc Serra i Dimas, n.d., Courtesy of Mr. Francesc Fontbona © Pablo Picasso’s Estate. VEGAP. Madrid, 2020. Permission to reproduce courtesy of VEGAP 9 Picasso brought Jaume Sabartés with Pince-Nez to Barcelona to present it to Sabartés’ family but finally he kept it for himself until gifting it to Museu Picasso Barcelona in 1968 (see Sabartés J (1996) Picasso: Portraits et souvenirs, pp 111–112 and Richardson J (1991) A Life of Picasso, p. 233). Portrait of Mateu Fernández de Soto was one of only a few Blue Period paintings that Picasso kept in his pri- vate collection. Vol:.(1234567890) Research Article SN Applied Sciences (2020) 2:1474 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-03277-x the newsprint letters had been clearly visible on the sur- face of the painting when he was a child. He also related that the family often talked about the fact that Picasso gave this painting the title La Flor del mal. He provided a monochrome photograph taken by Francesc Serra i Dimas (1877–1967) (Fig.  15), and a color photograph from the latter half of the 1950s by José Compte Argimon (1910–1987). The photos confirm that most of the news- print detected by hyperspectral near-infrared reflectance imaging was once more visible on the surface of the paint- ing than now. In other words, the restoration done to the painting after it left the Fontbona family seems to have reduced the visual appearance of the newsprint lettering that still can be detected by hyperspectral near-infrared reflectance imaging within the layers of the painting. One possible explanation is that some of the newspaper ink could have been removed in the cleaning of the painting since the solvents typically used can solubilize ink. We can therefore propose a hypothesis for the paint lay- ers of Mother and Child by the Sea according to the scien- tific results and the testimony and photographic materials provided by Mr. Fontbona as follows: Bottom layer: The painting was completed and signed “-Picasso-.” It is assumed to have been done in Paris. Picasso started to use the “-Picasso-” signature after Janu- ary 1901, when he was in Madrid. This signature was used for the works Picasso submitted to the Vollard Gallery in Paris. The Vollard exhibition (June 24–July 14, 1901) was a success with nearly half of the 64 works sold. Picasso picked up some of the unsold paintings and reused the canvases [8]. Picasso scholars have been trying to identify what works Picasso exhibited in this Vollard show. We need also to verify whether or not the bottom layer painting of Mother and Child by the Sea was included in this exhibition. Middle layers: These were produced in Paris. Top and bottom were reversed and the new painting, including what seems to be a female figure, a table and a drink, was made. It is also possible that parts of this composition were repeatedly redone until the beginning of Picasso’s Blue Period. Surface layer: Prior to the newsprint discovery, it was thought that Picasso painted Mother and Child by the Sea in Barcelona. The current research affirms that Mother and Child by the Sea was painted between the end of 1901 and January 1902 in Paris. Newspaper pages are affixed to the still wet canvas in Paris after January 18, 1902; the canvas was likely rolled and the newsprint ink remained after the newspaper was peeled off. In Barcelona, the painting may have been inscribed with Picasso’s dedication to Dr. Josep Fontbona. It is necessary to further investigate the surface layer in more detail. Due to restoration done after 1957, very little of the newsprint letters are visible. It is assumed that all the layers of Mother and Child by the Sea were produced in a period of over half a year beginning prior to Picasso’s Blue Period in Paris until the beginning of his Blue Period in Barcelona. 5 Conclusion All three works under discussion remained for decades with Picasso’s friend’s family, or in his own possession. X-ray radiographs of Mother and Child by the Sea and Jaume Sabartés with Pince-Nez reveal compositional changes and a separate painting in the layer below the surface. The spe- cific date of the Le Journal newsprint offers concrete evi- dence of when the three paintings were painted over or completed. It is also apparent that the three paintings for friends have a special connection. Picasso’s many associations with newspaper are well known [1]. From 1912, Picasso often used Le Journal, attach- ing it to paper, paperboard or canvases for his Cubism Period collages. In 1911, Picasso and Georges Braque had already started including painted letters in their cubist paintings. The current research uncovers the until now unknown role of newspaper linking Picasso’s Mother and Child by the Sea and the two other paintings under study. Picasso is likely to have completed the painting, preserving the accidental newspaper lettering. This research suggests the possibility of discovering reverse newsprint letters in other Picasso paintings. The discovery of newsprint resulting from affixing newspaper to oil paint surfaces reveals an important aspect of Picasso’s production process and artistic expression. Acknowledgements We would like to acknowledge and thank Francesc Fontbona, Laurent Le Bon, president of Musée National Picasso - Paris, Emmanuel Guigon, director of Museu Picasso, Barcelona, Kenneth Brummel of Art Gallery of Ontario, Masahide Inuzuka of the National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Tokyo, and Claire Guerin. We are also grateful to Shunsuke Kijima, Hiroyuki Uchiro, and Yoh Shoji of the Pola Museum of Art. We also thank the National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC for their support of this project. Sponsorship from the Museu Picasso, Barcelona, to cover permission fees for the reproduction of works by Picasso is gratefully acknowledged. Compliance with ethical standards Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. References 1. Baldassari A (2003) Picasso, Papiers Journaux (Exp. Cat,) Musée Picasso, Paris 2. Cucci C, Delaney JK, Picollo M (2016) Reflectance hyperspectral imaging for investigation of works of art: old master paintings and illuminated manuscripts. Acc Chem Res 49(10):2070–2079 Vol.:(0123456789) SN Applied Sciences (2020) 2:1474 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-03277-x Research Article 3. Daix P, Boudaille G, Rosselet J (1966) Picasso 1900–1906. Catalogue raisonné de l’œuvre peint, Ides et Calendes, Neuchâtel 4. Daix P (1977) La vie de peintre de Pablo Picasso. Seuil, Paris 5. Damon MC, Delaney JK, Loew MH (2015) Automatic registration and mosaicking of technical images of old master paintings. Appl Phys A 119(4):1567–1575 6. Delaney JK, Thoury M, Zeibel JG, Ricciardi P, Morales KM, Dooley KA (2016) Visible and infrared imaging spectroscopy of paintings and improved reflectography. Herit Sci 4(1):1–10 7. Imai K (2006) Blue period: Barcelona-Paris. In: Exp. Cat., Picasso Five Themes. Pola Museum of Art, Hakone, pp 34–37 (in Japanese) 8. McCully M, Raeburn M (2018) Œuvres exposées à la galerie Vollard, 1901. In: Exp. Cat., Picasso bleu et rose. Musée national Picasso- Paris, Hazan, pp 391–393 9. Richardson J (1991) A Life of Picasso. 1881–1906. Volume 1. Ran- dom House, New York 10. Sabartés J (1946/1996) Picasso: Portraits et souvenirs. Louis Carré & Maximilien Vox / l’école des lettres, Paris 11. Uchiro H (2006) Hidden images of Mother and Child by the Sea. In: Exp. Cat., Picasso Five Themes. Pola Museum of Art, Hakone, pp 136–140 (in Japanese) Publisher’s Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Pablo Picasso’s Mother and Child by the Sea (1902): report on the hyperspectral near-infrared reflectance imaging survey of Picasso’s newspaper use Abstract 1 Introduction 2 Hyperspectral near-infrared reflectance imaging survey results 3 Identification of newsprint letters 4 La Flor del mal and newsprint letters 5 Conclusion Acknowledgements References 
work_eh7e33pcbzcfbljxotmv25qb4q	----	Found Phys (2009) 39: 407–410 DOI 10.1007/s10701-009-9291-z J.R. Leibowitz: Hidden Harmony. The Connected Worlds of Physics and Art. The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008. ISBN-13: 978-0-8018-8866-3, ISBN-10: 0-8018-8866-2. 148 pages, hardcover, 27 colour pictures, 22 black-and-white figures, 8.9 × 7.2 × 0.7 inches Sebastian de Haro · Thomas van Lier Received: 17 February 2009 / Accepted: 17 February 2009 / Published online: 24 February 2009 © The Author(s) 2009. This article is published with open access at Springerlink.com Abstract The book Hidden Harmony—The Connected Worlds of Physics and Art by J.R. Leibowitz is critically reviewed. The book is intended for a general audience and does not assume prior knowledge of physics or the arts. Keywords Art and philosophy · Science in art · Art and science · Analytical cubism · Symmetry breaking · Form and balance · Conservation laws Much has been written on, and speculated about, the connection between physics and art, the role of perception and the psychological and social factors influencing both fields. Attempts at connecting developments in physics such as Albert Einstein’s formulation of the special theory of relativity and the simultaneous development of cubism by Pablo Picasso appear to be no more than suggestive proposals. Despite much research,1 it has not proved possible to firmly establish such claims of historical connections. What, if anything, is left to be said on the “physics and art” front? J.R. Leibowitz, in Hidden Harmony—The Connected Worlds of Physics and Art, studies the role of form in physics and in the visual arts. Physics and art geniuses both apply aesthetical categories and criteria to their work. Leibowitz tries to identify the influence of those criteria in the artist’s and the physicist’s work. He then explains how their separate criteria are mutually connected. By displaying the developments as a creative process, he finds a number of elements that play an important role in the 1See for instance Arthur I. Miller, Einstein, Picasso: Space, Time, and the Beauty That Causes Havoc, Basic Books, 2002. S. de Haro (�) · T. van Lier Institute for Theoretical, Physics and Spinoza Institute, Utrecht University, Leuvenlaan 4, 3508 TD Utrecht, The Netherlands e-mail: s.deharo@uu.nl T. van Lier e-mail: T.J.M.vanLier@students.uu.nl mailto:s.deharo@uu.nl mailto:T.J.M.vanLier@students.uu.nl 408 Found Phys (2009) 39: 407–410 birth of a physical theory as well as in what makes a piece of art “work”. A few of these elements are: symmetry and its breaking; balance and rebalance; conservation; and coherence and unity. In a number of examples from physics and in a selection of paintings, he illustrates how these elements are a key to making great works. In the first and last chapters, Leibowitz poses the problem of how physics and art are connected, and stresses the importance of form in his answer to this question. In the eight remaining chapters he analyzes, in alternating groups of two chapters, the developments in the histories of physics and art. The chapters dealing with physics will not give the working physicist any new information; they rather provide the au- thor’s own vision on a number of developments in the history of physics; as such they are a nice read. The first two chapters on physics explain the concepts of conserved quantity, sym- metry, and symmetry breaking, illustrating them with examples from nature and cos- mology. Leibowitz discusses the wave- and particle-character of light in the double- slit experiment as well as Planck’s quantization condition. He stresses the relation between symmetry and information: the breaking of symmetry allows determining the properties of a particle and restores its defining information. The next two physics chapters attempt at explaining parts of Maxwell’s theory and the special theory of relativity but fall short in a number of points. Leibowitz shows the importance of charge conservation in the formulation of the Maxwell equations. Thanks to the additional term 1 c2 dE dt on the right-hand side of the Ampère-Maxwell law, Maxwell’s equations describe electric and magnetic fields as waves propagating at the speed of light. But Leibowitz fails to justify his emphasis on the way the equa- tions look. Maxwell’s equations, placed in a frame which is supposed to remind the reader of a painting, are regarded as “icons” of a composition. At this point the au- thor gives in to a popularizing kind of prose at the expense of clarity. This chapter is apparently aimed at a public of non-scientists, but they will find it difficult to follow the explanation of the symbols. The explanation of concepts such as time dilation and the impossibility of simul- taneity contained in the chapter on special relativity will once again be opaque to the non-physicist. Nevertheless this chapter contains a few interesting points. Enlight- ening is his discussion of observer-independence. Leibowitz argues that relativism, in the sense of an unwarranted dependence on the existence of a special observer, lurks in the concept of the ether and hence in Maxwell’s description of electro- magnetism. According to Leibowitz, Einstein does away with physics relativism by introducing—or rather, restoring—observer relativity and demanding that physics be independent of the observer. Lorentz transformations thus restore the broken symme- try. In this way, the path that starts from Newton and continues via Faraday, Ampère and Maxwell, leading to Einstein, can be regarded as a process of initial symmetry, its subsequent breaking and finally its restoration: Galilean invariance is replaced by Lorentz invariance. Four chapters on the visual arts deal with the concepts of balance and restoration of balance, coherence and unity, symmetry, and broken symmetry. Leibowitz mentions a few factors that may contribute to these. Balance, for instance, can be achieved by using form, stressing some elements more than others. He illustrates this in the sculpture of the American artist David Smith (1906–1965). By bringing one form to Found Phys (2009) 39: 407–410 409 the foreground and letting it dominate another, hierarchy arises. In order not to distort the coherence with other forms, the artist uses other means, as Leibowitz explains in another painting of the nineteenth-century painter Edouard Manet. Besides form, color also plays an important part in achieving unity and coherence. In The Old Guitarist by Pablo Picasso, for instance, the guitar is central in the com- position. Since Picasso did not want to emphasize it, he gave it a rather neutral color, such that the man playing it comes to the foreground. A similar effect takes place in the The Arnolfini Wedding by Jan Van Eyck (1390–1441), where the bride’s colorful dress does not misbalance the composition thanks to the strip of light in the lower left corner of the painting. In the chapter on Impressionism a few things remain unclear. Leibowitz first men- tions the way that the same colors and hues appear in different places of the painting, creating an impression of unity. Later on, the texture of brush is also seen to add to unity, but he does not explain in what way and why. Even less clear is the example of Van Gogh’s Wheatfields with Cypresses (1889). Unity is in this case achieved by the distribution of related colors, but in this case the texture mainly expresses emotion. Chapter nine, on Cézanne and Analytical Cubism, is the most clarifying one, not because the author successfully shows how certain principles from science are also present in Cubist art, but because he shows how Cézanne and his followers no longer try to imitate nature; rather, they pursue an autonomous work of art with its own (aesthetic) laws. And with that the formalist approach of art, so characteristic of Lei- bowitz, is born. When he discusses the concepts such as unity, coherence and (restored) symmetry in current art, things are more complicated. Are these also applicable to performance art, installation art and video art? Leibowitz has made a choice of modern art where such principles still play a role. But that suggests that the argued connections between physics and art may not hold for all art, but mainly for the art that the author selected. The very small amount of source material and references used give the impression that his story on art is mainly based on personal interpretations lacking a serious attempt to justify them. Nevertheless it is a surprising view on art, as long as one doesn’t ask too many questions. Leibowitz offers an original perspective on the relation between physics and art and in that sense the book is worth reading. He avoids speaking of content, perception and representation, which would require a much longer book. The concentration on form allows him to identify a number of elements which contribute to the harmony of a work of art and of a physical theory. Herein lays its strength but also its weakness: the emphasis on the formal elements make the argument and the author’s intentions become enigmatic at times. He does not mention how far analogies between physics and art can be pushed, or whether they point to a deeper relationship between both. On the one hand Leibowitz suggests the existence of parallels in the histories of physics and the arts; on the other hand he dismisses the suggestion of clear causal connections. Can the analogy be explained from the way great minds work, both in the natural sciences and in the arts? Does the connection between physics and the visual arts bear a special status, or can it be found between physics and other forms of artistic or media-expression as well? Or between the visual arts and other natural sciences? The lack of a theory of representation and the focus on form leaves these questions unanswered. 410 Found Phys (2009) 39: 407–410 Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Noncom- mercial License which permits any noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited. J.R. Leibowitz: Hidden Harmony. The Connected Worlds of Physics and Art. 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work_ehgnuefj2vax5alozv2g62fsbi	----	«Del médico que no sabe más que Medicina…» o la publicación de artículos no médicos en revistas médicas = «Of the Doctor Who does not Know More than Medicine...» Or the Publication of Nonmedical Articles in Medical Journals “Del médico que no sabe más que Medicina, ten por cierto que ni Medicina sabe”. Según cuentan médicos que ya están cerca de cumplir los 90, esta frase de José de Letamendi (Barcelona 1828 – Madrid 1897) fue la que se repitió a los estudiantes de la Facultad de Medicina de la Universidad de Barcelona el primer día de curso duran‐ te muchos años, allá por la década de 1950. Debió impactarles, puesto que muchos todavía la recuerdan. Nadie duda que la formación del médico no tiene que estar limitada sólo a lo que puede aprender sobre medicina; la formación humanística, en su sentido más amplio, es básica y fundamental para ser un buen médico. Sin embargo, la necesidad de estar al día en conocimien‐ tos y la gran cantidad de artículos que se publican hacen difícil compaginar la formación científica con la lectura de otros textos que, aunque relacionados con la medicina, la complementen desde otras áreas, ya sea la literatura, la pintura o la historia, por poner unos ejemplos. En este sentido, algunas revistas médico‐científi‐ cas –desafortunadamente poco abundantes en número– incluyen en sus páginas secciones o apartados dedicados a estos otros aspectos aunque sólo algunas, como Revista de Medicina y Cine, dedican todas sus páginas a temas que no son “estrictamente sólo médicos”. La inclu‐ sión de estos apartados favorece y facilita que el médico establezca relación con áreas, ideas, reflexiones, etc. a las que le sería muy difícil entrar en contacto de otra forma. El pasado mes de octubre, la revista JAMA, de la American Medical Association, anunciaba la creación de una nueva sección en sus páginas, The Arts and Medicine1, cuyo objetivo es presentar “una visión fresca y nueva de las artes y su influencia y lugar dentro de la profesión y la práctica de la medicina”. Coincidiendo con este anuncio JAMA dejaba de publicar –y lo sentimos– otra de sus secciones más características: The Art of JAMA. El origen de la sección The Art of JAMA se remon‐ taba a más de medio siglo, cuando en 1964 los editores tomaron una decisión muy audaz y arriesgada: sustituir la tabla de contenidos, que durante más de 80 años había figurado en la portada de la revista cada semana, por la reproducción de una obra de arte. La primera reproduc‐ ción que se publicó fue San Jerónimo en su estudio, obra atribuida a Jan van Eyck (1442), y correspondió a un número especial que se publicaba anualmente, Book Number, dedicado a la revisión de libros médicos relevan‐ tes en ese momento así como de otros libros de interés para los médicos. Al principio sólo se utilizaron estas reproducciones en números especiales o en números monográficos de JAMA. Unos años después se estableció la publicación semanal de una obra de arte en todas las portadas. En 1974, M. Therese Southgate (1926‐2013), editora de la revista, asumió la responsabilidad de esa sección, conocida ya como The Cover; además de una cui‐ dadosa selección de las obras reproducidas, Southgate “Del médico que no sabe más que Medicina…” o la publicación de artículos no médicos en revistas médicas Elena Guardiola, Josep‐E Baños Departamento de Ciencias Experimentales y de la Salud. Universitat Pompeu Fabra. Barcelona (España). Autor para correspondencia: Josep E Baños. Correo electrónico: josepeladi.banos@upf.edu Recibido el 11 de diciembre de 2016; aceptado el 12 de diciembre de 2016. RMC Editorial JMM 193 Rev Med Cine 2016; 12(4): 193‐195 © Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca J Med Mov 2016; 12(4): 193‐195 Como citar este artículo: Guardiola E, Baños JE. “Del médico que no sabe más que Medicina…” o la publicación de artículos no médicos en revistas médicas. Rev Med Cine [Internet] 2016;12(4):193‐195. “Of the doctor who does not know more than Medicine..." or the publication of non‐ medical articles in medical journals publicaba también un ensayo sobre cada obra. Durante cuatro décadas, esta sección fue muy valorada por médi‐ cos y aficionados al arte. Estos trabajos se recopilaron en tres volúmenes, que bajo el título The Art of JAMA, se publicaron en 1997, 2001 y 20112‐4. En 2013, debido al rediseño de todas las revistas del grupo JAMA (JAMA Network), The Cover dejó de publicarse y se convirtió en The Art of JAMA, sección incluida en las páginas interiores de la revista. Según R. K. Young, una de las editoras de JAMA, la sección The Arts and Medicine quiere ir más allá de las artes visuales y se dirige a cualquier manifestación artística que exprese o dé sentido a la enfermedad, a las ciencias del cuerpo y de la mente y al cuidado de los pacientes. Así, define las “artes” ampliamente e incluye cualquier tipolo‐ gía artística, desde literatura a televisión y otros medios visuales, teatro, exposiciones, música, cine y fotografía, artes gráficas, cómics, etc. Los primeros artículos publica‐ dos son una buena muestra de ello. Así, mientras el prime‐ ro nos adentra en la biblioteca de un médico, a partir de Aequanimitas and other essays, de William Osler5, una semana después nos lleva al teatro con The effect, una obra en la que los participantes en un ensayo clínico nos hacen reflexionar sobre la psicofarmacología en toda su compleji‐ dad, humana y científica6. Y mientras en uno de los artícu‐ los analiza las obras de dos autores recientemente desapa‐ recidos –Oliver Sacks (1933‐2015)7 y Jenny Diski (1947‐ 2016)–, con títulos similares (“Gratitude” e “In Gratitude”) y escritas cuando sabían que, a causa del cáncer que pade‐ cían, les quedaba muy poco tiempo de vida8, en otro nos aproxima a la poesía relacionada también con las fases finales de la vida9. En uno nos enseña la especial forma de autorretratarse de Philip Carey10 y en otro el arte en rela‐ ción con la cirugía plástica11. No es ésta la única sección de JAMA en la que actualmente tienen cabida artículos o creaciones fuera del ámbito médico‐científico12. Poetry publica cada semana poemas inéditos relacionados con cualquier aspecto médico, tanto desde el punto de vista del profesional de la salud como desde fuera del ámbito sanitario; en A Piece of My Mind se publican relatos personales, en especial sobre la relación médico‐paciente y opiniones y puntos de vista sobre temas médicos y otros que afec‐ ten a la profesión. Cuando se creó esta última sección, en 1980, se especificaba “Lo que tenemos en mente para la nueva sección [A Piece of My Mind] no es un foro formal de opinión, sino un área informal de creatividad, en la que los médicos muestren observaciones no estric‐ tamente científicas o clínicas, experiencias, reflexiones y fantasías teñidas de filosofía o humor”13. A los primeros artículos (“The physician as patient advocate” y “Tuna on Rye, 1984”14,15) le han seguido centenares, de muy diversos temas, escritos por personas muy diversas, siempre interesantes y de agradable lectura. Mirando al pasado, hallamos también otras sec‐ ciones fácilmente consultables gracias al acceso a la revista digitalizada. En 198616 empezaron a publicarse dos interesantes secciones. Osleriana publicó durante varios años fragmentos de la obra de William Osler (1849‐1919) A way of life, en la que Osler reflexionaba sobre el comportamiento de los médicos y exponía sus pensamientos y preocupaciones. Por su parte JAMA 100 years ago ha reproducido artículos, noticias e imágenes publicadas en JAMA un siglo antes, seleccionadas por su especial interés histórico o por su relación con temas actuales cien años después. También en la década de 1980, otra sección, Literature and Medicine, reprodujo fragmentos de obras como “Once upon a time: Interpretation in Literature and Medicine” (1982) de S. A. Banks o “Under the sign of irony: The use of paradox in Psychotherapy” (1982) de D. Jaymes, por citar dos ejemplos. Y empezó a publicarse Poetry and Medicine, en la que en un principio se comentaban y reproducían poemas ya publicados relacionados con la medicina, y que se sigue publicando actualmente, si bien los poemas son ahora inéditos (véase Poetry más arriba). Es JAMA, sin duda, una de las revistas médicas más involucradas en cubrir aspectos no médicos relacionados con la medicina. Pero son muchas las revistas que inclu‐ yen secciones destinadas a estos temas. Sin ir más lejos, y a modo de ejemplo, en septiembre de 2015 The Lancet, anunció la publicación de una nueva sección mensual From Literature to Medicine, con el objeto de ”explorar temas médicamente relevantes a través de un enfoque literario, comenzando por la ficción contemporánea, ensayos y memorias”17. El anuncio iba acompañado de la ilustración “Don Quijote” (1955) de Pablo Picasso. Son muchas también las revistas médicas españo‐ las que incluyen secciones dedicadas a las humanidades, a la literatura o a la pintura, muy valoradas en muchos casos. Deliberadamente, no entramos hoy a analizarlas aquí. Un estudio detallado sería, sin duda, bienvenido. Referencias 1. Young RK. Introducing The Arts and Medicine: JAMA turns another page. JAMA. 2016;316(13):1365. 2. Southgate MT. The Art of JAMA: One hundred covers and essays from The Journal of the American Medical Association. St Louis: Mosby; 1997. 3. Southgate MT. The Art of JAMA II. Covers and essays from The Journal of the American Medical Association. Chicago: AMA Press; 2001. 4. Southgate MT. The Art of JAMA III. Covers and essays from The Journal of the American Medical Association. New York: Oxford University Press; 2011. 5. Coulehan J. What’s in your library?: “The Leaven of the Humanities”. JAMA. 2016;316(13):1340‐1341. 6. Zuger A. The Effect: A new play takes on psychopharmacology, in all its human and scientific complexity. JAMA. 2016;316(14):1434‐1435. 7. Guardiola E, Baños JE. Oliver Sacks: un extraordinario médico‐escritor, un escri‐ tor‐médico irrepetible. Rev Med Cine. 2015;11(3):127‐129. 8. Adrian CD. Two Gratitudes. JAMA. 2016;316(15):1524‐1525. E Guardiola, JE Baños “Del médico que no sabe más que Medicina…” o la publicación de artículos no médicos en revistas médicas 194 Rev Med Cine 2016; 12(4): 193‐195 © Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca J Med Mov 2016; 12(4): 193‐195 http://revistamedicinacine.usal.es/es/volumenes/volumen11/num3/1235 9. Myers J. Poetry’s company: Where medicine leaves us alone. JAMA. 2016;316(17):1744‐1745. 10. Butt CA. Art in My Veins: A medical self‐portrait. JAMA. 2016;316(16):1628‐ 1629. 11. Neal S. The art of plastic surgery. JAMA. 2016;316(20):2072‐2073. 12. JAMA. Instructions for authors. JAMA Network Home [Internet] [Consultado el 11 de diciembre de 2016]. 13. Vaisrub S. For the peace of your mind. JAMA. 1980;243(18):1845. 14. Fordham CC. The physician as patient advocate. JAMA. 1980;243(18):1846. 15. Vee S. Tuna on rye, 1984. JAMA. 1980;243(18):1846. 16. Breedlove C, Carney M, Knoll E, Sullivan M. New look, new features, new con‐ nections. JAMA. 1986;256(1):84. 17. Marchalik D, Jurecic A. Novel remedies. Lancet. 2015;386(10000):1223. E Guardiola, JE Baños “Del médico que no sabe más que Medicina…” o la publicación de artículos no médicos en revistas médicas 195 Rev Med Cine 2016; 12(4): 193‐195 © Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca J Med Mov 2016; 12(4): 193‐195 Elena Guardiola es doctora en Medicina. Investigadora asociada en la Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud y de la Vida de la UPF desde 2007, se ha especializado en informa‐ ción, documentación y redacción científica, áreas en las que ha impartido numerosos cur‐ sos. Su interés por la relación entre la medici‐ na y la literatura se ha plasmado en la partici‐ pación en varios proyectos así como en la publicación de diversos trabajos. Josep‐E Baños es doctor en Medicina y profe‐ sor de Farmacología en la Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud y de la Vida de la UPF desde el año 2002. Ha sido vicerrector de Docencia y Ordenación Académica desde 2005 a 2013. Fue miembro del grupo que recibió una distin‐ ción de calidad a la innovación docente de la Generalitat de Catalunya por el empleo de películas comerciales en la docencia de la licenciatura de Biología en 2009. http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/pages/instructions-for-authors 
work_ei2yosg36jalpgn2ovojz2rg6y	----	pp900196 803..804 On the Inside Trichomes: The Source of Heavy Metal in Tobacco Smoke? Smoking of tobacco (Nicotiana taba- cum) leaves is one of the principal routes of exposure to heavy metals (Fig. 1). Little is known about the mechanisms of heavy-metal accumula- tion and detoxification in tobacco. Recently, it was shown that the tri- chomes of tobacco exposed to Cd21 and Ca21 produced calcium (Ca)/cadmium (Cd)-containing grains. Other effects of Cd exposure were a retardation of plant growth and a 2-fold increase of the number of trichomes in comparison with untreated plants. An increased concentration of Ca in the nutrient medium was found to have a protective effect toward Cd toxicity and enhanced the production of the grains. The Ca/ Cd-containing grains were 20 to 150 mm in diameter, and formed on the head cells of both the short and long tri- chomes of tobacco leaves. Thus, these studies revealed a new function of tobacco trichomes, the excretion of Cd in the form of particles. Sarret et al. (pp. 1021–1034) bring to bear an arsenal of cutting-edge techniques to examine the question of whether the trichomes of tobacco leaves also play a role in the responses of tobacco plants to toxic levels of zinc (Zn). Zn exposure re- sulted in toxicity signs in plants, and these damages were partly reduced by a Ca supplement. Confocal imaging of intracellular Zn using a fluorescent indicator showed that Zn was prefer- entially accumulated in trichomes. Exposure to Zn alone and Zn plus Ca increased the trichome density and induced the production of Ca/Zn min- eral grains on the head cells of tri- chomes. These grains were aggregates of submicrometer-sized crystals and poorly crystalline material, and con- tained Ca as major element. Micro x-ray diffraction revealed that the large majority of the grains were composed essentially of metal-substituted calcite (calcium carbonate). Thus, the produc- tion of Zn-containing biogenic calcite and other Zn compounds through the trichomes is a novel mechanism in- volved in Zn detoxification. This study also illustrates the potential of laterally resolved x-ray synchrotron radiation techniques to study biomineralization and metal homeostasis processes in plants. Membrane Lipid Saturation and Chilling Sensitivity: Surprising Results Some Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thali- ana) mutants that exhibit decreased thylakoid unsaturation are substan- tially indistinguishable from wild type when grown at 22�C, but exhibit defects in biogenesis and maintenance of chlo- roplasts at temperatures below 5�C. A role for thylakoid unsaturation in main- taining photosynthetic function at low temperatures is also suggested by experiments in which transgenic ex- pression of fatty acid desaturases in chilling-sensitive plant species resulted in increased survival of plants at low temperatures. The Arabidopsis mutant fatty acid biosynthesis 1 (fab1) that is par- tially deficient in b-ketoacyl-synthase II (KAS2) activity exhibits a distinct low- temperature phenotype. This mutant contains increased levels of 16:0 due to a mutation in the KAS2 gene, which encodes the condensing enzyme that catalyzes the first step in elongation of 16:0 to 18:0 during fatty acid synthesis. In fab1 mutants, the 16:0 fraction of the thylakoid phospholipid phosphatidyl- glycerol (PG) is increased from 20% in wild type to 41% in fab1. This is signif- icant because increased 16:0 in PG, and more specifically the sum of 16:0 1 18:0 1 16:1, D3 trans (sometimes re- ferred to as high-melting-point fatty acids), has been correlated with chilling sensitivity through surveys of chilling- tolerant and chilling-sensitive plant species. Typically, plants containing more than 60% high-melting-point fatty acids in PG have been shown to be chilling sensitive. The fab1 mutant con- tains 69% high-melting-point fatty acids in PG—a higher percentage than is found in many chilling-sensitive plants. However, fab1 plants were completely unaffected, when compared with wild- type controls, by a range of chilling treatments that quickly killed other chilling-sensitive plants. Instead, fab1 plants are damaged only by long-term (.10 day) exposure to low temperature. Are the elevated levels of high-melting- point fatty acids in PG the direct cause of the damage and death of fab1 plants at 2�C? Surprisingly, the answer is no. Barkan et al. (pp. 1012–1020) have iso- lated suppressor mutations that rescue fab1 from death at low temperatures. One of the suppressors is an allele of fad5, a mutant that has decreased chlo- roplast 16:0 D7-desaturase and, hence, more saturated chloroplast membrane lipids. The overall leaf fatty acid com- position of the rescued line contained 31% 16:0 compared with 23% in fab1 and 17% in wild type. Based on the biophys- ical characteristics of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, the increased 16:0 in fab1 fad5-2 plants would be expected to exacerbate, rather than ameliorate, low-temperature damage. The authors speculate that changes in the shape of other lipids may compen- sate for disruptive changes in the shape of PG molecules induced by the fab1 mutation, for example, by altering the packing relationships between the thylakoid lipids and membrane pro- teins of the photosynthetic complexes. Clearly, more needs to be learned about the relationship between thylakoid membrane saturation and chilling sen- sitivity. Figure 1. Heavy metal-excreting trichomes appear to be a major source of heavy-metal exposure from tobacco smoke. The painting is Woman with a Cigarette by Pablo Picasso. www.plantphysiol.org/cgi/doi/ 10.1104/pp.104.900196. Plant Physiology, July 2006, Vol. 141, pp. 803–804, www.plantphysiol.org � 2006 American Society of Plant Biologists 803 https://plantphysiol.orgDownloaded on April 5, 2021. - Published by Copyright (c) 2020 American Society of Plant Biologists. All rights reserved. https://plantphysiol.orgDownloaded on April 5, 2021. - Published by Copyright (c) 2020 American Society of Plant Biologists. All rights reserved. https://plantphysiol.orgDownloaded on April 5, 2021. - Published by Copyright (c) 2020 American Society of Plant Biologists. All rights reserved. https://plantphysiol.org https://plantphysiol.org https://plantphysiol.org Identification of a Phosphate- Overaccumulating Mutation The Arabidopsis mutant pho2, which is defective in inorganic phosphate (Pi) homeostasis, was identified by screen- ing the Pi content of shoots. Even though normal Pi concentrations are maintained in the roots of pho2 mu- tants, the shoots accumulate excessive amounts of Pi and exhibited Pi-toxic symptoms. Recently, it was reported that a microRNA, miR399, controls Pi homeostasis by regulating the expres- sion of a ubiquitin-conjugating E2 en- zyme (UBC24) in Arabidopsis. The accumulation of UBC24 mRNA was suppressed by the targeting of miR399, whose expression is up-regulated by Pi starvation. Intriguingly, several char- acteristics of Pi toxicity in the pho2 mutant are similar to those in miR399- overexpressing and UBC24 T-DNA knockout plants: both Pi uptake and translocation of Pi from roots to shoots is increased and Pi remobiliza- tion within leaves is impaired. In this issue, both Aung et al. (pp. 1000–1011) and Bari et al. (pp. 988–999) demon- strate that the Pi overaccumulator pho2 is caused by a single nucleotide muta- tion resulting in early termination within the UBC24 gene. No UBC24 protein was detected in the pho2 mu- tant, and the phenotype of the pho2 mutation could be rescued by intro- duction of a wild-type copy of UBC24. The combined results of these two research groups provide many further insights into the workings of this pecu- liar mutant. It was demonstrated by micrografting experiments that a pho2 root genotype is sufficient to yield leaf Pi accumulation, suggesting that Pi toxicity in this mutant arises from increased Pi uptake and translocation of Pi from roots to shoots. Furthermore, miR399 and UBC24 were colocalized in the vascular cylinder. Bari et al. present a working model for the mechanism of Pi sensing in higher plants in which PHR1, a MYB factor that has previously been shown to be required for induc- tion of a small number of genes under Pi starvation, takes a central role and the downstream miR399/PHO2 path- way regulates the expression of only a subset of the phosphate starvation- induced genes. The identification of putative PHO2 orthologs containing five miR399 binding sites in other higher plants and the demonstration of Pi-dependent miR399 expression in rice (Oryza sativa) suggest that this Pi starvation-signaling pathway may be highly conserved throughout the plant kingdom. Brassinosteroid Insensitivity Increases Rice Production The major factor underlying the suc- cess of the Green Revolution was the introduction of high-yielding semi- dwarf cultivars of wheat (Triticum aestivum) and rice. The dwarf pheno- types of the Green Revolution cultivars were largely traceable to disruptions in GA signaling or biosynthesis. Recently, however, another important target for producing high-yielding semidwarf cultivars was identified in barley (Hordeum vulgare). The semidwarf uzu phenotype of barley is brassinosteroid (BR) insensitive and is caused by a missense mutation in HvBRI1, an ortholog of the Arabidopsis gene BRASSINOSTEROID INSENSITIVE1 (BRI1). In contrast to barley, the loss- of-function mutants of a rice BRI1 ortholog (OsBRI1), namely, d61, show a range of phenotypes. Although the weak alleles d61-1 and d61-2 exhibit agronomically useful traits, such as semidwarf stature, erect leaves, and elongated neck internodes, they also exhibit, unfortunately, morphological alterations in their reproductive organs and reduced grain yield. Of nine d61 alleles identified by Morinaka et al. (pp. 924–931), the weakest, d61-7, con- fers agronomically important traits, such as semidwarf stature and erect leaves. The biomass produced by wild type was 38% higher than that of d61-7 at harvest under conventional planting density, whereas, as the situation was reversed at high planting densities, the biomass of d61-7 was 35% higher than that of wild type. However, the small grain size of d61-7 countered any in- crease in grain yield, leading to the same grain yield as that of wild type even at high density. The authors there- fore produced transgenic rice with par- tial suppression of endogenous OsBRI1 expression. Several of these transfor- mants, although of the same height as wild type, exhibited the desirable phe- notype of erect leaves. The estimated grain yield of these transformants was about 30% higher than that of wild type at high growth densities. These results demonstrate the feasibility of generating erect-leaved plants by modifying the expression of the BR receptor gene in transgenic rice plants. Peter V. Minorsky Department of Natural Sciences Mercy College Dobbs Ferry, New York 10522 804 Plant Physiol. Vol. 141, 2006 https://plantphysiol.orgDownloaded on April 5, 2021. - Published by Copyright (c) 2020 American Society of Plant Biologists. All rights reserved. https://plantphysiol.org CORRECTIONS Vol. 140: 30–48, 2006 Abdulrazzak N., Pollet B., Ehlting J., Larsen K., Asnaghi C., Ronseau S., Proux C., Erhardt M., Seltzer V., Renou J.-P., Ullman P., Pauly M., Lapierre C., and Werck-Reichhart D. A coumaroyl-ester-3-hydroxylase Insertion Mutant Reveals the Existence of Nonredundant meta-Hydroxylation Pathways and Essential Roles for Phenolic Precursors in Cell Expansion and Plant Growth. The authors regret that this article contains a description of immunofluorescence/confocal microscopy methodology that was not actually used for this work. In addition, this methodology was given without proper credit to Sugimoto et al. (K. Sugimoto, R.E. Williamson, G.O. Wasteneys [2000] Plant Physiol 124: 1493–1506), who developed the protocol. The correct immunofluorescence/confocal microscopy methodology used for this article is described below. The authors apologize for this error and any inconvenience it may have caused. Immunofluorescence Visualization of the Microtubules Roots of 2-week-old seedlings were fixed in 2% (v/v) paraformaldehyde and 0.5% (v/v) glutaraldehyde in PEMT buffer (100 mM PIPES, 4 mM EGTA, 4 mM MgSO4, 0.05% [v/v] Triton X-100, pH 7.2) for 40 min, and rinsed in PEMT buffer three times for 10 min. Roots were postfixed in cold methanol (220�C) for 10 min on ice, rehydrated for 10 min in 13 PBS (136 mM NaCl, 2.7 mM KCl, 10 mM Na2HPO4, 2 mM KH2PO4, pH 7.4), and treated for 20 min with NaBH4 (1 mg/mL) diluted in 13 PBS. Fixed roots were digested for 10 min with 0.2% (w/v) pectolyase, 1% (w/v) macerozyme, 3% (w/v) caylase diluted 10 times in digestion buffer (25 mM MES, 8 mM CaCl2, 600 mM mannitol, pH 5.5). After three washes in PBSG buffer (13 PBS, 50 mM Gly), roots were incubated for 20 min in 5% normal goat serum diluted in PBSG to saturate nonspecific sites, then incubated with primary anti- bodies directed against a-tubulin (Molecular Probes) in PBSG at 4�C overnight and washed three times for 5 min in PBSG buffer. Samples were incubated for 1 h at room temperature with secondary antibodies cou- pled to Alexa Fluor 488 (Molecular Probes) and washed three times in PBSG buffer. Roots were mounted in Mowiol containing DABCO (100 mg/mL). Observations were done using a Zeiss LSM510 con- focal laser scanning microscope equipped with argon and helium/neon lasers and with a C-APOCHROMAT (3 63, 1.2 numerical aperture water immersion lens). Excitation/emission wavelengths were 488/bandpass 505 to 550 nm for Alexa 488. Image processing was done using LSM510 version 2.8 (Zeiss), ImageJ (W.S. Rasband; National Institutes of Health), and Photo- shop 6.0 (Adobe Systems). Vol. 141: 803–804, 2006 Plant Physiology regrets that the credit line was not included with the image of Pablo Picasso’s Woman with a Cigarette in July’s On the Inside feature. The Estate of Pablo Picasso has graciously granted permission to ASPB for use of this image in the print and online journal. The credit line for this image is as follows: � 2006 Estate of Pablo Picasso/Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York. 1708 Plant Physiology, August 2006, Vol. 141, p. 1708, www.plantphysiol.org � 2006 American Society of Plant Biologists 
work_enjndnzo7fbc7a3yebetl66bvy	----	WSEE_A_490935 215..225 Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=wsee20 Slavic & East European Information Resources ISSN: 1522-8886 (Print) 1522-9041 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/wsee20 Drawings and Prints by Slavic and Slavic-Born Artists in the Collection of the Smithsonian Institution, Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden Phyllis Rosenzweig To cite this article: Phyllis Rosenzweig (2010) Drawings and Prints by Slavic and Slavic- Born Artists in the Collection of the Smithsonian Institution, Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Slavic & East European Information Resources, 11:2-3, 215-225, DOI: 10.1080/15228886.2010.490935 To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/15228886.2010.490935 Published online: 08 Sep 2010. Submit your article to this journal Article views: 548 View related articles https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=wsee20 https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/wsee20 https://www.tandfonline.com/action/showCitFormats?doi=10.1080/15228886.2010.490935 https://doi.org/10.1080/15228886.2010.490935 https://www.tandfonline.com/action/authorSubmission?journalCode=wsee20&show=instructions https://www.tandfonline.com/action/authorSubmission?journalCode=wsee20&show=instructions https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/mlt/10.1080/15228886.2010.490935 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/mlt/10.1080/15228886.2010.490935 Drawings and Prints by Slavic and Slavic-Born Artists in the Collection of the Smithsonian Institution, Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden PHYLLIS ROSENZWEIG Smithsonian Institution, Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Washington, District of Columbia, USA This essay surveys and examines the prints and drawings by Slavic and Slavic-born artists in the collection of the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, most of which were donated to the museum by Joseph H. Hirshhorn and were formerly in his private collection. Many of the artists whose works on paper Hirshhorn acquired were refugees from Jewish communities in Tsarist Russia or immigrated after the Russian Revolution. This essay considers the fact that Hirshhorn himself was an �emigr�e from a Slavic country, having come from Russian-controlled Latvia as a child. KEYWORDS Joseph H. Hirshhorn, Latvia, Great Depression, Russian Revolution, modern art, contemporary art, American Contemporary Artists (ACA) Gallery, Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Slavic When the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden opened to the public in Washington, D.C. in 1974, it was designated as the nation’s museum of modern and contemporary art. At its opening its collection consisted entirely of works of art that had been acquired by Joseph H. Hirshhorn and gifted to the Smithsonian Institution in 1966 and 1972. The collection was then known for This article is not subject to U.S. copyright law. The author would like to thank Kerry Brougher, the Hirshhorn Museum’s Chief Curator, Susan Lake, Collections Manager, and Roni Polisar, Paper Conservator, for the opportunity to work on this project, and Lee Stalsworth and Amy Densford for their assistance in providing photographic images. Address correspondence to Phyllis Rosenzweig, Curator Emerita, Smithsonian Institution, Hirshhorn Museum & Sculpture Garden, 2009 Belmont Rd. NW, Apt. 203 Washington, DC 20009, USA. E-mail: prosenzweig1@earthlink.net Slavic & East European Information Resources, 11:215–225, 2010 ISSN: 1522-8886 print/1522-9041 online DOI: 10.1080/15228886.2010.490935 215 its in-depth holdings of sculpture by world-renowned artists such as Edgar Degas, Auguste Rodin, Henri Matisse, and Pablo Picasso, and paintings by American modernists and artists such as Morris Louis and other representatives of the Washington Color School. Early exhibitions of the collection attempted to present it as reflecting, if in a somewhat skewed and quirky manner, a mainstream history of recent Western art. Since then, through its acquisition and exhibition programs, the museum has both broadened and focused its mission and enhanced its status as a world-class institution devoted to the collection and display of significant contemporary art on an international scale. Because the thousands of works of art that came to the museum with Joseph Hirshhorn’s original gifts—and the additional thousands that were added by bequest after his death in 1981—were received on such a massive scale, many objects in the collection, and especially works on paper, have yet to be fully catalogued. Many have not been on public display in the museum’s galleries, photographed for the museum’s Web site, or published or exhibited elsewhere. At the core of this unpublished and un-exhibited and thus “hidden” collection are a large number of prints and drawings by Slavic and Slavic-born artists that, for the most part, had been acquired by Joseph Hirshhorn in his lifetime. Collections of works on paper by the artists Isac Friedlander (1908–1968), Raphael Soyer (1899–1987), and Abraham Walkowitz (1880–1965) number in the hundreds. Many other Baltic, Slavic, and Slavic-born artists are represented in the collection by works of art on paper as well, if not always in such great numbers. The objects themselves, and letters and documents related to them that are in the museum’s curatorial files, constitute a rich source of information about the artists and, since many of them came to the United States either with their families from Tsarist Russia, or after the Revolution, and established their careers in the United States during the Great Depression, provide an intimate view of significant periods in Slavic and American history. The approximately 300 prints and drawings in the collection by Isac Friedlander, mostly scenes of Russian farm and village life, Depression-era New York City, and religious subjects, hint at a particularly interesting and personal story. Friedlander is not generally well-known today, and very little primary documentation on him exists in the museum’s curatorial files. However, according to secondary sources in the files, he was well-regarded in his lifetime as a print- maker, received many printmaking awards, and is represented in the collections of the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris, the Library of Congress, the Corcoran Gallery of Art, the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C., the Brooklyn Museum, and the Smithsonian’s Cooper-Hewitt Museum in New York. Additionally, the artist’s widow and daughter donated a large collection of Friedlander’s papers and prints to the Special Collections of the Lauinger Library, Georgetown University, in Washington, D.C., and his widow later donated 120 works to the Neuberger Museum of Art at Purchase College, State University of New York. Friedlander was born in Latvia in 1908. Friedlander was also Joseph Hirshhorn’s cousin, and Hirshhorn assisted or urged his emigration to New 216 P. Rosenzweig York some time in the early 1930s. In correspondence between the artist, the artist’s widow, and Joseph and Olga Hirshhorn in the museum’s curatorial files, he is affectionately and familiarly referred to as “Itzik.”1 According to one of the letters from Friedlander’s widow in the museum’s files, Hirshhorn visited his cousin in Latvia in 1928, and brought back many of Friedlander’s prints from that trip.2 About half a dozen paintings and works on paper by Friedlander are listed in a 1945 Hirshhorn insurance inventory, but no formal invoices for any works by him have so far been found. Since works by Friedlander in the collection date through the 1960s, it is possible to surmise that Hirshhorn continued to acquire his cousin’s work, either by purchase or gift, throughout his life. Most of the work by Friedlander in the museum’s collection, however, was not part of Hirshhorn’s original gift to the Smithsonian, but was acquired later, by bequest, after Hirshhorn’s death. Further research is needed in order to document Friedlander’s life, his relationship with Hirshhorn, and to learn more about how or if they may have influenced each other’s thinking about art. Friedlander’s arrival in New York coincided with Hirshhorn’s desire to become a collector of work by contem- porary living artists, and that the cousins socialized and continued to look at art together is evident. In a letter from Hirshhorn to Herman Baron, director of the ACA Gallery, September 11, 1943, which also includes his thoughtful observa- tions on the work of several artists, Hirshhorn wrote: I saw my cousin last night. He had dinner with me. We both discussed how beautiful the gallery looks and how friendly and warm it is. I have the feeling just as you that the gallery cannot help but be successful, because of you and Ella [Baron’s wife] and what you both stand for. 3 Although it is difficult to determine to what degree the personal relationship between Hirshhorn and his cousin may have affected Hirshhorn’s acquisition of so much of his work, Friedlander’s prints and drawings fall within the scope and are typical of the kind of work that Hirshhorn began investing in as a collector in the late 1920s and 1930s, and that he continued to collect into the 1940s and 1950s. Many of the works Hirshhorn acquired early in his collecting career were through the ACA Gallery, which he began to frequent soon after Baron—who was also Slavic in origin, born in Lithuania in 1892—opened it in downtown Manhattan in 1932. Hirshhorn also began to meet many artists there. In his gallery Baron promoted what he referred to as “Social Art,” 4 and showed the work of many politically active, leftist-oriented artists who espoused themes of social justice in their work. The gallery’s initials, ACA, stood for American Contemporary Artists. Not all, but many, of these contemporary “American” artists to whom Hirshhorn was attracted were of Slavic origin. Among the Slavic- born artists Hirshhorn got to know through the ACA Gallery were David Burliuk (1882–1967), Moses (1899–1974) and Raphael Soyer, Abraham Walkowitz, and Drawings and Prints by Slavic & Slavic-Born Artists 217 Max Weber (1881–1961), and, through these artists, others in their circle such as Arshile Gorky (1904–1948), a refugee from what was then Turkish Armenia. Gorky was born Vosdanik Manuk Adoian, in Khorkom, Armenia, came to the United States and lived with relatives in Massachusetts in 1920, and went to New York in 1925. There, perhaps laying claim to what he perceived to be the more prestigious cultural heritage of the artists he knew, he changed his name and pretended to be related to the Russian writer Maxim Gorky (whose name is also a pseudonym). Hirshhorn was an early collector of Gorky’s paintings, but four drawings by him in the collection were not purchased until the 1960s, and date from the 1940s when Gorky had already broken with this group of immigrant artists and had begun to establish a reputation for his lyrical, some- what Surrealist-inspired, abstract paintings. The fact that Hirshhorn himself was an immigrant from a Slavic country— Latvia was under Tsarist rule at the time—adds a human dimension and focus to the story ofhis collectingactivity. Although a truly scholarly biographyofhim has yet to bepublished, thebroad outlines ofHirshhorn’s lifemaybe found in several publications, including one full-length book, several journal articles, and an interview in the Archives of American Art.5 Born in Jukst, a town southwest of Riga, Latvia, in 1900, he was brought to the United States as a child in 1907, was raised in relative poverty in Brooklyn, along with his nine siblings, by his widowed mother. He began working on Wall Street as a teen-ager, did well in the stock market even through the Great Depression and went on to make a fortune in mining interests in Canada. As he acquired greater wealth he also acquired, asmany do, thedesiretoaccumulate those complexsymbols ofhuman expression and higher values as well as of status and taste; that is, works of art. Hirshhorn often related to interviewers that, as a child, he saved the illustrations from wall calendars in his family’s Brooklyn apartment. By the late 1920s Hirshhorn had begun to purchase rare books and manuscripts, and conventional, academic, sometimes sentimental pictures, most of which he later sold. In the 1930s, about the time he brought his cousin Isac to the United States, in the midst of the Depression, and while he was also cultivating an interest in French artists such as Matisse, Picasso, and Rouault, Hirshhorn began buying the work of his contemporaries, living artists, working in New York City. Records of many of Hirshhorn’s early purchases are lacking but, in a 1959 recollection of his gallery, Baron recalled Hirshhorn’s early patronage. He wrote: “The ACA opened in August 16, 1932 ... the year the art market shrank to insignificant proportions. The proverbial artist starving in a garret became a horrifying reality. . .I remember a rainy day when Joseph H. Hirshhorn came into the gallery. He said [falsely], ‘I am an ice and coal peddler, but I like that painting. How much is it?’ He has now become a legendary figure in the art world [known for] [h]is visits to galleries and his rapid-fire decisions on what to acquire. . .[h]is catholic tastes, his munificence when he hears of artists in distress and his generosity. . .” 6 218 P. Rosenzweig Raphael and Moses Soyer are among the artists that Hirshhorn was likely to have met, and supported, through the ACA Gallery in its early days. Like Hirshhorn and his cousin, the Soyers were born in Tsarist Russia, in Borisoglebsk, in 1899. They emigrated with their parents and younger brother Isaac, who also became an artist, first to Philadelphia in 1912, and then to New York, in 1913. One work on paper by Moses Soyer, a lithographic self-portrait, along with two small oils, is in the Hirshhorn Museum collection while his perhaps better known twin brother, Raphael is represented by almost three hundred prints and drawings. Many of these are portraits and figure studies but, like Friedlander, his subjects were also often the poor, the downtrodden, and the everyday. Although he did not start collecting Raphael Soyer’s work seriously until the 1950s, Hirshhorn stated, in a 1973 letter, that he had “known Raphael Soyer since 1938 or 1940” and owned a great many of his paintings. 7 The earliest invoices for a work by Raphael Soyer in the museum’s files are from the Associated American Artists gallery, from 1951, and the ACA Gallery from 1953. But only a few of Soyer’s works on paper in the museum’s collection, as well as a number of major paintings, are from Hirshhorn’s original gift. In 1981 Soyer made a large donation of graphic work to the museum in honor of Hirshhorn who, he said: “bought my paintings early on and has put into the collection of the museum some of my major works. . .” 8 Although they do not constitute a complete set of the artist’s prints, the collection of so much of his graphic work in one place affords an intimate look at Soyer’s working practices and, along with his paintings, reflections of a community.9 Abraham Walkowitz, another artist associated with the ACA Gallery and who is also represented in the Hirshhorn Museum collection by hundreds of works on paper, was born in Tiumen’, Russia. He came to the United States as a child in the 1880s. He later studied art at the Académie Julian in Paris and returned to New York bringing with him a modernist style, producing Cubist- inspired cityscapes, abstractions, and hundreds of drawings and watercolors of the dancer Isadora Duncan (see Figure 1). According to a 1943 letter from Hirshhorn to Milton Avery (1885-1965), another (American-born) artist in the ACA circle, Walkowitz had seen a work by Avery that Hirshhorn had recently purchased, in Moses Soyer’s studio, where Hirshhorn had brought it to be framed. 10 From the letter we get a glimpse of the interconnectedness of this art world community, a hint that Walkowitz was a bit jealous of Avery, and the information that Moses Soyer was framing works of art for Hirshhorn at the time. The first record of a purchase by Hirshhorn of a work by Walkowitz in the museum’s files is of an Isadora Duncan watercolor, purchased from the ACA Gallery in 1952. Hirshhorn continued to collect Walkowitz’s work consistently through the 1970s, and attempted to convince the Whitney Museum of American Art to organize a retrospective after Walkowitz died. Drawings and Prints by Slavic & Slavic-Born Artists 219 Another artist in the ACA Gallery and Soyer brothers circle, and who was well-known and important in his day, was David Burliuk. Burliuk was regarded as the most established and “worldly” artist of the group, and his studio was often the site of dinners and gatherings of these fellow Russian immigrants and their friends. Burliuk was born in a small town in Ukraine. Unlike the Soyers and Walkowitz who came to the United States as children, Burliuk studied art in Russia, Munich, and Paris, and exhibited with the Blaue Reiter group in Munich and with Kazimir Malevich and other avant-garde Russian artists in Moscow before coming to the United States in 1923. By then he also practiced a faux Russian folk art style in which he depicted peasant and farm scenes. Hirshhorn’s 1945 collection inventory indicates that he owned over thirty watercolors and oil paintings by Burliuk at that time, along with two pencil portraits from the 1940s, one of Burliuk’s wife, Marussia, and the other of Arshile Gorky. These and other acquisitions support Barry Hyams’ account of weekend trips made by Hirshhorn in the 1940s, when he was dividing his time between New York and Toronto, where his mining business was. “[A]fter lunch at the Sherry-Netherlands” he would go, with other collec- tors, “to galleries, studios, and homes of artists such as Milton Avery, David Burliuk, Philip Evergood, Chaim Gross and the Soyers.” 11 FIGURE 1 Abraham Walkowitz, Isadora Duncan, n.d. Pencil, watercolor, and pen & ink on paper, 17 13/16 � 12 ¼ in. (45.3 � 35.1 cm). Smithsonian Institution, Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Gift of Joseph H. Hirshhorn, 1966. Photograph by Lee Stalsworth. 220 P. Rosenzweig Chaim Gross (1904-1991) who was born in Wołów, Poland, and came to the United States in 1921, is representedin the museum’s collection by many sketches and watercolors, as well as sculpture. Nicolai Cikovsky (1894-1984), another painter in the ACA circle and a friend of Burliuk’s, was born in Russia, had studied art there, and came to the United States in 1923. He is represented in the museum collection by several paintings and four works on paper. Max Weber, who was also associated with ACA gallery, was born in Białystok, Poland, and came to the United States in 1891. He is represented in the collection by many Cubist-inspired paintings, sculptures, and drawings (see Figure 2). Hirshhorn’s collection grew and his collecting interests broadened in the 1950s and 1960s, but he continued to be drawn to artists of Baltic and Slavic descent. His acquisitions included works on paper by Ben Shahn (1898-1969), a painter well-known for his portrayals of social injustice. Shahn, who was born in Kaunas, Lithuania, and came to the United States in 1906, is represented in the museum’s collection by a number of images in gouache on paper. There is also the interesting but little-known painter Eugenie Baizerman (1899-1949), who was born Eugenie Silverman in Warsaw, Poland and came to New York in 1913. Although Hirshhorn did not begin to purchase her work until the 1960s (the first record of a purchase by him is from the Oscar Krasner Gallery, in FIGURE 2 Max Weber, Kneeling Female Nude, n.d. Pencil on paper mounted to paper, 8 � 5 in. (20.3 � 12.7 cm). Smithsonian Institution, Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Gift of Joseph H. Hirshhorn, 1966. Photograph by Lee Stalsworth. Drawings and Prints by Slavic & Slavic-Born Artists 221 1961), she is represented in the museum by many works on paper, as well as by oil paintings, in an expressive figurative style. Works on paper by many other Slavic and Slavic-born artists collected by Hirshhorn contribute to the museum’s holdings. Some of the artists are more well-known than others. They represent many different historical periods and diverse movements and styles. The Russian avant-garde artist Wassily Kandinsky (1866–1944) is represented in the collection by a portfolio of woodcuts (see Figure 3), and two additional prints. Kandinsky was born in Moscow, lived in Germany, returned to Moscow in 1914, then left again for Germany, where he taught at the Bauhaus until it was closed by the Nazis in 1933, when he then went to France. The prints are fine examples of his work from the Bauhaus years. The artist, designer, photographer, and graphic artist El Lissitzky (1890–1941), an important figure in the development of an art of geometric abstraction was, like Kandinsky, born in Moscow, lived in Germany, and returned to Russia in 1914. Unlike Kandinsky, he remained in Russia. Two lithographs by him in the collection are of figures from a 1921 recreation of the Russian avant-garde opera, Victory Over the Sun. Naum Gabo (1890–1977) who, along with his older brother, Antoine Pevsner (1886–1962), was an abstract Constructivist sculptor whose work emphasized the exploration of space rather than mass. Born in Briansk, Russia, he studied in Munich, where FIGURE 3 Wassily Kandinsky, Small Worlds #6, 1922. Woodcut on paper, 14 � 10 in. (37.5 x 27.4 cm). Smithsonian Institution, Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Gift of the Joseph H. Hirshhorn Foundation, 1974. Photograph by Lee Stalsworth. 222 P. Rosenzweig he met Kandinsky. He returned to Russia in 1917, then also returned to Germany and taught at the Bauhaus until the Nazis came to power. In 1936 he relocated to England and then came to the United States in 1946. Both brothers are represented in the museum’s collection by sculpture, but only Gabo is also represented by a work on paper: one monoprint woodcut. Eugene Berman (1899–1972) and Pavel Tchelitchew (1898–1957), two Russian-born artists working in a figurative, romantic, Surrealist vein, are amply represented in the collection by works on paper. Berman was born in Saint Petersburg, left Russia duringthe Revolution, lived in Paris where he became part of a group of Neo-Romantic, semi-Surrealist painters that also included his countryman, Pavel Tchelitchew, and came to the United States in the late 1930s. Berman is represented in the museum’s collection by drawings from the 1940s and 1960s, some of which Hirshhorn purchased directly from him. Tchelitchew, who was born near Moscow in the village of Kalugo, also fled the Revolution and lived in Berlin and Paris before coming to New York in 1934. He is represented by several paintings and ten works on paper, some of which are related to his famous painting Hide and Seek, 1940-42 (The Museum of Modern Art, New York). Hirshhorn purchased work directly from Tchelitchew as well. Some of the works on paper by Slavic and Slavic-born artists in the museum’s collection that Hirshhorn acquired in the 1960s are directly related to his interest in modern sculpture. For example, Ossip Zadkine (1890–1967), who was born in Smolensk, Russia, but later lived in France, is represented in the collection by sculpture and several cubist-inspired works on paper from the 1920s. Theodore Roszak (1907–1981), was born in Poznań, Poland, came to the United States when he was young, lived in Chicago, and then came to New York in the 1930s. His early work was influence by Constructivism, but later became more expressionistic. He is represented in the collection by several sculptures from the 1940s, and several drawings related to them (one of which was purchased by the museum in 1977). Louise Nevelson (1900–1988) was born Louise Berliawsky, in Kiev, and was brought to the United States in 1905. She grew up in Maine but came to New York in 1932, where she studied sculpture with, among others, Theodore Roszak. She became well-known in the 1950s for her sculptural constructions of black wooden boxes. She is represented in the collection by many sculptures, as well as by several series of collages and prints from the early 1970s. Ilya Bolotowsky (1907–1981)wasborninPetrograd,RussiaandcametotheUnitedStatesin1923.A major practitioner of geometric abstraction in two and three dimensions, he is represented in the collection by drawings, paintings, and sculpture from the 1960s and 1970s. Some less well-known Baltic- and Slavic-born artists from whom Hirshhorn acquired works on paper that are now in the museum’s collection include: Arbit Blatas (1908-1999), a sculptor and painter who was born in Kaunas, and came to the United States in 1940, is represented by one drawing; Joseph Solman (1909–2008), who was born in Vitsebsk, Russia (now in Belarus) and came to the United States in 1912, is represented by several Drawings and Prints by Slavic & Slavic-Born Artists 223 works in tempera on paper; Raymond Breinen (1910-2000), also born in Vitsebsk, and fled with his family to the United States in 1922, is represented by a gouache from the 1930s in a Surrealist style; and Yosef Foshk. o (1891/ 2–1971), who was born in Odesa, Ukraine and was in the United States by the 1930s, is represented by two watercolors: East Side Market, and Elderly Gentleman, both ca. 1945, in a social realist manner. The abstract artist Adja Yunkers (1900–1983), who was born in Riga, is represented in the collection by two pastels from the 1950s, and there are fourteen works on paper from the 1960s by Victor Vasarely (1908–1997), born in Pécs, Hungary, who is well-known for his boldly colored, intricate, geometrically patterned work. The extent and range of works on paper by Baltic, Slavic and Slavic-born artists “hidden” within the Hirshhorn Museum’s collection is, thus, surprisingly large, and the collection offers many opportunities for research. Biographical information on some of the artists is incomplete or contradictory. No doubt more Slavic-born artists represented by works on paper can be found than are mentioned here. Many other artists of Slavic origin are represented in the museum’s collection, but not by works on paper, and so have been omitted from this essay. Altogether, the collection provides a rich resource for the study of Slavic artists working at different periods and under varied social conditions. Further information about artists and their works in the museum’s collection may be found by going to the museum’s Web site, http://hirshhorn.si.edu/ info/, and clicking on Search Art Collection. NOTES 1. Secondary sources in the museum’s curatorial files on Friedlander include: Kathe Beals, “Friedlander Art on View at SUNY,” Westchester Weekend, December 27, 1927, 3; and JoAnn Lewis, [review of an exhibition of Friedlander’s prints at the Bethesda Art Center], Washington Post, March 7, 1981 (the title and the page number of the review are missing). See also: Barry Hyams, Hirshhorn: Medici From Brooklyn (New York: Dutton, 1979). Primary sources referred to here, and throughout this essay, are from the museum’s files unless otherwise indicated. Much information in these sources is undocumented and some- times contradictory. For instance, JoAnn Lewis gives Friedlander’s arrival date as 1930, while Hyams (p. 104) gives it as 1932. Hyams (p. 30) records that Hirshhorn lived with his mother’s brother, Peretz Friedlander and his wife Zette in 1906 before joining his mother in New York, but it is not clear if these are Isac’s parents. 2. According to Hyams (p. 47), Hirshhorn made a trip to Latvia with his mother and his then wife in 1927. It is not clear if Hirshhorn made two trips or if there is some confusion about the dates of one of them. 3. Joseph H. Hirshhorn to Herman Baron, September 11, 1943, ACA Galleries records, 1917–1963, Archives of American Art, Roll D304, Frame 486. The gallery opened on West 8th Street, but had moved to 63 East 57th Street by the time this letter was written. 4. Herman Baron, [unpublished manuscript], ACA Galleries records, Frame 591. 5. Barry Hyams, Hirshhorn: Medici From Brooklyn: A Biography (New York: Dutton, 1979); Jay Jacobs, “Collector: Joseph H. Hirshhorn,” Art in America 57 (July-August 1969): 56–71; reprinted as “Quality as Well as Quantity: Joseph Hirshhorn,” in Jean Lipman, ed. The Collector in America (New York: Viking, 1971), 74–88; Abram Lerner, “Introduction,” Selected Paintings and Sculpture from the Hirshhorn Museum & Sculpture Garden (New York: Abrams, 1974), 11–24; Aline B. Saarinen, “Joseph Hirshhorn,” in The Proud Possessors: The Lives, Times and Tastes of some Adventurous American Art Collectors (New York: Random House, 1958), 269–286; and Joseph H. Hirshhorn, Interview by Paul Cummings, New York, December 16, 1976, Archives of American Art, transcript in Hirshhorn Museum files. 224 P. Rosenzweig 6. Herman Baron, “The ACA Gallery: Impressions and Recollections,” 31 American Contemporary Artists: [Exhibition Catalog] (New York: ACA Gallery, 1959); copy in ACA Galleries records, Archives of American Art, Frames 984, 986–7. 7. Raphael Soyer curatorial files, Hirshhorn Museum. 8. Raphael Soyer files, Hirshhorn Museum. 9. Soyer’s prints include many portraits of his family, friends and other artists, including Arshile Gorky. There are also oil portraits of fellow immigrant artists David Burliuk and Abraham Walkowitz. 10. Abraham Walkowitz curatorial files, Hirshhorn Museum. 11. Hyams, Medici From Brooklyn, 113. Drawings and Prints by Slavic & Slavic-Born Artists 225 
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work_esn2t2exvzcyjjc3wwil4pmmqq	----	Introduction to the special issue of the journal of bioenergetics and biomembranes: neural plasticity in developing and adult olfactory pathways EDITORIAL David M. Coppola1 Published online: 8 February 2019 # Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2019 Pablo Picasso once quipped Byouth has no age.^ And, like the abstract artist himself, who lived young into his 90s, our ol- factory system seems to have evolved a fountain of youth. Both the primary receptor population and interneuron popu- lation in the first odor processing center within the brain, the olfactory bulb, incorporate newborn neurons throughout life. This constant renewal—for example, the bulbs receive some- thing on the order of 1000 newborn neurons daily—seems to underwrite an unprecedented level of plasticity. The fulsome and growing interest in olfactory plasticity, during develop- ment and throughout life, offers the promise of insights into basic questions such as how neural networks are formed and maintained, and clinical solutions such as treatments or even cures for neural injury and disease. In this special issue of JOBB we have invited contributions that reflect the breadth of interest in this area both in terms of animal models and modes of analysis. In the first contribution, Savya and Cheetum combined the use of the tetracycline transactivator system, which allows time-window specific ex- pression of immature and mature reporter genes, with pulse- labelling of terminally-dividing cells to analyze olfactory sen- sory neuron (OSNs) maturation and survival in the mouse. Surprisingly, they found that the vast majority of OSNs born in early adulthood do not survive, that maturity of OSNs does not promote survival and that neurogenesis in the olfactory epithelium mysteriously continues even in the face of these bleak chances for newborn cells to become integrated into the olfactory network. Moving to the olfactory bulb, Fardone and colleagues, build on their previous discovery that diet-induced obesity (DIO) causes declines in olfactory structures and their functions. Here they show, using M72-IRES-tau-GFP mice and c-Fos labelling of juxtaglomerular interneurons, an asym- metrical decrease in responsiveness in the ‘mirror image’ glo- merular map of DIO mice compared to mice on normal diets, suggesting a fascinating but complex relationship between diet and olfactory neural function. Of course, plasticity and learning are inextricably linked. In the next contribution, Ross and Fletcher review the effects of aversive learning-induced plasticity across olfactory pathways seeking conserved and disparate mechanisms in the develop- ing and adult system that could inform future studies. Ultimately, genes and learning have their effects on neural circuits through structural modeling of neurons and their com- ponents. Slankster and colleagues review recent evidence across the olfactory systems of several taxa that intrinsic neu- ronal diversity is far more prevalent and profound a basis of olfactory neural circuit function than previously appreciated. Unfortunately, for all of us hoping for simplicity at the cellular level (at least), no two neurons, even in the same class, may be alike! Trophic and activity-dependent interactions between affer- ent and target neurons are paramount in the formation, main- tenance and plasticity of neural pathways, not least in the olfactory system. Exploiting the advantages of zebrafish as a model system, Pozzuto and colleagues show, using retrograde tract-tracing in ex vivo brain cultures, that deafferentation through OSN ablation causes major restructuring of the den- dritic trees of mitral cells, the primary output neurons of the olfactory bulb. Thus, the zebrafish mitral cell system offers us an excellent model for further study of the cellular and molec- ular basis of afferent-target interactions. Yes, but what about humans? Translational relevance is the touchstone of virtually every granting agency (not to mention every medical school dean)! In the contribution by Huart and colleagues the issue of plasticity in the human olfactory bulb is reviewed with a special emphasis on magnetic resonance * David M. Coppola dcoppola@rmc.edu 1 Department of Biology, Randolph-Macon College, Ashland, VA 23005, USA Journal of Bioenergetics and Biomembranes (2019) 51:1–2 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10863-019-09787-7 Introduction to the special issue of the journal of bioenergetics and biomembranes: neural plasticity in developing and adult olfactory pathways http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1007/s10863-019-09787-7&domain=pdf mailto:dcoppola@rmc.edu imaging (MRI) studies. While, on the one hand, there exists controversy about the extent to which adult humans ‘enjoy’ the same influx of new-born neurons into the olfactory bulbs that rodents have, on the other hand, it is becoming clear that enrichment, deprivation and disease all have predictable ef- fects on the size of olfactory bulbs. And, in this instance, size matters as these results accord with olfactory abilities mea- sured behaviorally. Finally, the concept of ‘critical periods,’ first articulat- ed by Konrad Lorenz in his studies of imprinting, are reviewed with respect to the olfactory system by my colleague Len White and I. Our conclusion is that these sensitive windows for sensory experience may not exist in the olfactory system owing to the neotenic vestige of life-long neurogenesis, though our rationale diverges from the standard explanation for this absence. It is my hope that this multifarious collection of reviews and original contributions will give the reader a taste, nay sniff, of the varied models and methods that are advanc- ing our understanding of the development and adult maintenance of the one sensory system—olfaction—that seems to remain forever young. Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdic- tional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. 2 J Bioenerg Biomembr (2019) 51:1–2 Introduction... 
work_ex4ptkv24na4jcda55c37horue	----	Untitled Presidential Address to the American Society for Clinical Investigation, Washington, DC, 2 May 1993 Nurturing Creativity: Young Turks and Young Minds Bruce F. Scharschmidt Division ofGastroenterology and Department ofMedicine, University ofCalifornia, San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94143 It has been my good fortune for the past six years to have participated in the governance ofthis Society. During this time, I have been enormously impressed with the energy and com- mitment of my fellow councilors, as well as with the immense talent of the membership, which includes many of this coun- try's most creative biomedical investigators. Today, I would like to offer a personal perspective on creativity, that vital and elusive entity that editors seek in papers they publish and that is a requisite for membership in our Society. I will also bring you up to date on a program that the ASCI recently initiated to foster excellence and creativity in science in its early stages. Now, what is this imaginative skill and innovative spirit that we call creativity? We would all agree that creativity is at the core of scientific research, and that it represents something we would like to encourage in fledgling scientists. But creativity may mean different things to different people. Can we always recognize it when we see it, or agree upon it? Perhaps not as often as we think. Take this sculpture, for example (Fig. 1). Here we see two bicycle parts realigned to resemble the head of a bull. Is it a genuinely creative work, or is it just plain bull? That is, just a cheap trick. Now, you may argue that this is not a fair example. We recognize that artistic tastes differ, but most of us probably feel we can recognize creativity or originality in science when we see it. After all, our whole peer review system is based on this premise. In fact, we do not agree on creativity in science as often as we might think. Michael Held, Managing Editor of the JCI, and I recently examined 1,000 consecutive manuscripts sub- mitted to the JCI (Scharschmidt, B. F., A. DeAmicis, P. Bac- chetti, and M. J. Held, manuscript submitted for publication). Our aim was to analyze the agreement between reviewers re- garding originality of the submitted work. It was interesting to learn that there was disagreement between reviewers regarding originality or creativity in about two-thirds of the cases. Thus, innovative scientific work is not always so easy to recognize, at least not at first sight. With passage of time, of course, truly innovative and im- portant work with lasting impact is easier to recognize. Whether you like or do not like this sculpture (Fig. 1), you probably would agree that the artist, Pablo Picasso, was a truly creative man. His work triggered a new artistic movement. The perspective of time also helps us recognize innovations in science. That is probably why the Nobel committee often waits years before awarding its coveted prizes. Analyzing creativity in this fashion is fun. But it is not very helpful in understanding how to foster creativity or innovation Receivedfor publication 21 April 1993. in its early stages. In fact, trying to understand the creative process by examining the finished product is a little like trying to decipher the recipe for gunpowder by looking at bull's-eyes on a shooting range. So let us try a different approach. What do individuals re- gard as important who themselves have made important, inno- vative, and lasting scientific contributions? Current Contents is a weekly literature review in which authors ofhighly cited pub- lications (so-called Citation Classics) write essays on the hu- man side of their research. I recently reviewed all the essays published during 1991 in the biological or life sciences (Table I) ( 1 ). My aim was to see if there were recurrent themes or factors that these highly cited scientists consistently identified as crucial to their creative work, and indeed there were. More than halfthe essayists iden- tified early exposure to science as a key element. Most also emphasized the importance of intellectual curiosity stimulated by a mentor, a colleague, or a scientific presentation or publica- tion. One-third felt their work would not have materialized without exposure to a new scientific environment, for example, a sabbatical leave. Finally, 4% felt that good luck was the key element. These 4% clearly deserve commendation for humility and honesty. Thus, for scientists involved in biomedical research, early priming events that piqued their curiosity and interest were the factors most critical to their work. How about highly cited in- vestigators in the physical sciences? These scientists do not deal with living matter, as do life scientists such as ourselves. Rather, they study tectonic plates or invisible and mysterious subatomic particles such as quarks, leptons, and arions. Does this creative process march to a different drummer? The an- swer is no. In an analysis ofall essays published during 1991 in the physical sciences (Table I), precisely the same generic ele- ments emerged as crucial (2). These essays suggest that creative work is a dynamic pro- cess, which is conceived in an early encounter, is followed by a long gestation period, and is born in a stimulating and nurtur- ing environment. As physician scientists concerned with hu- man health and disease, we are in a particularly favorable posi- tion to foster the first step in this process, the scientific seduc- tion. I will return to this point later. I have so far concentrated on creativity in academia. Cre- ativity in industry is ofequal importance, because it will deter- mine America's ability to be a leader in an increasingly compet- itive world market. Does creativity in industry resemble creativ- ity in biomedical research? The answer is clearly yes, and I would like to document this with specific examples that have led to dramatic breakthroughs and conform to three familiar patterns: (a) serendipity, which favors the prepared mind; (b) individual effort and initiative, the industrial equivalent of in- vestigator-initiated research, which we know as the ROI; and (c) the team approach, analogous to the program project. We have all been raised on stories such as Dr. Alexander Presidential Address 1597 J. Clin. Invest. © The American Society for Clinical Investigation, Inc. 0021-9738/93/10/1597/05 $2.00 Volume 92, October 1993, 1597-1601 I.1.1 Figure 1. "A Bull's Head" by Pablo Picasso (1943). Fleming's discovery ofpenicillin. There are equally captivating examples in industry (3). Indeed, a remarkable event that oc- curred forty years ago led to the development of a hugely suc- cessful line of products for the 3M Company. Patsy Sherman was working in 3M's research lab when she spilled a fluoroche- mical she was handling on her right foot. Her foot was clad in a new tennis shoe, and the substance would not wash off. Weeks later, when the shoes began to show the grime and dinginess of wear, Patsy noticed that the area of the spill was still white and bright. Three years later, 3M announced the arrival of Scotch- Table I. Factors Contributing to Highly Cited Research Life Physical sciences sciences Early exposure to science 56 76 Stimulation by a mentor or colleague 68 67 Stimulation by a research presentation or publication 26 33 Change in environment or sabbatical 32 25 Good luck 4 4 Based upon Citation Classics essays published in Current Contents during 1991. guard® fabric protector, a close chemical cousin ofthe material on Patsy Sherman's shoe. This led to a whole new line offluoro- chemical products that generated huge revenues. Was this pure serendipity? Not really. The 3M Company had already invested nearly a decade in fluorocarbon research, and the management and employees had already been alerted to its potential utility as fabric protectants. Thus, the signifi- cance of the spill was recognized only because of early condi- tioning. Few of us have had the good fortune ofPatsy Sherman and 3M, but more ofus can relate to the experience ofFrederick W. Smith, who heads the Federal Express Corporation (3). Mr. Smith undertook the industrial equivalent ofan RO 1 proposal, which ultimately led to the overnight delivery business. Mr. Smith was an undergraduate at Yale University when he conceived the idea of overnight delivery. As was true for highly cited scientists, Mr. Smith's idea was stimulated by his family's involvement with transportation and his early experi- ence with aviation. Mr. Smith was also smart enough to recog- nize that delivery by conventional mail was getting slower at a time when air travel was getting faster and industry was becom- ing decentralized. Then came his first academic review. He submitted his idea for the overnight delivery business as an economics term paper at Yale. The proposal was severely criticized and rejected as impractical. Mr. Smith decided to resubmit, and generated more preliminary data. This included a market survey and doc- 1598 B. F. Scharschmidt umentation of the fact that the Memphis airport was largely unused between midnight and 6:00 a.m. Mr. Smith, now sev- eral years out of college, resubmitted his idea to the govern- ment, specifically the Federal Reserve system, whose funding he hoped to attract. His proposal again was rejected. Mr. Smith then raised the necessary capital from industry, and, almost exactly 20 years ago, Federal Express was born. It subsequently grew into a multibillion dollar company that spawned a whole new industry and helped biomedical scientists meet grant deadlines. Many here have participated in program projects. These are research programs involving multiple investigators with com- plementary backgrounds pursuing well-defined objectives. Equivalent efforts in industry have lead to major break- throughs. The laser, the transistor, and the VCR are three exam- ples (3). The development of the laser has many familiar themes. The work was carried out over several years by Dr. Theodore Maiman and his colleagues. It was supported by funding from Howard Hughes, in this case the Aircraft Research Laborato- ries. Intellectual ownership of the idea was hotly disputed. In fact, a predecessor of Maiman's was awarded a Nobel Prize for a theory of the laser that later was found to be flawed. Dr. Maimon's article describing the laser was rejected by Physical Review Letters before being accepted by Nature. Finally, the discovery ofthe laser illustrates the points made by the authors of Citation Classics. Dr. Maimon's work was inspired by his exposure as a boy to science and electronics, which challenged him long before the laser was discovered. An experiment conducted on Christmas Eve, 1947, re- sulted in the birth of the transistor. It was the culmination of nearly a decade ofwork by a research team at Bell Laboratories. The research team was headed by Drs. Shockley, Bardeen, and Brattain, who later shared the Nobel Prize. Given the foreign brand names on most electronics we buy, it is perhaps surprising that the VCR was actually an American invention. It was developed roughly 37 years ago by a team of investigators from the Ampex Corporation in Redwood City, California. The stories of the laser, the transistor, and the VCR all exhibit the same themes that I discussed earlier. In particular, all these inventors were stimulated by early exposure to science. This same theme is common to eminent scientists and Nobel Laureates in all fields. ScotchguardO, Federal Express, the laser, the transistor, and the VCR are the present rewards ofpast work by these creative individuals. But where will the scientists of tomorrow come from? In 1991, Dr. William Koopman's presidential address focused on the apparent erosion of interest in the sciences that occurs in American students during the early years of high school (4). This reflects problems with both the quantity and quality of their exposure to science. The average elementary student is exposed to science for only 30 minutes per day and only 15-20% ofhigh school students take physics, biology, and chemistry. Qualitative shortcomings are probably even more important. It is often a practical necessity that science teachers be generalists. Many have little or no background in the sciences, and few have had hands-on experience in research. Teaching is predominantly textbook based, fact oriented, and often resembles the teaching ofgeography or history more than of science. The results have been devastating. In a recent survey, less than 20% ofU.S. high school sophomores expressed interest in scientific careers, and U.S. students finished last among 13 countries in a multinational science examination (4, 5). So what can we do to help? The answer is a great deal, both as an organization and as individuals. In 1991, the ASCI initi- ated a High School Science Teacher Summer Scholarship Pro- gram. In brief, high school science teachers, on a competitive basis, are awarded a scholarship of $6,000 to work for a sum- mer in the lab ofan ASCI member. Enrichment funds are also available for equipment or student mini-scholarships to en- hance the effect of the program. The selection process empha- sizes: (a) identification of highly motivated and energetic "leader" teachers who will initiate changes at the local level, (b) firm commitment of the school administration to support the teacher in implementing a more exciting, experimentally ori- ented curriculum, and (c) plans for ongoing exchange between the teacher's high school and the institution of the ASCI spon- sor. Finally, standardized follow-up information is obtained from participating teachers and schools to allow us to formally and objectively assess the effectiveness of the program. Is it stimulating a hands-on experimental approach to high school science education? Is it having a positive impact on teachers and perhaps on the career choices of students? We need an- swers to such questions before making a long-term commit- ment to the program. Such data also are essential if we are to attract resources beyond those of the ASCI. In the first three years the program has been active, nearly 100 applications were received from all over the U.S., and 30 scholarships have been awarded. Half of these scholarships went to women teachers, and the high schools represent a geo- graphic and cultural cross section of the U.S. (Fig. 2). The ASCI members who have acted as sponsors for teacher recipients of an ASCI High School Science Award are listed in Table II. These sponsors have committed both time and re- sources to the program, and their effort has had a positive im- pact. Feedback from participating teachers has been very enthu- siastic, and the program has established new links between schools and the institutions at which these ASCI sponsors work. The ASCI Council was encouraged by the preliminary re- sults ofthis program, and has made a commitment to continue it and to formally evaluate its efficacy. In the past year, I also have begun to establish for the program a stronger financial foundation (Table III). Glaxo Inc., The Merck Institute for Science Education, Monsanto Company, and The Upjohn Company have each contributed generously in support of the program in addition to the funds made available by the ASCI. Several other firms also have expressed strong interest and are currently reviewing proposals for support. The National Science Foundation also has expressed strong interest in the program. We have submitted an application on behalf of the ASCI for National Science Foundation support, which is currently under review. Few among us would question the critical importance of improving science education for precollege students. But why should a small academic society like ours with limited re- sources tackle a problem so big? Consider the following: What is our Society all about? Our bylaws state that: "This Society is organized . . . exclusively for educational and scien- tific purposes . . ." (including) ". . . the encouragement of scientific investigation . . ; and the diffusion of. scien- tific spirit.. . ." The ASCI has traditionally pursued these ob- jectives by helping organize these scientific meetings, by publi- cation ofa scientific journal, and by the recognition and encour- Presidential Address 1599 Figure 2. Location of high school science teacher applicants to the ASCI Summer Scholarship Pro- gram during its first 3 years. agement of outstanding young investigators through their election to membership in the Society. These activities help foster excellence in clinical research, and the revolutionary tools now available make this a period of exceptional promise and excitement. But these traditional activities of the ASCI reach a postgraduate audience. We all know that the scientific enterprise in America is currently undergoing a period ofstrug- gle and reappraisal (4-6). If we are serious about this goal of encouraging scientific investigation and scientific spirit, now seems the time for the ASCI to broaden its agenda. What are the benefits to the ASCI? First, the program al- ready has brought, and will continue to bring, enhanced visibil- ity to our Society and to the academic institutions at which our members work, both locally and nationally, by word-of-mouth and by newspaper articles announcing the recipients of ASCI scholarships. Second, increased public appreciation ofand sup- port for science by voting citizens must start at the community level. The future ofour enterprise depends on public support of science and attracting students into scientific careers. Third, the program puts our Society in a leadership role consistent with recent initiatives by the National Academy ofSciences, by industry, and by government. Finally, the ASCI has tradition- ally been a largely honorary and self-ratifying academic society, which has waited for the world to come to it. The Science Teacher Program represents just the sort of proactive, can-do venture that will build our networking muscle and better posi- tion us to take on other projects consistent with our aim of supporting science and clinical investigation. When speaking to issues that concern us, we will have a louder voice. The ASCI high school science program can, of course, never address more than a tiny fraction of the educational need. As individuals, we have the potential to reach tens of thousands of students per year, as well as their teachers and their parents. As physician scientists, we have something spe- cial to offer. Children, and adults, are naturally more curious about their bodies and their health than about abstract con- cepts such as nucleic acids or hormone receptors. Take a half day off from work and visit a science class or bring a science class to your institution. There is something very satisfying about explaining to a fifth- or sixth-grader what you do and why you think it is important, and you may be surprised at the response you receive. My clinical activities at UCSF include attending on the liver transplant service, and my research focuses on liver cell biology, including expression cloning in frog oocytes. Last spring, we arranged a half-day visit to University of California, San Francisco, for this sixth-grade science class from a local girls' school. The following are ex- cerpts from the letters they wrote back: Table II. High School Science Awards ASCI sponsors 1991 1992 1993 Quais AI-Awqati Daniel T. Baran Grover Bagby Jerrold J. Ellner Thomas D. DuBose Melvin Berger Daryl K. Granner Mark H. Ginsburg Robert Clark Peter Kwiterovich, Jr. Barton F. Haynes Herbert Diamond Louis G. Lange Harry R. Jacobson Mae Hultin P. Reed Larsen Theodore G. Krontiris David Johns John P. Leddy Nicholas F. La Russo Robert Karr Alan R. Leff Martin I. Surks Jiri Mestecky Melvin Lopata Massimo Trucco Samuel Silverstein David T. Woodley Frank C. Yin Frank C. Yin Table III. ASCI High School Science Teacher Summer Scholarship Program Sources of financial support * ASCI * Industry Glaxo, Inc. Monsanto Company The Merck Institute for Science Education The Upjohn Company * National Science Foundation* * Application pending. 1600 B. F. Scharschmidt Table IV. JCI Editors (1987-1992) Associate Consulting William T. Clusin Jan L. Breslow Martin G. Cogan Dennis A. Carson Ira M. Goldstein Jeffrey S. Flier Ferid Murad John D. Minna Basil Rapoport Benjamin D. Schwartz Gary K. Schoolnik Michael J. Welsh Mark A. Shuman Gordon J. Strewler Managing and consulting David G. Warnock Lewis T. Williams Michael J. Held Janice Woo ". . . the liver seems like such a great and interesting organ. You must have a lot of fun every day.. . . Now I am posi- tive I want to be a research doctor."-Brigette A. ". . . Personally, all the blood and guts didn't bother me one bit. Actually, it was neat! This was the best field trip I ever had. . ."-Paloma P. ". . . thank you so much for showing us those . . . amaz- ing frog eggs... . I would like to do some research on the liver. . . "-Regina M. This kind of interaction with local schools can have a real impact, not only on young students, but also on the public's perception ofand support for science, and for your own institu- tion. Young students and adults are very interested in what we do, but we have to tell them. Besides, you will have a lot offun doing it. In closing, let me say it has been a great honor and privilege, as well as fun and rewarding, to have participated since 1987 on the ASCI Council, to have served as Editor ofthe JCI, and, this past year, to have served as your President. I would like to thank several individuals whose effort and commitment de- serve special recognition. Dr. Joel Moss has chaired the ASCI Science Education Committee since its inception and has brought to the program both structure and organization. Dr. William Koopman was ASCI President when the high school science program was initi- ated in 1991. This past year, he has worked with Joel Moss and me to prepare our Society's proposal to the National Science Foundation for financial support and to establish a mechanism for assessing its impact. I am personally indebted to the 15 Society members who served with me as associate and consulting editors ofthe JCI, as well as to our managing and consulting editors (Table IV). They contributed enormously to the strong scientific growth of the Journal between 1987 and 1992, as well as to its remarkable financial success. It was this success that enabled our society to initiate the high school science education program, and it may provide the financial clout for additional similar initiatives. Finally, I am grateful to my wife, Dr. Peggy Crawford, and to our two children, Tiffany and Brent. Their support and un- derstanding have made the efforts of the past 6 years possible. They did a lot of growing up during those years, as did I. Acknowledgements I wish to thank my colleagues at the University ofCalifornia, San Fran- cisco, Drs. Steven Lidofsky, Rudi Schmid, and Marvin Sleisenger, for their help and counsel in preparing this address, as well as Lee Cantrell and Sadie McFarlane for their help in preparation of the manuscript and slides. References 1. Citation Classics. 1991. Current Contents: Life Sciences. Volume 34. 2. Citation Classics. 1991. Current Contents: Physical, Chemical & Earth Sciences. Volume 31. 3. Diebold, J. 1991. The Innovators: The Discoveries, Inventions, and Break- throughs of Our Time. Truman Tally Books/Plume, New York. 4. Koopman, W. J. 1991. In search of Mr. Wizard. J. Clin. Invest. 88:1063- 1066. 5. Barnes, D. F. 1990. Science education: finery and fads or fundamental change? J. Nail. Inst. Health Res. 2:25-26. 6. Lederman, L. M. 1991. Science: the end of the frontier? Science (Wash. DC). 251 (Suppl.): I-19. Presidential Address 1601 
work_eyurqkl6ozecxa6npxelcricxy	----	www.e-neurospine.org S13 Why Should We Perform Endoscopic Spine Surgery? The field of minimally invasive spine surgery (MISS) has seen remarkable growth over the last 30 years and is a main field of spinal surgery that will continue to advance. Spinal surgery has been performed for a long time, but many problems have risen due to surgical procedures, complications, and postoperative sequalae. However, the introduction of MISS overcomes this problem in many aspects and opens a new field in spinal surgery. With the recent increase in human life expectancy, the number of elderly patients increases along with those that need surgery and the surgical morbidity that follows. The main goal of MISS is to reduce approach-related tissue injury and complications, and thereby reduce postoperative pain, blood loss, and recovery time while still achieving the same clinical re- sults. Endoscopic spine surgery was introduced by Parviz Kambin and brought to much devel- opment by Anthony Yeung. Kambin and Sampson1 reported the effective removal of herni- ated disc material with suction and devices through a novel extraforaminal endoscopic vi- sualization technique. Kambin also radiographically described a safe triangular working zone providing access to the posterolateral annulus. Kambin’s accomplishments were fol- lowed by Yeung with the development of the YESS (Yeung Endoscopic Spine System) en- doscope and his “inside-out” technique.2 As more surgeons became interested in and began to perform minimally invasive endoscopic surgery through the 1990s, many advancements were made in approaches and devices, expanding surgical indications. With the introduc- tion of the interlaminar approach, endoscopic surgery has been able to provide many spinal surgical fields. Further developments in the resolution of endoscopic devices have also greatly improved the surgical view of the operation, and the development of various surgical in- struments has made it possible to perform a variety of surgeries, even if previously contra- indicated. In particular, the introduction of surgical procedures using a biportal system may gradually replace classic open surgery. Indications for biportal endoscopic surgery have rea- ched the point in which they are virtually identical to open surgery, including degenerative lumbar stenosis and low-grade spondylolisthesis.3,4 Of course, the answer to why endoscopic surgery is necessary has already been answered; it provides the patient with the advantages of traditional open surgery while reducing dam- age to surrounding tissues. Less tissue damage means the faster return to daily activities, which is obviously due to enhanced pain relief after surgery. In addition, hemostasis by continuous irrigation and hydrostatic pressure clears the field of vision during the opera- tion. Sufficient irrigation throughout the procedure may also reduce postoperative infec- tion by washing away microorganisms. Heo and Park4 have reported significantly lower perioperative visual analogue scale scores and lower incidences of postoperative complica- tions after endoscopic transforaminal lumbar interbody fusion, while achieving similar rates of spinal fusion. Reduced recovery time and lower rates of complication equates to reduced Neurospine 2020;17(Suppl 1):S13-14. https://doi.org/10.14245/ns.2040374.187 Neurospine eISSN 2586-6591 pISSN 2586-6583 This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (https://creativecom- mons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Copyright © 2020 by the Korean Spinal Neurosurgery Society Editorial Corresponding Author Sang Gu Lee* https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9943-4906 Department of Neurosurgery, Gil Medical Center, Gachon University College of Medicine, 21 Namdong-daero 774beon- gil, Namdong-gu, Incheon 21565, Korea E-mail: samddal@gachon.ac.kr * President of Korean Minimally Invasive Spine Surgery Society (KOMISS) See the article “Technique of Biportal Endoscopic Transforaminal Lumbar Interbody Fusion” via https://doi. org/10.14245/ns.2040178.089. Why Should We Perform Endoscopic Spine Surgery?Lee SG Neurospine 2020;17(Suppl 1):S13-14.S14 www.e-neurospine.org hospital stay and faster return to work or daily life; in other words, endoscopic surgery may be more cost-effective than conven- tional open surgery.5 But endoscopic spine surgery is not a common procedure that any spine surgeon can easily perform. Endoscopic spine surgery is known for its steep learning curve and requires a comprehensive understanding of the biomechanics and anato- my of the spine. In addition, in order to increase the accuracy of the surgical techniques and solve the biomechanics involved, many modern engineering equipment must be further devel- oped in the field of surgery. Therefore, a successful endoscopic procedure requires a lot of practice and the development of var- ious equipment. The current evolution of biportal endoscopic surgery is promising for up and coming spine surgeons, in that this procedure has a shorter learning curve period with lower complication rates during the early learning period.6 Korean Minimally Invasive Spine Surgery Society (KOMISS) holds ca- daver and dummy workshops to learn procedures and techniques more than 2 times a year, and has regular KOMISS congress meetings to discuss new endoscopic surgical techniques. In the not too distant future, artificial intelligence-based medi- cine, high-resolution 3-dimensional endoscopy systems, safe bone resection equipment utilizing ultrasonic cutting, accurate locating and positioning using image-guided navigation will surely be developed. Instrument fixation using robotic systems and advanced graft material will ensure biological bone fusion. With such technology at our grasp, endoscopic spine surgery will truly flourish in the MISS field. REFERENCES 1. Kambin P, Sampson S. Posterolateral percutaneous suction- excision of herniated lumbar intervertebral discs. Report of interim results. Clin Orthop Relat Res 1986:(207):37-43. 2. Yeung AT. Minimally invasive disc surgery with the Yeung Endoscopic Spine System (YESS). Surg Technol Int 1999;8: 267-77. 3. Eum JH, Heo DH, Son SK, et al. Percutaneous biportal en- doscopic decompression for lumbar spinal stenosis: a tech- nical note and preliminary clinical results. J Neurosurg Spine 2016;24:602-7. 4. Heo DH, Park CK. Clinical results of percutaneous biportal endoscopic lumbar interbody fusion with application of en- hanced recovery after surgery. Neurosurg Focus 2019;46:E18. 5. Choi KC, Shim HK, Kim JS, et al. Cost-effectiveness of mi- crodiscectomy versus endoscopic discectomy for lumbar disc herniation. Spine J 2019;9:1162-9. 6. Choi DJ, Choi CM, Jung JT, et al., Learning curve associated with complications in biportal endoscopic spinal surgery: challenges and strategies. Asian Spine J 2016;10:624-9. Title: The Dream Artist: Pablo Picasso Year: 1932 Le Rêve (The Dream in French) is a 1932 oil painting (130 × 97 cm) by Pablo Picasso, then 50 years old, portraying his 24-year-old mistress Marie-Thérèse Walter. It is said to have been painted in one afternoon, on January 24, 1932. It belongs to Picasso’s period of distorted depictions, with its oversimplified outlines and contrasted colors resembling early Fauvism. The erotic content of the painting has been noted repeatedly, with critics pointing out that Picasso painted an erect penis, presumably symbolizing his own, in the upturned face of his model. More information: https://www.pablopicasso.org/figures-at-the-seaside.jsp © 2020 Succession Pablo Picasso - SACK (Korea) 
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work_f2vnr4iplva3zihzjrrgavei4a	----	반건호·배재호·문수진·민정원 - 61 - 시 뇌염에서 살아남은 아이들 중 산만하고 행동이 과다해지 고 충동 조절 및 인지기능 장애가 발생한다는 보고가 1920 년대 초에 다수 발표되었다. 24) 그들은 우울증을 포함한 기분 증상, 틱 증상, 인지 기능 손상으로 인한 학습 장애 등의 다 양한 증상뿐 아니라 반 사회적, 파괴적 행동을 포함한 행동 문제, 주의력 결핍 문제 등의 ADHD에 해당하는 증상들을 보였다. 이는 처음으로 ADHD 유사 증상의 원인으로 신체 적 결함을 고려하게 된 사건이며, 단순한 도덕적 조절 능력 결핍이 아닌 ‘뇌염 후 행동장애(postencephalitic behav- ior disorder)’라는 진단을 내리게 되었다. 25) 그로 인해 출생 당시 선천적 결손이나 주산기 무산소증, 주산기 질병 등이 뇌 의 이른 기질적 손상을 가져오고, 그로 인해 행동상의 문제 나 학습 장애, 주의력 결핍 등을 유발할 수 있다는 인식이 확 산되었다. 26) 이러한 환자들을 단일 질환으로 분류하고 이에 대해 수많은 치료법이 개발되었으나 효과가 없었다. ADHD가 이러한 뇌염 등의 질병에 의해 유발되는 것은 아니지만, 단 순한 도덕적 결함으로 인한 개인적 문제 차원에서 뇌의 기 질적 변화로 인한 질병으로 인식되기 시작했다는 점에서 의 의를 찾을 수 있다. 9. Kramer-Pollnow 증후군 Franz Kramer(1878~1967)와 Hans Pollnow(1902~ 1943)는 1932년 “On a hyperkinetic disease of infan- cy”에서 행동문제가 있는 17명의 아이들(세 명의 소녀 포함) 에 대해 보고하였다. 27) “아이들한테 나타나는 가장 분명한 증상은 엄청난 운동 량이다. 그것도 무척 급하게 행동한다. 잠시도 차분하게 기다 리지 못하고 방 안을 이리저리 뛰어 다닌다. 특히 높은 가구 에 기어올라가는 것을 선호한다. 누군가 말리려 하면 성을 낸 다.” 17) 이러한 내용은 오늘날 ADHD의 주 증상 중 하나인 과잉행동 특성과 상당부분 일치한다. “특별한 목표 없이 하던 행동들은 다른 자극을 받으면 쉽 게 다른 행동으로 넘어가는 산만함을 보인다. 아이들은 과제 를 완수하기가 어렵고 간단한 질문에도 대답을 못한다. 어려 운 과제에 집중하는 것은 대단히 곤란하다. 그러다 보면 학 습에 문제가 생긴다. 지적 능력 평가도 곤란하다.” 17) 이 부분 은 역시 ADHD의 주 증상 중 하나인 주의력결핍에 해당한다. “지속력이 떨어지고 특정 과제에 집중하기도 어렵다. 기분 도 불안정하다. 쉽게 흥분하고 자주 분노를 터뜨리며 별 것 아닌 일에 눈물을 터뜨리거나 공격적으로 변한다.” 17) 이는 ADHD의 충동성향과 부합되는 내용이다. 하지만 “일초도 가만히 있지 못하는 아이의 행동 문제에도 불구하고 자신 들이 좋아하는 과제에는 오랜 시간 집중할 수 있다. 나이가 들면서 과활동성이 소실되거나 감소한다.”는 기술은 충동성 향에 대한 의심을 불러오기도 하는 대목이다. DSM-IV 6) 의 진단 기준 중 “사회적, 학업적, 또는 직업적 기능의 현저한 손상” 대목에 해당하는 내용도 기술한 바 있 다. “과잉행동 아이들은 종종 불복종하는 행동특성이 있으 며, 학습 문제도 심각하다. 학교에서는 학급 수업 진행을 방 해하고 혼란에 빠뜨리며 친구들과 어울려 노는 것이 어렵고 친구 사이에서 왕따 되기 일쑤다.” 17) DSM-IV 6) 의 연령 기준에 대한 부분도 이미 Kramer- Pollnow 증후군 기록에 언급하고 있다. 이들이 보고한 사례 들은 3내지 4세에 과잉행동이 시작되고 6세 경에 절정을 이 룬다고 하였다. 상당수 아이들은 열성 질병이나 간질성 경련 후에 행동 문제가 나타난다는 내용도 기술하였다. 17) Kramer와 Pollnow는 이러한 아이들의 장애를 “아동기 의 과활동성(hyperkinesis of childhood)”라고 지칭하였 다. 이처럼 공격적 행동, 충동성, 혼란스러울 정도의 안절부 절못함, 학습장애 등을 보였으나, 당시 유행하던 뇌염 후 행 동장애와는 차이가 있었다. 뇌염 후 행동장애에서 보이는 수 면장애, 야간에 나타나는 초조감, 이상한 몸동작 등이 없었 고 주간에만 증상을 보였다. 17) 원인적 접근에서 뇌의 장애를 더 고려했다는 점에서 역사 적 가치가 있으나 연구를 진행하던 중, 그들이 모두 유태인이 었기 때문에 나치의 강제 이주가 이루어지면서 후속 연구자 료를 찾기는 어렵다. 27) 하지만 이는 WHO의 질병분류에 영 향을 미쳤고, ‘hyperkinetic’이라는 용어는 ICD-8의 ‘hy- perkinetic disorder’로 이어졌다. 28) 10. ADHD의 치료에 대한 최초 기록, Charles Bradley ADHD 치료와 연구에 가장 획기적인 내용은 1937년 Char- les Bradley라는 정신과의사가 쓴 ‘The behavior of child- ren receiving benzedrine’이라는 논문에서 찾을 수 있 다. 29) 그는 미국 로드아일랜드 주에 위치한 Emma Pend- leton Bradley Home(현재는 Bradley Hospital)의 의료 부장으로 재직하면서 기뇌조영술(pneumoencephalogra- phy) 후에 두통이 있는 아이들을 치료하기 위해 벤제드린(ben- zedrine, 주 : benzedrine은 amphetamine 제제로 1928년 부터 기관지확장제로 시판되었고 흡입형 제제였으며, 현재는 propylhexedrine으로 대체되어 사용되고 있음 30) 을 투여하 였다. 그는 두통이 뇌척수액의 손실로 인해 발생하는 것이라 생각했으며, 따라서 두통을 치료하기 위해서는 맥락총에서 뇌척수액 생산을 촉진시키면 될 것이라고 생각했다. 뇌척수 액 생산을 촉진시키기 위해 당시 사용되고 있던 가장 강력 한 정신 자극제인 벤제드린을 투여하였다. 벤제드린 투여 후 주의력결핍 과잉행동장애의 역사적 고찰 - 62 - 에도 두통은 그다지 호전되지 않았으나, 일부 환아에서 학교 생활에 큰 변화가 있었고 학습효과도 눈에 띄게 좋아졌다. 아이들은 이 약을 “arithmetic pills”로 불렀다. 그러한 아 이들의 행동 변화를 감지한 Bradley는 그의 병원에서 행동 문제를 보이는 30명의 환자들을 대상으로 벤제드린을 투여 하였다. “벤제드린을 투여한 반수의 환자들에서 학교 생활 의 두드러진 호전이 나타났고, 일과 수행에 있어 훨씬 빠르고 정확하게 집중할 수 있게 되었다.”라고 기술하였다. 29) 하지만 당시에는 행동문제 치료에 심리요법이 주류를 이루고 있었 고, 안타깝게도 이러한 약물 효과에 대한 재검증이 이루어지 지 않았다. ADHD 치료약물의 본격적 사용은 그의 논문 발표 후 25 년여가 지나서야 시작되었다. 31) 11. ADHD의 기질적 원인 분석 시도, Minimal brain dysfunction(MBD) ADHD의 원인에 대한 인식이 Still경의 도덕적 결함으로 인한 행동 문제에서 Tredgold의 뇌의 기질적 문제로 인한 행동 문제 32) 로 변화된 이후, Kahn과 Cohen 33) 은 ‘organic drivenness’라는 표현을 사용하기도 하였다. Lewin 34) 은 지 적 기능이 떨어지는 아동과 성인 환자에서 뇌손상과 안절부 절못하는 증상과의 관련성을 제시하였으며, 전두엽을 제거 한 동물실험 결과와 결부시켜 설명하였다. 그 밖에도 뇌염과 감염, 납중독, 경련성 질환 등 뇌에 영향을 미칠 수 있는 다양 한 원인들과 그에 따른 환자들의 행동 문제에 대한 보고가 다 수 발표되었다. 24) 이러한 연구 결과들을 바탕으로 뇌손상과 행동문제의 관련성에 대한 인식이 정착되기 시작하였고, Str- auss와 Lehtinen 35) 은 뇌손상 아동에서 여러 가지 정신증상 이 나타날 수 있으며, 특히 과잉행동과 뇌손상과의 관련성을 지적하고 이러한 증상을 보이는 아동들을 하나의 증후군, minimal brain damage syndrome으로 분류하였다. 오 늘날 주의력결핍증상 중 많은 부분이 이미 그의 논문에서 기술한 증후군과 일치한다. 1950~1960대에 들어서는 ‘두뇌 손상아동 brain-damage children’ 36) , ’미세 뇌손상 mini- mal brain damage’ 37) , ‘미세두뇌기능장애 minimal cereb- ral dysfunction’ 38) , ‘미세뇌기능장애 minimal brain dy- sfunction(MBD)’ 39) 등으로 명명되었고, 그 중 MBD가 가장 흔히 통용되었다. 이렇듯 다양한 명칭과 보고에도 불구하고 여전히 통일된 질병개념은 등장하지 않았다. 24) 12. 주의력저하와 과활동성 치료제의 승인, 리탈린(Ritalin) Bradley가 과활동성, 주의 집중에 장애를 보이는 환자를 대상으로 벤제드린을 투여하여 효과가 있었다는 보고 29) 가 있었으나, 당시 그 결과는 주목 받지 못했다. 하지만 점차 정신 질환 치료에 있어 심리치료 이외에 생물학적 치료의 필요성이 강조되기 시작하였고, 과활동성을 보이는 아동들 의 치료에 있어서도 점차 중추신경자극제의 효과에 대한 관 심이 커지고 있었다. 40) Bradley가 ADHD환자들에 있어 벤제드린의 효과를 발표 한지 25년이 지난 1957년, ADHD 역사에서 가장 획기적 사 건 중 하나가 일어났다. 메틸페니데이트(methylphenidate) 성분의 리탈린이 처음으로 의약품으로 승인된 것이다. 41) 이 약 품은 1944년 Ciba사의 화학자인 Leandro Panizzon이 합 성하였고, 1954년부터 리탈린이라는 이름으로 판매되기 시작 하였다. 리탈린이라는 이름은 Panizzon의 아내의 애칭인 Rita 에서 온 것이라고 한다. 평소 저혈압을 앓고 있던 아내가 테니 스 시합 도중 저혈압으로 쓰러질 것을 우려하여 시합 전 자극 제로 이 약을 사용하였다. 그로 인해 리탈린은 시판 당시 만 성 피로, 기면증, 우울증, 그와 관련된 정신 증상 등에 효과 가 있는 것으로 알려졌다. 그러나 점차 과잉행동이나 주의 산만 증상에 효과가 있음이 알려지면서 이러한 증상을 보이 는 환자들에게 사용되기 시작하였고, 42) 훗날 ADHD치료에서 가장 중요한 역할을 담당하는 약물이 되었다. 하지만 치료가 진행되고 있었음에도 불구하고 질병으로서ADHD의 통일된 개념은 확립되지 않았다. 13. 질병으로서의 ADHD 이렇듯 이미 20세기 초부터 ADHD 개념이 언급되기 시작 하였고 치료 또한 시도되었으나, 현재 사용되는 ADHD 개념 에 접근하기 시작한 것은 1960년대 들어서였다. 과다한 행동 의 의학적 원인에 대한 논의가 지속되고 MBD 개념이 확산 되면서 뇌의 손상이 행동 장애로 이어진다는 가설은 탄력을 받게 되었다. 24) 하지만 행동 문제를 보이는 모든 아동들이 뇌 손상을 가지고 있어야 한다는 이 이론은 많은 비판을 받 게 되었고 뇌 손상의 평가 방법에 대한 논란도 커졌다. 43-45) 또한 뇌 손상이 없는 아동들에서도 행동 문제가 보고되었다. 40) 이러한 논란에도 불구하고 그간 축적된 자료를 바탕으로 미국 정신의학계의 진단체계인 DSM-II(The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental disorders-II) 46) 에서 ‘아동기 과잉행동 반응 hyperkinetic reaction of child- hood’이라는 명칭으로 공식 진단으로 인정하고 다음과 같 은 두 문장으로 정의하였다. “과활동성이고, 안절부절못하고, 산만하고 집중 시간이 짧은 소아들. 행동은 대개 청소년기에 감소함.” 하지만 진단명에서 알 수 있듯이 아직도 뇌의 기질 적 원인보다는 주변 자극에 대한 과도한 ‘반응’ 개념으로 이 해하고 있으며, 안타깝지만 그때까지도 ADHD는 청소년기 가 되면 사라지는 문제로 여겼다. DSM-III 47) 에서는 Douglas 48) 가 주장한 것처럼 과잉행동 반건호·배재호·문수진·민정원 - 63 - 보다는 충동조절, 주의력, 각성 영역의 결함에 좀 더 초점을 맞추게 되었고, 그간 MBD 아동에서 문제가 되었던 특수 학습 장애 영역을 ADHD에서 분리시켰다. 진단명도 DSM- II의 ‘반응 reaction’에서 ‘장애 disorder’로 바뀌었다. 하지 만 과잉행동증상에 대한 중요성이 인식되지 않았고, ADD with hyperactivity(ADDH)와 ADD without hyperac- tivity(ADD)로 명명하였다. 두 아형 사이의 임상적 차이가 미미하다는 논란이 지속되었고 과잉행동이 중요한 증상군임 이 받아들여져서, 26) 1987년 DSM-III-R 에서는 두 아형에 대한 개념을 삭제하고, 오늘날 사용되고 있는 주의력결핍 과 잉행동장애(ADHD)로 진단명이 변경되었다. 1) ADD with- out hyperactivity 진단은 미분류 ADD(undifferentiated ADD)로 남았다. 1994년, 개정된 DSM-IV에서도 ADHD라는 명칭은 그대 로 쓰이고 있지만 주의력-결핍 우세형(predominantly inat- tentive type), 과잉행동-충동 우세형(predominantly hy- peractive-impulsive type), 복합형(combined type)의 3 가지 아형으로 분류되었다. 6) 2000년 개정된 DSM-IV-TR 49) 에서도 진단체계는 크게 바뀌지 않았으나, DSM-V에서는 일부 진단 기준 변화와 함께 현재 아형을 없애고 하나의 진단 으로 가는 방안과 기존의 주의력 결핍형 대신 attention de- ficit disorder(ADD) 진단을 채택하는 것을 고려하고 있다. 50) 14. ICD-10과 DSM-IV의 차이 1969년에 ICD-8에서는 주의가 산만하고 과다행동을 보 이는 아동들을 hyperkinetic reaction of childhood로 분류 하였다. 28) 이후 ICD-9에서는 hyperkinetic syndrome으 로, 51) ICD-10에서는 hyperkinetic disorder(HKD)로 분 류하였다. 52) DSM-IV와 ICD-10은 다음과 같은 차이가 있다. 53) 첫째, ICD-10은 DSM-IV보다 진단 기준의 적용을 광범위하고 강력하게 요구한다는 점이다. 둘째, ICD-10은 부주의함, 충 동성, 과활동성의 세 가지 영역을 모두 포함해야 진단할 수 있는 단일질환 개념이지만, DSM-IV에서는 주의력-결핍 우 세형(predominantly inattentive type), 과잉행동-충동 우세형(predominantly hyperactive-impulsive type), 복합형(combined type)으로 그 아형을 분류하고 있어서 위의 세 가지 영역이 모두 충족하지 않는 경우에도 진단을 붙일 수 있다. 셋째, ICD-10은 한 가지 진단만을 붙이도록 되어 있으나, DSM-IV에서는 일부 공존질환을 동시에 진단 하는 것을 허용하고 있다. 두 진단 체계간 차이로 인해 나타나는 결과는 명백한 유 병률의 차이이다. 54-56) Lee 등 53) 은 같은 환자군에서 DSM- IV와 ICD-10 기준을 적용하여 진단할 경우 HDK가 11%, A- DHD 복합형은 47.7%로 더 많이 진단된다고 하였다. HKD 는 ADHD보다 신경발달학적 손상, 학업의 문제, 인지적 장 해가 더 심한 것으로 보고되었고, 55,57) 중추신경자극제 치료 에 더 잘 반응하는 것으로 알려졌다. 58) 15. 성인 ADHD 1960년대 이후 다음과 같은 세 가지 유형의 연구보고가 늘어나면서, 아동은 물론 성인 ADHD에 대한 관심도 늘기 시작하였다. 먼저, MBD 아이들의 장기 추적 관찰에서 이 들 문제가 성인기에도 계속 된다고 보고 하였다. 59) 둘째, 과잉 행동을 보이는 아이들의 부모에 대한 연구가 진행되면서 그 들의 부모 역시 비슷한 문제가 있음을 알게 되었다. 60) 세 번 째 유형은 충동성, 공격성, 정서불안정, 우울성향 등을 보이 는 성인들에 대한 보고이다. 61) 1972년 캐나다 McGill 대학의 Virginia Douglas 교수 는 이들 아동에서 과잉행동뿐 아니라 주의력저하 문제를 제 기하였으며, 그녀의 동료인 Gabrielle Weiss는 장기 추적 연구를 통해 과잉행동증상은 나이를 먹으면서 줄어들지만 주의력문제와 충동조절 문제는 지속되며 이 증상들이 중추 신경자극제에 특히 반응이 좋다고 주장하였다. 48) 앞서 말한 것처럼 이전에는 청소년기가 되면서 점차 증세가 사라지고 성 인기에는 확실히 사라진다고 믿었던 이론에 의심을 갖게 되었 고, 점차 성인 ADHD 연구가 시작되었다. 초창기 성인기 ADHD 추적 연구는 주로 몬트리올 팀 62) 와 뉴욕 연구진 63,64) 에 의해 이루어졌다. ADHD 증세의 지속 여부에 대한 결과, 몬트리올 연구에서는 과거 ADHD 아동의 반 정도가 25세 시점에서 아동기의 증세가 지속된다고 하였 다. 62) 뉴욕 연구진의 추적 연구에서도 아동기 ADHD 진단군 이 성인기에 ADHD로 진단되는 비율이 48%였다. 63) 즉, 아동 기의 ADHD 증상이 성인기가 되어도 반 정도에서는 남아 있 었으며, 뉴욕 연구진의 또 다른 장기 추적 연구에서는 아동기 에 ADHD로 진단된 경우 성인기에 약물남용, 반사회적 성격 장애로 진단되는 경우가 대조군에 비해 유의하게 많았다. 64) ADHD가 아동기에 발병한 후 거의 반수가 청소년기를 거 쳐 성인기까지 증세가 지속된다는 보고가 늘면서 성인 ADHD 의 진단기준과 치료에 대한 관심도 늘고 있다. 2002년 미국 FDA에서 아토목세틴(atomoxetine)을 소아청소년은 물론 성인 ADHD 치료제로 승인하면서 성인 ADHD에 대한 약 물치료 폭이 넓어졌고, 65) 2003년에는 성인 ADHD의 진단과 치료 기준 마련을 위해 18개 나라의 40여명의 전문가가 참 여한 European Network Adult ADHD가 만들어지기도 하였다. 66) 주의력결핍 과잉행동장애의 역사적 고찰 - 64 - 2013년경 발표될 것으로 예상되는 DSM-V에서는 이제까 지 성인 ADHD 연구와 진료과정에서 논란이 되어 온 ‘7세 이하 발병’이라는 진단 기준을 ’12세 이하 발병’으로 바꾸고, 성인의 경우 일부 아형 진단 시 ‘진단 기준 9개 항목 중 6개 이상 만족’을 ‘3개 이상’으로 낮추는 작업이 진행되고 있다. 50) 이와 같이 아동기에 발병하는 ADHD가 성인기로 이행되는 것을 반영하는 진단 기준의 변화가 예상된다. 16. 역사 속 유명인사 중에 ADHD가 있었을까? 역사 속의 유명인 들을 분석함으로써 과거 인물에게서 ADHD의 실존 가능성을 알아볼 수도 있다. 이는 ADHD 진단과 약물치료에 반대하는 집단은 물론 ADHD 치료를 옹 호하는 쪽에서도 내세운다. 67,68) 흔히 인용되는 대표 인물 중 건축가로는 시카고를 대표하는 Frank Lloyd Wright, 예술가 중에는 Salvador Dali, Pablo Picasso, Vincent Van Gogh, 문학작품을 남긴 작가로는 Charlotte Bronte 와 Emily Bronte, Samuel Clemens, Emily Dickenson, Scott Fitzgerald, Edgar Allan Poe, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Robert Frost, George Bernard Shaw, Hen- ry David Thoreau, Leo Tolstoy, Tennessee Williams, Virginia Woolf, William Butler Yeats, 천재 작곡가인 Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, 위대한 사업가로는 Andrew Carnegie, Malcolm Forbes, Henry Ford, Bill Gates, David Neeleman, Paul Orfalea, Ted Turner, 탐험가 중 에는 Christopher Columbus, 발명가 중에는 Wright Bro- thers, Alexander Graham Bell, Thomas Edison, Benjamin Franklin, 등이 있으며, 위대한 학자인 Albert Einstein이 있다. 저명한 정치가로는 James Carville이나 John F. Kennedy를 든다. 미국의 유명한 사진작가인 Ansel Adams도 포함된다. 과거 인물은 아니지만 최근 활 동했거나 활동 중인 운동선수 중에는 Terry Bradshaw, Michael Phelps, Pete Rose, Nolan Ryan, Michael Jordan, Jason Kidd, 연예인 중에는 Ann Bancroft, Jim Carrey, Steve McQueen, Jack Nicholson, Elvis Presley, Sylvester Stallone, Robin Williams 등이 있다. 이러한 분류는 자서전과 역사적 자료를 바탕으로 개연성 을 추정하는 것이며, 학문적 근거를 바탕으로 하는 것은 아 니므로 보다 많은 체계적 평가와 분석이 필요할 것이다. 하 지만 이러한 움직임이 정신의학적 입장에서 역사 속의 유명 인물을 평가하려는 시도로 이어지기도 한다. 예를 들어 자서 전을 토대로 본 체 게바라(Che Guevara)의 어린 시절은 전 형적인 ADHD 기준에 부합하며, 그의 어머니 역시 성인 ADHD 에 해당한다. 69) 그의 성인기 기록 역시 성인 ADHD로서의 기 준에 합당하다. Fidel Castro와 같은 동료 혁명가들의 충고 에도 불구하고 아프리카와 남아메리카에서 벌인 게릴라 활 동 역시 부적절한 충동성향 때문이라는 분석이다. 17. ADHD 연구의 최신 경향 최근 ADHD의 ‘회복’에 관한 개념도 새로이 제시되고 있다. 단순히 약에 의한 증상의 소실을 치료의 목표로 보는 것이 아니라 그에 따르는 사회적, 총체적 기능의 개선이 이루어져 야 이를 관해라고 볼 수 있다는 것이다. 70) 즉, 주의력 결핍이 나 과다행동과 같은 단순한 증상으로서의 개념이 아니라, 전반적 뇌기능 장해와 그로 인한 다양한 기능의 소실로 규 정되는 개념으로 나아가고 있는 것이다. ADHD에 관한 기질적, 생물학적 연구도 진행되고 있다. ADHD 환자군의 가족력 증거에 대한 연구도 계속 늘고 있 으며, 71) 도파민 D4, D5 수용체 변이와 관련이 있다는 보고 가 있으며, 72) DBH, HTR1B, SNAP-25 등의 유전자 관련 연구도 진행되고 있다. 73) 최근 국내 연구진에 의한 연구도 활 발히 진행되고 있다. 74,75) 유전적 원인 뿐 아니라 환경 원인에 대한 연구도 보고되었는데, 소아기 시절의 납이나 PCBs의 중독과 관련이 있다는 보고 73) 이후, 출생 전 알코올 노출과 DAT1 유전자와의 연관성 77) 과 같은 환경 원인과 유전자와의 연관성에 대한 연구도 진행되고 있다. 최근 뇌영상 기술의 발달로 fMRI가 등장하면서 ADHD 환자군의 뇌 부분 활성도와 관련된 많은 연구가 진행되었다. 전전두엽, 선조체에서의 활성도 저하가 보고되었고 78,79) 선조 체에서 도파민이 피질선조체 시냅스의 시냅스 후 신경세포를 활성화시킨다는 보고도 있었다. 80) 보상관련 기전과 관련해서 는 배쪽 선조체의 활성도가 저하된다는 연구 결과가 있었다. 81) Shaw 등 82) 은 ADHD 아동과 정상아동과의 뇌 피질 성숙 도 변화를 비교한 결과를 발표하면서 질병의 중추신경계 병 리를 규명하는데 크게 일조하였다. 이와 같이 ADHD의 발병 기전과 질병 특성을 설명할 수 있는 생물학적 근거가 제시되 고 있다. 결 론 이처럼 ADHD는 오래 전부터 존재하였으나 20세기에 들 면서 임상적으로 관심을 갖게 되었고, 최근 백 여 년 동안 ‘뇌염 후 행동장애’, ‘뇌 손상 아동’, ‘MBD’, ‘아동기 과잉행동 반응’, ‘ADD’, 등 여러 가지 이름으로 불려왔다. 앞으로도 새 로운 뇌 병변 발견이나 새로운 기전의 발견 등으로 인해 진 단명이 바뀔 수도 있겠으나, 질병 개념에 차이는 변하지 않을 것이다. 향후 ADHD의 더 정확한 원인 및 치료방법에 대한 반건호·배재호·문수진·민정원 - 65 - 연구가 필요하다. 중심 단어：주의력결핍 과잉행동장애 ·역사 ·고 찰 ·메틸페니 데이트. 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work_f4jqsxjau5gsniiwzvp24vv5ue	----	Layout 1 ZWITSCHER-MASCHINE NO. 5 / SPRING 2018 ANGER / KLEE AND JAPAN 104 MEETING ON A BRIDGE: AN APPROACH TO KLEE AND JAPAN JENNY ANGER Ein japanischer Kunstsammler reiste zum Schosshaldenfriedhof in Bern, wo Paul Klee begraben ist. Der Sammler brachte etwas mit: Eine mit grosser Sorgfalt geschriebene Kalligrafie des buddhistischen Herz Sutra (jap. Hannya shingyō). Er wollte es dort mit Klee in dieser und der jenseitigen Welt ver- eint sehen. Heimlich begrub er den geliebten Text direkt neben Klees Grab. Diese Anekdote zeigt die aussergewöhnliche Leidenschaft, die viele Japaner für Klee und seine Kunst empfinden. Der Kunsthistoriker Osamu Okuda hat hierzu folgende These aufgestellt: »Inmitten eines rasant voranschreitenden Modernisierungsprozesses hat Japan seine traditionellen ästhetischen Werte in der Kunst von Klee wieder erkannt, zu der es zu- rückgegriffen hat, um seine kulturelle Iden- tität zu bewahren.« Das Essay ist Bestandteil eines grösseren Projekts, welches der Frage nachgeht, weshalb viele Japaner glauben, in Klees Kunst ihre eigene Ästhetik wieder zu erkennen. SUMMARY A Japanese art collector traveled to Schosshalden, near Bern, Switzer- land, where Paul Klee is buried. The collector brought something with him: he had hand written the Buddhist Heart Sutra (Hanya Shinkyo) with great care. He wanted it there with Klee in this world and the next: he se- cretly buried the beloved text right next to Klee’s grave.1 This anecdote demonstrates the extraordinary passion that many Japan- ese feel for Klee and his art.2 As Osamu Okuda has theorized, »In the midst of a rap- idly progressing modernization process, Japan recognized its traditional aesthetic val- ues again in the Klee’s art, to which it reached back, in order to preserve its cultural identity.«3 Precisely what in Klee’s art allows many Japanese to see their own aesthetics remains to be articulated, and this essay rep- resents a contribution to that larger project. The tale of the buried Heart Sutra conveys something of the nature of the deeply empa- thetic response that is our subject. The Heart Sutra is about wholeness and emptiness all at once. »Form does not differ from empti- ness, emptiness does not differ from form,« the sutra maintains. There are »no ignorance and also no extinction of it, and so forth until no old age and death and also no extinction of them.« Opposites are both held and dis- solved; life both is and is not of this time, of this earth. The sutra speaks of immanence, transcendence, and ultimate contingency. The collector may have been inspired by Klee’s art, his gravestone, or both. Carved into Klee’s headstone are his words: »In this world I cannot be understood. For I live as much with the dead as with the unborn. A lit- tle closer to the heart of creation than usual, and for a long time still not close enough.« There are expansion and collapse of time and space in these words. At the memorial, it is as if Klee were speaking from beyond the grave, from a place where mortals cannot reach him, and magically close to the origin of all. Scholars know, however, that Klee wrote the words in 1920, twenty years before his death, specifically for publication, where ZWITSCHER-MASCHINE.ORG NO. 5 / SPRING 2018 105ANGER / KLEE AND JAPAN Fig. 1 Harue Koga Copy of P. Klee's "Kairuan"(1914), The National Museum of Modern Art, Tokyo © MOMAT/DNPartcom Fig. 2 Paul Klee Kairuan, 1914,38, from reproduction in Leopold Zahn, Paul Klee: Leben / Werk / Geist, 1920 the lines are dubiously attributed to his diary.4 At the time, the words were part of the artist’s self-fashioning, a projection for the public of how he felt he was or how he wanted to be perceived; »for a long time still not close enough« may even reveal frustration with the difficulty in transcending his immanent world. Reading the text at the gravesite, visi- tors sense both the absence of that once mortal, fallible man and the presence of his great spirit, uncannily speaking to us from then, there, here, and now. These lines by Klee have been associated with Eastern religion since their appearance in Leopold Zahn’s monograph, Paul Klee: Leben, Werk, Geist, in 1920. Zahn precedes Klee’s quotation with an epigraph from Chi- nese philosopher Zhuangzi, who attests to the select number of geniuses who can attain the Tao and transcend life and death.5 The implication is clearly that Klee is one of them. In Hermann von Wedderkop’s book on Klee, also from 1920, he claims that the artist’s painting itself invokes the Tao, and he sug- gests that Klee’s content appears directly in his form.6 Wilhelm Hausenstein published the third book on Klee in 1921, and there Klee is said to connect with the Buddha: »he painted[…]with a secret instinct, honoring the Buddha, who, though thousands of miles away, lived in the stillness of his paintings.« Klee’s abstract painting is expressive, Hausenstein explains, of a deep understand- ing of Buddhist emptiness.7 One might be critical of these writers’ ahis- toricism. After all, Zahn, Wedderkop, and Hausenstein associate Far Eastern spiritual- ity with Klee at the same time that they locate his transformation into a great painter in Tunisia in 1914—a decidedly more Islamic lo- cale (at least Hausenstein notes that the Buddha was thousands of miles away!).8 However, even though Klee’s experience with Taoism and Buddhism was limited, there seems to be something authentic about the experience of Klee’s art that these references convey.9 In any case, the allusion to Eastern religion did not ring false for Nakata Sadanosuke, a remarkably early Japanese collector of Klee who published a Japanese translation of Wedderkop’s text already in 1924.10 And painter Koga Harue, a devout Buddhist, studiously copied Klee’s watercol- ors in the 1920s while also painting Bod- hisattvas. The source for this copy (FIG.1) was likely the reproduction of Klee’s Kairuan (1914,38, cat. no. 1147, FIG. 2) in Zahn’s book. Koga’s devotion is evidenced by his having had to imagine the tonal variations from the black and white plate.11 Klee’s actual painting is long missing, so we are grateful for Koga’s efforts, without which it would be far harder to conjure the colorful original. How could Klee, a non-Buddhist, make »Buddhist« art? Hausenstein begins his nar- rative with a fictional account that is telling, I believe. In it, a monk-like man, »like a worker or wise man from the Orient,« tries to cross the bridge that will dissolve all opposites, this world and that. Part way across, the man plays his violin, and then he writes and draws. Playing, writing, and drawing, it is said, are all the same.12 The artists, then, whatever his medium, is positioned on the bridge between opposites, be they form and emptiness, content and form, representation and abstraction, immanence and transcen- dence. In the twentieth century, these pairs ZWITSCHER-MASCHINE.ORG NO. 5 / SPRING 2018 106ANGER / KLEE AND JAPAN were often the basis for comparison of West- ern and Eastern painting, and Klee figured conspicuously in that philosophical debate. As Otto Pöggeler has shown, Shinichi Hisamatsu, later the author of Zen and the Fine Arts (1971), and philosopher Martin Hei- degger took part in the colloquium »Art and Thought« in Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany, in 1958.13 Their discussion warrants our at- tention in some detail. According to Pöggeler, Hisamatsu claimed that by way of Gei-do (Japanese art untouched by occidental aes- thetics), »people break in to [or access] the origin, and so deeply connect with the truth of life.« Pöggeler summarizes Hisamatsu’s position thus: »Independence from the need to make form, that is, nothingness, allows for an opening to the origin, to creation.«14 Then Heidegger entered the discussion, asserting that »in European art, the artwork brings the thing (Gebilde) into a picture, it makes it visi- ble, whereas in East Asian art, representation is an obstacle [Hindernis], and the picture is an obstruction [Hinderung].« Hisamatsu re- joined Heidegger with the remark that »after breaking into the origin [as he had character- ized the Gei-do], the making visible [which Heidegger had called European] can become an appearance of original truth.« The formu- lation neatly allows for both Eastern and Western art to reveal truth. Heidegger then refined his position, as Pöggeler reports, to say that writing or drawing could be that which frees one from obstruction (Ent-hin- derung). Therefore, art is not the truth, nor is it an obstacle to truth, but, rather, it can break down obstacles to truth; it can, in Hei- degger’s words, be the »occasion for the movement of the self to the origin.«15 At this juncture, another participant, Siegfried Bröse, turned the discussion to the more specific example of modern Western art. He suggested that traditional Western art depends on the symbol, but that modern Western art is closer to Zen because it does not. For this reason, Bröse continued, mod- ern artists paint abstractly. He interrupted his analysis with an exception, however: Klee, he maintained, is still an »objective case,« and therefor is »still a symbolic painter.«16 Heidegger immediately objected—not to this characterization of Klee, which allows for the representational elements within Klee’s abstraction, but to the characterization of modern Western art and Zen as occluding the symbolic. Pöggeler reports that Heideg- ger asked what sort of world it would be if the symbolic disappeared altogether.17 In other words, Heidegger remained committed to trying to access original truth—much as Klee claims to on his epitaph—but the philosopher revised his earlier assessment of Eastern art as essentially empty to account for Eastern or Western art’s abstraction or representa- tion as potentially leading to the revelation of original truth. Heidegger’s quick defense of the symbolic at the moment Klee was named suggests his own appreciation for the artist, whose work is rarely completely abstract. In- deed, Heidegger’s description of art’s making visible echoes Klee’s own words: »Art does not reproduce the visible but rather renders visible.«18 Even more decisively, when Hei- degger and Hisamatsu flipped through a book of Klee’s watercolors after the collo- quium, Heidegger purportedly shared his be- lief that »Klee is a more important painter than Picasso.« The Zen art expert responded, in reference to one particular Klee, that »it has something of Japanese calligraphy in it.« Heidegger concurred.19 Klee’s painting as Japanese calligraphy, Klee’s painting as Buddhist: the Far Eastern framework is consistent, but careful readers will have noticed that the descriptions of Klee’s art within this framework are not. Hausenstein claimed that Klee’s painting is abstract and empty like Buddhist emptiness. Bröse, however, seconded by Heidegger, drew attention to the residually symbolic as- pect of Klee’s work.20 Finally, Hisamatsu noted something in Klee that is not painting at all, but writing. Is there a way to respect the truth of these reputable people’s repre- sentations of their experiences and, at the same time, account for their apparent con- tradictions? I believe there is, if we return to Hausenstein’s parable of the artist’s crossing the bridge. Recall that crossing the river ZWITSCHER-MASCHINE.ORG NO. 5 / SPRING 2018 107ANGER / KLEE AND JAPAN promised to collapse opposites, representa- tion and abstraction, immanence and tran- scendence. The artist is figured on the bridge; he plays his violin (as Klee, too, played the violin); it does not matter what sort of art he makes, but he is there to lead us to truth. In Mahayana (including Zen) Buddhism, the Boddhisattava attains enlightenment, but rather than staying in Nirvana he returns to this world to help other sentient beings attain the truth. The practices of Mahayana and Zen Buddhism have differed greatly from place to place and time to time, yet the Zen popular- ized in Japan in the first half of the twentieth century asserted this as a central tenet.21 Is that not the artist on the bridge? Is that not Klee, abstracting here, representing there, painting and writing and making music, on his way to the beyond yet tarrying in this world to meet us on the bridge and show us the truth? Is that not how a non-Buddhist artist made »Buddhist« art? In Pöggeler’s analysis of Hisamatsu and Heidegger’s meeting, he suggests that the Bodhisattva’s return from Nirvana legiti- mates or even necessitates a return to the everyday in Japanese art.22 He contrasts the Gothic cathedral, with its glorious, stained- glass light signifying the beyond, and the Japanese tearoom, within which light passes quietly through low paper windows, we sit on mats, handle ceramic teacups, and gaze upon the flower vase or hanging scroll (kake- mono) in the alcove (tokonoma). In the former, the symbol looms large and majestic. In the latter, the everyday, the earthly gain our di- rect attention—as a means of attaining en- lightenment. Pöggeler’s analysis perpetuates an ahistorical opposition between Western and Eastern art, but his emphasis on the im- portance of direct, immanent experience is wholly consistent with the theorization of Japanese Zen as disseminated by scholars such as Hisamatsu. Readers unfamiliar with the tea ceremony may protest that these musings take us far from any actual works by Klee, which the re- sponsible art-historical text should address. The surprise—for tea ceremony novices—is that we need not leave this traditional Japan- ese practice in order to see a real Klee. In fact, Yoshitomo Kajikawa, the director of the Kahitsukan, Kyoto Museum of Contemporary Art, might contend that we see it best there. Kajikawa’s meticulously designed museum devotes one floor to traditional Japanese scrolls by early 20th-century painter Kagaku Murakami, one to abstract oils by mid-20th- century artist Kaoru Yamaguchi, and one to the traditional ceramics of the renowned 20th-century artist Kitaoji Rosanjin. The top floor is reserved for a garden opening onto his teahouse. The museum’s website in- cludes an exquisitely composed photograph of the interior of the tearoom, viewed through the graceful branches of a tree in the garden (FIG. 3).23 The door is aligned such that we can just see the traditional kakemono in the tokonoma. But what was hanging in the al- cove, in this most carefully designed Japan- ese setting, when I visited the Kahitsukan myself? A work by Paul Klee, Before the Long Nose (1926,217 [V7], cat. no. 4175, FIG. 4). I was astonished, having expected to see a Japanese scroll.24 Later I would learn of other instances of seamless incorporation of Klee into traditional Japanese aesthetics. For lack of expertise, I leave it to other scholars to determine whether this assimilation is in- tegral to Japanese aesthetics, whether Jape- Fig. 3 View of Light Garden with Kagaku Murakami, Prince Edward Chan that under the tree © Kahitsukan, Kyoto Museum of Contemporary Art ZWITSCHER-MASCHINE.ORG NO. 5 / SPRING 2018 108ANGER / KLEE AND JAPAN nese aesthetics is less consistent than often imagined, or how closely these propositions are intertwined. Here my interest is how Klee resonates in this context. Before attending to the Klee in the tokonoma, then, it is instruc- tive to consider some other examples. Per- haps the most well known is Yasunari Kawabata’s novel Koto (1962), translated into English as The Old Capital. In the book, Kawa- bata wrestles with the demise of old culture in Japan following World War II. The story un- folds amidst the obi and kimono workshops, Shinto shrines, Buddhist temples, festivals, and gardens of Kyoto, Japan’s cultural capital for hundreds of years. The focus of consider- able attention in this novel about traditional Japanese culture is nevertheless Paul Klee. Klee makes his first appearance when the weary kimono wholesaler, Sada Takichiro, is given a book of modern paintings by his aes- thetically sensitive daughter, Chieko, in hopes of inspiring him.25 Takichiro does come up with a new design, but when he takes it to the obi weaver, Sosuke Otomo, he is asked, »Klee? Who’s Klee? «He responds: His paintings are gentle, exceptional. You might say they have the quality of a dream, a quality that would speak even to the heart of an old Japanese woman. I studied them over and over until I came up with this pattern. It’s unlike an traditional Japanese design.26 It is an odd characterization in that Klee’s work is figured as at once comprehensible to the old Japanese and yet unrecognizable as Japanese design. Otomo, the character just introduced to Klee’s work, nonetheless re- sponds approvingly: »Hmm, it’s excellent. The color harmony[…]fine. You’ve never done anything so novel before; nevertheless, its’ restrained.« And then: »Elegant in a Japan- ese manner.« Thus a traditional Japanese ar- tisan finds the Klee-inspired work to be novel, yet consistent with Japanese taste. Then, however, Otomo’s son, Hideo, whom we might expect to be less tied to the old ways, responds to the obi negatively. He explains: »This obi is[…]intriguing at first glance but it has none of the harmony of a warm heart.«27 Takichiro, devastated by this response, crum- ples up the design and throws it into a stream. Many readers likely assume that is the end of the obi. Yet Hideo, initially alarmed by the design, is later inspired to weave it from memory for Chieko. When he presents it to her and her father, she responds with delight. Recognizing the source, she cries: »Oh, Fa- ther, this was inspired by the Klee book[…]. It’s wonderful.« Takichiro, now unsure what to think of the obi he had designed, asks, »Chieko, does this obi have harmony?[...]of the heart?« Her response: »Harmony?[...] The harmony would depend on the kimono and the person wearing it[…].« Hideo asks Chieko is she will try the obi on, which she does, to their collective joy.28 The tale of the Klee design reveals Kawa- bata’s ambivalence about tradition versus in- novation.29 There is a happy ending, but it consists not in knowing the essential nature of the obi –whether it is properly restrained or too innovative—but rather in understand- Fig. 4 Paul Klee vor der langen Nase, 1926, 217 (V7) Before the Long Nose, oil transfer drawing and watercolour on paper on cardboard, 50 x 39 cm, Kahitsukan, Kyoto Museum of Contemporary Art © Kahitsukan, Kyoto Museum of Contemporary Art ZWITSCHER-MASCHINE.ORG NO. 5 / SPRING 2018 109ANGER / KLEE AND JAPAN Fig. 5 Paul Klee Alter Klang, 1925, 236 Ancient Harmony, oil on cardboard, 38,1 x 37,8 cm, Kunstmuseum Basel, Vermächtnis Richard Doetsch-Benziger © Zentrum Paul Klee, Bern, Archiv ing Chieko’s wisdom that harmony is contin- gent: the beauty of this traditional Japanese accessory depends on the grace of its wearer and the appropriateness of the fabric around which it is wrapped. The threesome’s shared pleasure when Chieko tries it on means that Klee has been happily integrated into the cul- ture of the old, yet changing Kyoto.30 That moving fictional account resonates with the experience of a well-known contem- porary artist as well. Fukumi Shimura, a ki- mono maker and weaver in Kyoto who has been named one of Japan’s Living National Treasures, joined other contributors in writ- ing about Klee for a special edition of Asahi Bijutsukan (Art Magazine) in 1995. She writes that Klee’s Ancient Harmony (1925,236 [X6], cat. no. 3917, FIG. 5) evokes the exquisite col- ors and shadows of old Japan, as well as the costumes of dead spirits in Noh theatre.31 For Shimura, then, too, it is unproblematic to see Klee in terms of Japanese aesthetic tradition. In fact, one night the weaver says she in- vented a game: she cut out a small paper frame and moved it across a reproduction of Ancient Harmony. Remarkably, she says, she found that wherever she placed the frame, she found a perfect composition. Then it seemed natural to her to think of her weaving and Klee together, for weaving, she explains, means making lots of color fields, complete in themselves, which harmonize together to create a beautiful, whole composition. How did Klee learn to harmonize so beautifully? Shimura answers with Klee’s answer, which he proffered long ago. She quotes him saying »In this world I cannot be understood[…],« and she concludes that »these are the words of a person who has reached the core of cre- ation.« Apparently she agrees with Hisamatsu and Heidegger on the possibility of art, and she even exceeds Klee’s estima- tion of his own success. Perhaps, then, it is not so unusual to think of Klee alongside tra- ditional Japanese art, either in real life or in fiction. Interestingly, contemporary Japanese artists feel an affinity for Klee and yet also come to describe his art with traditional Japanese metaphors. Architect Toyo Ito, for example, famous for brash buildings such as the Mediatheque in Sendai, admires Klee and compares his work with the Japanese gar- den. In the same edition of Asahi Bijutsukan where Shimura reveals her weaver’s love of Klee, Ito discusses Klee’s drawing Fish in the Torrent (1926,52 [O1], cat. no. 3997, FIG. 6). He finds it provocative because the current and the fish are integrated: the parallel lines and swirls cross and disappear, and the fish look like traces of the movement of the water, as the water reflects the materiality of the fish.32 When I met with the architect in his office, I asked if the contingency he recognized in Klee, of those fish in the torrent, were remi- niscent of any Japanese aesthetic practice.33 He responded with the idea of the Japanese garden, and as he spoke he began to draw examples. He explained that there are many elements: trees, water, stones for walking, a teahouse, a bridge: everything is continuous, and yet one can choose his own path, like walking through trees in a forest. He said then that he hopes to make the practice of ar- chitecture like this, both in the process of its creation and the process of walking through the building. In retrospect, I note that Ito’s ZWITSCHER-MASCHINE.ORG NO. 5 / SPRING 2018 110ANGER / KLEE AND JAPAN quick sketches to represent a course through the garden are distant cousins of Klee’s fish swimming: perhaps together they approach the heart of creation.34 Finally, since Klee was a violinist, it seems fitting to consider one of the many musicians inspired by Klee.35 Takashi Kako wrote a stir- ring collection of twelve piano compositions based on Klee’s paintings for his album Klee (1988)—the cover of which features Ancient Harmony, also the title of one of the compo- sitions. Kako said that at the time he was in- fluenced by Erik Satie and free improvisation, but mostly by the openness of Klee’s paint- ings.36 Asked to elaborate, he replied that many years before he had taken to placing a reproduction of a Vincent van Gogh, a Pablo Picasso, or a Klee behind the keyboard in front of him, and he would improvise »to ex- plain the painting with the music.« Later he thought that this practice was insufficient; he wanted the music not simply to illustrate the painting, but rather to become its own au- tonomous work. Kako found this difficult with Van Gogh and Picasso, however; their works were too imposing. In contrast, »Klee left room for music.« Van Gogh and Picasso, he said, were like novels, but Klee was like a haiku. The brief, ancient form of Japanese po- etry is profound in its suggestion, he contin- ued, in its openness to response. Clearly, gazing at Klees led Kako to his own source of creation; for each work he responded with music. Also, although each of his composi- tions is self-sufficient, he said that when he performs, he does not stand up between the pieces; he is aware of the silence between the musical compositions, and the continuity and sequence of intervals between composi- tions are all-important. His chosen Klees are not completely independent, he concluded, but rather form a »suite« (perhaps like Shimura’s beautifully harmonized combina- tions of color fields). When Kako plays these pieces he imagines himself wandering amidst pictures at an exhibition, much like, it would seem, Ito wanders through his imagi- nary garden of creation. Do they meet on the bridge where opposites emerge and dis- solve? Examinging Kawabata, Shimura, Ito, and Kako, we have seen a wide range of the artists Klee has touched in Japan: some tra- ditional, some modern, and all of them find- ing something Japanese in Klee, be it inspiration for a fictional obi, the colors of tra- ditional Japan, an invitation to explore a Japanese garden, or haiku.37 With this under- standing we can return to our consideration of the Kahitsukan teahouse and begin to ap- proach how Kajikawa, so careful in his own aesthetic deliberations, could hang a Klee as the kakemono in the tokonoma. What should be in a tokonoma? The earliest scrolls to hang in tearooms, especially during the Muromachi period (1392-1573), were, oddly enough, examples of calligraphy of painting executed by the Sung or Yuan priests of China.38 Therefore it is traditional within this aspect of Japanese culture to incorpo- rate foreign treasures. Depicted in the paint- ings were often birds, flowers, or landscapes: natural things from this world. »Since the scroll is an object of admiration,« tea histo- rians Sen’ô Tanaka and Sendô Tanaka write, »it is always mounted thoughtfully.«39 Such thoughtfulness means careful consideration of whether it is calligraphy or painting and whether it is mounted on paper or silk, plain or patterned. Klee’s work, we should note, can be all of these things: foreign (to Japan- Fig. 6 Paul Klee Fische im Wildbach, 1926, 51 Fish in the Torrent, pen on paper on cardboard, 13,2 x 17,5/17,3 cm Privatbesitz © Zentrum Paul Klee, Bern, Archiv ZWITSCHER-MASCHINE.ORG NO. 5 / SPRING 2018 111ANGER / KLEE AND JAPAN ese), frequently natural in subject, calli- graphic or painterly or a combination of the two, and often mounted on paper or fabric of another color or design. In fact, the Klee I witnessed that day in the Kahitsukan tokonoma is a wonderful example of all of these general characteristics of a kakemono. In Before the Long Nose (FIG. 4), the ink drawing, with its thin, waving lines, is not immediately recognizable. At first sight it might be a Chinese character, or simply an abstract design; only on closer observation does a human bust appear, in profile, with its curiously long nose crossing most of its face and its fingers inexplicably in front of, yet not quite touching, that nose. The paper is mounted on cardboard, and at the bottom of the work one finds the artists’ hand-written title. The ink drawing appears to float in an aqueous haze of the most subtle and delicate peach tones. Klee has achieved this effect with his oil transfer technique, whereby the drawing retains signs of its production; smudges and fingerprints record the transfer process.40 The watercolor haze in which it floats appears to take this hands-on, mate- rial labor off to another, dreamy world, where the enigma of the subject might become clear. »But by far the most important rule for the hanging scroll in the alcove,« the Tanakas write, »is to see that it matches the propor- tions of the alcove itself….«41 The work may be beautiful in itself, they assert, but it will not be pleasing and harmonious unless it fits well in its surroundings—just like Chieko’s obi. The contingency of the work and its im- portance are perhaps best expressed by the 16th-century tea master Sen no Rikyû, whom the Tanakas quote: »The most important tea utensil is the kakemono, because through it the heart of the host and the guest come to- gether.«42 Did Before the Long Nose suit the tokonoma? Through auspicious circum- stances, I was able to ask Kajikawa for his personal opinion.43 He graciously shared tea with me and another visitor. We were in his office, not in the tearoom, but he poured the tea in Rosanjin’s cups, out of which he said he had been drinking for forty years. I asked this immaculately dressed man, attentive to every detail in his museum, how he could hang a Klee in the teahouse. Kajikawa told us that he always displays at least one of his Klees, and he confirmed that he does use them for his tea ceremonies.44 He com- mented that he enjoys recombining works, including Klee’s, and thereby changing the effect of each and overall. He said, echoing Kako, that »Klee’s work whispers with a low and silent voice,« and that a quiet place such as his museum is a »comfortable« one for Klee. It seems clear, then, that Kajikawa believes in the contingency of art and that he includes himself in his aesthetic practice. He told us, for example, that long ago he did not think of Rosanjin’s ceramics as art, but rather as use- ful objects for daily life. However, daily use of the Rosanjins filled him with such joy that he decided that they are, in fact, art. Kajikawa considers his guests just as carefully: he ex- pressed great pleasure that one well-known visitor had come to thirty or more tea work- shops here. My colleague and I felt honored that he took out his beloved Rosanjins to share with us. I felt the honor work upon me. As we talked, held the cups, and drank, I be- gan to see that Kajikawa seeks in everything he does to create a deeply felt harmony be- tween himself and his guests, between his art and its setting, between everyday life and eternal truth. The means to his ends can be extremely humble: with us he shared a cup of tea. But with that tea he invited us to join him on Klee’s bridge, and I started to under- stand the appropriateness of a Klee in the tokonoma. 1 The collector, who told me his story in Japan in Feb- ruary 2004, prefers to remain anonymous. 2 I thank Osamu Okuda, whose insights set me on the path for this project many years ago. Thank you to Grin- nell College and the Freeman Grant for supporting my research in Japan. Finally, many others in Switzerland, the United States, and especially Japan have gener- ously shared their time and thoughts. I thank Michael Baumgartner, Ed Gilday, Fumiko Goto, Marie Kak- ZWITSCHER-MASCHINE.ORG NO. 5 / SPRING 2018 112ANGER / KLEE AND JAPAN inuma, Fujio Maeda, Ayano Matsugu, Tsutomu Mizu- sawa, Kenjin Miwa, Saki Nagato, Isaharu Nishimura, Shogo Otani, Atsuko Sakai, Kazuhiko Satani, Makato Shindo, Rintaro Terakado, Noriko Togo, and Gennifer Weisenfeld. 3 Okuda 2007, 268. Unless otherwise noted, transla- tions are mine. 4 See Anger 2004, 149-52. 5 Zhuangzi lived in the 4th century BCE. Zahn 1920, n.p. 6 Wedderkop 1920, 10-11. 7 Hausenstein 1921, 86, 99. 8 Klee took a two-week trip to Tunisia with artist friends August Macke and Louis Moilliet in 1914. 9 See Okuda’s record of Klee’s exposure to Buddhism in Okuda 2013. 10 I am grateful to Nagato and Mizusawa for showing me Nakata’s extensive European art library, including a wide range of journals, at the Museum of Modern Art, Hayama. Nakata’s partial Wedderkop translation ap- peared in the exhibition catalogue, Nakata 1924. 11 Zahn 1920, 50. Thanks to Miwa and Otani for showing me Koga’s multiple renditions of Klee’s watercolors at the Museum of Modern Art, Tokyo. Miwa suggests that Koga responded to the »emptiness« in Klee. 12 Hausenstein 1921, 5-8. 13 Pöggeler 2002, 211. See Hisamatsu 1971. 14 Ibid., 212. 15 Ibid. 16 Ibid. 17 Ibid. 18 Klee 1920, 118. 19 Pöggeler 2002, 212. 20 Museum curators, interestingly, cite Klee’s repre- sentational aspects as making his relatively abstract art more accessible to the Japanese public than Wass- ily Kandinsky’s. This has been the experience of Nishimura and Goto at the Miyagi Museum of Art in Sendai and Ishikawa at the Utsunomiya Museum of Art. Conversations with the author, 4-5 February 2004. 21 Sharf 1993. 22 Pöggeler draws on Ohashi Ryôsuke’s theory of Noh theatre (Pöggeler 2002, 214). See Ryôsuke 1994. 23 html://kahitsukan.or.jp 24 Apparently this is not a singular occurrence. Togo, director of Togo Fine Art, told me that she has also ex- perienced a Klee in a tokonoma (Tokyo, 8 February 2004). 25 Kawabata 1962, 32. 26 Ibid., 40. 27 Ibid., 44-45. 28 Ibid., 72-73. 29 Kawabata’s traditionalism has been linked to Japan- ese nationalist ideology. See Miho Matsugu, »The War in Kawabata Yasunari’s Snow Country: Aesthetics of Empire, Politics of Literature, Struggle of Women,« Ph.D. dissertation, University of Chicago, 2005. 30 On Kawabata, Koga, and Klee, see Sakai 2002, 254- 56. 31 Shimura 1995, 81. Thanks to Sakai and Gilday for translation. 32 Ito 1995, 82-83. Thanks to Sakai and Gilday for trans- lation. 33 Conversation with the author and Goto, 10 February 2004. 34 For more on Ito and Klee, see Kakinuma 2013, pp. 128-35. 35 Toru Takemitsu’s All in Twilight (1988) and Akira Miyoshi’s Klee’s Picture books (1978-79) are other ex- amples. 36 At the time he had seen the paintings in reproduction only. Later he sought out the originals. Conversation with the author and Sakai, Yugawara, 9 February 2004. 37 To consider more contemporary Japanese artists in- spired by Klee, see Kakinuma 2013, especially Leiko Ikemura, pp. 122-27. Reinforcing our own thesis, Kakimura writes, »The theme of the crossing (Über- gang) is a central constant both in Ikemura’s and in Klee’s art« (123). 38 Tanaka/Tanaka 1973, 33, 83. 39 Ibid., 147-49. 40 Ann Temkin describes the technique in Temkin 1987, 25, 37n63. 41 Tanaka/Tanaka 1973, 149. 42 Sen no Rikyû, quoted in ibid., 146. 43 Conversation with the author and Ikeda, Kyoto, 13 February 2004. 44 Kajikawa reported that the only other Western artist whose works he will hang for the tea ceremony is Ben Nicholson. Bibliography Anger 2004 Jenny Anger, Paul Klee and the Decorative in Modern Art, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004. Hausenstein 1921 Wilhelm Hausenstein, Kairuan, oder die Geschichte vom Maler Klee, Munich: Wolff, 1921. Hisamatsu 1971 Shinichi Hisamatsu, Zen to Bijutsu [Zen and the Fine Arts], Tokyo: Kodansha International, 1971. ZWITSCHER-MASCHINE.ORG NO. 5 / SPRING 2018 113ANGER / KLEE AND JAPAN Ito 1995 Toyo Ito, »Kiwamete kyoteki na shizen no toraekata [A Very Contemporary Way to Understand Nature]«, in Asahi Bijutsukan 21, no. 6, October 1995, pp. 82-83. Kakinuma 2013 Marie Kakinuma, »Paul Klees Rezeption im heutigen Japan«, in Paul Klee und der ferne Osten: Vom Japanis- mus zu Zen, edited by Osamu Okuda and Marie Kak- inuma, Bern: Zentrum Paul Klee, 2013, pp. 101-37. Kawabata 1962 Yasunari Kawabata, The Old Capital (1962), translated by J. Martin Holman, San Francisco: North Point Press, 1987. Klee 1920 Paul Klee, »Beitrag für den Sammelband ‘Schöpferische Konfession’ (1920)«, in Paul Klee: Schriften, Rezensionen und Aufsätze, edited by Christian Geelhaar, Cologne: DuMont, 1976, p. 118. Matsugu 2005 Miho Matsugu, »The War in Kawabata Yasunari’s Snow Country: Aesthetics of Empire, Politics of Literature, Struggle of Women, Ph.D. dissertation, University of Chicago, 2005. Nakata 1924 Nakata Sadanosuke, et al., Northern European Art, Tokyo: Garo Kudan, 1924. Okuda 2007 Osamu Okuda, »Warum mögen Japaner Paul Klee?«, in Japan und der Westen. Die erfüllte Leere, Kunstmuseum Wolfsburg, pp. 267-72. Okuda 2013 Osamu Okuda, »Klee und (Zen-)Buddhismus: Der ferne Osten«, in Paul Klee und der ferne Osten: Vom Japanis- mus zu Zen, edited by Osamu Okuda and Marie Kak- inuma, Bern: Zentrum Paul Klee, 2013, pp. 82-99. Pöggeler 2002 Otto Pöggeler, Bild und Technik: Heidegger, Klee und die moderne Kunst, Munich: Wilhelm Fink, 2002. Ryôsuke 1994 Ohashi Ryôsuke, Kire: Das ‘Schöne’ in Japan (Cologne: DuMont, 1994). Sakai 2002 Tadayasu Sakai, »Paul Klee and Japan,« in Paul Klee and His Travels, Kamakura, Morioka, Tsu, and Mat- sumoto, 2002, pp. 254-56. Sharf 1993 Robert H. Sharf, »The Zen of Japanese Nationalism,« History of Religions 33, no. 1, 1993, pp. 1-43. Shimura 1995 Fukumi Shimura, »Inishie no hibiki [Ancient Harmony]«, in Asahi Bijutsukan 21, no. 6, October 1995, p. 81. Tanaka/Tanaka 1973 Sen’ô Tanaka and Sendô Tanaka, The Tea Ceremony (1973), Tokyo, New York, and London: Kodansha Inter- national, 2000. Temkin 1987 Ann Temkin, »Klee and the Avant-Garde 1912-1940«, in Paul Klee, New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1987, pp. 13-37. Wedderkop 1920 H. v. Wedderkop, Paul Klee, Leipzig: Klinkhardt, 1920. Zahn 1920 Leopold Zahn, Paul Klee: Leben, Werk, Geist, Potsdam: Kiepenheuer, 1920. 
work_fadihbuombhxtjvbld72dh6szm	----	Title goes here a Pion publication dx.doi.org/10.1068/i0460aap i-Perception (2012) volume 3, pages 257 – 281 ISSN 2041-6695 perceptionweb.com/i-perception Perceptual organization of shape, color, shade, and lighting in visual and pictorial objects Baingio Pinna Department of Architecture, Design and Planning, University of Sassari at Alghero, Italy; e-mail: baingio@uniss.it Received 31 May 2011, in revised form 18 April 2012; published online 3 May 2012 Abstract. The main questions we asked in this work are the following: Where are representations of shape, color, depth, and lighting mostly located? Does their formation take time to develop? How do they contribute to determining and defining a visual object, and how do they differ? How do visual artists use them to create objects and scenes? Is the way artists use them related to the way we perceive them? To answer these questions, we studied the microgenetic development of the object perception and formation. Our hypothesis is that the main object properties are extracted in sequential order and in the same order that these roles are also used by artists and children of different age to paint objects. The results supported the microgenesis of object formation according to the following sequence: contours, color, shading, and lighting. Keywords: Shape perception, color perception, perceptual organization, shading and lighting perception, water- color illusion, vision and art. 1 What is a visual object? 1.1 Figure-ground attributes The answer to the question “what is a visual object?” starts from the figure-ground segregation first explored by Rubin in 1921, who studied the three main properties belonging to the figure, but not the background, in conditions based on simple contours. Through phenomenological experiments, Rubin discovered the following general figure-ground principles: surrounded- ness, size, orientation, contrast, symmetry, convexity, and parallelism. In his experiments, Rubin used line drawings to emphasize one aspect of the representation of such objects, namely, the 2-D outline—the external bounding contour, or silhouette. In Figure 1 these properties are clearly visible. This figure can be described as follows: four wiggly rectangles, the larger one including the other three, smaller and similar to three biscuit- like surfaces upon a plate. The four rectangles assume the shape traced by the contours, implying that the contours belong unilaterally to each rectangle (border-ownership, see Nakayama and Shimojo 1990; Pinna 2010a; Spillmann and Ehrenstein 2004), not to their backgrounds—ie, the area surrounding the large rectangle and the area included in the large rectangle that is the background of the small rectangles. It is worthwhile noticing that the inclusion of the three small rectangles inside the surface of the large one induces the perception of two other possible results as alternatives to the previous descriptions (ie, by perceiving one, the other is excluded and vice versa). These alternatives are the following: (i) the large rectangle appears as an empty space (some kind of window or simply as a wiggly contour) or as a hole while the small rectangles are perceived as surfaces and (ii) the small rectangles can be perceived as three holes upon the rectangular surface. These outcomes, even if possible and partially reversible, are not as strong as the previous main description that can be attributed to the size and surroundedness principles studied by Rubin. The color/brightness of the large rectangle and of the small ones is perceived full like a surface and denser than the same physical color/brightness on the surrounding background that appears instead empty, therefore, 100% transparent (Rubin 1915, 1921). More specifically, http://dx.doi.org/10.1068/i0460aap http://www.perceptionweb.com/i-perception mailto:baingio@uniss.it 258 B Pinna Figure 1. Four wiggly rectangles, the larger one including the other three, smaller and similar to three biscuit-like surfaces upon a plate. the rectangles show a surface color/brightness property (Erscheinungweise, Katz 1911, 1930): the chromatic paste appears solid, impenetrable, and epiphanous like a surface; on the contrary, the background is not seen like a surface but empty, penetrable, and diaphanous, similar to a void (Katz 1911, 1930). The small rectangles appear like figures in relation to the large rectangle, which is perceived as a sort of “background” with respect to the small rectangles but like a figure or a surface if compared with the surrounding space, perceived instead as an empty background. Briefly, the large rectangle appears as a “background surface”, on which the small rectangles are placed. The phenomenal notion of “background” emerging from the two conditions (empty space surrounding the large rectangle and large surface containing the small rectangles) belongs to two different domains: figure-ground segregation and part-whole (surrounding-included) differentiation. Thus some chromatic/brightness differentiations are perceived between the small and the large rectangles, but not in terms of full and dense versus transparent and empty as occurs with the large rectangle and surrounding space. These results suggest that every kind of figure-ground or part-whole segregation elicits a chromatic-brightness differentiation, whose phenomenal properties depend on the specific kind of segregation perceived. Next, and joined to the previous figure-ground attributes—ie, the unilateral belonging- ness of the contours that become boundaries of the figure and the chromatic/brightness differentiation between figure and background—there is a third main attribute, namely, that figures appear closer to the observer than do backgrounds: thus, the large rectangle appears closer than the empty surrounding space, and the small rectangles appear closer than does the large one. The perception of the three attributes is clearly related to the formation of the main object attributes, ie, shape, color, and depth (Rubin 1915, 1921), emerging when a figure-ground segregation occurs. Figure 1 suggests that a single contour is perceived as a breakpoint differentiating the visual field in complementary (opposite) attributes related to shape, color, and depth. In other words, a contour induces a phenomenal asymmetry of figure-ground attributes. If this were not true, then it would be impossible to perceive Stravinsky’s portrait in Picasso’s drawing illustrated in Figure 2a or, more simply, an amoeboid surface in Figure 2b. Instead, the expected results would have been, in Figure 2a, a complex set of contours running in Perceptual organization of shape, color, shade, and lighting 259 different directions and intersecting one another without showing any specific surface or object organization, and in Figure 2b, an undulated closed contour. It should be noted that Picasso’s drawing shows both figure-ground segregation and part-whole organization as in Figure 1, demonstrating superimposed planes and layers of figures and surfaces completing amodally (Pinna 2008a) one behind the other. Figure 2. Stravinsky’s portrait (1920) by Picasso (a) and an amoeboid surface (b). The phenomenal organization of contours in figure-ground and part-whole organizations can be considered as the visual evolution of a contour in a surface. The perception of Figure 3a as an open figure rather than as an undulated contour clearly demonstrates this unavoidable evolution. The figural effect strongly persists. This result also occurs in Figure 3b, where the vertical undulated contour creates a figure-ground segregation on both its left and right sides. The three attributes of shape, color, and depth even if reversible on the two sides are distinctly perceived. In Figure 3c, the perception of a contour is enhanced at the expense of the surface evolution by interweaving its terminations. It is expected that the line perception from its ends fills the entire contour, thus eliciting the perception of an undulated line. This expectation prevents possible inner contradictions or antinomies within the contour continuation (see also Pinna and Reeves 2006). Nevertheless, this is not the main result: the undulated central component of the contour, the one not interweaved, is seen as a figure or as a surface similarly to Figure 2b and Figure 3a. Despite the uniqueness of the geometrical contour and of the good continuation principle as suggested by Wertheimer (1922, 1923), the line is perceived as such only in its terminations and becomes a surface (a boundary contour) in its central component. This figure shows the necessity to distinguish between line and contour perception, where the contour refers to the conditions where a line represents a shape or a surface. It is worthwhile noticing that the global convexity of Figure 3c creates an inside-outside effect in the whole figure. However, the same distinction between line and boundary contour occurs also when the inside-outside effect is annulled in conditions similar to Figure 3b (Figure 3d). This demonstrates that interweaving versus untwine conditions are the most responsible for the presence within the same figure of contours that appear as lines or boundary contours along the same drawing. This kind of discontinuation of contour and figure/surface perception can also be ob- served in Picasso’s (Figures 4a–e) drawings. More specifically, in Figures 4d–e, the surrounding contours among all the ones illustrated become the boundary of the figures, while the inner ones appear like filling coloration or part-whole articulation. All the previous examples support the idea that the contours tend to become the boundaries of segregated surfaces, 260 B Pinna Figure 3. An open figure (a), figure-ground segregation on both left and right sides (b), the non- interweaved undulated central component of the contour appears as a figure (c–d). even under unfavorable conditions like those illustrated in Figures 3c and 3d and Figure 4, thus creating asymmetrical and complementary figure-ground attributes. Figure 4. Picasso’s drawings. (a) The Dog, 1907; (b) The Horse, 1907; (c) The Horse, 1912; (d) The Centaur, 1910; (e) Women, 1915. The figure-ground segregation problem, posed by the previous figures, is related to the way the complementary properties are extracted and organized. The main questions we asked in this work are: Where are representations of shape, color, depth, and lighting mostly located? Does their formation take time to develop? How do they contribute to determining and defining a visual object, and how do they differ? How do visual artists use them to create objects and scenes? Is the way artists use them related to the way we perceive them? 2 General methods 2.1 Subject For each set of figures different groups of 12 undergraduate students of architecture, design, and linguistics (regarding the descriptions of the figures reported within all sections, except section 4.2.1) as well as 12 children for each age from 5 to 18 years old (as regards the results reported in section 4.2.1) participated in the experiments. Undergraduate students had some basic knowledge of gestalt psychology and visual illusions, but they were naive both to the phenomena studied and to the purpose of the experiments. Within each group, subjects were about 50% male and 50% female, and all had normal or corrected-to-normal vision. Perceptual organization of shape, color, shade, and lighting 261 2.2 Stimuli Stimuli were the different sets of pictures that are presented in the following sections of the article. Every set of stimuli was described by a different group of subjects. The overall sizes of the visual stimuli were ˜4 deg. The figures were shown on a computer screen with ambient illumination from an Osram Daylight fluorescent light (250 lux, 5600° K). Stimuli were displayed on a 33 cm color CRT monitor (Sony GDM-F520 1600x1200 pixels, refresh rate 100 Hz), driven by a MacBook Pro computer with an NVIDIA GeForce 8600M GT. Viewing was binocular in the frontoparallel plane at a distance of 50 cm from the monitor. 2.3 Procedure Two methods were used with undergraduate students: one more qualitative (phenomeno- logical task), similar to those used by gestalt psychologists, and another more quantitative (rating task). A new task (pictorial reproduction task) was used with children of different ages. 2.3.1 Phenomenological task The task of the subjects was to report spontaneously what they perceived by giving an exhaustive description of the main visual property. The descriptions were provided by at least 10 out of 12 subjects and were reported concisely within the main text to aid the reader in the stream of argumentations. The descriptions were judged by three graduate students of linguistics, naive as to the hypotheses, to get a fair representation of the ones given by the observers. Subjects were allowed to make free comparisons, confrontations, afterthoughts, to see in different ways, distance, etc, to match the stimulus with every other one. Variations and possible comparisons occurring during the free exploration were noted down by the experimenter. As concerns these tasks and procedure see Pinna (2010b). 2.3.2 Rating task A new group of 12 subjects rated the adequacy of the edited results that emerged from the phenomenological task. They were instructed to rate (in percent) the descriptions of the specific attribute obtained in the phenomenological experiments. In other words, subjects were instructed to rate the relative strength or salience (in percent) of the descriptions of the phenomenological task as follows: “please rate whether this statement is an accurate reflection of your perception of the stimulus, on a scale from 100 (perfect agreement) to 0 (complete disagreement)”. Throughout the text, we reported descriptions, whose results of the rating task (mean rating) were greater than 80. 2.3.3 Pictorial reproduction task The task of the children was to describe and make a painted copy (the order of the two tasks were randomized) of what they perceived on the computer screen (see the stimuli reported in section 4.2). Possible stages of development were defined by 100% of times that subjects represented the stimuli in a specific way. Children could use freely all the pastels, provided by the experimenter in a paintbox containing 36 different colors. All subjects were tested individually and video recorded to keep track of the temporal sequence of the pictorial reproduction. During the experiment, observation and painting time was unlimited. Reports for visual stimuli occurred spontaneously and fast, while painting time could change according to the children’s skills, age, and personal reproduction speed. 262 B Pinna 3 Boundary, color, shading, and lighting contours 3.1 Where are shape, color, and depth mostly located? Some answers to the previous questions can be found by going back to the previous figures and by improving their figure-ground effects. As for the question “where are shape, color, and depth mostly located?”, they suggested that, under these specific conditions, these attributes are placed along the contours. Because a single contour tends to be perceived as the boundary of an object, and because it tends to impart surface color/brightness attributes and depth segregation, it follows that the information about these three attributes depends and is placed along the contour. A convincing demonstration of this general statement can be obtained by asking subjects to paint any object. It is expected that they take a black pastel and draw the boundaries of the object forming its shape. The drawing of the boundary contours is considered sufficient to create a visual object. It is sufficient because the addition of other information, such as color, shades, and lighting, is usually considered secondary with respect to the contours. The presence of contours is sufficient to create objects and events in many different domains like art (see previous drawings and the detail of Giotto’s fresco of Figure 5a, detail of Death of St Francis and Inspection of Stigmata, 1320), comics (Figure 5b), Roman mosaics (Figure 5c), and Greek decorations (Figure 5d). It is necessary because without contours no object can be created. This is also true under conditions apparently contradicting this statement, like in Seurat’s paintings, where lines and contours are now made of discrete elements (points) instead of continuous lines. Therefore, these paintings can be considered in terms of visual scale and observation distance. The primary role of contours remains strong also after a very large magnification and even when only the dots emerge. In fact, under these conditions the tendency to group the dots in objects and create contours is immediate as demonstrated by gestalt psychologists. In Figure 5e, Picasso’s woman (Blue Nude, 1902) emerges not on the basis of the colors filling the canvas but mostly because of the contours that organize the chromatic paste to become different properties of the woman’s body, ie, shade, surface color, and light. A further demonstration of the necessary condition is the fact that contours are depicted even where they are not physically required. This implies that contours are phenomenally but not physically necessary. In Figures 5f–h, respectively, two paintings by Schiele (Self-Portrait, 1910 and The Artist’s Wife, 1917) and one by Botticelli (The Birth of Venus, 1482) show the use of the sharpness and strength of the contours and demonstrate their shaping effect placed everywhere in the figure even where contours are not necessarily required. Last but not least, as demonstrated by Rubin, all the figure-ground properties emerge immediately and automatically with contours and so without any need to paint them or to add shading or lighting. All these examples prove that the contours are of paramount importance in defining a visual object. In spite of these arguments, by using only one black contour it is difficult or impossible to understand the visual organization of the figure-ground attributes, and thus some of the previous questions: Does their formation take time to develop? How do they contribute to determining and defining a visual object, and how do they differ? To answer these questions, we suggest introducing along the contours some variations as demonstrated by the watercolor illusion (Devinck et al 2005; Pinna 1987, 2005, 2008b; Pinna and Grossberg 2005; Pinna et al 2001; Pinna et al 2003; Spillmann et al 2004; von der Heydt and Pierson 2006; Werner et al 2007; Wollschläger et al 2002). The set of figural properties emerging from this illusion depends on two factors: the juxtaposition of contours and the formation of asymmetrical luminance and chromatic conditions along the contours. The main argument is the following: because Rubin’s figure-ground attributes emerge by virtue Perceptual organization of shape, color, shade, and lighting 263 Figure 5. Examples of the primary role of the boundary contours in defining a visual object. of the phenomenal complementation of the unilateral belongingness of the boundaries, the chromatic brightness induction and depth segregation produced on both sides of a contour, by creating a physical asymmetry (asymmetrical gradient) through a juxtaposition of contour, the complementary figure-ground attributes are expected to be enhanced and possibly attributed to different adjacent contours. This suggests different contour roles in the watercolor illusion. 3.2 Different contour roles in the watercolor illusion 3.2.1 Shape and color with two contours One of the simplest conditions of the watercolor illusion induced by two adjacent contours is illustrated in Figure 6, where the black contours of Figure 1 are split into two adjacent purple and orange contours. Phenomenally, the three figure-ground attributes described in relation to Figure 1 are strongly improved. (i) The three biscuit-like surfaces and the large wiggly rectangle show now less ambiguously the unilateral belongingness of the purple boundaries to them, ie, their belongingness is now perceived univocal and not reversible. The other possible solutions described in Figure 1 become now impossible: both the large and small rectangles cannot be perceived as holes or empty spaces. (ii) The inner coloration of the figures appears epiphanous, like a surface color, and is distinctly perceived tinted with a light orange color that fills homogeneously the biscuits and the large rectangle. (iii) The part-whole organization is perceived univocal, ie, three small wiggly rectangles closer like bas-reliefs placed upon a large rectangle segregated in depth from the empty surrounding space. Starting from this figure, a deeper phenomenological analysis advocates several general statements. First of all, the unilateral and univocal belongingness of the purple contours to the biscuit-like shapes and to the large rectangle suggests that only one of the two juxtaposed contours becomes the boundary of the object. Pinna (2005) and Pinna and Reeves (2006) showed that the contour with the highest luminance contrast tends to be perceived as the outermost boundary of the figure. We call this “boundary contour”. In Figure 7, by reversing the colors of the two contours, ie, the purple becomes orange and vice versa, the boundary contour is also reversed, creating three biscuit-like holes within a large rectangular hole. “Holes upon a larger hole” is very different from “figures upon a figure”. Only the second condition is logically possible. However, what is logically impossible can be phenomenally possible. The two domains obey different rules (see also Kanizsa 1985, 1991). It is worthwhile 264 B Pinna Figure 6. The watercolor illusion. Figure 7. A variation of Figure 6 by reversing the colors of the two contours. noticing that by perceiving these results the gaze spontaneously follows the contours in all their inner and outer components. To better appreciate the perception of holes upon a larger hole see Figure 8. Here, the three holes are now placed on a large rectangular surface. Figure 8. A variation of Figure 7 by reversing the colors of the large rectangle. The second main statement derived by the previous figures and the first statement say that if one of the two contours assumes one role, the juxtaposed one assumes a different role. In particular, if the purple contours of Figure 6 are the boundaries of the objects, the orange contours define their color. We call this “color contour”. A further demonstration of this general statement can be proven phenomenally by referring to the spontaneous descriptions of Figure 6: three orange biscuits overlapped to a large orange rectangle. What is striking about this description is what is not mentioned—ie, the color of the boundaries. Only the color contour has a noticeable color while the boundary contour, playing a boundary role, does Perceptual organization of shape, color, shade, and lighting 265 not show its color. This does not mean that we cannot see the color of the boundary contours, but that it remains “unspecified” and unnoticeable like a background. Even if Picasso in Figure 5e used black contours to define the boundaries, nobody sees a black woman. The color of the boundaries—even when strengthened and therefore more visible like in Picasso’s painting—appears chromatically unspecified. The boundaries are boundaries without color (ie, they manifest a unique role, just boundaries). In other words, the boundary contours define only the boundaries and not the color, ie, the inner coloration. In Figures 9a–c, the colors of the boundaries of Matisse’s paintings are irrelevant because they are boundaries, so they pass unnoticed. Figure 9. Matisse’s paintings. (a) Lady on the Terrace, 1902; (b) De jeu-de-boulesspelers, 1908; (c) Young Woman, 1939. Another way to demonstrate the specialized and unique role of the contours is illustrated in Figure 10, where a variation of Picasso’s horse shows a couple of black contours (Figure 10a) slightly but clearly shifted in the oblique direction (see also Pinna 2011). The shifted contours show an effect of blur or duplicity of the boundaries of the horse. On the basis of the first general statement (only one of the juxtaposed contours, ie, the one with the highest luminance contrast, becomes the boundary of the object), given two black contours, none of them prevails on the other as a boundary contour and none prevails as a color contour but both are perceived as boundaries. The color contour can be assigned only after the boundary contour has been already assigned. Figure 10. Variations of Picasso’s Horse. By replacing one of the two black contours with an orange one (Figure 10b), an orange horse is now perceived. It is very difficult to perceive a black horse. The black contour is 266 B Pinna predominantly perceived as the boundary of the horse, while the orange contour appears as its color. It is worthwhile noticing that the modal coloration of the watercolor illusion is now absent, but an amodal spreading of color is perceived. The difference between the two colorations is based on their phenomenal appearance: in the case of the watercolor illusion, the color is perceived as painted within the figure, in the case of the horse the orange color of the contour is perceived as its color without modal coloration, but giving anyway a sense of chromatic completeness, unity, and wholeness (Pinna 2008a). We call this “amodal wholeness of color”. When the black contour is replaced by a purple one (Figure 10c), the horse appears orange: the color of the purple contour passes unnoticed and can be discounted similarly to the black contour of Figure 10b. Therefore, the orange contour assumes again the role of color and the purple one the role of boundary. The role specialization emerges also from the fact that we perceive an orange horse and not a purple or a purple-orange horse. This suggests that the boundary role belongs to the contours with highest luminance contrast independently from its color. It is worthwhile saying that when there is only one contour as shown in Figure 10d and 10e, the first attribute that tends to be extracted and perceived is the boundary. Its color passes unnoticed because it assumes the role of boundary. Therefore, in both these conditions we perceive a horse and not a black or a purple horse. The previous figures suggest a third general statement: while boundary contours are geared to delineate, outline, and segregate an object locally and in detail along the subtle line that splits a figure from its background, color contours are aimed to complete and fill globally both modally and amodally the inner surface of a visual object. From the three previous statements it follows that the information needed to define shape and color of a perceptual object is placed on its external bonds and limits, thin like two juxtaposed contours and placed where the object segregates from the background. From the external contours these properties fill the whole object along the boundaries and within its surface. Two controls with contours near equiluminance, illustrated in Figures 11a–b, corroborate these observations by demonstrating that the two contours show both boundary and color roles. Figure 11. Controls near equiluminance. 3.2.2 Shape, color, depth, and lighting with six contours Perceptual organization of shape, color, shade, and lighting 267 By using two juxtaposed contours we can study the role of two (boundary and color contours) of the three properties of the figure-ground segregation. Under these conditions, the two roles appear clearly distinct. Nevertheless, the further distinction among boundary, color, and depth attributes cannot be effectively studied and, thus, understood by using only two juxtaposed contours. As a matter of fact, the orange contour does not show only color assignment but also shading and depth properties. The decrement of the luminance contrast perceived through the wiggly contours and the illusory coloration—the purple contour, the orange contour, and the light orange coloration—creates an asymmetrical luminance profile that provides a depth cue similar to that of the luminance gradients that govern the shape- from-shading (Pinna et al 2003; Spillmann et al 2004) and the Renaissance Chiaroscuro (Pinna 2005; Pinna and Reeves 2006). The Renaissance artists used the chiaroscuro (see Figures 13a and 13c in section 4.1) as a standard set of rules to apply light and shadow to a shape in order to create an illusion of depth. A highlight marks the point where the light is orthogonally reflected. This is most often bright white, and it is the closest point to the light source where light is most concentrated. Highlights can be seen more easily on reflective or glossy surfaces. Moving away from this highlight, light hits the object less directly and therefore has a darker value of grey. The shadow is the dark region opposite the light region. The core shadow is the center of the darkened area. The reflected light area is the back edge of an object. It occurs in a shadowed area and is caused by the light being reflected from another area or created by a secondary light source. To study and understand the organization of boundary, color, and depth attributes, it is necessary to add more adjacent contours (eg, for a total of 6 as illustrated in Figures 12a–b; due to the limited space and therefore to the size of the illustrations, the number of contours may not be perceived clearly, but they emerge when zoomed into). Pinna (2008a) demonstrated that by increasing the number of adjacent contours, (i) the unilateral belongingness of the object becomes stronger, (ii) the modal coloration effect decreases, and (iii) the depth segregation and the volumetric effects increase. The amoeboid objects appear like irregular undulated shapes with a 3-D appearance, similar to a high relief, illuminated by a bright light. The inner regions can be perceived as bright fuzzy whites, luminous and slightly whiter than the white of the backgrounds. Nevertheless, the colors of the whole objects are amodally perceived, respectively, as yellow (Figure 12a) and magenta/fuchsia (Figure 12b). Again, even if the modal coloration is almost absent, the amodal one can be clearly perceived. A control is shown in Figure 12c. To judge the phenomenal strength of these results, we can try to perceive Figures 12a– b according to the following descriptions, which are alternatives to the previous ones: (i) two amoeboid objects, yellow and magenta in their periphery and white inside; or (ii) two amoeboid white objects, yellow and magenta in their periphery; or (iii) two amoeboid yellow and magenta objects, white in their center. These descriptions do not say anything about the organization of color, depth, and lighting. Indeed, what emerges are two-tone objects. More particularly, in the first description the colors of the objects are juxtaposed and are, respectively, yellow/magenta and white; in the second description, the white is the color of the whole object while the yellow/magenta are colors of a part of each object (the periphery); finally, the third description reveals a part-whole organization opposite to the second description: the yellow/magenta are colors of the whole objects, while the white is the color of a part of each object (the center) (see also Pinna 2008a, 2008b). Though phenomenally probable, these descriptions are not perceived as strong as the previous ones, where the inner white of each object appears homogeneous and depending on the different distribution of illumination upon the object based on its 3-D volume. 268 B Pinna The tendency to perceive a unique color filling in the whole object can be considered as a fourth general phenomenal statement. This can be demonstrated again through the a priori unlikely perception of the following more and more analytical description, where the local conditions are not organized in a whole: two amoeboid shapes, whose boundaries start with black, continue with a short luminance gradient of yellow and magenta, and end with white within the large inner area of each object. This kind of description does not say anything about the organization of the contours in boundary, color, and depth. Even if phenomenally probable, it belongs to the most unlikely pole of the perceptual gradient (see Pinna 2010b). Figure 12. Boundary, color, depth, and lighting attributes obtained with six adjacent contours (for details see the text). The tendency to perceive a unique color occurs also within the bunch of contours and not only between their color and the inner white. Not all the yellows and the magentas are perceived amodally as the color of the whole object but only one of them. This is clearly perceived and agrees with the second statement related to the specialization of roles. Phenomenally, the boundary contour appears to be followed by a bunch of juxtaposed contours with lower and lower luminance contrast modeling the volume by depicting and appearing like shades. We call this “shading contours”. They precede the color contour responsible for both modal and amodal coloration. The location of the shading contours in between boundary and color contour suggests that they are aimed at enhancing the boundaries and the shape properties of the object. In other words, they belong to the shape domain, phenomenally different from the color domain. The innermost contour at the extreme of the gradient with the lowest luminance contrast defines the properties of the lighting, its color and intensity, as shown in Figure 12d. We call this “lighting contour”. The lighting contour is located in between the color contour and the brightest inner homogeneous area of the object. It belongs to the color domain. In other words, even if shading and lighting can be considered as part of the chiaroscuro, they are perceived as part of different objects: the shading enhances the unilateral belongingness of the boundaries by depicting its volume, while the lighting contour reveals the light and the illumination of the object. The four roles, emerging from the adjacent contours (see also Pinna 2008b, 2008b; Pinna and Reeves 2006) under these simple conditions, suggest that most of the information needed to define shape, color, depth (volume), and illumination (under the conditions shown here) is placed along its boundaries, where the object is segregated from the background. The specialization of roles clearly demonstrates a new kind of perceptual organization of figurality. Perceptual organization of shape, color, shade, and lighting 269 The juxtaposition of contours reinforces and more strongly demonstrates the organization of these attributes but also adds a new property, the lighting, never mentioned by Rubin in these terms. Now, if these roles are related to the main object attributes, the previous questions come back spontaneously: Does their formation take time to develop? How do they contribute to determining and defining a visual object, and how do they differ? 4 Microgenetic development of the object attributes The previous questions, derived from the phenomenal specialized roles of adjacent contours, suggest that a holistic and integrated process like the figure-ground segregation can be segmented and broken up into different and individual attributes likely belonging to different neural pathways. These questions imply the idea of a microgenetic process that breaks up the holistic fabric of object perception into variably differentiated yet phenomenal meaningful attributes and relations among them. The term “genetic” refers here to the developmental dynamics of a psychological process (or “mental process”), not to a genome or to an adjectival use of the metaphor “genetic program”. By breaking up the continuous fabric of attributes, a microgenetic viewpoint invokes genetic precedence of continuum over discrete attributes and, at the same time, suggests their organization into specific forms on the basis of specific principles. The phenomenal precedence of continuum over discrete structures runs parallel and is accompanied by its opposite—ie, the phenomenal presence of discrete attributes forming the continuum of the perceived object. This statement of the problem goes beyond the idea of a reconstruction from elementary features because it embraces continuum and discrete, global and local, whole and parts, and object and attributes. These contraries are thus two ways of seeing the same thing. In this sense the answers to the previous questions suggest also a macrogenetic process—namely, the sudden integration of attributes producing a clear phenomenal variation in the structure of the object formation. All the figures here considered cannot answer directly the previous questions, but the developmental dynamics of the process of formation and integration of attributes can mark out the way. We suggest that the visual organization of object attributes can be understood by studying how children of different ages and visual artists use these attributes to create objects and scenes. This implies that the way children, people, and artists paint is related to or is a reflex of the way people normally perceive and, thus, organize these attributes. Microgenesis usually refers to development on a brief, present-time scale of a percept. This defines the occurrence of immediate experience as dynamic and unfolding and as differentiation in which the final experience is already embodied in the early stages of its development. This idea of microgenesis subsumes a cognitive approach according to which any process of perception is primarily a process of differentiation and development, rather than one of detection of a stimulus array or information, organization, and transformation of multiple primitive components. By studying the process of object developmental formation and thus by extending the dynamics observed from the few seconds to the minutes or hours necessary to create objects, we go beyond this controversy to being able to study both perspectives and point of views. The phenomenological and epistemological nature of this controversy will not be further considered in this work. 4.1 How do visual artists use figural attributes to create objects and scenes? Figure 13a shows Leonardo’s drawing (Head of a Girl, 1483) in different moments of the process of formation of a woman with the main object attributes. Going from the outside to the inside of the figure, the number of object attributes increases more and more. On the right side, the boundaries are drawn as first and outline 270 B Pinna Figure 13. Organization of figural attributes used by artists in sequential order to create objects and scenes. Going from the outside to the inside of the figure, the boundary contours represent the first property segregating unilaterally a figure from the background and tracing its shape, then the color fills the inner edges, and finally, shading and lighting complete the figurality organization. (For details see the text.) the whole shape, and then parallel oblique segments fill in the hair and part of the body of the woman. More internally, the shading models the volume of the face, cheekbones, and eyebrows, and finally, white brushstrokes create lighting effects in the upper-left eyelid and below the eyes. A similar organization of attributes is shown in Giacometti’s (Portrait of Marguerite Maeght, 1961), Michelangelo’s (Madonna and Child, 1525), and Picasso’s (Paul as Harlequin, 1924) paintings illustrated in Figures 13b–d. These figures suggest that the way artists paint objects is related to the specialization of roles and positions in the watercolor illusion. This idea is corroborated by the fact that a figure made up of contours can stand alone evocating all the figure-ground attributes as suggested by Rubin. All the more reason boundary and color can stand alone as demonstrated in Lichtenstein’s (Hopeless, 1963), Japanese (Shangchun, 1024), and Ancient Egyptian (Wall Painting in the Tomb of Sennejem, Egypt)artworks of Figures 13e–g. Under these conditions, the boundaries are filled with homogeneous color without any shading and lighting. The results of Figure 13 and, more particularly, those of Figures 13a–c indicate that the boundary contours represent the first and most important property of a visual object segregating unilaterally a figure from the background and tracing its shape, then the color fills the inner edges, and finally, shading and lighting complete the figurality organization. These examples also imply that the object attributes are relatively independent. A further demonstration of the strong relations between visual organization of figural attributes and object formation emerges from the way comics are created and addressed to children of different ages. In Figures 14a–c, the kind and the number of attributes used in the comic characters are clearly addressed to children older and older. Also, the way shading and lighting are painted supports our hypotheses. In Figures 15a–b, the shading of the Marvel and Etruscan (Paestum wall detail) characters are represented without the chiaroscuro technique and instead by using mostly contours and surfaces, while the coloration is painted homogeneously. This demonstrates that the shading belongs to the Perceptual organization of shape, color, shade, and lighting 271 Figure 14. Cartoon and comic-book characters. (a) The Flinstones; (b) Tex Willer; (c) Superman. boundary domain. It appears, in fact, like boundaries of concave and convex creases and folds outlining the volume of the object. Figure 15. Ways of painting shading and lighting. The lighting tends instead to be painted through a different color, usually white and, thus, brighter (Figures 15c–d, Pablo Picasso, Madame Olga Picasso, 1923 and Edward Hopper, Morning Sun, 1952) than the color filling the object, but this is not necessarily true as shown in Figures 15e–g (Giorgio de Chirico, Cavalli in riva al mare, 1928; Pablo Picasso, Female Head, 1902, and Tex Willer comic-book character), where the lighting is chromatically different from the one of the object. This suggests that lighting belongs to the color domain. In addition, Schiele’s paintings (Figures 16a–b, Nude, 1910 and Portrait of Woman with Orange Hat, 1910) demonstrate the primacy of the boundary contours, the use of modal (very close to the watercolor illusion) and amodal coloration, and the belongingness of the lighting (highlights) to the color domain. A clear example of amodal coloration is illustrated in Picasso’s painting (Figure 16c, Nude Woman, 1968), where even if the color does not fill modally the entire inner edge of the woman, amodally it does. Figure 16d shows the primacy of the boundaries even under non- figurative paintings like this Last Judgment (1912) by Kandinsky. The black contours become the boundaries of something not representational. They are something and nothing at the same time. All the other colors fill each something, adding further meaning. Even within a 272 B Pinna painting of Pollock’s, the abstract expressionism of colors can very easily reveal boundaries of “something”. Figure 16. Examples showing the primacy of the boundary contours. Finally, Basquiat’s (Untitled, 1982) and Picasso’s paintings of Figures 16e–g (Self-portrait, 1959 and Rooster, 1973) corroborate the idea of specialization of roles of adjacent and close contours in terms of figure attributes as shown in the watercolor illusion and in the horses of Figure 10 and Figure 11. All these phenomenal results support the idea of a visual organization of figural attributes, their independence, the way they contribute to determine and form a visual object, namely their specialized roles/domains, and finally, how they are bound, namely through a sequential juxtaposition of roles structurally and phenomenally not very different from the watercolor illusion. The previous paintings demonstrate that these properties are spatially juxtaposed one after the other, but also suggest a possible temporal juxtaposition. Unfortunately, these artworks cannot say anything about the sequential order of the attributes and the time needed to create them. This is where the microgenetic process, occurring during the visual organization of figural attributes, comes in. 4.2 How are objects organized in shapes, shades, colors, and lighting during visual and pictorial reproduction development? To understand the temporal juxtaposition and organization of figural roles, we studied the pictorial reproduction of several artworks in which these roles are shown very clearly. The roles of boundary and color contours are clearly visible by watching children drawing a figure. With a black pastel, they first draw the contours of the object. Then, they use colored contours that fill the inner edges of the figure, following the direction of the boundary contours. In a first stage (4–5 years old) the coloration with color contours can get through the boundary contour and sometimes some parts of the figure can remain unfilled. This stage is the first case of amodal wholeness of color. Only in a second stage the action of filling with color contours becomes precise and stops when it meets the barrier of the boundary contours. It is worthwhile noticing that, even though drawing skills could be an important influence, it is obvious that the boundary contour still plays a primary role. Perceptual organization of shape, color, shade, and lighting 273 The development of drawing was previously studied by Parsons (1987, 1994) from a perspective different from ours and related to aesthetic reactions. Parsons suggested five stages of aesthetic development. The first stage, called favoritism, is an immediate enjoyment of art without any inquiry. Beauty and realism, in the second stage, describe the appreciation of art because of its resemblance to actual beautiful things. Expressiveness, the third stage, involves a particular interest in the topic and interpretation of art. Style and form, in the fourth stage, involve the observer assigning the artwork to its historical and cultural context. In the fifth stage, called autonomy, judgments about art become independent. The pictorial artworks studied here, related to understand the temporal juxtaposition and organization of figural roles, were the following. Donaldson’s drawing ( Joseph Donaldson, Old Man, 1973) illustrated in Figure 17a shows contours and lines (see the distinction between contours and lines in Figure 3), intertwined like in a scribble. They appear organized in external boundaries (the whole shape of the face), internal parts (ear, eye, hair, etc), and volumes (of the nose, cheekbone, jaw, etc) creating a face in profile. This condition induces a visual organization of contours in boundaries, part-whole, depth, and volume. The question is: how do children organize and represent these figural attributes during the visual and pictorial development? Figure 17b shows a detail of a painting by Matisse (Nude with Raised Arms, 1923). This work apparently violates the tendency to perceive/create a unique color filling in a whole object, described in section 3.2.2. Nevertheless, under these conditions the multiplicity of colors is related to a multiplicity of different roles: boundary, shade, color, and lighting. In other words, those colors can be easily assigned to different roles. The complex chromatic organization of roles in this figure suggests the same question previously asked. More specifically, how do colors get organized in figural attributes during the development of visual object representation? Figure 17c shows a third condition (Woman with the Hat by Matisse), where the color organization of Figure 17b is taken to extremes. Now, the colors lose the figural roles, perceived more easily in Figure 17b, and appear like a chaotic chromatic distribution without any visual logic. A woman is easily recognized, but it is very difficult or impossible to assign figural roles other than multiple coloration to the colors depicted. They can also be perceived parceling out the wholeness of the shape (Pinna 2010c). How do these colors interfere with the whole shape formation of the woman at different ages? In other words, how do colors inhibit or oppose the primary role of boundary formation? How does the multiplicity of colors support or oppose the main function of color discussed here, ie, the filling in of the figure delimited by the boundaries? A fourth painting, useful to answer our main questions, is illustrated in Figure 17d. It shows a painting by Manet (Portrait of Victorine Meurent, 1871), where colors fill amodally the blouse of the woman by shading the crease with a light blue color. They also represent the lit up color of the face and the shadow crossing one third of the face and half of the neck. The separation between these two regions contains a physical sharp contour, while the shape of the jaw does not show any clear contour. Therefore, the question is: How do children of different ages paint the amodal completion of color and the boundary, color, and shadow organization? Lucien Freud’s painting (Reflection, 1985), illustrated in Figure 17e, shows deep and sharp shading and lighting revealing a face seamed by wrinkles and the body signed by muscles. What is the whole amodal color that completes behind shading and lighting? How are boundaries, colors, shading, and lighting, so deeply and sharply represented, perceived and painted at different ages? 274 B Pinna Figure 17. Stimuli. Figure 17f represents a control for all the other works described in this section. This control is necessary to compare real and artwork conditions and the object attributes, their organization and strength. It shows a photographic real woman face in profile with complete figurality attributes and, more particularly, with clear lighting and highlights. The questions are the following: Does this photo show the same object attributes as the artwork conditions? How are boundary, color, shade, and lighting attributes of the two conditions represented at different ages? 4.2.1 How do children use figural attributes to create objects? Each of the figures of the previous section, described and reproduced freely with colored pastels by different groups of 12 children from 5 to 18 years old, revealed three main stages in the development of the pictorial representation. These stages that we are going to describe briefly can be considered both as continuous and discontinuous. Nevertheless, we intend to go beyond this controversy because our data are not sufficient to discriminate between these theoretical and phenomenal problems. Therefore, by using the term “stage” we refer to both qualitative and quantitative differences in behavior without taking a stance on the continuous or on the discontinuous variation. Figure 17a was reproduced by children according to the following stages. (i) Up to 6 years old the contours of this figure were represented mostly and uniquely as boundary contours. Therefore, the inner filling of interwoven contours was absent, discounted, and unnecessary (Figure 18a), according to the children’s spontaneous descriptions. (ii) Gradually, up to 10 years old, the interwoven contours were represented more and more clearly as filling the inner edges defined by the sharp boundaries (Figure 18b). The inner contours were used like colors aimed to fill in the face in profile. (iii) The next stage showed the gradual emergence of the contours used as shades to create volume. This stage became a stable way of representing the face only with children of 14 to 15 years of age (Figure 18c). From 10 to 15 years old, children drew this figure in between a stage where the contours are used as boundaries and colors and a stage where they are used also as shadings. It is worthwhile noticing that Perceptual organization of shape, color, shade, and lighting 275 in the first two stages children drew the figure starting from the external boundaries; then they drew the inner parts of the face (eye, ear, etc). Only in the third stage (18 years old) did young adults draw the face not necessarily starting from the external boundaries but also (though less often) from single components inside the face. In this stage the organization of the contour roles reveals a stronger integration of the figural attributes and a more flexible way of drawing the face. Figure 18. Free reproduction of Donaldson’s drawing by children at different ages. The pictorial representation of the second stimulus (Figure 17b) revealed the following stages. (i) Children up to 7 years old painted the boundary contours with the black pastel, and then filled homogeneously the inner edges of the woman. The multicoloration of Figure 17b was totally absent in the reproductions and the colors assumed the unique role of filling in the figure. During this stage colors were not used to depict shading (shadows) and lighting. This phase supports the general tendency to perceive or use a unique color to fill in a whole object both modally and amodally (Figure 19a). (ii) From 7 to 14 years of age, children started gradually to enter the second stage, where the multicoloration of the stimulus was represented and used both as coloration and shade/shadow (Figure 19b). Subjects continued, though less and less frequently, to reproduce the stimulus similarly to the first stage until the age of 17 years old, when they started (iii) the third stage during which they used colors to represent more realistically shadows and lighting (Figure 19c) as emerged also from the descriptions. During the three stages the temporal representation sequence of the figural attributes was the following: black boundaries, color filling in the inner edges, and formation of shading/shadows and lighting. Figure 19. Free reproduction of Matisse’s painting by children at different ages. The extreme chromatic conditions of Figure 17c showed again three developmental stages. (i) In the first stage, up to 7 years old, the boundary contours of the whole face and its components were drawn with black boundaries. While the face of the woman was filled with a single homogeneous color, the dress and the hat were painted multicolored (Figure 20a). (ii) In the second stage, up to 15 years old, the face was painted multicolored; however, the black boundary contours of the face and its components continued to be drawn (Figure 20b). 276 B Pinna This suggests that the multicoloration is used like a coloration (with many colors instead of one) of the inner edges of the woman outlined by black boundaries. (iii) After this stage, also the boundaries were painted multicolored more and more frequently (Figure 20c), even if the tendency to use black contours persists. None of the children belonging to the third stage painted the woman through a juxtaposition of colored patches. Similarly to the previous stimulus, the time sequence of pictorial representation was the formation of black boundaries and then their filling in with the multicoloration. Figure 20. Free reproduction of Matisse’s painting by children at different ages. The reproduction of Figure 17d revealed again three main developmental stages. (i) In the first stage, up to 9 years of age, a black contour delineated the boundaries of the different components of the woman. Both the face and the blouse were colored homogeneously with only one color (Figure 21a). The uniqueness of the color completes modally by filling the entire component (face or blouse). The large shadow was never represented. In this stage the jaw was always outlined by a black boundary while the shadow was not, even if its boundaries are physically much more pronounced. (ii) The chromatic differentiation, traced without boundaries, started to emerge in the second stage at about 10 years of age, but it was sometimes represented as a maquillage, a making-up coloration, or as shading (Figure 21b). The coloration of the blouse remained homogeneous until the third stage. (iii) The representation of the shadow across the face, the neck, and the shades within the blouse emerged for the first time in 17 years old young adults. Nevertheless, the shades were not painted as a chiaroscuro but by using the black pastel that defined the direction and width of the blouse creases (Figure 21c). Figure 21. Free reproduction of Manet’s painting by children at different ages. Similar results emerged also in the reproduction of Figure 17e. (i) In the first stage, up to about 10 years old, the black boundaries were filled in by a homogeneous yellow that was the Perceptual organization of shape, color, shade, and lighting 277 color perceived amodally. All subjects used the same yellow, illustrated in Figure 22a. It is worth noticing that the eyes were white, differently from the stimulus. Shading and lighting were not painted at all. (ii) In the second stage the shading depicting wrinkles and muscles were defined only through boundary contours (Figure 22b). This is a clear demonstration that shading belongs to the shape/boundary domain. (iii) Only at the age of 17 years did a representation of the shades similar to the chiaroscuro start to be used. In the three stages, children started painting from the boundary contours, and then filled in the shape with homogeneous color; after that they added the contours/boundaries of the wrinkles and muscles and, finally shaded these boundaries. The results of the control condition, illustrated in Figure 17f, strongly supported those of the artwork stimuli. (i) In the first stage, up to 14 years old, children reproduced this face in profile firstly using a black pastel to draw the whole face, the jaw, the eye, and the nose, and then they filled the face and the hair with only one homogeneous color, pink for the face and yellow for the hair. The strong highlights in the forehead, in the nose, lips, and chin were not painted despite their strong physical boundaries. On the contrary, the jaw was clearly defined by a black contour even if its boundaries are physically much weaker than those of highlights (Figure 23a). Figure 22. Free reproduction of Lucien Freud’s painting by children at different ages. (ii) The formation of shading starts the second stage from 14 to 18 years old. In the beginning the shading was similar to boundary contours or stains or spots (Figure 23b). Lighting and highlights were still absent. This result compared with the one of the shading demonstrates the independence between shading and lighting. (iii) In the third stage, at 18 years old, lighting and highlights emerged but without boundary contours, while the jaw was always defined with black boundaries. Similarly to the results of the previous stimuli, the temporal sequence of the pictorial reproduction was the same in all the stages: formation of black boundary contours, inner homogeneous coloration, formation of shading, and, finally, formation of lighting and highlights. The results of the pictorial development will be summarized and discussed in the next section. 5 Discussion and conclusions In the previous sections we showed new visual and artistic examples useful to under- stand the general problem of figure-ground segregation and its main attributes: unilateral belongingness of the boundaries, surface color/brightness induction within the boundary contours, and volume/depth emergence. We also introduced a new figural attribute: lighting. It was demonstrated that a single contour is sufficient to segregate two regions into figure and background and, as a consequence, into complementary attributes (border ownership, 278 B Pinna Figure 23. Free reproduction of photographic face in profile by children at different ages. depth segregation, and surface color). This is what many artists do when they create their work starting from a contour or when they use only contours. In this work we suggested that the figure-ground segregation problem is related to the way the complementary properties are extracted and organized. This entails some questions, whose answers are the main topic of this work: Where are representations of shape, color, depth, and lighting mostly located? Does their formation take time to develop? How do they contribute to determining and defining a visual object, and how do they differ? How do visual artists use them to create objects and scenes? Is the way artists use them related to the way we perceive them? To answer these questions, we focused our attention on the watercolor illusion with its juxtaposed contours. In fact, in this illusion the contour with the highest luminance contrast tends to be perceived as the outermost boundary of the figure, and it is called “boundary contour”. The bunch of contours with the luminance contrast lower than the boundary contour and juxtaposed to it, model the volume depicting shades. They are called “shading contours”. The “color contour”, which defines the color of the whole object, follows the shading contours, and is responsible for both modal and amodal coloration. The innermost contour placed at the extreme of the gradient with the lowest luminance contrast defines the properties of the lighting (its color and intensity), and it is called “lighting contour” (see Pinna 2008b, 2010c; Pinna and Reeves 2006). The main hypothesis of this work was that the specialization of figural roles of the juxtaposed contours in the watercolor illusion is related to the way the figural attributes are extracted and organized in human vision. To test this hypothesis, we studied the microgenetic process that breaks up the holistic fabric of object perception into differentiated yet phenomenal figural attributes and relations among them. In other words, to answer the previous questions and to test the main hypothesis, we investigated the developmental dynamics of the process of formation and integration of attributes. We assumed that the visual organization of object attributes is related to the way artists and children of different ages use these attributes to create objects and scenes. This assumption is true also in the opposite direction: the way people and artists paint is strongly related to the way people normally perceive and thus organize these attributes. The phenomenal analysis of the watercolor illusion (section 3), of some artworks (see section 4.1), and the results of the development pictorial reproduction task (section 4.2.1) support this assumption and suggest the following answers to the main questions of this work. Rubin’s figure-ground attributes are clearly related to shape, color, and depth perception. These are, in fact, the three main attributes used by artists and children of different age to Perceptual organization of shape, color, shade, and lighting 279 create objects. They do not deplete the set of possible figural attributes. In fact, lighting (and highlights) completes this set, as suggested also by some variations of the watercolor illusion. Furthermore, most of the information about the four figural attributes is located on the external bonds and limits (edges) of a figure, thin like the juxtaposed contours of the watercolor illusion, where the object segregates from the background. The figural attributes are relatively independent as clearly demonstrated by the watercolor illusion and by the temporal sequence of their occurrence during the pictorial reproduction made by each child and during the pictorial development at different ages. The temporal and developmental results demonstrated the following sequence and order among the figural attributes in creating a visual object: boundary contours, color, shading, and lighting. These sequence and order are marked by short and large lapses of time. The lapse from the use of color to the use of shadings and lighting requires much more time than the lapse from the boundaries to the color. Further studies are required to define more quantitatively the exact time structure of the stages here suggested. This temporal sequence apparently disagrees with the one emerged from the watercolor illusion: boundary, shade, color, and lighting. This difference can be attributed to the fact that in the watercolor illusion the sequence is mostly spatial and not temporal. In fact, as we suggested several times in this work, boundary and shade belong to the shape domain, while color and lighting to the color domain. In this sense, it can be expected that the spatial organization of the sequence of attributes in the watercolor illusion is different from the temporal one. Temporally, it can be more important to extract and create information belonging to boundary and color, firstly, because these two attributes belong to different domains, and secondly, because they are more and differently informative for a visual system. This hypothesis suggests that the figural attributes are hierarchically organized in terms of visual importance, ie, by contributing with a different weight and meaning to the organization of visual objects. As a matter of fact, shape defined by boundary contours is more important for visual organisms in terms of adaptive fitness than are color, shading, and lighting. In fact, it warns the presence of an object. The primacy of the boundary contours is also phenomenally related to the fact that contours alone can signal information also about surface color and depth as proposed by Rubin. Once the presence of an object is coded, color adds further important but secondary visual properties. It favors the presence, identification, and salience of objects as a cue for species, sex, fruit, identification and so on. The information, provided by shading and lighting, gives further support to the one of shape and color, but signal properties noninvariant in the same way as shape and color. The specialization and spatial/temporal sequence and organization of figural attributes can be related to recent studies demonstrating that neurons in V2 respond differently to the same contrast border, on the basis of the side of the figure to which the border belongs (Friedman et al 2003; von der Heydt et al 2003; Zhou et al 2000). These neurons are neural correlates of the unilateral belongingness of the boundaries. Other attributes of the figure- ground segregation are likely processed in areas V1 and V2 (Friedman et al 2003; von der Heydt et al 2003; Zhou et al 2000), in inferotemporal cortex of monkeys (Baylis and Driver 2001) and the human lateral occipital cortex (Kourtzi and Kanwisher 2001). This finding can be related to the chromatic/brightness complementation between figure and background (see also von der Heydt and Pearson 2006 about the watercolor illusion). The idea of specialized roles of the figural attributes and the phenomenal logic of their organization go beyond previous works and can shed light on the understanding of how neurons become more and more specialized by firing only for one figural attribute and how they are then integrated after a level of juxtaposition of attributes. 280 B Pinna In conclusion, the answers to the main questions of this work can represent the starting points to explore a new domain focused on the microgenetic development of the figural attributes within the more general problem of object organization. Integrated and multi- disciplinary studies, based on art and vision science, and visual/pictorial development, are desirable because they can strongly contribute to a full understanding (even in terms of neural circuitry) of the basic and common problem of perceptual organization of shape, color, shade, and lighting. Acknowledgements. Supported by Finanziamento della Regione Autonoma della Sardegna, ai sensi della L.R. 7 agosto 2007, n. 7, Fondo d’Ateneo (ex 60%) and Alexander von Humboldt Foundation. I thank Maria Tanca and Claudia Rimedia Satta for assistance in testing the subjects and Adam Reeves for helpful discussions, English corrections, and comments on the manuscript. I thank also Dorothee Augustin, guest editor, and the two anonymous reviewers for their suggestions that greatly improved the paper. References Baylis G C, Driver J, 2001 “Shape-coding in IT cells generalizes over contrast and mirror reversal, but not figure-ground reversal” Nature Neuroscience 4 937 – 942 J Devinck F, Delahunt P B, Hardy J L, Spillmann L, Werner J S, 2005 “The watercolor effect: Quanti- tative evidence for luminance-dependent mechanisms of long-range color assimilation” Vision Research 45 1413 – 1424 doi:10.1016/j.visres.2004.11.024 J Friedman H S, Zhou H, von der Heydt R, 2003 “The coding of uniform color figures in monkey visual cortex” The Journal of Physiology 54 593 – 613 doi:10.1113/jphysiol.2002.033555 J Kanizsa G, 1985 “Seeing and thinking” Acta Psychologica 59 23 – 33 doi:10.1016/0001-6918(85)90040- X J Kanizsa G, 1991 Vedere e pensare (Bologna, Italy: Il Mulino) J Katz D, 1911 "Die Erscheinungsweisen der Farben und ihre Beeinflussung durch die individuelle Erfahrung" Zeitschrift für Psychologie, Ergänzungsband 7 (Leipzig: Barth) pp 6 – 31 J Katz D, 1930 The World of Color, Trans. 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Modal and amodal completion of colour in art, vision science and biology” International Journal of Arts and Technology 3 195 – 220 doi:10.1504/IJART.2010.032564 J Pinna B, 2011 "The organization of shape and color in vision and art" Frontiers in Human Neuro- science 5 1 – 12 J Pinna B, Grossberg S, 2005 “The watercolor illusion and neon color spreading: A unified analysis of new cases and neural mechanisms” Journal of the Optical Society of America A 22 2207 – 2221 doi:10.1364/JOSAA.22.002207 J Pinna B, Reeves A, 2006 “Lighting, backlighting and watercolor illusions and the laws of figurality” Spatial Vision 19 341 – 373 doi:10.1163/156856806776923434 J http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.visres.2004.11.024 http://dx.doi.org/10.1113/jphysiol.2002.033555 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0001-6918(85)90040-X http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0001-6918(85)90040-X http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1061133 http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1568568053320639 http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0952523808080553 http://dx.doi.org/10.4249/scholarpedia.5352 http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/187847510X541144 http://dx.doi.org/10.1504/IJART.2010.032564 http://dx.doi.org/10.1364/JOSAA.22.002207 http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/156856806776923434 Perceptual organization of shape, color, shade, and lighting 281 Pinna B, Brelstaff G, Spillmann L, 2001 “Surface color from boundaries: A new ‘watercolor’ illusion” Vision Research 41 2669 – 2676 doi:10.1016/S0042-6989(01)00105-5 J Pinna B, Werner J S, Spillmann L, 2003 “The watercolor effect: A new principle of grouping and figure-ground organization” Vision Research 43 43 – 52 doi:10.1016/S0042-6989(02)00132-3 J Rubin E, 1915 Synsoplevede Figurer (Kobenhavn: Glydendalske Boghandel ) J Rubin E, 1921 Visuell wahrgenommene Figuren (Kobenhavn: Glydendalske Boghandel ) J Spillmann L, Ehrenstein W H, 2004 Gestalt factors in the visual neurosciences, in The Visual Neuro- sciences Ed L Chalupa, J S Werner (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press) J Spillmann L, Pinna B, Werner J S, 2004 “Form-from-watercolour in perception and old maps” in Seeing Spatial Form Eds M R M Jenkin, L R Harris p (Oxford, UK: Oxford University press) J von der Heydt R, Pierson R, 2006 “Dissociation of Color and Figure-Ground Effects in the Watercolor Illusion” Spatial Vision 19 323 – 340 doi:10.1163/156856806776923416 J von der Heydt R, Zhou H, Friedman H S, 2003 “Neural coding of border ownership: Implications for the theory of figure-ground perception” in Perceptual Organization in Vision: Behavioral and Neural Perspectives Eds M Behrmann, R Kimchi, C R Olson p (Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates) J Werner J S, Pinna B, Spillmann L, 2007 “The Brain and the World of Illusory Colors” Scientific American 3 90 – 95 doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0307-90 J Wertheimer M, 1922 “Untersuchungen zur Lehre von der Gestalt I” Psychologische Forschung 1 47 – 58 doi:10.1007/BF00410385 J Wertheimer M, 1923 “Untersuchungen zur Lehre von der Gestalt II” Psychologische Forschung 4 301 – 350 doi:10.1007/BF00410640 J Wollschläger D, Rodriguez A M, Hoffman D D, 2002 “Flank transparency: The effects of gaps, line spacing, and apparent motion” Perception 31 1073 – 1092 doi:10.1068/p3410 J Zhou H, Friedman H S, von der Heydt R, 2000 “Coding of border ownership in monkey visual cortex” Journal of Neuroscience 20 6594 – 6611 J Baingio Pinna studied psychology at the University of Padua, where he graduated in 1992. In 2009, he received the international scientific Award “Wolfgang Metzger Award 2009 to eminent people in gestalt science and research for outstanding achievements”. In 2002, he was research fellow of the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation at Freiburg University, Germany, where he worked with Prof. Lothar Spillmann. Current interests include visual illusions, psychophysics of perceptual organization, and visual science of art. Copyright © 2012 B Pinna Published under a Creative Commons Licence a Pion publication http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0042-6989(01)00105-5 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0042-6989(02)00132-3 http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/156856806776923416 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/scientificamerican0307-90 http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00410385 http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00410640 http://dx.doi.org/10.1068/p3410 1 What is a visual object? 1.1 Figure-ground attributes 2 General methods 2.1 Subject 2.2 Stimuli 2.3 Procedure 3 Boundary, color, shading, and lighting contours 3.1 Where are shape, color, and depth mostly located? 3.2 Different contour roles in the watercolor illusion 4 Microgenetic development of the object attributes 4.1 How do visual artists use figural attributes to create objects and scenes? 4.2 How are objects organized in shapes, shades, colors, and lighting during visual and pictorial reproduction development? 5 Discussion and conclusions References 
work_fgc4rlimwbgkjfpgclz4mfhl5m	----	Genitourin Med 1990;66:280-294 Syphilis in art: an entertainment in four parts. Part 4 R S Morton The Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries Gillray and Rowlandson bridge the gap between Hogarth and the cartoonists of the 19th and 20th centuries. There is one interesting intervening step (fig 48). It is a very fine early example of a coloured stippled engraving such as might be called for and used in teaching dermatology at the time. The engraver is Fresca, circa 1806, after a painting by Moreceau Valvile. The woman's condition was diag- nosed as late secondary syphilis by the fine teacher and very nosologically orientated dermatologist, Baron Alibert (1768-1837).43 This work was exhibited at a Wellcome Institute Exhibition in 1978." Two other examples, one from the late 18th century and from early in the 19th century, pointedly reveal public attitudes to venereal infections.45 The first is called Traps of the World (fig 49). Its author, Ganiere, symbolises life by three large basket traps representing Brawling, The Tavern and The Brothel. At each a well dressed entrepreneur calls for clients and invites them to enter his basket. Those entering any basket are thereupon automatically declared eligible for admission to hospital by the back door. The snatches of poetry which we have seen to be a regular feature since Ulsenius, are here for the benefit of those resistant to the sales talk but who are confidently believed by the operators to be potential exhibitors of medico-social pathology. The second French engraving was published by Martinet in 1816 (fig 50). It first appeared in Paris during the occupation of that city by the victorious troops after the battle of Waterloo, that is, in the summer of 1815. The cartoon pours scorn on the officers ofthe Allied Armies. The doctor presents the officers with medicines on the occasion of their demobilisation; some purport to be cures for gonorr- hoea. For syphilis, he offers poultices, opiates and mercury pills. One unusual minor art form surfaced in mid- 19th century England. Joseph Towne, son of a dissenting parson, was born at Royston, Hertfordshire, in 1808. Early in his life he showed a talent for modelling clay. He secretly modelled a complete skeleton and took it to Guy's Hospital where the notable surgeon, Astley Cooper, was so impressed and delighted that the boy was offered a job. Until his death in 1879, Joseph Towne made several hundred, life size, coloured wax models. His work encompassed anatomical, patho- logical and dermatological subjects. He conducted his moulage making behind locked doors and the secrets of his techniques, for example the dyes he employed and how he used them so effectively, died with him. The loving and restorative care and attention long given to Towne's moulages by staffat Guy's Hospital has recently been generously supported by grants from the Dunhill Trust and other sources. The refurbished moulages now help to form a fine, modern exhibition and high quality teaching facility. Two examples ofTowne's work have been selected to demonstrate infectious acquired and congenital syphilis (figs 51 & 52). In the flesh, as it were, the skin appearance is most realistic and the coppery-redness of the rash true to life. The urnmentionableness ofthe venereal diseases in Victorian times reached its apogee when a Bill to Fig 48 Fresca. Stippled and coloured engraving after G. Moreau Valvile. c. 1806. Syphilide pustuleuse en grappe. Possibly for Baron J. L. M. Alibert, Clinique de l'hopital Saint-Louis, Paris. Cormon, 1833 pl. 45. Courtesy Welicome Institute Library. Sub-Department of Medical History, University of Sheffield, UK R S Morton 280 o n A p ril 5 , 2 0 2 1 b y g u e st. P ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://sti.b m j.co m / G e n ito u rin M e d : first p u b lish e d a s 1 0 .1 1 3 6 /sti.6 6 .4 .2 8 0 o n 1 A u g u st 1 9 9 0 . D o w n lo a d e d fro m http://sti.bmj.com/ Syphilis in art: an entertainment infour parts. Part 4 _~~~~1 .a * * . /4 j4 Fig 49 Ganuere. Les Trois Nasses du Monde (The Traps of the World). Engraving c. 1790. Courtesy Soci_t_des Gen de Lettres de France, Paris. control these infections was named, in 1864, the Contagious Diseases Act. It was an example of how the moral strictures of the time were supported by legislation. The law was enacted because of exces- sively high infection rates in soldiers and sailors in home stations. The Act aimed at prevention. It provided for the arrest, compulsory examination and detention of women suspected of spreading syphilis and gonorrhoea. Liberal minded people reacted powerfully. Mrs Josephine Butler (1828-1906) headed the "Abolitionists". The law, they declared, denied women their constitutional right of freedom of action and should be abolished. They pursued their objectives relentlessly and after a period of suspension the Act was repealed in 1886.' The fight to replace the concept of VD Control by regulation and detention with something more civilised and more effective was also under way in other parts of Europe and nowhere was it more ardently pursued than in Norway. Christian Krohg (1852-1925) was a Norwegian writer and painter with a strong social conscience. He used his talents to raise awareness in others especially about ill-paid young women.47 His novel Albertine characterised in detail the lot of the contemporary prostitute. Norway, no less straight-laced than England, was outraged by this public display of a taboo subject and the book was banned the day after publication. With the inevitability ofNewton's third law of motion, this action prompted an equal and opposite reaction. The cause of women was overtly and fiercely championed. Krohg, after several trial studies, produced in 1887 a painting, 3 x 2 metres, depicting a scene from his book (fig 53). It shows Albertine being escorted by a policeman into the doctor's surgery where she is to be compulsorily examined for venereal disease. Krohg's public dis- play of this outrageous invasion of a woman's body, combined as it was with a taboo subject, caused a sensation and the humiliating practice ceased. Several versions of Christian Krohg's painting exist. A 1917 version shows how the artist has developed. For example, he uses a fully loaded brush with aplomb and introduces adroitly sited highlights with dramatic effect. This production is thought by some to show greater awareness of the tensions 281 o n A p ril 5 , 2 0 2 1 b y g u e st. P ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://sti.b m j.co m / G e n ito u rin M e d : first p u b lish e d a s 1 0 .1 1 3 6 /sti.6 6 .4 .2 8 0 o n 1 A u g u st 1 9 9 0 . D o w n lo a d e d fro m http://sti.bmj.com/ 282 Morton Fig 50 Martinet. Les Adieux au Palais Royal. (Goodbyes to Palais Royal.) Engraving 1816. Courtesy Societe des Gens de Lettres de France, Paris. Fig 5) Joseph Towne. Primary and Secondary Syphilis. Moulage, mid-i 9th century. Courtesy of The Dean, United Medical and Dental Schools of Guy's and St. Thomas's Hospitals, London. Fig52 Joseph Towne. Infectious congenital syphilis. Moulage, mid-19th century. Courtesy of The Dean, United Medical and Dental Schools of Guy's and St. Thomas's Hospitals, London. between the characters, the involvement of each and the misery endured by all Albertines. My personal preference, however, is for the 1887 painting. Like much of his earlier work it has a subtle photographic quality which gives it the instantaneous impact of stark reality. There is no escaping the tension Krohg engenders. Meanwhile in Paris, uncomprehending French- men, with confirming sang froid, were taking their wives and families to visit the local brothels on Sunday afternoons. Something of this open and objective attitude to one of life's less attractive aspects is reflected in the city's art. o n A p ril 5 , 2 0 2 1 b y g u e st. P ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://sti.b m j.co m / G e n ito u rin M e d : first p u b lish e d a s 1 0 .1 1 3 6 /sti.6 6 .4 .2 8 0 o n 1 A u g u st 1 9 9 0 . D o w n lo a d e d fro m http://sti.bmj.com/ Syphilis in art: an entertainment in four parts. Part 4 Fig 53 Christian Krohg. Albertine, 1886-87. Oil on canvas 211 x 326 cms. Courtesy Nasionalgalleriet, Oslo. In his decline into debauchery, Toulouse-Lautrec (1864-1901) frequented Paris's demi-monde of bars, cafes and music halls with their ambience of aban- donment to forced and false physical expressions of gaiety.' These features contrast markedly with the sense ofresignation and forlorn hope expressed in the relaxed stance and aura of weary movement of Toulouse-Lautrec's off-duty women as he met and painted them in the brothels. His representations of them evoke more than sympathy although the artist is clearly at one with them. One senses that he is privy to the tragic, even groteseque, life story behind each painted face. It is dramatic simpatico rather than syrupy simpatia. Nowhere is this better displayed than in the artist's 1894 production Medical Inspec- tion at the Rue des Moulins (fig 54). The nameless women file sadly past a faceless doctor in an orderly line. Their air is one ofhopeless disinterest and weary resignation. Of all brothel scenes it must be the most fearsome. Clearly, Toulouse-Lautrec could be audacious, not only technically but in his social comment. Figure 55, An Examination at the Faculty of Medicine was completed by Toulouse-Lautrec shortly before his death in 1901. Durel has recorded many interesting facets on the work.49 The candidate is the artist's cousin and confidant, Gabriel Tapie de Celeyran, who did in fact present himself for the oral part ofhis thesis examination in 1899. Such occasions called for four adjudicators. On this apochryphal occasion, two are recognisable. On the right is Professor Robert Wurtz, founder of the Medical School, who was a bacteriologist and hygienist. But it is the central character who is ofspecial interest to us. After the kind of thoroughly detailed research for which he has long been renowned, Durel leaves us in no doubt that it is none other than the renowned syphilogist, Alfred Fournier (1832-1914). The square head and the moustache overhanging a small mouth are telling features. Those of us who have in our time been candidates and examiners at professional examinations will no doubt agree that Toulouse-Lautrec's use of colours-the harmonies ofgreens and blacks with the violent red-reminds us unmistakably of the atmos- phere associated with a viva voce. Durel reminds us also that in 1946 and 1947 a postage stamp was produced in France using a likeness of Fournier. The tax from the sale of this modern minor art form served to finance the cam- paigning of La Ligue Nationale Francaise contre le Peril Venerien. Some artists' social comments are frankly brutal and our next is one such. Felicien Rops (1833-98), a Belgian of Hungarian ancestry, was left and squan- dered a fortune in his youth. He was a self-taught, 283 o n A p ril 5 , 2 0 2 1 b y g u e st. P ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://sti.b m j.co m / G e n ito u rin M e d : first p u b lish e d a s 1 0 .1 1 3 6 /sti.6 6 .4 .2 8 0 o n 1 A u g u st 1 9 9 0 . D o w n lo a d e d fro m http://sti.bmj.com/ 284 Fig 54 Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec. Rue des Moulins. Oil on cardboard, mounted on wood, 83 x 61 cm. 1894. Courtesy Chester Dale Collection. National Gallery of Art, Washington DC. Morton o n A p ril 5 , 2 0 2 1 b y g u e st. P ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://sti.b m j.co m / G e n ito u rin M e d : first p u b lish e d a s 1 0 .1 1 3 6 /sti.6 6 .4 .2 8 0 o n 1 A u g u st 1 9 9 0 . D o w n lo a d e d fro m http://sti.bmj.com/ Syphilis in art: an entertainment infour parts. Part 4 Fig 55 Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec. Examen a la Faculte de MIdicine. Oil on canvas. 65 x 81 cm. 1901. Courtesy Musie Toulouse-Lautrec, Albi. cynical caricaturist who published much of his work in the politico-satirical journal Uglenspiegl. His marvellously accurate draughtsmanship and brilliant technique was constantly threatened with ruin by the pornographically offensive nature of his most biting cynicism. Thus many thought Rops more infamous than famous. Figure 56 was found in a museum dedicated to him in his home town of Namur in central Belgium. It leaves one in no doubt that he considered women wicked, and a source of evil and deadly disease. What Felicien Rops said a la fin de 19' siecle, George Grosz (1893-1959) reiterated in the years on both sides of World War I. Grosz was a Dadaist ("dada" is Slavonic for "yes", "yes" to life).' Robert Hughes in his recent television series charac- terised him as a "master ofradical sourness".5' Grosz saw no good anywhere in his early days. He mellowed with age and was honest enough to call his 1946 autobiography, in German, "A little 'Yes' and a big 'No"'. In the first quarter ofthe 20th century, Grosz saw corruption all around him and found it frequently associated with greed and wicked militar- ism. Evil of all kinds stalked the bars, the brothels and the battlefields. He drew prostitutes as harbin- gers of degradation and disease (fig 58). While none of his work has been found to specify syphilis, his harsh social comments are certainly germane to the prevalence of venereal diseases at the time; between 10% and 12% of big city dwellers in Europe had positive blood tests for syphilis. Whether Grosz's endeavours did anything to prompt women to assert themselves or reformers to liberalise attitudes to venereal disease in Europe and America, where his work circulated widely, is a matter for speculation. Grosz's work is often exquisitely, even gently, executed and then in a way more brilliantly expresses his fiercely vindictive hatred of man's, and woman s inhumanity to man. There were of course other schools of thought in the art world. One of the prolific contenders for leadership of the 19th century's young Expressionist movement was the Norwegian artist, Eduard Munch (1863-1944). His work, like that ofother Expression- ists such as van Gogh, Gauguin and Klee, reflects his philosphy of life. He spent his formative years in Paris and Berlin. He was tall and thin and introspec- tive. He was much pre-occupied with love, personal 285 o n A p ril 5 , 2 0 2 1 b y g u e st. P ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://sti.b m j.co m / G e n ito u rin M e d : first p u b lish e d a s 1 0 .1 1 3 6 /sti.6 6 .4 .2 8 0 o n 1 A u g u st 1 9 9 0 . D o w n lo a d e d fro m http://sti.bmj.com/ The Inheritance was painted in 1897 when he was 34 and living in Paris (fig 60). It shows a tearful young 2Q__1 mother with her puny, syphilitic infant on her lap. She sits in the doctor's waiting room alone. The public received the work with a mixture of amusement and indignation. Many judged it to have exceeded the limits of permissible expression. Munch first called it The Syphilitic Child. Some said he mocked the many artistic representations of the Madonna and child and that this was the cause of the violent reactions which prompted the painting's withdrawal and change of name. At first glance one is liable to see only the old familiar Victorian story of the "fallen" and infected woman abandoned by her lover when most in need of support. The oftener and longer one looks at the WOrk, however, the more does one find it compelling, poignant and mood provoking. The mother's face is red and contrasts with the greenish skin of the rash- affected baby. The autumn leaves on the dress seem to symbolise the imminence of death. It was 1897 and treatment of the child was very unlikely to be successful. All this, with the distortions accompany- ing the near absence of perspective, prompt in one such urgent questions as "Did the man warn her?"; "Where is he now?"; "Is there really no hope for the child?" "How will the doctor, so soon to be seen, Fig S6 Felicien Rops. Mors Syphilitica. Dry poInt drawing /24-6 x 177 cm. Courtesy Musde Rops, Namur. / I tragedy and death of loved ones. Even a short time spent browsing through a book of his (in colour) Y paintings gives one a flavour of the kind of 4 / / experience familiar to doctors who listen to, and hear, | | I the illogical distortions of neurotic patients. Munch is little concerned with emphasis on artistic form,i perspective, harmonies or colours. His concern is with winning the viewer to an appreciation of what he g feels and what he feels with the intense conviction of the chronic hysteric. x Munch was a close friend of the Swedish dramat- ist, Strindberg, and he knew well his fellow-Nor- - / wegian, Ibsen. Among several pieces concerning / syphilis, Munch provided a series ofstage sketches to / 7- illustrate Ibsen's play Ghosts. Most telling of the series is an oil sketch of the play's final scene (fig 59). , It is generally called Osvald's Breakdown and shows / the near blind and demented congenitally infected son frantically appealing to his distraught parent, "Show me the sun, mother". Fig 57 George Grosz. Bordello. Drawing c. 1910. Courtesy But there is much more to Munch. His Heritage or Courtauld Institute of Art, London. Morton286 o n A p ril 5 , 2 0 2 1 b y g u e st. P ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://sti.b m j.co m / G e n ito u rin M e d : first p u b lish e d a s 1 0 .1 1 3 6 /sti.6 6 .4 .2 8 0 o n 1 A u g u st 1 9 9 0 . D o w n lo a d e d fro m http://sti.bmj.com/ Syphilis in art: an entertainment infour parts. Part 4 react? Will he match the young mother's anguish and insight?"; "How will this tragedy end?". We are a long way now from the contenting, intellectualising needed for an appreciation of van Veen's Allegory of Indiscreet Youth. Here we are involved with the artist. Munch the Expressionist has engendered in us what every Expressionist painter seeks in a viewer-a feeling of "inner ten- sion". It may be no more than a mood of helpless, tight-lipped compassion, but our arrest is complete and we know it is inescapable. If Munch's call for compassion rather than con- demnation shows him to be ahead of public sen- timent, that cannot be said of our next artist. He was very much a man of his time for all of his time. The Spaniard, Pablo Picasso (1881-1973), com- pleted his first Cubist painting as early as the spring of 1907. His friends thought little of it and it lay in limbo for many years. It was nearly 2-5 metres square and called Les Demoiselles d'Avignon (fig 61). The scene is a brothel parlour in Carre (street) d'Avignon in Barcelona near Picasso's student home. Fig 58 George Grosz. Bordello. Drawing 50 x 50 cm. c. 1922. Courtesy of The Design and Artists Copyright Society Ltd., London. 287 o n A p ril 5 , 2 0 2 1 b y g u e st. P ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://sti.b m j.co m / G e n ito u rin M e d : first p u b lish e d a s 1 0 .1 1 3 6 /sti.6 6 .4 .2 8 0 o n 1 A u g u st 1 9 9 0 . D o w n lo a d e d fro m http://sti.bmj.com/ Morton What prompted this first excursion into Cubism? Rather than follow other artists into the new abstract and pretty look then in vogue, Picasso tried to revitalise the representation of reality in art by abandoning perspective and painting objects and figures from more than one angle simultaneously. In this first example (fig 61) we also find African and Pacific influences, popular at the time, and remnants of his own blue and rose periods. What is new is that his figures have straight outlines, with only angle overlappings to indicate planes. Mask-like faces are shown full face and in profile at one and the same time. But even more striking is the stance of the parading prostitutes. Note their interrogative stare. These women are not victims like those ofToulouse- Lautrec. Nor do they demonstrate the simple ritual dignity ofPaul Gaugin's South Sea island prostitutes in his Ta Matete (The Market) of 1892. Picasso's prostitutes present themselves as women of con- sequence-vital, assertive and perhaps to some, even frightening. They disturb us quite differently from those of any other artist and they do it so purposely that we are conscious of their power. Some say Picasso was afraid ofwomen but there is much in his life story to contradict this view. Was he perhaps afraid of something more sinister? Some clue to the truth of Picasso's thinking can be found in the trials that preceded the production of Les Demoiselles d'Avignon. Picasso made no less than seventeen preliminary sketches and three well filled out studies. The third of these studies (fig 62) shows the prostitutes grouped around a centrally seated Fig 59 Eduard Munch. Osvald's Breakdown. Oil on canvasfrom a stage sketch. 1880. Courtesy Munch Museet, Oslo. 288 o n A p ril 5 , 2 0 2 1 b y g u e st. P ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://sti.b m j.co m / G e n ito u rin M e d : first p u b lish e d a s 1 0 .1 1 3 6 /sti.6 6 .4 .2 8 0 o n 1 A u g u st 1 9 9 0 . D o w n lo a d e d fro m http://sti.bmj.com/ Syphilis in art: an entertainment infour parts. Part 4 I 4.4. Fig 60 Eduard Munch. The Inheritance. Oil on canvas. 1897. Courtesy Munch Museet, Oslo. 289 * %.,; ;t o n A p ril 5 , 2 0 2 1 b y g u e st. P ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://sti.b m j.co m / G e n ito u rin M e d : first p u b lish e d a s 1 0 .1 1 3 6 /sti.6 6 .4 .2 8 0 o n 1 A u g u st 1 9 9 0 . D o w n lo a d e d fro m http://sti.bmj.com/ 290 sailor rolling a cigarette. On our left is a medical student holding a skull-a Spanish symbol of mor- tality. (In some of the original drawings the figure on the left is a self-portrait.) The normal rounded configuration of the prostitutes makes them appear much less aloof, indifferent, remote and judgemental than those in the final version. There is no disturbing stare or coquettish look. We are not frightened, titillated or invited. In the presence of this prelimin- ary work we are more spectators or, at most, voyeurs. If we have any sense of apprehension it comes only from Picasso's title, The Wages of Sin. Clearly this sketch is an allegory of syphilis. He feared the disease rather than the women.5' 554 The early part of the 20th century showed dramatic advances in the diagnosis and treatment of syphilis. Its causative organism, the treponema pallidum, was discovered in 1905 and the Wasser- mann blood test for the disease in the following year. In 1910 Ehrlich and Hata's research produced its 606th arsenical compound, salvasan. It was to revolutionise therapy. In 1913 a light-hearted French satirical periodical called L'assiette au beurre, with a fine sense of fun, Fig 61 Picasso, Pablo. Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, 1907. Oil on canvas, 2439 x 233-7 cm. Courtesy of The Collection, The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Morton o n A p ril 5 , 2 0 2 1 b y g u e st. P ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://sti.b m j.co m / G e n ito u rin M e d : first p u b lish e d a s 1 0 .1 1 3 6 /sti.6 6 .4 .2 8 0 o n 1 A u g u st 1 9 9 0 . D o w n lo a d e d fro m http://sti.bmj.com/ Syphilis in art: an entertainment in four parts. Part 4 Fig 62 Pablo Picasso. The Wages of Sin. Studyfor Les Demoiselles d'Avignon. Courtesy Offentliche Kunstsammlung, Kupferstich Kabinett, Basel. devoted its 606th edition entirely to a collection of cartoons concerning syphilis.55 For the first time since the 18th century people laughed at the disease, not with bravado out of fear, but from hope born of understanding. The 20th century cartoonists, in contrast to their predecessors, used humour and laughter to cathartic effect. The media had launched the new era of public education by entertainment. The first example from L'assiette au beurre (fig 63) mocks the public view that treponemes are every- where. It was a pertinent comment since screening of Parisians with the new blood test had found 10% to be positive. Thus one small boy finds it necessary to reassure his inquisitive friend that the newly dis- covered organism is not the cause ofanother common consequence of sex, pregnancy. A victim of science (fig 64) shows that salvasan was not welcomed by everybody. Thepharmacist is asked by his friend "How's business?", to which the dejected pharmacist replies, "Let's not talk about it; 606 has killed the sale of condoms". Little wonder that German students ofthe time were lustily singing in their beer halls56: "Even ifyou have poxfor sure, Sweet wench, I'm yours readyfor tricks Since it is easy now to cure With Ehrlich and Hata's six-o-six." Figure 65 shows a familiar out-patient scene. An attentive physician is seated in his clinic at the St Louis Hospital, Paris. His serious, contemplative countenance leaves us in no doubt that the concem displayed by his worn-out Romeo patient is well directed. This is clearly no simple case of gonorr- hoea. That it is the more serious syphilis finds some confirmation in the patient's state of deshabille. The last of the examples from L'assiette au beurre was first published in 1905 (fig 66). It demonstrates how early and how long and determinedly our French colleagues have pursued public education. More than three-quarters of a century ago they were directing their efforts at what they recognised as a target group. The drawing is called Education for Ladies.The posters on the pissoir advertise doctors offering cures for venereal diseases. Such endeavours in such Parisian places were publicly acceptable. They demonstrate the pragmatism ofGallic logic and 291 o n A p ril 5 , 2 0 2 1 b y g u e st. P ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://sti.b m j.co m / G e n ito u rin M e d : first p u b lish e d a s 1 0 .1 1 3 6 /sti.6 6 .4 .2 8 0 o n 1 A u g u st 1 9 9 0 . D o w n lo a d e d fro m http://sti.bmj.com/ Morton292 Fig 63 Anonymous. Spirocheata pailida is not the cause of Fig 64 Anonymous. A Victim of Science. Caricature in pregnancy. Caricature in L'Assiette au Beurre, 1913. L'Assiette au Beurre, 1913. Courtesy of Springer- Verlag, Courtesy of Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg. Heidelberg. I Fig 65 A. Dunoyer de Segonza. Consultation at the St. Louis Hospital, Paris. Caricature in L'Assiette au Beurre, Fig 66 Anonymous. A Practical means of educating ladies. 1913. Courtesy of Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg and Design Caricature in L'Assiette au Beurre, 1913. Courtesy of and Artists Copyright Society Ltd., London. Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg. o n A p ril 5 , 2 0 2 1 b y g u e st. P ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://sti.b m j.co m / G e n ito u rin M e d : first p u b lish e d a s 1 0 .1 1 3 6 /sti.6 6 .4 .2 8 0 o n 1 A u g u st 1 9 9 0 . D o w n lo a d e d fro m http://sti.bmj.com/ Syphilis in art: an entertainment infour parts. Part 4 THE NEW MORALITY Fig 67 Papas. The New Morality. Sunday Times. 8 March, 1964. Courtesy Times Newspape match the more relaxed attitudes prevailing in France at the time. They contrast strikingly with those pertaining in Britain. The caricatures of our own time are in all respects the mildest ever. Figure 67 is a Papas caricature published in the Sunday Times of 8 March 1964. Its blandness typifies the cult of non-judgemental com- ment current in the 1960s. Penultimately in this collection we have, like the first item, an artist's translation ofan idea into three- dimensional art. Not long after the death of John F Kennedy several sculptors put forward, around 1968-69, ideas for a memorial to him. Figures 68 and 69 suggested a monumental stone sculpture-a form of artistic expression, alas, currently finding little favour. John Kennedy's absorbing interests and hopes are represented. Firstly, Medicare in the group of senior citizens, secondly the colour problem and thirdly the problems of the underdeveloped coun- tries. This last is represented by a mother with her children. Ofthe several diagnoses on offer in the total piece, note especially the thickened bowed tibia ofthe young mother. This imaginative and skilfully con- structed creation is called a maquette and is of vinyl gel plaster. It is the work ofthe sculpturess, Dr Mary Catterall. Syphilis, in the Westem World at least, is so much under control as to be no longer a public health or social problem. This has pertained for nearly a quarter of a century. Why then conclude with a 1972 production? (fig 70). And why Maina-Miriam Mun- 1F968. Mhoary Catterall Macq sky's Colposcopy? Is the colposcope not a modem underprivileged of the third wor instrument to deal with some ofthe new generation of sculptress. wrs Ltd. London. luette in vinagel plastic, 'ennedy's interests, the Id. By permission of the 293 o n A p ril 5 , 2 0 2 1 b y g u e st. P ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://sti.b m j.co m / G e n ito u rin M e d : first p u b lish e d a s 1 0 .1 1 3 6 /sti.6 6 .4 .2 8 0 o n 1 A u g u st 1 9 9 0 . D o w n lo a d e d fro m http://sti.bmj.com/ Morton Fig 69 Mary Catterall. Macquette in vinagel plastic, 1968. Mother with children: mother showing evidence of old yaws periostitis of left tibia. By permission of the sculptress. Fig 70 Maina-Miriam Munsky. Colposcopy. C)il on canvas. 150 x 180 cm. 1972. Courtesy of The Nicholas Treadwell Gallery, Womenswold, Nr. Canterbury. sexually transmitted diseases-genital herpes and warts, chlamydial infection and the increasingly ubiquitous and life-threatening carcinoma of the cervix? Well, yes. But all this could change dramatically if non-treponicidal drugs were to be introduced and widely applied as treatment for gonococcal and/or chlamydial infections. Then, as only rarely today, genitoirinary physicians and medically orientated gynaecologists would again be confronted with the fact that some 25% of primary syphilitic sores in women occur on or in the cervix.57 But perhaps I too readily anticipate tomorrow's history. In conclusion, artists have throughout the cen- turies recorded men's fears, foibles and follies in relation to syphilis. By holding up a mirror, artists have offered an opportunity to men and women to reflect on their attitudes and behaviour. Changes have been slow, intermittent, marginal, unsustained and reversible. The future, it seems, offers nothing more certain. Acknowledgements My prime debt is to the late Erwin Panofsky, art historian, whose Homage to Fracastorius first gave me an interest in art. I am greatly indebted also to colleagues for suggestions and to members of the Department of Medical Illustration, Royal Hallam- shire Hospital, Sheffield for technical advice and skill with reproductions. Staffs at museums, galleries and libraries have been unfailingly helpful. Special thanks are due to Anne Goodchild, Graves Art Gallery, Sheffield, Alexander Kader, Witt Library, London and William Schupbach, Wellcome Ins- titute for History of Medicine, London. Address for reprints: 9 Cortworth Rd, Sheffield S11 9LN, UK 43 Alibert JL. Descriptions des maladies de lay peau. Paris: 1836. (p1 41 shows fig 48 as "syphilide pustuleuse en grappe"). 44 Catalogue: Medicine through the Artist's Eye for Wellcome Institute Exhibition, The Science Museum, London: 1978. 45 Blanchard R. Maladies venerienes dans l'art. Deux estampes sur la syphilis. Aesculape, 1940-49;30:142-3. 46 Petrie G. A Singular Iniquity. London: MacMillan, 1971. 47 Ward F. Munch and his Contemporaries. Scanorama, Sweden, Scandinavian Air Lines, 1974;3:20-4. 48 Fermigier A. Toulouse-Lautrec. Trans by Paul Stevenson. London: Pall Mall Press, 1969. 49 Durel P. Un portrait du syphilographe Alfred Fournier dans un tableau de Toulouse-Lautrec. Hist. des Sciences Medicales, 1974;8:721-6. 50 Richter H. Dada: Art and Anti-Art. London: Thames and Hudson, 1965:101. 51 Hughes R. The Shock of the New. London: British Broadcasting Corporation, 1980;21-4:73-7. 52 Dunlop I. Edvard Munch. London: Thames and Hudson, 1977. 53 Barr AH. Picasso: Fifty Years of His Art. London: Secker and Warburg, 1975. 54 Berger J. Success and Failure of Picasso. Harmondsworth, Penguin Books, 1964. 55 Vogt H. Medizinische Karikaturen von 1800 bis zur Gegenwart. Munchen, Lehman, First Ed. 1962. 56 Oller L. (personal communication) 1969. 57 Davies TA. Primary Syphilis in the Female. London, Oxford University Press, 1931, p 43. Accepted for publication: 10 October 1989 294 o n A p ril 5 , 2 0 2 1 b y g u e st. P ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://sti.b m j.co m / G e n ito u rin M e d : first p u b lish e d a s 1 0 .1 1 3 6 /sti.6 6 .4 .2 8 0 o n 1 A u g u st 1 9 9 0 . D o w n lo a d e d fro m http://sti.bmj.com/ 
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work_fkvz7epx5ja2ldt7i3izxt7bh4	----	doi:10.1016/j.websem.2008.08.001 Please cite this article in press as: G. Schreiber, et al., Semantic annotation and search of cultural-heritage collections: The MultimediaN E-Culture demonstrator, Web Semantics Sci Serv Agents World Wide Web (2008), doi:10.1016/j.websem.2008.08.001 ARTICLE IN PRESSG ModelWEBSEM-146; No. of Pages 7 Web Semantics: Science, Services and Agents on the World Wide Web xxx (2008) xxx–xxx Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Web Semantics: Science, Services and Agents on the World Wide Web j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w . e l s e v i e r . c o m / l o c a t e / w e b s e m Semantic annotation and search of cultural-heritage collections: The MultimediaN E-Culture demonstrator Guus Schreiber a,!, Alia Amin b, Lora Aroyo a, Mark van Assem a, Victor de Boer c, Lynda Hardman b, Michiel Hildebrand b, Borys Omelayenko a, Jacco van Osenbruggen b, Anna Tordai a, Jan Wielemaker c, Bob Wielinga c a VU University Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands b Centre for Mathematics and Computer Science CWI, Amsterdam, The Netherlands c University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands a r t i c l e i n f o Article history: Received 30 July 2008 Accepted 19 August 2008 Available online xxx Keywords: Semantic search Digital heritage Semantic annotation Virtual collections a b s t r a c t In this article we describe a Semantic Web application for semantic annotation and search in large virtual collections of cultural-heritage objects, indexed with multiple vocabularies. During the annotation phase we harvest, enrich and align collection metadata and vocabularies. The semantic-search facilities support keyword-based queries of the graph (currently 20 M triples), resulting in semantically grouped result clusters, all representing potential semantic matches of the original query. We show two sample search scenario’s. The annotation and search software is open source and is already being used by third parties. All software is based on established Web standards, in particular HTML/XML, CSS, RDF/OWL, SPARQL and JavaScript. © 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction The main objective of the MultimediaN E-Culture project is to demonstrate how novel Semantic Web and presentation technolo- gies can be deployed to provide better indexing and search support within large virtual collections of cultural-heritage resources. The architecture is fully based on open Web standards, in particular XML, RDF/OWL and SPARQL. The central hypothesis underlying this work is that the use of explicit background knowledge in the form of ontologies/vocabularies/thesauri is in particular useful for infor- mation retrieval in knowledge-rich domains. The cultural-heritage domain is such a knowledge-rich domain. Collection holders traditionally spent considerable effort on the (manual) indexing process of collection objects. Many institutions use and develop controlled vocabularies to standardize the index- ing process. The result is that the domain is dominated by a multitude of vocabularies for different subareas in many different languages. Some efforts have been made to develop collection- spanning vocabularies, such as the Getty vocabularies (see further), but it is clear that the domain is too large and diverse to be covered by a single (set of) vocabulary(ies). There is also significant vari- ! Corresponding author. Tel.: +31 20 598 7739/7718. E-mail address: schreiber@cs.vu.nl (G. Schreiber). ation in the annotation structure for collection objects, although many institutions use a format that is, or can be interpreted as, a specialization of Dublin Core. Due to the abundance of vocabularies, the availability of exist- ing semantic annotations of cultural objects, and the fact that this is mainly publicly accessible information (or at least a willingness to make it accessible), cultural heritage appears to be an ideal candi- date for application of Semantic Web technology. With the growth of the World-Wide Web collection holders have been increasingly interested in making their collections available online. There are large international initiatives to make inter-collection access pos- sible, for example the European “Europeana” initiative.1 The key problems in inter-collection search lie in the different annotation formats and vocabularies used by collection holders. The E-Culture project started out with the goal to show that inter-collection search can be achieved at relatively low cost with Semantic Web technology. The approach that we have taken roughly consists of three elements: (i) Providing facilities for harvesting, enriching and aligning col- lection metadata and vocabularies. 1 http://www.europeana.eu. 1570-8268/$ – see front matter © 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.websem.2008.08.001 file://localhost/Users/guus/Downloads/dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.websem.2008.08.001 file://localhost/Users/guus/Downloads/dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.websem.2008.08.001 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/15708268 mailto:schreiber@cs.vu.nl http://www.europeana.eu/ Please cite this article in press as: G. Schreiber, et al., Semantic annotation and search of cultural-heritage collections: The MultimediaN E-Culture demonstrator, Web Semantics Sci Serv Agents World Wide Web (2008), doi:10.1016/j.websem.2008.08.001 ARTICLE IN PRESSG ModelWEBSEM-146; No. of Pages 7 2 G. Schreiber et al. / Web Semantics: Science, Services and Agents on the World Wide Web xxx (2008) xxx–xxx (ii) Providing facilities for semantic search through the result- ing graph, including various presentation mechanisms for the search results. (iii) Providing facilities for users to add metadata and/or content. In this article we report on the results with respect to the first two components; work on the third component in under way and is discussed under future work. The following premises underly our approach: • The project does not develop new ontologies/vocabularies but solely uses existing ones. The project may develop however vocabulary extensions, in particular through vocabulary align- ments. • The project uses existing metadata of multiple collections. The online version of the demonstrator can be found at: http://e- culture.multimedian.nl/demo/search. Readers are encouraged to first take a look at the demonstra- tor before reading on. We suggest you consult the tutorial (linked from the online demo page) which provides a sample walk-through of the search functionality. Please note that this is a product of an ongoing project. Visitors should expect the demonstrator to change. We are incorporating more collections and vocabularies and are also extending the annotation, search and presentation function- ality. We are incorporating more collections and vocabularies and are also extending the annotation, search and presentation func- tionality. We are incorporating more collections and vocabularies and are also extending the annotation, search and presentation functionality. Due to space limitations this article is basically a summary of the key ingredients of the MultimediaN E-Culture demonstrator, which won the Semantic Web Challenge in 2006. Readers should consult the references provided for details. Section 2 describes the semantic annotation process of collections. In Section 3 we discuss the search architecture and some details of the graph-search algorithm. Sec- tion 4 provides a peek at the demonstrator through two sample search scenario’s. Research issues arising from the endeavour are discussed in Section 5. 2. Semantic annotation: collection data, metadata and vocabularies A this point we have collected descriptions of 200,000 objects from six collections annotated with a range of thesauri and sev- eral proprietary controlled keyword lists, which adds up to 20 million triples (detailed statistics are available from http://e- culture.multimedian.nl/demo/). The objects in the collections come from the Rijksmuseum Amsterdam,2 the National Museum of Ethnology,3 the Royal Tropical Institute,4 the Netherlands Insti- tute for Art History,5 the Royal Library,6 and the Web collection Artchive.7 We assume this material is representative for the described domain. The demonstrator hosts four general thesauri, namely the three Getty vocabularies,8 i.e., the Art & Architecture Thesaurus (AAT), Union List of Artists Names (ULAN) and the Thesaurus of Geo- 2 http://www.rijksmuseum.nl. 3 http://www.volkenkunde.nl. 4 http://www.kit.nl. 5 http://www.rkd.nl. 6 http://www.kb.nl. 7 http://www.artchive.org. 8 http://www.getty.edu/research/conductingresearch/vocabularies/. Fig. 1. Four steps of the harvesting, enrichment and alignment process of collection metadata and vocabularies. graphical Names (TGN), as well as the lexical resource WordNet, version 2.0. The Getty thesauri were converted from their original XML format into an RDF/OWL representation using the conversion methods principles as formulated in Ref. [10]. The RDF/OWL ver- sion of the data models is available online.9 The Getty thesauri are licensed.10 The RDF/OWL conversion of WordNet is documented in a publication of the W3C Semantic Web Best Practices and Deploy- ment Working Group [9]. It is an instructive example of the issues involved in this conversion process, in particular the recipes for publishing RDF vocabularies [6]. In addition, the MultimediaN E-Culture demonstrator contains collection-specific metadata and vocabularies. We assume that the collection owner provides a link to the actual data object, typically an image of a work such as a painting, a sculpture or a book. When integrating a new collection into the demonstrator we typically receive one or more XML/database dumps containing the metadata and vocabularies of the collection. The harvesting and enrichment process consists of four steps and is summarized in Fig. 1. Details of the process with a full case study can be found elsewhere [8]. The project is developing support software for this process, of which the first version has been released as open source under the name AnnoCultor.11 Step 1: Make vocabulary(ies) interoperable. Thesauri are trans- lated into RDF/OWL, where appropriate with the help of the SKOS format for publishing vocabularies [7]. The same principles are fol- lowed as sketched above for the Getty and WordNet vocabularies. Step 2: Align metadata schema. As a second step, the metadata schema of the collection is mapped to VRA,12 a specialization of Dublin Core for visual resources.13 This mapping is realized using the dumb-down principle by means of rdfs:subPropertyOf and owl:equivalentProperty relations. A full example can be found in the paper by Tordai et al. [8]. Step 3: Enrich metadata. Collection metadata are first trans- formed in a purely syntactic fashion to RDF/OWL triples, thus preserving the original structure and terminology. Sub- sequently, the metadata go through an enrichment process in which we process plain-text metadata fields to find match- ing concepts from thesauri already in the demonstrator. For example, if the dc:creator field contains the string “Pablo Picasso”, we will add the concept Pablo Picasso from ULAN 9 http://e-culture.multimedian.nl/resources/. 10 The partners in the project have acquired licenses for the thesauri. People using the demonstrator do not have access to the full thesauri sources, but can use them to annotate and/or search the collections. 11 http://sourceforge.net/projects/annocultor. 12 Visual Resource Association core categories, see http://www.vraweb.org/ projects/vracore4/. 13 An unofficial OWL specification of the VRA elements, including links to Dublin Core, can be found at http://e-culture.multimedian.nl/resources/. http://e-culture.multimedian.nl/resources/ file://localhost/Users/guus/Downloads/dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.websem.2008.08.001 http://e-culture.multimedian.nl/demo/search http://e-culture.multimedian.nl/demo/ http://www.rijksmuseum.nl/ http://www.volkenkunde.nl/ http://www.kit.nl/ http://www.rkd.nl/ http://www.kb.nl/ http://www.artchive.org/ http://www.getty.edu/research/conductingresearch/vocabularies/ http://e-culture.multimedian.nl/resources/ http://sourceforge.net/projects/annocultor http://www.vraweb.org/projects/vracore4/ Please cite this article in press as: G. Schreiber, et al., Semantic annotation and search of cultural-heritage collections: The MultimediaN E-Culture demonstrator, Web Semantics Sci Serv Agents World Wide Web (2008), doi:10.1016/j.websem.2008.08.001 ARTICLE IN PRESSG ModelWEBSEM-146; No. of Pages 7 G. Schreiber et al. / Web Semantics: Science, Services and Agents on the World Wide Web xxx (2008) xxx–xxx 3 Fig. 2. ClioPatria architecture of the demonstrator. to the metadata. Most enrichments concern people, places and materials. Step 4: Align vocabulary(ies). Finally, the thesauri are aligned using owl:sameAs and skos:exactMatch relations. For exam- ple, the art style Edo from a local ethnographic collection was mapped to the same art style in AAT (see the second search scenario for an example of why such mappings are useful). Our current database (April 2008) contains 38,508 owl:sameAs and 9635 skos:exactMatch triples and these numbers are growing rapidly. Within the Getty vocabularies one set of links is system- atically maintained: places in ULAN (e.g., place of birth of an artist) refer to terms in TGN. Within the project we are adding impor- tant sets of links. For example, links between art styles in AAT (e.g., “Impressionism”) and artists in ULAN (e.g., “Monet”) have a high added value for certain search strategies. de Boer [3] has worked on deriving these semi-automatically from texts on art history. After this harvesting process we have a graph representing a connected network of works and thesauri lemmas that provide background knowledge. VRA and SKOS provide a – albeit weak – semantics, and underneath the richness of the original data is still preserved. 3. Semantic search 3.1. Technical architecture The technical baseline of the MultimediaN E-Culture demon- strator is formed by the ClioPatria software, built on top of SWI-Prolog and its (Semantic) Web libraries.14 Fig. 2 gives an overview of the architecture. The reader is referred elsewhere for detailed information about ClioPatria [11–13]. The software is freely available under a GPL license.15 ClioPatria provides two APIs on top of the SWI-Prolog Semantic Web libraries: (i) A SPARQL API which supports database queries of the RDF graph. (ii) A graph-search API which provides limited RDF/OWL reasoning. 14 http://www.swi-prolog.org. 15 See http://e-culture.multimedian.nl/software/ClioPatria.shtml. The graph-search algorithm for keyword-based search is briefly described in the next subsection. OWL reasoning is limited to three OWL features: symmetry (owl:inverseOf, owl:SymmetricProperty), transitivity (owl:Transitive- Property), and resource equivalence (owl:sameAs). The algo- rithm also interprets similar SKOS relations (skos:broader, skos:exactMatch). ClioPatria provides the application logic for constructing the MultimediaN E-Culture demonstrator. Basically, it provides a client–server architecture which supports the search and presen- tation facilities with the help of standard Web components, in particular HTML + CSS, AJAX and the Yahoo! Widget library. Example search scenario’s with the demonstrator are shown in Section 4. Third parties are using the ClioPatria search API for other applications, for example the CHIP Rijksmuseum tour wiz- ard [2] and the European digital heritage portal “Europeana”.16 For details of ClioPatria the reader is referred to the ISWC’08 paper of Wielemaker et al. [11]. 3.2. Keyword search with semantic clustering One of the goals of the demonstrator is to provide users with a familiar and simple keyword search, but still allow the user to benefit from all background knowledge from the underlying the- sauri and taxonomies. The underlying search algorithm consists of several steps, that can be summarized as follows (for details see [11]). First, it checks all RDF literals in the repository for matches on the given keyword. Second, from each match, it traverses the RDF graph until a resource of interest is found, we refer to this as a target resource. Finally, based on the paths from the matching literals to their target resources, the results are clustered. To improve performance in finding the RDF literals that form the starting points, the RDF database maintains a btree index of words appearing in literals to the full literal, as well as a Porter- stem and metaphone (sounds-like) index to words. Based on these indexes, the set of literals can be searched efficiently on any logical combination of word, prefix, by-stem and by-sound matches.17 16 http://www.europeana.eu. 17 See http://www.swi-prolog.org/packages/semweb.html#sec:3.8. http://www.swi-prolog.org/packages/semweb.html file://localhost/Users/guus/Downloads/dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.websem.2008.08.001 http://www.swi-prolog.org/ http://e-culture.multimedian.nl/software/ClioPatria.shtml http://www.europeana.eu/ Please cite this article in press as: G. Schreiber, et al., Semantic annotation and search of cultural-heritage collections: The MultimediaN E-Culture demonstrator, Web Semantics Sci Serv Agents World Wide Web (2008), doi:10.1016/j.websem.2008.08.001 ARTICLE IN PRESSG ModelWEBSEM-146; No. of Pages 7 4 G. Schreiber et al. / Web Semantics: Science, Services and Agents on the World Wide Web xxx (2008) xxx–xxx In the second step, which resources are considered of interest is currently determined by their type. The default settings return only resources of type artwork (vra:Work), but this can be overrid- den by the user. To avoid a combinatorial explosion of the search space, a number of measures had to be taken. Graph traversal is done in one direction only: always from the object in the triple to the corresponding subject. Only for properties with an explicit owl: inverseOf relation is the graph also traversed in the other direction. While this theoretically allows the algorithm to miss out many relevant results, in practice we found that this is hardly an issue. In addition to the direction, the search space is kept under control by setting a threshold. Starting with the score of the literal match, this score is multiplied by the weight assigned to the prop- erty being traversed (all properties have been assigned a (default) weight between 0 and 1), and the search stops when the score falls under the given threshold. This approach not only improves the efficiency of the search, it also allows filtering out results with paths that are too long (which tend to be semantically so far apart, that users do not consider them relevant any more). By setting the weights to non-default values, the search can also be fine tuned to a particular application domain. In the final step, all results are clustered based on the path between the matching literal and the target result. When the paths are considered on the instance level, this leads to many different clusters with similar content. We found that clustering the paths on the schema level provides more meaningful results. For example, searching on keyword “fauve” matches works from Fauve painters Matisse and Derain. On the instance level, this results in different paths: while on the schema level, this becomes a single path: The paths are translated to English headers that mark the start of each cluster, and this already gives users an indication why the results match their keyword. The path given above results in the cluster title “Works created by an artist with matching AAT style”. To explain the exact semantic relation between the result and the keyword searched on, the instance level path is displayed when hovering over a resulting image. 4. Sample search scenario’s In this section we give two sample scenario’s of the use of the MultimediaN E-Culture demonstrator. The reader is invited to try these out him/herself (see the link in Section 1). It should be noted that the collection is continuously extended, so the actual search results are likely to vary over time. 4.1. Scenario 1: “Picasso” Assume a user is typing in the query “Picasso”. Although the name Picasso is reasonably unique in the art world, the user may still have many different intentions with this simple query: a paint- ing by Picasso, a painting depicting Picasso, the styles Picasso has worked in? Without an elaborate disambiguation process it is impossible to tell in advance. Fig. 3 shows part of the results of this query in the Multime- diaN demonstrator. We see several clusters of search results. The first cluster contains works from the Picasso Museum. The second cluster contains works by Pablo Picasso (only first five hits shown; clicking on the arrow allows the user to inspect all results). Fur- ther down we see clusters of surrealist and cubist paintings (styles that Picasso worked in; details not shown for space reasons), and works by George Braque (a prominent fellow cubist painter, but the works shown are not necessarily cubist). Other clusters (not present in the figure) are works made from Picasso marble and works with Picasso in the title (includes two self-portraits). We are aiming to create clusters such that the user can afterwards choose herself what she is interested in. We have found that even in relatively small collections of 100 K objects users discover interesting results that they were not ware of that existed. We have termed this type of search tentatively “post-query disambiguation”: in response to a simple keyword query the user gets (in contrast to, for exam- ple, Google image search) semantically grouped results that enable further detailing of the query. It should be pointed out that the knowledge richness of the cultural-heritage domain allows this approach to work. In less rich domains this approach is less likely to provide added value. Next to the result clustering ClioPatria support carious other presentation facilities, such as showing the results on a Google map. 4.2. Scenario 2: “Tokugawa” Another typical search scenario concerns the exploitation of vocabulary alignments. As mentioned before, many collection owners have their own homegrown vocabulary variants. Con- sider the situation in Fig. 4, which is based on real-life data. A user is searching for “Tokugawa”. This Japanese term has actu- ally two major meanings in the heritage domain: it is the name of a 19th century shogun and it is a synonym for the Edo style period. Assume for a moment that the user is interested in find- ing works of the latter type. The National Museum of Ethnology in Leiden actually has works on this style in its digital collec- tion, such as the work shown in the top-right corner. However, the Dutch ethnographic thesaurus SVCN, which is being used by the museum for indexing purposes, only contains the label “Edo” for this style. Fortunately, another thesaurus in our col- lection, the aforementioned AAT, does contain the same concept with the alternative label “Tokugawa”. In the harvesting process we learned this equivalence link (quite straightforward: both are Japanese styles with matching preferred labels). The existence of this link allows us to retrieve the painting as a result of the “Tokugawa” query, despite the fact that it is not indexed with this term. Although this is actually an almost trivial alignment, it is still extremely useful. The cultural-heritage world (like any knowledge domain) is full of such small local terminology differences. Multi- lingual differences should also be taken into consideration here. If Semantic Web technologies can help making such matches, there is a definite added value for users. 5. Discussion Over the past 2.5 years the E-Culture demonstrator has grown from 4000 to 200,000 objects. We are now planning large-scale deployment in the context of the European digital heritage portal file://localhost/Users/guus/Downloads/dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.websem.2008.08.001 Please cite this article in press as: G. Schreiber, et al., Semantic annotation and search of cultural-heritage collections: The MultimediaN E-Culture demonstrator, Web Semantics Sci Serv Agents World Wide Web (2008), doi:10.1016/j.websem.2008.08.001 ARTICLE IN PRESSG ModelWEBSEM-146; No. of Pages 7 G. Schreiber et al. / Web Semantics: Science, Services and Agents on the World Wide Web xxx (2008) xxx–xxx 5 Fig. 3. Selection of clustered search results for query “Picasso”: works from the Picasso Museum, works by Picasso, works of art styles used by Picasso (cubist, surrealist, for space reasons only heading shown), works by professional relations of Picasso (George Braque, colleague cubist painter). europeana.eu where we intend to grow to a collection of 12–14 M objects from musea, libraries and archives. We discuss here the lessons we learned so far, including the main research challenges we see from our perspective. 5.1. Semantic annotation When we started the semantic annotation process with the first collection (the Artchibe collection) it was mainly a manual Fig. 4. A user searches for “Tokugawa”. The Japanese painting in the top-right matches this query, but is indexed with a thesaurus that does not contain the synonym “Tokugawa” for this Japanese style. Through a “same-as” link with another thesaurus that does contain this label, the semantic match can be made. file://localhost/Users/guus/Downloads/dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.websem.2008.08.001 Please cite this article in press as: G. Schreiber, et al., Semantic annotation and search of cultural-heritage collections: The MultimediaN E-Culture demonstrator, Web Semantics Sci Serv Agents World Wide Web (2008), doi:10.1016/j.websem.2008.08.001 ARTICLE IN PRESSG ModelWEBSEM-146; No. of Pages 7 6 G. Schreiber et al. / Web Semantics: Science, Services and Agents on the World Wide Web xxx (2008) xxx–xxx Fig. 5. Autocompletion facility: potential matches are grouped in respective types. art. However, while adding more collections we got more grip on the process for making a collection “ready” for the Semantic Web. The four-step process model (Fig. 1) supported by the AnnoCultor toolkit is the tangible result. In general, it takes us now 1–3 weeks to include a new collection. This may seem like a long time, but the result is a set of tools that can be run automatically each time a collection owner has to update the collection data. Only in case of (in practice relatively infrequent) changes in the schema of the metadata or of the vocabularies, additional manual work is needed. Thesaurus conversion (step 1) is usually simple, certainly given the fact that vocabulary owners are routinely starting to “skossify” their vocabularies. Representing the interoperability of metadata schema’s through a RDF property hierarchy (step 2) is a big plus for the cultural-heritage field, where up till now cumbersome XSLT techniques prevail. The enrichment of metadata (step 3) is basically an information- extraction task, which is by its nature simpler than general IE in document collections, due to the structured nature of the data. Rec- ognizing “Amsterdam” as a particular location is easier when it is a string value in a dc: location field. The main research challenge here is identity resolution of works (e.g., the Night Watch appears in multiple collections). This is actually a complex problem, as we see not just simple “same-as” relations, but also “X detail of Y”, work series, etc. With respect to vocabulary alignment (step 4) we are at the moment just looking at the “low hanging fruit”, e.g., simple syntac- tic alignments such as the Tokugawa example. Much more can be done here; we see this as a second critical area of research. However, Hendler’s adagium “a little semantics goes a long way” is certainly true in this domain: the current limited set of alignments boosts already the search results. The information-retrieval nature of our task helps here: the results do not have to be perfect, as long as a sufficiently large set is relevant. One statistical fact is worthwhile to mention: on average we 17–18 metadata triples per collection object. It should be noted that these are mainly museum objects: for library and archive objects the numbers may be different. 5.2. Semantic search The current RDF/OWL graph with 200 K objects and multiple (some quite large) vocabularies already poses enormous search challenges. The vocabulary concepts generate many potential graph paths (for example, check the website of ULAN to see for yourself how much information is linked to an artist). For the moment we are still using a relatively straightforward graph-search algorithm [11], but this will likely need rethinking when the number of col- lection objects goes up an order of magnitude. This is definitely an important research challenge. We mention two avenues one could explore. Hollink et al. [5] has done an experiment where she tried to discover graph patterns in WordNet which increase recall with- out jeopardizing precision. This led to six preferred WordNet path patterns, most of these using some combination of hyponym and meronym relations. Such patterns may also exist for other vocab- ularies or combinations of vocabularies. Secondly, one can try to exploit metaknowledge of the hierarchy of metadata schema prop- erties to drive the search. In a sense, semantic search in large collections is still for the most part unexplored terrain. The problems we are facing are similar to the issues in the Linked Data initiative.18 Of course, our dataset is smaller, but on the other hand the branching factor in the graph is likely to be much higher due to the knowledge-rich nature of the area. In this article we have only addressed keyword-based search. We have experienced that users tend to prefer this type of search, because they have grown accustomed to the Google-type search. This does not mean we think this should necessarily be the only search paradigm. For example, we have experimented with faceted search [4]. We have also tentatively explored relation search: find interesting relationships between two URIs, e.g., between two artists or between an artist and a location. This is potentially an area where semantics can provide functionality that cannot be provided by standard IR techniques. 5.3. User involvement Cultural-heritage partners have been sitting at our work table from the beginning. This has been an enormous help in steering the project. We have done a number of user studies, for example examining search behaviour of cultural-heritage experts [1]. User involvement is a key theme in cultural heritage. Many musea are interested in tagging (cf. Steve Museum,19 Powerhouse Museum,20 but are unsure how to combine this with their in-house 18 http://linkeddata.org/. 19 http://www.steve.museum/. 20 www.powerhousemuseum.com. http://www.powerhousemuseum.com/ file://localhost/Users/guus/Downloads/dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.websem.2008.08.001 http://linkeddata.org/ http://www.steve.museum/ Please cite this article in press as: G. Schreiber, et al., Semantic annotation and search of cultural-heritage collections: The MultimediaN E-Culture demonstrator, Web Semantics Sci Serv Agents World Wide Web (2008), doi:10.1016/j.websem.2008.08.001 ARTICLE IN PRESSG ModelWEBSEM-146; No. of Pages 7 G. Schreiber et al. / Web Semantics: Science, Services and Agents on the World Wide Web xxx (2008) xxx–xxx 7 annotation practices. Musea have many objects in their collection which require annotation, for which they do not have the necessary resources. At the same time they are afraid of the quality of user annotations. We are now exploring some mixed schemes in which Web users can annotate collection objects with “semantic” tags. When a user types in a term, an autocompletion facility allows her to pick the right concept. Fig. 5 shows an example of this (the auto- completion mechanism is here used in combination with keyword search, but is essentially the same). We are currently performing a case study with the Rijksmuseum to explore interactive anno- tation facilities. The main problems are not technical, but social: how should external user annotations be handled? This is a sub- ject where Web 2.0 issues get intermingled with issues related to quality and trust. For example, it requires mechanisms for exter- nal annotations to be “approved” by museum professionals and for Web users to be acknowledged as experts by musea. There is still a lot of work to be done here, which brings us well out of the context of the present paper. We view the work described in this paper as a step towards showing that the Semantic Web endeavour has a chance of suc- ceeding, at least in knowledge-rich web “islands” such as cultural heritage. It is fair to say that in some areas we have only scratched the surface, but there are sufficient positive pointers to continue this effort. Similar encouraging experiences have been reported by the MuseumFinland project21 which won the second prize in the 2004 Semantic Web Challenge. Acknowledgements We are grateful to Marco de Niet, Annelies van Nispen (Digital Heritage Netherlands22), Marie-France van Orsouw and Annemiek Teesing (Netherlands Institute for Cultural Heritage23) for their valuable input. This research would not have been possible without the gracious support of the collection owners: the Rijksmuseum Amsterdam, the National Museum of Ethnology, the Royal Tropi- cal Institute, The Netherlands Institute for Art History, the Royal Library, and the Web collection Artchive. The E-Culture project is a subproject of the MultimediaN (“Multimedia Netherlands”24) project funded by the Dutch BSIK Programme. 21 http://www.museosuomi.fi. 22 http://www.den.nl. 23 http://www.icn.nl. 24 http://www.multimedian.nl. References [1] A. Amin, J. van Ossenbruggen, L. Hardman, A. van Nispen, Understanding cul- tural heritage experts’ information seeking needs, in: Proceedings of the Eighth ACM/IEEE-CS Joint Conference on Digital Libraries, JCDL’ 08, ACM, New York, NY, USA, 2008. [2] L.M. Aroyo, N. Stash, Y. Wang, P. Gorgels, L.W. Rutledge, CHIP demonstrator: semantics-driven recommendations and museum tour generation, in: Proceed- ings of the Sixth International Semantic Web Conference and Second Asian Semantic Web Conference, ISWC2007 + ASWC 2007, vol. 4825 of LNCS, Busan, Korea, November 11–15, 2007, Springer, Berlin, 2007. [3] V. de Boer, M. van Someren, B. Wielinga, Extracting instances of relations from web documents using redundancy, in: Proceedings of the Third European Semantic Web Conference (ESWC’06), Budvar, Montenegro, 2006. [4] M. Hildebrand, J. van Ossenbruggen, L. Hardman, Facet: a browser for hetero- geneous semantic web repositories, in: Proceedings of International Semantic Web Conference ((ISWC2006), LNCS, 2006. [5] L. Hollink, G. Schreiber, B. Wielinga, Patterns of semantic relations to improve image content search, J. Web Semant. 5 (3) (2007) 195–203. [6] A. Miles, T. Baker, R. Swick, Best practice recipes for publishing RDF vocabularies, Working draft, W3C, http://www.w3.org/TR/2006/WD-swbp- vocab-pub-20060314/ (March 14, 2006). [7] A. Miles, S. Becchofer, SKOS simple knowledge organization system reference, W3c working draft, World-Wide Web Consortium (January 25, 2008). [8] A. Tordai, B. Omelayenko, G. Schreiber, Semantic excavation of the city of books, in: Proceedings Semantic Authoring, Annotation and Knowledge Markup Work- shop (SAAKM2007), vol. 314, CEUR-WS, 2007, http://ceur-ws.org/Vol-314. [9] M. van Assem, A. Gamgemi, G. Schreiber, Conversion of wordnet to a standard RDF/OWL representation, in: Proceedings of LREC 2006, 2006. [10] M. van Assem, M. Menken, G. Schreiber, J. Wielemaker, B. Wielinga, A method for converting thesauri to RDF/OWL, in: S.A. McLlraith, D. Plexousakis, F. van Harmelen (Eds.), Proceedings of the Third International Semantic Web Conference ISWC2004, vol. 3298 of LNCS, Hiroshima, Japan, Springer-Verlag, Berlin/Heidelberg, 2004. [11] J. Wielemaker, M. Hildebrand, J. van Ossenbruggen, G. Schreiber, Thesaurus- based search in large heterogenous collections, in: A. Sheth, et al. (Eds.), Proc. The Semantic Web - ISWC 2008 7th International Semantic Web Confer- enc, Karlsruhe, October 2008, vol. 5318 of LNCS, Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg, 2008. [12] J. Wielemaker, G. Schreiber, B. Wielinga, Using triples for implementation: the Triple20 ontology-manipulation tool, in: Y. Gil, E. Motta, R. Benjamins, M. Musen (Eds.), The Semantic Web—ISWC2005: Proceedings of the Fourth International Semantic Web Conference, vol. 3729 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Galway, Ireland, November 6–10, 2005, Springer-Verlag, 2005. [13] J. Wielemaker, G. Schreiber, B.J. Wielinga, Prolog-based infrastructure for rdf: performance and scalability, in: D. Fensel, K. Sycara, J. Mylopoulos (Eds.), The Semantic Web—Proceedings of ISWC’03, vol. 2870 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Sanibel Island, FL, Springer-Verlag, Berlin/Heidelberg, 2003, ISSN 0302- 9743. http://ceur-ws.org/Vol-314 file://localhost/Users/guus/Downloads/dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.websem.2008.08.001 http://www.museosuomi.fi/ http://www.den.nl/ http://www.icn.nl/ http://www.multimedian.nl/ http://www.w3.org/TR/2006/WD-swbp-vocab-pub-20060314/ Semantic annotation and search of cultural-heritage collections: The MultimediaN E-Culture demonstrator Introduction Semantic annotation: collection data, metadata and vocabularies Semantic search Technical architecture Keyword search with semantic clustering Sample search scenario's Scenario 1: "Picasso" Scenario 2: "Tokugawa" Discussion Semantic annotation Semantic search User involvement Acknowledgements References 
work_fleg652s6jgwzcv6guvc4zznym	----	214 www.e-neurospine.org The Role of Atlantoaxial Instability on Chiari, Ossification of the Posterior Longitudinal Ligament, Spondylosis and Stenosis I would like to congratulate Neurospine for a very interesting and highly informative set of articles. I would like to comment on the 2 articles1,2 by 2 leading authorities in the field, Dr. Atul Goel and Dr. Sanjay Behari, that take somewhat different positions on the treat- ment of Chiari malformation. I have heard Dr. Goel’s presentations regarding his novel treatment of this condition and therefore read this paper with great interest. Although I consider Dr. Goel a friend as well as a highly respected colleague, I must say that, based on these two papers, Dr. Behari’s evidence and reasoning is more convincing to me. Dr. Goel’s Figures 1-4 demonstrate four cases of craniovertebral junction abnormalities. All 4 cases have occipitalization of the atlas, as well as platybasia. I do not think that anyone would one disagree with his treatment of these four cases, as a C1–2 fusion essentially fuses the entire craniovertebral junction, since their atlas is already congenitally fused to the occiput. How- ever, as Dr. Behari points out, > 70% of patients with a pure Chiari I malformation have ex- cellent improvement of their neurologic function with a simple decompression. If a nonfu- sion operation works as well as a fusion operation in greater than 70% of cases, the less in- vasive nonfusion operation is almost always the favored approach. Dr. Goel also discusses several other interesting approaches to the cervical spine. His Fig. 5A-C shows images of the patient with a cord signal change at C3–4 and stenosis from C3 down to C6. Figure 5B shows that the atlas is slightly posterior to the axis on one cut of the magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Dr. Goel calls this a type 2 atlantoaxial facetal instabil- ity. He treated the patient with a posterior atlantoaxial and C3–6 fusion. While I agree with fusing the patient from C3 down to C6, I would not have fused him at the atlantoaxial joint. An intact ring of the atlas cannot dislocate posteriorly because the dens acts as a hard stop. Therefore, there is a limit to how much the atlas can sublux posteriorly. Although the pa- tient may have a few millimeters of posterior subluxation of C1 on C2 on one sagittal MRI cut, this can be produced in any normal patient by obtaining an MRI with the neck slightly rotated to the ipsilateral side. Even if a patient has such subluxation without rotation, I would want to see incontrovertible proof that the patient’s symptoms are related to the subluxation before fusing what I consider to be the most important joint in the cervical spine when it comes to range of motion for activities of daily living. Likewise, for Fig. 6, I see no evidence that the patient needed an atlantoaxial fusion. There is overwhelming evidence in the liter- ature that ossification of the posterior longitudinal ligament (OPLL) that does not involve the C1–2 region can be treated without a C1–2 fusion. It is also well-recognized that fusing a stenotic spine will often resolve any neurologic deficits without the need for a decompres- sion. This is especially the case for mild neurologic deficits. Therefore, I agree that some Neurospine 2019;16(2):214-215. https://doi.org/10.14245/ns.19edi.006 Neurospine eISSN 2586-6591 pISSN 2586-6583 This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecom- mons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Copyright © 2019 by the Korean Spinal Neurosurgery Society Editorial Corresponding Author K. Daniel Riew E-mail: kr2637@cumc.columbia.edu https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2083-9375 Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Columbia University Medical Center, The Spine Hospital at New York Presbyterian, New York, NY, USA http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.14245/ns.19edi.006&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2019-06-30 The Role of Atlantoaxial Instability on Chiari, OPLL, Spondylosis and Stenosis Riew KD https://doi.org/10.14245/ns.19edi.006 www.e-neurospine.org 215 patients with OPLL can be treated exactly as Dr. Goel recom- mends, with the fusion and no decompression. However, I be- lieve it would be dangerous to recommend this as the only treatment for all patients. First, many patients with OPLL are already auto-fused because of their OPLL and still develop pro- gressive neurologic deficits. Second, some OPLL patients who are surgically decompressed posteriorly and solidly fused can nevertheless continue to grow their OPLL and have a recur- rence of symptoms despite the solid fusion. Third, OPLL can become so severe that the anterior bone actually fuses to the lamina and encroaches into the spinal canal, leaving less than 1 to 2 mm of space available for the cord. Despite being solidly fused, these patients can be profoundly myelopathic or even quadriparetic. For patients with mild myelopathy, I would agree that a fusion can result in improvement of symptoms. However, in moderate to severe myelopathy, or for those with quadripa- resis, I do not believe that a solidly fused OPLL patient with in- adequate decompression will improve in any significant way. I fail to see how adding a posterior fusion without decompres- sion can help such patients. Ultimately, only a study of patients with severe neurologic impairment treated without a decom- pression showing 100% resolution of their neurologic deficits can prove Dr. Goel’s claim. However, if those patients do not fully recover their deficits and an MRI still shows cord com- pression, I do not believe that one can claim that the fusion alone was the definitive operation. Finally, Dr. Goel posits that, “instability of the spinal segment/ segments is the primary event and all the other spinal alterations like osteophyte formation, ligamentum flavum buckling, disc space reduction and ultimate reduction of spinal canal and/or neural foraminal dimensions are secondary alterations.” I would agree that there are definitely cases where the facet degenerates first, resulting in its remodeling, with subluxation and disc de- generation occurring as a secondary phenomenon. Most com- monly, this occurs from C2 to C4. However, every spine sur- geon has seen patients with disc degeneration, whose facets are totally normal. If this were not the case, no patient would be eli- gible for a cervical disc arthroplasty, since it is contraindicated in patients with facet disease. In conclusion, I read with great interest all of the papers in this edition of Neurospine and commend the authors on their excellent work. Drs. Goel and Behari take differing points of view on a common condition and Dr. Goel presents some novel ideas about various cervical conditions. Although I cannot agree with everything he says, it would be foolhardy not to pay close attention to a leading authority in the field with great expertise, experience and knowledge. Hopefully, future studies by inde- pendent researchers on these topics will ultimately prove him to be right or wrong. REFERENCES 1. Goel A. A review of a new clinical entity of ‘central atlanto- axial instability’: expanding horizons of craniovertebral junction surgery. Neurospine 2019;16:186-94. 2. Deora H, Behari S, Sardhara J, et al. Is cervical stabilization for all cases of Chiari-I malformation an overkill? Evidence speaks louder than words! Neurospine 2019;16:195-206. Title: La Soupe Artist: Pablo Picasso Year: 1902 Despite his initial success at the Vollard exhibition in 1901, Picasso’s funds soon dried up. It was not unusual for the artist to go hungry during this period in Paris, but his own circumstances only heightened his awareness of their desperate poverty that frequently surrounded him. Back in Barcelona in 1902 Picasso produced the painting entitled La Soupe. More information: https://www.pablopicasso.org/the-soup.jsp © 2019 - Succession Pablo Picasso - SACK (Korea) 
work_fmly3h4b5zf7xh2ik6p6tcyzcq	----	Microsoft Word - 07 ÖZLEM AYVAZ TUNÇ.docx © 2019 idil. Bu makale Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY-NC-ND) 4.0 lisansı ile yayımlanmaktadır. SANATTA DİSİPLİNLERARASI BİR YAKLAŞIM: SERAMİK VE ANİMASYON Fidan TONZA HELVACIKARA1 Özlem AYVAZ TUNÇ2 1Dr. Öğr. Üyesi, Ondokuz Mayıs Üniversitesi, Seramik - Cam Bölümü, fidan.tonza(at)omu.edu.tr, ORCID: 0000-0002-5094-1066 2Dr. Öğr. Üyesi, Ondokuz Mayıs Üniversitesi, Görsel İletişim Tasarımı Bölümü, ozlematunc(at)omu.edu.tr, ORCID: 0000-0002-7039-9294 Tonza Helvacıkara , Fidan ve Özlem Ayvaz Tunç. “Sanatta Disiplinlerarası Bir Yaklaşım: Seramik ve Animasyon” idil, 63 (2019 Kasım): s. 1471-1485. doi: 10.7816/idil-08-63-07 Öz Çağdaş sanatta farklı disiplinlerin harmanlanması, yeni yaklaşımların geliştirilmesine ve genişletilmesine olanak sağlamaktadır. Disiplinlerarası bakış açısıyla günümüzün sanat anlayışının sınırları aşma çabası, seramik alanında da kendini göstermektedir. Plastik ve görsel sanatlara dair oluşturulması düşünülen yeni bir perspektif, seramik sanatı ile animasyonun temel prensiplerinin birleştirilmesi yönünde yaklaşımları ortaya koymayı planlamaktadır. Görsel sanatlar alanında yer alan animasyonun, seramik malzeme üzerindeki dönüşüm süreci, farklı teknik ve uygulamalarla gerçekleştirilebilmektedir. Literatür taraması sonucu elde edilen verilerin yorumlanması ile seramik form ve yüzeyin animasyona uygun hale getirilmesi üzerine uygulamaların incelenmesi, bu çalışmanın ana yapısını oluşturmaktadır. Aynı zamanda dönme eylemi ve animasyon tekniği arasındaki ilişki, seramik şekillendirme yöntemlerinden biri olan çömlekçi çarkı ile ilişkilendirilerek, iki farklı disiplinin biraradalığını, deneysel yaklaşıma olanak tanıyan boyutları göz önünde bulundurulmuştur. Bu yaklaşımla ortaya çıkan çalışmalar üslup ve biçim yönünden incelenmiş, tarihsel süreç içerisinde gelenekselden, çağdaş formlara kullanılan teknik ve yöntem bu çalışmada öne çıkarılmıştır. Anahtar Kelimeler: disiplinlerarası sanat, seramik, animasyon, çömlekçi tornası Makale Bilgisi Geliş: 1 Ağustos 2019 Düzeltme: 8 Eylül 2019 Kabul: 12 Ekim 2019 Tonza Helvacıkara , Fidan, vw Özlem Ayvaz Tunç,. “Sanatta Disiplinlerarası Bir Yaklaşım: Seramik ve Animasyon” idil, 63 (2019 Kasım): s. 1471-1485. doi: 10.7816/idil-08-63-07 1472 Giriş Çağımızın değişen algısı ile disiplinlerarası çalışmalar, teknolojik olanaklarla birlikte sanatın bir çok alanına yayılmakta ve farklı birlikteliklerin bir arada kullanıldığı kollektif eserler yaygınlaşmaktadır. Sanatçının neyi, nasıl, hangi malzemeyi kullanarak yaptığından ziyade; ne anlattığı, ne hissettirdiği ve nasıl bir etki bıraktığı, sanatta disiplinlerarası yaklaşımların özünü oluşturmaktadır. Disiplinlerarası yaklaşımlar, biçimsel ve düşünsel açıdan sanatçıya sınırsız bir özgürlük alanı sunulmasının önünü açmaktadır. Bu bağlamda, seramik malzemenin kullanım alanının genişletilmesi ve teknik anlamda özgün denemelerin varlığı, seramik sanatının gelenekselden çağdaş sanata uzanan yolculuğuna katkı sağlamıştır. Seramik, kendine özgü bir dil oluşturabilecek bir yapıya sahip olması açısından da farklı disiplinlerden sanatçıların etkileşim içinde oldukları bir malzeme olarak karşımıza çıkmaktadır. Aynı şekilde animasyon sanatı içinde benzer ifadeler kullanılabilmektedir. Dolayısıyla, sanat alanındaki yeni girişimler, yorumlama ve farklı yaklaşımlar, disiplinlerarası çalışmalar açısından seramik ve animasyon sanatında, plastik ve görsel sanatlar adına deneysel çalışmalar kapsamında önemli bir kurgu oluşturmaktadır. İnsanoğlunun bilinen ilk sanat uygulamaları olan mağara resimleri, animasyonun öncü örneklerini oluşturmaktadır. Paleolitik araştırmacı ve film yapımcısı olan Marc Azéma’ya göre, mağara duvarlarında, hem anlatıyı hem de hareketi temsil eden bu resimler, ilk animasyonları oluşturma yönünde çözümlemeler içermektedir (Azema, 2012: 317). Bu resimler arasında yer alan, uzuvları kusurlu veya fazla çizilmiş gibi görünen bazı hayvan figürleri, bir attan ikiden fazla ön bacak, üst üste çizilmiş at kafaları ve bir gergedana birden fazla çizilmiş boynuz gibi unsurların, resmedilmiş hayvanların hareketlendirilmesi yönünde yapıldığı düşünülmektedir (Azema, 2005: 14-21). Mağaralar küçük bir ateş veya fenerle aydınlatıldığında hayvan figürlerinin hareketlendiği, figürün ışıkta kalan ve karanlıkta kalan bölümlerinin birbiri ile ardışık sıralanması sonucu bu canlandırmanın oluşturulduğu (Görsel 1), Marc Azema’nın çalışmalarında görülmektedir (Azema, 2015). Ana yapısı anlatı ve hareket olan sinemanın başlangıcını bu görüntülere yani paleolitik dönem mağara resimlerine dayandırılma fikri, animasyon tarihi açısından önemlidir. Görsel 1: Üst Üste Çizilmiş At Resimleri, Chauvet-Pont-d’Arc Mağarası, Güney Fransa İlkel insanın, mağara resimlerini hareketlendirme arzusu, Görsel 1’de yer alan, Paleolitik dönem resim örneğinde açıkça görülebilmektedir. Birbiri ardından gelen, üst üste çizilmiş at resimlerinin hareket algısı oluşturması, bu yaklaşımı içeren çok sayıda Paleolitik mağara resimlerinden sadece bir tanesidir. İnsanoğlunun bu hareket izlenimini yaratma çabası, mağara resimlerindeki ilk primitif örneklerden, ilk çağ uygarlığı eserlerine kadar görülebilmektedir. Mağara duvarlarında yer alan hayvan figürlerindeki çok bacaklı çizimlerden, hareket algısını iki boyutlu yüzey üzerine yansıtma çabaları açıkça ortadadır. Takip eden dönemlerde de sanatçılar eserlerinde, devinimi, duyguları ve ruh durumlarını ifade etmeye çalışmaya devam etmişlerdir (Marlow, 2006: 6). Animasyon, Britannica Ansiklopedisinde ise ‘cansız nesneleri devinim halinde gösterme sanatı’ olarak tanımlanmaktadır. Mc Laren’e göre; her iki kare arasında ne olduğu, karenin üzerinde ne olduğundan daha önemlidir. Bu sebeple denebilir ki; animasyon, kareler arasında görünmeyen aralıklar oluşturma sanatıdır (Aydın, 1989:28). Animasyonun kökleri 16. yüzyıla kadar dayanmaktadır. Ancak animasyon sanatı asıl ivmeyi, 19. yüzyılın yenilikçi bakış açısı ile kazanmıştır. Tonza Helvacıkara , Fidan, vw Özlem Ayvaz Tunç,. “Sanatta Disiplinlerarası Bir Yaklaşım: Seramik ve Animasyon” idil, 63 (2019 Kasım): s. 1471-1485. doi: 10.7816/idil-08-63-07 1473 1824 yılında Londra Üniversitesinden Doktor Peter Mark Roget, Persistence of Vision with Regard to Moving Objects (Objelerin Hareketlerine Göre Görüş Sürekliliği ) isimli makalesinde, retinanın bir sonraki resim belirene kadar bir saniyeden de az bir zamanda resimleri tuttuğunu belirtmesiyle durağan resimlerin belirli bir hızda hareket ediyormuş izlenimi uyandırdığının keşfi, animasyonun oluşumun ilk adımı olmuş oldu (Whitehead, 2012:19). Takip eden yıllarda sırasıyla phenakistoscope, zoetrope ve praxinoscopegibi buluşlarla animasyon adına arayışlar devam etmiştir. Animasyonun öncüleri olarak nitelendirilen Emile Cohl ve Winsor McCay, 1900-1930 yılları arasında animasyonun temel prensipleri doğrultusunda filmler ortaya çıkarmışlardır. Teknolojiyle birlikte iletişim araçları da gelişmiş ve bu gelişme, animasyonda yeni alanlar ortaya çıkarmıştır. Bu yeni alanlar, dijital ve stop–motion teknikleri kullanılarak oluşturulan üç boyutlu nesneler, çizgi film formatında iki boyutlu görüntüler ve sanal gerçeklik gibi yeni biçimlerle karşımıza çıkmaktadır. Nitel araştırma deseniyle yapılandırılan bu araştırmada nitel veri toplama tekniklerinden yararlanılmıştır. Literatür ışığında elde edilen verilerin yorumlanması ile seramik form ve yüzeyin animasyona uygun hale getirilmesi üzerine uygulamaların incelenmesi, bu çalışmanın ana yapısını oluşturmaktadır. Aynı zamanda dönme eylemi ve animasyon tekniği arasındaki ilişki, seramik şekillendirme yöntemlerinden biri olan çömlekçi çarkı ilişkilendirilerek, iki farklı disiplinin biraradalığının, deneysel yaklaşıma olanak tanıyan boyutları göz önünde bulundurulmuştur. Bu yaklaşımla ortaya çıkan çalışmalar üslup ve biçim yönünden incelenmiş, tarihsel süreç içerisinde gelenekselden, çağdaş formlara kullanılan teknik ve yöntem bu çalışmada öne çıkarılmıştır. Seramik ve Animasyon Seramik, insanlık tarihinin aydınlatılmasında en önemli malzeme olarak karşımıza çıkmaktadır. Hayatın bir çok alanında açıklayıcı ve aydınlatıcı örneklerle seramik, şaşırtıcı bir şekilde animasyon tarihinin de başlangıcını oluşturmada önemli bir yere sahiptir. Animasyon tarihi incelendiğinde, İran'ın Güneydoğu kesiminde Şhahr-e Sukhteh'de M.Ö. 3. binyılın son yarısında keşfedilen seramik kap örneğini görmekteyiz (Görsel 2). Farsça "Yanmış Şehir" anlamına gelen Shahr-e Sukhteh, Jiroft uygarlığı ile ilgili, Bronz Çağı kentsel yerleşiminin önemli bir arkeolojik alanıdır. Burada keşfedilen, animasyon tarihinin önemli bir envanteri haline gelen seramik kap örneği, dekor tekniği açısından ilginç bir örnek oluşturmaktadır. Dönen bir tablaya koyduğunuzda, ağaca sıçrayan bir keçinin aşamalarını gösteren beş sıralı görüntünün hareket ediyormuşçasına oluşturduğu algı, onu diğer seramik kaplardan ayırmaktadır. Dekor tekniği olarak kullanılan sgrafitto, seramik kadehin dış yüzeyine uygulanmıştır. Hareketin oluşturduğu görselin kare kare seramik yüzey üzerine dekorlanması, animasyon tarihinin ilk örneğini oluşturması açısından önem kazanırken, dekorlu seramik kaplar yönü ile de dikkat çekicidir. Görsel 2: Şahr-e Sukhteh İran, M. Ö. 3000, Animasyon Seramik Kadeh, Tonza Helvacıkara , Fidan, vw Özlem Ayvaz Tunç,. “Sanatta Disiplinlerarası Bir Yaklaşım: Seramik ve Animasyon” idil, 63 (2019 Kasım): s. 1471-1485. doi: 10.7816/idil-08-63-07 1474 Görsel 3: Şahr--e Sukhteh, İran, M. Ö. 3000, Seramik Kadehin Üzerinde, Hareket Eden Geyik Stilizasyonları Antik dönemden itibaren seramik kapların yüzeyinde yer alan dekor, seramik sanatının biçim, üslup ve teknik olarak önemli bir parçası haline gelmiştir. Kullanım eşyasına yüklenen anlamlar bakımından kültürel, sosyal yapılar ve anlayışa bağlı, seramik dekor uygulamaları, teknik ve desen anlamında tarih boyunca zengin örnekler oluşturmuştur. Dinsel inanışlar, mitolojik hikâyeler, tarihi olaylar ve ideolojiler gibi toplumların yaşayış biçimlerine dair karakteristik özellikler, seramik yüzey üzerine betimlenen ve soyutlanan en yaygın temalar olduğu gibi bitki ya da hayvan motifi ve geometrik bezemeler en sık karşılaşılan desenlerdir. Bunların dışında, İran Şahr-e Sukhteh’te bulunmuş animasyon seramik kadeh örneği, hareketli görüntüler oluşturma çabası olarak, seramik yüzey üzerine uygulanan dekor yöntemi olarak farklılık göstermektedir. İnsanın durağan olana karşı sergilediği aksiyonun ilk adımlarından biri olarak önemlidir. Seramik Malzeme ile Animasyon Uygulamaları Stop motion animasyon, cansız nesnelerin ya da kuklaların tek tek hareket ettirilerek kare kare fotoğraflarının çekilmesiyle yapılan animasyon tekniğidir. Durağan 3 boyutlu objelerin hareket ediyormuş izlenimi verecek biçimde düzenlenmesi ve kaydedilmesi yoluyla elde edilen Stop-motion animasyonun, fotoğrafçılık, heykel, film gibi birçok disiplini barındırıyor olması, multidsipliner bir yapıya sahip olduğunu göstermektedir. Bugün stop-motion animasyonun bir türü olarak incelenen kil animasyon, hamur animasyon ya da plastisin animasyon olarak da bilinir. Film için tasarlanan karakter ya da nesneler, armatür adı verilen bir iskelet üzerine hamurun şekillendirilmesiyle yapılır. İstenilen şekle, renge ve ifadeye ulaşan heykel fotoğraflanır. Yumuşak yapısı sayesinde kil, bir sonraki kare için şekillendirilir: Kol hafifçe indirilir, gülümseyen ağız büzülür ya da gözler kapanır... Nihayetinde tüm fotoğraflar hızlı bir şekilde akar ve film oluşur. Ufak farklılıkların gizlendiği bu kareler hızla gösterildiğinde izleyicide hareket algısı yaratır (Bayraktar, 2018:142). Heykellerin, resimlerin, fotoğrafların canlanması, 20.yüzyılın başlarında çok kullanılan yöntemler arasında sıralanabilir. Kil animasyon tekniğinden faydalanılan, canlı çekim ile kil animasyonu harmanlandığı en eski filmlerden Heykeltraşın Kabusu, (Görsel 4) bilinen ilk örnek olarak karşımıza çıkmaktadır. Filmde, kille şekillendirilen ve her aşamanın filme çekimini içeren stop-motion yöntemi kullanılmaktadır. Canlı çekim filme eş zamanlı hareket eden heykel figürler yüz animasyonu açısından öneme sahiptir. Görsel 4: 1908 yapımı ‘Heykeltıraşın Kabusu’ adlı film Nina Paley’in Seder-Masochism (Katz, Sharon 2018) adlı animasyon filmi durağan nesneler üzerine gerçekleştirdiği animasyon açısından önemlidir. İzleyiciyi tarihsel yolculuğa çıkaran 2B teknikle gerçekleştirdiği animasyon, tarih öncesi çağlardan itibaren inanç ve idoller ekseninde betimlenen tanrıça figürlerini konu alıyor. Bereket sembolü olan bu idollere sahip olduğu biçim üzerinden dans hareketleri kazandırılmıştır. Çatalhöyük, Hacılar gibi Anadolu’nun ilk yerleşim merkezi kazılarından çıkarılan ana tanrıça figürlerinden, Mısır, Miken uygarlıklarına kadar bir çok tanrıça idolü animasyon ile yeniden yorumlamıştır. Bu animasyonların da toplumların tarihsel kolektif belleklerinin aktarılmasında önemli bir yer tutan “Tanrıça” imgesine odaklandığı görülmektedir. Tanrıçaları günümüz popüler müzikleri ile dansettiren sanatçı Nina Paley, farklı kültür ve coğrafyalardan günümüze gelen tanrıça idollerinden oluşturduğu animasyonların çeşitli varyasyonlarını eğlenceli bir şekilde bize sunmaktadır (Görsel 5). Tonza Helvacıkara , Fidan, vw Özlem Ayvaz Tunç,. “Sanatta Disiplinlerarası Bir Yaklaşım: Seramik ve Animasyon” idil, 63 (2019 Kasım): s. 1471-1485. doi: 10.7816/idil-08-63-07 1475 Görsel 5: Nina Paley, “Seder-Masochism”, ‘Tanrıçaların Dansı ‘Adlı Animasyonu Kil vb. materyalin şekillendirilmesiyle hazırlanan animasyonların yanı sıra farklı materyalin kullanımına uygun yapısıyla kukla animasyonu, stop motion animasyonun bir türü olarak karşımıza çıkmaktadır. Anu-Laura Tuttelberg’un porselen kuklalar ile gerçekleştirdiği stop motion animasyonu, bu türe bir örnek olarak gösterilebilir. Kuklalar, büyülü görünümünü, porselenin parlak ve canlı yüzeyinden almaktadır. Bu animasyonda, kıvrılarak açılan bir çiçeğin yumuşak ve hassas eyleminin, porselen malzeme ile canlandırılması, izleyicide farklı, şaşırtıcı bir etki uyandırmaktadır (Görsel 6). Sanatçı burada, parlak kırılgan porselen malzeme ile animasyonun temel prensipleri arasında estetik ve içeriksel bağlantı kurarak izleyiciyi şaşırtırken, düşüncelerini dolaylı bir yolla aktarmaktadır. Görsel 6: Anu-Laura Tuttelberg “Winter in the Rainforest” Stop-Motion Animasyon Sanat Akademisinde kukla animasyon derslerini veren ve animasyon stüdyoları için ayrıca set tasarımında çalışan Estonyalı sanatçı Anu-Laura, ‘Winter in Rainforest’ (Görsel 7) adlı animasyon filmini şu şekilde betimlemektedir: Dünyanın gizli bir köşesinde, imkânsız rüyaların gerçekleşebileceği bir yer var. Yemyeşil bir doğanın ortasında, bir yağmur ormanında, yaratıkların, vahşi nehir akarsularında doğduğu ve kırılgan porselen hayvanların bulunabileceği bir yer. Ayakları, insan parmakları gibi uçan balıkları avladığı ve kısır örümceklerin tuzakları ile minyatür dansçıları yakaladığı....Bu daha önce hiç görülmemiş yaratıkların yaşadığı gerçeküstü bir dünya.Zaman burada garip bir şekilde geçmekte ve beklenmeyen bir hızda ilerlemektedir (Mufson, 2016). Tonza Helvacıkara , Fidan, vw Özlem Ayvaz Tunç,. “Sanatta Disiplinlerarası Bir Yaklaşım: Seramik ve Animasyon” idil, 63 (2019 Kasım): s. 1471-1485. doi: 10.7816/idil-08-63-07 1476 Görsel 7: Anu-Laura Tuttelberg, Stop-motion Animasyon Uzun yıllar porselen ve kuklalarla gerçekleştirdiği çalışma pratiği sonucu, teknik konusunda kendisini geliştiren sanatçı, birçok çalışmaya imza atmıştır. Şekillendirilmesi ve farklı aşamaları yönünden porselen gibi zor bir malzemeyi kukla yapımında tercih etmek pek sık karşılaşılan bir durum değildir. Sanatçının, kırılgan ve ağır olmasına rağmen, kukla yapımında yaygın bir malzeme olmayan porseleni seçmesinin nedeni, figürleri, başlı başına bir tasarım ve heykel olarak varlığını ortaya koyma arzusudur. Ayrıca çevreye olan hassasiyetinin bir sonucu olarak porselenin doğal bir malzeme ve kendine özgü dokusu, malzeme seçiminin nedenleri olarak sıralanabilir. Porselen kuklaların animasyon için kullanılabilir bir seçenek olduğunu gösteren sanatçı, bu şekilde çalışmalarına farklılık kazandırmaktadır. Kuklaları inşa etmek ve hareket yetenekleri üzerine çözümlemelerde, silikon ve alüminyum tel gibi yardımcı malzemeleri porselen ile birlikte kullanmaktadır. Porselenin izin vermeyeceği herhangi bir pozisyonu almaları yönünde, kuklaları esnek kılmak için silikonu, porseleni taklit edecek şekilde kullanan Tuttelberg, böylece malzemelerin ayırt edilmesini zorlaştırmaktadır. Başka bir örnek de, Pekin’de yaşayan Xue Geng’in “Mr. Sea” (Görsel 8) adlı animasyon filmidir. Film, bir aşk hikayesi ekseninde, mavi ve beyaz sırlı porselenden yapılmış, eklemleri hareket eden kuklalarla oluşturulmuştur. Porselenin dokusu ve kullanım biçimi, hikayenin dramatik kurgusunu desteklemektedir. Yarı saydam, parlak yapısı ve beyazlığı ile porselenin mekan ve karakter yaratmada sunduğu olanaklar, hikayenin sembolik anlatımına katkı sağlamaktadır. Porselen malzemeden oluşturulan sahne tasarımı, farklı, büyüsel bir söylem alanı yaratmaktadır. Sahne tasarımı ve kukla yapımında porselenin kullanımı, bazen hikayenin önüne geçen unsurlar olarak da görsel bir şölene dönüşmektedir. Görsel 8: Xue Geng, “Mr Sea” Temel mantığı stop motion olan animasyon türünden biri de kil animasyondur. Yumuşak sekil verilebilen malzemenin, hareket algısı yaratacak şekilde değiştirilmesi ile oluşturulan bir animasyondur. Karakterler, malzemenin tel ya da özel üretilmiş bir metal iskelet üzerine giydirilmesi ile hazırlanır. Ardman stüdyolarında gerekleştirilen “Wallece ve Gromit (Görsel 9), Chicken Run” animasyonları bu teknikle üretilen önemli filmlerdendir. Tonza Helvacıkara , Fidan, vw Özlem Ayvaz Tunç,. “Sanatta Disiplinlerarası Bir Yaklaşım: Seramik ve Animasyon” idil, 63 (2019 Kasım): s. 1471-1485. doi: 10.7816/idil-08-63-07 1477 Görsel 9: “Wallece ve Gromit” Seramik malzemenin sağlamış olduğu plastiklilik, üç boyutlu karakter yaratma noktasında şekillendirme ve çeşitleme yönünden kolaylıklar sağlamaktadır. Karakterlere hareket ve esneklik sağlama açısından seramiğin kullanımına yönelik yararlılığı, kil animasyonda önem arz eder. Stop motion teknikleri arasında öne çıkan bu teknik, karekter modeli oluştururken vakit tanıması, hemen kurumaması, nemlendirme yöntemi ile değişikliklere izin vermesi ya da istenildiği zaman bozulup tekrar yapılması gibi konularda seramik çamurunun avantajlarını ortaya koymaktadır. Bir başka stop motion tekniği de “kil boyama” animasyonudur. Kilin bir plaka şeklinde düzleştirildiği ve herhangi bir görüntü stili üretmek için bir tuval gibi üzerinde rölyefler ve renklendirilmelerle oluşturulan animasyon türüdür. Tıpkı diğer stop motion tekniklerinde olduğu gibi kil boyama animasyonunda da kilin şekillendirilmesi ve her bir hareketin kamera ile kare kare çekilmesi ile görüntüler elde edilmektedir. Bu tekniğin öncüsü, Amerikalı animatör Joan Gratz’dır. Gratz, renklendirilmiş kili ısıtarak, mineral yağlarla karıştırmaktadır. Bu karışım soğuduktan sonra ise parmaklarıyla ve küçük aletlerle kili yaymaktadır.Yağlı karışım sert bir yüzeye yayılarak yağlı boya görüntüsünü oluşturmaktadır (Furniss, 2013:235). 1992'de çekilen Oscar ödüllü Mona Lisa Descending A Staircase, Joan Gratz'ın canlandırdığı, iki boyutlu kil boyama animasyonundan oluşan, birbirine geçiş yapan ünlü tablolardan oluşturulmuştur (Görsel 10). Gratz bu animasyonunda, Vincent Van Gogh, Chuck Close, Pablo Picasso, Roy Lichtenstein, Andy Warhol, Paul Gauguin, Rene Margritte, Phillip Gaston gibi sanatçıların ünlü tabloları arasında bir geçiş yapar. “Mona Lisa Descending Staircase” adlı yedi dakikalık animasyon filmini 1992 yılında tamamlayan sanatçı, Marcel Duchamp'ın, “Bir Merdivenden Düşen Çıplak” adlı ikonik modernist eserini, Leonardo da Vinci’nin “Mona Lisa” tablosu ile ilişkilendirilmesi üzerine oluşturmuştur. Rönesans’tan başlayarak, İzlenimcilik, Pop Sanat ve Hiper-Gerçekçilik’e kadar devam eden sanat akımlarının ünlü tablolarını kil boyama tekniği ile canlandırmış ve sanat eserleri arasındaki metamorfik geçişleri sağlamıştır. 1992 En İyi Kısa Animasyon Filmi Akademi Ödülü'nü kazanan sanatçı Joan Gratz, bu kil boyama animasyonu ile dünyadan çeşitli film festivallerinden de birçok ödül kazanmıştır. Görsel 10: “Mona Lisa Descending A Staircase”, Kil Animasyon Filmi Joan Gratz’ın kil boyama ile gerçekleştirdiği animasyonları arasında “Dowager's Feast”, "Dowager's Idyll”, “The Second Coming” sayılabilir. 2012 yılında “Lost and Found” adlı animasyon filmi, kil boyama dışında, yüksek rölyef kil çalışmalarının fotoğraflarından oluşmaktadır (Görsel 11). Bir bebeğin anne rahminde cenin pozisyonu ile başlayan kil görüntüsü, onu çevreleyen el figürleri ile devam etmektedir. El figürleri artarak merkeze doğru ilerlemekte ve bir helezon yaratarak, bebek figürü giderek gözden kaybolmaktadır. Sanat nesnesinin değişimini ortaya koyduğu bu animasyon filminde, önermeler ve sorgulamalar ile yaşama dair başkalaşım ve metamorfoz olgusuna göndermeler yapılmaktadır. Tonza Helvacıkara , Fidan, vw Özlem Ayvaz Tunç,. “Sanatta Disiplinlerarası Bir Yaklaşım: Seramik ve Animasyon” idil, 63 (2019 Kasım): s. 1471-1485. doi: 10.7816/idil-08-63-07 1478 Görsel 11:”Lost and Found”, Yüksek Rölyef Kil Çalışması ve Kil Boyama Animasyonu Joan Gratz’ın bir diğer yüksek rölyef çalışması, 2016 yılında yaptığı “Primal Flux” adlı animasyon filmidir (Görsel 12). Kil boyama animasyonu olan bu çalışma, soyut ve figüratif görüntüleri birleştiriyor. Görsel 12: Joan, Gratz, “Primal Flux”, Yüksek Rölyef Kil Animasyon. Kil boyama kullanan bir diğer sanatçı Buzzco Associates, bu teknikle Nickelodeon için bir dizi üretmiştir.Yine Plasticine Crow ve Last Year's Snow Falling filmleriyle ünlü olan Rus animasyon yönetmeni Alexander Tatarsky, kil boyama tekniğini kullanmış bir diğer sanatçıdır. İngiliz sanatçı Jo Pearl ise, seramik figüratif heykeller yapan bir sanatçı olmasının yanında, animasyon konusunda çalışmalar yapmıştır. Serbest şekillendirme tekniklerinden sucuk ve plaka yöntemini kullanarak heykellerini inşa eden sanatçı, seramik büstleri canlandırmakla, metaforik söylemler elde etmektedir. İnsanın ne olduğu hakkında sorular sorarak geçmiş, şimdi ve geleceği dijital çağ ile ilişkilendirmeye çalışan Jo Pearl, aynı zamanda ekolojik kaygılar doğrultusunda sanat çalışmalarını gerçekleştirmektedir. Jo Pearl, stop motion animasyon tekniği ile heykelleri canlandırmaktadır (Görsel 13). Görsel 13: Jo Pearl, Duyguların Canlandırılması, Kağıt Katkılı Seramik Tonza Helvacıkara , Fidan, vw Özlem Ayvaz Tunç,. “Sanatta Disiplinlerarası Bir Yaklaşım: Seramik ve Animasyon” idil, 63 (2019 Kasım): s. 1471-1485. doi: 10.7816/idil-08-63-07 1479 Dönme Eylemi, Disk ve Animasyon Evren ve yaşam sistemi üzerine gelişen felsefe ve kavramsal yapı, dönme eylemi üzerine kurgulanmaktadır. Bununla birlikte, insanlığın ilk gelişim evresini işaret eden çarkın (tekerlek) bulunuşu, ardından seramik formların çömlekçi tornasında şekillendirilmesi gibi dönme eyleminin vücut bulduğu disk üzerinden gelişen maddi kültür, kendi değerlerini yaratmış ve gelişimini sürdürmüştür. Bu kapsamda dönme eylemi ve eğlence üzerine odaklanıldığında, tarihi çok eskilere dayanan, günümüzde taumatrop (thautnatropes) olarak adlandırılan disk oyuncak öne çıkmaktadır. Paleolitik Dönem Magdalenian kültür’e ait olduğu düşünülen bu animasyon disk oyuncağın (Görsel 14) iki yüzeyinde aynı ren geyiğinin farklı pozisyonları görülmektedir. Ortası delikli diskin bir yüzeyinde ren geyiği ayakta betimlenmiştir. Diğer yüzeyinde sanki oturuyormuşçasına ayaklarını toplamış bir şekilde resimlenmiştir. İki harekete sahip olan bu animasyon disk, durağan objeden, dönme eylemine oluşturulan hareket ve yanılsama üzerine ilginç bir örneği oluşturmaktadır. Görsel 14: Güney Batı Fransa’da Yer Alan Isturitz Mağarası, Disk Oyuncak Paleolitik sanatçıların icat ettiği thaumatrope, 19. yüzyılda popüler olan optik bir oyuncak haline gelmiştir. Her iki tarafında da görsellerin yeraldığı ve yan taraflarındaki iplerin hareket ettirilmesi sonucunda iki görüntünün tek görüntü olarak algılanması temeline dayalı bir animasyon aracıdır. İpler parmaklar arasında hızlı bir şekilde kendi ekseni üzerinde döndürüldüğünde, görüntünün sürekliliği nedeniyle iki resim birbirine karışarak hareket algısı oluşturulmaktadır (Azéma ve Rivère, 2012:322). Dönme eylemi ve animasyon üzerine geliştirilen diğer yöntemler arasında phenakistoscope (Görsel 15), zoetrope (Görsel 16) ve praxinoscope (Görsel 17) bulunmaktadır. 19. yüzyılda keşfedilen bu aletler, görselleri hareket ediyormuş gibi gösteren oyuncaklar haline getirilerek kullanılmıştır. Dönme eylemi prensibinde çalışan, oldukça basit oyuncaklar olmasına rağmen animasyonun ilk örneklerini oluşturmaları açısından önemlidirler. Görsel 15: Phenakistoscope “Vals Yapan Çift” Tonza Helvacıkara , Fidan, vw Özlem Ayvaz Tunç,. “Sanatta Disiplinlerarası Bir Yaklaşım: Seramik ve Animasyon” idil, 63 (2019 Kasım): s. 1471-1485. doi: 10.7816/idil-08-63-07 1480 Üzerinde fotoğraflar bulunan, phenakistoscope adını verdiği diskin hızlıca hareket ettirilmesiyle görüntünün de hareketlenmesi mantığını geliştiren Eadweard Muybridge, animasyon ve sinema adına önemli adımların atılmasını sağlamıştır. Diskin üzerinde 14 adet farklı fotoğrafın yer alması ve döndürüldüğünde dans eden bir çiftin yanılsaması ile oluşturulan animasyon, phenakistoscope örneklerinden biri olarak gösterilebilir. 1834 yılında William George Horner tarafından icat edilen zeotrope, bir mil üzerinde dönen bir silindirdi (Furniss, 2013:126). Bu silindirin içinde uzun şeritler üzerindeki hareketsiz görüntülerin yer aldığı cihazın dönme eylemi ile hareket oluşturulmaktaydı. Phenakistoscope’nin geliştirilmesi sonucunda ortaya çıkan zoetrope, dönme merkezli oluşturulan animasyonlara örnektir. Görsel 16: Zoetrope Görsel 17: Praxinoscope, Praxinoscope, zoetrope’den farklı olarak, disk çevresine yerleştirilen eşit aralıklarla radyal çizilmiş bir dizi görüntünün, disk merkezine yerleştirilen bir ayna aracılığı ile oluşan devinimin izlenmesi üzerine kurgulanmış bir animasyon oyuncaktır. Zoetrope mantığının geliştirilerek, devinim ve döngü üzerinden oluşturulan animasyonlar, çağdaş sanatta yeni ifade arayışları bakımından dikkat çekmektedir. Sanatçı John Edmark’ın çalışmaları, durağan bir nesneyi kendi ekseninde döndürerek elde ettiği animasyonlar üzerine kurgulanmaktadır. Strüktürel bir yapının animasyon oluşturmaya elverişliliği, durağan nesne seçimi konusunu belirlemektedir. Doğaya bakıldığında, varlığın strüktürünü meydana getiren birimlerin dizilişi ve bir araya geliş sistemlerinden sanatçının esinlendiği görülmektedir. Bir ananas ya da ay çekirdeğini bir merkez üzerinde döndüren sanatçı, onları oluşturan birimlerin içe veya dışa doğru hareketini gözlemlemiştir. Kinetik ve optik sanat kapsamında, matematiksel olarak hesaplanan her ayrıntı, heykeli oluşturan strüktürel yapı, dönme diskive oluşturulan hareket, hazırladığı “Bloom Serisi” (Görsel 18) animasyonların temel mantığını oluşturmaktadır. Bu çalışmalar, sabit bir nesnenin döndürüldüklerinde canlandırıldığı çalışmalar dizinini oluşturmaktadır. Üç boyutlu yazıcı kullanılarak şekillendirilen porselen çalışmalar, kendi ekseni üzerinde döndürüldüğünde, onları oluşturan temel modüler birimin hareketi üzerine animasyon kurgulanmıştır. Tonza Helvacıkara , Fidan, vw Özlem Ayvaz Tunç,. “Sanatta Disiplinlerarası Bir Yaklaşım: Seramik ve Animasyon” idil, 63 (2019 Kasım): s. 1471-1485. doi: 10.7816/idil-08-63-07 1481 Görsel 18: John Edmark, Porselen Heykel Animasyon, “Bloom Serisi” Günümüzde benzer örneklerini sıklıkla görebildiğimiz ve hareket yanılsaması oluşturulan disk örnekleri mevcuttur.Tüm bu teknikler kapsamında, animasyonun dönme eylemi üzerine kurduğu ilişki incelenmiş, geçmişten günümüze değişen teknikler bu kapsamda değerlendirilmiştir. Çömlekçi Tornasıyla Elde Edilen Animasyon Seramik malzemenin şekillendirilmesinde tarihsel süreç içerisinde dönme eylemi ile gerçekleştirdiği şekillendirme olarak çömlekçi tornası önemli bir yer tutmaktadır. İnsanların kap ihtiyacının karşılanmasının yanı sıra dekor, desen, form açısından özgün eserlerin yaratılmasına olanak sağlayan çömlekçi tornası, çalışma prensibine bakılacak olursa dönen bir disk üzerinde çamurun merkezlenerek basit el aletleri ve su ile şekillendirilmesi temeline oturmaktadır. Çömlekçi tornasında elde edilen animasyonda en önemli nokta, seramik form ve yüzeyi üzerine oluşturulacak dekordur. Kase, çanak ve silindir gibi formların üzerine itina ile yerleştirilen desen, ritmik ve düzenli hareket kazandırılarak animasyon etkisi oluşturulabilmektedir. Zoopraxiscope ve phonographanstasmascope gibi teknikleri kısaltarak 2010 yılından itibaren phonotrop terimini geliştiren Jim Le Fevre tarafından gerçekleştirilen çömlekçi tornasında animasyon filmi dikkat çekicidir. Phonotrop, bir canlı hareketli kameranın kare hızının birleşimini ve ağırlıklı olarak sürekli dönen bir diskin devinimlerini kullanarak 'canlı' bir ortamda animasyon oluşturma tekniğini tanımlamak için kullanılmıştır. Canlandırma yönetmeni olarak Jim Le Fevre ile birlikte Mike Paterson, Roops ve Al Johnstone (RAMP seramik) olarak bilinen sanatçılar tarafından gerçekleştirilen, çömlekçi tornası ile elde edilmiş seramik animasyon çanak, uygulama konusunda yeterince açıklayıcıdır. Merkezkaç kuvveti ile şekillendirilen obje üzerine, uygun orantı ve biçimde yerleştirilen motif, seramik üretim süreçlerini tamamladıktan sonra, döndürme etkisine tekrar maruz bırakılınca hareket ediyormuş izlenimi kolaylıkla yaratılabilir. Öncelikle seramik formun çapı, uzunluğu ve kullanılacak motifler belirlenir.Hareketi oluşturacak her bir karenin grafiksel olarak düzenlenmesi yapılır. Motiflerin seramik yüzey üzerine aktarılacağı dekor yöntemi belirlendikten sonra form, çömlekçi tornasında biçimlendirilir. Çömlekçi tornası dışında yuvarlak formları elde etmek için endüstriyel veya serbest seramik şekillendirme teknikleri de kullanılabilir. Burada önemli olan, merkezkaç kuvveti uygulanan seramik formun döndürüldüğünde yalpalamaması ve animasyonun seramik yüzey üzerinde hareketin algılanmasını engellememesi olarak sayılabilir. Çamur yoğrulup havası alındıktan sonra torna üzerine merkezlenip uygun bir form, belli aletler yardımı ile şekillendirilir (Görsel 19). Genişlik-yükseklik dengesi kararlaştırılan formun, hangi yüzeyine desen yapılacaksa, grafik düzenlemesi de bu yönde değişiklik gösterecektir. Görsel 19: Çömlekçi tornasında seramik form şekillendirme aşaması Tonza Helvacıkara , Fidan, vw Özlem Ayvaz Tunç,. “Sanatta Disiplinlerarası Bir Yaklaşım: Seramik ve Animasyon” idil, 63 (2019 Kasım): s. 1471-1485. doi: 10.7816/idil-08-63-07 1482 Kâse gibi formların hem iç hem dış yüzeyi animasyon oluşturacak motifler ile dekorlanabilir.Tek merkez üzerinde dönme eylemine bağlı gelişen animasyonda, seramik form önem kazanmaktadır. Kâse, çanak, silindir gibi formların üzerine itina ile yerleştirilen desen, ritmik ve düzenli hareket kazandırılarak animasyonlar oluşturulabilmektedir. Dış veya iç yüzey gibi kullanım alanı belirlenen form, motiflerin doğru konumlanması ve hareketin algılanmasının hesaplanması yönünde, çap ve yüzey genişliği açısından önem kazanmaktadır. Üretilen ürün, seramik dekorlama yöntemine göre süreç içinde farklı aşamalardan geçirilir. Şablon tekniği ile desen transferi yapılacaksa, hareketleri oluşturacak her karenin motifi belirlenip kağıt, gazete yardımı ile kesme işlemi uygulanır ve seramik yüzeye aktarılır. Pişirme işlemi sonrasında bitmiş ürün belli bir hızda döndürüldüğünde, dekorlanmış yüzeyde beliren hareket algısı oluşturulmuş olur (Görsel 20, 21, 22). Görsel 20: Dekorlanmış Ürünün Tornada Döndürülmesi Çömlekçi tornasında animasyon üzerine çalışan bir diğer sanatçı, Kenny Sing’in uygulamaları dikkat çekmektedir. Geometrik motiflerden oluşturduğu dijital kalıpları, seramik tabakların yüzeyine aktarmaktadır. Tabaklar, çömlekçi çarkı ile harekete geçirilinceye kadar statik tasarımlar görevi görmektedir. Tekerlek döndükçe, desenler canlanır: küpler, üçgenler ve dikdörtgenler kabın ortasında canlanarak içiçe geçiyormuş izlenimi verir. Metamorfoz animasyonun temelini oluşturan bu teknikte; görüntülerin dönüşümü, seramik üretim yöntemlerinden biri olan çömlekçi tornası ile oluşturulmuştur. Görsel 21: Kenny Sing, Çömlekçi Tornasında Animasyon Görsel 22: Kenny Sing, Çömlekçi Tornasında Animasyon Tonza Helvacıkara , Fidan, vw Özlem Ayvaz Tunç,. “Sanatta Disiplinlerarası Bir Yaklaşım: Seramik ve Animasyon” idil, 63 (2019 Kasım): s. 1471-1485. doi: 10.7816/idil-08-63-07 1483 Seramik sanatında disk, şekillendirme ve dekorlama aşamasında önemli bir yere sahiptir. Çömlekçi tornasının mekanik işleyişi, dönme eylemi üzerinden bazı animasyon teknikleri ile birlikte bir bağ oluşturmaktadır. Phenakistoscope disk veya zoetrope gibi animasyon araçlarının temel prensibinin, seramikte geleneksel üretim yöntemlerinden biri olan çömlekçi tornası ile buluşması disiplinlerarası çalışma çerçevesinde değerlendirilmiştir. Animasyonun seramik sanatı ile ilişkisi, sanatçıların çalışmaları üzerinden anlatılıp örneklendirilmiştir. Sonuç Temel bileşenlerine bakıldığında seramik ve animasyon sanatı birbirinden çok farklıdır. Seramik sanatı form, biçim ve dokuyu ifade ederken, animasyon, ışığı, çizgiyi ve durağan bir çok nesneyi canlandıran hareket odaklı bir sanat biçimini temsil etmektedir. Animasyonu, hareketli sanat formu olarak niteleyebileceğimiz gibi aynı zamanda “dönüşüm, başkalaşım sanatı” olarak da tanımlayabiliriz. Özünde dönüşüm ve hareketi barındıran animasyon bu yönüyle seramik sanatından ayrılmaktadır. Bu farklılıklar ile birlikte, tarihsel süreçte karşılaştığımız disiplinlerarası etkileşim ve ilişki, sınırların ortadan kalktığı çağdaş sanatta kendine geniş bir alan yaratmış, teknik, üslup, biçim ve bakış açısı yönünden daha sıkı bağların kurulmasını sağlamıştır. Günümüz sanat disiplinlerinin, birbirlerinin sınırları içerisinde hareket etmelerinin en önemli nedenlerden biri, çağın sanat anlayışında, sanatçının neyle ifade ettiğinden çok, neyi ifade ettiğinin önem kazanmasıdır. Burada, kullanılan malzemenin önemsizliği gibi bir sonuç yerine, ifadeyi güçlendirebilecek her türlü malzemenin kullanımına yönelik özgürlüğün ve bunun gereği olan bilgilerin paylaşılmasının önemi çıkarılmalıdır. Disiplinlerarası çalışma içerisinde olan seramik ve animasyon sanatı, kendine yeni alanlar yaratarak etkileşim ve iletişim olanaklarını bugünün sanat anlayışında genişletmektedirler. Seramik ve animasyon sanatının kendi alanlarını genişletip yeni söylem oluşturmalarına yardımcı olması düşünülen bu çalışma, farklı ifade dilinin altını çizmektedir. Görsel iletişim araçlarının insanlar üzerindeki etkisinin günden güne artması sonucunda plastik sanatların bu yönde çağı yakalamak adına bir sorunsala sahip olduğunu söyleyebiliriz. İnsanoğlunun daha çok seyirci kaldığı, izlemeye dayalı değişen yaşam şeklinde; seramik malzemenin hareketin odağında olan animasyon ile kurduğu ilişki güncellik noktasında önemlidir. Bu birliktelik seramik sanatı adına sadece animasyon ile değil, günümüz dijital çağı ile de işbirliğini oluşturmaktadır. Çağın gerisinde kalmadan, günceli yakalamak seramik sanatı adına daha önemli bir sorun olduğu için bu çalışma ile animasyon işbirliğinde yaklaşımlara dikkat çekmek istenmiştir. Diğer yandan, sinema sanatının bir dalı olan animasyon, üretim tekniklerinin ve kullanım alanının çeşitliliği ile çekiciliğini dünden bugüne korumuş ve korumaya devam etmektedir. Seramik malzemenin, sahip olduğu özellikler bakımından animasyon yapımında materyal olarak kullanımı, animasyon alanına sanatsal katkısı ile avantajlar oluşturmaktadır. Sanatsal yaratım sürecinde bir malzeme olarak kil, fiziksel özelliklerinin yanında, geleneksel ve tinsel olarak da algılanır. Kendine has dokusu ile kil, istenen formları oluşturmada kolaylıklar sağlayan bir malzemedir. Dokunma duyumuzla algılanabilir oluşu, kilin iletişime açık bir yapıya sahip olduğunu göstermektedir. Bu bağlamda kilin animasyonda kullanımının dikkat çekici ve etkili olduğu görülmektedir. Sınırların giderek ortadan kalktığı günümüz çağdaş sanat ortamında, kökleri zanaata uzanan seramik malzemenin animasyon tekniği ile ilgili kurduğu bu ilişki, sanat alanında yenilikçi ve farklı bakış açısı kazandırma yönünde önem kazanmaktadır. Seramik malzemenin görsel sanatlar alanı ile kurduğu diyaloğu genişletmesi yönünde bu çalışmanın disiplinlerarası etkileşimde vurgulanmasının, seramik ve animasyona yönelik çalışmaların sayıca ve nitelik olarak artmasına ve günümüz sanatında yeni alanların açılması fikrine katkı sağlayacağı düşünülmektedir. Kaynaklar Aydın, Hasan. “. …Ve Sinema 7”. ‘Kamerasız Senaryosuz Sinema ve Norman McLaren’. İstanbul: Hil Yayın, 1989. Azéma Marc ve Florent Rivère. “Animation in Palaeolithic art: a pre-echo of cinema, Antiquity Publications” 2012, s.316- 324 http://lisahistory.net/hist106/pw/articles/AnimationinPalaeolithicArt.pdf Azéma, Marc. “Breaking down movement in Paleolithic art”. International Newsletter on Rock Art 43, 2005,s.14-21. Azema, Marc. “Animation and Graphic Narration in the Aurignacian, palethnologıe Archeologie et Scıences Humanies”. 2015, article-861 Tonza Helvacıkara , Fidan, vw Özlem Ayvaz Tunç,. “Sanatta Disiplinlerarası Bir Yaklaşım: Seramik ve Animasyon” idil, 63 (2019 Kasım): s. 1471-1485. doi: 10.7816/idil-08-63-07 1484 Bayraktar, Nurten “Kil Animasyonun İlk Örnekleri”. Sekans Sinema Kültürü Dergisi, 2018. e8/SEKANS_e815_Tur_KilAnimasyon-(Bayraktar).pdf Furniss, Maureen, Animasyonun Kutsal Kitabı, s:235,İzmir: Karakalem Kitabevi Yayınları, 2013. Katz, Sharon. “Seder-Masochism: Why Is This Film Different from All Other Films?” Animation World Network: 2018. (Erişim Tarihi: 13 Ekim 2019) https://www.awn.com/animationworld/seder-masochism-why-film-different-all-other-films https://journals.openedition.org/palethnologie/861# Mufson, Beckett. “Gorgeous Stop-Motion Experiment Animates Solid Porcelain, Enchanting work from Estonian artist Anu-Laura Tuttelberg”. 2016, (Erişim tarihi:10 Ekim 2019). https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/53w4q3/solid-porcelain-stop-motion-animation Whitehead, Mark. “Animasyon Filmler”. İstanbul: Kelkedon Yayınları, 2012. Görsel Kaynaklar Görsel 1: Üst Üste Çizilmiş At Resimleri, Chauvet-Pont-d’Arc Mağarası, Güney Fransa, (Marc Azéma, 2015, Animation and Graphic Narration in the Aurignacian https://journals.openedition.org/palethnologie/861 Görsel 2: Animasyon Seramik Kadeh, Şahr-e Sukhteh, İran, M. Ö. 3000. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=amFJ7XWdaV8 Görsel 3: Seramik Kadehin Üzerindeki Hareket Eden Geyik Stilizasyonları. Şahr--e Sukhteh, İran, M. Ö. 3000. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=amFJ7XWdaV8 Görsel 4: “Heykeltıraşın Kabusu”. Bayraktar, Nurten, SEKANS Sinema Kültürü Dergisi Ağustos 2018 | Sayı e 8 : 141-145 Görsel 5: Nina Paley, ‘Seder-Masochism’, ‘Tanrıçaların Dansı’ adlı animasyonu https://www.awn.com/animationworld/ Görsel 6: Anu-Laura Tuttelberg . “Winter in the Rainforest” Stop-Motion Animasyonuhttps://www.vice.com/ Görsel 7: Anu-Laura Tuttelberg. Porselen, animasyon, https://anulaura.com/sculpture/ Görsel 8: Xue Geng “Mr Sea” https://coolhunting.com/culture/mr-sea-xue-geng/ Görsel 9: “Wallece&Gromit” www.animasyongastesi.com Görsel 10: “Mona Lisa Descending A Staircase”. Kil Animasyon Filmi,Yirminci Yüzyıl Sanatının Hareketli Tarihi,https://www.joangratz.com/mona-lisa-descending-a-staircase Görsel 11:”Lost and Found”. 2012, Yüksek Rölyef Kil Çalışması ve Animasyon. https://www.joangratz.com/films Görsel 12: Joan, Gratz, “Primal Flux”. 2016, 3'-10', Yüksek Rölyef Kil Animasyon.https://www.joangratz.com/primal- flux Görsel 13: Jo Pearl, “Duyguların Canlandırılması” Kağıt Katkılı Seramik.https://jopearl.com/portfolio/emotional-portrait/ Görsel 14: Güney Batı Fransa’da yer alan Isturitz Mağarası, Disk Animasyon Oyuncak, Marc Azéma & Florent Rivère, Sayfa: 322 Görsel 15: Phenakistoscope (Fenakiztoskop Diski-renkli litografi), Eadweard Muybridge (1893), Vals Yapan Çift. https://www.philamuseum.org/collections/permanent/152033.html?mulR=1227859565%7C1 Görsel 16: Zoetrope. https://ancientmagictoys.com/collections/frontpage/products/classic-brass-zoetrope Görsel 17: Görsel: Praxinoscope. https://ancientmagictoys.com/collections/frontpage/products/classic-brass-praxinoscope Görsel 18: John Edmark, “Bloom Serisi”. Porselen Heykel Animasyon ,http://mentalfloss.com Görsel 19: Çömlekçi Tornasında Seramik Form Şekillendirme Aşaması. Mike Paterson and Roops and Al John stone (RAMP ceramics), https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SoGeydTSKas Görsel 20: Dekorlanmış Ürünün Tornada Döndürülmesi. Mike Paterson and Roops and Al Johnstone (RAMP ceramics), https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SoGeydTSKas Görsel 21-22: Kenny Sing, Çömlekçi Tornasında Animasyon. https://www.thisiscolossal.com/2019/01/ceramic-vessel- animations-by-turn-studio/ Tonza Helvacıkara , Fidan, vw Özlem Ayvaz Tunç,. “Sanatta Disiplinlerarası Bir Yaklaşım: Seramik ve Animasyon” idil, 63 (2019 Kasım): s. 1471-1485. doi: 10.7816/idil-08-63-07 1485 AN INTERDISCIPLINARY APPROACH IN ART: CERAMICS AND ANIMATION Fidan TONZA HELVACIKARA Özlem AYVAZ TUNÇ Abstract In contemporary art, the collaboration of different disciplines has enabled the development and expansion of new approaches. From an interdisciplinary point of view, the effort of today's understanding of art to transcend boundaries is also revealed in the ceramics area. A new perspective on plastic and visual arts is planned to put forward approaches to combine the fundamental principles of ceramic art and animation. The transformation process of animation in the field of visual arts on ceramic materials can be realized with different techniques and applications. The main structure of this study is the explanation of the interpreting data from the literature review with the application of the ceramic form and surface to the animation. The fact remains that the relationship between rotational action and animation technique is related to the potter’s wheel, one of the ceramic forming methods, and the dimensions of the coexistence of two different disciplines that allow for experimental approach are considered. The practices that emerged with this approach have been examined in terms of style and form, the techniques and methods used from traditional to contemporary forms in the historical process are highlighted in this study. Keywords: Interdisciplinary art, ceramics, animation, potter's wheel : 
work_fob6cvfp5jfddciyatjracx5pa	----	입체주의 표현기법을 활용한 아트 마스크 융합 디자인 박리라 중앙대학교 예술대학원 패션예술학과 Art Mask Converged Design Based on an Expression Method of Cubism Li-La Park Dept. of Fashion and Arts, Graduated School of Arts in Chung-Ang University 요 약 의 아트메이크업은 미를 목 으로 하는 인간의 원 욕망이나 욕구의 논리 사고에서 벗어나 개성 화 차별화의 추세에 따라 폭넓게 개되어지고 있으며 고객의 니즈(needs)에 맞게 다양하게 융합 목되어지고 있 다. 20세기 미술사조의 심이 되는 입체주의는 아트메이크업을 표 하는데 있어 창의성을 기반으로 하는 좋은 소 재가 된다. 이에 본 연구는 입체주의 표 기법을 아트메이크업에 융합시켜 아트마스크에 제시함으로써 새로운 디자 인 발상과 표 역을 창출해내는 데 있다. 연구방법은 선행연구와 인터넷 자료, 문서 등을 토 로 입체주의와 아트메이크업에 한 고찰 후, 입체주의 표 기법을 크게 복수시 , 형태의 분할, 콜라주로 나 어 피카소의 작품을 모티 로 아트마스크에 융합 디자인한다. 이러한 연구 결과, 입체주의 표 기법이 아트메이크업에도 용 가능하게 나타났으며 창의 인 아트메이크업 융합 디자인을 도출해내어 제시할 수 있었다. 향후 이에 따른 연구가 활발히 이루어지기를 기 해보며 본 연구가 아트메이크업 디자인 개발에 도움이 되길 바란다. • 주제어 : 융합, 입체주의, 피카소, 아트메이크업, 아트마스크 Abstract Contemporary art make-up is being widely developed in line with the trends of individualization and differentiation departing from basic desires or logical thinking about the desires of human beings who ultimately pursue beauty and experiencing diversified convergence and integration befitting customer needs. Cubism that has been playing a central role at the center of art history in the 20 th century can act as a good material based on creativity with regard to expression of the art make-up. In this regard, the study was focused on creating new concepts of design and novel areas of expression by combining expressive methods of cubism with art make-up to suggest an art mask. As for a method of the study, cubism and art make-up were examined based on preceding studies, Internet data and technical books, and the expression method of cubism was divided into plural points of view, partition of shape and collage and motivated the works of Picasso for the purpose of art mask-converged design. As a result of the study, it was found out that the expression method of cubism was applicable to the art make-up, and creative art make-up converged design could be generated to make a suggestion. In this regard, it is hoped that further studies will be facilitated and that this study can be instrumental in developing art make-up design. • Key Words : Convergence, Cubism, Picasso, Art make-up, Art mask *Corresponding Author : 박리라(dalki2722@hanmail.net) Received March 9, 2017 Revised April 7, 2017 Accepted April 20, 2017 Published April 28, 2017 Journal of the Korea Convergence Society Vol. 8. No. 4, pp. 273-278, 2017 https://doi.org/10.15207/JKCS.2017.8.4.273 한국융합학회논문지 제8권 제4호274 1. 서론 1.1 연구목적 지 이 시 의 사회는 각종 매스 미디어의 보 으로 쏟아지는 수많은 정보를 쉽게 받아들일 수 있다. 매체에 의한 정보 달은 을 자극하여 고조시키기도 하며, 그 향력을 행사하여 창의 아이디어의 원천이 되기도 한다. 서양미술에 면 신을 가져온 입체주의 한 매스 미디어의 보 으로 건축, 패션, 디자인 등 다양한 술 역과 서로 향을 주고받으면서 폭넓게 융합되어 근되어지고 있다. 융합산업은 범 하고 다양하게 발 되고 있으며, 기술 산업 간 융 복합화를 통해 제3의 산업 등장 신부가가치 창출로 이어질 수 있다[1]. 한 통 산업을 부활시키고 다양한 사회 수요에 한 해결수단 으로 기 되고 있다[2]. 입체주의는 기존의 양식에서 벗어나 창조 가치를 높이고 활동 역을 확 시키는 것에서 아트메이크업과 같은 맥락으로 풀이된다. 한 아트메이크업을 표 하는 데 있어 폭넓은 창작의 소재로 활용되어지고 있다. 련 선행연구를 살펴보면, 이규리[3]는 입체주의 콜라주 특성을 응용하여 아트메이크업 작품 제작하 으 며 이경미[4]는 Photoshop을 이용하여 피카소 큐비즘 표 을 아트메이크업 작품 제작하 다. 최은화[5]는 콜라 주 기법의 다양성, 무채색의 변용, 탈 구성면 에서 아 트메이크업 분석, 작품 제작 등 아트 메이크업의 표 역이 인체에 제한되어 있었으며 아트마스크에 제작된 사 례는 없었다. 아트마스크는 아트메이크업의 제안 창 의 표 역으로 각 받고 있으며 각종 페스티벌이나 콘테스트에서 하나의 종목으로 지정되어 있을 만큼 차 요시되며 확 되어가고 있다. 이에 본 연구는 다른 연구와 차별성이 있다고 보여지 며 아트메이크업의 새로운 디자인 발상과 새로운 표 역을 새로이 조명해보고 넓히는데 그 목 을 둔다. 1.2 연구방법 본 연구는 2016년 12월 12일부터 2017년 1월 31일까지 인터넷 사이트(http://www.daum.net)와 선행연구, 문 서 등을 토 로 입체주의와 아트메이크업에 한 이론 고찰을 진행하 다. 고찰한 내용을 토 로 입체주의 표 기법을 창의 발상이 돋보이는 아트메이크업에 융 합시켜 총 6작품 제작하 다. 조형 으로 제작된 아트마 스크에 작품 제작함으로써 아트메이크업의 새로운 디자 인 발상과 다양한 표 역을 창출해내고자 하는 것이다. 2. 이론적 배경 2.1 입체주의 개념 및 시대적 특성 입체주의(cubism)는 20세기 미술에 지 한 향을 끼 친 미술 신 운동으로 1907년부터 1914년 사이에 리 를 기 으로 유럽 역으로 된 미술양식이다. 입체주의(cubism)의 큐 (cube)란 정육면체라는 뜻으 로 1908년 라크의 < 스타크의 풍경>이라는 연작을 본 어느 비평가가 조그만 입체덩어리(cube)라고 비평한 데에서 유래된 명칭이다. 입체 는 세잔느의 회화가 추 구한 조형 인 방법에 근거를 두고 출발하여 조르쥬 라크(Georges Braque, 1882-1963)와 블로 피카소 (Pablo Picasso, 1881-1973)를 심으로 형성된다. 그들 은 모두 통 인 원근화법과 삼차원 인 환 을 버리고 이를 더 훨씬 얕은 회화 공간으로 체시켰으며 단단 한 형태들의 집합으로 배열하여 새로운 구성으로 표 했 다[6]. 리에서 시작된 입체주의는 유럽 체, 심지어 러 시아 회화까지 되어 나갔다. 유럽에서 수많은 작 가들이 이 양식으로 그림을 그리기 시작했고, 랑스에 서 발원한 입체주의를 기 로 새로운 양식들을 이끌어냈 다[7]. 입체주의를 시 흐름으로 나 어보면 기 입체주 의(1907-09), 분석 입체주의(1910-12), 종합 입체주 의(1913-14) 3단계로 개된다. 2.1.1 초기 입체주의 기 입체주의는 기하학 인 시각을 받아들이는 세잔 느의 향 아래 ‘세잔느풍의 입체주의’라고도 한다. “모든 물체는 원기둥, 원 축, 구 등의 기하학 형태로 환원이 가능하다.”는 원리를 수용한 세잔의 향을 받았 던 시기로 여기서 피카소와 라크는 사물의 본질 인 모습을 세잔의 이론을 심화하는 작업을 하게 된다. 상 의 자연 형태를 요약, 단순화시켰으며, 1 원근시 이 아닌 복수시 을 이용해 사물의 본질 인 형태를 화면에 구축[4]하 다. 2.1.2 분석적 입체주의 피카소와 라크 등의 표 인 입체주의 화가들은 입체주의 표현기법을 활용한 아트 마스크 융합 디자인 275 상을 다시 으로 인식하 고 화면의 평면화, 빛의 평 등한 분산, 주제의 일 성 등으로 그 실천 성과가 더욱 견고해졌다[8]. 상은 완 히 기하학 인 단 로 해체되 어 다시 화면 에서 재구성 되었으며 색채는 단순해졌 으며 명도는 낮아졌다. 화면은 입체감이 나타나지 않으 며, 상의 형태를 인식하기 어렵게 된다[9]. 2.1.3 종합적 입체주의 종합 입체주의에는 지 까지 배제되었던 색채가 다 시 사용되어 평면 인 색면 구성과 사실 인 상 는 화면에 악보, 신문지, 벽지 등의 인쇄물을 붙이는 콜라주 (college), 피에 콜 (papiercolle)기법을 사용하는 시 가 형성되었다[7]. 이러한 표 기법을 통하여 공간 인 깊이감, 물체의 질감을 더욱 강조함으로서 회화가 잃어 버린 구체 인 이미지를 회복시킴과 동시에 더욱 풍부한 표 의지를 표출하는 공간 인 조형언어를 성립시켰다 [10]. 피카소는 원근법과 명암법을 사용하던 과거 작가들 과는 다른 방법으로 상과 리얼리티를 재 해 내 는 방법을 발명해 낸 것[11]이며 이러한 구성의 새로운 방법은 20세기 미술의 흐름을 주도하 다. 입체주의 특성에 한 선행연구를 살펴보면, 문철[6] 은 공간 구축 방식, 복수시 , 형태의 단편화와 분할로 나 었으며, 최은화[5]는 다시 , 재구성, 제한된 색채, 콜라 주 기법으로 나 었다. 김성 [8]은 다시 , 콜라주, 형태 의 겹침, 선의 강조, 반복에 의한 리듬으로 나 어 분석하 다. 본 연구자는 선행연구에서 많이 나타난 복수시 , 형태의 분할, 콜라주 기법으로 나 어 고찰하고자 한다. 2.2 입체주의 표현기법 2.2.1 복수시점 입체주의의 가장 두드러지는 표 기법으로 한 화면에 다양한 측면들을 동시에 보여주는 기법이다. 입체 작가들은 완 한 이미지를 얻기 해 형식 이고 구조 인 특징들을 이지 으로 첨가시켰다. 정면, , 측면에서 본 모든 들을 병치함으로써 스스로 미 가치를 지닌 그러나 동시에 상을 분석 으로 묘사 한 형식 인 구조에서 생긴 윤곽선을 결합함으로서 동시 인 에서 상을 재 하 다[12]. [Fig. 1]은 하나의 상이 2개의 면, 얼굴의 면과 정면이 동시에 나타나 있으며 등, 가슴, 머리를 동시에 묘사하고 있는 다양한 시 을 통합하는 동시성[13]을 보여주며, [Fig. 2]는 여성의 몸에서 체 인 비 칭 조형의 형태를 보여 다. [Fig. 1] Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, 1907 [Fig. 2] Woman with Fan, 1908 2.2.2 형태의 분할 표 상이 본질 인 형태에서 벗어나 기하학 인 형 태와 면으로 분할하여 화면 안에 재구성되는 기법이다. 상을 단순한 원통, 원추, 구 등 입방체인 형태로 분 석하 으며 이러한 도형성은 도형의 가장 기본인 선에 의한 평면의 단순함과 원보다는 타원에 가까운 곡선을 지향하는 경향을 보 다[14]. [Fig. 3], [Fig. 4]는 불규칙 한 도형과 입방체, 여러 각도의 단면으로 분할되어 재구 성되었다. [Fig. 3] Girl with a Mandolin, 1910 [Fig. 4] Portrait of Ambroise Vollard, 1910 2.2.3 콜라주 콜라주(collage)란 본래 랑스어 coller에서 유래된 말로 ‘풀칠’, ‘바르기’의 의미 으나 용되어 화면에 오 제 일부를 붙여서 구성하는 회화 기법이다[15]. 콜라주는 일상생활에 사용되고 있는 재료를 통해 창조성과 독창성 을 표 하고 있으며 그 속에는 공간 요소의 장식과 더 불어 술의 다양한 역 혼합을 통한 새로운 역의 확장 한 드러나 있다[16]. 피카소의 첫 번째 콜라주 작 품인 [Fig. 5]는 둘 를 밧 로 감아 놓았는데, 테이블 테 한국융합학회논문지 제8권 제4호276 두리를 속인 신주로 마감한 것을 우회 으로 표 한 것[11]이며, 인쇄된 천을 붙이고 유리잔, 담배 등의 사물 을 그려 넣었다. [Fig. 6]은 콜라주의 일종인 피에 꼴 로 각종 인쇄물을 붙여 평면 구성 속에 제작된 통 인 회화 방식의 틀을 깬 작품이다. [Fig. 5] Still life with a rattan chair, 1912 [Fig. 6] The Guitar, 1913 2.3 아트메이크업의 개념 및 표현재료 아트메이크업은 단순히 미의 목 으로 활용되고 있는 뷰티메이크업에서 나아가 독창 이고 창의 인 술세 계를 표출하며 차 표 역이 확 되고 있다. 아티스 트의 술 감성이 깃든 메이크업으로 어떠한 형식과 틀에 구애받지 않아 감성시 의 들에게 뜨거운 심 을 도모함으로써 술의 한 분야로 자리매김하고 있 다. 다양한 작품 형태로 활용되고 있으며, 메이크업에서 요한 부분을 차지하고 있다[17]. 인체에 해가 되지 않는 모든 재료는 아트메이크업에 표 가능하며 아티스트의 발상을 뒷받침해 다. 크게 수 성물감과 유성물감으로 분류되며 그 내용을 아래와 같다. 2.3.1 수성물감 수성물감은 물에 쉽게 지워지며 건조시 피부 당김과 균열이 있는 단 이 있으나 색의 표 범 가 넓고 표 방법이 용이한 장 이 있다. 수성물감에는 일반물감과 UV발 물감, 에어 러시물감이 있으며 UV발 물감은 블랙라이트(black light)에 의해 색이 형 으로 투명하게 발 된다. 독특하고 환상 인 색감 연출로 개성이 표출 되는 뷰티메이크업에서도 많이 활용되어지고 있다. UV 발 물감을 사용하여 페인 할 때는 작업 이 물감에 한 성질과 효과를 미리 확인하고 무 의 크기와 모델 의 활동 범 , 블랙라이트가 작품에 반응되는 거리를 잘 악하여 작업에 임해야 아티스트가 표 하고자 하는 작 품을 연출할 수 있다[18]. 에어 러시물감은 수성이긴하 나 액체타입으로 건과 콤 샤(compressor)를 통해 채 색이 이루어진다. 러시로 하는 작업에 비해 자연스러 운 명암표 과 시간단축, 스텐실효과까지 얻을 수 있어 활발히 사용되어지고 있다. 2.3.2 유성물감 유성물감은 물을 사용하지 않는 제품으로 유분이 함 유되어있어 부드러운 질감을 갖고 있다. 농도가 짙어 피 부에 해가 되지 않는 소재와의 결합으로 다양한 질감 표 이 가능하다. 건조가 되지 않아 쉽게 묻어나는 단 이 있으나 우더나 도우를 얹으면 매트한 효과를 주어 지속력과 발색력을 높일 수 있다. 오늘날 제품의 다양화와 고 화에 집 되어 다양한 제품이 쏟아져 나오면서 작품의 컨셉과 디자인의 흐름에 따라 표 의 방법은 범 하게 확 되고 있다. 3. 작품제작 본 연구는 20세기 미술사조를 표하는 입체주의에 한 고찰 후, 표 기법에 따른 피카소 작품을 선정하 다. 선정된 피카소의 작품을 그래픽 모티 로 리디자인 한 후, 아트메이크업 표 기법을 융합시켜 아트 마스크 디자인에 용. 제작하 다. 입체주의 표 기법을 복수시 , 형태의 분할, 콜라주로 나 었으며 각 2작품, 총 6작품 제작하 다. 작품 재료는 아트메이크업의 주재 료이며 구나 손쉽게 다룰 수 있는 수성물감과 유성물 감을 사용하 다. <Table 1> Comprehensive analysis of production Expression technique Motive Material Multiple viewpoint Oil paints Segmentation of forms Water-based paints Collage Water-based paints, Yarn, Rope 입체주의 표현기법을 활용한 아트 마스크 융합 디자인 277 3.1 작품Ⅰ 작품Ⅰ은 입체주의의 복수시 표 기법을 활용한 작 품으로 피카소의 <아비뇽의 여인들>을 모티 로 하여 제작하 다. 다양한 각도에서 바라본 여인들의 거치게 왜곡된 얼굴을 뒤섞어 원근법의 기본원리를 배시켜 한 화면에 각각 디자인하 으며 농도가 짙은 유성물감을 사 용하여 두께감 있는 거친 느낌이 들도록 표 하 다. <Table 2> Multiple viewpoint Motive Work Color scheme Material Oil paints 3.2 작품Ⅱ 작품Ⅱ은 입체주의의 형태의 분할 표 기법을 활용한 작품으로 피카소의 <만돌린을 든 여자>를 모티 로 하 여 제작하 다. 단순화된 여인의 얼굴과 기타의 형태를 해체하여 불규칙한 형태의 다양한 도형과 입방체, 세분 화된 단면의 반복에 의한 구조로 각각 디자인하 다. 수 성물감을 사용하 으며 유사한 톤으로 이루어진 배색의 조화로 서정 인 감성이 깃든 작품을 제작하 다. <Table 3> Segmentation of forms Motive Work Color scheme Material Water-based paints 3.3 작품Ⅲ 작품Ⅲ은 입체주의의 콜라주 표 기법을 활용한 작품 으로 피카소의 <등나무의자가 있는 정물>을 모티 로 하여 제작하 다. 체 으로 수성물감을 사용하여 표 하 으며 그 에 실로 짜인 오 제와 밧 의 결합으로 의외성에 기반을 둔 작업방식으로 제작하 다. 아트마스 크의 이목구비를 그 로 살렸으며, 체 인 색상배색과 구성방식에서 괴상하고 기이한 분 기가 느껴지는 작품 이다. <Table 4> Collage Motive Work Color scheme Material Water-based paints, Yarn, Rope 4. 결론 사회의 우리는 독창성과 창의성이 요시되고 있 는 시 에 살고 있다. 내재된 잠재능력을 끌어주는 술 은 우리 삶을 풍요롭고 가치 있게 만들어주며 인들 의 분출구로서 자리매김하고 있다. 모든 술은 한 연 성을 지니고 있으며 특히, 미술과 메이크업은 그 속 성이 유사하다. 최근 다양한 장르와의 융합으로 표 되 는 역이 범 해지면서 미술사조는 풍부한 소재가 되 어 다양한 역에서 활발히 융합 목되어지고 있다. 아 트메이크업에서도 그 요성이 강조되어 융합되어지고 있는데, 이에 본 연구는 20세기 미술사조의 심이 되는 입체주의를 복수시 , 형태의 분할, 콜라주 표 기법으로 나 어 피카소의 작품을 모티 로 아트마스크에 융합 디 자인하 다. 본 연구의 수행 결과는 다음과 같다. 첫째, 이론 고찰을 통하여 입체주의의 복수시 , 형 태의 분할, 콜라주 표 기법은 아트메이크업에 활용 가 능한 주제로 나타났다. 둘째, 아트메이크업에 사용되는 수성물감, 유성물감의 특성을 살펴본 결과, 입체주의 표 기법에도 용될 수 있는 방법론을 제시할 수 있었다. 셋째, 입체주의의 표 기법을 활용한 아트메이크업 융 합디자인을 아트마스크에 제작함으로써 창의 인 디자 한국융합학회논문지 제8권 제4호278 인 발상과 새로운 표 역을 제시할 수 있었다. 본 연구는 미술과 메이크업분야가 융합 목될 수 있 는 기반을 마련하여 술분야의 표 역을 넓히는 데 방향성을 제시하 으며 아트메이크업의 창조 인 디자 인 발상을 한 지침이라는 에서 그 학술 의의와 연 구가치가 크다. 한 아트마스트에 작품 제작함으로써 새로운 표 역을 창출해내어 아트메이크업의 문화 다양화에 기여했다는 의의를 가진다. 향후 아트메이크업 이 술 학문 으로 더욱 발 할 수 있도록 폭넓은 연 구와 교류가 지속 이루어지기를 바라며 아트마스크가 하나의 아트메이크업 표 분야로 자리매김하길 기 한다. REFERENCES [1] E. Y. Park, D. G. Kwag, “The Study on the Market Competitiveness Reinforcement for Convergence Industry”, Journal of the Korea Convergence Society, Vol. 6, No. 5, pp. 99-106, 2015. [2] G. S. Ryu, “Development of Educational Model for ICT-based Convergence Expert”, Journal of the Korea Convergence Society, Vol. 6, No. 6, pp. 75-80, 2015. [3] G. R. Lee The study artmakeup apply a collage peculiarity of cubism, Hansug University, master's thesis, 2011. [4] K. M. Lee, A Study on Picasso-Cubistic Expression of Artistic Makeup Using Photoshop, Sungshin Women’s University, master's thesis, 2012. [5] E. H. Choi, A Study of Art Makeup Designs to which Features of Cubism are Applied, Kwangju Women’s University, master's thesis, 2014. [6] C. Moon, “A Study on the influence of cubism on the contemporary illustrations”, Research Institute of Industrial Design HONG-IK UNIVERSITY, Vol. 1, No. 5, pp. 133-161, 2000. [7] S. H. Kim, S. Y. Kim, S. M. Kim, “The Formative Ceramic Arts By Applying Expression of Cubism”, The Korea Contents Society, Vol. 9, No. 12, pp. 622-629, 2009. [8] S. B. Kim, A Study on the Plastic Influence of Cubism on the Russian Constructivist Architecture, Ulsan University, master's thesis, 1999. [9] Oh Kwang Soo, Western Modern Painting Company, Seoul: iljisa, 1976. [10] Golding John, Ji woo Hwang, Cubism, Paju: Youlhwadang, 1994. [11] B. O. Oh, Picasso and the Syntheyic Cubism, Korean Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 55, No. 4, pp. 98-105, 2007. [12] G. M. Song, The Study on an influence of Cezanne to the Painting of Pocasso and Braque in Early Cubism(1907-09), Ewha womens University, master's thesis, 1986. [13] Kyung Don Jin, A Concise History of Modern Architecture, Seoul: Seow, 2000. [14] J. Y. Hong, Hair Art Using the Formative Characteristics of Cubism Painting : Focusing on Picasso Paintings, Seokyeong University, doctorat thesis, 2014. [15] http://100.daum.net/encyclopedia/view/43XXX93 00857 [16] A. K. Chun, A Study on the Formality and Symbolism in Korean Traditional Patterns, Hannam University, master's thesis, 2002. [17] H. J. Song, E. T. Jeong, “A Study on the utilizing parody and pastiche in Contemporary Art Works”, Journal of the Korea Convergence Society, Vol. 6, No. 6, pp. 201-212, 2015. [18] D. Y. Gang, “Korea makeup art”, Seoul: Giindang. 1999. 저자소개 박 리 라(Li-La Park) [정회원] •2016년 2월 : 앙 학교 술 학원 패션 술학과(패션 술학석 사) •2016년 3월 ～ 2017년 2월 : 명지 문 학교 뷰티아트과 빙교수 < 심분야> : 미술, 메이크업 
work_frs2bdylpfhg5mpm2xkpmwapjy	----	Artful media - interactive and informative art - Multimedia, IEEE Neil de Grasse Tyson, director of the HaydenPlanetarium, and I were wandering around Central London. He spotted an antique pen shop, and wanted to stop in. It was 1998, and we were in town to meet with some folks helping to build the digital dome system for the Rose Cen- ter for Earth and Space at the American Museum of Natural History, to open in 2000. It turns out that Tyson is an antique pen buff. He’s also a lateral thinker, and looking at the old fountain pens and pencils got him going. There isn’t much difference, he said, between these old writing implements and the state-of-the-art star projector for the planetarium; the dome is the paper, and the projector is no different than the modified quill pen that Leonardo da Vinci used to render the astronomical phenomena he observed. Like da Vinci, we had to have the eyes of an artist as well as a scientist to communicate our ideas most effectively. One of my goals in designing interactive museum exhibits has been to do just that— bringing art to the service of science, to make art that informs. Before my postgraduate work in interactive media, I studied traditional art, using my own share of pens and paper; and journalism, in which the TV camera is called the “400-pound pencil.” I also studied anthropology, which devotes itself to observation and description. What storytellers in all media share is the need to make the complex understandable while reducing, compressing, and editing to fit space and time restrictions. Computers and art Computers were, of course, created by the sci- entific establishment, and the continued infusion of scientific knowledge—most recently from biol- ogy—now enable the nearly complete simulation of nature. Genetic algorithms let software and hardware evolve, self-modifying and selecting versions with desired traits (see for example http://www.cogs.susx.ac.uk/users/adrianth/). Flocking and swarming behaviors in animals show animators how to make crowds move. Cel- lular automata based on simple rules can recreate the intricate, complex patterns found in nature.1 A hundred years ago, art was at a similar stage, with photography and film having attained a pretty accurate representation of reality. In response, artists such as Pablo Picasso, Paul Klee, and Vasily Kandinsky began to experiment with different sorts of visualizations—of the world, of the mind, of subjects not grounded in reality. Some sought a vague spiritual aspect while oth- ers wanted merely to make the invisible visible, instead of merely reproducing reality. Coincidentally, the concepts of relativity and cultural relativism arose at around the same time. It could be, as Kandinsky argued, that contem- plating the abstract enabled us to see “the rhythm in-between.”2 Just as in the physical world, emergent properties arise from the inter- actions between things; just as music is what’s between the notes (as postulated by Kandinsky’s contemporary, Claude Debussy); just as you can’t break down a chocolate cake back into its origi- nal ingredients—a completed artwork has under- gone a change of state. Does abstract art convey information? All of these artists would certainly say so. So too would contemporary artists such as Gerhard Richter. Just as a work of realism is a model of reality, he said, an abstract work is a fictive model, a sort of model of an invisible reality. What better way to describe something incomprehensible?3 Digital media Given their limitless possibilities, perhaps dig- ital media could do an even better job. It seems too soon to tell, but I believe that it holds promise. Although I haven’t seen any digital work with the invisible, emotional power of a Bach sonata or a Picasso painting, the media are beginning to break out of the early stages of experimentation. 4 1070-986X/03/$17.00 © 2003 IEEE Published by the IEEE Computer Society Artful Media Editor: Dorée Duncan SeligmanAvaya Labs Kevin Walker Exhibit Research Interactive and Informative Art One problem is that, with the computer screen (as with the canvas), everything is reduced to a 2D plane, no matter how accurate the 3D rendering or how sophisticated the display tech- nology. That’s why, in my opinion, the most interesting things are happening in the ever- expanding periphery as computers gain senses and are becoming inserted, component by com- ponent, into the world. This is the world of ubiq- uitous computing in which computers are everywhere and nowhere, and smart walls, sur- faces, and objects interact with us or do their work autonomously. When I completed graduate school in 1995, hype about our interactive future was running high, the Internet was beginning to take off, and there was a mad rush into the uncharted virtual world. Unlimited bandwidth and completely photorealistic graphics would soon make possi- ble a world much cleaner than the real one, where anything was possible. At the Interactive Telecommunications Pro- gram at New York University, we were taught to maintain a skeptical view of all this and to remain grounded in the real world with some- thing called physical computing—using comput- ers to augment real environments and facilitate human interactions. It’s essentially art with elec- tronics, and considering the tools available to artists today, Buckminster Fuller was right in his belief that as technology advances, art begins to resemble science.4 Digital media mirror how we understand the world, breaking it down into small parts that can be reordered. Audio, video, text, and images are all equally reduced to bits, and as an artistic medium, computers have mostly been used used to process other media. I began, however, exploring the computer as a medium in itself, emphasizing the computer’s original (scientific) purpose—computation. In my master’s thesis (see an example in Figure 1), I disregarded high-resolution graphics, instead using simple color and sound to try and create emergent, improvisational sorts of experiences, giving up some control over composition to the computer, and some to the user. It was inspired by Piet Mondrian,5 jazz, the pioneering work of Myron Kreuger,6 and Jaron Lanier’s idea that computers should be more like musical instru- ments (one of Lanier’s talks is transcribed at http://www.nilescanyon.net/nyc/jaron). I was fortunate to escape the Internet hype in 1996, at the American Museum of Natural History, where I was the senior software designer for Exhi- bitions until 2000. There, I was able to apply some of my ideas and experience with art to science. Relating art and science Understanding science is different than understanding art, but perhaps not as different as it would seem. Today, we can see deep into the universe and down to a molecular level. We can preserve images of people long dead, and we can control time using recording and playback tech- nologies. We can simulate the motions of galax- ies over billions of years. The world is awash in data, coming at us from every direction, and sci- entists, like poets, attempt to reduce chaos down to digestible bites.7 However, where the scientist sees only the observed in the material world, the artist sees the spiritual.2 While the scientist describes and pre- dicts, the artist distills and presents. Interpreting science for the public means balancing the desire of scientists to spew data with the artistic urge to create a transcendent experience. Content and presentation are everything: form and function must be fused. Leonardo’s Codex Leicester One of the first exhibitions I worked on at the museum was “Leonardo’s Codex Leicester: A Mas- terpiece of Science.” Bill Gates had just purchased the manuscript and the exhibition would launch its first US tour. Being in the gallery with the doc- ument was an eerie experience—each page in its own darkened, climate-controlled case, each case 5 Jan u ary–M arch 2 0 0 3 Figure 1. Screen shot from random abstract by Kevin Walker, 1996 (http://www. nilescanyon.net/ random). brightening slightly at staggered intervals. It was primarily an art exhibition and an odd way to explore the ideas in the codex. But Gates’ com- pany, Corbis, created some excellent magnifying- glass software, which not only translated from the 15th-century Italian, but also flipped Leonar- do’s mirror-image writing back into readable ori- entation. The exhibition had this software installed in some adjacent computer desks and Corbis included it in a CD-ROM released concur- rently in 1996 (called Leonardo da Vinci). My own task was to try and bring the docu- ment to life in a video theater. In trying to distill 72 pages into 8 minutes, we recreated some of Leonardo’s experiments, using new digital simu- lations from the planetarium, as well as real water (the manuscript’s primary subject). I also picked up the (digital) pen, to trace and animate his original drawings. I tried adding a third and fourth dimension to the manuscript by using it as a surface upon which additional layers of information float, illuminating the words and pictures on the page. It hardly needed it—the manuscript is quite animated already, filled with drawings showing motion and process, and da Vinci’s arguments with an imaginary adversary. At the heart of it, da Vinci shows that the birth of both science and art is observation. Exploring a World at Risk With current technology, our powers of observation are magnified many times, but sci- ence still contains a great deal of art. Not only is this evident in the mathematical beauty of equa- tions, but in visual presentation as well. For example, images from high-powered micro- scopes and telescopes are typically monochrome and are colorized for informational and aesthet- ic reasons. We took advantage of the use of false color in our 1999 exhibition, “Epidemic! Exploring a World at Risk” (see Figure 2). To help visitors make sense of the intricate complexities of infec- tious viruses, bacteria, and protozoa, we gave each organism its own identity, not only in dis- tinctive shape and color, but with sound as well. In a series of simple touchscreen kiosks, each organism carried its own abstract sound, and the sounds were designed to “infect” the space indi- vidually and work together harmonically, creat- ing a subtle ambient soundtrack to the exhibition instead of a cacophony. The simplified use of color and sound drew upon my previous experience with abstract art, combining it with scientific content. The infor- mation was rich, but was edited and simplified enough to facilitate understanding. What’s more, it transcended the screen and employed the space and visitors in the knowledge-creation process. To complete the sense of immersion, real models were designed to match the virtual mod- els of the microbes and to merge seamlessly with large projections of the organisms. Barrett Klein (an entomologist and model-maker) and James Stoop (trained as a 3D character animator) col- laboratively created the microbe models. Far from cartoon characters, the microbes are prob- ably the most scientifically accurate microbe models yet created. Merging the real and virtual in a “microbe forest” was just one attempt to integrate digital media into the gallery’s physical form. To accomplish the opposite—making the space the computer—I tapped Joseph Stein, a New York University colleague I had just hired to use physical computing techniques, and he used floor sensors to create an interactive shadow (see Figure 3), as a way of letting visitors peek into the body. The overall goal was to break down the barriers between information and architecture. Scaling the universe Exhibition designer Ralph Appelbaum is adept at merging information and architecture, and the following year, he used the giant sphere in the 6 IE E E M u lt iM e d ia Artful Media Figure 2. Part of the “microbe forest” in the exhibition—“Epidemic! Exploring a World at Risk” (http:// research.amnh.org/ exhibitions/epidemic/ microbes.html). Ph ot o b y Ke vi n W a lk er Rose Center (see Figure 4) to demonstrate the vast differences in size scales in the universe—postu- lating that if the sun was the giant sphere, the earth is shown as ball- sized; similarly with molecules and atoms. He also succeeds in trans- forming space into time, making places into timelines of billions of years, entire halls into ideas to be explored. As information spaces they approach the virtual world. This is a broader notion of architec- ture that encompasses the electron- ic as well as the physical.8 No amount of information or exhibitry could capture the cre- ation and evolution of the uni- verse, so to show this in the Rose Center’s Hall of the Universe, we turned to the skilled animators at Funny Garbage. They created a simplified, not-quite-cartoonish animation that’s scientifically accurate (at least as far as scientists currently understand it) and visually minimal such that a child can comprehend it. We projected this onto three satellite-dish-shaped screens (see Figure 5), with an interactive version in a touchscreen kiosk below each. Astrophysicist Frank Summers is another Leonardo-esque individual who brings an artistic background to science—in his case, dance. He choreographed what can only be called a dance of two galaxies interacting, in another projected visu- alization in the Hall of the Universe (Figure 6). 7 Jan u ary–M arch 2 0 0 3 Figure 3. Interactive shadow for the “Epidemic” exhibition (http:// research.amnh.org/users/jstein/ shadowman/shadowupdate.html). Ph ot o co ur te sy o f A m er ic a n M us eu m o f N a tu ra l H is to ry Figure 4. Size scales at the Rose Center for Earth and Space, American Museum of Natural History. Figure 5. Formation and Evolution of the Universe, an animation by Funny Garbage (http://www.funnygarbage.com/ client/case_study.php3?proj=17). © 2 0 0 2 A m er ic a n M u se u m o f N a tu ra l H is to ry Ph ot o co u rt es y of S te ve G od u n When we look up into the night sky, we see a flat, black mat, dotted with points of light—not unlike Leonardo’s 2D page, or, for that matter, a screen full of pixels. Standing on Earth, we have no sense of the infinite depth of space. For anoth- er Hall of the Universe visualization, Summers and I showed, for the first time, some recently discovered planets in other star systems—which aren’t visible unless you travel some distance into space. He generated some animated flights through a massive 3D star database, and I over- laid a layer of information, as I had with Leonar- do’s page, using just enough line and color to aid the viewer. The result (Figure 7) is that you see a slow pan across the sky, as you would see it from Earth. But then it stops and you leave the flat- land, not zooming in, but traveling past stars to reach the destination planets. Multiple viewpoints and ambient media For yet another visualization, Active Galactic Nuclei (see Figure 8), we traded traditional per- spective for something like the Cubist model used by Picasso—looking at an object from more than one viewpoint simultaneously. In our case, we showed galaxies for the first time in both vis- ible and radio frequencies simultaneously. I employed color to inform, as I had with microbes in the “Epidemic” exhibition, and in the resulting images, each galaxy appears radi- cally different in the two frequencies, with the radio image looking almost like a smudge of paint on a field of light. The images might be described as collaborative artworks, created in equal parts by human hands, imaging and com- puting technology, and the distant galaxies themselves. Lately, I’ve revisited astronomical data—this time for purely artistic reasons. I’ve been exper- imenting with abstract methods of depicting real-time data, using astronomical information (see Figures 9 and 10), atmospheric conditions, traffic patterns, or sound to create minimal, screen-based, or physical displays. It’s at an early stage, but I have found that minimalism is key, particularly when introducing an unfamiliar landscape. In an art exhibition, we’re prepared for confrontation with the incomprehensible, but we have come to associate the computer screen with the rational and “user friendly,” with help readily accessible. If we use a more abstract piece over time, however, we can learn a new language. This is sometimes called ambient media or 8 Artful Media Figure 6. Galaxy collision by Frank Summers (http://terpsichore.stsci.edu/ ~summers/viz/mhs/). Figure 7. Other Planetary Systems, a visualization by Frank Summers and Kevin Walker for Rose Center/Hall of the Universe. © 2 0 0 2 A m er ic a n M u se u m o f N a tu ra l H is to ry © 2 0 0 2 A m er ic a n M u se u m o f N a tu ra l H is to ry informative art, and Hiroshi Ishii’s group at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology is doing some interesting projects (see http:// tangible.media.mit.edu/), as is Tobias Skög of Sweden’s Play Interactive Institute (http:// www.viktoria.se/play/publications/2000/ ainfoart.html). These are akin to what Umberto Eco calls “visual icebergs”—minimal points of information on the surface, hinting at a wealth of data below.9 In installations such as these, the goal isn’t complete accuracy, because the outcome is often a behavior, not a number (for more on this con- cept, see Carver Mead’s work at http://www. pcmp.caltech.edu/). Besides, our unmediated representations of reality are always false anyway because our brains aren’t perfect; thus we’re always in a sort of virtual reality, as David Deutsch argues.10 In physics, we define informa- tion as a measure of order of a physical system, and work such as this is merely a way of describ- ing physical phenomenon using different phys- ical means. Linking technology to the real world I’m not interested in using technology to sub- stitute for the real world. Instead, I’d rather link it to the natural world, to mediate between real- time, real-world data and physical objects or 9 Figure 8. Active Galactic Nuclei, a composite image combining visible and radio wavelengths. © 2 0 0 2 A m er ic a n M u se u m o f N a tu ra l H is to ry Figure 10. Real-time visualization of the sun’s position, a prototype for installation by Kevin Walker. Figure 9. Music of the Spheres, a prototype for installation using real-time planetary data by Kevin Walker. spaces. (After all, computing—whether in biology or in silicon—is a physical process.) Most of these installations aren’t interactive, but autonomous— computers interacting with other computers, and with the physical world. Hardware prices and power requirements are falling sufficiently enough that using a computer, monitor, or projector for a single-purpose artwork is becoming more feasible. Even the humble, ancient technology of paper has more fidelity than the most advanced display hardware. In museums and on the screen, we’re used to seeing science and information visualized in pixel-accurate, simulated 3D. However, I think that deeper emotional power is held by a few piano notes, or in a tiny da Vinci drawing. That’s why the most interesting frontier of digital visu- alization is in the minimal and the physical. Whether on a planetarium dome or piece of paper, art can move raw scientific data to a new level of knowledge and experience. MM References 1 S. Wolfram, A New Kind of Science, Wolfram Media, 2002. 2. V. Kandinsky, Point and Line to Plane, Dover Publica- tions, 1979, p. 11. 3. G. Richter and H.-U. Obrist, The Daily Practice of Painting: Writings 1960–1993, MIT Press, 1995. 4. V. Vesna, “Bucky Beat: Buckminster Fuller, the Anticipatory Design Scientist, Foreshadows the Complex Persona of a Contemporary Media Artist,” ArtByte, vol. 1, no. 3, Aug./Sept. 1998. 5. P. Mondrian, The New Art—The New Life: The Col- lected Writings of Piet Mondrian, DaCapo Press, 1993. 6. M. Kreuger, Artificial Life II, Addison-Wesley, 1990. 7. I. Calvino, Six Memos for the Next Millennium, Vin- tage Books, 1993. 8. T. Horan, “The Paradox of Place,” Comm. ACM, vol. 44, no. 3, Mar. 2001, p. 60. 9. U. Eco, Travels in Hyperreality, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1990, p. 199. 10. D. Deutsch, The Fabric of Reality, Pengiun USA, 1998. Readers may contact Kevin Walker at kevin@ nilescanyon.net. Contact Artful Media editor Dorée Duncan Seligmann at Avaya Labs, 666 Fifth Ave., 11th Floor, New York, NY 10103, email dorree@avaya.com. 10 IE E E M u lt iM e d ia Artful Media O cto b e r–D e ce m b e r 2 0 0 2 January/February Web Graphics With the popularity of the Internet, we’re seeing a migration of tradition- al applications to run on the Web environment and a growing demand for more powerful Web-based applications. Fused by the increasing availability and dramatic reduction in the cost of 3D graphics accelera- tors, a new direction of research, called Web Graphics, is emerging. This includes developing graphics applications as well as tools to support these applications in the Web environment. March/April Graphics Applications for Grid Computing Grid computing allows access to distributed computing resources with the same ease as electrical power. In recent years, graphics application tools that take advantage of distributed computing, or grid environ- ments, have emerged. New methodologies and techniques that harness resources for graphics applications are critical for the success of grid environments. May/June Advances in Computer Graphics This issue covers an array of advances in computer graphics such as organic textures, lighting, and approximation of surfaces. Also, you’ll find out about new developments in virtual reality, novel approaches in visualization, and innovative CG applications. The range of topics highlights the usefulness of computer graphics for everyone. July/August Nonphotorealistic Rendering Nonphotorealistic rendering (NPR) investigates alternatives that lever- age techniques developed over centuries by artists and illustrators to depict the world. One goal of this research is to broaden the achievable range of image styles and thereby embrace new applications. Additional- ly, NPR has the potential to open a new line of attack on one of the central problems of 3D computer graphics today: content creation. September/October Perceptual Multimodal Interfaces This issue focuses on recent advances in methods, techniques, applica- tions, and evaluations of multimodal interaction. Learn how researchers’ cross-disciplinary approaches helped develop multimodal interfaces from interaction-centered prototypes to user-oriented and application- tailored solutions. This issue also explores the notion of moving toward transparent user interfaces. November/December 3D Reconstruction and Visualization Models based on 3D data will ultimately include everything associated with the environment, such as trees, shrubs, lampposts, sidewalks, streets, and so on. The main mode of exploration for this massive collec- tion will be through interactive visualization. Ultimately, you should be able to fly continuously from overviews of a large city to centimeter-size details on the side of any building. Smoothly joining these different scales may require integrating rendering techniques in new ways. 2003Editorial Calendar http://computer.org/cga Index: CCC: 0-7803-5957-7/00/$10.00 © 2000 IEEE ccc: 0-7803-5957-7/00/$10.00 © 2000 IEEE cce: 0-7803-5957-7/00/$10.00 © 2000 IEEE index: INDEX: ind: 
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work_fvzvaitw5fenretevawbm2vv2q	----	Gesellschaftsmitteilungen · Society Bulletins Forsch Komplementmed 2009;16:204–205 © 2009 S. Karger GmbH, Freiburg Accessible online at: www.karger.com/fok Fax +49 761 4 52 07 14 Information@Karger.de www.karger.com Die 20. Hauptversammlung der SMGP in Luzern – eine glanzvolle Jubiläumsveranstaltung Am 4. April 2009 fand die 20. Hauptver- sammlung der SMGP statt. Nach Basel und Bern gab sich Luzern die Ehre, die Versammlung zu beherbergen. Luzern empfing die Gäste mit strahlendem Sonnenschein. Im Vorprogramm stan- den eine Besichtigung des Regierungs- gebäudes unter der Führung von Herrn Regierungsrat Dr. Anton Schwingruber und die Besichtigung der Sammlung Ro- sengart, geführt von Expertinnen und Experten. Die Ausstellung bietet unge- ahnte Einblicke in das Schaffen von Paul Klee und Pablo Picasso. Picassos Spät- werke regen den Besucher an, über das Leben und das Sterben nachzudenken. Während der Versammlung konnten die Begleitpersonen einen Blick hinter die Kulissen des Stadttheaters werfen. Die Hauptversammlung wurde im Hotel Les Balances abgehalten. Der Prä- sident, Dr. med. Roger Eltbogen, konnte 49 Mitglieder begrüßen, so viele wie noch nie zuvor. Der gesamte Vorstand stellte sich zur Wiederwahl. Es gab ledig- lich eine Änderung bei den Funktionen: Dr. Christian Terreaux ist aus beruf- lichen Gründen vom Amt des Vizepräsi- denten zurückgetreten. Zu seiner Nach- folgerin wurde Dr. Beatrix Falch ein- stimmig gewählt. Als neuer Delegierter Union wurde Damien Decrey gewählt. Die Finanzen der SMGP sind gesund, erläuterte der Kassier, Dr. Christoph Bachmann. Da aber die Aufgaben der SMGP kräftig wachsen und nicht mehr alle ehrenamtlich gelöst werden kön- nen, braucht die Gesellschaft mehr Mit- tel. Zum ersten Mal in der Geschichte der SMGP wurde eine Erhöhung des Mitgliederbeitrags vorgeschlagen. Die Versammlung zeigte Verständnis und genehmigte den Aufschlag von 150,– auf 200,– SFR ohne Opposition. Seit der letz- ten Statutenrevision besteht der schöne Brauch, verdiente Mitglieder mit einer Ehrenmitgliedschaft zu ehren: Prof. Dr. Kurt Hostettmann hat die Phytotherapie in der Romandie gestärkt, die Gründung der SSPM als vollwertigen Teil der Ge- sellschaft initiiert und war als Ordinari- us an der Universität Lausanne, später Genf unermüdlich im Einsatz für die Arzneipflanzenforschung. Dr. Marijke Frater und Dr. Norbert Linnenbrink verbindet das unermüdliche Engage- ment bei der ESCOP. Beide waren fast von Anfang an mit dabei und haben an zahlreichen Monographien mitgearbei- tet. Die ESCOP legte die Basis zur me- dizinischen Aufbereitung der Kenntnisse zu den Arzneipflanzen. Sie leistete damit eine hervorragende Vorarbeit zu den jetzigen Aktivitäten der Europäischen Zulassungsbehörde EMEA. Klemens Brühwiler (Gründungspräsident), Hans- Ulrich Bürke, Ruedi Diener, Christine Linherr, Beat Meier, Valerio Rosinus, Ursula Rutz und Patricio Schär gehören zu den Gründungsmitgliedern der SMGP, die noch heute dabei sind. Sie sind vom Geschäftsführer, der sich über diese 20- jährige Treue sehr freute, mit einer Rose willkommen geheißen worden. Im Anschluss an die Hauptversamm- lung präsentierte Dr. Urs Gösken den altpersischen Philosophen und Arzt Abu Sina (oder Avicenna). Das Wis- sen der Antike, namentlich der alt- griechischen Medizin, wurde von isla- mischen Wissenschaftlern bewahrt und weiterentwickelt. Abu Sina hielt zwar die Philosophie für die höchste Wis- senschaft – sie stehe über der Medizin und der Arzneipflanzenkunde – wurde aber vor allem als erfolgreicher Arzt be- rühmt. Der Referent hat seinen Zuhö- rerinnen und Zuhörern mit seinem frei gehaltenen Vortrag eine faszinierende geistige Welt vorgestellt. Ein Stück von dieser philosophischen Reflexion würde uns in unserer Zeit sehr gut tun. Nach dem Vortrag wurde ein Apéro offeriert, welcher vom Luzerner Salon- Quintett musikalisch begleitet wurde. Auf dem Balkon mit bester Sicht auf die wunderschöne Altstadt von Luzern wurden angeregte Gespräche geführt. Während des anschließenden Abendes- sens wurde den Sponsoren gedankt. Der Gründungspräsident, Klemens Brüh- wiler, erzählte auf lebendige Weise von der Gründungsgeschichte der SMGP und den Pionierjahren. Luzern, Kapellbrücke. Die neue SMGP- Vizepräsidentin Dr. Beatrix Falch. Vielen Dank den Sponsoren und den Organisatoren Vifor SA stiftete den Apéro, Schwabe Pharma finanzierte den Besuch in der Sammlung Rosengart, Biomed AG den Besuch im Stadttheater Luzern und den nachfolgenden Café für die Begleitper- sonen, Max Zeller Söhne AG spendete den SMGP-Vorstands- und Komitee- mitgliedern und den Delegierten das Festmenu in Anerkennung ihrer Arbeit. Die Hirschmatt Apotheke Luzern en- gagierte das Luzerner Salon-Quintett für die Musik beim Apéro. Padma AG sorgt dafür, dass der Anlass dank einer Diaschau in Erinnerung bleibt. Bioforce AG half, die Kosten für die Jubiläums- versammlung zu tragen. Ebi-pharm fi- nanzierte den Festvortrag über den per- sischen Arzt Abu Sina (Avicenna). Ein besonderer Dank gebührt den bei- den Organisatoren, Christoph Bach- mann und Kathrin Schwingruber von der Hirschmatt Apotheke. Gesellschaftsmitteilungen · Society Bulletins Forsch Komplementmed 2009;16:204–205 205 
work_fw5hn5vfkjbwfjszhpzvrlh7ry	----	Апстракт ослањајући се на ставове познатог уметничког критичара Херберта Рида (Herbert Read), по коме реализам, идеализам и експресионизам нису посебни правци у уметности, већ представљају сталне основне чиниоце у свим уметностима, у овом раду се разматра могућност постојања елементарних стваралачких опредељења и у архитектури. Полазећи од основних видова опажања и представљања света око нас, путем компаративне анализе и примера из других области, изложена је теза да би адекватан пандан Ридовим основним чиниоцима у уметности - реализму, идеализму и експресионизму, у архитектури били појмови мимезиса (мимикрије), асоцијативности и експресије. У зависности од друштвено-политичких, културно- историјских и других околности, неки од ових чинилаца с времена на време излазе на површину и заогрнути миљеом времена, јављају се у неком новом или старом облику, који можемо препознати као уметнички правац или стил. Кључне речи: визуелни израз, мимезис, мимикрија, асоцијативност, експресија. 3 UDK: 72.01:159.955; 72.038 Прегледни радН АУЧНИ РАДоВИ ВИЗУЕЛНИ ИЗРАЗ У АРХИТЕКТ УРИ Ђорђе Алфиревић рад примљен: децембар 2010, рад прихваћен: јануар 2011. Увод Анализирајући токове идеја и стилских праваца у архитектури, можемо приметити да су се током историје многе појаве понављале, у више или мање измењеном облику. Повремено су на свет долазиле нове идеје, са различитим могућностима креације архитектонских облика и садржаја, али су се најчешће гасиле још на самом почетку, јер нису могле дуго да егзистирају у створеним условима, тј. нису биле примерене актуелном времену и простору (сл.1). Дешавало се да неке од идеја буду прихваћене шире и да успеју да се развију у нови, чист и значајан архитектонски правац. Такви стваралачки токови, готово ниоткуд настају, брзо се развијају, доживљавају кратак врхунац постојања, а затим се дуго и постепено гасе (готово никад у потпуности). Њихов настанак и лагано гашење претапају се у „сивило” паралелних токова. У већини случајева појава архитектонских токова везана је за преломне историјске моменте, у којима долази до коренитих друштвених, економских и других промена. Цикличност ових тенденција је давно примећена и сматра се да оне настају у одсутним и критичним тренуцима развоја архитектуре и уметности, када су сазрели услови да се дефинише ново осећање света и да се уобличи форма (Трифуновић, 1969). VISUAL EXPRESSION IN ARCHITECTURE Abstract Relaying on standpoints of the renowned art critic Herbert Read, according to which realism, idealism and expressionism are not separate art movements, but represent permanent basic factors in all arts,  this paper considers the possibility of existance of elementary creative orientation in architecture as well. Starting from basic aspects of perception and representation of the world around us, and through a comparative analysis and examples from other fields, a thesis is presented according to which notions of mimesis  (mimicry), associativity and expression in architecture are adequate counterparts to Read’s basic factors of art - realism, idealism and expressionism.  Depending on socio- political, cultural and historical, as well as other circumstances,  from time to time some of these factors come to the surface, wrapped up in time,  and emerge in some new or old form which we can recognize as an art movement or style.  Key words:  visual expression, mimesis, mimicry, associativity, expression. mr Djordje Alfirevi, d.i.a. e-mail: djordje.alfirevic@gmail.com Сл. 1. Развој и преклапање стилова у архитектури Fig. 1. Evolution and overlaying of styles in architecture Чанак, М. „osnovne tendencije u istorijskoj arhitekturi’’. ARd Review (Београд) бр.30 (2004), стр.31. 4 Ђорђе Алфиревић/АУ31/2011/страна 3-15/Визуелни израз у архитектури Ако бисмо покушали да сведемо број архитектонских тенденција на неколико основних, могли бисмо да разликујемо три елементарне групе: а) инвентивну (креативистичку); б) прагматичну (рационалну); в) тради- ционалистичку (исто рицистичку) архитектуру (Џенкс, 1986). Средином 20. в., Херберт Рид, уметнички критичар, изнео је тезу да је уметност „израз осећања појединих стања интуиције, перцепције или емоције појединца” (Рид, 1957). У даљем тексту, покушаћемо да успоставимо релацију између Ридових тврдњи о постојању елементарних стваралачких чинилаца у уметности - реализма, идеализма и експре­ сионизма, и основних архитектонских тенденција, с циљем да укажемо на евентуално постојање елементарних ствара- лачких опредељења и у архитектури, које ћемо радно назвати: мимезис, асоци јативност и експресија. МИМИКРИЈА - MIMEZIS Мимикрија (гр. mimikos - подражавање) представља сталну или привремену сличност по облику, боји и другим спољним особинама неких елемената са околином у којој се налазе, услед чега их је тешко разликовати, иако између себе немају никакве друге везе сем спољних сличности. Често је поистовећивање термина мимикрије и мимезиса, иако су они поред сличности у значењу суштински различити. Појам мимикрије је у употреби када се говори о подражавању у природи, тј. имитирању визуелних и других карактеристика живих бића међу собом, док је појам мимезиса више део уметничке терминологије и представља подражавање у ширем смислу. Мимикрија у природи Мимикрија није својствена само људима, већ се јавља и у биљном и животињском свету, као један од основних принципа заштите и самоодржања у природи. опстанак сваке врсте зависи од степена прилагођености условима околине, било да је у питању заштита од грабљиваца, или подражавање с циљем долажења до лакшег плена. Подражавање је човеку урођено од детињства. На тај начин он стиче прва сазнања о околини којој се прилагођава. Појава прилагођавања околини јавља се и код људи и позната је у психологији као интројекција (уживљавање), што подразумева процес уношења објекта у субјективни круг интересовања (Јунг, 2003). о овом феномену писао је и наш познати географ Јован Цвијић, помињући моралну мимикрију и рајинске особине, које се јављају у случајевима када се народ који је поробљен, поистовећује са освајачем. Мимезис у уметности Више треба узимати оно што није могуће, али је вероватно, неголи оно што је могуће, али невероватно (Аристотел). Мимезис је један од најстаријих античких принципа на ком почива однос уметника и његовог дела према стварности. Дело не представља копију неког модела, блед обрис идеје, већ то што представља кад понавља или опонаша није објект, него артефакт или биће фикције (Коклен, 2005). Полемика о томе да ли, или не, уметност треба ропски да подражава природу (Платон), и, ако већ подражава да ли треба да преобрази конкретан лик, стварајући идеализован тип или парадигму (Аристотел), која надилази стварност, провлачи се у истом или сличном облику све до времена модернизма, када бива одбачена са првим авангардним експериментима. од самог почетка уметничког стваралаштва па до данас, постојао је низ уметничких праваца који су претпостављали мимезис као основни принцип ства ра- лаштва: релизам, натурализам, импресионизам, хипер- реализам и др. Суштина сваког покрета који се базира на мимезису је у тежњи за достизањем стваралачког идеала, који постоји изражен у својој савршеној појавности једино још у природи. Зато велики мајстори мимезе попут Микеланђела (Michelangelo), Леонарда (leonardo da Vinci) и Дирера (Albrecht dürer), нису тежили копирању појавног, већ су успевали да удахну живот својим визијама, чиме је њихово стваралаштво успевало да досегне оквире савршенства. Ако посматрамо природу као отелотворени идеал, ипак постоји извесна доза релативитета у људском опажању која је различита код сваке индивидуе, те се поставља питање сврсисходности миме- тичког (реалистичног) израза. Мимезис у архитектури Права архитектура је увек рефлекс простора. Без обзира кад је настала, она је таква као да је тамо одувек (Алеш Водопивец). С обзиром да архитектура, за разлику од осталих уметности, има много већи степен ограничења, условљена је месним и временским факторима, поставља се питање да ли је уопште могуће одвојити се од мимезиса, јер објекат мора да буде прилагођен потребама корисника да би се уопште могао назвати архитектуром. Стога можемо констатовати да је мимезис (најшире схваћено) у суштини сваког архитектонског дела, само је питање ширине његовог тумачења. оног тренутка када се зграда позиционира на одређено место, испоштују регулације и други локациони услови (мимезис у ширем смислу), отвара се могућност за примену мимезиса у ужем смислу, као и асоцијативности и експресије, који се огледају у архитектоничности основа и фасада („пластике” и материјализације). За разлику од опште уметности, појам мимезиса у архи- тектури се широко тумачи. Можемо издвојити три основне категорије миметичности: 1. Мимикрија објекта представља копирање елемената неког стила или комплетних архитектонских облика из непосредне или шире околине. 2. Мимикрија околине подразумева визуелно сједињење или „нестајање” у природном или вештачком окружењу – принцип дематеријализације (Чарапић, 2008). 5 Ђорђе Алфиревић/АУ31/2011/страна 3-15/Визуелни израз у архитектури MIMICRY - MIMESIS Mimicry (Greek mimikos - mimicking) represents a permanent or temporary similarity of elements in shape, color or other external properties with their surrounding, making it difficult to distinguish between them, although there is no other connection, except for these external similarities. The terms mimicry and mimesis are often equated, although apart from their similarity in meaning they are essentially different. The term mimicry is used when talking about mimicking in nature, i.e. species that are mimicking visual or other characteristics of each other, while the term mimesis is related more to art terminology and represents mimicking in a wider sense. Mimicry in nature Mimicry is not characteristic of people only, but it is found in flora and fauna as one of the main principles of protection and self- preservation in nature. The survival of the species depends on the degree of their adaptation to the surroundings; whether they are protecting themselves against vultures, or using mimicry for capturing their food more easily. Mimicking is a natural trait of human beings from their childhood. In this way, they acquire their first knowledge about the surroundings to which they are trying to adapt. The phenomenon of people trying to adapt to their surroundings is known in psychology as introjection, meaning the process of drawing objects into our subjective circle of interest (Jung, 2003). Our famous geographer Jovan Cvijić also wrote about this phenomenon, mentioning moral mimicry and subservient mentality (rajinski mentality), which occur when enslaved people equate themselves with their conqueror. Mimesis in art something that is impossible, but probable, is more desirable than something that is possible, but improbable (Aristotel). Mimesis is one of the oldest antique principles, on which rests the relation of artists and their work towards reality. Artwork is not a copy of some model, a pale shadow of an idea, and what it represents when it repeats or mimics is not an object but an artifact or a fictional being (Cauquelin, 2005). Сл.02. Миметична кућа, Feevaghmore (Д. Стивенс) Fig.02. Mimetic house, Feevaghmore (D. Stevens) http://en.urbarama.com/project/mimetic­house INTRODUCTION Analyzing flaws in ideas and stylistic tendencies in architecture, it may be noticed that many phenomena have been repeated in the course of history in a more or less altered form. New ideas have occasionally emerged with different possibilities for creating architectural forms and contents, but they would very often vanish at the very beginning, because they could not exist long- term in given circumstances, i.e. they were not appropriate to that particular time and space (Fig. 1). Certain ideas have been more widely accepted and have managed to develop into a new, pure and important architectural direction. Such creative tendencies usually emerge out of nowhere, develop quickly, experience their short culmination and then gradually fade away over a long period (but almost never completely). Their appearance and gradual extinction blend into a ”grayness” of parallel tendencies. In most cases, the emergence of architectural tendencies is related to historical turning-points in which radical social, economic and other changes take place. The cyclic character of these tendencies has long been observed and considered to have emerged in crucial and critical moments of the development of architecture and art, when the conditions were ripe for defining a new perception of the world and for establishing new forms (Trifunović, 1969). If one tried to reduce the number of architectural tendencies to only several basic ones, it would be possible to distinguish three different elementary groups: a) inventive (creative); b) pragmatic (rational); and c) traditionalistic (historical) architecture (Jencks, 1986). In the mid-20th century, Herbert Read, an art critic, introduced the thesis that art ”is an expression of feelings of the certain stat es of an individual’s intuition, perception or emotion” (Read, 1957). In the following text, we will attempt to make a relation- ship between Read’s assertions about the existence of elemen - tary creative factors in art - realism, idealism and expressionism and the main architectural tendencies, with the aim of also indi- cating the possible existence of elementary creative orientations in architecture, which herein we will call: mimesis, associativity and expression. 6 Ђорђе Алфиревић/АУ31/2011/страна 3-15/Визуелни израз у архитектури остварења архитекате Ф. Л. Рајта (f. l. Wright), познатог по истанчаном осећају за суштину непосредног и ширег окружења, представљају одличне примере оваквог кре а- тивног виђења. Попут дела великих мајстора мимезиса (Леонарда и Микеланђела), Рајтова кућа на водопаду (сл. 4) не подражава директно окружење око себе, већ кореспондира са духом природе. Форма објекта се каскадно провлачи кроз шуму, евоцирајући приказ окамењене воде која „тече” низ стене. АСОЦИЈАТИВНОСТ Асоцијација (лат. - веза, удружење, братство) Асоцијација мисли је изазивање мисли о једном предмету услед помињања или подсећања на други, који је са претходним био у некој вези, обично по сличности или различитости. Асоцијативност у психологији Асоцијације се, као специфичан вид естетског опажања и одлучивања, могу јавити на више квалитативно различитих начина. У зависности од дужине трајања доживљаја и дубине когнитивне анализе, постоје три модуса естетског опажања, тј. нивоа анализе визуелних, појмовних и др. информација, која имају учешћа у процесу асоцирања (Огњеновић, 1997). Х ниво - подразумева процес појмовне и обликовне симплификације, инсистирање на доброј форми, нагла- шавању ритма, симетрији и златном пресеку. основна идеја овог начина обраде јесте хармонија и склад (отуда и слово Х). Когнитивни процеси на којима се заснива овај ниво асоцијативности, у основи су једноставнији и бржи у односу на преостала два. Р ниво - подразумева принцип кићења - редунданце, тј. поновљених информација, као и обогаћење детаљима и 3. Грађење у духу места је основни принцип кон тек сту- ализма, као највишег нивоа мимезе. Примери копирања елемената неког стила или елемената из окружења чести су у пракси. Класичан пример мимезиса јавља се код грчких храмова код којих су облици првобитних храмова превођени из дрвета у камени материјал, уз подражавање стилских карактеристика. У данашње време заступање оваквог става све мање има оправдање, сем у случајевима када је неопходно да се ојача целовитост неке просторне или амбијенталне целине, и то ако има изузетну архитектонску, културну или неку другу вредност. Увођењем нових стилских карактеристика у већој мери у неки заштићени амбијент, умањује се значај и вредност оригинала. Други вид миметичности јавља се код објеката који су ви- зуелно камуфлирани и привидно нестају у окружењу (сл. 2). Примењује се у случајевима када се из одређеног разлога (капацитет, неодговарајући програмски садржаји и сл.), не може успоставити дијалог са окружењем. У том случају користи се „илузија” дематеријализације, тј. визуелно неутралисање волумена. Један од познатих примера дематеријализације је нови, реконструисани део Лувра са садржајима који су сакривени испод музејског платоа и са главним приступом кроз прозрачну, стаклену пирамиду, која не омета визуре ка заштићеном окружењу. Код павиљона Вlur Вuilding, који је предвиђен за светску изложбу swiss Expo 2002. и изведен на језеру у Швајцарској, форма привидно нестаје у облаку водене паре, која се вештачки формира око фасаде објекта (сл. 3). Контекстуализам у архитектури је став код кога се у први план истиче толерантан однос према окружењу („духу места”), из кога се црпе мотиви и тражи инспирација за стваралачко деловање у простору. овај приступ има најшире тумачење појма мимезис, чиме се у великој мери приближава појму асоцијативног. Сл.03. „Замагљена’’ зграда, језеро Neuchatel (Дилер и Скофидио) Fiг.03. Blur building, Lake Neuchatel (Diller & Scofidio) http://rebarcollective.wordpress.com/2009/10/ Сл.04. Кућа на водопаду, Mill Run (Ф. Л. Рајт) Fig.04. Fallingwater house, Mill Run (F. L. Wright) http://aaschorsch.com/_ae/01_ curriculum/06_3ddesign/3ddesign_Home.htm 7 Ђорђе Алфиревић/АУ31/2011/страна 3-15/Визуелни израз у архитектури The controversy over whether or not the art should mimic nature (Plato), and, if it does mimic it, whether it should transform a concrete figure, thus creating an idealized type or paradigm (Aristotle) which surpasses the reality, was waged in the same or similar form until Modernism, when it was rejected with the first avant-garde experiments. Since the very beginning of artistic creativity until today, there have been many art movements which have assumed the mimesis as a basic principle of creativity: realism, naturalism, impressionism, hyperrealism, etc. The essence of any movement based on mimesis is in the aspiration to achieve a creative ideal which exists expressed in its perfect manifestation so far only in nature. That is why great masters of mimesis like Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci and Albrecht Dürer did not aspire to copy the phenomenon, but managed to breathe life into their visions, whereby succeeding to reach perfection in their creativity. If nature is observed as an embodied ideal, there is still a dose of relativity in human perception that is different for every individual, thus raising the question of the expediency of mimetic (realistic) expression. Mimesis in architecture True architecture is always a reflection of space. Regardless of when it was created, it is as if it had always been there (Aleš Vodopivec). Considering the fact that in architecture compared to other arts, the degree of limitation, which is conditioned by factors of time and place is greater, the question arises as to whether it is at all possible to depart from mimesis, because the structure must be adjusted to the needs of the beneficiaries in order to be called architecture in the first place. Therefore, it can be concluded that mimesis (understood in its widest sense) is in the essence of each architectural creation; it is only a question of how widely it is interpreted. Only when a structure is positioned in a certain place, and when the regulations are met together with the other location conditions (mimesis in its wider sense), there is a possibility of applying mimesis in its narrower sense, as well as associativity and expression, which are reflected in the layout and elevation (”plastics” and materialization). Compared to art in general, the notion of mimesis in architecture is widely interpreted. Three main categories of mimetism can be singled out as follows: 1. Mimicry of structures means copying elements of a certain style or complete architectural shapes from immediate surroundings or a wider surrounding area. 2. Mimicry of surroundings implies a visual unity with or the ”disappearance” in the natural or artificial surroundings – principle of dematerialization (Čarapić, 2008). 3. Development in the “spirit of the place” (genius loci) is the main principle of contextualism, as the highest level of mimesis. Examples of copying elements of a certain style or elements from the surroundings are often found in practice. A typical example of mimesis is found in Greek temples where original forms of temples have been translated from the wooden into stone materials by mimicking the stylistic features. Today, advocating such an attitude is less justified, except in cases when it is necessary to strengthen the wholeness of a spatial or ambience entity, and only if it has an exceptional architectural, cultural or some other value. By introducing new stylistic features to a greater extent in some protected ambience, the importance and value of the original is diminished. Another form of mimetism occurs with objects that are visually camouflaged and seemingly blend into the surroundings (Fig.2). It is applied in cases when, out of certain reasons (capacity, inappropriate program contents, etc.) it may not be possible to establish a dialogue with the surroundings. In such a case, the ”illusion” of dematerialization, i.e. visual neutralization of volume, is employed. One of the well-known examples of dematerialization is the new, reconstructed part of the Louvre Museum with facilities hidden beneath the museum plateau and the main access through a transparent, glass pyramid which does not disturb the view of the protected surroundings. In the exhibition pavilion ”Blur Building”, which was built for the world exhibition swiss Expo 2002 on a lake in Switzerland, the form seemingly disappears in a cloud of steam artificially created around the building’s facade (Fig.3). Contextualism in architecture is a viewpoint where tolerant relationship to the surroundings (”spirit of place”) is brought to the fore, from where the motives and inspiration are drawn and sought after for creative action in the space. This approach involves the widest interpretation of the notion of mimesis, thus getting close to the notion of the associative. Achievements of architect F.L.Wright, known by his refined feeling for the essence of both the immediate surroundings and the wider surrounding area, provide an excellent example of such creative perception. Like the works of the great masters of mimesis (Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo) Wright’s house on the waterfall (Fig.4) does not mimic its immediate surroundings, but corresponds with the spirit of nature. The form of the house cascades through the forest evoking an image of stoned water ”running” down the rocks. ASSOCIATIVITY Association (in Latin – connection, association, brotherhood) Association of thoughts means causing the occurrence of a thought about an object as a result of mentioning or recalling the other object, which has been in some connection with the previous one, usually by its similarity or difference. 8 Ђорђе Алфиревић/АУ31/2011/страна 3-15/Визуелни израз у архитектури (директније асоцијације). Дистантни модус асоцијативности у највећој мери је изражен код уметничких ставова концептуализма и симболизма, путем апстраховања облика и појмова – идеализације. Арнхајмово (Rudolf Arnheim) поређење Короове (Camille Corot) „Мајке са дететом” и Мурове (Henry Moore) „Две форме” то добро илуструје. Наиме, Арнхајм указује на истоветност тема ова два дела и различите видове асоцијативности којима су оне изражене. У оба приказа основна тема је саопштена структуралним скелетом композиције, повијеном фигуром (мајке) која се заштитнички надвија над мању форму (лик детета), која је статично постављена и благо тежи већој форми (Арнхајм, 1985). Асоцијативност у архитектури Примери који на адекватан начин презентују ово креатив- но опредељење у архитектури нису толико чести, јер су у већи ни случајева у питању објекти јавног карактера (музеји, културни центри и сл.), који чине мањи део светског архитектонског фонда. Уобичајени методи којима се архитекти користе приликом стварања неког архитектонског дела су појмовно и формално асоцирање - стилизација. Стилизација подразумева поступак којим се путем апстраховања, тј. поједностављивања простора и облика до формалне суштине, без непотребних детаља, формира потпуно нова композициона целина, која је различита од првобитног узорка, али на који у већој или мањој мери подсећа (Марић, 2006). Стилизација спада у групу формалних асоцијативних метода, код којих се стваралац бави интерпретацијом визуелних представа. Поступак појмовног асоцирања води ка дубљим сферама стваралачког деловања, приликом чега настају дела која у обликовном смислу могу бити у потпуности различита у односу на оригинал, али која имају дистантне, семантичке везе са узором. Међу успешне примере асоцијативности могу се сврстати дела Р. Пјана (Renzo Piano) (сл. 5) и Калатраве (santiago Calatrava) (сл. 6), који често у свом раду користе ово украсима. Сензибилитет за овакав начин опажања и одлу- чивања своди се на количину, број детаља у стимулацији, или на њихово истицање и улепшавање. Д ниво - води ка мистериознијим тумачењима и одлукама, вероватно, на основу отварања новог (семантичког, естетског) простора за већ виђено, стога је за овакав начин опажања и одлучивања потребно највише времена. осетљивост за овакав доживљај или естетски израз своди се на способност за вишеслојну и паралелну обраду информација приликом које се појмови који су претходно већ били сагледани, виде на други начин. овакав начин асоцијативног виђења највише се приближава уметничком. Асоцијативност у уметности Уметност не понавља видљиво, она чини видљивим (Пол Кле). Појам асоцијативности у уметности може бити вишезначан, у зависности од аспекта сагледавања проблема. С једне стране, посматрач доживљава (опажа) уметничко дело, тумачи га на основу „менталних слика” које су ускладиштене у уму и апстраховане из претходног искуства. оне ће директно утицати на начин обраде опажених информација, тј. на препознавање одређеног предмета или теме. С друге стране, уметник може да путем асоцијација пренесе пос матрачу поруку, која врло често због специфичности умет ничког виђења, може бити херметична (као код Д модуса). За ову тему од важности је случај када се асоцијације уметника у мањој или већој мери поклапају са асоцијативним виђењем посматрача, што представља једно од основних питања односа уметник ­ уметничко дело – прималац (перципијент). С обзиром да се асоцијативност налази у самој суштини уметничког начина стварања, веома је тешко поистоветити одређени уметнички правац са искључивим пољем деловања асоцијативног доживљаја. Такође, од три наведене асоцијативне категорије, дистантни модус (Д) највише се приближава уметничком виђењу, јер преостале две категорије представљају примаран начин опажаја Сл.05. Национални центар „Немо’’, Амстердам (Р. Пјано) Фиг.05. National center Nemo, Amsterdam (R. Piano) hттп://www.глоwимагес.cом/сеарch/Немо.hтмл С л.06. Аеродром, Лион (С. Калатрава) Fig.06. Airport, Lyon (S. Calatrava) http://thedenverelement.com/tag/denver­international­airport/ 9 Ђорђе Алфиревић/АУ31/2011/страна 3-15/Визуелни израз у архитектури Associativity in psychology Associations, as a specific form of aesthetic observance or decision-making, may occur in several qualitatively different ways. Depending on the duration of emotional experience and depth of cognitive analysis, there are three types of aesthetic observance, i.e. levels of analysis of visual, phenomenal or other information, which are involved in the process of associating (ognjenović, 1997). H level – implies a process of phenomenon and shape simplification, insisting on a good form and emphasizing the rhythm, symmetry and golden section. The main idea of such a way of processing is harmony (therefrom the letter H). Cognitive processes on which this level of associativity is based are basically simpler and faster compared to the other two. R level – implies a principle of decoration, redundance, i.e., repeated information, as well as enrichment with details and ornaments. Sensibility for such a way of observing and decision- making is reduced to quantity, number of details in stimulation, or to their highlighting and beautifying. D level – leads to mysterious interpretations and decisions, probably based on opening of new (semantic, aesthetic) space for “déjà vu”. Therefore, such a way of observing and decision-making is the most time-consuming. Sensibility for such an emotional experience or aesthetic expression is reduced to the ability of multi-layered and parallel information processing, whereby previously perceived phenomena are perceived in some other way. Such a way of associative perception is closest to the artistic perception. Associativity in art Art does not reproduce the visible; rather, it makes visible (Paul Klee). The notion of associativity in art may have a multiple meaning depending on the aspect from which the problem is perceived. On the one hand, the observer experiences (perceives) a work of art and interprets it based on ”mental images” that are stored in his/ her mind and abstracted from the previous experience. They will have a direct impact on the way of processing the observed information, i.e. on the recognition of a certain object or theme. On the other hand, an artist may convey a message to the observer through associations which often, due to specific artistic perception, may be hermetic (as with D mode). The case when the artist’s associations coincide to a lesser or greater extent with the associative perception of the observer is of importance for this theme, and this is actually one of the basic issues of the relationship artist – work of art –percipient. Considering that associativity is in the very essence of the artistic way of creation, it is very difficult to equate a certain art movement with the sole field of associative experience action. Furthermore, out of the three associative categories, the distant mode (D) is closest to artistic perception because the remaining two categories represent a primary way of perception (or more directly - association). The distant mode of associativity is to a greatest extent expressed in artistic stands of conceptualism and symbolism through abstracting shapes and phenomena - idealization. Rudolf Arnheim’s comparison of Camille Corot’s ”Mother and Child” and Henry Moore’s ”Two Large Forms” best illustrates this. Namely, Arnheim points out that the themes of these two works are identical. He also points out the different forms of associativity by which they are expressed. In both cases, the main theme is communicated through the structural skeleton of the composition, a reclining figure (mother) which in a protective manner is bending over the smaller figure (child), which is statically placed and slightly moved towards the bigger form (Arnheim, 1985). Associativity in architecture Examples that in an adequate way depict this creative orientation in architecture are not often found, because, in most cases, it is a question of public buildings (museums, cultural centers, etc.), which account for a smaller part of the world architecture stock. Usual methods employed by architects in creating an architectural work are phenomenon and form association - stylization. Stylization implies a procedure by which a completely new wholeness of the composition, different from the original model but resembling it to a lesser or greater extent, is formed without unnecessary details through abstraction, i.e. simplification of the space and shape by reducing them to formal essence (Marić, 2006). Stylization belongs into the group of formal associative methods, whereby the creator deals with the interpretation of visual perception. The phenomenon association procedure leads to deeper spheres of creative action, during which works are created that may be completely different compared to the original in the sense of their shape, but which have distant, semantic ties with the model. Among successful examples of associativity are the works of Renzo Piano (Fig. 5) and santiago Calatrava (Fig. 6), who have often employed this orientation in their work. The following works may also be singled out: the daniel libeskind’s Jewish Museum in Berlin (Fig. 7), which may be considered as an expressive rather than associative work, because the associations it carries are distant by nature (abstract composition of the train), and the frank Gehry’s Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao (reminiscence of ships and one of the ports from which the conquest of the New World has began), as well as interpretations of birds with airport buildings, etc. In most cases, the form is abstracted to the level of main elements, lines or surfaces. In certain examples, and at first glance, it is more difficult to realize what is the association which the form carries, like in the example of the embassy of Nordic countries (Fig. 8) where the common head office has been represented by an embracing envelop and thus, unifying the dismembered elements. 10 Ђорђе Алфиревић/АУ31/2011/страна 3-15/Визуелни израз у архитектури опредељење. Такође, издвајају се: Либескиндов (daniel libeskind) Јеврејски музеј у Берлину (сл. 7), за који би се пре могло рећи да је експресивно него асоцијативно дело, јер су асоцијације које носи са собом дистантне природе (апстракт- на композиција воза) и Геријеви (frank Gehry) Гугенхајмов музеј у Билбау (сећање на бродове и једну од лука из које су почела освајања „Новог света”) и интерпретације птица, када су аеродромске зграде у питању и др. У већини случајева се форма апстрахује до нивоа основних елемената, линија или површина. У одређеним примерима је, на први поглед, теже докучити на шта је обликом асоцирано, као код амбасаде нордијских земаља (сл. 8), где је заједничко седиште представљено опном која обавија и уједињује рашчлањене елементе. ЕКСПРЕСИЈА Експресија или експресивност (лат. expressio - израз, изражавање) подразумева јасно и аутентично исказивање карактера и личности индивидуе. Често је поистовећивање експресије са правцем експресионизма, којем је главно исходиште и циљ приказивање и изражавање онога што је унутрашњошћу, срцем и душом, „виђено” и доживљено, тј. са изражавањем субјективних расположења и осећања, без осврта на конвенционалне и „објективне” вредности, судове и истине (Вујаклија, 1970). Појам експресивности је у овом тексту посматран у ширем контексту, с намером да се обухвате и оне, на први поглед мање видљиве манифестације карактера личности, које су због своје интровертне природе ефемерне. Стога ће даље бити речи о екстровертној и интровертној експресивности, тј. о експресијама простора и облика, мисли и идеја. Сл.07. Јеврејски музеј, Берлин (Д.Либескинд) Fig.07. Jewish museum, Berlin (D.Libeskind) http://www.daniel­libeskind.com/projects/show­all/ jewish­museum­berlin/ Сл.08. Комплекс нордијских амбасада, Берлин (Бергер+Паркинен) Fig.08. Nordic embassy complex, Berlin (Berger+Parkkinen) http://www.arcspace.com/architects/bergerparkkinen/cbmp_index.html Карактер и темперамент личности Карактер јединке одређен је хармоничним односом психе и душе, тј. скупом свих функција које формирају један психолошки тип, као и његовом манифестацијом према објекту у околини, или самој јединки као објекту, у виду душевне изразне форме - темперамента (Вујаклија, 1970). Психолошки тип, по Јунгу (Carl Gustav Jung), представља при- мер или образац, према коме се на карактеристичан начин, константно изражавају основне психолошке функције као што су: мишљење, осећање, осет (сензитивитет) и инту иција, чиме јединка добија одређено, специфично обе лежје. Типови који су засновани на овим психолошким функцијама, могу се назвати: мисаони, осећајни, опажајни (осетни) и интиутивни, и могу се поделити према квалитету на: рацио налне (мисаони и осећајни) и ирационалне (осетни и инту и тивни). Према кретању и усмерености психичке енер гије (либида) могу се појавити као екстровертни или интро верт ни. Темперамент представља скуп карактеристика једне лич- ности, путем којих се манифестује однос њеног психолошког типа према објектима у спољашњости, као и према несвесном, тј. објекту у унутрашњости (Јунг, 2003). Најпоз- натија и најчешће коришћена типологија је Хипократова (Hippokrates), према којој се темпераменти могу поделити на: колеричан, сангвиничан, флегматичан и меланхоличан. Видови експресивности С обзиром да је у литератури веома мало писано о видовима изражавања, у даљој анализи ослонићемо се на Хипократове и Јунгове ставове о карактеру личности, јер су још увек актуелни и најподобнији за појашњење експресивних појава. Неопходно је разграничити, да ли се појам експресије односи на темперамент ствараоца или на карактер архитектонског дела. Питање повезаности ових појмова је изузетно комплексно и превазилази оквире овог рада, међутим, у тексту се првенствено мисли на карактерне особине дела које 11 Ђорђе Алфиревић/АУ31/2011/страна 3-15/Визуелни израз у архитектури EXPRESSION Expression or expressiveness (Lat. expressio – expression) implies a clear and authentic displaying of the character or personality of an individual. The expression is often identified with the art movement of expression- ism, whose main starting point and aim is to present and express what has been ”seen“ or experienced in the inner eye of the mind, heart and soul, i.e. to express the subjective moods and feelings without referring to conventional and ”objective” values, judgments and truths (Vujaklija, 1970). The notion of expressiveness is herein considered in a wider context with the aim to also comprise those, at first glance less visible, manifestations of a person’s character which are ephemeral due to their introvert nature. Therefore, we will discuss below the extrovert and introvert expressiveness, i.e. expressions of space and shapes, thoughts and ideas. Person’s character and temperament A person’s character is determined by a harmonious relationship between the psyche and the soul, i.e. a set of functions forming a psychological type, as well as its manifestation to the object in the surrounding, or to an individual as an object, in the form of spiritual expression - temperament (Vujaklija, 1970). A psychological type, according to Carl Gustav Jung, represents an example or pattern based on which main psychological functions such as thinking, feeling, sensation and intuition are continuously expressed in a characteristic way, whereby an individual acquires certain specific characteristics. Types based on these psychological functions are: feeling, thinking, intuitive and sensing types, and may be classified according to the quality into: rational (thinking and feeling) types and irrational (sensing and intuitive) types. According to movement and orientation of psychic energy (libido), they may be extrovert or introvert types. Temperament is a set of characteristics possessed by a person through which the relationship of his/her psychological type is manifested to outer objects, as well as to unconscious, i.e. inner objects (Jung, 2003). The best known and most often used typology is the Hippocrates’ typology according to which temperaments are classified into: sanguine, Choleric, Melancholic and Phlegmatic. Forms of expressiveness Given that there is very little literature on the forms of expression, we will hereafter rely on the Hippocrates’ and Jung’s views of a person’s character because they are still valid and most suitable for explaining the expressive phenomena. It is necessary to clarify whether the notion of expression refers to the creator’s temperament or to the character of architectural work. The issue of how these phenomena are related is extremely complex and beyond the scope of this paper. However, herein, it is primarily the matter of ”character traits” of the created work, i.e. how it is interpreted; which does not explicitly mean that the creator also has the same or similar character traits. Therefore, we can recognize two main expressive personality types: a) Extrovert (choleric and sanguine types); b) Introvert (phlegmatic and melancholic types). The notion of choleric could imply a fierce and energetic expression (Fig. 9), with a great dose of exaggeration and angry and aggressive release of energy, due to which the shape becomes crumpled, broken, split or cracked, whereby the edges and fractures are brought to the fore as a main composing motive (Palmier, 1995). Creation is spontaneous and accompanied with a large amount of coincidence, with very little or no meaning. An excessive extroversion is mostly initiated by a strong desire for putting one’s self forward in relation to the surrounding – principle of contrast. Rhythmicity, as any other repetition, almost does not exist as it disturbs the unique quality of visual expression. Dramatic and energetic quality is additionally intensified by the contrast of colors. Sanguine expression is cheerful, moderate and optimistic (Fig. 10), where liveliness and delightfulness of shape and space are brought into the fore (Hrnjica, 1994). Expression of energy is controlled with occasional accentuation, which by its nature may be in the heat of the moment. Extroversion is a natural tendency by which an object opens itself towards its surrounding and engages in dialogue with it. Some of the main characteristics of this expression are expressions of naturalness and the spontaneous and arrhythmic composition which emphasizes a playful form. The use of colors and materials is also in accordance with the above stated. It seems that the notion of phlegmatic is the farthest from expressiveness. However, if there is a notion of expression of thought, then anybody could be related to the phlegmatic expression which, by its nature and at first glance, seems expressionless (Fig. 11). It is characterized by a minimal and visually barely noticeable expression of energy, while a great and “unarticulated” power of thoughts and ideas, which is sometimes felt in the power of gesture, lies in its essence. Natural introversion leads to deliberation and accentuation of a concept and idea over objectivity (Jung, 2003). Abstraction, as well as the need for harmony and meaning, to a great extent contributes to mystification and thoughtfulness of statement. Colorism is reduced and most often based on symbols. Melancholic type is the opposite of sanguine type and is characterized by deep and very strong feelings which are pessimistic by their nature. Emptiness and reduction to ultimate reality-limit (Fig. 12), as well as the need for introversion, are deeply rooted in this expression and represent a prime “moving force”, because the static quality and extra-temporal existence lie in the essence of this expression. The power of melancholy emotions is expressed in excessive abstraction and dema- terialization, but not uncommonly, the monumental emotions also occur as a thoughtful and formative counterpart. The use of colorism almost does not exist, or occurs to a lesser extent, in the form of a cold color tone scale. 12 Ђорђе Алфиревић/АУ31/2011/страна 3-15/Визуелни израз у архитектури природности и спонтана и аритмична ком позиција којом се наглашава разиграност форме. Кориш ћење боја и материјала је, такође, у складу са претходно наведеним. Чини се да је појам флегматичног најдаље од експре- сивности, међутим, ако постоји појам експресије мисли, онда би се свакако могао везати за флегматичан израз, који по својој природи, на први поглед, делује безизражајно (сл. 11). одликује се минималним и визуелно једва приметним исказивањем енергије, док у његовој суштини лежи велика и „неисказана” снага мисли и идеја, која се понекад осећа у јачини потеза. Природна интроверзија води ка промиш- љености и истицању концепта и идеје изнад објективног (Јунг, 2003). Апстраховање, као и потреба за хармонијом, складом и значењем, у великој мери доприноси мисти- фикацији и мисаоности исказа. Колористика је сведена и најчешће заснована на симболима. Меланхолично је опозит сангвиничном и одликује се дубоким и веома јаким осећањима песимистичне природе. Празнина и сведеност до крајњих граница (сл. 12), као и потреба за интроверзијом у овом изразу су дубоко укорењени и представљају основне „покретаче”, јер је у суштини изра за статичност и ванвременско постојање. Јачина сетних емоција исказује се прекомерним апстраховањем и де матери- јализацијом, али се неретко јавља и монументалност као мисаони и обликовни пандан. Коришћење колорита готово да не постоји, или се јавља у мањој мери, у виду хладне скале тонова. је створено, тј. како се оно тумачи, што не мора експлицитно да значи да стваралац такође нема исте или сличне карактерне особине. Према томе, можемо препознати два основна типа експресивности: а) екстровертна (колерична и сангвинична); б) интровертна (флегматична и меланхолична). Под појмом колеричног могао би се сматрати жесток и енергичан израз (сл. 9), са великом дозом претераности, бесним и агресивним пражњењем енергије, приликом чега се облик гужва, ломи, цепа или пуца, чиме се ивице и фрактура истичу у први план као основни мотиви ком- поновања (Палмије, 1995). Стварање је спонтано и праћено великом количином случајности, са веома мало или без значења. Прекомерна екстроверзија у углавном ини цирана јаком жељом за истицањем у односу на околину –принцип контрастирања. Ритмичност, као и било какво понављање, готово да не постоје, јер нарушавају уникатност визуелног израза. Драматичност и енергичност додатно се појачавају контрастима боја. Сангвиничан израз је весео, умерен и оптимистичан (сл. 10), у првом плану је живахност и разиграност облика и простора (Хрњица, 1994). Испољавање енергије је контролисано, са повременим акцентирањем које може бити афективне природе. Екстровертност је природна тенденција којом се објекат отвара према околини и води дијалог са њом. Неке од главних одлика овог израза су исказивање Сл. 9. Стата центар, МИТ (Ф. Гери) Fig. 9. Stata center, MIT (F. Gehry) http://www.flickr.com/photos/atelier79033/2769238162/ Сл. 10. ’’Wozoco’’ апартмани, Амстердам (МВРДВ) Fig. 10. Wozoco apartments, Amsterdam (MVRDV) http://scophy.com/category/architecture­mondays/ 13 Ђорђе Алфиревић/АУ31/2011/страна 3-15/Визуелни израз у архитектури the time when created and to works with rather clearly defined attitudes towards themes and techniques (fierceness of expression, denial of reality, abstraction, high intensity of colors and lighting, furrowing, breaking, tearing), while a work which is authentic and recognizable and which expresses the essence of an artist’s personality and character may be called an expressive work in its more general meaning. If we consider things in this way, we will notice that the phenomenon of expressiveness has existed in art since ancient times, having culminated in a unique art movement - expressionism in the beginning of 20th century. In this context, we can say that certain works of Rembrandt, Caravaggio, Jusepe de Ribera, J. M. W. Turner, Caspar Friedrich David, or El Greco represent spiritual precursors to expressionism given that they possess a high level of expressiveness. We can also conclude that notions of expressionism and expressiveness also imply expression of thoughts and ideas, and not only expression of emotions. g) Expression in architecture Expressionism in architecture occurred somewhat later than in other arts (around 1913), although the idea of glass and steel architecture was promoted earlier (in the mid-19th century). Evidently, there is a similarity between expressionism (Glass Pavilion designed by Bruno Taut and Crystal Crown designed by Hans Poelzig) and Gothic architecture which has emerged out of Expression in art Most of the authors dealing with art criticism equate the notion of expressiveness with the art movement of expressionism, which has not been only an art movement, but a vision of the world with hopes, dreams and hatred. It has actually been a special sensibility. In order to make a clear distinction between these two phenomena, it is necessary to explain the main characteristics of this art movement. The very origin of the notion of expressionism is quite unclear. It emerged for the first time around 1850 (Tait’s Edinburgh Magazine), describing expressionists as those ”who wish to express a particular emotion” (Palmier, 1995). It has often been the case that works of artists such as Henri Matisse, Wassily Kandinsky, Georges Braque and Pablo Picasso, having some features of expressionism, have been called expressionistic artworks, and this has led to confusion. In France, artists with expressive elements in their works have been called ”cubist artists’’ or ”fauvists”, while in Germany they have been called the ”expressionists”, and in Italy the ”futurist artists”. Kandinsky, for example, makes a difference between his Expressionist period and Cubist period and the period of transition to abstract art, while the same phenomenon has also been observed with other artists – visual characteristics of their works have been changed (they belonged to some other art movement) but the kind of expression, i.e. expressive features, have not been changed. It is definitely certain that the term “expressionism” primarily refers to works which have been considered to be reactionary in Сл.11. Португалски павиљон, Лисабон (А. Сиза) Fig.11. Portugal pavilion, Lisbon (A. Siza) http://www.mimoa.eu/projects/ Portugal/lisbon/Pavilion%20of%20 Portugal Сл.12. Управна зграда Диор-а, Токио (Сеџима & Нишизава) Fig.12. Dior building, Tokyo (Sejima & Nishizawa) http://ookaboo.com/o/pictures/ topic/20926123/sANAA 14 Ђорђе Алфиревић/АУ31/2011/страна 3-15/Визуелни израз у архитектури Poelzig) и готичке архитектуре, која се јавила из дубоког поштовања према готичком дематеријализованом бићу и средњо вековном грађевинарству, као изразу епохе задојене духом и метафизиком. Изразите примере експресивности у архитектури представљају дела готике, барока, чешког кубизма, сецесије и експресионизма, па све до савремених примера hi­tech-а и деконструкције. Међутим, поред наведених примера, постоји читава област архитектонског стваралаштва, која у експресивном смислу није толико очигледна, јер је заснована на мисаоном и појмовном изражавању (Василски, 2008). овакав вид изражавања поседује велику неисказану енергију која остаје спутана оковима материјалног. Примери оваквог стваралаштва могу се наћи у правцима концептуализма, симболизма и минимализма. Закључак Анализирајући основаност Ридових тврдњи о постојању основних стваралачких опредељења у уметности (реализма, идеализма и експресионизма), која су базирана на елементарним видовима опажања код човека (перцепцији, интуицији и емоцији), неоспорно се долази до закључка да постоји релација између ових опредељења и основних савремених архитектонских тенденција у свету, које је као тезу поставио Ч. Џенкс. Компарација Ридових и Џенксових ставова доводи до следећих закључака: 1. Једно од основних стваралачких опредељења, које се јавља у уметности реализма (Рид), а присутно је и у традиционалистичким тендецијама у архитектури (Џенкс) јесте мимикричан израз или мимезис. 2. Идеализам у уметности (Рид) и рационалистичке тенденције у архитектури (Џенкс), засноване су на асо ци- јативности. 3. Експресионизам у уметности (Рид) и креативистичке тенденције у архитектури (Џенкс), засноване су на експре- сивности као стваралачком опредељењу. Експресија у уметности Већина аутора који се баве критиком уметности појам експресивности поистовећује са покретом експресионизма, који заправо и није био само уметнички покрет, него визија света са надама, сновима и мржњама, био је један посебан сензибилитет. Да би се направила јасна дистинкција између ова два појма неопходно је укратко објаснити основне карактеристике овог уметничког правца. Само порекло појма „експресионизам” доста је нејасно. Први пут се јавља око 1850. године (Tait’s Edinburgh Magazine), означавајући експресионисте као оне „који желе да изразе посебне емоције” (Палмије, 1995). Чест је био случај да су дела уметника као што су Матис (Henri Matisse), Кандински (Василий Кандинский), Брак (Georges Braque) и Пикасо (Pablo Picasso), која су имала неке од одлика експресивности, називана експресионистичким, што је доводило до забуне. У Француској су уметници са елементима експресивности у свом изразу називани „кубистима’’ или „фовистима”, у Немачкој „експресионистима”, а у Италији „футуристима”. Кандински нпр. разликује свој експресионистички период од кубистичког и од преласка на апстрактну уметност, док се слична појава јавља и код других уметника – њихова дела мењају своје ликовне карактеристике (припадају другом правцу), а не мењају врсту израза, тј. изражајне карактеристике. Сасвим је извесно да се термин експресионизам првенствено односи на дела која су сматрана реакционарним за период свог настанка и која су имала прилично јасно дефинисане ставове у погледу тема и техника (жестина израза, порицање реалности, апстракција, жестина боја и осветљења, браз- дање, ломњење, кидање), док се експресивним, у општијем значењу, може назвати дело које је аутентично, препоз- натљиво и изражава суштину личности и карактера уметника. Уколико ствари поставимо на овакав начин, приметићемо да феномен експресивности егзистира у уметности од давнина, да би почетком 20. века кулминирао у јединствен уметнички покрет - експресионизам. У том контексту, можемо рећи да и одређена дела Рембранта (Rembrandt), Каравађа (Caravaggio), Де Рибере (Jusepe de Ribera), Тарнера (J. M. W. Turner), К. Ф. Давида (Caspar friedrich david) или Ел Грека (El Greco), представљају духовне претече експресионизма, обзиром да поседују висок степен експресивности, а такође можемо закључити да појмови експресионизма и експресивности подразумевају и изра- жавање мисли и идеја, а не само изражавање емоција. Експресија у архитектури Експресионизам се у архитектури јавља нешто касније него у осталим уметностима (око 1913. год.), иако је идеја о архитектури челика и стакла промовисана знатно раније (средином 19.в.). Евидентна је сличност експресионизма (Стаклени павиљон Б. Таута (Bruno Taut) и Кристална круна Х. Пелцига (Hans 15 Ђорђе Алфиревић/АУ31/2011/страна 3-15/Визуелни израз у архитектури Literatura / Literature Arnhajm, R. (1985): Vizuelno mišljenje ­ jedinstvo slike i pojma, Beograd, Univerzitet umetnosti. (nasl.orig. Arnheim, Rudolph. Visual Thinking.) Vasilski, D. (2008): Minimalizam kao civilizacijska paradigma na početku XXI veka, Arhitektura i urbanizam, br.22-23. Vujaklija, M. (1970): leksikon stranih reči i izraza,Beograd, Prosveta. Jung, K. G. (2003): Psihološki tipovi, Beograd, dereta (nasl.orig. Jung, Carl Gustav. Psychological Types.) Koklen, A. (2005): Teorije umetnosti, Banja Luka, Besjeda.(nasl. orig. Cauquelin, Anne. les théories de l’art.) Marić, I. (2006): Tradicionalno graditeljstvo pomoravlja i savremena arhitektura, Beograd, Institut za arhitekturu i urbanizam srbije. Ognjenović P. (1997): Psihološka teorija umetnosti, Beograd, Institut za psihologiju. Conclusion Analyzing the grounds of Read’s assertions regarding the existence of creative orientations in art (realism, idealism and expressionism), which are based on the elementary forms of perception in humans (perception, intuition and emotion), we come to a direct conclusion that there is a relationship between these orientations and the main contemporary architectural tendencies in the world, which Charles Jenks set up as a thesis. By comparing Read’s and Jencks’ views, the following conclusion may be drawn: 1. One of the main creative orientations occurring in the art of Realism (Read), also present in traditionalistic tendencies in architecture (Jencks) is a mimicric expression or mimesis. 2. Idealism in art (Read) and rationalistic tendencies in architecture (Jencks) are based on associativity. 3. Expressionism in art (Read) and creativist tendencies in architecture (Jencks) are based on expressiveness as a creative orientation. deep respect to the Gothic dematerialized being and medieval architecture, as an expression of the epoch imbued with the spirit and metaphysics. Prominent examples of expressiveness in architecture are works created during the Gothic and Baroque periods, periods of Czech Cubism, the Secession and Expressionism, up to the contemporary examples of hi­tech and deconstruction. However, besides the listed examples, there is an entire field of architectural creativity which, in terms of expression, is not that much obvious because it is based on thoughtful and phenomenal expression (Vasilski, 2008). Such form of expression has a great unuttered power which remains hampered by the frameworks of the material. Examples of such creativity may be found in movements of conceptualism, symbolism and minimalism. Palmije, Ž. M. (1995): Ekspresionizam kao pobuna, Novi Sad, Matica srpska. (nasl.orig. Palmier, Jean-Michel. l’expressionnisme comme revolte : contribution a l’etude de la vie artistique sous la Republique de Weimar.) Rid, H. (1957): Umjetnost danas, Zagreb, Mladost. (nasl.orig. Read, Herbert. Art Now: An Introduction to the Theory of Modern Painting and sculpture.) Trifunović, L. (1969): stara i nova umetnost, Ideja prošlosti u modernoj umetnosti, Zograf, br.3. Hrnjica, S. (1994): opšta psihologija sa psihologijom ličnosti, Beograd, Naučna knjiga Čarapić, A. (2008): da li je materijalizacija arhitekture neophodno materijalna, Arhitektura i urbanizam, br.22-23. Dženks, Č. (1986): Moderni pokreti u arhitekturi, Beograd, Građevinska knjiga. (nasl.orig. Jencks, Charles. Modern Movements in Architecture.) 
work_fwpygjl5sjgubcwonytnssqlka	----	Disease Markers 20 (2004) 97–102 97 IOS Press Development tracks for cancer prevention markers Stuart G. Bakera,∗, Barnett S. Kramerb and Philip C. Proroka aBiometry Research Group, Division of Cancer Prevention, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD, USA bOffice of Disease Prevention, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA Abstract. We provide a general framework for describing various roles for biomarkers in cancer prevention research (early detection, surrogate endpoint, and cohort identification for primary prevention) and the phases in their evaluation. 1. Introduction The evaluation of cancer prevention markers (biomarkers) depends both on the purpose to which they are used and the nature of the marker. The main purposes are early detection (with the goal of early in- tervention), surrogate endpoints (with the goal of hav- ing shorter studies) and cohort identification (of indi- viduals with the greatest benefit to harm ratio associ- ated with primary prevention). In cancer prevention, markers are also used to obtain better measures of nu- trient intake or other exposures, but these markers are beyond the scope of this article. 2. Molecular markers for early detection In the past, most markers for cancer screening in- volved changes in cell types (such as degrees of dyspla- sia) or single proteins in serum such as PSA or CA125. Recently there has been a large increase in the amount of data on molecular biomarkers to hopefully detect cancer early. One reason is simply the new types of biomarkers being developed, such as proteomic pat- terns. A second reason is the increasing number of biorepositories associated with randomized trials or co- ∗Corresponding author: Stuart G. Baker, Sc.D. National Cancer Institute, EPN 3131, 6130, Executive Blvd MSC 7354, Bethesda, MD 20892-7354, USA. Fax: +1 301 402 0816; E-mail: sb16i@nih.gov; URL: http://www.cancer.gov/prevention/bb/baker.html. hort studies, making it possible to collect biomarker data retrospectively (e.g. Baker (1998)). This large in- crease in information, which sometimes goes under the name of bioinformatics, has created a challenge for can- cer prevention. Without a clear purpose, bioinformatics may accomplish little. Pablo Picasso said, “Computers are useless. They only give us answers”. Answers to the wrong question are of little value. It is important that that computations for evaluating biomarkers an- swer the appropriate question. With early detection, the appropriate question is what biomarkers are most likely to make effective triggers of early intervention. The following phases (which are applicable to both molecu- lar markers and markers involving changes in cell type) provide a road map for answering this question. 2.1. Phase I. Molecular markers for symptomatic cancer The easiest way to collect data for investigating molecular markers is to obtain specimens from subjects without cancer and subjects with symptomatic (clini- cal) cancer, or from tumor cells and non-tumor cells in the same subject. The goal is to identify markers that discriminate well between symptomatic cancer and no cancer. As discussed in Baker [4] in more detail, the recommended outcome measures are the false positive rate (proportion of non-cancers that are positive, or one minus specificity ) and true positive rate (proportion of cancer specimens that are positive, or sensitivity). Each rule for classifying a marker as cancer or not is as- ISSN 0278-0240/04/$17.00  2004 – IOS Press and the authors. All rights reserved 98 S.G. Baker et al. / Development tracks for cancer prevention markers sociated with both a false and true positive rate. Some rules can be created by specifying different cutpoints for a particular marker. Other rules are generated by combinations of cutpoint levels among multiple mark- ers. One can plot a point for each pair of false and true positive rates, where the horizontal axis is the false positive rate and the vertical axis is the true positive rate. The points highest and farthest to left form the optimal receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve. Certain points on the ROC curve are of primary interest. Because the eventual goal is to identify a biomarker that is useful for cancer screening, it is important that the false positive rate be very small (e.g. 1% for breast cancer screening) to avoid unnecessary biopsies. The true positive rate should be large (e.g. 80% for breast cancer screening). With many biomarkers (or combinations of biomark- ers) under investigation, chance plays a large role in making some biomarkers or their combinations appear to perform well in discriminating between cancer and no cancer in the early phases of the study. To reduce the role of chance, we recommended that the data be randomly split into training and test samples. Then, if biomarkers (or combinations of biomarkers) with a small false positive rate and large true positive rate are identified in the training sample, we recommend definitive evaluation of their performance using an ROC curve based on the test sample. One example of the use of a test sample is a proteomic study that reported FPR=0.05 and TPR =1.00 in the test sample [25]. 2.2. Phase II. Molecular markers for asymptomatic cancer Biomarkers identified in Phase I that discriminate well between clinical cancer and non-cancer (as evi- denced by the ROC curve) are investigated in Phase II to determine if they discriminate well between asymp- tomatic cancer and non-cancer. Although one could measure the biomarker in all asymptomatic subjects prospectively, a retrospective study using stored speci- mens is much more practical. Typically a biorepository is created to store specimens in a prospective study that may be unrelated to the cancer of interest. As part of a nested case-control study within the prospective study, biomarkers are measured in the stored sample from all subjects with the cancer of interest and a random sample of subjects without cancer. Many of the approaches to evaluation are similar to those for Phase I. However, as discussed in Baker et al. [9], there are some special considerations and op- portunities. One special consideration is related to the detection of cancer in the prospective trial. Ideally, for purposes of analysis, the subjects in the prospective study are those who were diagnosed with symptomatic cancer, while the sample used to measure the biomarker is obtained while the subject was still asymptomatic. If cancers in the prospective study were detected by screening of asymptomatic individuals and there was substantial overdiagnosis (i.e. detection of cancers that do not cause any medical problems in a person’s life- time), the performance results of the biomarker would not be relevant. One special opportunity with stored samples in Phase II that is not available in Phase I is the ability to investigate the performance of prediction rules based on changes in marker values over time, during the asymptomatic phase of the disease. Another consideration at this phase is spectrum bias. This can occur if the spectrum of health conditions in the non-cancer control subjects differs from the spec- trum in the target population for screening. For ex- ample, the target population for lung cancer screening may be people with a heavy cigarette smoking history. Such people may have a variety of health conditions which produce a false positive test including inflam- matory lung conditions, upper respiratory infections, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, cardiac disease, or even cancer of unrelated organ systems such as the bladder. If adequate attention is not paid to the possi- bility of spectrum bias, the false positive rate is likely to be much higher in practice than in Phase I or II studies. 2.3. Phase III. Molecular biomarkers as triggers for early intervention Even if a molecular biomarker discriminates well between cancer and no cancer, when it triggers early intervention, it may not lead to a reduction in cancer mortality or an insufficient reduction in cancer mor- tality relative to harms such as unnecessary biopsies and work-ups. Therefore it is important to evaluate the biomarker as a trigger of early intervention. The most definitive approach is via a randomized trial with a cancer mortality endpoint [9]. Because such random- ized trials are extremely large (usually with over 30,000 subjects) and costly, they should be used only for the most promising triggers for early intervention. If the costs of the aforementioned randomized trail are prohibitive, and it is possible to delay making a definitive evaluation, we recommend observational studies as an intermediate step between a Phase II study and a randomized trial of biomarker as a trigger for early S.G. Baker et al. / Development tracks for cancer prevention markers 99 intervention. One recently proposed approach, called periodic screening evaluation [9], rules out biomarker triggers for early intervention that would not likely lead to a reduction in cancer mortality in a randomized trial. Another approach is to combine before-and-after stud- ies from various geographic regions (e.g. [13,16,26], with future work involving extensions of the method- ology in Baker, Lindeman, and Kramer [10]. 3. Imaging test for early detection The results of imaging tests can be viewed as a marker for early detection. Because they involve a subjective component, the method of evaluation differs from that of molecular markers. Examples of imag- ing markers for the early detection of cancer are mam- mography and low-dose spiral CT. The evaluation of imaging markers follows the same general phases as the evaluation of molecular markers. However some details differ in Phases I and II. 3.1. Phase I. Imaging markers for symptomatic cancer As with molecular markers, the first phase is to eval- uate the ability of the markers to discriminate between subjects with clinical cancer and subjects without clin- ical cancer. However, unlike molecular markers, the classification of imaging markers involves a subjec- tive element. For example, a typical classification of mammograms (normal, probably benign, indetermi- nate, suspicious, and highly suspicious) depends both on the image and the person reading the images. For- tunately the ROC curve can also accommodate subjec- tively determined categories. It is not as useful to re- port the false and true positive rate for a particular cate- gory because the determination of the category is fuzzy due to the subjective component. Instead, the preferred outcome measure is the area under the ROC curve for a range of small false positive rates [4] which can be thought of as an "average" true positive rate over the categories with the small false positive rates of interest. 3.2. Phase II. Imaging markers for asymptomatic cancer If images are taken periodically in a prospective study and stored digitally for later evaluation, one can retrospectively read the images from subjects who later developed cancer and a random sample of subjects who did not develop cancer. The retrospective analysis fol- lows the same recommendations as with the molecular markers. However, as mentioned above, due to the sub- jective nature of the readings, the preferred outcome measure is an area under part of the ROC curve. Sometimes a prospective study is implemented for evaluating the performance of imaging in discriminat- ing between asymptomatic cancer and no cancer. In the prospective study images are read, classified, and a rec- ommendation for biopsy or no biopsy is made. Because cancer is rare in asymptomatic subjects, the prospective study needs to be large (e.g. 20,000 subjects.) However the prospective study has the advantage of a relatively short duration. The difficulty for evaluating the prospective study is that a biopsy is performed only if the image is classified as positive, leading to a severe bias known as “con- founding by indication.” Therefore it is not possible to directly estimate false and true positive rates, which require knowing the number of subjects with and with- out cancer at the time of screening. However, because cancer is rare among screened subjects, one can obtain an estimate of the false positive rate by assuming that all subjects not biopsied are free of cancer. For estimat- ing true positive rates, some investigators assume that all subjects negative on imaging who developed cancer within, say, one year, in fact, had undetected cancer at the time of screening. The validity of this assump- tion depends on the distribution of the length of time at which asymptomatic cancer is detectable on screen- ing. See Day [14]. If classification data are collected, then, due to the subjective nature of the readings, the preferred outcome measure is an area under part of the ROC curve corresponding to small false positive rates, say 0.5% to 1.5%. This area can be used to compute an average TPR in the range of small false positive of interest. Ideally one would want an average TPR of 80%. Alternatively as this is a more definitive study than Phase I, one might base the criteria for going to Phase III on the performance of a decision to biopsy or not. In that case the numerical values of false positive rate (e.g. 1% for breast cancer screening) and high true positive rate (e.g. 80% for breast cancer screening) are analogous to the values for molecular markers. 3.3. Phase III. Imaging biomarkers as triggers for early intervention The same considerations for evaluating molecular markers as triggers for early intervention apply to eval- uating imaging markers as triggers for early interven- tion. 100 S.G. Baker et al. / Development tracks for cancer prevention markers 4. Surrogate endpoint markers A surrogate endpoint is an endpoint that is obtained sooner, less invasively, or at less cost than a true end- point for a health outcome. Surrogate endpoints have either been used to replace true endpoints or to pre- dict true endpoints. Evaluation methodology is more controversial than with markers for early detection. Some endpoints that were thought to be good surro- gate endpoints later turned out to give incorrect infer- ence when compared to true endpoints [17]. Despite this strong caveat, we can outline various development stages and identify the gaps that need addressing. Most of the evaluation techniques can rule out poor surrogate endpoints. However, more methodological research is needed to develop criteria for deciding if a surrogate endpoint is useful in practice and thus avoid unintended harm based on incorrect assumptions. Given all the difficulties we discuss, the main use of surrogate end- points may be in a preliminary study of an intervention to decide on whether or not to evaluate the intervention in a definitive randomized trial with a true endpoint. 4.1. Phase I. Surrogate and true endpoint in an observational study A surrogate endpoint should be strongly associated with a true endpoint. To estimate association, data are needed on both a surrogate and true endpoints in indi- viduals. In preliminay studies, the data will be obser- vational. For example the strong association between human papilloma virus (HPV) infection and cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) [27] indicates the po- tential for using HPV as a surrogate endpoint for CIN. The challenge in this phase is deciding what level of as- sociation is sufficiently large to move to the next phase, and here the published methodology is lacking. Lev- els of association adequate or even high for an etio- logic risk factor may not be sufficient to warrant further investigation as a surrogate endpoint since they may still explain a low proportion of variability in the true endpoint. More importantly, a high or even perfect correlation between surrogate and true endpoints does guarantee that the surrogate endpoint will provide reli- able inference about the true endpoint in a randomized trial [4]. 4.2. Phase II. Randomized trial of intervention known to affect true outcome As a preliminary requirement for a surrogate end- point to be effective, an intervention that is known to affect a true endpoint should also affect a surrogate endpoint. The best way to check is to randomize sub- jects to either an intervention with a known effect on a true endpoint or a control group, where the outcome is the surrogate endpoint. If the surrogate endpoint is promising for this phase, the intervention would affect the surogate endpoint in the same direction as the inter- vention is known to affect true endpoint. With a reason- able sample size, if there is no statistically significant difference in surrogate outcomes between randomiza- tion groups, one could likely rule out the biomarker as a good surrogate endpoint. The dilemma is that it is often unlikely to have an intervention that is known to affect the true endpoint and be acceptable for a randomized trial. Nevertheless in some situations it is possible. For example, suppose that adenoma recurrence is a true endpoint. (In reality it is only a surrogate endpoint for colorectal cancer, but let us ignore that for now). Based on a randomized trial, calcium supplement was found to reduce adenoma recurrence [20]. Because calcium supplement did not affect rectal mucosal proliferation (surrogate endpoint) in another randomized trial [1], one can rule out rec- tal mucosal proliferation as a promising surrogate end- point for adenoma recurrence. If the outcome of this type of randomized trial is a panel of surrogate endpoint markers, it is important to adjust for multiple comparisons. The simplest, albeit conservative, approach is a Bonferroni correction: if there are k markers then statistical significance is not 5% (two-sided) but 5/k%. Although the magnitude of the effect is also important, it is not clear what size effect is needed for proceeding to the next phase. 4.3. Phase III. Randomized trials of multiple interventions with surrogate and true endpoints The very nature and complexity of cancer pathogen- esis makes the results of Phase I and II very tenta- tive. Most cancers have multiple causal pathways and each pathway has multiple steps that can take years to evolve. If a surrogate marker occurs early in the path- way but the intervention blocks a “downstream” event, measurement of a surrogate endpoint can give a mis- leading answer even if the marker is in the causal chain. Likewise, if the marker is in an entirely different causal S.G. Baker et al. / Development tracks for cancer prevention markers 101 pathway, its measurement can be misleading. This is why extrapolation of results from one particular set of surrogate and true outcomes can be hazardous. For this reason the most informative evaluation of surro- gate endpoints comes from data on surrogate and true endpoints either in multiple randomized trials involv- ing different interventions or a single randomized trial with multiple arms, each with a different intervention. Ideally the set of interventions should affect all major pathways so results are applicable to new interventions. The methodological research in this area has focused on evaluating multiple trials with surrogate and true endpoints [19,23]. The data may be divided into a training set involving all but one trial and a test set involving the remaining trial. Based on data in the training set, a model is developed to predict the true endpoint from the surrogate endpoint. This prediction could be at a “meta-analytic” level [19,23] or based on an individual-level model (extending the methodology in Morrison 1989 and Day and Duffy, 1996 to multiple previous trials). Confidence intervals should incorpo- rate sampling variability as well as variability among parameters in previous trials. For validation, the model is used to predict true endpoint in the test trial based on surrogate data in the test trial. The predicted true endpoint in the test trial is compared with the observed true endpoint in the test trial. However there is no guid- ance on how to decide when the overlap in confidence intervals warrants acceptance of the surrogate endpoint as a replacement for the true endpoint. An alternative design, which we have not seen ap- plied or discussed, is a single trial involving random- ization to multiple interventions with surrogate and true outcomes. This design has several advantages over the multiple trial design. First it would likely take less time to implement. Second, it does not involve duplication of control groups. Third, it might be easier to set up a biorepository for implementing a nested case-control study in which the surrogate endpoint is measured in stored samples from a random sample of subjects [21]. Even if this more rigorous approach finds that a sur- rogate endpoint adequately predicts a true endpoint un- der a variety of interventions, there still could be a se- rious problem with using a surrogate endpoint. Most, if not all, cancer prevention trials involve both benefits and harms.A surrogate endpoint that is very accurate in predicting a true endpoint of benefit may not be very accurate in predicting harms. This could occur if the harms arise after the time of the surrogate endpoint. If trials are stopped early because of an apparently favor- able change in a surrogate endpoint, a net harm asso- ciated with the intervention can be missed. For exam- ple if a chemoprevention agent were to delay or pre- vent polyps but cause strokes that occur between the detection of polyps and the occurrence of colon cancer, the harm from strokes would be missed if studies are stopped due to a “valid” surrogate endpoint based on polyps. 5. Cohort identification for primary prevention Another use of biomarkers in cancer prevention is to target preventions to individuals with biomarkers that indicate a high ratio of benefits to harms, either by virtue of having greater benefits, fewer harms, or both. For simplicity of this discussion, we focus on benefits. 5.1. Phase I. Preliminary observational studies One type of preliminary observational study is a small study in which all subjects receive the primary prevention, data are collected on biomarkers, and the outcome is a surrogate endpoint indicating response or non-response. The goal is to identify what biomarkers, if any, differ statistically significantly between respon- ders and non-responders. Usually a very large number of markers are considered, so there is a need to adjust for multiple comparisons. A second type of preliminary observational study is a case-control study to identify genes that substantially elevate the risk of cancer. The underlying premise is that subjects with genes indicative of a higher can- cer risk have the greatest potential to benefit in abso- lute terms from a primary prevention. Again, if many biomarkers are under consideration an adjustment for multiple comparisons is necessary. 5.2. Phase II. Randomized trials If a primary prevention was shown to be beneficial in a randomized trial, but the benefits did not outweigh the harms, it would be of great interest to investigate whether the benefits (i.e. reduction in cancer) would be greater for subjects with a certain gene. The problem is that testing for the gene in all subjects is not possible. Although only cases need to be tested [4,22] to estimate relative risk among subjects with the gene, relative risk is not the most clinically relevant outcome. A more relevant outcome is the age-specific absolute risk dif- ference due to the intervention. As discussed in Baker and Kramer [26], this outcome can be estimated using 102 S.G. Baker et al. / Development tracks for cancer prevention markers a nested case control design involving data from all subjects with cancer and a random sample of subjects without cancer in a randomized study. If the randomized trial is in the planning stage and the focus is on a single gene, one could test for the gene in all subjects or subjects with a family history of cancer and randomize the subjects with the gene to intervention or not [5]. If many genes are involved, it would be preferable to randomize all subjects, collect specimens for a biorepository, and then perform the aforementioned nested-case control study. 6. Discussion The purpose of this article is to outline development tracks for some markers that play a role in cancer pre- vention. Not all markers fit neatly into these devel- opment phases, as for example prospective studies of sputum cytology markers for early detection of lung cancer [8], but some of the same principles apply, such as using the appropriate portion of the ROC curves for evaluation. This article should help investigators understand how marker research fits into the general strategy of cancer prevention and identify the gaps in methodological work that need to be addressed in or- der to avoid potential unintended harms that can occur when biomarkers or surrogate endpoints are accepted prematurely. References [1] J.A. Baron, et al., Calcium supplements for the prevention of colorectal adenomas, New England Journal of Medicine 340 (1999), 101–107. [2] S.G. Baker, Identifying combinations of cancer biomarkers for further study as triggers of early intervention, Biometrics 56 (2000), 1082–1087. [3] S.G. Baker, The Central Role of Receiver Operating Charac- teristic (ROC) Curves in Evaluating Tests for the Early De- tection of Cancer, J. Natl Cancer Inst. 95(7) (Apr 2 2003), 511–515. [4] S.G. Baker, D. Erwin, B.S Kramer and P.C. Prorok, Using observational data to estimate an upper bound on the reduction in cancer mortality due to periodic screening, BMC Medical Research Methodology 3:4 (2003), (06 Mar 2003). [5] S.G. Baker and L.S. Freedman, Potential impact of genetic testing on cancer prevention trials, using breast cancer as an example, Journal of the National Cancer Institute 87 (1995), 1137–1144. [6] S.G. Baker and B.S Kramer, Designing a genetic subset study for a randomized trial with a binary endpoint, BMC Medical Research Methodology 3(16) (2003). [7] S.G. Baker and B.S Kramer, A perfect correlate does not a surrogate make, BMC Medical Research Methodology 3(16) (2003). [8] S.G. Baker, B.S. Kramer and S. Srivastava, Markers for early detection of cancer: Statistical issues for nested case-control studies, BMC Medical Research Methodology 2 (2002), 4. [9] S.G. Baker, B.S. Kramer and P.C. Prorok, Statistical issues in randomized trials of cancer screening, BMC Medical Research Methodology 2 (2002), 11. [10] S.G. Baker, K.L. Lindeman and B.S. Kramer, The paired avail- ability design for historical controls, BMC Medical Research Methodology 1 (2001), 9. [11] S.G. Baker and M.S. Tockman, Evaluating serial observations of precancerous lesions for further study as a trigger for early intervention, Statistics in Medicine 21 (2002), 2383–2390. [12] M. Buyse and G. Molenberghs, Criteria for the validation of surrogate endpoints in randomized experiments, Biometrics 54 (1998), 1014–1029. [13] A.J. Coldman, N. Philips and T.A. Pickles, Trends in prostate cancer incidence and mortality: an analysis of mortality change by screening intensity, Canadian Medical Association Journal 168 (2003), 31–35. [14] N.E. Day, Estimating the sensitivity of a screening test, Jour- nal of Epidemiology and Community Health 39 (1985), 364– 366. [15] N.E. Day and S.W. Duffy, Trial design based on surrogate end points –application to comparison of different breast screening frequencies, Journal of theRoyal Statistical Society A 159(1) (1996), 49–60. [16] S. Duffy, et al., The impact of organized mammography ser- vice screening on breast carcinoma mortality in seven Swedish counties, A collaborative evaluation, Cancer 95 (2002), 458– 469. [17] T.R. Fleming and D.L. DeMets, Surrogate end points in clini- cal trials: Are we being misled? Annals of Internal Medicine 125 (1996), 605–613. [18] L.S. Freedman, B.I. Graubard and A. Schatzkin, Statistical val- idation of intermediate endpoints for chronic diseases, Statis- tics in Medicine 11 (1992), 167–178. [19] M.H. Gail, R. Pfeiffer, H.C. Houwelingen and R.J. Carroll, On meta-analytic assessment of surrogate outcomes, Biostatistics 3 (2001), 231–246. [20] P. RHolt, et al., Modulation of abnormal colonic epithelial cell proliferation and differentiation by low-fat dairy foods: a randomized controlled trial, J. Am Med. Assoc. 280 (1999), 1074–1079. [21] M.D. Hughes, V. Degruttola and S.L. Welles, Evaluating Sur- rogate Markers Acq Immun Def Synd 10 S1-S8(2) (1995). [22] M. King, et al., Tamoxifen and breast cancer incidence among women with inherited mutations in BRCA1 and BRCA2 Na- tional Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project (NSABP- P1) Breast Cancer Prevention Trial, Journal of the American Medical Association 286 (2001), 2251–2256. [23] G. Molenberghs, et al., Statistical challenges in the evaluation of surrogate endpoints in randomized trial, Controlled Clinical Trials 23 (2002), 607–625. [24] A.S. Morrison, Intermediate determinants of mortality in the evaluation of screening, International Journal of Epidemiol- ogy 20 (1991), 642–650. [25] E.F. Petricoin, et al., Use of proteomic patterns in serum to identify ovarian cancer, The Lancet 359 (2002), 572–577. [26] L. Peron, L. Moore, I. Bairati, P. Bernard and F. Meyer, PSA screening and prostate cancer mortlaity, Canadian Medical Association Journal 166 (2002), 586–591. [27] M.H. Schiffman et al., Human popillomavirus and cervical in- traepithelial neoplasia response, Journal of the National Can- cer Institute 85 (1993), 1868–1870. 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work_gfjqb3y3mjcana5tam6yntxtpi	----	IMportance of an Irregular Z Line: Is Barrett’s in the Eye of the Beholder? Vol:.(1234567890) Digestive Diseases and Sciences (2018) 63:1378–1380 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10620-018-4998-3 1 3 E D I TO R I A L IMportance of an Irregular Z Line: Is Barrett’s in the Eye of the Beholder? Swathi Eluri1 · Nicholas J. Shaheen1 Published online: 28 February 2018 © Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2018 A painting only lives in the eye of the beholder. -Pablo Picasso The Z line demarcates the squamocolumnar junction (SCJ), the transition from the squamous esophageal mucosa to the columnar mucosa lining the stomach, or in cases of Barrett’s esophagus, between the squamous and intestinal- ized columnar epithelium of the metaplastic segment. An irregular Z line is characterized by < 1 cm columnar tongues that extend proximal to the gastroesophageal junction, a finding that has been reported in approximately 10–15% of the population undergoing upper endoscopy [1, 2]. In those with an irregular Z line, there is up to a 44% prevalence of intestinal metaplasia (IM) [3]. Nevertheless, the clini- cal significance of this finding with respect to the risk of progression to neoplasia in patients with an irregular Z line and IM is unclear [4]. While prior guidelines are in conflict with regard to the management strategies for putative Barrett’s esophagus (BE) segments  <  1  cm, the most recent American College of Gastroenterology (ACG) guidelines [5] recommend against obtaining biopsies from an irregular Z line, a recommenda- tion made due to the poor endoscopic standardization of this finding (one endoscopist’s normal Z line is another’s irregular Z line), the additional costs associated with this practice, the potential for patient anxiety, and the low rates of prevalent and incident dysplasia and esophageal adeno- carcinoma (EAC) found in these lesions. Also, patients with an irregular Z line who harbor IM might be enrolled in endoscopic surveillance protocols, necessitating the costs and inconvenience of recurrent surveillance endoscopy, as well as the stigma of a disease label for a potentially neo- plastic condition. A prospective single-center study by Itskoviz et al. pub- lished in the current issue of Digestive Diseases and Sci- ences [6] describes the risk of developing BE, dysplasia, and EAC in those with an irregular Z line and IM compared to those with an irregular Z line without IM. There were 166 patients endoscopically diagnosed with an irregular Z line, defined here as variability of ≤ 5 mm of the squamo- columnar junction on index endoscopy. Of the 166 patients who underwent upper endoscopy for indications such as heartburn, dysphagia, and chest pain, 39% (n  =  64) had biopsy-proven IM. Of the 50 with IM that were followed up for a median 70 months, 16% developed non-dysplastic BE (NDBE) (n = 8), and 4% (n = 2) developed low-grade dysplasia (LGD). Of the cases without IM, only 1/52 devel- oped BE and none progressed to dysplasia. In this sample, 22% of the subjects with IM and 49% without IM were lost to follow-up. Overall, among patients with an irregular Z line in this study, 8.8% developed NDBE and 1.9% developed LGD over a median time of 70 months. The authors note in their con- clusion that patients with an irregular Z line “do not develop major BE complication in more than 5 years of follow-up.” Yet, they also suggest in their discussion that, due to the 16% incidence of BE in the IM-positive group and the two patients who developed LGD, “longer follow-up studies may reveal a more malicious nature of irregular Z line with intes- tinal metaplasia.” This study has several commendable strengths: It is pro- spective, with a standardized biopsy protocol with follow- up, at a median of 70 months, which is of sufficient length to enable the observation of clinically significant trends, and appropriate covariates were considered, including careful assessment of the Z line. Several shortcomings are also evi- dent: Loss to follow-up was substantial, especially in the group with no IM, where almost half of patients did not have a repeat examination; also, given that an irregular Z line is not an indication for a repeat EGD, it is unclear whether * Swathi Eluri swathi@med.unc.edu 1 Center for Esophageal Diseases and Swallowing, Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University of North Carolina, 4119B Bioinformatics Building, 130 Mason Farm Rd, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7080, USA http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1007/s10620-018-4998-3&domain=pdf 1379Digestive Diseases and Sciences (2018) 63:1378–1380 1 3 these follow-up examinations were being done as part of the study protocol, or for clinical care. If the latter is true, the results must be viewed in a somewhat different light, due to the bias inherent in the motivations influencing patients to have repeat procedures: Patients who return for ongo- ing GERD symptoms might be expected to have a different prevalence of BE than those who are asymptomatic. As with most studies of this type, the numbers with com- plete data are somewhat low to confidently draw the conclu- sions we would like to make. While the authors note that major complications did not develop in the 50 patients with IM with an irregular Z line who were followed until the end of the study, would they still feel comfortable drawing this conclusion if a 51st patient developed EAC? Finally, it is unclear exactly which endoscopist performed the examina- tions, and whether any effort was made to ensure that the same endoscopist performed both examinations. Given the substantial inter-observer variability in the diagnosis of an irregular Z line [7], it is likely that different endoscopists might reach different conclusions regarding progression or regression of this lesion. Such variability almost certainly accounts for at least some proportion of the nine patients with incident BE (all, tellingly, short-segment BE), as well as the remarkably high 32% of initially abnormal patients who were noted to have a “normal” Z line on follow-up endoscopy. It would be instructive for a separate observer to review the before-and-after endoscopic photographs of these “normalized” cases, to see how much of the change was truly in the Z line and how much of the change was due to the perception of the endoscopist. The results of the present study add to a sparse, con- fusing, and inconclusive literature on the natural history of the irregular Z line (Table 1). Thota et al. performed a recent prospective multicenter study of 167 patients with an irregular Z line and IM. In a median follow-up of 71 months, none of the patients progressed to BE, dyspla- sia, or EAC [1]. In another population-based study by Jung et al. of 86 patients with an irregular Z line and IM, 2% progressed to LGD and none progressed to develop BE, high-grade dysplasia (HGD), or EAC during the 8-year follow-up period [8]. Similarly, progression to neoplasia was also estimated to be low at 0.01% in another study of 204 patients with BE segment length < 1 cm, which used population-based estimates to model annual cancer tran- sition rates in patients with differing BE segment lengths [9]. The presence of a hiatal hernia can not only make it more difficult to accurately differentiate between an irregular Z line and short-segment BE on index endoscopic exam, but can also falsely increase the reported prevalence of IM if biopsies were obtained from the cardia due to sampling error. The authors attempted to address the issue of sampling error by only including biopsies obtained from the squamo- columnar junction that had evidence of both squamous tissue and columnar tissue. Nonetheless, one may take biopsies from a perfectly regular Z line including both squamous tis- sue and columnar tissue, and as a result not avert sampling of gastric cardia. Furthermore, a second pathologist reviewed all histologic samples with dysplasia. Despite this, in the initially IM-positive group, 63% were negative for IM on follow-up examination with biopsy. These results are simi- lar to a previous study that reported that more than half of those with an irregular Z line with IM on index biopsy did not have IM on follow-up examination [1], underscoring the problem of sampling error that is magnified in the presence of very short segments of columnar mucosa. The presence of a hiatal hernia may also complicate the interpretation of the presence of BE, in that over-insufflation of the esophagus Table 1 Summary of studies showing progression to Barrett’s esophagus (BE) and dysplasia with an irregular Z line or IM of the gastroesophageal junction a Low-grade dysplasia b High-grade dysplasia c Esophageal adenocarcinoma Author Itskoviz et al. Thota et al. Jung et al. Journal DDS Gastroenterology AJG Year 2018 2017 2011 Study type Prospective Prospective Retrospective Z line definition Columnar mucosa < 0.5 cm Columnar mucosa < 1 cm IM on biopsy from GE junction Patients (n) 166 167 86 Follow-up time, mos 70 71 96 BE, n 9 0 0 LGDa, n 2 0 2 HGDb/EACc, n 0 0 0 Reversion to regular Z line 32% 53% – 1380 Digestive Diseases and Sciences (2018) 63:1378–1380 1 3 may confound endoscopists by giving the hernia sac the appearance of a segment of BE (Fig. 1). Even with all this confusion and potential for bias, the results from this study and the existing literature in balance show that the irregular Z line is a low-risk lesion. Current evidence does not support routine biopsies from an irregu- lar Z line with an excursion < 1 cm, since, as stated above, such biopsies may commit patients to lifelong surveillance examinations if IM is detected. We as gastroenterologists will likely continue to struggle to understand this problem, because we do not have accurate or reliable guidelines for the assessment, measurement, and reporting of columnar mucosa measuring < 1 cm. While a four-grade classifica- tion system for assessing the Z line has been previously pro- posed that correlated with prevalence of IM [2], it has not been adopted and applied in the clinical setting. Until such time when superior measurements of minute changes around the Z line are possible or novel biomarkers are validated, endoscopists should recognize that small amounts of Bar- rett’s, like beauty, are in the eye of the beholder. Currently, the limited data regarding the risk of neoplastic progression in those with an irregular Z line are such that an irregular Z line should not be routinely biopsied. Funding Funding for this analysis was supported in part by NIH Award T32 DK07634 (SE), K24DK100548 (NJS). References 1. Thota PN, Vennalaganti P, Vennelaganti S, et al. Low risk of high- grade dysplasia or esophageal adenocarcinoma among patients with barrett’s esophagus less than 1 cm (irregular Z line) within 5 years of index endoscopy. Gastroenterology. 2017;152:987–992. 2. Wallner B, Sylvan A, Stenling R, Janunger KG. The esophageal Z-line appearance correlates to the prevalence of intestinal meta- plasia. Scand J Gastroenterol. 2000;35:17–22. 3. Dickman R, Levi Z, Vilkin A, Zvidi I, Niv Y. Predictors of special- ized intestinal metaplasia in patients with an incidental irregular Z line. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2010;22:135–138. 4. Chalasani N, Wo JM, Hunter JG, Waring JP. Significance of intes- tinal metaplasia in different areas of esophagus including esoph- agogastric junction. Dig Dis Sci. 1997;42:603–607. 5. Shaheen NJ, Falk GW, Iyer PG, Gerson LB. ACG clinical guide- line: diagnosis and management of Barrett’s esophagus. Am J Gastroenterol. 2016;111:30–50. 6. Itskoviz D, Levi Z, Boltin D, et al. Risk of neoplastic progression among patients with an irregular Z line on long-term follow-up. Dig Dis Sci. (Epub ahead of print). https ://doi.org/10.1007/s1062 0-018-4910-1. 7. Guda NM, Partington S, Vakil N. Inter- and intra-observer vari- ability in the measurement of length at endoscopy: implications for the measurement of Barrett’s esophagus. Gastrointest Endosc. 2004;59:655–658. 8. Jung KW, Talley NJ, Romero Y, et al. Epidemiology and natural history of intestinal metaplasia of the gastroesophageal junction and Barrett’s esophagus: a population-based study. Am J Gastro- enterol. 2011;106:1447–1455. (quiz 1456). 9. Pohl H, Pech O, Arash H, et al. Length of Barrett’s oesophagus and cancer risk: implications from a large sample of patients with early oesophageal adenocarcinoma. Gut. 2016;65:196–201. Fig. 1 Over-insufflation of the esophagus (a) can cause the hernia sac to have the appearance of Barrett’s esophagus compared to the same esophagus without over-insufflation (b), in which the Z line appears to be regular (Image courtesy of Dr. Prateek Sharma) https://doi.org/10.1007/s10620-018-4910-1 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10620-018-4910-1 IMportance of an Irregular Z Line: Is Barrett’s in the Eye of the Beholder? References 
work_gfkqjgisvzavfhm46wm4an4feq	----	Volatility and fluctuations in preferences for Red, Yellow and Blue colours are indicators of personality traits and biological status Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Medical Hypotheses journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/mehy Volatility and fluctuations in preferences for Red, Yellow and Blue colours are indicators of personality traits and biological status George John Former Vice Chancellor, Birsa Agricultural University, Ranchi, India Former Sr. Adviser, Department of Biotechnology, Government of India, Apartment : 5140, B 7, Vasant Kunj, New Delhi 110070, India A B S T R A C T Response to colour is an outcome of complex interactions between retinal neurophysiology and light. This paper puts forward the hypothesis that the sequence of preferences for the three primary colours Red, Yellow and Blue could provide cues to the personality of an individual. The sequence of preferences will harbour hidden patterns or algorithms that are linked to personality traits. The fluctuations or volatility observed in these preferences carefully recorded over a large number of observations will throw up interesting patterns that can be linked to personality traits. The data from a number of subjects will be used to identify similarities in colour preference patterns that match with personality types that have been determined using standardised tools for identifying personality types. The protocols to be followed for testing the hypothesis have been detailed. Statistical analyses of the data sets are suggested. The subjects that will be studied will hopefully be a source of data that will lead to unveiling the complexities of various personality types and personality traits. It will not be out of place to assume that the data generated can be extrapolated to read the biological and physiological conditions also. Introduction Why do two colours, put one next to the other, sing ?–Pablo Picasso As preposterous as it may seem, this paper puts forward with some audacity the proposition that preference for the primary colours Red, Yellow and Blue, and the underlying volatility in these preferences will reveal the personality types at one level; and also provide a window to the biological and physiological status of an individual. This can reveal information at various levels such as the present health, and susceptibility to and likelihood of a range of ailments. Consequentially, this can be extrapolated to map the health status and predict the life span of an individual. Since biological systems are guided by algorithms [1–5], their unravelling is expected to provide tools and information that can be used to predict lifespan with a fair degree of accuracy, and also identify the event that is likely to bring about the end. This hypothesis has originated from the premise that human re- sponse to colour is triggered by deep seated ‘biological impulses’ that are manifested through various physiological cum psychological re- sponses. A number of studies are available on colour preferences and substantial data has been generated to map personality types [6–10]. Many of these have centred around the use of various colours and colour groups to get a cue of the human personality and its underlying complexities. Families of different colours have been used for inter- preting personality types but these have not met with complete success in unveiling personality types. A more researched paper here might have standardised or toned down the statements; got concepts rounded off, leading to a rather conventional discourse. The radical approach of this paper is primarily because it is based on limited research, but on large surmises that went into its preparation, for constructing a hypothesis that from the be- ginning will require a ‘Bayesian approach’ and scientific scaffolding to be able to draw robust conclusions. Brief review of literature The basis of colour identification has been investigated by many researchers. It has remained a robust research topic. Studies conducted have largely focused on the mapping of predetermined colour pre- ferences or existing choices. Colour preferences can be used to predict individual personality characteristics. A landmark study [11] laid the foundation for a deep understanding of the subject. Colour perception choices are quite strong and they are dependent on a number of un- derlying factors such as personality types [12,6,7,8,13,14], ethnic background of the subjects [15–18], age [19–24], gender [25–29], education [30], mental status and information processing in such conditions [31–33]. It has been seen that brain activity is modulated by colour preference which implies a correlation between colour pre- ference and personality traits; and colour preference could be a per- vasive aspect of visual processing [34]. Marketing strategies place a lot of importance on effects of colour and one interesting finding shows that colour results in instant subconscious judgement [35]. Ecological https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2018.10.029 Received 10 October 2018; Accepted 31 October 2018 E-mail address: gjohn@nic.in. Medical Hypotheses 122 (2019) 115–119 0306-9877/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. T http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/03069877 https://www.elsevier.com/locate/mehy https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2018.10.029 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2018.10.029 mailto:gjohn@nic.in https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2018.10.029 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1016/j.mehy.2018.10.029&domain=pdf valence theory of colour preferences proposes that human colour pre- ferences arise from average affective responses to colour associated objects [9,10]. Preference for colours vary with variation in the hue of colours [36]. In short, considerable volume of literature is available on colour preferences of humans, and colour choice inventorisation is fairly extensive. Colour permeates every aspect of life and colour symbolism has been extensively used even in literature and poetry [37]. The basic structure of the retina has been described along with its intricate relationship with the neurological configuration [38–42]. The sequence of events starting from the falling of light on the eye, to the identification of colours or objects following a complex neurological processing in colour identification have been described by workers [43,44,45,41]. The molecular evolution of vision has been traced [46]. The specialized photoreceptors or cones detect light and also distin- guish specific wavelengths of light or colours [43,45,41,42]. The pro- tein opsin is a fundamental component of photopigment that plays the vital role of tuning colour photoreceptors to specific wavelengths of light ie; colour and provides a richer colour experience [47,43]. The complex neurophysiological mechanism underlying colour recognition is regulated by genes [40,46] and gets altered by impairments [48] and disorders [31,32]. A functional neuropsychological system forms the basis of any personality trait and this is moulded by the combined effect of genes and environment [49]. Existing gaps in knowledge Currently there seem to be no studies on colour preference of pri- mary colours Red, Yellow and Blue, and the underlying volatility of preferences over a series of recordings. Though there are researches showing changes in colour preference due to seasonal variations, pre- ferences linked to liked or disliked coloured objects, or differences within individuals from one time to another [50–53], spontaneity in colour choices [21,22], or a link between impulsiveness and chroma [54], there are no studies that observed changes in preferences over many successive recordings. This clearly underscores the need to cap- ture the momentary changes, fluctuations or volatility in colour pre- ferences if any with reference to the primary colours Red, Yellow and Blue, over a large number of observations, to unravel any underlying patterns that can be linked to personality types. Hence this hypothesis was conceived. The opinion of Karl J. Friston (personal communication, 2018) on the concept was that ‘it may be an interesting way to phe- notype the volatility of prior preferences … and the way in which these fluctuations evolve over time should indeed reflect something about how constant prior beliefs or preferences are’. It is surmised that human response to the primary colours Red, Yellow and Blue would be ‘primeval’ and hence reflective of the per- sonality type to a greater extent than that with other colours. Arguably, the response to individual non primary colours or shades in a family of primary colours will be muted and overlapped in comparison to that for the primary colour itself, thereby reducing its readability ie; restricting the use of results for interpreting personality types. Hypothesis The hypothesis proposed is that the sequence of colour preferences for Red, Yellow and Blue will reveal patterns, fluctuations, waves or volatility that can be matched with personality types. The premise here is that the primary colours Red (R), Yellow (Y) and Blue (B) are the foundations on which colour preferences are determined. Our response to the colours Red, Yellow and Blue is a reflection of a ‘primeval’ urge or response. This gets ‘muted’ when the colours Red, Yellow and Blue are used along with the shades of the same colour or with shades of other colours. The primary colours Red, Yellow and Blue cannot be created from other colours but they are the base from which other colours can be created. Hence, unravelling and understanding the patterns and volatility in preferences for these three colours will provide a key to ‘deep seated aspects’ of the human personality and the same can be extrapolated to read the physiological or biological status that might be reflective even of health conditions. It must be noted that the use of a ‘family’ of colours of a primary colour masks the response of the subject and therefore provides an inaccurate cue to a person or his personality type. Hence the proposi- tion is that colour preferences should be ascertained only in response to the primary colours RYB arranged in any fixed manner. The shade and chroma of the primary colours used will be as determined by International standards. The choices will be recorded under the fol- lowing two situations to test the hypothesis. (i) The preference sought to be recorded here is one that is based on the ‘impulse’ of the subject ie; immediately on seeing the colour plate. It should not be a choice that is arrived at by weighing the possible options. It should also not be one where the choice is al- ready made or predetermined ie; before the colour plate is shown. In other words, it should be a spontaneous choice ie one that is presumably from the ‘sub conscious mind’. Spontaneity is the es- sence of the choice and the key element in this component of the study. (ii) In the second approach, the choice sequences are recorded not on an impulse as in the above, but after the subject takes a few seconds to mull over the choice that he wants to indicate. Methods to test the hypothesis Each subject that will be selected will be healthy and free from neurological disorders. The subject will be briefed on the study and what is expected of him. He will then be asked to indicate a preference sequence for the colours when the filled colour circles of Red, Yellow and Blue (RYB) arranged on a colour plate are shown. The Red, Yellow and Blue colours used will be as per International Colour Standards and they will be on a white background. Before the test is started, the subject should be asked to look at a white screen for about 30s to minimise or eliminate any colours that may persist from objects seen prior to the start of the experiment. The preference sequence indicated by a subject can be for instance as RYB, BYR, BRY etc using a fixed sequence shown to the subject.This will be repeated for about 500 times, preferably 1000 times and the preferences recorded manually or by using a device where the preference sequences are keyed in. (i) Recording ‘impulse’ based choice. It should be explained to the subject that the essential thing here is that the preference sequence indicated should be a spontaneous one and not one that is arrived at by mulling over various possibilities. The subject is required to indicate the sequence of preference immediately on seeing the colour plate and momentarily close his eyes before looking at the colour plate again for recording the next sequence of preferences. A subject may have a liking for a particular colour, for example Blue colour, but indicating this as the first preference always is not a spon- taneous response but expression of a predetermined choice. It should be a preference expressed on impulse ie; when the eye is opened to observe the colour plate. It is essential to instruct the subjects that they are required to indicate only their spontaneous preference. The study is designed to map the spontaneous preference arising on an impulse and not one that is based on a decision, since a decision made is an outcome that is arrived at by considering various possibilities. The key here is to record an impulse and not a considered decision. The cooperation of the subject is very important. (ii) Recording ‘considered choice’ A separate of set of experiments can be conducted where a subject is G. John Medical Hypotheses 122 (2019) 115–119 116 allowed to indicate the order of preference after careful consideration of the RYB sequence on the colour plate. This method will record pre- ferences that have been decided by the subject after a deliberation within himself. The preference exercised here is a reflection of prior preferences and inherent bias unlike the earlier set of recordings based on impulse. This data set will greatly enlarge the scope for testing the hypothesis proposed. The volatility patterns are likely to be different in both the cases. (iii) Notes The colour plate showing the three filled colour circles (with white background) can be of different sizes and placed at different distances as shown in Fig. 1. The shape chosen is a circle because it is presumably the least distracting shape. The colours RYB can be arranged in 6 per- mutation combinations (RYB,RBY,YBR,YRB,BRY,BYR). The distances/ size of colour circles provide 3 possibilities ie; a total of 18 combina- tions (Table 1). However the recording should be done only with one combination at a time since multiple combinations will clutter the input channel ie; give too many inputs to the brain that will require the brain to ‘recalibrate’ every time, thus impeding the flow of choices which is essential for identifying possible patterns. Also, about 500 non-stop recordings are considered a good database for drawing conclusions. It is also to be noted that if the recording does not proceed, say beyond 300 times, it cannot be continued subsequently for another 200 times after a time interval. In such cases they will have to be treated as two separate recordings, though falling short of the target. LED or LCD screens are not recommended. The recording room must be free of sounds and if necessary, ear plugs provided to the subjects so that inadvertent phe- nomena like ‘colour hearing’, not necessarily synaesthesia [55,56] are avoided. Possible results and its implications The studies will generate considerable data and a fairly large number of colour preference sequences from many individuals that can be subjected to various statistical analyses. The statistical treatment will hopefully reveal colour preference patterns that can be linked to per- sonality types of subjects. If validated and found linked/correlated to personality types, it would offer a simple tool for clinical research and to identify or ‘read’ personality types. The preference sequences re- corded can be rearranged with a shifting of the last preference to the 200 cm Red (R) Yellow (Y) Blue (B) 60 cm diameter 100 cm 30 cm diameter 50 cm 15 cm diameter Subject Fig. 1. Showing the distances from the subject and the corresponding sizes of colour circles for testing colour preference of Red (R), Yellow (Y) and Blue (B). (Colours as per Internationally accepted stan- dards for shades and chroma). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.) Table 1 Colour sequences, distances and diameter of colour circles suggested for testing. (see Fig. 1 for schematic representation). Sl no Colour sequence to be tested Distance and diameter of the colour circles 1 RYB 50cm; 15cm 100cm; 30cm 200cm; 60cm 2 RBY 50cm; 15cm 100cm; 30cm 200cm; 60cm 3 YBR 50cm; 15cm 100cm; 30cm 200cm; 60cm 4 YRB 50cm; 15cm 100cm; 30cm 200cm; 60cm 5 BRY 50cm; 15cm 100cm; 30cm 200cm; 60cm 6 BYR 50cm; 15cm 100cm; 30cm 200cm; 60cm R (Red), Y (Yellow), B (Blue). (as per Internationally accepted standards for shades and chroma). G. John Medical Hypotheses 122 (2019) 115–119 117 first place, and in the next rearrangement, again the last one shifted to the first position (Table 2). Various other rearrangements can also be generated. In this manner the basic colour preference sequence can be used to generate sequence variants that can be subjected to further statistical analyses. It is purely speculative that this paradigm can be useful for testing preferences with three different shapes, three different words or any other parameter. It is conjectural that the colours RYB have a 'neurophysiological nexus' and preference sequences for this ‘colour triplet’ RYB will yield interesting patterns or become ‘codons’ of personality mapping. Statistical analysis The tests that could be used would depend on the nature of data and the sequences therein. Pearson Chi Square test and ANOVA can be considered. A Bayesian model is essential to construct the emerging conclusion and test its validity over a period of time. The usefulness of Apriori algorithm for analysis needs to be examined, perhaps after some data has been generated. Stochastic transitivity analysis can also be considered. Karl J.Friston (personal communication, 2018) opined that ‘sequential entropy analysis could be applied to the patterns of choices to measure how stable or volatile they are and establish the construct validity of this entropy (or serial correlation) measure – in relation to other personality or psychology scores’. Conflict of interest There is no conflict of interest. Funding This work was not supported by any grant. Acknowledgement The author would like to thank Dr. Karl J. Friston, University College, London whose comments on the concept have been most in- valuable and the writing of this paper was taken up at his suggestion. The author also thanks India International Centre, New Delhi, India for the library facilities. Appendix A. Supplementary data Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2018.10.029. References [1] Navlakha S, Bar-Joseph Z. 2011. Algorithms in nature: the convergence of systems biology and computational thinking. 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Springer Science +Business Media New York http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0306-9877(18)31055-7/h0245 http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0306-9877(18)31055-7/h0245 http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0306-9877(18)31055-7/h0250 http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0306-9877(18)31055-7/h0250 http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0306-9877(18)31055-7/h0255 http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0306-9877(18)31055-7/h0255 http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0306-9877(18)31055-7/h0260 http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0306-9877(18)31055-7/h0260 http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0306-9877(18)31055-7/h0265 http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0306-9877(18)31055-7/h0265 http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0306-9877(18)31055-7/h0270 http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0306-9877(18)31055-7/h0270 http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0306-9877(18)31055-7/h0275 http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0306-9877(18)31055-7/h0275 http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0306-9877(18)31055-7/h0280 http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0306-9877(18)31055-7/h0280 Volatility and fluctuations in preferences for Red, Yellow and Blue colours are indicators of personality traits and biological status Introduction Brief review of literature Existing gaps in knowledge Hypothesis Methods to test the hypothesis Possible results and its implications Statistical analysis Conflict of interest Funding Acknowledgement Supplementary data References 
work_gr5i3thbdrc2fflsmoj37iiwem	----	ARCHIV-VERSION Dokserver des Zentrums für Zeithistorische Forschung Potsdam e.V. http://zeitgeschichte-digital.de/Doks Zeina Elcheikh Nizar Sabour. Places and Memories, War and Love https://doi.org/10.14765/zzf.dok-1706 Archiv-Version des ursprünglich auf dem Portal Visual-History am 05.10.2019 mit der URL: https://www.visual-history.de/2019/10/05/nizar-sabour/ erschienenen Textes Copyright © 2019 Clio-online – Historisches Fachinformationssystem e.V. und Autor/in, alle Rechte vorbehalten. Dieses Werk ist zum Download und zur Vervielfältigung für nicht-kommerzielle Zwecke freigegeben. Es darf jedoch nur erneut veröffentlicht werden, sofern die Einwilligung der o.g. Rechteinhaber vorliegt. Dies betrifft auch die Übersetzungsrechte. Bitte kontaktieren Sie: <redaktion@zeitgeschichte-digital.de> Für die Neuveröffentlichung von Bild-, Ton- und Filmmaterial, das in den Beiträgen enthalten ist, sind die dort jeweils genannten Lizenzbedingungen bzw. Rechteinhaber zu beachten. VISUALHISTORY Online-Nachschlagewerk fürdie historische Bildforschung NIZAR SABOUR: PLACES AND MEMORIES, WAR AND LOVE Art moves away from reality and invents something that mayb e ultimately more accurate ab out the world than what a photograph can depict. How ard Zinn, A rtists in Times of War, 2007 In times of w ars and conf licts, the w ords of Zinn have a deeper meaning. Through art visual dimensions and aspects can be explored that are of ten missing f rom w ritten reports or captured snapshots. This can be an image documentation or a reminder of how w ar shapes lives and places. In his set of etchings and triptych Der Krieg, the German artist and WWI veteran Otto Dix show ed f irsthand hellish visualizations of the horror he experienced as a f ront soldier. In response to the bombing of the Basque city of Guernica during the Spanish Civil War, Pablo Picasso created a masterpiece – and perhaps his most f amous w ork ever: Guernica (1937) w as regarded by many art critics as one of the most moving and pow erf ul artistic anti-w ar statements in history. Since 2011, the protracted Syrian conf lict has changed places and people and created strong memories. It is regarding by many as the best documented w ar ever. The w ork of Nizar Sabour should be seen in this context: it’s w orthy of note. Born in Lattakia (Syria) in 1958, Sabour graduated f rom Faculty of Fine A rts in Damascus in 1981 and earned his PhD in Sciences of A rt in 1990 in Moscow . Grow ing up betw een tw o w orlds, the urban and the rural, has strongly inf luenced his imagination. For Sabour, cities are not just a physical conf iguration of administrations planning law s and systems. Cities are images in motion: Manif estations of time and history. He began his f irst w ork on cities in Syria and pursued it during his academic stay in Moscow , w ere he produced his collection the Form of the City: an interpretation of history, a nostalgia-soaked memory: a longing to his ‘Orient’; and a desire f or a splendor f ar aw ay f rom conf licts that ravaged the Middle East in the 1980s, w here the cities began to lose their beauty. Nizar Sabour is currently prof essor at the University of Damascus and at the University of Kalamoon in Deir A tiyah/A l- Qalamoun (Syria). He had several solo and joint exhibitions, and his w orks can be f ound in many private, public and museum collections in the Middle East, Russia, the U.S.A . and Europe. 5. Oktober 2019 Zeina Elcheikh Rubrik: Akteure 1 von 4 Nizar Sabour: Ma’aloula: a historic document, 2014, Mixed media on canvas (50×70 cm) © with courtesy of Nizar Sabour Nizar Sabour: The Guardians of the City, 2018, Mixed media on canvas (224×120 cm) © with courtesy of Nizar Sabour Every city is in itself a unique experience. It is more than just a place where one lives, works and dies. W hat makes a city remains in the memory are little, hidden and sacred features, strongly related to us as people. Every city I draw has unique form, content, shades and even mood. Nizar Sab our Memories lead Nizar Sabour back to a small icon in a cave-like opening in the w all at his parents‘ house. In f ront of this icon stood a simple vigil oil lamp, w hose f lame alw ays burned and gave radiating light. Sabour’s w orks contain spiritual undertones based on his f ascination w ith religious iconography and various f eatures of the Syrian heritage. They all f ound their w ay into his w orks through several media, triptychs, engraved w ood, gold leaf , ash and sand. In Syria, his cities w ere colorf ul and vivid. Today, these paintings of f er a nostalgic retreat at the sight of destruction and ruins. Sabour’s paintings have become a beacon of hope and an expression of a w ish: if only these places, and their people, did not know the hell of w ar. The protracted conf lict has af f ected lives of all Syrians in very dif f erent w ays. Everything has changed as if lif e bef ore 2011 w as just an illusion. Located to the northeast of the Syrian capital Damascus, A l-Qalamoun w as know n f or its mountainous topography and dispersed small tow ns. A mong them, Ma’aloula is certainly the most f amous tow n w ith its houses on the slopes. It has a history that spans several centuries w ith a Christian heritage and tradition: monasteries, shrines and sanctuaries. Whether Muslim or Christian, many pilgrims came to Ma’aloula to receive blessings and make sacrif ices. Bef ore the civil w ar the tow n w as a major tourist attraction. Folgende Beiträge könnten Sie auch interessieren: Visual-History: Zeina Elcheikh: “Humans of Damascus” – The (Other) Art of Community (Building) Visual-History: Zeina Elcheikh: Book Review: Marwa Al- Sabouni, The Battle for Home Visual-History: Zeina Elcheikh: Picturing Violence: From Bosnia to Syria Docupedia: Jens Jäger: Heimat (english version) Zeitgeschichte-online: Freya Kuhn: Global Effects of the European Migration Regime. Roundtable 2 von 4 Nizar Sabour: Ma’aloula: a historic document, 2014, Mixed media on canvas (150×110 cm) © with courtesy of Nizar Sabour Ma’aloula is believed to be the only place w here A ramaic language – that of Jesus Christ – is still spoken. This is the most distinctive f eature of the tow n. Perhaps the remote and isolated location of the tow n preserve the language w hile A rabic is spoken everyw here else in the major cities. In the past, the houses of Ma’aloula w ere mostly painted blue. Many of the houses are scattered over the clif f as if they w ere f loating in the air or rising out of the rock, and the people there have survived in the mountainous and dry landscape f or centuries. In September 2013, Ma’aloula became the scene of a battle that began w ith a suicide attack by truck at the entrance of the tow n. People w ere killed; others f led; and nuns w ere kidnapped. During the violent clashes some churches suf f ered heavy damage e.g.at the altar, crosses f ell out of the dome and w all paintings w ere destroyed. Nizar Sabour: Al-Qalamoun area and Ma’aloula, 2014, Mixed media on canvas (315×145 cm) © with courtesy of Nizar Sabour Ma’aloula is strongly associated w ith Christian martyrdom and miracles. During and af ter the attacks in 2013, Nizar Sabour depicted w ar, darkness, blackness, f ire, and ash. The w ooden f rame w as painted w ith saints, spiritual symbols and icons, all trying to save the tow n. Certainly, 2013 w as the most dreadf ul year on Syrians: f ear, death, displacement, and the lack of answ ers to many questions. Nizar Sabour w anted to depict this state of insecurity, and so came the idea of “The Book: The Guardian of Lif e and Death”, in several themes. Each book has seven w ooden plates and a w ooden cover. 3 von 4 Nizar Sabour: Diaries of Love and War, 2013, Mixed media printing on MDF-board (40×30 cm) © with courtesy of Nizar Sabour Nizar Sabour: Diaries of Love and War, 2013, Mixed media printing on MDF-board (40×30 cm) © with courtesy of Nizar Sabour In “Diaries of Love and War” Nizar Sabour set out to document w hat he experienced in Damascus during that brutal period of time, through colors and w ords: In Damascus there are more mortar shells than sparrows … Despite death and destruction, the spring is b ack … W e grasp at straws (of hope)… Nizar Sab our The w ar has lef t marks in the cities of Syria and scars in the souls of the Syrians. Like many others, Nizar Sabour is doomed to be hopef ul. Today, there is a new statue of the V irgin Mary in a blue robe – Our Lady of Peace – again high overlooking Ma’aloula to replace the one destroyed during the attacks. A nd Damascus has slow ly started to greet the long-aw aited sparrow s. Zitation Zeina Elcheikh, Nizar Sabour. Places and Memories, War and Love, in: V isual History, 05.10.2019, https://w w w .visual-history.de/2019/10/05/nizar-sabour/ DOI: https://doi.org/10.14765/zzf .dok-1706 Link zur PDF-Datei Nutzungsbedingungen f ür diesen A rtikel Copyright (c) 2019 Clio-online e.V. und A utor*in, alle Rechte vorbehalten. Dieses Werk entstand im Rahmen des Clio-online Projekts „V isual-History“ und darf vervielf ältigt und veröf f entlicht w erden, sof ern die Einw illigung der Rechteinhaber*in vorliegt. Bitte kontaktieren Sie: <bartlitz@zzf -potsdam.de> 4 von 4 
work_hcuom5ensrah3hmytloncvd6ua	----	Edinburgh Research Explorer Picasso and Truth, From Cubism to Guernica Citation for published version: Cox, N 2014, 'Picasso and Truth, From Cubism to Guernica', Burlington magazine, vol. 156, no. 1337, pp. 541-543. Link: Link to publication record in Edinburgh Research Explorer Document Version: Publisher's PDF, also known as Version of record Published In: Burlington magazine Publisher Rights Statement: Cox, N. (2014). Picasso and Truth, From Cubism to Guernica. Burlington magazine, CLVI, 541-543. General rights Copyright for the publications made accessible via the Edinburgh Research Explorer is retained by the author(s) and / or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing these publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. Take down policy The University of Edinburgh has made every reasonable effort to ensure that Edinburgh Research Explorer content complies with UK legislation. If you believe that the public display of this file breaches copyright please contact openaccess@ed.ac.uk providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. Download date: 06. Apr. 2021 https://www.research.ed.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/picasso-and-truth-from-cubism-to-guernica(eeb73a76-0486-4be1-a2ae-e0c4108e67ae).html Robert Willis (1800–1875) and the Foundation of Architectural History. Volume 8, The History of the University of Cambridge: Text and Studies. By Alexandrina Buchanan. 470 pp. incl. numerous col. + b. & w. ills. (Boydell Press, Cambridge University Library, 2013), £60. ISBN 978–1–84383–800–5. Reviewed by CHRIS MIELE ON PAGE 163 of this meticulous, well-crafted intellectual biography we find the exact date of the invention of architectural history: 11th September 1844. It was then that Robert Willis, the Cambridge University polymath, presented a paper on Canterbury at the Cathedral, the first of his admired ‘cathedral series’. And so, Alex Buchanan, writes, was born ‘the first book ever to be defined by its author as an “architectural history”’. Buch anan is not one to speculate. What she says in this book she says only on the basis of the most careful consideration of all relevant sources, and then only after the proposition and every source relating to it has been thor- oughly turned over. Buchanan’s temper and method are at one with her subject. If Willis had anything to say about the matter, then this is the intellectual biography he would have wanted. But the question that constantly came back to the present reviewer was whether what Willis wrote really was ‘architectural history’, even if he himself named it so. Willis was more of a building archaeologist than a his torian. The world he analysed was hermetic: here is this physical evidence in one part of a medieval church, here that in another, finally a third from a different place altogether. Put them together with whatever reliable manuscript source he could find (and there are not many) and so conclude the date of the building, what influenced it and what it influenced. It was only when Willis looked at medieval monastic remains that he went beyond the world of features, style and fabric to think about how physical evidence could illuminate social or cultural history. Even then, when analysing the plan of St Gall or Castle Acre Priory, he dealt with strictly functional relationships and how ‘they shaped’, Buchanan writes, ‘the arrangement of surviving buildings’. Even here all things find their way back to the physical character- istics and the site. This was the approach he adopted in his posthumous four-volume opus (jointly written with his nephew, J.W. Clark), The Architectural History of the Univer- sity of Cambridge of 1886. This book more than any other secured Willis’s reputation by sheer dint of the number of influential people who read for degrees there and so explored Willis and Clark. Willis matured at a time when the historical study of buildings was seen as a branch of inductive science. The rigour he brought to his scholarship was born of an interest in mechanics and mathematics. In that sense his contribution mirrors that of William Whewell, the other Cambridge polymath. His Architectural Notes on German Churches pioneered the structural explanation of Goth- ic. The pointed arch, the style’s defining feature, had evolved, Whewell thought, from the construction of rib vaulting, a German specialism. That Teutonic myth was shattered in the 1840s, when bit by bit the centrality of French Gothic came to be accepted by English scholars. Whewell (1794–1866) was Willis’s near contemporary but, unlike Willis, his contribution to arch - itectural his tory was a youthful dalliance. Whewell went on to make a name for him- self as a physicist and philosopher of science, and therein lies his principal contribution to the culture of nineteenth-century science. Buchanan carefully charts the interchange between science and historical study. Along the way she takes the reader to surprising places. Willis, it turns out, investigated the operations of chess-playing automata and car- ried out early research into acoustics and the ‘mechanism of the larynx’. That empirical mindset collided with an antiquarian tradi- tion that was, as often as not, intellectually thin or just muddled. Like Whewell, Willis defined a new way of looking at things by resorting to foreign examples, in his case Ital- ian Gothic which forms the basis of his Remarks on the Architecture of the Middle Ages of 1835. It is interesting – and Buchanan does not mention this – that both these scientifi- cally minded, numerate men relied on a ‘data set’ outside the United Kingdom. Perhaps there was too much cultural baggage associat- ed with the cherished historical scene at home. Continental study freed their minds. Willis refined his method on the amateur society lecture circuit, delivering a series of papers at various conferences organised by the British Archaeological Association. These were major cultural events, reported in the local press, attended by local dignitaries. Willis led large crowds around the country’s great medieval sites, and to make himself heard he often had to stand on a chair. He carried his audience with him by lively ges- tures and ‘that striking bodily activity which was so characteristic of the man, and for the display of which his lectures gave so many opportunities’. That was how the great his - torian, and one time architectural historian E.A. Freeman described Willis in his obit - uary. That image, of ‘sparkling and witty performance [. . .] particularly popular with his female listeners’ (as Buchanan writes), is at odds with the tone of what Buchanan accepts was the often ‘drily academic’ style of his publications. One of the products of Buchanan’s tremendous research is the picture she is able to paint of the world of Victorian amateur archaeologists, their struggles to assert their authority, secure reputations and gain status. To the best of my knowledge no other study of this period even comes close to describing this network. What of Willis’s legacy, which Buchanan handles in two thousand words? This is probably sufficient, but therein lies the quiet tragedy of this great intellectual. Willis is sometimes likened to Pevsner who relied on his predecessor’s cathedral series for his own marvellous entries in The Buildings of England. In fact, the two were very different writers, Pevsner quirky but also with a critical edge, Willis a man sticking strictly to the facts and avoiding aesthetics. It is telling that at a time when architecture stimulated the literary imagination, from Ruskin to Trollope, Willis set his mind on the evidence as had no one before. In another country, in Germany or France, Willis would have been an academic art historian and through the university net- work have created a new discipline. Instead he had to rely on a network of enthusiastic amateurs working through local societies and guidebooks. Thus it is fitting that any study of Willis can only be an intellectual biography. There is no personal archive, regrettably because clearly Willis had charm and wit in person if not in his writings. We can be sure, beyond all reasonable doubt, that there is no personal information lurking out there, for if there was, Buchanan would have discovered it. Picasso and Truth, From Cubism to Guernica. (The A.W. Mellon Lectures in the Fine Arts, Bollingen Series XXXV: 58). By T.J. Clark. 352 pp. incl. 95 col. + 80 b. & w. ills. (Princeton University Press, Princeton NJ, 2013), £29.95. ISBN 978–0–691–15741–2. Reviewed by NEIL COX SUPPOSE THAT TRUTH is a work by Picasso.1 Such a thought experiment raises the highest hopes about the nature of the artist’s achieve- ment in a particular work, but it also opens the question of truth itself, both philosophically and in terms of contemporary culture. ‘The question of truth’ implies the unravelling of the values of moral philosophy and epis - temology, and is as much about a need for ‘untruths’ as it is about the function of the desire for truth, as well as for a distinction between good and evil, in Western culture. To recast the understanding of Picasso’s art against this extra-moral questioning is, I think, the ambition of T.J. Clark’s dazzling and sometimes troubling book. Divided into six ‘lectures’, each with a single-word title, it retains the lyric feel and intensity of live performance that char - acterised the 2009 Mellon Lectures upon which it is based.2 The ‘Introduction’ has to do a huge amount of work. For a start it sets out the author’s stall in very broad-brushed terms vis-à-vis the existing scholarship on the artist. No one is named, but the target is a hagiographic and biographically focused B O O K S t h e b u r l i n g t o n m a g a z i n e • c l v i • a u g u s t 2 0 1 4 541 BR.AUG.pg.proof.corrs_Layout 1 16/07/2014 09:44 Page 541 literature dismissed as apotropaic, an ideo- logical machine designed to protect us from exposure to the destabilising force of Picasso as Truth. Of course, Clark grants that the autobiographical question must in some way be at the centre of the artist’s project; the question is who the ‘I’ that ‘writes’ might be? Arthur Rimbaud’s dictum ‘Je est un autre’, favoured by Picasso, is a touchstone in Clark’s negotiation of the problem. This kind of argument has been made before.3 What is different about Clark’s approach is his insistence that, first, ‘the way to partic - ularity in art is via absolute aesthetic general- ity’ – here he means to insist on art, to hang onto the notion of sensuously embodied ideas – and, secondly, that what Picasso’s ‘autobiographical’ project does is question the last remaining ‘universal’ left to our cul- ture – the ‘fiction of subjectivity’ (pp.12–13). The first of these points underpins the value placed in the book on the sustained inter - rogation of single works; the truth (or ‘untruth’) will be got out of them no matter how long it takes, and no matter how many dialectical turns or ambivalences need to be embraced. The second opens up the broader historical argument: that Picasso’s art tarries with the world of the bourgeois, the nine- teenth-century form of subjectivity that spread across all things and shaped them in its image. The art-historical politics of this argument have to do with the fact that only for a brief period in his career – the moment of Cubism, as John Berger once memorably called it – can Picasso count as a modernist, as a future-oriented artist willing to give up the humanist body of the classical tradition, the notion of the individual artist-genius, and the spaces and time of bourgeois culture. In Clark’s Farewell to an Idea of 1999, it was Cubism between 1909 and 1911 – and maybe even only in 1910 – that functioned as the zenith of Modernism and as the leitmotif of the book. In Picasso and Truth, intense pes- simism over the twentieth-century landscape of destruction and pogroms leads Clark to treat the ‘retrogressive’ tendency in modern art, everything from Chagall to de Chirico to Kahlo, as now almost preferable to year-zero radicalism, collectivism, abstraction and agit- prop, tainted as the latter are for him with complicity with dictatorships and tyrannies. The book thus offers an ethical defence of Picasso’s apparently a-political and ‘retrogres- sive’ post-Cubist eroticism and mythopoeic universe. No matter how joyful or ludicrous the paintings become, Clark insists that we shall hear bass notes: of the crisis of the bour- geois order and, negatively, of the horrors of the century. In making this stick, the focus is on the conjuring of space in Picasso’s paintings. In one sense space here is that of the bourgeoisie: it is about things and about private life, about possessions and possession, closeness and domesticity; above all the centrality of space in the discussion is meant to signify a particular kind of world view that is a bed- room, a dining room, a hotel room. There is a real gain here; by attending to the room as the form of space being disturbed in Picasso’s art, Clark wants to overturn our habitual ways of looking at major works: the peculiarly anthropomorphic character of the Mandolin and guitar (Fig.42) is read in the end as a kind of sardonic play in relation to the great tra - dition of still life and interiors in, for example, Dutch art; eyeing the fragments of blue sky in The three dancers (1925; Tate) brackets out repetitious readings of paroxysmal violence and makes the meeting of the monstrous and the mundane stand for a full exteriorisation of passions and values; stage-like space in Guernica (1937; Museum of Modern Art, New York) is brought to life in a discussion of the painting’s grounded ‘gigantism’. There is much more to say along these lines in praise of the original readings of various works by the artist, even if the whole sometimes provokes. One peculiarity is Clark’s hostility to Surrealism (especially noticeable in the ‘Monster’ and ‘Monument’ lectures; lectures 4 and 5); much of Picasso’s interwar achievement arguably makes best sense against a Surrealist discourse that is itself profoundly concerned with crises of truth, of the bourgeois subject, and of polit- ical modernism. It is after all for these reasons that Walter Benjamin, whose thinking to my mind often stalks the pages of Picasso and Truth (he is mentioned here and there), found in Surrealism potent, dangerous cul- tural politics and a reframing of historical consciousness. But such art-historical cavilling misses the real challenge: what of that title, and the looming philosophical presence in the book: Friedrich Nietzsche? There have been numer- ous attempts in the past to associate Nietzsche with Picasso, but Clark’s engagement is con- siderably richer and more sustained.4 This is a departure for him too – none of his previous books has been so explicitly marked by philos- ophy. Nietzsche functions as a guide or a provocateur at certain moments in the argu- ment, and Clark draws freely on texts from what Nietzsche specialists call early, middle and late periods. For previous scholars, Niet- zschean interpretations of Picasso revolved around his formation in the Wagnerism of the Barcelona period – that and his own Niet- zschean-sounding discourse of truth and false- hood (‘art is a lie that makes us realise truth’, ‘truth is a lie’, etc.).5 Clark largely eschews this frame. Instead, Nietzsche functions as the prophet of the modernity that Picasso repre- sents, one where the will to truth has faltered, where the pathological introjection or inter- nalising of instincts is to be overcome, one where art in its ‘untruth’ both reflects and confronts life-denying nihilism. The argument about space in painting is about the twilight of the idol of certainty; the drama of Clark’s book is to show how Picasso’s loyalty to a world of things in rooms is made to coexist or merge with a world of pure spaces and structures, and beyond this – perhaps as a result – to make monstrosity and disorder in the everyday.6 In this book Nietzsche thus represents a profound voice somehow adequate to Picasso’s remark- able painted worlds. To make a philosophical text illuminate painting so evocatively, to such wonderful degrees, is a signal achievement. The political despair and the will to confron - tation with the amoral that motivate the equa- tion Nietzsche/Picasso could itself, perhaps, be subjected to a kind of genealogical testing. What is the choice of Nietzsche as guide meant to produce for our sense not only of Picasso from the perspective of the present moment, but of a critical history of culture today? We should not miss the decision to make Nietzsche central – not Marx, not Benjamin, not Freud, not Adorno. What all- too-human need is fulfilled by the compelling force of Nietzsche as cultural origin? 1 ‘Suppose that truth is a woman’; F. Nietzsche: Beyond Good and Evil, eds. R.-P. Horstman and J. Norman, transl. J. Norman, Cambridge 2002, p.3. 2 The Mellon Lectures remain available as pod- casts at www.nga.gov/content/ngaweb/audio-video/ mellon. html. BOOKS 542 a u g u s t 2 0 1 4 • c l v i • t h e b u r l i n g t o n m a g a z i n e 42. Mandolin and guitar, by Pablo Picasso. 1924. Canvas, 140.7 by 200.3 cm. (Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York). BR.AUG.pg.proof.corrs_Layout 1 16/07/2014 09:44 Page 542 3 Notably by R. Krauss: ‘In the Name of Picasso’, October 16 (Spring 1981), pp.5–22. 4 For early examples, see M. Rosenthal: ‘The Niet- zschean character of Picasso’s Early Development’, Arts 55/2 (1980), pp.87–91; and J.M. Nash: ‘The Nature of Cubism: A Study in Conflicting Explanations’, Art History 3/4 (1980), pp.435–47. 5 D. Ashton, ed.: Picasso on Art: A Selection of Views, New York 1972, pp.21–22. 6 This argument is first made with reference to Wittgenstein rather than Nietzsche, but its end point is a Nietzschean situation. At least some of what Clark argues could have been productively related to or contrasted with Christopher Green’s important book Picasso: Architecture and Vertigo (London 2006), driven as it is by similar conceptual oppositions. Publications Received Miscellaneous Family, Culture and Society in the Diary of Constantijn Huygens Jr, Secretary to Stadholder-King William of Orange. By Rudolf Dekker. 196 pp. incl. 37 col. + b. & w. ills. (Brill, Leiden and Boston, 2013), €98. ISBN 978–90–04–25094–9. Constantijn Huygens the Younger (1628–97) kept a diary between 1649 and 1696. It has much in common with that of his contemporary Samuel Pepys and yet is much less well known and little used by historians and art historians. It certainly deserves far more attention, and in this short account of the diary, Rudolf Dekker, who heads the Centre for the study of Egodocuments and History in Amsterdam, stresses its importance and its breadth of interest. Huygens was, of course, the son of a famous father. Constantijn the Elder had been secretary to three successive Orange stadholders and was a remarkable humanist, poet, musician and scholar. His second son was the great sci- entist and astronomer Christiaan Huygens. Constantijn the Younger followed his father into the service of the Orange family and, most importantly, was secretary to William III during the Glorious Revolution. He accompanied the Stadholder-King on the invasion of England and was at his right hand during his first years as King. For art historians the prime interest of Huygens’s diary will be the references to art, particularly as William III’s status as patron and connoisseur has never been entirely clear. In Huygens’s account William comes across as seriously interested in art. Huygens tells us that, as he marched with his army towards London from the landing at Brixham, William III took the time (despite a heavy cold) to visit Wilton and admire the Van Dycks. Once in London, King and secretary viewed the paintings in the royal collection and spent time discussing and rearranging them. On 3rd May 1689 William sent for Huygens: ‘This after- noon I was with the king, who talked to me about paintings, and in particular about Van Dyck’s “King on Horseback”, which he had removed from the gallery. He thought it had been put in the chamber behind his cabinet, here at Hampton Court, and he wanted to show it to me, but it wasn’t there’. The Queen also asked his advice, on one occasion about a suitable restorer for Mantegna’s Triumphs of Caesar. Huygens also played a significant part in the building and rebuilding of palaces in the Netherlands. On 9th October 1692 he records: ‘The King called for me to see a design by Marot for the upper hall here at Het Loo’. Huygens was considered to be a connoisseur by his contemporaries at court. He formed his own collection of prints, drawings and paintings and advised others. He notes his purchases in the diary and comments on the taste of others. He went with Adriaan van Gent, a member of the States General, to a shop in Fleet Street where Van Gent’s purchases were described succinctly by Huygens as ‘rubbish’. Huygens also formed a remarkable library – in the cat- alogue of the sale, published by the Leiden booksellers Van der Aa after his death, 5,689 books are listed – and in his chapter ‘The Bibliotheca Zuylichemiana’ (Zuilichem was the family estate in Gelderland), Dekker discusses its extraordinary range. The diary gives a fascinating picture of life at the court, which Dekker introduces in chapters on ‘Quacks and Witch- es’, ‘Gossip and Sex’, ‘Servants and Maids’ and ‘The Court as a Microcosm’. He has done a great service in drawing attention to this valuable source for the study of the Netherlands and England in the second half of the seven teenth century, and, more particularly, the court of William and Mary. An English translation of the diary would, of course, increase its accessibility. CHRISTOPHER BROWN Found Sculpture and Photography from Surrealism to Contem- porary Art. Edited by Anna Dezeuze and Julia Kelly. 200 pp. incl. 39 b. & w. ills. (Ashgate Publishing, Farnham, 2013), £55. ISBN 978–1–4094–0000–4. In 1933 Minotaur published a set of six photographs of items of discarded minutiae of urban life – a rolled up bus ticket, a gob of toothpaste etc. Although these items differed from any existing understanding of sculpture, in that they were neither intentional nor preserved, they were dignified with the description, ‘Involuntary Sculpture’. Their continuing presence has, however, been secured in the form of photogra- phy, and this set of images by Brassaï forms the central reference point for this collection of essays that explore the diverse legacies of Surrealism, knowingly or other- wise, adopted by contemporary artists, in terms of the accidental, the impermanent and the role of photography in giving substance to their work. The photographic trace of a work or an ‘act’ of art is never neutral, and tensions between the pretence of its function as objective document and its capacity to make things strange emerge from within most of these case studies. Anna Dezeuze examines the photographic record by Richard Wentworth of the ingenious impromptu solutions that people come up with to solve everyday problems such as propping open a window through processes of fiddling or bricolage – but remains aware of the artist’s ambivalence about the status of his photo - graphs. The example of Allan Kaprow’s Happenings is revealed by Martha Buskirk as a minefield of curatorial conflicts and paradoxes when events, conceived in flux, yet recorded in photographs, are restaged. Mike Kelley’s practice was notable for its proliferation of media, but, John C. Welchman’s richly analytical study argues for the centrality of black-and-white photography to his thinking, precisely in terms of its ambiguity of material, scale and reference and the psychic nuances of media imagery derived from the recent past. Other contributions give greater focus to the orig - inal issues of Surrealism, and Julia Kelly notes the Dada artists’ interest in the Inventors’ Fair in Paris which preceded Breton’s concentration on the unconscious properties of the flea-market discoveries. She also points out the argument of the nineteenth-century anthropologist Henry Balfour that the origins of art could be found in suggestive natural forms, such as the mandrake root – memorably explored in Man Ray‘s photograph Aeneas carrying his father. Steven Harris argues how Hans Arp’s use of plaster as the basis of his ‘concrete’ forms was intended to maintain its ‘involuntary’ nature. Valuable contributions also come from Simon Baker, linking Breton’s understand- ing of photography to the work of Melissa McGill; Margaret Iverson, who applies a semiotic approach to the ‘involuntary’ in photography and reflects on the photographic strategies of Christian Boltanski; Samantha Lackey on the close-up in avant-garde film; and Carrie Lambert-Beatty on Terry Fox’s Children’s tapes (1974). ROBERT RADFORD A History of Chromolithography: printed colour for all. By Michael Twyman. 728 pp. incl. 850 col. ills. (British Library, London, and Oak Knoll Press, Newcastle, 2013), £75. For members of the Printing Historical Society 200 copies are available at £40. ISBN 978–0–7123–5710–4 (British Library); 978–1–58456–320–4 (Oak Knoll Press). ‘I am aware’, Michael Twyman states in his preface to this new book, ‘that I am merely scratching the surface of an enormous subject’. This ‘scratch’ has resulted in a bible of 728 pages and over eight hundred illustrations. Deeply rooted in the ephemera tradition at the Department of Typography and Graphic Com- munication at Reading University, Twyman has devoted his life to the history of a technique that was developed in the nineteenth century, flourished in the second half of that century, and started its decline in the first decades of the twentieth. To art historians lithography is known by the many artists who used the technique as a printmaking tool, culminating in the coloured posters of the first half of the twentieth century. But art historians tend to neglect all commercial work, even if the poster industry was part of that. The production of these colourful and well-collected items was in no way different from the commercial practice of the day, as Twyman points out in his chapter on ‘the chromolithographic artists’. Printing historians are for the most part interested in letterpress and typography, rather than illustration. Book historians deal with the history of the book as a phenomenological object, publishing and the book trade. Twyman starts off his bible with the development of colour printing in general, as old as printing itself. Lithography proved to be the best technique for printing in colour, although technical demands, such as registration and transparency of the inks had to be solved before the technique could develop into the vast industry that arose from it. The development, from the end of the nineteenth century, of photomechanical methods of reproduction, falls outside the scope of this book. Chromolithography had to give way to three- and four-colour reproduction from screened negatives, first in relief printing, then in offset and gravure – common practices today. It is hard to understand the craftsmanship of the ‘chromiste’, the man determining the number of colours to be used, and the order in which they had to be printed to yield the intended result. We can hardly imagine the skill with which such a person could analyse colours of a work of art, by pure instinct and experience, and render them faithfully in the final result by using twelve, sixteen or whatever amount of colours were superimposed. Anyone familiar with the Arundel Society’s huge chromolithographic reproductions will be astonished by the fact that colours were not sep arated using filters and photography, but by experience alone. All methods used in chromolithography – and there were many – are here extensively treated and well illustrated in a way we can all understand. Inevitably there is some overlap with Twyman’s ear- lier writings on lithography. His Lithography 1800–1850 (1970), is now outdated by further research, but the publication of his Panizzi Lectures, held in 2000 (Breaking the mould: the first hundred years of lithography, published by the British Library in 2001), heralded the book here under review. It is very well produced, designed and typeset by Rob Banham, who deserves full credit for the successful organisation of such a wealth of material. The volume opens easily, and, remarkably, the reproductions of original wood-engravings, like those of printing presses, taken from the original catalogue, are reproduced in line, not in halftone. The typography is clear, set in two columns, and the numerous footnotes – in three columns – leave no doubts about the origin of the information in the text. Finally, a list of terms, an excellent index as well as a comprehensive bibliography complete the book. JOHAN DE ZOETE BOOKS t h e b u r l i n g t o n m a g a z i n e • c l v i • a u g u s t 2 0 1 4 543 BR.AUG.pg.proof.corrs_Layout 1 16/07/2014 09:44 Page 543 
work_hhmgq7d6erdfxp6yp57yemznby	----	Life on the ground floor: letters from the edge of emergency medicine | Semantic Scholar Skip to search formSkip to main content> Semantic Scholar's Logo Search Sign InCreate Free Account You are currently offline. Some features of the site may not work correctly. DOI:10.1080/10796126.2017.1384531 Corpus ID: 45108448Life on the ground floor: letters from the edge of emergency medicine @article{Pal2017LifeOT, title={Life on the ground floor: letters from the edge of emergency medicine}, author={Nicole E. Pal}, journal={Medicine, Conflict and Survival}, year={2017}, volume={33}, pages={232 - 234} } Nicole E. Pal Published 2017 Medicine Medicine, Conflict and Survival Nobel Peace Prize in 1985, ‘demonstrates the influence that health professionals can have in global politics’ (P30). The tone throughout is calm, factual and doesn’t hector, but it’s not without passion. Each chapter has helpful summaries at the end which make the booklet a very effective teaching aid. It is also well referenced for further reading. Overall, its summary of the case against nuclear weapons is of great value at this time when the threat of nuclear war is very much back in the… Expand View on Taylor & Francis ncbi.nlm.nih.gov Save to Library Create Alert Cite Launch Research Feed Share This Paper Topics from this paper emergency medicine (field) Cessation of life Fear (Mental Process) Street (environment) Related Papers Abstract Topics Related Papers Stay Connected With Semantic Scholar Sign Up About Semantic Scholar Semantic Scholar is a free, AI-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the Allen Institute for AI. Learn More → Resources DatasetsSupp.aiAPIOpen Corpus Organization About UsResearchPublishing PartnersData Partners   FAQContact Proudly built by AI2 with the help of our Collaborators Terms of Service•Privacy Policy The Allen Institute for AI By clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our Privacy Policy, Terms of Service, and Dataset License ACCEPT & CONTINUE 
work_hk57jvs5mjcx3e6ht26gqlpxlq	----	Publishing and Using Cultural Heritage Linked Data on the Semantic Web Copyright © 2012 by Morgan & Claypool, Palo Alto, CA, USA Synthesis Lectures on Semantic Web: Theory and Technology Editors James Hendler, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Ying Ding, Indiana University Synthesis Lectures on the Semantic Web: Theory and Application is edited by James Hendler of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. Whether you call it the Semantic Web, Linked Data, or Web 3.0, a new generation of Web technologies is offering major advances in the evolution of the World Wide Web. As the first generation of this technology transitions out of the laboratory, new research is exploring how the growing Web of Data will change our world. While topics such as ontology-building and logics remain vital, new areas such as the use of semantics in Web search, the linking and use of open data on the Web, and future applications that will be supported by these technologies are becoming important research areas in their own right. Whether they be scientists, engineers or practitioners, Web users increasingly need to understand not just the new technologies of the Semantic Web, but to understand the principles by which those technologies work, and the best practices for assembling systems that integrate the different languages, resources, and functionalities that will be important in keeping the Web the rapidly expanding, and constantly changing, information space that has changed our lives. Topics to be included: • Semantic Web Principles from linked-data to ontology design • Key Semantic Web technologies and algorithms • Semantic Search and language technologies • The Emerging "Web of Data" and its use in industry, government and university applications • Trust, Social networking and collaboration technologies for the Semantic Web • The economics of Semantic Web application adoption and use • Publishing and Science on the Semantic Web • Semantic Web in health care and life sciences Copyright © 2012 by Morgan & Claypool, Palo Alto, CA, USA iii Publishing and Using Cultural Heritage Linked Data on the Semantic Web Eero Hyvönen 2012 VIVO: A Semantic Approach to Scholarly Networking and Discovery Katy Börner, Mike Conlon, Jon Corson-Rikert, and Ying Ding 2012 Linked Data: Evolving the Web into a Global Data Space Tom Heath and Christian Bizer 2011 Copyright © 2012 by Morgan & Claypool, Palo Alto, CA, USA Copyright © 2012 by Morgan & Claypool All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means—electronic, mechanical, photocopy, recording, or any other except for brief quotations in printed reviews, without the prior permission of the publisher. Publishing and Using Cultural Heritage Linked Data on the Semantic Web Eero Hyvönen www.morganclaypool.com ISBN: 9781608459971 paperback ISBN: 9781608459988 ebook DOI 10.2200/S00452ED1V01Y201210WBE003 A Publication in the Morgan & Claypool Publishers series SYNTHESIS LECTURES ON SEMANTIC WEB: THEORY AND TECHNOLOGY Lecture #3 Series Editors: James Hendler, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Ying Ding, Indiana University Synthesis Lectures on Semantic Web: Theory and Technology ISSN pending. Copyright © 2012 by Morgan & Claypool, Palo Alto, CA, USA www.morganclaypool.com Publishing and Using Cultural Heritage Linked Data on the Semantic Web Eero Hyvönen Aalto University SYNTHESIS LECTURES ON SEMANTIC WEB: THEORY AND TECHNOLOGY #3 CM& cLaypoolMorgan publishers& Copyright © 2012 by Morgan & Claypool, Palo Alto, CA, USA ABSTRACT Cultural Heritage (CH) data is syntactically and semantically heterogeneous, multilingual, semanti- cally rich, and highly interlinked. It is produced in a distributed, open fashion by museums, libraries, archives, and media organizations, as well as individual persons. Managing publication of such rich- ness and variation of content on the Web, and at the same time supporting distributed, interoperable content creation processes, poses challenges where traditional publication approaches need to be re-thought. Application of the principles and technologies of Linked Data and the Semantic Web is a new, promising approach to address these problems. The development is leading to the creation of large national and international CH portals, such as Europeana, to large open data repositories, such as the Linked Open Data Cloud, and massive publications of linked library data in the U.S., Europe, and Asia. Cultural Heritage has become one of the most successful application domains of Linked Data and Semantic Web technologies. This textbook gives an overview on why, when, and how Linked (Open) Data and Semantic Web technologies can be employed in practice in publishing CH collections and other contents on the Web. The text first motivates and presents a general semantic portal model and publishing framework as a solution approach to distributed semantic content creation, based on an ontology infrastructure. On the Semantic Web, such an infrastructure includes shared metadata models, ontologies, and logical reasoning, and is supported by shared ontology and other Web services alleviating the use of the new technology and linked data in legacy cataloging systems. The goal of all this is to provide layman users and researchers with new, more intelligent and usable Web applications that can be utilized by other Web applications, too, via well-defined Application Programming Interfaces (API). At the same time, it is possible to provide publishing organizations with more cost-efficient solutions for content creation and publication. This book is targeted to computer scientists, museum curators, librarians, archivists, and other CH professionals interested in Linked Data and CH applications on the Semantic Web. The text is focused on practice and applications, making it suitable to students, researchers, and practitioners developing Web services and applications of CH, as well as to CH managers willing to understand the technical issues and challenges involved in linked data publication. KEYWORDS Semantic Web, linked data, cultural heritage, portal, metadata, ontologies, logic rules, information retrieval, semantic search, recommender system Copyright © 2012 by Morgan & Claypool, Palo Alto, CA, USA vii Contents Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii 1 Cultural Heritage on the Semantic Web . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.1 Characterizing Cultural Heritage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.2 Information Portals for Cultural Heritage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1.3 Challenges of Cultural Heritage Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1.4 Promises of the Semantic Web . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1.5 Outline of the Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1.6 Bibliographical and Historical Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 2 Portal Model for Collaborative CH Publishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 2.1 Global Access for Local Linked Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 2.1.1 Federated Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 2.1.2 Data Warehousing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 2.2 Collaborative Publishing of Linked Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 2.3 Benefits for End-users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 2.4 Benefits for Publishers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 2.5 New Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 2.6 Components of a Semantic Portal System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 2.7 Bibliographical and Historical Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 3 Requirements for Publishing Linked Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 3.1 Five-star Model for Linked Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 3.1.1 Publishing Structured Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 3.1.2 Open Licensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 3.1.3 Open Formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 3.1.4 Requirements for Identifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 3.1.5 Linking Data Internally and Externally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 3.2 Requirements for Interfaces and APIs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Copyright © 2012 by Morgan & Claypool, Palo Alto, CA, USA viii 3.2.1 Linked Data Browsing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 3.2.2 SPARQL Endpoint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 3.2.3 Download Facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 3.2.4 Human Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 3.3 Bibliographical and Historical Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 4 Metadata Schemas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 4.1 Metadata Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 4.2 Web Schemas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 4.2.1 Dublin Core . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 4.2.2 VRA Core Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 4.3 Cataloging Schemas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 4.3.1 Categories for the Description of Works of Art (CDWA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 4.3.2 SPECTRUM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 4.3.3 Metadata Formats in Libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 4.3.4 Metadata Formats in Archives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 4.4 Conceptual Harmonization Schemas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 4.4.1 Approaches to Semantic Interoperability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 4.4.2 Europeana Semantic Elements (ESE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 4.4.3 Europeana Data Model (EDM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 4.4.4 CIDOC Conceptual Reference Model (CRM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 4.4.5 Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records (FRBR) . . . . . . . . . . . 46 4.4.6 Functional Requirements for Authority Data (FRAD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 4.4.7 Functional Requirements for Subject Authority Data (FRSAD) . . . . . . . . 48 4.4.8 FRBRoo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 4.5 Harvesting Schemas: LIDO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 4.6 Harvesting and Searching Protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 4.6.1 Searching with Z39.50, SRU/SRW, and OpenSearch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 4.6.2 Harvesting with OAI-PMH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 4.6.3 SPARQL Endpoint for Linked Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 4.7 Discussion: Object, Event, and Process Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 4.8 Bibliographical and Historical Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 5 Domain Vocabularies and Ontologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 5.1 Approaches to Ontologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 5.1.1 Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 5.1.2 Lexicography and Linguistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Copyright © 2012 by Morgan & Claypool, Palo Alto, CA, USA ix 5.1.3 Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 5.1.4 Information and Library Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 5.1.5 Computer Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 5.2 Semantic Web Ontology Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 5.2.1 RDF Schema . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 5.2.2 Simple Knowledge Organization System SKOS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 5.2.3 Web Ontology Language OWL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 5.3 Ontology Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 5.3.1 Classifications, Thesauri, and Ontologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 5.3.2 Ontology Types by Major Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 5.4 Actor Ontologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 5.5 Place Ontologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 5.6 Time Ontologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 5.6.1 Linear Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 5.6.2 Cyclic Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 5.7 Event Ontologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 5.8 Nomenclatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 5.9 Bibliographical and Historical Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 6 Logic Rules for Cultural Heritage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 6.1 The Idea of Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 6.2 Logical Interpretation of RDF(S) and OWL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 6.3 Rules for Reasoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 6.3.1 Horn Logic vs. Description Logics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 6.3.2 Closed World Assumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 6.3.3 Unique Name Assumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 6.4 Use Cases for Rules in Cultural Heritage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 6.5 Bibliographical and Historical Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 7 Cultural Content Creation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 7.1 Vocabulary and Ontology Creation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 7.1.1 Conceptual Levels of Ontology Creation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 7.1.2 Transforming Legacy Thesauri into Ontologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 7.1.3 Terminology Creation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 7.1.4 Ontology Alignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 7.1.5 Ontology Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 Copyright © 2012 by Morgan & Claypool, Palo Alto, CA, USA x 7.2 Transforming Local Content into RDF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 7.2.1 Transformation Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 7.2.2 Transforming Relational Databases into RDF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 7.3 Content Aggregation and Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 7.4 Quality of Linked Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 7.4.1 Data Quality of Primary Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 7.4.2 Metadata Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 7.4.3 Quality of Linked Data Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 7.5 Bibliographical and Historical Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 8 Semantic Services for Human and Machine Users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 8.1 Classical Information Retrieval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 8.2 Semantic Concept-based Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 8.2.1 Handling synonyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 8.2.2 Homonyms and Semantic Disambiguation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 8.2.3 Query and Document Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 8.3 Semantic Autocompletion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 8.4 Faceted Semantic Search and Browsing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 8.5 Semantic Browsing and Recommending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 8.6 Relational Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 8.7 Visualization and Mash-ups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 8.7.1 Visualizing Dataset Clouds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 8.7.2 Visualizing Ontologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 8.7.3 Visualizing Metadata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 8.7.4 Visualizing Search Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 8.8 Personalization and Context Awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 8.9 Cross-portal Re-use of Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 8.10 Bibliographical and Historical Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 9 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Author’s Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Copyright © 2012 by Morgan & Claypool, Palo Alto, CA, USA xi Preface Publishing Cultural Heritage (CH) collections and other content on the Web has become one of the most successful application domains of Semantic Web and Linked Data technologies. After a period of technical research and prototype development, boosted by the W3C Semantic Web Activity kick- off in 2001 and the Linked (Open) Data movement later on, major national and international CH institutions and collaboration networks have now started to publish their data using Linked Data principles and Semantic Web technologies. This work is highly interdisciplinary, involving domain expertise of museum curators, librari- ans, archivists, and researchers of cultural heritage, as well as technical expertise of computer scientists and Web designers. Applying a new technology in the rapidly evolving Web environment is chal- lenging not only for non-technical personnel in CH institutions, but also for computer scientists themselves. This book aims at fostering the application of Linked Data and Semantic Web technologies in the CH domain by providing an overview of this fascinating application domain of semantic computing. My own work in this field started in 2001 after the W3C Semantic Web Activity launch by establishing the Semantic Computing Research Group (SeCo) focusing on this field. We first developed a semantic photograph search and recommender system for a university museum, followed by semantic portal prototypes for publishing heterogeneous collections of different kinds, including artifacts in cultural history museums, historical events, folklore, maps, fiction literature, and natural history museum data. This book reflects experiences gained during this work. From the very beginning in 2002, after developing our first ontologies and transforming the first collection databases into RDF, it became clear that the possibility of reusing existing data, metadata models, and ontologies, and linking it all together in an interoperable way, will be a central benefit of Semantic Web applications. W3C recommendations, such as RDF(S), SKOS, SPARQL, and OWL are the corner stones for facilitating cross-domain, domain-independent interoperability, but this is not enough. We also need domain-dependent metadata-models and domain ontologies based on the generic semantic principles, as well as domain specific datasets. From a practical viewpoint, we also need ontology services so that the shared resources can be published and used in legacy and other application systems in a cost-efficient way. In short, a Semantic Web content infrastructure needs to be built in a similar vein as railroad, telephone, and other communication networks were created during earlier technological breakthroughs. Creating a Semantic Web infrastructure, as well as content for it, requires collaboration be- tween content providers. Co-operation is needed not only for sharing data through joint portals such as Europeana, but also for developing shared metadata models and ontologies used in representing the contents in an interoperable way. Publishing CH content is becoming a game of cross-domain Copyright © 2012 by Morgan & Claypool, Palo Alto, CA, USA xii PREFACE networking where the traditional boundaries of memory organizations based on content types are breaking down. From a user’s viewpoint, the focus is on data, knowledge, and experience, be it based on a book in a library, an artifact in a cultural history museum, a story in an archive, a painting in an art gallery, a photograph taken by a fellow citizen, or a piece of music on a record. During these years my faith in Semantic Web and Linked Data has become strong even if there are great challenges ahead, too. This is a truly promising way for providing richer content to users through more intelligent and usable interfaces, and at the same time for facilitating memory organization with better tools for collaborative, open content publishing on the Semantic Web. Eero Hyvönen October 2012 Copyright © 2012 by Morgan & Claypool, Palo Alto, CA, USA xiii Acknowledgments Thanks to the series editors Jim Hendler and Ying Ding for the invitation to write this book, and to Mike Morgan for making the publication possible. The book’s contents are based on collaboration with various students, researchers, and visitors in the Semantic Computing Research Group (SeCo) at the Aalto University and University of Helsinki in different times including (in alphabetical order) Matias Frosterus, Harri Hämäläinen, Tomi Kauppinen, Suvi Kettula, Heini Kuittinen, Jussi Kurki, Nina Laurenne, Aleksi Lindblad, Thea Lindquist, Glauco Mantegari, Eetu Mäkelä, Panu Paakkarinen, Tuomas Palonen, Sini Pessala, Tuukka Ruotsalo, Samppa Saarela, Katri Seppälä, Osma Suominen, Jouni Tuominen, Juha Törnroos, Mika Wahlroos, Mark van Assem, and Kim Viljanen. Ying Ding, Stefan Gradmann, Patrick Leboeuf, Glauco Mantegari, Katri Seppälä, and Regine Stein made fruitful comments to earlier versions of this manuscript. Special thanks to Jouni Tuominen for several comments, suggestions, and help in proofreading the text. C.L.Tondo’s help was invaluable in finalizing the text and layout. Fruitful collaboration with several museums, libraries, archives, and media organizations in Finland is acknowledged, including (in alphabetical order) Agricola.fi network of historians, Antik- varia Museum Group, Espoo City Museum, Finnish Agriculture Museum, Finnish Broadcasting Company YLE, Finnish Literature Society, Finnish Museum of Photography, Finnish Museum As- sociation, Finnish National Gallery, Finnish Public Libraries (Libraries.fi), Helsinki City Library, Helsinki University Library, Helsinki University Museum, Lahti City Museum, National Board of Antiquities, National Library of Finland, and Suomenlinna Sea Fortress. The National Funding Agency for Technology and Innovation (Tekes)1 and consortia of tens of public organizations and companies have supported several research projects of SeCo related to CH, such as Intelligent Catalogs (2002–2004), FinnONTO2 (2003–2012), Semantic Ubiquitous Services (2009–2012)3, and Linked Data Finland4 (2012–). The Finnish Cultural Foundation5 has supported our research on the CultureSampo system, too. Thanks to SmartMuseum EU project6 for funding and collaboration, to European Institute of Technology (EIT) Project EventMAP, as well as to the Network for Digital Methods in the Arts and Humanities (NeDiMAH) (European Science Foundation). Joint work with the University of Colorado regarding war history and linked data is acknowledged. Thanks to collaborations with the 1http://www.tekes.fi/en/ 2http://www.seco.tkk.fi/projects/finnonto/ 3http://www.seco.tkk.fi/projects/subi/ 4http://www.seco.tkk.fi/projects/ldf/ 5http://www.skr.fi/ 6http://www.smartmuseum.eu/ Copyright © 2012 by Morgan & Claypool, Palo Alto, CA, USA http://www.tekes.fi/en/ http://www.tekes.fi/en/ http://www.seco.tkk.fi/projects/finnonto/ http://www.seco.tkk.fi/projects/finnonto/ http://www.seco.tkk.fi/projects/subi/ http://www.seco.tkk.fi/projects/subi/ http://www.seco.tkk.fi/projects/ldf/ http://www.seco.tkk.fi/projects/ldf/ http://www.skr.fi/ http://www.smartmuseum.eu/ xiv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Continuous Access to Cultural Heritage (CATCH) initiative and colleagues at the VU University and other universities in the Netherlands. Eero Hyvönen October 2012 Copyright © 2012 by Morgan & Claypool, Palo Alto, CA, USA 1 C H A P T E R 1 Cultural Heritage on the Semantic Web Cultural Heritage (CH) refers to the legacy of physical objects, environment, traditions, and knowl- edge of a society that are inherited from the past, maintained and developed further in the present, and preserved (conserved) for the benefit of future generations1. This chapter first characterizes the notion of CH and identifies specific challenges encountered when publishing CH contents, especially collection data, on the Web. After this, Semantic Web and Linked Data technologies are introduced as a novel, promising approach to address the problems. The chapter ends with an overview of the book content. 1.1 CHARACTERIZING CULTURAL HERITAGE CH can divided into three subareas. 1. Tangible cultural heritage consists of concrete cultural objects, such as artifacts, works of art, buildings, and books. 2. Intangible cultural heritage includes phenomena such as traditions, language, handicraft skills, folklore, and knowledge. 3. Natural cultural heritage consists of culturally significant landscapes, biodiversity, and geo- diversity. The key players in preserving CH are memory organizations that include libraries, archives, and museums of different kinds specializing in particular areas of CH, such as art museums, archaeological museums, botanical museums and gardens, cultural history museums, medical collections, science museums, theater history museums, geological and mineralogical museums, and zoology museums. Also media organizations often preserve CH materials, especially more recent ones. There are also lots of CH materials maintained by cultural associations of various kinds and individual persons. Tangible CH objects are stored with attached metadata, intangible heritage is documented using textual descriptions, photographs, interviews, and videos, and there are natural history and other museums specializing in storing traces and knowledge of natural history, geology, and environment. 1In this book, the ambiguous term “culture” is used to refer to the “the ideas, customs, skills, arts, etc. of a people or group, that are transferred, communicated, or passed along, as in or to succeeding generations” (Webster’s New World Dictionary). Copyright © 2012 by Morgan & Claypool, Palo Alto, CA, USA 2 1. CULTURAL HERITAGE ON THE SEMANTIC WEB The Web has become an increasingly important medium for publishing CH contents of different kinds. For example, libraries and archives are online with their collections, museums show their collections through collection browsers, and documentation of intangible heritage is available as audio and video recordings and as interactive hypertext applications, even as games. There are large national and multi-national CH portal projects active in harvesting and publishing content from different sources via centralized services. For the layman end-user, such systems provide a single access point to massive heterogeneous collections and an authoritative source of information. In contrast to traditional physical exhibitions, Web services are open all the time, can be accessed without physical presence at an exhibition, the number of exhibits on the Web is not limited by the physical space available, and the exhibits can be linked and accessed flexibly using different strategies, not only the one used in the physical exhibition. Of course, the Web cannot replace the physical experience of visiting a museum or an exhibition in reality but provides a complementary alternative for accessing collection data virtually at any time and from any place. For researchers in the humanities, availability of CH data in massive amounts in digital machine processable form has opened up a new research paradigm called Digital Humanities. 1.2 INFORMATION PORTALS FOR CULTURAL HERITAGE There are several kind of CH publications on the Web. First, there is a large variety of well-curated systems that have been hand-crafted for a specific purpose with a focused closed theme, dataset, and interfaces. Such systems are often implemented using tools such as Adobe Flash with a beautiful game-like appearance. For example, the Lewis and Clark Expedition (1803–1806) is documented on the Web in great detail by several applications. The portal in Figure 1.12 provides the end-user with several thematic perspectives to the journey by selecting the buttons on the left, such as “overview,” “American nation,” “geography,” “journal excerpts,” “natural history,” and “technology used.” Such systems may also be available on CD/DVD as stand-alone applications. On the other end of the spectrum, there are collection search services and browsers providing access to large open collection databases whose content is not thematically focused, and curated access paths and interfaces may be missing. In return, large collection databases originating possibly from several institutions can be accessed. For example, a variety of Australian CH collections can be accessed using the Collections Australia Network system3. Similar federated portals for searching and browsing collections can be found in many countries and internationally. A flagship application here is Europeana4, based on millions of collection objects originating from memory organizations all over Europe. For example, in Figure 1.2 the user has typed in the keyword “chair” in the search field of Europeana and the system has found various chairs in participating collections. The search can be refined further by selecting additional filters on the facets on the left, such as “media type,” 2http://lewis-clark.org/ 3http://www.collectionsaustralia.net/ 4http://www.europeana.eu/ Copyright © 2012 by Morgan & Claypool, Palo Alto, CA, USA http://lewis-clark.org/ http://www.collectionsaustralia.net/ http://www.europeana.eu/ 1.2. INFORMATION PORTALS FOR CULTURAL HERITAGE 3 Figure 1.1: A portal exhibiting versatile content related to the Lewis and Clark expedition (1803–1806) in the U.S. from different perspectives. (Fort Mandan Foundation, North Dakota) “language,” “date,” “country,” and whether content contributed by users should be included or not. Another portal example, harvesting library data, is WorldCat5 that contains metadata (without the primary sources) of about 1.5 billion books, DVDs, CDs, and articles in the participating libraries. The World Digital Library6 is yet another international portal, operated by UNESCO and the United States Library of Congress, that makes available, free of charge, significant multilingual primary materials, such as manuscripts, maps, rare books, musical scores, recordings, films, prints, photographs, and architectural drawings. In this book, the main focus is on information portal systems of the latter kind: CH portals based on large heterogeneous collection datasets are considered, where organizing the contents by hand into a focused thematic application with application-specific visualizations and interfaces is not usually feasible. Such shared publication portals facilitate exchange of knowledge for CH researchers, librarians, and archivists. For the contributing memory organizations, such systems are 5http://www.worldcat.org/ 6http://www.wdl.org/ Copyright © 2012 by Morgan & Claypool, Palo Alto, CA, USA http://www.worldcat.org/ http://www.worldcat.org/ http://www.wdl.org/ 4 1. CULTURAL HERITAGE ON THE SEMANTIC WEB Figure 1.2: Faceted search in Europeana portal exhibiting chairs from different European collections. an opportunity to reach out to wider audiences on the Web with new ways of interaction, and to collaborate with other organizations. From a societal perspective, publishing CH on the Web stimulates cultural tourism, creative economy, and enhances friendly relationships and unity between parties and nations involved in such initiatives. 1.3 CHALLENGES OF CULTURAL HERITAGE DATA CH collection data has many specific characteristic features, such as the following. • Multi-format. The contents are presented in various forms, such as text documents, images, audio tracks, videos, collection items, and learning objects. • Multi-topical. The contents concern various topics, such as art, history, artifacts, and tradi- tions. Copyright © 2012 by Morgan & Claypool, Palo Alto, CA, USA 1.4. PROMISES OF THE SEMANTIC WEB 5 • Multi-lingual. The content is available in different languages. • Multi-cultural. The content is related and interpreted in terms of different cultures, such as religions or national traditions in the West and East. • Multi-targeted. The contents are often targeted to both laymen and experts, young and old. As a result, a fundamental problem area in dealing with CH data is to make the content mutually interoperable, so that it can be searched, linked, and presented in a harmonized way across the boundaries of the datasets and data silos. The problem occurs on a syntactic level, e.g., when harmonizing different character sets, data formats, notations, and collection records used in differ- ent collections. Even more importantly, there is the problem of semantic interoperability: different metadata formats may be interpreted differently, data is encoded at different levels of precision, vocabularies and gazetteers used in describing the content are different, and so on. The Semantic Web standards7 and best practices, especially those advocated by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C)8, provide a shared basis on which interoperable Web systems can be built in a well-defined manner. The new technologies are of course no panacea for all problems but rather a tool set by which the hard issues can be tackled arguably more effectively than before. A major reason for interoperability problems in CH content publishing is the multi- organizational nature in which CH content is collected, maintained, and published. The content is provided by different museums, libraries, and archives with their own established standards and best practices, by media organizations, cultural associations, and individual citizens in a Web 2.0 fashion. The success of the WWW is very much due to its simple distributed many-to-many pub- lishing paradigm that has few restrictions and shared standards, with the HTML mark-up language combined with the HTTP protocol and the idea of URL addressing as core technologies. However, things get more complicated on the Semantic Web, where content is not published only for human users in HTML form but also as data for machines to use. An additional standard base is needed for the Web of Data. In application domains such as CH more coordinated collaboration is needed between CH publishers and the technical WWW developer community than before. 1.4 PROMISES OF THE SEMANTIC WEB Semantic Web technologies9 [34] (SW) are a promising new approach for addressing the problems of publishing CH content on the Web. The term “semantic” here refers to Semantics, a discipline studying relations between signifiers, such as words, phrases, signs, and symbols, and what they stand for, i.e., denotata. In Computer Science semantics refers to the formal meaning and interpretation (declarative or procedural) that has been given to syntactic structures, such as programming languages or symbolic data structures. 7Called “recommendations” by the W3C. 8http://www.w3.org/ 9http://www.w3.org/standards/semanticweb/ Copyright © 2012 by Morgan & Claypool, Palo Alto, CA, USA http://www.w3.org/ http://www.w3.org/standards/semanticweb/ 6 1. CULTURAL HERITAGE ON THE SEMANTIC WEB The Semantic Web can be seen as a new layer of metadata being build inside the Web. According to the traditional definition, metadata is data about data. For example, a metadata record of a book (data) may tell its title, author, subject, and publishing year. However, the term “metadata” is used more widely in the Semantic Web context as a synonym for machine processable or interpretable data. The key idea is that syntactic metadata structures make Web content “understandable” to the machines, based on shared semantic specifications founded on formal logic. This makes it possible to create more interoperable and intelligent Web services. A computer that cannot interpret the data it is dealing with is like a telephone just passing information, and cannot be very helpful in more complicated information processing tasks dealing with the meanings of the contents. Figure 1.3: The data model of RDF is a directed labeled graph. The methodology for representing metadata and ontological concepts10 on the Web is based on a simple data model: a directed labeled graph, i.e., a semantic net. For example, Figure 1.3 depicts an RDF graph telling on a metadata level that the identity p-4 is an individual of the class Person (denoted by the arc rdf:type) with name “Pablo Picasso” born in 1881 at an instance p-18 of the class Place whose name is “Malaga.” In the RDF graph, classes such as places and persons are represented as subclasses (arc rdfs:subClassOf) of the class Thing on an ontology level, while the individuals of the classes are considered metadata. Both metadata and ontologies are represented uniformly in the same graph. In the figure, identities that may have properties, i.e., may have out-going arcs, are depicted as ovals while literal terminal atomic values without further properties (here strings and numbers) as rectangular boxes. The figure illustrates that actually there are several levels of descriptions needed on the Se- mantic Web. 1. Real world. On the bottom, there is the real world, i.e., the domain of discourse, such as persons, artifacts, and places. 10The notion of “concept” is a complex philosophical notion referring to a general idea or something conceived in the mind. On the Semantic Web, the term “concept” is used for any entity on the Web or outside of it with an identity specified by a URI. Copyright © 2012 by Morgan & Claypool, Palo Alto, CA, USA 1.4. PROMISES OF THE SEMANTIC WEB 7 2. Data level. Then there is the data level, since real world items have to be represented as data of some kind in a computer. For example, images and documents are data as well as a URI reference to a person. 3. Metadata level. After data, there is metadata about the data, e.g., records in a collection database about images, persons, or artifacts. 4. Ontology level. Next, ontology level defines the generic classes and properties used in de- scribing a domain, i.e., the vocabularies in terms of which the metadata is represented. The metadata schema used in cataloging and controlled vocabularies of subject headings are part of this level. For example, in Figure 1.3 persons are described in terms of their name, birth time, and birth place, and instantiated from the classes defined on the ontology level. The same ontologies can be used for representing collection metadata of a similar domain area in different memory organizations (e.g., books in libraries). 5. Metaontology level. Finally, there are the general cross-domain modeling principles of on- tologies that are domain-independent. For example, the notions of subclass-of relation and class are generic and not restricted to a particular domain. Such generic principles are speci- fied by the Semantic Web standards, such as RDF(S) and OWL, and facilitate cross-domain interoperability of contents. On a global WWW scale, the Semantic Web forms a Giant Global Graph (GGG) of connected data resources. The GGG can be used and browsed in ways analogous to the WWW, but while the WWW links associated Web pages with each other for human use, the GGG links associated underlying concepts and data resources together. For example, the GGG may tell that ducks are birds, and that Donald is an instance of a duck (and therefore a bird) while the related WWW pages may constitute a comics book about Donald Duck. A key idea of linked data is that the different parts of the GGG can come from different data sources. For example, in Figure 1.3 metadata about persons, such as Pablo Picasso, may come from an authority database, information about places, such as Malaga, may be provided by a land survey organization, and the class ontology can be based on an existing keyword thesaurus in use in a library. Different data sources are illustrated in the figure by different colors/densities. Based on harmonized RDF-based representations of data, more “intelligent” Web applications can be built and with less effort. From a technical application perspective, Semantic Web technologies have many promising features: • More accurate content descriptions. The technology is based on globally unique Universal Re- source Identifiers (URI), which makes it possible to refer to meanings more accurately than using literal expressions. For example, person and place names can be disambiguated: there are lots of “John Smiths” around, “Paris” can be found in France, Texas, and in many other places, and the names can have different transliterations in different language systems. In libraries, the notion of, e.g., Shakespeare’s play “Hamlet” can refer to the abstract story, its manifestation Copyright © 2012 by Morgan & Claypool, Palo Alto, CA, USA 8 1. CULTURAL HERITAGE ON THE SEMANTIC WEB as a text or a video of the play, different translations of it, variants of the story, editions of these, and finally individual books or DVDs on the library shelves. Modeling such semantic distinctions can be done using novel “ontology-based” CH standards to be presented in this book. • Interoperability. Semantic Web technologies provide a novel approach to creating interoperable linked data. • Simple data model for aggregation. Two (interoperable) RDF graphs can be joined together technically in a trivial way by simply making the union of them (i.e., the corresponding triple sets). • Data aggregation by linked data. By combining data sources in an interoperable way, data from one source can be enriched with additional linked data from another source. A notable international initiative toward this goal is Linked Data11 [53], where open datasets such as Wikipedia/DBpedia12 and Freebase13 for common knowledge, GeoNames14 for millions of place names, or Gutenberg project15 for over 40,000 free ebooks are described in terms of Semantic Web standards and interlinked with each other. • Semantic Web services. Semantic linked data is published not only as passive datasets, but as operational services than can be utilized by legacy and other CH applications via open and generic Application Programming Interfaces (API). By utilizing shared ready-made services, application programmers can re-use work done by others, and save their own programming effort and resources. This idea can be paralleled with Google and Yahoo! Maps that provide map services on a global basis to applications via easy-to-use APIs for mash-up development. Publishing CH on the Web is not only a technical challenge; issues of trustworthiness of content, copyrights, and licensing are also of concern. Much of CH content is protected by copyright, and there are also other reasons why organizations cannot publish their data openly, e.g., issues of personal privacy. However, based on the ideas of Linked Open Data, the WWW world is clearly taking steps toward publishing open data and free of charge when feasible. The idea is that CH content should be maximally shared. It is also usually produced by public funding and in this sense already paid by the public. Free open data also fosters interoperability and creates a basis on which commercial applications can be built more easily. Trust and copyright issues are important, e.g., in Web 2.0 spirited social cultural portals, where end-users create, tag, and publish content of their own and the others’. 11http://linkeddata.org/ 12http:/www.dbpedia.org/ 13http://www.freebase.com/ 14http://www.geonames.org/ 15http://www.gutenberg.org/ Copyright © 2012 by Morgan & Claypool, Palo Alto, CA, USA http://linkeddata.org/ http:/www.dbpedia.org/ http://www.freebase.com/ http://www.geonames.org/ http://www.gutenberg.org/ 1.5. OUTLINE OF THE BOOK 9 1.5 OUTLINE OF THE BOOK This book is an introduction to publishing CH contents on the Semantic Web as Linked Data. The idea is to provide a kind of cook book on how to create semantic portals of CH, where heterogeneous content is produced by a multitude of distributed organizations, and is harvested, harmonized, validated, and published as a service for human and machine users. The text starts (Chapter 2) with presenting a motivating “business model” for this prototypical semantic portal scenario that can be considered a kind of standard model for publishing CH on the Semantic Web. In Chapter 3 requirements for publishing Linked Data are considered. The Semantic Web is based on the “layer cake model” of W3C that adds new standards above the XML16 standard family, the lingua franca of the Web. • Metadata level. The RDF data model17 is the basis of the Semantic Web and Linked Data, and is used for representing metadata as well as other forms of content on the Web of Data. Metadata models for CH data are considered in Chapter 4. • Ontology level. The RDF Schema and the Web Ontology Language OWL18 are used for representing ontologies that describe vocabularies and concepts concerning the real world and our conception of it. Domain vocabularies and ontologies for CH are in focus in Chapter 5. • Logic level. Logic rules, to be discussed in Chapter 6, can be used for deriving new facts and knowledge based on the metadata and ontologies.This can be used, e.g., to minimize cataloging work, make searching and browsing more effective, and to find serendipitous semantic links between CH objects. After presenting technical foundations and models, issues related to annotating and harvesting CH content for a portal are presented in Chapter 7. Chapter 8 discusses intelligent services based on semantic linked data. The book is finally concluded in Chapter 9. 1.6 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL AND HISTORICAL NOTES The idea of the World Wide Web (WWW) was proposed first in 1989 by Tim Berners-Lee, and more formally with Robert Cailliau in 1990. History of the early WWW is documented in the book “Weaving the Web” [14]. Already in the early days of the WWW the idea of a “Semantic Web,” i.e., a web of machine interpretable data, has been around. However, the first generation of the WWW was targeted to humans, and was based on three simple technologies for mediating Web pages between human users: HTML, HTTP, and URLs. From a scientific viewpoint, the Semantic Web is based on results of Artificial Intelligence, where semantic networks and logic-based knowledge representation have been studied from the 16http://www.w3.org/XML/ 17http://www.w3.org/RDF/ 18http://www.w3.org/2004/OWL/ Copyright © 2012 by Morgan & Claypool, Palo Alto, CA, USA http://www.w3.org/XML/ http://www.w3.org/RDF/ http://www.w3.org/2004/OWL/ 10 1. CULTURAL HERITAGE ON THE SEMANTIC WEB late 50’s; see, e.g., [126] for a thorough overview of this field. The first Semantic Web standard in use, Resource Description Framework (RDF), was published by W3C already in 1999, only a year after the XML recommendation. As another approach for the Semantic Web, Topic Maps [114] has been developed and published as the ISO standard ISO/IEC 13250:200319. This standard is intended for the representation and interchange of knowledge, with an emphasis on the findability of information. The system originated from the idea of creating semantic indexes for publications. However, Semantic Web development really got off using the W3C standard stack after the publi- cation of the seminal article “The Semantic Web” [15] in Scientific American, and the launch of the Semantic Web Activity at W3C. The semantic technology did not penetrate the market as quickly as many other Web devel- opments, say XML. A reason for this is complexity of some standards and their foundations in logic not so familiar in mainstream computing. In around 2005, the ideas on Linked Data and Web of Data started to gain momentum as a simple approach to the Semantic Web focusing on publishing large existing datasets, and using only simple RDF and lightweight ontologies. Combined with idea of Open Data, the idea of the Semantic Web has been adopted especially by the public sector [158], and several national initiatives have been started in the U.K.20, U.S21, and in smaller countries, such as Finland [67]. A thorough overview of Linked Data and Web of Data is presented in [53]. Semantic Web and linked data standards and technology, with pointers to related research and applications, can be accessed at W3C Web pages22, and at the home pages of the Linked Data community23. The W3C Linked Library Data Incubator Group has evaluated the current state of library data management, outlined the potential benefits of publishing library data as Linked Data, and formulated next-step recommendations for library standards bodies, data and systems designers, librarians and archivists, and library leadership in a final report24. Another report “Linked Data for Libraries, Museums, and Archives: Survey and Workshop Report” with related goals was published at the same date, based on a workshop at the Stanford University25. Major international Semantic Web conferences include the International Semantic Web Conference (ISWC) and Extended Semantic Web Conference (ESWC). The World Wide Web conference (WWW) is the main yearly event for general Web research with a W3C focus. A wide variety of Web applications in the museum domain have been presented in the pro- ceedings of the Museums and the Web conference series since 1997, with papers available online26. The International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA)27 organizes a large annual World Library and Information Congress for libraries, and the International Council on 19http://www.isotopicmaps.org/ 20http://data.gov.uk/ 21http://www.data.gov/ 22http://www.w3.org/standards/semanticweb/ 23http://linkeddata.org/ 24http://www.w3.org/2005/Incubator/lld/ 25http://www.clir.org/pubs/abstract/reports/pub152 26http://www.archimuse.com/conferences/mw.html 27http://www.ifla/ Copyright © 2012 by Morgan & Claypool, Palo Alto, CA, USA http://www.isotopicmaps.org/ http://data.gov.uk/ http://www.data.gov/ http://www.w3.org/standards/semanticweb/ http://linkeddata.org/ http://www.w3.org/2005/Incubator/lld/ http://www.clir.org/pubs/abstract/reports/pub152 http://www.archimuse.com/conferences/mw.html http://www.ifla/ 1.6. 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Cited on page(s) 48 Copyright © 2012 by Morgan & Claypool, Palo Alto, CA, USA http://www.ifla.org/files/classification-and-indexing/functional-requirements-for-subject-authority-data/frsad-model.pdf http://www.ifla.org/files/classification-and-indexing/functional-requirements-for-subject-authority-data/frsad-model.pdf http://www.ifla.org/files/classification-and-indexing/functional-requirements-for-subject-authority-data/frsad-model.pdf http://www.ifla.org/files/classification-and-indexing/functional-requirements-for-subject-authority-data/frsad-model.pdf Copyright © 2012 by Morgan & Claypool, Palo Alto, CA, USA 139 Author’s Biography EERO HYVÖNEN Eero Hyvönen1 is a professor of semantic media technology at the Aalto University, Department of Media Technology, and an adjunct professor of computer science at the University of Helsinki, Department of Computer Science. He directs the Se- mantic Computing Research Group SeCo2 specializing in Se- mantic Web technologies and applications. A major theme in his research during the last years has been the development of a semantic web content infrastructure on a national scale in Fin- land and its applications in areas such as Cultural Heritage. Eero Hyvönen has published over 300 articles, papers, and books. With his SeCo group, he has received several international and national awards, including the Semantic Web Challenge Award (in 2004 and 2008), World Summit Award (WSA) (2010), and Apps4Finland – Doing Good with Open Data (2010). He acts on the ed- itorial boards of Semantic Web – Interoperability, Usability, Applicability, Semantic Computing, and International Journal of Metadata, Semantics, and Ontologies, and has co-chaired and acted on the program committees of tens of major international conferences and workshops, such as ESWC, ISWC, IJCAI, WWW, ICSC, etc. 1http://www.seco.tkk.fi/u/eahyvone/ 2http://www.seco.tkk.fi/ Copyright © 2012 by Morgan & Claypool, Palo Alto, CA, USA http://www.seco.tkk.fi/u/eahyvone/ http://www.seco.tkk.fi/u/eahyvone/ http://www.seco.tkk.fi/ http://www.seco.tkk.fi/ Copyright © 2012 by Morgan & Claypool, Palo Alto, CA, USA 141 Index 303 URIs, 28 AACR2, 56 administrative metadata, 35 AJAX, 118 Anglo-American Cataloguing Rules (AACR2), 56 annotation schemas, 36 antonym, 109 API (Application Programming Interface), 8 appellation, 44 ASK query, 32 association discovery, 114 associative relation, 60 atomic formula, 81 augmented reality, 117 autocompletion, 111 automated link maintenance, 17 Bioportal, 77 blank node, 29 bnode, 29 cataloging schema, 36 CBIR, 108 CCO, 55 CIDOC CRM, 44 CKAN, 33 clause (in logic), 81 Closed World Assumption, 83 cold start problem, 113 collaborative filtering, 113 common sense rule, 84 community portal, 19 completeness (in logic), 85 concept system, 60 CONSTRUCT query, 32 content aggregation, 17 content negotiation, 26 content-based information retrieval, 108 content-based recommending, 113 cultural heritage, 1 culture, 1 Cupboard, 77 CWA, 83 cyclic time, 73 data fusion, 102 data integration, 13 data mining, 35 data quality, 102 data value standard, 55 data warehouse, 14 DataHub, 33 DC application, 37 DDC, 65 denotata, 5 dereferencing (URIs), 28 DESCRIBE query, 32 Description Logic, 82 Description Logic Program, 83 Descriptions Logics, 82 descriptive metadata, 35 Copyright © 2012 by Morgan & Claypool, Palo Alto, CA, USA 142 INDEX Dewey Decimal Classification, 65 Digital Humanities, 11 direct mapping, 98 displaying metadata, 36 distributed content creation, 17 DNS, 68 document centric model, 44 document expansion , 110 Domain Name System, 68 Dublin Core, 37 Dublin Core classes, 38 dumb-down principle, 37 dynamic taxonomies, 119 EDM, 43 Encoded Archival Context for Corporate Bodies, Persons, and Families (EAC-CPF), 42 Encoded Archival Description (EAD), 42 encoding scheme, 38 end-user created content, 18 entailment rule, 80 enumerative subject heading, 65 equivalence relation, 60 ESE, 43 Europeana, 2 Europeana Data Model, 43 Europeana Semantic Elements, 43 event centric model, 44 explanation, 113 expression in FRBR, 47 F-measure, 108 facet, 111 faceted classification, 65 faceted search, 17, 111 fact (in Horn Logic), 82 federated search, 13 FinnONTO, xiii five Ws and one H questions, 55 FOAF, 85 foundational ontologies, 94 foundational ontology, 67 FRAD, 47 frame semantics, 59 FrameNet, 59 FRAR, 47 FRBR family, 46 FRBR object oriented, 49 FRBRoo, 49 free data, 25 free indexing, 95 Fresnel, 116 FRSAD, 48 Functional Requirements for Authority Data, 47 Functional Requirements for Authority Records, 47 Functional Requirements for Subject Authority Data, 48 GAV, 14 generic relation, 60 Geographic Information Systems, 71 GGG, 7 Giant Global Graph, 7 GIS, 71 Global as View, 14 goal (in logic), 82 GoodRelations, 75 GRDDL, 23, 97 harmonization schema, 36 harvesting schema, 36 hash URI, 28 head (in logic), 81 hierarchical classification, 65 homonym, 93 Copyright © 2012 by Morgan & Claypool, Palo Alto, CA, USA INDEX 143 Horn clause, 81 Horn logic, 81 Humanities Computing, 11 hyperonym, 59 hyponym, 59 ICA, 42 identity resolution, 101 IEEE SUMO, 94 IFLA, 46 indexing metadata, 36 information extraction, 35 information portal, 3, 19 Information Retrieval, 107 intangible heritage, 1 integrity condition, 64 International Council of Archives, 42 International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions, 46 International Standard Bibliographic Description (ISBD), 56 Internationalized Resource Identifier, 26 interoperability, 5 IR, 107 IRI, 26 ISBD, 56 ISBN code, 29 ISNI code, 29 ISSN, 29 item in FRBR, 47 JSON, 24 Knowledge Graph, 33 knowledge organization system, 65 knowledge representation, 35 knowledge-based recommending, 113 KOS, 65 language profile (in OWL), 64 LAV, 14 layer cake model, 9 LCC, 65 LDIF, 104 lexicography, 58 Library of Congress, 3 Library of Congress Classification, 65 LIDO, 49 linear time, 73 Linked Media Framework, 104 Linked Open Data Cloud, 30 literal (in logic), 81 Local as View, 14 logic level, 9 Logic Programming, 82 Machine-Readable Cataloging (MARC), 41 MADS, 41 Manchester syntax, 65 manifestation in FRBR, 47 MARC, 41 MARC-XML, 41 memory organization, 1 meronomy, 91 meta-search, 13 metadata, 6 definition of, 35 Metadata Authority Description Schema, 41 metadata element, 36 Metadata Encoding and Transmission Standard, 41 metadata level, 9 metadata schema, 36 metadata types, 35 METS, 41 microdata, 23 microformat, 23 Copyright © 2012 by Morgan & Claypool, Palo Alto, CA, USA 144 INDEX MIR, 108 monotonic logic, 84 multi-search, 13 multimedia information retrieval, 108 museumdat schema, 49 Museums and the Web, 10 N-Triples, 22 N3, 22 named graphs, 102 natural heritage, 1 Nomenclatures, 76 non-monotonic logic, 84 normative definition, 60 Notation 3, 22 OAI-PMH, 52 object centric metadata model, 44 object-centric metadata model, 53 OCLC, 28, 37 OGP, 33 ONKI Ontology Server, 77 ontology acquisition, 104 ontology alignment, 93 ontology evolution, 94 ontology extraction, 104 ontology generation, 104 ontology learning, 88 ontology level, 9 ontology mapping, 93 ontology matching, 93 ontology merging, 93 ontology population, 67 ontology time series, 95 ontology versioning, 95 Open Graph Protocol (OGP), 33 OWL, 64 OWL 2, 64 OWL 2 EL, 64 OWL 2 QL, 64 OWL 2 RL, 64 PageRank algorithm, 108 partitive relation, 60 partonomy, 91 percent encoding, 26 post-coordination, 61 pre-coordination, 61 precision, 107 Predicate Logic, 80 preservation metadata, 36 process-centric metadata model, 55 Prolog, 82 PropBank, 59 property paths, 33 proposition, 79 Proposition Bank, 59 provenance metadata, 102 purl.org, 28 quad, 102 qualified element, 37 quality assessment metric, 102 quality indicator, 102 query (in logic), 82 query expansion, 110 RDA, 56 RDF Refine, 104 RDF/XML, 22 recall, 107 recommendation system, 113 recommender system, 113 redirect (in HTTP), 27 relational search, 114 RelFinder, 114 reserved character, 26 resource, 25 Resource Description and Access (RDA), 56 Copyright © 2012 by Morgan & Claypool, Palo Alto, CA, USA INDEX 145 REST, 118 RIF, 86 Rule Interchange Format (RIF), 86 rules, 84 SAHA-HAKO, 104 schema mapping, 101 Schema.org, 23 SELECT query, 31 Semantic, 5 semantic autocompletion, 17 semantic browsing, 17, 112 semantic enriching, 18 semantic gap, 108 semantic interoperability, 5, 42 semantic net, 6 semantic recommendation, 17 semantic role, 59 semantic search, 17, 109 semantic visualization, 17 service portal, 19 signifiers, 5 SMAP, 119 Snomed CT, 76 soundness (in logic), 85 syllogism, 79 synset, 59 syntactic interoperability, 5, 42 syntax encoding scheme, 38 tangible heritage, 1 taxon, 76 taxonomy, 76 technical metadata, 36 tf/idf method, 108 thema in FRSAD, 48 top ontology, 94 troponym, 59 troponymy, 91 UDC, 65 ULAN, 71, 100 UMAP, 119 UNA, 84 UNESCO, 3 Unique Name Assumption, 84 Universal Decimal Classification, 65 Universal Resource Identifier, 25 universals, 66 URI, 25 URL encoding, 26 use metadata, 36 vector space model, 108 VerbNet, 59 view-based search, 119 vocabulary, 57 vocabulary encoding scheme, 38 VRA, 38 Web 2.0, 8, 18 WordNet, 59 work in FRBR, 47 World Digital Library, 3 WorldCat, 3 wrapper, 14 YAGO, 70 Copyright © 2012 by Morgan & Claypool, Palo Alto, CA, USA hyvonen-ch-final-2012-10-22 1 hyvonen-ch-final-2012-10-22 10 hyvonen-ch-final-2012-10-22 11 hyvonen-ch-final-2012-10-22 12 hyvonen-ch-final-2012-10-22 13 hyvonen-ch-final-2012-10-22 14 hyvonen-ch-final-2012-10-22 2 hyvonen-ch-final-2012-10-22 3 hyvonen-ch-final-2012-10-22 4 hyvonen-ch-final-2012-10-22 5 hyvonen-ch-final-2012-10-22 6 hyvonen-ch-final-2012-10-22 7 hyvonen-ch-final-2012-10-22 8 hyvonen-ch-final-2012-10-22 9 
work_hphnzm6u2bbjfasv2tvzayqhkm	----	[PDF] The Visual Aesthetics of Snowflakes | Semantic Scholar Skip to search formSkip to main content> Semantic Scholar's Logo Search Sign InCreate Free Account You are currently offline. Some features of the site may not work correctly. DOI:10.1177/2041669516661122 Corpus ID: 23807498The Visual Aesthetics of Snowflakes @article{Adkins2016TheVA, title={The Visual Aesthetics of Snowflakes}, author={Olivia C. Adkins and J. Norman}, journal={Perception}, year={2016}, volume={45}, pages={1304 - 1319} } Olivia C. Adkins, J. Norman Published 2016 Psychology, Medicine Perception In two experiments, participants evaluated the perceived beauty of snowflakes and solid objects. The snowflake silhouettes used as experimental stimuli were created from photographs of natural snowflakes. Both the snowflake silhouettes and computer-generated solid objects varied in complexity. In Experiment 1, 204 participants selected the single snowflake and single solid object that was the most beautiful. In Experiment 2, 33 participants rated the perceived complexity and beauty of the… Expand View on SAGE wkunews.files.wordpress.com Save to Library Create Alert Cite Launch Research Feed Share This Paper 4 CitationsBackground Citations 1 View All Figures and Topics from this paper figure 1 figure 2 figure 3 figure 4 figure 5 figure 6 figure 7 figure 8 figure 9 figure 10 figure 11 figure 12 figure 13 figure 14 View All 14 Figures & Tables Esthetics (discipline) Physical object photograph Paper Mentions Blog Post The Visual Aesthetics of Snowflakes (new study) Improbable Research 15 September 2016 4 Citations Citation Type Citation Type All Types Cites Results Cites Methods Cites Background Has PDF Publication Type Author More Filters More Filters Filters Sort by Relevance Sort by Most Influenced Papers Sort by Citation Count Sort by Recency Polygons, points, or voxels?: stimuli selection for crowdsourcing aesthetics preferences of 3D shape pairs K. Dev, N. Villar, M. Lau Mathematics, Computer Science CAE '17 2017 1 PDF Save Alert Research Feed The visual perception of emotion from masks J. Norman, Sydney P. Wheeler Psychology, Medicine PloS one 2020 PDF Save Alert Research Feed The Power of Shape: How Shape of Node-Link Diagrams Impacts Aesthetic Appreciation and Triggers Interest C. Carbon, T. Mchedlidze, Marius Raab, Hannes Wächter Computer Science, Medicine i-Perception 2018 3 View 1 excerpt, cites background Save Alert Research Feed Order, complexity, and aesthetic appreciation. Eline Van Geert, J. Wagemans Psychology 2020 11 Save Alert Research Feed References SHOWING 1-10 OF 39 REFERENCES SORT BYRelevance Most Influenced Papers Recency Fechner's aesthetics revisited. F. Phillips, J. Norman, A. Beers Psychology, Medicine Seeing and perceiving 2010 32 PDF View 6 excerpts, references methods, background and results Save Alert Research Feed Various Attempts to Establish a Basic Form of Beauty: Experimental Aesthetics, Golden Section, and Square G. Fechner, H. Hoege Mathematics 1997 40 View 2 excerpts, references methods Save Alert Research Feed Picasso in the mind’s eye of the beholder: Three-dimensional filling-in of ambiguous line drawings J. Koenderink, A. Doorn, J. Wagemans Psychology, Medicine Cognition 2012 15 PDF Save Alert Research Feed Predicting beauty: fractal dimension and visual complexity in art. A. Forsythe, M. Nadal, N. Sheehy, C. J. Cela-Conde, M. Sawey Psychology, Medicine British journal of psychology 2011 143 PDF Save Alert Research Feed Just how stable are stable aesthetic features? Symmetry, complexity, and the jaws of massive familiarization. Pablo P. L. Tinio, H. Leder Psychology, Medicine Acta psychologica 2009 100 PDF View 1 excerpt, references background Save Alert Research Feed Brain correlates of aesthetic judgment of beauty T. Jacobsen, R. Schubotz, Lea Höfel, D. Cramon Psychology, Medicine NeuroImage 2006 402 PDF Save Alert Research Feed Symmetrical decorations enhance the attractiveness of faces and abstract designs R. Cárdenas, L. Harris Psychology 2006 54 PDF Save Alert Research Feed The power of liking: Highly sensitive aesthetic processing for guiding us through the world Stella J. Faerber, C. Carbon Psychology, Medicine i-Perception 2012 9 PDF View 1 excerpt Save Alert Research Feed It’s not just average faces that are attractive: Computer-manipulated averageness makes birds, fish, and automobiles attractive J. Halberstadt, G. Rhodes Psychology, Medicine Psychonomic bulletin & review 2003 144 PDF View 2 excerpts, references background Save Alert Research Feed The Sense of Beauty; Being the Outline of Aesthetic Theory G. Santayana Philosophy 1996 116 Save Alert Research Feed ... 1 2 3 4 ... Related Papers Abstract Figures and Topics Paper Mentions 4 Citations 39 References Related Papers Stay Connected With Semantic Scholar Sign Up About Semantic Scholar Semantic Scholar is a free, AI-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the Allen Institute for AI. Learn More → Resources DatasetsSupp.aiAPIOpen Corpus Organization About UsResearchPublishing PartnersData Partners   FAQContact Proudly built by AI2 with the help of our Collaborators Blog posts, news articles and tweet counts and IDs sourced by Altmetric.com Terms of Service•Privacy Policy The Allen Institute for AI By clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our Privacy Policy, Terms of Service, and Dataset License ACCEPT & CONTINUE 
work_i6322ydparc2bn4u637yhun6qi	----	AMHA 2009 7 (1).indb 123 Esej Acta med-hist Adriat 2009;7(1);123-128 Essay UDK: 159.91:612.82>(497.5)(091) 612.82:159.91>(497.5)(091) BIOETHICS OF HANDEDNESS: FROM EVOLUTION TO RESOLUTION? BIOETIKA LATERALIZACIJE: OD EVOLUCIJE DO RJEŠENJA? Amir Muzur*, Iva Rinčić* ABSTRACT Departing from historical facts and speculations on the evolution of human right-hand domi- nance (including theories on the development of right-handedness and cultural and linguistic sequellae of such a phenomenon), the present work stresses the delicate problem of the traditional favouring of one particular subpopulation, escalating into a real eugenic practice present sporadically even in modern times. The major hypothesis of the paper would be that the problem of forced handedness had been neglected by (bio)ethical theory, practice, and literature, and that it was absolved only recently by the results of modern neuroscientific research on handedness. According to that hypothesis, ending the discrimination took too much time precisely because the initial lack of the problem insight, which certainly should invoke cautiousness for any potentially similar phenomena in the future. Key words: left-right; handedness; bioethics; eugenics INTRODUCTION One of the major problems in studying consciousness is the so-called “other minds” problem (Farber and Churchland, 1995), that is, the diffi- culty or impossibility to identify with another mindset. This might be the reason why we are so slowly and inefficient in reacting to acts of notorious * Department of Social Sciences, Rijeka University School of Medicine, Rijeka, Croatia. Corresponding author: Iva Rincic, BA, MA. Department of Social Sciences. Rijeka University School of Medicine. Braće Branchetta 20. 51 000 Rijeka. Croatia. E-mail: irincic@medri.hr 124 discrimination in our surroundings. The story of handedness is a paradigm of such neglect of a problem. A LEFT-RIGHT SCIENCE PRIMER Although we have known for a long time that the earliest cave paintings reveal a clear domination of right-handedness (Coren, 1992), we still have no acceptable answer to the questions why asymmetry and why right-handedness is so dominant. Functional lateralization has also been found in some crabs, wild gorilla, captive chimpanzee, and New Caledonian craw populations (Hunt, Corballis, and Gray, 2001), but the hypertrophy in crabs or the domi- nant arm use in chimpanzees is randomly right or left (Napier, 1993). Theories of human right-side predominance have gone so far as to propose that the reason may be in early men handling sword with the right hand and passively covering the heart with a shield using the left hand, or in early women, hold- ing babies in the left hand, to soothe them with the heart beat, and using the right hand to work in the field at the same time (Fabbro, 1995). I think we can agree that these theories are far too speculative. On the other hand, modern findings of an anatomical asymmetry of the planum temporale and some other left-side brain structures, as well as of many functional asymme- tries (Bryden, 1982; Corballis, 1983; Beaton, 1985; Kosslyn et al., 1999) do not offer a solution, but only remind of the old question of the chicken and the egg. It seems certain however that handedness determines much more in our everyday functioning than just language and hand motor function.1 The real era of lateralization studies began in the 1860s, when Paul Broca, a French surgeon, discovered that a high majority of the patients he had followed, developed speech production difficulties after a left- hemisphere defect. Today, we estimate that between 70% and 95% of humans have a left-hemisphere language specialisation.2 Most of them also have a left-hemisphere dominance for hand motor function, but there are rare left-handed persons whose speech centre is left. We also know that left-handedness is either genetic3 or pathological. Autosomal linkage between handedness and palm pattern D in the fourth interdigital area was one of the first indications in favour of a genetic basis 1 http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2005/feb/07/neuroscience.highereducation 2 http://www.indiana.edu/~primate/brain.html 3 The "G-G theory", hypothesizeing that testosterone might delay the maturation of some parts of the left cerebral hemisphere, can also be considered a genetic - hormonal causation (Gschwind and Galaburda, 1987). 125 for handedness (Rife and Kloepfer, 1941). In 2007, LRRTM1 gene was reported, which appears to be responsible for handedness (Francks et. al., 2007). The other cause of left-handedness seems to be a shift after patho- logical changes in the right hemisphere (Galaburda and Habib, 1989)4. Pathological left-handedness may be considered a marker of decreased survival fitness (Coren and Halpern, 1991), and is often related to other pathologies (epilepsy, paedophilia?), etc.) (Fabbro, 1995; Bogaert, 2001; Cantor, Blanchard, Christensen & Dickey, 2004). Those less favoured conditions obviously have not impeded many left- handers from excellent achievements: at least eight American presidents (including some from the most recent history – Reagan, Bush Sr., Clinton and Obama) were left-handers, as well as Benjamin Franklin, Alexander the Great, Charlemagne, Julius Caesar, Fidel Castro, Henry Ford, David Rockefeller, Helen Keller, Albert Schweitzer, criminals John Dillinger and Jack the Ripper, writers Johann Wolfgang Goethe, Lewis Carroll, Mark Twain, H.G. Wells, musicians Ludwig van Beethoven, Niccolò Paganini, Jimmy Hendrix, Paul McCartney, artists Albrecht Dürer, Michelangelo, Raphael, Leonardo da Vinci, Pablo Picasso, philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein, actors Charlie Chaplin, Robert DeNiro, Greta Garbo, Nicole Kidman, Marilyn Monroe, tennis players Goran Ivanišević, John McEnroe, etc. (Fabbro, 1995)5. The right predominance, however, has led the humankind to accept it as a rule and, typically, to ban aberrations from that rule. Linguistics pres- ents an abundant spectrum of discriminatory uses: right in English, Recht in German, and of corresponding terms in many other languages which use right in the sense of orientation and right in the sense of straightness, moral integrity, intellectual correctness, common sense, happiness, beauty, and judicial norm (Fabbro, 1995). On the other hand, Greek laiós and Latin laevus, the root of modern Slavic words lijevi, levi, ljavi, etc., or German links and English left, originally meant “deviated, bent toward the earth” (Skok, 1972, p. 376-377), as well as English sinister, meaning wrong, weird, irregu- lar.6 These terms, nevertheless, are only the reflections of everyday prac- 4 On a hypothesis explaining pathological lefthandedness, see: Markow, T.A., 1992. Human hand- edness and the concept of developmental stability. Genetica 87, no. 2: 87-9 5 http://www.indiana.edu/~primate/left.html 6 Several excellent studies exist treating cultural-anthropological aspects of the left-right phenom- enon. Except for the already quoted work by Fabbro 1995, see also the paper by Peters, M. 1997. Left and right in classical Greece and Italy. Laterality 2, no. 1: 3-6. 126 tice: utensils, musical instruments, sports equipment, etc. have mostly been designed for the right-handed. Moreover, a general attitude that has pre- vailed in our society and in many undereducated families in particular, has quite actively fought against “the aberration” of left-handedness; in extreme situations, left-handed children were accused of being possessed by the devil, or of being Communist; and the left hand of a left-handed child used to be tied behind the back.7 According to our knowledge, the extreme eugenic practice in the Third Reich did not include elimination of left-handers: one is tempted to speculate that the reason was that some of the leading Nazi ideologists were left-handers. There are, of course, nobler tendencies to oppose the discrimination of the left-handers in the modern world. However, despite of a series of mono- graphs and studies (Clark, 1957; 1959), how many primary-school teachers actually know how to teach left-handed children to write? CONCLUSION One has to be honest and admit that ethics and bioethics had failed to stress the problem of left-hander discrimination, and therefore, the resolu- tion of the problem had to wait until neurology found evidence that forc- ing a (pathological) left-hander to switch the hand might provoke serious disturbances in brain functioning and that left-handers can achieve suc- cess as well as right-handers, if not outdo them (Fabbro, 1995)8. Next time we witness discrimination, let us not wait for neurology to act. REFERENCES 1. Beaton, A. (1985). Left Side, Right Side: A Review of Laterality Research. London, UK: Batsford Academic and Educational. 2. Bogaert, A. F. (2001). Handedness, criminality, and sexual offending. Neuropsychologia, 39, 465-469. 3. Bryden, M. P. (1982). Laterality: Functional Asymmetry in the Intact Brain. New York/London, USA/UK: Academic Press. 7 http://handedness.org/action/leftwrite.html 8 http://www.indiana.edu/~primate/left.html 127 4. Cantor, J. M., R. Blanchard, B.K., Christensen, R., & Dickey, P.E. (2004). Intelligence, memory, and handedness in pedophilia, Neuropsychology, 18: 3-14. 5. Clark, M. M. (1957). Left-Handedness: LateralityCharacteristics and Their Educational Implications. London, UK: University of London Press. 6. Clark, M. M. (1959). Teaching left-handed children. New York, USA: Philosophical Library, Inc. 7. Corballis, M. C. (1983). Human Laterality. New York, USA: Academic Press. 8. Coren, S., & Halpern D. F. (1991). Left-handedness: a marker for decreased survival fitness. Psychological Bulletin, 109, 1: 90-106. 9. Coren, S. (1992). Left-Hander Syndrome: The Causes and Consequences of Left- Handedness. New York, USA: Macmillan. 10. Fabbro, F. (1995). Destra e sinistra nella Bibbia: uno studio neuropsicologico. Rimini, Italia: Guaraldi. 11. Farber, I. B., & Churchland, S. (1995). Consciousness and the neurosciences: Philosophical and theoretical issues. In: M. S. Gazzaniga (Ed.), The Cognitive Neurosciences (pp. 1295-1306). Cambridge/London;UK:: A Bradford Book/The MIT Press. 12. Francks, C. et al. (2007). LRRTM1 on chromosome 2p12 is a maternally sup- pressed gene that is associated paternally with handedness and schizophrenia. Molecular Psychiatry, 12: 1129–1139. 13. Galaburda, A. M., & Habib, M. (1987). Cerebral dominance: biological associa- tions and pathology. Discussions in Neurosciences, 4: 2. 14. Gschwind, N., & Galaburde, A. M. (1987). Cerebral Lateralization: Biological Medicisms, Associations, and Pathology. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press/Bradford Books. 15. http://handedness.org/action/leftwrite.html [Acessesed 10 September 2008] 16. http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2005/feb/07/neuroscience.highereducation [Acessesed 01 September 2008] 17. http://www.indiana.edu/~primate/brain.html [Acessesed 31 August 2008] 18. Hunt, G. R., Corballis, M. C., & Gray, R. D. (2001). Laterality in tool manufac- ture by craws. Nature, 414: 707. 19. Kosslyn, S. M., et al. (1999). Hemispheric specialization. In: Zigmond, M. J. et al. (Ed.), Fundamental Neuroscience (pp. 1521-1542). San Diego/London/Boston/ New York/Sydney / Tokyo/Toronto, USA/UK/Australia/Japan/Canada: Academic Press. 20. Markow, T. A. (1992). Human handedness and the concept of developmental stability. Genetica, 87, 2: 87-94. 21. Napier, J. (1993). Hands. Princeton,USA: Princeton University Press. 128 22. Rife, D.C., & Kloepfer, H. W. (1941). An investigation of the linkage relation- ships of the blood groups and types with hand patterns and handedness. Annals of Eugenics, 6: 26-65. 23. Skok, P. (1972). Etimologijski rječnik hrvatskoga ili srpskoga jezika [Etimological vocabulary of Croatian or Serbian language], 2nd ed. Zagreb: Jugoslavenska akademija znanosti i umjetnosti. SAŽETAK Krenuvši od povijesnih činjenica i nagađanja o nastanku dominacije dešnjaka (uključujući teorije o razvoju desne lateralizacije i njezinih kulturnih odnosno jezičnih posljedica), u ovome se članku naglašava osjetljivi problem davanja prednosti određenoj populacijskoj sku- pini koja je dovela do eugeničke prakse čiji se ostaci primjećuju i u sadašnjici. Glavna je hipoteza ovoga članka da je forsiranje desne lateralizacije bilo zapostavljeno od bioetičke teorije, prakse i literature te da je tek nedavno razriješeno zahvaljujući otkrićima moderne neuroznanosti. Prema ovoj hipotezi, trebalo je i previše vremena da se okonča diskriminacija, i to upravo zato što je od samoga početka nedostajao uvid u problem, a to bi svakako trebalo pozvati na oprez pri razmatranju eventualnih sličnih pojava u budućnosti. Ključne riječi: lijeva i desna lateralizacija, bioetika, eugenika 
work_i6wyhdtt2rfztm27clqz7t7uc4	----	I 31 http://dx.doi.org/10.7230/KOSCAS.2013.33.031 디즈니 애니메이션에 나타난 모더니즘 회화스타일 : 색, 형태, 공간을 중심으로 I. 서론 II. 모더니즘 시대의 애니메이션 Ⅲ. 초기 디즈니 애니메이션의 모더니즘 성격 IV. 디즈니 장편분석 1. 색 2. 형태 3. 공간 V. 결론 참고문헌 ABSTRACT 문재철, 김유미 초 록 20세기 초 모더니즘 예술의 다양한 실험은 필름과 카메라의 발명과 함께 애니메이션을 탄생시켰 다. 초창기에는 영화, 사진, 미술 등 예술가들에 의해 이미지와 시간을 접목한 다양한 분야의 이미지 실험이 이루어졌다. 그러나 이후 애니메이션이 상업적으로 성공을 거두면서 점차 흥미위주의 작품이 주류로 자리 잡아 갔으며, 초기 애니메이션의 실험적 특성은 소위 비주류 애니메이션으로 명맥이 유 지되었다. 디즈니 애니메이션 역시 상업적인 작품을 제작하면서 초기작품의 실험적 형태, 움직임의 표현, 그리고 초현실주의적 관점이 반영돼 모더니즘 예술로 긍정적인 평가를 받아왔었지만, 점차 영 화적 리얼리즘을 표방하여 3차원적 영상 이미지 표현에 몰두하였다. 그 예로 애니메이터들에겐 드로 잉과 라이브액션 푸티지(liveaction footage)를 연구하는 클래스를 열어 사람과 동물의 움직임을 재현 하는 테크닉을 발전시켜갔다. 또한 2차원 원급법의 표현적 한계를 극복하고자 기술적으로 멀티플레 인 카메라(multiplane camera), 3D컴퓨터그래픽스와의 합성 등 이미지의 입체감을 강화시켜갔다. 더 욱이 내용면으로 대중적인 동화 소재의 선택과 월트 디즈니 개인의 실사영화에 대한 관심은 애니메 이션 연출에서 헐리우드 영화적 내러티브의 관습과 이미지 재현의 사실성을 강화시켜 초기 작품들이 갖고 있던 고유의 특성이 변질되면서 디즈니 애니메이션은 하위 영상문화 또는 아동적인 것으로 인 식되는 원인이 됐다. 그러나 사라진 듯 보인 초기 모더니즘의 특성들은 이미지 표현에 있어 현재에 도 디즈니 애니메이션에 계승되고 있다. 여전히 장르의 특성상 내러티브의 범주에서 디자인의 대상 성은 중요시되지만 그 표현에 있어서는, 모더니즘 회화가 추구했던 이미지의 단순화와 과장으로 형 태와 색이 줄 수 있는 심리적작용은 애니메이션 디자인에 활용되어 과거에 비해 그 특성은 더욱 강 화됐다. 먼저 간단한 도형의 형태로 단순화된 모더니즘 회화의 특성은 캐릭터 디자인에 차용되고, 색 은 대상의 장식이나 고증적 재현의 일차원적 목표를 넘어 카메라와 인물의 움직임으로 한 하면에서 배치가 바뀌면서 충돌 상쇄하여 관객에게 내적 경험을 유도하게 한다. 추상회화에서 색의 해방이 평 면성으로 귀결된 것과 같이 캐릭터의 단순화된 개념적 색상의 사용은 캐릭터를 평면적으로 보이게 할뿐더러 이와 대조되는 공간은 더욱 평면적으로 나타나게 된다. 또한 카메라 움직임에 따라 드러나 는 배경의 다중시점은 다양한 각도에서 대상의 본질을 표현하려한 모더니즘 회화를 연상시키기에 충 분하다. 이러한 특성들이 초기 모더니즘 회화가 줬던 경험을 환기시킨다는 점에 입각하여 본 연구는 현대 작품들 사례를 중심으로 단순화 또는 과장된 형태, 내적표현의 색, 그리고 공간 사건의 배경의 역할을 유지하면서 움직임이 주는 경험을 20세기 초 모더니즘 회화의 특성과 비교 분석한다. 주제어 : 애니메이션, 디즈니, 모더니즘, 리얼리티, 회화 32 I. 서론 1908년 최초의 애니메이션 <판타스마고리(Fantasmagorie)>가 제작된 시기는 서구유럽의 경우 모더니즘 예술의 시대였다. 그러 한 시대적 배경에서 애니메이션은 무엇보다 20세기 초 모더니즘 예술의 실험을 적극 실현하는 새롭고 혁신적인 예술적 가능성을 가진 장르로 받아들여졌다. 이는 전통의 부재와 더불어 테크놀로 지를 어떤 예술보다 적극 껴안은 탓에 예술의 첨병(advance guard)역할을 할 수 있을 것이라는 생각 때문이었다. 이는 모더 니즘적 실험을 했던 애니메이션의 경우에만 국한되지 않는다. 초 기 디즈니 애니메이션 역시 고정되고 안정된 형태를 거부한 변형 과 유연함으로 다양한 표현 가능성들을 보여줬다는 점에서 모더 니즘 예술로서의 특성을 지니고 있었다. 가령, 구소련의 영화감 독 에이젠슈테인(Eisenstein)은 이것을 원초적 형태의 전능한 변 화 능력으로 봤다. 또한 스티븐 와츠(steven Watts)는 <꽃과 나 무>(Flowers and Trees, 1932)의 결혼식을 방해하는 고목의 폭력 행위 장면에서 인간정신을 프로이드 식으로 이해하고 있었던 모 더니스트들의 사고를 엿볼 수 있다고 주장했다. 다시 말해 그 장 면에는 후기 프로이드학파의 리비도(libido)와 수퍼에고 (superego)가 표현되었다는 것이다.1) 이처럼 초기 디즈니 애니메 이션은 형식의 측면에서나 내적인 측면에서나 모더니즘 예술로 평가될 수 있는 요인들이 존재했다. 그러나 동화적 판타지를 그럴듯한 이야기로 상업화 한 디즈니 애니메이션이 주도를 하게 되면서 초기 디즈니가 보여주었던 모 더니즘적 실험정신은 약화되고 아동용 오락거리로 간주되기에 이 르렀다. 이러한 배경엔 크리스틴 탐슨(Kristine Tompson)이 주장 했듯이 1930년대 이후 내러티브 관습과 리얼리티를 우선시 한 흐 름이 놓여 있고 그 결과 디즈니 애니메이션은 모더니즘보다는 내 1) Steven Watts, Walt Disney: Art and Politics in the American Century, The journal of American History, 1995, p. 89. 33 러티브 중심의 리얼리즘 장르로 이해되기 시작했다. 그러나 애니 메이션은 모더니즘 예술의 실험적 장르로 출발한 이래, 여전히 모더니즘 예술의 특징을 지니고 있다. 실험적인 형태의 애니메이 션이 되었든 내러티브 애니메이션이 되었든 각각의 영역에서 나 름의 방식으로 그 흐름을 간직하고 있는 것이다. 본 논문은 디즈니 애니메이션을 주로 할리우드식 리얼리즘의 관점에서 바라본 탓에 상대적으로 간과되어 온 모더니즘적 가능 성에 대해 논의 하고자 한다. 먼저 모더니즘 예술로 실험된 초창 기 애니메이션의 특징들과 모더니즘적 관점에서 이해할 수 있는 초기 디즈니 애니메이션의 특성을 살펴보고 그러한 애니메이션이 어떤 식으로 할리우드의 고전적 리얼리즘으로 변화되었는지 살펴 볼 것이다. 그 다음 오늘날 디즈니 작품에 나타난 모더니즘적 비 주얼 스타일을 색, 형태, 공간을 중심으로 20세기 초기에 성행했 던 모더니즘 회화와 비교해 볼 것이다. 이를 통해 현재의 디즈니 애니메이션에도 여전히 모더니즘의 명맥이 유지되고 있음을 주장 하고자 한다. II. 모더니즘 시대의 애니메이션 움직이는 대상을 재현하려는 시도는 8개의 다리를 가진 동물의 역동적인 모습을 그린 선사시대의 라스코 동굴의 벽화에서부터, 크로노포토그래피(Chronophotography)기법을 사용한 뒤샹의 <계 단을 내려오는 누드 No.2>(1912)에 이르기까지 여러 작품에서 포 착된다. 정지된 포즈를 취한 모델을 화폭에 옮기는 단순한 재현 에서 벗어나, 이러한 일련의 움직임들은 살아 움직이는 대상의 본질을 포착하려는 표현 욕구로, 웰스(Wells)는 수잔 랭거 (Susanne K. Langer)의 말을 인용하면서 순수미술에서 정지된 형 태에 움직임을 포착하려는 시도는 계속되어 왔으며 애니메이터들 은 필름이라는 매체로 움직임의 욕망을 충족시켰다고 했다.2) 조 2) Paul Wells, Animation: Genre and authorship, Wall Flower Press, 2002. pp. 31-33. 34 르주 멜리에스(Georges Melies), 윈저 맥케이(Winsor McCay), 이 드위드 머이브리지(Eadweard J. Muybridge) 등 여러 예술가들은 일러스트, 영화, 사진 등 다양한 분야의 예술 영역에서 애니메이 션을 이미지와 결합하는 실험을 하였다. 또한 캐리커쳐리스트였 던 에밀 콜(Emile Cohl)은 빛을 쏘인 유리판 위에 완성된 그림을 올려둔 후 그 위에 새로운 종이를 얹어 다음 동작을 트레이스한 다음 완성된 그림들을 다시 네거티브 필름으로 프린트하여 <판타 스마고리(Fantasmagorie)>를 제작하였다.3) 내용은 다음과 같다. 극장에서 관람하던 부인의 모자 장식이 거슬렸던 뒷자리의 남성 은 모자의 장식물을 하나씩 제거한다. 그러자 이내 부인의 머리 는 원으로 변화된다. 점점 커지는 원 안에서 광대가 등장하는 등, 인물이나 사물을 가리지 않고 형태들은 끊임없이 계속적으로 변화되는데 정지된 카툰으로는 표현할 수 없었던 몰핑 과정이 애 니메이션으로 표현된 것이다. 또한 입체파 화가였던 한스 리히터 (Hans Richter)의 <리듬21>(Rhythmus 21)(1921)은 검정 배경에 서로 크기가 다른 하얀색 사각형들이 계속적으로 크기와 배열을 바꾸는 움직임을 보여준다. 데스틸(De Stijl)4) 운동에 참여한 한 스 리히터는 몬드리안과 같이 평면에 표현되는 추상화가 아닌, 사각형이 변화하는 과정에서 생성되고 변화하는 프레임과 면으로 음악과 같은 시각적 리듬을 만들려고 시도했다. 이처럼 초기 애니메이션은 필름이라는 새로운 매체의 등장과 더불어, 정형화된 스타일을 갖지 않고 다양한 실험으로 움직임이 줄 수 있는 애니메이션의 미학을 발견하기 위해 여러 시도를 했 다. 후에 미국의 카툰 스타일 애니메이션이 내러티브와 결합하고 대중적 인지도를 얻어가면서 점차 상업적으로 발전하였지만, 변 3) http://www.brainpickings.org/index.php/2011/07/05/animation-pioneers/ 4) 데스틸(De Stijl)은 양식(the style)에 해당하는 네델란드어. 1917년 몬드리 안과 반데스버그(Yheo van Deoesburg)를 중심으로 몬드리안 등에 의해 1917년 네델란드에서 결성된 기하학적 추상미술 그룹. 데 스틸 운동은 그 원칙을 완 전한 추상에 기반을 두고 있다. 데 스틸 운동의 원리는 조화와 균형이며 그 원리는 엄격하게 적용 될 기하학적 요소들에 의해서만 실현 될 수 있다고 밝 히고 있다. 박동욱,“新造形主義에 立脚한 立體表現 方法 硏究 : 본인 작품을 중심으로”,공주대학교 미술학과 디자인전공 석사학위논문(2012.2), pp.3, 9. 35 방에선 여전히 사진, 순수미술 등을 차용한 실험 애니메이션이 카툰 외적인 영역에서 다양한 이미지 실험을 하면서 초기 애니메 이션의 전복적 성격을 계승하고 있다. 이를테면, 1961년 작품 듀 샹 뷰코틱(dusan vukotic)의 <슈로갓(Surogat)>을 보자. 해변은 유화 캔버스와 같은 거친 텍스추어로 표현되어 있다. 해변에 도 착한 남자 캐릭터가 색종이를 아무렇게 자른 것처럼 생긴 납작한 판에 펌프로 공기를 넣어주면 이 도형들은 각종 캠핑 도구로 변 하고 심지어는 여자로 변하기도 한다. 피카소의 그림을 연상시키 는 옆모습인지 앞모습인지 모를 형태의 캐릭터들은 삼각형이나 반구를 합성한 듯 기본 도형으로 단순화 돼있다. 구상적 재현에 서 벗어나 예술의 순수성을 찾으려고 했던 초현실주의, 입체주 의, 야수주의의 예술의지가 필름이라는 새로운 매체와 결합되어 파생된 것이 애니메이션의 실험 아방가르드 예술이었다면 그러한 경향은 사라진 것이 아니라 여전히 이어지고 있는 것이다. 그림 1. <슈로갓>(Surogat)의 인물은 단순한 도형으로 나타난다. III. 초기 디즈니 애니메이션의 모더니즘적 성격 디즈니의 초기작에서 찾아 볼 수 있는 특징 중 하나는 형태를 단순화하고 자유롭게 변형하는 실험적 경향인데 이는 애니메이션 만의 미학과 가능성을 보여주는 것으로 모더니즘 의 실험적 경향 을 반복하고 있는 듯하다. 가령 <해골의 춤>(The Skelton 36 Dancing)에서 해골의 흐느적거리는 움직임과 공중에 걸어놓은 듯 머리를 중심축으로 한 웨이브는 중력의 상식을 상실하고 있는데, 질량을 무시하고 늘어나거나 줄어드는 해골의 다양한 형태변화는 정형화되지 않은 무한한 가능성을 보여준다. 이러한 형태는 초현 실주의 작가 살바도르 달리(Salvador Dali)의 <기억의 고집>(The persistence of memory)(1931)을 연상시킨다.5) 달리는 축 늘어진 시계로 과거의 자신과 억눌린 욕망의 무의식을 표현했다. <해골 의 춤>에서 흐느적거리는 해골의 모습은 달리의 작품과 같이 꿈 과 같은 비현실 세계를 나타낸 듯 보인다. 디즈니 애니메이션에서 모더니즘적 회화성향은 다양한 형태에 서 찾아볼 수 있는데, 삼각형, 원, 네모 등의 단순한 도형을 기 본으로 한 입체주의적 캐릭터 디자인이나 그라데이션이 없는 원 색의 표현이 그것으로 웰스(Wells)가 형태를 만들고 애니메이션 으로 만드는 과정이 브라크(Braque)와 칸딘스키(Kandinsky)와 맥 을 같이 한다고 본 것과 같다. 브라크가 대상을 격자로 분석한 다음 다시 종합적 입체주의로 표현한 것, 칸딘스키가 자유로운 색으로 음악과 같은 리듬을 만들어내는 것이 디즈니 애니메이션 스타일에 나타나 있기 때문일 것이다. 이렇게 1930년대 중반까진 월트 디즈니는 새로운 형태의 모더 니즘 예술가로 평가될 수 있는 흔적을 강하게 지녔지만, <Oswarld the Rabbit> 시리즈의 이후, 사업성과 영화적 사실주의 를 표방한 재현 테크닉을 발전시키면서 디즈니 애니메이션에 모 방(Mimesis)적 성격이 강화되었다는 시각이 우세하다. 기술적으 로 1930년대에 테크니칼라(technicolor)와 멀티플레인 카메라 (multiplane camera)를 작품에 성공적으로 적용하고, 현실 대상 의 색 재현과 3차원적 환영의 공간감을 만들어내면서 디즈니 애 니메이션은 상업적 성공과 대중적 인기를 얻게 되었다. 실제 이 기술들은 <Flowers and Trees>(1932), <The Old Mill>(1937)의 5) <기억의 고집>(The persistence of memory)은 여러 레이어의 백그라운드에 대 비되어, 전경의 세 시계는 달팽이와 같이 늘어져 사라져가고 유린된 시간을 상징화한다. Cathrin Klingsohr-Leroy, Surrealism, Taschen, 2008, pp. 38-39. 37 제작에 사용되었고 <백설공주>(snow white and the seven dwarfs)(1937)의 성공과 함께 디즈니 애니메이션의 비주얼 스타 일로 정착하게 된다. 컴퓨터 그래픽의 발전과 함께 더욱 현실적인 공간을 연출할 수 있게 되었고, 다양한 각도의 카메라 워크가 가능하게 됨에 따라 이러한 리얼리즘 스타일은 더욱 영화적인 스타일로 발전해갔다. 컴퓨터 그래픽 합성은 초기엔 2D 이미지 합성에 적용되었지만 이 후 역동적이고 실제와 같은 연출을 위해 3D 그래픽이 사용되었 다. 1985년 <타란의 대모험>(The Black Cauldron)에서는 여주인 공의 황금빛 마법 구체에 3D 컴퓨터 그래픽이 사용되었고, CAPS(Computer Animation Production System)를 도입하여 <미녀 와 야수(Beauty and the Beast)>(1991)에서는 입체적 카메라 워 크로 배경을 현실감 있게 표현했다.6) 이 애니메이션은 카메라에 맞춰 인물의 형태와 동작을 자연스럽게 표현하기 위해 풀 애니메 이션(full animation)으로 제작되어 현실감을 증진하였다. 테크 놀로지의 이러한 경향은 디즈니 애니메이션을 초기의 모더니즘의 특징들과 더욱 멀어지게 하면서 라이브 액션 영화의 사진적 리얼 리티와 경쟁하는 단계로 나아가게 했다. 그러나 영화와 같은 연출과 스토리 그리고 그래픽 스타일에도 불구하고 소위 디즈니적 움직임과 비주얼 스타일은 여전히 모더 니즘의 흔적으로 보이는 특징들을 지니고 있다. 스티븐 와츠 (Steven Watts)는 그의 논문에서 월트 디즈니를 ‘하이브리드 센 티멘탈 모더니스트(a hybrid sentimental modernist)’라 하면 서, 애니메이션은 생명력과 움직임의 케리커쳐로써 자연의 법칙 에 위배되는 전의식적 정신세계(preconscious mental life)를 체 화하는데 리얼리즘을 차용했다고 봤다. 그에 의하면, 월트 디즈 니는 그 표현방식에서 고전예술의 전제를 따랐지만, 이는 내러티 브 리얼리즘을 표현하고 상상과 현실사이에서 설득력을 얻기 위 해서라는 것이며, 또한 2차 대전 이후 월트 디즈니의 애니메이 6) 박재윤, 「디지털 테크놀로지발전에 따른 디즈니 장편 드로잉 애니메이션 연 구」, 『만화애니메이션연구』,통권 제26호(2012.3), pp. 57-78. 38 션에 대한 열정이 영화로 옮겨가고, 컴퓨터 그래픽의 발전이 디 즈니 애니메이션 스타일을 더 3차원의 세계에 가깝게 만들었지 만, 이미 1930년대에 완성된 디즈니 애니메이션의 비주얼 스타일 은 지금까지도 모더니즘적 특성을 유지하고 있다.7) 다음 장에서는 이와 같은 문제의식을 바탕으로 구체적인 텍스 트 분석을 통해 여전히 디즈니 애니메이션에 존재하는 모더니즘 적 스타일을 찾아보고자 한다. IV. 디즈니 장편 분석 1. 색(color) 보통 애니메이션에 등장하는 인물의 의상이나 배경의 색은 내 러티브에 맞춰 인물의 신분을 표현하거나 이야기의 배경적 특성 을 나타내기 위해 사용되지만, 디즈니 애니메이션에서는 보다 자 유롭고 원색적으로 사용되는 경우가 있다. 이런 식으로 색을 사 용하는 것은 스토리의 세계를 그럴듯한 현실적 세계로 표현하는 것에서 표현에서 벗어나, 색의 따뜻함이나 차가움 등 다양한 특 성들을 이용하려는 작가의 해석에 의한 것으로 모더니즘 회화에 서 두드러지는 표현방식이다. 특히 디즈니 애니메이션에서 찾아 볼 수 있는 특징 중 하나는 색들이 서로 충돌하거나 조화를 이루 면서 음악적이고 생동감 있게 사용된다는 점이다.8) 동적이고 음 악과 같은 내면의 색이란‘재현적 고유색’이라는 관념에서 벗어 나 있는 것으로, 19세기 초 추상주의 화가인 칸딘스키가 색을 정 신성의 표현으로 본 것과9) 구상적 형태로 내면의 색을 표현한 앙 7) Steven Watts, op. cot., pp. 84-110. 8) 칸딘스키는 순수색의 심리학적 효과, 이를테면 빨강색이 트럼펫 소리와 같은 느낌을 불러일으킬 수 있다는 것을 강조하였다. 이러한 방법으로 정신과 정신 을 결합시키는 것이 가능하며 또 그것이 필요하다는 신념으로, 그는 색채로 표현된 음악을 최초로 시도하여 전시하는 용기를 보여주었다. E.H. 곰브리치, 『서양미술사』, 백승길, 이종숭 역, 예경, p. 569. 9) <미술에 있어서 정신적인 것에 관하여>에서 칸딘스키는 예로 밝은 빨강색이 트럼펫 소리와 같은 느낌을 불러일으킬 수 있다는 것을 강조했다. E.H.곰브리 치, 백승길, 이종숭 역, 앞의 책, p. 569. 39 리 마티스10)를 연상시킨다. 디즈니의 애니메이션 <쿠스코? 쿠스코!>(The Emperor's New Groove)를 보자. 이 영화에서 배경의 채색은 음영으로 3차원의 공간을 보여주지만, 캐릭터들의 뚜렷한 외곽선은 인물을 배경에 서 분리해 내고 있고 또 단색으로 채색되어 비구상회화와 같은 평면성을 보여준다. 평면성이란 모더니즘 회화의 특징이다. 모더 니즘 회화는 조형성을 강조한 과거 사조들을 부정하면서 회화에 서 입체의 환영을 걷어내고 평면성을 전면에 내세웠다. <쿠스코? 쿠스코!>에서 디테일과 음영이 생략된 평면적인 색은 사실적으로 표현된 배경과 대조를 이루면서 색의 인상을 전면에 드러내고 있 다. 이것은 인물과 연결되어 있는데, 이기적이고 철부지 같은 왕 쿠스코(Kuzco)엔 빨강과 노랑을 주색으로 사용해 그를 조금은 경 박하지만 활발하고 긍정적인 모습으로 표현한다. 한편 난색인 빨 강과 노랑의 배색은 쿠스코를 단순히 탐욕스러운 왕의 모습이 아 닌 온화한 내면의 소유자로 비춰지도록 한다. 칸딘스키의 색채론 에 영감을 준 괴테는 노랑과 빨강은‘화창하고 웅장한 효과’를 지닌다고 했다. 그러나 쿠스코가 라마의 모습으로 변했을 때에, 그의 의상(털)의 색은 명도와 채도를 낮춘 노랑과 빨강의 유사 색을 사용하여 캐릭터 간의 연관성은 유지하면서도 과거의 부와 권력이 박탈된 것을 나타낸다. 칸딘스키가 색을 따뜻함과 차가 움, 밝음과 어둠의 네 가지 음향으로 분류한 것과 같이 색이 주 는 내적효과는 내러티브의 맥락에 맞추어 연출되어 왔지만, <쿠 스코? 쿠스코!>의 색은 보다 강렬한 색채의 사용으로 인물의 표 정이나 제스처 보다는, 칸딘스키의 작품이 주는 색이 주는 리듬 감처럼 캐릭터의 퇴장에 맞춰 음악적 리듬을 형성해 유희를 느끼 도록 해준다.11) 10) 앙리 마티스(Henri Matisse)는 프랑스화가로, 장식적인 단순화에 재능을 가 지고 있었으며, 오리엔트의 양탄자와 북아프리카 경치에서 색채의 짜임새를 연구했고 현대 디자인에 커다란 영향을 끼친 양식을 발전시켰다. 그는 빛과 광채의 인상을 보존하려는 단계에서 더 나아가 눈 앞에 전개된 장면을 장식적 인 패턴으로 변형시키려고 했다. E.H.곰브리치, 백승길, 이종숭 역, 앞의 책, p. 571. 11) 칸딘스키는 색조의 따뜻함과 차가움, 밝음과 어두움으로 보았으며, 노랑은 40 그림 2. <쿠스코? 쿠스코!> 쿠스코의 색상표 그림 3. 칸딘스키, <노랑 빨강 파랑(Jaune-rouge-bleu)>(1925) <카우 삼총사(Home on the Range)>(2004)에서 소도둑의 두목 은, 마치‘피리부는 사나이’가 쥐들을 강가로 유인하는 것처럼, 요들송으로 소들을 최면상태로 빠지도록 한 다음 은폐장소로 끌 고 간다. 소들이 최면에 빠지기 시작하면서 군대 같이 일사분란 하게 열을 맞추며 행진하기 시작하는데 소들과 푸른 톤(tone)의 따뜻함으로 보는 사람 쪽으로 가깝게 가며(육체적, 원심적), 파랑은 차가움으 로 보는 사람에게서 멀어져 가는(정신적, 구심점) 색으로 서로 대립을 한다고 봤다. 또한, 하양은 밝음을 검정은 어두움으로, 하양이 탄생의 영원한 저항, 가능성 있음을 나타낸다면, 검정은 죽음, 절대적인 무저항, 가능성 없음을 의 미하여 대립관계를 이룬다고 했다. 색들을 배치함으로 이러한 네 개의 주요 음향은 대립과 조화로 의미를 생성한다. 칸딘스키, 권영필 역, 『예술에서의 정신적인 것에 대하여』, 열화당미술책방, 2010, pp. 83-87. 41 주변 환경은 고명도와 고채도의 색으로 변하고, 요들송의 박자에 맞춰 계속적으로 색을 바꿔간다. 환각상태의 소들이 속한 세계는 분홍색 또는 고명도의 노란색의 톤이 주로 사용되고, 최면에 걸 리지 않은 카우 삼총사가 속해있는 영역은 저녁의 푸른색으로 서 로 충돌한다. 칸딘스키는 노란색을 전형적인 지상의 색이며 광 포, 맹목적인 착란증, 광조의 상태를 나타내고, 빨간색은 사방으 로 자기 힘을 소모하는 노란색의 경솔함이 없는, 자기 내부에서 분출하고 작열하는 색으로 봤다. 밝고 따뜻한 빨강(새턴 레드)에 대해서도 힘, 에너지, 지향성, 결단성, 기쁨, 승리 등의 감정을 일깨워 주고, 파란색은 노랑, 빨강과 같이 따뜻한 색들과 대립을 이룬다고 봤다.12) 최면상태의 소들을 통해 보여주는 색채들은 재 현의 색을 버리고 강렬한 색채로 주관성을 솔직하게 표현한 야수 파의 색채해방을 떠올리게 한다. 그림 4. <카우 삼총사>에서 최면상태의 소 떼 배경의 색조 역시 특정한 색으로 긴장감을 조성하고 인물의 심 리와 극의 긴장감을 가시적으로 드러내는 등 내러티브에 충실하 다. 보통 이러한 연출은 장소의 특성 맞게 색을 사용하여 관객들 이 색의 변화를 눈치채지 못하게 하지만, <쿠스코?쿠스코!>에서 는 라마가 정글의 맹수와 조우할 때 배경색은 갑자기 높은 명도 12) 칸딘스키, 권영필 역, 『예술에서의 정신적인 것에 대하여』, 열화당미술책 방, 2010, pp. 89-97. 42 의 빨간색으로 바뀌고, 이들이 맹수의 추격에서 벗어나면 서서히 파란색으로 변한다. 이렇게 다양하게 연출된 색은 주제가 다른 여러 씬(scene)들에서 관객에게 노출되는 시간을 조절함으로써 리듬을 만들어 관객과 이미지와의 내적 교류를 이끌어 낸다. 그림 5. <쿠스코? 쿠스코!(The Emperor's New Groove)>(2000) 2.형태 칸딘스키는 동일한 색상이라도 형태에 따라 각기 다른 정신적 가치를 가진다고 봤다.13) 작품에 사용된 형태는 구상이나 추상의 문제보다는 어떠한 형태가 됐든 내면의 표현이 될 수 있다는 것 이다.14) 애니메이션에 있어서 형태의 재현은 내러티브와 관계되 어 이루어지는 데 대상의 형태를 어느 정도 과장 또는 단순화하 는 것으로 내적 반응을 이끌어 낸다. 특히, 디즈니 애니메이션의 특정 작품의 경우 인물의 두개골은 간단한 구(sphere)에서 시작 되고 턱은 날카롭거나 사각형 또는 밀가루 부대와 같이 넓게 늘 어지는 형태로 붙여지고, 전체적인 체형 또한 의상과 함께 다양 한 실루엣을 만들어 캐릭터의 특성을 나타내는데 이 모든 과정은 간단한 도형에서 시작된다. 입체파 전기에 피카소는 세잔의 충고를 문자 그대로 받아들여 형태를 구, 원추, 원통의 비구상적15) 형태로 단순화하여 눈앞의 현상을 도형으로 표현하려 했다. 피카소는 <바이올린과 포 13) 파버 비렌, 김진환 역, 『색채의 영향』, SIGONGART , p. 88. 14) 진중권, 『미학오디세이』, Huminist, 2011, pp. 92-93. 15)'추상’이라는 용어는 ‘비구상(non-objective)’ 또는 ‘비구상 (non-figurative)’란 말로 대체되어야 한다는 주장이 있다. E.H.곰브리치, 앞의 책, p. 570. 43 도>(1912)에서 사물의 특징이 가장 잘 드러나는 단위로 분해하여 화면을 구축했다. 이 그림에서 바이올린은 눈으로 부분을 관찰한 인상을 조합해놓은 듯하다. 바이올린의 옆선의 과장된 곡선은 악 기를 손으로 만졌을 때 우리가 받는 느낌을 표현하고 있는데, 즉 신체의 눈과 마음으로 생각하는 재해석된 바이올린을 표현하고 있는 것이다.16) 디즈니 애니메이션에서도 피카소의 <바이올린과 포도>에서 바 이올린처럼 구상적 형태에 과장과 단순화를 가미해 내적인 느낌 을 디자인 한 캐릭터를 발견할 수 있다. 예를 들어 <알라 딘>(1993)에서 캐릭터의 형태는 다음의 그림과 같이 디자인 되었 다. 그림 6. <알라딘(Aladdin)> (1993) 17) 16) E.H.곰브리치, 앞의 책, pp. 573-574. 17) John Musker, Ron Clements (2004). Art Review (DVD). Aladdin: Platinum Edition (Disc 2): Walt Disney Home Video. 44 그림 7. <바이올린과 포도>, 파블로 피카소(Pablo Picasso) 앞에서도 언급한 바와 같이, 애니메이션에 있어서 스토리와 캐 릭터 형태의 관계는 긴밀하여 재현의 문제에서 완전히 자유로울 수 없다. 그러나 애니메이션에서 인물은 장면의 조형요소 또는 상징수단으로 작용함에 있어 훨씬 자유롭다. 다시 말해 라이브 액션영화와 달리 이미 외적으로 인물의 성격이 뚜렷이 표현되는 경향이 크다는 것이다. 예컨대 얼굴 형태나 실루엣 디자인은 캐 릭터의 성격을 말해주고 나아가 그로인해 앞으로 일어날 일에 대 한 복선이 된다. 물론 이러한 대응관계들은 상징성만을 나타내는 것은 아니다. 여러 이미지들이 한 장면에서 배치되고 충돌하면서 새로운 이미지의 경험을 발생시키기도 한다. 이러한 경향은 셀 애니메이션과 3D 이미지의 합성으로 보다 사 실적이고 입체적인 배경을 지닌 <아틀란티스: 잃어버린 제국 (Atlantis The Lost Empire)>(2001)에서도 분명히 나타난다. 캐 릭터는 배경에 비해 단순화된 형태로 디자인되는데, 언어학자이 자 지도제작자인 마일로(Milo)는 스테레오타입 캐릭터의 전형을 따르지만, 연필과 같이 좁고 아래로 기울어진 어깨와 턱선은 각 진 형태로 최소한의 곡선을 사용하여 디자인되어 있다. 요컨대 이와 같은 형태의 디자인은 비록 내러티브의 흐름 속에 서 캐릭터의 성격을 암시하는 등 의미생산의 역할을 하지만, 동 시에 그와 같은 내러티브적 기능 외에 모더니즘 회화의 경우처럼 45 형태성 그 자체에 주목하게 한다. 즉 관객은 이중의 경험을 하게 되는 것이다. 내러티브 리얼리즘에 맞춰 캐릭터를 수용하는 동시 에 모더니즘 회화의 경우에서와 같이 형태 그 자체를 관람할 수 있게 된다. 그림 8. <아틀란티스: 잃어버린 제국(Atlantis The Lost Empire)>(2001) CG의 합성과 사실적인 배경묘사에서도 인물의 형태는 과장된 스타일화로 표현 3. 공간 내러티브 애니메이션에서 배경공간은 일차적으로 인물의 심리 상태나 극적 상황 등 스토리를 위한 장치로 사용된다. 따라서 대 게 애니메이션의 배경 공간은 리얼리즘에 기초에 디자인된다. 가 령, 조형적으로 극에 리얼리티를 부여하기 위해 원근법이 활용되 는 것이다. 하지만 애니메이션의 공간이 스토리의 공간적 사실성만을 추구 하는 것만은 아니다. 때로 이 공간은 선 원근법을 뒤틀거나 원근 법을 과장하거나 또는 여러 개의 원근법을 사용하여 독특한 시각 효과를 만들어내기도 한다. 예를 들어 카메라 팬(pan)이 이루어 지는 장면을 보자. 그와 같은 경우에서는 보통 시작점과 끝점의 원근법이 각기 다르게 되는데, 카메라가 수평으로 이동할 때 화 면에 가까운 물체의 시점이 변하지 않고 한결같은 형태를 보여줌 으로써18) 복수의 원근법을 사용한 테크닉이 드러나게 된다. 그 18) 만일 카메라 앞에 박스가 위치하고 있고, 카메라가 좌에서 우로 이동한다면 그 박스는 보통 좌측과 앞면이 보이고 카메라 이동에 따라 점점 시점이 변화 46 결과 배경은 더 이상 현실의 공간이 아닌 조작된 공간이 되어 공 간적 리얼리티의 환영은 깨지게 된다. <피노키오(Pinocchio)>(1940)에서 카메라는 밤하늘 달의 클로 즈업에서 시작해 마을의 지붕 위를 지나 제페토(Gepetto)의 오두 막을 향해 하강한다.19) 카메라의 위치와 수평선이 일치할 땐, 배 경의 공간은 안정적으로 보인다. 하지만 카메라가 이동하게 되면 서로 다른 원근법사이에 놓인 집들의 벽면들이 서로 다른 공간상 에 소실점을 갖고 있어 관찰자의 시점을 알 수 없는 모호한 공간 이 되어 버린다. . 그림 9. 세잔 <사과와 오렌지 (Pommes et oranges) > (1895년경~1900년경) 디즈니 애니메이션의 이와 같은 공간재현은 역시 모더니즘 회 화의 공간구성을 떠올리게 한다. 위의 <피노키오>의 장면은 관찰 자가 어느 지점에서 바라보는지 모를 세잔의 다중시점을 연상시 킨다. 폴 세잔의 <사과와 오렌지(Pommes et oranges)>20)를 보자. 4개의 소실점으로 이루어진 이 공간은 하나의 시선이 아닌 여러 각도에서 관찰된 이미지들을 조합하고 있어 관람자는 시선을 옮 되면서 정면만 보이다가 카메라가 우측에 도달했을 땐 박스의 정면 일부와 우 측이 보이게 된다. 19) Daniel N. Wood, Adam Finkelstein,John F. Hughes, Craig E. Thayer, David H. Salesin, <Multiperspective panoramas for cel animation>, Siggraph 1997. 20) 꽃병은 화면 왼쪽 위에서, 설탕 단지는 수평선 높이, 과일바구니는 화면 아 래쪽, 바구니 속 과일은 화면 오른쪽에 위치. 47 기면서 대상을 보는 듯한 느낌을 받는다.21) <피노키오>에서 하나 의 원근법 지점에서 다른 지점으로 카메라가 움직일 때 관객은 마치 한 지점에서 다른 지점으로 고개를 돌려 보는 것과 같은 경 험을 하게 된다 그림 10. <카우 삼총사(Home on the Range)>(2004) <카우 삼총사(Home on the Range)>(2004)에서는 깊이감을 최소 화하여 원경을 뚜렷히 구분한 탓에 배경은 평면적으로 나타난다. 평면성이란 모더니즘 회화가 환영적인 3차원 공간을 재현하기 위 한 사용되었던 선과 색채의 원근법을 버리고 이를 단순화하면서 나타난 특징이다. <카우 삼총사>에서는 캐릭터들의 연기가 행해 지는 공간인 중경을 제외하고는 나머지 공간층위는 디테일과 음 영이 없는 형태로 단순화되거나 때론 단색으로 평면 처리되어 있 다. 여기서 근경엔 사물이 배치되지 않고, 지평선 멀리 보이는 산이나 바위가 위치한 후경은 하나의 덩어리처럼 같은 레이어 (layer)로 처리된다. 조르주 블라크의 <스타크의 집들>(1908)에 서 공간이 분석적으로 분해된 것처럼, 배경이 몇 개의 그룹으로 나뉘고 서로 다른 층위에 존재하여 그 공간들은 단절되어 표현된 다. 여기서 배경은 다시 텍스처나 음영이 없이 단색으로 채색된 탓에 캐릭터는 배경과 분리돼 각기 다른 레이어에 존재하고 있음 을 드러내 주게 된다. 특히 애니메이팅 되는 인물이나 소품은 명 확한 외곽선을 갖고 있고 배경과 대조되게 채색되어 있어 대비가 21) 진중권, 『서양미술사 모더니즘편』, Huminist, 2011, pp. 61-62. 48 강해진다. 이것은 관객의 시선이 움직이는 대상에 집중하게 되면 서, 배경은 애니메이팅 되는 대상을 강조해주는 네거티브 스페이 스(Negative space)로 남는 것과 같다. V. 결론 초기 디즈니 애니메이션은 많은 평론가들에게 모더니즘 예술의 가능성을 구현하는 장르로 평가받았지만, 어린이 대상의 판타지 소재로 상업성에 치중한 결과 전반적으로 아동적인 오락거리라는 인식을 얻게 되었다. 또한 보다 실제 같은 움직임과 장면을 만들 기 위한 기술과 스타일이 개발된 탓에 디즈니 애니메이션은 초기 모더니즘 예술로서의 성격이 차츰 약화되게 되었고 대신 이른바 고적적 할리우드의 사실주의 미학으로 포섭되기에 이르렀다. 그 러나 모더니즘 예술로서의 특징은 리얼리즘적 테크닉에 희석되거 나 숨겨져 있을 뿐 여전히 잔존하면서 여러 작품에서 다른 형태 로 드러내 왔다.22) 디즈니의 관심사가 라이브 액션 스타일로 옮겨간 후, 이전의 모더니즘 경향은 나인 올드 맨(nine old men)’23)에 의해 하나의 비주얼 스타일로써 그 성격이 유지되었다. 인물들은 단색으로 음 영이 없이 채색되고, 장식이나 무늬가 없는 단순화된 형태와 색 의 의상을 입고 있다. 고채도, 고명도의 원색에 가까운 색들은 색 그 자체로 캐릭터의 일부이다. 관객은 그 인물의 목소리를 듣 기 전에 그리고 스토리를 이해하기 전에 색을 통해 그 인물에 대 해 많은 것을 알게 된다. 평면적인 색과 더불어 인물의 신체는 22) 예로 <덤보(Dumbo)>에서 술이 섞인 물을 마셔 취한 덤보가 분홍 코끼리의 퍼 레이드 환상을 보는 장면은 모더니스트의 초현실주의적 관점으로 나타난다. 또한 에이젠슈테인(Eisenstein) 역시 퍼레이드 씬(scene)에서 공중에 떠다니 는 방울이 코끼리로 변하는 몰핑장면을 ‘플라즈마(Plasma)’개념으로 설명하 면서 애니메이션이 메타모포시스(metamorphosis)의 능력을 가지고 있다고 했 다. 즉, 이들은 디즈니의 작품이 초현실주의자적 모더니스트의 스펙트럼에 포 함되는 것으로 보았던 것이다. Steven Watts, op. cit., p. 89. 23) 월트 디즈니가 신입 교육을 맡긴 9명의 애니메이터들은 '나인 올드 맨(Nine Old Men)'으로 불리며 월트 디즈니와 끝까지 함께 일했다. 49 해부학적으로 불가능한 형태로 과장되거나 단순화 된다. 종종 배 경은 음영을 줘서 채색하거나, 컴퓨터 그래픽스의 효과로 실사의 느낌을 재현하지만 실루엣만을 따라 그린 듯한 인물의 선은 배경 과 분리되어 초현실의 공간처럼 보일 때가 있다. 이와 같은 색과 형태의 단순화와 과장, 왜곡, 그리고 본문에서 살펴보았듯이 원 근법의 파괴나 변형 등은 20세가 초반의 모더니즘 회화의 특징이 라는 관점에서 이해될 수 있는 것들이다. 최근까지 3D 컴퓨터 애니메이션만을 내놓는 디즈니가 최소한의 비주얼 스타일만 갖고 그와 같은 모더니즘적 미학에서 완전히 벗 어나느냐 하는 것은 중요한 문제일 것이다. 미야자키 하야오는 2013년 7월 <바람이 분다> 공식 기자회견에서 2D 애니메이션만을 제작할 것이라고 밝혔고, 지브리 프로듀서 스즈키 토시오는“미 국 역시도 현재 3D는 쇠퇴해가고 있다. 영화계가 불황기에 접어 들면 3D 붐이 일어나지만 3년 정도면 끝이 난다. 지난해 미국에 서 3D 영화가 약 100편밖에 만들어지지 않았다”고 덧붙였다.24) 현재 디즈니가 시장원리에 맞춰 수익성이 좋은 3D 애니메이션만 제작하게 됨에 따라 시장이 재편되는 것은 당연한 시대적인 흐름 일 것이다. 그러나 여기에서 2D 애니메이션이 가졌던 고유한 모 더니즘의 미학과 정체성이 무시되어 사라졌다거나, 3D 애니메이 션만의 새로운 미학의 평가가 제대로 이루어지지 않은 상황에서 무조건적으로 과거 스타일로의 회귀를 주장하는 건 시기상조일 것이다. 디즈니의 모더니즘적 특징이 더 이상 지금 여기의 현대 적인 것이 아니듯, 그리고 서양미술사를 볼 때 예술이 시대적 상 황과 유기적으로 발전하고 자기반성을 통해 오랜 시간 변화와 반 복을 거듭한 것처럼, 2D 애니메이션의 변화 속에서 어떤 새로운 미학이 만들어질지는 계속적인 연구가 필요할 것이다. 24) 매일경제 스타투데이, http://star.mk.co.kr/new/view.php?mc=ST&no =640181&year=2013 50 참고문헌 김지영,『월트 디즈니』, 살림출판사, 2009. 진중권, 『진중권의 서양미술사 모더니즘편』, 휴머니스트 , 2011. 진중권,『미학 오디세이1』, 휴머니스트, 2009. 진중권,『미학 오디세이3』, 휴머니스트, 2009. 칸딘스키, 권영필 역,『예술에서의 정신적인 것에 대하여』, 열화당미술 책방010, 2010. 파버 비렌, 김진환 역,『색채의 영향』, SIGONGART , 2008. E.H. 곰브리치, 백승길, 이종숭 역, 『서양미술사』, 예경, 2009. 박동욱,“新造形主義에 立脚한 立體表現 方法 硏究 : 본인 작품을 중심 으로”,공주대학교 미술학과 디자인전공 석사학위논문(2012.2). 박재윤, 「디지털 테크놀로지발전에 따른 디즈니 장편 드로잉 애니메이 션 연구」, 『만화애니메이션연구』,통권 제26호(2012.3), pp.57-78. 최정윤,「초기 디즈니 애니메이션의 유토피아적 가능성 - 미키 마우스에 관한 벤야민의 사유를 중심으로」, 『한국콘텐츠학회논문지 』제10 권 제7호, 2010년 10월. 본질과 현상 | 2010년 겨울 22호 | pp.296-325 | 2010년 12월 | 본질과 현상 김윤지, “미야자키 하야오 "3D 애니메이션? 전혀 계획 없다"”, 『매일 경제 스타투데이』, 2013년 7월 26일. http://star.mk.co.kr/new/view.php?mc=ST&no=640181&year=2013. 『월간미술』 2000년 4월호: http://www.monthlyart.com/200004 /special_01.htm 『매일경제』, www.mk.co.kr, 검색어: 미야자키 하야오 2D. Cathrin Klingsohr-Leroy, Surrealism, Taschen, 2008. Jayne Pilling 편집, Animation Studies, 1997. Paul Wells, Animation and Ameraca, Rutgers University Press, 2002. Paul Wells, Animation: Genre and Authorship, Wall Flower Press, 2002. -- , Understanding Animation, Routledge, 2009. Steven Watts, Walt Disney: 「Art and Politics in the American Century」, The journal of American History, 1995. 51 Daniel N. Wood, Adam Finkelstein,John F. Hughes, Craig E. Thayer, David H. Salesin, 「Multiperspective panoramas for cel animation」, Siggraph 1997. CFA, www.hfs.hr 검색어: Cartoon realism by Walt Disney. YOUTUBE, www.youtube.com, 검색어 : Paleolithic cave drawings, 2013.03.04. BRAINPICKINGS: http://www.brainpickings.org, 검색어: Before Walt Disney: 5 Animations by Early Cinema Pioneers. <덤보> (Dumbo, 1941) <리듬21>(Rhythmus 21, 1921) <백설공주>(Snow White, 1937) <슈로갓> (Surogat, 1916). <아틀란티스: 잃어버린 제국> (Atlantis The Lost Empire, 2001). <카우 삼총사> (Home on the Range, 2004). <쿠스코? 쿠스코!> (The Emperor's New Groove, 2000). <판타스마고리>(Fantasmagorie, 1908) <해골의 춤>(The Skelton Dancing, 1929) <꽃과 나무>(Flowers and Trees, 1932) 52 ABSTRACT Modernist painting style in Disney animation Moon, Jae-Cheol ․ Kim, Yu-Mi In the early twentieth century, history of animation began by modern artists, they produced various experimental images with the newly invented film and cameras. Artists in the field of movie, photography, paintings and others manipulated images in motion. But as some animated movies won industrial success and popularity, they became the trend but experimental style of early animation preserved by so-called non-mainstreamers or experimental animators, counteracting commercialism. Disney animation also followed the trend by applying realistic Hollywood film style, the worse critics placed a low value on the animation and it tarnished the image, although it was profitable investment from a business standpoint. To make images realistic, they opened a drawing class that animators developed skills to imitate motions and forms from subjects in real life. Also some techniques and gizmos were used to mimic and simulate three dimensional objects and spaces, multiplane camera and compositing 3D CG images with 2D drawings. Moreover, they brought animation stories from fairly tales or folk tales, and Walt’s personal interest in live-action movies, they applied Hollywood-film-like narratives and realistic visual, and harsh criticism ensued. On the surface early disney animations’potential seems to be weakened, but in reality it still exists by simplifying and exaggerating forms and color as modern arts. Disney animation employs concepts of the modernism paintings such as simplified shapes and colors to a character design, when their characters are placed together in a scene, that visual elements cause mental reaction. This modification gives a new internal experience to audiences. As conceptual colors in abstract paintings make images appeared to be flat, coloring characters with no shading make them look flat and comparing to them, background images are also appeared to be flat. On top of that, multi-perspective at background images recalls modernist paintings. This essay goes in details with the animation pioneers’works and how Disney animation developed its techniques to emulate real life and analyses color schemes, forms, 53 and spaces in Disney animation compared with modern artists’works, in that the visual language of Disney animation reminds of impression from abstract paintings in the beginning of the twentieth centuries. Key Word : Animation, Disney, Modernism, Reality, Painting. 문재철 중앙대학교 영상학과 교수 (156-756) 서울시 동작구 흑석로 84 중앙문화예술관(301동) Tel : 02-820-5718 jcmoon@cau.ac.kr 김유미 중앙대학교 영상학과 영상예술학 박사과정 (156-756) 서울시 동작구 흑석로 84 중앙문화예술관(301동) Tel : 02-814-9110 yumik777@gmail.com 논문투고일 : 2013.11.01 심사종료일 : 2013.11.24 게재확정일 : 2013.11.29 
work_i7i4jsienzdctn4kuemqhvmccu	----	Proceedings 2017, 1, 963; doi:10.3390/proceedings1090963 www.mdpi.com/journal/proceedings Proceedings Art Is Thinking in Images † (Viktor Shklovsky), for whom “animagism” was a form of illiteracy of thought. Francesco Cervellini School of Architecture and Design, University of Camerino, Camerino 62032, Italy; francesco.cervellini@fastwebnet.it † Presented at the International and Interdisciplinary Conference IMMAGINI? Image and Imagination between Representation, Communication, Education and Psychology, Brixen, Italy, 27–28 November 2017. Published: 23 November 2017 Abstract: The theme of the conference regards images. Since the theme is so vast, I have handled it by dedicating to it some basic general reflections. Therefore, I maintain that the best choice is to evoke the aphorism in the epigraph: I propose a series of fragmented memories or annotations taken while reading and looking at images, or even citations. Keywords: ars; master of ars; painting; image; imagination; disegno; sketching 1. Introduction The true sense of the aphorism in critical theory is precisely this: writing with urgency, starting from a concrete figure, throwing flashes of theory here and there with the awareness that one cannot do better. (Stefano Petrucciani). The theme of the conference regards images. Since the theme is so vast, I have handled it by dedicating to it some basic general reflections. Therefore, I maintain that the best choice is to evoke the aphorism in the epigraph: I propose a series of fragmented memories or annotations taken while reading and looking at images, or even citations, although I am often guilty of lacking the author’s name. I offer “flashes of theory” proposed in concurring or even contradictory sequences, “without chronological or narrative order, but with the coherence of a detonation moving along the entirely Proustian thread of a memory that proceeds through figurative madeleines”, as Gianni Canova would say (see below). These are notes, therefore, that try to trace a border around my main interest and a line within, which is perhaps discontinuous and contorted where it intersects materials and essential techniques. My interest is overtly for the formed image: the one intentionally given a form with aesthetic goals (which in many experiences in modern art can also be “unformed”, as Rosalind Krauss has demonstrated). Having said this explicitly, another preliminary caution is important. As the writer of the Italian Wikipedia page states, the image in a literally rigorous sense is a “visual, non-solid representation”. As clarified then in a footnote, “the image is not the physical support on which it can be fixed or visualized. It is the visual information fixed or visualized upon the support”. This affirmation— increasingly valid today in the digital age—seems to suggest the essential conceptual nature of the techniques used to produce actual images, that is, an inventive search for meaningful ways and procedures that are mostly virtual. On the other hand, throughout history, the image was inseparably fixed in works with a physical substance, even if it was sometimes only represented allusively. Beyond those preceding the pure conceptualization of an appearance, it also refers to other techniques—material production to use Kandinsky’s term—of the artificial references of the images, production as the fruit of knowledge and ancient traditions or very modern experimentation. Proceedings 2017, 1, 963 2 of 7 But in this age of transition, the subsistence/coexistence within images of both types of techniques does not constitute an insoluble conflicting condition. Better yet, on the one hand, it reconfirms both their specific cognitive value—that is, not only descriptive/illustrative—and the mandatory need for systematic experimentation with them (as an unavoidable need to verify the law of facts). On the other hand, it finally pushes towards the desired start of systematic investigation of the means from which the work of art is born, setting aside both the spiritual abstractions of romantic aesthetics and the likewise abstract institutionalism of superperforming advantages of the digital medium. All of this is initially oriented towards a reflection on the possibility/opportunity for a linguistic structure of the systems of formed visual images, beginning with an attempt to indicate their possible grammatical foundation. All of what follows is basically notes that intersect with the various techniques, to be collected and developed (Figure 1). Figure 1. Picture of the author visiting In Orbit—2017 tempoarary exhibit of Tomás Saraceno in Standenhaus, Kunstsammlung Nordrhein-Westfalen, Düsseldorf. 2. On Images and Imagination  “We make pictures of the world for ourselves”, Ludwig Wittgenstein said in his Tractatus. Today’s technoscience has only increased the capacity of scientists to work with images and representations.  Various types of images can be classified: the image as a picture (figure on supporting material), the mental or representational image, the dreamlike and mnemic image, the image as a figured Proceedings 2017, 1, 963 3 of 7 trope of language, the image as an object of individual and collective imagination and unconscious; from A. Pinotti and A. Somaini, Cultura visuale, Einaudi, Turin, 2016.  Like memory, imagination does not only sanctions the step from the sensible to the intelligible, from physis to all its opposite extremes (logos, techné, nomos, etc.) but is specified in a nature and a culture that it has made possible on its own. (Maurizio Ferraris)  Seeing oneself. Seeing is not a neutral or naïve act separable from the person who sees or is seen. With regard to The Anatomy Lesson by Rembrandt in Amsterdam, Valery loved to say that the eye is the most spiritual of the senses. Words, like an image, a reflection, a representation, converge on the ophthalmic scene. The eye is the inevitable organ both of knowledge and its distortion. All that pertains to the experience of looking is a mental refraction of matter …. The maximum of reality and the maximum of theatricality come into contact with artifice, reflex, interference on reality, of reality, with reality. The viewpoint is to be used as a great metaphor, only by knowing itself to be unknown to itself without certainty or identity, is it possible, can one try to reposition oneself as objects of the world. (Magrelli). 3. Notes on the Techniques of Invention  Repetition is impartial and a null sum of variations and unaltered identities.  “Repetition is recollection carried forward”. (Kierkegaard)  Editing: composing what is simultaneous into a sequence, connecting what is iconic to what is discursive.  Metre is a measure and ordering value. The measure fixes a value as an opportune limit, but gives a hint of the sense of limitlessness, of what lies beyond.  Every work in some phase of its development acquires its own “normativeness”, becoming a model of “rule-making creativeness”. 4. Notes on the Techniques of Inventing the disegno and Some Expressive Methods  Manual disegno [1] is one of the oldest means of experience and human knowledge, certainly predating writing and history. Its “effective, subtle artisanship” recalls the myth of Daedalus, whose work expressed creative fantasy and the community’s productive ability. Today the sense of community seems rather weak, yet like the disegno, it survives and does not disappear, even if we must accept that it changes. The “new pencil”, however, should allow and authorize the meaning of sentiments that we mistakenly claimed were stable to change freely, but not to reduce or delete them.  The private worth of the disegno as a memorandum remains unaltered; looking at another’s disegno has always meant immersing oneself in a dimension separate from the mental field of its creator.  To understand the aspect (and the value) of a disegno that was just made, one should imagine it as terrain whose superficial similarity highlights the stratification of its elaboration (and its sense). Immediately after observing its format and the approach with which it was set, it is first necessary to concentrate on analysing the visible surface (with the graphical techniques that produced it). Its consistency is given concretely by a “humus” of sensible phenomena—physical matter and manual practices to distinctively recognize and classify: shading and light, colouring and staining, collage and superposition of the most varied materials, dry and desiccated or, in contrast, viscous and thickened, disposed to “texturizing” larger or smaller fields or to mark the linear outlines of figures.  Tracing the sign and the space together: the magical capacity of the design consists in fencing in the space but also the time, the “iconographic instant of the archetypical sign”, consigning it definitively to the present.  Any invention disegno is also a self-portrait, or better yet, “the disegno is a double transfer: from reality to the author and then back to artificial reality” (Franco Purini).  “Thought does not descend from the sky, nor does it bypass the head. It is, rather, the result of practice, of habits of externalization that retrospectively constitute our inner reality”, Maurizio Proceedings 2017, 1, 963 4 of 7 Ferraris in Il Pensiero manuale in La Repubblica, 12 February 2017—(like the disegno. Author’s note).  Cézanne says, “the instant the paint becomes a gesture, the painter thinks in paint”. Figure 2. Claude Monet Ninfee, 1920, National Gallery, London. 5. Notes on the Techniques of the Masters  Vasari writes, “Giotto discovered, in part, something of the gradation and foreshortening of figures”.  Michelangelo’s disegni grew not through layers of technical determination, but instead, according to him, as occurred for the form, which was nestled in the heart of the marble and awoken by “force of removal”, that is, by erosion and excavation far from any simple talent and by naturalistic mimesis, although so easy for him, but empty of sense and aimed at an arduous identity of their making.  Raphael opened the 1500s with The Marriage of the Virgin [2].  Wislawa Szymborska (Polish poet) states that Vermeer “is the painter of silence. Each of his paintings is painted silence”.  According to Federico Zeri, Ingres was “the minister of the line”. His line is absolute.  Rembrandt had, like few others, the ability to represent the glare of metals.  John Constable (1776–1837) was one of the best landscape painters: the inventor of the modern landscape (the so-called “Constable Country”). To find a parallel it is necessary to think of the Provence of Cézanne and Van Gogh or the Île of Corot and Monet).  Poussin defined his own position with respect to colour: he indicated, in fact, a sort of theory of the “methods” to be applied as a function of the “genre”.  Delacroix: colour as a luminous mass that coagulates its own edges. Assembler les rêves (Assembling Dreams) is the title of Delacroix’s diary.  The Lemon by Manet (1880) disavows the chromatic naturalism of Caravaggio. 6. Monet’s Turning Point  “Gather the nature of the fact”, Monet said. For this it was not necessary to work more than two hours continuously. The effect of the luminous-chromatic condition for Monet lasted about 30 min and the goal of painting was to render the history of those 30 min.  It is probably with one of his famous water lilies, painted around 1907, that Monet abolished the horizon. He physically expels it above the “window”, which therefore ceases to be such; between observed reality and representation, the relationship that is instituted becomes completely different: a relationship of instantaneous correspondence, as Monet himself said many times about wanting to search and establish. (Figures 2 and 3) Proceedings 2017, 1, 963 5 of 7 Figure 3. Claude Monet Stagno di ninfee, 1915–1926, Chichu Art Museum, Naoshima, Kagawa. 7. Notes on the Modernism Masters  Critical syntheses on the origin of painting in the 1900s “rest upon” a binary scheme of two complementary evolutionary lines: (a) the line from Fauvism to Divisionism and (b) the line from Cézanne to Cubism [3] (Figure 4).  “In nature everything is modelled according to three fundamental modes: the sphere, the cone, the cylinder. You must learn to paint these very simple figures, then you can do what you want”. (Cézanne)  1906 is the year of Les demoiselles d’Avignon, that is, the year when modern painting began [4].  In 1913 Franz Marc, one of the promoters—with Kandinsky—of Der Blaue Reiter, painted and exhibited a painting called Blaue Fohlen [Blue Foals]. He was asked by a visitor when he had ever seen blue horses and he responded curtly with what could be considered one of the most blunt summaries of modern art: “I didn’t paint horses. I painted a painting”.  “Here for the first time,” says Shklovsky, “iron is standing on its hind legs and seeking its artistic formula. In the age of construction cranes, as fine as the wisest Martian, iron has the right to go on a rampage … The monument is made of iron, glass, and revolution”.  The modern painter no longer considers the image as a simple substitute for a sensible reality. The great painting tradition of the 1900s cannot be understood without also rediscovering the icon. The metaphysical world of a Malevic is the icon in an anti-icon sense. But also Mondrian. In Mondrian there is a search for the archetype. (The variations are variations on something identical.) These influences are very noticeable not only in theory but also in certain figurative choices: as Malevic said and as Mondrian would repeat, in the elimination of what is retinal, in a solely mental depiction, in the strong push towards intellectualization. It is a painting of pure intelligence where feeling counts for absolutely nothing: it is a revelation of archetypes, of geometrical figures. It is a revelation of reality in a platonic, not empirical, sense.  Klee and German idealistic metaphysics, which embraced the romantic details of what was close and what was far away, close-up detail and a cosmic panorama.  “Klee invented his pentagram—elegant and unstable—of forms and colours that are imposed to be an arpeggio always in a precarious balance between a steadfast calling for an encoded realism and the slow irresistible calling to be freed from any concrete fact”. (Cesare De Seta in an article probably in La Repubblica about a Klee exhibit in Bonn in some unknown year).  For Klee, figurative is not the representation of the object, but the internal construction of the image (in this sense what is visible also has an abstract conception).  Duchamp’s Rotoreliefs create problems in some perceptual certainties, due to which it is a “celibate machine”.  For the abstract expressionists, the abysses of I represented the main element generating the work.  Detournement, wandering through a labyrinth of random correspondences.  The sculptural machines created by Jean Tinguely (the reference is the so-called kinetic painting).  Magritte is a figurative painter of abstract thought. Proceedings 2017, 1, 963 6 of 7  Marcel Duchamp, responding to a request from Tzara who invited him to participate in a show, said “I have nothing to exhibit—that the word exhibit is like the word marriage for me”. Figure 4. Pablo Picasso, 1906–1907, Les demoiselles d’Avignon, MoMA, New York. 8. Notes on Film Techniques  “The close-up originated in the images of kings on coins”. (J. L. Godard)  Perhaps histories (a history) today can only be done so. A history (of design? of cinema?), with all the other possible histories within … In the approach and the themes, but also in the supports and languages. Without any chronological or narrative order, but with the coherence of a detonation moving along the entirely Proustian thread of a memory that proceeds through figurative madeleines, twists around itself, opens illuminating flashes of inspiration, sinks into the darkness of black images and then re-emerges with surprising, always revealing combinations”. (Gianni Canova, Il cinema è una madeleine (Cinema is a Madeleine), in Alias No. 5, 30 January 1999).  “I look for plasticity, especially the plasticity of the image, along a path which I can never forget, begun by Masaccio: his proud chiaroscuro, his black and white—or the path, if you like, of archaic painters, in a strange union of subtlety and crudeness. I can’t be an impressionist. I love the background, not the landscape”. (Pier Paolo Pasolini on Mamma Roma, Rizzoli, Milan, 1962). Proceedings 2017, 1, 963 7 of 7 9. Notes on Digital Techniques  The digital age has defined a form of Taylorism in the decomposition of commonly synthetic cognitive activities into as many parcelled functions.  Many contemporary digital images show a tendency for a figurative change. In the meantime, the precondition is merely quantitative order: because the figural intent, that is, the manifestation of a formative intention expressed through disegni or schemes, is increased significantly (and open to everyone) with digital design. Then, in a richer sense, because the potential transformability of the images—to which animation procedures, with their dynamic and chromatic variations, can also very easily be applied—has begun to go beyond the absolute visual determinism of static representation, towards possible continuous changes and manipulations. Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest. Notes 1. The Italian term Disegno was not deliberately translated into the entire article. 2. There was a double exhibit of this iconographic theme at the Accademia di Brera this year. 3. Before reaching the final version of Les demoiselles d’Avignon, Picasso created a large number of versions, reworking and transforming them, which would lead him to the known version. But not even that could be considered the true final version because what we see now is the last draft made by the artist, who at a certain point simply stopped working on it. 4. In its simplification, this scheme sets aside an important series of phenomena; e.g., the conquest of pure colour that would give rise to all of impressionism or the esotericism of Gauguin’s school or even symbolism, etc. © 2017 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). 
work_iakafyecwje6lludod7d4pmfz4	----	Avant 01/2010 Non-stimulating tradition The Effect of Temperament on Painting Art Preferences Joanna Rządkowska, Alicja Paracka, Natalia Frankowska This study examined the effect of temperament on preferences for painted artwork. Our preferences are determined by different personality traits. The study presented here was a replication of the current study of Terror Management Theory (TMT) with the structures of temperament as individual differences. The results showed significant differences in preferences for traditional and modern art, depending on the degree of harmonization of the temperamental structures. Sanguines and melancholics in the no fear condition evaluated modern art most highly, however in the fear condition they evaluated traditional art most highly. This effect confirms the importance of individual differences and the situational variability of preferences in art. There is a lot of research about how personality affects preferences for art. Researchers suggests that people’s aesthetic preferences differ depending on their personality structure, including temperament. Is it possible that preferences for modern or abstract painting are related to their temperament? Could these preferences change under the influence of fear? Finally, is it possible that biology determines what we like in a particular context or situation? Are our preferences so variable? AVANT 01/2010 | www.avant.umk.pl OPEN ACCESS 340 Non-stimulating tradition Burt (1933) and Eysenck (1940) were among the first who studied personality preferences in art. They found that inborn temperamental factors could influence on what kind of art will be more preferred. In recent years the studies of Furnham & Avison (1997), Furnham & Walker (2001), Zwiegenhaft (2008) and Axelsson (2007) investigated the relationship between personality and preferences for art in broader terms, mainly preferences for music and photography. Chamorro-Premuzic, Furnham, Reimer (2007) argued that in most of the research in this field there is a lack of appropriate measurement tools, or a common taxonomy of art. That is why the researchers classified art as simple and complex art; representational and abstract art; representational and surreal art (Furnham & Walker 2001). All these early studies may be criticized for lacking the possibility of standardization, by conducting meta-analysis and comparison of different research results. But from the 1990s researchers started to apply the theory of the Big Five (Chamorro-Premuzic, Furnham, Reimer 2007), which assumes that personality is a structure consisting of five traits: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism (Costa & McCrae 1976). Other personality dimensions that were measured include: conservatism, schizothymia, tolerance for ambiguity, and sensation seeking (Furnham & Avison 1997). Studies in which the NEO-FFI inventory was used (Zawadzki, Strelau, Szczepaniak, Śliwińska 1998) show that openness to experience is significantly associated with aesthetic preferences, however openness to experience is not associated with evaluation of art (Chamorro- Premuzic & Furnham 2004). Openness explained a large part (33 percent) of the variance in the preferences for paintings. In these studies researchers also paid attention to other variables, such as intelligence, although intelligence affected only the evaluation of artistic value, not the preferences. The same authors, in other studies, have shown that people who preferred representational art were significantly more conciliatory and conscientious, while higher performance and appreciation of art were associated with Non-stimulating tradition 341 openness to experience. It should be noted, however, that in this study researchers did not take into account flexibility of temperament, that could affect preferences under the influence of changes in the environment. The Big Five factors, except for openness, rarely explained more than 10 percent of the variance (Chamorro-Premuzic, Furnham, Reimers 2007). Other studies indicated relationships between conscientiousness, thrill and adventure seeking, and a preference for representational art; and relationships between disinhibition and neuroticism, and pop art and a preference for abstract art (Furnham & Walker 2004). Test results show that openness to experience was associated with appreciation of all three types of art (representational, abstract, pop art), and that it was inversely correlated with a preference for abstract art. Moreover, regression analysis showed that sensation seeking explains more variance than the Big Five factors. Other publications suggest that sensation seeking is related to a preference for surrealist art and a lack of preference for representational art (Furnham, Avison 1997). These studies show that sensation seeking and adventure seeking explain most of the variance, placing themselves at the two ends of the scale of modern and traditional art. Therefore it seems worthwhile to pay attention to the variables related to the desired level of stimulation, to adequately explain art preferences. Given the findings from the research cited above we assumed that temperament is the main factor that affects preferences in paintings, so we are not pioneers. For a theory of temperament we chose Strelau (1999), who suggested that temperament refers to formal and relatively unchanging personality traits. His Regulative Theory of Temperament (RTT) concentrates on formal aspects of behavior comprising energetic and temporal characteristics: sensory sensitivity, emotional reactivity, endurance and activity (energetic aspect), and briskness and perseverance (temporal aspect) (Strelau 2006). Strelau also suggested that a specific combination of these traits divided people into four types of temperament: melancholic, sanguine, 342 Non-stimulating tradition phlegmatic, choleric. Phlegmatic and choleric temperamental structures are not harmonized, because people with such temperaments are not able to ensure the right dose of stimulation, whereas sanguine and melancholic are harmonized and people with these structures are able to ensure the optimal dose of stimulation. These assumptions show that temperament, by regulating the flow of mental stimulation and resistance, may have some indirect impact on preferences for visual stimuli, including the paintings. Many authors have suggested a strong relationship between art and different types of emotions and moods. It is worth noting that the RTT also refers to an important emotional component. Koneĉni's (2008) in-depth analysis of the relationship between music and emotion suggested that emotions such as joy, sadness, anger and fear are present in response to music only if these emotions are related to personal behavior, or associations such as dancing, or whistling. In conclusion, the researcher argued that the most authentic, but at the same time the most rare states in responses to music may be: aesthetic awe, being moved and thrilled. His conclusions correspond with the previously quoted statement of Furnham and Walker (2001), who suggested that sensation and adventure seeking may be related to art perception and stimulation seeking. This in turn is related to the bodily responses to fear for example. TMT (Terror Management Theory) focuses on the implicit emotional reactions of people that occur when they are confronted with the psychological terror of knowing they will eventually die (a large dose of stimulation) (Solomon 2004). TMT researchers have shown that making mortality salient to research participants will lead to changes in behaviors and beliefs that seemingly protect their worldview and encourage striving for self-esteem. We assumed also that different forms of paintings could lead to changes in human beliefs, especially when such art is threatening in some way and thus more stimulating. To summarize all of the above, we assumed that every work of art has the potential to stimulate. In this study we treated Traditional Art as less complex and less stimulating, while Modern Art we treated as more complex Non-stimulating tradition 343 and more stimulating in accordance with the assumptions of the TMT (Landau, Greenberg, Pyszczynski, Martens 2006). We assumed that when we induce fear in people, there is a change in art preferences, because of the increased dose of stimulation. We also assumed that anxiety can cause insecurity feelings, which may lead to preferences in more traditional and familiar art, whereas lack of anxiety may lead to the appreciation of unfamiliar and complex art. TMT assumes an impact on individual differences, but the authors of the theory studied only differences in personal need of structure (PNS) and they studied a decrease in preferences for modern art that is too abstract and senseless. We were interested in how our art preferences could change and what that depends on. The Assumptions of the TMT inspired us to explore whether temperament affects paintings preferences and whether fear could affect those preferences, depending on degree of harmonization of temperamental structure. Therefore, we expected that evaluation of paintings will vary between the no fear condition and fear conditions. This dependence will be particularly evident for harmonized temperaments such as sanguine and melancholics, because we assumed that people with such temperamental structure are able to keep an optimal dose of stimulation. These hypotheses were tested by the Temperament Inventory (FCB- TI), developed by Strelau and Bogdan Zawadzki, to probe the relationship between temperament (as a regulator of stimulation) and art preferences. Temperament was used for taxonomic purposes, namely to divide participants into four groups: melancholics, phlegmatics, sanguines, and cholerics (Zawadzki & Strelau 1997). These categories indicate the reactivity and activity of participants, which locates them on the sensation seeking and adventure seeking scales. We predicted that individual temperament and fear level will have a significant influence on people’s preferences depending on the situation. Referring to the previously cited studies (Furnham & Avison 1997), we suggest that a low-reactive person may show a preference for more stimulating art, for example modern art. However this dependence may be 344 Non-stimulating tradition moderated by a harmonized or non-harmonized temperament (Zawadzki & Strelau 1997), which is related to the ability to provide the proper, optimal dose of stimulation. Method Participants The Participants comprised 120 student volunteers (80 university students and 40 high school students; age range was 16 – 26 years; M = 19.87, SD = 2.13; 67 women and 53 men). We recruited respondents during their daily activities in schools and colleges. Materials The study measured the temperament traits, anxiety characteristics, and the level of preference for the presented paintings. To measure temperament traits we used The Formal Characteristics of Behavior – Temperament Inventory (FCB-TI), developed by Jan Strelau and Bogdan Zawadzki (Strelau & Zawadzki 1997). In turn to measure fear we used the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), developed by Charles Spielberger and Gorsuch (Strelau & Zawadzki 1995). To arouse fear in participants we showed them a short movie (2.18 min.), that included horrible scenes from advertisements, music videos and horror; in the no fear group we showed a neutral movie, that lasted 2.18 minutes as well, which was part of the movie of Alfred Hitchcock’s ‘North by North-West’. A slide-show of 15 images was selected to be complex, abstract and classic. As a result, images fall into three different categories, on the basis of the dominant features they have in common: general topics, convention or style. It is assumed that each of the categories is the source of a different kind of stimulation. We used these paintings in the following categories: Non-stimulating tradition 345 Traditional / Conventional Image 1. Pieter Boel, Large Vanitas still Life Image 2. Ignacy Henri Theodore – Fantin Latour, The Rosy Wealth of June Image 3. Theodore Rousseau, Fontainbleau Image 4. Titian, Portrait of the Man Image 5. Eugene Brudin, Laundresses by a stream Cubism Image 1. George Braque, Le Portugais Image 2. Juan Gris, Bottles and knife Image 3. Pablo Picasso, Sitting naked woman Image 4. George Braque, Blue Bird Image 5. Philip Absolon, Cassie thinking about Cubism Modernist Image 1. Gilbert and George, Bloody Mooning Image 2. Andy Warhol, Skull Image 3. Salvador Dali, Premonition of Civil War Image 4. Francis Bacon, Figure with meat Image 5. Andy Warhol, Heinz Box To examine the assessment of objective attractiveness we used a survey designed for this project which includes 15 items. The survey recorded the level of preference for a presented work of art using the 5 point Likert scale. Participants rated the items’ global preferability on a scale from 1 (very positive) to 5 (very negative), for example: 346 Non-stimulating tradition 1 2 3 4 5 I______I______I______I______I very positive neutral very negative Procedure Participants were randomly assigned to one of the experimental conditions, by means of drawing white or red cards. Drawing a red card assigned them to the fear group and drawing a white card assigned them to the no fear group. Subsequently participants completed The Formal Characteristics of Behavior – Temperament Inventory (FCB-TI). Here is a sample of questions from the inventory: I always feel even a soft breeze, I am able to do two things at the same time, I can see stars in the night sky, I can listen to music while reading . Participants had to answer all questions yes or no. Before completing the inventory every student heard the following instruction: Participation in this study is voluntary, you can stop it at any time. Some of the experimental impacts, [] which you will be subjected to may arouse different emotions in you. Every tasks [] will be explained. If you have any questions or concerns, please ask the experimenter. Make sure you sign all of the sheets you receive. After completing the inventory of temperament we asked students to watch a short movie: aversive or neutral, depending on the experimental group to which they were assigned in advance. The movie was played by the experimenter each time. Each of the respondents listened to the audio track with headphones at the same volume level. Later we asked respondents to complete the first part (X_1) of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), for the current emotional state. Next, participants watched a slide-show, [] consisting of 15 images and evaluated them in a questionnaire containing 15 items on a 5 point Likert scale. Non-stimulating tradition 347 We informed the participants what the true purpose of the study was only if they expressed curiosity. Then we explained that the study concerns the analysis of the impact of different types of stimulation on sensory and emotional sensitivity. Results Preliminary analyses. We first computed the internal consistency of the five traits of temperament as well as the three kinds of art. Mean correlation of the temperament traits between briskness, activity and art preference ratings was r = .19 (p < .05). There was no significant correlation between traditional art preferences and other kinds of art preferences (modern and abstract) p = .281, which means that these preferences are independent. The correlation that supported our predicted and theoretical suggestions was the negative relation between preference ratings of modern art and level of State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) r = .34, p < .001. Table 1 Correlations Between The Formal Characteristics of Behavior (Temperament Traits) and Art Preferences Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1. Briskness - - .18* -.40** .43** .32** - .19* .19* 2. Perseverance - - .27* .48** -.32* - - - - 3. Sensory sensitivity .18* .27** - - - - - - - 4. Emotional reactivity -.40** .48* .08* - -.44* -.42* - - - 5. Endurance .43** -.32* - -.44* - - - - - 6. Activity .32** - - -.42* - - - - .27* 7. Traditional art - - - - - - - - - 8. Abstract art .19* - - - - - - - .25** 9. Modern art .17* - - -.19* - .27** - .24* - *p < .01. **p < .001. 348 Non-stimulating tradition We predicted that participants with a non-harmonized temperament in the fear condition would rate Abstract and Modern art as worse, and Traditional as better than participants with a harmonized temperament in the fear condition. We also predicted that in the no fear condition there would be no differences between participants’ level of temperamental harmony. A mixed analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed that the mean effect of art preference for a harmonized temperament was significant, F(2,94) = 13.62, p < .001, eta2 = .23, which means that independently from the experimental condition, the kind of art had a significant influence on preferences. ANOVA also showed no significant effect in the fear condition, F(1,47) = .87, p = .357. We got a significant interaction effect of both factors – kind of art and experimental condition, F(2, 94) = 9.12 , p < .001, eta2 = .16, which means that preferences were dependent on experimental condition. Participants with a harmonized temperament in the no fear condition rated art always the same independently of its kind, whereas in the experimental Figure 1: Ratings of paintings on scale from 0 (very positive) to 5 (very negative) for a non-harmonized (phlegmatics and cholerics) temperamental structure. Non-stimulating tradition 349 condition they rated traditional art as better (M = 18.91, SD = 1.15), rated abstract art as worse (M = 15.22, SD = 1.37), and modern art worst (M = 11.65, SD = 2.17, p < .05). This shows that experimental condition influenced art rating, but only for abstract and modern art (p < .01). In the case of traditional art, art preferences were the same independently of experimental condition (p = .469). In case of participants with a non-harmonized temperament, we also got a statistically significant main art effect, F(2, 42) = 13.20, p < .001, eta2 = .9, which means that independently of the experimental condition, kind of art influenced its rating. The Main experimental condition effect wasn’t significant, F(1, 21) = .91, p = .352. The Interaction effect of these two factors not significant either, F(2, 42) = .03, p = .975. Participants with no harmonized$$ temperament structures rated art the same independently of experimental condition. They rated traditional art better (M = 16.50, SD = 3.15), whereas they rated abstract and modern art worse (M = 12.75, SD = 1.15 and M = 11.87, SD = 2.05, ps < .05). Figure 2: Ratings of paintings on scale from 0 (very positive) to 5 (very negative) for a harmonized (melancholics and sanguine) temperamental structure. 350 Non-stimulating tradition Discussion As has already been discussed in the introduction, there is a long history of studies of art preference psychology, but this history is not thorough. So far, researchers have not analyzed temperamental art preferences, so we took this topic up in our study. The purpose of this study was to test how different levels of harmonized temperament structure affect paintings preferences. We assumed that the temperament and fear level of the individual will have a significant influence on preferences depending on the situation. Moreover, we suggested that a low-reactive person may show a preference for more stimulating art, for example modern art. This dependence, however, may be moderated by harmonized or non-harmonized temperament. We predicted all of the above according to the TMT (Terror Management Theory) (Solomon, Greenberg, and Pyszczynski 2006), which led us to think that activating a fear of death in participants would allow us to investigate temperamental differences in art preferences. We also assumed that the particular temperament type, understood as biologically determined structure (Strelau 2006), would affect art preferences. The assumed link between temperament and preferences for art seems to be inconclusive and to depend on situational context. In the no fear condition there was no relationship between temperament and preferences, which means that temperament type did not differentiate participants with reference to their art preference. This fact may indicate the influence of other factors such as personality or intelligence (Chamorro-Premuzic, Furnham, and Reimers 2007). Preferences of the non-harmonized temperaments (choleric, phlegmatic) did not differ between fear and no fear conditions, which may be caused by the low flexibility of these types. This degree of flexibility, or lack of it, characterized people who are not able to ensure themselves the appropriate dose of stimulation. In our study, paintings was such a source of Non-stimulating tradition 351 stimulation: modern and abstract was highly-stimulating, while traditional art was less stimulating (Strelau & Zawadzki 2007). In contrast, the harmonized temperament (sanguine, melancholic) type reactions were situation dependent. In the no fear condition, there was no difference in preferences, while in the fear condition, we observed growing appreciation for traditional art whereas appreciation for modern art was decreased. This may be caused by the flexibility of a harmonized structure of temperament and the ability to ensure the appropriate dose of stimulation. We observed differences between sanguine and melancholics as well. In the fear condition melancholics preferred modern art less whereas sanguines preferred traditional art less. But this distinction between sanguines and melancholics is not clear. Lower preference for modern art in the fear condition in melancholics quite clearly demonstrates their need to reduce stimulation. But is the increase in sanguines’ preference for traditional art an attempt to moderate the level of stimulation? This question still remains open. Does traditional art cause an increase or decrease of activation? If an increase, why does this effect not occur in the no fear condition? It seems that the answer to these questions requires further research in this paradigm. In relation to TMT (Terror Management Theory) we can say that not only do differences in the PNS (personal need of structure) affect the perception of art, but also differences in temperament have a huge influence on it. It seems that there is a declining appreciation for not only meaningless art, but for the meaningful as well, as the works of art used in our study have themes, and figural and meaningful elements. In The TMT researchers also did not anticipate an increase in preference for traditional art, which we noted in our study. The TMT researchers also rejected activation as a possible explanation for changes in the perception of art, arguing that only the fear itself, not simply arousal leads to changes in art preferences. In agreement with Strelau (2007) we assumed that arousal and level of stimulation in the experimental situation affects how respondents react to individual art. 352 Non-stimulating tradition To prove what type of stimulation really affects the perception of art further research should be conducted. Referring to Koneĉni (2008) on the different emotions induced by music, it seems interesting to reflect on whether the fear raised in our study by film and the emotions raised by the art share a certain class of emotions, something close to being moved and thrilled. These emotions could correspond Zuckerman’s theory of sensation seeking and be associated with dimensions of temperament. The fact that watching a film that induced fear influenced how respondents perceive the different qualities of art can support this thesis. In Strelau’s RTT (Regulative Theory of Temperament), each temperamental type specifically perceives different types of stimuli and so they behave differently. The results of our study confirm this relationship. In the experimental condition, the respondents reacted differently depending on how the movie was evaluated. On the other hand, the results do not confirm the criticism of Strelau’s aesthetic emotion which would link to behavioral arousal. The results show rather that a relationship between them is possible, or that the factors of the activation level can also affect the perception of art. This confirms our early predictions that art, despite the artistic values, also provides stimulation and affects the level of activation. The division into pleasant, aesthetic and aversive emotions may not coincide with the aesthetic range of emotions experienced in no fear conditions, but research shows that aversive emotions can affect how art is perceived and evaluated. Another possible conclusion that can be drawn from this study is that there is no permanent taste and preferences could be situation dependent. The fact that we perceive art differently in terms of fear and no fear situations, may have some implications for art therapy. Do the lowest preferences of modern art for all temperaments in the fear condition, and a negative correlation between modern art and STAI (State-Trait Anxiety Inventory) results suggest that it is not worth to invite a contemporary artist to a psychiatric hospital? Non-stimulating tradition 353 In summary, the temperament may mediate changes in our preferences when we are frightened or highly stimulated. Any analysis of the impact of temperament must take into account the situational variability of the optimal dose of stimulation, as is shown in the results of this study. References 1. Axelsson, Ö. 2007. Individual Differences in Preferences to Photographs. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 2, 61-72. 2. Burt, C. 1933. The Psychology of Art. How the mind works. London: Allen and Unwin. 3. Chamorro-Premuzic, T., & Furnham, A. 2004. Personality, intelligence, and art. Personality and Individual Differences, 3, 705-715. 4. Chamorro-Premuzic, T., Furnham, A., & Reimers, S. 2007. The Artistic Personality. The Psychologist, 2, 84-87. 5. Costa, P.T., Jr. & McCrae, R.R. 1976. Age differences in personality structure: A cluster analytic approach. Journal of Gerontology, 31, 564-570. 6. Eysenck, H. J. 1940. The General Factor in Aesthetic Judgements. British Journal of Psychology, 31, 94–102. 7. Furnham, A., & Avison, M. 1997. Personality and preference for surreal paintings. Personality and Individual Differences 23, 923–935. 8. Furnham, A., & Walker, J. 2001. Personality and judgments of abstract, pop art, and representational paintings. European Journal of Personality, 15, 57–72. 9. Koneĉni, V. J. 2008. Does Music Induce Emotion? A Theoretical and Methodological 10. Analysis. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 2, 115-129. 11. Landau, J., M., Greenberg J., Solomon, S., Pyszczynski, T., & Martens, A. 2006. Windows Into Nothingness : Terror Management, 354 Non-stimulating tradition Meaninglessness, and Negative Reactions to Modern Art. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 6, 879-892. 12. Strelau, J. 1999. Temperament. In J. Strelau, ed. Psychology, Academic Handbook, 112-134. 13. Strelau, J. 2006. Temperament as a behave regulator. Gdańsk: Gdańskie Wydawnictwo Psychologiczne. 14. Zawadzki, B., Strelau, J. 1997. The Formal Characteristics of Behavior – Temperament Inventory (FCB-TI). Handbook. Warszawa: Pracowania Testów Psychologicznych Polskiego Towarzystwa Psychologicznego. 15. Zawadzki, B., Strelau, J., Szczepaniak, & P., Śliwińska, M. 1998. NEO- FFI Personality inventory by Costa and McCrae, polish adaptation. Warszawa: Pracownia Testów Psychologicznych Polskiego Towarzystwa Psychologicznego. 16. Zweigenhaft, R. L., 2008. A Do Re Mi Encore: A Closer Look at the Personality Correlates of Music Preferences. Journal of Individual Differences, 29, 45-55. 
work_icywckx4abdipdz4f5t67x7ipu	----	Microsoft Word - Runco final 1 Simplifying Theories of Creativity Mark A. Runco Simplifying Theories of Creativity and Revisiting the Criterion Problem A Comment on Simonton’s (2009) Hierarchical Model of Domain-Specific Disposition, Development, and Achievement Mark A. Runco Torrance Center for Creativity and Talent Development, University of Georgia, Athens, and The Norwegian School of Economics and Business Administration Address correspondence to Mark A. Runco, Torrance Center for Creativity and Talent Development, 323 Aderhold Hall, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602; e-mail: Runco@uga.edu. 2 ABSTRACT—Simonton’s (2009, this issue) hierarchical model represents a useful contribution to studies of creativity and eminence. Simonton breaks all kinds of new ground by extrapolating the hierarchy to the arts and humanities, interpolating it within disciplines, and relating it to family background and disposition. This commentary poses a few questions with the hierarchical model and proposes an alternative. I also introduce a candidate for a simple theory of creativity that focuses on a universally shared capacity. This simple theory complements Simonton’s hierarchical view, though his applies best to actual performance and the simple theory of creativity applies to creative potential. 3 Problem finding may be more important for creativity than problem solving. In fact, the latter may actually depend on the former in that good solutions may be possible only when they are directed at a good problem. That being said, Simonton’s article, “Varieties of (Scientific) Creativity: A Hierarchical Model of Domain-Specific Disposition, Development, and Achievement,” (2009, this issue) begins in a compelling fashion. It clearly identifies several good problems. These are framed as questions, including, “Is the creative thought of an Albert Einstein comparable with that of a Pablo Picasso? Or must we draw the contrary conclusion that there is no such thing as a “one- size-fits-all” creative process? Is the thinking that produced the general theory of relativity fundamentally distinct from that which created a painting like Guernica?” (p. xxx). Simonton then develops an argument about a hierarchy of sciences, which, very significantly, can be applied to the arts and humanities as well. As is typical of his research, Simonton’s logic and the data he cites are rigorous and convincing. I was especially intrigued by his testing of Auguste Comte’s theory that the sciences vary in a systematic fashion and can be ordered with hierarchy that captures the distinction between the “hard” and “soft” sciences. Simonton goes well beyond the existing hierarchy, however, and breaks all kinds of new ground by extrapolating the hierarchy to the arts and humanities, interpolating it within disciplines, and relating it to family background and disposition. For the sake of brevity, this commentary focuses on additional questions that are suggested by a careful reading of Simonton’s article. The first of these represents a minor concern about labels and wording. Simonton stated that “to be more accurate, the hierarchical placement of sciences shown in Figure 1 should incorporate error bars” (p. xxx). Figure 1 shows different sciences, and his description of their differences is convincing. But error is the wrong 4 label for what he is describing. Although there is a psychometric tradition that labels unreliable or inexplicable variability as “error,” it can be misleading. What Simonton is describing should be viewed as variability rather than error. It represents individual differences and can be taken as a reminder that creativity and achievement depend on both universals and individual differences. If I understand Simonton correctly, he is simply acknowledging a statistical fact that means are hypothetical things. They are averages and may not even describe any one individual! Everyone in a sample may in fact be somewhere around the mean (some above, some below). And different distributions will have variations around their respective means, so although the means are apart, large portions of the distributions may overlap. This is very clear in studies of sex differences (Runco, Cramond, & Pagnani, in press), but it applies to an even broader range of subjects. Although most males may do one thing, and have an average at one point, and females may tend to do another thing, and have an average at a different point, most males and females may be similar. In fact, many males may be beyond the female average, and many females may be beyond the male average. This is just a matter of distributions around the mean. It applies to sex differences, cultural differences, or any group differences. Simonton is well aware of it and go on to describe how “each science is placed according to its center of gravity or central tendency, but it is incorrect to assume that all practitioners operate at that mean level. It is probably the case that there is sufficient variation within each discipline that the distributions overlap” (p. xxx). My point here is not with his logic or argument, but merely with the terminology and in particular the word error. As that concern does touch on the debate about universals and individual differences, it is related to the much more important question quoted above about Einstein and Picasso. In particular, it does not follow that if Einstein’s thinking was different form Picasso’s, then there is 5 no universal creative process. This may sound like a minor point, and certainly it is not a problem with the idea of a hierarchy of the sciences. The problem is that any model or theory built on information about Einstein, Picasso, or other luminaries, should not be interpreted as indicative of everyone else. Granted, there is a good reason to focus on Einstein and Picasso and the others. Their creativity is unambiguous. The problematic implication is that creative talents are not normally distributed and are not universal capacities. Sticking with the psychometric perspective, this is an issue of generalizability. It is also a reflection of the long-standing criterion problem (Shapiro, 1970). Put briefly, one theory (which relegates universals) might be built if we use fame and high-level creative performance as our criteria, but at the same time there is a tenable theory (which allows universals) constructed from a broader everyday definition or criterion of creativity. Having such varied criteria and theories is not very parsimonious and may be unnecessary. It is much better to have a simple theory that applies to the eminent and the noneminent. CANDIDATE FOR A CREATIVITY UNIVERSAL Elsewhere, I have suggested that at least one part of the creative process is universal. I described this as assimilatory and interpretive. Briefly, the idea is that creative things all depend on original interpretations of experience. The experience may be scientific (as in the case of Einstein), visual and emotional (as in the case of Picasso), or even day-to-day. Humans do not understand anything without constructing an interpretation or drawing meaning from long term memory, and the latter is not at all original or creative. It is not even mindful or consciously done. The concept of assimilation is a good way to describe how an individual can consider information (again, be it scientific, artistic, or day-to-day information) and construct an original interpretation. Einstein did this when he thought about riding on a beam of light or train, and 6 Picasso did it when he observed a woman sleeping (and presumably dreaming)—one of my favorite paintings. This is not all there is to creativity, but assimilation will provide original ideas and interpretations. And everyone can construct original ideas and interpretations. We do not always do so—it is easier to use routine, assumption, and memory if we can get away with it— but we all do have the capacity. It is an example of one universal part of the creative process. As noted above, an accurate theory of creativity will need to take universals and individual differences into account. Examples of the latter include judgments (e.g., when to put the effort into construction of an original interpretation) and interests (e.g., intrinsic motivation). Clearly high-level creative people are highly motivated. They invest huge amounts of time to developing their talents and to thinking about the topic at hand, be it relativity, cubism, or whatever. They may be extraordinary in their drive and commitment, but just like the rest of us in their capacity to construct original interpretations. My concern about accurate theories is surely shared by Simonton. As a matter of fact in his article, he expresses a parallel concern about the state of the creative sciences. There is fragmentation and too little integration of the various perspectives on creativity. As he puts it, “What we currently posses is a chaos of miscellaneous puzzle pieces that we hope can be placed together to form a single coherent picture of how the creative process in person might systematically vary across different domains of creativity” (p. xxx). Although I don’t see the idea of domains as playing such a central role in our understanding of the creative process, I certainly understand the concern about what Simonton calls fragmentation. This same concern led me recently to propose a simple theory of creativity. I began by questioning the assumption that creativity is a syndrome or complex. The view that creativity is a syndrome goes back at least to 1965 and is very broadly accepted (e.g., MacKinnon, 1960/1983; 7 Mumford & Gustafson, 1988). Creativity is supposedly a syndrome in that there are a number of cognitive requirements (e.g., associative tendencies, divergent thinking fluency, flexibility, originality, and intuition), emotional and motivational influences (e.g., intrinsic interest and determination), personality traits (e.g., openness, wide interests, and autonomy), and contextual factors (e.g., support, resources, benefits, and minimal costs). Yet research on creativity suggests that there are benefits to questioning assumptions, and the idea of a syndrome has been around so long that it is taken for granted. So while preparing two extensive reviews, I avoided the syndrome assumption, and sure enough, I uncovered a very small set of commonalities—almost like higher order factors in a principle components analysis, only theoretical rather than empirical (Runco, 2007). In this simple theory of creativity, then, creativity boils down to a kind of freedom of thought, which is in turn related to all of those other possible influences and requirements. Freedom of thought is related to the autonomous and unconventional personality tendencies, for example, but is also a reflection of intrinsic (and personal) interests and motivation, as well as ideational flexibility and originality. Empirical tests of this new theory have yet to be conducted. And this is another thing shared with Simonton: the need for empirical tests. EMPIRICAL HYPOTHESES Simonton’s ideas lead nicely to testable hypotheses about domain differences. In fact, in addition to the tests he himself suggested, much of his reasoning can be used by others to test hypotheses about creativity. Surely, that is a good index of quality scholarship: It leads in a fruitful direction. I have long wondered how to best test a hypothesis from the psychoeconomic theory of creativity (Rubenson & Runco, 1992, 1995), and with Simonton’s article, I now see several possibilities. Psychoeconomic theory describes the costs and benefits of creative efforts 8 as well as the idea of a market to support such efforts. It also explains what has been called “age and the rigidities” (Chown, 1961), which is the tendency of older adults to become less and less flexible. This is a problem for creativity because flexible ideation is one of the best ways to find creative solutions. The psychoeconomic explanation is that older adults have invested a great deal into their routines and personal paradigms, and thus they have a great deal to lose if there is some sort of change or depreciation. This is true of economic investments, and it demonstrates why this line of thought is called psychoeconomic. Investments may be financial, but they are also necessary for expertise and a number of psychological influences on the creative process. The important thing here is that there is a tendency for older adults and persons with large investments (e.g., experts) to protect their investments. For that reason, they may not consider alternatives as frequently or as thoroughly as younger or less experienced persons. This might be tested using some of the indicators identified by Simonton. He lists consultation rate, for example, as one of the factors, and psychoeconomic theory would predict that individuals with less invested would consult more frequently than would persons with large investments (and further into their careers). Simonton also lists citation immediacy, which might be adapted to test the idea that individuals with less invested will cite a broader range of sources than will persons with more invested. Perhaps the indicators of “scientific status” could also be adapted such that they represent the degree of expertise and investment. These are just three possibilities. POTENTIAL AND PERFORMANCE To be thorough, I must underscore that expertise is quite often useful for creative work. There can be a cost or price to it (e.g., rigidity), but there are also potential benefits. I have, then, come the full circle in this commentary. Early on, I voiced my concern over generalizing from eminent individuals to everyone else, and I have returned to the same topic, at least in that 9 eminent persons are most often also experts with a great deal invested in their work and careers. There are clear practical implications. Consider, for instance, the fact that although the research on experts and eminent persons is fascinating and compelling, it does not necessarily tell us about the creativity of children or the creativity of an adult whose creativity is only apparent in day to day activities and not in any professional arena. This is not just a limited generalization from the eminent to everyday creativity. There is another side to it, as eminent people already possess everything it takes to actually perform in a creative fashion. If they did not, they would not be eminent, or at least productively and creatively eminent. But many of us may lack something and only have creative potential. The key problem, then, is that studies of actual performances (and individuals already performing) may not help us to understand how mere potential can be fulfilled such that the individual develops what it takes to actually perform in a creative fashion. I used this distinction between performance and potential in my own modest reorganization of the field of creative studies (Runco, 2007). Briefly, instead of the typical alliterative framework with creative persons, places, processes, and products (and Simonton’s [1995] own persuasion), I suggested a hierarchy that has performance and potential at the highest level, with the former divided into products and persuasion and the latter into processes, personality, and places. With this in mind, from my perspective one of the most important parts of Simonton’s article is his conclusion. Though brief, his conclusion makes the following statement I have put forward three interconnected arguments. The first is that the diverse domains of creative achievement can be arrayed as a hierarchy....That hierarchy was then extrapolated to include the humanities and the arts and interpolated to deal with within- 10 domain variation. The underlying assumption of the hierarchical arrangement is that domain-specific creativity varies from the logical, objective, formal, and conventional to the intuitive, subjective, emotional, and individualistic. I should probably admit that the assertion that the former disciples reside at the top and the latter rest at the bottom is totally arbitrary. An artist might reasonably decide to invert the hierarchy, placing poetry at the apex and physics at the base. Indeed, this inversion might be justified if we wish to use originality of creative thought as the primary criterion....” (p. xxx) Studies of creativity do indeed use originality as the primary criterion. Studies of potential and everyday creativity do this by recognizing the original insights and solutions of noneminent persons, even if those insights and solutions are personal and not socially acknowledged and broadly persuasive. They may be creative only in a person sense. They may be original and useful, but only for the individual. In the conclusion to his article, Simonton’s theory is useful no matter how we approach creativity. Creativity may be associated with expertise, eminence, and actual performance, in which case the hierarchy works as he initially uses it, or it may be associated with potential and a personal kind of effective behavior, which may be artistic or simply self-expressive, in which case the inverted hierarchy may indeed be more appropriate. REFERENCES Chown, S.M. (1961). Age and the rigidities. Journal of Gerontology, 16, 353–362. MacKinnon, D. (1983). The highly effective individual. In R.S. Albert (Ed.), Genius and eminence: A social psychology of creativity and exceptional achievement (pp. 114–127). Oxford, United Kingdom: Pergamon. (Original work published 1960) Mumford, M.D., & Gustafson, S.B. (1988). Creativity syndrome: Integration, application, and 11 innovation. Psychological Bulletin, 103, 27–43. Rubenson, D.L., & Runco, M.A. (1992). The psychoeconomic approach to creativity. New Ideas in Psychology, 10, 131–147. Rubenson, D.L., & Runco, M.A. (1995). The psychoeconomic view of creative work in groups and organizations. Creativity and Innovation Management, 4, 232–241. Runco, M.A. (2007). Creativity. Theories and themes: Research, development, and practice San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Runco, M.A., Cramond, B., & Pagnani, A. (in press). Sex differences in creative potential and creative performance. In D. McCreary (Ed.), Handbook of gender research in psychology. New York: Springer. Shapiro, R.J. (1970). The criterion problem. In P.E. Vernon (Ed.), Creativity (pp. 257–269). New York: Penguin Simonton, D.K. (1995). Exceptional personal influence: An integrative paradigm. Creativity Research Journal, 8, 371–376. Simonton, D.K. (2009). Varieties of (scientific) creativity: A hierarchical model of domain- specific disposition, development, and achievement. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 4, xxx–xxx. 
work_idzolz5mkneuzdpmtw2ebkqdcm	----	www.e-neurospine.org 255 The Nuances of Occipitocervical Instability and Stenosis in Patients With Basilar Invagination and Atlantoaxial Dislocation The craniovertebral junction (CVJ) is a complex region with potential for instability and stenosis. The etiology of basilar invagination (BI) and atlantoaxial dislocation (AAD) may include congenital, traumatic, or rheumatioid arthritis related degeneration.1 The established, traditional treatment for dens related compressive stenosis in BI with AAD is transoral odontoidectomy plus posterior occipital-cervical fusion.2-4 Although the surgical results are excellent with odontoidectomy, it has some disadvantages including wound dehiscence, infection, velopharyngeal insufficiency, cerebral spinal fluid leak (with meningitis), and dysphagia. Recently, posterior surgery has gained in popularity for occipitocervical reduction and fixation done in a single stage prone position while avoiding the complications from odon- toidectomy.5 Chandra et al.6 demonstrate a single stage posterior surgery for reduction and re-alignment using the DCER (distraction, compression, extension, and reduction) tech- nique which combines usage of C1–2 spacers and occipitocervical fusion with custom in- strumentation. They reported a series of 148 patients and reported that 93.2% patients im- proved their nurick scale by a mean of 1.24 points. One major concern of this single stage posterior surgery is that the AAD and BI are fre- quently accompanied by osseous or vascular anomalies. The bony structure and vascular anatomy should be well studied before surgery using thin slice computed tomography (CT) with sagittal and coronal reconstruction views. In addition, a 3-dimensional printed model may also help to evaluate the bony structure preoperatively. Patients with BI and AAD have a reported higher incidence of vertebral artery (VA) anomalies than the normal popula- tion.7 Preoperative CT-angiogram is helpful to identify the course and dominant side of the VA. During surgery, instrumentation should be placed on the side with the nondominant VA first. If the nondominant VA is injured, the dominant side should not be instrumented and immediate angiogram for stenting or sacrifice is suggested. The authors did report four VA injuries in their series with a very high mortality rate (50%). In addition, it is not uncommon for BI/AAD patients to have coincidental osteoporosis (especially in rheumatoid arthritis patients who have had long-term steroid treatment). Pre- operative dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry is helpful to evaluate for osteoporosis in these patients. To achieve adequate reduction, a solid purchase of the fixation screws is essential. In osteoporotic patients, pretreatment with teriparatide is suggested to prevent screw pull- out, screw loosening and pseudarthrosis. In patients who have significant untreated osteo- porosis, odontoidectomy plus in situ occipital-cervical fusion with multiple anchor points Neurospine 2019;16(2):255-256. https://doi.org/10.14245/ns.19edi.011 Neurospine eISSN 2586-6591 pISSN 2586-6583 This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecom- mons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Copyright © 2019 by the Korean Spinal Neurosurgery Society Editorial Corresponding Author Praveen V. Mummaneni E-mail: Praveen.Mummaneni@ucsf.edu https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5501-7262 Department of Neurosurgery, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA Chih-Chang Chang, Praveen V. Mummaneni Department of Neurosurgery, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.14245/ns.19edi.011&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2019-06-30 The Nuances of OC Instability and Stenosis in Patients With BI and AADChang CC, et al. https://doi.org/10.14245/ns.19edi.011256 www.e-neurospine.org is a viable option since a reduction maneuver may lead to hard- ware pullout. The key points of doing a successful single stage posterior re- duction and fixation include appropriate patient selection, iden- tification of osseous and vascular anomalies, and use of gentle reduction and solid fixation. We congratulate Dr. P. Sarat Chan- dra on the excellent clinical results for these patients. These pa- tients need to be followed for 1–2 years to ensure the bone graft heals. REFERENCES 1. Wu JC, Mummaneni PV, El-Sayed IH. Diseases of the odon- toid and craniovertebral junction with management by en- doscopic approaches. Otolaryngol Clin North Am 2011;44: 1029-42. 2. Chang PY, Yen YS, Wu JC, et al. The importance of atlanto- axial fixation after odontoidectomy. J Neurosurg Spine 2016; 24:300-8. 3. El-Sayed IH, Wu JC, Ames CP, et al. Combined transnasal and transoral endoscopic approaches to the craniovertebral junction. J Craniovertebr Junction Spine 2010;1:44-8. 4. Mummaneni PV, Haid RW. Transoral odontoidectomy. Neu- rosurgery 2005;56:1045-50, discussion 1045-50. 5. Deutsch H, Haid RW Jr, Rodts GE Jr, et al. Occipitocervical fixation: long-term results. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 2005;30: 530-5. 6. Chandra PS, Bajaj J, Singh PK, et al. Basilar invagination and atlantoaxial dislocation: reduction, deformity correction and realignment using the DCER (distraction, compression, extension, and reduction) technique with customized in- strumentation and implants. Neurospine 2019;16:231-50. 7. Yamazaki M, Okawa A, Furuya T, et al. Anomalous verte- bral arteries in the extra- and intraosseous regions of the craniovertebral junction visualized by 3-dimensional com- puted tomographic angiography: analysis of 100 consecutive surgical cases and review of the literature. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 2012;37:E1389-97. Title: On the Beach Artist: Pablo Picasso Year: 1937 On the Beach also draws upon aspects of Surrealism, here we are once more confronted with two female forms constructed from an assem- blage of peculiar biomorphic forms. The figures appear to be at the edge of the sea and one lowers a small toy boat into the water. Another, similar form rises above the horizon, as if watching the activity of the foreground figures. However, as this figure is represented as approxi- mately the same scale as the foreground figures, its presence on the horizon implies that it is a gigantic and threatening being. More information: https://www.pablopicasso.org/on-the-beach.jsp © 2019 - Succession Pablo Picasso - SACK (Korea) 
work_ifos2pkg2ngqdk7jnymk2xuvra	----	Doc On-line, n. 10, agosto de 2011, www.doc.ubi.pt, pp.60-71. TÊNUES LIMITES ENTRE O CINEMA DOCUMENTÁRIO E FICCIONAL O EXEMPLO DE O MISTÉRIO DE PICASSO Soleni Biscouto Fressato  Resumo: Desde a invenção do cinema, duas grandes potencialidades se configuraram: o cinema enquanto reprodução verossímil do real com os Lumière e o cinema ilusionista e fantasioso de Georges Méliès. Na grande maioria das vezes esses dois grandes gêneros – documentário e ficcional – são analisados como divergentes. A partir da análise do filme O Mistério de Picasso (Henri-Georges Clouzot, 1956), o objetivo do presente artigo é analisar a possibilidade de síntese entre os dois gêneros. Palavras-chave: arte, cinema documentário, cinema ficcional. Resumen: Desde la invención del cine, se configuran dos grandes potencialidades: el cine como reproducción de lo real, con los Lumière, y el cine ilusionista y fantasioso de Georges Méliès. La gran mayoría de las veces esos dos grandes géneros, el documental y la ficción, se analizan como divergentes. A partir del análisis de la película El Misterio de Picasso (Henri-Georges Clouzot, 1956), el objetivo del presente artículo es analizar la posibilidad de síntesis entre ambos géneros. Palabras clave: arte, cine documental, cine ficcional. Abstract: From the invention of the cinema, two big potentialities configured : the cinema while reproduction of the real with the Lumière and the illusionistic cinema and fantasioso of Georges Méliès. In the large majority of the cases these two big genders – documentary and fictional – are analysed like divergent. From the analysis of the film The Mystery of Picasso (Henri-Georges Clouzot, 1956), the aim of the present article is to analyse the possibility of synthesis between the two genders. Keywords: art, cinema documentary, cinema fictional. Résumé: Depuis l'invention du cinéma, deux grandes tendances sont apparues: le cinéma comme reproduction du réel avec les frères Lumière et le cinéma illusioniste et fantastique de Georges Méliès. Dans la plupart des cas ces deux grands genres – documentaire et fiction – sont analysés comme divergents. A partir de l'analyse du film Le Mystère Picasso (Henri-Georges Clouzot, 1956), l‘objectif du présent article est d‘analyser la possibilité de synthèse entre les deux genres. Mots-clés: art, cinéma documentaire, cinéma fiction.  Doutora em Ciências Sociais pela Universidade Federal da Bahia, Pesquisadora do grupo de pesquisa Oficina Cinema-História do Núcleo de Produção e Pesquisas da Relação Imagem-História da mesma universidade. E-mail: sol_fressato@yahoo.com.br Tênues limites entre o cinema documentário …. - 61 - À medida que a vida do homem se torna mais complexa e mecanizada, mais dividida em interesses e classes, mais ―independente‖ da vida dos outros homens e, portanto esquecida do espírito coletivo que completa uns homens nos outros, a função da arte é refundir esse homem, torná-lo de novo são e incitá-lo àpermanente escalada de si mesmo. (Antonio Callado, 1981:8) 1 No início dos anos 1950, Henri-Georges Clouzot (1907-1977), cineasta francês, amigo de Pablo Picasso (1881-1973) e apaixonado por pintura, resolveu fazer um filme inovador para a época. A idéia inicial era fazer um filme de arte e sobre arte de apenas 10 minutos, que não mostrasse, simplesmente, o pintor diante de sua tela, sendo filmado lateralmente ou de costas. Para tal intento, alguns amigos enviaram para Picasso uma tinta americana especial, o que possibilitou que a câmera fosse colocada atrás da tela e acompanhasse o ato criador sem nenhuma intervenção exterior. Com essa técnica, a tela de cinema se transformou numa tela em branco, pronta para receber os traços e as cores do pintor. O resultado final é emocionante, acompanhamos o passeio do pincel de Picasso sobre a tela, sua firmeza e precisão, mas também suas indecisões. Em tom provocativo, mesmo que de forma inconsciente, Clouzot denomina seu filme de Le Mystère Picasso, traduzido para o português como O Mistério de Picasso. A escolha do título e a estrutura do filme revelam a intenção do diretor em desvendar o mistério da arte de Pablo Picasso, revelar aos espectadores como suas telas são feitas, como é o seu processo de criação artística. Objetivo que, se não foi alcançado em sua 1 In Ernest Fischer, A Necessidade da Arte, Rio de Janeiro: Zahar, 1981. Soleni Biscouto Fressato - 62 - totalidade, teve boa recepção pelo público e pela crítica. O filme foi exibido no Festival de Cannes em 1956 e recebeu o Prêmio Especial do Júri. A possibilidade de poder acompanhar o destino das pinceladas até sua produção final é no mínimo comovente. Para todos aqueles que mesmo minimamente simpatizem com o fazer artístico é a chance de não apenas aprender sobre a arte de Picasso, mas também um deleite estético. No mesmo ano, François Truffaut, presente no Festival de Cannes, afirmaria que Clouzot havia colocado a ciência cinematográfica a serviço da pintura. O resultado era um filme único, como se fosse um desenho animado muito mais bonito que o normal, incomum e poético. Truffaut ficou impressionado com a firmeza do traço, a perpétua invenção e o bom humor de Picasso, revelados pelo filme. Mas, também não deixou de tecer algumas críticas. Clouzot poderia ter incluído no filme outras telas de Picasso, feitas no aconchego de seu ateliê, no ritmo e no tempo do pintor, para o espectador ter uma idéia geral de sua obra. Truffaut também fica decepcionado com a música do filme, acreditando que Clouzot poderia ter sido mais criterioso. Por fim, revela indignação comentando a cena em que o diretor pressiona Picasso para finalizar uma obra, inclusive cronometrando seu tempo, antes que termine o rolo de filme. Para Truffaut são questões técnicas limitando a inspiração criativa. (Truffaut, 1989). As considerações de Truffaut são interessantes, mas, alguns comentários são necessários. Não foi intenção de Clouzot fazer um filme biográfico ou cronológico, ou ainda, sobre a história da produção artística de Picasso, revelando seu estilo e tendências. Mais do que isso, a proposta é revelar o fazer artístico de Picasso, seus momentos de avanço e de insatisfação com o que está produzindo. Com relação à música, vale destacar que foi produzida por Georges Auric especialmente para o filme. A orquestra regida por Jacques Metehen acompanha o ritmo do pincel de Picasso sobre a tela e é significativo que o som de uma guitarra espanhola seja privilegiado nas telas com o tema da tourada. Sobre a questão do Tênues limites entre o cinema documentário …. - 63 - tempo, Picasso reage com bom humor, parece não se sentir pressionado, ao contrário, para ele é um desafio fazer com que a sua criatividade artística vença o tempo. Aliás, esse é o propósito de todo artista e um dos elementos que identifica uma obra de arte: a sua vitória sobre o tempo e o espaço em que foi produzida, tornando-se significativa (esteticamente e em seu conteúdo) mesmo já alterado o contexto de sua produção. Desde o seu lançamento o filme foi classificado pela crítica e aceito pelo público como documentário. É um filme que documenta a realidade do processo de criação artística: o pintor é real, Pablo Picasso, e as telas também são reais. Porém, apesar desses elementos, podemos também compreender O Mistério de Picasso como um filme ficcional. É essa síntese entre documentário e ficcional, presente no filme de Clouzot, que será analisada nesse artigo. O Mistério de Picasso: documentário ou ficção? O sonho de capturar a vida em movimento e de recriar o mundo à sua imagem não foi específico do homem de fins do século XIX. As sombras chinesas e a lanterna mágica já revelavam a necessidade de representar a vida como ela realmente é, não estática, mas com todo o seu movimento e dinamismo. Mas, foi somente em fins do século XIX, após as pesquisas e experiências de Isaac Newton (ainda no século XVII) e, com mais precisão, de Louis e Auguste Lumière que o mundo pode experenciar o fascínio das imagens em movimento: estava criado o cinematógrafo, invenção mecânica que permitia a obtenção de fotografias animadas. No final de 1895, os irmãos Lumière apresentaram seu invento. Para um público pagante de 33 pessoas, atraído não pela possibilidade de visualizar a realidade, mas pela imagem dela, foi exibido três filmes: Saída dos operários das Usinas Lumière (La Sortie des ouvriers de l'usine Lumière), Chegada de um trem à estação (L´arrivée d´un train à gare de la Soleni Biscouto Fressato - 64 - Ciotat) - ambos reproduzindo cenas do cotidiano, e O regador regado, um jardineiro que se molha com a mangueira (L‘arroseur arrosé), primeira película de ficção cômica. Assim, desde o seu nascimento o cinema já revelava suas potencialidades, tanto para os filmes documentários, como para os ficcionais. Conta a lenda que, a chegada do trem assustou a platéia: ingenuamente, acreditou-se que o trem atravessaria a tela, invadiria a sala e atropelaria os espectadores. Curiosamente, o público não percebeu que as imagens não tinham cor, nem som, nem relevo. O impacto e a imposição das imagens em movimento impressionavam e surpreendiam, colocava a própria realidade diante do olhar. Os primeiros filmes, registros curiosos de imagens em movimento, eram expressão da técnica, que apenas registravam o que ocorreu, não passavam por ilhas de edição ou por montagens, eram apenas seqüências emendadas umas nas outras para serem, em seguida, projetadas. Nessa perspectiva, ainda em 1898, o polonês Boleslas Matuszewski, câmera da equipe dos Irmãos Lumière, já defendia o registro cinematográfico como testemunha ocular dos fatos, documentando uma verdade definitiva. Alguns anos mais tarde, Sergei Eisenstein e Dziga Vertov contestaram essa posição de Matuszewski e afirmaram que as imagens fílmicas constroem uma realidade. Apesar disso, no final dos anos de 1920, nos Congressos Internacionais das Ciências Históricas, os pesquisadores ainda seguiam as concepções de Matuszewski, afirmando que o filme era um registro fiel da realidade. As produções de atualidades eram as que mais atraíam o olhar dos pesquisadores, pois se acreditava que estavam livres das influências de seus realizadores. Os filmes produzidos durante a Grande Guerra Mundial (quando o governo britânico enviou diversos cinegrafistas para as regiões de conflitos, capturando imagens que eram reproduzidas sem nenhuma montagem ou tratamento em diversos cinemas do país), receberam esse estatuto de cinema Tênues limites entre o cinema documentário …. - 65 - que registra a realidade, pois não recebiam nenhum tipo de interferência técnica ou humana, notadamente a montagem. A partir dessas experiências iniciais, logo nas primeiras décadas do século XX, John Grierson, sociólogo inglês, cunhou o termo documentário, definindo-o como um tratamento criativo da atualidade e acabou por fundar a escola documentarista inglesa, como ficou conhecida. Nos anos 1950 e 1960, os franceses trilhariam percurso similar com seu ―cinema verdade‖, destacando-se Jean Rouch e Chris Marker. Atualmente, os documentaristas atribuem aos documentários essa característica dos primeiros filmes. O cineasta e documentarista Vladimir Carvalho defende a prerrogativa de que os filmes documentários são os mais próximos das origens do cinema, enquanto registro da realidade, uma vez que possuem a ―pureza do tratamento do real‖. (CARVALHO, 2003, p. 16) Segundo ele, no conturbado início do século XXI, o cinema documentário poderá vir a ser um ―cinema cidadão‖ com foros de um novo humanismo. No seio das universidades, o cinema-documentário poderá contribuir para a superação do academicismo, assim como, deverá ser aplicado à educação e às campanhas públicas de melhoria social. Se os irmãos Lumière lançaram os pressupostos daquilo que viria a ser chamado de cinema documentário, Georges Méliès percorreu outro caminho. Encantado com as projeções dos Lumière, Méliès, um mágico, vislumbrou no cinematógrafo a possibilidade de construir outra realidade, não desvinculada da realidade ela mesma, mas, mais próxima do mundo dos sonhos, das fantasias, das expectativas e das ansiedades. Desde 1896, Méliès produziu vários pequenos filmes, um dos mais conhecidos é Viagem à Lua (Le voyage dans la lune) de 1902. Com esses filmes, Méliès percebeu o que os Lumière não tinham captado: o realismo do cinema era recebido como realidade, mas também como uma ilusão da realidade. Com Méliès o cinema se tornava narrativa ficcional. Soleni Biscouto Fressato - 66 - Transcorrido mais de um século da invenção do cinematógrafo pelos Lumière e do cinema ter encontrado sua vocação pelas mãos de Méliès, a ―tipologia‖ documentário e ficção ainda é utilizada na classificação dos filmes e a partir dela outras tantas também são consideradas (drama, comédia, romântico, histórico, etc.). Atualmente os documentários ainda são considerados como registros da realidade, e numa grande maioria das vezes, ainda são compreendidos como fidedignos da realidade sócio-histórica. Afirmação frágil, afinal não seriam os filmes documentários também frutos de uma seleção, como são os ficcionais? Poderiam eles preservar a ―pureza do tratamento do real‖, como afirmou Vladimir Carvalho (2003), como os primeiros filmes? E, talvez mais ousadamente, mesmo os curtos registros da realidade dos Lumière, não refletiriam uma escolha? Afinal, por que filmar a saída dos operários de uma fábrica e a chegada de um trem numa estação? Não seria essa escolha já fruto das influências sociais, políticas e ideológicas de sua época? Os documentários também passam por uma ilha de edição, momento em que o cineasta escolhe as imagens, sons e vozes que comporão o filme. Essas escolhas, muito longe de serem neutras e objetivas, são influenciadas por interesses, valores, crenças, preconceitos e convenções de uma época. A expressão registro da realidade não é a mais adequada, nem mesmo para os filmes documentários. Assim, a diferença entre documentários e ficcionais não pode estar pautada no caráter de fidedignidade sócio-histórica. Se a questão da fidedignidade não é suficiente para diferenciar os filmes documentários dos ficcionais, podemos pautar essa diferença na escolha das situações e dos personagens representados nos filmes. Os filmes documentários não criam situações, nem personagens, não inventam um mundo, sua proposta original é a informação e o aprendizado. Diferentemente das produções ficcionais, em que os cineastas possuem maior liberdade para criar. Tênues limites entre o cinema documentário …. - 67 - Nesse sentido, O Mistério de Picasso pode ser compreendido como um filme documentário, pois não cria situações nem personagens. Pablo Picasso é ele mesmo na película, um pintor exercendo sua atividade criativa. Essa é a proposta do filme, informar o espectador sobre o fazer artístico de Picasso. Esse caráter informativo é o que mais aproxima o filme do gênero documentário. Essa perspectiva informativa é pontuada logo no início do documentário. Uma voz- off nos explica que o pintor é um cego na escuridão das telas brancas. E a luz, paradoxalmente, é criada pelo próprio pintor, pelos seus traços na tela. É esse ―drama particular e diário‖ do pintor cego que será revelado no filme. Picasso resolveu mostrar para ―nós e conosco‖ esse seu drama. Apesar dessa voz-off inicial, o filme foge da estrutura tradicional de documentários: narração, voz-off, entrevistas. São poucas as cenas em que Picasso para de pintar e dialoga com Clouzot. Esses diálogos esclarecem mais sobre seu processo artístico e também sobre sua personalidade. Ele prefere a cor porque pintar colorido é mais divertido. Nunca está consciente do resultado final quando inicia um quadro, é um pintor que gosta de arriscar, que parte de uma idéia inicial e a percorre até estar satisfeito consigo mesmo. O ponto final é dado pela sua sensibilidade. Nunca se preocupou em agradar o público, em questionar-se como ele receberia suas telas, se o acharia simples ou dramático, se gostaria ou não. O documentário também nos informa sobre as preferências de Picasso. Se compararmos as vinte telas produzidas para o documentário com o restante de sua produção, poderemos identificar os temas mais recorrentes em suas obras. Temas muito associados ao contexto sócio-histórico vivido pelo pintor. Ateliês de artistas, com cavaletes, esculturas e nus femininos surgem em duas telas. Os animais, não apenas o touro, mas pomba, galo e peixe surgem em outras três. Os traços cubistas não são os únicos, apesar de Soleni Biscouto Fressato - 68 - ser seu estilo particular de pintar, e estão presentes em mais de uma dezena de telas. Mas, o mais significativo é o ambiente da tourada, seis telas contemplam o tema, seja diretamente ou apenas com a presença do touro ou do toureiro. Nelas as cores da Espanha, vermelho e amarelo, estão presentes. Para completar o momento artístico mágico, a guitarra espanhola acompanha os traços sobre a tela. Curiosamente, das quatro telas referentes à tourada, apenas numa o touro é vencido pelo homem, nesse caso Dom Quixote com seu fiel escudeiro Sancho Pança. Somos presenteados com uma composição harmoniosa entre pintura, música e literatura. Outra preocupação comum nas telas de Picasso, também surge no filme: expressar os sentimentos dos personagens por ele criados. E nesse momento, O Mistério de Picasso passeia pela ficção. Na frente da câmera, ao pintar as telas, não temos nenhuma informação exterior, apenas acompanhamos seu pincel. Vemos surgir pessoas, animais e ambientes. A arte de Picasso é, sobretudo, figurativa, mesmo em suas telas cubistas. O mundo ficcional criado por Picasso, conjugação de realidade e ilusão, passa a ser o centro do filme, se torna o próprio filme. Essa preocupação em expressar os sentimentos de seus personagens, que possibilitam a criação de um mundo ficcional, surge em todas as telas, mas, com mais intensidade na 15ª. Picasso inicia a tela com o esboço de um corpo feminino nu e deitado. Imediatamente sua preocupação volta-se para o rosto da mulher. Na tentativa de expressar como ela está se sentindo, ele modifica seu rosto cerca de 20 vezes. Algumas vezes parece estar mais triste e introspectiva, em outras assume uma atitude de maior contemplação, em outras de preocupação, alguns rostos possuem o traço mais cubista, até a completa definição: é ainda uma mulher jovem, está envolvida com a leitura e sua expressão é serena. Para finalizar, Picasso faz uma colagem de papéis coloridos que dão leveza e jovialidade à tela. Tênues limites entre o cinema documentário …. - 69 - Além de verificarmos a insatisfação do pintor frente à própria obra, na busca da expressão por ele considerada de ideal, acabamos por nos sensibilizar com os sentimentos daquela mulher, criatura de Picasso, que não existe realmente, mas durante aqueles minutos tem uma existência. No que estará pensando? Quais são suas preocupações e aflições? Na busca de personagens mais expressivos e de ambientes mais intensos, Picasso corre mais riscos e expressa melhor o que eles pensam e sentem. O Mistério de Picasso, com seus elementos de cinema documentário (narrativa informativa, personagem e situação reais) e ficcional (destaque para os personagens criados por Picasso), transforma-se numa síntese entre os dois gêneros. De fato, todos os filmes são um misto de documentário e ficcional, pois de forma consciente ou não nos informam algo sobre o contexto de sua produção. Mesmo os filmes ficcionais mais surreais e futuristas, mesmo os mais marcados pela indústria cultural podem possuir o caráter informativo do documentário. As artes possuem um caráter humano e social e uma racionalidade própria, sensível e estética. A estética realista é apenas uma possibilidade de representar a realidade. A inversão da realidade não deslegitima a produção cinematográfica e não a afasta da realidade social. Os exageros narrativos são recursos e não uma infidelidade ou superficialização factual, são uma forma de expressar a realidade. Embora não sejam produções de pesquisadores e sim de cineastas, os filmes, mesmo os mais ingênuos e espetaculares, possuem informações, muitas vezes, precisas sobre determinada época e sociedade. Infelizmente, estava estabelecido em contrato que, todas as 20 telas produzidas durante as gravações de O Mistério de Picasso seriam destruídas. Quantas pessoas ficariam emocionadas ao contemplarem essas telas? Quantos museus, em diversos países do mundo, ficariam honrados em mantê-las em seus acervos? Quantos colecionadores pagariam pequenas fortunas para tê-las em suas casas ou galerias? Quanto desse dinheiro Soleni Biscouto Fressato - 70 - Picasso poderia ter revertido para obras assistenciais? Em todas essas possibilidades o pintor esbarraria na questão do mercado da arte, em suas regras e normas, que desafortunadamente, transforma a arte em mercadoria. Por fim, O Mistério de Picasso é um filme fundamentalmente de sensações, visual e auditiva, que proporciona o deleite estético, o contato não apenas com a arte, mas com o fazer artístico. O próprio filme se transforma numa obra de arte. Possibilita-nos não apenas acompanhar a seqüência de traços e cores de Picasso, mas, sobretudo, o seu processo criativo e artístico. Podemos até, pausando ou deixando bem lentamente as imagens, copiá-lo ou imitá-lo, reproduzirmos sua técnica. Mas, jamais conseguiremos capturar sua inspiração. É-nos dito no início do filme que iremos ―conhecer o mecanismo secreto que guia o criador‖, será? Será que, terminado o filme, conseguimos descobrir o que o move Picasso a pintar uma cena de tourada? Ou somente o touro? Ou o ateliê de um artista? Ou uma cena circense? Ou nus femininos? Por que fica tão insatisfeito com suas telas, se nos parecem tão comoventes, interessantes e sedutoras? Nesse sentido, o mistério Picasso permanece. Os mecanismos que guiam os criadores, Picasso ou não, permanecem secretos, e esse é o grande fascínio da arte, que jamais poderá ser transformado em mercadoria. Referências bibliográficas CARVALHO, Vladimir (2003), ―Do cinematógrafo ao cinema cidadão‖ In: Acervo: Revista do Arquivo Nacional, n. 1, v 16, Rio de Janeiro, janeiro/junho, pp. 9-22. FISCHER, Ernest (1981), A Necessidade da arte, Rio de Janeiro: Zahar. TRUFFAUT, François (1989), Os Filmes da minha vida, Rio de Janeiro: Nova Fronteira. Tênues limites entre o cinema documentário …. - 71 - NÓVOA, Jorge, FRESSATO, Soleni Biscouto, FEIGELSON, Kristian (orgs), (2009), Cinematógrafo. Um olhar sobre a história, Salvador, São Paulo: EDUFBA, Editora da UNESP. 
work_ihzbus5cebgbjhglsduyqy3t6q	----	06 April 2021 AperTO - Archivio Istituzionale Open Access dell'Università di Torino Original Citation: Labyrinth 3D. Cultural archetypes for exploring media archives Published version: DOI:10.1080/14626268.2016.1212899 Terms of use: Open Access (Article begins on next page) Anyone can freely access the full text of works made available as "Open Access". Works made available under a Creative Commons license can be used according to the terms and conditions of said license. Use of all other works requires consent of the right holder (author or publisher) if not exempted from copyright protection by the applicable law. Availability: This is the author's manuscript This version is available http://hdl.handle.net/2318/1618329 since 2016-11-29T14:23:40Z This full text was downloaded from iris - AperTO: https://iris.unito.it/ iris - AperTO University of Turin’s Institutional Research Information System and Open Access Institutional Repository This is the author's final version of the contribution published as: Damiano, Rossana; Lombardo, Vincenzo. Labyrinth 3D. Cultural archetypes for exploring media archives. DIGITAL CREATIVITY. 27 (3) pp: 234-255. DOI: 10.1080/14626268.2016.1212899 The publisher's version is available at: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14626268.2016.1212899 When citing, please refer to the published version. Link to this full text: http://hdl.handle.net/2318/1618329 For Peer R eview O nly Labyrinth 3D. Cultural archetypes for exploring media archives Journal: Digital Creativity Manuscript ID: Draft Manuscript Type: Technical article Keywords: media archives, 3D environments, exploratory search, cultural heritage, archetypes URL: http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/ndcr Digital Creativity For P eer R eview O nly Labyrinth 3D. Cultural archetypes for exploring media archives Since the advent of the World Wide Web, online media archives have changed their audience from a restricted number of professionals and amateurs to the general public. This shift is not without consequences: if, on the one side, it represents an important opportunity for archives to engage in a dialogue with a larger audience, on the other side it advocates novel forms of access that go beyond the highly specialized models underlying traditional access tools. In this paper, we propose to use 3D graphics for designing novel tools of exploratory search in cultural heritage archives. Our approach has been deployed as an online virtual environment where the user can navigate the meaning relations over the items in the archive. Targeted at cultural heritage, the application, called here Labyrinth 3D, relies on the use of cultural archetypes to inform the conceptualization of the archive and the creation of the virtual environment, with the goal of engaging the user in the exploration of the archive through the creation of personal paths. Keywords: media archives, 3D environments, exploratory search, cultural heritage, archetypes 1. Introduction In the last decades, the advent of the Wold Wide Web has led public institutions and private actors (the latter also known as creative and cultural industries - CCI), to publish their media archives online, dramatically increasing the range of cultural contents that are available to the general public. Online digital archives innovate the access of cultural resources (Bolick, 2006, Haskins 2007, Beer & Burrows 2013), advocating new forms of curation and access to cope with what has been called the "data deluge", generated by the digitalization process and the advent of born digital data (Hey and Trefethen 2003, Beagrie 2008). The rich variety of online imagery, text, and other Page 1 of 39 URL: http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/ndcr Digital Creativity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 For P eer R eview O nly resources raise new challenges to the traditional paradigm of archive access, stimulating novel and interactive methods that culminate with the emergence of "archive inspired" creativity. For example, the artist Shimon Attie (Popescu 2012) creates multimedia art installations where archive materials such as film footage and pictures become part of an immersive audience experience; similarly, the work "Were the house still standing", designed by a multi-disciplinary team of artists, photographers and sound designers, is a multimedia installation about the Holocaust, which incorporates archival recordings and images into a poetic storytelling (Katz and Quin 2012). As noticed by Chen et al. (2005), the openness of digital archives implies the coexistence of different user perspectives over the archive contents, ranging from the historical and archaeological stance to the iconographical and cultural one. In order to support multiple perspectives in the access to the archives, Chen et al. propose the insertion of an explicit "abstraction layer" into the architecture of the digital archive, to acknowledge the relevance of the conceptual models employed by the users in the interpretation of the archive contents. In this paper, we join Chen et al.'s notion of abstraction layer with the paradigm of archive-based creativity by proposing "cultural archetypes" as conceptual tools that support the construction of personal paths through digital archives. Inspired by the research in iconology (Van de Waal1974, Warburg and Birnk 2008), literature (Highet 1949) and narratology (Thompson 1955), we employ the term 'archetype' to refer to a conceptual core set at the intersection of narrative motifs, iconological themes and classical mythology. Common examples are the archetypes of "journey", " labyrinth", and "hero": deeply rooted in collective consciousness, as stated by C. G. Jung (1981) and enforced by the practice of imitation in Western Culture, these archetypes possess Page 2 of 39 URL: http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/ndcr Digital Creativity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 For P eer R eview O nly the unique capability to create a multiplicity of links over heterogeneous resources within shared, unifying conceptual models. In our proposal, the cultural archetype motif deploys an online exploratory environment through the selection of one virtual archetype that inspires the design of a graphic dynamic interactive interface, and the organization of a number of archetypes - collected after the study of the archive -, for the design of the user interaction. In particular, the graphic interface is a realization of the well known archetype of the labyrinth, introduced by the myth of the Minotaur but retrievable even in contemporary culture (e.g., J.K. Rowland's Harry Potter's novel about a "goblet of fire", where a tournament is partly held in a hedge maze) and spanning distant geographical locations (from, e.g., Cnossos Palace in the island of Crete to the city of Reims in France, where a well-known labyrinth is represented in the cathedral). As surveyed by Kern (2000), different realizations of the archetype of the labyrinth span worldwide across ages, ranging from the representations provided by ancient civilizations all across Europe to the mazes created in the last century, with mirrors and hedges, for entertainment (for example, the well known hedge maze in Hampton Court). The virtual environment, that we will term Labyrinth 3D in this paper, has been designed with the goal of supporting the archetype-based exploration of media archives: the user is immersed in a 3D maze, where the locations, corresponding to archive items, are connected through pathways created dynamically, following the meaning relations that are inferred automatically in a computational ontology of archetypes. Turning point after turning point, the user decides where to direct her/his exploration, based on her/his curiosity about the categories of the archetypes (“character”, “story”, “action”, “object”, “place”, and “epoch”) represented in the ontology. As she/he advances in the maze, following Page 3 of 39 URL: http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/ndcr Digital Creativity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 For P eer R eview O nly personal choices driven by the preferences for the archetypal category, a path emerges, connecting distant items,. This paper is structured as follows: after describing the motivations and requirements accounted for in the system design (Section 2), we illustrate the sources of inspiration that informed its design (Section 3) and how they eventually shaped the implemented system (Section 4). The description of the system abstracts from technical details to focus on the user experience, that we describe through a navigation example. An account of the feedback received from the audience (Section 5) and the conclusion end the paper. 2. Background motivations and functional requirements The digital convergence that has recently affected the access to cultural heritage and the distribution of media objects brings content producers and consumers to share and generate contents, working alongside the traditional paths of cultural markets and education (Jenkins 2006). In the access to cultural heritage, digital convergence has favoured the development of digital platforms, such as online museums and cultural websites, aimed at encouraging the approach of the general public (consider, for example, the well known Europeana web portal1). Notwithstanding the disruptive potential of the convergent culture, however, the access to digital media archives is still largely based on keywords and/or tags, through which the users can filter contents to find what they need. Personalization and integration with social networks have been exploited to innovate the relationship of the archives with the audience, but the basic access paradigm has not changed yet. Rather, the research has focused on the design of 1 www.europeana.org Page 4 of 39 URL: http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/ndcr Digital Creativity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 For P eer R eview O nly effective search tools, integrated by personalization and recommendations, without affecting the general framework depicted above, which is based on formally specified queries. As a result, a change of paradigm in archive exploration has not been accomplished yet: the access to online archives still relies, in most cases, on the metaphor of the traditional archive, where a collection of physical items are described in a catalogue by subject, title, etc., and the access to them is obtained by searching various indexes implemented on the catalogue. A search in a digital archive normally returns a list of relevant objects (books, pictures, videos, etc.), without an explicit representation of the meaning relations over them, with the exception of from spatial and temporal representations such as maps and timelines. The advent of the Semantic Web can compensates for this lack, but the complexity of relations encoded in the formal languages of the Semantic Web may exacerbate the presentation issues. Pioneering attempts have been made at using different type of conceptual categories to describe archive contents: for example, the Agora project (Van Den Akker et al. 2011) describes artworks in terms of the historical events they refer to; the Decipher project relies on a story ontology to support the creation of "museum narratives" (i.e., story- based collections of artworks) by curators (Mulholland et al. 2012). The access to digital collections, however, still relies on traditional metaphors that replicate a physical equivalent, such as the archive or the museum. Our proposal relies on three main premises. The first premise concerns the inadequacy of search based tools to the needs of the general public, recently pointed by Hall (2014): in most cases, people approach an archive without a specific set of items in mind - or, even worse, without a specific set of constraints to form their queries. According to Hall, access tools should specifically support the exploration of the archives by the users: the notion of exploratory search Page 5 of 39 URL: http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/ndcr Digital Creativity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 For P eer R eview O nly (Marchionini 1996), characterized by serendipity, is especially suitable to the needs of non professional users, who approach an archive without any specific search goals in mind, but with the simple desire to explore its contents. In our proposal, the key to the access is the notion of archetype: this notion provides an explicit abstraction layer for archive access, open to the creation of personal paths through the contents, and identifies the specific archetype of the labyrinth to devise a spatial metaphor for supporting the exploration task in a virtual space. The second premise concerns the tradition of organising cultural artefacts along thematic categories based on their historical, geographical and iconographical features, whose importance is emphasized by the multidisciplinary perspective of digital convergence (Trant 2008). This practice not only underpins the use of timelines, maps, and advanced visualizations in online digital archives, but brings with it the established use of spatial layouts to convey categories. Consider, for instance, the use of spatial layouts in cultural spaces, such as exhibitions and museums, to create thematic sections and paths (Hillier & Tzortzi 2006). Our approach adapts this paradigm to the exploration of archives: we propose an especially designed, virtual environment that the users explore to access the contents of the archive through the archetypal visual metaphors of the labyrinth, with the causal and associative relations over the contents represented by a maze of physical connections. The third premise concerns the use of visual technologies, employed in today's applications that range from video games to edutainment and installation art, and capable of providing immersive, engaging user experiences (LaViola & Keefe 2011). The use of 3D for data visualization relies on the process described by Manovich Page 6 of 39 URL: http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/ndcr Digital Creativity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 For P eer R eview O nly (2011), by which the properties of the digital medium, through the use of specific software for editing, sharing, and analyzing digital data, shape the actual content to be conveyed: 'all ‘properties of digital media are now defined by the particular software as opposed to solely being contained in the actual content' (p 30). However, these properties by themselves do not ensure the reception of the intended conceptualization: as argued by Ziemkiewicz -Kosara (2008), based on their empirical studies, the choice of the visual metaphor is crucial to communicating a conceptual model to the users, that goes beyond the properties of the medium. Moreover, Rieber & Noah (2008) show that a carefully designed balance of visual and game elements in educational applications provides a more effective transmission of the notions to the users. Here, 3D visualization is put to use for engaging the audience in the exploration of data through the archetypal element. 3. Inspirational works The conceptual model encoded in Labyrinth 3D is inspired by the notion of cultural archetype, set at the intersection of categories of prominently narrative nature, namely character, story, action, object, place, and epoch. Stories provide an effective conceptual model for mediating between the user and the description of the cultural artefacts, thanks to the relevance of narrative cognition for the transmission of cultural values (Bruner 1991). The content of visual artworks, in particular, can often be described in terms of some narrative situation, i.e., a basic template where a character is depicted in the intentional act of doing something, using some instrument, as part of the achievement of some goals that characterize her/him. An example of the role of narrative templates in iconography is provided by Iconclass (Van de Waal, 1974), a thesaurus of subjects employed to classify art objects according to their iconographic Page 7 of 39 URL: http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/ndcr Digital Creativity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 For P eer R eview O nly content: with more than 4000 occurrences of story-related categories, Iconclass includes specific categories of narrative nature, such as classical mythology. The reference to narrative entities, then, is not limited to visual artworks, but extends across media and genres, ranging from music to novel (Almén 2003, Ryan 2004), further propagated by the practice of remediation (Bolter & Grusin 2000). A notable reference is provided by Warburg 's Mnemosyne project (1929). The core of the Mnemosyne project (Warburg and Birnk 2008) is a set of iconographical archetypes (a pictorial atlas, or Builderatlas), described through tables (pathosformeln) where different images are collected to describe some kind of archetypal concept. For example, table 4 of Warburg's Builderatlas, which describes the topic of the relationship between gods and mankind, combines two classical heroes, Prometheus and Phaeton, by virtue of their challenges to the gods. Despite the intrinsic limitations posed by the historical, cultural, and political factors that affected Warburg's selection of subjects (Bruhn 2000), the approach of Mnemosyne to the exploration of culture can be seen as a precursor of the paradigm of "exploratory search" advocated by the advent of online cultural heritage archives. Figure 1 Figure 1: Pathosformeln from Warburg's Builderatlas (www.engramma.it). Similarly to the Builderatlas, where the juxtaposition of iconographic references suggests implicit relations among artefacts across ages and media, in Labyrinth 3D the user navigation is driven by an archetype that associates artefacts of different type, represented by digital objects. The exploration obtained through the archetypes Page 8 of 39 URL: http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/ndcr Digital Creativity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 For P eer R eview O nly leverages the sparseness and multiplicity of the meaning associations yielded by the archetype along each category (character, story, action, object, place, and epoch) to provide serendipity to the user navigation. In particular, the archetype of the labyrinth, deeply rooted in Western Culture (Kern 2000), lends itself well to conveying the many-to-many relations among the cultural heritage objects established by the collection of archetypes employed in the projects, thanks to its graph-like nature (Rosenstiehl 1971, 1988). The metaphor of the labyrinth trades off the use of spatial layouts for orientation against the unpredictability of the environment that characterizes it, providing at the same time the immediacy of use that is typical of well-known environments. In Labyrinth 3D, the representation of the physical layout of the space, usually employed as a tool to orientate the user (i.e., with top down views and maps), is employed in a first-person view to create a sense of disorientation. However, disorientation here is not without a purpose, since it acts as a stimulus for the user to discovery, in a serendipic way, the heritage treasures hidden in the maze, and to consider (or even re-consider), the relations over them. Differently from maps, the exploration in Labyrinth 3D takes the form of a subjective, creative experience so as to provide a sense of enactment as the walk of the user through the maze proceeds. Despite the inner organization of the archetypes into categories, the nature of the archetype belongs to the realm of liquid design, in the sense established by Novak since his first theorization of liquid architectures (1991). As exemplified for the aural domain by the installation "Allobrain", described by Thompson et al. (2009), the use of today's immersive 3D technologies enables the creation of liquid architectures into virtual environments where users "create their own trajectories" through the object domain. In Labyrinth 3D, the fluid nature of the notion of archetype does not enforce curatorial, Page 9 of 39 URL: http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/ndcr Digital Creativity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 For P eer R eview O nly predetermined "visit paths", but lets trajectories through the archive emerge from the interaction of the user with the virtual environment. The metaphor of the labyrinth, then, is also visually characterized by fluidity (Deleuze 1983), thanks to the plurality of perspectives it creates onto the domain of observation. 4. Labyrinth 3D In this section, we describe the implemented environment Labyrinth 3D2, where the archetype of the labyrinth gives shape to the 3D virtual immersive environment and a set of cultural archetypes, each organized along the categories “story”, “character”, “epoch”, "object", “action”, and “place”, mediate the user exploration of a repository of media resources. Briefly, the 3D environment consists of a virtual labyrinth that contains digital representations of the items in the archive, linked by pathways that represent the archetypal similarities among them. Targeted on the general audience, the project aims at encouraging the users to explore the media repository, as a way to promote personal cultural enrichment and cultural heritage dissemination. Labyrinth is not targeted on a specific type of heritage or media: the assumption underlying the project is that cultural archetypes, due to their pervasive nature, can be employed as a compass to help the user navigate heterogeneous repositories. 4.1 Design and User Experience The setting of the environment is inspired to the classical hedge maze, with architectural elements that are intended to remind some distant but not well specified past, so as to prepare the user to the appearance of disparate and temporally distant 2 url omitted for blind review Page 10 of 39 URL: http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/ndcr Digital Creativity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 For P eer R eview O nly items. This choice was due to the constraint posed by the heterogeneity of the items in the archive, which share connections with the same archetype though being different for appearance, style, epoch, etc., and for its similarity to the "gothic" genre usually featured by the maze games many users are familiar with. Maze games, originally characterized by 2D graphics, like Atari's Pacman3, are a well-established genre, recently proposed in 3D graphics with bestselling titles such as Imangi's Temple Run®4 (one of the most downloaded apps for iPhone in 20135) or PlayFirst's Dream Chronicles ®6. In Labyrinth 3D, the floor is partly tiled, partly covered with grass, reminiscent of a deserted location that is seldom visited, so that the user gets the feeling of undertaking a solitary journey in an abandoned area - as the accidental, sparse, somehow "lost in memory" nature of the connections induced by the archetype suggests. The environment includes two types of elements, namely nodes and pathways connecting the nodes. Pathways differ in length and form: some are shorter and let the user catch a glimpse of the destination; some are longer and bend, so that their end is not visible before the user gets near the end. Small differences in the visual appearance of the nodes and pathways embellish the environment, serving at the same time the function of allowing the user to remember the elements visited so far, useful in case of backtracking (without Ariadne’s thread!), or in case the user finds her/himself in a 3 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pac-Man 4 http://www.imangistudios.com 5 Josh Constine (January 15, 2012). "Mobile Game Design: How Evil Monkeys Chased Temple Run To App Store #1". TechCrunch. Retrieved May 18, 2015 6 http://www.playfirst.com/games/view/dream-chronicles Page 11 of 39 URL: http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/ndcr Digital Creativity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 For P eer R eview O nly location that she/he has already visited before - a not unusual situation in mazes that is purposely allowed for by the design of the environment. Nodes include nodal spaces, where artworks are located, and crossroads, where the path splits into different directions. Nodal spaces contain a media item representing the artwork (an image, a sound file, a video clip or a text excerpt), which is either a digital equivalent of the artwork or some accompanying documentation (e.g., the cover of a book, the poster of a film), with connections categorized according to the reference archetype. Crossroads serve the function of splitting the chosen category into single artwork relations: in graph-like representations, in fact, only one-to-one relations can be directly encoded, while many-to-many relations need an intermediate node to connect them with each other via a set of one-to-one relations. Figure 2 Figure 2: The template for nodal spaces in Labyrinth 3D: notice the doors and the low balustrade in the middle. Fig. 2 illustrates the basic template for nodal spaces: a low circular balustrade, reminiscent of a sacred enclosure, is situated in the middle area, open in several points so as to provide an affordance inviting the user to step into the inner part of the space, where the artwork (missing in the figure) is situated. The space is surrounded by a wall, with doors opening on different pathways. Each nodal space has a fixed number of doors: depending of the actual number of categories by which the artwork in the node is connected with the other artworks, some doors may be hidden by greenery. The user navigation starts from an artwork, situated in a nodal space: the user must choose one of the doors posited on the edge of the node, each labelled after the Page 12 of 39 URL: http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/ndcr Digital Creativity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 For P eer R eview O nly name of a different category - among the ones acknowledged by the conceptual model of the archetype: story, character, object, action, location, and epoch. Pathways are symmetric, so they can be walked both ways. The user is free to explore the labyrinth, going back to previous locations as many times as she/he wishes. The design of the navigation was inspired by the paradigm of constrained navigation (Burigat and Chittaro 2007), with the aim of making it affordable also to non-expert users of 3D applications. This approach constrains the user to move in the 3D space according to simple, pre-defined paths and movements - instead of letting her/him move freely in the space. Navigation controls are provided by circles of lights posited on the floor, that the user clicks to be transported to the exact location of the circle. Smaller circles are posited in front of the doors leading to the pathways, and along the pathways. Larger circles mark the presence of artworks in the middle of nodal spaces: when one of these circles is clicked on, a layer appears where the title of the work and an accompanying image are displayed, and a media item can be viewed or played (depending on its type). A button labelled “More information” makes a further layer appear, with information about the artwork (artist, age and a short text, see Fig. 3). Small circles of light appear inside the navigation controls when they are clicked on, so that they can be distinguished from the controls that have not been clicked on yet, eventually forming a sort of "red thread" that marks the path made by the user so far. The metaphor of the red thread, aimed at improving self orientation, is also enforced by a small console, posited in the lower part of the screen, that shows the list of the artwork nodes visited by the user: by clicking on a node in the list, the user is brought back to that node. The console also contains buttons for ending the session and turning off the sound. Notice that, differently from standard virtual environments, the interface does not contain a map displaying the user position: rather, the orientation is entirely committed to the Page 13 of 39 URL: http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/ndcr Digital Creativity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 For P eer R eview O nly navigation controls, as described above, and to the sequence of visited artworks reported in the navigation console. In order to make the experience more engaging and to counterbalance the lack of commitment provided by a non-directed navigation, we introduced an explicit element of gamification in the interaction: when the session begins, the user is challenged to reach a "target node" through the archetype traversal. When the user reaches the target node, or when he/she decides to exit from the maze, the session ends and the user is shown with the statistics about her/his own performance (number of visited nodes, elapsed time, backtrackings), which provide an incentive to come back to the installation to improve one's own performance. 4.2 Production Labyrinth 3D was part of a larger project about the use of Semantic Web techniques for multimedia publishing, the Labyrinth project, jointly conducted by an academic partner, i.e., the research team of the University of (omitted), a media partner, i.e., a small publishing company, and a software company; a 3D agency was hired by the consortium to develop the application. The project, aimed at creating a web based platform for navigating semantically annotated media archives, included both a web based, hyper-textual interface, and the 3D interface described here, Labyrinth 3D, developed as an app for Mac and Windows. The university team included a project manager, a new media expert, an interaction designer, and a knowledge engineer. The production workflow assumed by the project addressed a typical scenario of the publishing industry. Publishing companies collect huge archives of references and media items, sometimes as the result of editorial services, more often aimed as part of their content editing workflow (formally described by Hardman et al. 2008). These archives represent significant assets of the company since, after they have been Page 14 of 39 URL: http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/ndcr Digital Creativity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 For P eer R eview O nly collected, they often become again an input to the editorial processes by inspiring the ideation and development of new editorial products, such as monographs and series. Thanks to their availability in digital format, then, they can be seen as potential editorial products themselves. The archive collected by the publishing company for the project concerned the topic of the labyrinth and it included 200 items, selected with the goal of having different media types represented in the archive (text, pictures, sounds and movies). Given the archive, a set of relevant archetypes were identified through the joint work of the publishing professionals and the new media experts, and modelled in a formal ontology: beyond "labyrinth", "hero" and "journey" were chosen for their large spatial and temporal coverage. Finally, the 3D application was designed and developed. In September 2014, we conducted an evaluation of Labyrinth 3D, described in the next section. The core of the system is the Archetype Ontology (AO), which represents the curatorial view on the archive embedded in the 3D installation. The ontology, designed and formally encoded by the knowledge engineer, contains the representation of a set of archetypes and describes how the artefacts represented in the archive are associated with them via the categories that provide the dimensions of archetype description, namely “story”, “character”, "object", “action”, “location” and "epoch". By the end of the project, the ontology contained 38 stories, 40 characters, 30 actions, 39 locations, 19 objects and 40 epochs, distributed over the three archetypes. A description of the ontology can be found in Damiano and Lieto (2013). The process by which the items in the archive are put in relation with the archetypes is conducted in a semi-automatic way, starting from their metadata, following the procedure described by Damiano et al. (2015). The metadata annotation of the archive is conducted via a form-based web interface following a standard metadata schema; when the items in the archive are Page 15 of 39 URL: http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/ndcr Digital Creativity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 For P eer R eview O nly uploaded to the system, their metadata are searched for connections to the archetypes by automatic reasoning processes. Finally, the set of resulting connections are checked for wrong connections and possibly corrected by a human expert. Notice that the reasoning process generates not only trivial connections, derived from archetype elements that are explicitly mentioned in the metadata of each artefact, but also more subtle connections, derived from the inner structure of the archetype conceptual model, such as for example, the relation between story and episodes. As a result, a curator may decide to discard some of the connections found by the automatic reasoning software, but also she/he may find unexpected, yet plausible, connections. The 3D maze is not built statically: rather, it is created step by step while the user advances through the virtual environment, as the result of her/his choices. So, during the visit, the maze literary emerges from the archetypes stored in the ontology, with unpredictable configurations that depend on the interaction with the user and on some random elements embedded in the design. For example, when the number of the connections for an artefact exceeds a given threshold9, a maximum number of connections to be displayed are randomly selected. For these reasons, should the user use the system in different times, she/he would find her/himself in consistent, yet different mazes, achieving a new experience every time. 4.3 Navigation example In order to exemplify the functioning of the 3D labyrinth, we resort to a navigation example, conducted by using the "labyrinth" as the reference archetype (thus doubling 9 Currently set to 7 to comply with the known limitations of working memory (Miller 1956) Page 16 of 39 URL: http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/ndcr Digital Creativity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 For P eer R eview O nly the role already covered for the spatial layout). Consider the artwork “Minotauromachia”, a painting by Pablo Picasso (Figure 310). Figure 3 Figure 3: Start nodal area, Minotauromachia by Pablo Picasso, Spain ("Spagna" in Italian) 1935. The screenshot in Figure 4 represents the first step of the interaction: the user is posited in the nodal space that contains the painting and is surrounded by a set of doors. The doors represent the categories that connect it with other artworks, as encoded in the ontology. Following the conceptual model of the archetype, each door is labelled after a different category, in order to mark that the artworks reachable through that door share one of more features with the current artwork in the given category (one character, one or more places, two stories, etc.). Pointing and clicking on the small circle posited in front of the door leads the user through a pathway to the next node, which can be a nodal space or a crossroad. Figure 4 Figure 4: Doors from start nodal space, labelled according to the archetype categories (character or agent, place, epoch) by which it relates to the other artworks. In Figure 4, a partial view of the start nodal space can be seen, with doors for the "character" category (here, labelled as "agent"), the "location" category (labelled as "place") and the "epoch" category. Taking the door marked as "agent" (character), the 10 The metadata of the artworks are in Italian for presentation reasons. Page 17 of 39 URL: http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/ndcr Digital Creativity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 For P eer R eview O nly user is brought through a pathway to a crossroad with doors leading to a set of artworks that exhibit the characters of "Theseus" and/or the "Minotaur" (Figure 5). Notice that, since there are more than one artworks displaying the characters engaged in the Minotauromachia (such as, e.g., paintings, ancient coins, etc.), a crossroad is needed to fork the path into several branches to the single artworks, so to maintain the principle “one node, one artwork”. From here, if the user chooses the door surmounted by the title “Teseo uccide il Minotauro” (Italian for “Theseus killing the Minotaur”, centre of Figure 5), she/he will walk through a pathway to the nodal space which contains the artwork with the same title, i.e., an ancient Greek vase representing Theseus in the act of killing the Minotaur (Figure 6). Figure 5 Figure 5: Crossroad for the category "character": the titles of the related artworks are written over the doors (in Italian). From left to right: Ancient coins discovered in Cnossos ("monete rinvenute a Cnosso"), Theseus killing the Minotaur ("Teseo uccide il Minotauro"), The frescos of Villa Imperiale in Pompei ("affreschi della Villa Imperiale a Pompei"). Figure 6 Figure 6: A Greek vase depicting Theseus killing the Minotaur, unknown creator ("anonimo"), Greece ("Grecia"), 5th century B.C. Backtracking to the initial nodal space (the one containing Picasso's Minotauromachia) and choosing a different door (i.e., a different category) from this nodal space, the user can take a different path: for example, by choosing the door Page 18 of 39 URL: http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/ndcr Digital Creativity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 For P eer R eview O nly labelled as "objects", i.e., artworks related with the same object as the current artwork (e.g., Ariadne's ball of thread), the user gets to the crossroad represented in Figure 7: notice, for instance, the door to the 17th century Italian painting entitled “Il filo di Arianna” (Italian for “Ariadne and the thread”, on the right of Figure 7). Artwork by artwork, the user makes her/his way through the maze, enjoying the artworks she/he comes across in a serendipic journey through ages and locations, until she/he eventually gets to the target, or presses the button "Exit" posited at the bottom of the interface. At any time, the user can go back to a previously visited artwork by clicking on the dots in the bar posited in the navigation console, labeled as "Stations" (bottom of figures). Figure 7 Figure 7: crossroad for the "object" category (after backtracking to the initial nodal space, Figure 3) with doors to different artworks. From left to right: Theseus killing the Minotaur ("Teseo uccide il Minotauro"), Sleeping Ariadne ("Arianna dormiente"), Ariadne and the thread ("Il filo di Arianna"). The overall path made by the user in the example navigation can be seen in Figure 8. Figure 8 Figure 8: Schema of the user navigation in the example, interleaving nodal spaces and crossroads. Page 19 of 39 URL: http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/ndcr Digital Creativity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 For P eer R eview O nly 5. Meeting the audience In September 2014, we carried out an evaluation of the Labyrinth 3D, in order to gather information about the users’ liking of the application and preferences about its use. In the occasion of a scientific dissemination fair open to the general public, small groups of 3 to 5 people, chosen among the attendants, were given a demo of Labyrinth 3D. After a short introduction to the application, the users were asked to choose a path in the labyrinth from an initial random node, with the experimenter clicking on the navigation controls corresponding to the current user's choices. This procedure was motivated by the fact that, given the high inflow of visitors, we decided to exclude the usability of the interface from the evaluation, in favour of a more coordinated execution of the testing protocol. The users were generally enthusiastic about the application, with teachers and young adults especially attracted by the potential applications of the virtual environment for didactic and dissemination goals. Users tended to read carefully the information displayed about the single items, reasoning aloud about their connection with the archetype and with the previously visited artworks. Some users explicitly asked to interact directly with the system and were allowed to do it, thus enabling the experimenters to make ethnographic observations about their navigation. The ethnographic observation showed that navigation was generally easy: the users were able to understand the use of the controls (the lit circles posited on the floor) to move from a location to another, with some problems only at pointing at the distantly located circles, which were too small due to the 3D perspective. Some users uttered their bewilderment at finding themselves in a node they had already visited, but were ready to accept the explanation that this is typical of labyrinths. The preliminary evaluation was conducted on a corpus of 51 media objects, which included images, text excerpts and video clips, described according to 3 Page 20 of 39 URL: http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/ndcr Digital Creativity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 For P eer R eview O nly archetypes (labyrinth, hero and journey). After each session, users were asked to answer individually a short written questionnaire in an anonymous form. The questionnaires were collected in a separate area by different experimenters. The questionnaire was designed to test the acceptance of the 3D environment, its immediacy of use and its appeal for the average media users, in order to assess the achievement of the design goals of the application, i.e., stimulating the users to navigate the repository through an engaging experience. Inspired by the notion of participatory design in heritage (Smith and Iversen 2014), we tested some specific design choices, such as the setting of the labyrinth and its use for different purposes. To do so, we asked the users to express preferences about the appearance and use of the application, aimed at gathering information for the design of similar applications within the framework of Labyrinth 3D. The questionnaire included 7 questions. Question 1 grouped 6 sub--questions, aimed at investigating the general acceptance of the application: by using Likert scales (with 5 points from -2 to +2, mapped onto values from 1 (-2) to 5 (+2) in the subsequent data analysis), we asked testers to what degree the application was: (1) intuitive (2) interesting (3) engaging (4) useful (5) appealing (6) straightforward to use Then, through multiple answer questions, we asked the testers to indicate their preferred devices (Question 2) for using the application (tablet, pc, smartphone, etc.) and to indicate what use (Question 3) they envisaged for the application (teaching, Page 21 of 39 URL: http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/ndcr Digital Creativity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 For P eer R eview O nly entertainment, cultural dissemination, etc.). In order to investigate how the users perceived the application, we also asked the testers what types of applications were similar to the proposed application (Question 4), with alternatives ranging from didactic media (encyclopaedia) to cultural dissemination (museum) to entertainment (video games). Finally, we asked some specific questions about the acceptance of the metaphor of the labyrinth and of the visual design. In particular, we asked the testers (Question 5) to select adjectives to describe the 3D labyrinth (with positive and negative polarities: "confusing", "intriguing", "ordinary", "challenging", "playful" and "unpleasant"), then we asked them whether they liked or disliked the proposed setting, ancient ruins (Question 6), and what alternative settings they would like to have implemented (Question 7) through multiple choices that proposed a range of locations typically associated with cultural heritage: historical palace, modern building, museum building, etc. 41 testers took part in the evaluation, males and females, with ages ranging from 10 to 67 years old. The results were encouraging under all perspectives, i.e. the acceptance of the application, its immediacy of use, the understanding of the metaphor of the labyrinth and the suitability of the setting. The average value of the answers to the questions concerning the acceptance was 4.5 (Question 1, subquestions i to vi, all 5 point Likert scales), with "interesting" as the highest average value (4.7) and "straightforward" as the lowest average value (4.32), indicating that the application was appealing but its use was not entirely clear, an indication for future redesign. The average values collected for Question 1 are illustrated in Table 1. The remaining questions revealed further details about the users' perception of the application for what concerns its goals and uses. As for the preferred device for using the application, the “PC” was the most frequently selected choice (25 users), Page 22 of 39 URL: http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/ndcr Digital Creativity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 For P eer R eview O nly followed by “tablet” (17) and “smart phone” (17), indicating the wish of taking advantage of the navigation experience in a separate session from other activities, through a device that fosters immersion. As for intended use (Question 3) “cultural enrichment" was the most frequently selected choice (31 users), followed by “teaching" (18 users). The "video game" and the "encyclopaedia" (Question 4), were not surprisingly the most frequently selected choices (18 and 14 users) of similar applications - since Labyrinth 3D was designed with the goal to disseminate cultural contents with an immersive, game-like interaction style in mind. The labyrinth environment (Question 5) was perceived as “intriguing” by 31 users, but “challenging” or “playful” only by 13 of them, showing that only a few users perceived it as overtly arduous or tended to catch only its playful side. Finally, most users (31, 75.6%) liked the proposed setting. The most preferred alternative settings (Question 7, multiple choice) were the museum and the library (15 users each), in line with the reception of the content as cultural indicated by the answers to Questions 3 and 4. The results described above, although influenced by the fact that the testers were selected among the users who showed more interest about the application by approaching the demo booth, show a good acceptance of the installation and of the design choices and goals underlying it. In particular, the users seemed to perceive the application as a tool for teaching cultural notions to self (cultural enrichment) or others (school teaching) and find it similar to video games, but they don't perceive the entertainment as primary (since this option was selected only by 9 participants). As confirmed by the ethnographic observation, these results reveal a strong interest for the installation, which, prompted by the language of 3D, extends also to the cultural contents to embrace the goal of cultural dissemination. Page 23 of 39 URL: http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/ndcr Digital Creativity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 For P eer R eview O nly 6. Conclusion This paper has proposed the use of 3D graphics for designing novel tools of exploratory search in cultural heritage archives. The tool is an online virtual environment where the user can navigate the meaning relations over the items in the archive. Targeted at cultural heritage, the application Labyrinth 3D employs the cultural archetypes to inform the conceptualization of the archive and the creation of the traversal paths, engaging the user in the exploration of the archive. The use of 3D graphics in cultural heritage is usually aimed at the visualization of objects and locations, existing or reconstructed, as a support to study and dissemination activities. Relevant examples span from private initiatives (such as, the well known Google Art Project11 and Arounder12) to public research and educational projects (see, e.g., the animated 3D reconstructions of the ancient city of Rome and of Roman villas described by Dylla et al. 2008 and Rua and Alvito 2011). These approaches are characterized by the use of visualization for reconstructing locations and objects that do not exist anymore, or for superimposing to existing locations and objects new interactive functionalities, making them available to users in a remote modality. The work presented in this paper radically departs from this approach and differentiates from the works mentioned above since, in our approach, the 3D representation is not employed to reconstruct real environments, but as a tool to convey meaning relations through a visual environment. The works surveyed above focus on the modelling and reconstruction of real environments, while we see the virtual environment as an experienceable substitute for the relations over the objects in an external domain, represented by the media archive, gathered and organized into a set of 11 www.google.com/culturalinstitute/project/art-project 12 www.arounder.com Page 24 of 39 URL: http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/ndcr Digital Creativity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 For P eer R eview O nly cultural archetypes. In our approach, the user is immersed in a virtual, maze-like environment that embeds a cultural heritage archive, where she/he actively explores the archetypal meaning of the items in the archive, finding her/his way through the archive in a personal way. Labyrinth 3D relies on the assumption that the use of shared conceptual models, the cultural archetypes formally encoded in the system as computational ontologies, together with the pleasure of exploration and enactment brought by the (itself archetypal) environment, can work in favour of the user engagement. We have illustrated the inspiration and goals that informed the design and implementation of the system, bringing a creative component into the user experience, acknowledged by the positive impact on the audience. On the edge of the transition of the Web to the paradigm of Linked Open Data, which makes the need for generalized access models to networked contents even stronger, the scalability of the system, which relies on formal ontologies and automated reasoning, confirm its innovation potential for the design of novel access tools to cultural heritage archives that literally bring the user into the core of the archive. Page 25 of 39 URL: http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/ndcr Digital Creativity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 For P eer R eview O nly References Almén, B. (2003). Narrative archetypes: A critique, theory, and method of narrative analysis. Journal of Music Theory, Duke University Press, pp. 1-39. Beagrie, N. (2008). Digital curation for science, digital libraries, and individuals. International Journal of Digital Curation, Digital Curation Center, 1(1), pp. 3-16. Beer, D., & Burrows, R. (2013). Popular culture, digital archives and the new social life of data. Theory, Culture & Society, Sage, 30(4), pp. 47-71. Bolick, C. M. (2006). Digital Archives: Democratizing the Doing of History. International Journal of Social Education, 21(1), pp. 122-134. Bolter, J. D., Grusin, R. A. (2000). Remediation: Understanding new media. Mit Press. Bruhn, M. (2000). 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Dylla, K., Frischer, B., Müller, P., Ulmer, A., & Haegler, S. (2008). Rome reborn 2.0: A case study of virtual city reconstruction using procedural modeling techniques. Computer Graphics World, 16, 25. Page 26 of 39 URL: http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/ndcr Digital Creativity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 For P eer R eview O nly Hall, Mark M. (2014). From Searching to Using: Making Sense of Digital Cultural Heritage Collections, In Proc. of The Search is Over! Exploring Cultural Collections with Visualization. Hardman, L., Obrenović, Ž., Nack, F., Kerhervé, B., & Piersol, K. (2008). Canonical processes of semantically annotated media production. Multimedia Systems, 14(6), Springer, pp. 327-340. Haskins, E. (2007). Between archive and participation: Public memory in a digital age. Rhetoric Society Quarterly, 37(4), pp. 401-422. Hey, A. 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Thompson, J., Kuchera-Morin, J., Novak, M., Overholt, D., Putnam, L., Wakefield, G., & Smith, W. (2009). The Allobrain: An interactive, stereographic, 3D audio, Page 28 of 39 URL: http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/ndcr Digital Creativity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 For P eer R eview O nly immersive virtual world. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 67(11), pp. 934-946. Thompson, S. (1955). Myths and folktales. Journal of american Folklore, pp. 482-488. Trant, J. (2008). Curating Collections Knowledge. Museum Informatics: People, Information, and Technology in Museums, 2, 275. Van de Waal, H. (1974). Iconclass: an iconographic classification system (Vol. 2). North-Holland. Van Den Akker, C., Legêne, S., Van Erp, M., Aroyo, L., Segers, R., van Der Meij, L., and Jacobs, G. (2011, June). 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Page 29 of 39 URL: http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/ndcr Digital Creativity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 For P eer R eview O nly Tables Table 1: The liking of the application by the users, through Likert scales (values 1 to 5) SYSTEM PROPERTY AVERAGE VALUE STANDARD DEVIATION intuitive 4.35 0.72 interesting 4.7 0.57 engaging 4.41 0.74 useful 4.48 0.61 appealing 4.5 0.74 straightforward 4.32 0.68 Page 30 of 39 URL: http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/ndcr Digital Creativity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 For P eer R eview O nly Figures Figure 1: Pathosformeln from Warburg's Builderatlas (www.engramma.it). Figure 2: The template for nodal spaces in Labyrinth 3D: notice the doors and the low balustrade in the middle. Figure 3: Start nodal area, Minotauromachia by Pablo Picasso, Spain ("Spagna" in Italian), 1935. Figure 4: Doors from start nodal space, labeled according to the archetype categories (character or agent, place, epoch) by which it relates to the other artworks. Figure 5: Crossroad for the category "character": the titles of the related artworks are written over the doors (in Italian). From left to right: Ancient coins discovered in Cnossos ("monete rinvenute a Cnosso"), Theseus killing the Minotaur ("Teseo uccide il Minotauro"), Frescos from Villa Imperiale in Pompei ("affreschi della Villa Imperiale a Pompei"). Figure 6: The Greek vase depicting Theseus killing the Minotaur, unknown creator ("anonimo"), Greece ("Grecia"), 5th century B.C. Figure 7: crossroad for the "object" category (after backtracking to the initial nodal space, Figure 3) with doors to different artworks. From left to right: Theseus killing the Minotaur ("Teseo uccide il Minotauro"), Sleeping Ariadne ("Arianna dormiente"), Ariadne and the thread ("Il filo di Arianna"). Figure 8: Schema of the user navigation in the example, interleaving nodal spaces and crossroads. 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work_ilaebg6jyzg6nkbnfyyb4aaspa	----	Book Review: Shadows of Reality: The Fourth Dimension in Relativity, Cubism, and Modern Thought, Volume 54, Number 4 Book Review Shadows of Reality: The Fourth Dimension in Relativity, Cubism, and Modern Thought Reviewed by Tony Phillips Shadows of Reality: The Fourth Dimension in Relativity, Cubism, and Modern Thought Tony Robbin Yale University Press, 2006 $40.00 160 pages, ISBN 978-0300110395 The fourth dimension? As La Rochefoucauld ob- served of true love, many people talk about it, but few have seen it. H. S. M. Coxeter, whose Regular Polytopes is the primary reference on four-dimensional constructions, says [Cox, ix]: “we can never fully comprehend them by direct obser- vation.” But he goes on: “In attempting to do so, however, we seem to peek through a chink in the wall of our physical limitations, into a new world of dazzling beauty.” This is how the fourth dimension appeals to a geometer; for the popular imagination, fired by late nineteenth and early twentieth century science-fiction, theosophy and charlatanism, it be- came a fad with transcendental overtones. Just as UFOs are interpreted today as manifestations of a superior, alien civilization, so the fourth dimension gave room, lots of room, for the spirit world. Tony Robbin tells this story in Shadows of Re- ality: The Fourth Dimension in Relativity, Cubism, and Modern Thought, along with an analysis of the impact of four-dimensional thought on modern art, and its importance in modern science. An additional and more idiosyncratic theme is sounded by the invocation, in the book’s title, of Plato’s myth of the cave. The prisoners in the cave can see only shadows projected on the wall before them; and as Socrates explains to Glaucon: “to them Tony Phillips is professor of mathematics at Stony Brook University. His email address is tony@math.sunysb.edu. the truth would be literally nothing but the shadows of the images.” Thus our own truth may be only the projection of a more meaningful four-dimensional reality. But there is more. The concept itself of projection has enormous importance for Robbin; he systematically opposes, and prefers, projection (from four dimensions to three dimensions, and then usually to two to get things on a page) to the dual perspective on four-dimensional reality, three-dimensional slicing, which he characterizes as “the Flatland model”. He is referring to Edwin A. Abbott’s book Flatland, where four dimensions are explained by analogy with the Flatlanders’ con- ception of the three-dimensional space we humans inhabit. “Consider this book a modest proposal to rid our thinking of the slicing model of four- dimensional figures and spacetime in favor of the projection model.” I will come back to this point later. The jacket blurb for Shadows of Reality de- scribes the work as “a revisionist math history as well as a revisionist art history.” “Revisionist Art History” Chapter 3, “The Fourth Dimension in Painting”, contains an analysis of three well-known paintings by Picasso: Les Demoiselles d’Avignon (1907), the Portrait of Ambroise Vollard, and the Portrait of Henry Kahnweiler (both 1910). Robbin argues that “at one propitious moment a more serious and sophisticated engagement with the fourth dimen- sion pushed [Picasso] and his collaborators into the discovery of cubism,” and that that moment occurred between the painting of Les Demoiselles and that of the two portraits. The source of the ge- ometry is pinned down: the Traité élémentaire de géométrie à quatre dimensions by Esprit Jouffret 504 Notices of the AMS Volume 54, Number 4 (1903) [Jouf], and the bearer of this knowledge to Pi- casso is identified as Maurice Princet, a person with some mathematical training who was a member of the Picasso group. This is indeed revisionist, because it claims a hitherto unrecognized mathematical influence on the most famous artist of the twentieth century. The interaction between geometry and art at the beginning of the twentieth century has already been studied in encyclopedic detail by Linda Dal- rymple Henderson [Hen]. When it comes to the fourth dimension and Picasso, Henderson is much more cautious: “Although Picasso has denied ever discussing mathematics or the fourth dimension with Princet, Princet was a member of the group around Picasso by at least the middle of 1907, and probably earlier. It thus seems highly unlikely that during the several years which followed, Picasso did not hear some talk of the fourth dimension. . . ” But she presents eye-witness and contemporary testimony from Jean Metzinger, an artist member of the group, which states that the influence ran the other way: “Cézanne showed us forms living in the reality of light, Picasso brings us a material account of their real life in the mind—he lays out a free, mobile perspective, from which that inge- nious mathematician Maurice Princet has deduced a whole geometry.” [Metz] Henderson gives solid documentation of the interest in mathematical ideas among the artists of “Picasso’s circle”, especially after they drifted away from him in 1911. And if images like Jouf- fret’s figures were part of the visual ambience in the 1907–1910 period, they may well have caught Picasso’s omnivorous eye. But for a specific math- ematical influence on Picasso there is no evidence, and Robbin presents no reasonable argument be- yond his own gut feeling: “Indeed, as a painter looking at the visual evidence I find that Picas- so. . . clearly adopted Jouffret’s methods in 1910.” So we have to take his statement in the preface— “Pablo Picasso not only looked at the projections of four-dimensional cubes in a mathematics book when he invented cubism, he also read the text, em- bracing not just the images but the ideas”—as pure, unadvertised invention. Let us leave the last word on this topic to the artist himself: “Mathematics, trigonometry, chemistry, psychoanalysis, music and whatnot, have been related to cubism to give it an easier interpretation. All this has been pure literature, not to say nonsense, which brought bad results, blinding people with theories.” [Pic] “Revisionist Math History” The agenda is stated in the preface. “Contrary to popular exposition, it is the projection model that revolutionized thought at the beginning of the twentieth century. The ideas developed as part of this projection metaphor continue to be the basis for the most advanced contemporary thought in mathematics and physics.” The rest of the para- graph amplifies this assertion, naming projective geometry, Picasso (as cited above), Minkowski (“had the projection model in the back of his head when he used four-dimensional geometry to cod- ify special relativity”), de Bruijn (his “projection algorithms for generating quasicrystals revolution- ized the way mathematicians think about patterns and lattices”), Penrose (“showed that a light ray is more like a projected line than a regular line in space,” with this insight leading to “the most provocative and profound restructuring of physics since the discoveries of Albert Einstein”), quantum information theory, and quantum foam. “Such new projection models present us with an understand- ing that cannot be reduced to a Flatland model without introducing hopeless paradox.” These items are fleshed out in the main text of the book, roughly one per chapter. I will look in detail at Chapter 4 (“The Truth”), which covers the geometry of relativity, and at Chapter 6, “Patterns, Crystals and Projections”. Relativity, and Time as the Fourth Dimen- sion For mathematicians, dimension is often just one of the parameters of the object under investigation. Their work may be set in arbitrary dimension (“in di- mension n”) or, say, in dimension 24, as in the work of Henry Cohn and Abhinav Kumar, who caused a stir in 2004 [Cohn] when they nailed down the closest regular packing of 24-dimensional balls in 24-dimensional space. So we really should be talk- ing about “a fourth dimension”, and not “the fourth dimension”. For the general public, on the other hand, four dimensions are esoteric enough. They are usually thought of as the familiar three plus one more; hence “the fourth dimension”. So where is this fourth dimension? Nineteenth-century work on 4-dimensional polytopes (reviewed in [Cox]) clearly posited an extra spatial dimension. But at the same time a tradition, going back to Laplace, considered time as “the fourth dimension”. In fact partial differential equations relating space deriva- tives to time derivatives leave us no choice: their natural domain of definition is four-dimensional space-time. Here there is some point to Robbin’s anti-slicing strictures. Special relativity implies that space-time cannot be described as a stack of three-dimensional constant-time slices. More precisely, the most general Lorentz transformation, relating two over- lapping (x,y,z,t) coordinate systems of which one may be traveling at constant speed with respect to the other, mixes the (x,y,z)s and the ts in such a way that the{t = constant}slices are not preserved. But projections do not help. Here is Minkowski as quoted by Robbin: “We are compelled to admit that April 2007 Notices of the AMS 505 it is only in four dimensions that the relations here taken under consideration reveal their inner being in full simplicity, and that on a three-dimensional space forced on us a priori they cast only a very complicated projection.” Minkowski is saying that projections from four dimensions to three are not very useful in understanding relativistic reality. Robbin gets the word “projection” back into play by describing Lorentz transformations as being “revealed when one geometric description of space is projected onto another.” But the projections here are isomorphisms from one four-dimensional co- ordinate system to another; they are not the kind of projections, onto lower-dimensional spaces, that Robbin is contrasting to slicing. Patterns, Crystals and Projections Chapter 6 begins with a description of nonperiodic tilings and how they may be generated by “match- ing rules” and by repeated dissection and inflation. It then goes on to discuss the fascinating and il- luminating relationship, discovered by Nicolaas de Bruijn [de B], between nonperiodic tilings in dimension n and projections of approximations of irrational slices of periodic tilings: cubical lattices in dimension 2n or 2n + 1. The simplest example involves dimensions 1 and 2: take the (x,y)-plane with its usual tiling by unit squares; the vertices are at points (n,m) with integer coordinates. Draw the straight line y = ϕx with irrational slope ϕ = 1.6180339 . . . (the “golden mean” number). Starting at (0, 0), cover the line with the smallest possible subset of the tiling. The squares are shown here shaded. Because the slope is irrational, the line does not pass through any lattice vertex other than (0, 0), so the choice of covering tile is always unambiguous. Now project the center of each covering tile per- pendicularly onto the irrational line. The projected points will define a tiling of the line by intervals: a long interval (L) if the two consecutive tiles were adjacent vertically, and a short one (S) if they were adjacent horizontally. A trigonometric calculation shows that the length ratio of S to L is ϕ. Our tiling by intervals is non-periodic because ϕ is irrational, but it has other amazing properties because ϕ is such a special number. For example, if we represent the short tile by S, and the long one by L, the tiling of the positive x-axis corresponds to a sequence of Ls and Ss. It turns out (the argument requires some linear algebra; see [web]) that the sequence may also be generated as follows: start with S, and copy the string over and over, each time rewriting every S as L, and every L as LS: Figure 1. S L LS LSL LSLLS LSLLSLSL LSLLSLSLLSLLS LSLLSLSLLSLLSLSLLSLSL LSLLSLSLLSLLSLSLLSLSLLSLLSLSLLSLLS ... Figure 2. The sequence may also be generated like the Fi- bonacci numbers, starting with S and L and making each succeeding line the concatenation of its two predecessors. And there is more. Instead of drawing a line with golden slope through the 2-dimensional lattice of unit squares, let us slice a plane (a golden plane—see below) through the analogous 5-dimensional lattice, cov- er the plane with the smallest possible subset of the 5-cubes of that lattice, and project the center points of those cubes orthogonally onto the plane. The projected points turn out to be the vertices of Penrose’s non-periodic tiling [de B]. In this tiling, the plane is covered by copies of two rhombs (equi- lateral parallelograms), a fat one, with lesser angle 2π/5, and a skinny one π/5, whose areas, just like the lengths of L and S, are in the golden ratio. 506 Notices of the AMS Volume 54, Number 4 (We use the plane in 5-space spanned by the vectors (1,− cos(π/5), cos(2π/5), − cos(3π/5), cos(4π/5)) and (0,− sin(π/5), sin(2π/5), − sin(3π/5), sin(4π/5)) [web2]; equivalently, in terms of the golden mean, we may scale those vectors to (2,−ϕ,ϕ − 1,ϕ − 1,−ϕ) and (0,−1,ϕ,−ϕ, 1). A straightforward linear algebra computation shows that the 10 different unit squares in the 5-dimensional lattice project to the 10 possible orientations (5 each) of the 2 rhombs in the Penrose tiling. ) De Bruijn’s construction of the Penrose tiling is intellectually satisfying. Instead of the arbitrary- sounding matching rules, which add one tile at a time, or the stepwise generation of tilings of finite portions of the plane by dissection and inflation, we have a single, intelligible definition tiling the entire plane. Furthermore the magical-seeming recur- rence properties of the tiling are anchored back to the well-understood behavior of the fractional part of consecutive integral multiples of an irrational number, which has been studied since Kronecker. As an additional bonus, the construction also yields a new insight into the psychological phenomenon noted by Martin Kemp [Kem] in describing how a rhombic Penrose tiling affects the eye: “We can, for instance, play Necker cube-type games with apparent octagons, and facet the surface into a kind of cubist medley of receding and advancing planes.” The surface in 5-space, which projects to the tiling, is made up of square facets lined up with the coordinate planes. Three by three these facets determine a cube, which projects correctly; but these cubes live in 5 dimensions, and they fit together in a manner inconceivable in 3-space. Robbin puts the impact of de Bruijn’s discover- ies eloquently but inaccurately: “Once one accepts the counterintuitive notion that quasicrystals are projections of regular, periodic, cubic lattices from higher-dimensional space, all the other counter- intuitive properties soon become clear in a wave of lucid understanding.” The inaccuracy, which is fundamental, stems from Robbin’s failure to recognize that these tilings are projections of sec- tions of cubic lattices. At the end of the chapter the language becomes even more vivid, but the thesis is still fundamentally wrong-headed: “Quasicrystals show us that objects and systems described by pro- jective geometry cannot be made Euclidean without introducing the most mystical and anthropomor- phic properties into the system. Making what is generated or accurately modeled by projective geometry into a traditional Euclidean static model takes us away from science and moves us towards fetishism.” There are smaller-scale problems also, in Rob- bin’s portrayal of Penrose’s tilings and de Bruijn’s construction. The main ideas are there, with correct references, but a naïve and attentive reader can only be bewildered by the presentation. We read things that are obviously just plain wrong (“The mechanics of the loom enforce a periodic repeat”), things that turn out to be wrong (“Originally, the Amman bars were equidistant”), and things that are misleading (“It was long thought to be impossible to have a tiling made up of pentagons”) or unnecessar- ily obscure (“The dual net is a mathematical device that is often used to analyze pattern”—no further description). The figures only add to the confusion. Figure 6.7 is mislabelled, and here is Figure 6.8: Figure 3. Robbin’s Figure 6.8. April 2007 Notices of the AMS 507 Figure 4. “Necker” cube: the eye imposes one of two three-dimensional interpretations of this figure as a cube, and oscillates between them. Figure 5. Jouffret’s Figure 41, perspective cavalière of the 16 fundamental octahedra. The caption (“The de Bruijn projection method is applied to a grid of hypercubes to produce a Penrose tiling. Only one hypercube is shown here.”) does not mention the slicing plane, and the “projec- tion method” is represented by a four-dimensional hypercube floating in the upper left-hand corner, along with vertical lines attached to the vertices of the Penrose tiling drawn in perspective in the cen- ter. I do not believe this figure is meant to be judged as a work of art; but I know that as a mathematical diagram, while it contains some suggestive truth, it is too impressionistic to be useful. Conclusion In sum, this is an attractive but very disappointing book. The topic has great potential, and Robbin’s earlier work [Rob], both entertaining and enlight- ening, promised an idiosyncratic, artist’s-eye look, with perhaps new insights, at these fascinating phe- nomena. In fact I am grateful to Robbin for introduc- ing me to de Bruijn’s work and for bringing to my attention Esprit Jouffret, a charming mathematical representative of the Belle Époque. But the book is seriously marred by the inadequacy and inaccura- cy of its mathematical component: the author has been allowed to venture, alone, too far above the plane of his expertise. In his acknowledgments he singles out several “readers of the manuscript” and several Yale University Press staffers. He alone of course is responsible for the text and illustrations, but I am sure that some of those individuals wish now that they had done more to give this beautiful idea a more accurate and intelligible realization. Appendix: Section, Projection, and Per- spective Cavalière Section and projection are mathematically du- al operations. Any finite n-dimensional object can be completely reconstructed either from a 1-dimensional set of parallel (n − 1)-dimensional slices or from a 1-dimensional set of (n − 1)- dimensional projections, by stacking in one case or by a tomographic-style calculation in the oth- er. The total information is the same, although packaged quite differently. When it comes to geo- metric objects, like regular polyhedra, the (innate or trained) ability of the human eye, which can re- solve perspective problems almost automatically, means that a 2-dimensional projection can often be counted on to be “read” to give a mental image of its 3-dimensional antecedent. The “Necker cube” phenomenon referred to by Kemp is a familiar example of this human propensity. But in fact neither of the natural interpretations is even plausible unless we assume that we are look- ing at the projection of a connected polyhedron. The configuration we see might be like one of the con- stellations in the night sky: our mind joining several completely unrelated objects. Projection of more general objects is usually less informative. Knot theorists work comfort- ably with two-dimensional “projections” of three- dimensional knots, but these projections have been enhanced with clues: at each intersection a 508 Notices of the AMS Volume 54, Number 4 graphical convention gives information (from “the third dimension”) telling which strand goes over and which goes under. To explore the limitations of projection as a means for studying four-dimensional polyhedra, let us look at an image from Jouffret, reproduced both in Henderson’s book and in Robbin’s (Figure 5). Jouffret’s Figure 41 is part of his effort to ex- plain the structure of the polytope C24 , which is a 3-dimensional object, without boundary (as such it can only exist in 4-dimensional space), made up of 24 octahedra. This polytope has 24 vertices, 96 edges, and 96 triangular faces. It is the most interesting of the 3-dimensional regular polytopes because it is the only one of the 6 that has no analogue among our familiar 2-dimensional poly- hedra (in fact its group of symmetries is the Weyl group of the exceptional Lie group F4 [Cox]). Jouffret works rigorously, in the style of the descriptive geometry épures required of every French candidate to the École Polytechnique or the École Normale Supérieure between 1858 and 1960 [Asa]: he constructs a C24 of edge-length a in 4-dimensional space as a polytope with ver- tices at the 24 points (±α,±α, 0, 0), (±α, 0,±α, 0), (±α, 0, 0,±α), (0,±α,±α, 0), (0,±α, 0,±α,), (0, 0,±α,±α), where α = a √ 3 2 . Since each ver- tex is connected to eight others, when you put in all the edges and project the polytope onto a page of the book you get something like one of the two pictures in Figure 6. Which one you get depends on the projection you choose from 4-space to 2-space. These pictures are attractive, but they do not convey much informa- tion about how 24 octahedra fit together to form an object with no boundary. Putting in any indication of where the 96 2-dimensional faces fit in would certainly not improve legibility. Jouffret credits Schoute with the idea of a perspective cavalière: a cavalier bending of the rules in the interest of intel- ligibility. In this case there are two violations. First, sixteen of the octahedra are selected to represent the surface. The sixteen are geometrically projected as before. That projected image is dissected into four pieces, with common edges and faces drawn twice, and common vertices two or four times. The shading, which, as Henderson notes, gives the im- age a “shimmering quality of iridescence”, marks the faces that are duplicated. (Note here two small errors: the face <9, 18, 21> in quadrant h8 should be shifted to become <10, 18, 21>, and the face <17, 13, 14> in quadrant h6 should be moved to <17, 22, 14>). Before trying to understand how these pieces all fit together, and then where the missing eight octahedra should be inserted, we should note how far this picture is, even when restricted to one of the quadrants, from a straightforward projection. When two lines meet in this figure, a heavy dot tells us whether their intersection is essential (they actually meet in four dimensions) or contingent (two of their points happen to project to the same place). The lines themselves come with two differ- ent values: full and dotted, according to a somewhat arbitrary convention of Jouffret’s regarding which lines are “seen” and which are “hidden”. Finally, even with all the extra information, and despite the accuracy of the épure, the picture is hard to read. There is a clue for modern readers: the rectangular parallelipipeds in each quadrant become a torus when the quadrants are slid back together. The inside and the outside of this torus are partitioned into 24 half-octahedra each by coning the boundary of each inside parallelipiped from an “interior” vertex (one of 2, 4, 6, or 8) and by coning the boundary of each outside block from its appropriate middle vertex (one of 17, 19, 21, 23). Each solid torus contains a necklace of 4 complete octahedra. The remaining seize octaèdres fonda- mentaux are formed when the two solid tori are glued along their boundaries to give a topological 3-sphere. I write “modern readers” because I do not believe that in 1903 this decomposition of the 3-sphere, even though it is almost unavoidable when S3 is written as {|z1|2 +|z2|2 = 1} in complex coordinates, was anywhere nearly as well known as it is today. Jouffret remarks that the 16 vertices that span our torus are the vertices of a hypercube (octaé- droïde), but he does not use this information to clarify the combinatorial structure of C24. He also remarks that the other 8 vertices define a 16-cell (hexadécadroïde) of side a √ 2, and that this parti- tion into 16 + 8 can be done in three symmetric ways. References [Asa] Boris Asancheyev, Épures de géométrie de- scriptive, Concours d’entrée à l’Ecole Normale Supérieure, Hermann, Paris, 2002, [Cohn] Henry Cohn and Abhinav Kumar, The dens- est lattice in twenty-four dimensions, Electronic Research Announcements of the AMS, 10 (2004), 58–67, arXiv:math.MG/0408174. [Cox] H. S. M. Coxeter, Regular Polytopes, second edition, McMillan, New York, 1963. [de B] Nikolaas G. de Bruijn, Algebraic theory of Pen- rose’s non-periodic tilings of the plane, i, ii, Nederl. Akad. Wetensch. Proc. Ser. A, 84, 38–52, 53–66, 1981. [Hen] Linda Dalrymple Henderson, The Fourth Di- mension and Non-Euclidean Geometry in Modern Art, Princeton, 1983. [Jouf] Esprit Jouffret, Traité élémentaire de géométrie à quatre dimensions, Hermann, Paris, 1903. [Kem] Martin Kemp, A trick of the tiles, Nature 436 (2005), 332–332. April 2007 Notices of the AMS 509 Figure 6. From Jouffret’s Figure 36, two projections of the 24-cell. Figure 7. The two solid tori implicit in Jouffret’s diagram, with their interior vertices. The extra edges for two of the “necklace” octahedra are shown in green; those for one of the seize octaèdres fondamentaux are shown in orange. [Metz] Jean Metzinger, Notes sur la peinture, Pan, Oct.-Nov. 1910, translated and partially reprint- ed in Edward Fry, Cubism, McGraw-Hill, New York 1966. Quoted in [Hen] page 64. Here is the whole paragraph: “Picasso ne nie pas l’objet, il l’illumine avec son intelligence et son sentiment. Aux perceptions visuelles, il joint les percep- tions tactiles. Il éprouve, comprend, organise: le tableau ne sera transposition ni schema, nous y contemplerons l’équivalent sensible et vivant d’une idée, l’image totale. Thèse, antithèse, syn- thèse, la vieille formule subit une énergique interversion dans la substance des deux pre- miers termes: Picasso s’avoue réaliste. Cézanne nous montra les formes vivre dans la réalité de la lumière, Picasso nous apporte un compte- rendu matériel de leur vie réelle dans l’esprit, il fonde une perspective libre, mobile, telle que le sagace mathématicien Maurice Princet en déduit toute une géométrie.” [Pic] Picasso speaks, The Arts, New York, May 1923. Reproduced in Alfred H. Barr Jr., Picasso: Fifty Years of his Art, Museum of Modern Art, New York 1946, reprint edition published for the mu- seum by Arno Press, 1966. Also reprinted in Edward Fry, Cubism, McGraw-Hill, New York 1966. [Rob] Tony Robbin, Fourfield: Computers, Art & the 4th Dimension, Little, Brown & Co., Boston, 1992. [web] http://www.math.okstate.edu/mathdept/ dynamics/lecnotes/node29.html, David J. Wright, Oklahoma State University. [web2] http://gregegan.customer.netspace.net.au/ APPLETS/12/12.html, Greg Egan—refers to Quasitiler documentation. 510 Notices of the AMS Volume 54, Number 4 http://www.math.okstate.edu/mathdept/dynamics/lecnotes/node29.html http://www.math.okstate.edu/mathdept/dynamics/lecnotes/node29.html http://gregegan.customer.netspace.net.au/APPLETS/12/12.html http://gregegan.customer.netspace.net.au/APPLETS/12/12.html 
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work_j52g66khljas5apbqzejujmomm	----	508 ARTÍCULO ESPECIAL Rev Med Chile 2017; 145: 508-513 Paul Cézanne, el solitario padre de la pintura moderna Marcelo Miranda Paul Cézanne, the lonely precursor of modern painting Paul Cézanne is an acknowledged pioneer of modern painting. His work was poorly recognized during most of his solitary life. He progressively withdrew from people and society during his life, in part due to his introverted personality and a supreme effort to obtain a unique form of expression of his art, in which nature and its inner secrets played a pivotal role. In this review, we discuss aspects of his life and art, his pathological personal relationships and how they influenced his transcendental work. (Rev Med Chile 2017; 145: 508-513) Key words: Medicine in Art; Neural Pathways; Neurosciences; Paintings. Departamento de Neurología. Clínica Las Condes, Santiago, Chile. Recibido el 5 de mayo de 2016, aceptado el 22 de octubre de 2016. Correspondencia: Dr. Marcelo Miranda Antonio Varas 175 of 302 marcelomirandac@gmail.com 5103 “Quisiera asombrar a París con una manzana”. Paul Cézanne, 1895 P aul Cézanne (1839-1906) permanece como uno de los más grandes, originales e in- fluyentes pintores de la historia del arte. Según Pablo Picasso y Henri Matisse, “Cézanne es el padre de todos nosotros”1. En el desarrollo de su arte influyeron de manera fundamental aspectos de su vida familiar que determinaron su peculiar carácter. Cézanne nació en Aix-en-Pro- vence, Francia, primer hijo de 3 que tuvieron Louis-Auguste Cézanne y Anne-Elisabeth Hono- rine Aubert. Cézanne tuvo 2 hermanas, Marie y Rose, de las cuales sólo Marie tuvo una estrecha relación con él1-4. Su padre, un comerciante de sombreros, llegó a ser un exitoso banquero. Ejerció una tiránica influencia sobre su hijo, oponiéndose a sus inquietudes artísticas. Paul Cézanne jamás pudo liberarse de la influencia paterna y dependió económicamente de él gran parte de su vida. Sólo en los últimos años, cuando ya había logrado cierto éxito, pudo independi- zarse en el aspecto material. Sin embargo, en el aspecto emocional, siempre estará presente la figura autoritaria del padre. Tal fue la influencia de su progenitor, que mantuvo oculta por más de 6 años su relación con Hortense Fiquet, la que fue su única relación amorosa. La conoció a los 30 años y tuvieron un único hijo, también llamado Paul, que nació en 18721-4. Sin embargo, gracias a la fortuna que le dejó su padre al morir, en 1886, 400.000 francos y su casa, Cézanne pudo, a partir de 1888, dedicarse sin apre- mios sólo a su arte. Esto contrasta completamente con la situación de gran parte de los artistas de esa época, salvo Toulouse- Lautrec, quienes sufrieron grandes apuros económicos1. Se relación con Émile Zola Cézanne mantuvo una estrecha relación de amistad con Émile Zola, que había empezado en la infancia cuando ambos asistían a la misma escuela básica en su tierra natal. Zola influyó po- sitivamente a Cézanne para que desarrollara sus habilidades artísticas y fuera a París a perfeccionar su arte. Así Zola le escribió a Cézanne: “cobra pues nuevo valor, coge otra vez tu pincel y dale rienda suelta a tu fantasía. Yo creo en ti”1,3. La correspondencia entre ambos es numerosa 509 ARTÍCULO ESPECIAL Paul Cézanne padre de la pintura moderna - M. Miranda Rev Med Chile 2017; 145: 508-513 y Cézanne llegó a ser padrino de bodas de Zola. En 1886, la relación se rompió por Cézanne, quien se sintió ofendido por reconocer rasgos suyos en el personaje principal de la novela “La obra” de Zola, el artista Claude Lantier, quien acaba suicidándo- se. Zola, por otro lado, también ofendido, en una editorial de Le Figaro, reniega del valor artístico de Cézanne, llamándolo “un gran talento abortado”. A pesar de esa aseveración, Zola conservó al menos una docena de cuadros de Cézanne1-4. El carácter de Cézanne Cézanne era de carácter huraño, hermético, taciturno, muy terco, perseverante, de maneras toscas y considerado como “mal educado” en su trato social (Figura 1)1-8. Muy inseguro de sí mismo, ironizaba y consideraba que se reían de él cuando era alabado por su arte. Era tal su in- seguridad que demoraba demasiado en terminar una obra por constantes retoques a sus modelos humanos, que fueron muy escasos, los hacía posar incontables veces; por ejemplo, a su marchante Ambroise Voillard lo hizo posar 115 veces para un cuadro que no llegó a terminar1-5. A su esposa Hortense la retrató unas 25 veces durante un período de 20 años5,7-9, sin variar demasiado la postura. Pintó con muy pocos modelos por sus problemas de interrelación humana y patológica timidez con la mujer, no toleraba tener modelos mujeres desnudas y prefería pintar de imaginación los desnudos de sus cuadros. A Renoir le confiden- ció: “Yo pinto bodegones. Los modelos femeninos me asustan, todo el tiempo están al acecho para atacar por sorpresa”1. Cézanne, a pesar de sus maneras toscas, era una persona de gran cultura, que podía recitar de memoria tanto versos en latín como lo más nuevo en literatura. El permanente alarde de inconfor- mismo ha de ser interpretado como una protesta ante los convencionalismos, al que Cézanne tra- taba de contraponer una genialidad todavía muy incompleta e incomprendida. El arte de Cézanne Cézanne nunca se sintió cómodo en el am- biente de París, se sentía provinciano y prefería serlo. Su relación con los impresionistas fue ambigua, los criticaba esencialmente, pues para Cézanne el arte no pasaba por copiar la naturale- za sino expresar las emociones que la naturaleza motiva en el ser humano, develar la real esencia de la naturaleza. En esta búsqueda y necesidad de lograr algo nuevo se aparta de los impresionistas, si bien recibe importante influencia de Camille Pizarro y Claude Monet1. Pizarro, particularmen- te, le enseña a pintar al aire libre y se aprecia un notorio cambio en el colorido de los cuadros de Cézanne desde ese período. Monet expresó sobre Cézanne: “Qué mala fortuna que este hombre no haya contado con mejor apoyo en su experiencia. Es un artista auténtico, pero ha llegado tan lejos, que duda demasiado de sí mismo”1-4. Cézanne decidió, entonces, recluirse definitivamente en su ambiente natal, perfeccionarse y hacer su propio camino. Para Cézanne “pintar un cuadro significa componer… una gran sensibilidad es la dispo- sición más propicia para una buena concepción artística”. Cézanne fue en búsqueda, no de la luz como lo muestra la superficie de los objetos que fue la motivación de los impresionistas, sino la geometría como se vislumbra más allá de esa superficie. A través de variaciones del color ob- jetiva los planos geométricos que él esperaba le permitirían mostrar la estructura de los objetos dando una masa y solidez que aumentaría su realidad. De los motivos habituales de los cuadros de Cézanne, sus bañistas, montañas, jugadores de cartas, su esposa Hortensia, quizás ninguna es tan familiar como las naturalezas muertas, especialmente sus manzanas: estas junto a jarros, botellas, manteles, se repiten una y otra vez (Fi- guras 2-4)1,7-9. El mismo Cézanne reconoce su predilección y mayor perfección en esta forma de representación artística y así se explica su frase de 1895 “asombraré a París con una manzana”1. Constituyen verdaderos cilindros, esferas y co- nos que crean la geometría de la naturaleza que deseaba mostrar. Cézanne logró reconocimiento en vida más por sus naturalezas muertas que por retratos o paisajes, a menudo considerados por la crítica más benévola como distorsionados y primitivos (Figura 5), sus bodegones rara vez dejaban impasibles a algún observador cono- cedor de arte1. Las obras de Cézanne, más que cuadros, reflejan pensamientos. La belleza, según Cézanne, tal como el alma de otra persona, no se puede poseer, solo puede apreciarse y para aquellos que tienen la voluntad, compartirla de 510 ARTÍCULO ESPECIAL Figura 5. Los grandes bañistas. 1898-1905. Museo de Arte de Filadelfia. Figuras 1 . Tanto en la fotografía de Cézanne de 1874, a los 34 años, camino a pintar (A), como en el autorretrato de 1873-6, París, Museo de Orsay (B), es evidente, como en la mayoría de sus otros autorretratos, el rostro serio, atormentado del artista. Figura 2. Figuras 2 a 4 muestran el extraordinario colorido de los bodegones de Cézanne Naturaleza muerta con manzana y naranjas.1895-1900. París, Museo de Orsay. Figura 3. Naturaleza muerta con cortina, 1898-9. Museo del Hermitage, San Petersburgo. Figura 4. La cesta de manzanas.1895. Helen Birch Bartlett Memorial Collection. Paul Cézanne padre de la pintura moderna - M. Miranda Rev Med Chile 2017; 145: 508-513 511 ARTÍCULO ESPECIAL alguna manera misteriosa. Su visión, más allá del Impresionismo, queda reflejada en su afir- mación: “quiero hacer del Impresionismo algo sólido y duradero, como el arte de los museos” y para esto decía que “recreaba al artista clásico francés Nicolas Poussin a través de la naturaleza”, lo que implica su deseo de unificar su forma de observar la naturaleza con la permanencia de la composición clásica1,3,4. Cézanne trató de expresar la totalidad de la forma, dando al objeto en su tela su real forma y volumen. Pintaba directamente, no dibujaba previamente, sus figuras eran modeladas prác- ticamente por la pintura. Modela con el color y, a diferencia de los impresionistas, se adhiere al colorido natural. Sentía que la luz no podía sobreagregarse sino que ser producida por medio del mismo color. Creaba la impresión de líneas también a través del color. Hasta esa fecha, la re- presentación del espacio había sido lograda por la perspectiva y claroscuros. Los impresionistas sacri- ficaron todo a la interpretación de la luz, Cézanne cambia este sistema al hacer la interpretación de la luz una forma de interpretar el espacio. Utilizó el color para representar la luz y sugerir volumen, mientras que con la correcta interpretación de los tonos consigue crear las formas1. Joris-Karl Huysmans, poeta simbolista, quiso atribuirle a Cézanne un defecto visual a raíz de su particular falta de perspectiva en sus cuadros. Huysmans comentó respecto de las naturalezas muertas de Cézanne: “expuestas a plena luz sobre platos de porcelana o sobre manteles blancos, se ven peras y manzanas plasmadas en grandes trazos y modeladas con el pulgar; visto de cerca, el cuadro parece un desorden caótico de rojo vivo y amarillo, verde y azul. Más, si se guarda la distancia adecua- da, se convierten en frutas suculentas y jugosas que despiertan el apetito. Y de pronto, se percibe una verdad completamente nueva, nunca antes percibida, tonalidades extrañas y no obstante rea- les, manchas de color de una originalidad única, sombras que se proyectan por detrás de las frutas, sobre el mantel, mágicas en su colorido azulado apenas perceptible; todo esto hace de estas obras una revelación si se comparan con las naturalezas muertas habituales, ejecutadas en absurdos colores de asfalto”1. En sus bodegones, los objetos podían rozarse y mezclarse, disolverse en la armonía del color y representar situaciones, de alguna manera como sustitución de la vida misma, a la que Cézanne no era capaz de enfrentarse. Cézanne pinta estas co- sas sencillas con mucho amor y sentimiento, con una inimitable sensualidad, con una intensidad como ningún otro pintor lo había hecho excepto Jean Baptiste Chardin, admirado por Cézanne1. Las frutas que pinta Cézanne parecen tener el brillo de las frutas del paraíso, dice Cézanne al poeta Gasquet “he renunciado a las flores. Se marchitan rápidamente. Las frutas son más fieles. Es como si quisieran pedirte perdón por perder color. Su idea se exhala con su perfume. Llegan a ti en todos sus aromas, te cuentan de los campos que abandonaron, de la lluvia que las nutrió, de la aurora que las contempló. Cuando con toques pulposos de pincel se reproduce la piel de un hermoso melocotón, la melancolía de una manzana vieja, se puede entrever en los reflejos que ellos intercambian la misma sombra tenue de renunciación, el mimo amor del sol, el mismo recuerdo del rocío”. Para Cézanne “no existe ninguna línea, no existe ningún modelado, sólo existen los contras- tes. Cuando el color alcanza su mayor riqueza, entonces la forma alcanza su plenitud”1,3,4. Los cuadros de árboles que pintó al final de su vida documentan su manera poética de sentir la naturaleza. Estos árboles tienen un movimiento que parece venir de una dinámica que Cézanne percibía en todas las cosas: “He sentido un gran escalofrío. Si yo lograra, por el misterio de mis colores, comunicar este escalofrío a los otros, ¿no llegarán ellos a tener un sentido de lo universal, más obsesivo tal vez, pero cuanto más fecundo y más delicioso?... ¿los árboles como seres sensibles? ¿Qué hay en común entre los árboles y nosotros? ¿Entre un pino que se muestra ante mis ojos y uno tal cual es en realidad? Ah, si yo pintara eso. ¿No sería ello la realización de un parte de la natura- leza, que el cuadro nos da al caer sobre nuestra mirada? ¡Los árboles como seres sensibles!”. “Yo quise copiar la naturaleza, pero claramente no lo logré. Más quedé satisfecho, en parte, conmigo mismo al descubrir que el sol, por ejemplo, no podía ser reproducido, sino que era indispensable representarlo por medio de otra cosa… con el color”1,3,4. Denis, biógrafo de Cézanne, plantea que toda obra de arte sería entonces “la transmi- sión… de una sensación recibida, o dicho de una manera más general, la transmisión de un hecho psicológico”1. Paul Cézanne padre de la pintura moderna - M. Miranda Rev Med Chile 2017; 145: 508-513 512 ARTÍCULO ESPECIAL ¿Cézanne como neurocientista? En sus últimos años y dando cuenta de cómo funcionaba su creación, Cézanne mencionó claros y sorprendentes conceptos neurológicos para esa época (fines siglo XIX) y para una persona sin es- tudios de medicina10. Cézanne afirmó en sus cartas al poeta Gasquet: “Hay 2 partes en un pintor que son básicas: los ojos y el cerebro; y ambas necesitan ayudarse mutuamente, tienes que trabajar en su mutuo desarrollo, pero a la manera del pintor; en los ojos mirando las cosas de la naturaleza; en el cerebro, por la lógica de sensaciones organizadas que dan los medios de expresión… los ojos deben concentrarse, fijarse, tomar el objeto, y el cerebro encontrará la forma de expresar esa información”. Los cuadros de Cézanne ilustran cómo él coor- dinaba su mente, cerebro, ojos y manos. La temática a que tantas veces recurrió en su vida, El Monte Santa Victoria, naturalezas muertas y bañistas, se ven tan frescos recreados en períodos de décadas, que nos permiten ver cómo la excepcional obra de Cézanne evolucionó a través de su vida de acuerdo a su capacidad de, primero decodificar lo que quería comunicar, y luego codificar estas percepciones y sensaciones en una pintura. Dos años antes de morir, Cézanne resumió su trabajo como artista en una carta a su amigo Louis Aurenche, diciendo: “Usted habla de mi realización en el arte. Creo que lo logro día a día, aunque un poco laboriosamente. Ya que, si el fuerte sentimiento por la naturaleza, y ciertamente lo tengo muy vívido, es una base necesaria para toda concepción artística en la cual descansa la grandeza y belleza de toda obra futura, el conocimiento de las formas de expresión de nues- tras emociones no es menos esencial, y sólo se puede adquirir a través de una muy larga experiencia”10. En palabras dichas al pintor Emile Bernard, un mes antes de morir, Cézanne reflejó su constante insatisfacción con lo logrado y su necesidad de seguir buscando: “¿alguna vez llegaré al final de lo que tanto he buscado por tanto tiempo?, espero que sí, pero hasta que lo obtenga, una vaga sen- sación de desasosiego me oprime y que no se irá hasta que llegue a puerto seguro, es decir, que haya logrado algo mejor que lo hecho en el pasado… así es que, continúo estudiando”8. El arte de pintar puede interpretarse como un producto de nuestro cerebro, específicamente, como producto de toda la compleja circuitería neuronal que traduce una señal física, como la luminosa en conducta, experiencia y emoción. No corresponde acá revisar las vías involucradas que son bastante más que un receptor como la retina y un decodificador como la corteza visual y sus complejas conexiones con sistema límbico, áreas de asociación y sistema frontal ejecutivo. Esta maquinaria neural cerebral ha sido modelada por múltiples influencias, no sólo durante el desarrollo biológico, social y cultural del propio individuo, sino que también durante la evolución11. Patologías que afecten distintos componentes de esta vía neuronal involucrada en el proceso artístico, desde la retina (retinopatía diabética como se plantea en Cézanne, degeneración ma- cular en Degas, etc.), hasta enfermedades más difusas neurodegenerativas tipo demencia fron- totemporal y Parkinson (siendo en esta última, en parte, debido a la terapia dopaminérgica), pueden sorprendentemente facilitar el proceso creativo en algunos artistas12-14. Un aspecto que hace particularmente tras- cendente en la historia del arte a la producción artística de maestros, no sólo como Cézanne, sino también Monet y Matisse, es la importancia capital del manejo del color. La interacción dinámica que se produce entre el artista y su obra durante su producción está especialmente determinada por mecanismos de control visual y feed-back visual, para así regular el contraste de colores que, pro- bablemente, determina en parte su originalidad y relevancia artística11. Como ya mencionamos, al contrario de los artistas de la época, Cézanne no comenzaba sus cuadros con un dibujo, en cambio, él comienza inmediatamente con un color intenso y continúa desarrollando la imagen con parches de color distribuidos sobre la superficie de la pintura, así se logra discernir los objetos con claves, que son esencialmente colores. Con esta aproximación, Cézanne recluta a su sistema visual como medida del color exacto a usar11. A partir de 1890, a los 51 años, se le declara una diabetes mellitus, que tendrá una seria des- compensación en el año 1900 y, probablemente, contribuyó a los cuadros infecciosos respiratorios que motivaron su muerte1. Se ha planteado que Cézanne desarrolló como complicación una reti- nopatía diabética con ceguera parcial para colores azul-verde, lo que explicaría que su pintura cam- biara a colores más tenues15. Se plantea que esta alteración oftalmológica sería responsable, en los Paul Cézanne padre de la pintura moderna - M. Miranda Rev Med Chile 2017; 145: 508-513 513 ARTÍCULO ESPECIAL últimos años de su carrera, de la transición del estilo de pintura a una más abstracta15. Como otros maestros del Impresionismo, Cézanne fue también miope, pero rehusaba usar lentes, por considerarlos algo vulgar15,16. En cuadros de un mismo año, 1890, es posible ver naturalezas muertas pintadas a corta distancia muy nítidas y, a la vez, paisajes de larga distancia en que los detalles son borrosos y distorsionados, propios de alguien con miopía16. La frustración fue evidente en la vida de Cézan- ne: mala relación con su padre, pobre relación de pareja y con su hijo, quienes preferían la vida de París, se enemistó con su mejor amigo de la infan- cia y en los últimos años de su vida recibió a muy pocas personas, entre ellas al pintor Émile Bernard y al poeta Gasquet. Su única relación perdurable y más satisfactoria, pero siempre con la sensación de estar imperfecta, fue con su obra artística. Hay argumentos razonables para postular que la conducta de Cézanne podría ser descrita como lo que actualmente denominamos trastorno de personalidad límite. Su conducta podría ser ex- plicada por la persistente inestabilidad en varios ámbitos que caracteriza a este cuadro, tanto en el estado de ánimo como en la autoimagen. Los epi- sodios de ira y agresión manifiesta son frecuentes en este trastorno, especialmente cuando se pre- senta en varones. Los portadores de este trastorno típicamente establecen relaciones interpersonales inestables e intensas. Un episodio que grafica estas características es lo ocurrido en 1895, cuando Monet organizó un pequeño homenaje, con otros colegas, a Cézan- ne, en su casa de Guiverny. Monet dijo en dicha ocasión: “al final estamos todos acá reunidos y valoramos la ocasión de decirte cuanto te quere- mos y cuanto admiramos tu arte”. Cézanne, sor- presivamente, contestó rudamente: “¡Tú también te ríes de mí!”. Se dio media vuelta, tomó su abrigo y se retiró con un portazo17. Esta hipersensibilidad, desconfianza, senti- mientos de ser traicionado e irritabilidad son una constante en la vida emocional de Cézanne y se asemejan a las ideas de autorreferencia que los pacientes con este trastorno pueden presentar cuando se ven enfrentados a estrés. Su creación fue muy poco reconocida, a pesar de dedicarle su vida entera. Literalmente le entregó la vida, ya que por estar pintando en el campo su última obra, que fue un retrato de su jardinero, fue sorprendido por una tormenta. Cae enfermo en cama, se levanta al día siguiente para intentar terminar su cuadro y es encontrado inconsciente. Se diagnosticó una neumonía, que le provoca la muerte el 22 de octubre de 19061,3,4. Realmente, Cézanne estaba intentando un im- posible: crear sin abandonar la realidad y sin basarse en la imaginación. Sus últimas palabras, que refle- jan descontento, son explicables, ya que no era un artista inventivo, sino un gran artista imaginativo, para quien era necesaria tener alguna visión de la realidad como punto de partida de su obra3. Referencias 1. Duchting H. Paul Cézanne. La naturaleza se convierte en arte. Taschen, Colonia, 2003. 2. Torpy J. Portrait of Madame Cézanne. JAMA 2008; 299: 389. 3. Douglas L. Paul Cézanne. Burlingt Mag 1936; 69 (400): 32-5. 4. Southgate T. The Cover. JAMA 2003; 200: 993. 5. Southgate T. The Cover. JAMA 2005; 293: 1954. 6. Southgate T. Madame Cézanne in Blue. JAMA 1999: 281: 111-2. 7. Brion M. Paul Cézanne. Thames and Hudson, Londres. 1974. 8. Rewald J. Paul Cézanne: a biography. Abrahms H, New York. 1996 9. Rewald J. El postimpresionismo: de Van Gogh a Gauguin. Madrid. Alianza Editorial. Col. Alianza forma 31. 540. 1999. 10. Ione A. An Inquiry into Paul Cézanne. J Conscious Stud 2000; 7 (8-9): 57-74. 11. Conway B. Color consilience: color through the lens of art practice, history, philosophy, and neuroscience. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1251 (2012) 77-94. 12. Miller BL, Ponton M, Benson DF, Cummings JL, Mena I. Enhanced artistic creativity with temporal lobe dege- neration. Lancet 1996; 348: 1744-5. 13. Inzelberg R. The awakening of artistic creativity and Parkinson’s disease. Behav Neurosci 2013; 127: 256- 14. Chatterjee A, Hamilton RH, Amorapanth PX. Art produced by a patient with Parkinson’s disease. Behav Neurol 2006; 17: 105-8. 15. Ivanišević P, Ivanišević M. The influence of retinal eye diseases on painting. Coll Antropol 2015; 39 (1): 243-6. 16. Polland W. Myopic Artists. Acta Ophthalmologica Scandinava 2004; 2: 325-6. 17. Buckley PJ. Paul Cézanne (1839-1906). Am J Psychia- try 2011; 168 (7): 680. Paul Cézanne padre de la pintura moderna - M. Miranda Rev Med Chile 2017; 145: 508-513 gjdgxs _GoBack _GoBack _GoBack _Ref326419420 _GoBack _GoBack _GoBack 
work_j5cjhr6jqvfyhpyr5ozh76wq4a	----	10.11648.j.sjbm.20190706.12 Science Journal of Business and Management 2019; 7(6): 140-149 http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/j/sjbm doi: 10.11648/j.sjbm.20190706.12 ISSN: 2331-0626 (Print); ISSN: 2331-0634 (Online) Criteria for Investing in the Market of Visual Arts Elio Amilcar Farfan Torrelles Faculty of Económic and Social Sciences, Carabobo´s University, Valencia, Venezuela Email address: To cite this article: Elio Amilcar Farfan Torrelles. Criteria for Investing in the Market of Visual Arts. Science Journal of Business and Management. Vol. 7, No. 6, 2019, pp. 140-149. doi: 10.11648/j.sjbm.20190706.12 Received: December 11, 2018; Accepted: November 1, 2019; Published: December 4, 2019 Abstract: The market for the visual arts carries out a complex activity, which requires identifying key variables to establish valid investment criteria and obtain reasonable profits. This calls for differentiating the purpose of the purchase as either an investment or a collection. Then, focusing on the work and the artist, the trajectory of iconic and emerging elements is investigated and compared to identify the criteria that the buyer should consider when acquiring a piece of visual art. Accurate parameters are needed to invest considering this economic activity has clearly defined segments. For this reason, the claimed characteristics of the artwork, the artist and the market must be assessed as well as the need for the art piece or the added value that an artwork offers to the market and the reason why a certain amount of money must be paid to obtain it. The aim of the present research is to identify key variables to establish valid investment criteria, taking the case of the contemporary Venezuelan Art Market as basis. To achieve this objective, the documentary research methodology was applied and, in addition, interviews with some market agents were carried out, which revealed the presence of many agents with various interests within the market. As a conclusion, the study revealed that the visual arts market is a complex market, which requires different actors to handle accurate and reliable information when making purchasing or sales decisions. Keywords: Art Market, Artwork (Piece), Artist, Collector, Investor, Profits 1. Introduction The visual arts market is as attractive and complex as any other. It seduces us through two great dimensions: the sensory impression, which refers to the pleasure and enjoyment when contemplating artwork in itself and that other of having peace of mind when obtaining financial returns that could solve future economic problems, typical of daily life. However, financial success is difficult and elusive. It is not easy to combine good taste, time, risk and profits. The artistic offer further complicates the problem. Trends, proposals, styles, classifications, themes, sizes, authors, ages, life and death, emerging artists and established artists and capital limitations are some of the variables that must be combined to select the investor’s "obscure object of desire.” An experienced dealer would intuitively realize unknowns, which perhaps, would give the result of the equation “contemporary art and market”, “beauty and investment.” This article aims to identify many key variables and establish valid investment criteria to obtain reasonable profits through parameters which facilitate the purchase of visual art pieces. When it concerns a piece of visual art, there are some questions such as the following: which is the purpose of acquiring a specific piece? What to buy? Collecting or investing? Which type of asset to invest in? How to undertake the purchase? When to sell or disinvest (liquidate the investment)? What kinds of risks are assumed when acquiring a piece of art? Is it possible to measure these risks or are there other more profitable markets, other optional markets? Therefore, and due to the importance of this economic activity, an analysis is necessary to update knowledge, both qualitative and quantitative, concerning the behavior of the various agents and the market itself. This enables the investor to recognize feasible business opportunities and take advantage of them. However, as in other markets, it is imperative to take chances trying to minimize the risks by focusing on a specific group of artists and pieces that allow the acquisition of the assets and satisfactory returns on each transaction. For example, according to Sherman, A. and Morrissey, C. “Painting a portrait” was made in compliance with the norms, standards, and expectations of the genre that are, as per their importance, public. Moreover, these norms and standards Science Journal of Business and Management 2019; 7(6): 140-149 141 constitute the criteria for considering it an excellent portrait [1]. This article aims to identify many key variables to establish valid investment criteria to obtain reasonable profits through parameters that facilitate the purchase of visual art pieces. In addition, Artprice mentions that “The collection of artwork requires a general understanding of the market, and a certain knowledge of the nature of supply and demand. First, of course, you have to know where and when to buy, and then you have to keep track of price changes, at least for insurance purposes. Like it or not, collecting art is always a form of investment. Fortunately, it’s a very lucrative investment [2]”. That is why this article aims to identify determinant variables, so that a valid investment criteria can be established to allow earning reasonable profits through parameters that facilitate the purchase of visual art works. In order to achieve this objective, as far as visual artwork is concerned, the reasons for acquiring a specific piece must be specified or defined from the outset. Whether the aim is to collect or invest, or both, one has to choose the best asset that allows a balance between minimum risk and maximum performance or know the different types of risks assumed when acquiring a work of art. As Artsgain referred: “Each artwork or artistic good will always have a value that can rise or fall depending on market forces. Even so, there is an implicit risk in the investment business itself that depends on the evolution of factors external to investors and ARTSGAIN such as the competitive value of the artist, the evolution of the local and global economy, anomalous situations such as earthquakes or wars, among many others [3]”. The previous criteria is reinforced by the Securities and Exchange Commission, (2017) which states: “The global art market, in addition to other type of assets, is influenced over time by the overall strength and stability of the global economy, the financial markets of different countries, geopolitical conditions, and world events. However, the global art market often moves independently and sometimes, counter to, general macroeconomic cycles. Ultimately, we believe that the level of activity and buoyancy of the global art market is most prominently impacted by the collective sentiment of art market participants, as well as the individual circumstances of potential art vendors [4]”. Similarly, it is important to establish the timing and circumstances to sell or divest. Moreover, it is necessary to compare the opportunities offered by the art world and other markets because decisions in finance are made with references to other forms and models of investment or business. 2. Some Preliminary Considerations and Research Methodology Often, when analyzing a financial event such as an investment in visual arts, it is useful to have an overview of the origins of the problem and take into consideration difficulties such as the reason for the financial investment, as part of the origin of the problem, thus pointing the way to a solution. This requires defining what wealth is, why we accumulate it, what an investment is and why we invest, since it is entirely pertinent to solving the problem. Humanity has accumulated financial resources through different means in order to use them for its survival. Therefore, there have been wars, invasions, inventions, discoveries, and great trips like Columbus’, Magallanes’, the trip to the moon, crusades and evangelizations. These accumulated resources constitute what is known now as wealth which will be used to meet future needs. Furthermore, investing is simply the use of financial resources to acquire any temporary asset, such as home appliances, buildings, vehicles, and public debt bonds, shares of a company, certificates of deposit, savings accounts or pieces of visual art. This is advisable to recover the invested capital once the term is due, regardless of the length of the period, and gain profit according to the risks taken (earnings). The investor must be willing to disinvest, as it is the goal of the process to obtain the expected profit of the transaction. We can say that every investment has a temporary quality, previously defined or not, but essential to materialize the set objective. As always, to make a profit, it is mandatory to choose between different types of assets and different investment instruments, which will produce different dividends. This requires comparing the various assets and deciding which could be most profitable, less risky and give greater personal satisfaction. When choosing any investment instrument, for a given time and capital, we must first identify the markets in which we will operate. If it is national we will use bolivars, if international, foreign currency; either way business details include: available capital for the operation, forms of payment, types of assets to be acquired, whether they are perishable or long lasting (due to maturity or due date, tradable or non-tradable, movable or static, utilitarian or artistic, of common or special use. An asset can be acquired to satisfy personal needs or to sell it later and obtain a financial return. Both decisions assume there will be a profit. The first will be measured in terms of satisfying needs and the second in terms of money. Then, capital, income, risk, internal rate of return, volatility, portfolio diversification, trends, bubbles or hedges are terms that must be identified in the development of this particular form of investment, which is not always easy, due to how complex and segmented this economic activity is. This is an important part of the challenge of making the decision to invest, as we need to have as much information as possible to do so wisely. In order to solve some challenges raised in the research, the documentary methodology and field interviews with some market agents were applied. 3. Having a Look at the Visuals Arts Market Economy’s growth over the last century and a half has 142 Elio Amilcar Farfan Torrelles: Criteria for Investing in the Market of Visual Arts allowed the use of resources in areas that were marginal or had not been exploited or discovered. Sports, the latest technology, the space race, music, fashion and the arts in general, are examples. They represent new forms of business that generate wealth, different from wars or the conquest of territory. This wealth is obtained through the difference between the original value (capital) and a final value that includes the desired utility, an added value that makes a specific activity attractive in a profitable way. Throughout more than a hundred and fifty years, there have been times of bonanzas and countless economic and financial crisis, which has forced investors to seek new options, safe havens that would allow them to survive, earn higher returns and preserve capital. Preserving capital is an objective of vital importance and is one of the reasons that have led to the rise of emerging markets. Faced with this new reality, the visual arts, as an object of financial investment, have become a singular attraction and a viable business opportunity. The analysis of this market involves not only financial factors, but also aesthetic factors, so it is essential to have full understanding of these, to assign it appropriate value and price and, as mentioned above, both finance and aesthetics have the same need for accurate and pertinent information. Since the decade of the 60’s, and especially in the 70’s, the visual arts became a refuge from the crisis of traditional markets, the oil market, for example. A thriving area of investment appeared, which currently consists of many actors and asset transactions that include different periods and styles of artistic expression throughout the planet. 4. Visual Arts as an Investment Problem Two players activate the sales process with different interests and expectations in the visual arts market: the collector and the investor. Therefore, they must identify the key variables to establish valid criteria that determine and make a profitable investment possible, which is the overall objective of this article. To this end, the following is necessary: 1. Differentiate and conceptualize the reasons for the purchase. 2. Identify key variables according to market participants and their influence. 3. Define the most important features in the visual arts market. Intention of the purchase. It is essential to determine the trader’s reasons to buy or sell a visual artwork, therefore, it is important to answer these questions: 1. What does art-collecting mean? 2. Who collects art? 3. What does investing in art mean? 4. Who does the investing? 5. Finally, what to buy? A problem emerges when defining evaluation criteria and the variables involved in the decision making of investing in visual arts. To purchase is not always to invest. We can buy to keep (collect) or to obtain revenue (invest). Although a collector obtains a social or personal benefit by satisfying more sublime needs than cold hard cash, we cannot consider this value as profit or financial wealth. The personal (or social) satisfaction of sensorial enjoyment cannot be transferred or used to pay for other assets or to meet other needs, since we would be bartering as a means of exchange, a practice that is outside the field of finance and this article. Accordingly, to maintain a position that will represent a portion of our capital, we can have two main intentions: 1. Collecting or, 2. Investing. De La Poza Plaza, E. expressed the following, regarding this particular:... a piece of art aside from its artistic, historical and cultural appreciation, can also be considered as an economic asset, and therefore as an investment. In fact, in recent years, an important part of society, mainly professionals, invested their surplus or part of them in pieces of art, some as a hobby and others as investment, expecting to obtain a capital gain over a relatively long period. This increases the value of the artistic object over time, considering that one of the features of any art object besides its intrinsic value is being a haven from inflation, able to generate strong capital gains. (P. 27) [5]. Then, collecting visual art means freezing huge amounts of money in order to obtain a personal or social benefit; an individual satisfaction of the senses without monetary compensation. This activity is common to museums, foundations, governments, corporations or individuals with sufficient funds available. On the other hand, to invest in art implies acquiring pieces to be sold at any given time as a way to freeze limited amounts of capital to obtain a real profit in economic and financial terms. Who does this? Investors: economic entities with enough funds to acquire assets for obtaining a financial return. And again, what to buy? An acquisition will only be considered as an investment because the purpose of this article deals with a financial phenomenon. 5. Determining Variables to Invest in the Arts Market Despite being a complex market with many converging variables, two of them strongly affect and influence the investor: the piece of art itself and the artist. Each of them has particular characteristics, but even so, they are closely related. 5.1. The Piece It represents the finished product of the artist’s intellectual and physical effort. It is the actual object being traded on the market, being materialized and allowing its very existence. Without a piece, there is no market for the visual arts. For this reason, the possibility of obtaining new negotiable pieces Science Journal of Business and Management 2019; 7(6): 140-149 143 concludes once the artist dies. This fact becomes one of the essential characteristics of the activity represented in a limited supply. From the point of view of the piece of art, this market has clearly defined aspects where you can find a great amount of niches such as painting, sculpture, printmaking, drawing, ceramics, metalwork, lithography, video installation, performance (body art) and net art. In Venezuela, for example, the classification would include pre-Hispanic, colonial, republican, modern and contemporary art. Internationally, this list will surely expand to the Chinese, medieval, Roman, Greek, Renaissance, Gothic, Baroque and Cubist art, among others. Moreover, the Mei Moses Index established nine categories, which includes Impressionist and Modern (IMPMOD), Post War and Contemporary (PWC), Traditional Chinese works of art (TSWA), old master and ninetieth century (OLM19C) American Painting (AMP) and Latin America Painting (LAP), British, Swiss and Italian art [6]. This reveals the variety of the visual arts market, so acquiring a piece with investment intentions becomes complex. When a specific piece is sold for the first time, the transaction is carried out in the primary market, and for subsequent sales the transaction takes place in the secondary one, a kind of second hand market, if the term applies. The latter is the one that encompasses most of the economic activity. Again, De la Poza Plaza, E. offers a clear view on the matter: Within the art market, the primary market corresponds to art galleries or any direct sale performed by the artist, while the secondary market is for auction rooms. Auction houses give the market liquidity, limiting the importance of the galleries. Likewise, they reduce the transaction costs of the pieces in the market by generating lower commissions than those of the art galleries. An important difference between the primary and secondary market is the lack of transparency of galleries, making the secondary market a reliable source of information. (P. 15) [5]. On the other hand, when a piece is highly valued or appreciated among buyers, it is considered as a highly liquid product, because it is easy to sell and buy. An important indicator that emerges from this sales process is the existing relationship between the pieces placed for sale and those actually sold of each artist. 5.2. The Artist He is the producer of the piece, the one that begins the process within the art market. He constitutes one of the two major groups into which, the universe of the arts market has been divided in this study in order to make the analysis easier. It is one of the independent variables in the problem statement, to which the rest of the parameters, explained throughout the present text, are subjected. For this reason, two categories were created: the consecrated and the emerging artist. Many times the artist and his piece have the same degree of importance, which is why some questions arise such as: which is the piece? The artist or his art piece? What is the underlying asset? What is the buyer acquiring? A few extraordinary strokes on a canvas or a famous artist’s signature? The two categories of artists are the following: 5.2.1. The Acclaimed Artist Sale periods get shorter once the renowned artist has an important number of pieces in the secondary market with the costs of promotion and positioning of his artwork covered in the years prior to his success. As a result, the piece is considered a liquid asset, with more lots sold than rejected ones and at much higher prices. Additionally, depending on the segment the artist is in, he can be a leader in his niche, reaching very high profits in shorter periods, which means he has an ascending relationship between sales volume and unit price, generating profits and higher returns than the market average. Jean Michel Basquiat, Andy Warhol, Pablo Picasso, Paul Cezanne, Vincent van Gogh, Salvador Dali and Jesus Soto, are examples of consecrated artists in their respective market niches. The case of Pablo Picasso and George Braque serves as a basis for defining validation criteria. Both were the founders of Cubism. However, there is a huge difference between them in terms of fame and the price of their pieces. When reviewing both artists’ work and careers, we must wonder: What is the added value that Pablo Picasso printed in his pieces that allowed him to achieve higher prices in comparison to George Braque’s pieces? Why is the market not willing to pay such figures for a Braque, whereas it does for a Picasso? What made the difference? Quality, technology, age, experience, innovation, better promotion or fashion, location or formats used? How were Pablo Picasso’s pieces legitimated and how were George Braque’s? Another illustrative example is that of two Venezuelan painters from Valencia, approximately 20 years apart: Oswaldo Vigas and Vladimir Zavaleta. Although they were both winners of the Salon Michelena award, they took different paths. Oswaldo Vigas achieved some international reputation, with significant sales in dollars while Vladimir Zavaleta was practically unknown outside the country but comfortably positioned in the local market with sales in bolivars. Is international exposure key to succeed? 5.2.2. The Emerging Artist It refers to the young artist, not older than 40, with increasing production, some participation in local or regional halls and no significant sales in the secondary market. That is, in great need of promotion since the sale of his pieces require longer exposition time (the time required to achieve maturity) to become a saleable product, starting with low or very low prices, which is known in the media as “workshop prices”. In these cases, the investor must wait a longer period to obtain satisfactory earnings. The great ally here is time. The pieces are low liquid (not easily sold), as they are waiting for the market’s reaction of either acceptance or rejection of the piece, which would represent the artist’s legitimation. In this group, returns can be very large once the artist displays his full potential. At this stage, the artist’s qualities, activities and processes must be developed in order 144 Elio Amilcar Farfan Torrelles: Criteria for Investing in the Market of Visual Arts to evolve into a renowned artist. As for the factors that contribute to the formation of a classic or acclaimed artist, the 2013 Annual Art Price Report mentions:... The evolution of an artist’s market value also depends on many other specific factors from the art world that project the artist, such as the backup of a recognized gallery, the purchase of a piece by a renowned collector, the achievement of a certain price level or the announcement of an exhibition at a major institution. As a rule, the more an artist is known, the more expensive his artwork becomes. The same way information flows quickly, contemporary art is subjected to the effects of fashion, so buyers tend to purchase the same things. The turning points of an artist’s market value are reflected on his curriculum vitae and the age factor is obviously taken into account. The classics in contemporary art are those that already have reputation and have been exhibited at art galleries for fifteen, twenty or thirty years. Their presence in large sales catalogs becomes an event not to be missed since their pieces are coveted trophies and the incomes they generate, a blessing for auction houses. Jeff Koons, Takashi Murakami, Damien Hirst, Cindy Sherman and Jean-Michel Basquiat are included in this group. Currently, their prices challenge those of ancient, impressionist and modern masters. (P. 29) [7]. Additionally, regarding young and emerging artists Artprice comments: The market value stages are registered in younger artists’ curriculum vitae and the age factor is obviously important. However, the races for novelty, speculation and the accelerating pace of auctions have altered market rules. Since the nineties, the art market has assimilated novice artists (sometimes in their early twenties) at a fast growing rate provided they have the right pedigree and manage to raise their prices fast, up to 100% or 200%, sometimes after two or three years. (P. 29) [7]. On the issue of promotion and past performance of an emerging artist as a decision factor, the example Halim Badawi shows is useful. He says: Last June 26, Christie’s auction house (London) auctioned a piece by Colombian artist Oscar Murillo for $391 thousand or 756 million pesos. With this magical marketing exercise, Murillo, only 28 years old, became one of the five most expensive Colombian artists, outrivaling Alejandro Obregón, Andrés de Santa María and Alipio Jaramillo, and placing the price of one of his pieces at the same level of Fernando Botero and Doris Salcedo, who are renowned artists. For many in the art world, Murillo is a stranger. Indeed, he is. His work is not in permanent or temporary exhibitions at any museum, there are no papers on his work and very few have heard his name in Colombia [8]. By choosing a piece from an emerging artist as an investment, the asset should become legitimate, recognized and approved over time by the art market, defining its path to become renowned. This process will permit the collection of the expected utility. On the other hand, if the emerging artist does not get legitimization, recognition or approval, he will become a master and the earnings of the initial investment will not meet expectations. Figure 1 shows the trajectory and evolution of an emerging artist. Source: Author. Figure 1. Trajectory of the emerging artist. 6. Evaluation Criteria To establish valid investment criteria as to obtain reasonable profit, it is necessary to evaluate the artist, his career and his artwork. These parameters are grouped into four different categories, but they are all related: 1. Those attributed to the artist. 2. Those attributed to the piece. 3. Those inherent to the market (either primary or secondary). 4. Those of the investor. The above classification enables the analysis and structure for a decision-making guide. It is important to note that some parameters or attributes can converge into two or more categories. 6.1. Criteria Attributed to the Artist 6.1.1. Age An artist generally achieves recognition once he has reached a middle or advanced age although there are Science Journal of Business and Management 2019; 7(6): 140-149 145 exceptions such as Jean Michel Basquiat. 6.1.2. Experience Whether the artist has exhibited in galleries or sold pieces for significant amounts of money, his career in general must be assessed. 6.1.3. Death This event has a sensible impact on the price of the visual art piece, perhaps because it increases the quality of being something unique and unrepeatable due to the permanent absence of the producer of the asset. 6.1.4. Style Still lifes, impressionism and surrealism; prices depend on market requirements. An ambitious artist will keep an eye on the market and be alert for trends in demand. 6.1.5. Location An artist, and therefore his work, can have local, regional, national, international or universal importance. The place where the artist has developed his work influences the price as well. 6.2. Criteria Attributed to the Piece 6.2.1. Single Piece This parameter gives the piece its quality of being rare, scarce and unrepeatable so these conditions affect the price. When the asset lacks such attributes, the price will most likely drop. 6.2.2. Conservation A piece of art in perfect conditions will have a higher price and more marketing possibilities compared to others in need of restoration and maintenance. 6.2.3. Price The importance of the price is that through it, we get the expected return of the investment. 6.2.4. Style This is one of the parameters that can be found in different categories. In this case, its nature is the same as that of the plastic artist category. 6.2.5. Authenticity It represents the link between the piece and the artist. It is the signature, certificate of authenticity or an expert’s opinion through a technical study. Only authentic, unique pieces are priced and sold therefore the market must ensure this quality to avoid frauds. 6.2.6. Format The size of the piece affects the price. The public has consistently shown a preference for formats of 1 sq. m on average to purchase. 6.2.7. Location The geographic location, a suitable environment to protect and preserve the piece affects the price and its possible future sale. Also, the importance of the piece influences the possibility of exporting it or not, a fact that restricts its commercialization. For example, after a piece becomes a national heritage in Spain, it cannot leave the country without official permission. Location also enables a piece to be moved, making it more or less saleable. The Last Supper by Leonardo Da Vinci, for example, would be more difficult to sell than the Mona Lisa from the same author, in the hypothetical event that they could be purchased. 6.3. Criteria Inherent to the Market 6.3.1. Primary Market When an artist sells his piece for the first time, to either a gallery or a dealer. 6.3.2. Secondary Market When the piece is sold in galleries by art dealers or any other distribution channel and the artist no longer holds the property. Figure 2 shows both markets. Source: Author. Figure 2. Primary and secondary market. 146 Elio Amilcar Farfan Torrelles: Criteria for Investing in the Market of Visual Arts 6.3.3. Auction It is the sale of an art piece to the highest bidder. In the art market, those pieces sold at Sotheby’s or Christie’s, have a better market price than those sold in less formal markets. This is because of the guarantee of authenticity that these companies grant the asset, giving the author legitimacy, prestige and a better reputation. It is an organized and formal market that dominates the largest number of transactions worldwide and covers the broadest spectrum of supply and demand for pieces of art, not only paintings but also other genres such as antiques. Aspects such as legal origin, authorship or authentication certificates, insurance, custody, transports, commissions and taxes are important elements in transactions within this business model and help minimize transaction risks. It is a secondary market, similar to a stock exchange. In this case, art stock. Due to their high specialization, they act as a cartelized group that sets the price of the piece and therefore, the artist’s image. 6.3.4. Art Dealer He is an independent negotiator of art pieces and an important element in the market of visual arts. An artist concerned for his career should have a good art dealer as a consultant. 6.3.5. Informal Market The one that lacks rules and regulations with legal foundation. It is a less structured market where art pieces are traded without legal rigidities, but still considering the origin and authenticity of the asset. It mostly operates locally among small groups with few participants, often only buyer and seller. Sales can be carried out in local or foreign currency, but legal formality is nonexistent or not always appropriate. 6.3.6. Black Market It is where famous pieces are traded. They are usually stolen or their origin questionable. It is of high-risk due to the frequency of fakes and forgeries of signatures and author names. 6.3.7. Price The parameter defines the price of the art piece on the market. It represents the value the vendor is willing to accept to deliver the asset and the buyer to purchase it, thus carrying out the purchase agreement and materializing two interests: the aesthetic need and financial profit. 6.3.8. Liquidity The capacity of the art piece to be sold in successive transactions and how fast (short waiting times) it is done. 6.3.9. Market Site London, New York, Miami, Beijing and Caracas. 6.3.10. Speculation Like any market, the arts market is susceptible to manipulations, allowing the profit due to changes in the variables involved. An example of this are the financial bubbles, or real estate bubbles and, of course, the bubbles in the market for the visual arts. 6.4. Bubbles in the Art Market In terms of money, a bubble takes place when the price of any financial instrument increases its real value too fast and excessively for a relatively long time with no apparent logical reason. This lasts until, due to market forces, "the bubble bursts" and the price falls to very low levels, causing losses and economic crisis. Often "the causes for the bubble” are purely speculative. A sample of a bubble in contemporary art can be seen in the Chinese market, which, according to ArtPrice (P. 13) slowed sharply in 2012 due to the cooling of world economy, liquidity problems, inflated prices that affected the market and the reduction of funds and participations from speculative investments, which caused that most of the offered lots remained unsold [7]. For example, according to Sophie Song the disproportionate increase in sales of Chinese plastic artist Zhang Daqian’s pieces (May 10, 1899 - 2 of April 1983), which reached $506.7 MM, considerably surpassing painters such as Pablo Picasso, with sales of $360 MM in the same period, suggests possible price manipulation [9]. In addition, auctions are another source of market disruption, providing loans to buyers or manipulating the prices by bidding for their own lots, as described in the statements made by art critic Jason Edward Kaufman in El Universal. He states: But what is the role of auctions in this apparent bubble? While it is estimated that higher prices are reached in private sales, - the most expensive painting ever sold is believed to be "The Card Players" by Cézanne, acquired by the Royal House of Qatar between $250 and $300 million (185 and 222 million Euros) - auctions have a different function [10]. In an unregulated market, auctions are the only public appraisal of art. Aware of this function, cheating is inevitable. "If the owners of a painting want it to have a public value, they can agree to buy it for a high price to revalue the pieces they still possess." Once this situation is corrected, a loss in the investment is expected to occur because no market participant will be willing to pay hefty values for a piece by a national artist. 7. Investor Criteria 7.1. Capital Limitations No funds are infinite, forcing the investor to efficiently distribute the money available. This is a strong limiting factor when purchasing a piece of art. 7.2. Profitability Expectations The return expected by the investor over a period. Science Journal of Business and Management 2019; 7(6): 140-149 147 7.3. At the Auctions The frenzy when bidding. 7.4. Aversion to Risk (Higher or Lower) The investor’s tendency to take risks. This factor varies from one person to another and limits the investment. 7.5. Knowledge of the Art Market (Expertise) In the same proportion that the investor knows the art market, he will be successful at accumulating wealth through the acquisition of a piece of visual art. 7.6. Low Degree of Correlation Within an art investment portfolio. For instance, if you own a Picasso, a Degas and a Soto, there will be different reasons as to why the prices of each of these pieces of art remain. That is, if for any reason the Picasso price drops, this should not necessarily affect the price of the other two pieces, thus diversifying the investment risk. It would be ideal to diversify, investing in market assets of a different nature to balance the portfolio. Figure 3 shows a summary of these investment criteria. Source: Author. Figure 3. Summary of Decision Making Criteria. 8. Who Is the Investor The one who acquires pieces of art to obtain a financial advantage in a given period. That is, the one who buys and sells, exposing the capital intended for that purpose to the risks inherent to the transaction. Hence, the investor should consider some principles or rules. Investor Principles 1. Be prudent. 2. Consult with an expert valuator to ensure the market price. 3. Know the difference between a piece that is a national heritage and one that is simply an asset (piece of art) that can be bought and sold. 4. Consider possible price components: quality, psychological and market factors, crises in other sectors and think about the art sector a refuge. 9. Features of the Market for the Visual Arts Some of the most important characteristics of this market are: It is a small market, not deep. For instance, if we compare agents of the art market to the banking area, according to Nasdaq for the closing as of September 30, 2014, Sotheby’s auction house presented an income of $587 million (from all of its departments), while Bank of America (2014) showed an income of 2 billion 249 dollars (and just in the global banking segment) [11]. Additionally, with the idea of comparing the performance of the same agents in both markets, from Yahoo Finance (a). [12] and Yahoo Finance (b). [13], table 1 is presented as follows: 148 Elio Amilcar Farfan Torrelles: Criteria for Investing in the Market of Visual Arts Table 1. Sotheby’s Vs BOFA 2017. Total Revenue Net Income BOFA 83,956,000 18,232,000 Sotheby’s 989,389 118,796 Sotheby’s/BOFA % 1.18% 0.65% Highly specialized. It is segmented. There are few participants, suppliers and buyers. The object of negotiation (the piece of art) has deep subjective conditions that determine its trading price, therefore, its value in the market. The object of trading is scarce and unrepeatable, conditions that affect the price directly. That is, they are not standardized units issued in large quantities, for example, national debt or oil production. They are not intended for massive consumption. Sometimes, especially in the pricing, the producer or manufacturer (the artist) and the product (the piece of art) are equally important. Such is the case of Pablo Picasso, his signature and the work itself. The art market behaves like a monopoly when it comes to offers since there are few producers or artists with limited pieces and many buyers, investors and collectors. It is necessary to define the added value a piece has as a product. In other words, what needs does it meet? 9.1. Art Market Participants When studying the capital market, we usually use a common phrase: market and financial institutions. Every place where buyers and sellers come together to exchange goods and services is a market, and it does not necessarily refer to a physical location. Other economic agents, institutions, regulations, transactions, prices and trends are also involved. The same happens in the visual arts. In the present case, other aspects involved are: a) auction houses, b) galleries, c) curators, d) commissioners, e) dealers, f) conservationists, g) fairs, h) patrons, i) agents, j) art critics, k) government, l) regulating laws, m) the public. Each of them, and all together, make up the site (physical or not) where artworks are bought and sold, regardless of the intention. Each and every one of them influence and affect the market. 9.2. Economic, Financial and Accounting Aspects of the Art Market Like any object under market forces, a piece of art involves economic, financial, tax and accounting issues. From a financial and accounting point of view, the art pieces are non-monetary assets, protected from inflation, that is, their value increases and thus avoids the erosion of the capital of the investor or collector. Therefore, they provide a haven in times when the purchasing power of currency deteriorates, depending on the economic tendency, according to Deloitte and Artactic (P. 42) [14]. They are affected by financial events, such as the bubble effect. Low degree of correlation within an art investment portfolio. In Venezuela, under the Law of Income Tax, Article 173, second paragraph, the updating of the acquisition cost is allowed with reference to inflation [15]. According to the provisions of the Law of Added Value, Article 4, paragraph 2, art pieces are liable to be taxed with AVT since they are movable assets [16]. Considering they are economic objects, it is difficult to determine the reasons by which they add value to the economy and the needs they meet. That is to say, why would a painting by Pablo Picasso be worth 104 million Euros and another by the same author worth 60 million? 10. Conclusions Due to the complexity of the Art Market as an economic activity, many variables must be defined and controlled. In the first place, the purpose of the artwork must be determined, that is, if it will be to invest or to collect, for which it is convenient to have adequate information and plenty of capital without restrictions. At present, the most attractive market is that of Contemporary Art, being the most important centers New York and London, with China (Hong Kong and Beijing) as an emerging market. They represent the highest international level, including the Venezuelan market, since there are limitations and restrictions in the segments of great masters and the classics. That is why emerging artists and their work must ascend during their career, from the local to an international level in order to become renowned within their discipline. If an artist dies without having ascended to a higher level, the risk of loss for the buyer increases since it will be very difficult for the artist to receive recognition later, unless there is a bubble effect or a special event as in the case of Vincent Van Gogh. An important finding was to ascertain the huge difference within an artist's career between being "local" in Paris and being "local" in Valencia, Venezuela. This establishes a relationship between the chronological evolution of the plastic artist and his market price. Except for having restricted capital, the prediction or commitment to invest in an emerging artist is more uncertain than doing so in a consecrated artist. Finally, it was determined that there are countless variables and parameters within the art market that have not been studied and that affect price and investment. Acknowledgements I would like to thank the help of Felix Suazo and Nancy Farfán. Their knowledge of the contemporary art market was very valuable and served as a basis to complete this article. Likewise, I wish to thank Adda Morales for her help in the translation of this text. Science Journal of Business and Management 2019; 7(6): 140-149 149 References [1] Sherman A and Morrissey C. What Is Art Good for? The Socio-Epistemic Value of Art. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 11: 411. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2017.00411. 2017. [2] Artprice. Informe anual. Coleccionar e invertir en arte. 2017. Retrieved from https://www.artprice.com/artprice-reports/the- art-market-in-2017/collecting-and-investing-in-art/. [3] Artsgain. Art Investment Informative Leaflet. 2018. 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work_jiiwel4tgbgt3ehagzr3wdxhvu	----	Microsoft Word - 06 KEZBAN SÖNMEZ.docx Bu çalışma Akdeniz Üniversitesi Güzel Sanatlar Enstitüsü tarafından kabul edilen “XXI. Yüzyıl Perspektifinde Art Deco Stilinin Tekstil Tasarımlarına Yansımaları ve Yeni Öneriler” isimli yüksek lisans tezinden üretilmiştir. © 2019 ulakbilge. Bu makale Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY-NC-ND) 4.0 lisansı ile yayımlanmaktadır. ART DECO STİLİNİN TEKSTİL TASARIMLARINA YANSIMALARI1 Kezban SÖNMEZ2 İlay UYSAL3 2Dr. Öğr. Ü., Akdeniz Üniversitesi Güzel Sanatlar Fakültesi Moda ve Tekstil Tasarımı Bölümü, kezbankarasonmez(at)gmail.com 3Yüksek lisans öğrencisi, Akdeniz Üniversitesi Güzel Sanatlar Enstitüsü Sanat ve Tasarım Ana Sanat Dalı, ilayuysal(at)hotmail.com Sönmez, Kezban ve İlay Uysal. “Art Deco Stilinin Tekstil Tasarımlarına Yansımaları”. ulakbilge, 42 (2019 Kasım): s. 825-841. doi: 10.7816/ulakbilge-07-42-06 Öz 1920’li yıllarda ortaya çıkan ve 1940’lı yılların ortalarına kadar Avrupa ve Amerika’da etkili olan Art Deco stili özellikle Birinci ve İkinci Dünya Savaşı arasında dünyanın birçok yerine yayılmış olan bir üsluptur. İsmini 1925 yılında Fransa’da düzenlenen Exposition Internationale Des Arts Décoratifs et Industriels Modernes (Uluslararası Modern Dekoratif ve Endüstriyel Sanatlar Sergisi) sergisinden almıştır. Art Deco stili, başta Art Nouveau olmak üzere birçok sanat akımından izler taşımaktadır. Ayrıca Antik Mısır, Aztek ve Meksika kültürlerinden de esinlenen bu stil; mimari, iç mimari, mobilya, güzel sanatlar, tekstil ve moda alanlarında etkili olmuştur.Konusu “Art Deco Stilinin Tekstil Tasarımlarına Yansımaları” olarak belirlenen çalışmada; Art Deco tekstillerinin özelliklerinin belirlenmesi ve günümüz iç mekân tekstil tasarımlarına yansımalarının ortaya konması amaçlanmıştır. Daha önceki çalışmalarda iç mekân tekstillerine yönelik tasarım önerilerinin bulunmaması konuyu önemli kılmaktadır. Çalışmada nitel araştırma yöntemi kullanılmıştır. Kavramsal çerçeve için konu ile ilgili literatür taraması yapılmış, daha sonraki süreçte, Art Deco sanat akımında en sık kullanılan motiflerden ve ABD’nin Miami şehrinde yer alan mimari yapılardan esinlenilerek, yedi adet döşemelik kumaş tasarımı yapılmış ve çalışmada bu tasarımlara da yer verilmiştir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Art Deco, tasarım, tekstil. Makale Bilgisi Geliş: 17 Temmuz 2019 Düzeltme: 22 Ağustos 2019 Kabul: 30 Eylül 2019 Sönmez, Kezban ve İlay Uysal. “Art Deco Stilinin Tekstil Tasarımlarına Yansımaları”. ulakbilge, 42 (2019 Kasım): s. 825-841. doi: 10.7816/ulakbilge-07-42-06 826 Giriş 1920’li yıllarda ortaya çıkan ve 1940’lı yılların ortalarına kadar Avrupa ve Amerika’da etkili olan Art Deco stili özellikle Birinci ve İkinci Dünya Savaşı arasında dünyanın birçok yerine yayılmış olan bir üsluptur (Erzen, 2005: 59). İsmini 1925 yılında Fransa’da düzenlenen Exposition Internationale Des Arts Décoratifs et Industriels Modernes (Uluslararası Modern Dekoratif ve Endüstriyel Sanatlar Sergisi) sergisinden alan Art Deco stili, başta Art Nouveau akımı olmak üzere Fütürizm, Kübizm, Konstrüktivizm, De Stijl ve Bauhaus gibi sanat akımlarından izler taşımaktadır. Ayrıca Antik Mısır, Aztek ve Meksika kültürlerinden de esinlenen Art Deco; mimari, iç mimari, mobilya, güzel sanatlar, tekstil ve moda alanlarında etkili olmuştur. Doğrusal çizgiler, simetri, geometrik ve modernize edilmiş formlar Art Deco’yu karakterize eden özellikler arasındadır. Konusu “Art Deco Stilinin Tekstil Tasarımlarına Yansımaları” olarak belirlenen bu çalışmada; Art Deco stilinin görsel unsurlarının ve dönemin toplumsal koşullarının oluşturduğu çerçeve içerisinde, Art Deco tekstillerinin özelliklerinin belirlenmesi ve günümüz iç mekân tekstil tasarımlarına yansımalarının ortaya konması amaçlanmıştır. Elde edilen bilgiler ışığında, Art Deco bağlamında iç mekân tekstilleri üzerine yeni önerilerin getirilmesi de çalışmanın bir diğer amacıdır. Araştırmada nitel araştırma yöntemi kullanılmıştır. Kavramsal çerçeve için konu ile ilgili literatür taraması yapılmış ve elde edilen bilgiler ışığında tanımlar ve açıklamalar yapılmıştır. Daha sonraki süreçte, Art Deco sanat akımında en sık kullanılan motifler ve ABD’nin Miami şehrinde yer alan mimari yapılardan esinlenilerek, AutoCAD ve Photoshop programları kullanılarak yedi adet iç mekân tekstil ürünü tasarlanmış ve çalışmada bu tasarımlara da yer verilmiştir. Bir süreç analiz şeması oluşturularak Art Deco stiline özgü motif veya Art Deco mimari yapısı belirlenmiş, motifin teknik çizimi yapılmış, kompozisyon oluşturulmuş, renklendirme işlemi yapılmış ve desenlendirme işlemi tamamlanan iç mekan tekstilinin, döşemelik kumaş olarak giydirme işlemi yapılmıştır. Çalışmalar sonucunda tüm veriler derlenerek analiz edilmiş ve sonuca gidilmeye çalışılmıştır. Art Deco Stiline Genel Bakış Art Deco Stilinin Tanımı Türkçe’ye “dekoratif sanat” olarak tercüme edilen Art Deco kavramının kökeni, Fransızca “sanat” anlamına gelen “art” kelimesiyle, sıfat olan “decoratif” in, “deco” nun birleşimine dayanmaktadır (Kayaalp, 2018: 58). 1920-1930 yılları arasında mimarlıktan uygulamalı sanatlara kadar birçok alanlarda etkisi görülen bir üslup olan Art Deco, Art Nouveau ve Sanat ve El Sanatları Akımı gibi modern bir şeyler bulma amacının ve çabasının bir ürünüdür (Bridge, 2017: 199). Ayrıca Art Deco, endüstriyel tasarım düşüncesinin ve modernleşmenin getirdiği yenilikler olarak da düşünülebilmektedir (Alpat ve Papila, 2019: 563). Art Deco, Birinci Dünya Savaşı’nın verdiği zararları azaltmaya çalışan Batılılar için kasvetli zamanlarda ortaya çıkmış, savaşa rağmen çok renkliliği, zengin desenleri ile savaşın depresif ruh halini dağıtmış, toplum kendini renge, desene, görkeme, değişimlere, yeniliklere açmıştır. Bu durum dekorasyona, mobilyaya, nesnelere, giyim kuşama, yaşam tarzına kadar yayılmıştır (Yusufoğlu, 2014: 8). Amerikalı sanat tarihçisi Bevis Hillier 1968’de yayınladığı “Art Deco of the 20s and 30s” adlı kitabında, Art Deco adına yer vermesinden sonra kelime yaygınlık kazanmıştır (Kayaalp, 2018: 58-59). Kavramsallaşmasının geç gerçekleşmesinden ötürü Art Deco estetiği ile ilgili araştırma ve yayınlar 1960’lı yıllarda başlamış ve yayınlar incelendiğinde daha çok mimariyle ilgili çalışmaların yoğunlukta olduğu, plastik sanatlarla ilgili özgün çalışmaların yok denecek kadar az olduğu gözlenmiştir. 1970’lerden sonra ABD’de Art Deco teriminin, giderek artan terminolojik yaygınlık kazanması ile Art Deco estetiği ABD tarafından sahiplenilmiş ve bu sahiplenme günümüzde özellikle popüler kültürün, en çok da sinemanın imkânlarından faydalanılarak gerçekleştirilmiştir (Kayaalp, 2018: 63). 2.2.Tarihsel Süreç İçerisinde Art Deco Stili Art Deco üslubunda, Ballets Russes adıyla bilinen Rus bale topluluğunun etkisi büyüktür. Ballets Russes topluluğu 1909’da varlıklı bir aileden gelen Sergei Diaghilev (1872-1929) tarafından kurgulanıp hayata geçirilmiştir (Görsel.1). Sönmez, Kezban ve İlay Uysal. “Art Deco Stilinin Tekstil Tasarımlarına Yansımaları”. ulakbilge, 42 (2019 Kasım): s. 825-841. doi: 10.7816/ulakbilge-07-42-06 827 Görsel.1: Sergei Diaghilev (https://www.britannica.com/biography/Serge-Pavlovich-Diaghilev, erişim tarihi: 20.04.2019) Diaghilev, Rusya’da yaşadığı yıllarda sanat eleştirmeni, sanat tarihçisi ve yayıncısı olarak çalışmış, Arts and Crafts, Art Nouveau ve folklorik etkilerden yola çıkarak Rus sanatını yaygınlaştırmaya çalışmış bu amaçla 1899’da “Mir Iskusstva” (Sanat Dünyası) adlı dergiyi çıkarmış ve daha sonraları Ballets Russes’le özdeşleşen sanatçıları bir araya getirmiştir. Bu sanatçılar; Léon Bakst (1866-1924), Ivan Bilibin (1876-1942), Alexandre Benois (1870-1960)’ dir. Ballets Russes’in kökeninde hem Rus folklorunu hem de Oryantalist motifleri barındıran kostüm ve dekorların Art Deco üslubunda etkisi büyüktür. Örneğin; 1910’da Stravinsky’in tamamladığı baş dansçı Tamara Karsavina’nın (1885-1978) sahne aldığı “L” Diseau du feu” (Ateşkuşu) için Léon Bakst’ın tasarladığı kostümlerdir (Kayaalp, 2018: 72). Şehrazat Balesi’nin başlıca karakterlerinden biri olan Şahzaman için Léon Bakst’ın tasarladığı kostümdeki oryantalist etkiler Avrupa’yı özellikle Fransa’yı etkilemiştir. 1910’dan itibaren bu oryantalist etkiler Fransa’da yayınlanan moda dergilerindeki Art Deco illüstrasyonlarda görülmektedir (Görsel 2-3). Görsel.2: Léon Bakst’ın Tasarladığı Şehrazat Balesi’nin Kostümleri, 1920 (https://nga.gov.au/exhibition/balletsrusses, erişim tarihi: 20.04.2019) Görsel.3: Léon Bakst, Şehrazat Balesi Set Tasarımı, 1916-17 (https://nga.gov.au/exhibition/balletsrusses, erişim tarihi: 20.04.2019) Sönmez, Kezban ve İlay Uysal. “Art Deco Stilinin Tekstil Tasarımlarına Yansımaları”. ulakbilge, 42 (2019 Kasım): s. 825-841. doi: 10.7816/ulakbilge-07-42-06 828 Art Deco’nun Ballets Russes’ın üzerindeki etkilerinin görüldüğü bir başka örnekte “Parade” (Geçit Resmi) adlı gösteridir. Jean Cocteau’nun yazdığı, müziği Erik Satie’ye (1866-1925) dekor ve kostümleri Picasso’ya ait olan bu gösteri Kübo-Fütürist bir tavırla tasarlanmıştır (Kayaalp, 2018: 73) (Görsel.4). Görsel.4: Pablo Picasso, Parade, 1917 (http://tyrannyofstyle.com/costumes-of-the-ballets-russes, erişim tarihi: 20.04.2019) Ayrıca Diaghilev’in Fransız modernistleriyle yaptığı işbirliği Art Deco estetiğini Ballets Russes sahnesine yansıtmıştır. Örneğin; Sonia Delaunay’ın (1885-1979) Ballets Russes için tasarladığı kostümler Art Deco üslubuna (keskin hatlar, geometrik formlar) uygun unsurlar taşımaktadır (Görsel. 5). Görsel.5: Sonia Delaunay’ın Kleopatra Balesi İçin Tasarladığı Kostüm, 1918 (https://collections.lacma.org/node/236410, erişim tarihi: 21.04.2019) Bu topluluğun kostüm tasarımlarında pagan, oryantalist ve folklorist etkiler gözlenirken günün moda anlayışında aynı etkiler gözlenmiştir (Çevik, 2013: 170). 1929 yılında Diaghilev’in ölümü ile çeşitli bale toplulukları ortaya çıkmış, topluluktan ayrılan koreograflar Diaghilev’in deneyselci ve avangart geleneğini sürdürerek, ulusal bale topluluğu gibi birçok bale topluluğu oluşturulmuştur. Valois, İngiliz Kraliyet, Türk Devlet Balesi, Balanchine New York Şehir Bale Topluluğunu kurmuş ve bu bale topluluklarını kurumsallaştırmıştır. Diğer sanatçılar da, kendilerini güvende hissettikleri ülkelere yerleşip üretmeye devam etmişlerdir (Tuna, 2017: 21). Art Deco Tekstillerinin Özellikleri Çeşitli kaynaklara göre tekstil; elyaftan yüzey elde etme sanatı ve teknolojisi olarak tanımlanmaktadır. Latince bir kavram olan “texere” den textil kelimesi üretilmiştir. Ayrıca örme ya da dokuma anlamlarına da gelmektedir (Akdemir, 2016: 43). Tekstil kelimesinin Türkçe karşılığı dokumacılıktır. Günümüzde çok geniş anlamda kullanılmakla birlikte lif, iplik, yüzey, terbiye, apre, boya, baskı, dikim, süsleme, tasarım, moda, sunum, tutundurma, pazarlama, satış sonrası hizmeti gibi hammaddeden en son ürüne kadar süreci kapsar (Gürcüm, 2013: 21). Tekstil ürünlerinde yüzey tasarımı ne kadar başarılıysa, bu tekstil ürünü kullanılarak yapılan giysi tasarımı, mobilya tasarımı, ev tekstili tasarımı da o derece başarılı olmaktadır (Akdemir, 2016: 43). Tekstil endüstrisinde çok çeşitli lifler kullanılmaktadır. Doğal lifler doğada ki isimleri ile anılmaktadır. Sönmez, Kezban ve İlay Uysal. “Art Deco Stilinin Tekstil Tasarımlarına Yansımaları”. ulakbilge, 42 (2019 Kasım): s. 825-841. doi: 10.7816/ulakbilge-07-42-06 829 Sentetik lifler elde edildikleri monomerin adının başına poli kelimesi getirilerek isimlendirilmektedir. Bitkisel ve hayvansal kaynaklı liflere, doğal (tabii) lifler denilmekle birlikte, insanlar tarafından fabrikalarda üretilen lifler için değişik terimler kullanılmaktadır. Bu lifler için tek bir terim bulunmayıp “Sentetik ve Suni Elyaf” denilmektedir (Seventekin, 2015: 4-6). Art deco döneminin en önemli lifi rayondur. Başlangıçta pamukla kombine edilerek kullanılmış, fakat sert ve parlak bir malzeme olmasından dolayı, boyanırken özellikle koyu renklerde zor olduğu için, bu lif sadece o dönemde kiri göstermeyişi ve gösterişliliği açısından tercih edilmiştir (Yusufoğlu, 2014: 2). Bununla birlikte; doğal liflerin fiyatlarının artması, yapay lif olan rayona olan ilgiyi artırmış, 1933’ten sonra doğal liflerin fiyatı artarken rayon fiyatları düşmeye başlamıştır. İpeğin parlaklığına benzetilen rayon ilk zamanlarda ucuz olma özelliği dolayısıyla birçok evde kullanılmaya başlanmıştır. Rayon iki farklı liften yalnızca birinin boyanması ile oluşturulan çapraz-boyalı kumaşlarda ipeğin yerine kullanılmıştır. Doğal ve sentetik materyallerin karışımı ile dayanıklılığı sebebiyle döşeme ve giysi kumaşlarında kullanılmıştır. İpeğin yerine geçebilecek bir kumaş üretme girişimi XIX. yüzyıla kadar sürmüş fakat 1920’li yılların sonlarına dek başarılı olunamamıştır (Kaymaz, 2005: 96-97). Birinci Dünya Savaşı başlayınca her alanda olduğu gibi tekstil sektöründe de durgunluk başlamıştır (Yusufoğlu, 2014: 4). 1910-1920 yılları arasında tekstilde yaşanan olumlu ve olumsuz gelişmelere rağmen, bu tarih aralığı Art Deco tekstilin ortaya çıktığı yıllar olarak kabul edilmektedir. Dönemin öncü tasarımcılarının sunduğu motiflerdeki çeşitlilik, tekstilde daha sonraki yıllarda kullanılacak olan stilin habercisi olmuştur (Yusufoğlu, 2014: 4). Art Deco baskılı tekstillerde kullanılan baskı teknikleri şu şekilde sıralanabilir: 1-Stencil Baskı Tekniği 2-Kalıp Baskı Tekniği 3-Şablon Baskı Tekniği 4-Silindir Baskı Tekniği Stencil Baskı Tekniği: Başlangıçta mektuplar için basit desenlerde kullanılan stencil baskı tekniği Japonya’da kumaş baskıcılığında kullanılan zanaattan geliştirilmiş, daha sonra 1850’de Lyons’ta stencil baskı tekniği ile ipek gazete yapımında kullanılmış ve bu teknik şablon baskı tekniği olarak adlandırılmıştır. Stencil baskı ise şablon baskı tekniğinin bir çeşidi olarak gruplandırılmıştır. Bu yöntemle fazla zaman gerektirmesine rağmen suluboya ve guajlarda mükemmel sonuçlar alınabilmekteydi. Tasarımcılar stencil tekniğinin couture işlerine mükemmel cevap verdiğini fark etmişler, bundan dolayı stencil tekniğini birçok sanatçı ve designator, çalışmalarında, tasarımlarında kullanmışlardır (Kaymaz, 2005: 133-134). Kalıp Baskı Tekniği: Bu teknik genellikle ahşap malzemeler üzerine desen oyulması ile hazırlanmaktadır. Kalıplarda çoğunlukla ıhlamur ağacı tercih edilmektedir. Baskı işlemi kalıpların kumaşa bastırılmasıyla yapılır. Yazmacılık sanatının temelini kalıp baskı tekniği oluşturmaktadır (Uygur ve Yüksel, 2013: 14) Şablon Baskı Tekniği: Metalik levhalar, kalın kartonlar gibi yüzeylerde desenin kesilmesi ile yapılan bir tekniktir. Üzerine baskı patı döküldükten sonra rakle ile çekilerek baskı patının alta serilen kumaşa aktarımının sağlandığı bir tekniktir. Püskürtme baskılar için de kullanılabilmektedir. (Uygur ve Yüksel, 2013: 14) Şablon baskı tekniğinin 1920-1930 yılları arasında popülerliği artmış, birçok renk kullanımına olanak sağlayan bu teknik geliştirilerek, desinatörlerin tercih ettiği bir yöntem olmuştur (Kaymaz, 2005: 141-142). Silindir Baskı Tekniği: XIX. ve XX. yüzyıllarda uygulanan bu teknik 1783 yılında Thomas Bell tarafından patentlenmiştir. Tasarım, her bir renk için bakır silindirler üzerine oyulmakta, oyuntu renk ile doldurularak sabit silindirler bir merkez etrafında dönerken renk kumaş üzerine geçirilmektedir. Bu teknikte kumaşın tüm genişliği basılmaktadır (Kaymaz, 2005: 145). Birçok sanat akımından, kültürlerden ilham alan ve bütün bunları kendi stilinde birleştiren Art Deco, mimariden, grafik sanatına kadar, tekstil ve modanın da içinde bulunduğu alanda kendini göstermiştir (Yusufoğlu, 2014: 1). Art Deco dönemi kalıp baskı tekniği ile üretilen yeniden yorumlanmış geometrik çiçek desenleri ya da yoğun renkli tasarımlar, XX. yüzyıldaki tekstil tasarımına ışık tutmuştur (Akbostancı, 2014: 32-33). Gündelik yaşamdaki her ürünün sanatsal zevki ortaya çıkardığını savunan Viyana atölyesi, seramikten metal işlerine, camdan tekstile kadar birçok alanda üretim yapan sanat ve zanaatçıları bölgesinde toplamıştır. Ürettiği baskı ve dokuma kumaş tasarımlarının, giysilik ve döşemelik kumaş olarak kullanılması, modern tekstil tasarımının gelişini haber vermekle beraber tekstil tasarımcılarına da yeni bakış açıları ve esin kaynağı olmuştur (Yıldırım, 2011: 119-120). Sönmez, Kezban ve İlay Uysal. “Art Deco Stilinin Tekstil Tasarımlarına Yansımaları”. ulakbilge, 42 (2019 Kasım): s. 825-841. doi: 10.7816/ulakbilge-07-42-06 830 Kumaş ve renk ilişkisi önemlidir. Kumaşta renk, bütünlüğü sağlayan, duyulara hitap eden, rengin farklı uygulamaları ile bir kumaşı çekici ya da itici, sıcak ya da soğuk, uyumlu ya da uyumsuz hale getirebilir. Kumaşta rengin değerlendirilmesi kişisel bir olgudur ve farklı beğeni, farklı tercih ve moda eğilimleriyle belirlenen özellikler taşımaktadır. Kumaşların renk tayininde belirleyici unsurlar ise; Kullanılan renk miktarı, kullanılan renklerin oranı ve diğer renklerle olan ilişkisidir (Yurt, 2006: 32). Art Deco tasarımında, rengin birkaç tonu kremsi leylak tonlarıyla, şeftali, kül grileri, maviler ve ebru ile koyu zemin üzerinde parlak renkler birleştirilerek kullanıldığı görülmektedir. Eski Mısır uygarlığına duyulan ilgiden dolayı, safranlar ve turkuazlara düşkünlük başlamış, Byres kadınların stil palet renklerine yeşil, altın, kahverengi, violet, gülkurusu, scarlet, şeftali renginden oluşan bir grup renk önermiştir. Göze çarpmayan Afrika doğal tekstil renklerinin yerine, parlak ve sentetik renkler kullanılmış bununla beraber bazı Deco tekstil ürünlerinde, hafif organik renk skalaları kullanılmıştır. Wiener Werkstätte için Camille Bikre ve Maria Likarz tarafından tasarlanan dizaynlarda Batı Afrika tekstillerine benzeyen sınırlı kahverengi, turuncu, siyah renkler kullanılmıştır (Kaymaz, 2005: 122-123). 1930’lu yıllarda renk ve formların sadeliği modern tekstil tasarımına yeni bir soluk olmuş, özellikle ev tekstillerinde önemli rol oynamıştır. 1930’lu yılların başlarında boya malzemelerinde gelişmeler olmuş, hem ışığa hem de yıkamaya dayanıklı boyar maddeler ortaya çıkmıştır. Birinci Dünya Savaşı sonrasında endüstrinin renge ilgisi, iç mekânlarda, ev tekstilinde kendini göstermiş, renk, bir odanın dizaynında önemli bir araç olmuştur (Yusufoğlu, 2014: 2). Tasarımcı Paul Poiret XX. yüzyılda dikkati giysinin formundan yüzeyine ve renklere çekmiş, 1900’lü yıllarda hâkim olan gri, lacivert, koyu mor, haki gibi renkleri tercih etmeyerek yüzey tasarımında rengin etkisini sıcak renklerin tonlarına çekmiştir (Öpöz, 2018: 68). Tekstil tasarımcıları soyut denemeleri tecrübe etmişler, 1920’li yılların lüks dekoratif yüzeylerinden uzaklaşılmıştır. Bu minimal estetiğin öncüsü tasarımcı Sonia Delaunay’dır. 1925 Paris Sergisi süresince Delaunay, zamanının motiflerine sahip elbise ve kumaş baskılarını göstermiş, bu geometrik motifler, farklı renk vericilerin etkileşimi hakkındaki teoriler üzerine kurulmuş, renkler en yüksek etkiyi bırakmak amacıyla, çizgiler ve dalgalar şeklinde bloklar yaparak gruplaştırılmıştır (Yusufoğlu, 2014: 91). Zamanla modernizm etkili olmaya başlamış, 1935 yılından sonra kumaş desenleri sadeleşmeye başlamış, renkler parlaklığını kaybetmiştir (Yusufoğlu, 2014: 94). Geometrik bir tasarım olan Art Deco, kareler, üçgenler ve daireler gibi soyut biçimlerden oluşmakta, geometrik düzenlemeler, serbestlik duygusu veren geniş alanlar, küçük, düzenli, mekanik biçimde yerleştirilmiş tasarımlara kadar bir çeşitlilik göstermektedir. Art Deco etkisi gösteren desenler üç döneme ayrılmaktadır: I.Stilize edilen çiçek ve hayvan motifleri dönemi II.Düz, paralel çizgiler dönemi III.Depresyon yılları dönemi I. Stilize edilen çiçek ve hayvan motifleri: 1920’lerin çiçek ve hayvan motifleri, New York’ta Chrysler Building’in açık çizgileri, sunburst’un (güneş patlaması) keskin kenarlı motifleri zigzag modern olarak tanımlanan tasarım dönemidir. II. Düz, paralel çizgiler dönemi: II. dönem, 1930’ların başında düz, paralel çizgiler ve noktalar, rüzgâr tarafından götürülüyormuş gibi kavis oluşturan desenler, aerodinamik-modern olarak tanımlanan tasarım dönemidir. III. Depresyon yılları dönemi: Neoklasik formların modern stilizasyonunda temellenen çok yalın bir görünüme sahip olan klasik-modern olarak tanımlanan dönemdir (Kaymaz, 2005: 99-100). 1920’li yıllarda çiçek motifleri Dufy’nin arabesk tarzını değiştirmiş, ortaya daha geometrik ve düz çizgilerin baskın olduğu yeni formlar çıkmış ve 1925 Paris Sergisi’nde bunların bir çoğuna yer verilmiştir. Zamanla egzotizm tasarımlara girmeye başlamış, pastoral desenler çiçek motifleriyle birleştirilmiş, kumaşlara filler, papağanlar vb. tropik orman temalı desenler yansımıştır (Yusufoğlu, 2014: 88-89). 1923-1924 yıllarında geometrik desenler varlığını göstermeye başlamış, çiçek desenlerinin yerini almıştır. Tasarımcılar başlarda çiçek ve yaprak motiflerini geometrik şekillere sokmuşlar sadece çizgilerin birleşiminden biçimler ortaya çıkarmışlar, bu gelişmeler, kübizm ve soyut sanata yönelen ressamlar tarafından süreç hızlandırmış, bu yeni geometrik tasarımlar Wiener Werkstätte, Bauhaus, Functionalist okullarını da etkilemiştir (Yusufoğlu, 2014: 90). 1929 yılındaki Wall Street olayı, borsadaki ani düşüşle birlikte zor günlerin başlamasına sebep olmuştur. Sönmez, Kezban ve İlay Uysal. “Art Deco Stilinin Tekstil Tasarımlarına Yansımaları”. ulakbilge, 42 (2019 Kasım): s. 825-841. doi: 10.7816/ulakbilge-07-42-06 831 Depresyon dönemi diye adlandırılan bu dönem 1931’de Fransa’yı da olumsuz yönde etkilemiş, bu da dekoratif sanatların elit müşterilerini kaybetmesine neden olmuştur. Zevk duygusu değişmiş, zevk duygusunun değişmesi ise yeni tasarımların ortaya çıkmasına engel olmuştur. Buna karşılık profesyoneller ve halk geleneksel değerlere sığınmış, alıcılar, klasik, kırsal ve bölgesel stili tercih edip “modern stil” den uzaklaşmışlardır. Sonuç olarak birçok üretici maliyeti ya da riski olmayan eski desenleri kullanmayı tercih etmişlerdir. 1935’ten sonra geometrik soyut eğilim önemini yitirmiş, 1935’ten sonra kumaş desenlerinin çoğunluğu gittikçe basitleşmiş, çoğu kez birkaç çizgi ya da iki üç nüans çiçekli desen kullanılarak tasarımlar oluşturulmuştur (Kaymaz, 2005: 104-105). Lyon Belediyesi ipek endüstrisini ön plana çıkarmak için Lyon’daki okulları finanse etmiş, kadınlar için kurslar açmıştır. Lyonnais Güzel Sanatlar Okulu ipek tasarımı üzerine eğitimler vermiştir. 1931 yılına kadar ipek koleksiyonlarında çiçek ve bitkisel motifler hâkim olmuştur (Stewart, 2008: 31). Art Deco stiline ait bir tekstil ürünü kategorize etmek, hangi akım etkisiyle ortaya çıktığını belirtmek kolay olmamıştır. Bu stil geçmişe ait çeşitli dekoratif trendlerden gelen etkileri içeren tamamlayıcı bir etiket olmuş, tüm dekoratif sanatlarda olduğu gibi bir evrim içine girmiştir (Yusufoğlu, 2014: 78-79). Art Deco tekstilleri kesin sınırlara sahip olmamasına rağmen bu süreçleri dönemsel farklılıklarla açıklamak mümkündür. Bu süreçler şu şekilde sıralanabilir: I. Kuruluş Dönemi: 1910-1912’de başlayıp Birinci Dünya Savaşı ile kesintiye uğrayıp, 1925’teki uluslararası sergiye kadar devam eden dönemdir. II. Floral Art Deco’nun Gelişen Dönemi: Birinci Dünya Savaşı bitiminde başlayıp, 1929’a kadar sürmüştür. Homojen ve belirgin tarzın geliştiği dönemdir. III. Geometrik Art Deco Dönemi: 1923-1925 tarihleri arasında ortaya çıkmıştır. Radikal teması ile büyük başarılara yönelmiştir. Fakat 1937’de Sanat ve Teknik Sergisi olduğu zaman “Exposition des Arts et Techiques” rayına oturmuştur. Bu sürede dekoratif sanatçıları ve özellikle moda desinatörleri bu çok stilize desenlerden sıkılmışlardır. IV. Barok ve Neoklasik Dönem: Bu stildeki kumaşlar 1933 yıllarında ortaya çıkmış ve popülerliği gittikçe artmıştır. Düz çizgiler ve doğru açılı kavislerin yerine fantezi, lirik ve düş gücü geçerek, Art Deco’nun sinyallerini veren estetik duygusu ortaya çıkmıştır (Kaymaz, 2005: 87). Art Deco döneminde tekstil iç mekân tasarımlarında etkili olmuş, yemek odalarında, zeminde, sandalyelerde, duvarlarda, masa ve pencerelerde kullanılan tekstiller önemli bir rol oynamıştır. Vahşi, geometrik ve stilize edilmiş çiçek desenlerinin yanı sıra, sosyal ortamda insanları betimleyen gerçek sahneleri de resmetmişler, hatta bir tema belirleyerek tasarımlar yapmışlardır. Art Deco yemek odaları tasarımı diğer odalara göre sıkıcı olurdu, çünkü o dönemde yemek odaları evdeki resmi odalardan biriydi ve en cesur Art Deco baskılardan biri yemek salonunda kullanılırdı. Eğer Art Deco baskılardan biri pencerelerde kullanılırsa, sandalyeler koordine edici bir renkte kadife ile kaplanır, eğer baskılardan biri sandalyelerde döşemelik kumaş olarak kullanılırsa, pencerelerde düz renk kullanılır, boş bırakılır ya da gölgelik ve ahşap korniş ile kaplanırdı. İç mekânlar bu dönemde gerçek anlamda tasarımcının yansımasıydı. Bu yemek odalarının bulunduğu evler modern, zarif ve şıktı (Dowdy, 2005: 61-63). 1920’lerin başlarında ev tekstillerinde Barok sanatına ilgi duyulmaya başlanmış, hem sofistike hem de buluşçu yaklaşımlarla eski tarz kumaşlar yeniden kullanılmaya başlanmıştır. Bu durum bazı üreticileri kullanılmış görünümlü yeni kumaşlar tasarlamaya sevk etmiştir. Eski kumaş görüntüsü baskı bloklarının basitçe kesilmesiyle de sağlanabiliyordu. Ayrıca kadifeler, bükümlü satenler eskitilmiş etkisi verilebilmesine karşın, bu dönemde, el boyaması ve örmecilik oldukça önemli olmaya başlamıştır. 1920-1930’lu yıllarda tekstil sanatları dekoratif bir tarzı izlemiş, bu dönemde en çok gereksinim duyulan, kaliteli tekstil malzemesi olmuştur (Yurt, 2006: 11-12). Art Deco stilinde ahşap ve metalin birlikte kullanıldığı yatak odasında koltuk döşemeleri, kumaşları hayvan derisinden yapılmıştır (Gümüşeli, 2016: 14) Bu dönemde mobilyaların iç kısımlarında, masa ve sandalyelerde döşemelik olarak ilk kez deri kullanılmıştır (Ozan, 2009: 88-89). Art Deco Bağlaminda İç Mekân Tekstil Tasarım Süreci ve Uygulamaları Hazırlanan koleksiyon toplam yedi adet tasarımdan oluşmaktadır. Tasarımların süreç analizleri yapılarak uygulama aşamasında bu sıra izlenmiştir. Süreç analizi, ilk tasarımda Art Deco stiline özgü motifin belirlenmesi, diğer tasarımlarda ise Art Deco mimari yapının belirlenmesi ile başlamaktadır. Ardından mimari yapılarda öne çıkan Art Deco stiline özgü belirli motiflerin teknik çizimleri yapılmış, teknik çizimleri yapılan birim halindeki motiflerle temel tasarım yöntemleri aracılığıyla kompozisyonlar oluşturulmuştur. Kompozisyonların Sönmez, Kezban ve İlay Uysal. “Art Deco Stilinin Tekstil Tasarımlarına Yansımaları”. ulakbilge, 42 (2019 Kasım): s. 825-841. doi: 10.7816/ulakbilge-07-42-06 832 belirlenmesinin ardından renklendirme işlemine geçilmiştir. Desenlendirme işlemi tamamlanan iç mekân tekstillerinin döşemelik kumaş olarak sandalye ve koltuklar üzerinde giydirme işlemi yapılarak üretim süreci sona ermiştir. Tasarım No: 1 Süreç Analizi ve Uygulama 1 no’lu tasarımda Art Deco mimarisinde sıkça kullanılan motiflerden biri olan yelpaze motifi kullanılmıştır. Bu motif, Art Deco’nun karakteristik özellikleri arasında yer alan geometrik formlarla birlikte simetrik kompozisyon içinde kullanılmıştır. Tasarım sürecinde ilk olarak Art Deco mimarisinde kullanılan motifler incelenmiştir. Kullanılacak motife karar verildikten sonra, motifin tasarımı ve teknik çizimi AutoCAD programı ile yapılmıştır. Teknik çizimin ardından birim halindeki motifle temel tasarım yöntemleri aracılığıyla kompozisyon oluşturulmuştur. Kompozisyonların belirlenmesinin ardından renklendirme işlemi Photoshop programı ile yapılmıştır. Desenlendirme işlemi tamamlanan iç mekan tekstilinin, döşemelik kumaş olarak giydirme işlemi yapılarak tasarım süreci sona ermiştir. Görsel. 6: İç Mekân Tekstilinin Teknik Çizimleri ve Döşemelik Kumaş Olarak Giydirme İşlemi, Tasarım No:1 Tasarım No: 2 Süreç Analizi ve Uygulama 2 no’lu tasarımda ABD’nin Miami şehrinde yer alan Art Deco mimari yapılarından “Crescent Hotel” seçilmiştir. Otel 1938 yılında mimar Henry Hohauser tarafından tasarlanmıştır. Diğer Art Deco mimari yapılarının çoğundan farklı olarak bu yapı, asimetrik cephe düzenine sahiptir. Art Deco mimari yapılarında görülen geometrik ve dairesel motifler bu yapıda da kullanılmıştır (https://virginia-duran.com/2014/03/20/miami-the-best- of-art-deco-architecture/) (Erişim Tarihi: 21.07.2019). Görsel. 7: Crescent Hotel, Henry Hohauser, 1938, Miami (https://virginia-duran.com/2014/03/20/miami-the-best-of-art-deco-architecture/, erişim tarihi: 22.07.2019) Sönmez, Kezban ve İlay Uysal. “Art Deco Stilinin Tekstil Tasarımlarına Yansımaları”. ulakbilge, 42 (2019 Kasım): s. 825-841. doi: 10.7816/ulakbilge-07-42-06 833 Crescent Hotel’in ön cephesinde yer alan mimari motiflerden esinlenilerek AutoCAD programı ile teknik çizimi yapılmıştır. Teknik çizimin ardından birim halindeki motifle temel tasarım yöntemleri aracılığıyla kompozisyon oluşturulmuştur. Kompozisyonların belirlenmesinin ardından renklendirme işlemi Photoshop programı ile yapılmıştır. Desenlendirme işlemi tamamlanan iç mekan tekstilinin, döşemelik kumaş olarak giydirme işlemi yapılarak tasarım süreci sona ermiştir. Görsel. 8: İç Mekân Tekstilinin Teknik Çizimleri ve Döşemelik Kumaş Olarak Giydirme İşlemi, Tasarım No: 2 Tasarım No: 3 Süreç Analizi ve Uygulama 3 no’lu tasarımda ABD’nin Miami şehrinde yer alan Art Deco mimari yapılarından “Carlton Hotel” seçilmiştir. Otel 1937 yılında mimar Henry Hohauser tarafından tasarlanmıştır. Yapının cephesi simetriktir. İçinde küçük bir pencere olan merkezi bölümün üst kısmı basamaklı piramit şeklindedir. Merkezi bölümdeki pencerelerin altında ve üstünde Aztek ve Maya motiflerinden oluşan duvar süsleri bulunmaktadır. Binanın giriş kapısının her iki yanında sekizgen şeklinde lomboz (gemi penceresi) pencereler yer alır (http://www.technologybase.com/beachdeco/knavNextLevel.aspx?objID=Carlton) (Erişim Tarihi: 23.07.2019). Görsel. 9: Carlton Hotel, Henry Hohauser, 1937, Miami (http://www.bigfoto.com/america/florida/, erişim tarihi: 23.07.2019) Carlton Hotel’in ön cephesinde yer alan mimari motiflerden esinlenilerek AutoCAD programı ile teknik çizim yapılmıştır. Teknik çizimin ardından birim halindeki motifle temel tasarım yöntemleri aracılığıyla kompozisyon oluşturulmuştur. Kompozisyonların belirlenmesinin ardından renklendirme işlemi Photoshop programı ile yapılmıştır. Desenlendirme işlemi tamamlanan iç mekan tekstilinin, döşemelik kumaş olarak giydirme işlemi Sönmez, Kezban ve İlay Uysal. “Art Deco Stilinin Tekstil Tasarımlarına Yansımaları”. ulakbilge, 42 (2019 Kasım): s. 825-841. doi: 10.7816/ulakbilge-07-42-06 834 yapılarak tasarım süreci sona ermiştir. Görsel. 10: İç Mekân Tekstilinin Teknik Çizimleri ve Döşemelik Kumaş Olarak Giydirme İşlemi, Tasarım No: 3 Tasarım No: 4 Süreç Analizi ve Uygulama 4 no’lu tasarımda ABD’nin Miami şehrinde yer alan Art Deco mimari yapılarından “Colony Hotel” seçilmiştir. Otel, 1935 yılında mimar Henry Hohauser tarafından tasarlanmıştır. Eylül 1926’daki büyük kasırgadan sonra Miami sahilinde ilk inşa edilen binalardan biridir. Otelin cephesi Art Deco stilinin simgesidir. Basit ve geometriktir. Otelin adını taşıyan ters “T” şeklindeki kalın geometrik parça cepheyi ikiye ayırmaktadır (“Miami Icons: The Colony Hotel, The Most Famous Art Deco Building On Ocean Drive”, 2014, 4. paragraf). Görsel. 11: Colony Hotel, Henry Hohauser, 1935, Miami (https://www.bluffton.edu/homepages/facstaff/sullivanm/florida/miami/colony/colony.html, erişim tarihi: 24.07.2019) Colony Hotel’in ön cephesinde yer alan mimari motiflerden esinlenilerek AutoCAD programı ile teknik çizim yapılmıştır. Teknik çizimin ardından birim halindeki motifle temel tasarım yöntemleri aracılığıyla kompozisyon oluşturulmuştur. Kompozisyonların belirlenmesinin ardından renklendirme işlemi Photoshop programı ile yapılmıştır. Desenlendirme işlemi tamamlanan iç mekan tekstilinin, döşemelik kumaş olarak giydirme işlemi yapılarak tasarım süreci sona ermiştir. Sönmez, Kezban ve İlay Uysal. “Art Deco Stilinin Tekstil Tasarımlarına Yansımaları”. ulakbilge, 42 (2019 Kasım): s. 825-841. doi: 10.7816/ulakbilge-07-42-06 835 Görsel. 12: İç Mekân Tekstilinin Teknik Çizimleri ve Döşemelik Kumaş Olarak Giydirme İşlemi, Tasarım No: 4 Tasarım No: 5 Süreç Analizi ve Uygulama 5 no’lu tasarımda ABD’nin Miami şehrinde yer alan Art Deco mimari yapılarından “Greystone Hotel” seçilmiştir. Otel, 1939 yılında Henry Hohauser tarafından tasarlanmıştır. Streamline Moderne etkileriyle, Art Deco üslubunda üç katlı olarak inşa edilmiştir. Ön cephesi asimetriktir. Radyo antenine benzeyen iki adet kulenin arasında, otelin isminin yazılı olduğu dikey kütle bulunmaktadır. Çatı hattı basamaklı piramit şeklindedir. Giriş kapısının her iki yanında lomboz (gemi penceresi) pencereler yer alır (https://www.ruskinarc.com/mdpl/Museum/4842-1920%20Collins%20Ave/view) (Erişim Tarihi: 24.07.2019). Görsel. 13: Greystone Hotel, Henry Hohauser, 1939, Miami (https://tr.pinterest.com/pin/385480049354059740/, erişim tarihi: 24.07.2019) Greystone Hotel’in ön cephesinde yer alan mimari motiflerden esinlenilerek AutoCAD programı ile teknik çizim yapılmıştır. Teknik çizimin ardından birim halindeki motifle temel tasarım yöntemleri aracılığıyla kompozisyon oluşturulmuştur. Kompozisyonların belirlenmesinin ardından renklendirme işlemi Photoshop programı ile yapılmıştır. Desenlendirme işlemi tamamlanan iç mekan tekstilinin, döşemelik kumaş olarak giydirme işlemi yapılarak tasarım süreci sona ermiştir. Sönmez, Kezban ve İlay Uysal. “Art Deco Stilinin Tekstil Tasarımlarına Yansımaları”. ulakbilge, 42 (2019 Kasım): s. 825-841. doi: 10.7816/ulakbilge-07-42-06 836 Görsel. 14: İç Mekân Tekstilinin Teknik Çizimleri ve Döşemelik Kumaş Olarak Giydirme İşlemi, Tasarım No: 5 Tasarım No: 6 Süreç Analizi ve Uygulama 6 no’lu tasarımda ABD’nin Miami şehrinde yer alan Art Deco mimari yapılarından “Delano Hotel” seçilmiştir. 1947 yılında Robert Swartburg tarafından tasarlanan Delano Otel, adını ABD’nin 32. başkanı Franklin Delano Roosevelt’ten almaktadır. Otelin beyaz ikonik kulesi, Art Deco stilini yansıtmaktadır. (http://www.jeromemorlot.com/blog/delano-hotel-new-chapter-art-deco-icon/) (Erişim Tarihi: 25.07.2019) (http://scholar.library.miami.edu/miamidigital/timelineAll.php?IDcategory=23) (Erişim Tarihi: 25.07.2019). Görsel. 15: Delano Hotel, Robert Swartburg, 1947, Miami (http://www.jeromemorlot.com/blog/delano-hotel-new-chapter-art-deco-icon/, erişim tarihi: 25.07.2019) Delano Hotel’in çatısında yer alan beyaz ikonik kuleden esinlenilerek AutoCAD programı ile teknik çizim yapılmıştır. Teknik çizimin ardından birim halindeki motifle temel tasarım yöntemleri aracılığıyla kompozisyon oluşturulmuştur. Kompozisyonların belirlenmesinin ardından renklendirme işlemi Photoshop programı ile yapılmıştır. Desenlendirme işlemi tamamlanan iç mekan tekstilinin, döşemelik kumaş olarak giydirme işlemi yapılarak tasarım süreci sona ermiştir. Sönmez, Kezban ve İlay Uysal. “Art Deco Stilinin Tekstil Tasarımlarına Yansımaları”. ulakbilge, 42 (2019 Kasım): s. 825-841. doi: 10.7816/ulakbilge-07-42-06 837 Görsel. 16: İç Mekân Tekstilinin Teknik Çizimleri ve Döşemelik Kumaş Olarak Giydirme İşlemi, Tasarım No: 6 Tasarım No: 7 Süreç Analizi ve Uygulama 7 no’lu tasarımda ABD’nin Miami şehrinde yer alan 25 katlı apartman binası “South Pointe Tower” seçilmiştir. John A. Hinson tarafından 1987 yılında inşa edilmiştir. Bölgede inşa edilen ilk yüksek katlı apartman binasıdır. Art Deco döneminde inşa edilmemesine rağmen, yapının çatı bölümü Art Deco mimarisine özgü basamaklı piramit şekildedir ve güneş ışınları motifi kullanılmıştır (https://www.miamicondoinvestments.com/south-pointe-tower) (Erişim Tarihi: 21.07.2019). Görsel. 17: South Pointe Tower, 1987, Miami (https://www.bexrealty.com/real-estate/Miami-Beach/South-Pointe-Tower/, erişim tarihi: 29.07.2019) Sönmez, Kezban ve İlay Uysal. “Art Deco Stilinin Tekstil Tasarımlarına Yansımaları”. ulakbilge, 42 (2019 Kasım): s. 825-841. doi: 10.7816/ulakbilge-07-42-06 838 South Pointe Tower’ın çatı bölümünde yer alan Art Deco mimarisine özgü karakteristik motiflerden esinlenilerek AutoCAD programı ile teknik çizim yapılmıştır. Teknik çizimin ardından birim halindeki motifle temel tasarım yöntemleri aracılığıyla kompozisyon oluşturulmuştur. Kompozisyonların belirlenmesinin ardından renklendirme işlemi Photoshop programı ile yapılmıştır. Desenlendirme işlemi tamamlanan iç mekan tekstilinin, döşemelik kumaş olarak giydirme işlemi yapılarak tasarım süreci sona ermiştir. Görsel. 18: İç Mekân Tekstilinin Teknik Çizimleri ve Döşemelik Kumaş Olarak Giydirme İşlemi, Tasarım No: 7 Sonuç Daha çok dekoratif özellikleri ile ön plana çıkan Art Deco stili, mimariden giyime kadar bütün tasarım alanlarında kendisini göstermiştir. 1920’li yıllarda ortaya çıkan ve 40’lı yılların ortalarına kadar Avrupa ve Amerika’da etkili olan ve özellikle iki dünya savaşı arasında bütün dünyaya yayılmış bir üsluptur. Art Deco stili, sadece yaşandığı dönemde başlayıp bitmiş bir sanat üslubu olmamıştır. Ortaya çıktığı 1920’li yıllar, günümüzde bile yansımalarını gördüğümüz Art Deco stilinin başlangıç noktası olarak kabul edilebilir. Bu stile ait kavramlar ve tekstil alanındaki etkileri bu çalışma ile yeniden gözden geçirilmiştir. “Art Deco Stilinin Tekstil Tasarımlarına Yansımaları”nı konu alan bu çalışmasının amacı; Art Deco stilinin tekstil alanındaki özelliklerini ve günümüz iç mekân tekstil tasarımlarına yansımalarını ortaya koymaktır. Çalışmada Art Deco stili genel bir bakış açısıyla incelenmiş, tarihsel süreç içerisinde Art Deco stilinin ortaya çıkışı ve gelişimi ele alınmıştır. Ballets Russes, Rus sanatını yaymak amacıyla kurulmuş bir bale topluluğudur. Bu topluluk danstan daha çok Art Deco stilinin etkisindeki sahne ve kostüm tasarımlarıyla ön plana çıkmıştır. Oryantalist etkiler taşıyan sahne kostümleri dönemin modasına damga vurmuştur. Sanayi ürünlerinin estetikten yoksun olduğunu düşünen sanatçılar, sanat-zanaat ve sanayi ile işbirliği yapılması gerektiği fikrini savunmuşlar ve bunun için uzun yıllar çalışmalar yapmışlardır. Sanat-zanaat ve sanayi işbirliği Art Deco döneminde sağlanmıştır. 1925 yılında Paris’te açılan Exposition Internationale des Arts Décoratifs et Industriels Modernes (Uluslararası Modern Dekoratif ve Endüstriyel Sanatlar Sergisi) sergisinde bu işbirliğinden doğan ürünler sergilenmiştir. Seri üretim ile çoğaltılan bu modern tarzdaki ürünler, toplumdaki her sınıfın ulaşabileceği uygun fiyatlı ürünler olmuştur. Avrupa ve dünyanın birçok yerinden sergiye katılan tasarımcı ve ziyaretçiler sayesinde Art Deco tüm dünyada yaygınlık kazanmıştır. Yapılan araştırmalar sonucunda elde edilen bilgilere göre Art Deco stili İkinci Dünya Savaşı’nın başlamasıyla etkisini yitirmiş, 1960’lı yıllarda yeniden canlandığı ve günümüze kadar etkisini mimarlık, mobilya, iç mimari, grafik, sinema, moda ve tekstil alanlarında devam ettirdiği tespit edilmiştir. Ayrıca Art Deco stilinin Güzel Sanatların birçok alanında etkili olduğu görülmüştür. Art Deco tekstillerinin özelliklerini incelediğimizde, Art Deco olarak adlandırılacak tek bir tekstil biçiminden Sönmez, Kezban ve İlay Uysal. “Art Deco Stilinin Tekstil Tasarımlarına Yansımaları”. ulakbilge, 42 (2019 Kasım): s. 825-841. doi: 10.7816/ulakbilge-07-42-06 839 söz edilememektedir. Art Deco tekstilleri ancak kuruluş dönemi, floral dönem, geometrik dönem, Barok ve Neoklasik dönemler olarak tarihsel bir zaman çerçevesinde adlandırılabilmiş ve sınıflandırılmıştır. Çalışma içerisinde Art Deco stiline ait 7 adet özgün döşemelik kumaş tasarımından oluşan bir koleksiyon hazırlanmıştır. Uygulama örneklerini oluşturan özgün tekstil tasarımlarının konseptini çoğunlukla Art Deco mimarisinde kullanılan motifler oluşturmaktadır. Bununla birlikte ilk tasarımda Art Deco stiline özgü bir motif, diğer tasarımlarda ise bu döneme ait mimari yapıların dış cephelerinde yer alan geometrik motiflerden yola çıkılarak tasarımlar ortaya konulmuştur. Art Deco yapılarında sıklıkla kullanılan güneş ışınları, yelpaze, basamaklı piramit, doğrusal ve geometrik formlar gibi motiflere desen tasarımlarında yer verilmiştir. Uygulama sürecinin sonunda belirli sonuçlara ulaşılmıştır: Koleksiyon temasını “Art Deco Mimarisinde Kullanılan Motifler” oluşturmaktadır. Art Deco mimari yapıların çokluğu ve mimari yapıların dış cephelerindeki motiflerin zenginliği koleksiyon oluşturma sürecinde katkılar sağlamıştır. Art Deco mimari yapılarında çoğunlukla geometrik formların kullanıldığı tespit edilmiş ve hazırlanan tasarımların tamamında bu motiflerden faydalanılmıştır. Art Deco stilinin bünyesinde barındırdığı simetri özelliğinin kompozisyonu kurma açısından kolaylık sağladığı, ancak görsel etki açısından monoton bir etki bırakabildiği düşünülmektedir. Koleksiyondaki tasarımlar ağırlıklı olarak ABD’nin Miami şehrinde yer alan Art Deco yapılarından esinlenilerek hazırlanmıştır. Bu yapıların dış cephelerinde kullanılan ve en çok tercih edilen renkler olan pembe, krem rengi, açık mavi, açık yeşil gibi pastel tonlar kompozisyonların renklendirme sürecinde kullanılmıştır. Araştırma sonucunda Art Deco stili kullanılarak ortaya çıkarılan tekstil tasarımlarına bakıldığında, bu stilin içinde barındırdığı güzellik ve lüks anlayışı ile birlikte, diğer tasarım alanlarında olduğu gibi tekstil alanında da geçmişten günümüze tasarımcılara ilham kaynağı olmaya devam edeceği anlaşılmıştır. Kaynaklar Akbostancı, İ. “20. ve 21. Yüzyıllarda Tekstil Baskı Tasarımı ve Üretiminin Değişen Tanımı”. Sanat ve Tasarım Dergisi 5 (2014): 31-41. Akdemir, N. Sanat ve Tasarım Bağlamında Tekstil Yüzeylerinde Bipolar Bozukluğun İfadesi. Yayınlanmamış sanatta yeterlik tezi. Ankara: Gazi Üniversitesi, 2016. Alpat, F. N. ve Papila, A. “Erte ve Tasarımlarının 20. Yüzyıl Kadın Modası ve Art Deco Akımının Ortaya Çıkışına Etkileri”. İdil Sanat ve Dil Dergisi 8, 57 (2019): 563. Bridge, N. Mimarlık 101 Mimari Üsluplar, Önemli Yapılar ve Ünlü Mimarlar Hakkında Bilmeniz Gereken Her Şey. İstanbul: Say Yayınları, 2017. Çevik, M. Tarihsel Gelişim Süreci İçinde Ballets Russes’ın Sahne Tasarımına Yansıması. Yayınlanmamış sanatta yeterlik tezi. İzmir: Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi, 2013. Dowdy, S. A. The Arts Of Early Twentieth Century Dining Rooms: Arts and Crafts, Art Nouveau, and Art Deco. Athens: The University of Georgia, 2005. Erzen, J. N. “Art Deco: Yerel Sembolizmden Uluslararası Üsluba. Arredamento”. Mimarlık Tasarım Kültürü Dergisi, (2005): 59-62. Gümüşeli, N. Cihangir Mahallesi ve Art Deco. Yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi. İstanbul: İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi, 2016. Gürcüm, B. H. Tekstil Malzeme Bilgisi. İstanbul: Kerasus, 2013. Kayaalp, A. Asrileşen İstanbul: 1923-1940 Yılları Arasında İstanbul’da Güzel Sanatlar ve Mimarlık Alanında Art Deco. Yayınlanmamış sanatta yeterlik tezi. İstanbul: Mimar Sinan Güzel Sanatlar Üniversitesi, 2018. Kaymaz, Ü. Art Deco Stilinin Desen Özellikleri ve Baskılı Tekstillere Etkisi. Yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi. İzmir: Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi, 2005. Ozan, M. Bauhaus Okulu ve Erken Cumhuriyet Dönemi Mimarisi-İç Mimarisine Etkileri. Yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi. İstanbul: Yıldız Teknik Üniversitesi, 2009. Sönmez, Kezban ve İlay Uysal. “Art Deco Stilinin Tekstil Tasarımlarına Yansımaları”. ulakbilge, 42 (2019 Kasım): s. 825-841. doi: 10.7816/ulakbilge-07-42-06 840 Öpöz, N. 20. Yüzyıldan Günümüze Tekstil Yüzey Tasarımının Giyim Tasarımına Yansımaları. Yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi. İstanbul: Marmara Üniversitesi, 2018. Seventekin, N. Kimyasal Lifler. İzmir: 2015. Stewart, M. L. Dressing Modern Frenchwomen: Marketing Haute Couture, Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008. Tuna, A. “Bahar Ayini: Diaghilev’in Bale Tarihindeki Epik Macerası”. Sahne ve Müzik Eğitim-Araştırma Dergisi 5 (2017): 16-31. Uygur, Ayşe ve Yüksel, Dilek. Tekstil Baskı Stilleri. İstanbul: Bayko Matbaa ve Yayıncılık Hizmetleri San. Tic. Ltd. Şti., 2013. Yıldırım, L. “Sanat- Zanaat Buluşması ve WienerWerkstätte Tekstilleri”. Sanat ve Tasarım Dergisi, 1 ,8 (2011): 105-122. Yurt, D. Ev Tekstilinde Renk Olgusu. Yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi. İzmir: Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi, 2006. Yusufoğlu, T. Art Deco Akımı Bağlamında Kadın Giyimi. Yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi. İstanbul: Haliç Üniversitesi, 2014. Elektronik Kaynaklar Duran, V. (2014). Miami: The Best Of Art Deco Architecture. Virginia Duran içinden. Erişim adresi: https://virginia-duran.com/2014/03/20/miami-the-best-of-art-deco-architecture/ Erişim tarihi: 21.07.2019 Carlton. (t.y.). Technology Base içinden. Erişim adresi: http://www.technologybase.com/beachdeco/knavNextLevel.aspx?objID=Carlton Erişim tarihi: 23.07.2019 Cohen, T. (2014). Miami Icons: The Colony Hotel, The Most Famous Art Deco Building On Ocean Drive. Miami New Times içinden. Erişim adresi: https://www.miaminewtimes.com/arts/miami-icons-the-colony-hotel-the-most-famous-art-deco-building-on- ocean-drive-6487550 Erişim tarihi: 21.07.2019 Greystone Hotel. (t.y.). Ruskin Arc içinden. Erişim adresi: https://www.ruskinarc.com/mdpl/Museum/4842-1920%20Collins%20Ave/view Erişim tarihi: 24.07.2019 Modernism. (t.y.). Travel, Tourism, & Urban Growth In Greater Miami Miami Timeline: Themes içinden. Erişim adresi: http://scholar.library.miami.edu/miamidigital/timelineAll.php?IDcategory=23 Erişim tarihi: 25.07.2019 South Pointe Towers. (t.y.). Miami Condo İnvestments içinden. Erişim adresi: https://www.miamicondoinvestments.com/south-pointe-towers Erişim tarihi: 21.07.2019 Sönmez, Kezban ve İlay Uysal. “Art Deco Stilinin Tekstil Tasarımlarına Yansımaları”. ulakbilge, 42 (2019 Kasım): s. 825-841. doi: 10.7816/ulakbilge-07-42-06 841 ART DECO STYLE REFLECTIONS ON TEXTILE DESIGNS Kezban SÖNMEZ İlay UYSAL Abstract The Art Deco style, which emerged in the 1920s and was influential in Europe and America until the mid-1940s, is a style that spread throughout the world, especially between the First and Second World War. It was named in 1925 from the Exposition Internationale des Arts de France Modern Industriels (International Exhibition of Decorative and Industrial Arts) in France. The Art Deco style bears traces from many art movements, especially Art Nouveau. This style is also inspired by the cultures of Ancient Egypt, Aztec and Mexico; architecture, interior design, furniture, fine arts, textiles and fashion.In this study, the subject of which was determined as Dec Reflections of Art Deco Style on Textile Designs, it was aimed to determine the characteristics of Art Deco textiles and to reveal their reflections on today's interior textile designs. The lack of design proposals for interior textiles in previous studies makes the issue important.Qualitative research method was used in the study. For the conceptual framework, literature was searched on the subject, and in the following process, the most commonly used motifs in the Art Deco art movement and the architectural structures located in Miami, USA were designed and seven upholstery fabric designs were made and these designs were also included in the study. Keywords: Art Deco, design, textile. 
work_jl3ufvuuwzacbac4s4k4slx7mi	----	REVIEWS 445 Brittsan’s monograph is therefore welcome, as it considers “the multifaceted yet converging histories of Manuel Lozada’s life, peasant rebellion, political boundaries, contraband trade, property disputes, and religion in order to disinter the story of how residents in Jalisco’s seventh canton engaged the national political process on their own terms” (12). This is an altogether challenging task. Lozada himself was not formally educated, and his recorded statements and those of his followers are few. And although Brittsan has mined archives in Guadalajara and Mexico City, along with a few other sources, to recreate the political culture of Lozada and his peasant supporters, they remain distant to the twenty-first century reader. Once a hacienda worker, then an outlaw and bandit, by late 1855 Lozada had begun to assert a stronger and more politicized presence in his native region. He was as an opponent of Liberals and a champion of local interests, including, at times, those of Barron y Forbes (26–34). As the three-year civil war between Conservatives and Liberals broke out (La Reforma), Lozada identified with the conservative cause, even allying himself with French forces. Although he recognized the restoration of the Liberal republic in 1867, Brittsan contends that he continued to embody a political culture that was distinctively conservative, as ultimately expressed in his call for insurrection in January 1873 (the Plan Libertador). Despite popular support for Lozada’s uprising, Lerdo de Tejada’s liberal government quickly defeated the rebel, and in July 1873 he was executed. This “popular conservatism” of Lozada merits further attention. For Brittsan, it is constituted by “defense of the Catholic Church, the integrity of communal landholdings, and local political autonomy” (4). Acknowledging that this ideology was “rarely articulated,” Brittsan is able nonetheless to describe its implementation. In this connection, he traces Lozada’s advocacy for a greater Church presence in his home territory through his occasional statements of religious faith. Land conflicts between indigenous communities and haciendas, along with Lozada’s varying position towards them, are discussed at length, too. This book is thus a full account of one important, regional aspect of Mexico’s nineteenth-century politics (both formal and informal), although there is room for further research. That research might help us to better comprehend the dynamics of the commercial interests and the legal processes surrounding land disputes, which Brittsan’s study references and which have been of significance for the trajectory of the country’s political and social conflicts, from independence through the 1910 revolution. WILLIAM SUAREZ-POTTSKenyon College Gambier, Ohio At the Crossroads: Diego Rivera and His Patrons at MoMA, Rockefeller Center, and the Palace of Fine Arts. By Catha Paquette. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2017. 130 photos. Pp. 342. $95.00 cloth; $29.95 paper. doi:10.1017/tam.2017.176 https://doi.org/10.1017/tam.2017.176 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1017/tam.2017.176&domain=pdf 446 REVIEWS Potential readers noting the title of this book might think that the world does not need yet another discussion of Diego Rivera and the mural proposed for Rockefeller Center. Has not everything about that incident already been said and written? Yet, as Paquette shows in this study, there are still more facts and insights to be explored. And those in turn lead to still more interesting ones yet to be examined. Thanks in part to Diego Rivera, but also to Jose´Clemente Orozco and others, Mexico enjoyed a vogue in the United States in the 1930s, as represented in Helen Delpar’s work, The Enormous Vogue of All Things Mexican (1995). Certainly that was true of the New York art scene, spearheaded by the newly founded Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) in New York City, largely a Rockefeller project. Its first three one-man shows featured Henri Matisse, followed by Diego Rivera and then Pablo Picasso. Rivera and Orozco got mural painting commissions in Detroit and Dartmouth as they became better known. Then came Rockefeller Center. Paquette situates the entire project in the history of the Great Depression, in the struggle between capitalism and communism, in the streets and in the plans of the Rockefellers, and in the role Rockefeller Center was to play in all. Central to this drama is the figure of John D. Rockefeller Jr., who was the ultimate “decider” for the center and the Man at the Crossroads mural. Although Rivera was known to be a Communist, his agent in New York, Frances Flynn Payne, a noted gallery owner herself, presented the artist as a painter first and a devotee of politics secondarily. After all, was not he completing a mural for Henry Ford in Detroit? Conversely, Rockefeller’s wife Abby bought the sketchbook of May Day marches that Rivera had produced in the Soviet Union. As it happened, Rivera had been kicked out of the Mexican Communist Party for his sympathy with Leon Trotsky, leading his patrons to think he would shed his Marxist beliefs. Rivera, for his part, was intent on seeing just how far artistic expression could go. As is well known, Rivera insisted on putting a portrait of Lenin in the mural to represent Communism while denigrating the rich and powerful under capitalism as idle and degenerate. Rockefeller Jr. decided that such a display, which would include syphilis organisms near his painted face, was not suitable for a shrine of capitalism like Rockefeller Center. While Abby and his son Nelson tried to get the mural moved to MoMA, the work of art was destroyed. The New York left used that obliteration to mobilize their followers in New York. Rivera soon repainted the mural on a smaller scale at the Palacio de Bellas Artes in Mexico City. Paquette does an excellent job in discussing the Mexico City phase of the mural and its rebirth, particularly on the ways in which the aims of the mural fit with those of Mexican politicians at the time. Yet, she does not go much farther in looking at the life and work of this important artist. For example, she does not look at how the conflictive situation in New York affected Rivera’s art and how it came to be that he would never again paint a major mural for a capitalist in the United States. We may never know if and how marriage to another Communist artist, Frida Kahlo, affected his work, and whether she pulled him even further toward the political left. REVIEWS 447 The book itself is beautiful, filled with stunning plates in color and black-and-white. However, it is oversized, and wherever there are no works of art depicted, the text can be rather slow going. Yet, Paquette has given us a significant study of cultural relations between the United States and Mexico in the 1930s. BARBARA A. TENENBAUMUS Library of Congress Washington, DC Street Democracy: Vendors, Violence, and Public Space in Late Twentieth-Century Mexico. By Sandra C. Mendiola García. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2017. Pp. 294. $30.00 cloth. doi:10.1017/tam.2017.177 Clashes between popular classes and the forces of government who represented upper classes and business interests on the streets of Puebla, from the 1960s to the present day, afford us a new perspective on the Mexican Revolutionary project. Mendiola García explores the historical experience of the street vendors as they resisted corrupt politicians, vicious police, and inexorable neoliberal transformations. In this way, she represents the ways that informal economic sectors resisted state repression. Vendors formed independent unions, like the Popular Union of Street Vendors (UPVA), they built grassroots movements, and they petitioned and sued and organized. They also suffered. Inspired by international ideas and Maoist thought, they seized public spaces in demonstrations, theater, and even hijackings. Officials at street, city, state, and federal levels responded with confiscations, arrests, violence, and torture. Mendiola García aptly demonstrates the numerous methods by which the reactionary government attempted to “cleanse” the streets of Puebla. Street Democracy asserts that the role of vendors in providing services and living spaces to the poorest classes collided with the interests of the PRI and neoliberal capital, and that the vendors did not break. To chronicle the movement, Mendiola García has drawn extensively on city archives of petitions and complaints, lawsuits and newspapers, inter- views with vendors, and the files of the secret police (DFS), whose members infiltrated the UPVA. These she complements with a broad secondary literature that situates the conflict within the realm of the Dirty War, the Cold War, and the neoliberal turn. Mendiola García’s interviews with street vendors and student organizers offer rare insights into the popular classes as politically engaged agents quite aware of the larger context in which they operate. Her use of the secret police files, increasingly difficult to access in Mexico, demonstrates the violence of the state. She begins with a solid historical overview and goes on to focus on vendors’ interactions with student groups, the politics of the union, repression by the government, the neoliberal turn of 1986, and, finally, the impact of global capital as it erased old markets. Throughout, she persuasively shows the resilience and adaptability of the street vendors and their importance as actors in Mexican political spheres. https://doi.org/10.1017/tam.2017.177 Hiram Bingham Clarence H. Haring Leo Rowe, Isaiah Bowman, and Edward Ross 
work_jpml57ohnbc2ldl5x5v5voxtre	----	현대패션의 로맨틱 이미지에 관한 연구 Print ISSN 1229-6880 Journal of the Korean Society of Costume Online ISSN 2287-7827 Vol. 67, No. 1 (January 2017) pp. 130-146 http://dx.doi.org/10.7233/jksc.2017.67.1.130 미장아빔으로 배치된 영화 속 의상코드 분석 -Lucien Dällenbach의 이론과 영화 <Midnight in Paris>를 중심으로- 김 향 자 부산대학교 노인생활환경연구소 전임연구원 / 의류학과 강사 Costume�Code� Analysis�Placed�Mise-en-abyme� in� the� Movie -� Focused� on� the� Lucien� Dällenbach’s� theory� and� the� film� <Midnight� in� Paris>- Hyangja,� Kim Researcher, Research Institute of Ecology for Elderly, college of Human Ecology, Pusan National University/Instructor, Clothing & textiles (received date: 2016. 10. 31, revised date: 2016. 12. 6, accepted date: 2017. 1. 16) ABSTRACT1) This study focuses on the Mise-en-abyme theories of Lucien Dällenbach, and presents research methodology to analyze the modern cinema costume in a new view. Inherent aesthetic values of the costume code shown in the film are as follows. First, esthetics value shown is the analogic code through the maximization of factual realism by directing target. Mise-en-abyme placed in this film <Midnight in Paris> plays the role of costume codes, and highlights the subject by pre- senting specifically targeted realistic icons to maximize the realism of the movie. Second, Mise-en-abyme is deployed to the explicit text through costumes code is placed as Displaced code arrangements. In other words, each of the characters is a signifier. Symbolizing a historical era is the device that represents a self-reflective signifier. Third, paradoxically reflected by the over- lapped expansion of virtual reality and the self-referential characteristics and are subject to reflect the thinking of the author. Costumes code placed in Mise-en-abyme is expressed in costumes positioned to maximize the realism in the film as described above, and implies narratives and self-reflective mediating tools that symbolism can be seen that the paradoxical metaphor for the reality and the future. In addition, through the metaphor of visual narrative is allegorical repre- sentation Mise-en-abyme with ambiguity, and it is a concrete text that can be realized in a variety of creative storytelling methods and image delivery methods of modern fashion. This study con- firmed that this costumes to take the point of view of emotional Mise-en-scène in the process of completing the film's themes and cinematic devices by identifying the roles and aesthetic value of code costumes as the core subjects that make up the narrative of the film. Key words: ambiguous narrative(다의적 내러티브), costume code(복식 코드), Midnight in Paris(미드나잇 인 파리), Mise-en-abyme(미장아빔), overlapped virtual(중첩된 가상), paradoxical reflects(역설적 반영), phantom devices(환영적 장치), photorealistic icons(사실적 아이콘) Corresponding author: Hyangja, Kim, e-mail; aesthetics88@naver.com 미장아빔으로 배치된 영화 속 의상코드 분석  - 131 - Ⅰ. 서론 현대 영화에 등장하는 의상은 작품을 직접 대 상하는 표현성과 영화에 내재된 함축적 의미와 가 치를 전달하는 다의성을 지닌다. 영화 속 의상의 표상은 시대상을 읽고 인물의 개성과 역할을 지시 하는 아이콘이며 감독의 의도와 역량이 발휘되는 예술 형식적 기교의 한 방법으로 이해되고 있다. 이에 따라 영화의상을 주제로 한 디자인 미학분야 의 연구도 시각적 조형성 중심의 의상 분석이 주 류를 이룬다. 그러나 영화는 시각적 종합예술이며 영화에 표현된 의상도 감독의 내러티브를 표현하 는 영화적 장치로서 이해되어야 심연의 폭과 깊이 를 파악할 수 있을 것으로 여겨진다. 문장 속의 문장을 의미하는 미장아빔((mise en abyme)은 앙드레 지드(André Gide, 1869-1951) 의 일기에서 사용한 용어를 기초로 Lucien Dällen- bach가 구체적인 논의를 전개한 용어이다. 그는 미장아빔에 대해 “픽션을 다루는 문화에 내재된 의미를 파악하는 데 탁월한 기준이 된다”고 하였 다(Lucien, D, 1989). 또한 미장아빔은 ‘심연’, ‘무 한 반복’의 의미를 지닌 미장아빔의 특성은 예술 의 자기반영성을 드러내는 기법으로 이해되고 있 으며, 영화에서는 모방적 재현적 서사방법을 탈피 한 새로운 형식의 내러티브 표현방식으로 적용되 고 있다. 이는 ‘다른 방식으로 말하기’의 알레고리 (Allegory)의미와 유사하며(Kim, 2013) 미장아빔 의 정의인 문장 속의 문장, 액자식 구성은 예술의 표현특성을 묘사한 것으로 작품의 기법이나 표현 을 해석하는 방법론이기도 하다. 그러므로 미장아 빔의 특성이 표현된 영화 속 영화의 은유 장치에 서 의상코드를 분석하는 연구방법에 새로운 시각 으로 접근할 수 있을 것으로 사료된다. 미장아빔에 대한 연구는 영화 텍스트(Mun, 2015a; Mun, 2015b)와 문학작품(Tak & Kang, 2013), 예 술작품(Shin, 2002; Kim, 2014)에서 자기반영성을 다룬 연구 등이 있다. 이 연구들은 작품 속의 또 하나의 작품을 내러티브 중심으로 분석하였으며 미장아빔으로 배치된 작품들이 상호텍스트성과 자 기 반영의식이 표현된 포스트모던 예술작품의 탈 장르성과 재현의 성격을 포괄한다고 정리하였다. 연구대상으로 선정한 우디앨런(Woody Allen) 감독의 <Midnight in Paris, 2011>는 미장아빔 특 성이 배치된 전형적인 멜로/ 코미디 장르영화이며 제 84회 아카데미 시상식에서 각본상을 수상하였 고 감독상, 작품상, 미술상에 노미네이트된 작품이 다. 소설가 길과 약혼녀 이네트의 파리여행에서 시공간을 넘나드는 예술가들과 조우하는 줄거리로 우디 앨런 감독의 세련된 영화감성이 미장 아빔의 미장센으로 표현된 영화이다. 미장아빔의 배치는 2011년 ‘현재’와 1920년대/ 벨 에포크 시대인 ‘꿈’ 이 반복되며 각 시대의 예술가들이 주인공의 낭만 적 사고를 현실적으로 전환시키는 역할을 한다. 연구 내용은 루시엔 댈랜바흐(Lucien Dällenbach, 1989)의 미장아빔 이론에 근거하여 표현특성을 고 찰하였고 영화 속 의상코드를 분석하여 미장아빔 이 배치된 영화에 내재된 의상기호의 미적 가치를 해석하였다. 본 연구를 통해 영화에 배치된 미장 아빔의 영화적 장치가 의상코드를 단순히 영화 아 이콘인 시각적 표상도구로 머물지 않고 현대 영화 를 해석하고 이해하는 직접적인 연구 분석틀로 전 개됨으로써 현대 패션의 미적 가치를 재생산하는 데 학술적 기여를 하고자 한다. 또한 대중성 상업 성 예술성을 지닌 영화를 이해하고 분석하는 미학 적 관점을 확장하고 의상코드의 시각기호를 통해 작품을 감상 및 논의하는 사회문화적 가치에 일정 부분 기여할 수 있을 것으로 판단된다. Ⅱ. 이론적 배경 1. 미장아빔(Mise-en-abyme)의 개념 미장아빔(Mise en abyme, Mise en abîme)에서 ‘abyme’은 ‘축소된 가문의 문장’을 지칭하는 것으 로 방패의 형상이 방패의 중심부에 존재함을 뜻한 服飾 第67卷 1號  - 132 - 다. 즉, ‘문장(Blason) 속의 문장(Blason)’, ‘이야기 속의 이야기’이미지로 작품자체 내면에서 같은 의 미, 같은 주제를 강조하면서 표현의 유사성에 주 목한다. Shin(2004)에 의하면 미장아빔은 같은 의 미를 지닌 기의와 유사한 기표이므로 현실과 허구 의 경계를 명확하지 않게 하는 불확실성에 기초함 을 강조한다. 이 용어는 A. Gide(1928)가 본격적 으로 소설에 도입하였고 이후 누보로망(Nouveau Roman)이론가인 리카르도(J. Ricardo)에 의해 체 계화된 서술기법이다. 세익스피어 작품에서는 반 영현상과 이중행위에 대한 해석과 비평을 중심으 로 표현되었으며, 1950년대 이후 영화, 예술분야 등에서 문학적 표현의 일환으로 형상과의 유사성 이 반복되는 현상에 관심을 갖게 되었다. 미장아빔에 대한 가장 포괄적이면서 모든 논의 의 출발점이 되는 Lucien, D.의 ‘텍스트 속의 거울’ 은 앙드레 지드의 1893년 일기 구절을 시초로 논 의를 전개하였다(Kim, 2014). 지드는 소설 속의 소설을 비교하는데 방패 중앙에 방패가 있고 그 방패 중앙에 또 방패가 있는 것과 같이 심연의 깊 이를 가진 반복을 ‘미장아빔’이라고 정의한다. 그는 이를 은유의 은유로 표현하며 부분이 전체를 그대 로 반영한다고 하였다. 그러나 지드의 미장아빔 정 의와 달리 Lucien, D.(1989)는 작은 방패가 큰 방 패를 반드시 반영하지 않기 때문에 거울 속의 이 미지는 별개의 이야기를 은유한다고 정의한다. 그 가 문학 장치나 분류시스템의 일부로 표현한 미장 아빔은 ‘반복(repeated), 단순(simple)하거나 역설 적 복제(paradoxical duplication)에 의해 전체 내 러티브를 반영하는 모든 내적인 거울’이라고 정의 하였다. 그는 미장아빔을 어떤 텍스트 속에 그것의 거울 또는 축소판으로 기능하는 하나 또는 여러 개의 복제물(doubling)이라 정의하고 텍스트는 수 신자, 수용자의 관점에서 포착되는 반영적 텍스트 나 자기 반성적 텍스트로 간주하였다(Kim, 2014). Mun(2015b)은 영화 속의 미장아빔에 대해 상호 텍스트성과 자기반영성에 대한 반성적 관점으로 분 류하였으며 이를 ‘영화적 미장아빔’으로 정의한다. 영화 속에 명시적인 텍스트가 배치됨으로써 해석의 단서가 되는 작품에서 암시적 텍스트가 중층적으로 배치되고 함축적인 의미를 내장하는 텍스트까지 스 펙트럼이 다양하다고 하였다. 또한 Shin(2004)은 시각예술에서 표현된 미장아빔은 거울을 통해 화가 자신이 모습을 중복과 이중화, 차이와 반복을 활용 한 무한의 반영과 역설적 반영으로 특별한 현실을 창조하고 잠재성과 가능성을 가져온다고 하였다. 무한의 반영사례로 <아르놀피니의 결혼, 1434>에서 결혼 서약장면에 등장하는 거울 속 화가의 이미지 는 결혼의 증언과 자신의 존재를 반영하는 장치로 작동한다. 그리고 역설의 반영은 작가가 주제를 반 복하여 다루면서 내적세계와 외적세계를 같은 공간 내에 통합시켜 모호한 공간으로 만드는 모순의 반 영을 표현한다고 하였다. 또한, 미장아빔 기법의 대중적 시각적 영역에서 의 활용가치는 매우 폭넓고 다양하다. 작품 속 작 품인 액자식 연출은 패션디자이너 및 브랜드의 패 션영상 분야에서도 적극적으로 활용되고 있다. 특 히 패션 광고 영상의 다층적 중의적 표현방식은 디자인 컨셉과 마케팅 전략을 전개하는 데 중요한 구성요소일 뿐 아니라 현대패션의 스토리텔링을 전달하는 새롭고 낯선 기법으로 표현된다. 그 예 로 세계적인 사진작가인 닉 나이트(Nick Knight, 1958-)의 시공간을 넘나드는 패션 필름 영상에서 도 이런 기법을 접할 수 있다. 가상공간의 파격적 인 연출과 경계를 해체하는 차별화되고 독특한 시 각효과는 패션 소비자를 설득하고 참여와 관심을 적극적으로 이끌어 낼 수 있는 직접적이고 효과적 인 기법이기도 하다(Kim & Kim, 2015b). 이처럼 미장아빔은 현대 패션의 문화적 영향력을 강화하 는 주요 기법이자 커뮤니케이션 도구로 자리매김 할 것으로 예측되며 더욱 다양한 전개방식을 통해 패션산업과 영화의상의 역할을 증대시킬 것으로 사료된다. 미장아빔으로 배치된 영화 속 의상코드 분석  - 133 - 2. 미장아빔의 구조 미장아빔 구조는 Fictional(허구의, 소설의)/ Enunciative(발음상의)/ Textual(원문의)/ Meta- textual(자기반영적인)/ Transcendental(초월적인) 으로 이루어지며, 각각의 패턴은 α/a, α/b, α/ c, α/d, α/e으로 구성된다. 이 구조는 단순 복제/ 무 한 복제/ 역설적 복제의 세 가지 타입으로 배치되 며, 유사/ 동일 또는 모방/ 독자성(정체성)의 내 재적 형식을 가감하면서 전체구조를 완성하는 포 맷이다(Lucien, D., 1989). 즉, 방패(기본 플롯 또 는 시퀀스)를 의미하는 미장아빔과 그 플롯 또는 시퀀스를 다음 플롯에서 반영(또는 비유)하는 정 도에 따라 단순복제/ 무한복제/ 역설적 복제로 나 뉘는데, 이에 따라 기본적인 구조가 유사한 작품 (Resemblance), 같은 작품(Mimetism) 또는 독자 성을 지닌 작품 그 자체 (Identity)를 반영하는 정 도가 드러나게 된다. 이를 영화와 영상 작품에서 ‘단순복제’와 ‘무한 복제’는 플롯이나 시퀀스가 ‘동일(Mimetism)’하거 나 ‘유사(Resemble)’하게 전개되어 기본 스토리를 강화하는 방식을 취한다면, ‘역설적 복제’는 플롯 의 형식이나 내용을 다양한 스토리텔링으로 수정, 변형함으로써 새로운 플롯, 시퀀스를 제시하는 ‘독 자성(Identity)’을 갖게 된다. 이는 감독이나 작가 의 의도가 드러나는 지점이며 영화나 영상의 주제 를 명시하는 텍스트로 작용한다. 또한 단순 복제 와 무한 복제가 다소 모호한 방식으로 주제를 제 시하는 반면, 역설적 복제는 원문을 아이러니한 표현방식으로 복제하여 재차 표현함으로써 주제를 명확히 제시하는 명시적 텍스트로 작동한다. 이처럼 미장아빔은 이야기 속 이야기를 통해 대상 텍스트와 작가 자신을 지시하거나 은유하는 장치로 활용되며 스토리에 녹아든 상황적 맥락관 계를 고려하여 작품에 내재된 가치를 시각화하는 도구로 정의 할 수 있다. 3. 영화 내러티브에서 의상의 역할 영화의상은 캐릭터를 창조하거나 완성하고 영 화의 이미지를 구성하며 내러티브를 읽어주는 비 유와 암시, 복선을 제공하는 시각적 조형물이다. 영화에서 착용한 인물들의 의상은 시각적 효과 뿐 아니라 캐릭터를 표현하는 심리적, 사회문화적, 공 감각적, 상징적, 감정적, 생리적 변화를 불러일으 키는 영화적 장치로 작용한다. 즉, 영화 속 공간 및 장치류(조명, 분장, 인테리어, 건축..), 주변인물 (캐릭터), 주제의식 등과 조화를 이루어 미장센을 구성하며 캐릭터의 개성을 독특한 시각적 효과로 연출하는 것이 의상의 역할이다. 패션분야 관점에서 영화의상은 시각예술로서 캐릭터를 창조하고 패션문화를 선도하는 매중문화 매체이며 강력한 전달효과를 갖고 있다고 정의한 다(Kim, 2013). 한편 대중문화로서 커뮤니케이션 미디어인 영화에서 의상을 기호학적 관점으로 본 Bae(2012)는 영화 속 의상의 상이한 의미체계는 특히 영화를 구성하는 다른 요소들과의 상관관계 에서 매우 복잡한 아이캐처(eye-catcher)로서의 역할을 한다는 점에서 이해할 수 있다고 하였다. 또한 영화에서의 의상은 패션이 아닌 기호라는 관 점으로 의미작용과 커뮤니케이션 과정으로 보아야 하며 이를 통해 내러티브 전개와 캐릭터 창조에 고유의 의미체계를 분석해야 한다고 주장한다. 감 독이 영화적 환상과 서사적 사실주의를 지원하기 위해 영화의상에 중요성을 부여하므로 매우 우수 한 기호작용을 제시하고 있음을 피력한다. Park & Lee(2002)는 영화의상의 분석을 통해 심리적 상징적 내재적 이미지로서의 의상코드를 상세히 밝히고 있으며, 영화의상의 시각적 효과에서 각 캐릭터의 내러티브를 대변하고 암시적 의미를 드 러냄으로써 작품의 완성도를 높이는 점에 대해 강 조하였다. 이처럼 영화의상은 영화의 내러티브 전개와 캐 릭터 창출을 위한 중요한 요소이고 텍스트 전개와 주제의식을 드러내는 기호장치이며 영화와 상호작 服飾 第67卷 1號  - 134 - 용하는 관객이 해독해야 할 문화코드로서 중요한 가치를 지닌다. 4. 영화 속 미장아빔 배치 영화 <Midnight in Paris>에서 미장아빔의 배치 는 2011년 ‘현재’와 1920년대/ 벨 에포크 시대인 ‘꿈’이 반복되며 각 시대의 예술가들이 주인공의 낭만적 사고를 현실적으로 전환시키는 역할을 한 다(Table 1). 현재 1 (2010년) - 꿈 1 (1920년대) - 현재 2 - 꿈 2 (1920년대) - 현재 3 - 꿈 3 (1920년대) - 현재 4 - 꿈 4 (1920년대) - 현재 5 - 꿈 5 (1920 년대) - 꿈속의 꿈 (1890년대) - 현재 6- 꿈 6 (중세)으로 총 6회씩 반복 교차하여 시간과 공간 의 3차원 이동 장면으로 구성된다. ‘현재’에서 2010년 파리의 밤거리를 산책하던 주인공 길 펜더 는 밤 12시에 등장한 클래식 푸조를 타고(꿈으로 이동) 1920년대 카페에 도착하여 피츠제럴드(Fiz- gerald) 부부와 피카소(Pablo Picasso), 거트루트 스타인(Gertrud stein), 헤밍웨이(Ernest Heming- way)와 소설에 대한 조언과 사랑, 예술작품에 대 한 대화를 하게 된다. 꿈 1- 꿈 5는 1920년대 배 경이며, 꿈 속의 꿈 장면은 1890년대 벨 에포크 시대의 맥심(Maxim) 레스토랑이 배경이다. 꿈 4 와 꿈 5 에서는 ‘꿈속의 꿈’이 전개되며 1920년대의 아드리아나와 재회한 장소는 초현실주 의 화가의 결혼식이다. 초현실주의 작품들이 즐비 한 배경은 꿈속의 꿈으로 이동하기 위한 영화적 장치로 볼 수 있다. 즉, 피카소로 대표되는 큐비즘 시대인 20세기 초에서 툴루즈 로트렉의 인상주의 시대인 19세기 말경으로 시간여행을 암시하는 장 치이며 아드리아나와 산책을 하다가 마차를 타고 시간 이동한다. 1920년대 예술가들이 황금시기로 여기던 벨 에포크(1870년-1914년, Bell époque) 시 대를 방문한 아드리아나가 그곳에 안주하려 하자 길은 현실(2010년)의 자신 역시 아드리아나처럼 상상 속의 황금시대를 동경했음을 깨닫고 자신의 현재 도피적 성향을 인정하게 된다. 1) 단순 복제(Simple Duplicated) Lucien, D.(1989)는 반복을 ‘유사성 속에 연결 되어 있는 일련의 중복’으로 정의한다. 또한 미장 아빔은 ‘novel of the novel’뿐 아니라 ‘novel in the novel’을 지시하며 소설가가 의도하는 내재적 의미를 반복적으로 묘사한다고 주장한다. <Mid- night in Paris>는 전형적으로 미장아빔이 배치된 영화이다. 현재– 꿈 의 규칙적이고 동일한 시공 간의 반복으로 ‘현재’와 과거, 과거 속의 과거에 존재하는 시공간의 연속성이 현재의 인과 관계 및 일상성을 강조하는 역할을 한다. 현재와 꿈이 인 셉션되어 이야기 속의 이야기가 전개되는데 주인 공(길 펜더)이 파리의 밤거리를 산책하다가 시간 이동을 하는 장면은 ‘꿈’에 해당되며 꿈속에서 또 다른 시간이동을 하는 꿈속의 꿈이 전개되어 5중 의 미장아빔 장치로 연결된다. 영화에서 단순 복제는 도입단계인 꿈 6 과 꿈 7 로 이동하는 시퀀스가 해당된다. 꿈 6은 영화의 전체적인 스토리 맥락에 따라 전개되는 결론부인 반면, 꿈 7은 약혼자 부친이 주인공 길의 행적을 추적하도록 의뢰한 사설탐정이 시공간을 이동한 해프닝(중세 베르사이유 궁전에서 경비병에게 쫓 기는 장면)으로 우디 알렌 감독의 유머를 표현한 장면이 또 하나의 단순 복제된 시퀀스이다. 감독 특유의 시니컬한 유머러스는 영화의 긴장감을 해 소하고 갈등을 우회하여 해결하려는 의지로 분석 된다. 2) 무한 복제(Intiative Duplicated) 무한 복제는 꿈이 반복 재현되는 것으로 꿈 1 부터 꿈 5로 복제되어 이어진다. 시대적 배경은 1920년대이며 주인공이 현재에서 꿈으로 이동하는 시퀀스마다 그 시대를 대표하는 문학 예술계 인사 들이 등장하여 자신의 예술관을 피력하고 주인공 에게 영감을 주는 역할을 한다. 또한 주인공이 현 미장아빔으로 배치된 영화 속 의상코드 분석  - 135 - 재와 꿈을 오가는 반복적 순차적 구성으로 시각화 하여 전체 내러티브를 한번 더 반복하는 영화적 환영 장치로 볼 수 있다. Kim(2014)은 예술작품 의 지시성에 대한 논의에서 “미장아빔은 어떤 작 <Table 1> The film ‘Midnight in Paris’ analysis placed Mise-en-abyme 服飾 第67卷 1號  - 136 - 품의 축소판(microcosm)으로 작용하여 어떤 작품 의 주제, 앞으로의 진행방향을 암시해주는 것으로 드러날 수도 있다. 이 때문에 어떤 텍스트를 그 바깥의 현실과 무관하게 자기 복제의 놀이를 계속 하는 독립된 텍스트의 놀이터로 만들 수도 있 다.(p.347)” 고 하여 미장아빔의 자기복제의 도구 적 성격을 언급하였다. 3) 역설적 복제(Paradoxical duplicated) Lucien, D.(1989)에 의하면 복제는 유사성에 의 해 반복되는 시퀀스를 포함한다. 영화에서 현재와 꿈을 반복하고 유사성을 지니는 1920년대의 시퀀 스들은 단순 복제와 무한 복제를 반복하며, 꿈 5 에서 ‘꿈속의 꿈’으로 이동한 1890년대는 과거 황 금시대를 그리워하는 1920년대 예술가들의 과거회 귀를 역설적으로 은유하는 장치로 작동한다. 즉, 1920년대인 꿈이 시퀀스를 단순 복제(유사)하는 동시에 역설적 복제를 통해 정체성을 지니며 독자 적인 작가의 주제의식을 드러내는 플롯으로 전개 된다. 현학적인 인물인 폴은 길 펜더가 1920년대 를 황금시대로 표현한 것에 대해 ‘과거회귀는 현 실도피자의 로맨틱한 상상’이라고 표현하며 길 펜 더는 이에 거부감을 드러낸다. 그러나 길 펜더는 1920년대 인물인 아드리아나가 1890년대 벨 에포 크 시대에 머무르려는 의지에 폴이 한 말을 되새 기며 ‘현실은 상상 속의 황금시대를 꿈꾼다’는 대 사로 자신의 과거회귀가 현실 도피적이었음을 인 정한다. 즉, 은유 속의 은유 장치인 역설적 복제는 꿈속의 꿈을 통해 작가의 사상을 소환하는 ‘독자 성을 갖는 주도적 역할’을 하고 있다. Ⅲ. 미장아빔이 배치된 영화 속 의상의 조형적 특성 영화에 등장하는 ‘꿈’과 ‘꿈속의 꿈’ 장면은 패 션문화사적 가치를 지니는 1920년대와 1890년대 벨 에포크 시대이다. 두 시기 모두 문화예술사적 으로 전성기이며 풍요롭고 화려한 당시의 패션문 화가 표현된다. 본 절에서는 영화 속 미장아빔 배 치순서에 따라 주요 등장인물을 중심으로 의상코 드를 분석하였으며 <Table 2>에서 미장아빔 배치 순으로 정리하였다. 1. ‘현재’의 의상코드(Costume code in ‘Present’) 2010년 파리가 배경인 ‘현재’의 주요 등장인물 은 주인공(길 펜더), 약혼녀(이네즈), 지인들(친구 커플, 장인 장모), 큐레이터, 골동품 점원 등이다. 약혼자인 이네즈는 쇼핑과 미술관, 베르사이유 궁 전 관람 장면인 <Fig. 1>, <Fig. 14>에서 흰색 면 원피스, <Fig. 2>에서 연한 하늘색 니트와 청바지 의 내추럴한 아메리칸 캐주얼 스타일을 착용한다. <Fig. 3>, <Fig. 15>의 파티장면에서 슬립형의 짙 은 회색이나 검정색 칵테일 드레스에 벨트를 한 도회적 스타일을 연출하여 현실적인 미국여성으로 표현되었다. 소설가인 길 펜더는 내추럴한 캐주얼로 전개된 다. <Fig. 1>, <Fig. 2>, <Fig. 25>과 같이 주로 면 소재의 셔츠(흰색, 베이지색, 연한 자주색)나 <Fig. 20>의 체크무늬 셔츠와 기본형 팬츠(검정색, 연한 베이지색)를 착용하며, <Fig. 3>의 와인 파티 장면에서는 흰색 셔츠와 검정팬츠에 클래식한 글 렌 체크 재킷을 착용한다. <Fig. 14>에서 지인인 폴은 현학적인 사고를 하 는 소르본 대학교수로 어깨패드가 들어간 재킷과 유색셔츠를 착용하여 유행 의상을 적절히 착용할 줄 아는 세련된 지식인으로 등장한다. 주인공을 상상의 세계로 이끄는 영감이 되는 노스탤지어 샵 의 여점원 가브리엘은 <Fig. 13>에서 연한 핑크색 블라우스와 청바지 차림이며, 주인공 길과 만난 <Fig. 35>에서는 잔잔한 무늬의 원피스를 착용하 여 여성스러움을 드러내고 내추럴한 스타일로 자 유롭고 편안한 라이프 스타일을 지향하는 현대 여 성의 이미지로 전개된다. 그 외 주인공과 피카소 미장아빔으로 배치된 영화 속 의상코드 분석  - 137 - 의 뮤즈에 대해 논하는 큐레이터는 로뎅 박물관 장면에서 <Fig. 2>과 <Fig. 20>처럼 연한 색 재킷 과 흰색 블라우스, 청바지를 착용하여 현대적인 내추럴한 스타일로 착용하였다. 2. ‘꿈 1- 꿈 6’의 의상코드(Costume code in ’Dream 1- Dream 6 ‘) 주인공 길이 시간이동을 시작하는 꿈 1- 꿈 5 는 재즈와 아르데코 시대로 대표되는 1920년대 장 콕토의 파티장과 브릭탑 클럽이 배경으로 재즈와 가르손느 스타일의 오뜨 꾸뛰르 패션, 아방가르드 와 초현실주의 양식이 유행한 시기이다. 보브 헤 어스타일에 가르손느 드레스를 착용하고 찰스톤을 추는 플래퍼 걸(Flapper girl), 피츠제럴드 부부, 피카소, 거트루드 스타인, 헤밍웨이, 툴루즈 로트 렉(Henri de Toulous-Loutrec), 살바도르 달리 (Salvador Dali), 루이스 부뉴엘(Louis Bunuel), 만 레이(Man Ray), 고갱(Paul Gauguin), 드가 (Edgar Degas) 등 1920년대 문화예술의 대표 아 이콘이 ‘꿈’에 등장하여 영화 속 이야기에 사실적 리얼리즘을 극대화하였다. 꿈 1에서 길 펜더가 들어간 장소는 장 콕토의 파티장으로 작곡가 콜 포터(Cole Porter)가 연주 하는 Let's Do It (Let's Fall In Love)(Midnight in Paris, OST and Paris. 2015)을 배경으로 가르 손느 룩을 착용한 플래퍼 걸과 현대적 의상의 남 성들이 등장한다. <Fig. 4>에서 플래퍼를 소재로 소설을 발표한 젤다와 스콧 피츠제럴드 부부는 1920년대 대부분 의 금발에 유행한 마셜웨이브를 하고 있다. 위대 한 개츠비 원작가인 스콧 피츠제럴드(Scott Fits- gerald)는 비교적 넓은 라펠과 허리선이 들어간 회색의 3-piece 스트라이프 수트와 폭이 좁은 노 란색 실크 넥타이를 착용한다. 스콧은 포마드를 바른 깔끔한 헤어스타일인 “1920년 6월 보스턴의 최신유행인 남성 마셜웨이브"를 하였는데(Richard, 2010. p.584) 이는 1930년대 영국 헤어스타일인 체 스터와 더 유사하며 다소 진보적인 스타일을 연출 하고 있다. 젤다 피츠제럴드(Zelda Fitzgerald)는 마셜 웨이브의 단발 헤어스타일을 하며, 검정색 쉬폰 소재와 금색 레이스로 브레이드 처리된 가르 손느 드레스와 굵은 진주 네크리스를 착용한다. <Fig. 5>의 브릭탑 클럽에서 춤을 추고 있는 가수 이자 댄서인 조제핀 베이커(Josephine Baker)는 긴 슬릿의 흰색 쉬폰 소재 스트레이트 실루엣 드 레스와 깃털달린 헤드드레스, 샤넬풍의 초커를 착 용하여 자유분방한 플래퍼의 이미지를 표현하였 다. <Fig. 6>과 <Fig. 9>에서 작가인 헤밍웨이는 짙은 회색의 박스형의 재킷과 흰색 셔츠로 당시 유행이나 격식에서 자유로운 스타일이다. 꿈 2는 헤밍웨이와 거트루드와 피카소가 있는 공간으로 이동하여 소설에 대한 조언을 부탁하며 아드리아나와 처음 만나는 장면이다. <Fig. 10>의 화가인 피카소는 어두운 회색의 더블버튼 브레스 티드 수트와 화이트 셔츠와 검정 니트를 재킷 안 에 착용하여 무채색의 세련된 스타일을 연출한다. <Fig. 11>의 미국인 시인이자 작가인 거트루드 스 타인은 추상 무늬가 프린트된 머플러와 베스트, 흰색 블라우스를 착용하고 있어 당시 여성들의 유 행스타일과 무관한 예술가적 감성과 개성을 표현 한다. <Fig. 12>에서 피카소 초상화의 주인공이자 뮤즈인 아드리아나는 심플한 블랙 드레스에 나비 무늬 비즈가 수놓인 가르손느 스타일에 화려한 헤 어밴드를 착용한다. 1910년대 보다 길이가 짧아진 직선형 실루엣의 드레스로 자유분방한 플래퍼 걸 의 이미지를 표현하였다. 꿈 3은 1920년대 문화에 적응한 길 펜더가 파 티장에서 플래퍼를 추다가 피츠제럴드 부부와 아 드리아나, 헤밍웨이와 재회하는 장면과 1920년대 후반으로 전개되어 초현실주의 예술가들을 만나는 장면이다. <Fig. 16>에서 아드리아나는 쉬폰 소재 의 직선형 실루엣에 붉은 색 브레이드를 두른 세 일러 칼라 드레스를 착용하며 손목에는 오리엔탈 풍의 팔찌와 수공예 핸드백을 코디네이션 하고 있 服飾 第67卷 1號  - 138 - 다. <Fig. 17>에서 초현실주의 화가인 살바도르 달 리는 1920년대 후반 남성복 유행인 넓은 라펠 재 킷과 화려한 프린트의 베스트, 넥타이를 착용하였 으며 소품으로 코뿔소가 조각된 지팡이를 들고 있 다. <Fig. 18>에서 영화감독 루이스 부뉴엘은 1920 년대 유행한 단정한 헤어스타일과 갈색의 블루종 과 흰색 셔츠를 착용하고 있으며, 사진작가 만 레 이는 넓은 피크드 칼라의 스트라이프 비즈니스 수 트와 노란색 바탕의 도트무늬 넥타이를 착용하여 초현실주의 예술가의 개성을 표출하였다. 꿈 4의 길 펜더가 차에 탑승하고 있던 T.S. 엘 리엇과 인사를 나누고 거트루드의 거실로 이동하 는 장면으로 <Fig 21>에서 짙은 초콜릿색 니트와 화이트 셔츠에 어두운 회색 팬츠를 착용하였다. <Fig. 22>에서 거트루드 스타인과 대화를 나누는 피카소가 착용한 베이지색 면 재킷은 폭 좁은 라 펠과 3 버튼이 달린 라운드형 헴 라인이며 린넨 소재의 흰색 팬츠를 착용하였다. 꿈 5는 아느리아나와 재회하고 1890년대의 맥 심 레스토랑이 배경인 ‘꿈속의 꿈’으로 마차를 타 고 이동하는 장면이다. 초현실주의자의 결혼식 피 로연에서 길 펜더와 재회한 <Fig. 26>에서 아드리 아나는 노란색 바탕의 은색 펄 브레이드 장식이 된 샤넬 스타일의 드레스를 착용하여 의상디자이 너를 꿈꾸는 몽상적 여성상으로 표현되었다. <Fig. 27>에서 길 펜더는 영화감독인 루이스 부뉴엘에게 자신의 상상을 영화로 제작할 것을 제안하는 장면 으로 아드리아나와의 재회를 준비하며 신경을 쓴 붉은 색 넥타이를 착용하였다. <Fig. 28>의 맥심 레스토랑은 벨 에포크 시대를 대표하는 공간으로 현대적 의상을 한 남성들은 톱 프록코트와 케이 프, 크라운이 높은 톱 햇을 착용하였고 여성들은 어깨를 드러낸 이브닝드레스와 털 트리밍이 된 케 이프와 깃털장식의 모자를 착용하였다. 꿈 6은 길 펜더가 자신의 소설에 대한 조언을 거트루트와 헤밍웨이에게 듣다가 약혼자의 부정을 알게 되는 장면으로 <Fig. 32>에서 베이지색 니트 와 셔츠를 착용하였다. 길 펜더는 꿈 2부터 꿈속 의 꿈 장면에서 넥타이를 맨 세미정장으로 격식을 갖춘 스타일을 표현한다. 헤밍웨이를 만난 후 자 신의 소설에 대한 의견을 듣기 위해 다시 재회한 꿈 2부터 넥타이(회색사선 스트라이프, 붉은 색) 를 착용하여 1920년대 실용적이되 품위있는 의복 을 착용한 예술가들과 유사성을 가진 의상으로 전 개된다. 한편, 꿈 7은 길 펜더를 추적하던 탐정이 중세 베르사이유 궁정으로 시간 이동한 장면이다. 이는 영화 속 유희적 전략적 장치로 우디 앨런 감 독 특유의 미장센을 엿볼 수 있다. 3. ‘꿈 속의 꿈’의 의상코드(Costume code in ‘Draem in Dream’) ‘꿈 속의 꿈’ 배경인 1890년대 벨 에포크 시대는 19세기 말부터 제 1차 세계대전이 시작되기 전까 지 풍요와 평화를 누렸으며 예술과 문화의 전성기 로 유기적인 곡선미를 건축, 공예작품 등에서 전개 한 아르누보 예술양식이 유행하였다(Jeong, 1997). 여성복은 근대적 실루엣인 아워글래스 스타일에서 S 자형 실루엣으로 변화하는 시기이며 남성복은 박스형의 편안한 실루엣과 실용적인 넥타이 형태 로 변화하여 현대 남성복의 기원이 되었다. ‘꿈속의 꿈’으로 마차로 이동한 맥심 레스토랑 은 신흥귀족인 부르주아와 문화예술계 주류들의 파티장이다. 여성들은 우아하고 유기적 곡선미를 살린 아르누보 스타일의 S자형 드레스를 착용하 며 남성들은 검은색 프록코트와 에스코트 타이, 베스트, 흰색 윙 칼라셔츠, 톱 해트를 착용하였다. <Fig. 30>에서 화가이자 귀족신분인 툴루즈 로 트렉은 턴오버 칼라셔츠(turn over collar shirts)와 포인 핸드 타이(four-in-hand tie)의 현대적 남성 복을 착용하였다. 인상파 화가 드가는 체스터필드 코트, 베스트, 윙칼라와 넓은 리본타이를 착용하여 1870년대부터 유행한 셔츠와 넥타이의 남성복 스 타일(Kim, 2010)로 개성을 표현하였다. <Fig. 31> 에서 인상주의 화가인 고갱은 체스트 필드 코트 미장아빔으로 배치된 영화 속 의상코드 분석  - 139 - Mise-en -abyme Sequence Costume Analysis Present 1; 2010 <Fig. 1> Gil & Inez <Fig. 2> Rodin museum <Fig. 3> Wine party Dream 1; 1920’s <Fig. 4> Fitsgerald couple <Fig. 5> Brictop club <Fig. 6> Hemingway Present 2 <Fig. 7> Furniture shop <Fig. 8> Waiting the car <Fig. 9> Meet Hemingway Dream 2; 1920’s <Fig. 10> P. Picaso <Fig. 11> Gertrud stein <Fig. 12> Adriana Present 3 <Fig. 13> Notalgia shop <Fig. 14> Art gallery <Fig. 15> Inez Dream 3; 1920's <Fig. 16> Gil & Adriana <Fig. 17> Salvador Dali) <Fig. 18> Louis Bunuel & Man Ray <Table 2> Costume Analysis in ‘Midnight in Paris’ 服飾 第67卷 1號  - 140 - Present 4 <Fig. 19> Gil pender <Fig. 20> Curator Dream 4; 1920’s <Fig. 21> T.S. Eliet <Fig. 22> Picaso & Gertrude Stein Present 5 <Fig. 23> Paris <Fig. 24> Nostalgia shop <Fig. 25> Adriana's diary Dream 5; 1920’s <Fig. 26> Meet Adriana <Fig. 27> Louis Benuel <Fig. 28> Maxim Restaurant Dream in Dream; Belle Epoque <Fig. 29> Maxim restaurant <Fig. 30> Degas & Loutrec <Fig. 31> P. Gauguin Dream 6: 1920’s <Fig. 32> Gertrud stein 미장아빔으로 배치된 영화 속 의상코드 분석  - 141 - (Chesterfield coat)와 베이지색 베스트, 윙칼라 셔 츠, 카키색 도트 프린트의 넓은 타이를 착용하였다. 이상과 같이 1920년대에서 1890년대로 시간 이 동하여 맥심레스토랑에 도착한 아드리아나 의상을 ‘아방가르드’라고 언급한 아르누보 스타일의 여성 처럼 로트렉과 드가의 시각에서 1920년대의 가르 손느 룩은 미래지향적이며 현대적인 스타일이다. 소설가인 길 펜더는 현재에서는 헐렁한 면 셔츠에 팬츠차림의 편안한 여행객 스타일인 반면, 꿈으로 이동한 장면에서는 글렌 체크 재킷과 흰색 셔츠, 넥타이를 착용하여 포멀한 스타일을 착용한다. 꿈 5에서 아드리아나와 재회하고 함께 꿈속의 꿈인 벨 에포크 시대로 시간 이동하는 장면에서 단정하 게 착용한 붉은 색 넥타이는 그녀에 대한 호감을 표현하는 역할을 한다. Ⅳ. 영화에 나타난 미장아빔 배치에 따른 의상코드의 내재적 의미 Ⅱ장에서 상기한 바와 같이 미장아빔은 단순 복제/ 무한 복제/ 역설적 복제의 세 가지 타입으 로 배치되며, 유사/ 동일 또는 모방/ 독자성(정체 성)의 내재적 형식을 가감하면서 전체구조를 완성 하는 포맷을 특징으로 한다. 이를 근거로 <Mid- night in Paris>의 현재와 꿈, 꿈속의 꿈을 복제하 는 영화적 미장아빔의 구조를 분석하였으며, Ⅲ장 에서는 이러한 영화 속 미장아빔 배치에 따른 의 상코드의 조형성을 분석하였다. 본 장에서는 미장아빔 배치와 의상코드와의 약 호를 분석함으로써 영화적 장치로서 의상코드의 내재미적 가치 및 의미를 도출하였다. <Midnight in Paris>에 나타난 미장아빔 장치의 특성은 복제 와 역설적 반영의 배치로 꿈의 연속선에 현재와 꿈속의 꿈이 존재한다. 미장아빔 배치에 의한 의 상코드에 내재된 미적가치를 대상 지시성에 의한 사실적 리얼리즘의 극대화, 자기반영적 기표의 재 생산, 가상과 현실의 중첩된 확장에 의한 역설적 반영으로 분석하였다<Table 3>. 1. 대상 지시성에 의한 사실적 리얼리즘의 극대화(Maximization of realism realistic target by Directing) 거울의 단순 복제 이미지를 의미하는 대상 지 시성은 거울 속 이미지를 재현한 것이며 대상을 Present 6 <Fig. 33> Inez <Fig 34> Cafe <Fig. 35> Gabriel Dream 7 <Fig. 36> Midddle age <Fig. 37> Versailles palace (Woody Allen, 2011, Midnight in Paris. DVD, Sony pictures classics.) 服飾 第67卷 1號  - 142 - 직접 지시하여 의미를 전달하는 영화와 영상 이미 지에서 사용된다. Lucien, D.(1989)는 이를 유사성 으로 정의하였다. 영화에서 ‘대상’이자 ‘기표’는 각 인물들이 착용한 의상 스타일이며, 그 대상의 역 할과 대사, 메시지 등이 ‘의미’인 동시에 ‘기의’로 작동한다. 영화에서 동일한 의미를 지닌 기의는 유사한 기표의 사용으로 나타나며 실재와 허구의 경계를 모호하게 하는 장치이면서 사실을 재현하 는 기호로 코드화된다. 즉, 영화 속 재현은 데칼코 마니처럼 반복과 분할 복제로 이미지를 재생산하 며 부조화인 이미지들을 조화롭게 배치하기 위한 전략적 장치이다. 꿈 1에서 꿈 5까지의 장면에서 등장하는 문화예술계 인물들은 각자의 개성을 드 러내는 1920년대의 의상코드를 통해 주요 사상을 대변하는 내러티브를 전개한다. 그리고 이들의 반 복적인 등장인 무한 복제를 통해 동일(모방)한 기 호를 재생산하고 있다. 1920년대의 시대적 배경이 곧 현재와 같은 모습을 하고 있으며 이는 아드리 아나의 대사를 통해 증명이 된다. Nelson, G.(1968)은 유사성에 바탕을 둔 단순한 모방과 회화적 재현을 구분하고 있다. 그에 따르 면 효과적인 재현과 모방은 창조적인 것이며 상호 정보를 주고받고 대상을 형성하고 구분한다. 구문 론에서 유사코드는 은유와 직유로 구분되며 은유 의 동등함과 직유의 유사한 속성을 지님을 제시하 는 코드를 뜻한다. ‘꿈’과 ‘꿈속의 꿈’에 표현된 1920년대와 1890년 대의 문화는 프랑스 예술의 전성기를 이룬 시기로 건축 양식, 인테리어, 소품, 의상 등은 역사적 사 실에 근거한 재현성을 생산하고 있다. 또한 등장 인물들(대상)의 성격과 작품 특성을 섬세하게 반 영한 기표인 의상은 단순 재현이나 모방을 넘어 당대 패션문화에 중요한 역사적 의미를 내포하는 은유적 장치이자 리얼리티를 극대화하는 역할을 하고 있다. 꿈 1에서 길 펜더를 파티장으로 인도 하는 피츠제럴드 부부는 1920년대 패션리더로 신 흥부호들과 예술가들과의 커뮤니케이션을 돈독히 한 인물이다(Lee & Park, 2011). 꿈 2에서 피카 소의 집 거실에는 청색시대에 그린 작품들이 걸려 있으며 거트루드 스타인이 앉은 뒷벽에 걸린 그녀 의 초상화는 시기는 일치하지 않으나 피카소와 그 녀의 친분을 암시하는 상징적 기표로 제시되었다. 꿈 3에서 초현실주의자의 결혼식 피로연 장면은 평범한 실내장식이 아닌 박제된 동물들이 진열된 공간으로 아방가르드 이미지를 전개한다. 카페에 서 주인공과 대화하는 장면에서 착용한 초현실주 의 화가인 살바도르 달리의 의상은 당시 유행한 프린트된 베스트와 스트라이프 넥타이를 슈트와 코디네이션 하여 세련된 예술가의 이미지를 사실 적으로 표현한다. ‘꿈속의 꿈’은 맥심 레스토랑에서 캉캉 춤을 감 상하는 툴루즈 로트렉을 통해 벨 에포크 시대의 파리를 사실적으로 표상하고 있다. 이처럼 미장아 빔이 배치된 영화에서 의상코드는 대상을 구체적 으로 설명하는 사실적 아이콘으로 제시함으로써 주제를 부각시키고 영화의 리얼리티를 극대화하는 역할을 하고 있다. 또한 꿈 1부터 꿈 5의 시퀀스 들은 1920년대 플래퍼 문화에서 1930년대 초현실 주의로 시공간의 연속선상에서 유기적인 패션문화 를 표현하고 있으며, 꿈속의 꿈인 1890년대 벨 에 포크 시대는 1920년대 인물들의 내재된 심리(과거 회귀)를 재생산하는 은유장치로 볼 수 있다. 2. 자기반영적 기표의 재생산(Reproduction of self-reflective signifier) 크리스티앙 메츠는 자기반영성에 대해 영화가 이미지 현실 속에서 또 다른 이미지 현실을 보여 주는 영화이미지의 심층적 이중성을 지칭하는 용 어로 정의한다. 즉, 자기반영성과 미장아빔을 같은 용어로 사용하며 거울 속 거울처럼 한 이미지 안 에 다른 이미지가 공존하고 있는 점에서 공통성을 지닌다(Pi, 2005). 즉, 영화 속에서 거울에 비친 자기반영적 이미지는 작가 자신의 내적 외적 의지 를 은유하며 객관적 관점을 투영하는 인물로 묘사 미장아빔으로 배치된 영화 속 의상코드 분석  - 143 - 된다. 또한 미장아빔은 ‘한 구절, 한 부분 혹은 한 시퀀스가 전체 텍스트를 축약하여 실행해 보이는 방식(Mun, 2010b)이며 이는 작가나 감독의 주제 의식을 직접 지시하는 자기반영성을 기표로 드러 내 것이라 할 수 있다. 이는 대체코드(displaced code)를 의미하는 것이며, 해당의미를 전달하기 위해 다른 기호를 대체하는 것을 뜻한다. 즉, 작가 나 감독의 주제의식을 드러내기 위해 각 인물의 특징(캐릭터)를 시각화한 이미지를 통해 의미를 반영하는 기표로 재생산된다. ‘꿈’에 등장하는 인물들은 당대의 유행을 주도 하는 예술가들이지만 현실의 지루함과 획일성을 탈피하고 새로운 아름다움과 자유를 갈망하는 현 실 도피적 성향을 표현한다. 꿈 1에서 플래퍼의 문화적 기표를 착용한 젤다 피츠제럴드는 장 콕토 의 파티장이 지루하여 브릭탑 클럽으로 이동하여 조세핀 베이커의 춤을 구경하기도 한다. 그러나 꿈 3에서는 세느강 다리 아래에서 자살을 시도하 는 허무주의를 드러낸다. 즉, 1920년대 문화 아이 콘이던 플래퍼(신여성)의 정점에 있으며 화려하고 쾌락 중심의 모더니즘 사회상을 대표하는 역할을 하는 그녀의 현실은 화려함과 우울함이 공존하는 정신적 빈곤 사이에 방황하는 사회 속의 심층적 이중성을 표현한 것이다. 위대한 개츠비의 원작자 인 스콧 피츠제럴드는 유럽 중상류층 배경인 ‘플 래퍼와 철학자들’의 세편의 단편집에서 향락적이 고 자유분방한 신여성인 플래퍼 이미지를 기표화 하였으며 원작소설 영화 ‘위대한 개츠비, 1925'에 서 사회적 의미의 플래퍼 이미지를 투영하였다(Kim, 2015). 화려한 성향의 피츠제럴드 부부와 달리 간결한 짙은 갈색 블루종을 착용한 헤밍웨이(꿈1)는 젤다 와 스콧에게 지적이면서 냉소적인 비판을 하며 길 펜더의 소설에 대해 현실을 인식시키는 조언을 한 다. 참전 경험이 있는 헤밍웨이는 깔끔한 문체로 현실 비판적인 전쟁 생존자들의 '잃어버린 세대'인 모습을 표현하였고 ‘노인과 바다’로 1953년 퓰리처 상, 1954년 노벨상을 수상하였다(Naver, 2015). 이처럼 미장아빔으로 배치된 의상코드는 자기 반영을 통한 작품의 재생산을 표현하는 장치이며 자기반영 기표인 현실과 꿈에 등장하는 의상은 명 시적 텍스트이다. 감독의 사고를 대변하는 주인공 길 펜더는 상상 속의 황금기를 갈구하며 꿈속에서 좋아하는 예술가들을 만나고 그들의 문화와 사상 을 드러내는 미장아빔의 환영적 장치를 배치하였 다. 또한 시각적 텍스트를 의상코드를 통해 묘사 함으로써 Lucien, D.가 주장한 ‘전체 내러티브를 반영하는 모든 내적인 거울인 미장아빔’의 특성을 표현하였다. 3. 가상과 현실의 중첩된 확장에 의한 역설적 반영(Paradoxically reflected by the expansion of overlapped virtual and reality) 이야기 속에 이야기가 있는 미장아빔이 배치된 영화는 현실과 가상이 중첩된 사건의 확장성을 표 현한다. 영화에서 ‘꿈속의 꿈’은 중첩된 사건에 해 당되며 역설적 복제를 통한 Identity(독자성, 정체 성)을 드러내는 미장아빔 장치이다. 또한 의상에 적용된 코드는 압축코드(Condensed code)로 여러 기호가 합쳐서 복합적인 새 기호를 형성하는 것이 다. 즉, 과거의 황금기에 해당하는 각 시대의 상징 기호와 인물들의 의상기호, 시퀀스 기호의 중첩 등 거울 속의 거울이미지가 복합적으로 엮여서 새 로운 내재적 함축적 가치를 표현하게 된다. 1905년 발표한 아인슈타인의 상대성 이론(A. Einstein, 1992, pp.37-38)에 의하면 서로 다른 상 대 속도로 움직이는 관측자들은 같은 사건에 대해 서로 다른 시간과 공간에서 일어난 것으로 측정하 며 그 대신 물리 법칙의 내용은 관측자 모두에 대 해 서로 동일하다. 이 시퀀스는 벨 에포크 시대의 맥심레스토랑에서 일어난 사건으로 길 펜더와 아 드리아나는 각기 시공간의 다른 사건으로 기억한 다. 현재 5에서 길 펜더가 헌책방에서 구입한 아 服飾 第67卷 1號  - 144 - 느리아나의 일기장에 의하면 ‘꿈속의’꿈은 그녀의 꿈으로 묘사된다. 반면 길 펜더의 관점에서는 꿈 5에서 다시 마차를 타고 꿈속으로 이동한 장면이 라는 점에서 중첩된 가상과 현실의 모호한 영역이 면서 자신의 현실(약혼녀의 부정)을 반영하는 장 면이기도 하다. 이러한 시공간의 중첩성과 상대성 을 인정하는 인물은 초현실주의자들이다. 꿈 3에 서 길 펜더가 2010년으로부터 시간이동을 한 사실 을 얘기하자 초현실주의자인 만 레이와 살바도르 달리는 이를 수긍하고 루이스 부뉴엘에게 영화로 만들 것을 제안한다. 실제로 달리와 만 레이는 1930년대에 꿈에 대한 정신분석학적 해석을 반영 한 패션디자인과 사진으로 1930년대 엘자 스키아 파렐리(Elsa Schiaparelli)와 함께 초현실주의 패션 에 기여하였다. 꿈 2, 3, 5에 등장하는 피카소의 연인 아드리아 나의 1920년대 스타일은 당시에는 일상성을 반영 하는 의상이나 1890년대 벨 에포크 시대에서는 아 방가르드를 의미하고 자아실현을 매개하는 역설적 이미지로 표현된다. 그녀는 의상디자이너가 되기 위해 파리로 왔으나 모딜리아니, 피카소 브라크, 헤밍웨이와 교제한 여성(또는 뮤즈)이다. ‘꿈 5’와 ‘꿈속의 꿈’인 벨 에포크 시대에서 그녀가 착용한 은색 브레이드의 샤넬 스타일 가르손느 룩은 샤넬 부티크에서 배우고 싶었다는 의지를 반영하는 의 상코드이며 1890년대에서는 미래지향적 아방가르 드로 이해된다. 즉, 꿈 5와 꿈 속의 꿈은 가상과 현실의 중첩된 장치이며 아드리아나의 의상코드를 통해 현재와 과거의 황금기를 재현하는 역설적 기 표로 작동하고 있다. 의상디자이너를 희망한다는 그녀에게 로트렉이 리샤르의 발레의상 디자이너로 추천하겠다는 제의에 1890년대에 머물고자 한 점 <Table 3> The aesthetic meaning of Costume code placed Mise-en-abyme in the film 미장아빔으로 배치된 영화 속 의상코드 분석  - 145 - 에서 그녀의 의상은 자아실현을 이루는 직접적인 매개체가 된다. 또한 중첩된 가상의 의상코드에 자신을 이입하려는 타자(아드리아나)의 시선을 통 해 자신(길 펜더)의 ‘황금시대 사고’가 현실 도피 적임을 인정하는 역설적 은유를 표현하는 것으로 볼 수 있다. 이상과 같이 중첩된 가상은 ‘현재’와 동일/ 유 사한 특성을 가지며 현재를 다층적 거울이미지로 채택하는 미장아빔 장치를 통해 감독의 주제의식 을 우회적으로 설명하는 역설적 반영으로 볼 수 있다. 이러한 미장아빔의 중층구조는 영상의 미적 가치에 대해 논한 Kim& Kim(2015a, p.131)의 견 해와 같이 “콜라주나 몽타주, 단편 등과 같은 비 논리적 구조를 통해 몽상이 현실이 되며 관객의 지각변화가 가능토록 한다”는 주장을 뒷받침한다. Ⅴ. 결론 본 연구는 미장아빔이 배치된 영화의 표현특성 에 따른 의상코드의 조형적 특성과 내재된 미적가 치를 분석하여 현대 영화 의상을 분석하는 연구방 법론을 새로운 시각으로 제시하고자 하였다. 문장 속의 문장을 의미하는 미장아빔의 영화적 특성은 Lucien Dällenbach의 <The mirror in the text> 이 론을 중심으로 고찰하고 영화에 표현된 의상코드 의 미적 가치를 분석하였다. 우디 앨런 감독의 <Midnight in Paris, 2011>에 나타난 미장아빔의 표현 특성은 반복과 역설적 복제로 꿈의 연속선에 현재와 꿈속의 꿈이 존재한다. 영화에 나타난 의상코드의 내재된 미적가치는 첫째, 대상 지시성에 의한 사실적 리얼리즘의 극 대화이다. 미장아빔이 배치된 영화에서 의상코드 는 대상을 구체적으로 설명하는 사실적 아이콘으 로 제시함으로써 주제를 부각시키고 영화의 리얼 리티를 극대화하는 역할을 하고 있다. 또한 꿈 1 부터 꿈 6의 시퀀스들은 1920년대 플래퍼 문화에 서 1930년대 초현실주의로 시공간의 연속선상에서 유기적 패션문화를 표현하고 있으며, 꿈속의 꿈인 1890년대 벨 에포크 시대의 의상은 1920년대 인물 들의 내재된 심리(과거회귀)를 재생산하는 은유장 치로 볼 수 있다. 둘째, 미장아빔이 환영적 장치로 배치된 의상코 드는 명시적 텍스트로 전개된다. 즉, 자기반영적 기표의 재생산으로 각각의 등장인물이 시대적 문 화적 사상을 상징하는 기표로 작동하였으며 작품 의 재생산을 표현하는 장치로 볼 수 있다. 또한 감독의 사고를 대변하는 주인공 길 펜더는 상상 속의 황금기를 갈구하며 꿈속에서 좋아하는 예술 가들을 만나고 그들의 문화와 사상을 드러내는 미 장아빔의 환영적 장치로 배치되었다. 또한 시각적 텍스트를 패션문화를 통해 구체적이고 사실적으로 묘사함으로써 Lucien, D.(1989)가 주장한 ‘전체 내 러티브를 반영하는 모든 내적인 거울인 미장아빔’ 의 특성을 표현하였다. 셋째, 가상과 현실의 중첩된 확장에 의한 역설 적 반영은 작가의 사고를 반성하는 자기 지시적 성격을 내포하고 있다. ‘꿈속의 꿈’인 중첩된 가상 은 ‘현실’과 유사성을 띄며 현실을 우회적으로 은 유하는 역설적 반영으로 볼 수 있다. 중첩된 가상 의 패션문화에 자신을 이입하려하는 타자(아드리 아나)의 시선을 통해 자신(길 펜더)의 ‘황금시대 사고’가 현실 도피적임을 인정하는 역설적 은유를 표현하는 것으로 분석된다. 이상과 같이 미장아빔이 배치된 영화에 표현된 의상코드는 중첩된 내러티브에서 사실성을 극대화 하고 자기반영적 상징성을 내포하며 현실과 미래 에 대한 역설을 은유하는 매개도구임을 알 수 있 다. 또한 미장아빔을 통한 시각적 내러티브의 은 유는 다의성을 가진 알레고리적 표현이며 이는 현 대패션의 스토리텔링 방식과 이미지 전달 방법에 다양한 창의성을 실현할 수 있는 구체적인 텍스트 이다. 그리고 본 연구를 통해 미장아빔의 특성은 예술작품을 지시하는 기법의 역할 뿐 아니라 현대 패션을 분석하는 연구 분석틀로서 새로운 시각을 服飾 第67卷 1號  - 146 - 제공할 수 있을 것으로 사료되어 현대패션을 후속 연구대상으로 분석하고자 한다. 그간 영화 속 패션문화 분석은 영화적 소품의 일부로 규정하여 주로 조형성에 근거한 내재적 가 치를 파악하고 디자인에 적용하는 것이 목적이었 다. 본 연구는 영화의 내러티브를 구성하는 핵심 주체로서 의상코드의 역할과 미적가치를 파악함으 로써 영화의 주제와 영화적 장치를 완성하는 제작 프로세스에 의상이 감성적 미장센의 관점을 취할 수 있음을 확인하였다. 향후 대중성, 작품성, 예술 성을 갖춘 우수한 영화를 제작할 수 있는 산업적, 학제적 근거에 일정부분 기여할 수 있을 것으로 사료된다. 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work_jqkxghsxcvfrvniurk27t4wp4e	----	S2045796016000901jed 228..230 This Section of Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences appears in each issue of the Journal and is dedicated to all forms of creative production born of an intimate and individual urge, often secretive, unbound from the conventional art system rules. Through short descriptions of the Outsider art work of prominent artists and new protagonists often hosted in community mental health services, this section intends to investigate the latest developments of the contemporary art scene, where the distances between the edge and the center are becoming more and more vague. Carole Tansella, Section Editor Auguste Forestier’s unbroken wanderlust Savine Faupin LaM Lille Métropole Musée d’art moderne, d’art contemporain et d’art brut, Villeneuve-d’Ascq Received 27 October 2016; Accepted 28 October 2016; First Published online 28 November 2016 Key words: History of psychiatry, mental health, outsider art, psychiatric hospital. Auguste Forestier (Naussac, 1887-Saint-Alban-sur- Limagnole, 1958) began running away as an adoles- cent taking the train without a ticket for long journeys. His longing for the faraway may explain these repeated escapades. He was brought back to his village each time by the police. Fascinated by trains, he caused a derailment in a tunnel in May 1914 by placing stones on the tracks. Upon his arrest he explained: ‘I wanted to see how the stones got crushed, and it didn’t occur to me that I could derail the train’. In prison he carved wooden medals, saying they had been given to him by the railway company as a sign of their appreciation. Forestier was not convicted of damaging public property, but deemed unaccountable for his actions Auguste Forestier, Forestier élu le 20 juin 1914, c. 1914, colour pencil on paper, 31.7 × 23.7 cm, inv. 2007.5.1, LaM, photo: Cecile Dubart. Auguste Forestier, La bête du Gévaudan, c. 1940, wood, leather, metal, rubber, tooth, glass, 31, 5 × 89 × 26 cm, inv. 999.43.15, Donation L’Aracine, LaM, photo: Philip Bernard. Address for correspondence: LaM, 1 allée du Musée, 59650 Villeneuve-d’Ascq, France. (Email: sfaupin@musee-lam.fr) Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences (2017), 26, 228–230. © Cambridge University Press 2016 doi:10.1017/S2045796016000901 CONTEMPORARY OUTSIDER ART https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S2045796016000901 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:41:06, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at mailto:sfaupin@musee-lam.fr https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S2045796016000901 https://www.cambridge.org/core and committed to the asylum at Saint-Alban in Lozère. In 1915, a year after his committal, it is reported that he ‘is often occupied with drawing and carving bones from the butcher shop. He works very hard, achieving a kind of primitive artistry’. The hospital was at the time being run by Maxime Dubuisson (1851–1928), a physician who was interested in the work produced by the patients and assembled two volumes of draw- ings, many of which had been done by Forestier. But Forestier’s wanderlust was unbroken: he ran away a total of five times between 1914 and 1923, yet he grad- ually began substituting his real travels with other forms of departure. His drawings and sculptures took him on fictitious journeys through history. The psychiatrist Jean Oury (1924–2014), who worked at Saint-Alban from 1947 to 1949 and treated Forestier, made the following comment: ‘This transformation from a nomad into a sedentary man can only be the logical result of the transformation of a traveler into a producer. But Forestier’s work will always bear traces of the ideal of the traveler’ (Oury, 1956). Forestier’s imaginary world was enriched by the place where he lived. The hospital was housed in an old 13th-century castle extended in the 16th century by four towers. The exterior walls are massive; only the main door and the window above it were deco- rated with pilasters and gables in pink sandstone. Forestier was not indifferent to this door either; it sym- bolised both his incarceration and an opening out into the world. He placed his sculptures near this portal in order to trade them with hospital staff or sell them to farmers passing through, who would buy them as toys for their children (Oury, 2005). Forestier had created a kind of workshop in a cor- ridor that leads from the scullery to an inner court- yard: a workbench, some rudimentary tools, a small chisel, a knife and nails. He wandered about the hos- pital to glean broken objects and discarded remnants of fabric. He carved arms, legs, heads, wings, decora- tive mouldings and more out of the pieces of wood he had collected (Dubuffet, 1966). Forestier achieved a high degree of technical skill and speed that enabled him to manufacture a variety of objects. He constructed his figures, soldiers, boats, horsemen, ani- mals, houses, furniture for children and carts accord- ing to a combinatory principle that became his unmistakable trademark. The man-animal metamorphosis is very important for Forestier. We must not forget that the story of the terrible beast of Gévaudan terrorised the people of Lozère from 1764 to 1767 and the villages of the Margeride told tales of numerous victims of the legendary ‘werewolf.’ The monsters sculpted by Forestier undoubtedly evoke the famous beast: they have the muzzles of wolves, the tails of fish, but also feature parts of birds – several of them have wings growing out of their back – and naturally, human beings, because they stand on two feet. They can fly, swim and walk. Wrapped in clothes made from remnants of fabric and decorated with medals, strange fellows have a human head and body but a bird’s beak. Others, sometimes referred to as ‘roosters’, have both wings and feet (Faupin, 2007). Because he no longer ventured outside the hospital walls, Forestier, the stationary traveller, invented imaginary means of travel. Although he never saw the sea, he devised ships and set them to sail on the roads of Lozère by selling and trading them. This is symbolically illustrated in the photograph featuring the psychiatrist François Tosquelles holding a ship made by Forestier over the roofs of Saint-Alban as if it were a ship of fools. Paul Éluard, a clandestine refugee at Saint-Alban in 1943 thanks to the psychiatrist Lucien Bonnafé, wrote his volume of poetry Souvenirs de la maison des fous (Memories of the Madhouse) there, and came into contact with Forestier. He would take back to Paris several sculptures to show them to Pablo Picasso and Raymond Queneau – yet another journey, which, however, this time transported him into an artistic environment. Acknowledgements The author thanks Carole Tansella. Financial support This research received no specific grant from any fund- ing agency, commercial or not-for-profit sectors. Conflict of Interest None. References Dubuffet J (1966). La fabrique d’Auguste, L’Art Brut 8. Publications de la Compagnie de l’Art Brut dirigée par Jean Dubuffet: Paris. Faupin S (2007). Le voyageur Immobile. Musée d’art moderne Lille Métropole: Villeneuve d’Ascq. Oury J (1956). Auguste For. Bizarre VI. Oury J (2005). Essai sur la conation esthétique. Le Pli: Orléans. About the Author Savine Faupin is Chief Curator in charge of Outsider Art at LaM, Musée d’art Moderne, d’Art Auguste Forestier’s unbroken wanderlust 229 https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S2045796016000901 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:41:06, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S2045796016000901 https://www.cambridge.org/core Contemporain et d’Art Brut, Villeneuve d’Ascq, France, an unique example of Museum where Art Brut is exhibited alongside modern and contemporary art. Among the exhibitions she has curated, Aloïse Corbaz en constellation (2015); L’Autre de l’art (2015); L’Aracine et l’art brut (2009). She is author of numerous publications, including Art brut: une avant-garde en moins? (2009); Des fantômes & des anges (2007); Les chemins de l’art brut à Saint-Alban-sur-Limagnole (2007); Dubuffet et l’Art Brut (2005). Carole Tansella, Section Editor 230 S. Faupin https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S2045796016000901 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:41:06, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S2045796016000901 https://www.cambridge.org/core Auguste Forestier's unbroken wanderlust Acknowledgements Financial support Conflict of Interest References About the Author 
work_jum53bzee5e4hg6h6rxwidrbvy	----	Okumuş & Yavan / Geçmişte ve Günümüzde Seramiğin Kullanım Alanları *Bu çalışma, 6-7 Eylül 2018 tarihlerinde Lviv /UKRAYNA’ da gerçekleşen 3. Uluslararası Rating Academy Kongresi: “Uygulamalı Bilimler” konulu kongrede sunulmuş aynı isimli bildirinin gözden geçirilmiş halidir. JOURNAL OF AWARENESS E-ISSN: 2149-6544 Cilt:3, Sayı: Özel, 2018 Vol:3, Issue: Special, 2018 http://www.ratingacademy.com.tr/ojs/index.php/joa RESİM SANATINDA 1940-1960 YILLARI ARASINDA SOYUT DIŞAVURUMCU AKIMLAR ABSTRACT EXPRESSIONIST MOVEMENTS BETWEEN 1940 AND 1960 IN PAINTING ART Deniz GÖKDUMAN Trakya Üniversitesi E-mail: denizgokduman@trakya.edu.tr MAKALE BİLGİSİ ÖZET Anahtar Kelimeler: Soyut, Soyut Dışavurumcu, Sanat, Taşizm, Lirik Soyutlama, Sert Kenar, Renk Alanı Resmi, Hareket Resmi Soyut dışavurumculuk, aşırı duygusal ya da ifadeli içerikleriyle birbiriyle ilişkili çok farklı resim üsluplarını tarif eden bir terimdir. İkinci Dünya Savaşı'ndan sonra Amerika’da oluşmaya başlayan bu akım Pollock, Baziotes, Gottlieb, Motherwell ve Rothko gibi çağdaş Amerikan sanatçıları tarafından ortaya çıkarılmıştır. Daha sonra bu akım farklı özellikler göstererek Hareket Resmi, Renk Alanı Resmi, Lirik Soyutlama, Serbest Biçimli Sanat, Kobra, Sert Kenar, Taşizm gibi farklı isimlerle tüm dünyaya yayılmıştır. Makalemizde soyut dışavurumculuk bu bağlamda ele alınmıştır. DOI: 10.26809/joa.2018548634 ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT Keywords: Abstract, Abstract Expressionist, Art, Tasism, Lyrical Abstraction, Hard Edge, Color Field Painting, Hard Edge Abstract Expressionist is a term that describes very different picture styles that are related to each other by emotional or expressive content. This trend, which is began in America after the Second World War, revealed was from contemporary American artists such as Pollock, Baziotes, Gottlieb, Motherwell and Rothko. After then this current has spread to all over the world with different names such as Action Painting, Color Field Painting, Lyrical Abstraction, Art Informel, Cobra, Hard Edge, Tasiszm. In our article, the Abstract Expressionist is addressed in this context. DOI: 10.26809/joa.2018548634 1. SOYUT-DIŞAVURUMCULUK (Abstract-Expressionism) Soyut dışavurumculuk, aşırı duygusal ya da ifadeli içerikleriyle birbiriyle ilişkili çok farklı resim üsluplarını tarif eden bir terimdir. Birbirinden farklı niteliklerin oluşturduğu akımın adıyla niteliği arasında pek bir uyum yoktur. Ancak hepsinin ortak yönü Gerçeküstücülüğün temel ilkelerinden olan “Çağrışımlar ve Özdevinimler”den yola çıkmalarıdır. 1940’ların başında New York’ta meydana çıkmaya başlayan akımın oluşmasında önemli etkenlerden biri II. Dünya Savaşı’nın Avrupa’da yarattığı olumsuz etkilerden kaçan Max Ernst, Salvador Dali, http://www.ratingacademy.com.tr/ojs/index.php/joa mailto:denizgokduman@trakya.edu.tr GÖKDUMAN / Resim Sanatında 1940-1960 Yılları Arasında Soyut Dışavurumcu Akımlar Journal of Awareness, Cilt / Volume:3, Sayı / Issue: Special, 2018, 235-256 236 Andre Masson ve Roberto Matta gibi Gerçeküstü sanatçıların o sırada dünyanın yeni sanat merkezi durumuna gelen New York’a gitmeleridir. Bu durum Amerika’daki sanatçıları aşırı derecede etkilemiştir. 1940’ların sonuna doğru Amerikalı sanatçıların özgüvenleri artmış, Gerçeküstücü sanatın etkilerinden sıyrılmaya başlamışlardır. Bu gelişmeler sonucunda Soyut Dışavurumculuk yeni bir nitelik kazanmaya başlamış, tuvalin sınırları aşılarak büyük panolar üzerinde çalışılmaya başlanmış ve savaşın gerilimi bu tuvallere de yansımıştır. Hareketle ilişkili sanatçılar İkinci Dünya Savaşı'ndan sonra muhafazakâr Amerikan toplumuna yabancılaşma duygusunu paylaşma eğiliminde olsalar da Soyut Dışavurumculuk her zaman bir "Amerikan" görüngüsü olarak algılanmıştır. Soğuk Savaş döneminde üretilen bu sanat Sovyet sanatını karakterize eden katı uyumun tam tersi olarak değerlendirilmiştir. (Sanat Kitabı, 2017: 320) 1934 yılında Anatoly Lunaçarski tarafından ana ilkeleri belirlenen Sosyalist Gerçekçilik Kuramı Sovyetler Birliği’nin resmi sanat çizgisi kabul edilmiştir. Buna karşılık Amerika Birleşik Devletleri'ndeki 1929 yılındaki borsa iflasına rağmen Roosevelt idaresi sanata istihdam yaratmaya karar vermiştir. 1935 yılında Works Progress Administration'ın (WPA) yönettiği Federal Art Project kurulmuştur. Proje Amerikan sanatının gelişiminde temel bir rol oynamıştır. Resim yapmaları için sanatçılara para ödenmiş bu da çok sayıda genç sanatçının (Gorky, Pollock, De Kooning, Baziotes, Rothko, Gottlieb…) resim yaparak yaşamasını sağlamıştır. (Bonfand, 2015: 112) İlginç olan bu projede desteklenen sanat akımının Sosyalist Gerçekçiliğin tam zıttı olan Soyut-Dışavurumculuk olmasıdır. ABD’nin dünya sanatını yönlendirmedeki etkinliği de yine bu tarihlerde Soyut- Dışavurumculuk’la ilk kez uluslararası düzeye çıkmaya başlamıştır. (Rona, 1997: 1688-1689) Ancak Soyut-Dışavurumculuk, oluşmaya başladığı ilk yıllarda Gerçeküstücü sanatçıların etkilerini Newman, Reinhardt ve Rothko'nun tek renkli (monokrom) resimlerinin; Kline ve Motherwell'in atılgan, zaman zaman Kaligrafiye kaçan soyutlamalarının; Pollock'un akıtma resimlerinin (drip-paintings); De Kooning, Gottlieb ve Hofmann'ın birbirinden farklı nitelikteki yapıtlarının oluşturduğu akımın, adıyla niteliği aslında pek bir uyum yoktu. (Rona, 1997: 1688- 1689) Bu uyumsuzluk Soyut-Dışavurumcuğun kendi içinde bölünmelerine sebep oldu. Sanatçıları, William Baziotes, Lousie Bourgeois, James Brooks, Alberto Burri, Jack Bush, Elaine Fried de Kooning, Willem De Kooning, Jean Dubuffet, Sam Fancis, H. Frankenthaller, Arshile Gorky, Adolph Gottlieb, Philip Guston, Grace Hartigan, Al Held, Hans Hofmann, Franz Kline, Norman Lewis, Morris Louis, Robert Motherwell, Louise Nevelson, Barnet Newman, Kenneth Noland, Jules Olitsky, Jackson Pollock, Conrad Marca-Relli, William Ronald, Mark Rothko, William Scort, Aaron Siskind, David Smith, Hedda Sterne, Clyfford Still, Bradley Walker Tomlin ve Esteban Vicente. 1.1. Adolph Gottlieb: 1903 yılında New York'ta doğan Adolph Gottlieb 1923 yılında Parson School of Design'da öğrenim görür, Soyut-Dışavurumculuk akımı içinde ver alan Gottlieb, bu grup içinde Uzakdoğu etkilerini ve kaligrafinin anlatımsal değerini en fazla vurgulayan sanatçıdır. (Erzen, 1997: 694) 1936 yılında WPA için çalışır, Onlar Grubu’nun kurucularındandır, 1974 yılında New York’ta ölür. (Bonfand, 2015: 124) 1.2. Arshile Gorky: 15 Nisan 1904 yılında Van Türkiye’de doğdu. Asıl adı Manug Adoyan’dır. 13 yaşında Ermenistan’a, 17 yaşında Amerika'ya gittiğinde, adını Arshile Gorky olarak değiştirmiştir. Arshile'i Yunan mitologyasının yiğit ve yakışıklı yarı-tanrısı Akhilleus'tan türetmiş;. Gorky soyadını da, yazar Maksim Gorki'nin adından almıştır. (Üster) GÖKDUMAN / Resim Sanatında 1940-1960 Yılları Arasında Soyut Dışavurumcu Akımlar Journal of Awareness, Cilt / Volume:3, Sayı / Issue: Special, 2018, 235-256 237 Sanat tarihçileri bu anlaşılmaz ressamı bir gerçeküstücü olarak mı yoksa tam biçimini almamış bir soyut dışavurumcu olarak mı kabul etmek gerektiği konusunda kararsızdır. Ama her koşulda, bu sanatçı kuşağını insani ve estetik bakımdan belirlediği konusunda tanıklıklar uyuşmaktadır. (Bonfand, 2015: 124) ABD'nin en önemli ressamlarından biri olduğu sırada art arda yaşadıkları yaşamını altüst etmiştir. 1946'da atölyesinde çıkan yangında resimlerinin çoğu yanan Gorky, kısa bir süre sonra bir kanser ameliyatı geçirmiştir. Haziran 1948'de geçirdiği bir araba kazasında boynu kırılan ve bir ay kadar sonra karısı tarafından terk edilen (Üster) Arshile Gorky 21 Temmuz 1948 yılında Connecticut’ta intihar etmiştir. 1.3. Hans Hofmann: Savaş sonrası Amerikan sanatının en önemli figürlerinden biri olan Hans Hofmann (1880-1966) çoşkulu ve renk dolu tuvalleriyle öne çıkmış ve sanatçılar üzerinde derin izler bırakan etkili bir öğretmen olarak ünlenmiştir. Amerika Birleşik Devletleri'nin en önemli modern sanat profesörü olduğu söylenen Hans Hofmann verdiği derslerle geleceğin çok sayıda soyut dışavurumcusunu, aynı zamanda da Clement Greenberg ve Harold Rosenberg gibi eleştirmenleri etkilemiştir. (Bonfand, 2015: 114) 1.4. Mark Tobey: Mark Tobey, 11 Aralık 1890'da Centerville, Wisconsin'de doğmuştur. 1906-1908 yılları arasında Chicago Sanat Enstitüsü'nde derslere katılmıştır. 1918 yılında Tobey, Batı uygarlığına duyduğu nefret, Tobey’i insanların barış içerisinde yaşamalarını öngören Bahâîlik inancına kabul etmeye iter. (Gökduman, 2002: 22) Bu da onu sanattaki manevi temsili keşfetmeye götürür. Ayrıca o yıl Çin kaligrafisini incelemeye başlayan Tobey,1926’da Orta Doğu’ya yaptığı seyahatler sonucunda Farsça ve Arap alfabesiyle de ilgilenmeye başlamıştır. Tobey, 24 Nisan 1976'da Basel'de ölmüştür. 1.5. Robert Motherwell: Action Painting’e damgasını vuran ressamlar arasında Robert Motherwell'i de saymak gerekir. 1915 yılında Washington eyaletinde Aberdeen'de doğan Robert Motherwell’in ailesi 1918 yılında California'ya yerleşmiştir. 1932-1938 arasında San Francisco'daki California School of Fine Arts, Standford ve Harvard'da öğrenim görmüş ve Paris'e gitmiştir. New York'taki Hunter College'de ders vermiştir. Motherwell’in temel eserleri, farklı ve daha jestüel olmakla birlikte, color-field ressamlarının eserlerine son derece yakınlık gösterir. Dolayısıyla, onun eseri soyut dışavurumculuğun iki eğilimini iç içe sokmaktadır. (Bonfand, 2015: 124) Motherwell 1991 yılında Massachusetts’te vefat etmiştir. 1.6. Theodoros Stamos: 31 Aralık 1922'de New York’da doğan Stamos büyük ölçekli jestsel soyutlamalar ile tanınmıştır. Jackson Pollock, Ad Reinhardt ve Clyfford Still gibi ressamların yanı sıra soyut Soyut Dışavurumcu grubun en genç üyesidir. Stamos'un resimlerinde, çoğunlukla Doğu Asya estetiği ve Doğu felsefesinden esinlenerek kısaltılmış renksiz paletin yanında biyomorfik soyutlamalar da yer alır. Stamos, 2 Şubat 1997'de Yunanistan'da 74 yaşında vefat etmiştir. 1.7. William Baziotes: William Baziotes 1912 yılında Pittsburgh'de doğmuştur. Amerika'da gelişen Soyut- Dışavurumculuk akımının çeşitli etkinlikleri içinde yer alan ve doğadan kaynaklanan Biyomorfik Biçimli Gerçeküstücü nitelikli resmiyle özgün bir tavır ortaya koymuştur. (Erzen, 1997: 207) 1936-1940 arasında WPA için çalışmış ve dersler vermiştir. 1952- 1963 yılları arasında Hunter College'de resim öğretmenliği yapan Baziotes, 1963 yılında vefat etmiştir. GÖKDUMAN / Resim Sanatında 1940-1960 Yılları Arasında Soyut Dışavurumcu Akımlar Journal of Awareness, Cilt / Volume:3, Sayı / Issue: Special, 2018, 235-256 238 1.8. Mark Rohtko: 1903 yılında Rusya Dvinsk (şu anda Letonya'da) kentinde doğan Rothko’nun, ilk tabloları çoğunlukla portreler, çıplaklar ve kentsel sahnelerdi. 1950 ve 1960’ların soyut resminin en önemli kişilerinden biri olan Rothko yalnızca Soyut-Dışavurumculuk akımının en zengin yorumlara açık örneklerini yapmakla kalmamış, uluslararası düzeyde Amerikan resminin öncülüğünü kabul ettiren bir sanatçı olarak neredeyse kahramanlaştırılmıştır. (Erzen, 1997: 1591) 1970 yılında 66 yaşındayken anti-depresan içerek ve bir jilet ile bileklerini keserek intihar etmiştir. 1.8.1. Eserin Çözümlenmesi: Mark Rothko’nun bu eseri tuval üzerine yağlıboyadır (101 × 189 cm.). Şu anda Londra’da Tate Galeri’sinde bulunmaktadır. İsimsiz bir eserdir. Tahminen 1951-55 yılları arasında yapılmıştır. Resimde çok katı olmamak kaydıyla genel anlamda geometriksel bir soyut anlayış hâkimdir. Rothko’nun diğer resimleri de buna yakındır. Üç farklı renk kullanmıştır. Mor renk soğuk bir renktir. Sarı, sıcak renk olmasına rağmen bu resimde soğuk renkleri andırmaktadır. Aradan geçen beyaz renk, iki renk arasında dengeleyici bir unsur oluşturmaktadır. Renklerde ve şekillerdeki azlık sanatçının kişiliğini yansıtmakta ve yalnızlığı simgelemektedir. Resimde pek ışık düzeni yoktur. Resmin kompozisyonuna baktığımızda ise altta bir dikdörtgen onun üstünde iki adet kare ve iki kare arasında bir çizgi bulunduğunu görürüz. Yalın ve sade bir kompozisyon. Resim 1. Mark Rothko, İsimsiz, 189 × 101 cm., Tuval üzerine yağlıboya, 1951-55, Tate Galeri, Londra 2. HAREKET RESMİ (Action Painting) Pollock ve De Kooning’in öncülüğünde gelişen Hareket Resmi, Soyut- Dışavurumculuğun Gerçeküstücülükten aldığı “çağrışımlar ve özdevinim” ilkelerinden kaynaklanmış ve 1950’lerde ABD’de Soyut-Dışavurumculuğun iki ayrı doğrultuda gelişmeye başlaması sonucunda oluşmuştur. Action Painting terimi, ilk kez Amerikalı eleştirmen Harold Rosenberg tarafından 1952 yılında kullanılmıştır. Terim, kullanımının ardından New York Okulu eleştirmenlerinin estetik perspektifinin yönünü değiştirici bir etkide bulunmuştur. (Keser, 2009: 23) Bu akımda önemli olan yapıtların bir ön tasarım olmadan, çağrışımların oluşturduğu düşünceler neticesinde meydana getirilmesidir. Bu nedenle resmin tamamlanmış hâlinden çok resmin oluşum süreci önem kazanır. Jack Tworkow, Franz Kline, De Kooning ve Pollock bu tarza iyi bir örnek teşkil ederler. Örneğin De Kooning resimlerinde içten ve kendiliğinden GÖKDUMAN / Resim Sanatında 1940-1960 Yılları Arasında Soyut Dışavurumcu Akımlar Journal of Awareness, Cilt / Volume:3, Sayı / Issue: Special, 2018, 235-256 239 oluşan bir yaklaşımla bilinçaltını ve ruh hallerini açığa vurmak için tuvali hareketli fırça darbeleriyle renklendiriyordu. Pollock ise yere yaydığı tuvale gelişigüzel boya akıtarak ya da çeşitli araçlarla boyayı tuvale yayarak rastlantısal biçimler oluşturuyordu. 2.1. Jack Tworkow: Polonya kökenli olan Jack Tworkow 13 yaşındayken ailesi ile birlikte ABD gelmiştir. Eğitimini California Üniversitesi, New York Ulusal Tasarım Akademisi ve son olarak New York Sanat Öğrencileri Birliği’nde tamamlamıştır. Çeşitli üniversitelerde ders veren Tworkow 1937-1941 yılları arasında Amerikan hükümetinin desteklediği Federal Sanat Projesi’nde çalışmıştır. Soyut-Dışavurumculuk’un önemli temsilcilerin olan Tworkow, özellikle 1950’lerde hızlı renk tuşlarının üst üste gelmesiyle oluşturduğu hareketli kompozisyonlarla tanınır. Bu tip resimleri Hareket Resmi içerisinde yer alır. Ufak ton farklılıklarıyla homojen bir renge boyanmış tuval üstüne şaşırtmacalı geometrik çizgiler içeren resimler yapan Tworkow’un yapıtları Soyut-Dışavurumcuların çoğuna oranla daha yumuşak, gizemli ve şiirseldir. (Erzen, 1997: 1827) 2.2. Jackson Pollock: Soyut-Dışavurumculuk akımı içinde yer alan Pollock, tuvalin geniş ve serbest kol hareketleriyle renklendirilmesine dayanan Hareket Resminin de önde gelen temsilcilerindendir. 1938-42 arasında Federal Sanat Projesi’nde (WPA-FAP) görev almıştır. Sanatçının, resimleri kendiliğindenliğe rağmen, değişik etkilerin şekillendirdiği uzun ve karmaşık sanatsal çalışmaların ürünüdür. ABD'de kentsel ve kırsal yaşam sahnelerinde uzman olan Thomas Hart Benton'dan ders alan ve daha sonra, Meksikalı duvar ressamı David Allaro Siqueiros'un yönettiği Deneysel Atölye'de çalışan Pollock, boya damlalarının sanatsal kullanımı gibi tekniklerle orada karşılaşmıştır. 1938'de alkolizm tedavisi gören Pollock’u bu süreçte Jungcu analisti bilinçdışı simgeciliği çizmeye ve araştıramaya teşvik etmiştir. Pollock'un hareket resimleri, hem hayranlıkla hem alayla karşılanmış ve kendisine ün de kazandırmıştır. 1949'da Life dergisinde bir makalede Pollock’un Amerika'nın yaşayan en büyük sanatçısı olduğunu öne sürülmüştür ama Pollock 1952'den sonra hareket resimlerinden vazgeçip figüratife yönelmiş ve sanatında tanınabilir imgeler yeniden ortaya çıkmaya başlamıştır. (Sanat Kitabı, 2017: 322) 1956 yılında, alkollü bir şekilde araba kullanırken yaptığı kaza sonucu ölen Pollock, arkadaşları Kligman’nın ağır yaralanmasına ve Edith Metzger’in ölümüne neden olmuştur. 2.3. Willem de Kooning: Willem De Kooning 1904 yılında Rotterdam'da doğmuştur. On iki yaşında okulu bırakan ve reklâm grafikçisi olarak çalışmaya başlayan De Kooning geceleri resim kurslarına devam etmiştir. 1926’da ABD’ye göç eden ve1927 yılında New York'a yerleşen sanatçı, burada bina ressamlığı yapmıştır. Akımın en güçlü ve dinamik sanatçılarından olan De Kooning 1935- 1936 yılında WPA için çalışmış, 1948 yılında Black Mountain College’de ders vermiştir. 1940'lı yılların başından itibaren yaklaşık otuz yıllık bir süre boyunca büyüler üzerine araştırma yapan Willem De Kooning, ilk sergisini 1953'te Sidney Janis Gallery'de açmıştır.1963 yılında Long Island'a kesin olarak yerleşen sanatçı hayatının son yıllarında alzheimer hastalığıyla mücadele etmiştir. Hastalığın olumsuz etkilerine rağmen seksenlerinde bile manzara resimleri yapmaya devam eden Willem De Kooning 1997 yılında vefat etmiştir. 2.4. Franz Kline: 1910 yılında Pennsylvania'da doğan Franz Kline, yetimhanelerde büyüdü. 1931 – 1935 yılları arasında Boston Üniversitesi’nde sanat eğitimi almıştır. 1947'de, figürden soyut tekniğe GÖKDUMAN / Resim Sanatında 1940-1960 Yılları Arasında Soyut Dışavurumcu Akımlar Journal of Awareness, Cilt / Volume:3, Sayı / Issue: Special, 2018, 235-256 240 geçiş yapar. Kâğıt skeçlerde bir seri mürekkeple siyah-beyaz bir paleti keşfetmeye başlayan Kline, bu tekniği tuvallere uygulamış ve siyah-beyaz geçişli geniş vuruşlar kullanmıştır. 2.4.1. Eserin Çözümlenmesi: Franz Kline’ın bu eseri tuval üzerine yağlıboyadır. (186.7 × y148.3 cm.) New York Modern Sanatlar Müzesi’nde bulunmaktadır. 1950 yılında yapılan eserin ismi Chief (Şef)’tir. Resmin geometrik bir yapısı yoktur. Kullanılan diyagonal kalın çizgiler, resme kaligrafik bir görünüm kazandırmıştır, siyah beyaz renkler ise Franz Kline’ın Uzakdoğu kaligrafisinden etkilendiğini göstermektedir. Üslup olarak Hareket Resmi’nin karakteristik bir örneğidir. Resim 2. Franz Kline, Şef, 148,3 x186.7 cm., Tuval üzerine yağlıboya, 1950, Modern Sanat Müzesi, New York. 3. RENK ALANI RESMİ (Colour Field Painting) 1950'lerin başlarında akım içinde iki farklı grup gelişmeye başlamış, De Kooning ve Pollock'un öncülüğünde Hareketli Soyut anlayışı oluşmuştur. Bu grup, resmin yapım sürecine büyük önem vermiş ve resmi, bu sürecin bir kaydı ve sanatçının bu yaratma süreci içindeki düşüncelerinin bir simgesi olarak nitelendirilmiştir. İkinci grupsa Newman ve Reinhardt öncülüğünde tek renkli resim üzerimde çalışarak, sonraları Renk Alanı Resmi’nin oluşmasında etken olmuştur. (Rona, 1997: 1688-1689) Yalınlığı, renk alanları arasında kesin sınırları ve geometrik gibi duran biçimleri barındıran bu akım daha sonraları Minimal sanata ön ayak olmuştur. Claude Monet’in Nilüfer Yaprakları serisinin etkisiyle oluşan Renk Alanı Resmi’nde tuvaller yere koyularak resim yapılır. 1960’lara doğru ise etkisini yitiren akımın başlıca sanatçıları Helen Frankenthaler, Sam Francis, Morris Louis, Philip Guston, Conrad Marca- Relli, James Brooks, Bradley Walker Tomlin, Grace Hartigan, Ada Junkers, Hedda Sterne, Esteban Vicente ve Jules Olitski’dir. 3.1. Ad Reinhardt: Adolph Frederick Reinhardt, New York Buffalo'da göçmen bir ailenin çocuğu olarak 1913 yılında dünyaya gelmiştir. Sanatla ilgilenmeye erken yaşlarda başlayan Ad Reinhardt 1936-1941 yılında WPA için çalışmıştır. Reinhardt olgun dönemindeki çalışmaları mutlak bir soyutlama arayışıyla karakterize edilir. Soyut Dışavurumculuğun, düşündüren biyomorfizm ve çok sayıda duygusal anlatı veya duygu önerisi içermeyen, tuval dışındaki herhangi bir şeye en ufak bir gönderme yapmayan bir soyut sanat yaratmaya çalışan sanatçı 1967'de 53 yaşındayken New York’taki stüdyosunda kalp krizinden ölmüştür. GÖKDUMAN / Resim Sanatında 1940-1960 Yılları Arasında Soyut Dışavurumcu Akımlar Journal of Awareness, Cilt / Volume:3, Sayı / Issue: Special, 2018, 235-256 241 3.2. Barnett Newman: Barnett Newman, 1905 yılında Rus Polonyalı bir göçmen olarak New York'ta doğmuştur. Yaşamı boyunca büyük ölçüde takdir edilmemesine rağmen soyut Ekspresyonist hareket içinde değerlendirilmiş ve Minimalizm'in öncüsü olarak görülmüşse de kendisini hiçbir zaman belirli bir hareketin bir parçası olarak görmemiştir. Resim ve renklerin temsili olmayan anlamlarına odaklanan keskin tuvallerin aksine Newman, resimlerine daha fazla felsefi bir sınır getirdi. Newman, 1970 yılında New York'ta kalp krizinden öldü. 3.3. Clyfford Still: 1904'te Grandin, Kuzey Dakota'da doğan Clyfford, çocukluk yıllarını Spokane, Washington'da ve Kanada'nın Alberta eyaletinde geçirmiştir. 1933'te Spokane Üniversitesi'den mezun olduktan sonra 1935'te Washington Eyalet Koleji'nden Güzel Sanatlar dalında yüksek lisans eğitimi almış ve birkaç yıl Washington eyaletinde öğretmenlik yapmıştır. Belirgin bir konudan yoksun, yeni ve radikal bir şekilde soyut stile giren ilk kişi olan Clyfford Still, ikinci nesil Renk Alanı ressamlarını önemli ölçüde etkilemiştir. New York sanat sahnesinde hayal kırıklığına uğramasından sonra Rothko, Pollock ve Newman gibi ressamlar ile uzun süren arkadaşlıklarına son veren, kendi çağdaşlarına bile çatan Still, galerilerle de bağları kopardı.1957'de, Venedik Bienali'nin Amerikan Pavyonu'ndaki sergileme teklifini bile reddeden Still, bu süre zarfında, kurumlarda bulunan resimlerinin nasıl sergileneceğine bile ciddi kısıtlamalar getirdi. 1961 yılında Westminster, Maryland'deki bir çiftliğe taşınan sanatçı, 23 Haziran 1980 yılında vefat edene kadar bu çiftlikte sanat yapmaya devam etti ama anlamsız ve çökmüş olarak gördüğü New York sanat sahnesine geri dönmedi. (URL-1, 2018) 3.4. Helen Frankenthaler: Helen Frankenthaler, 1928 yılında Manhattan’da doğmuştur. Babası New York Eyalet Yüksek Mahkemesi'nde bir yargıçtır. Zengin bir aileye mensup olan sanatçının sanatsal yeteneği erkenden fark edildi. Ailesi tarafından ilerici ve deneysel okullara gönderilen Frankenthaler, Hans Hofmann’dan da özel dersler almıştır. On bir yaşındayken babasını kanserden kaybetmesi Frankenthaler’i derinden etkilemiştir. 19 yaşında Clement Greenberg'le bir sergide tanışan Frankenthaler, Greenberg ile birkaç yıl sürecek romantik bir ilişkiye adım atmış ve böylece sanat camiasına girmiştir. Soyut-Dışavurumculuğun sert dinamizmine karşı sulandırılmış boyalarla akıtma tekniği kullanan sanatçı 1957 yılında Robert Motherwell ile tanışmış ve evlenmiştir. On üç yıl süren bu evlilik, ikilinin sanat çalışmalarında karşılıklı etkilenme dönemini başlatmıştır. “Altın çift” olarak anılan ikilinin birlikteliğinden doğan ayrıcalık parasız yoksul Soyut-Dışavurumcu sanatçılar arasında kıskançlık uyandırmıştır. 1971'de Motherwell'den boşanmasından sonra Frankenthaler Amerika’nın Güneybatı'sına gitmiştir. Bu dönemdeki çalışmalarında Güneybatı coğrafyasının renklerini ve tonlarını kullanmıştır. Yale Üniversitesi’ne seçilen ilk kadın üye olan Frankenthaler, 2011'de Connecticut'ta Darien'deki evinde ölmüştür. 3.5. Morris Louis: Morris Louis Bernstein, 1912'de Baltimore, Maryland'de orta sınıf bir Yahudi ailesinde dünyaya geldi. Baltimore Uygulamalı Güzel Sanatlar Enstitüsünde eğitim gördükten sonra 1937'de Meksikalı muralist David Alfaro Siqueiros'la çalışmıştır. New York’a giderek Federal Sanat Projesine katılmıştır. Renk Alanı resimleriyle tanınan sanatçı genellikle akrilik boya kullanır. Tuvalin büyük bir kısmını boyamamakla tanınır. Tuvallerinde renk şeritleri vardır. Bu şeritlerde boyayı hiçbir anlatımcı değer taşımadan tüpten çıktığı gibi uygulamıştır. 1962'de Louis,’e boya buharlarını yoğun şekilde soluması nedeniyle akciğer kanseri teşhisi konmuştur. Sanatçı birkaç ay sonra, 49 yaşında, Washington DC'deki evinde ölmüştür. GÖKDUMAN / Resim Sanatında 1940-1960 Yılları Arasında Soyut Dışavurumcu Akımlar Journal of Awareness, Cilt / Volume:3, Sayı / Issue: Special, 2018, 235-256 242 3.6. Sam Francis: 1923 yılında Kaliforniya San Mateo'da dünyaya gelmiştir. II. Dünya Savaşı sırasında ABD Hava Kuvvetleri'nde görev yapmış, ancak bir test uçuşu sırasında yaralanınca askerlik görevinden ayrılmıştır. Sonrasında sanat eğitimini Berkeley California Üniversitesi’nde yaptıktan sonra Fransa’ya gidip Fernand Leger Atölyesinde eğitim almıştır. Time Magazine tarafından “Paris'teki en ateşli Amerikalı ressam” olarak adlandırılmıştır. Kariyerini önemli ölçüde etkileyen Monet'nin nilüferleri üzerine araştırmalar yapan Sam Francis, Matisse ailesi, Al Held, Joan Mitchell ve Jean-Paul Riopelle ile yakın arkadaşlıklar kurmuştur. İkinci kuşak Soyut-Dışavurumcuları temsil eder. Renk Alanı Resmi içerisinde yer alır. En büyük özelliği astarlanmamış tuval bezi üzerine serbestçe lekeler yaymasıdır. Tuvallerinde bazı bölgeleri boyamaz. Boyamadığı bölgeleri açık alan olarak gösterir. Los Angeles Çağdaş Sanat Müzesi'nin kurucusu olan Francis, 4 Kasım 1994'te Kaliforniya Santa Monica’da 71 yaşındayken ölmüştür. 3.7. Jules Olitski: Jules Olitski, 1922'de Snovsk, Rusya (şimdiki Ukrayna) Jevel Demikovsky'de doğmuştur. Bolşevik babası, doğumundan birkaç ay önce Beyaz Rus ordusu tarafından idam edilince 1923'te annesi ve büyükannesiyle birlikte Brooklyn, New York'ta yaşamaya başlamıştır. Annesi 1926'da yeniden evlenmiş ve kocası Hyman Olitski'nin soyadını almıştır. New York Ulusal Tasarım Akademisi ve New York Tasarım Güzel Sanatlar Enstitüsü’nde okuyan sanatçı ayrıca Paris’te de heykel ve resim eğitimi almıştır. Long Island Üniversitesi ve Benningon Koleji’nde dersler vermiştir. 1959'da ünlü eleştirmen Clement Greenberg'in danışman olduğu Fransız & Co.'daki galeride ilk kişisel sergisini açan sanatçının çalışmaları Renk Alanı Resmi içerisinde değerlendirilir. Üst üste uyguladığı ince renk tabakalarıyla göz kamaştırıcı berraklıkta resimleri vardır. Genellikle akrilik kullanır. 1965’lerden sonra heykelle de ciddi boyutta ilgilenmiştir. Olitski, 2007'de kanserden vefat edene kadar resim yapmayı sürdürmüştür. 3.7.1. Eserin Çözümlenmesi: Jules Olitski’nin bu eseri tuval üzerine akriliktir. Eni 162.6 boyu 233.7 cm. Özel koleksiyonda bulunmaktadır. Yeşil Caz adlı eser 1962 yılında yapılmıştır. Resmin geometrik bir yapısı bulunmaktadır. Kullanılan diyagonal kalın çizgiler resme kaligrafik bir görünüm kazandırmıştır. Asal renkler olarak kabul edilen sarı, kırmızı ve mavi; ara renklerden yeşil ve moru kullanmış, nötr renklerden ise sadece beyazı kullanmıştır. Farklı renklerin birbirine geçme olasılığını ortadan kaldırmış. Basit bir kompozisyondan oluşan Yeşil Caz, Renk Alanı resminin iyi bir örneğidir. GÖKDUMAN / Resim Sanatında 1940-1960 Yılları Arasında Soyut Dışavurumcu Akımlar Journal of Awareness, Cilt / Volume:3, Sayı / Issue: Special, 2018, 235-256 243 Resim 3. Jules Olitski, Yeşil Caz, 233,7×162,6 cm., Tuval üzerine akrilik, 1962, Özel koleksiyon. 4. LİRİK SOYUT (Lyrical-Abstraction): 1950’ler de ABD’de yaygınlaşmış bu akımda genellikle fırça kullanılmaz boya sıkılarak yani tüpten çıktığı şekilde kullanılır. İçten, duygusal ve spontone bir anlayışı vardır. Renge büyük önem verilir. Doğu ve İslam kaligrafisinden etkilenmiş olan Lirik Soyut’un bir diğer adı da Anlatımcı Soyut’tur. Öncüleri Wols, Georges Mathieu, Hans Hartung, Jean Fautrier’dir. Soyut dışavurumculuğa çok benzemektedir ve 1947 yılında Paris'te soyut dışavurumculuğa paralel olarak gelişmiştir. Lirik soyutlama, resmin elemanlarının (özellikle renk, leke, çizgi, doku) tesadüfî ilişkilerine ve ressamın psikolojik yaklaşımına dayanmıştır. Bu akım, kısa sürede diğer Avrupa ülkelerine de yayılmıştır. Link soyutlamanın belli başlı sanatçıları Wols, Roger Bissiere, Jean Fautrier, Hans Hartung, Alfred Manessier, Georges Mathieu, Michel Tapie’dir. 4.1. Alfred Manessier: 5 Aralık 1911'de Fransa'nın Saint-Ouen kentinde doğan sanatçı Paris Okulu çerçevesinde Lirik Soyutlama akımının önde gelen temsilcilerinden biridir. Amines’daki Güzel Sanatlar Okulu’nda mimarlık eğitimi görmüştür. (Babacan, 1997: 1164) Sonrasında Paris’teki Ranson Akademisi’ndeki hocası Roger Bissière’den büyük ölçüde etkilenmiştir. II. Dünya Savaşı sırasında manastıra çekildikten sonra gerçekleştirdiği yapıtlarında soyut biçim ve renklerden oluşan mistik bir nitelik belirmiş, son derece dinsel bir bağlam içinde doğa ve doğa olaylarının düzenini yansıtan simgeler yer almaya başlamıştır. Taşist sanatçılar üzerinde büyük etkisi olan (Babacan, 1997: 1165) sanatçı, 1 Ağustos 1993'te Fransa'nın Orleans şehrinde vefat etmiştir. 4.2. Georges Mathieu: 27 Ocak 1921'de Fransa'nın Boulogne-sur-Mer kentinde doğan Mathieu, hem ressam hem de teorisyendir. Felsefe ve Hukuk eğitimi aldıktan sonra resim yapmaya başlamıştır. İlk başlarda Gerçeküstücülüğe yaklaşan soyut yapıtlar vermiştir. Paris’e yerleştikten sonra Wols’le tanışma olanağı bulmuş ve eserlerinden çok etkilenmiş ve Lirik-Soyutlamaya yakınlık duymuştur. Aynı zamanda Amerikalı Soyut-Dışavurumculardan etkilenmiştir. Sanatçı, resimlerin oluşturulmasında önemli bir araç olan hızın önceliğini, referansların inkârını ve akılcı ruh hâlini ön plana çıkaran Lirik Soyutlamanın inançlarını özetleyen çeşitli manifestolar GÖKDUMAN / Resim Sanatında 1940-1960 Yılları Arasında Soyut Dışavurumcu Akımlar Journal of Awareness, Cilt / Volume:3, Sayı / Issue: Special, 2018, 235-256 244 yayınlamıştır. (URL-2, 2018) Daha sonraları Tokyo gezisi sırasında kaligrafi ile tanışmış ve çok etkilenmiştir. Hiçbir hazırlık yapmadan çok hızlı çalışan ve kaligrafiyi kullanan Georges Mathieu son dönem çalışmalarında ise Osmanlı tuğralarnı konu edinmiştir. Eserleri, New York'taki Solomon R. Guggenheim Müzesi ve Chicago Sanat Enstitüsü'nün koleksiyonlarında bulunmaktadır. Mathieu, 10 Haziran 2012'de Fransa'nın Boulogne-Billancourt şehrinde 91 yaşında vefat etmiştir. 4.3. Henri Michaux: 24 Mayıs 1899'da Belçika'nın Namur kentinde doğmuştur. Üniversite eğitimini Asya ve Güney Amerika'da seyahat etmek için terk eden Michaux burada kariyerinin geri kalanında etkisinde kalacağı felsefi ve kültürel fikirlerle karşılaşmıştır. (URL-3, 2018) 1922'de yazmaya başlayan sanatçı kısa zamanda edebiyat çevrelerinde tanınmış ve 1924'te Paris'e gitmiştir. İlk çizim ve resimlerini 1926-27 arasında yapmıştır. 1927-37 arasındaysa Türkiye, İtalya, Portekiz ve Güney Amerika'yı gezmiştir. Bu gezileri sırasında çoğunlukla yazmış, az sayıda da çizim yapmıştır. (Tükel, 1997: 1230) Onun görsel sanatı çoğu zaman, sanatçının duygu durumuna bağlı olarak değişen figüre ya da mimariye işaret eden organik soyutlamalardan oluşuyor. Serbest Biçimli sanatın biçimsizliğine karşıt olarak uyumlu düzenlemelere yönelmiş ve giderek figüratif birtakım çağrışımlar ve araştırmalar sunmuştur. Sanatçının uyuşturucu deneyimleri, bu ilaçları kullanmadığı zaman gerçekleştirdiği düzenlemeler için de temel oluşturmuştur. Michaux 1965'te Ulusal Edebiyat Büyük Ödülü'nü reddetmiştir. (Tükel, 1997: 1230) Michaux, 18 Ekim 1984'te Paris’te vefat etmiştir. 4.4. Jean Fautrier: 16 Mayıs 1898 yılında Fransa’da doğan sanatçı daha sonra 1909'da annesiyle İngiltere'ye giderek önce Kraliyet Akademisi'nde, daha sonra Slade Sanat Okulu'nda öğrenim görmüştür. I. Dünya Savaşı sırasında bozuk sağlığı nedeniyle ordudan ayrılmıştır. 1917 yılında tekrar doğduğu kent olan Paris’e dönmüştür. II. Dünya Savaşı sırasında Fransız vatandaşlığına başvurduğu sırada Gestapo tarafından tutuklanmış ve işkenceye maruz kalmıştır. Bu durum onu derinden etkilemiştir. İlk çıkışını Dante’nin İlahi Komedya’sının Cehennem adlı birinci bölümünün özel bir baskısı için hazırladığı taş baskılar Serbest Biçimli Sanat’ın habercisi sayılmaktadır. (Babacan, 1997: 578-579) Lirik Akımın en önemli sanatçılarındandır. Spatula ile tuvale aktardığ resimleri çoğunlukla elyazımsı, kalın boya katmanlarından oluşur. Resim konusunu ise çıplaklar, nesneler ve manzaralardan oluşur. Sanatçı 21 Temmuz 1964'te Châtenay-Malabry, Fransa'da ölmüştür. 4.5. Wols: Sanatçı, 27 Mayıs 1913’te Alfred Otto Wolfgang Schulze adıyla Berlin’de dünyaya gelmiştir. Bir memur çocuğu olan Schulze, 1931 yılında Yahudi bir sınıf arkadaşını ateşli bir biçimde savununca, liseyi bitirme sınavlarına çok az bir süre kala, okulunu terk etmek zorunda kalmıştır. (URL-4, 2018) Sonrasında Frankfurt Afrika Çalışmaları Enstitüsü’nde etnoloji ve antropoloji eğitimi almıştır. Ardından Bauhaus okulunda eğitim almıştır. 40’lı yılların başında gerçekleştirdiği çalışmalarında kristaller, yıldızlar, fallus sembolleri ve mikroba benzer biçimler ayırt edilmektedir. Büyük resim üretmek kendi görüşüne göre bir tür jimnastik yapmak anlamına geldiği ve “hırslı” olmayı gerektirdiği için, Wols önceleri küçük boyutlarla yetinmiştir. (URL-5, 2018) Fransa’da illegal olarak bulunan Wols, II. Dünya Savaşı patladıktan kısa bir süre sonra gözaltına alınmış ve bir yıl tutuklu kalmıştır. Tutukluluğu sırasında kâğıt parçacıkları üzerine küçük çini mürekkebi ve suluboya ile resimler yapmıştır. Bu süreçte alkol bağımlısı hâline gelen Wols, Sürrealistlerin psikolojik otomatizmini geliştirdi ve resim yapmayı “parmaklarının hareketi”ne bıraktı. Soyutlamacı çalışmalarıyla Taşizm’in gelişmesini sağladı. Bu dönemde büyük boyutlu tuvallere çalışmıştır. Ama asıl ününü suluboya ve çizimlerine borçludur. Lirik Soyutlama ve Serbest Biçimli Sanatı da uygulamıştır. Wols, boş Rom GÖKDUMAN / Resim Sanatında 1940-1960 Yılları Arasında Soyut Dışavurumcu Akımlar Journal of Awareness, Cilt / Volume:3, Sayı / Issue: Special, 2018, 235-256 245 şişelerinin istiflendiği ucuz otel odalarında yaşamış ve çalışmıştır. 1950’de New York’ta ilk sergisi açmış ve ertesi yıl alkol bağımlılığından kurtulmak için gördüğü tedaviden sonra, 38 yaşında, 1 Eylül 1951’de yediği etten zehirlenerek ölmüştür. (URL-6, 2018) 4.6. Hans Hartung: 21 Eylül 1904'te Almanya'nın Leipzig şehrinde doğmuştur. Leipzig, Dresden ve Münih akademilerinde eğitim gördüğü sırada felsefe ve sanat tarihiyle de ilgilenmiştir. 1935’de Nazi Almanya’sından kaçan Hans Hartung, Paris’e yerleşmiştir. II. Dünya Savaşı’nda Fransız Yabancı Lejyonu’nda hizmet vermiştir. Gestapo tarafından hapsedilmiş ve bir bacağını da savaşta kaybetmiştir. Hartung resimlerinde ve litografilerinde farklı kıvrımlar, karalamalar, siyah çizgiler ve mürekkep lekelerini anımsatan lekelerle kendine özgü kaligrafik bir soyut anlatım geliştirmiştir. Resimlerini fırçanın yanı sıra başparmağıyla ya da ucuna bez sarılı sopayla yapan sanatçı, 7 Aralık 1989'da Fransa'nın Antibes kentinde vefat etmiştir. 4.6.1. Eserin Çözümlenmesi: Hans Hartung’un bu eseri litografi baskısıdır. Eni 30 cm. boyu 48.5 cm. Özel koleksiyonda bulunmaktadır. 1957 yılında yapılmış olan eserin ismi L 24’tür. Resimde siyah çizgiler ve mürekkep lekeleri ile kullanılan diagonal kalın çizgiler Uzak Doğu kaligrafilerini anımsatmaktadır. Aynı zamanda X harfine de benzemektedir. Kullanılan renkler monokrom bir etki yaratsa da aradaki mavi renk monokrom özelliğini kırmıştır. Resimleri dinamik ve deneysel yönü ile kendini güçlü bir şekilde ifade eder. Bu da onu Lirik Soyutlamada lider konumuna getirir. Resim 4. Hans Hartung, L 24, 48.5 x 30 cm., Litografi, 1957, Özel koleksiyon 5. SERBEST BİÇİMLİ SANAT (Art Informal-Taşizm): Art Informal ilk kez Fransız eleştirmen Michel Tapié tarafından kullanılmıştır. Geometrik olmayan Lirik (Anlatım) Soyut’un bir alt kademesidir. II. Dünya Savaşı sonrası akımlarından birisidir. Art Informel sanatçıları geometrik soyutlamadan kopuşun yanında sezgisel ve doğaçlamacı bir karakteri vurgular. Akımın yaygınlık kazanmasında Alman Wols ve İspanyol Antoni Tápie etkili olmuştur. Daha sonraları Hans Hartung’un güçlü fırça darbeleri, GÖKDUMAN / Resim Sanatında 1940-1960 Yılları Arasında Soyut Dışavurumcu Akımlar Journal of Awareness, Cilt / Volume:3, Sayı / Issue: Special, 2018, 235-256 246 Henri Michaux’un kaligrafik ve rastlantısal soyutlamaları, Jean Paul Riopelle’nin spatula ile uyguladığı kalın boya tabakaları, Pierre Soulages’ın koyu renkli boya şeritleri ve Georges Mathieu’nun üst üste uyguladığı çizgi lekeleriyle bilinen akım, Amerikan Soyut- Dışavurumculuğunu andırır. Ülkemizde bu akım Taşizm olarak da bilinir. Taşizm sözcüğü ise Fransız sanat eleştirmeni Charles Estienne tarafından, 1950'li yıllarda etkinlik gösteren ve soyut dışavurumculuğun karşılığı olan, rengin leke ve damlalar halinde uygulandığı soyut resim anlayışını nitelendirmek için kullanılmıştır. (Eczacıbaşı Sanat Ansiklopedisi, 1997: 1750) 5.1. Alberto Burri: 12 Mart 1915'te İtalya'nın Citta di Castello kentinde dünyaya gelmiştir ve II. Dünya Savaşı sırasında Mussolini'nin ordusunda doktor olarak hizmet etmeden önce tıp eğitimi almıştır. Tunus'ta ele geçirilen Burri, Teksas'taki Camp Howze'de savaş esiri olarak tutulduğu dönemde atılmış çuval bezleri üzerine resim yapmaya başlamıştır. 1946'da serbest bırakıldıktan sonra, sanat pratiğinin soyutlamaya dönüştüğü Roma'ya taşınmıştır. (URL-7, 2018) Doktorluğu bırakıp ressam olmaya karar verdikten sonra ilk sergisini 1948'de açan Burri 20.yy İtalyan sanatının en ünlü soyut ressamıdır. Burri'nin 1949-51 arasında yaptığı Katran dizisini, 1952 tarihli Çuvallar, 1956 tarihli Yanıklar, 1957 tarihli Tahtalar, Demirler ve Plastikler dizileri izlemiştir. Sanatçı bu yapıtlarında yanma, kir ve yıpranma olgusuna yer vermiş; artık, çöp vb atılmış nesnelerin anlatım olanaklarından yararlanarak (Babacan, 1997: 304) Serbest Biçimli Sanat’ın yanında Yoksul Sanat türünde de eserler üretmiştir. 15 Şubat 1995'te Fransa'da Nice'de vefat etmiştir. 5.2. Antoni Tápie: 13 Aralık 1923'te İspanya'nın Barselona kentinde doğmuş ve gençliğinde birçok hastalık geçirmiştir. Barselona Üniversitesi’nde hukuk eğitimi alan Tápie, 1942’de sanatoryumda kaldığı iki yıllık süre içinde Van Gogh ve Picasso’nun resimlerinin kopyalarını yaparak resim öğrenmiştir. Antoni Tápie’nin resimleri çok keskin sınırlamalar içinde biçimlenemez. Her resminde içten gelen bir fırça darbesinin ve iç dünyasını anlatan lekelerin egemen olduğu, yalnız öğelerin farklılaştığı bir tavır görülür. (Erzen, 1997: 1735) Tápies 6 Şubat 2012’de Barselona, İspanya'da vefat etmiştir. 5.3. Emilio Vedova: Emilio Vedova, 9 Ağustos 1919'da Venedik'te doğmuştur. Kendi kendini yetiştiren bir sanatçı olarak, 1942 yılında Renato Birolli, Renato Guttuso, Ennio Morlotti ve Umberto Vittorini'yi de içeren Milan’lı Faşizm karşıtı sanatçı derneği Corrente'ye (1938-43) katılmıştır. 1943’ten 1945’e kadar Vedova direnişine katıldı. 1946'da Milano'da “Oltre Guernica” (Guernica'nın Ötesinde) manifestosuyla Morlotti ile işbirliği yapmış ve Venedik'teki Fronte Nuovo delle Arti'nin (Yeni sanat cephesi, 1946-50) kurucu üyeleri arasında yer almıştır. Bu dönemde yaptığı resimler geometrik (siyah geometriler) olarak tanımlanmıştır. (URL-8, 2018) İtalya’da Serbest Biçimli Sanat’ın en önemli temsilcilerindendir. Eserlerinde Fütürizm ve Picasso etkileri görülür. Vedova, 25 Ekim 2006'da Venedik'te ölünceye kadar resim ve baskıresim çalışmalarını aktif olarak sürdürmeye devam etmiştir. 5.4. Ernst Wilhelm Nay: Almanya'nın Berlin kentinde 1 Haziran 1911'de doğmuştur. Nazi rejimi çalışmalarını Dejenere sanat olarak gösterene kadar, hatta eser üretmesini engelleyene kadar, Almanya'da başarılı bir şekilde kariyerini sürdürmüştür. Art Informel hareketi içerisinde İkinci Dünya Savaşı sonrası sanatçıları arasında en bilinen Alman ressamıdır. Sadece soyutlama içinde çalışmasına rağmen, Nay'un tekstil benzeri desenleri ve farklı renkleri kullanması, Ernst GÖKDUMAN / Resim Sanatında 1940-1960 Yılları Arasında Soyut Dışavurumcu Akımlar Journal of Awareness, Cilt / Volume:3, Sayı / Issue: Special, 2018, 235-256 247 Ludwig Kirchner ve Henri Matisse gibi temsili ressamların etkisini göstermektedir. Ernst Wilhelm Nay, 8 Nisan 1968'de Köln, Almanya'da vefat etmiştir. 5.5. Jean-Michel Atlan: Fransız Ressam Jean Michel Atlan, 1913’te Cezayir’in Constantine şehrinde doğmuştur. Yahudi bir aileye mensup olan sanatçı 1930 – 1934 yılları arasında Paris Sorbonne Üniversitesinde Felsefe eğitimi almıştır. Fransa’nın Almanya tarafından işgali nedeniyle eğitim hakkını kaybeden sanatçı Montparnasse civarında yokluk içinde yaşamıştır. 1942’de tutuklanan ve bir ruh hastalıkları kliniğinde tecride mahkûm edilen Atlan, bu süreçte resme ilgi duymaya başlamıştır. (URL-9, 2018) Fransa’nın işgalden kurtulmasıyla 1944 yılında ‘Le Sang Profond’ isimli şiir kitabını yayınlamıştır. Resim çalışmalarını, Galeri Charpentier’de düzenlenen Ecole de Paris sergisinde sunmuş, 1956’da Galerie Bing’de düzenlenen sergisiyle övgü toplamıştır. Sanatçı 1960 yılında kanser nedeniyle hayatını kaybetmiştir. (URL-10, 2018) 5.6. Jean-Paul Riopelle: 7 Ekim 1923'te Kanada'nın Montreal kentinde doğan Riopelle, erken yaşta resim eğitimi almış, daha sonra Mobilya Okulu’nda eğitim görmüştür. İlk önceleri Gerçeküstücü eğilim gösteren sanatçı Pollock’tan etkilenerek Serbest Biçimli Sanat akımı tarzında resimler yapmaya başlamıştır.. Belli biçimlere bağlı olmayan soyut resimlerin doğallığıyla, güçlü fırça vuruşlarının oluşturduğu renk ve doku arasında bir bağlantı kurmaya çalışan sanatçı eserlerinde yoğun renk ilişkilerine de yer vermiştir. Kullanılan parlak renkler, yüzeye mekanik bir katılık getirmiştir. Amerikalı ressam Joan Mitchell ile 15 yıl romantik bir ilişki yaşayan sanatçı 12 Mart 2002'de Île-aux-Grues, Kanada'da vefat etmiştir. 5.7. Jean René Bazaine: Jean René Bazaine, 1904'te Paris'te doğmuştur. Çocukluğundan beri heykele yatkın olan sanatçı Ecole des Beaux-Arts'ta heykel okumuş ancak 1924'te resim eğitimi almak için Julian Akademisi’ne geçmiştir. İlk kişisel sergisini 1931 yılında Salon d'Automne'da açan Bazaine bu sergiden sonra Bonnard tarafından takdir görmüş ve cesaretlendirilmiştir. (URL-11, 2018) Dini sanat ile ilgilenen Bazaine, kiliseler için vitraylar, seramik duvarlar yapmıştır. 1948-51 yılları arasında uluslararası üne kavuşmuştur. Taşizm’in güzel örneklerini vermiş olan Bazaine 1975 yılında Paris, Fransa’da vefat etmiştir. 5.8. K.R.H. Sonderborg: 5 Nisan 1923'te Danimarka’nın Als adasında doğmuştur. II. Dünya Savaşı sırasında gestapo tarafından tutuklanan Sonderborg, savaş sonrası Avrupa sanatında önemli bir rol oynamış ve Serbest Biçimli Sanatın önemli savunucuları arasında yer almıştır. Sonderborg, ilk önceleri mekanik yapıların bir kısmını boyayarak tuvale yerleştirmeyle başlamıştır. Sonraları spontan jestler kullanara caz ritimlerinden ilhamla titreşen çizgilere yer vermiştir. 1968’li yıllarda Beuys ile birlikte Düsseldorf Sanat Akademisinde öğretmenlik yapan Sonderborg’un eserleri birçok koleksiyonda yer almıştır. Sanatçı 18 Şubat 2008 yılında Hamburg, Almanya’da vefat etmiştir. 5.9. Karl Otto Götz: Almanya’nın Aachen kentinde 22 Şubat 1914’de doğmuştur. Serbest Biçimli Sanat akımı tekniğinde resimler yapmıştır. Sanatçı büyük ölçekli kompozisyonlar kurarak 20. yüzyıl Alman çağdaş sanatının ilerlemesine vesile olmuştur. Sigmar Polke ve Gerhard Richter gibi sanatçıları etkilemiştir. İlk kişisel sergisini 1947 yılında açan sanatçı Düsseldorf Sanat GÖKDUMAN / Resim Sanatında 1940-1960 Yılları Arasında Soyut Dışavurumcu Akımlar Journal of Awareness, Cilt / Volume:3, Sayı / Issue: Special, 2018, 235-256 248 Akademisinde öğretmenlik yapmış ve birçok sanatçının yetişmesini sağlamıştır. 19 Ağustos 2017 yılında 103 yaşında Niederbreitbach, Almanya’da vefat etmiştir. 5.10. Pierre Soulages: 24 Aralık 1919'da Fransa'nın Rodez kentinde doğmuştur. II. Dünya Savaşı sonrası Yeni Paris Okulu’nun en özgün sanatçılarından biri olarak kabul edilen Pierre Soulages, kısa bir süre sonra Montpellier Sanat Okulunda eğitim gördükten sonra savaşa katılmıştır. Serbest Biçimli Sanat içinde gösterilir. Büyük boyutlu tuvaller kullanarak geniş siyah çizgilerle kaligrafik resimler yapmıştır. 2001 yılında St. Petersburg'daki Hermitage Müzesi'nde sergilenen ilk çağdaş sanatçı olmuştur. Fransa'nın Sète kentinde yaşamaktadır. Sanatçı, 2014 yılında memleketinde kendi adına açılan Musée Soulages'e 500 eser bağışlamıştır. 5.10.1. Eserin Çözümlenmesi: Pierre Soulages’in bu eseri tuval üzerine yağlıboyadır. Boyutları 195 x 130 cm, Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum koleksiyonunda bulunmaktadır. 1953 yılında yapılmıştır. Işıltılı açık zeminle siyah imgelerin çatışmasından doğan bir gerilimin söz konusu olduğu büyük boyutlu tuvallerdeki açık renk zemin üstüne siyah, geniş çizgiler kaligrafiyi çağrıştırır. Ancak bunlar kaligrafik imgelerden çok serbest biçimli bir anlatım ürünü olan işaretlerdir. (Gökduman, 2002: 29) Resim 5. Pierre Soulages, Resim, 195 x 130 cm., Tuval üzerine yağlıboya, 1953, Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York 6. KOBRA (Cobra): İkinci Dünya Savaşı'ndan sonra, Paris’te Hollandalı Deneysel Grup ile Belçikalı Genç Beloica Resmi üyelerinin birleşmesiyle Pierre Alechinsky, Karel Appel, Corneille, Asger Jorn öncülüğünde kurulmuştur. Grup adını kurucularının geldiği ülkelerin başkentlerinin harflerinden almıştır. Kopenhag (Copenhagen), Brüksel ve Amsterdam şehirlerinin ilk harfleri ve kobra yılanından gelmektedir. (Rona, 1997: 1029) Ancak Kobra, sadece bu şehirde yaşayan sanatçılarla sınırlı değildir; sekiz ülkeden yaklaşık elli sanatçıdan oluşmuştur. 1948 ve 1951 yılları arasında etkinlik göstermiştir. Bütün avangart akımlarda olduğu gibi Kobra için de geleceğin kurulması, ancak geçmişin reddedilmesiyle mümkündür. Kobra ve Dada arasında yakın benzerlikler vardır. Dada, Kobra'dan otuz yıl kadar önce Birinci Dünya Savaşı'ndan GÖKDUMAN / Resim Sanatında 1940-1960 Yılları Arasında Soyut Dışavurumcu Akımlar Journal of Awareness, Cilt / Volume:3, Sayı / Issue: Special, 2018, 235-256 249 hemen sonra ortaya çıkmıştır. Her iki hareket de savaş sonrasının kültürel değerlerine kuşkuyla bakmış ve onları sorgulamaya başlamış; bütün sanat biçimleriyle (edebiyat, müzik, sinema, fotoğraf vb.) kaynaşmış; felsefe, psikoloji ve politikayla ilişki kurmuştur. Bu anlamda her iki akım da sürrealizmle çok benzeşir. (Keser, 2009: 73-74) Kobra'nın sanatçıları Amerika’daki Hareket Resmi gibi el ve kol hareketleri ile ilintilidir. Bilinci reddeder, sadece doğaçlama hareketler ile oluşan resimlerdir. Bunun sebebi Batı kültürünün bulandırdığı yaratıcılık kaynaklarından kurtulmak isteyip; Doğu hat sanatı, efsaneler, folklor, çocuklar ve akıl hastalarının sanatlarıyla yakından ilgilenmiş olmalarıdır. 6.1. Asgern Jorn: 3 Mart 1914'te Vejrum, Danimarka'da doğan Asger Oluf Jørgensen, 1936'da Paris'e gitmiş ve burada Fernand Léger'in özel sanat okuluna kaydolmuştur. Sonrasında Danimarka'ya dönenerek, eğitimini Kopenhag'daki Danimarka Kraliyet Güzel Sanatlar Akademisi'nde tamamlamıştır. Karel Appel ile birlikte Kobra grubunun kurucuları arasında yer alır. Jorn, sayısız soyutlama ve canavar formlarını, bitpazarlarından topladığı geleneksel manzara resimlerinin üstüne yapmıştır. (URL-12, 2018) Yaratıcı düşünceyi beklenmedik, bilinmeyen, tesadüfî, düzensiz, saçma ve imkânsız olarak tanımlayan Jorn, 1 Mayıs 1973 yılında Danimarka'nın Aarhus kentinde ölene kadar resim yapmaya devam ettmiştir. 6.2. Corneille: Hollandalı bir ailenin çocuğu olan Corneille, 3 Temmuz 1922 yılında Belçika'nın Liège kentinde doğmuştur. Asıl adı Guillaume Cornelis van Beverloo'dur. Amsterdam Rijksakademie’den mezun olduktan sonra kendi kendini yetiştirmiş bir ressam olarak kabul edilmektedir. Akademi’den arkadaşları Appel, Alechinksy ve Jorn ile 1948 yılında Kobra Grubunun kurucuları arasında yer almıştır. Corneille, 1950'lerin başlarında muhafazakâr Hollanda sanat camiasında kendine iyi bir yer edinmiştir. Kuşları, kedileri, kadınları, manzaraları, mitolojik ve çoğunlukla çocuksu hareketlerle düzenleyen sanatçı modern sanatı kabul edilir kılmıştır. (URL-13, 2018) Pablo Picasso, Paul Klee ve Vincent van Gogh'dan etkilenmiştir. 5 Eylül 2010 yılında Paris, Fransa’da vefat etmiştir. 6.3. Karel Appel: Karel Appel, 25 Nisan 1921'de Amsterdam'da doğmuştur. 1940'dan 1943'e kadar Amsterdam'daki Rijksakademie van Beeldende Kunsten'de eğitim görmüştür. 1946'da ilk kişisel sergisini Hollanda'nın Groningen şehrinde Het Beerenhuis'de açan Appel, Amsterdam Stedelijk Müzesi'nde Jonge Schilders (Genç ressamlar)'a katılmıştır. Bu süre zarfında, önce Pablo Picasso ve Henri Matisse sonra Jean Dubuffet’den etkilenmiştir. (URL-14, 2018) 1948'de Hollandalı bir grup sanatçıyla birlikte Deneysel Grup’u kurmuş ve 1949'dan başlayarak bu grubun açtığı sergilere katılmıştır. Reflex adıyla yayımladıkları dergide ise soyut sanatın ilkelerini savunmuştur. Bu dönemde çoğu kez doğrudan doğruya tüpten tuvale sıktığı yoğun boya katmanlarıyla kompozisyonlar yaratan sanatçının tabloları, kullandığı canlı renkler ve ilkel biçimlerle Kuzey Dışavurumculuğu'nun coşkulu, huzursuz niteliğini yansıtır. 1950'den sonra Paris'e yerleşerek uluslararası bir üne kavuşan ressam, 1953 Sao Paulo Bienali’ne katılmış, 1954'te de Venedik Bienali'nde UNESCO Ödülü'nü almıştır. Sanat yaşamının ileri dönemlerinde daha yalın ve iki boyutlu kompozisyonlar yaratmakla birlikte, resimlerindeki soyut imgeler, bir yandan dehşet, bir yandan da çocuksu bir saflık izlenimi veren masklar, hayvan ve doğadışı yaratıklardan esinti taşımaktadır. (Babacan, 1997: 118) Karel Appel, 3 Mayıs 2006 yılında Zürih'te vefat etmiştir. GÖKDUMAN / Resim Sanatında 1940-1960 Yılları Arasında Soyut Dışavurumcu Akımlar Journal of Awareness, Cilt / Volume:3, Sayı / Issue: Special, 2018, 235-256 250 6.4. Pierre Alechinsky: 19 Ekim 1927'de Brüksel'de doğan Pierre Alechinsky, grafik teknikleri, halk sanatı ve ortaçağ kitap illüstrasyonları üzerine yoğunlaşmıştır.1948 yılında Brüksel'de Ulusal Mimarlık ve Dekoratif Sanatlar Yüksekokulu'nda sanat eğitimi alan Alechinsky ilk kişisel sergisini 1947 yılında Brüksel'deki Galerie Lou Cosyn'de açmıştır. Kobra Grubu’nun kurucuları arasında yer almıştır. Japon kaligrafisi, Halk sanatı ve çocuk sanatından esinlenen çalışmalarında cesur ve etkileyici kompozisyonlar bulunur. Sanatçı çalışmalarına Paris’teki atölyesinde devam etmektedir. 6.4.1. Eserin Çözümlenmesi: Pierre Alechinsky’nin bu eseri tuval üzerine yağlıboyadır. Boyutları 151,1 x 238,4 cm. 1954 yılında yapılan eser, Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum koleksiyonunda bulunmaktadır. Alechinsky’nin eserlerinde genellikle somut ve soyut birleşir. Bu durum, bu eserde de görülmektedir. Tuval ortasında bir kadın figürü bulunmaktadır, tuvalin arka planına doğru ise figür kaybolmaktadır. Ortaya çıkan şekilde ve arka planda, yoğun bir şekilde beyaz ile renklendirilmiş mavi çizgilerden oluşan bir resim bulunmaktadır. Resimde eski resimlerini karakterize eden allover deseninin izleri vardır. Bu eserde aynı zamanda 1955 yılında Japonya’ya yaptığı yolculuklarda gözlemlediği Japon kaligrafisinin etkileri de görülmektedir. Resim 6. Pierre Alechinsky, Ant Tepesi, 151,1 x 238,4 cm., T.ü.y.b., 1954,Solomon R. Guggenheim Müzesi, New York. 7. SERT KENAR (Hard Edge): Sert Kenar akımı resminde ana konu renktir. Resimler adeta saf renkten ibarettir. Bu akıma göre rengin bittiği yerde resim bitmiş demektir. Geometrik Soyutlama içinde tanımlanabilir. 1950-1960 yılları arasında etkin olmuştur. “Sert-Kenar” adını ilk kez 1959’da Claremont’ta açılacak bir sergi için California’lı eleştirmen Jules Langsner önermiş, ama sergi "4 Soyut Klasikçi” adı altında açılmıştır. Bu terim ise giderek yüzey düzgünlüğü, renk canlılığı, biçim yalınlığı taşıyan resim türleri için kullanılmış; biçim ve renk alanlarının sınırıyla oluşan keskin çizgiyi vurgulamıştır. Özellikle ABD'de yayılan bu soyutlamada yüzey düzgün ve dokusuzdur. Az sayıdaki biçim ise tüm yüzey boyunca uzanmasa da onu parçalara böler. Her ne kadar Sert-Kenar resimleri, 1920 ve 30’larda Avrupa'da yaygınlaşan Geometrik-Soyutlama'yla bir benzerlik gösterse de onun yanında çok yalın, tüme varan, çarpıcı bir görünüşe sahiptir. (Erzen, 1997: 1646) Sert-Kenar akımı içerisinde yer alan sanatçılar; Frank Stella, Kenneth Noland, Ellsworth Kelly ve Lorser Feitelson gibi sanatçılardır. GÖKDUMAN / Resim Sanatında 1940-1960 Yılları Arasında Soyut Dışavurumcu Akımlar Journal of Awareness, Cilt / Volume:3, Sayı / Issue: Special, 2018, 235-256 251 7.1. Ellsworth Kelly: 31 Mayıs 1923 yılında Newburgs, New York’ta doğmuştur. 1945'te Boston Güzel Sanatlar Müzesi Okulu'nda başladığı sanat eğitimini 1948'de gittiği Paris'te Güzel Sanatlar Yüksekokulu’nda tamamlamıştır. Meslek yaşamının başlarında figüratif nitelikli yapıtlar üreten Kelly’nin Soyut Sanat’a yönelişi Paris’te gezdiği bir sergi sırasında gözüne çarpan pencere ve kemer aralıklarından esinlenmesiyle başlamıştır. (Erzen, 1997: 979) Ellsworth Kelly, savaş sonrası sanat dünyasında çok etkili bir güç olmuştur. İlk olarak 1950'lerde parlak, çok panelli ve büyük ölçüde tek renkli tuvalleriyle dikkatleri çekmiştir. Biçim ve renk arasındaki dinamik ilişkilere odaklanmayı sürdüren Kelly, düzensiz şekilli tuvaller yaratan ilk sanatçılardan biridir. Daha sonraki tabakalı kabartma rölyefleri, düz heykelleri ve gökkuşağını çağrıştıran resimleriyle, izleyicilerin boşluk kavramını daha da zorlamıştır. Herhangi bir sanatsal harekete bağlı kalmamakla birlikte, Minimalizm, Sert kenarlı resim, Renk Alanı ve Pop Sanatı’nı etkileyen Kelly, (URL-15, 2018) 27 Aralık 2015 yılında Spencertown, New York’ta vefat etmiştir. 7.2. Kenneth Noland: 10 Nisan 1924’te Asheville, Kuzey Carolina’da doğmuştur. Birçok Amerikan Avangard sanatçısını yetiştiren Black Mountain College'da eğitim görmüştür. 1948-49 yılları arasında da Paris'te Zadkine Heykel OkuIu'na devam etmiştir. Daha sonraki yıllarda ABD’deki çeşitli okullarda öğretmenlik yapmış olan Noland soyut ve minimal sanatın yaygınlaşmasında, kavramsal sanatın gelişiminde önemli rol oynamıştır. (Erzen, 1997: 1352) Noland, hedef tahtasını andıran resimler, zikzaklar ve çizgiler dâhil olmak üzere basitleştirilmiş soyut formlara dayalı bir stil geliştirmiştir. Noland'ın resimleri çarpıcı biçimde Sert Kenar ile Minimalist renkli kompozisyonlar ile karakterize edilir. Bu bağlamda, Noland'ın sanatı, çağdaş soyutçuları etkilemiştir. 5 Ocak 2010 yılında Port Clyde, Maine’de vefat etmiştir. 7.3. Lorser Fietelson: 1898 yılında Savannah, Georgia’da dünyaya gelmiştir. 1927 yılında New York ve Paris'te yaşarken kabul ettiği modernist fikirleri beraberinde Los Angales’e getirdi. Sanat topluluğunda bir lider ve öğretmen olarak son derece etkili olan Feitelson, Pasadena'daki son derece etkili Chouinard Sanat Enstitüsü ve Art Center Tasarım Koleji'nde öğretmenlik yaptı. Bugün o kurum Feitelson sayesinde Los Angeles'ta önemli bir sanat merkezi hâline gelmiştir. 1940'tan 1960'a kadar Feitelson, soyut formları keşfemeye çalışmıştır ve bu doğrultuda sanatı figürden geometrik olana doğru evrilmiştir. Soyut Klasizim veya Sert Kenar resmi olarak bilinen resmi, geleneksel klasizim ile ilgili derin mekân ve biçim duygusunu koruyan eşsiz görüntüler sunmuştur. 1960'lı yılların ortalarından itibaren Minimalizm'e kayarak, arka plandaki renge göre ayarlanmış çizgilerden oluşan şık tablolar yaratmıştır. 1978 yılında Los Angeles, Kaliforniya’da vefat etmiştir. 7.4. Frank Stella: 12 Mayıs 1936 yılında Malden, Massachusetts’de doğan Stella, Princeton Üniversitesi'nde Tarih Bölümü’nde okurken bir taraftan da sanat dersleri almaya devam etmiştir. New York’taki sanat gezilerinde Jackson Pollock ve Franz Kline ile tanışmıştır. Monokromatik bir palet anlayışı ile birlikte düz bir boya uygulamasına geçmiştir. Böylelikle Soyut-Dışavurumcu anlayıştan kopmaya başlamıştır. Stella, siyah resimleriyle Alüminyum Resim Sergisi (1960) ve Bakır Resim Sergisi (1960-61) açmıştır. Kendi oluşturduğu geometrik şekilli tuvaller ile geleneksel dikdörtgen biçime meydan okumuştur. İlk retrospektif sergisini 1970 yılında New York Modern Sanatlar Müzesi'nde açan Stella, retrospektif sergisi açan en genç ressamdır. İkinci retrospektif sergisini de yine New York Modern Sanatlar Müzesi'nde on yedi yıl sonra açmıştır. GÖKDUMAN / Resim Sanatında 1940-1960 Yılları Arasında Soyut Dışavurumcu Akımlar Journal of Awareness, Cilt / Volume:3, Sayı / Issue: Special, 2018, 235-256 252 1980'lerden sonra üç boyutlu resimler yapmaya başlayan Stella, parlak ve canlı renkler kullanmaya başlamıştır. Kendisini Minimalist olarak görmemesine rağmen Minimal Sanatı etkilemiş bir sanatçıdır. 7.4.1. Eserin Çözümlenmesi: Frank Stella’nın Harran II adlı bu eseri tuval üzerine polimer ve flüoresan polimer boyadır. Boyutları 304.8 x 609,6 cm. Eser 1967 yılında yapılmıştır. Solomon R. Guggenheim Müzesi koleksiyonuna Bay Irving Blum’un hediyesi olarak 1982 yılında katılmıştır. Eser ismini Anadolu’nun antik şehri Harran’dan almıştır. Harran adı 4000 yıldan beri değişmeden günümüze kadar gelmiştir. Sümerce ve Akatça “Seyahat-Kervan” anlamına gelen “Haranu”dan gelmektedir. Bazı kaynaklar bu kelimenin “keşişen yollar” veya “şiddetli sıcak” anlamına geldiğini de kaydetmektedirler. (URL-16, 2018) Bu seri de tıpkı Harran’ın ismi gibi büyük birleşimlerin kesişen yollarını andırır. Lirik motifleri olan dekoratif desenler bulunmaktadır. Geleneksel dikdörtgen biçime meydan okuyan bir resimdir. Resim 7. Frank Stella, Harran II, 304.8 x 609,6 cm. T.ü. polimer ve flüoresan polimer boya, 1967, Solomon R. Guggenheim Müzesi, New York, Bay Irving Blum’un Hediyesi 1982. 8. SOYUT İZLENİMCİLİK (Abstract Impressionism): Soyut İzlenimcilik, sanatçıların, objektif temsillere ihtiyaç duymadan renklerin kullanımıyla kendilerini ifade ettikleri soyut resim sanatıdır. Soyut İzlenimcilik terimi ilk kez Robert Coates tarafından 1946 yılında yeni sanat eserleri hakkındaki eleştirilerinden birinde kullanılmıştır. Fakat etki alanı daha sonraki yıllara rastlar. Soyut İzlenimcilik’te boya, yoğun bir duygu ve enerjiyle uygulanır. Fırça darbeleri geniş ve cesurdur, şiddetli biçimde uygulanabilir. Sanatçıları; Nicolas de Staël, Joan Mitchell, Milton Resnick ve Richard Pousette- Dart gibi sanatçılardır. 8.1. Nicholas de Staȅl: 5 Ocak 1914 yılında St. Petersburg, Rusya’da doğmuştur. Eğitimini Brüksel Kraliyet Güzel Sanatlar Akademisi’nde tamamlamış ve yaşamının çoğunu Fransa'da geçirmiştir. Genellikle spatula kullanarak kalın boya tabakaları ile oluşturduğu soyutlanmış peyzajlarıyla tanınır. Resimleri, New York ve Paris gibi sanat ortamlarında yüksek talep görmesine rağmen De Staël yaşamı boyunca depresyondan kurtulamamıştır. 16 Aralık 1955 yılında Fransa Antibes'de bulunan atölyesinin penceresinden atlayarak intihar etmiştir. GÖKDUMAN / Resim Sanatında 1940-1960 Yılları Arasında Soyut Dışavurumcu Akımlar Journal of Awareness, Cilt / Volume:3, Sayı / Issue: Special, 2018, 235-256 253 8.2. Joan Mitchell: 12 Şubat 1925 yılında Chicago, Illinois’de doğmuştur. Chicago Sanat Enstitüsü'nden mezun olduktan sonra Edward L. Ryerson Seyahat Bursu ile ödüllendirilmiştir. Wassily Kandinsky, Henri Matisse ve Paul Cézanne'ın geç dönem çalışmalarından etkilenmiştir. Amerika Birleşik Devletleri’ndeki erkek egemen sanat sahnesinde büyük başarı kazanmıştır. Yine erkekler tarafından temsil edilen New York’taki Soyut Dışavurumculuk ekolünün rekabetçi mücadelesine dâhil olmuştur. Kronolojik olarak Jackson Pollock’tan sonraki dönemde çalışmış ve “ikinci nesil” soyut dışavurumcu olarak anılmıştır. (Barret: 2015: 116) Sonraları Mitchell’in resimleri Soyut İzlenimcilik içerisinde de değerlendirilmiştir. Uzun süre New York - Paris arasında gidip gelen sanatçı 1959 yılında kalıcı olarak Fransa’ya taşınmıştır. Bu cesur adım onu New York’ta gelişmekte olan sanat dünyasından uzaklaştırmıştır. Paris’te ise Jean-Paul Riopelle de dâhil olmak üzere birçok farklı sanatçıyla tanışma imkânı bulmuştur. Başarılı bir Kanadalı sanatçı olan Riopelle ile birlikte yaşamıştır. İkisinin birlikteliği 1979 yılına kadar sürmüştür. Hayatının sonuna kadar soyut resim yapmaya devam eden sanatçı 30 Ekim 1992’de Vetheuil, Fransa’da vefat etmiştir. 8.2.1. Eserin Çözümlenmesi: Joan Mitchell’in Barnes Hole’a Yüzmeye Gitti Ancak Çok Üşüdü adlı bu eseri tuval üzerine yağlıboyadır. Boyutları 216.535 x 198.755 cm. Eser 1957 yılında yapılmıştır. Mitchell, köpeği George ile kumsala gittikleri bir yaz gününün anısını resmine aktarır. Resmi yaptığı sırada Sandler ile gerçekleştirdiği röportaj boyunca Mitchell manzaralarını yanında taşıdığını söyler, Sandler da onun yorumunu Baudelaire’in “Açık bir pencereden sokağa bakan biri hiçbir zaman kapalı bir pencereden dışarı bakan birisi kadar çok şey görmez,” sözleriyle ilişkilendirir. Mitchell’in eseri soyut ve taraflıdır, ancak bir kumsala, bir köpeğe, anılarına ve duygularına gönderme yapar. Resminde ifade ettiği duygular gerçek dünyaya aittir ve çok güçlüdür. Sandler’a göre Mitchelll “hem hatırladığı manzarayı hem de gerçekte içinde olduğu duygu hâlini yeniden yaratmaya kalkışır (…) Sanatçının kendi köprüsü, gölü ya da kumsalı çelişkileri ve belirsizlikleri aktarmak suretiyle sınırlı olanın (görülebilenin) ötesine geçmek ve sınırsız olanın bir kısmına katılmak zorundadır.” Mitchell, “Resim çalışmalı ama aynı zamanda resmin çalışmasından daha fazlasını söylemelidir,” der. (Sandler, 1957: 45) (Barret: 2015: 133) Resim 8. Joan Mitchell, George Went Swimming at Barnes Hole, but It Got Too Cold, (216.535 x 198.755 cm. T.ü.y.b. 1957.) GÖKDUMAN / Resim Sanatında 1940-1960 Yılları Arasında Soyut Dışavurumcu Akımlar Journal of Awareness, Cilt / Volume:3, Sayı / Issue: Special, 2018, 235-256 254 9. SONUÇ Görüldüğü üzere 1940-1950 yılları arasında New York’ta ortaya çıkan Soyut Dışavurumcu resim anlayışının, ortaya çıkışıyla ilgili farklı görüşler öne sürülmesine rağmen, uluslararası sanat ortamına yeni bir soluk getirdiğini ve sanatçılara kendilerini özgürce ifade etme olanağı sunduğunu kabul etmek gerekir. Öncülüğünü Jackson Pollock, Mark Rothko, William Baziotes ve Willem De Kooning’in yaptığı Soyut Dışavurumcu akımın öne çıkan diğer isimleri arasında Lousie Bourgeois, James Brooks, Alberto Burri, Jack Bush, Elaine Fried de Kooning, Jean Dubuffet, Sam Fancis, H. Frankenthaller, Arshile Gorky, Adolph Gottlieb, Philip Guston, Grace Hartigan, Al Held, Hans Hofmann, Franz Kline, Norman Lewis, Morris Louis, Robert Motherwell, Louise Nevelson, Barnet Newman, Kenneth Noland, Jules Olitsky, Conrad Marca-Relli, William Ronald, William Scort, Aaron Siskind, David Smith, Hedda Sterne, Clyfford Still, Bradley Walker Tomlin ve Esteban Vicente gösterilir. Bu isimlerin kendine özgü üslupları ve kullandıkları plastik dildeki farklılıklar nedeniyle Hareket Resmi, Renk Alanı Resmi, Lirik Soyutlama, Serbest Biçimli Sanat, Kobra, Sert Kenar ve Soyut Empresyonizm gibi başlıklar altında ele alınsa da Soyut Dışavurumculuk görsel gerçekliğin temsilini değil de onun etkisini elde etmek için form, renk, çizgi, ton ve doku unsurlarını öznel biçimde kullanmaya dayanır. Bu nedenle sanatçıyı merkeze alır. Özetle, sözü edilen akımların ortak noktası, sanatçıyı merkeze alarak ona kendini modern sanatı kısıtlayabilecek tüm geleneklerden bağımsız bir biçimde ifade etme olanağı sunarken aynı zamanda yaratma işlemi ve sürecinin de resmin konusuna dâhil olmasına olanak sağlamasıdır. GÖKDUMAN / Resim Sanatında 1940-1960 Yılları Arasında Soyut Dışavurumcu Akımlar Journal of Awareness, Cilt / Volume:3, Sayı / Issue: Special, 2018, 235-256 255 KAYNAKLAR: BABACAN, İ., 1997, “Alberto Burri”, Eczacıbaşı Ansiklopedisi 1, YEM Yayın, İstanbul. 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work_k2mgugqiorgfdjzpg4ipsnmi3m	----	Perceptual 3D rendering based on principles of analytical cubism Computers & Graphics 36 (2012) 991–1004 Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect Computers & Graphics 0097-84 http://d $Arti n Corr E-m journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cag Technical Section Perceptual 3D rendering based on principles of analytical cubism$ Sami Arpa n, Abdullah Bulbul, Tolga Capin, Bulent Ozguc Bilkent University, Turkey a r t i c l e i n f o Article history: Received 14 October 2011 Received in revised form 13 June 2012 Accepted 14 June 2012 Available online 28 June 2012 Keywords: Cubism Non-photorealistic rendering Art Computer graphics 93/$ - see front matter & 2012 Elsevier Ltd. A x.doi.org/10.1016/j.cag.2012.06.003 cle was recommended for publication by J. C esponding author. Tel.: þ90 54 4782 6508. ail address: msamiarpa@gmail.com (S. Arpa). a b s t r a c t Cubism, pioneered by Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque, was a breakthrough in art, influencing artists to abandon existing traditions. In this paper, we present a novel approach for cubist rendering of 3D synthetic environments. Rather than merely imitating cubist paintings, we apply the main principles of analytical cubism to 3D graphics rendering. In this respect, we develop a new cubist camera providing an extended view, and a perceptually based spatial imprecision technique that keeps the important regions of the scene within a certain area of the output. Additionally, several methods to provide a painterly style are applied. We demonstrate the effectiveness of our extending view method by comparing the visible face counts in the images rendered by the cubist camera model and the traditional perspective camera. Besides, we give an overall discussion of final results and apply user tests in which users compare our results very well with analytical cubist paintings but not synthetic cubist paintings. & 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction Establishing a sense of realism in computer graphics has, until recently, been the main concern. With the realism goal nearly achieved, however, non-photorealistic and artistic rendering techniques [1–3] have started to garner more attention. Cubism, pioneered by Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque, was a breakthrough in art, influencing artists to abandon existing traditions. It led to the emergence of modern art during a period of crisis that ‘‘the modern artist was heir to a tradition that had come to identify an object with its pictorial projection’’ [4]. In cubist paintings, we can perceive a multi-perspective projection of objects which creates ambiguity for overall composition. Differently than traditional one point perspective, artists show essential information of the content as much as possible by using multiple viewpoints. Cubism has its own evolution between 1906 and 1919. Although philosophy behind remains the same, its style has changed through these years. Two main periods of cubism are Analytical Cubism and Synthetic Cubism. Analytical Cubism covers the work of Picasso and Braque from 1908 until 1912 and mostly deals with the geometry of this new multi-view projection technique. On the other hand, during Synthetic Cubism period artists worked on new materials and combined them on canvas. The philosophy and technique of cubism influenced not only artists, but also scholars and scientists from different disciplines. For example, various multi-perspective camera approaches have been introduced in the computer graphics field. Most of proposed ll rights reserved. ollomosse methods provide a larger view of the scene than traditional perspective view using one camera or multiple camera models. Although radical spatial imprecision, clearly exhibited in all cubist paintings, has been addressed by several image based methods; for 3D, a comprehensive model giving solution for both multi- perspective view and spatial imprecision has not been proposed. In this paper, we describe a rendering method that uses principles of analytical cubism when generating images from synthetic 3D content (Fig. 1) by defining a flexible camera model ensuring expanded views with applied spatial imprecision. We also present a discussion of final outputs together with user evaluation results to validate the effectiveness of our approach. The contributions of this paper are as follows: � A cubist camera model to render synthetic 3D scenes. The proposed camera model enables multiple viewpoints with cubist-style faceting technique on a large and flexible camera surface. All viewpoints adjust their view angle (i.e. each facet adjusts its view- orientation) automatically to render important parts of the scene. � A perceptually based spatial imprecision technique. Perceptually important parts of the 3D content are kept visible on the rendered image with this technique. The usage of perception techniques empowers artistic rendering approaches to bring artist’s insight to the output. � Several methods to provide a painterly effect. A border enhance- ment method, gradient mapping, and color transferring tech- niques are used to enhance artistic quality. The paper is organized as follows: First, in Section 2, we discuss previous studies related to cubism, multi-perspective imaging, and artistic rendering. Then, we briefly explain cubism and its principles in Section 3, before giving the details of our approach in www.elsevier.com/locate/cag www.elsevier.com/locate/cag dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cag.2012.06.003 dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cag.2012.06.003 dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cag.2012.06.003 mailto:msamiarpa@gmail.com dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cag.2012.06.003 Fig. 1. Left: perspective view; Middle-left: cylindrical cubist camera view without perceptual spatial imprecision; Middle-right: line map of applied spatial imprecision; Right: final output of our result with applied perceptual spatial imprecision and artistic effects. S. Arpa et al. / Computers & Graphics 36 (2012) 991–1004992 Section 4. Section 5 presents a detailed discussion of final outputs, and Section 6 concludes the paper. 2. Related work Cubism as a movement breaking down traditional methods in art has inspired several works in computer graphics and imaging. Much of that has sought ways to introduce the principles used in cubist paintings, such as multi-perspective to computer rendering. Multi-perspective rendering and non-linear projection. Inspired by cubism’s multiple-viewpoints approach, several multi-perspective techniques have been proposed [5]. Most of these methods deal with a single camera combining multiple viewpoints. Glassner [6,7] introduced an approach suited to ray tracing, in which rays are defined with NURBS surfaces. Löffelmann and Gröller [8] suggested an extended camera model that produces artistic effects by retaining the overall scene with ray tracing. The general linear camera (GLC) model described by Yu and McMillan [9] generalizes linear cameras defined by a four dimen- sional ray space imposed by two planes, offering ray modeling flexibility. A camera model is constructed with three given rays, which allows implementing multi-perspective and non-pinhole cam- era models [10]. Another non-pinhole camera model, proposed by Popescu et al. [11], integrates several regions of interest in a 3D scene to render a single layer in a feed-forward fashion. Taguchi et al. [12] presented geometric modeling of multi-perspective images captured using axial-cone cameras. These approaches involve multi-perspec- tive cameras with different viewpoints and ray groups. A flexible projection framework with a single camera, pro- posed by Brosz et al. [13], can model nonlinear projections with parametric representation of the viewing volume. The multi-perspective approach has also been widely used for designing algorithms for panoramas. Wood et al. [14] proposed a background panorama construction technique for the usage in traditional cel animations. Similarly, Rademacher and Bishop [15] presented a method to create a single image from multiple projection points. More recently, interest has shifted to composite projections generated by the results of two or more cameras [13]. The main difficulty of composite projections is the occlusion of multiple projections from different view angles. Agrawala et al. [16] devel- oped an interactive system attaching local cameras to a three dimensional space to generate multiprojection images of the scene by blending the results of the different angles. Likewise, Coleman and Singh [17] described a framework for the interactive authoring of projections obtained from linear perspective cameras. A number of studies have addressed the multi-perspective approach in image space. Among these, Collomosse and Hall [18] and Agarwala et al. [19] proposed algorithms to combine the images rendered from different camera positions in various styles. Cubism and artistic rendering. Apart from the works using cubist principles to develop new camera models, a number of studies aspire to render cubist-style paintings. In a prior work, Klein et al. [20] presented a method to create outputs evoking cubist and futurist paintings by using a space-time data cube from video. Along with using different view angles for the same content, their method also considers imprecision of object parts and a painterly style to enhance the similarity of their outputs to cubist paintings. Later, they general- ized their methods to a set of NPR tools for video processing [21]. Collomosse and Hall [18] proposed a method to generate cubist-style outputs from images. As with video cubes, they use a series of images of the content as input to produce angular geometry in cubist art. The images are segmented with image- saliency maps, and segments from different viewpoints are combined. The final composition is rendered with color and brush effects. However, Collomosse and Hall’s work is image based and application of view-independent projection principle of cubism is dependent on the manually provided input images. Influenced by the artistic styles of Kandinsky and Matisse, Song et al. [22] automatically produce highly abstract images using geometric shapes. A source image is segmented in different level of sizes and a variety of simple shapes are fitted to each segment. With a classifier, they automatically choose the seg- ments which best represents the source image. The whole process creates an abstract form of the source image. 3. Analytical cubism and properties to create cubist imagery In order to develop an accurate computational model repre- senting analytical cubism and its rules, it is necessary to under- stand its concepts. To that end, we analyzed the works of Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque, given their pioneering role in Analytical Cubism. Although their paintings look like composi- tions of random shapes, the facets are ambiguous pieces of the content viewed from different angles, allowing a perspective that is not possible in a traditional projection. The main motivation behind cubist paintings is the desire to show that originality does not necessarily mean pictorial quality with a realistic perspective and unity [23]. Unconventional dimensions in the view and disharmony between object parts follow two major principles applied in cubist paintings: � View-independent projection: In cubist paintings, radical dis- continuities are emphasized through the manipulation of perspective, and artists exhibit a remarkable freedom from the point of view-dependency [24]. Instead of using a single viewpoint, multiple projections of a scene from different viewpoints are combined in a single projection. Thus, viewers can see more features of the content than in a linear perspec- tive view. This multi-perspective approach has influenced S. Arpa et al. / Computers & Graphics 36 (2012) 991–1004 993 research efforts in computer graphics, as presented in the previous section. � Spatial imprecision: The radical approach that artists use to combine projections of independent viewpoints into one reveals this principle of cubism. Artists do not place importance on the continuity of projections in the final composite image, as in some of the multi-perspective rendering works mentioned in the previous section. Rather, they aim to keep all projections dis- jointed to some degree. This method creates extreme spatial imprecision in cubist paintings but does not cause the loss of object perception because key features of the subjects such as eyes and nose remain visible [25]. Different projections are painted into geometric shapes commonly in the style of quadrilaterals espe- cially in the works of Picasso and Braque. In order to increase the effect of disharmony between different view projections, chiar- oscuro – use of light and shadow – is also manipulated [24]. These two main principles do not specifically show how to create cubist imagery with specific rules. In surveying a range of cubist images, we derive a list of properties that are satisfied by existing artwork. These properties help to achieve view-indepen- dent projection and spatial imprecision. Faceting: The dialectic between space and objects lead the evolution of cubism. Picasso and Braque developed the technique of faceting to create volumes and a tangible space on canvas. Faceting, which refers to creating different view facets of the space and content, is the core of analytical cubism and a very significant parameter to achieve both view-independent projec- tion and spatial imprecision. While facets create a complex structure of planes, each of them represent an independent viewing volume going in different directions. In our proposed algorithm, we compare different faceting techniques for their similarity to existing cubist artwork. The following observations guide in determining the accurate faceting method: � Facets help relating space and object. The degree of this relation changes in cubist paintings. Some artwork (Nude, Pablo Picasso, 1909-1910) have more legible relations, while some others (The Point of Ile de la Cité, Pablo Picasso, 1911) exhibit indistinguishable levels. � The size of facets are smaller in salient parts of paintings. For instance, the facets forming face and clarinet in The Clarinet Player (Pablo Picasso, 1911) are smaller than other surround- ing facets. � Facets are commonly composed of vertical, horizontal and diagonal lines. � Facet contours are bold and help viewers follow the form. � The shapes of facets are not random, but are formed in relation with figures. Ambiguity: Cubist paintings present as much essential infor- mation as possible, simultaneously visible, about the objects on the canvas, which is not possible with one-point traditional Fig. 2. Cubist render perspective [26]. The eye is not used to this kind of view- independent projection. Hence, this process of re-creating visual reality causes ambiguity. While doing this, some unimportant parts of the object not giving any essential information are discarded. The amount of ambiguity depends on eccentricity of viewpoints. In the painting Portrait of Wilhelm Uhde (Pablo Picasso, 1910), viewpoints of facets are not so much disjointed which decreases ambiguity and makes the object more legible. On the other hand, The Portuguese (Georges Braque, 1911) exhibits a radical view-independency which creates total abstraction. As a matter of fact, the amount of ambiguity varies in cubist paintings. In our model, ambiguity is a variable, between 01 and 3601, to determine wideness of the overall camera surface enabling to choose viewpoints on it for each facet. Increasing the value of ambiguity property gives a larger area of direction to choose viewpoints and a way to increase ambiguity of the whole composition. Discontinuity: Discontinuity is another remarkable parameter for cubist paintings. Spatial imprecision is achieved by discontinuity between adjacent facets. On the other hand, the amount of disconti- nuity is not the same for all cubist paintings. For instance, adjacent facets in The Table (Georges Braque, 1910) form nearly a continuous structure, which makes the objects less ambiguous and more legible [26]. On the contrary, Violin and Palette (Georges Braque, 1909–1910) breaks the form by means of discontinuity. The level of discontinuity is represented with a variable in our model. Increasing discontinuity means increasing spatial imprecision for the overall composition. Practically, this variable limits the amount of view orientation for each facet from their initial direction. If discontinuity is chosen as zero, each facet keeps its initial direction, and in that way adjacent facets complete a continuous form. In our approach, we propose algorithms to apply these cubist principles, using the properties discussed. First, our camera model allows covering a larger view than a traditional pictorial projec- tion to establish a flexible ground for selection of multiple view- points and generation of ambiguity. Next, we offer a saliency- based spatial imprecision method to break up the unity of the composition into facets, which show essential information of the content, and create discontinuity. 4. Cubist rendering approach 4.1. Overview We have developed our cubist rendering system according to the principles given in the previous section. Fig. 2 shows an overview of the proposed method. Our initial camera models provide a continuous expanded view of the content from a single camera position. In the second step, we apply a faceting algorithm to create different viewpoint areas and a perceptual imprecision technique to break up overall unity of the view. Finally, painterly ing framework. S. Arpa et al. / Computers & Graphics 36 (2012) 991–1004994 effects are applied to manipulate chiaroscuro and enhance the image’s artistic appeal. 4.2. Extending view The first stage of our method applies the first major principle of cubism, view-independent projection, explained in Section 3. For this purpose, we use a multi-perspective projection method that focuses on a certain object space while showing the objects in that space in more detail. This projection method can be seen as the opposite of perspective projection, as rays converge at a focal point instead of spreading to the scene when applied to a ray tracing system. In this method, each ray has its own viewpoint conforming well with the view-independent projection principle. We define two types of cubist cameras, both having the same underlying idea. The first camera type is the spherical cubist camera, where rays originate from a spherical surface and point to the center of the sphere (Fig. 3, left). This camera is capable of showing an object from all sides conforming to the view-inde- pendent projection principle of cubism. A spherical cubist camera can be defined by camera position cp, camera size s, and convergence angles ax and ay. If ax and ay are both 3601, the camera surrounds all the object. A ray at screen position ðx,yÞ, where x,yA½�0:5,0:5� (ð0:5,0:5Þ being the top right corner), can be calculated for the spherical cubist camera as follows: Mx ¼rotation matrix on u ! axis by x=ax, My ¼rotation matrix on h ! axis by y=ay, Fig. 3. Left: spherical cubist camera frustum and sample output (convergence angle: angle: 1401). Table 1 Comparison of the camera models. (Angle denotes the convergence cameras. In the upper figure sc stands spherical cubist camera.) ort per901 per1201 Camera type angle Number of visible faces Sphere (1280F) Spherical cubist 1201 1162 90.8% 2401 1280 100% 3601 1280 100% Perspective 601 378 29.5% 901 245 19.1% 1201 121 9.5% Orthogonal N/A 840 50% rayDirectionðx,yÞ ������������! ¼ðMyMxðcd ! Þ T Þ T , rayOriginðx,yÞ ����������! ¼ cp ! �s � rayDirection ��������! , ð1Þ where u ! and h ! are the up and horizontal directions of the camera, and cd ! is the camera direction. The convergence angle of the cubist camera has a significant role on the ambiguity of the resulting output. A higher convergence angle results in a more ambiguous rendering result, therefore the convergence angle is used as the ambiguity variable in our model. Several 3D models, such as a standing human model, have a vertical elongated shape. A cylindrical camera surface could surround this type of models better than a spherical one. Thus, we define a second type of camera, cylindrical cubist camera (Fig. 3, right). The rays originating from the cylindrical camera surface converge to a vertical line instead of a single point as opposed to the spherical camera. Both of these camera types have advantages over each other: the spherical camera surrounds the scene both horizontally and vertically, while the cylindrical camera extends the view plane only in horizontal axis. According to the scene, either one of those camera types could be chosen. Both these camera models keep the linearity of the rays with non-linear camera surfaces, and this causes non-linear warps on the output. To evaluate how these camera models depict a scene in more detail, we compared them against a regular perspective camera by counting the number of visible faces for each of the projection types. A large number of visible faces means that a large portion of the scene details is visible in the rendered image. Table 1 shows the result of this comparison. To compare the camera models 1401); Right: cylindrical cubist camera frustum and sample output (convergence angle for the cubist camera and field of view for perspective sc1201 sc2401 Bunny (2K) Venus (11K) 1325 66.3% 5099 46.6% 1629 81.5% 7005 64.0% 1745 87.3% 7873 72.0% 717 35.9% 4016 36.7% 653 32.7% 3876 35.4% 576 28.8% 3563 32.6% 840 42.0% 4265 39.0% Fig. 5. Left: one point from each numbered area is randomly selected; Middle: the selected points are connected to form a quadrilateral; Right: the resulting facet. Fig. 4. Left: Constant; Middle-left: Voronoi; Middle-right: Patch; Right: Segment. S. Arpa et al. / Computers & Graphics 36 (2012) 991–1004 995 with 3D models of different natures, we used a simple sphere model, the Stanford Bunny, for a model of average detail, as well as a more detailed Venus model. The figures at the top of the table show the rendering results for the Stanford Bunny with each type of experimented cases. As shown in this table, the cubist camera is capable of showing notably more faces than the perspective and orthographic cameras. A user study for the perception of the cubist camera’s ambiguity is given in Appendix A. 4.3. Perceptual spatial imprecision As evident from the results in the previous section, our cubist camera enables view-independency to a great extent. The flawless continuity and homogeneity also exhibited by this camera are not associated with analytical cubist paintings, however, it lays the groundwork for choosing multiple viewpoints showing essential information of the objects. In this section, we introduce methods for breaking up the overall unity of this camera surface into view facets and achieving discontinuity by using a perceptual impreci- sion method. 4.3.1. Faceting As discussed in Section 3, faceting is the most characteristic style of analytical cubism. Facets represent different viewpoints and engage space with the figures, which creates a tangible composition as a whole. We compare four different faceting techniques to segment the main view generated with the cubist camera into multiple viewpoints. The rules on faceting indicated in Section 3 guide to determine the most effective method among them. The first strategy (Constant) uses constant filters to create facets. We have created such filters by extracting facet contours from sample analytical cubist paintings. In Fig. 4—left, Le Guitariste (Pablo Picasso) is used to create the filter image. Although this strategy is very convenient with respect to shape similarities to cubist paintings, it has the problems of scalability and flexibility. Hence, we present other algorithms for creation of filters dynamically for any scale. The second strategy (Voronoi) uses Voronoi diagrams to create facets dynamically (Fig. 4, middle-left) similar to prior work on image-based cubist rendering methods [18]. The method accepts a number of facets k as input and randomly chooses k points on the empty filter image, which is created with the same resolution as the output image. To prevent regional accumulations of points, we use a grid system. For a grid with m cells, random k/m points are chosen for each cell. Thereafter, each pixel on the image is assigned to the point that has the shortest Euclidean distance from it. The third strategy (Patch) proposes a method with the advan- tages of dynamic facet generation and similarity to the analytical structure of cubist paintings (Fig. 4, middle-right). In this strategy, a number of convex quadrilaterals possibly occluding each other are painted on the filter image. The number of facets (np) and parameter a defining approximate edge length of a facet are given for this strategy. Edge lengths change between a and 2a. Fig. 5 shows a single facet generation. Increasing np or a results in facets that occlude each other more. To control this occlusion rate, we define another parameter (rocc) which could be used to define a value indirectly. rocc determines the approximate rate of the total occluded area of the facets to the total visible area in the resulting image. When this parameter is used a is calculated as follows: a¼ ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 2w � h � rocc 5np s , ð2Þ where w and h stand for the width and height of the final image. We empirically select np as 80 and rocc as 3 in most cases. The constant 2 5 is for compensating the difference between the expected area of a random facet and the smallest possible facet. All facets are generated in succession. To avoid empty regions in the filter image, center points, shown in Fig. 7, are selected randomly from the pixels that have not yet been assigned to facet. Creating facets regardless of the structure of objects is the main problem of these three techniques. Nevertheless, it is very clear that facets help the eye to follow the form and they are not independent from the content in cubist paintings [26]. Our final technique (Segment) enables creating facets in relation with the objects in space (Fig. 4, right). To achieve this, we applied a similar segmentation procedure described by Song et al. [22]. The technique includes the following operations: 1. Segmentation: By using multiscale normalized algorithm by Cour et al. [27] we segment pre-rendered output (Fig. 6, a) in three different levels of detail. Large (Level 1, Fig. 6, c), medium (Level 2, Fig. 6, d) and small (Level 3, Fig. 6, e) size segments are obtained with different values of parameter N, which is a parameter to indicate the number of cuts. Each segment of each level is a candidate to be a facet for the final filter image. 2. Segment selection: The decision of selecting a segment for the final filter image is determined based on the average saliency Fig. 6. a: Cubist camera view without spatial imprecision; b: Saliency map; c: Segmentation result for Level 1, N¼5, selection threshold¼0.0; d: Segmentation result for Level 2, N¼30, selection threshold¼0.05; e: Segmentation result for Level 3, N¼120, selection threshold¼0.08; f: Final filter. S. Arpa et al. / Computers & Graphics 36 (2012) 991–1004996 value of each segment. Saliency shows visually significant areas of the content. Refer to Section 4.3.2 for detailed explanation of saliency calculation. By using the saliency map of pre-rendered content (Fig. 6, b), which includes saliency value for each pixel, average saliency value for each segment is calculated. Besides, we determine a selection threshold for each level. If the saliency value of a segment is larger than a selection threshold, it is chosen as a facet. The value of this threshold is the highest for Level 3 and smallest for Level 1. In this way, smaller segments have lower chance to be chosen as a facet. This decision is related with facet distribution in cubist paintings: smaller facets are included in high detail and contain important parts of the objects. Therefore, we select smaller facets for only highly salient parts, which are assumed as visually significant. 3. Overlapping facets and ordering: We also use the average saliency value for decision of occluding facets, and order them. The facet with the highest saliency value is selected as the frontier facet, since it tends to show more essential information. Fig. 7. Left-top: saliency map along with the calculated facet and saliency centers. 4. Lighter pixels indicate more salient parts. Yellow dots are facet centers and red dots are saliency centers; Middle-top: the result without spatial imprecision applied; Right-top: the result with spatial imprecision applied; Bottom: shift of view from facet center to saliency center for a specific facet. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure caption, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.) Shape fitting: Lastly a shape of quadrilateral is calculated for each facet as its final form. Instead of using a complex shape fitting algorithm, we used a simple method to define segments boldly and keep ambiguity to a level. Left-most, right-most, upper-most and bottom-most pixels of the segment are deter- mined as vertices of its quadrilateral for each segment (Fig. 6, f). Our final strategy significantly satisfies most of the cubism rules discussed in Section 3. We also verify this issue by compar- ing the proposed four techniques with a user study, which is explained in Appendix A. 4.3.2. Spatial imprecision using mesh saliency The extreme spatial imprecision applied to cubist paintings does not cause absolute loss of object perception. In most of Picasso and Braque’s paintings, the subject, in some of which is a person and a musical instrument, is still perceivable, although it does not abruptly stimulate our visual perception since it has been divided into pieces morphologically resulting from multiple viewpoints and creates ambiguity. Nevertheless, because key features such as eyes, guitar strings, and noses are preserved, we perceive the content fairly quickly. Rendering of these particular features of other parts notwith- standing creates the problem of selection. Indeed, in cognitive science, searching for the significant attributes of objects that captures our attention is essential work [28]. Thus, our method makes use of mesh saliency, proposed by Lee et al. [29], which is a perceptual approach to determine salient parts of a 3D object. Mesh saliency is based on the center-surround mechanism of the human visual system, which is basically related to the attentive interest on central regions that are different from their surround- ings. In 3D, this mechanism is employed by calculating the difference of mean-curvature properties in the central and sur- rounding regions to determine the salient parts of 3D mesh models. We refer the readers to the study of Lee et al. [29] for the details of this saliency computation method. Although this method does not consider the semantic properties of objects such as nose and eyes, these important regions could be identified by this model since they have significantly different geometric properties compared to their surroundings, as seen in Fig. 7, left. After saliency values for each input model are calculated, our renderer decides which rays to cast for each pixel by considering the saliency orientation of each facet. Our facet-specific spatial imprecision technique includes the following sequence of opera- tions (Fig. 7): 1. Construct the saliency map: This map is generated by a ray casting-based rendering operation, in which vertex saliencies are used as the material attributes. Each pixel of the saliency map (Fig. 7, left) is calculated by casting the rays for this pixel and computing the average saliency values of the intersected faces. 2. Calculate facet and saliency centers: All rays belonging to a facet must undergo the same operation to accomplish regional shifting. Hence, a facet center (fc) and a saliency center (sc) are calculated for each facet to determine the amount of shifting (Fig. 7, left). The facet center is the geometric center of the facet. As facets are generated and a facet id for each pixel is assigned with the operations indicated in the previous section, S. Arpa et al. / Computers & Graphics 36 (2012) 991–1004 997 facet centers are calculated with the following formula: fc ¼ P f A F f pos 9F9 , ð3Þ where F is the set of all pixels in a facet and fpos is the position of pixel f. Similarly, saliency centers for each facet are calcu- lated as follows: sc ¼ P f A F f posf slc 9F9 , ð4Þ where, fslc denotes the saliency of pixel f. Note that, set F could also be extended to cover the neighboring pixels outside the facet, so that, in addition to the interior of a facet, exterior salient parts close to this facet could be considered while calculating the saliency center. The additional pixels to con- sider could be adjusted with a threshold indicating the neighborhood size. Increasing this threshold decreases the continuity among facets in the final image by enabling the saliency centers to be further away from the facet centers. Additionally, a facet orientation threshold could be used to limit the maximum distance between fc and sc to avoid extreme levels of re-orientation. If the distance between fc and sc exceeds this threshold sc is repositioned such that its distance to fc becomes the specified threshold. A smaller facet orientation threshold results in output images with less dis- continuity. Facet orientation threshold is referred as disconti- nuity parameter to control the level of discontinuity between adjacent facets as explained in Section 5 in detail. 3. Fig. 9. Left: neighborhood circle for a given pixel; Right: sample border enhancements. Orient the view from facet center to saliency center: In this step, rays belonging to a facet are re-oriented such that the facet shows the most salient parts at the center. Additionally, this step enables perspective view while keeping the rendered size of the content inside the facet (see Fig. 8). Initially, the ray originating from the facet center (rfc) is redirected to the point that the ray originating from the saliency center (rsc) intersects with the 3D scene. Then, the new focal point becomes the value of the modified ray at focal distance and all rays belonging to the facet are redirected to this new focal point as shown in Fig. 8, middle. This modification is sufficient for the facet to show the salient parts at the center; besides, further operations are necessary for a perspective view. Let dai be the average intersection distance of the rays in this facet (excluding the rays that do not intersect). Rotating rays around their values at distance dai enables keeping the rendered size of the shown region. Each ray is modified as follows: Fðx,yÞ ���! ¼Oðx,yÞ ���! þDðx,yÞ ���! � dai, Fig. 8. Left: initial state of the rays in a facet; Middle: rays are re-oriented towa O 0 ðx,yÞ ����! ¼ O 0 ðx,yÞ ����! �ðdf�dai�aÞþOðpcÞ ���! �ðdaiþaÞ df , D0ðx,yÞ ����! ¼ Fðx,yÞ ���! �O0ðx,yÞ ����! , ð5Þ where df is the focal distance, Fðx,yÞ stands for the fixed point of rotation for the ray of pixel (x,y), and Oðx,yÞ and Dðx,yÞ stand for the origin and direction of this ray respectively. O0ðx,yÞ and D0ðx,yÞ denote the modified (new) values of ray origin and direction. Here a is a term to control the perspective effect. If a is 0, then the facet is rendered orthographically and increasing alpha increases the perspective. To select alpha according to a given field of view (FoV ) angle, the following formula could be used: a¼ df � dai � tan FoV 9ðx,yÞ�pc9 ymax�ymin � � 9Oðx,yÞ�OðpcÞ9 , ð6Þ where ymax and ymin are the maximum and minimum y values of the whole image (not only the facet). Note that the field of view for a facet is significantly small compared to the whole image, and the perspective and orthographics views do not differ considerably. Thus, alpha could be taken as zero for simplicity. 4.4. Painterly effects Besides extending the view and spatial imprecision, our system also provides a process of basic painterly effects to apply the style of some cubist paintings in terms of colors and strokes. Picasso and Braque’s style was to boldly define facet borders. Our filter image is composed of pixels, each of which keeps only a facet id to define its owner facet. We apply a pixel neighborhood operation to detect facet edges and enhance them. For a pixel in the output image, its proximity to an edge is calculated by checking its neighborhood circle, shown in Fig. 9. If any pixel on rds the salient area; Right: rays are modified for perspective view. S. Arpa et al. / Computers & Graphics 36 (2012) 991–1004998 the circle has a different facet id than the originating pixel, the pixels lying on the line between that pixel and the origin are checked until facet id is the same with the origin. In this manner, the closest distance to an edge is found and used for darkening the pixels of the output image with a polynomial interpolation as they get closer to a facet edge. pcolor ¼pcolorn mdþ3 ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi pdmd p 4md ,pd A90,md9, ð7Þ where pcolor stands for RGB color value for pixel p, pd stands for smallest distance of p from a facet border and md defines the maximum distance for the effect. A similar effect for enhancing facet borders is used for enhancing foreground–background discrimination. In this case, instead of proximity to facet borders, the proximity of background pixels to the foreground are calculated and used to alter the color of the background pixels such that object silhouettes become more visible. By conceiving Picasso and Braque’s color palettes, we also applied a simple color quantization. Picasso and Braque com- monly used a limited number of colours; fine details were composed through a difference in luminance rather than hue. We use a painting from each artist as a reference image for color transfer. The pixels of the initially rendered output and the given cubist painting are sorted according to luminance values. Corre- sponding color value for each pixel is found with one-to-one linear mapping. Fig. 13 shows sample outputs with Le Guitariste Fig. 10. Gradien Fig. 11. Top: ambiguity is increased from left to right. B Fig. 12. Left: three horses, perspective projection; Middle: three horses without spa faceting¼Segment. (Pablo Picasso, 1910) and Fig. 14, middle-left contains a result using Woman with a Guitar (Georges Braque, 1913). Another feature of Picasso and Braque’s paintings is the gradient overlays appearing on the corners or edges of some facets. Hence, we also create a gradient map for the corner of randomly chosen facets during rendering and apply this gradient map to the output. Fig. 10 shows several sample gradient mapping results. 5. Results and discussion Measuring the quality of cubist outputs is not easy, even for art specialists, since cubism is an art movement which is evaluated as a disruption to excessive usage of technique for pictorial quality in art. Furthermore, as an NPR method, cubist rendering is challen- ging to evaluate objectively—Hertzmann [30] argues that experi- ments provide evidence but not proof that the NPR method works. Cubism comes forward with its philosophy of multi-perspective rendering and radical discontinuities rather than a specific pictorial style. Therefore the main focus of this work has been the proper application of principles and properties of analytical cubism, rather than imitating cubist paintings. In this direction, we present a comparison of our results (Figs. 12–14) with real cubist paintings, and the opinions of art critics about final results. We also performed five user studies (Appendix A) to observe the responses t mapping. ottom: discontinuity is increased from left to right. tial imprecision; Right: venus with a cello, ambiguity¼2701, discontinuity¼50, S. Arpa et al. / Computers & Graphics 36 (2012) 991–1004 999 of viewers in comparison with cubist properties and real analytical cubist paintings, to guide our discussion. 5.1. Ambiguity and discontinuity parameters Our current system suggests several interesting uses with ambiguity and discontinuity parameters. As mentioned earlier, the ambiguity parameter controls the convergence angle of the camera surface and the discontinuity parameter limits the sal- iency based orientation of each facet. Changing these two para- meters varies the amount of ambiguity and discontinuity exhibited on the outputs. Modifying the ambiguity in the cubist outputs change the legibility of the content and its relation with the space. As indicated in Section 3, some of cubist paintings such as Ma Joile (Pablo Picasso, 1912) have more ambiguous forms than others like Portrait of Wilhelm Uhde. When the two paintings are compared, it can be inferred that Ma Joile shows more information of the content by increasing the eccentricity of the viewpoints from the center. On the other hand, the content in Ma Joile is less legible since manipulation of traditional perspective is extreme. The ambiguity parameter in our system works with a similar idea. Increasing the ambiguity value causes the increase of conver- gence angle and the amount of eccentricity of viewpoints from the center (Fig. 11). Similarly, the amount of discontinuity between adjacent facets vary in cubist paintings. When Braque’s well known painting Violin and Palette is compared with another cubist painting The Table, there is significant difference in continuity of facets. Our saliency based spatial imprecision method enables creating dis- continuity of adjacent facets. In order to obtain a variety of discontinuity results as in cubist paintings, the amount of dis- continuity is controlled with a discontinuity parameter. This parameter limits view orientation freedom within each facet, Fig. 13. Left: man, ambiguity¼1201, discontinuity¼0, faceting¼Segment; Mid- dle: venus with a cello, ambiguity¼1501, discontinuity¼50, faceting¼Segment; Right: venus with a cello, ambiguity¼1201, discontinuity¼50, faceting¼Segment. Fig. 14. Statue of Liberty, faceting¼Patch, from left to right: ambiguity¼1201, ambiguity¼2001. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure caption, th and provides flexibility to choose different discontinuity values for each output (Fig. 11). Although there is no clear evidence that cubist painters created ambiguity and discontinuity in their paintings with the exact same ideas we used in our system, these two parameters cause similar variety of ambiguity and discontinuity exhibited in the cubist paintings. Accordingly, our user studies (User Study I and User Study III in Appendix A) also support the idea that these parameters vary ambiguity and discontinuity on the outputs. 5.2. Faceting and artistic style Faceting is one of the strongest visual characteristics of analytical cubist paintings. Several observations on the usage of faceting for real cubist paintings are given in Section 3. We have compared four different faceting techniques (Fig. 4), and selected the most efficient approach as the Segment faceting method, as described in Section 4.3.1. Segment faceting technique obeys most of these observations, and therefore reinforces the impres- sion of cubist style for the viewers. User Study II (Appendix A) provides a survey on the comparison of these techniques. On the other hand, the Segment faceting technique still does not satisfy all properties of analytical cubist style. In real cubist paintings, all facet contours are not boldly defined and fusion of particular facets can be observed. Cubist painters choose some facets to be fused in order to support overall composition. Usage of merely convex quadrilaterals as facet shapes is another problem of our method. Although cubist painters most frequently applied convex quadrilaterals, some painters also used other shapes such as undefined curves, and convex and concave hulls to enhance the borders of the objects. 5.3. Camera surface Our extending view approach enlarges the view by enabling a flexible camera surface. Compared to perspective and ortho- graphic cameras, the proposed camera models increase the number of face counts rendered as indicated in Table 1. The number of rendered faces is a significant parameter to control the level of ambiguity and the results of User Study III in Appendix A support this claim. This is one of the most important benefits of the proposed camera surfaces. It provides a large surface to select multiple view facets and control the level of ambiguity. Fig. 11, top shows five results of Venus model with different convergence angle values. The leftmost result has 901 convergence angle, which has a similar result to perspective camera in comparison with the number of face counts rendered. However, the results get more ambiguous as convergence angle is increased from left to right. The correlation of ambiguity with cubist paintings is explained in Sections 3 and 5.1. with Braque colors (ambiguity¼1201), with Picasso colors (ambiguity¼1201), e reader is referred to the web version of this article.) S. Arpa et al. / Computers & Graphics 36 (2012) 991–10041000 Alternatively, a conventional camera for each facet, similar to Singh’s [31] multi-perspective camera model, could be used instead of spherical and cylindrical camera surfaces. As a matter of fact, this model is advantageous to our model in terms of its flexibility for positioning each camera independently. Our current model limits the position of each view facet to given camera surface. However, Singh’s method does not give a solution for positioning so many different viewpoints in accordance with cubist paintings in 3D space. It is clear that cubist painters positioned their viewpoints in a spatial relationship not in a random fashion, although their method of building this relation- ships is not evident. Hence, it is required to have some kind of relationship for the positions of so many viewpoints to create an overall composition and our method provides a simple relation- ship by fitting each view facet to a flexible camera surface. A similar problem exists for selection of view direction of each facet independently. It is known that cubist painters aim to show more essential parts of the contents [26]. By using this idea, we have proposed a novel method to adjust view directions auto- matically as mentioned in Section 4.3.2. The greater deformation occurring on the output is one of the other disadvantages of our camera surface. On the other hand, this deformation does not completely contradict with the style of analytical cubist paintings. Early analytical cubist paintings, such as Large Nude (Georges Braque, 1908) and Three Women (Pablo Picasso, 1908), exhibit very similar non-linear warps to those that occur in our results, although, in the following periods of analytical cubism (i.e. Braque’s Violin and Pitcher, and Picasso’s Portrait of Ambroise Vollard), forms have been emphasized with more linear projections. There is actually no common approach of cubist painters for the usage of non-linear or linear effects, when the whole analytical cubism period is considered. Therefore, we provide an option to decrease the greater deformation occurring on the output. This deformation may be avoided spatially by enabling non-deformed perspective view for each facet by chan- ging the term a in Eq. (6), as explained in Section 4.3.2. 5.4. The opinions of art critics We consulted several faculty members of a Fine Arts Depart- ment on a few outputs of our model. We asked their opinions on what these outputs capture and what they fail to in the context of analytical cubism. All of them noted that first impression of cubism is strongly achieved. Visual characteristics of cubism stand out with application of multi-perspective rendering and spatial imprecision techniques. One main critique about the proposed camera model from a scholar was the continuity of the image between some adjacent facets. The complexity of facet relationships is required to be balanced while breaking up overall unity into facets. Although the facets show objects’ parts from different view angles, they are not positioned in a random fashion. When we increase the convergence angle of the camera and threshold for the view orientation of the facet, disconti- nuities between adjacent facets also increase. On the other hand, global position of object parts give the feeling of random placement. For instance, the feet of the female model could appear on the top, near head. We commonly rendered the best results with 1201 to 1501 of convergence angle (ambiguity), and 200 pixels of facet orientation threshold (discontinuity) for the outputs of 1000�1000 pixels. Another successful aspect of the outputs indicated by critics was ambiguity created on overall composition. It takes time to recognize the objects like in cubist paintings, but object informa- tion is still not lost and overall composition is not vague. Some scholars remarked on the contradiction of pictorial quality within some facets with cubism. Differently than our results, in most of the cubist paintings, the content in a facet is not strongly defined because of painterly style. Abstraction of the content is various on the cubist paintings since each artist has a different brush technique. Therefore, the main focus of this work is applying the common principles present in all analytical cubist paintings rather than brush effects varying for each artist or painting. Repeated shapes were indicated as a problem for some of the outputs. When we increase the convergence angle of the camera, the amount of repeated shapes increase as orientation of each facet is decided independently than adjacent facets. Decreasing the convergence angle reduces repeated shapes but the feeling of multi-perspective rendering decreases. Our main motivation for not discarding all repeated shapes is that some cubist paintings also having them. For instance, in the Lady with a Guitar (Lyubov Sergeyevna Popova, 1914) there are repeated parts of the guitar as in some of our results. 5.5. Limitations Creating skilled algorithms that can compete with human artists is extremely difficult. Reconstructing an art movement or artistic style imposes limitations on the capturing of style and insight of artists. In order to derive a computational model of an artistic style, analysis of common techniques used on the paint- ings is the base requirement. However, a common computational analysis method does not exist which necessitates looking for a consensus of art critics on cubist paintings. Although the cubist principles could be clearly described, the painterly style is various and changes from artist to artist. For instance, the contours of facets on our outputs are sharper and regular than cubist paint- ings of Picasso and Braque. We create facets in a simple relation with the content while cubist artists have created some facets by aligning them with silhouette of the content. In this way, they have used contours in different styles to create certain local harmonies. Other limitations are listed below: � Our system depends on 3D models to create cubist imagery. � The proposed camera is limited to Analytical Cubism and the results do not exhibit similarities with other periods of cubism. � The overall system proposes a common approach to create cubist paintings, which does not allow the user to make local adjustments to the paintings. � Although Segment faceting method is the preferred one, it takes a long process to create corresponding facets for a scene. A more efficient faceting method is required to create cubist animations. 6. Conclusion We have presented a novel cubist rendering approach for 3D synthetic environments. To this end, the main principles of cubism are applied to generate cubist outputs. The proposed camera model manipulates perspective to expand the view of the scene to be projected. Besides, a perceptual spatial imprecision method is used to break up overall unity into facets while retaining perceptually important parts in the visible areas. Several painterly effects have been performed to enhance visual qualities. To evaluate the effect of the developed cubist camera on extend- ing the view, we measured the number of visible faces in the rendered images and compared them with the perspective case. The proposed cubist camera model is capable of showing significantly more faces than the traditional perspective camera model. As demonstrated in the user studies, the proposed properties are found to be effective and the final images are highly ranked as similar to analytical cubist paintings by the majority of the subjects. Although the results are promising, the artistic effects can be further developed by conceiving the brush techniques of Picasso S. Arpa et al. / Computers & Graphics 36 (2012) 991–1004 1001 and Braque’s cubist paintings and integrating them to the current framework. In addition to the cubist rendering of static computer graphics scenes, we used the proposed algorithm to generate cubist animations in which camera and scene objects are ani- mated while the used facets are static. Developing a more sophisticated cubist animation system, which takes the time dimension into account and animates facets, can be a direction of future work. Acknowledgments This work is supported by the Scientific and Technical Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK, Project number: 110E029). The authors would like to thank Gaye C- ulcuoğlu, Ercan Sağlam, Dominique Tezgör-Kassab, Agnieszka Srokosz, Adam Pekalski and Dilek Kaya from Bilkent University Faculty of Art, Design and Architecture for their invaluable comments and suggestions, and all subjects who participated in the user studies. Appendix A. User studies To further evaluate the success of our study we performed five user studies. In the user studies, we evaluated the efficiency of spatial imprecision with discontinuity parameter, faceting and ambiguity. In addition, we performed two user studies, where we compared our method’s results with actual cubist paintings. To ensure realistic evaluation of parameters side by side, the subjects were required not to have an advanced knowledge of cubism. We performed our user studies with graduate-level computer engineering students. The same 12 subjects (4 female, 8 male), whose average age was 24.6, participated in all user studies. We used printed material, which included analytical cubist paintings, synthetic cubist paintings, some other paintings having similar style to cubism, our results, and the outputs of other computer generated cubist results. The content of each card, their parameters and codes referred in user studies are given in Table A1. We applied four different methods of user studies, which are forced choices, matching, card sorting and pile sorting. For forced choices, a number of pairs were given to the subjects, and they were forced to choose one by considering the given question. For the matching study, the subjects were forced to find a match for a given card from the given list. In card sorting and pile sorting, subjects were required to arrange given cards towards given references and task. User Study I: spatial imprecision and discontinuity. This study evaluated the efficiency and success of spatial imprecision method. There are three parts of this study: 1. Forced choices Number of cards: 12 (A4–A6, A2–A5, A3–A7, A9–A13, A10–A12, A11–A14) Definition: We showed six pairs of our results to compare random spatial imprecision with saliency-based spatial impre- cision technique. Each pair includes one random and one saliency-based result of the same content with the same amount of discontinuity value. Question: Which image in each pair gives more essential information about the content for each given pair? Results: Saliency based spatial imprecision: 76.4% Random spatial imprecision: 23.6% Results show that our saliency based method increases the visibility of significant visual information. The goal of the saliency based method is to orient the focus of facets to essential parts of the content. We can also use a random orientation method to create discontinuity. On the other hand, the random method does not guarantee showing essential parts of the objects as the results indicate. 2. Card sorting Number of cards: 8 (A1–A2–A3–A4, A8–A9–A10–A11) Definition: We showed two lists of our results to verify the discontinuity variable, which controls spatial imprecision. Each list includes four results of the same content with different discontinuity values. Task: Sort given two series by considering the discontinuity between patches. The least discontinuous one should be in first order. Results: 1st list: A1¼1.00, A4¼2.17, A2¼2.83, A3¼4.00 2nd list: A8¼1.50, A10¼1.67, A9¼3.16, A11¼3.67 The results show the average order of each card, and they verify expected sorting. It shows that as we increase the discontinuity variable, the impression of discontinuity was also observed by the viewers. 3. Matching Number of cards: 6 (A8–A9–A10–A11, E13, E14) Definition: We showed a list of our results, to compare the degree of discontinuity in our work with real cubist paintings. The list includes four results, two of them with lower dis- continuity values and the other two with higher values, to be matched with the given two cubist painting. Base paintings were The Table which has more continuous forms, and Violin and Palette having sharp discontinuities. Task: Match the given base paintings with one of the paintings in the list, by considering their way of showing the content in terms of discontinuities. You can match both of the two reference paintings with the same painting in the list. Results: Lower discontinuity (A8, A10): 83%, The Table Higher discontinuity (A9, A11): 75%, Violin and Palette As we expected, most of the subjects selected one of results having lower discontinuity to be matched with The Table (E13) and higher discontinuity with Violin and Palette (E14). This shows that the degree of discontinuity in our method corre- lates with the discontinuity of given cubist paintings. User Study II: faceting We present four different methods of faceting in our approach. In this user study, we evaluated their similarity to cubist paintings. 1. Card sorting Number of cards: 12 (C1–C2–C3–C4, C5–C6–C7–C8, E1–E14– E15–E16) Definition: We showed two lists of four different outputs with the same content having a different faceting technique. We also provided a list of four cubist paintings as references. Task: Sort given lists by considering their similarities to reference paintings. First derive an overall style of composition from reference paintings and make your sorting accordingly. Put the most similar one in first order. Results: 1st list: C3¼2.02, C1¼2.22, C2¼2.33, C4¼3.42 2nd list: C7¼2.00, C5¼2.17, C6¼2.33, C8¼3.50 The results show the average order of each card. Voronoi segmentation, also used in earlier cubist rendering methods, was selected as the most dissimilar one to given cubist paintings. Although our final faceting technique, which satis- fies most of faceting rules about cubism we discussed, was sorted in first order, the difference with the other two techniques is not significant. Table A1 List of pictures used in user studies. Ambiguity variable (convergence angle), discontinuity variable (spatial imprecision limit) and faceting technique are indicated for our results. S. Arpa et al. / Computers & Graphics 36 (2012) 991–10041002 User Study III: ambiguity. 1. Card sorting Number of cards: 10 (D1–D2–D6–D7–D8, D3–D4–D5–D9–D10) Definition: We showed two lists of our results to verify the ambiguity variable, which increases the camera surface. Each list includes four results of the same content with different ambiguity values. Task: Sort given two series by considering overall ambiguity of paintings. The least ambiguous one should be in first order. Results: 1st list: D1¼1.33, D2¼2.17, D7¼3.00, D6¼3.83, D8¼4.67 2nd list: D9¼1.67, D10¼2.42, D3¼2.83, D4¼3.75, D5¼4.33 The results show the average order of each card. The study results shows that as we increase the ambiguity vari- able, which means increasing camera surface in our Table A2 Correlation table of given cards in User Study V. E1 E2 E3 E4 E5 E6 E7 E8 E9 E10 E11 E12 E13 E14 E15 E16 E1 12 E2 5 12 E3 9 4 12 E4 1 1 3 12 E5 1 0 1 2 12 E6 0 0 1 1 7 12 E7 0 1 1 5 3 3 12 E8 0 2 1 4 4 3 9 12 E9 7 3 7 0 2 2 0 0 12 E10 2 2 2 2 2 3 0 0 5 12 E11 0 2 1 1 6 6 3 3 1 1 12 E12 1 2 0 3 5 3 1 0 1 3 6 12 E13 2 4 0 1 0 2 0 1 1 3 0 2 12 E14 4 2 5 2 0 3 1 1 3 1 1 1 5 12 E15 0 4 0 3 0 0 3 4 1 3 1 3 5 2 12 E16 1 1 1 4 0 2 3 1 0 4 1 2 4 2 4 12 S. Arpa et al. / Computers & Graphics 36 (2012) 991–1004 1003 model, the impression of ambiguity was also observed by the viewers. 2. Matching Number of cards: 6 (D4–D5–D9–D10, E16, E3) Definition: We showed a list of our results to compare the degree of ambiguity in our work with real cubist paintings. The list includes four results, two of them with lower ambiguity values and other two with higher values, to be matched with given two cubist paintings. Reference paintings were Guitar Player (E16), which has more ambiguous forms, and Wilhelm Uhde (E3), having more legible forms. Task: Match given reference paintings with either one of the paintings in the list by considering their way of showing the content in terms of ambiguity. You can match both of two reference paintings with the same painting in the list. Results: Lower ambiguity (D4, D5): 91%, Wilhelm Uhde Higher ambiguity (D9, D10): 75%, Guitar Player As we expected, most of the viewers chose one of the results having higher ambiguity to be matched with Guitar Player and lower ones with Wilhelm Uhde. Thus, the amount of ambiguity in our model has a correspondence with the given cubist paintings. User Study IV: ranking. 1. Card sorting Number of cards: 12 (E1, E2, E3–E4–E5–E6–E7–E8–E9–E10– E11–E12) Definition: We showed a list of ten paintings, which includes two real analytical cubist paintings (E3, E4), two synthetic cubist paintings (E5, 56), one painting of Kandinsky (E7), one painting of Cezanne (E8), two outputs of our model (E9, E10), one output of Collomosse and Hall’s method [18] (E11) and one output of Klein et al.’s method [21] (E12). We also gave two analytical cubist paintings (E1, E2) as references for the task. The goal was to compare the performance of our method with real cubist paintings and other methods in terms of their similarity to cubist style. We used grayscale versions of all outputs to prevent color-based biases. Task: Sort the given list by considering their similarity in terms of pictorial style to given reference paintings. The most similar one should be in first order. Results: List: E3¼1.92, E9¼2.75, E4¼3.58, E10¼3.67, E11¼6.33, E5¼7.0, E7¼7.0, E8¼7.16, E6¼7.67, E12¼7.92 Results show the average order of each card. E3, E9, E4 and E10 have a significant ranking difference with other cards. These are two analytical cubist paintings and our results. Our method, compared with other cubist rendering methods, demonstrated a better ranking. Although Collomosse and Hall’s method satisfies most of the cubist properties, the faceting technique used in our algorithm provides a better application of cubist principles than the Voronoi method used in that technique. This ranking also shows that synthetic cubist paintings have a sharp difference of style compared to analytical cubism as we asserted. We used Kandinsky’s paint- ing, since his paintings have similar shape structures with analytical cubism but they do not have any view-independent projection principle. On the other hand, Cezanne’s painting has similar concepts with analytical cubism but its pictorial style is significantly different. As a matter of fact, neither of the paintings of Kandinsky and Cezanne were found similar to analytical cubist paintings in the results. User Study V: similarities. 1. Pile sorting Number of cards: 16 (E1...E16) Definition: We showed a list of cards to make another compar- ison with other outputs and paintings. The list includes the same cards of User Study IV with four additional analytical cubist paintings. Task: Form four groups of sixteen cards. Each group should have four cards. Consider similarities of overall approach and composition of paintings, and not color and the content. Results: Correlation table (Table A2) shows the number of occurrences (N.o.O) of each card with other cards in the same group. Results of this study verify results of User Study IV. For instance, N.o.O of E1, which is an analytical cubist painting, with other analytical cubist paintings is 22. N.o.O of E9, our result, with other analytical cubist painting is 24. This value is 7 for E11, Collomosse and Hall’s method, 11 for E12, Klein’s method, 4 for E5, a synthetic cubist painting of Picasso. Average N.o.O of an analytical cubist painting with other analytical cubist paintings is 19, and it is 21.5 for our results. This shows that our results have similar values with real analytical cubist paintings. References [1] Gooch B, Gooch A. Non-photorealistic rendering. AK Peters Ltd; 2001. [2] Zeng K, Zhao M, Xiong C, Zhu SC. From image parsing to painterly rendering. ACM Trans Graph 2009;29(2):1–11. S. Arpa et al. / Computers & Graphics 36 (2012) 991–10041004 [3] Xu X, Zhang L, Wong TT. Structure-based ascii art. In: ACM SIGGRAPH 2010 papers. SIGGRAPH ’10. New York, NY, USA: ACM; 2010. p. 52:1–10. [4] Arnheim R. Art and visual perception. 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[17] Coleman P, Singh K. Ryan: rendering your animation nonlinearly projected. In: Proceedings of the 3rd international symposium on non-photorealistic animation and rendering. NPAR ’04. New York, NY, USA: ACM; 2004. p. 129–56. [18] Collomosse JP, Hall PM. Cubist style rendering from photographs. IEEE Trans Visual Comput Graph 2002;4:443–53. [19] Agarwala A, Agrawala M, Cohen M, Salesin D, Szeliski R. Photographing long scenes with multi-viewpoint panoramas. In: ACM SIGGRAPH 2006 papers. SIGGRAPH ’06. New York, NY, USA: ACM; 2006. p. 853–61. [20] Klein AW, pike J, Sloan P, Colburn RA, Finkelstein A, Cohen MF. Video cubism. Technical report; Microsoft Research; 2001. [21] Klein AW, Sloan PPJ, Finkelstein A, Cohen MF. Stylized video cubes. In: Proceedings of the 2002 ACM SIGGRAPH/eurographics symposium on com- puter animation. SCA ’02. New York, NY, USA: ACM; 2002. p. 15–22. [22] Song YZ, Rosin PL, Hall PM, Collomosse JP. Arty shapes. In: Computational aesthetics; 2008. p. 65–72. [23] Rubin W. Picasso and braque: pioneering cubism. The Museum of Modern Art, New York; 1989. p. 15–63. [24] Poggi C. In defiance of painting: cubism, futurism, and the invention of collage. Yale University Press; 1992. p. 31–43. [25] Livingstone M. Vision and art: the biology of seeing. ABRAMS; 2002 p. 101–5. [26] Cooper D. The cubist epoch. Phaidon Press; 1994 p. 30–60. [27] Cour T, Benezit F, Shi J. Spectral segmentation with multiscale graph decomposition. In: Proceedings of the 2005 IEEE computer society confer- ence on computer vision and pattern recognition (CVPR’05) – Volume 2 – Volume 02. CVPR ’05. Washington, DC, USA: IEEE Computer Society. ISBN 0-7695-2372-2; 2005. p. 1124–31. [28] Itti L, Koch C. Computational modeling of visual attention. Nat Rev Neurosci 2001;2(3):194–203. [29] Lee CH, Varshney A, Jacobs DW. Mesh saliency. In: ACM SIGGRAPH 2005 papers. SIGGRAPH ’05. New York, NY, USA: ACM; 2005. p. 659–66. [30] Hertzmann A. Non-photorealistic rendering and the science of art. In: Proceedings of the 8th international symposium on non-photorealistic animation and rendering. NPAR ’10. New York, NY, USA: ACM. ISBN 978-1- 4503-0125-1; 2010. p. 147–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/1809939.1809957, /http://doi.acm.org/10.1145/1809939.1809957S. [31] Singh K. A fresh perspective. In: Graphics interface; 2002. p. 17–24. dx.doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/1809939.1809957 http://doi.acm.org/10.1145/1809939.1809957 Perceptual 3D rendering based on principles of analytical cubism Introduction Related work Analytical cubism and properties to create cubist imagery Cubist rendering approach Overview Extending view Perceptual spatial imprecision Faceting Spatial imprecision using mesh saliency Painterly effects Results and discussion Ambiguity and discontinuity parameters Faceting and artistic style Camera surface The opinions of art critics Limitations Conclusion Acknowledgments User studies References 
work_k6v4p7jllfg7bkvix366euunza	----	Microsoft Word - 1_Mathias Rithel_Art_Style_[Final].docx Art Style | Art & Culture International Magazine ______ ______ 11 Be Tasteful! Be Kitsch! A critical analysis of social standards of beauty Waldenyr Caldas Abstract For a better understanding, this article seeks a more precise delineation of the differences, in the broadest sense, of these two qualifying adjectives—"tasteful" and "kitsch." Thus, we must consider social, economic, and cultural barriers and the ever-present class prejudice. Without a social analysis, this kind of criticism would be impaired and, by extension, superficial. We can already see that many obstacles separate these two concepts, and the difference between both terms shows a social border. By analogy, the concepts that separate these two terms can therefore be understood, not just a limit. This separation, it seems, is much more identified with a border—the outer edge of something—than a barrier—a structure that bars passage. It would be naive to deny or ignore this conceptual tension between "tasteful" and "kitsch," although there is a stratified consumption of cultural production. The capital society, always very smart and consistent with its origins, can deal with this stratification. In this sense, a way is sought to satisfy everyone, maximize profits, and keep the status quo unchanged, which has been the logic of Capitalism since its origins and, therefore, nobody denies it. Agreeing or not, with its political-ideological practices is another issue on which we have the free will to accept it or not. This frontier has been consolidating and, at the same time, become a recurrent theme of academic discussions, mainly due to the subjective aesthetic criteria of judging an artwork, qualifying a design, or choosing a musical concert or piece of clothing, among other things. This article mainly embraces the dichotomy created over time about these two terms and its social meaning. Christ Mathias Rithel, “Be Tasteful! Be Kitsch! A Critical Analysis of Social Standards of Beauty,” Art Style, Art & Culture International Magazine, no. 5 (March 12, 2020): 11-23, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4172849 Art Style | Art & Culture International Magazine ______ ______ 12 Aesthetics and Politics We begin our analysis with a matter of extreme subjectivity, which necessarily involves the aesthetic values of class culture. Loosely and with possible exceptions, it is almost always dogmatic content analysis that is read, seen, or heard. Being kitsch is tasteless, and being tasteful is suitable for cultured and refined people. This affirmation is a syncretism that places modest products of mass culture and popular culture as something of the subaltern classes alone. Indeed, this attempt at such fusion is accurate, and there is a logic to it, although not as precise as it may seem. The cultural industry stratifies its production precisely to reach the consumer market of all social classes. Theodor W. Adorno and Max Horkheimer (1947), in their well-known analyses of "the cultural industry" in the humanities, have already taught us that the masses are not the measure, but the ideology of the cultural industry, even though the latter cannot exist without them. Empirical observation of the facts makes it current, as long as one thinks of the society of Capital, where the ideology of profit and the masses become inseparable and interdependent. The syncretic misconception, however, is the aesthetic evaluation (sometimes also political) that some critics make of these products. Its consumers are almost always of low income, low education, with restricted repertoire, a low level of information, and residents on the periphery of large and medium-sized cities. This model is almost a standard of the analysis and reviews that we see in journalistic texts—academic as well—when we think of art criticism, whatever its origin. In this sense, the syncretism is always present. For these reasons precisely, the aesthetic evaluation of products aimed at the subaltern classes or produced by them, with very few exceptions, is always very unfavorable. These products are considered unimportant and of dubious taste at least. But, this facet is only part of the question. There is another, which, in my view, is even more critical. The "aesthetic" analysis of these products is always full of qualifying, repetitive, innocuous adjectives that, strictly, say nothing or almost nothing. Some of them seek, among other things, to analyze the possible political- ideological content of the work, as if the author had an obligation to publicize their political engagement, their option for a political ideology. Often, this approach has the background and objective of establishing a serious tone and depth to the analysis. In Brazil, in the face of a troubled and broken political trajectory of systematic authoritarianism, this is very noticeable, even though we have been searching for democratic consolidation since 1985. During the 1960s to 1980s, the Art Style | Art & Culture International Magazine ______ ______ 13 political and ideological issues were a kind of "aesthetic thermometer" of any cultural product. To be respected, artists would have to declare themselves and engage politically by showing the ideological profile of their artworks. Then, by most of the criticisms, their artworks were considered good. Now, we all know that aesthetics and politics have always been pari passu, but not exactly in this way. An artwork may incorporate profound political-ideological issues, but that does not necessarily mean that, because of this incorporation, it is of good quality, which is a mistake mainly because the issue of the quality of work is something much more complicated than it may seem. Thus, but not only, these evaluations are almost always empty text. An attempt to explain the quality of the work aesthetically, but without any substrate or upholstery, is something notoriously sterile. In other words, reading or not reading this assessment would be almost the same. The readers leave the text as if they had not devoted their time to reading. It is necessary to understand, for example, that when Pablo Picasso made Guernica, he intended to denounce and protest against the arbitrariness, violence, and horrors practiced in this city in his country. The Nazis were ruthless. However, it would be unreasonable, I think, to expect that visitors to the Museum of Modern Art in New York, where this artwork remained for a long time, see Guernica for the same purposes and with the same criticality as Picasso. Many museum visitors want to know the artwork itself without worrying about its political-social significance. This approach, of course, does not mean alienation. However, this aesthetic experience may or may not, in some cases, emerge at the time of the visit, depending on the viewer's repertoire. Knowing an artwork of the magnitude of the Monalisa, Guernica, and others is already something pleasing to the visitor. Thinking about its socio-political relevance as the author did at the time of its creation is an attitude, a very personal option for its visitors. It is known that great works are almost always disputed by people for their mythical figure and iconic character, understandably so. The crowd that annually visits European, American, and Asian museums, among others, is not interested in or simply does not know the history of that artwork. They do not know how artist arrived at the result displayed in the museum. With some exceptions, this view is limited to specialists and scholars of the arts, which is the prevalence. Art Style | Art & Culture International Magazine ______ ______ 14 Toward Kitsch Art The aesthetic concepts used by professionals in the analysis of any cultural product could have more precise and explicit arguments and theoretical foundations. The reader must objectively know the reasons why the critic refutes a specific artwork and places it on the level of the artwork of "dubious taste." But after all, what are the objective criteria that led the critic to assign that work an uncertain status? This objectivity strictly does not exist, and the whole argument is lost at the level of subjectivity. Prevailing in the preparation of the aesthetic evaluation of criticism, the individual critical opinion—in the absence of more consistent arguments— chooses the path of "wishful thinking," which is the most modest empirical way of making a qualitative assessment (if possible) of artwork when there is neither theoretical resources nor an adequate and sufficient repertoire to do so. In the absence of these elements, the critic, consciously or not, uses a resource and strategy terribly similar to that of television presenters. It is the so-called “factual function” of language, as the French linguist and semiologist Georges Mounin explains in his work (1974). He says that for the factual function, the language seems to serve only to maintain among the interlocutors a sense of acoustic or psychological contact and pleasant proximity—for example, in social, hollow, or loving talk wherein nothing is said. Apart from matters of love, empirically, the presenters of television programs make use of the phatic function of language. They need to speak without interruption when they are not showing the planned attractions in their programs. If they do not, there is a severe risk that the viewer will change channels due to a lack of motivation in the program itself. The viewer loses this dynamic due to the absence of gestural stimuli, so crucial in the process of mass communication and dialogues with audiences. It should be noted, however, that the program presenters are not making any aesthetic evaluation of any product. They are merely doing their television work. If they use it consciously or not, the phatic function of language is another issue that could undoubtedly be the subject of further study. It does not seem to be the right or correct option to leave thinking about “aesthetic quality” under the responsibility of this intelligentsia. Consequently, merely accepting that it establishes within its criteria and knowledge what is of good quality or beautiful is, in short, a judgment of taste that implies the quality of a product, an artwork, a handcrafted piece, and more. In this case, all the educated and specialized people in their respective areas would have the intellectual authority to establish the criteria for the aesthetic taste of any work related to their métier. Art Style | Art & Culture International Magazine ______ ______ 15 However, it is not exactly this. It is not correct (and perhaps not even fair) to attribute to educated people—even with a solid academic background and specialized in the arts, for example—the ability to determine what is beautiful, artistic, good taste, dubious taste, or even distasteful. If so, we would be sanctioning an authorization for educated people to dictate the rules and criteria of what is considered beautiful, of good taste, and good aesthetic quality. I do not think this approach would be the best thing to do, because situations like this have already produced great mistakes and will undoubtedly continue providing them. An example, in my view, quite enlightening to this issue is the following: Initially, it was registered in the work of Stanley Edgar Hyman1 (1948) but was carefully interpreted by Professor Antonio Candido2 in his work (1978). In 1837, Liszt gave a concert in Paris, which announced a piece by Beethoven and another by Pixis, an obscure composer already considered of low quality. Unintentionally, the program changed the names, attributing the work of Pixis to be from Beethoven. The audience applauded Pixis thinking it was Beethoven and disqualified Beethoven thinking it was Pixis. Cases like this one are not unique, and scholars of art and literature, from time to time, record cases similar to what happened here. It is quite likely that a person who is cultured, sensible, and with a more refined degree would refuse to make any aesthetic judgment as if its result were something definitive. However, it would not happen. They would do it knowing that their evaluation is only one among so many other meanings in the face of subjectivity and aesthetic values. Therefore, in fact, it makes no sense for the art critic to label such an artwork as kitsch while exalting another artwork as excellent with complimentary adjectives. Collectively—that is, for the public—criticism does not contribute at all. Individual experiences have their importance and contribution in the field of cultural criticism, there is no doubt, but they cannot be extended to a universal participation and acceptance. No evaluation, no objective principle of taste is possible. There are many subjective factors that interfere in the faculty of judging and creating means to justify what is beautiful, forming a judgment of taste. But there may be some affinities between the art critic and a select group, even taking a universal dimension to like an artwork or not. Art Style | Art & Culture International Magazine ______ ______ 16 At first, one has to think about the following: if we analyze an artwork, or merely a street event that we witness, we do so with our repertoire and knowledge of our class culture. This is understandable and would happen spontaneously, mainly because we do not know enough about the culture of other social classes and their respective strata, hindering a more in-depth analysis of the cultural ethos, its intricacies, and subtleties of everyday events, which could compromise, among other things, the quality of empirical information on the artwork. This limitation would be enough for us to understand that it is not possible to carry out a more in-depth analysis, and, more than that, we would certainly not feel comfortable doing so. Empirically, it is easy to understand this issue, and the examples seem to be quite illuminating. Think of one of them: a young worker leaving the industry at the end of her workday looks vastly different from the president of the company. The difference in socioeconomic level, educational background, and repertoire creates the values and judgment of different tastes. With some exceptions, this becomes visually perceptible, not only in the appearance revealed by their clothing but also in their personal adornment. This entire set of seemingly unimportant factors shows the differences and aesthetic conceptions of class cultures and, of course, of socioeconomic level. Under these conditions, therefore, the concepts of kitsch and tasteful could be misused, as almost always happens, moreover, with a powerful charge of social prejudice. It Is, above all, a matter of citizenship, respecting the class condition without an aesthetic assessment of who is kitsch or tasteful, based merely on the subjectivity of an isolated opinion and without theoretical support. Thus, even with distinctive visual evidence between the worker and president of the industry, it would not be possible for us to say that the aesthetic taste of one is superior to that of the other. This attempt, most likely, would lead its author to make conceptual errors in search of positive results that would undoubtedly be imprecise and full of redundancies and innocuous and unnecessary words for their explanations, as always happens. The factual discourse on the aesthetic evaluation of cultural products is always full of adjectives that clarify little. And what we have seen so far not only occurs with so-called tacky or old-fashioned products. Everything is repeated precisely the same way for the evaluations of products considered in good taste. In the arts, for example, products of tasteful people are predicated on words that say nothing; the logomachy, factual speech is also present, just set up to a degree of greater Art Style | Art & Culture International Magazine ______ ______ 17 complexity, while the speech goals are the same, valuing the product and making it as profitable as possible, even if it uses logomachy discourse. There are exceptions to be considered, but it is not unusual to have an unofficial partnership between the entrepreneur of the arts and the art critic, in the sense of providing greater visibility and seeking to value an artwork so that they will be well quoted in the art market. Thus, the art critic, through the media, must create the image of an artist and artwork of special relevance. With this agreement, the art critic transfers his or her prestige (if he or she has some) to the artist and unofficially fulfills what was previously agreed with the entrepreneur of the art market. Under these conditions, the quality of that artist’s work is not discussed, even subjectively. What is on the agenda is another matter. There is interest where marketing overlaps with aesthetic evaluation, though when the artist has no talent, it requires a set of words, a critical speech in the criticism writings, testimonies, or other forms of communication. Such “talent” can indeed be manufactured in the media as it occurs in all segments of the arts. Now we return to a central question in this article: how to justify an artist's talent, if not with personal and subjective opinions about their artwork and, therefore, open to doubt? This is a question with answers that remains unsatisfactory. In a Capitalist society, often, having talent is not enough for the artist to receive recognition for their artwork. The term “kitsch” that is used to disqualify is also understood as a means by which the “substitution” of values shows the viewer simpler forms of perception and interpretation (and this offers greater emotional strength). In this sense, what is the need to make a highly intellectualized analysis of the work of art, if the person who makes it only offers his opinion and nothing else? Well, this does not mean that they are right or wrong in their aesthetic concepts; they are solely giving opinions. It also does not mean that the analyzed work is an excellent artwork or a kitsch one. There are no universal taste standards, and there is an internal taste logic that differentiates aesthetic taste between different social classes. And this, of course, does not mean that a social class has a more refined aesthetic taste, more sophisticated than the other. It just means they are different and nothing more. Even the taste for classes also differs internally between people. If, for example, a person with a rather modest repertoire is dazzled by Demoiselles d'Avignon, and Art Style | Art & Culture International Magazine ______ ______ 18 another viewer with a solid intellectual background falls in love with Jeff Koons's sculpture Tulips, undoubtedly the “status” of both will remain the same. Pablo Picasso’s artwork will maintain its prestige as a great work of art as for being the first cubist painting, while Jeff Koons’ sculpture Tulips will retain its “status” as consecrated work by the general public. Indeed, the set of artistic works by Koons has a very critical purpose, as Professor Christiane Wagner shows in her article entitled “Kitsch, Aesthetic Reminiscences and Jeff Koons” (2016). She explains that Koons has been collaborating with the public’s self-esteem through his artworks, destroying guilt or shame in people who, in their banalities, immerse. Tulips sculpture—seven tulips of varying colors fabricated from mirror-polished stainless steel—is part of the Celebration series, in particular reports the day-to-day aesthetic values added to the celebration symbols. Moreover, Koons also emphasizes these common aesthetic values with another sculpture series called Banality that sets the kitsch as the high motivation for the audience. Sculpture Tulips (1995-2004) by Jeff Koons. Photo by Pawel Biernacki. June 10, 2018. Licensed under CC BY 2.0. Art Style | Art & Culture International Magazine ______ ______ 19 Aesthetics of Imposture We are here in the face of what we might call, for lack of a better term, an “aesthetics of imposture,” because of logomachy discourse as an artifice that consists of presenting subterfuges and arguments that are not true and, thus, an imposture. Certainly, this is not an intentionally artful language, which would be unacceptable. It seems to be, rather, the lack of objective arguments to better spell out the aesthetic values of the work. This lack is quite common among so- called art critics without the resources to make their opinion explicit. However, this art criticism may not exist as universal participation, but only as subjective judgment. Aesthetics is part of the philosophy that reflects on art and beauty. All the literature in this regard does not propose, approve, or accept consolidated judgments. In the Platonic sense, there is a reflection on the absolute beauty in aesthetics, or in the Kantian sense for the universal taste, but there is no unanimity among thinkers in aesthetics. Among them, we highlight Hegel, who is opposed to both the Platonic and Aristotelian senses. He instead considered the principles of the relationship between form, sensitive, artistic achievements and content, the idea, in a process of synthesis and evolution of the spirit as a historical moment. Therefore, art Is part of a historical and cultural context. In this path, it is considered that the art's meaning is related to time and culture as well as social class. This approach is one of the largest problems of art criticism. Exceptions aside, when critics make their aesthetic assessments of taste and the idea of beauty, it is as if they are talking about a universal truth. However, there is no replica of their text. Their words reverberate strongly with the public, as if it were, in fact, a universal truth. Thus, this criticism can consecrate a specific artwork, creating an “untouchable aura” of the ideal of beauty and quality about it or destroying it by labeling it as inferior quality or of a dubious taste. This discussion aligns with some illuminating observations made by Immanuel Kant (1790), precisely because this thinker analyzed taste and beauty from the perspective of objectivity and subjectivity. Kant argues that there is not an objective taste that determines by concept what is beautiful because every judgment, itself, is aesthetical—as such, it is a perception that determines the motive and the subject's feeling and not the quality of an object. Thus, the search for a principle or general criterion for beauty and taste through certain concepts is senseless since what is sought would be impossible and contradictory in itself. Art Style | Art & Culture International Magazine ______ ______ 20 Kant's lessons lead us to believe that art critics—who use factual discourse—do not know these lessons, have forgotten or misinterpreted them, or at least have not yet read them. Instead, the reader receives elusive explanations that cannot be sustained with a closer reading. Now, if this is something partially or entirely intentional, this approach creates is another situation. Each case must be viewed and analyzed separately, avoiding injustices. Therefore, it is necessary to understand that responsible criticism does not act in this way. In any case, the dichotomy that I mentioned at the beginning of this article prevails. The product of educated people is also seen as tasteful by much of the population, especially of the more modest strata, but not only. This is the ground to be protected by an "aura" that exerts a psychological influence of respect and admiration in people, even by the combination of these two adjectives. There are two aspects to be highlighted for specific segments of society to reach these concepts mentioned above. The first is the ignorance, or almost, of the cultured people's products. The second is a little more complex and depends on the socioeconomic status of each social class. The subordinate classes, or at least some segments of them, tend to mitigate and psychologically revere the consumption of the so-called more affluent social classes, precisely given the considerable difference in purchasing power between them. This is the “aura” that I referred to earlier. To illustrate empirically, it is worth mentioning one example, but there are many others. In São Paulo, the Municipal Theater, located in the so-called old city center, keeps an intense program of musical concerts and other cultural events every year. On show days and just before the start, while people are arriving, there are other people on the sides of the entrance door who, most likely, pressed by economic scarcity, look respectfully at people entering the Theater. It is the curiosity and natural desire of a notoriously modest audience who could hardly buy tickets to attend a musical concert. It is not about homeless people (these appear in small numbers), but about people who have not had the opportunity to see a "tasteful" show full of cultured people. But at this point, if any of those people wanted to come to watch the show, it would not be possible if it were not with ticket in hand. In this case, there is no alternative but sublimation or to seek other forms of entertainment and social interaction. As known, sociability in large cities, although essential for all of us, is something a bit more complicated. This topic is not part of this article, but it is worth reading David Riesman's work, The Lonely Crowd (1961). Art Style | Art & Culture International Magazine ______ ______ 21 But everything does not always happen as described above. There are situations in which the so-called kitsch and tasteful products come to have a close and pleasant view. In São Paulo (not an exception), the government sometimes organizes free shows that include the presence of artists highly considered by the cultured public and the specialized press. It is worth remembering, as an example, the outdoor musical concerts in Ibirapuera Park, which in those moments becomes a democratic space. On these occasions, the public is undifferentiated because it contemplates all social classes and their respective segments; thus, the concepts treated here are irrelevant. This issue of kitsch and tasteful goes unperceived precisely because it is unimportant, but also because the people who are there at that moment come willing to participate without worrying about these irrelevant and imprecise aesthetic issues. This audience is presently interested in leisure, entertainment, not dwelling on subjective aesthetic evaluations that explain nothing. It is much better this way. Public parks, among other things, even have the virtue of eliminating at the base this tension between kitsch and tasteful, although visually, the socioeconomic differences between their visitors are realized. It is at this moment that people have the same focus on enjoyment, finally, for recreational pleasure. Fraternization and sociability prevail as something essential, especially in cosmopolitan cities like São Paulo. Final Considerations To finish this article, I want to again raise the lessons of the German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1790) when considering the issues on the judgment of taste. He says that the unfavorable judgment of others can arouse in us justified reservations about our judgment; however, it can never convince us that our judgment is incorrect. Therefore, there is no empirical argument to impose on anyone the judgment of taste. That is right, perfect! There is nothing more just, more libertarian and democratic, than to respect people’s judgment of taste without any aesthetic bias, especially when we lack solid arguments and fundamentals. This approach is what is routinely seen. It is necessary to make this assessment accurately, from within oneself and not in a protocol way, just to let others know that we “respect” people’s right to like anything kitsch or tasteful. Art Style | Art & Culture International Magazine ______ ______ 22 The Kantian lessons, in my view, should be read by some art critics before they disregard any artistic work. Their opinions and ratings are just more such thoughts, even though each critic considers them as teachings for the public accustomed to the arts. Nonsense. They should be regarded as, of course, exceptions. It is natural, for example, for the art critics to give their opinion. What is not reasonable is that they believe themselves to present the truth and expect their ideas to prevail as a kind of a consolidated norm as aesthetic criteria of an artwork evaluation. This is unwise, much less acceptable. It is a childish narcissism that cannot be accepted. And, to conclude, I want to register the following: when a work of art becomes public, at the same time, it also becomes subject to the most diverse interpretations. Naturally, viewers experience your reading just from the elements they perceive in the work. Of course, for this, they will be based on their repertoire, their experiences in everyday life, and, above all, their class condition, among other things that, together, will enable them to read the work. Therefore, we will have an opinion, an analysis no less critical than that of the critic specialized in the subject. If both interpretations (that of the critic and that of the ordinary citizen) are convergent and complementary, the interested public will benefit from knowing the subtleties that a work of art may have. But if they are divergent, there is no need to prioritize the words of the art critic. After all, it is just one opinion among many others. In some cases, as I already demonstrated at the beginning of this article, the critic's opinion may even be committed to market values, which would be natural because, after all, the work of art is, among other things, fundamentally merchandise, like almost everything in capital society. At that moment, it is very convenient to remember the work of the Italian literary critic, philosopher, semiotician, Umberto Eco, in his work Opera aperta (1962) translated in English as The Open Work (1989). Still, which has crossed time and remains current, he teaches us that any work can enable us to interpret it. The artwork is open because it does not have a single interpretation. It is polysemic, and therefore open to the most diverse analyses. There is no way to disagree with Umberto Eco in his arguments mainly because no model of theoretical analysis can cope with revealing the aesthetic characteristics of a work, but only how to perceive that work according to its assumptions. Art Style | Art & Culture International Magazine ______ ______ 23 Mathias Rithel is currently a researcher at the University of São Paulo. rithel@gmail.com References Adorno, Theodor W. Théorie esthétique. Translated by Marc Jimenez. Paris: Klincksieck, 2011. Eco, Umberto. The Open Work. New York: Harvard University Press, 1989. Kant, Immanuel. Le jugement esthétique. Textes choisis. PUF, 2006. Mounin, Georges. Histoire de la linguistique des origines an XXe siecle. Paris: PUF, 1967. Riesman, David. The Lonely Crowd. New Haven: Yale University Press, [1961] 2020. Wagner, Christiane. “Kitsch, Aesthetics Reminiscences and Jeff Koons,” Revista Visuais, Institute of Arts (Sep 24, 2016), UNICAMP. Notes 1. Stanley Edgar Hyman, The armed vision (Knopf, New York, 1948) 323-324. 2. Antonio Cândido, Literatura e sociedade (Editora Nacional, São Paulo: 1978) 41. 
work_k7cxusnoyza5bi77o6ilko4zz4	----	International Journal for Research in Engineering Application & Management (IJREAM) ISSN : 2454-9150 Vol-06, Issue-03, June 2020 98 | IJREAMV06I0363033 DOI : 10.35291/2454-9150.2020.0446 © 2020, IJREAM All Rights Reserved. Impact of Art Therapy on Emotional Wellness among Incarcerated Women Ms. Nikita Nambiar ,Student 12th grade, The International School Bangalore, Bangalore, India. Nikita1.nambiar@gmail.com Dr.Molly Joy , Professor and Head, Department of Psychology, Kristu Jayanti College, Bangalore. India. dr.molly@kristujayanti.com Abstract - The paper is developed with the objective of exploring the effectiveness of art as a therapeutic tool for understanding and managing emotion among incarcerated women. Art is viewed as a medium of their expression to perceive and facilitate the thought process. Emotionally healthy person can understand and cope with stress and adapt to change with the circumstances. The emotional balance enables an individual to identify the heart's desires, take affirmative actions, and make changes in life devoid of worries, stress, and lead life with vision, inspired action, and an inner state of creativity. Using purposive sampling method 60 incarcerated women were selected from prisons by obtaining permission from the concerned authorities. These women were the sole bread winners for their families, and their imprisonment orphaned their children and elderly parents who are dependent on them. The art form chose as an intervention for this study was Tanjore Painting and these paintings are known for their surface richness, vivid colours, compact composition and especially the glittering gold foils used to give the paintings their rich look. The art programme was conducted by arranging several sessions enabling them to learn and develop art form. After learning the art in depth interview techniques was used to obtain data, Thematic analysis of the responses on art therapy gave rise to four broad themes as Mindful practice; Clarified feelings; Catharsis and Explore relationships. Key words: Art therapy, Emotional wellness, Impact, Incarcerated women; Tanjore painting. I. INTRODUCTION Emotional wellness is considered as a potential factor in everyone‟s life. Emotionally healthy means to realize our potential and being productive in life. Wellbeing of a society is definitely correlated to the individual wellbeing. “A state of well-being in which the individual realizes his or her own abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life and work productively to make a contribution to the community” (WHO 2014) [29] . Emotional well-being reflects the happiness and general satisfaction of an individual which enable him or her to use their abilities in harmony with oneself and others. An individual‟s ability to recognize, express and modulate his or her own emotions, as well as empathize with others; ability to cope with adverse life events, to be part of the society and perform social roles; also ability to achieve harmonious relationship between body and mind represent important components of wellness which contribute, to varying degrees, to the state of internal equilibrium (Galderisi et al., 2015) [10] .Emotional wellness helps individuals to identify their own emotions and emotions in others and act accurately with situations when faced with challenges both pleasant and unpleasant. An emotionally well balanced individual can monitor and reflect on emotions (Mayer, Caruso, & Salovey (1999) [19] . Incarcerated women Imprisonment as a method of punishment has evolved over the centuries in India, and most of the world today, prisons are viewed as centre for the reform of criminals, rather than just a means of punishment. Women confined in a jail or prison, among the incarcerated peoples in prison the number of women imprisoned are less in number comparing to men Criminal justice systems across the world move towards gender-blind sentencing, this has resulted in a tremendous increase in the rate of female incarceration. Concurrent elimination of parole and toughening of penalties for parole violations in many areas of the world also contribute to high rates of re-entry and re offending, further driving up rates of incarceration of women. Despite progress toward a more humanized system emphasizing "rehabilitation", incarceration for most people entails painful deprivation, there are five areas contributing to the "pains of imprisonment": loss of freedom and social acceptance; loss of material comforts and personal belongings; loss of heterosexual relations and family and International Journal for Research in Engineering Application & Management (IJREAM) ISSN : 2454-9150 Vol-06, Issue-03, June 2020 99 | IJREAMV06I0363033 DOI : 10.35291/2454-9150.2020.0446 © 2020, IJREAM All Rights Reserved. friends; loss of personal autonomy and responsibility; and loss of personal security and privacy and loss, leave most damaging effect on prisoners in the jail setting (Sykes, G. 1958/2007) [27] . Women convict are more susceptible for poor emotional wellbeing due to number of reasons, they have to wait for the long period of time to obtain reunion with the family and especially who are separated from their children. In regard to the support system first comes family then friends where we get support, happiness, company, help, recommendation and many more but in the case of convicts‟ imprisonment grab this support system. Especially many women live in prison are separated from their children or without any adequate arrangements are made for the care of their children or family members. Re- integration in society is a challenge for many women prisoners, as they face severe social stigma, loss of family ties and employment, lack of economic independence and so on after release. Steps need to be taken to ensure that women receive all basic services while in prison, are protected from violence and supported after release to effectively take a place in society. The Honourable Supreme Court has advocated for a “therapeutic approach...as an effective method of punishment 1 , Advisories by MHA on prison administration have further stressed on the need for a positive prison environment - the atmosphere of prisons should be surcharged with positive values and the inmates should be exposed to a wholesome environment with appropriate opportunities to reform themselves. The courts in India have purported the need to recognize the rights of prisoners and improve their conditions 2 They have affirmed the basic rights of prisoners – “there could be several factors that lead a prisoner to commit a crime but nevertheless a prisoner is required to be treated as a human being entitled to all the basic human rights, human dignity and human sympathy.” 3 Art therapy Art is a powerful channel of communication and a vehicle for self-expression. Art gives them clarity about their cognition and emotions and aids in articulating concepts which are otherwise difficult to express (Withrow, 2004). [31] Arts have consistently been part of life as a healing method throughout the history of humankind (McNiff, 1992) [20] .Egyptians have a history of encouraging people with mental illness to engage in some artistic activity (Sacks, 1982). [23] Art form or any activities enable 1 SC Order in Re - Inhuman Conditions in 1382 Prisons dated 5th February 2016. W.P.(C) No.406 of 2013 2 http://mha1.nic.in/PrisonReforms/pdf/PrisonAdmin170720 09.pdf 3 SC Order in Re - Inhuman Conditions in 1382 Prisons dated 5th February 2016. W.P.(C) No.406 of 2013 an individual to expresses their thoughts and feelings in a manner that is different than strictly verbal means and have unique properties as intervention. „Any art therapy based on the principle that such activities help individuals to use art, music, dance, movement, drama, poetry, creative writing, play, drawing and painting within the context of psychotherapy, counselling, rehabilitation or health care, we call it expressive therapy .It can even be considered as an integrative approach when we mix it up with treatment. Art therapy utilizes art media, images, and the creative process and respects patient/client responses to the created products as observations of development, abilities, personality, interests, concerns, and conflicts” (Malchiodi, 2005) [17] . The creative art therapies became more popular during the 1930s and 1940s when psychotherapists and artists realized that self-expression through nonverbal methods such as painting and music creation might be helpful for people to balance their emotions. In Europe during the Renaissance, English physician and writer Robert Burton theorized that imagination played a role in health and well-being (Kothari, 2015). [16] When talking is impossible and impractical, art therapy found its place in the treatment for improving wellbeing (Gladding, S.T and Newsome, 2003) . [10 The literature in the area of art and healing is in an effort to determine the creative therapies most often employed and creative processes are used during intentional interventions to foster health ( Stuckey, H. L., & Nobel, J. 2010) [26] .Art therapy can be used as medium for the synthesis of visual art activities to understand an individual‟s conscious and subconscious feelings, thought process. It is a healing form of settling emotional conflicts, nurturing self-awareness, boosting social skills, managing behaviour, solving problems, reducing anxiety, bringing realism and increasing self-esteem (American Art Therapy association, 2019). [1] Tanjore Paintings as an Intervention: Tanjore painting, also known as Thanjavur Oviyam, is a major form of classical South Indian painting from the town of Thanjavur in Tamil Nadu. The paintings of Thanjavur have travelled a long way, from the fresco paintings of the Chola and Nayaka Dynasty, to the wall hangings of today. Tanjore paintings are mainly panel paintings done on solid wood planks, and hence referred to as palagai padam in local parlance (Appasamy, Jaya. 1980). [2] The paintings are known for their surface richness, vivid colours, compact composition and especially the glittering gold foils used to give the paintings their rich look. The motifs depicted in Tanjore paintings are much inclined toward elements related to Hindu mythology (Daljeet, and Vyas 1972). [7] Pablo Picasso made a provocative statement about the therapeutic power of art after viewing the first exhibition of African masks in Paris at the turn of century. Men have made those masks for a sacred purpose, as a kind of mediation between themselves and the unknown, to overcome their fear and horror by giving it a form and an International Journal for Research in Engineering Application & Management (IJREAM) ISSN : 2454-9150 Vol-06, Issue-03, June 2020 100 | IJREAMV06I0363033 DOI : 10.35291/2454-9150.2020.0446 © 2020, IJREAM All Rights Reserved. image (Gowan, 1975) [12] . The concept of turning fear into image offers insight into the process of art therapy. (Dissanayake, 1992). [9] Believes that art comes from the wish to do something in response to problems and fears we face. We find emotional satisfaction and calm in the controlled behaviour of shaping time and space, of putting these into comprehensible forms (Appleton, 2001) [3] . Art can very well aid in maintaining internal equilibrium by overcoming fears. Research findings indicated that mood valence was significantly more positive after drawing than writing and more positive when individuals reported using distraction rather than venting to regulate their emotions. (De Petrillo, L., & Winner, E. 2005) [8] . Significance of the study One of the investigators of this study is a teenager who had watched a show on National Geographic Channel about the hardships faced by incarcerated women, how the arrest of these women destroys their household and their children. In most cases the women are the sole bread winners for their families, and their arrest orphaned their children and elderly parents who are dependent on them. Many women lived in prison with their children (below 6 years of age) in cases where no other adequate arrangements can be made for their care. Spending their formative years in prison can have a huge negative impact on children and thus special care needs to be taken to ensure their physical and mental health, education and recreation. The health of pregnant women and mothers also needs to be taken care of. A human life is a right mix of positive and negative emotions; hence, gauging mental health only in the positive light is rather incomplete. Mental health is understood in three different dimensions; emotional well-being, psychological well-being and social well-being (Bauer & Hämmig, 2014) [4] . While at school the researcher got the chance to work on a social cause, she decided to help the incarcerated women and wanted to study the aspects to create better emotional wellness of incarcerated women with the help of the intervention Tanjore paintings as an art form. Therefore the investigator wanted to work for their cause. The present study analyses how the unique characteristics of art therapy, the Tanjore paintings are aiding emotional wellness (Galderisi et al., 2015). [10] The expression of the dynamic state of internal equilibrium is meant to reflect the fact that different life stages require changes in the achieved equilibrium in life crises, marriage, becoming a parent, retirement and so on and requires an active search for a new mental equilibrium. The healthy people may experience appropriate human emotions such as fear, anger, sadness, and grief while at the same time possessing sufficient resilience to restore the dynamic state of internal equilibrium. Thus the study uses Tanjore paintings as an art form to facilitate the emotion control and channeling the enhancement of their emotional wellness. This study was conceived from a constructionist perspective that emphasizes individuals actively constructing skill through engaging in experiences, reflecting upon them, and comparing their current experiences to pre-existing experiences (Cohen1973). [6] Thus the study uses Tanjore paintings as an art form to facilitate the emotion control and channelling the enhancement of their emotional wellness. II. METHOD Research question Can art creation be used as a therapeutic tool for improving emotional wellness of incarcerated women? The present study used Phenomenological, qualitative analyses to address this question. Most of the studies in art therapy use qualitative approach, case studies (Kim, 2010; Talwar, 2006; Heenan, 2006; Appleton, 2001) [15] , conceptual paper ( Withrow, 2004) [31] , literature review, (Slayton, D‟Archer, & Kaplan, 2010; Stuckey & Nobel, 2010) [24] and qualitative study with in-depth interviews and observation (Spandler et al., 2007; Wikström, 2015). [25] Purposive sampling procedure adopted for this study and the sample consisted of 60 women from two prisons, who were willing to be part of the study and expressed their interest in getting trained in Tanjore painting. Procedure The first step towards this was getting a letter of permission from the school to work at the prison for the school project. With the consent letter from school, approached the concerned authority of the prisons requesting access with detailed plan and design of the research and obtained permission to work with the women convicts at the particular prisons. Tanjore Paintings as an Intervention Painting is a mode of creative expression, and the forms are numerous. “Murals are paintings on wall and have to be considered as part of interior decoration. South India and the Tanjore area in particular, boast a long tradition in the painting of murals though few of these survive today” (Appasamy, 1980) [2] . Tanjore paintings refer to the distinctive visual elements, techniques and methods that characterize the movement or school that an artist is associated with. This can stem from an actual group that the artist was consciously involved with or it can be a category in which art historians have placed the painter. The intervention the Tanjore painting expresses the universal values and spiritual images indicates respect and care for oneself and other living beings; recognition of the connection between people; respect for the environment; respect for one's own and others‟ freedom and respect for culture. This is where the role of colours in art therapy comes into picture. Through the use of colour, the client can release a variety of moods and emotions she may not be International Journal for Research in Engineering Application & Management (IJREAM) ISSN : 2454-9150 Vol-06, Issue-03, June 2020 101 | IJREAMV06I0363033 DOI : 10.35291/2454-9150.2020.0446 © 2020, IJREAM All Rights Reserved. able to express verbally because, in art therapy, all moods and emotions are seen acceptable, each embodying its grace and beauty. The colours used in this art helps clients to immerse in art creation and facilitates the shifting of focus from left brain to right brain mode. Art therapy owes its success to the right brain, the true source of emotions; only by actively using and exposing the right brain can one get in touch with deepest, innermost feelings. The art as therapy course was credited with improvements in self‐ esteem and self‐confidence. It provided a safe space for reflection on mental health issues (Heenan, D. 2006). [13] The scheduled interview was carried out with semi – structured pattern. Questions were designed open ended. Every interview initiated with the question as what painting means to you? That question was wide enough to elicit the answers without any constraints and direction. Further, they were asked about the emotions and emotional experience they went through while painting. The responses collected then were thematically analysed to identify if any of the dimensions of emotional wellness found in their responses. Ethical Consideration Informed consent included the approval of department heads and the participants. The design of the study was described in detail and explained. The women who were competent to learn the art had the fundamental right to decide whether or not to participate in this art programme. Private rooms were used to conduct interviews. The study included in- depth interviews and observation about the Tanjore painting. Writing in publication, ethical aspects were discussed and consent obtained. Confidentiality, privacy; autonomy was explained to both the officials and the participants. III. RESULTS The verbatim responses generated from the in-depth interview thoroughly analysed and were categorized into four cluster themes. (Moon, 1999), [21] (Kielo, 1991). [14]  Mindful practice  Clarified feelings  Catharsis  Explore relationships Mindful practice Majority of the women expressed that when they started painting they were completely immersed in the task as they could find meaning and purpose in life. They are able to analyse what is important in their life and able to focus more on the Painting .The rich colours and the image painted brought serenity in their mind. The language of the colours helped them to describe their emotions such as feeling happy and hope in life .They could spend more time immersed in the act of painting forgetting about their unhappy state of mind. The mindful action of painting enabled them to deal with every aspect of their lives in the prison and prepared them to face difficult situations in their major life transition. Clarified feelings About 80 percentage of the women claimed that art enabled them to find themselves with a desire for re-living, eventually; it gave them the real purpose for life. Deep thinking about the paintings in the form of an image gave them an objective perspective about their felt emotions. Art helped them to understand the world with more sense of the reality. Expressing emotions provides clarity to oneself. Instead of saying to oneself that “I am lost”; art attempted to represent that feeling through images give objectivity to it. Objectivity helps one to see the distance between „self and „emotions of self. Most of the women felt a deep sense of responsibility when they were involved in the activity. They felt the creation of art has brought meaning of life, and when they did not engage in art making for a some period, they felt they have wasted their time. Art has become an indispensable part of their life. Thus Art therapy is one way of developing such intuition and encourages lot of clarity on feelings. Positive mind-set is something which we can expect through art creation over time. All moods and emotions are seen acceptable, each embodying its grace and beauty on self-respect, self-confidence, dignity about oneself for a better performance. Catharsis Today‟s world does not easily accept emotions, especially negative emotions. As we progress to adulthood, we learn to regulate our emotions and often, get pressurized to suppress unpleasant emotions. Most of the women expressed that, they chose to learn painting and came into this art creation process because they had plenty of emotions bottled up, which required a let out.” Generally, all emotions and all thoughts are acceptable in the art platform when we compare it with other forms of communication. As per Rogers' client-centred therapy, unconditional positive regard is one of the prerequisite for building a rapport with the client. When we get acceptance for our ideas when it is articulated in the form of an art, we tend to feel we are among the larger group. The Tanjore paintings helped them to have an emotional discharge through which they expressed that they were able to attain a state of spiritual renewal, and achieved a state of liberation from their negative emotions. Explore relationships Many art forms communicate through symbols and images. Painting divine emotions helped them to explore the relationship pattern and identity and the role of emotions in it. The paintings enabled them to use nonverbal communication, creativity, and movement to explore relationships and feelings. Expression of universal values indicates respect and care for oneself and other living beings; recognition of the connection between people; respect for the environment; respect for one's own International Journal for Research in Engineering Application & Management (IJREAM) ISSN : 2454-9150 Vol-06, Issue-03, June 2020 102 | IJREAMV06I0363033 DOI : 10.35291/2454-9150.2020.0446 © 2020, IJREAM All Rights Reserved. and others freedom. This is where the role of colours in art therapy comes into picture. The use of colour, through the paintings, they could release a variety of moods and emotions which they may not be able to express verbally. IV. CONCLUSION Emotions get more social acceptability when it is articulated through art medium. It helps an artist to maintain harmony with the societal values. Art facilitates the recognition, expression, and clarity of emotions. Art can be a powerful form of empathy. Art helps in coping up with adversity and take art as a therapy, we have excellent ways to establish a mind-body connection (Talwar 2007) .[28] From this qualitative study, we assumed that art therapy can be an intervention programme for incarcerated women to cope with adversities and live their life fully by being authentic about their emotions. The Tanjore painting helps them to earn their livelihood and intern a support to their family. „A number of recent research publications have reiterated the important role played by supportive family ties in facilitating the successful community re‐entry of ex‐ prisoners and in preventing reoffending. This, in turn, has led to increased official recognition of the value of supporting the family ties of prisoners.”(Codd, H, 2013). [5] This article is limited in its scope as it was based only on qualitative interviews. The study has the scope of future research in the context of other prisoners too. Another way to add robustness in this present study would be doing an empirical study. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We are extremely thankful to the Police Authorities for their enormous support in conducting this study. We thank all the staff and inmates of the prison for their cooperation in completion of this study. REFERENCES [1] American Art Therapy association. (2019). about art therapy. Retrieved from, https://arttherapy.org/about-art-therapy. [2] Appasamy, J.(1980). Thanjavur Paintings of the Maratha Period. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications. [3] Appleton, V. (2001). Avenues of Hope: Art Therapy and the Resolution of Trauma. Art Therapy, 18(1), 6–13. [4] Bauer, G. F., & Hämmig, O. (2014). Bridging occupational, organizational and public health: A transdisciplinary approach. Bridging Occupational, Organizational and Public Health: A Transdisciplinary Approach, 9789400756, 1–249. [5] Codd, H. (2013). Women and Imprisonment. Journal of Transnational Women's and Gender Studies. [6] Cohen,S Laurie Taylor.(1973). The experience of Long term imprisonment. Retrived from, https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0891241673002001 11 [7] Daljeet, Vyas, Chintamani. (1972). Paintings of Tanjore and Mysore. Jhansi: Geeta Publishers, [8] De Petrillo, L., & Winner, E. (2005). Does art improve mood? a test of a key assumption underlying art therapy. Art Therapy, 22(4), 205– 212. [9] Dissanayake, E. (1992). Homo aestheticus : where art comes from and why. New York: Free Press. [10] Galderisi, S., Heinz, A., Kastrup, M., Beezhold, J., & Sartorius, N. (2015). Toward a new definition of mental health. World Psychiatry, 14(2), 231–233. [11] Gladding, S.T and Newsome, D. W. (2003). Community and Agency counseling. NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall. [12] Gowan, J. C. (1975). Trance, Art and Creativity. Journal of Creative Behavior, 9(1), 1–11. [13] Heenan, D. (2006). Art as therapy: An effective way of promoting positive mental health? Disability and Society, 21(2), 179–191. [14] Kielo, J. B. (1991). Art Therapists‟ Counter transference and Post- Session Therapy Imagery. Journal of the American Art Therapy Association, 8(2).1. [15] Kim, S. (2010). A story of a healing relationship: The person- centered approach in expressive arts therapy. Journal of Creativity in Mental Health, 5(1), 93–98. [16] Kothari, S. (2015). Effects of dance and music therapy. 2394–3629. [17] Malchiodi, C. (2005). Expressive therapies:History, theories and practice. In Expressive therapies (pp. 1–15). London: The Guildford Press. [18] Malchiodi, C. (2014). The Handbook of Art Therapy. In C. malchiodi (Ed.), The Handbook of Art Therapy.Retrived from, https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315779799 [19] Mayer, J. D., Caruso, D. R., & Salovey, P. (1999). Emotional intelligence meets traditional standards for an intelligence. Intelligence, 27, 267– 298. [20] McNiff, S. (1992). Art as Medicine: Creating a therapy of imagination. Colarado: Shambhala. [21] Moon, B. L. (1999). The Tears Make Me Paint: The Role of Responsive Artmaking in Adolescent Art Therapy. Art Therapy, 16(2), 78–82. [22] Pizarro, J. (2004). The efficacy of art and writing therapy: Increasing positive mental health outcomes and participant retention after exposure to traumatic experience. Art Therapy, 21(1), 5–12. [23] Sacks, M. H. (1982). The Arts In Therapy.Psychiatric Services, 33(1), 64-65. [24] Slayton, S. C., D‟Archer, J., & Kaplan, F. (2010). Outcome studies on the efficacy of art therapy: A review of findings. Art Therapy, 27(3), 108–118. [25] Spandler, H., Secker, J., Kent, L., Hacking, S., & Shenton, J. (2007). Catching life: The contribution of arts initiatives to recovery approaches in mental health. Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing, 14(8), 791–799. [26] Stuckey, H. L., & Nobel, J. (2010). The connection between art, healing, and public health: A review of current literature. American Journal of Public Health, 100(2), 254–263. [27] Sykes, G. (1958). The Society of Captives: A Study of a Maximum Security Prison. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. [28] Talwar, S. (2007). Accessing traumatic memory through art making: An art therapy trauma protocol (ATTP). Arts in Psychotherapy, 34(1), 22–35. [29] WHO. (2014). Mental health: A state of well-being. Retrieved from, https://www.who.int/features/factfiles/mental_health/en/ [30] Wikström, B.-M. (2015). communicating via expressive arts: the natural medium of self-expression for hospitalized children. Pediatric Nursing, 31(6), 480–485. [31] Withrow, R. (2004). The use of color in art therapy. The Journal of Humanistic Counseling, Education and Development, 43(1), 33–40. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/089124167300200111 https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/089124167300200111 https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315779799 
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work_kirjr3gvlvctddfxgljqnuabaa	----	Teaching/Learning Strategies Through Art: Theatre and Basic Design Education Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 182 ( 2015 ) 331 – 337 Available online at www.sciencedirect.com ScienceDirect 1877-0428 © 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). Peer-review under responsibility of Academic World Research and Education Center. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.04.775 4th WORLD CONFERENCE ON EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY RESEARCHES, WCETR- 2014 Teaching/Learning Strategies Through Art: Theatre and Basic Design Education Gurkan Topaloglua* aResearch Assistant, PhD Std., Karadeniz Technical University, Faculty of Architecture, Department of Architecture, Trabzon, 61080, Turkey Abstract The purpose of this study is to investigate the theatre as an architecture learning strategy in Basic Design Education. Hence, the study examines the art as a tool in Basic Design Education through the concept of the “body”, which is the common point of Architecture and Theatre discipline. Human being has used different ways to transfer feelings and thoughts. Theater is one of them. Theatre is staged feelings and thoughts through with space and body, by different topics and event patterns. The body becomes physical reflection of the soul and space accompanies to it. As Merleau-Ponty (2005) explains: “The human is not a body and a soul, it is a soul with a body. We able to access our outside of every asset if and only can access through our body; our outside of every asset becomes a mixture of soul and body with assumes the characteristics of human.” In this way, the soul and space are integrated. Body movements draw boundaries of space and also space draws the boundaries of the body. Body and space become complement and provision to each other. Architectural design activities are founded on “body and space” which are two basic elements. In the context of body and space relationship; a different training method was tested together with performance art that is “theater” and building art that is “architecture” over Basic Design Education. Transferring of the human body to a designed structure has been revealed by direct and (or) indirect way. © 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Peer-review under responsibility of Academic World Research and Education Center. Keywords: Basic Design; Education; Theatre; Architecture; Body; Space * Gurkan Topaloglu. Tel.: +90-462-377-1668/ +90-554-256-5912; fax: +90-462-377-5588. E-mail address: gtopaloglu@ktu.edu.tr © 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). Peer-review under responsibility of Academic World Research and Education Center. http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.04.775&domain=pdf http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.04.775&domain=pdf 332 Gurkan Topaloglu / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 182 ( 2015 ) 331 – 337 1. Body-Space-Architecture Human body fills a gap in the space given its physical existence and designates space in an unconditional way. This is not a result of a series of conscious actions, but it is completely its reason for being. As human beings have their consciousness, the human body apart from being only a body, identifies volume and areas in space. Every action made by human beings actually point to a production activity. In this context, the movement of the body ensures the production of space from a corporeal and volumetric point of view. In relation to the production of space, Lefebvre (1991) categorizes them as lived space, perceived space and conceived space. Following this categorization, the space is generated after the stages of physical experimentation, cognitive perception and intellectual blending. The space, where daily life experiences are acquired is depicted as a designed space, where the designers' ideas and plans are evident, and as perceived space when it is described as a concrete and physical object. In this context, the "living space", the "perceived space" and the "designed space" concepts and the "body" oriented space, which is generated as a result of our physical experiences, perception and design capability, overlap with the generation of the architectural space. As part of the experiences that have been acquired, the body is a practical and perceptible area and within this area, the space is perceived as something that is smelled, tasted, touched, heard and seen (Lefebvre, 1991). Pile (1996) also states that the body not only generates itself in space but it also generates the space. The author adds that each body is scattered into space and occupies this space, and each body is a space and owns a space (Lefebvre, 1991). The conscious formulation, design and production of the space is possible through the discipline of architecture. With the discipline of architecture, the production of space is analyzed both functionally and with the aesthetic dimensions and they are presented to the user. The human being, which is essential for the production process of space, together with the body and the ability to move, sits at the core of the discipline of architecture. Body and bodily movements also serve as the most significant points in determining the limits of space. Human beings draw the borders of the space with a series of movements that serve their intended purpose within space and as a result volumetric dimensions are determined through the spatial magnitude and third dimension. Movement, balance and scale are felt by the architect and they are reflected to the architectural piece. The piece of work interacts with the body of the user while the experience reflects the bodily senses of the producer. Therefore, architecture is a direct transfer from the body of the architect to the body of the person that comes across the piece of work in question (Pallasma, 2011). Leonardo Da Vinci in 1492 has drawn the space within the limits of a man at Vitruvian Man, as a reflection of mathematical diagrams. The relationship between body and space was expressed with drawing of Man as Dancer figures drawn by Oscar Schlemmer at the Bauhaus school of architecture (Teksoz, 2011). These studies brought the human body and architecture together and the humans' ability to move, which is spatially limited, is carried over to the consciousness level. Fig. 1. (a)Leonardo Da Vinci, Vitruvian Man;(b) drawing of Man as Dancer (Leanardo’s Vitruian Man), (Oskar Schlemmer drawing of Man as Dancer). 333 Gurkan Topaloglu / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 182 ( 2015 ) 331 – 337 2. Architecture-Basic Design-Theatre The position of the human body within different forms of art and its significance is realized when different disciplines complement each other. This is also valid for architecture and the disciplines of theater. For the discipline of architecture, which involves a lot of entries, the essence of the production of space is formed by the design process. During the design process, certain principles are taken into account to reach the final product. This process operation, which exists in all disciplines of art, is predicated upon basic design elements and principles. The design of space in architecture is shaped within the framework of basic design elements and principles. Space in theater is used as a tool while space in architecture is manifested as a final product. Even though space is used as a tool in theater, human body and movement capabilities give its final shape as a produced output. Theater and architecture overlap in terms of producing space. For the space in theater, the deterministic character of the body is no different than than the body acting as a determinant for the space. With the body, the space gains meaning, while it is shaped with the movement capability of the body. The body transforms the theatrical space from emptiness to a fictional reality. The art of theater that has changed and developed since Ancient Greece until the present day, met with the audience in different forms and types during different periods. The characters of the theatrical space have also constantly changed as well as its set up. The study entitled "Machine for Living" by Brown and Rollinson includes a liquid architectural state installation where the stage is covered with metal pieces that divide the space, shatters the ideal understanding of the home and the study aims to replace the space with sound, light, animation and movement (Grant, 2000). Flamand and Zaha Hadid’s work entitled “Metapolis: Project 972” includes the reflections of the combination of dance and architecture. With this piece of work, Flamand and Hadid combined the intellectual and visual searches that they developed on the body, movement, space and city. The concept of the utopian city, the themes of fluidity/prohibition, moving/still, order/chaos are conveyed through the integration of the bodies of the dancers and the space. Fig. 2. (a) Machine for Living; (b) Metapolis: Project 972 (Balaban, 2009), (Metapolis Project972). Even though it is a union that has naturally occurred or designed, the only thing that does not change in architecture and theater is the existence of the body. The body has always shaped the stage and structure and served as a deterministic factor. 3. The Form Of Presentation The Basic Design Class The basic design class is for freshman students at Karadeniz Technical University (Trabzon, Turkey), Faculty of Architecture, and it is given during the first semester. The aim of the class is to provide the basic information about design, teach the design principles and elements and to provide practical examples to increase creative talents (KTU Ders Bilgi Paketi). Moving forward with the hypothesis by Pablo Picasso, "Every child is born an artist. The actual problem is to make them stay that way.", the primary objective of the class is to bring out the covert talents of the students and the ensure that their talents are used efficiently during architectural design activities. 334 Gurkan Topaloglu / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 182 ( 2015 ) 331 – 337 The class is generally conveyed by transferring theoretical knowledge to students and in light of this theoretical knowledge, the formation of 2 and 3 dimensional applications. Theoretical information are presented during class in a manner that each of the titles such as basic design elements; point, line, direction, measurement, form, interval, texture, color and basic design principles; repetition, harmony, order, contrast, theory, dominance, balance and union (Gurer, 1990) make up the class contents for a different week. In practice, the problems are determined in such a way that they allow the utilization of theoretical information and the students are expected to form their original designs. At the beginning of the semester, when the basic design class is given, in light of the main themes that have been determined, in order to better comprehend the concept of space, workshops are organized about the perception of space in the different branches of art other than architecture. The space of art, the space in poetry, the space in music are the concepts that assist in questioning the approaches and interpretations related to space in other fields of art. This way the students also find the opportunity to get to know the works in other fields of art. The workshop that aims to reveal the relationship between architecture and theatre also serves as a final workshop for the other studies. 4. Workshop Study Within the scope of the workshop study, taking into account the relationship between body and space, theater, which is a performance art and architecture, which is an art of structure are associated over the Basic Design Education and a different education strategy is being tried. Within this framework, it is aimed for the student to acquire knowledge on space through his/her body while living in the space where its body is located and the knowledge that has been acquired is efficiently transferred to the practice of architecture in a permanent manner. In this context, the common point of architecture and theater as disciplines, the "BODY" concept is used to formulate a workshop study related to the use of art as a tool. The problem that makes up the subject of the workshop study is presented to the students as may be seen in Table 1. Table 1. Theme, Aims and Problem Theme: BODY SPACE Aims: To understand the relationship between architecture and philosophy. To identify an architect. To identify a building. To identify a movement. To interpret a motto. To define motto building relationships. To identify the basic design elements and principles. To interpret the Gestalt perception theory To experience the relationship between architecture and body language. Problem: To exhibit a performance, describing relationships building-architect-discourse-practice, by using BODY LANGUAGE. Within the scope of the problem that has been determined, the structures selected from different movements such as "modernism", "postmodernism", "deconstructivism", "high-tech" (Table 2) are disseminated to the groups formed by 8-10 students. The objective of the performances is to have the students use their bodies and to convey to the audience 1 basic design element, 1 Gestalt perception theory title and 1 basic design principle in order to explain the designated discourse. Each group was given 15 minutes to present the structure and discourses that were assigned to them. Within the performances, students were free to use all kinds of technical materials so that their creativities in material use could be tested. The performances prepared in this framework were evaluated to select 8 works whose approaches were found successful and the visual materials related to these works are presented in Figure 3. 335 Gurkan Topaloglu / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 182 ( 2015 ) 331 – 337 Table 2. List of Building-Architect-Movment/Discourse Figure 3. Body-Space-Building Performans Building Glass House Fallingwater House Schroder House Piazza d’Italia Building Architect Movement/Discourse Glass House Philip Johnson Either that or this / “Modernism” Fallingwater House Frank L. Wright Schroder House Gerrit Rietveld Piazza d’italia Charles Moore Both that and this / “Postmodernism” Teatro del Mondo Aldo Rossi Jewish Museum Daniel Libeskind Either that or inverse / “Deconstructivism ” Ufa Cinema Cnter Coop Himmelblau Center Pompidou Richard Rogers, Renzo Piano Tekno / “High-tech” 336 Gurkan Topaloglu / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 182 ( 2015 ) 331 – 337 Teatro del Mondo Jewish Museum Ufa Cinema Centre Centre Pompidou 5. Results The structures that the students were asked to explain with basic design elements and principles were categorized into 3 groups as semantic narrative, formal narrative and functional narrative. The semantic narrative group staged the discourses and the slogans under the scope of the movement that the architectural structure belongs to with the help of the body. The bodily movements were supported by costumes, decors and sounds (music and dialogues). The theoretical infrastructure related to that movement was staged with a method and form that is unconventional. The formal narrative group presented the architectural structure as a physical object. The mass of the architectural structure, the spaces inside and outside that is identified by this structure and the basic design elements and 337 Gurkan Topaloglu / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 182 ( 2015 ) 331 – 337 principles were imitated and turned into an abstract form with the help of the body. As the formal narrative turns a physical object into an abstract form, the answer given to a problem becomes more understandable in compari son to the abstraction in semantic narrative. The functional narrative group not only brings out the discourses and slogans belonging to that movement, but also the function of that building or the architectural design philosophy that underlies. Table 3. Body-Space-Building Performance The basic design principles and elements are used to ensure that students acquire knowledge about the different narration methods as well as other accomplishments. Some of these can be listed as; The awareness levels about the body and movement capabilities are increased. The perception of space is no longer ordinary but the fact that the body makes up space is recognized. The opportunity to understand, recognize and transfer the practices of different disciplines is provided. By carrying out group work, students are given individual responsibilities within groups. The basic design class workshop studies allowed the author to determine that the use of art as a tool over the concept of the body can be adopted as an educational strategy. The use of the commonalities between different art disciplines has revealed the interconnectedness of different fields of art. This also demonstrates that similar investigations can be conducted by discussing the commonalities in different fields of art. References Balaban, O. C. (2009). Retrieved September 30, 2014, from http://www.mekanar.com/tr/bo%C5%9F-oda-ar%C5%9Fiv-2010/bo%C5%9F-oda- 05/%C3%A7a%C4%9Fda%C5%9F-dans-%C3%BCzerinden-beden-mekan-birlikteli%C4%9Fi-b%C3%B6l%C3%BCm-2-%C3%B6zge-can- balaban.html Grant, S. (2000), Body Talk, Blue Print, vol. No: 171, 2000/4. Gurer, L. (1990), Temel Tasarım, ITU Matbaası, ıstanbul KTU Ders Bilgi Paketi. (n.d.). Retrieved September 30, 2014, from http://www.katalog.ktu.edu.tr/DersBilgiPaketi/course.aspx?pid=586&lang=1&dbid=3447 Leanardo’s Vitruian Man. (n.d.). Retrieved September 29, 2014, from http://leonardodavinci.stanford.edu/submissions/clabaugh/history/leonardo.html Lefebvre, H. (1991). The Production of Space, , Blackwell, Oxford. Merleau-Ponty, M. (2005). Algılanan DUnya (The World of Perception), Metis, ıstanbul. Metapolis Project972. (n.d.). Retrieved September 29, 2014, from http://www.euroscene.de/v2/de/festivals/2002/programm/hauptprogramm/metapolis.php Oskar Schlemmer--drawing of Man as Dancer. (n.d.). Retrieved September 29, 2014, from http://library.calvin.edu/hda/node/2306 Pallasma, J. (2011). Tenin Gozleri, YEM Yayın, Istanbul. Pile, S. (1996). The Body and the City, Routledge. Teksoz, D. (2001). Beden ve Mekan Bauhaus Tiyatro Calısmalarının Mimarlık Egitimi Acısından Degerlendirilmesi, Istanbul Teknik Universitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitusu, Istanbul. Building Semantic Narrative Formal Narrative Functional Narrative Glass House + - - Fallingwater House + + - Schroder House + + - Piazza d’Italia + - - Teatro del Mondo + + - Jewish Museum + + + Ufa Cinema Centre + + - Centre Pompidou + + + 
work_kkez6le2mzdzfdu7fjhtd6cnzi	----	www.e-neurospine.org 109 Editorial Corresponding Author Yoon Ha https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3775-2324 Editor-in-Chief Department of Neurosurgery, Spine and Spinal Cord Institute, Severance Hospital, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea War, Peace, and Neurospine The history of medicine is intimately linked with the history of war. Written history, from ancient Egypt to the Iraq War, clearly demonstrates that revolutions in surgical care have taken place in parallel with the development of weapons and armor on the battlefield. Hip- pocrates, an ancient Greek physician, emphasized that “War is the only appropriate school for surgeons.”1 However, the history of spine surgery in battle fields began even earlier than the era of Hippocrates. In an Egyptian papyrus from 1700 BC, we can find explanations of vertebral fracture and dislocation, as well as descriptions of military surgery.2 Regretfully, humans seem to have an instinct to romanticize war. Because, compared to modern weapons of mass destruction, the power of weapons in the medieval period was limited to the number of people on the battlefield. Medieval knights, cavalrymen, and sam- urai are sometimes fantasized by ordinary people to have been romantic vagabonds or war- riors. At that time, warrior’s thoracic and lumbar spines were well protected by body armor, but the cervical spine was often vulnerable.3 Homer’s epic poem Iliad contains a vivid de- scription of Achilles breaking the cervical spine of Trojan soldiers with his sword. This ro- manticized style of warfare, of which humans so often dream, became a nightmare in the Industrial Revolution. The Industrial Revolution was a time of great change for Europe and the rest of the world. No longer was the main mode of production in the hands of the fami- ly and professional craftsmen; instead, the balance shifted to favor factory owners and cheap labor. Mass production of weapons changed how wars were fought and increased the lethal- ity of combat.4 From the late 19th to the 20th century, Asian countries were indeed battlefields. From west to east and south to north, Asians from all countries were sacrificed in the name of imperialism, communism, nationalism, and capitalism. Ironically, all of these “isms” were created by human intellect and imagination, but resulted in the slaughter of untold millions of human beings (about 17 million people died in World War I and 60 million people died in World War II). People in Asian countries suffered from long periods of pain and desper- ation; however, with the development of medical and scientific knowledge, especially the discovery of antibiotics and blood replacement, many soldiers on the battlefield could sur- vive their initial spinal injuries by more aggressive and invasive spine surgical procedures. Also, both World War provided opportunity for building formal and strong neurosurgery training program composed of cadaver dissection, lecture with clinical training. With this development of surgical training and principles in spine trauma surgery, immediate early surgical intervention was recommended to all soldiers with spinal cord injuries undergo to correct deformities or decompress the spinal cord.5 Although both the Korean War and Vietnam War were disasters for the Korean and Viet- namese people, there were huge advancements in spine care during these wars. In conjunc- tion with the construction of fixed military hospitals with modern operational capabilities, the new use of helicopters for evacuating injured soldiers from the battlefield further en- Neurospine 2018;15(2):109-110. https://doi.org/10.14245/ns.18edi.002 Neurospine eISSN 2586-6591 pISSN 2586-6583 This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecom- mons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Copyright © 2018 by the Korean Spinal Neurosurgery Society http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.14245/ns.18edi.001&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2018-03-28 War, Peace, and NeurospineHa Y https://doi.org/10.14245/ns.18edi.002110 www.e-neurospine.org hanced the possibility of military spinal surgery. For the first time, military spinal surgery similar to what is done in private hospitals could be performed in an appropriate environment. In the Korean War, neurosurgeons recommended that all sol- diers with penetrating injuries of the cervical spine undergo laminectomy.4 Despite the remarkable developments in spine surgery that have been achieved throughout a long and cruel history of war, the dark and painful memories of war make it difficult to create harmonious and peaceful relationships among the peoples of the world. A surprising fact is that the Korean War broke out in 1950, but is still not ended in 2018. Military tensions in the north and south continued both during the 3-year period of active war from 1950 to 1952 and the subsequent cold war period af- ter that (1952–present). People living on each side of the border between the north and south did not have the opportunity to meet and understand each other. Correspondingly, other na- tions have no knowledge of how spine medicine is practiced in the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (DPRK). The society of the DPRK has become better known to the world through the recent South-North Korea and US-North Korea summit talks, and some novel aspects of spine medicine in the DPRK have come to light. The objective of Neurospine is to promote harmony in a way that is conducive to the academic development of spine doctors throughout the world. In order to accomplish this goal, we at Neurospine will open our arms and welcome academic contributions from the DPRK. In this issue of Neurospine, we are publishing a special invited paper (written by Dr. Kee B. Park et al.) introducing spine medicine as it is practiced in the DPRK. Through this paper, we can catch a glimpse of the history and current status of the spine care sys- tem in the DPRK. In the future, Neurospine will actively contin- ue to publish papers on spine medicine from the DPRK, and will play a role as a gateway and collaborative platform to fur- ther mutual understanding. Thus, the authors and editors of Neurospine will be able to exchange academic knowledge with our forgotten friends in the DPRK. After nearly 70 years, we have finally closed to the end of the Korean War. As important opinion leaders in each of our coun- tries, Neurospine’s authors and editors would contribute to har- mony among Asian nations and strive towards building peace and mutual understanding. REFERENCES 1. Filler AG. A historical hypothesis of the first recorded neu- rosurgical operation: Isis, Osiris, Thoth, and the origin of the djed cross. Neurosurg Focus 2007;23:E6. 2. Blomstedt P. Orthopedic surgery in ancient Egypt. Acta Or- thop 2014;85:670-6. 3. Goodrich JT. History of spine surgery in the ancient and medieval worlds. Neurosurg Focus 2004;16:E2. 4. Schoenfeld AJ, Belmont PJ Jr, Weiner BK. A history of mili- tary spine surgery. Spine J 2012;12:729-36. 5. Dowdy J, Pait TG. The influence of war on the development of neurosurgery. J Neurosurg 2014;120:237-43. Guernica (1937), Pablo Picasso, © 2019 - Succession Pablo Picasso - SACK (Korea) 
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work_ktpw4hxc2bgeblqj5a6q5iihsi	----	Psychology & Neuroscience, 2014, 7, 3, 381 - 392 DOI: 10.3922/j.psns.2014.046 Subjective time perception is affected by different durations of exposure to abstract paintings that represent human movement Francisco Carlos Nather1, Paola Alarcon Monteiro Fernandes2, and José Lino Oliveira Bueno2 1- Universidade Federal do ABC, São Bernardo do Campo, SP, Brazil 2- Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil Abstract Time perception can be affected by real emotional pictures of people that evoke different levels of arousal. Figurative artwork images of body postures that imply movement with different intensities and evoke different levels of arousal can modulate the perception of time. The present study investigated whether abstract paintings that represent motion in different ways affect the perception of time when subjects are exposed to the paintings for different durations. Undergraduate students observed 20 abstract paintings from different artistic schools (i.e., cubism, constructivism, expressionism, and futurism). They observed for 3 s each painting and estimated the time of exposure (reproduction method). After the time estimations, the subjects completed different semantic Movement, Arousal, Complexity, and Recognition scales to obtain information about how the painting compositions were perceived. Time distortions were observed for only two cubist paintings that represented human forms, which were related to both evoked arousal and implied movement (Experiment 1). Experiment 2 further verified whether these time distortions were related to implied movement perception or arousal. Different groups of participants were exposed for 3 and 9 s to only four cubist paintings that represented human forms. These time exposures (3 and 9 s) were used because the arousal-evoking effects may be transient for exposure times that are longer than 2-3 s. The data analysis revealed overestimation of time for the cubist painting that had greater arousal and movement scores only when the subjects were exposed for 9 s, showing that implied movement in abstract human figures is more effective than images with emotional content. We discuss the effect of durations of exposure to pictorial characteristics of artwork on time perception, emphasizing aspects of the visual perception of human forms in cubist paintings and arousal effects in an aesthetic episode. Keywords: time perception, static images, implied movement, cubism, arousal. Received 22 April 2014; received in revised form 04 August 2014; accepted 15 August 2014. Available online 25 November 2014. Francisco Carlos Nather, Universidade Federal do ABC, Center for Mathematics, Computation and Cognition. José Lino Oliveira Bueno, University of São Paulo, Department of Psychology. Paola Alarcon Monteiro Fernandes, University of São Paulo, Department of Biology. Correspondence regarding this article should be directed to: Francisco Carlos Nather, Centro de Matemática, Computação e Cognição (CMCC) - Universidade Federal do ABC, Rua Arcturus, 03, São Bernardo do Campo, SP 09606-070, Brazil. Phone: +55 1123206270 Fax: +55 1123206120. E-mail: f.nather@hotmail.com/f.nather@ ufabc.edu.br Introduction Impressionist artwork by Edgar Degas that represents ballerina movements modulates subjective time perception. Ballet steps with lower movement scores were judged to have a shorter duration than those with intermediate scores, and ballet postures with intermediate scores were judged to have a shorter duration than postures with the highest scores, such as arabesque and attitude postures (Nather & Bueno, 2012). According to these authors, arabesque and attitude postures are more asymmetric than other ballet postures because of the relationship among the positions of the body parts, allowing the observer to surmise the represented movements (implied movement). Implied motion in abstract and figurative artworks has been studied under different aspects of visual perception that involves neuronal substrates and subjective time (Braddick, 1995; Freedberg & Gallese, 2007; Kourtzi, 2004; Martinez-Conde & Macknik, 2010; Nather & Bueno, 2006, 2012). According to Cutting (2002), painters use at least five criteria to represent motion, such as relationships among positions of body parts (broken symmetry), blurring the background of the scene (photographic blur), and superimposing different moments of a moving object in the same painting (stroboscopic images). For example, in the abstract cubist painting Nude Descending a Staircase by Marcel Duchamp, the human figure is repeatedly overlapped to show all of the human body movements while descending stairs. Similarly, the futurist painting Dynamism of a Dog on a Leash by Giacomo Balla shows the movements made by a dog using stroboscopic images and blurs the scene background. Nather et al.382 Kim and Blake (2007) studied 24 paintings from the early 20th century and found that subjects were able to distinguish movement intensities in different artworks. Paintings that portrayed motion were rated with higher scores than paintings in which motion was not explicitly intended by the artists. They found greater activity for the motion-sensitive MT+ encephalic brain area in Nude Descending a Staircase and Dynamism of a Dog on a Leash (which imply more movement) compared with abstract expressionist paintings (which imply less movement) in observers who had prior viewing experience with these artworks. In these experiments, the authors also used expressionist paintings by Paul Klee and Piet Mondrian that are basically composed of geometric forms and lines. Thakral, Moo, and Slotnick (2012) evaluated the magnitude of activity in the MT+ sensory motion processing region and prefrontal cortex while subjects viewed 20 other paintings (i.e., portraits and landscapes by Van Gogh). Based on each subject’s motion experience ranking, the authors showed a significant positive correlation between the intensity of movement associated with viewing each painting and the magnitude of activity of the MT+ area. Furthermore, the paintings that were classified by the participants as pleasant were associated with greater activity of the MT+ area compared with paintings that were classified as unpleasant. These results suggested that the activity of this brain area is associated with the experience of both movement and aesthetic pleasure. The effects of aesthetic episodes on time perception has revealed that it varies directly with the pictorial processing of the artwork’s characteristics. They determined how much time an observer spends in cognitive processing to understand a piece of art (Cupchick, 1976; Cupchick & Gebotys, 1988). Using paintings by Claude Monet, Edgar Degas, and Édouard Manet, to which subjects were exposed for 18, 36, and 72 s, Cupchick and Gebotys (1988) found that pleasure judgments by the subjects varied according to the complexity of these artworks and the duration of exposure. However, this study did not focus on specific properties of the paintings’ themes, such as the effects of movement perception on subjective time. Freedberg and Gallese (2007) proposed that an element of aesthetic episodes consists of the activation of embodiment mechanisms that encompass the simulation of actions, emotions, and corporeal sensations by motion-sensitive cortical brain areas, such as mirror neurons. Edgar Degas is widely known for his artistic productions that are dedicated to the representation of movement (Growe, 2001). His realistic sculptures of ballerina body postures likely affect the MT+ area because cortical brain areas are differentially activated by real pictures of people’s postures while they perform different movements. For example, the observation of an athlete who is performing an action causes more activation of the MT/MST than this same athlete who is in a static posture (Kourtzi & Kanwisher, 2000; Proverbio, Riva, & Zani, 2009). Embodiment mechanisms have been associated with time distortions in previous studies that used body postures of dancers and an exposure time of 36 s (Nather & Bueno, 2011). Nather, Bueno, Bigand, and Droit-Volet (2011) analyzed several aspects of motion perception, including arousal, valence, and familiarity with Degas’ ballerina images, and evaluated the impact of empathy and embodiment mechanisms in an aesthetic episode. They showed that the duration of exposure was judged to be longer for ballerina images that implied more movement compared with ballerina images that implied less movement. However, the magnitude of the time distortions was greater for the shorter durations of exposure (0.4-1.6 s) than for the longer durations (2-8 s). Interestingly, the authors found a positive relationship between the intensity of movement and arousal. Body postures that implied more movement were judged as more arousing than body postures that implied less movement. They explained the difference in time distortions between the shorter (milliseconds) and longer (a few seconds) durations of stimulus exposure by relating it to emotional decay in which the high-arousal effect was transient and limited to relatively brief durations that were shorter than 2-3 s (Angrili, Cherubini, Pavese, & Manfredini, 1997). Angrili et al. hypothesized that the effects of high-arousal real human pictures were mostly emotional until the first 2 s of exposure, which then decreased after 4 s. Thus, the emotional content of the images would be given priority during the early phase of time processing, and attention becomes more effective when the exposure duration is approximately 6 s (short interval). Arousal is a fundamental mechanism that modulates the effect of emotion, likely in multiple stages of time processing when a person observes emotional human pictures (Smith, McIver, Di Nella, & Crease, 2011). The effects of aesthetic episodes on time perception has revealed that the perception of the duration of exposure also varies according to the artwork’s properties (Berlyne, 1974). Thus, understanding the effects of arousal and implied motion in non-figurative artworks could elucidate the processes that underlie embodiment mechanisms that impact subjective time because “…the feeling of physical involvement in artworks not only provoked a sense of imitating the motion seen or implied in the work, but also enhanced the spectator’s emotional responses to it” (Freedberg & Gallese, 2007, p. 198). The objective of the present study was to investigate the effects of arousal and the perception of movement in abstract paintings on time perception by testing short and long durations of exposure to artwork. We tested whether time perception is differentially affected by different durations of exposure to artwork, the perception of implied movement, and the evocation of arousal. To evaluate the effects of implied movement and arousal on time perception, paintings with different themes that were produced during different artistic movements were used in two experiments, in which the paintings were presented for 3 s (Experiment 1) and 3 and 9 s Abstract paintings and time perception 383 (Experiment 2) in different groups of participants. In Experiment 1, 20 paintings that represented cubism, constructivism, expressionism, and futurism were used. They were selected because their different motion representation characteristics (Cutting, 2002) have not been tested in previous studies of subjective time (e.g., stroboscopic images, pictures with photographic blur, and action-movement paintings). Four cubist paintings were used in Experiment 2. They consisted of abstract human forms. These cubist paintings were selected because at least two of them were perceived as figurative human forms when subjects viewed them for more than 7.5 s (Hekkert & van Wieringen, 1990). Therefore, two durations of exposure (3 and 9 s) were used in Experiment 2 because these paintings were not easily recognized as human forms with a short duration of exposure (3 s). Furthermore, high-arousal effects can be transient with exposure times greater than 3-4 s in which time perception is mediated by different cognitive processes with 6 s exposure (Angrilli et al., 1997; Elbert, Ulrich, Rockstroh, & Lutzenberger, 1991). Thus, exposure to the same paintings for 3 and 9 s was used to test the specific effects of implied movement in abstract human forms and the effects of emotional arousal on time perception. If the effects of arousal decrease briefly at 6 s, then the time estimations for 9 s exposure are more related to implied movement than to an arousal effect. The present study also sought to clarify aspects of visual motion perception that involves an aesthetic episode in which different kinds of implied movement are the most conspicuous characteristics of the abstract compositions. Notably, implied movements were not evaluated in previous studies. Previous studies of subjective time used figurative artwork that was realistically distinguished as women who were dancing with body postures that were associated with different ballet choreographies, which affected time perception according to visual motion perception. The implicit visual information of these static images of different body postures revealed that movement perception modulates time perception according to increases in motion intensity (Nather & Bueno, 2011). Therefore, the present study also evaluated whether abstract human forms in abstract paintings cause similar effects. EXPERIMENT 1 Methods Participants Fifteen undergraduate students (eight men; mean age = 20.26 years, SD = 2.12) from the University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil were randomly invited to participate in the study. They were untrained in visual arts and had normal or corrected-to-normal vision. The experiment was approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of São Paulo School of Philosophy, Sciences and Letters, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil. Material The experiment was performed during daylight hours in an isolated, soundproofed room at the central library on the Ribeirão Preto Campus. The room was lit with a 40 lm W-1 compact fluorescent light bulb. Digital photographs of 20 abstract paintings were selected according to their pictorial compositions, themes, and artistic movements (Table 1).1 Table 1. List of paintings presented to the participants. Painting. Author (Artistic Movement) 1. Woman with a Guitar. Georges Braque (Cubism) 2. The Guitar Player. Pablo Picasso (Cubism) 3. Girl with Mandolin Fanny Tellier. Pablo Picasso (Cubism) 4. Wounded Bird and Cat. Pablo Picasso (Cubism) 5. Portrait of Pablo Picasso. Juan Gris (Cubism) 6. Nude Descending a Staircase. Marcel Duchamp (Cubism) 7. The Knife Grinder. Kazimir Malevich (Constructivism) 8. Abstract Speed. Giacomo Balla (Futurism) 9. Dynamism of a Dog on a Leash. Giacomo Balla (Futurism) 10. Lines of Movement and Dynamic Succession. G. Balla (Futurism) 11. Shape and Noise of Motorcyclist. Giacomo Balla (Futurism) 12. The Car Has Passed. Giacomo Balla (Futurism) 13. Girl Running on a Balcony. Giacomo Balla (Futurism) 14. The Hand of the Violinist. Giacomo Balla (Futurism) 15. Contemplating. Paul Klee (Expressionism) 16. Red Waistcoat. Paul Klee (Expressionism) 17. The Goldfish. Paul Klee (Expressionism) 18. Composition VIII. Wassily Kandinsky (Expressionism) 19. Number 8, 1949. Jackson Pollock (Abstract Expressionism) 20. Number 14, Grey. Jackson Pollock (Abstract Expressionism) High-resolution artwork images were obtained from the Internet and were adjusted with regard to saturation, brightness, and size using Photoshop CS6 software. The final size of the images was approximately 30 × 40 cm with respect to their vertical orientation. The artwork images occupied the central position of an LG screen that was connected to an HP notebook computer; the remainder of the screen was white. Semantic 7-point Likert-type scales for Movement, Complexity, and Recognition and the 5-point Self- Assessment Manikin scale (Lang, 1980) were used to obtain information about how the painting compositions were perceived by the participants. Stimulus exposure, time estimation, and latency recordings were managed using the Wave Surfer program installed on the HP notebook computer. 1The cubist paintings used in this study consisted of the analytical phase of cubism in which the shape of the object is subjected to the two-dimensional surface of the canvas. The final result approaches abstraction (see Ganteführer-Trier & Grosenick, 2004). Therefore, the abstract content of the cubists paintings that were used could be understood as a form of art that represents objects of our outer reality. They are composed of formal relations between colors, lines, and surfaces to render the reality of work in a non-representational way. Nather et al.384 Procedure The participants individually entered the experimental room and were asked to sit in a chair. The tasks were orally explained to the participants. They were positioned facing the central region of the 19” LG monitor at a distance of approximately 60 cm. They were instructed not to count time. The stimuli were presented by pressing the “presentation” key on the computer, and presentation was terminated after 3 s. At this moment, the picture was replaced by a white screen, indicating that the participant could initiate time estimation. Immediately after each observation, the participant was instructed to reproduce the presentation duration by pressing the “initiate” key, which was finalized by pressing the “finished” key (reproduction method). The stimuli were randomly presented to the participants. The Wave Surfer program also recorded the latency between the end of each painting exposure and beginning of the participants’ reproductions. After the time estimations, the participants’ were instructed to rate the amount of movement represented and complexity of the paintings on a 7-point scale. They were also asked to identify the figure depicted in the painting on a recognition scale and rate their level of arousal on a 5-point scale. Statistical analysis One-way repeated-measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) and the Student-Newman-Keuls post hoc test were used to compare time estimation, latency, movement, complexity, recognition, and arousal data for all of the paintings. One-way repeated-measures ANOVA and the Student-Newman-Keuls test were also used to compare the time estimation data according to the artistic movements and themes of the paintings between groups of paintings. The same analyses were used to compare the data of the different paintings in the paintings groups. One-sample analyses were conducted to compare the mean time estimations of stimulus exposure with the actual time of exposure (3 s). Also, the One-sample analyses were used to compare the data of recognition scale with 7 points. This analysis allowed inferences about the identification of the objects, animals, and human figures depicted in the paintings. Pearson correlation was employed to verify the association between Movement and Arousal scales. Results Time estimations The ANOVA of the mean time estimations of the 20 paintings revealed significant differences between the Nude2 cubist painting by M. Duchamp and several other paintings (F19,226 = 1.77, p < .001). The duration of Nude exposure was estimated to be longer than the three futurist paintings by G. Balla (all p < .05), the abstract expressionist compositions by P. Klee (p < .05) and J. Pollock (p < .01), the expressionist painting by W. Kandinsky (p < .01), and the cubist paintings that represented human figures by G. Braque (p < .01), J. Gris (p < .05), and P. Picasso (p < .05). Significant differences were also found in latencies between the Nude painting and paintings that represented animals and abstract action paintings by Pollock (F19,226 = 2.27, p < .001), which were constructed as a function of real body movements performed by the artist (all p < .05; Table 2). Effects of arousal and movement measures on time perception The ANOVA of the Arousal and Movement data did not reveal a relationship between scores, indicating that implied movement and the emotional arousal evoked by the paintings were not directed related. This result was supported by Person correlation analyses. The analysis of Movement scores revealed that paintings with animal themes, such as Dynamism and Lines by Balla, received greater movement scores compared with the majority of the other paintings (F19,265 = 11.33, p < .001) including the Nude cubist painting by Duchamp that were overestimated (all p < 0.01). The Dynamism and Lines paintings were not temporally distorted. Other paintings that were associated with different time estimations compared with Nude, including three futurist paintings by Balla, the abstract compositions by Pollock, and the expressionist painting by W. Kandinsky, did not receive different Movement scores compared with this cubist painting. However, Nude received greater movement scores than the two abstract expressionist compositions by Klee (p < 0.001) and cubist paintings that represented human figures by Gris and Picasso (both p < .01). Moreover, The Hand painting by Balla was not scored 2For simplicity, the first word of the name of each painting is used henceforth in the text. Table 2. Means (standard deviations) of time estimation, latency, movement, arousal, recognition, and complexity for the six cubist paintings. Painting Time (s) Latency (s) Movement Arousal Recognition Complexity 1 2.66 (.64)- 1.00 (.60) 2.23 (1.23) 1.62 (.63) 1.69 (1.25) 2.53 (2.10) 2 2.88 (.70) 1.01 (.70) 3.23 (1.83) 2.69 (.75) 6.61 (.76) 2.69 (1.70) 3 2.84 (1.03) 1.14 (.74) 3.00 (1.52) 2.23 (.92) 6.69 (.48) 3.38 (1.85) 5 3.08 (.64) .99 (.30) 2.76 (1.23) 2.07 (1.18) 6.84 (.37) 2.69 (2.17) 6 3.65 (1.30)+ 1.88 (1.16)* 4.53 (1.39)* 3.30 (1.25)# 4.30 (1.93)** 4.30 (1.65) (-) Underestimated. (+) Marginally overestimated. (*) 1, 2, 3 and 5 < 6. (#) 1 < 3, 5 and 6; 5 < 6. (**) < 7 points. Abstract paintings and time perception 385 differently from Nude (both have the stroboscopic figurative representation of human movement) and it was not temporally distorted. The ANOVA of Arousal scores showed that the 20 paintings were also scored differently (F19,266 = 5.09, p < .001). These differences were smaller than those found in the Movement analyses. The Arousal scores were also not related to the time distortions observed. Nude received a greater arousal score than the abstract expressionist composition Contemplating by Klee and futurist painting Abstract Speed by Balla (p < .01). The cubist painting of a cat (Wounded by Picasso) received lower arousal scores than Nude (p < .05), but the other paintings that represented animals by Balla (Dynamism and Lines) were not scored differently from this cubist painting. Effect of painting themes and artwork schools on time perception Time and the other measures were also analyzed based on the paintings’ themes and artistic schools of the artwork used. The ANOVA did not reveal differences between the mean time estimations among the cubist paintings group (Braque, Duchamp, J. Gris, and Picasso; paintings 1, 2, 3, 5, and 6), geometric futurist paintings group (Balla; paintings 8, 11, and 12), cubist expressionist and futurists paintings group that represented animals (Balla, Klee, and Picasso; paintings 4, 9, 10, and 17), geometric expressionist paintings group (Kandinsky, Klee, and Pollock; paintings 15, 16, 18, 19, and 20), and futurist paintings group that represented human body parts (K. Malevich and Balla; paintings 7, 13, and 14). The data analyses showed that only the five cubist paintings that represented human forms (paintings 1, 2, 3, 5, and 6) had different time estimations (F4,56 = 3.85, p < .01). The post hoc comparisons showed that all of the paintings had shorter time estimations than Nude (i.e., the painting with stroboscopic representation of a human figure; p < .05). Student’s t-test showed that the time of Woman presentation was underestimated (t15 = -2.37, p < .05), and Nude was marginally overestimated (t15 = 1.81, p < .08) compared with the actual exposure time of 3 s (Table 2). The mean latency scores were also statistically different between these paintings (F4,56 = 6.09, p < .001). Nude had a greater latency compared with the other cubist paintings (all p < .01). Because time estimations were verified only for these cubist paintings that represented human figures, further analyses considered the differential semantic scales only for these paintings. The Movement data analysis showed that these cubist paintings were scored differently (F4,56 = 6.59, p < .001). Nude received higher movement scores than the other paintings (all p < .01). Arousal scores were also different among these paintings (F4,56 = 5.93, p < .001). Nude received a higher arousal score than the Woman and Portrait paintings (all p < .001). Woman had a lower arousal score than Girl and Portrait, indicating that implied movement and arousal scores were not related (p < .01). Further analyses evaluated the complexity and recognition measures among these cubist paintings (paintings 1, 2, 3, 5, and 6). The ANOVA of complexity scores did not reveal significant differences among these five cubist paintings. However, the paintings received different recognition scores (F4,56 = 6.09, p < .001). Considering that a score of 7 points indicated verified identification of a human figure, the t-test showed that The Guitar (t15 = 15.30, p < .01) and Nude (t15 = 5.02, p < .01) were less easily identified as human images compared with the other three paintings. Discussion The results of this experiment can be discussed in terms of the observation time of different artworks in a museum. For example, when a person goes to a museum to appreciate a permanent collection, he/she is exposed to different pieces of artwork, and the time spent observing each one depends on their appraisal characteristics that demand more than 3 s of observation. Therefore, interest and pleasure while viewing a specific painting could be related to how long a person observes it. Thus, the results for the 20 paintings used in Experiment 1 should be discussed by considering the guidelines of the new experimental aesthetics (Berlyne, 1974) taking into account the visual exploration involved in artistic appreciation. In this experiment, paintings with different themes and from different artistic schools were observed for only 3 s. The results showed that different paintings caused time distortions, independent of their abstract compositions. These results are consistent with Stoyanova, Yakimoff, Gourevich, and Mitrani (1987) who reported that figurative and abstract paintings that were presented for short intervals (.6-1.5 s) also distorted time perception. These authors indicated that under- and overestimations of time were caused by the complexity of the artwork, but they did not discuss which pictorial features were responsible for these time distortions. Based on the present results, we can make inferences about the effects of each painting on subjective time because the data were analyzed by considering the paintings’ specific themes and schools. Only the cubist paintings that represented human figures were estimated differently when they were analyzed together. Interestingly, the five cubist paintings that represented human forms were mostly brown, ocher, and green. Representing the analytical phase of cubism, they were nearly monochromatic, which allowed analysis of form without distraction by colors (Ganteführer-Trier & Grosenick, 2004; Strickland, 2004). However, they differ with regard to the amount of pictorial abstraction that results from different three-dimensional planes of the human figure representation, which causes distinct interpretative ambiguities. Nicki, Lee, and Moss (1981) showed that subjects observed cubist paintings for a longer time according to Nather et al.386 an increase in the subjective ambiguity of the paintings. These authors suggested that interest and pleasure in a painting are associated with identification of an object or person that is represented in the artwork. Furthermore, Kuchinke, Trapp, Jacobs, and Leder (2009) instructed subjects to indicate the moment at which they recognized any object in several cubist paintings. The paintings with high content accessibility were processed faster toward the point of explicit classification of the depicted content. Therefore, it is possible to pointed out that the five cubist paintings used in the present study affected time perception according to affective aesthetic responses in the observer that depended on how ease they were processed. In the present study, all of the cubist paintings that represented human forms received the same scores on the complexity scale. However, Woman and Nude were less easily associated with human images on the recognition scale. These two paintings were also scored differently on the movement scale and were under- and overestimated, respectively, compared with the actual exposure time (3 s). These data could explain why the stroboscopic painting Nude, which implies more movement, had a longer time estimation than the other cubist paintings, such as Woman (which implies less movement), that do not represent intentional human movements (see Table 2). Furthermore, Hekkert and van Wieringen (1990) used the rate of identification to evaluate the time required for subjects to recognize human figures in cubist paintings. The results showed that Nude was recognized after 7.5 s, whereas Portrait was quickly identified (< 1 s). Paintings with compositions similar to Woman were recognized after > 9.5 s. These authors suggested that aesthetic pleasure is related to the ability to recognize human figures, independent of the paintings’ complexity. Notably, Nude had the highest latency. This result could be interpreted as a longer processing time compared with other cubist paintings (Table 2). Nude received the highest movement score and was marginally overestimated. Similarly, Nather et al. (2011) showed that the duration of exposure to figurative human images (i.e., Degas’ ballerinas) was marginally distorted when 2-8 s durations of stimulus exposure were used. These authors found that the magnitude of time distortions was greater with shorter exposures (< 1 s) in which body postures that imply more movement were judged with more arousal through embodiment mechanisms. Therefore, it is possible to infer that the same mechanisms of time estimation may be required when people observe abstract or figurative human figures that represent movements of different types and intensities such as the stroboscopic artwork. Different pictorial characteristics of cubist paintings were analyzed in previous studies (Hekkert & van Wieringen, 1990; Kuchinke et al., 2009; Nicki et al., 1981). These studies reported that the duration of exposure is a significant factor in figurative recognition and determines interest in and pleasure evoked by these paintings. Implied movement is an intrinsic part of their visual processing, and evaluating the role of movement perception in time distortion was important. In the present study, all of the cubist paintings received the same complexity scores. Figurative forms were not easily recognized for only two paintings: Nude and The Guitar. Nude (which implies more movement) was not scored differently from The Guitar (which implies less movement) in the arousal measure, and the durations of exposure were over- and underestimated, respectively. The data from Experiment 1 did not allow definitive conclusions about whether the implied movement in the paintings was the unique parameter that was responsible for the time distortions observed, and emotional arousal may have played a role. To further investigate the effects of implied movement associated with arousal levels and embodiment mechanisms, four cubist paintings were presented for 3 and 9 s to different groups of participants in Experiment 2. These different durations tested the transient effects of arousal that occur with stimulus exposure times of 3-4 s. EXPERIMENT 2 Methods The participants were undergraduate students from the University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil, and randomly invited to participate in the study. They were untrained in visual arts and had normal or corrected-to- normal vision. This experiment was approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of São Paulo School of Philosophy, Sciences and Letters in Ribeirão Preto, Brazil. Groups and procedure The methods of Experiment 2 were basically the same as in Experiment 1, with the exception that only four cubist paintings that represented human figures were used. These paintings were selected because two of them were previously reported to be recognized as figurative forms after 7.5 s (Hekkert & van Wieringen, 1990), and they were temporally distorted compared with the other cubist paintings (Experiment 1). The arousal and movement scores for three of these paintings were not different. Nude (painting 6) had higher arousal and movement scores than the other cubist paintings, and its exposure time was overestimated. In contrast, the other three paintings did not receive different arousal or movement scores, and the exposure time for Woman (painting 1) was underestimated. Four groups of participants were used. They were defined according to the three cubist paintings used (GA3, GA9, GB3, and GB9 groups). The GA3 and GA9 groups were exposed to Woman (painting 1), Girl (painting 3), and Nude (painting 6). These paintings were presented to 50 participants: 3 s in the GA3 group (23 individuals, 10 men; mean age, 21.30 years, SD = 3.49 years) and 9 s in the GA9 group (27 individuals, 13 men; mean age = 20.00 years, SD = 2.26 years). Abstract paintings and time perception 387 The GB3 and GB9 groups were exposed to The Guitar (painting 2), Girl (painting 3), and Nude (painting 6; Table 3). These paintings were presented to 60 participants: 3 s in the GB3 group (28 individuals, 19 men; mean age = 21.25 years, SD = 1.92 years) and 9 s in the GB9 group (32 individuals, 19 men; mean age, 20.81 years, SD = 2.19 years).3 Notice that two paintings were the same (Nude and Girl) in all of the groups. Similar to Experiment 1, the images were presented in random order for the four groups. Semantic Differential Arousal and Movement Scales were used in this experiment. They were completed after the time estimations according to the procedure adopted in Experiment 1. Statistical analysis One-way repeated-measures ANOVA and the Student-Newman-Keuls post hoc test were used to compare time estimations and latency data for each group separately (GA3, GA9, GB3, and GB9). One- sample analyses were conducted to compare the time estimations in the GA3, GA9, GB3, and GB9 groups with the actual exposure times (3 or 9 s). Two-way not repeated-measures ANOVA and the Student-Newman-Keuls post hoc test were used to analyze the Movement and Arousal scale data between the GA3 and GA9 groups and between the GB3 and GB9 groups. Additional Two-way repeated-measures ANOVA and the Student-Newman-Keuls post hoc test were used to analyze the Movement and Arousal scale data between the GA3 and GA9 groups together (GA3/9) and between the GB3 and GB9 groups together (GB3/9). This procedure was used because the data obtained using semantic scales were obtained after the time estimations, and the participants observed the artworks for however long they wanted. Pearson correlation was employed to verify the association between Movement and Arousal scales. Student t-test was used to compare the latency data for each painting between the GA3 and GA9 groups and between the GB3 and GB9 groups separately. Results Time measures The ANOVA of the time estimation data did not reveal significant differences between the GA3 and GB3 groups (Table 3). The one-sample analysis showed that the time estimations for the paintings were not different from the actual 3 s exposure time in the GA3 and GB3 groups. Time distortions were observed when the paintings were presented for 9 s in the GA9 and GB9 groups. 3These paintings are available on the following websites: Woman (www.wikipaintings.org/en/georges-braque/woman- with-a-guitar-1913), The Guitar (www.wikipaintings.org/en/ pablo-picasso/guitar-player-1910), Girl (www.wikipaintings. org/en/pablo-picasso/girl-with-mandolin-fanny-tellier-1910), and Nude (www.wikipaintings.org/en/marcel-duchamp/nude- descending-a-staircase-no-2-1912). Interestingly, the ANOVA showed that these time distortions were not the same in both groups. In the GA9 group, differences in time estimations were not observed among the paintings. However, in the GB9 group, Nude (painting 6) and Girl (painting 3), both of which imply more movement, the exposure times were estimated to be longer compared with The Guitar (painting 2; which implies less movement; F2,62 = 4.22, p < .01). The one-sample analysis showed that the exposure time for Nude was overestimated in both the GA9 and GB9 groups relative to the actual exposure time of 9 s (t26 = 2.15, p < .05, and t34 = 2.18, p < .05, respectively). The ANOVA did not reveal significant differences in latency among the paintings that were presented for 3 or 9 s (GA3 and GB9 and GB3 and GB9 groups, respectively; Table 3). Comparisons of the data for each painting separately showed that the latency was greater for 9 s exposure times for the most abstract paintings (Nude and Woman) in the GA3 and GA9 groups (t48 = -2.93, p < .001, and t46 = -2.65, p < .01, respectively) and for Nude and The Guitar in the GB3 and GB9 groups (t58 = -2.10, p < .05, and t57 = -1.94, p = .05, respectively). Arousal and movement measures The ANOVA did not reveal differences in arousal and movement scores between the GA3 and GA9 groups or between the GB3 and GB9 groups. These results were expected because these data were obtained after time estimation. The participants finished the task of completing the semantic scales after the time estimations and observing the paintings for as long as they wanted. The ANOVA showed that the Arousal scores were different between GA3 and GA9 together (GA3/9) and GB3 and GB9 together (GB3/9) (F2,98 = 25.21, p < .001, and F2,118 = 17.39, p < .001, respectively; Table 3): Nude (3.5 points, approximately) received higher arousal scores than the other paintings (2.5 points, approximately) (all p < .01). The ANOVA showed that the Movement scores were different between the GA3 and GA9 groups together (GA3/9; F2,98 = 10.21, p < .001) and the GB3 and GB9 groups together (GB3/9; F2,118 = 25.08, p < .001). Woman (3.46 points) received lesser movement scores than Girl (4.22 points) and Nude (4.96 points) paintings in the GA3/9 (both p < .05). The same was observed in the GB3/9: Nude and Girl paintings (4.48 and 4.74 points, respectively) received greater movement scores than The Guitar painting (2.76 points) (both p < .01). Notice that movement scores for Nude and Girl were 1.5 points higher than for The Guitar in the GB3 and GB9 groups together (GB3/9), but movement scores in the GA3 and GA9 groups together (GA3/9) were ≤ 1.5 points (Table 3). Pearson correlation analyses did not reveal correlation between Arousal and Movement scores, indicating that implied movement and the emotional arousal evoked by the paintings were not directed related. Nather et al.388 Discussion Experiment 2 showed that time perception was affected by cubist paintings that represented human figures when they were presented for 9 s to different groups of participants (GA9 and GB9 groups). This experiment also revealed a contextual effect of artwork groupings on time estimation. Woman, Girl, and Nude were not estimated differently in the GA9 group. However, in the GB9 group, Nude and Girl were estimated longer than The Guitar. Moreover, Nude was overestimated in both the GA9 and GB9 groups. In fact, this overestimation could be associated with the arousal scores for Nude. This painting received greater arousal scores than the other paintings (Table 3). However, Girl received the same arousal score in both the GA9 and GB9 groups and was estimated longer than The Guitar in the GB9 group. However, the same was not verified for this painting in the GA9 group, in which all of the paintings were similarly estimated. The different time estimations found between the GA9 and GB9 groups could be better understood by relating them to the implied movement scores. Nude and Girl (which imply more movement) were estimated longer than The Guitar (which implies less movement) in the GB9 group because of their implied movement. Moreover, an explanation was less evident for the time estimations among the three paintings in the GA9 group. A more refined analysis of the effect of movement scores on time perception clarified these different results. The paintings were not the same in both groups as well as their movement scores. Movement scores among Woman (3.46), Girl (4.22), and Nude (4.96) paintings were ≤ 1.5 points in the GA3 and GA9 groups together (GA3/9), and the paintings were not estimated differently. In contrast, in the GB3 and GB9 groups together (GB3/9), the difference among The Guitar (2.76), Girl (4.48), and Nude (4.74) paintings were > 1.5 points (Table 3). Therefore, Nude and Girl were estimated longer than The Guitar in the GB9 group due to the implied movement among these paintings. These differences in time estimation are consistent with the results of a previous study that used figurative artworks that represented human bodies that performed actions (Nather & Bueno, 2011). These authors used different photographs of ballerina sculptures by Edgar Degas that were presented to three different groups of participants, similar to the present experimental design (three images in each group). Using a long duration of exposure (36 s) and grouping the same images according to their movement scores (1.5, 3.0, 4.5, and 6.0 points), these authors showed that participants estimated the time of exposure similarly for ballerina bodies that had implied movement scores ≤ 1.5 points. Altogether, these data corroborate the present results, in which the images in the GB9 group were estimated differently based on their movement scores (> 1.5 points). This was not observed in the GA9 group in which the movement scores were ≤ 1.5 points. Therefore, the results of these studies suggest that the contextual grouping of images affects the processes that underlie both visual movement and time perception. The participants’ latencies were another important aspect of this study, which could reflect an affect of the visual processing of the artwork on time perception. The latencies in the GA3, GB3, GA9, and GB9 groups were not different. However, the latencies were different between the more abstract cubist paintings (The Guitar, Woman, and Nude) when they were presented for 9 s. Aesthetic pleasure in cubist paintings is related to the ability to recognize figurative forms in short (milliseconds) and long (9.5 s or more) exposures (Hekkert & van Wieringen, 1990). Additionally, arousal has no effect with exposure times > 9 s, independent of the transient effect of arousal at 3-4 s, indicating that other cognitive processes mediate time estimations with 9 s exposure times (see also Elbert et al., 1991) such as movement perception. Finally, these paintings were presented with other abstract paintings in Experiment 1. In Experiment 2, only four mostly similar cubist paintings that represented human forms from the analytical phase of cubism were presented to the participants. These four paintings are more easily comparable with regard to their cognitive appraisals. This can explain why Nude and Woman were marginally overestimated and underestimated in Experiment 1 with 3 s exposure. The same was not Table 3. Mean ± standard deviation of time estimation, latency, movement, arousal, recognition, and complexity for the four cubist paintings in GA and GB groups. GA3/9 paintings GB3/9 paintings Parameter 1 3 6 2 3 6 Time (3 s) 3.28 ± .80 3.04 ± 1.00 2.90 ± .65 3.04 ± .60 3.22 ± .71 3.19 ± .82 Time (9 s) 9.13 ± 2.87 9.81 ± 2.43 9.82 ± 2.01* 8.96 ± 2.11 9.55 ± 2.62L 11.13 ± 5.19*L Latency (3 s) 1.21 ± .39 1.37 ± .67 1.28 ± .48 1.52 ± .64 1.82 ± 1.10 1.49 ± .74 Latency (9 s) 1.65 ± 1.02+ 1.71 ± 1.16 1.93 ± 1.66+ 2.69 ± 1.57+ 2.44 ± 1.39 2.08 ± .79+ Arousal (3/9 s) 2.50 ± .95 2.52 ± 1.01 3.76 ± 1.06 2.55 ± .92 2.60 ± 1.01 3.46 ± 1.09 Movement (3/9 s) 3.46 ± 1.86 4.22 ± 1.82# 4.96 ± 1.94 2.76 ± 1.72 4.48 ± 1.75 4.74 ± 2.17 * Overestimation. L Paintings 3 and 6 were estimated longer than painting 2 in the GB9 group. + Longer latency for 9 s compared with 3 s exposure. Italics indicate that the paintings received different scores for arousal and movement relative to the paintings marked in bold. # Painting 3 was also scored with less movement than painting 1 in the GA3/9 groups. Abstract paintings and time perception 389 observed in the GA3 and GB3 groups with 3 s exposure in Experiment 2. General discussion Subjective time was affected by abstract paintings that were presented for different durations (3 and 9 s). These time distortions may be related to different psychological processes that involve interactions between the observation durations of the two experimental exposure conditions: (i) 20 paintings with different themes from different artistic schools (cubism, expressionism, and futurism) that were presented for 3 s (Experiment 1) and (ii) four cubist paintings with the same theme that were presented for 9 s (Experiment 2). Considering the artwork schools and themes of the paintings, the time estimation results indicate that cubist paintings that are composed of abstract human forms differentially distorted timing depending on the groups’ exposure times (3 and 9 s). The time estimation data were more related to implied movement than to emotional arousal evoked by the paintings that were presented for 9 s, likely because cognitive appraisal affects time processing. Therefore, Experiments 1 and 2 highlight the importance of artwork grouping and the duration of observation, which was more evident for the cubist paintings that represented human forms. However, why did these cubist paintings differentially affect time perception when they were presented for different times and in different experimental groupings? In Experiment 1, the participants estimated time with very different artworks, and comparisons were made with their cognitive appraisals. Several implicit aspects of an aesthetic episode were processed together to generate different effects on time perception that were attributable to the possible comparisons established with observations of all 20 paintings. Woman was underestimated and Nude was marginally overestimated relative to the actual exposure time of 3 s. Nude was estimated longer than Woman. Interestingly, all of the cubist paintings in this experiment were not different in the complexity measure. These two paintings were less easily recognizable as a human figure compared with the other cubist paintings (recognition measure). Furthermore, they were scored differently in the movement and arousal measures. In Experiment 2, Nude was overestimated in both the GA9 and GB9 groups relative to the actual exposure time of 9 s. Girl, which did not affect time perception in Experiment 1, caused time distortion in one group in Experiment 2. This aspect of time perception (i.e., a grouping effect) can be understood by considering the movement and arousal measures. The estimations of the Nude and Girl (which imply more movement) exposure times were longer compared with The Guitar (which implies less movement) in the GB9 group. But the same was not observed in the GA9 group. Estimations of the Nude and Girl exposure times were not longer compared with Woman, and they were scored similarly in the movement measure. Only Nude received a greater arousal score in Experiment 2. When people observe these and other paintings in a museum (i.e., an ecological context), interest and pleasure in one specific painting demand different processing times because the subjects are freely attentive to different aspects of the artwork and not subjected to the elapsed time of exposure. Therefore, this aspect of visual artwork appreciation could be available in terms of how long a person observes and comprehends it. The cubist paintings that represented human forms were the same in both experiments, and they were relatively similar in their pictorial compositions, characterized by similar elements with regard to the amount of pictorial abstraction (Ganteführer-Trier & Grosenick, 2004). Woman, The Guitar, and Nude were not easily related to a human figure, demonstrating that their figurative content was not quickly distinguished. This result could be related to previous studies that used only cubist paintings. Nicki et al. (1981) showed that subjects observed cubist artworks for more time because of an increase in their subjective ambiguity as the identification of a human figure in the compositions. Cubist paintings with higher content accessibility (i.e., less ambiguity) could be processed faster. This aspect of visual perception is an important feature of an aesthetic episode (Cupchick & Gebotys, 1998). Therefore, the recognition responses in the observer depend on how easily they were processed over time (see also Kuchinke et al., 2009). Moreover, Hekkert and van Wieringen (1990) showed that more than 3 s was necessary to identify a figurative form in cubist paintings. Using an identification rate to evaluate the time required for subjects to recognize human figures in cubist paintings, they showed that Nude was recognized after 7.5 s. A similar painting composition, such as Woman, was recognized after 9.5 s. Therefore, the two exposure durations used in the present study (3 and 9 s) were essential to explain the apparently discrepant time estimation data obtained in both experiments. In Experiments 1 and 2 (with 3 s exposure), these cubist paintings could be interpreted as only abstract compositions that do not necessarily involve human forms because of the short duration of exposure (3 s), which is insufficient for the participants to comprehend and identify human forms or imply movement. Thus, in Experiment 2 (9 s exposure groups), Nude was better understood as a human form or a person who is performing a movement. In contrast, 9 s exposure to Woman and The Guitar did not allow the observers to recognize abstract human forms or perceive movement. This aspect (observation time) of abstract artwork was also evaluated according to the latency measure. The latencies among the paintings were the same when the different cubist paintings were presented for 3 or 9 s (Experiment 2). However, an interesting latency result was found when comparisons were made between the 3 and 9 s exposure groups. The more abstract paintings produced longer latencies when presented for 9 s, Nather et al.390 including Nude and Woman in the GA9 group and Nude and The Guitar in the GB9 group (see Table 3). In contrast, the same was not observed for Girl. Despite its implicit human form abstraction, Girl was recognized as a woman figure. Therefore, these results could be interpreted as indicative of image comprehension and processing. The participants may have been attempting to understand the image content before making time estimations, which could affect their further subjective time estimation when the duration of exposure was 9 s (Experiment 2). This aspect of time perception requires further investigation because it was used as a control measure relative to time perception in this study, but it may provide a possible explanation for the subjective time perception results. Exposure time was a relevant aspect of time perception when the same impressionist art pieces that represented figurative human bodies and implied different body movements were studied (Nather, Bueno, & Bigand, 2013). Time duration in an aesthetic episode can surpass the effects of other empathic properties of artworks. For example, the time of exposure to the same ballerina image that implied movement (a great arabesque) was overestimated when presented for 36 s, but the same was not observed when it was presented for 18 s. This information may clarify the different time distortions observed between the 3 and 9 s exposure times because of the emotional arousal elicited by cubist paintings. Nude received greater arousal scores than the other three paintings. However, the arousal effects in the observer could be transient with exposure longer than 3 s in which high arousal levels are more effective in the early phase (2 s) of time processing (Angrili et al., 1997; Nather et al., 2011). Therefore, with 9 s exposure to the paintings, time distortions were unrelated to emotions but rather to determined properties of its composition that could be related, for example, to empathy and embodiment mechanisms evoked by artworks that represent motion (Freedberg & Gallese, 2007). Gil and Droit-Volet (2012) discussed the fundamental role of arousal related to the emotional content of human pictures based on the Affective Picture System (Lang, Bradley, & Cuthbert, 2008). They showed a lengthening effect on the duration of emotional pictures compared with neutral ones, indicating that the magnitude of this effect increases with greater levels of arousal and impact of emotional pictures. For example, the duration of disgust-inducing pictures (e.g., body mutilation) was judged to be longer than fear-inducing pictures (e.g., snake). The impact of artwork appreciation, such as with cubist paintings, is not the same as with real images of humans in dangerous or fearful contexts (Grommet, Droit-Volet, Hemmes, Baker, & Brown, 2008). For example, excluding arousal levels, phobic subjects make longer estimates of 45 s observation of a spider (Watts & Sharrock, 1984). Arousal may be an important mechanism that mediates the effect of emotion on time perception. In this study, however, it must also be considered in terms of hedonic effects and cognitive appraisals that are related to the different properties of the artwork used (e.g., Silvia, 2005a, b; Russell, 2003). From this perspective, the present study corroborated the transient effect of emotional arousal on time perception when the duration of an aesthetic episode is greater than 3-4 s (see also Lambrechts, Mella, Pouthas, & Noulhiane, 2011) through embodiment mechanisms that are related to the kind of represented movement, either abstract or not. Therefore, time distortions for 9 s exposure (Experiment 2) were related to movement perception in which the paintings received both greater arousal and movement scores. Additionally, the arousal scores were relatively similar among the groups of participants in Experiment 2, but movement scores were different (see Table 3). Thus, the different movement scores among the paintings must be considered. When movement scores were ≤ 1.5 points, the estimations of the paintings’ exposure times were not different. However, the estimations of the paintings’ exposure times were different when the movement scores were > 1.5. The exposure time for The Guitar (3.0 points, approximately) was estimated to be shorter compared with Nude and Girl (4.5 to 5.0 points, approximately). These results support the hypothesis proposed by Nather and Bueno (2011) in which movement scores > 1.5 points are sufficient to produce time distortions. A previous study used long-duration exposure (36 s) to different photographs of ballerina sculptures that were presented to three different groups of participants, similar to the experimental design in the present study (three images per group). Therefore, different kinds of represented movement in figurative and abstract artwork affect time perception. The stroboscopic movement of Nude was overestimated because the attention evoked (see Elbert et al., 1991) by this artwork when it was presented for 9 s allowed the individuals to compare paintings with similar characteristics from the same artistic school. The activation of embodiment mechanisms encompasses the simulation of actions, emotions, and corporeal sensations by motion-sensitive cortical brain areas (Freedberg & Gallese, 2007), which may explain the time distortions. Differential activation of the MT+ area and other cortical brain areas have been discussed in studies that used Manga drawings and Van Gogh paintings (Osaka, Matsuyoshi, Ikeda, & Osaka, 2010; Thakral et al., 2012; Vartanian & Goel, 2004). According to Kim and Blake (2007), different abstract paintings from different schools, such as Nude, imply different movement intensities and activate the MT+ brain area. In this study, the participants were previously exposed to the abstract paintings that were used. In another study that used functional magnetic resonance imaging, the latencies were significantly shorter when the subjects were previously trained to recognize represented objects in cubist paintings (Wiesmann & Ishai, 2010). Therefore, the different time estimation results between the 3 and 9 s exposures to the paintings revealed that embodiment mechanisms, through empathic processes, were more Abstract paintings and time perception 391 effective when the participants were able to better understand these abstract artistic compositions. This can be established with exposure times > 7.5 s (see Nude painting results in Hekkert & van Wieringen, 1990). More than emotional arousal, understanding the implicit actions of these abstract human forms through empathy enabled individuals to recognize and make comparisons based on memories of the elapsed time to perform the observed (stroboscopic) movements, such as a person descending a staircase. Therefore, overestimations for Nude were consistent with the accumulation of internal clock pulses. More attention was given to this painting because of the inherent implicit movement representation (i.e., a stroboscopic image). The internal clock model supposes that timing is derived from the number of pulses generated by one pacemaker linked to one accumulator (Gibbon, Church, & Meck, 1984). Attention modulates the accumulation of pulses that are stored in the accumulator, acting as a switch (see also Zakay & Block, 1996). Because of the fact that the human brain is able to perceive different implied movements of different artistic representations (Cutting, 2002), the switch in attention increases the number of accumulated pulses during the observation of this kind of movement (i.e., stroboscopic) such that exposure time is judged to be longer. The greater implied movement in this abstract painting then accelerates the pulses of the internal marker, thus generating overestimations. The same was not observed for the other cubist paintings because they do not objectively represent movement. The internal clock runs faster with embodied movement associated with perceived motion when the duration of exposure is sufficient and considering the cognitive appraisals that are involved in an aesthetic episode (e.g., people observing abstract cubist paintings). The latency data confirmed this hypothesis, in which the latencies were different when the subjects observed these paintings for 3 and 9 s. The latency was higher when Nude was observed for 9 s, indicating that the duration of an aesthetic episode affects the subjective perception of time, independent of its cognitive possessing. Conclusion Time perception in artwork episodes depends on several factors that are implicitly related to the combination of image observation, duration of exposure, and processing. The experiments showed that time distortions were more attributable to implied movement perception than to the arousal evoked. Therefore, visual movement perception in static artwork accentuates the effects of arousal (emotions) when exposure times are sufficient to comprehend an artwork. Implied movement in two-dimensional artworks (e.g., paintings) is an important factor of visual perception that affects timing. Further research that uses abstract artwork from different schools (e.g., artwork with proven emotional content, such as The Scream by Edgard Munch) may provide information about other emotional aspects and processes that are related to time perception and embodiment when subjects observe paintings that represent human figures that are or are not in motion. Acknowledgements Francisco C. Nather received a Young Investigators Award from the São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP). José Lino Oliveira Bueno received a Research Grant from the National Counsel for Technological and Scientific Development (CNPq). 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work_kuaoa5c4sfctlhk7bmh43nbq6i	----	DOI: 10.1126/science.1199644 , 176 (2011);331 Science , et al.Jean-Baptiste Michel Quantitative Analysis of Culture Using Millions of Digitized Books This copy is for your personal, non-commercial use only. clicking here.colleagues, clients, or customers by , you can order high-quality copies for yourIf you wish to distribute this article to others here.following the guidelines can be obtained byPermission to republish or repurpose articles or portions of articles ): January 14, 2011 www.sciencemag.org (this infomation is current as of The following resources related to this article are available online at http://www.sciencemag.org/content/331/6014/176.full.html version of this article at: including high-resolution figures, can be found in the onlineUpdated information and services, http://www.sciencemag.org/content/suppl/2010/12/16/science.1199644.DC1.html can be found at: Supporting Online Material http://www.sciencemag.org/content/331/6014/176.full.html#related found at: can berelated to this article A list of selected additional articles on the Science Web sites http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/collection/sociology Sociology subject collections:This article appears in the following registered trademark of AAAS. is aScience2011 by the American Association for the Advancement of Science; all rights reserved. The title CopyrightAmerican Association for the Advancement of Science, 1200 New York Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20005. (print ISSN 0036-8075; online ISSN 1095-9203) is published weekly, except the last week in December, by theScience o n J a n u a ry 1 4 , 2 0 1 1 w w w .s ci e n ce m a g .o rg D o w n lo a d e d f ro m http://www.sciencemag.org/about/permissions.dtl http://www.sciencemag.org/about/permissions.dtl http://www.sciencemag.org/content/331/6014/176.full.html http://www.sciencemag.org/content/suppl/2010/12/16/science.1199644.DC1.html http://www.sciencemag.org/content/331/6014/176.full.html#related http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/collection/sociology http://www.sciencemag.org/ Quantitative Analysis of Culture Using Millions of Digitized Books Jean-Baptiste Michel,1,2,3,4,5*† Yuan Kui Shen,2,6,7 Aviva Presser Aiden,2,6,8 Adrian Veres,2,6,9 Matthew K. Gray,10 The Google Books Team,10 Joseph P. Pickett,11 Dale Hoiberg,12 Dan Clancy,10 Peter Norvig,10 Jon Orwant,10 Steven Pinker,5 Martin A. Nowak,1,13,14 Erez Lieberman Aiden1,2,6,14,15,16,17*† We constructed a corpus of digitized texts containing about 4% of all books ever printed. Analysis of this corpus enables us to investigate cultural trends quantitatively. We survey the vast terrain of ‘culturomics,’ focusing on linguistic and cultural phenomena that were reflected in the English language between 1800 and 2000. We show how this approach can provide insights about fields as diverse as lexicography, the evolution of grammar, collective memory, the adoption of technology, the pursuit of fame, censorship, and historical epidemiology. Culturomics extends the boundaries of rigorous quantitative inquiry to a wide array of new phenomena spanning the social sciences and the humanities. R eading small collections of carefully cho- sen works enables scholars to make pow- erful inferences about trends in human thought. However, this approach rarely enables precise measurement of the underlying phenome- na. Attempts to introduce quantitative methods into the study of culture (1–6) have been ham- pered by the lack of suitable data. We report the creation of a corpus of 5,195,769 digitized books containing ~4% of all books ever published. Computational analysis of this corpus enables us to observe cultural trends and subject them to quantitative investigation. ‘Culturomics’ extends the boundaries of scientific inquiry to a wide array of new phenomena. The corpus has emerged from Google’s effort to digitize books. Most books were drawn from over 40 university libraries around the world. Each page was scanned with custom equipment (7), and the text was digitized by means of optical character recognition (OCR). Additional vol- umes, both physical and digital, were contributed by publishers. Metadata describing the date and place of publication were provided by the li- braries and publishers and supplemented with bibliographic databases. Over 15 million books have been digitized [~12% of all books ever published (7)]. We selected a subset of over 5 million books for analysis on the basis of the quality of their OCR and metadata (Fig. 1A and fig. S1) (7). Periodicals were excluded. The resulting corpus contains over 500 billion words, in English (361 billion), French (45 billion), Spanish (45 billion), German (37 billion), Chinese (13 billion), Russian (35 billion), and Hebrew (2 billion). The oldest works were published in the 1500s. The early decades are represented by only a few books per year, comprising several hundred thousand words. By 1800, the corpus grows to 98 million words per year; by 1900, 1.8 billion; and by 2000, 11 billion (fig. S2). The corpus cannot be read by a human. If you tried to read only English-language entries from the year 2000 alone, at the reasonable pace of 200 words/min, without interruptions for food or sleep, it would take 80 years. The sequence of letters is 1000 times longer than the human genome: If you wrote it out in a straight line, it would reach to the Moon and back 10 times over (8). To make release of the data possible in light of copyright constraints, we restricted this initial study to the question of how often a given 1-gram or n-gram was used over time. A 1-gram is a string of characters uninterrupted by a space; this in- cludes words (“banana”, “SCUBA”) but also num- bers (“3.14159”) and typos (“excesss”). An n-gram is a sequence of 1-grams, such as the phrases “stock market” (a 2-gram) and “the United States of America” (a 5-gram). We restricted n to 5 and lim- ited our study to n-grams occurring at least 40 times in the corpus. Usage frequency is computed by dividing the number of instances of the n-gram in a given year by the total number of words in the corpus in that year. For instance, in 1861, the 1-gram “slavery” appeared in the corpus 21,460 times, on 11,687 pages of 1208 books. The corpus contains 386,434,758 words from 1861; thus, the frequency is 5.5 × 10−5. The use of “slavery” peaked during the Civil War (early 1860s) and then again during the civil rights movement (1955–1968) (Fig. 1B) In contrast, we compare the frequency of “the Great War” to the frequencies of “World War I” and “World War II”. References to “the Great War” peak between 1915 and 1941. But although its frequency drops thereafter, interest in the un- derlying events had not disappeared; instead, they are referred to as “World War I” (Fig. 1C). These examples highlight two central factors thatcontributetoculturomictrends.Culturalchange guides the concepts we discuss (such as “slavery”). Linguistic change, which, of course, has cultural roots, affects the words we use for those concepts (“the Great War” versus “World War I”). In this paper, we examine both linguistic changes, such as changes in the lexicon and grammar, and cul- tural phenomena, such as how we remember peo- ple and events. The full data set, which comprises over two billion culturomic trajectories, is available for download or exploration at www.culturomics.org and ngrams.googlelabs.com. The size of the English lexicon. How many words are in the English language (9)? We call a 1-gram “common” if its frequency is greater than one per billion. [This corresponds to the frequency of the words listed in leading dic- tionaries (7) (fig. S3).] We compiled a list of all common 1-grams in 1900, 1950, and 2000, based on the frequency of each 1-gram in the preced- ing decade. These lists contained 1,117,997 com- mon 1-grams in 1900, 1,102,920 in 1950, and 1,489,337 in 2000. Not all common 1-grams are English words. Many fell into three nonword categories: (i) 1-grams with nonalphabetic characters (“l8r”, “3.14159”), (ii) misspellings (“becuase”, “abberation”), and (iii) foreign words (“sensitivo”). To estimate the number of English words, we manually annotated random samples from the lists of common 1-grams (7) and determined what fraction were members of the above nonword categories. The result ranged from 51% of all common 1-grams in 1900 to 31% in 2000. Using this technique, we estimated the num- ber of words in the English lexicon as 544,000 in 1900, 597,000 in 1950, and 1,022,000 in 2000. The lexicon is enjoying a period of enormous growth: The addition of ~8500 words/year has increased the size of the language by over 70% during the past 50 years (Fig. 2A). Notably, we found more words than appear in any dictionary. For instance, the 2002 Webster’s Third New International Dictionary (W3), which keeps track of the contemporary American lexicon, lists approximately 348,000 single-word wordforms (10); the American Heritage Dictionary of the En- glish Language, Fourth Edition (AHD4) lists 116,161 (11). (Both contain additional multiword entries.) Part of this gap is because dictionaries often RESEARCH ARTICLE 1Program for Evolutionary Dynamics, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA. 2Cultural Observatory, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA. 3Institute for Quantitative Social Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA. 4Department of Psychology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA. 5Department of Systems Biology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA. 6Laboratory-at-Large, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA. 7Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Cambridge, MA 02139, USA. 8Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA. 9Harvard College, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA. 10Google, Mountain View, CA 94043, USA. 11Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, Boston, MA 02116, USA. 12Encyclopaedia Britannica, Chicago, IL 60654, USA. 13Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA. 14Department of Mathematics, Harvard Uni- versity, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA. 15Broad Institute of Harvard and MIT, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA. 16School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA. 17Harvard Society of Fellows, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA. *These authors contributed equally to this work. †To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: jb.michel@gmail.com (J.-B.M.); erez@erez.com (E.L.A.) 14 JANUARY 2011 VOL 331 SCIENCE www.sciencemag.org176 o n J a n u a ry 1 4 , 2 0 1 1 w w w .s ci e n ce m a g .o rg D o w n lo a d e d f ro m http://www.sciencemag.org/ exclude proper nouns (fig. S4) and compound words (“whalewatching”). Even accounting for these factors,we found many undocumented words, such as “aridification” (the process by which a geo- graphic region becomes dry), “slenthem” (a musical instrument), and, appropriately, the word “deletable.” This gap between dictionaries and the lexicon results from a balance that every dictionary must strike: It must be comprehensive enough to be a useful reference but concise enough to be printed, shipped, and used. As such, many infrequent words are omitted. To gauge how well dictio- naries reflect the lexicon, we ordered our year-2000 lexicon by frequency, divided it into eight deciles (ranging from 10−9 to 10−8, to 10−2 to 10−1) and sampled each decile (7). We manually checked how many sample words were listed in the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) (12) and in the Merriam-Webster Unabridged Dictionary(MWD). (We excluded proper nouns, because neither the OED nor MWD lists them.) Both dictionaries had excellent coverage of high-frequency words but less coverage for frequencies below 10−6: 67% of words in the 10−9 to 10−8 range were listed in neither dictionary (Fig. 2B). Consistent with Zipf’s famous law, a large fraction of the words in our lexicon (63%) were in this lowest- frequency bin. As a result, we estimated that 52% of the English lexicon—the majority of the words used in English books—consists of lexical “dark matter” undocumented in standard references (12). To keep up with the lexicon, dictionaries are updated regularly (13). We examined how well these changes corresponded with changes in ac- tual usage by studying the 2077 1-gram headwords added to AHD4 in 2000. The overall frequency of these words, such as “buckyball” and “netiquette”, has soared since 1950: Two-thirds exhibited recent sharp increases in frequency (>2× from 1950 to 2000) (Fig. 2C). Nevertheless, there was a lag be- tween lexicographers and the lexicon. Over half the words added to AHD4 were part of the English lexicon a century ago (frequency >10−9 from 1890 to 1900). In fact, some newly added words, such as “gypseous” and “amplidyne”, have already un- dergone a steep decline in frequency (Fig. 2D). Not only must lexicographers avoid adding words that have fallen out of fashion, they must also weed obsolete words from earlier editions. This is an imperfect process. We found 2220 ob- solete 1-gram headwords (“diestock”, “alkales- cent”) in AHD4. Their mean frequency declined throughout the 20th century and dipped below 10−9 decades ago (Fig. 2D, inset). Our results suggest that culturomic tools will aid lexicographers in at least two ways: (i) find- ing low-frequency words that they do not list, and (ii) providing accurate estimates of current fre- quency trends to reduce the lag between changes in the lexicon and changes in the dictionary. The evolution of grammar. Next, we exam- ined grammatical trends. We studied the English irregular verbs, a classic model of grammatical change (14–17). Unlike regular verbs, whose past tense is generated by adding -ed (jump/jumped), irregular verbs are conjugated idiosyncratically (stick/stuck, come/came, get/got) (15). All irregular verbs coexist with regular com- petitors (e.g., “strived” and “strove”) that threaten to supplant them (Fig. 2E and fig. S5). High- frequency irregulars, which are more readily remembered, hold their ground better. For in- stance, we found “found” (frequency: 5 × 10−4) 200,000 times more often than we finded “finded.” In contrast, “dwelt” (frequency: 1 × 10−5) dwelt in our data only 60 times as often as “dwelled” dwelled. We defined a verb’s “regularity” as the percentage of instances in the past tense (i.e., the sum of “drived”, “drove”, and “driven”) in which the regular form is used. Most irregulars have been stable for the past 200 years, but 16% underwent a change in regularity of 10% or more (Fig. 2F). These changes occurred slowly: It took 200 years for our fastest-moving verb (“chide”) to go from 10% to 90%. Otherwise, each trajectory was sui generis; we observed no characteristic shape. For instance, a few verbs, such as “spill”, regularized at a constant speed, but others, such as “thrive” and “dig”, transitioned in fits and starts (7). In some cases, the trajectory suggested a rea- son forthetrend.For example,with “sped/speeded” the shift in meaning from “to move rapidly” and toward “to exceed the legal limit” appears to have been the driving cause (Fig. 2G). Six verbs (burn, chide, smell, spell, spill, and thrive) regularized between 1800 and 2000 (Fig. 2F). Four are remnants of a now-defunct phono- logical process that used -t instead of -ed; they are members of a pack of irregulars that survived by virtue of similarity (bend/bent, build/built, burn/ burnt, learn/learnt, lend/lent, rend/rent, send/sent, smell/smelt, spell/spelt, spill/spilt, and spoil/spoilt). Verbs have been defecting from this coalition for centuries (wend/went, pen/pent, gird/girt, geld/ gelt, and gild/gilt all blend/blent into the domi- nant -ed rule). Culturomic analysis reveals that the collapse of this alliance has been the most significant driver of regularization in the past 200 years. The regularization of burnt, smelt, spelt, and spilt originated in the United States; the forms still cling to life in British English (Fig. 2, E and F). But the -t irregulars may be doomed in England too. Each year, a population the size of Cambridge adopts “burned” in lieu of “burnt”. Fig.1.Culturomic analy- sesstudymillionsofbooks at once. (A) Top row: Au- thors have been writing for millennia; ~129 mil- lion book editions have been published since the adventoftheprintingpress (upper left). Second row: Libraries and publishing houses provide books to Googleforscanning(mid- dle left). Over 15 million bookshavebeendigitized. Third row: Each book is associatedwithmetadata. Fivemillionbooksarecho- senforcomputationalanal- ysis (bottom left). Bottom row:Aculturomictimeline shows the frequency of “apple” in English books over time (1800–2000). (B) Usage frequency of “slavery”. The Civil War (1861–1865) and the civil rights movement (1955–1968) are highlighted in red. The number in the upper left (1e-4 = 10–4) is the unit of frequency. (C) Usage frequency over time for “the Great War” (blue), “World War I” (green), and “World War II” (red). Frequency of the word "apple" Year 129 million books published 15 million books scanned 5 million books analyzed BA C www.sciencemag.org SCIENCE VOL 331 14 JANUARY 2011 177 RESEARCH ARTICLE o n J a n u a ry 1 4 , 2 0 1 1 w w w .s ci e n ce m a g .o rg D o w n lo a d e d f ro m http://www.sciencemag.org/ Although irregulars generally yield to regu- lars, two verbs did the opposite: light/lit and wake/woke. Both were irregular in Middle English, were mostly regular by 1800, and subsequently backtracked and are irregular again today. The fact that these verbs have been going back and forth for nearly 500 years highlights the gradual nature of the underlying process. Still, there was at least one instance of rapid progress by an irregular form. Presently, 1% of the English-speaking population switches from “sneaked” to “snuck” every year. Someone will have snuck off while you read this sentence. As before, this trend is more prominent in the United States but recently sneaked across the Atlantic: America is the world’s leading exporter of both regular and irregular verbs. Out with the old. Just as individuals forget the past (18, 19), so do societies (20) (fig. S6). To quantify this effect, we reasoned that the fre- quency of 1-grams such as “1951” could be used to measure interest in the events of the corre- sponding year, and we created plots for each year between 1875 and 1975. The plots had a characteristic shape. For example, “1951” was rarely discussed until the years immediately preceding 1951. Its fre- quency soared in 1951, remained high for 3 years, and then underwent a rapid decay, dropping by half over the next 15 years. Finally, the plots Fig. 2. Culturomics has profound consequences for the study of language, lexicography, and grammar. (A) The size of the English lexicon over time. Tick marks show the number of single words in three dictionaries (see text). (B) Fraction of words in the lexicon that appear in two different dictionaries as a function of usage frequency. (C) Five words added by the AHD in its 2000 update. Inset: Median fre- quency of new words added to AHD4 in 2000. The frequency of half of these words exceeded 10−9 as far back as 1890 (white dot). (D) Obsolete words added to AHD4 in 2000. Inset: Mean frequency of the 2220 AHD headwords whose current usage fre- quency is less than 10−9. (E) Usage frequency of irregular verbs (red) and their regular counterparts (blue). Some verbs (chide/chided) have regularized during the past two centuries. The trajectories for “speeded” and “speed up” (green) are similar, re- flecting the role of semantic factors in this instance of regularization. The verb “burn” first regularized in the United States (U.S. flag) and later in the United Kingdom (UK flag). The irregular “snuck” is rapidly gaining on “sneaked”. (F) Scatterplot of the irregular verbs; each verb’s position depends on its regularity (see text) in the early 19th century (x coor- dinate) and in the late 20th century (y coordinate). For 16% of the verbs, the change in regularity was greater than 10% (large font). Dashed lines sepa- rate irregular verbs (regularity < 50%) from reg- ular verbs (regularity > 50%). Six verbs became regular (upper left quadrant, blue), whereas two be- came irregular (lower right quadrant, red). Inset: The regularity of “chide” over time. (G) Median reg- ularity of verbs whose past tense is often signified with a -t suffix instead of -ed (burn, smell, spell, spill, dwell, learn, and spoil) in U.S. (black) and UK (gray) books. words added to AHD in 2000 0 2 4 x10-8 1800 2000 yc n e u q erf n ai d e M Decade rare words still in AHD 0 2 4 x10-9 yc n e u q erf n a e M 1800 2000 Decade AHD4 W3 OED A B C D E F G 14 JANUARY 2011 VOL 331 SCIENCE www.sciencemag.org178 RESEARCH ARTICLE o n J a n u a ry 1 4 , 2 0 1 1 w w w .s ci e n ce m a g .o rg D o w n lo a d e d f ro m http://www.sciencemag.org/ enter a regime marked by slower forgetting: Collective memory has both a short-term and a long-term component. But there have been changes. The amplitude of the plots is rising every year: Precise dates are increasingly common. There is also a greater fo- cus on the present. For instance, “1880” declined to half its peak value in 1912, a lag of 32 years. In contrast, “1973” declined to half its peak by 1983, a lag of only 10 years. We are forgetting our past faster with each passing year (Fig. 3A). We were curious whether our increasing tendency to forget the old was accompanied by more rapid assimilation of the new (21). We di- vided a list of 147 inventions into time-resolved cohorts based on the 40-year interval in which they were first invented (1800–1840, 1840–1880, and 1880–1920) (7). We tracked the frequency of each invention in the nth year after it was invented as compared to its maximum value and plotted the median of these rescaled trajectories for each cohort. The inventions from the earliest cohort (1800–1840) took over 66 years from invention D o u b lin g t im e: 4 y rs Half life: 73 yrs Year of invention 0 5 x10-5 yc n e u q er F A B C D E F F re q u e n cy F re q u e n cy F re q u e n cy ( lo g ) M e d ia n f re q u e n cy (% o f p e a k va lu e ) M e d ia n f re q u e n cy M e d ia n f re q u e n cy ( lo g ) Fig. 3. Cultural turnover is accelerating. (A) We forget: frequency of “1883” (blue), “1910” (green), and “1950” (red). Inset: We forget faster. The half-life of the curves (gray dots) is getting shorter (gray line: moving average). (B) Cultural adoption is quicker. Median trajectory for three cohorts of inventions from three different time periods (1800–1840, blue; 1840–1880, green; 1880–1920, red). Inset: The telephone (green; date of invention, green arrow) and radio (blue; date of invention, blue arrow). (C) Fame of various personalities born between 1920 and 1930. (D) Frequency of the 50 most famous people born in 1871 (gray lines; median, thick dark gray line). Five examples are highlighted. (E) The median trajectory of the 1865 cohort is characterized by four parameters: (i) initial age of celebrity (34 years old, tick mark); (ii) doubling time of the subsequent rise to fame (4 years, blue line); (iii) age of peak celebrity (70 years after birth, tick mark), and (iv) half-life of the post-peak forgetting phase (73 years, red line). Inset: The doubling time and half-life over time. (F) The median trajectory of the 25 most famous personalities born between 1800 and 1920 in various careers. www.sciencemag.org SCIENCE VOL 331 14 JANUARY 2011 179 RESEARCH ARTICLE o n J a n u a ry 1 4 , 2 0 1 1 w w w .s ci e n ce m a g .o rg D o w n lo a d e d f ro m http://www.sciencemag.org/ to widespread impact (frequency >25% of peak). Since then, the cultural adoption of technology has become more rapid. The 1840–1880 invention cohort was widely adopted within 50 years; the 1880–1920 cohort within 27 (Fig. 3B and fig. S7). “In the future, everyone will be famous for 7.5 minutes” – Whatshisname. People, too, rise to prominence, only to be forgotten (22). Fame can be tracked by measuring the frequency of a person’s name (Fig. 3C). We compared the rise to fame of the most famous people of different eras. We took all 740,000 people with entries in Wikipedia, removed cases where several famous individuals share a name, and sorted the rest by birth date and frequency (23). For every year from 1800 to 1950, we constructed a cohort consisting of the 50 most famous people born in that year. For example, the 1882 cohort includes “Virginia Woolf” and “Felix Frankfurter”; the 1946 cohort includes “Bill Clinton” and “Steven Spielberg”. We plotted the median frequency for the names in each cohort over time (Fig. 3, D and E). The resulting trajectories were all similar. Each cohort had a pre-celebrity period (median frequency <10−9), followed by a rapid rise to prominence, a peak, and a slow de- cline. We therefore characterized each cohort using four parameters: (i) the age of initial celebrity, (ii) the doubling time of the initial rise, (iii) the age of peak celebrity, and (iv) the half-life of the decline (Fig. 3E). The age of peak celebrity has been con- sistent over time: about 75 years after birth. But the other parameters have been changing (fig. S8). Fame comes sooner and rises faster. Between the early 19th century and the mid-20th century, the age of initial celebrity declined from 43 to 29 years, and the doubling time fell from 8.1 to 3.3 years. As a result, the most famous people alive today are more famous—in books—than their predecessors. Yet this fame is increasingly short- lived: The post-peak half-life dropped from 120 to 71 years during the 19th century. We repeated this analysis with all 42,358 people in the databases of the Encyclopaedia Britannica (24), which reflect a process of expert curation that began in 1768. The results were similar (7) (fig. S9). Thus, people are getting more famous than ever before but are being forgotten more rapidly than ever. Fig. 4. Culturomics can be used to detectcensorship.(A)Usagefrequen- cy of “Marc Chagall” in German (red) as compared to English (blue). (B) Suppression of Leon Trotsky (blue), Grigory Zinoviev (green), and Lev Kamenev (red) in Russian texts, with noteworthy events indicated: Trotsky’s assassination (blue arrow), Zinoviev and Kamenev executed (red arrow), the Great Purge (red highlight), and perestroika (gray ar- row). (C) The 1976 and 1989 Tianan- men Square incidents both led to elevated discussion in English texts (scale shown on the right). Response to the 1989 incident is largely ab- sentinChinesetexts(blue,scaleshown on the left), suggesting government censorship. (D) While the Holly- wood Ten were blacklisted (red highlight) from U.S. movie studios, their fame declined (median: thick gray line). None of them were cred- ited in a film until 1960’s (aptly named) Exodus. (E) Artists and writ- ers in various disciplines were sup- pressed by the Nazi regime (red highlight). Incontrast,theNazisthem- selves (thick red line) exhibited a strong fame peak during the war years. (F) Distribution of suppres- sion indices for both English (blue) andGerman (red) for the period from 1933–1945. Three victims of Nazi suppression are highlighted at left (red arrows). Inset: Calculation of the suppression index for “Henri Matisse”. 天安門 F re q u e n cy F re q u e n cy F re q u e n cy F re q u e n cy A B C D E F 14 JANUARY 2011 VOL 331 SCIENCE www.sciencemag.org180 RESEARCH ARTICLE o n J a n u a ry 1 4 , 2 0 1 1 w w w .s ci e n ce m a g .o rg D o w n lo a d e d f ro m http://www.sciencemag.org/ Occupational choices affect the rise to fame. We focused on the 25 most famous individuals born between 1800 and 1920 in seven occupations (ac- tors, artists, writers, politicians, biologists, phys- icists, and mathematicians), examining how their fame grewasa functionofage(Fig.3Fandfig.S10). Actors tend to become famous earliest, at around 30. But the fame of the actors we studied, whose ascent preceded the spread of television, rises slowly thereafter. (Their fame peaked at a frequency of 2 × 10−7.) The writers became fa- mous about a decade after the actors, but rose for longer and to a much higher peak (8 × 10−7). Politicians did not become famous until their 50s, when, upon being elected president of the United States (in 11 of 25 cases; 9 more were heads of other states), they rapidly rose to become the most famous of the groups (1 × 10−6). Science is a poor route to fame. Physicists and biologists eventually reached a similar level of fame as actors (1 × 10−7), but it took them far longer. Alas, even at their peak, mathematicians tend not to be appreciated by the public (2 × 10−8). Detecting censorship and suppression. Sup- pression of a person or an idea leaves quantifiable fingerprints (25). For instance, Nazi censorship of the Jewish artist Marc Chagall is evident by comparing the frequency of “Marc Chagall” in English and in German books (Fig. 4A). In both languages, there is a rapid ascent starting in the late 1910s (when Chagall was in his early 30s). In English, the ascent continues. But in German, the artist’s popularity decreases, reaching a nadir from 1936 to 1944, when his full name appears only once. (In contrast, from 1946 to 1954, “Marc Chagall” appears nearly 100 times in the German corpus.) Such examples are found in many coun- tries,includingRussia(Trotsky),China(Tiananmen Square), and the United States (the Hollywood Ten, blacklisted in 1947) (Fig. 4, B to D, and fig. S11). We probed the impact of censorship on a person’s cultural influence in Nazi Germany. Led by such figures as the librarian Wolfgang Hermann, the Nazis created lists of authors and artists whose “undesirable”, “degenerate” work was banned from libraries and museums and publicly burned (26–28). We plotted median usage in German for five such lists: artists (100 names) and writers of literature (147), politics (117), history (53), and philosophy (35) (Fig. 4E and fig. S12). We also included a collection of Nazi party members [547 names (7)]. The five suppressed groups exhibited a decline. This decline was modest for writers of history (9%) and literature (27%), but pronounced in politics (60%), philosophy (76%), and art (56%). The only group whose signal increased during the Third Reich was the Nazi party mem- bers [a 500% increase (7)]. Given such strong signals, we tested whether one could identify victims of Nazi repression de novo. We computed a “suppression index” (s) for each person by dividing their frequency from 1933 to 1945 by the mean frequency in 1925–1933 and in 1955–1965 (Fig. 4F, inset). In English, the distribution of suppression indices is tightly cen- tered around unity. Fewer than 1% of individuals lie at the extremes (s < 1/5 or s > 5). In German, the distribution is much wider, and skewed to the left: Suppression in Nazi Germany was not the exception, but the rule (Fig. 4F). At the far left, 9.8% of individuals showed strong suppression (s < 1/5). This population is highly enriched in documented victims of repression, such as Pablo Picasso (s = 0.12), the Bauhaus architect Walter Gropius (s = 0.16), and Hermann Maas (s < 0.01), an influential Protestant minister who helped many Jews flee (7). (Maas was later recognized by Israel’s Yad Vashem as one of the “Righteous Among the Nations.”) At the other extreme, 1.5% of the population exhibited a dra- matic rise (s > 5). This subpopulation is highly enriched in Nazis and Nazi-supporters, who bene- fited immensely from government propaganda (7). These results provide a strategy for rapidly identifying likely victims of censorship from a large pool of possibilities, and highlight how cul- turomic methods might complement existing his- torical approaches. Culturomics. Culturomics is the application of high-throughput data collection and analysis to the study of human culture. Books are a begin- ning, but we must also incorporate newspapers (29), manuscripts (30), maps (31), artwork (32), and a myriad of other human creations (33, 34). Of course, many voices—already lost to time— lie forever beyond our reach. Culturomic results are a new type of evidence in the humanities. As with fossils of ancient crea- tures, the challenge of culturomics lies in the in- terpretation of this evidence. Considerations of space restrict us to the briefest of surveys: a A B C D E F G H Fig. 5. Culturomics provides quantitative evidence for scholars in many fields. (A) Historical epi- demiology: “influenza” is shown in blue; the Russian, Spanish, and Asian flu epidemics are highlighted. (B) History of the Civil War. (C) Comparative history. (D) Gender studies. (E and F) History of science. (G) Historical gastronomy. (H) History of religion: “God”. www.sciencemag.org SCIENCE VOL 331 14 JANUARY 2011 181 RESEARCH ARTICLE o n J a n u a ry 1 4 , 2 0 1 1 w w w .s ci e n ce m a g .o rg D o w n lo a d e d f ro m http://www.sciencemag.org/ handful of trajectories and our initial interpreta- tions. Many more fossils (Fig. 5 and fig. S13), with shapes no less intriguing, beckon: (i) Peaks in “influenza” correspond with dates of known pandemics, suggesting the value of culturomic methods for historical epidemiol- ogy (35) (Fig. 5A and fig. S14). (ii) Trajectories for “the North”, “the South”, and finally “the enemy” reflect how polarization of the states preceded the descent into the Civil War (Fig. 5B). (iii) In the battle of the sexes, the “women” are gaining ground on the “men” (Fig. 5C). (iv) “féminisme” made early inroads in France, but the United States proved to be a more fertile environment in the long run (Fig. 5D). (v) “Galileo”, “Darwin”, and “Einstein” may be well-known scientists, but “Freud” is more deeply ingrained in our collective subconscious (Fig. 5E). (vi) Interest in “evolution” was waning when “DNA” came along (Fig. 5F). (vii) The history of the American diet offers many appetizing opportunities for future research; the menu includes “steak”, “sausage”, “ice cream”, “hamburger”, “pizza”, “pasta”, and “sushi” (Fig. 5G). (viii) “God” is not dead but needs a new publicist (Fig. 5H). These, together with the billions of other trajectories that accompany them, will furnish a great cache of bones from which to reconstruct the skeleton of a new science. References and Notes 1. E. O. Wilson, Consilience (Knopf, New York, 1998). 2. D. Sperber, Man (London) 20, 73 (1985). 3. S. Lieberson, J. Horwich, Sociol. Methodol. 38, 1 (2008). 4. L. L. Cavalli-Sforza, W. Marcus, X. Feldman, Cultural Transmission and Evolution (Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton, NJ, 1981). 5. P. Niyogi, The Computational Nature of Language Learning and Evolution (MIT, Cambridge, MA, 2006). 6. G. K. Zipf, The Psycho-biology of Language (Houghton Mifflin, Boston, 1935). 7. Materials and methods are available as supporting material on Science Online. 8. E. S. Lander et al.; International Human Genome Sequencing Consortium, Nature 409, 860 (2001). 9. A. W. Read, Am. Speech 8, 10 (1933). 10. Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged, P. B. Gove, Ed. (Merriam-Webster, Springfield, MA, 1993). 11. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition, J. P. Pickett, Ed. (Houghton Mifflin, Boston, 2000). 12. Oxford English Dictionary, J. A. Simpson, E. S. C. Weiner, M. Proffitt, Eds. (Clarendon, Oxford, 1993). 13. J. Algeo, A. S. Algeo, Fifty Years among the New Words: A Dictionary of Neologisms, 1941–1991 (Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, 1991). 14. S. Pinker, Words and Rules (Basic Books, New York, 1999). 15. Anthony S. Kroch, Language Variation Change 1, 199 (1989). 16. J. L. Bybee, Language 82, 711 (2006). 17. E. Lieberman, J. B. Michel, J. Jackson, T. Tang, M. A. Nowak, Nature 449, 713 (2007). 18. B. Milner, L. R. Squire, E. R. Kandel, Neuron 20, 445 (1998). 19. H. Ebbinghaus, Memory: A Contribution to Experimental Psychology (Dover Publications, New York, 1987). 20. M. Halbwachs, On Collective Memory, Lewis A. Coser, transl. (Univ. of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1992). 21. S. Ulam, Bull. Am. Math. Soc. 64, 1 (1958). 22. L. Braudy, The Frenzy of Renown: Fame & Its History (Vintage Books, New York, 1997). 23. Wikipedia, 23 August 2010, www.wikipedia.org/. 24. Encyclopaedia Britannica, D. Hoiberg, Ed. (Encyclopaedia Britannica, Chicago, 2002). 25. Censorship: 500 Years of Conflict, V. Gregorian, Ed. (New York Public Library, New York, 1984). 26. W. Treß, Wider Den Undeutschen Geist: Bücherverbrennung 1933 (Parthas, Berlin, 2003). 27. G. Sauder, Die Bücherverbrennung: 10. Mai 1933 (Ullstein, Frankfurt am Main, Germany, 1985). 28. S. Barron, P. W. Guenther, Degenerate Art: The Fate of the Avant-garde in Nazi Germany (Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Los Angeles, 1991). 29. Google News Archive Search, http://news.google.com/ archivesearch. 30. Digital Scriptorium, www.scriptorium.columbia.edu. 31. Visual Eyes, www.viseyes.org. 32. ARTstor, www.artstor.org. 33. Europeana, www.europeana.eu. 34. Hathi Trust Digital Library, www.hathitrust.org. 35. J. M. Barry, The Great Influenza: The Epic Story of the Deadliest Plague in History (Viking Press, New York, 2004). 36. J.-B.M. was supported by the Foundational Questions in Evolutionary Biology Prize Fellowship and the Systems Biology Program (Harvard Medical School). Y.K.S. was supported by internships at Google. S.P. acknowledges support from NIH grant HD 18381. E.L.A. was supported by the Harvard Society of Fellows, the Fannie and John Hertz Foundation Graduate Fellowship, a National Defense Science and Engineering Graduate Fellowship, an NSF Graduate Fellowship, the National Space Biomedical Research Institute, and National Human Genome Research Institute grant T32 HG002295. This work was supported by a Google Research Award. The Program for Evolutionary Dynamics acknowledges support from the Templeton Foundation, NIH grant R01GM078986, and the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. Some of the methods described in this paper are covered by U.S. patents 7463772 and 7508978. We are grateful to D. Bloomberg, A. Popat, M. McCormick, T. Mitchison, U. Alon, S. Shieber, E. Lander, R. Nagpal, J. Fruchter, J. Guldi, J. Cauz, C. Cole, P. Bordalo, N. Christakis, C. Rosenberg, M. Liberman, J. Scheidlower, B. Zimmer, R. Darnton, and A. Spector for discussions; to C.-M. Hetrea and K. Sen for assistance with Encyclopaedia Britannica's database; to S. Eismann, W. Treß, and the City of Berlin Web site (berlin.de) for assistance in documenting victims of Nazi censorship; to C. Lazell and G. T. Fournier for assistance with annotation; to M. Lopez for assistance with Fig. 1; to G. Elbaz and W. Gilbert for reviewing an early draft; and to Google’s library partners and every author who has ever picked up a pen, for books. Supporting Online Material www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/science.1199644/DC1 Materials and Methods Figs. S1 to S19 References 27 October 2010; accepted 6 December 2010 Published online 16 December 2010; 10.1126/science.1199644 14 JANUARY 2011 VOL 331 SCIENCE www.sciencemag.org182 RESEARCH ARTICLE o n J a n u a ry 1 4 , 2 0 1 1 w w w .s ci e n ce m a g .o rg D o w n lo a d e d f ro m http://www.sciencemag.org/ 
work_kwrb6ccnd5b2blxdixh3w72ffq	----	A li te ra lid ad e e os m od os d o m od er no do in íc io d o sé cu lo X X Artur Freitas Doutor em História pela Universidade Federal do Paraná (UFPR). Professor do curso de Artes Visuais da Faculdade de Artes da Universidade Estadual do Paraná (Unespar) e do Programa de Pós-graduação em História da UFPR. Autor, entre outros livros, de Arte de guerrilha: vanguarda e conceitualismo no Brasil. São Paulo: Edusp, 2013. artur.imagem@gmail.com R od a de b ic ic le ta . M ar ce l D uc ha m p. 1 91 3 (d et al he ). ArtCultura, Uberlândia, v. 17, n. 30, p. 227-243, jan-jun. 2015228 A literalidade e os modos do moderno do início do século XX literality and the modes of modern art Artur Freitas resumo o que chamamos de arte moderna é, entre outras coisas, a soma de dois modos complementares de existência, aqui nomeados de “autonomia” e “lite- ralidade”. Para os limites deste artigo, será realizada uma análise exclusiva do viés literalista, com ênfase no mapeamento teórico e historiográfico dos diversos caminhos da literalidade da arte nas primeiras décadas do sé- culo XX. Para tanto, o texto se inicia com uma apresentação sumária dos fundamentos estético-ideológicos do modernismo artístico, para em seguida analisar alguns casos exemplares que permitam compreender os principais vetores da literalidade, a saber, a mon- tagem e o ready-made. palavras-chave: arte moderna; litera- lidade; arte e sociedade. abstract What we call “modern art” has two modes of existence: “autonomy” and “literality.” This article examines only the literalist mode by mapping various historiographical and theoretical ways of aesthetic literality in the early twentieth century. The text begins with a presentation of ideological and aesthetic features of modernism and then analyses a few artistic examples that showcase the major expedients of literality: montage and ready-made. keywords: modern art; literality; art and society. ℘ Nascidas da consciência pública da crise vanguardista dos anos 1970 e início dos 1980, as discussões sobre o pós-modernismo pressupõem o ocaso de uma forma específica de modernidade artística, baseada justa- mente numa concepção de arte autônoma e por isso mesmo afastada das pressões sociais e econômicas da vida burguesa. Já nas primeiras décadas do século XX, diga-se de passagem, parte considerável da arte moderna sustenta, através de obras e declarações, a ideia de que a experiência artística não apenas pode como aliás deve correr em paralelo às degradações da cultura de massa e do mundo da mercadoria. Nesse contexto, a ideologia da independência da arte assume suas formas mais elaboradas no âmbito de uma autonomia de ordem sobretudo formal e imanente, como no caso exemplar da abstração pictórica. Simultaneamente, contudo, alguns artistas mostram-se dispostos a questionar, por diversos caminhos, a legitimidade de uma arte autossuficiente. Nesse segundo registro, o trabalho do artista de vanguarda é mais uma forma de comportamento ou de atitude ideo- ArtCultura, Uberlândia, v. 17, n. 30, p. 227-243, jan-jun. 2015 229 A r t ig o slógica que propriamente um modo de reiterar a criação de objetos raros e pretensamente independentes das demandas sociais. o que chamamos de arte moderna é, entre outras coisas, a soma desses dois modos complementares de existência, que aqui serão nome- ados de “autonomia” e “literalidade”. Em linhas gerais, trata-se de duas formas distintas mas interligadas de abarcar a imensa diversidade de meios, suportes e propósitos dos artistas de fins do século XIX e começo do XX. Todavia, uma vez confirmada pela força institucional da Escola de Nova York do pós-Segunda guerra, a autonomia passa a ser entendida, muitas vezes, como sinônimo de arte moderna. Inclusive no plano historiográfico, é bastante recorrente a interpretação de que a “arte contemporânea”, em oposição à “moderna”, surge no momento de crise do modelo autonomista, como se rauschenberg, Jasper Johns ou andy Warhol, valendo-se do des- prestígio ideológico de um clement greenberg, fossem responsáveis pela saudável reintegração da “arte” com a “vida”. De minha parte, contudo, acredito que a oposição ao sistema autonomista, contida na elaboração estética de excertos da vida literal, seja um fenômeno também moderno, porque simultâneo, por exemplo, ao surgimento da arte abstrata. Para os limites deste texto, portanto, pretendo me concentrar na análise exclusiva do viés literalista, com ênfase no mapeamento teórico e historiográfico dos diversos caminhos da literalidade da arte no início do século XX.1 Para tanto, começarei com uma apresentação sumária dos fundamentos ideológicos e estéticos do modernismo artístico, para em seguida analisar alguns casos exemplares que permitam compreender os dois grandes caminhos da literalidade, a saber, a montagem e o ready-made. Arte moderna: um conceito plural De um ponto de vista ideológico-institucional, arte moderna é, de saída, o nome que se dá a um complexo processo de rejeição ao regime de valores difundido pelo sistema acadêmico. Desde a corte de luís XiV, no século XVii, a academia pode ser vista como a arena central da cultura europeia. Mesmo depois de sua abolição temporária durante a revolução francesa, o sistema acadêmico, formado pela aliança estatal e legitima- dora entre escola e salão, segue baseando-se na erudição clássica, bíblica e histórica, com ênfase tanto na manutenção das regras perspécticas do naturalismo, quanto na força racionalista do desenho em detrimento da cor e da matéria. Nesse contexto, as hierarquias estéticas ligadas à antiguidade e à competência sustentam-se em rigorosos ritos de iniciação: a academia, afinal, monopoliza a educação artística, realiza nomeações para a máquina do estado, confere títulos, fornece pensões e concede prêmios, entre os quais o Prix de Rome, que garante, além de glória, uma estada na Villa Médicis.2 todavia, em oposição às novas experiências sociais e tecnológicas resultantes do capitalismo industrial, a normatização do sensível, assegu- rada por uma academia afeita ao gosto pseudo-aristocrático da burguesia ascendente, vai aos poucos sendo questionada enquanto prática cultural- mente estabelecida. Embora não seja uma disposição consciente ou plane- jada, o fato é que diversos eventos somados – da exposição individual de courbet em 1855 ao surgimento dos primeiros marchands no final do século XiX – apontam para a formação de um espaço social próprio à produção de artistas, poetas e intelectuais efetivamente deslocados em relação às diretrizes do sistema acadêmico. a partir daí, novos agentes, categorias 1 Para uma análise do outro viés – a autonomia –, ver frEitaS, artur. arte moderna: notas so- bre a autonomia. In: frEitaS, artur e KaMiNSKi, rosane (orgs.). História e arte: encontros disciplinares. São Paulo: inter- meios, 2013. 2 cf. haUSEr, arnold. História social da arte e da literatura. São Paulo: Martins fontes, 2000 [1953], p. 401 e 402. ArtCultura, Uberlândia, v. 17, n. 30, p. 227-243, jan-jun. 2015230 e instâncias de consagração possibilitam a formação de uma outra rede institucional, voltada à legitimação de valores especificamente artísticos. Pierre Bourdieu nomeia essa rede de “campo da arte” e a descreve como o “lugar em que se produz a crença no valor da arte e no poder de criação do valor que é próprio do artista”.3 tal ambiente de soberania do estético, como se sabe, é o contexto que admite o surgimento de uma arte que se quer pretensamente viva e moderna, em oposição ao modelo normativo e conservador da academia. além disso, a nova sensibilidade mobilizada pela arte moderna é parte constitutiva das transformações científicas e cognitivas ocorridas ao longo do século XiX. No contexto da crescente racionalização dos saberes e dos corpos, a difusão de novos dispositivos imagéticos, do daguerreó- tipo ao cinematógrafo, acaba fomentando o chamado “efeito fotografia”, que é particularmente influente no âmbito das artes visuais. Assim como a equivalência dos objetos industriais implica a crise da ideia de mimesis, a fotografia surge como um “componente crucial de uma nova economia cultural de valor e troca”, em tudo oposta ao aparente anacronismo da representação pictórica tradicional.4 Na esfera da arte moderna, contudo, é preciso escapar da oposição fácil entre imagem técnica e imagem pictórica, como se para celebrar a “ruptura” modernista fosse mesmo preciso opor o “experimentalismo” da vanguarda ao “realismo” popular dos meios técni- cos. Nessa leitura simplista, a autenticidade da arte moderna parece provir sobretudo da mera oposição aos códigos miméticos, antes difundidos pela academia e agora perpetuados pela fotografia e o cinema, como se estes não passassem de simples dispositivos de popularização da perspectiva, de base renascentista. Na interpretação de Jonathan crary, o “mito da rup- tura modernista” normalmente desconsidera que tanto as inovações dos artistas modernos quanto a cultura científica e popular de fins do século XiX são “componentes superpostos de uma única superfície social, na qual a modernização da visão tinha começado décadas antes”.5 Para o autor, as experiências visuais de um cézanne, por exemplo, dependem da existência de um novo observador, que só se torna possível quando, já na primeira metade do século XIX, a ótica fisiológica e aparelhos como o estereoscópio garantem a existência de outros parâmetros de visibilidade. Seja como for, se levarmos em conta o testemunho dos próprios ar- tistas, é inegável o impacto, ao mesmo tempo perverso e sedutor, que as novas tecnologias exercem sobre o desenvolvimento da arte moderna. Do cubismo à Bauhaus, parece haver uma beleza intrínseca no funcionalismo quase mágico e onipresente dos objetos industriais. Para fernand léger, a máquina pode ser vista como o verdadeiro dínamo da experiência estética na modernidade. Nas suas palavras, o automóvel, por exemplo, “tornou-se um todo perfeito, logicamente organizado para a sua finalidade”, ou seja: “tornou-se belo”.6 Nesse sentido, a modernidade é um desfile apressado de imagens e mercadorias, e somente o “dinamismo”, a “simultaneidade” ou, numa palavra, a velocidade é capaz de devolver ao mundo moderno sua própria complexidade política e estética. No limite, a máquina agora não é apenas o modelo da beleza renovada: ela é mesmo superior à própria arte dos museus. “Um carro de corrida”, afirma Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, “é mais belo que a Vitória de Samotrácia”.7 com o futurismo, todavia, o princípio do homem máquina, prenhe de futuro e desprovido dos erros do sentimento, dá margem a uma série de equívocos. Da destruição dos museus à glorificação do militarismo, passando pelo combate ao feminismo, 3 BoUrDiEU, Pierre. gênese histórica de uma estética pura. In: O poder simbólico. rio de Janeiro: Bertrand Brasil, 1989, p. 289. 4 cf. crarY, Jonathan. Técnicas do observador: visão e moder- nidade no século XiX. rio de Janeiro: contraponto, 2012 [1990], p. 22. 5 Idem, ibidem, p. 14. 6 lÉgEr, fernand. a estética da máquina [1924]. In: chiPP, herschel (org.). Teorias da arte moderna. São Paulo: Martins fontes, 1996, p. 283. 7 MariNEtti, filippo tomma- so. fundação e manifesto do futurismo [1908]. In: chiPP, herschel (org.)., op. cit., p. 288. ArtCultura, Uberlândia, v. 17, n. 30, p. 227-243, jan-jun. 2015 231 A r t ig o sa defesa da entrada da Itália na Primeira Guerra e a posterior identificação com o fascismo, o fato é que a exaltação futurista de uma sociedade indus- trial, irascível e varonil consiste no pior aspecto da estetização do universo maquínico, porque próximo do totalitarismo. No modernismo, a produção artística deve tanto reiterar a temporali- dade da história moderna quanto radicalizar o caráter agudamente reflexivo de suas disposições estéticas. No primeiro caso, temos uma história humana entendida como um progressivo processo de emancipação, ou seja, como uma realização cada vez mais perfeita do homem ideal. Nesses termos, se a história tem um sentido progressivo, então, nas palavras de gianni Vattimo, evidentemente “terá mais valor aquilo que é mais ‘avançado’ em termos de conclusão, aquilo que está mais perto do final do processo”.8 Mas, em contrapartida, a experiência artística moderna também pressupõe um desvio em relação à pretensa univocidade da cultura. Para Vattimo, tanto a stoss heideggeriana quanto o shock benjaminiamo admitem, no seio da modernidade, a “experiência do desenraizamento”, em tudo oposta à familiaridade dos objetos industriais, de uso cotidiano. Nas suas palavras, o radicalismo de certas parcelas da vanguarda, entre as quais o dadaísmo, pode ser concebido “como um projeto lançado contra o espectador, contra qualquer segurança, expectativa de sentido ou hábito perceptivo”.9 Dessa forma, a oposição ao gosto médio da sociedade burguesa, prevista na disposição para épater le bourgeois, implica uma arte moderna aberta ao estranhamento do choque, desligada das normas da academia, suscetível ao “efeito fotografia”, ambígua diante das máquinas e voltada, sobretudo, aos mitos da originalidade e do novo. como é sabido, o relato padrão sobre o modernismo, ao menos em sua forma mais difundida, afir- ma que a arte moderna é um mergulho na liberdade de se ser exatamente o que o mundo não é. Nesses termos, a modernidade artística nasce de um processo de soberania e autocentramento da linguagem, como se, para se distinguir enquanto forma de vida particular e avessa às pressões baratas da cultura de massa, o artista lutasse por declarar a autonomia de seu pen- samento e, por extensão, de suas criações. Para alguns autores, entretanto, é também moderno aquele impulso estético voltado a afirmar justamente o contrário da experiência autonomista. Para Nicolas Bourriaud, por exemplo, o “projeto moderno” da arte, oposto “à reificação e à divisão da experi- ência em pequenas unidades separadas”, é precisamente aquele que “nos incita a produzir a vida cotidiana enquanto obra”. Nesse registro, arte não é a criação de objetos físicos especiais afastados da vida comum, mas um processo de formalização estética do próprio ato vivencial. É compreensí- vel, portanto, que Marcel Duchamp, apresentado como o artista disposto “a se tornar, ele próprio, sua maior obra”, surja então como o modelo natural dessa postura, entendida como a imbricação voluntária entre arte, subjetividade e vida social.10 Para Bourriaud, em síntese, essa é a moderni- dade artística que interessa; a única que, no caldo espesso da diversidade moderna, deve realmente contar. trata-se, é certo, apenas de uma meia verdade – mas uma meia verdade que, no limite, nos permite compreender a pluralidade das práticas artísticas modernas como algo fértil e valioso. Literalidade a partir do século XViii, a gradativa separação da arte em relação ao poder político e religioso leva à constituição de uma esfera social relati- 8 VattiMo, gianni. A sociedade transparente. lisboa: relógio D’água, 1992 [1989], p. 8. 9 Idem, ibidem, p. 55. 10 Ver BoUrriaUD, Nicolas. Formas de vida: a arte moderna e a invenção de si. São Paulo: Martins fontes, 2011 [1999], p. 69-71. ArtCultura, Uberlândia, v. 17, n. 30, p. 227-243, jan-jun. 2015232 vamente autônoma, voltada para a circulação específica do conhecimento artístico. Em fins do século seguinte, tal separação só tem efeito na medida em que o artista aparentemente se divorcia da sociedade burguesa, recu- sando seu pragmatismo moral e mercantil. todavia, quando o artista mo- derno almeja a liberdade da linguagem, ele paga o preço da neutralização ideológica. a autonomia da arte, adverte adorno, pressupõe uma “ideia de liberdade” que só se forma, no entanto, “na dominação que a generaliza”.11 o modelo por excelência dessa contradição é a própria autonomia formal, particularmente em suas versões “puras” e “abstratas”. Para Peter Bürger, a arte autônoma, por ele chamada de “esteticista”, funda-se na recusa da “práxis vital”, ou seja, na rejeição da “vida cotidiana do burguês ordenada segundo a racionalidade voltada para os fins”.12 No entanto, se o “esteticismo”, por um lado, é contrário à ordem social opressora, por outro ele não é capaz de transformá-la, o que faz da autonomia da arte, na opinião de Bürger, uma postura compreensível mas inconsequente, porque próxima do escapismo e do desinteresse ideológico. a leitura é esquemática e mal-humorada, porém guarda um interesse especial: com Peter Bürger, podemos localizar, já no contexto da arte moderna, um fe- nômeno de oposição à abordagem autonomista. Para o autor, tal oposição, nomeada de “vanguarda”, consiste na tentativa de recondução da arte à vida social. Contudo, como o próprio Bürger afirma, “não é objetivo dos vanguardistas integrar a arte” à “práxis vital burguesa”. ao contrário, os “artistas de vanguarda” compartilham da rejeição a um mundo ordenado pela racionalidade-voltada-para-os- fins, tal como a formularam os esteticistas. O que os distingue destes é a tentativa de organizar, a partir da arte, uma nova práxis vital. Também sob esse aspecto, o esteticismo revela-se um pressuposto necessário da intenção vanguardista. Somente uma arte que se acha inteiramente abstraída da (perversa) práxis vital da sociedade estabelecida, pode ser o centro a partir do qual uma nova práxis vital possa ser organizada.13 Em resumo, a modernidade artística parece apresentar duas formas complementares de lidar com a realidade social. Primeiro, por meio da de- fesa de uma linguagem aparentemente independente dos valores vigentes; segundo, através da construção, utópica mas por isso mesmo desejável, de uma nova ordem social e simbólica. como veremos, os artistas adeptos des- sa segunda postura não veem o isolamento da linguagem como uma opção admissível. Para eles, entretanto, a reintegração da arte com a realidade não passa pelo registro metafórico da “representação”. antes, pretende-se, nas palavras de adorno, que a obra de arte introduza “em si as ruínas literais e não fictícias da empiria heterogênea”.14 Desse modo, ao admitir a potência poética dos excertos da experiência comum, o artista moderno, por essa via, aplica-se no manejo direto e obsessivo da literalidade. Montagem De Cimabue a Kandinsky, a especificidade de uma obra de arte de- riva da subjetividade do artista expressa por meio da elaboração física de uma dada matéria prima. Nesse contexto, artista plástico é aquele sujeito capaz de plasmar um pedaço do mundo, ou seja, capaz de transformar, pela própria força subjetiva, um material inerte num artefato com valor 11 aDorNo, theodor. Teoria estética. São Paulo: Martins fontes, 1982 [1970], p. 29. 12 BÜrgEr, Peter. Teoria da van- guarda. São Paulo: cosac Naify, 2012 [1974], p. 97. 13 Idem, ibidem, p. 97. 14 aDorNo, theodor, op. cit., p. 177. ArtCultura, Uberlândia, v. 17, n. 30, p. 227-243, jan-jun. 2015 233 A r t ig o sartístico. Na modernidade, contudo, o modo de produção industrial, com seu caráter maquínico, projetual e seriado, acaba afetando a sensibilidade de alguns artistas, ainda que indiretamente. a partir de então, torna-se possível aceitar, pela primeira vez, que o ato criativo não se resuma à transformação subjetiva da matéria. Momentaneamente livre da obrigação de insuflar vida à tinta inanimada, o artista moderno assume, em breves ocasiões, uma inteligência quase-fabril: ao invés da manipulação exclusiva da matéria, ele pode agora lidar com os sentidos prévios de componentes pré-fabricados. centrados na homologia entre procedimentos corpóreos e estrutura formal, artistas como Kandinsky ou Pollock veem na elaboração plástica da matéria o único modelo possível de criatividade. todavia, é exatamente em oposição à aparente hegemonia desse modelo que surgem as primeiras obras realizadas com excertos literais do mundo ordinário. Nesses termos, a mais difundida forma de literalidade da arte moderna é a montagem. com ela, o artista, desfazendo-se do engano da pura imanência, aproveita a potência também criativa – porque contaminada – da realidade social. Para adorno, a montagem, enquanto princípio geral, surge no momento em que Picasso e Braque, nos anos heróicos do cubismo, trabalham com colagens de recortes de jornal e embalagens.15 Embora adorniano, Peter Bürger é ainda mais enfático que adorno a esse respeito. Para ele, Uma teoria da vanguarda deve partir do conceito de montagem sugerido pelas cola- gens cubistas. O que as diferencia das técnicas de composição pictórica desenvolvidas desde o Renascimento é a inserção, no quadro, de fragmentos da realidade, isto é, de materiais que não foram elaborados pelo próprio artista. Desta forma, é destruída a unidade do quadro, como um todo marcado em todas as partes pela subjetividade do artista. O cesto de vime que Picasso cola num quadro, por mais que possa ter sido escolhido em nome de uma intenção composicional, continua a ser um pedaço da realidade que, tel quel, sem experimentar transformações essenciais, é inserido no quadro.16 Não estou de acordo com a ideia de que a montagem destrua a “unidade do quadro”, até porque, de fato, não há como negar a “intenção composicional” dessas colagens. Dispersos com cuidado sobre a superfície pictórica, os recortes de rótulos e jornais diários são tratados como áreas de cor e textura, atuando assim no equilíbrio estrutural das pinturas – e portanto na conformação de sua unidade – tanto quanto as partes estri- tamente pintadas. Afinal, antes de tudo, Picasso e Braque são pintores modernos atentos às singularidades formais e imanentes de suas obras. o que os diferencia, entretanto, é a adoção dos sentidos prévios e mundanos presentes nos signos apropriados. Na obra La Suze, de 1912, Picasso nos oferece uma típica natureza- morta cubista. Com alguma dificuldade, identificamos nela um “copo” assimétrico e uma “garrafa” longilínea (fig. 1). Pintada a guache, a garrafa apresenta em seu centro um rótulo real da bebida Suze, numa referência direta ao mundo da mercadoria e do consumo. rigorosamente estruturada, a composição da obra se sustenta, sobretudo, por meio de recortes de um exemplar de 18 de novembro de 1912 do periódico Le Journal.17 Embora dispostos em diversos sentidos e inclinações, os excertos de reportagens são plenamente legíveis, o que reforça os significados também textuais e midiáticos de La Suze. Desse modo, uma vez que parte considerável da obra pode ser lida, é sintomático que Picasso tenha selecionado apenas artigos 15 cf. aDorNo, theodor, op. cit., p. 177. 16 BÜrgEr, Peter, op. cit., p. 137 e 138. 17 Ver fraSciNa, francis. re- alismo e ideologia: uma intro- dução à semiótica e ao cubismo. In: harriSoN, charles et alii. Primitivismo, cubismo, abstração: começo do século XX. São Pau- lo: cosac & Naify, 1998, p. 92. ArtCultura, Uberlândia, v. 17, n. 30, p. 227-243, jan-jun. 2015234 que tratam de um evento relevante e pontual, no caso, a Primeira guerra Balcânica. como notou francis frascina, La Suze é “um horrível relato da morte”, pois nela podemos ler sobre as estratégias militares, o sofrimento dos feridos, a ameaça da fome e a epidemia de cólera que abateu milhares de soldados turcos. Em resumo, “as colagens e papiers collés feitas por Picasso e por Braque nessa época incorporam elementos que são a antíte- se da arte autônoma ou “pura”: recortes de jornal sobre acontecimentos sóciopolíticos contemporâneos, ficção romântica serializada, inovações científicas, todos os tipos de anúncios”.18 tal interpretação, evidentemente, põe em risco a confortável coerência das teses autonomistas. Para clement greenberg, por exemplo, não faz nenhum sentido atribuir a origem da colagem “a uma mera necessidade dos cubistas de um contato renovado com a ‘realidade’”. coerente consigo mesmo, o crítico vê nas operações de Braque e Picasso uma maneira de reiterar a “planaridade real da pintura”, de modo que a colagem não passe de um capítulo privilegiado no processo de afirmação da “superfície literal, física, da tela”.19 o argumento é parcialmente verdadeiro, pois implica a clara “intenção composicional” dessas colagens, já mencionada. Por outro lado, não temos porque ignorar os significados inerentes aos materiais co- lados, como se pudéssemos retirar da obra todos aqueles textos e rótulos, com suas impurezas políticas e mercadológicas. a literalidade da vida cotidiana simplesmente está ali, como parte constitutiva da obra. a partir dessa abertura inicial, alguns artistas modernos acabam 18 Idem, ibidem, p. 165. 19 grEENBErg, clement. a revolução da colagem [1959]. In: fErrEira, glória e co- triM, cecília (orgs.). Clement Greenberg e o debate crítico. rio de Janeiro: Zahar, p. 95 e 96. figura 1. La Suze. Pablo Picasso. 1912. ArtCultura, Uberlândia, v. 17, n. 30, p. 227-243, jan-jun. 2015 235 A r t ig o senfatizando, justamente, as propriedades ideológicas disponíveis nos materiais escolhidos e reelaborados. Um exemplo importante nesse sen- tido são as fotomontagens de John Heartfield, produzidas no contexto da República de Weimar. Na mesma linha de George Grosz, Heartfield pertence à geração de fundadores do partido comunista alemão, e como tal acredita numa arte “comprometida” com a revolução política, como na conhecida Tendenzkunst, ou “arte tendenciosa”, por ele defendida.20 No ambiente iconoclasta do dadaísmo berlinense, a fotografia composta, visível já na segunda metade dos anos 1910, vale-se de sua ironia política para denunciar, enquanto “arma de classe”, as opressões da burguesia, dos representantes da alta finança e das forças militares.21 Nos anos 1920, tem lugar uma extraordinária difusão internacional das revistas ilustradas. como parte integrante dos relatos da imprensa sobre a realidade, o fotojornalismo assume, nesse contexto, uma posição contraditória, ora funcionando como descrição da verdade, ora sendo visto como instrumento de coerção ideológica das classes dominantes. É compreensível, portanto, que a vulgarização da fotografia promova, nos artistas modernos, um novo interesse. agora, em lugar dos textos jornalís- ticos, como em La Suze, as montagens são realizadas a partir das imagens fotográficas disponíveis nas revistas ilustradas. É o caso, por exemplo, da fotomontagem Adolf, o super-homem, de John Heartfield, publicada em 17 de julho de 1932 no periódico comunista Arbeiter Illustrierte Zeitung (fig. 2). combinando elementos visuais de pro- 20 Ver WooD, Paul. realismos e realidades. In: fEr, Briony et alii. Realismo, racionalismo, surrealismo. São Paulo: cosac Naify, 1999, p. 291-295. 21 Ver faBriS, annateresa. a fotomontagem como função política. História, n. 22, São Paulo, 2003, p. 19 e 20.figura 2. Adolf, o super-homem. John Heartfield. 1932. ArtCultura, Uberlândia, v. 17, n. 30, p. 227-243, jan-jun. 2015236 cedências diversas, a obra almeja a “síntese dialética” de duas narrativas distintas mas justapostas. De um lado, a “aparência” triunfante de hitler, que discursa com a habitual energia e veemência. E de outro, a “revelação” de suas entranhas ocultas, cuja radiografia exibe um esôfago inumano, feito de moedas. O alvo de Heartfield, evidentemente, é a aliança entre o nazismo e a elite econômica. Para o artista, “adolf, o super-homem” é aquele que “engole ouro e fala bobagens” – como se lê nas legendas que acompanham a imagem. a obra, em resumo, é uma alegoria do Führer como “porta-voz do capitalismo alemão”.22 Embora voltadas à apropriação de excertos da vida social, a foto- montagem de Heartfield e a colagem de Picasso, no entanto, diferem num ponto crucial: enquanto esta evidencia a descontinuidade entre os elemen- tos recortados, aquela tende a suprimir as emendas que integram, numa mesma superfície, as imagens provenientes de origens distintas. Nesses termos, percebe Peter Bürger, “a fotomontagem se aproxima do cinema – não apenas por ambos se utilizarem dos recursos da fotografia, mas também porque, nos dois casos, a montagem em si é tornada irreconhecível, ou ao menos de difícil reconhecimento”.23 com objetivos múltiplos e muitas vezes antagônicos, a montagem se generaliza como operação moderna, abrindo caminho para diversas formas de apropriação da “realidade”, seja ela material ou subjetiva, racional ou 22 Idem, ibidem, p. 40. 23 BÜrgEr, Peter, op. cit., p. 137. figura 3. Contra-relevos. Vladimir tatlin. 1915. ArtCultura, Uberlândia, v. 17, n. 30, p. 227-243, jan-jun. 2015 237 A r t ig o s inconsciente. Para um artista como Vladimir tatlin, a elaboração do mundo objetivo não provém da carga semântica de rótulos ou reportagens, como na colagem cubista, ou da alegorização das lutas políticas, como na foto- montagem alemã, mas sim das propriedades físicas “reais” dos materiais industriais, bem como da postura construtiva adotada diante deles. É o que se vê, por exemplo, nos seus Contra-relevos (fig. 3), de 1915, em que o artista dispõe de chapas de metal, madeiras e arames pré-fabricados para montar não obras “orgânicas”, no sentido de adorno, mas verdadeiros “objetos construídos”, conforme a expressão do formalista russo Viktor Shklovsky.24 a partir de então, a postura de tatlin torna-se uma importante referência para o construtivismo da rússia pós-revolucionária, quando a arte será vista “não como ‘criação’, mas como um tipo particular de trabalho, análogo a outros tipos de trabalho na indústria e na produção”.25 Em polo oposto, a montagem também pode sublinhar justamente o inverso do racionalismo industrial, subvertendo tanto o aspecto cotidiano dos objetos utilitários, quanto o caráter previsível de seus materiais. Nesse viés, o encontro “casual” entre realidades aparentemente distintas pode ser ainda mais excitante e inventivo que a mera confirmação da vida prática. Na famosa formulação de lautréamont, a beleza é o “encontro de um guarda-chuva com uma máquina de escrever sobre uma mesa de cirurgia”. Dito de outro modo, a experiência da arte não é aqui uma forma de conciliação, mas de estranha- mento, pois se encontra aberta à sondagem das associações inconscientes. Bom exemplo nesse sentido é Objeto: desjejum em pele, da artista Meret oppenheim (fig. 4). Vista como um ícone do surrealismo dos anos 1930, a obra consiste basicamente em uma xícara, um pires e uma colher recobertos com pele de gazela chinesa. a operação, como se vê, não requer nenhum domínio de métier. ao contrário: a artista simplesmente comprou alguns objetos comuns na Uniprix – uma conhecida loja de departamentos – e raciocinou como uma taxidermista insana, revestindo-os com uma pele de animal.26 o resultado é fascinante e ao mesmo tempo repulsivo. imerso no ciclo da vida e da morte, um objeto industrial desponta agora como um animal exótico empalhado. o apelo tátil é evidente e deliberadamente 24 Apud fEr, Brony. a lingua- gem da construção. In: fEr, Briony (et alii). Realismo, raciona- lismo, surrealismo, op. cit., p. 100. 25 Idem, ibidem, p. 101. 26 fEr, Briony. Surrealismo, mito e psicanálise, op. cit., p. 174. figura 4. Objeto: desjejum em pele. Meret oppenheim. 1936. ArtCultura, Uberlândia, v. 17, n. 30, p. 227-243, jan-jun. 2015238 absurdo. Afinal, uma xícara peluda implica uma “recusa em reconhecer a utilidade ou a suposta racionalidade do objeto produzido em massa”.27 Desse modo, partindo da justaposição de signos supostamente familiares, a montagem de oppenheim distorce o sentido comum dos objetos apro- priados, evocando associações tão vigorosas quanto inesperadas. Décadas depois, obras como essas, que combinam objetos distintos num conjunto tridimensional, passam a ser conhecidas na frança como assemblages. a partir dos anos 1960, o termo se consagra internacionalmente, tornando-se um conceito descritivo geral. Para Michael archer, assemblage é a “união de imagens e objetos” realizada de modo que os elementos reu- nidos “jamais perdem totalmente sua identificação com o mundo comum, cotidiano, de onde foram tirados”.28 Bem antes do nascimento do termo, Pablo Picasso é provavelmente o primeiro artista a explorar as possibili- dades tridimensionais dos papiers collés.29 Já em 1912, o artista constrói um violão volumétrico e multifacetado, feito de excertos de cartolinas, telas e barbantes combinados entre si. Entretanto, é apenas com Marcel Duchamp que a operação que no futuro se chamaria assemblage se radicaliza enquanto método apropriativo. Em sua famosa Roda de bicicleta, de 1913, o artista simplesmente fixa um aro metálico de bicicleta num banquinho comum de madeira (fig. 5). como o garfo da roda está parafusado de ponta-cabeça, é possível girar a roda livre- mente, testando diferentes rotações, num movimento lúdico e interativo. ao 27 Idem. 28 archEr, Michael. Arte contemporânea: uma história concisa. São Paulo: Martins fontes, 2001 [1999], p. 3 e 4. 29 BoiS, Yve-alain. A pintura como modelo. São Paulo: Martins fontes, 2009 [1990], p. 352 e 353. figura 5. Roda de bicicleta. Marcel Duchamp. 1913. ArtCultura, Uberlândia, v. 17, n. 30, p. 227-243, jan-jun. 2015 239 A r t ig o scontrário de Picasso, Duchamp não raciocina aqui como um pintor virtuoso. Em lugar da elaboração material dos objetos apropriados, o artista os deixa intactos, evidenciando assim o caráter direto e descomplicado da montagem. a banalidade da operação, somada à literalidade dos objetos selecionados, pressupõe uma desconfiança diante da relação, até então inequívoca, entre “autoria” e “trabalho manual”. Na obra, o banco e a roda são mantidos em suas formas primeiras, como originais de fábrica ou mercadorias do varejo. Do ponto de vista material, portanto, o trabalho transformativo do artista é mínimo e se resume a parafusar um objeto no outro. Mas do ponto de vista projetivo, por outro lado, o raciocínio de Duchamp problematiza aberta- mente a inteligência industrial. rejeitando a alienação inerente à divisão do trabalho, o artista atua como um designer-operário, executando – uma montagem obediente às diretrizes de um projeto por ele mesmo elaborado. O ready-made No ano seguinte, em 1914, Marcel Duchamp leva ao limite o princí- pio da montagem, confundindo as fronteiras, a princípio auto-evidentes, entre a ficcionalidade da arte e a literalidade da vida. Dessa vez, ao invés de combinar dois objetos industriais numa totalidade terceira, como na Roda de bicicleta, o artista compra um suporte para garrafas e, sem qualquer alteração material, o declara como “obra de arte” (fig. 6). Para Duchamp, figura 6. Ready-made. Marcel Duchamp. 1914. ArtCultura, Uberlândia, v. 17, n. 30, p. 227-243, jan-jun. 2015240 a “artisticidade” da operação não reside numa eventual beleza escultórica da peça de design, mas no simples gesto de sua apropriação. Em 1915, tal gesto é nomeado pelo próprio artista de ready-made, numa clara referência à possibilidade de se batizar como arte um objeto prioritariamente indus- trial, “já acabado”. assim sendo, a apropriação consiste num modo de alterar o status ontológico do objeto escolhido, que a partir de então, pela mera vontade do artista, se transforma em “obra de arte”. contraposta à necessária pluralidade de elementos da cadeia produtiva, a singularidade do artefato selecionado implica a crise da própria ideia de montagem. além disso, o ready-made também aponta para uma possível reversão histórica na relação entre produção e julgamento. Desde a terceira Crítica de Kant, evidencia-se a separação entre a universalidade do juízo estético, presente em todos nós, e a singularidade da produção artística, disponível apenas para o “gênio”.30 com o mecanismo da apropriação, contudo, é preciso repensar os pressupostos éticos dessa separação. Em obras como o Porta-garrafas, a produção estética é tão ordinária e prosaica, tão pouco especial e comum, que se confunde com a própria universalidade do juízo. Depois de Duchamp, a obra de arte entra no reino do n’importe quoi, na exata medida que ela pode, de fato, ser “qualquer coisa” escolhida por qualquer pessoa.31 Por consequência, se “qualquer um” pode ser artista, então a arte deixa de ser, ao menos potencialmente, um campo disciplinar especializado e autônomo, o que nos obriga a repensar a validade do “gênio” kantiano. Para thierry de Duve, ao apagar “a distinção entre fazer arte e julgar arte”, Marcel Duchamp nos leva à reformulação do sensus communis de Kant nos seguintes termos: “todo homem, toda mulher, culta ou não, de qualquer cultura, língua, raça, classe social, tem ideias estéticas que são ou podem ser imediatamente ideias artísticas”.32 Por outras palavras, o ready-made abre caminho, ainda que somente em potência, para a consideração de uma democracia estética radical, como se a experiência da arte, liberta das determinações de um ambiente espe- cializado, pudesse habitar os menores detalhes da vida comum. Em certo sentido, essa ideia de “arte total”, visível na concepção moderna da “arte de viver”, opõe-se à institucionalização efetiva do conhecimento artístico. Não admira, portanto, que o ready-made seja muitas vezes interpretado não apenas como uma denúncia das qualidades imanentes dos objetos estéticos, mas sobretudo como uma crítica deliberada contra as regras da produção, da circulação e do consumo de arte. assim, se o porta-garrafas de Duchamp difere dos porta-garrafas disponíveis no mercado, essa diferença, evidentemente, não decorre de uma qualidade estética ou perceptiva. o que muda, nos dois casos, é o contexto de apresentação, que passa a ser entendido como parte integrante da experiência subjetiva do espectador. como nota David Batchelor, quando retiramos uma coisa de seu ambiente habitual e a expomos, por exemplo, num museu de arte, “ela se torna des- locada, alheia, anômala. Em tais atos de deslocamento planejado, Duchamp buscou chamar a atenção não à beleza intrínseca das rodas de bicicleta e dos porta-garrafas, mas às convenções, hábitos e preconceitos que estão por trás das nossas expectativas do que seja arte e das circunstâncias em que normalmente a vemos”.33 o conceito de “gênio” atesta a particularidade radical do ato cria- tivo no contexto da sociedade burguesa. Desse modo, a autoridade do mito pseudorromântico da inspiração tem o efeito de validar o aparente sucesso da autonomia subjetiva, como se a produção artística individual, 30 KaNt, immanuel. Crítica da faculdade do juízo. 2. ed. rio de Janeiro: forense Universitária, 1995 [1790]. Sobre a “univer- salidade” do juízo estético: § 6, p. 56; e sobre a “faculdade produtiva inata” do “gênio”: § 49, p. 164 e § 46, p. 153. 31 DE DUVE, thierry. Au nom de l’art: pour une archéologie de la modernité. Paris: les Éditions de Minuit, 1989, p. 112. 32 Idem, ibidem, p. 81-86. 33 BatchElor, David. “Essa liberdade e essa ordem”: a arte na frança após a Primeira guerra Mundial. In: fEr, Brio- ny et alii. Realismo, racionalismo, surrealismo, op. cit., p. 35. ArtCultura, Uberlândia, v. 17, n. 30, p. 227-243, jan-jun. 2015 241 A r t ig o slegitimada por motivações psicológicas raríssimas e particulares, fosse ao mesmo tempo o centro e o álibi da dinâmica institucional da arte. Nesse movimento, a especificidade de uma obra, expressa na socialização de um estilo individual, se sustenta não apenas na distinção pública de uma visão particular, o que é evidente, mas sobretudo na chancela indivisível de um determinado autor. o resultado, claro, é uma curiosa inversão: se agora o valor de troca de mercadorias pontuais deriva da força da autoria, então um artista não é mais a soma “espiritual” de suas obras; ele é uma marca, uma empresa, em resumo, uma assinatura. assim, ao realizar um raio-x da dinâmica institucional e mercadológica da produção artística, o ready-made questiona justamente a validade dessa inversão, viabilizando uma espécie de curto no circuito da arte. Nas palavras de Peter Bürger, Quando Duchamp, em 1913, assina produtos em série e os envia a exposições de arte, é negada a categoria da produção individual. A assinatura – que justamente retém o individual da obra, ou seja, o fato de que ela se deve àquele artista –, impressa num produto de massas qualquer, transforma-se em signo de desprezo frente a todas as pretensões de criatividade individual. Pela provocação de Duchamp, não apenas se desmascara o mercado de arte como instituição questionável em que a assinatura conta mais do que a qualidade da obra que ela subscreve, mas se põe radicalmente em questão o princípio mesmo da arte na sociedade burguesa.34 Nesses termos, o paradoxo da arte moderna consiste na oposição ao próprio status autônomo da arte na modernidade. Portanto, ao invés da defesa, espiritual ou materialista, de um espaço social e simbólico próprio à experiência artística, a arte moderna, no viés da literalidade, busca desconstruir o valor da genialidade rara, subjetiva e idiossincrática, apostando assim, por meio da difusão da “arte” na “vida”, numa educação estética de vocação universal. Posta no centro da subjetividade moderna, a experiência de gosto, como em Schiller, passa a ser vista agora como a possibilidade de elaboração de condições subjetivas propícias para a ins- tituição da liberdade. Mas de uma liberdade, diga-se, que não se restringe a uma eventual independência da produção estética, como na autonomia formal, mas que se baseia na expectativa, ainda que utópica, do exercício universal da capacidade de juízo. A literalidade como um dos modos de existência da arte moderna a aceitação poética dos detritos contextuais, como vimos, pode ser entendida como um dos caminhos mais recorrentemente adotados no ques- tionamento do discurso autonomista. Da reelaboração imagética das revis- tas ilustradas à ressignificação dos objetos industriais, a montagem, como princípio geral da literalidade, subverte o jogo da imanência, incorporando os sentidos prévios da empiria, ainda que às custas da especificidade plás- tica do ato criativo. o curioso, contudo, é que os dois modos do moderno, aqui exemplificados nas figuras da autonomia e da literalidade, não apenas coexistem na história como chegam às suas respectivas situações-limite mais ou menos ao mesmo tempo. Para Paul Wood, é surpreendente “a rapidez com a qual as coisas foram efetuadas. À altura da Primeira guerra Mundial – tendo, de um lado, a arte abstrata e, de outro, o ready-made –, os limites conceituais tanto do essencialismo quanto do contextualismo já tinham sido esboçados”.35 34 BÜrgEr, Peter, op. cit., p. 100. 35 WooD, Paul. Precondições e perspectivas. In: Arte concei- tual. São Paulo: cosac & Naify, 2002, p. 14. ArtCultura, Uberlândia, v. 17, n. 30, p. 227-243, jan-jun. 2015242 a arte moderna, em síntese, foi estabelecida e testada em seus pos- síveis limites mais ou menos simultaneamente, por volta de meados dos anos 1910. Entretanto, não é difícil perceber que, na prática, os dois modos do moderno são bastante escorregadios e reciprocamente intercambiáveis. Via de regra, tratam-se de posturas modelares que muito raramente se expressam de forma categórica e absoluta. Em termos globais, o clement greenberg de Pintura modernista e o Marcel Duchamp dos ready-mades são muitas vezes assumidos pela historiografia da arte como casos exempla- res, mas que por isso mesmo devem ser vistos como posições incomuns e esquemáticas. a leitura do próprio greenberg sobre as colagens cubis- tas, como vimos, é um bom exemplo dessa fluidez de fronteiras. Assim, apesar de adorno e Bürger concordarem quanto ao caráter radicalmente pioneiro dos papiers collés de Picasso e Braque, é certo que os dois artistas ainda raciocinam como pintores, organizando plasticamente o espaço de suas pinturas, por mais literal que seja o conteúdo dos jornais e rótulos ali presentes. Não há, em suma, uma única leitura correta, e isso porque são as próprias obras que possibilitam tais divergências de interpretação. a questão, por isso mesmo, é constatar que essa confusão de leitura nasce da instabilidade dos projetos realizados pelos artistas modernos. todavia, embora reflita a contradição do lugar da arte no contexto capitalista, tal instabilidade também apresenta um valor positivo, dada a ampliação de canais voltados ao exercício da liberdade. Para Jacques rancière, o regime estético das artes – que não passa de outro nome para a arte moderna – é aquele que “funda, a uma só vez, a autonomia da arte e a identidade de suas formas com as formas pelas quais a vida se forma a si mesma”.36 Por outras palavras, a arte moderna surge da co-presença de pelo menos dois modos gerais de existência, cada qual voltado a elaborar o princípio da emancipação de acordo com as suas respectivas ideias de subjetividade política. De um lado, há o paradigma modernista simples, baseado na identi- ficação entre modernidade e autonomia. Nesse viés, a conquista da forma “pura” acaba levando o artista, na esteira de Lessing, a afirmar a potência exclusiva de cada medium particular, como se fosse mesmo preciso concen- trar forças para, através de um destacamento avançado, dirigir os signos da história. Segundo rancière, tal capacidade dirigente, visível na ideologia autonomista, não passa de um correlato cultural da “ideia arquipolítica do partido, isto é, da ideia de uma inteligência política que concentra as condições essenciais da transformação”.37 De outro lado, temos a própria crise desse modelo, exemplificada não apenas na hibridização de gêneros e suportes, como também na aceitação das polivalências políticas do mundo capitalista. aqui, a ideia base consiste em apostar na confluência entre imaginação reprodutiva, que permite a percepção de um objeto ausente, e imaginação produtiva, que ocorre na invenção de algo nunca visto. Por outras palavras, trata-se, em resumo, de incorporar a acepção kantiana do “gênio” no âmbito de uma “educação estética” coletiva e universal, de matriz schilleriana. Para friedrich Schiller, a experiência estética, enquanto jogo feliz entre a lei e a necessidade, é a precondição essencial da moral e da verdade. Nas suas palavras, “a passa- gem do estado passivo da sensibilidade para o ativo do pensamento e do querer dá-se somente pelo estado intermediário de liberdade estética”.38 Nesses termos, apenas o impulso lúdico seria capaz de conciliar o impulso 36 raNciÈrE, Jacques. A parti- lha do sensível: estética e política. São Paulo: EXo/Editora 34, 2005 [2000], p. 34. 37 Idem, ibidem, p. 44. 38 SchillEr, friedrich. A educação estética do homem. 7. reimpressão. São Paulo: ilumi- nuras, 2013 [1793-1795], carta XXiii, p. 109. ArtCultura, Uberlândia, v. 17, n. 30, p. 227-243, jan-jun. 2015 243 A r t ig o ssensível do corpo, atrelado ao reino da necessidade, com o impulso formal da razão. atuando na superação da aporia kantiana entre razão e sentido, a experiência estética em Schiller se coloca entre a liberdade ideal do espírito e a degradação da vida material, integrando prazer e dever. a aposta, sem dúvida utópica, presume a integração social entre forma e vida, como se a transformação universal da humanidade dependesse de uma revolução subjetiva, garantida pela generalização da “forma viva”: “o objeto do im- pulso lúdico, representado num esquema geral, poderá ser chamado de forma viva. [...] Enquanto apenas meditamos sobre a forma, esta é informe, mera abstração; enquanto apenas sentimos sua vida, esta é informe, mera impressão. Somente quando sua forma vive em nossa sensibilidade e sua vida se forma em nosso entendimento o homem é forma viva.”39 Para parte da produção artística moderna, a literalidade da vida só alcançará seu fim moral na medida em que for efetivamente formalizada, embora não nos termos de um formalismo dirigente, seja ele político ou poético. assim, ao recusar o isolamento especializado da arte ou do par- tido, o artista moderno, nesses termos, trabalha com “a ideia metapolítica da subjetividade política global, a ideia da virtualidade dos modos de experiências sensíveis inovadores de antecipação da comunidade por vir”.40 Nesse sentido, a arte moderna põe em dúvida a legitimidade dos destacamentos avançados, apostando na invenção, aqui e agora, de uma sensibilidade global e emancipada, embora ainda inexistente. Utópica por definição, a antecipação estética do futuro, todavia, baseia-se na ideologia da criatividade universal. Desse modo, se a faculdade imaginativa não é um dom especial da natureza, e se por extensão somos todos potencialmente “criadores” ou “artistas”, então é compreensível que a imaginação, como precondição da igualdade, seja vista como uma condição necessária para a existência de uma comunidade política livre. ℘ Artigo recebido em setembro de 2014. Aprovado em fevereiro de 2015. 39 Idem, ibidem., carta XV, p. 73. 40 raNciÈrE, Jacques, op. cit., p. 44. 
work_lbbspmqeqjapdcd6mzk76hgymm	----	Scenes from the life of Picasso’s Still Life (1922): history, materials, and conservation Vol.:(0123456789) SN Applied Sciences (2020) 2:1384 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-3136-y Research Ar ticle Scenes from the life of Picasso’s Still Life (1922): history, materials, and conservation Allison Langley1 · Kimberley Muir1  · Ken Sutherland1 Received: 5 February 2019 / Accepted: 23 June 2020 / Published online: 21 July 2020 © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 Abstract Pablo Picasso manipulated his paints to achieve a range of visual effects in his painting Still Life (Art Institute of Chicago, 1953.28). The addition of excess medium and the superposition of multiple paint layers with different drying rates con- tributed to localized areas of wrinkling, tenting, and lifting paint. Discolored surface coatings and overpaint from an early restoration treatment posed challenges to the understanding and conservation treatment of the work. Research and analysis were undertaken to study Picasso’s process and to aid treatment decisions. X-ray and infrared imaging revealed that Picasso had originally painted a neo-classical still life on the canvas. He applied a lead-white-based priming layer over the first composition before painting the linear abstract Still Life dated February 4, 1922. The results of pyrolysis–gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis of paint samples and restoration coatings from past treatments helped to clarify our understanding of the painting and supplement previously published analytical results. Keywords Pablo Picasso · Painting technique · Conservation · Technical imaging · THM-Py-GCMS · Copal 1 Introduction Pablo Picasso’s Still Life (Art Institute of Chicago, 1953.28) (Fig. 1) is one of a series of works from his so-called lin- ear or late Cubist mode, which spanned from late 1921 through late 1922. He produced more than 40 linear Cub- ist paintings during this period, all of which employ flat color fields and lines and grids of various widths. Still Life was originally owned by Gertrude Stein, a friend and col- lector of the artist and an important patron of modern art in early-twentieth-century Paris. The painting remained in the collection of her partner Alice B. Toklas until 1949 and entered the Art Institute of Chicago in 1953. Stein [1] wrote that “… during this period [Picasso’s] pictures were very brilliant in color … the cubic forms were continually being replaced by surfaces and lines, the lines were more important than anything else, they lived by and in them- selves. He painted his pictures not by means of his objects, but by the lines.” The painting is dated in the upper left cor- ner in white paint: 4–2–22 (February 4, 1922) and is one of three works, all dated within a two-week period, in which a guitar dominates the center of the work with a wine bottle and a compote at either side.1 The complex, layered surface of Still Life, along with localized areas of wrinkling and lifting paint and the presence of disfiguring surface coatings and overpaint, prompted a closer evaluation of the artist’s manipula- tion of his painting materials to better understand the intended appearance of the work and how it had altered over time. The painting was examined using X-radiog- raphy and transmitted and reflected infrared imaging. Medium analysis was carried out using pyrolysis gas * Kimberley Muir, kmuir@artic.edu | 1The Art Institute of Chicago, 111 S. Michigan Ave, Chicago, IL 60603, USA. 1 The other paintings are Nature morte, dated January 29, 1922 in the collection of the Centre Pompidou, Paris (AM 3166P) and Bottle, Guitar and Fruit Bowl, dated February 10, 1922 in a private collec- tion. http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1007/s42452-020-3136-y&domain=pdf http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8725-0349 Vol:.(1234567890) Research Article SN Applied Sciences (2020) 2:1384 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-3136-y chromatography-mass  spectrometry with thermally- assisted hydrolysis and methylation (THM-Py-GCMS) to augment previous pigment and medium analysis using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive x-ray spectros- copy (SEM–EDS), and Raman spectroscopy [2]. 2 An abandoned composition The painting support is a fine, plain weave canvas. It has never been lined and retains its original stretcher, which bears a brown paper label from the color merchant Bour- geois that indicates it is a no. 40 figure standard-size stretcher. The canvas appears to have been cut and pre- pared by the artist. Excess fabric was pulled around to the back of the stretcher, and the ground, which is present only on the image plane, was probably applied after the canvas was stretched. From the back of the painting, it is evident that Picasso had initially started an entirely different composition on the canvas, oriented at 90 degrees to the final image. Infra- red imaging of the back of the canvas helps to clarify some details of the first composition (Fig. 2). The subject is a neo- classical domestic interior still life with a pitcher, a mug, a rectangular object that may be a newspaper, and a round form mostly obscured by the vertical crossbar. The ornate curvilinear forms above and below suggest the scene was set up on a tabletop, or possibly a flat surface bal- anced on the seat of a chair; a flat rectangular object rests behind the still life objects, apparently propped against the chair back. A related drawing in the collection of the Gothenburg Museum of Art in Sweden—Nature morte, Fig. 1 Pablo Picasso, Still Life, February 4, 1922. Oil on canvas (81.6 × 100.3  cm). Ada Turnbull Hertle Endowment. The image shows the painting after the most recent treatment was completed. © of the reproductions of works by Pablo Picasso: Pablo Picasso’s Estate. VEGAP. Madrid, 2020. Permission to reproduce courtesy of VEGAP Fig. 2 Infrared image of the reverse of Picasso’s Still Life showing traces of the first composition: a neo-classical still life Fig. 3 Pablo Picasso, Nature morte, 1922, Gothenburg Museum of Art, Sweden (T4/1922). Gouache, pencil and crayon on paper (46 × 60.5  cm) © of the reproductions of works by Pablo Picasso: Pablo Picasso’s Estate. VEGAP. Madrid, 2020. Permission to repro- duce courtesy of VEGAP Vol.:(0123456789) SN Applied Sciences (2020) 2:1384 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-3136-y Research Article 1922—shows a similar though more distilled version of the composition and suggests that the round form in the painting may be a bread roll or a piece of fruit (Fig. 3).2 The scene was likely influenced by the interiors of Picas- so’s home and studio at 23, rue la Boétie in Paris, which provided subject matter for many of his paintings and drawings. The composition is laid out with a line draw- ing executed in paint that has soaked or stained through the canvas. X-ray and transmitted infrared images indicate that parts of the composition, such as the pitcher and the smaller still life objects, were built up with some modeling of the forms (Fig. 4, 5). A paint cross section sample from the yellow border at the upper right corner of the painting captures the artist-applied ground layer, which appears as a thin, translucent layer at the bottom of the sample in visible light and as a low-density layer in the backscattered electron image (Fig.  6). The material was identified as calcium carbonate by SEM–EDS and Raman spectros- copy [2]. The presence of this thin, absorbent layer would have allowed subsequent paint layers to soak or bleed through the ground and canvas, making the first com- position visible from the back. The thick white layer in the cross section seems to be a ground layer that Picasso applied before star ting the 1922 Still Life. The X-ray shows that this layer, made with lead white pigment, was applied using broad, loose brushwork and may have been used to block out the first painting and provide a uniform ground for the 1922 painting. This seems some- what unusual in Picasso’s practice, as he often painted directly over earlier compositions, allowing underlying Fig. 4 X-ray of Picasso’s Still Life Fig. 5 Transmitted infrared detail of Picasso’s Still Life showing brushwork and modeling of the pitcher from the first composition Fig. 6 Cross section of paint and ground layers from the yellow area in the upper right corner in reflected light (top) and backscat- tered electron image (bottom); 1. Calcium carbonate layer. 2. Lead white layer 2 We gratefully acknowledge Marilyn McCully for bringing this drawing to our attention. Vol:.(1234567890) Research Article SN Applied Sciences (2020) 2:1384 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-3136-y forms to show through and influence the final painting [3]. The X-ray indicates that only the dense white square form near the center corresponds somewhat to an earlier form—the rectangular backdrop that leans against the back of the chair in the first painting—but the edges and overall shape have been adjusted (Fig. 4). From the surface of the painting there is no evidence of the earlier composition. 3 Painting technique of the 1922 Still Life Still Life is composed of distinctly textured areas of paint built up in multiple layers (Fig.  7). Crisp brush marks define the broad areas of blue, yellow, and gray around the perimeter of the composition. For the white square in the center, Picasso used a palette knife to spread and smear the buttery paint across the surface. The red, green, and black lines creating the stripes and grids were applied with narrow flat brushes and added to the surface at a late stage in the painting process. These lines have smooth, glossier surfaces with a fluid, leveled appearance that con- forms to the topography of the underlying paint layers. On the surface, the upper paint layers often mix and run together at the edges of forms indicating that the final composition was painted in a quick campaign with little time for drying of each colored area. However, color changes observed under magnification indicate that Picasso reworked some of the broad color fields wet- over-dry. The x-ray shows that some minor shifts and adjustments of the forms were made during the painting process. However, on the whole, the color changes do not seem to correspond to actual compositional changes; rather they are tonal adjustments made as the artist rebal- anced the overall palette of the work. The distinct surface appearance of the red, green, and black paint, along with localized wrinkling, are qualities typically associated with the artist’s use of ready-mixed, oil-based house paints such as Ripolin, which Picasso is known to have used as early as 1912 [4]. The wrinkling has occurred in some areas of the stripes but not in others and seems to have been impacted by localized differences in the build up of the paint layers and their respective dry- ing rates. The green stripes left of center exhibit some of the most intense wrinkling, resulting in tenting and flaking paint along tiny vertical ridges (Fig. 8). Receipts in the Picasso Archive in Paris document that Picasso purchased Ripolin in this 1921–22 period, but they also mention siccatif de Harlem.3 Although we do not know the composition of the siccative purchased by Picasso, and there were undoubtedly variations in formulation among different manufacturers and over time, historical sources indicate that it was a painting medium based on a mixture Fig. 7 Detail of Picasso’s Still Life from the lower left corner of the white square, showing the variety of paint applications. © of the reproductions of works by Pablo Picasso: Pablo Picasso’s Estate. VEGAP. Madrid, 2020. Permission to reproduce courtesy of VEGAP Fig. 8 Detail of Picasso’s Still Life showing wrinkling and vertical ridges of tenting paint in the green stripes. © of the reproductions of works by Pablo Picasso: Pablo Picasso’s Estate. VEGAP. Madrid, 2020. Permission to reproduce courtesy of VEGAP 3 We are grateful to Marilyn McCully for sharing information about the 1921–22 purchase receipts in the Picasso Archives, Paris. Vol.:(0123456789) SN Applied Sciences (2020) 2:1384 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-3136-y Research Article of copal resin and drying oil that could impart increased body and gloss to tube paints [5]. As previously reported [2], analysis of samples from the red, green, and black paint indicated that Picasso did not use Ripolin for these areas, based on the identification of pigments such as vermilion, viridian, and lead white, and extenders such as barium sulfate, which have not been detected in extensive investigations of contemporary Rip- olin paint samples [6] but are commonly used in artist’s tube paints. Two samples from glossy paint areas—black and red—along with samples from areas of matte black and grey paint were analyzed in the current study with THM-Py-GCMS.4 The presence of drying oil was confirmed in all samples. In addition, evidence for copal was found in the glossy black and red paint but not in the matte black and grey. The identification of copal was based on detection of trace levels of characteristic pyrolysis markers (Fig. 9; see “Appendix” for details). These findings indicate that the smooth, glossy look of some of the lines was likely achieved through Picasso’s manipulation of artist’s tube paint using a copal-containing medium, possibly siccatif de Harlem. In experiments mixing modern artist’s tube paint with modern oil/copal painting mediums, it has been dem- onstrated that one can easily mimic the surface qualities of Ripolin paints, including smooth, glossy surfaces and char- acteristic superficial wrinkling, and that with some practice and experimentation one can begin to anticipate, if not completely control, the resulting effects [7]. 4 Conservation treatment Localized areas of lifting and flaking paint were consoli- dated with dilute BEVA®371 applied with a small brush.5 The aim was not to attempt to lay down the wrinkled and tenting paint, deemed to be an integral feature of the work, but rather to secure against any further flake losses. Fig. 9 Total ion chromatogram from THM-Py-GCMS analysis of glossy black paint sample (top) with mass spectra for trace pyroly- sis markers, labeled C1 and C2, for copal resin. Other labeled com- pounds are methyl esters of suberic (Su), azelaic (Az), palmitic (P) and stearic (S) acids from drying oil Fig. 10 Detail of Picasso’s Still Life, during treatment, showing the yellowed overpaint in an area on the mid-right side of the white square. © of the reproductions of works by Pablo Picasso: Pablo Picasso’s Estate. VEGAP. Madrid, 2020. Permission to reproduce courtesy of VEGAP 4 There was no remaining sample from the green paint to be used for THM-Py-GCMS analysis. 5 BEVA®371 Solution is a conservation adhesive based on ethylene vinyl acetate and cyclohexanone resins. Vol:.(1234567890) Research Article SN Applied Sciences (2020) 2:1384 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-3136-y Analysis of non-original surface coatings helped to elucidate aspects of the painting’s conservation history. A discolored varnish layer from an undocumented treatment was identified by THM-Py-GCMS as an acrylic resin: poly(n- butyl methacrylate). It was removed with solvents, expos- ing the original brighter colors and nuances of the varied paint textures and surface gloss. After cleaning, an intrac- table yellowed overpaint locally applied to areas of the white square became apparent (Fig. 10). The overpaint was applied over cracks in the original paint film and covered undamaged original paint. It is unclear when this restora- tion took place but it seems to have been conducted with an aim to even out inherent surface irregularities resulting from Picasso’s palette knife application. FTIR analysis of the overpaint determined the presence of barium sulfate; THM-Py-GCMS analysis detected bleached shellac (“white lac”) and drying oil.6 The presence of shellac could account for the yellowed appearance of the overpaint, as well as its insolubility in the solvents employed for varnish removal. The overpaint was removed using a combination of sol- vent and mechanical action, revealing Picasso’s intended surface variations. The painting was left unvarnished (see Fig. 1). 5 Conclusions Picasso manipulated the handling properties and applica- tion of his paints to achieve varied surface effects and tex- tures in Still Life. Analysis by THM-Py-GCMS supported the hypothesis that Picasso incorporated a copal-containing medium into some of the paints used for the lines and grids in order to achieve a range of smooth, fluid, and glossy surfaces. His modifications and layering of paint resulted in distinctive wrinkling patterns and ultimately insecurities in the form of tenting and lifting paint. The conservation treatment secured these fragile areas and revealed variations in surface sheen and paint applica- tion previously obscured by layers of grime, varnish, and discolored overpaint. Acknowledgements We are grateful to Marilyn McCully, Michael Raeburn, Jennifer Poulin, Francesca Casadio, Frank Zuccari, Inge Fiedler, Maria Kokkori, Anikó Bezur, Gwenaëlle Gautier, Anna Vila, and Stephanie D’Alessandro, and for the support of the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, the Barker Welfare Foundation, the Grainger Foundation, the Stockman Family Foundation, and the Community Associates of the Art Institute of Chicago. This work made use of the EPIC facility of Northwestern University’s NUANCE Center, which has received support from the Soft and Hybrid Nanotechnology Experi- mental (ShyNE) Resource (NSF ECCS-1542205); the MRSEC program (NSF DMR-1121262) at the Materials Research Center; the Interna- tional Institute for Nanotechnology (IIN); the Keck Foundation; and the State of Illinois, through the IIN. Sponsorship from the Museu Picasso, Barcelona, to cover permission fees for the reproduction of works by Picasso is gratefully acknowledged. Compliance with ethical standards Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. Appendix: THM‑Py‑GCMS analysis Paint samples (a few micrograms) were placed in Agilent micro vials with tetramethylammonium hydroxide reagent (1.5 μL of a 2.5% solution in methanol) in an Agilent Ther- mal Separation Probe, and inserted into the Multimode Inlet of an Agilent 7890B GC. The GC was equipped with an Agilent HP-5 ms Ultra Inert column (30 m, 0.25 mm i.d., 0.25 μm film) and interfaced to a 5977B MS. The inlet, oper- ated in splitless mode, was ramped from 50 °C to 450 °C at a rate of 900 °C/min to perform THM and pyrolysis. The final temperature was held constant for 3 min and then decreased to 250 °C at a rate of 25 °C/min. The GC oven was programmed from 40 °C to 200 °C at 10 °C/min, then to 310 °C at 6 °C/min, and held isothermally for 20 min; total run time 54.33 min. The MS was run in scan mode (m/z 35–550 from 5–25  min, and 50–700 from 25  min). Drying oil was identified from the detection of a char- acteristic pattern of methyl esters of dicarboxylic acids (suberic, azelaic and sebacic acid) and saturated mono- carboxylic acids (palmitic and stearic acid); poly(n-butyl methacrylate) from detection of its n-BMA monomer; and bleached shellac from detection of methyl esters/ethers of characteristic hydroxy aliphatic acids and cyclic sesquiter- pene acids, along with a chlorinated sesquiterpene marker [8]. Copal was indicated by the detection in the black and red paint samples of bicyclic compounds derived from pyrolysis and methylation of ozol and ozic acid polymers, designated “VIIIc” and “VIIIa” by Bray and Anderson 2009 (in relation to classification of amber) [9]; see also van den Berg et al. [10]. These specific markers are characteristic for African rather than Asian copals, the latter containing polymers of communol and communic acid. They were confirmed from their retention times and mass spectra in comparison with data for known copal reference materials, published data, and spectra in NIST and Wiley databases. 6 While “raw” or unbleached shellacs typically exhibit a bright orange fluorescence under ultraviolet (UV) illumination, the bleached resin does not possess this distinctive property (8). UV examination was therefore not helpful to investigate the distribu- tion of the shellac-based overpaint on the surface. Vol.:(0123456789) SN Applied Sciences (2020) 2:1384 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-3136-y Research Article References 1. Stein G (1938) Picasso. BT Batsford, London, pp 27–28 2. Muir K, Langley A, Bezur A, Casadio F, Delaney J, Gautier G (2013) Scientifically investigating Picasso’s suspected use of Ripolin house paints in Still Life, 1922 and The Red Armchair, 1931. J Am Inst Conserv 52:156–172 3. Langley A, Muir K, Bezur A (2016) Looking below the surface of Picasso’s The Old Guitarist. In: Wallert A (ed) Painting techniques, history, materials and studio practice, 2016 international sym- posium. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, pp 258–263 4. Leiris L, Leiris M, Kahnweiler DH, Monod-Fontaine I (1984) Dona- tion Louise et Michel Leiris collection Kahnweiler-Leiris. Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris 5. Carlyle L (2001) The artist’s assistant: oil painting instruction manuals and handbooks in Britain, 1800–1900, with reference to selected eighteenth-century sources. Archetype, London, pp 48–50 6. Gautier G, Bezur A, Muir K, Casadio F, Fiedler I (2009) Chemi- cal fingerprinting of ready-mixed house paints of relevance to artistic production in the first half of the twentieth century. I. Inorganic and organic pigments. J Appl Spectrosc 63:597–603 7. Muir K, Gautier G, Casadio F, Vila A (2011) Interdisciplinary inves- tigation of early house paints: Picasso, Picabia and their ‘Ripolin’ paintings. In: Bridgland J (ed) ICOM-CC 16th triennial conference preprints, Lisbon, 19–23 September 2011. International Council of Museums, Paris, art. 1314, 10 pp 8. Sutherland K (2010) Bleached shellac picture varnishes: charac- terization and case studies. J Inst Conserv 33:129–145 9. Bray PS, Anderson K (2009) Identification of carboniferous (320 million years old) class Ic amber. Science 326(5949):132–134 10. Van den Berg K J, van der Horst J, Boon JJ (1999) Recognition of copals in aged resin/oil paints and varnishes. In: Bridgland J (ed) ICOM-CC 12th triennial meeting, Lyon, 29 August–3 September 1999, Preprints. Earthscan Ltd., London, pp 855–861 Publisher’s Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Scenes from the life of Picasso’s Still Life (1922): history, materials, and conservation Abstract 1 Introduction 2 An abandoned composition 3 Painting technique of the 1922 Still Life 4 Conservation treatment 5 Conclusions Acknowledgements References 
work_le2gtb6gwffelgdy4qgdcik3em	----	IMAfRoNTE Nº 19-20 – 2008. Págs. 339-347 Sombras amenazantes y personajes-sombra. del cine a la pintura CARLOS SALAS GONzÁLEz RESUMEN Con el presente trabajo se pretende evidenciar la importante y temprana infuencia que ha tenido el cine en la pintura, a partir de dos tipos iconográfcos muy concretos que cuentan con el común denominador de la sombra. Ambas iconografías fueron forjadas en el cine mudo y pasaron al ámbito de las artes plásticas gracias al atrevimiento de ciertos pintores vanguardistas. PALABRAS CLAVE: cine, pintura, vanguardia, sombra, iconografía ABSTRACT With the present work one tries to demonstrate the important and early infuence that has had the cinema in the painting, from two very concrete iconographic types that rely on the common denominator of the shadow. Both iconographies were forged in the mute cinema and went on to the area of the plastic arts thanks to the presumption of certain vanguard painters. KEY WORDS: cinema, painting, vanguard, shadow, iconography Que la pintura ha infuido notablemente en el cine es un hecho constatable. Parece lógico que aquel arte primitivo fraguado en milenios de historia se convirtiese, en los últimos estertores del siglo XIX, en referente inexcusable para ese nuevo sistema de representación visual que era el cine. A dicha cuestión han atendido di- versos investigadores en las últimas décadas1. Sin embargo, el camino de investigación inverso, aquél que estu- diaría las posibles infuencias del cine en la pintura del siglo XX, ha sido emprendido por muy pocos estudiosos y sólo durante los últimos años2. En ambas direcciones, pintura-cine y cine-pintura, apunta el cineasta José Luis Borau en sendos discursos para su ingreso en la Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Luis de zaragoza y en La Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando, respectivamente3. Dichas infuencias del cine sobre la pintura van desde cuestiones relativas a la representación del movi- miento hasta otras relacionadas con la escala o el tipo de encuadre empleados, pasando por aspectos relativos al color o a la luz, así como, y muy fundamentalmente, por citas y tipologías iconográfcas. Entre esas iconografías forjadas en la gran pantalla que han terminado siendo adoptadas por los artistas plásticos hay dos relativas a la sombra que van a ser el objeto de estudio de este breve trabajo4. 1 Destacan los siguientes trabajos: P. BONITzER, Peinture et cinéma. Décadrages, Editions de L’Etoile, París, 1985. J. AU- MONT, El ojo interminable. Cine y pintura, Ediciones Paidós Ibérica, Barcelona, 1997. A. COSTA, Cinema e pintura, Loescher Edito- re, Torino, 1991. A. ORTIz y Mª.J. PIqUERAS, La pintura en el cine. Cuestiones de representación visual, Paidós, Barcelona, 2003. 2 Véase A. GARCÍA LÓPEz, Inversión de las relaciones cine y pintura, análisis desde los géneros cinematográfcos, Tesis doctoral, Universidad Politécnica de Valencia, 2000. 3 J. L. BORAU, La pintura en el cine; El cine en la pintura: discursos de ingreso en las RR.AA. de Bellas Artes de San Luis y San Fernando, con los de contestación correspondientes, Ocho y medio, Madrid, 2003. 4 Mi tesis doctoral, en la que actualmente trabajo, versa, precisamente, sobre la infuencia del cine en las artes plásticas durante 340 CARLoS SALAS GoNzÁLEz Es cierto que la historia de la pintura está cuajada de representaciones de sombras. Sin ir más lejos, el propio mito clásico del origen de la pintura –estrictamente hablando se trataría del origen conjunto de dibujo y relieve– nos remite a una sombra, aquélla perteneciente al amado de Cora, hija del alfarero Butades de Sición, cuya silueta dibujaría la joven en una pared para tenerlo presente durante su futura ausencia5. Sombras que siem- pre han estado ahí, adquiriendo un especial protagonismo en el siglo XVII de la mano de los pintores barrocos: Caravaggio, Rembrandt, La Tour –la lista puede ser interminable–. Pero ahora nos queremos referir a otro tipo de sombras, las que han nacido de ese arte que es heredero de la fantasmagoría, de la cámara oscura, del mito de la caverna. Un arte en cuya esencia está el eterno diálogo entre la luz y la sombra. Aquél en el que los fantasmas plateados se mueven en una enorme pantalla: el cine. SOmBrAS AmENAZANtES En algunas obras de destacados pintores del siglo XX nos tropezamos con un tipo de sombra muy de- terminado. Una sombra que aparece sola, sin la referencia del cuerpo que la provoca, no perteneciendo, por tanto, al personaje que protagoniza la escena representada en el cuadro, y llegando a adquirir una relevancia similar, o incluso mayor, a la de éste. Una sombra que genera misterio, en ocasiones monstruosa, y que termina suponiendo una amenaza para el personaje con el que comparte escena. Veamos a continuación algunos casos paradigmáticos de esta curiosa iconografía. Una de las obras más conocidas del polémico Christian Schad es su Retrato del Dr. Haustein (1928) [Fig. 2]. En ella, este destacado representante de la Nueva Objetividad coloca al personaje retratado sobre un fondo neutro, generando tras él un espacio sin obstáculos que será ocupado por la sombra que le acompaña. Ambas fgu- ras, tanto la sentada y corpórea, correspondiente al doctor Haustein, como la que confgura la sombra, son las úni- cas que componen el cuadro. Así, mientras que el personaje retratado aparece en actitud relajada, completamente ajeno a lo que ocurre tras él, la sombra proyectada a sus espaldas no hace otra cosa que inquietar al espectador. En efecto, dicha sombra aparece ante nuestros ojos como una seria amenaza que acecha al despreocupado doctor. Y es que esta oscura silueta, lejos de asemejarse al cuerpo que supuestamente la genera –el de la mujer de Haustein, según indican los testimonios y estudios realizados sobre este cuadro–, más bien nos recuerda a la desasosegante sombra del vampiro ideado por Murnau en su mítico flm Nosferatu, el vampiro (Nosferatu, Eine Synphonie des Grauens, 1922), cumbre terrorífca del llamado cine expresionista alemán. De hecho, la cabeza ahuevada y desprovista de cabello, así como la mano extendida con sus amenazantes dedos alargados, partes más destacadas de la sombra pintada por el artista alemán, constituyen una silueta muy similar a aquélla que discurría por muros y paredes en el flm de Murnau [Fig. 1]. Por consiguiente, esta extraña sombra no responde a la realidad física del cuerpo del que surge, pues no es éste el de una fgura monstruosa –que se sepa, la esposa del retratado no tenía el aspecto de un enjuto muerto viviente–, sino que parece ser la aguda representación de una monstruosidad interior, lo cual encaja a la perfección con la realidad de ambos personajes, pues, según palabras de Sergiusz Mi- chalski, “su relación era tempestuosa, y se cree que ella ejercía una infuencia maligna sobre este hombre urbano, culto y, al parecer, sereno”6 . Esta misma idea de la sombra como metáfora la expresa, esta vez refriéndose a una obra cinematográfca, Victor Stoichita: “La sombra, imagen exterior, trasluce lo que ocurre en el personaje. las vanguardias históricas, tema que me fue sugerido por el director de la misma, el doctor Germán Ramallo Asensio, quien previa- mente ya se había adentrado en este novedoso campo de estudio, véase G. RAMALLO, “Algunos paralelos entre el cinematógrafo y la obra de Picasso. El Guernica y la luz cinética” en Actas de las X Jornadas de Arte El arte español del siglo XX. Su perspectiva al fnal del milenio, C.S.I.C., Madrid, 2001, pp. 529-544. 5 Dicha leyenda es recogida por Plinio el Viejo en el libro XXXV de su Historia Natural, véase PLINIO, Textos de Historia del Arte, Esperanza Torrego (Ed.), Antonio Machado Libros, Madrid, 2001, p. 124. 6 S. MICHALSKI, “Sombras de soledad, sombras de amenaza”, en La sombra, catálogo de exposición (Museo Thyssen- Bornemisza y Fundación Caja Madrid), Victor I. Stoichita (ed.), Madrid, 2009, p. 56. 341SoMBRAS AMENAzANTES y PERSoNAJES-SoMBRA. dEL CINE A LA PINTURA Muestra lo que el personaje es. La proyección de la sombra equivale a una “apertura” de este interior cerrado”7. De ma- nera que nos encontramos con una sombra que no es ni la del personaje retratado, pues se sitúa a sus espaldas como una cruel amenaza, tétrica y monstruosa, ni la de la fgura que supuestamente la genera, sino la de la oculta personalidad de ésta última. Y es esta fantástica sombra, metafórica e irreal, algo tan sólo visto antes en los memorables flms expresio- nistas que allanaban el terreno para la aparición de uno de los géneros cinematográfcos fundamentales de la década de los treinta, el de terror. Sobre el papel esencial que desempeña la sombra en este tipo de películas escribe Edi Liccioli: “Si en las obras cinematográfcas anteriores o, incluso, contempo- ráneas, la sombra se queda en una neutralidad no signifcati- va; en las de la vanguardia expresionista, su predominancia expresiva se carga de todos los valores visuales, simbólicos y psicoanalíticos”8. No obstante, el propio Michalski, al ob- servar también una nítida infuencia cinematográfca en la sombra ideada por Schad, relaciona ésta con otra película del momento, Sombra (Schatten, Arthur Robinson, 1923), y no con el Nosferatu de Murnau: “A diferencia de otras películas expresionistas, las sombras móviles de Schatten se proyec- 7 V.I. STOICHITA. Breve historia de la sombra, Siruela, Madrid, 2006, p. 156. 8 E. LICCIOLI, “De Platón a Caligari: El cine como danza de sombras en la oscuridad”, Antaria, nº 2, 2004, p. 176. Fig. 1: Nosferatu, Friedrich W. Murnau (1922). Fig. 2: Retrato del Dr. Haustein, Christian Schad (1928). Museo Thyssen Bornemisza, Madrid. 342 CARLoS SALAS GoNzÁLEz taban desde detrás del escenario, sobre una especie de pantalla transparente. Se podría inferir en el retrato de Haustein un procedimiento parecido, siempre que la sombra de Schad no se considere un concepto totalmente simbólico”9. En cualquier caso, y pese a valorar la interesante observación de Michalski, se nos antoja que esa peculiar morfología monstruosa que presenta la sombra en cuestión, tan irreal como parecida a la del célebre vampiro de Murnau, es la que confere a ésta un carácter decididamente simbólico, resultando así, si cabe, aún más cercana a Nosferatu que a Schatten. Otra sombra inquietante es la que acecha al protagonista del óleo de Marcelo Pogolotti titulado El intelec- tual (1937) [Fig. 3]. Efectivamente, este incisivo pintor cubano compone una curiosa escena en la que el personaje que da título a la obra, un joven intelectual que puede representar perfectamente al propio Pogolotti, quien también era escritor y periodista, se apoya sobre la mesa de su escritorio al ser vencido por el cansancio y el sueño, mientras que a sus espaldas se proyecta la terrible sombra de un personaje que porta una guadaña. Así que todo parece indi- car que es la mismísima muerte la que amenaza desde el exterior a ese joven intelectual. Pero la macabra dama no es mostrada directamente, sino que el pintor prefere delatarla a través de la representación de su sombra proyecta- da en la pared que se encuentra tras el protagonista. De modo que nos tropezamos, otra vez, con el recurso consis- tente en mostrar una sombra monstruosa tras el personaje que protagoniza la escena, siendo ésta la representación lúgubre de una fatal amenaza. Al igual que ocurría en el cuadro de Schad, donde el protagonista permanece ajeno a la monstruosidad del personaje que genera la sombra que se dibuja a su espalda, en el de Pogolotti, como acabamos de apreciar, el protagonista, al estar sumido en el sueño, tampoco es consciente de la horrible fgura que se planta ante sus ojos y que sólo nosotros vemos gracias a la mencionada proyección de su sombra. Así que, pese a no exis- tir en este caso un referente cinematográfco tan concreto como el del vampiro de Murnau, volvemos a ser testigos de un probable ascendiente cinematográfco. Y es que, en efecto, el mero hecho de representar a un personaje que queda fuera de campo a través de su sombra parece remitirnos antes al cine que a cualquier otra disciplina artística, 9 S. MICHALSKI, Ob. Cit., p. 56. Fig. 3: El intelectual, Marcelo Pogolotti (1937). Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes, La Habana. 343SoMBRAS AMENAzANTES y PERSoNAJES-SoMBRA. dEL CINE A LA PINTURA de la misma manera que el propio papel que desempeña dicha proyección oscura, a veces autónoma, como metáfora visual del peligro que se cierne sobre un determinado personaje, no es otro que el que otorgaron los cineastas expresionistas centroeuropeos a este tipo de sombras, erigiéndose en auténticos maestros a la hora de explotar las posibilidades expresi- vas y simbólicas de la luz en sus flms, virtud que después heredarían sin complejos los rea- lizadores de Hollywood, sobre todo aquéllos que cultivaron el cine negro y el de terror. Cierto es que determinadas pinturas nada sospechosas de tener un ascendiente cinematográfco, tales como Huida y perse- cución (1872), de William Rimmer, anterior incluso al alumbramiento del cine, o Misterio y melancolía de una calle (1914), de Giorgio de Chirico, anterior a esa utilización expresi- va y simbólica de la sombra en el cine a la que nos referimos, ya contaban con ciertas som- bras amenazantes10. Pero también es verdad que dichas sombras aparecían a una conside- rable distancia del personaje amenazado, casi en el extremo contrario del cuadro, lo que las diferencia de esa impúdica cercanía que la amenazante sombra cinematográfca guarda con respecto a su víctima, que es precisamen- te lo que ocurre en los mencionados cuadros de Schad y de Pogolotti11. Al hilo de las sombras amenazantes se hace obligada la referencia a una de las obras más interesantes de Picasso, la cual, sin embargo, no se cuenta entre las más populares del universal artista malagueño. Se trata de La sombra sobre la mujer (1953) [Fig. 5], impactante óleo que guarda muchas similitudes con otro cuadro titulado La sombra [Fig. 4], y que fue realizado, al parecer, tan sólo un día antes que el primero12. Tal precisión cronológica no es baladí, pues, como veremos a continuación, el hecho de que La sombra se realizara antes que La sombra sobre la mujer no hace sino reforzar nuestra tesis de la notable infuencia cinematográfca que evidencian ambas obras, especialmente la segunda. En La sombra, Picasso presenta ya a los dos personajes que también protagonizarán su segunda pin- tura: la mujer desnuda y la sombra de un hombre. Pero mientras que en esta primera versión la sombra se queda a los pies de la cama donde yace la mujer, en el segundo cuadro, como bien indica su título, esa sombra 10 Véase V.I. STOICHITA, Ob. Cit., pp. 147-152. 11 En estos cuadros, además, las presumibles víctimas permanecen ajenas a las sombras que les acechan, como suele ocurrir en el cine; mientras que en la obra de Rimmer, el personaje amenazado es consciente del peligro que se cierne sobre él y huye despavorido. 12 Véase D. HOLLIER, “Portrait de l’artiste en son absence (Le peintre et son modele)”, Les Cahiers du Musée d’Art Moderne, nº 30, 1989, pp. 5-22. Fig. 5: La sombra sobre la mujer, Pablo Picasso (1953). Art Gallery of Ontario. Toronto. 344 CARLoS SALAS GoNzÁLEz gana protagonismo, abarcando más espacio y desplegándose sobre buena parte del cuerpo desnudo de la dama. Y es que, en realidad, estamos hablando de dos instantes sucesivos pertenecientes a una misma escena o secuen- cia, algo eminentemente cinematográfco. En los dos cuadros es la luz que procede del exte- rior, donde todavía se halla el hombre y donde sitúa Picasso el punto de vista del espectador, la que pasa a iluminar ese espacio donde se encuentra la mujer. Un lugar que antes de la irrupción masculina, muy probablemente, es- tuviese por completo a oscuras. Y es que todo parece indicar que el hombre acaba de abrir la puerta de ese cuarto, que ha descubierto en él a la fémina desnuda y que su enorme sombra, proyectada gracias a la fuerte luz que viene del exterior, se erige en amenaza para la mujer. Si en realidad se trata de una mo- delo posando para un pintor es lo de menos, pues, lo que a un espectador en pleno siglo XX le viene a la cabeza al ver ambas imáge- nes, sobre todo la segunda, es una de aquellas angustiosas escenas en las que el asesino o el monstruo, según fuese cine negro o de terror, se acercaba peligrosamente a su víctima. Pero volvamos a lo que diferencia un cuadro del otro, y que, fundamentalmente, no es otra cosa que la longitud que adquiere la sombra masculina y su correspondiente proyección, en el caso de la segunda pintura, sobre el cuerpo de la mujer. Desde luego, este aspecto diferencial es muy signifcativo, ya que el hecho de que la consabida sombra llegue a extenderse sobra buena parte de ese cuerpo femenino, precisamente sobre pechos, vientre, pubis y muslos, incor- pora una idea de posesión que en la primera pintura, en la que la sombra únicamente se proyectaba sobre suelo y cama, sólo era de amenaza. De hecho, lo que sucede en La sombra sobre la mujer es que Picasso se ha atrevido a dar un paso más a través de la sombra de su protagonista, la cual pasa a poseer, plástica y simbólicamente, a esa mujer indefensa, como tantas veces se había visto en la gran pantalla desde los grandes cineastas expresionistas. Recordemos otra vez a Murnau y su Nosferatu a través de las palabras de Santos zunzunegui: “Cuando el vampi- ro penetre, fnalmente, en la habitación de Ellen, será también su sombra –emanación del fuera de campo– la que se proyecte sobre la aterrorizada muchacha, manchando de negro su virginal camisón blanco mientras la huella de su mano se deposita sobre el cuerpo de la mujer en un gesto cargado de erotismo malsano”13 . En cualquier caso, esta sustitución del fuera de campo por la sombra asesina no es una novedad de Nosferatu, ya que se había dado con anterioridad en El gabinete del doctor Caligari (Das Cabinet des Doktor Caligari, Robert Wiene, 1919)14. 13 S. zUNzUNEGUI, “Sonata de espectros”, en La sombra, Ob. Cit., pp. 71-73. 14 Esta cuestión se aborda, poniendo en relación un plano del flm de Wiene con una obra del pintor y dibujante Félix Valloton, en L. BERRIATÚA, Los proverbios chinos de W. F. Murnau. Filmoteca Española, Madrid, 1992, p. 43. Fig. 4: La sombra, Pablo Picasso (1953). Museo Picasso, París. 345SoMBRAS AMENAzANTES y PERSoNAJES-SoMBRA. dEL CINE A LA PINTURA Este mismo recurso expresivo será de nuevo empleado por Murnau en Tabú (1931), última película del director, rodada junto al documentalista Robert Flaherty en la Polinesia. Recurramos de nuevo al texto de zunzunegui: “Murnau construye el inexorable ascenso de la tragedia mediante un estilizado uso de recursos cinematográfcos, entre los que se cuenta una magistral utilización de la sombra como proyección, tal y como se pone de manifesto en esa escena iluminada por la luz tenue de la luna del trópico que muestra, en primer lugar, una alargada sombra que se dirige hacia la cabaña de los amantes. Después, sobre la fgura de la pareja durmiente, la luna proyectará la sombra vengadora de Hitu, mensajero del tabú y animal nocturno como Nosferatu”15. Volviendo a las dos obras de Picasso y a sus sutiles diferencias, ha de destacarse que la sombra del segundo cuadro no es opaca como la del primero, sino que resalta cromáticamente aquellos objetos de la habitación y partes del cuerpo femenino sobre los que se proyecta. Esta notable diferencia en la propia consistencia de la sombra, y siempre teniendo presente nuestra tesis de la infuencia cinematográfca y los ejemplos anteriormente esgrimidos –muy especialmente el de Tabú–, nos puede llevar a la siguiente interpretación: la sombra del primer cuadro, cuya negritud/opacidad es completa, corresponde, en realidad, a la silueta de una fgura a contraluz, mientras que en la otra pintura sí que se trata de una auténtica sombra que inunda por completo la estancia y cuanto ésta contiene, dando como resultado lo que se conoce en cine como plano subjetivo, cuando la mirada de un personaje se corresponde al cien por cien con lo que nos muestra la cámara, de manera que el espectador ve por los ojos del personaje cinematográfco –en este caso pictórico–, cosa que no ocurría en el primer cuadro. En efecto, estas sombras picasianas nos remiten de inmediato y mejor que ninguna otra al cine. La propia condición secuencial de ambas obras, la entrada de esa luz artifcial y directa, así como el papel de la sombra amenazante, primero, y posesora, después, se nos revelan como elementos típicamente cinematográfcos que Picasso ha sabido trasladar con maestría a su particular universo pictórico. pErSONAJES-SOmBrA Resulta indiscutible el interés que despertó en el surrealista Magritte el personaje de Fantômas16. Dicho interés se debe tanto a la primigenia serie de novelas frmadas por Marcel Allain y Pierre Souvestre como a la adaptación al cine llevada a cabo por Louis Feuillade en un memorable serial realizado durante los años 1913 y 1914 , pues el belga, a diferencia de otros artistas coetáneos, nunca negó su fascinación por el séptimo arte17. Dos son las obras realizadas por Magritte que hacen directa alusión a tan famoso personaje: El bárbaro (1928) y El retorno de la llama (1943). Ambas pinturas están inspiradas de una manera explícita en el cartel cinematográ- fco del serial de Feuillade, aquél en el que el antihéroe aparece ataviado con un esmoquin y enmascarado, con una vista de la ciudad de París como fondo. Por el contrario, las obras a las que vamos a atender a continuación, pese a estar igualmente inspiradas en aquella primera adaptación al cine de Fantômas llevada a cabo por el direc- tor francés, se sitúan en un terreno más interesante que el correspondiente a una clara y evidente transposición, a modo de cita, de la gran pantalla al lienzo. Además, entran también aquí en juego otros personajes cinemato- gráfcos ideados por el propio Feuillade: los temibles criminales que protagonizan Los vampiros (Les vampires, 1915-1916) 18, otro ambicioso serial emprendido por el cineasta al rebufo del éxito cosechado con Fantômas. Entre los años 1926 y 1927, el prolífco Magritte realizó algunos cuadros que, sin duda, nos remiten a los 15 S. zUNzUNEGUI, Ob. Cit., pp. 72-73. 16 Magritte también dejó un legado literario nada desdeñable, donde destacan notables textos como el titulado Notas sobre Fantomas, sobre el mítico personaje literario y cinematográfco. Véase R. MAGRITTE, Escritos, Síntesis, Madrid, 2003, pp. 31-33. 17 Véase J. VOVELLE, “Magritte et le cinéma”, Cahiers dada Surréalisme, nº 4, 1970, pp. 103-113. 18 Véase H. GERHOLD, “El lirismo casual de la serie y de los precursores del cine policiaco: de The Adventures of Dolly [Las aventurasde Dolly] (1908) a Les vampires [Los vampiros] (1915-1916)”, en Cien años de cine (1895-1995). Vol.1.(1895-1924). Desde los orígenes hasta su establecimiento como medio, W. FAULSTICH y H. KORTE (compiladores), Siglo XXI, México D.F., 1998, pp. 208-228. 346 CARLoS SALAS GoNzÁLEz ya míticos flms de Feuillade. Dos de ellos, titulados El hombre del mar y La ladrona19 [Fig. 7], se nos revelan como certeras transposiciones al lienzo de la iconografía de la que dotó el realizador galo a los criminales que protagonizaban sus seriales cinematográfcos, tanto Fantômas como Los vampiros. Ambas pinturas de Magritte están protagonizadas por un único personaje, el cual, vestido de escrupuloso negro, no muestra su rostro, ya sea sustituyendo éste por una tablilla de madera decorada como si de un violín se tratase, caso de El hombre del mar, o bien ocultándolo bajo una tupida capucha que sirve de continuación de la propia indumentaria, lo que sucede en La ladrona. El resultado, en ambos casos, es el de una suerte de sombra corpórea, una fgura misteriosa y fantasmal, embutida en su malla negra y con el rostro oculto, al igual que solían presentarse en los seriales de Feuillade tanto el archivillano Fantômas y sus secuaces [Fig. 6] como la perversa Irma Vep –a veces su rostro quedaba a la vista, para lucimiento de Musidora, la actriz que la interpretaba– y sus compinches de la organización criminal Los vampiros. Hablamos, pues, de una iconografía concreta forjada en el celuloide20, gracias a Feuillade, y que termina pasando al ámbito de la pintura de la mano de Magritte. No debemos olvidar al respecto que estos personajes-sombra de las series fílmicas eran unos malhechores, lo que provocó una im- portante controversia en ciertos sectores conservadores que no veían con buenos ojos la fascinación que éstos 19 Agradezco la información a D. Germán Ramallo Asensio. 20 A dicha iconografía contribuirá, apenas un lustro después de los seriales de Feuillade, el inolvidable sonámbulo de Caligari, Césare, el cual, también embutido en una malla negra –eso sí, con el rostro al descubierto–, materializará las pulsiones criminales de su maléfco amo. Fig. 6: Serie Fantômas, Louis Feuillade (1913-1914). Fig. 7: La ladrona, René Magritte (1927). Museo Magritte, Bruselas. 347SoMBRAS AMENAzANTES y PERSoNAJES-SoMBRA. dEL CINE A LA PINTURA despertaban en el público de su época, incluido el pintor belga, entre otros surrealistas21. “Ciertamente, Feuillade presenta el mal de una manera más elaborada y sugerente que el bien, pero es por simple fdelidad a la moda literaria imperante, tendente a envolver a los delincuentes y al continuo azote al que someten la calle con un halo de romanticismo. (…) Los miembros del movimiento surrealista valoran el desprecio a lo establecido del que hace gala la serie y la adoran”22 explica a propósito de Los vampiros Luis Enrique Ruiz. En conclusión. El cine de Feuillade, tan entretenido como poético, se erige en una incuestionable y constante fuente de inspiración para Magritte, uno de los pintores más afamados y prestigiosos de su época, lo que dice mucho, una vez más, de ese estatus de arte que en un tiempo récord logró alcanzar el cine y que ya no abandonaría jamás23. 21 Véase R. DESNOS, “Fantômas, Les Vampires, Les Mystères de New York” Le Soir (26 de febrero de 1927), reeditado en R. DESNOS, Cinema, Gallimard, París, 1966, pp. 153-155. 22 L. E. RUIz, Obras pioneras del cine mudo. Orígenes y primeros pasos (1895-1917), Mensajero, Bilbao, 2000, p. 361. 23 El cine fue nombrado como el “séptimo arte” por el crítico italiano Ricciotto Canudo en 1911, véase R. CANUDO, “Mani- festo de las Siete Artes”, recogido en Fuentes y documentos del cine, J. ROMAGUERA y T. HOMERO ALSINA (Eds.), Fontamara, Barcelona, pp. 17-20. 
work_levhsenu5fh35hcdkevy55tdgq	----	Alcohol and cancer Editorial www.thelancet.com Vol 390 November 18, 2017 2215 For the ASCO statement see http://ascopubs.org/doi/ full/10.1200/JCO.2017.76.1155 Alcohol and cancer The Nov 7 publication of Alcohol and Cancer: a Statement of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) emphasises the prominence of alcohol as a proven cause of many cancers. This view is not novel and comes exactly 30 years after a working group of the International Agency for Research on Cancer determined that alcoholic beverages were carcinogenic to humans. It has been echoed by other cancer societies since then but seemingly ignored by the wider medical community and by society. The influential endorsement by ASCO provides a power­ ful impetus to act on decades of evidence that alcohol harms health. Alcohol is causally linked to upper aerodigestive tract cancers (oral cavity, pharynx, larynx, oesophagus) and those of the colon, liver, and female breast. Associations exist for many other types of cancer, but the precise role of alcohol requires further research to be fully disentangled from ecological and lifestyle factors. Historical assertions of benefit from alcohol are likely misinterpreted or exaggerated, because no lower threshold for cancer risk has yet been identified. Carcinogenesis is most common in tissues that are in direct contact with alcohol and increases with exposure. For example, a three times increase in the recommended alcohol limit raises the risk of oesophageal cancer eight times, leading to estimates that three­quarters of oesophageal cancers are due to high alcohol consumption. Because cancer of the oesophagus has a 5­year survival rate of less than 10%, prevention is paramount. Although the mechanism of carcinogenesis might vary by the type of tissue involved, it is consistent for different forms of alcohol and likely involves ethanol’s genotoxic metabolite, acetaldehyde. Additional evidence comes from east Asian populations, in which variant genotypes that impair aldehyde dehydrogenase are common (thereby raising aldehyde concentrations) and the incidence of aerodigestive tract tumours is increased. Because alcohol is a solvent, other toxic compounds, particularly those added to inferior products to enhance palatability, might also play a part. The scale of the danger posed by alcohol is immense. Nearly 2 billion people consume alcoholic beverages regularly. All families and societies that consume alcohol are affected, with some populations, such as native Americans, at particularly high risk of harmful outcomes. Europe is the region of greatest consumption and has the heaviest burden of alcohol­related cancers. One estimate of annual consumption in the UK for 2016 was 12 L of pure alcohol for individuals aged 15 years or older. Populations in eastern Europe drank even more. Beyond cancer, alcohol has widespread and insidious effects throughout the body and mind, leading to profound adverse social consequences. The Global Burden of Disease Study 2016 ranked alcohol as the seventh leading cause for disability­adjusted life­years (4·2%) and death (5·2%). In the UK, where classification of alcohol­specific deaths has been narrowed, there were 7327 registered deaths in 2016, an age­standardised rate of 11·7 per 100 000. The ASCO statement takes the health consequences of alcohol beyond the dawn of understanding to the full light of day: alcohol is an undeniable menace to health. Yet it is also culturally bound to the behaviours of almost 2 billion people, for whom, in the coming weeks, large quantities will feature at Thanksgiving gatherings, seasonal office parties, Christmas celebrations, and new year festivities. As the Comment in this issue by Frank Murray about alcohol control in Ireland shows, stricter regulation of alcohol elicits strong political and commercial opposition. For those reasons, and because of the influence of alcohol on patients’ wellbeing, moves towards safer drinking need to be led by health professionals. Routine surveillance, health education, and cancer prevention provide contexts for doing so within any consultation. The challenge of alcohol and cancer will increase. Longer life expectancy means greater cumulative exposure, and as more populations become affluent, alcohol consumption grows. Meanwhile, the cost of alcohol in real terms has decreased, which expands availability. But alcohol is a modifiable hazard, with a risk that diminishes after stopping. There is no excuse to ignore regulatory interventions for access, advertisements, and unit cost that are shown to reduce alcohol consumption. Like tobacco, the longer the delay in effective control, the more severe future interventions for alcohol will need to be. It is not unimaginable that bottles of Château Mouton Rothschild, which once bore the artwork of Salvador Dali and Pablo Picasso, might one day be required to have plain packaging and images of oesophageal cancer or a cirrhotic liver. n The Lancet CN RI /S ci en ce P ho to L ib ra ry See Comment page 2222 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(17)32868-4&domain=pdf 
work_lf4f5p6uijdwpkz2rhdosgb4ce	----	The Journal of Academic Social Science Studies International Journal of Social Science Doi number:http://dx.doi.org/10.9761/JASSS7694 Number: 71 , p. 303-318, Autumn II 2018 Araştırma Makalesi / Research Article Yayın Süreci / Publication Process Yayın Geliş Tarihi / Article Arrival Date - Yayın Kabul Tarihi / Article Acceptance Date 08.06.2018 30.08.2018 Yayınlanma Tarihi / The Published Date 30.09.2018 MUSTAFA TUNÇALP VE TUFAN DAĞISTANLI SERAMİKLERİNDEKİ KUŞ HEYKELLERİNİN FORM, RENK VE EK MALZEME AÇISINDAN DEĞERLENDİRİLMESİ MUSTAFA TUNCALP AND EVALUATION OF BIRD SCULPTURE ON TUFAN DAGISTANLI`S CERAMIC IN TERMS OF FORM COLOR AND ADDITIONAL MATERIALS Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Gonca Hülya Yayan ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-000 Gazi Üniversitesi, Gazi Eğitim Fakültesi, Güzel Sanatlar Eğitimi Bölümü, gyayan@gazi.edu.tr Öğrt. Mehmet Ali Gökdemir ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5100-5026 Hacı Ali Mungan Ortaokulu, Nusaybin-Mardin / MEB, maligokdmr@gmail.com Öz Sanat, sanatı icra eden ile izleyici arasında, topluluklar arasında ve bunlardan daha önemlisi çağlar arasında bir iletişim aracıdır. İnsanlar sanat nesnesini ortaya ko- yarken değişik araçlar kullanarak bu ürünlerini karşı tarafa farklı biçimlerde sunmuşlar- dır. Bu bilgiler ışığında düşünüldüğünde sanat olgusu, yüklenen anlam açısından farklı disiplinler olarak ele alınır. Bu disiplinler içerisinde seramik ürünler, binlerce yıl boyun- ca günlük kullanım eşyaları olarak üretilmişlerdir. İnsanların çok eski çağlardan beri yaptıkları seramik, kilin değişik yöntemlerle şekillendirmişlerdir. Yirminci yüzyılın son- larına doğru Pablo Picasso ve Joan Miro gibi dahi sanatçıların büyülü dokunuşlarıyla se- ramik, zanaat olmaktan kurtulup, sanat olarak popülerleşmiştir. Batıda heykelde mal- zeme olarak seramikte kullanımı 1925 li yıllarda başlamışken, ülkemizde bu durum 1950'lerde Füreya Koral'ın öncülüğünde başlar 1970'lerde gelişerek devam etmiştir. (Mü- https://orcid.org/0000-000 file:///C:/Users/DELL/gyayan@gazi.edu.tr https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5100-5026 file:///C:/Users/DELL/maligokdmr@gmail.com 304 Gonca Hülya Yayan & Mehmet Ali Gökdemir layim Oral, 2005). Bu sanatçıların çalışmalarıyla ülkemizde şekillenmeye başlayan sera- mik heykel, Ayfer Karamani ve Jale Yılmabaşar gibi önemli sanatçıların eserleriyle hak ettiği yere ulaşmıştır. Günümüzde de kuşlardan ilham alarak eserler üreten Mustafa Tunçalp ve Tufan Dağıstanlı gibi seramik sanatçılarının seramik heykel alanında önemli eserler verdikleri bilinmektedir. Çalışmada nitel araştırma yöntemlerinden literatür taraması ve doküman ince- lemesi yöntemleri kullanılmıştır. Araştırmanın sonucunda, Her iki sanatçının eserlerini form, renk ve kullanılan ek malzeme gibi değişkenler açısından değerlendirdiğimizde, farklı formlar kullanıp zaman zaman formları soyutlayıp detaylardan arındırdığını gör- mekteyiz. Bu çalışmada, modern Türk seramik sanatının önemli sanatçılarından olan Mustafa Tunçalp ve Tufan Dağıstanlı’ nın eserlerini form, renk, ve ek malzeme kullanımı gibi değişkenler açısından incelenmiştir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Seramik, Modern Türk Seramik Sanatı, Form, Renk, Ek Malzeme Abstract Art is a communication tool between the person performing it and the audience and societies and more importantly between ages. When exposing an art object People presented those products of theirs to the audience via using different tools.When it is thought in the light of these information the fact of art is addressed as a different disci- pline within the meaning imposed to it. Among those disciplines ceramic products have been produced as daily use items for thousands of years. The ceramic art that people performed since very early ages is formed via shaping clay with differenttechniques. Towards the end of twentieth centuryceramic became more popular when it is trans- formed from being a craft to being an art with the magical touches of artists such as Pablo Picasso and Joan Miro.Whereas ceramic use as a material in sculpture initiated in 1925 in the West, this usage started in 1950s in our country with the lead of FureyaKoral and kept progressing in 1970s. (Mülayim Oral, 2005)The ceramic sculpture that has been started to be shaped with those Works, reached its deserved place with the significant artworks of artists such as AyferKaramani and JaleYilmabasar. Today, it is known that artists such as Mustafa Tuncalp and TufanDagistanli create significant artworks in the field of ceramic sculpture with the inspirations of birds. In this work literature search and document inspection methods within the qualitative research methods were used.As a result of the research, when the artworks of the both artists are evaluated with the variables such as form, color, and additional ma- terials it is seen that they purified and abstracted the forms by using different forms from time to time. In this work, artworks of Mustafa Tuncalp and TufanDagistanli who are important artists of modern Turkish ceramic art are evaluated in terms of variables such as form, color and additional material usage. Key Words: Ceramic, Modern Turkish Ceramic Art, Form, Color and Addition- al Materials GİRİŞ Sanat ve Seramik Sanat, sanatı icra eden ile izleyici ara- sında, topluluklar arasında ve bunlardan da- ha önemlisi çağlar arasında bir iletişim aracı- dır. Böylelikle gerçek dünyanın yok edici un- surlarını kat ederek çağlar öncesini günümüze kadar getirmiştir(Ünver, 2002: 221). Çağlar öncesinden insan hayatında önemli bir yere sahip olan sanat, ilk başlarda mağara duvarla- rında sembolik resimler olarak kendini gös- terse bile, zamanla değişen ihtiyaçlar parale- linde üretilen bu ürünler daha estetik ve bi- çimsel yönden zengin olan eserlere dönüş- müştür. İnsanlar sanat nesnesini ortaya ko- yarken değişik araçlar kullanarak bu ürünle- rini karşı tarafa farklı biçimlerde sunmuşlar- dır. Bu bilgiler ışığında düşünüldüğünde Mustafa Tunçalp ve Tufan Dağıstanlı Seramiklerindeki Kuş Heykellerinin Form, Renk ve Ek Malzeme Açısın… 305 sanat olgusu, yüklenen anlam açısından farklı disiplinler olarak ele alınır. Bu disiplinler başta seramik olmak üzere, resim, müzik, dans ve heykel gibi alanlara ayrılabi- lir.(Ayaydın ve diğerleri, 2011: 4). İnsanların çok eski çağlardan beri yaptıkları seramik, kilin değişik yöntemlerle şekillendirilip, gerekli durumlarda sırlanarak, yeterince sertleşip dayanıklılık kazanana ka- dar yeterli ısılarda pişirilmesi bilimi, teknolo- jisi ve sanatıdır (Arcasoy, 1988: 1; Güner, 1987: 1; Uludağ, 1997: 142,Akt: Daşdağ, 2009: 22).İlk insanlar kimi zaman yağmurlu bir günde yumuşamış kil zemine basarak kimi zaman da su kaynakları yakınlarında balçık haline gelen kile dokunarak, kilin plastikliğini keşfetmişler ve bu malzemeden kullanacakları birtakım araç gereçler yapmışlardır. Tesadüfler sonu- cunda bu kil eşyaların, ısınmak veya yemek pişirmek için yakılan ateşle bir araya gelince, daha sağlam ve az geçirgen bir malzeme oluş- tuğu keşfedilmiştir (Jaquemart & Palliser, 1873). Seramik ürünler, binlerce yıl boyunca günlük kullanım eşyaları olarak üretilmişler- dir. Yirminci yüzyılın sonlarına doğru Pablo Picasso ve Joan Miro gibi dahi sanatçıların büyülü dokunuşlarıyla seramik, zanaat ol- maktan kurtulup, sanat olarak popülerleşmiş- tir. Bu dahi sanatçıların dokunuşlarıyla ayrı bir sanat dalı olarak yorumlanan seramik sanatı, günümüzde de popülerliğini artırarak korumaktadır (Daşdağ, 2009). Modern Türk sanatında seramik heykel Bir malzeme olarak seramik, yalnızca kendi alanında değil farklı dönemlerde farklı alanlarda da kullanılmıştır. Tarih boyunca heykel sanatında büyük bir öneme sahip olan seramik, üç boyutlu eserlerin üretiminde yer almıştır. ( Kaytan, 2009).Günümüzde de mo- dern seramik sanatı içinde, karşımıza çıkan 'Seramik Heykel', salt ve yetkin sanat niteliği- ne ulaşmıştır. Seramik heykel olarak, artık bir malzeme niteliğiyle plastik sanatlarda yer edinmiştir. Seramik, sadece sanatsal iletişim aracı olarak malzeme niteliğiyle kullanımının yanında, ayrıca eserde verilmek istenen ileti- şime bağlı olarak, mesajı güçlendirmek için başka malzemelerle de kullanılmaktadır. ( Uludağ, 1997). Batıda heykelde malzeme olarak seramikte kullanımı 1925 li yıllarda başlamışken, ülkemizde bu durum 1950'lerde Füreya Koral'ın öncülüğünde başlar 1970'lerde gelişerek devam etmiştir. (Mülayim Oral, 2005).Daha sonraları, seramik eğitimi için yurt dışına gönderilen İsmail Hakkı Oy- gar, Vedat Ar ve Hakkı İzzet gibi seramikçiler yurda dönünce seramiği bir malzeme olarak farklı ve özgün anlamda yeniden yorumla- mışlardır (Mülayim, Oral, 2005). Bu sanatçıla- rın çalışmalarıyla ülkemizde şekillenmeye başlayan seramik heykel, Ayfer Karamani ve Jale Yılmabaşar gibi önemli sanatçıların eser- leriyle hak ettiği yere ulaştığı söylenebilir. Günümüzde de kuşlardan ilham alarak eser- ler üreten Mustafa Tunçalp ve Tufan Dağıs- tanlı gibi seramik sanatçılarının seramik hey- kel alanında önemli eserler verdikleri bilin- mektedir. Orta Asya ve Türk kültüründe kuş ve güvercin sembolleri Dünya’nın en kadim uluslarından olan Türk ulusu, geniş bir coğrafyada farklı devletler kurarak, farklı ulus ve inançlarla buluşuşlardır. Bu vasıtayla, oldukça zengin bir kültür mirasına sahip olmuşlardır. Bu güçlü kültür hazinesinin en önemli parçala- rından biri de kuşkusuz din ve sosyal yaşamla beraber şekillenen sembollerdir. (Çatalbaş, 2011:49).Çünkü sembol, genellikle direkt açık- lanamayan, bir nesneye işaret etmeyen ve çok mana ve kavramı içinde barındıran kavram- lardır. Öyle ki felsefeden dine, mitolojiden sanata, dilden bilime dek uzanan anlatım şekilleri ve hatta tüm bu alanların (anlatım) ve biçimin sembol olabilmesi İçin anlama işaret etmesi gerekmektedir. Herhangi bir nesne, kavram, duruş, ifade kapsadığından soyut bir nitelik taşımaktadır. Bir başka deyişle anlatı- lamayan, kanıtlanamayan, duyularla algıla- 306 Gonca Hülya Yayan & Mehmet Ali Gökdemir namayan soyut kavramları işaret etmektedir ( Alp, 2009). Orta Asya ve Anadolu’daki bütün Türk topluluklarında başta kuşlar olmak üze- re farklı hayvan türleri sembol olarak sıkça kullanılmışlardır. Örneğin, kartal Türklerde önemli bir yer edinmiş ve Türklerin milli sembollerinden biri olmuştur (Kafesoğlu, 2000 ).Özellikle Göktürk ve Uygurlarda kartal ve diğer yırtıcı kuşlar hükümdar veya beyle- rin koruyucu ruhu ve hukuki sembolü olmuş- tur. İslamiyet’ten sonra da kartal, hükümdar- lık, güç ve kuvveti temsil etmiş, bazen arma- larda da kullanılmışlardır (Ögel, 1998). Genel olarak kuşlar, ruhların sembolü olarak görül- müşlerdir. Cenneti temsil ettiklerine inanılan bu hayvanların, insan şekline girip şamanları koruduklarına inanılmıştır. Bu gruba giren kuşlar, başta güvercin olmakla beraber kuğu, kaz, ördek, sülün, saksağan, turna, karga, ördek, tavus ve bıldırcın şeklinde sıralanabi- lir. Bu kuşlardan güvercin uzun hayatı temsil ettiğinden dolayı, İslam dininin kabulünden sonra da önemini korumuş ve el sanatlarında figür olarak sıkça karşımıza çıkmıştır. (Çoruh- lu, 1999). Ayrıca, şiir dilinde aşkı sembol eden güvercin, Nuh tufanının bitimini gaga- sıyla taşıdığı zeytin dalı ile müjdelediği imajı- nın zihinlerde yerleşmiş olması, onu eskiler- den beri kötü günlerin bitiminin ve barışın evrensel simgesi haline getirmiştir. Hitit inan- cında tarıca Kubaba ve Yunan –Roma mitolo- jisinde Afrodit’in simgesi olan güvercin, Hı- ristiyanlıkta da kutsal ruhu temsil edip, dişi ve rengi de beyazdır. Günümüzde bereket, saflık ve iyiliği sembol eden güvercin, talih oyunlarında, kazanan kimsenin başına konan bir talih kuşu olarak yorumlanır (Ersoy, 2007). Türk Çini Sanatında Hatayi desenler Hatayi desenlerin geleneksel Türk çi- ni sanatında önemli bir yere sahip olduğu bilinmektedir. Hatayi desenler, Orta Asya Hatay bölgesi kökenli desenler olup, üsluplaş- tırılmış çiçek, yaprak, tomurcuk ve filizlerden oluşmaktadırlar. Bu desenlere Hatay Türkle- rinin deseni anlamında Hatayi denilmiştir. Hatayi motiflerin kaynağını tamamen doğa- daki çiçekler oluşturmaktadır. Bu motifler çiçekler göre farklı isimler alırlar. Altı yaprak- lı olanlara şeş berk, beş yapraklılara penc berk, dört yapraklılara ciyar berk üç yapraklı- lara se berk denilir. (Aker, 2010: 12,13). Renkler ve Anlamları Beyaz rengin, Türklerin en eski inanç- larından olan Şamanist dönemle ilgili bazı manevi inanışlardan kaynaklanarak ululuk, adalet ve güçlülük anlamları kazandığı gö- rülmektedir(Genç 1997:7). Sarı renk Türklerin çizmelerinin rengi olarak uzun yıllar kulla- nılmıştır. Halk arasında bugün de çok yaygın olarak kullanılan ‚Sarı Çizmeli Mehmet Ağa‛ deyiminin de kaynağı bu tarih ve kültür gele- neğine dayanmaktadır(Genç, 1997: 32). Gök rengi olan mavi Türklerin inancında her za- man ululuğun ve yüceliğin sembolü olmuş- tur. Mavi gök rengi olması itibariyle sonsuz- luğu, emniyet ve huzuru telkin eder. Ruhlar âlemini barındırır. Mavi aynı zamanda suyun rengi olarak da düşünülür ve hayatın esası su‘dur (Kırımhan, 2004). Kara/ Siyah renk Türklerde binlerce yıldan beri kuzeyin sembo- lü olarak kullanılmıştır. Çünkü çeşitli kavim- ler ile kültürler, kuzeyin karanlıklar ülkesi olduğu üzerinde birleşmişlerdir. Müslüman- lar da kuzeye ‚Diyar-ı Zulmet‛ demişlerdir. Bundan dolayı Türkler, kuzeyle ilgili ne varsa onları kara kelimesi ile tanıtmışlardır. Kuzey- den esen rüzgârlar bile ‚Kara Yel‛ diye ad- landırılmıştır. Diğer taraftan ‚Kara kış‛ keli- mesi çetin, zorlu, şiddetli kış anlamında- dır(Genç, 1997: 40-41). Orhun kitabelerinde olsun, Dede Korkut ‘ta olsun kara renk bir yas, bir ızdırap, bir acının karşılığıdır. Hay- vancılık geçim kaynağı olduğu için yeşermeyi temsil eden yeşil Türklerin hayatında önemli rol oynamıştır. Orta Asya Türklerinde de yeşi- lin hâkimiyet sembolü ve bayrak rengi olarak yaygınlık kazandığının bir işaretidir. Tarihsel süreçte İstanbul’un fethi sırasında Fatih’in gemisinde yeşil sancak olduğu kaydedilmiştir (Kafalı, 2004). Altın yaldız, başta Türkler ol- mak üzere, Bizanslılarda, Romalılarda ve daha birçok uygarlıkta asaleti ve zenginliği sembol ettiğinden dolayı, gerek takı gibi gün- Mustafa Tunçalp ve Tufan Dağıstanlı Seramiklerindeki Kuş Heykellerinin Form, Renk ve Ek Malzeme Açısın… 307 lük kullanım eşyalarında gerekse de sarayla- rın içerisinde dekoratif amaçlı kullanılan eşya- larda sıkça kullanılmıştır. Aynı zamanda altın yaldız insanlara zenginlik ve lüksü çağrıştırır. ( Yüksekbilgi, 2017: 79) Bu çalışmanın amacı, modern Türk seramik sanatının önemli sanatçılarından olan Mustafa TUNÇALP ve Tufan DAĞISTANLI’ nın eserlerini form, renk ve kullanılan ek mal- zeme açısından değerlendirmektir. Bu amaçla aşağıdaki sorulara yanıt aranmıştır: 1. Mustafa TUNÇALP ve Tufan DAĞISTANLI eserleri arasında form konu- sunda nasıl bir farklılık vardır? 2. Bu sanatçıların eserlerinde renk açı- sından nasıl bir fark vardır? 3. Bu sanatçıların eserleri arasında kullanılan ek malzeme açısından nasıl bir fark vardır? .Bu çalışma modern Türk seramik sa- natının önemli sanatçılarından, Mustafa Tun- çalp ve Tufan Dağıstanlı’nın beşer eserleri ile sınırlıdır. Bu araştırmada, modern Türk sera- mik sanatının önemli iki sanatçısı Mustafa TUNÇALP ve Tufan DAĞISTANLI’nın eser- lerini inceleyebilmek için nitel araştırma mo- deli kullanılmıştır. Nitel araştırma, gözlem, görüşme, doküman analizi gibi nitel veri top- lama yöntemlerinin kullanıldığı, algıların ve olayların doğal ortamda gerçekçi ve bütüncül bir biçimde ortaya konmasına yönelik nitel bir sürecin izlendiği araştırma olarak tanımlan- maktadır (Yıldırım ve Şimşek, 2011: 39). Bu araştırmada da, doküman incelemesi ve litera- tür taraması yoluyla sanatçıların eserleri ince- lendiğinden nitel araştırma modeli kullanıl- mıştır. Araştırmanın çalışma kapsamını Mus- tafa TUNÇALP ve Tufan DAĞISTANLI’nın beş ereserleri oluşturmaktadır. Bu sanatçıların ikisi de eserlerinde kuş ve güvercin formu kullanmış olmalarından dolayı seçilmişlerdir. Bu çalışmada, nitel araştırma yöntem- lerinden biri olan doküman incelemesi yön- temi kullanılarak veriler toplanmıştır. Dokü- man incelemesi, araştırılması hedeflenen olgu ya da olgular hakkında bilgi içeren yazılı ma- teryallerin analizini kapsamaktadır (Yıldırım ve Şimşek, 2011). Diğer bir deyişle, bir çalışma ile ilgili olan kayıt ve belgeleri toplayarak belirli sisteme göre kodlayıp inceleme işlemi- dir (Karasar, 2012). Bu çalışmada da, Mustafa TUNÇALP ve Tufan DAĞISTANLI’nın kuş ve güvercin formlu beşer eserleri incelenmiştir. Çalışmada da, araştırmacılar tarafından araş- tırmanın amacına dayalı olarak Mustafa TUNÇALP ve Tufan DAĞISTANLI’nın kuş ve güvercin formlu eserleri belirlenmiş ve bu sanatçıların eserleri ile ilgili görsel kaynaklara ulaşılmıştır. Bu çalışmada da, araştırmacılar söz konusu sanatçıların eserlerine ulaşmışlar- dır. Bu da araştırmanın güvenirliğini sağla- maktadır. Ulaşılan dokümanlar, belirli bir sistem içerisinde incelenmelidir. Bu çalışmada da, araştırma kapsamında eserler tek tek ince- lenip benzer özellikleri taşıyıp taşımadıkları belirlenmeye çalışılmıştır. Mustafa TUNÇALP ve Tufan DAĞISTANLI’nın eserlerindeki kuş ve güvercin formları incelemek amaçlandı- ğından betimsel analiz kullanılmıştır. Yıldı- rım ve Şimşek’e (2011) göre betimsel analiz, elde edilen bulguları düzenlenmiş ve yorum- lanmış bir biçimde okuyucuya sunmak ama- cıyla yapılır. Betimsel analizde, elde edilen veriler daha önceden belirlenen temalara göre özetlenip ve yorumlanabilir. Bu araştırmada da, elde edilen bulgular hat ve kaligrafi sana- tının genel özellikleri ve yazı karakterleri göz önünde bulundurularak özetlenip yorum- lanmıştır. Bu aşamada, elde edilen bul- gular raporlaştırılmalıdır. Bu araştırmada da, elde edilen bulgular raporlaştırılmıştır. BULGULAR VE YORUM Mustafa TUNÇALP Kimdir? 1966 yılında İstanbul Devlet Tatbiki Güzel Sanatlar Yüksekokulundan mezun olan Tunçalp, 1967-1987 yıllarında farklı ku- rumlarda seramik sanatı ile ilgili arasında araştırmalar ve denemeler yaptı. Belli bir dö- 308 Gonca Hülya Yayan & Mehmet Ali Gökdemir nem Dokuz Eylül ve Hacettepe Üniver- sitelerinde çalışmıştır. İkisi yurtdışında olmak üzere toplam dokuz kişisel sergi açan sanatçı, çok önemli dokuz tane ödülü bulunmaktadır. Halen Çanakkale Seramik Fabrikasında sanat danışmanı olarak çalışmalarını sürdüren Mus- tafa Tunçalp, sanatını özgürlük ve kuşlar olarak tanımlamaktadır (Tur- kishny,2012).Seramik sanatında yarım asrı geride bırakan ve ülkemizde konusunda en çok ürün veren sanatçılarından biri olan, de- ğerli seramik ustası Mustafa Tunçalp, çamur- la iç içe geçirdiği başarı dolu yıllarını, hiç tü- kenmeyen ‚heyecan‛ına borçlu olduğunu ifade eder. ‚Güvercinler‛ ve ‚Anadolu‛ ise bu heyecanın vazgeçilmezleri, Tunçalp’ın ismi ile özdeşleşen ilham kaynaklarıdır. Şiir dilinde aşkı sembol eden güvercin, Nuh tufanının bitimini gagasıyla taşıdığı zeytin dalı ile müj- delediği imajının zihinlerde yerleşmiş olması, onu eskilerden beri kötü günlerin bitiminin simgeleyen barışın ve özgürlüğün evrensel simgesi haline getirmiştir. Hitit inancında tarıca Kubaba ve Yunan –Roma mitolojisinde Afrodit’in simgesi olan güvercin, Hıristiyan- lıkta da kutsal ruhu temsil edip, dişi ve rengi de beyazdır. Günümüzde bereket, saflık ve iyiliği sembol eden güvercin, talih oyunların- da, kazanan kimsenin başına konan bir talih kuşu olarak yorumlanır (Ersoy, 2007). Nite- kim sanatçı da ‚Kuşlar daima özgürdür. İste- dikleri yere uçar ve konarlar. Ben de hep on- lar gibi özgür olmak istemişimdir‛ diyerek, eserlerinde kullanmış olduğu kuş ve güvercin metoforları ile ilgili bizlere ipucu vermektedir. Sanatçı uzun yıllar devam ettirdiği çalışma- larını ‚Çamurla Yoğrulan 50. Yıla Merhaba‛ adlı sergisiyle taçlandırmıştır (Perakende, 2013). Resim-1: Mustafa Tunçalp, Güvercin (2012) Seramik, 30x35x20 Eserin Analizi: Sanatçının şekil-1 deki eserine baktığımız vakit, form itibariyle stilize edilmiş bir güvercin formu görmekteyiz. Form, kanat, tüyler ve ayak ayrıntıları gibi detaylardan arındırılarak sade ve yuvarlak hatlarla ifade edilmiştir. Güvercinin gövdesi- ne göre küçük olan stilize edilmiş başının hafiften arkaya dönük olması zarif bir hayvan olan güvercin formuna daha da narinlik kat- mış durumdadır. Yine arkaya doğru kıvrılmış baş, formu simetri ve monotonluktan kurtara- rak daha estetik görünmesine imkan vermiş- tir. Eseri ayakta tutan dikdörtgen prizma şek- lindeki kaide ise, heykelin yuvarlak hatlarına keskin bir zıtlık oluşturarak, eseri daha da ilgi çekici hale getirmektedir. Eserin üzerinde herhangi bir dekor unsuru bulunmamakla beraber, sırın form üzerindeki açık koyu ve orta renk değerleri, bazı yerlerde yanık rengi- ne dönüşmesi ve yer yer tamamen siyaha dönüşmesi, eserin üzerinde bir doku etkisi yaratarak izleyiciye bir görsel şölen sunmak- tadır. Eserin Yorumu: Sanatçı eserindeki güvercin formu ile, kendisinin de bir söyleşi- de belirttiği gibi özgürlüğe bir gönderme yapmıştır. Mitolojide güvercin motifiyle anla- tılmak istenen özgürlük ve tantı arasında Mustafa Tunçalp ve Tufan Dağıstanlı Seramiklerindeki Kuş Heykellerinin Form, Renk ve Ek Malzeme Açısın… 309 kurulan bir bağdır. Kuş gibi özgür bir şekilde uçabilmek, her insanın arzuladığı bir şeydir. Sanatçımızda yapmış olduğu bu seramik ese- rinde güvercinle aslında bu özgürlüğe bir gönderme yapmaktadır. Kullanmış olduğu yeşil rengin tonlarıyla huzura vurgu yapılmış- tır. Eserde hakim olan yuvarlak hatlar sanat- çının içindeki dinginliğe ve sükunete yorum- lana bilirken kaidedeki köşeli form da sanat- çının iç dünyasındaki kırılmalara, huzursuz- luklara ve kaybetmişliklere bir gönderme yapılmıştır. Eserdeki güvercin formunun ar- kaya bakıyor vaziyette olması da, sanatçının geçmişine duyduğu özleme, geçmişte yaşadı- ğı pişmanlıklara ve geçmişinde bıraktığı biri- lerine duyduğu özleme gönderme olabileceği şeklinde yorumlanabilir( Resim-1). Resim-2: Mustafa Tunçalp, Güvercin (2012) Seramik, 30x35x10 Eserin Analizi: Sanatçının bu eserin- de uyuyan bir kuş formu görülmektedir. Bu formda, kuşun gövdesinden dışarı doğru çıkık olması gereken kafası, kuyruğu ve ayak- ları gibi uzuvlar, gövdesiyle birleşmeye baş- lamış, form daha da yuvarlak ve sade bir hal almıştır. Çıkıntılarından kurtulmuş yuvarlak gövdeyi, öne doğru eğilmiş ve gövdeyle bir- leşmeye yakın vaziyetteki başın yuvarlaklığı takip ederek bir tekrar oluşturduğu söylenebi- lir. Bu tekrarda gövdenin büyük yuvarlak, başın da küçük yuvarlak niteliğinde olması ayrıca küçük büyük dengesini de sağlamak- tadır. Eserde hem yuvarlak hat tekrarı hem de büyüklük küçüklük ilişkisi tasarımı daha etkili hale getirdiği söylenebilir. Ayrıca eser- de, uzuvlarından arındırılmış yuvarlak kuş formunu, dikdörtgen prizması şeklindeki kaidenin keskin hatları ustaca dengelenmiştir. Sanatçı eserlerinde eseri tamamlayan kaide şekilleri seçerek, eserlerini daha da dikkat çekici hale getirmiştir. Eserde form ustalığının yanında renkler de ustalıkla uygulanmıştır. Kuş formunun sırt ve başının üst taraflarında görülen siyaha yakın koyulukların alta doğru geçişli bir biçimde açık maviye dönmesi ve bu açık rengin hemen altında da kaidenin tama- men siyah seçilmesinin de tesadüf olmadığı düşünülmektedir. Formun sırtındaki orta değerdeki renk tonu alta doğru açılarak kai- denin tamamen koyu rengi ile birleşmiştir. Bu durumun eserde açık, orta ve koyu değerler oluşturarak renk dengesini de sağlamıştır. Eserin Yorumu: Eserin detaydan arınmış, yumurtayı andıran formuyla üret- kenlik yanında, durgunluk ve sakinliğe bir gönderme yapılmıştır. Nitekim form da din- lenmekte veya uyumakta olan bir kuşu gös- termektedir. Uyku hali canlıların geçici bir şekilde dış dünyadan koptukları bir andır. Sanatçı uyuyan bir kuş formu ile, kendi iç dünyasına dönerek, dış dünyanın yoruculu- ğundan, sıkıntılarından ve stresinden uzak- laşmak istediğine vurgu yapmıştır. Formun sırtındaki siyah renk, asaletin ve tutkuya gönderme yapılmış, alt kısımlarda kullanılan mavi, sonsuzluğa, otoriteye, derinliğe ve ve- rimliliğe bir gönderme niteliğindedir (Resim- 310 Gonca Hülya Yayan & Mehmet Ali Gökdemir 2). Resim-3: Mustafa Tunçalp, Güvercin (2012) Seramik, 30x35x15 Eserin Analizi: Sanatçının bu kuş heykellini incelediğimiz vakit, formun iyice soyutlandığını görmekteyiz. Formda boyun kısmının uzadığını ve baş kısmının da küçüle- rek kuş formundan uzaklaşıp daha zarif bir şekle büründüğünü söyleyebiliriz. Arkaya dönük durumda olan küçük başın, gaga ve göz gibi ayrıntılardan arındırılmış olması, Tunçalp’ın eserlerinin genel dikkat çekici bir özelliğidir. Bu eserde de sanatçının diğer eser- lerinde yaygın bir şekilde kullandığı dikdört- gen prizması şeklindeki kaidenin köşeli hatla- rı, eserin yuvarlak hatlarını dengeler bir nite- liktedir. Renk konusunda tercihini sürekli mat ve soğuk renklerden yana kullanan sanatçı, bu eserde tamamıyla siyah renk kullanmayı tercih etmiştir. Parlak siyah form üzerindeki yine siyah renkteki mat dekorların, forma bir hareket katıp, durağan olmaktan kurtarmış olduğu söylenebilir. Bu bağlamda sanatçının, form ve renk gibi sanat öğelerini çok ustaca kullanıp izleyiciye sunduğunu söyleyebiliriz. Eserin Yorumu: Sanatçının bu güver- cin formunda boyun kısmının iyice uzaması, yükselmeye, dikkat çekmeye gönderme ya- pılmıştır. Başın arkaya dönük olması, geride bırakılmış bir şeylere, geçmişteki isteklere belki de gençliğe bir gönderme olabilir. Eser- de tamamıyla hakim olan siyah renk ise, asa- lete, tutkuya ve olgunluğa gönderme niteli- ğindedir ( Resim-3). Resim-4: Mustafa Tunçalp/ Kuş/ Seramik/ 34x42x52 Mustafa Tunçalp ve Tufan Dağıstanlı Seramiklerindeki Kuş Heykellerinin Form, Renk ve Ek Malzeme Açısın… 311 Eserin Analizi: Sanatçının bu eserin- de, artık kuş formundan ziyade tümüyle so- yut bir form görülmektedir. Daha önceleri küçülüp soyutlaşmaya başlayan kuyruk ve baş gibi uzuvların, bu eserde artık birer hafif çıkıntıdan ibaret olduklarını görüyoruz. Ese- rin genel şekli, kuştan çok artık bir karpuz dilimini andıran soyut bir hal almıştır. Bu eserde, sanatçının birçok eserinde karşılaştı- ğımız dikdörtgen prizması kaide bulunma- maktadır. Eser kendi gövdesinin üzerinde dengeli bir biçimde durmaktadır. Tunçalp bu eserde de siyah sır tercih etmiştir. Formun dışbükey tarafında parlak siyah sır kullanıl- mışken, içbükey kısmında mat siyah kullanı- larak bir denge sağlanmıştır. Eserin Yorumu: Formun genel şekline baktığımız vakit, formun kara çarşaf giymiş bir kadını andırdığını görebiliriz. Sanatçı bu formla, kadının toplumdaki statüsünü, maruz kaldığı baskıları ve bunlarla beraber kadının çarşaf aracılığıyla sosyal hayattan kendini soyutlamasını anlatmış olabilir. Belki de sa- natçı iç tarafta kullandığı mat siyahla insanın içindeki bunalımlara, sıkıntılara ve üzüntülere gönderme yapmıştır. Kullanılan siyah rengin hüznün rengi olması da adeta bu tahmini destekler niteliktedir. Aynı zamanda siyah renk bütün noksanlıkları ve kötülükleri örten bir renk olması da ayrıca bu eserde manidar bir nitelik kazandırmıştır.(Resim-4). Resim-5: Mustafa Tunçalp/Kuş/ Seramik/ 34x45x15 Eserin Analizi: Sanatçı, uçmaya ha- zırlanan bir kuş tasvir etmektedir. Formun genel yapısına baktığımız vakit, diğer eserler- de alışık olmadığımız bir ayrıntı olan kanat ve yukarı doğru uzanan başı temsil eden bir çıkıntı görmekteyiz. Formda genel olarak yuvarlak hat kullanılmış olmasıyla beraber, kanatların alt taraftan gövde ile birleştiği nok- tada az da olsa keskin hatlar göze çarpmakta- dır. Bu çalışmada da sanatçı kuşun ayakların- da detaylara girmemiş, ayakları dikdörtgen prizması şeklindeki kaidenin üzerinde düz duran bir çıkıntı olarak ele almıştır. Eserin gövdesinin üzerinde yer yer basılmış mühür dekorlar, esere bir doku katarak hareket ver- miştir. Tunçalp bu çalışmasında bakır rengi hafif yaldızlı sır kullanarak esere bir parlaklık vermiştir. Eserin bu parlaklığının alttaki koyu siyah kaidenin etkisiyle daha da dikkat çekici bir hal almıştır. Eserin Yorumu: Sanatçının bu eserin- de, kuşkanatlarını geriye doğru açar vaziyette olmasıyla ile uçmaya/ özgürleşmeye başlamak üzere olduğunun bir ifadesi niteliğindedir. Sanatçı ile yapılan bir söyleşide, sanatçı ‚Kuş- lar daima özgürdür. İstedikleri yere uçar ve konar- lar. Ben de hep onlar gibi özgür olmak istemişim- dir.‛ Şeklinde bir cümle kurmuştur. Sanatçı- nın bu cümlesinden hareket edecek olursak, sanatçının içindeki duygu ve düşünceleri bu 312 Gonca Hülya Yayan & Mehmet Ali Gökdemir uçmaya/ özgürleşmeye hazırlanan kuş heykeli ile hür olma ve hayalindeki yerlere gitme isteğine gönderme yapmıştır (Resim-5). Tufan DAĞISTANLI Kimdir? 40 yılı aşkın bir zamandır seramik sa- natçısı olan Tufan Dağıstanlı, İstanbul Devlet Güzel Sanatlar Akademisi mezunu olup, ça- lışmalarını kendisine ait atölyede eşi ile bera- ber yürütmektedir. Sanatın insan yaşamının ayrılmaz bir parçası olduğuna inanan sanatçı, Türkiye'de sanatçı olmanın güzel yanlarını vurgulayıp, rahatsız olunan yönlerinin de çok fazla olduğunu belirtmektedir. Sanatçı, rahatsız edici her şeyin altında sanat eğitimi eksikliği ve toplumun sanattan çok zanaata ilgi göstermesi olduğunu savunmaktadır. Sanat aracılığı ile insanların içlerindeki kötü- lüklerden ve çirkinliklerden arınarak ruh gü- zelliğine kavuştuklarını söyleyen sanatçı, ‚Sanat insan yaşamının olmazsa olmazı" di- yor. Eserlerinde kuş formu kullanan sanatçı, yapıtlarının her birinin bir Zümrüd-ü Anka olduğunu belirterek ‚ Onlar ateşten doğuyor- lar‛ demektedir. Zümrüd-ü Anka, doğu ve Anadolu sanat eserlerinde kullanılan efsanevi kuş figürlerinden biridir. Efsaneye göre çok büyük olan bu kuşun, kaf dağını ardında bilgi ağacına yapmış olduğu yuvası, güzel kokulu ağaç dallarıyla süsleyip yuvasıyla beraber kendini yakarmış. Her 500 yılda bir bir züm- rüd-ü anka kuşu küllerinden yeniden doğar- mış. Bu bağlamda sanatçı ateşte pişirdiği bu seramik kuşları için zümrüd-ü Anka benzet- mesi yaptığı söylenebilir(Tez, 2008).Sanatçı, kuşların özgür ve bağımsız olmalarından etkilenerek kuş formu çalıştığını renk olarak da turkuaz ve maviyi çok sevdiğini belirtmek- tedir. Ölene kadar seramik yapacağını belirten sanatçı, bir seferde 300 adet kuş heykeli sattı- ğı bir alman şirketi sayesinde yurt dışında da adını duyurmayı başarmıştır. (Hürriyet, 2016). A Resim-6: Tufan Dağıstanlı/ Kuş/ 9x40x0/2013 Eser Analizi: Sanatçının bu eseri ince- lendiğinde, sanatçının yuvarlak hatlardan yararlanarak bir anlatıma gittiğini görüyoruz. Limon şeklini andıran yuvarlak gövdeden, üzerinde sgrafitto tekniğiyle yuvarlak gözle- rin çizildiği bir baş ve arkada da kuyruk ola- rak düşünülmüş bir çıkıntı bulunmaktadır. Kuş formunun başının üstüne ince metal çu- buklarla monte edilmiş üç tane küre ile forma bir hareket katılmıştır. Kuşun seramik gövde- sini granit taştan yapılmış kaideye bacaklar olarak tasarlanmış iki demir çubuk bağlamak- tadır. Bu bağlamda, sanatçının seramikle be- raber taş ve metal gibi malzemeler de kullan- maktadır. Eserin sade ve sırlanmamış göğüs kısmına karşın, sırt kısmı oldukça gösterişli desenlerle süslenmiştir. Eserin Yorumu: Sanatçının bu çalış- Mustafa Tunçalp ve Tufan Dağıstanlı Seramiklerindeki Kuş Heykellerinin Form, Renk ve Ek Malzeme Açısın… 313 masında turnaya benzeyen bir kuş formu kullanması, uzak diyarlara göç eden bir kuş olan turnanın özgür ruhu ile istediği her yere giderek seyyah özelliğine gönderme yapılmış- tır. Sırt kısmında kullanılan desenlerin renkle- rine baktığımız vakit, kullanılan yeşil tonla- rıyla hakimiyete, ve özellikle altın yaldızlı sırlarla da asalete, zenginliğe gönderme yap- mıştır. Ayrıca bu renklerin, geleneksel Türk çini desenlerinde kullanılan renkler olduğu görülmektedir. Nitekim turna kuşu da Ana- dolu kültüründe asaletiyle ve eşine olan sada- katiyle bilinen bir kuştur. Bu bağlamda sanat- çının, bu eserinde asalete ve sadakate gön- derme yaptığını söyleyebiliriz. Ayrıca, sanatçı yarattığı modern formları geleneksel el sanat- larımızla yoğurarak sunmasıyla geleneksel sanatlarımızdan olan çini sanatını, modern seramik sanatıyla yoğurarak sunması oldukça önemlidir (Resim-6). Resim-7: Tufan Dağıstanlı/ Kuş/ 15x35x0/2013 Eser Analizi: Bu eserdeki kuş, sanat- çının sürekli kullandığı limon şekline benze- yen bir yuvarlak formu tamamlayan baş kıs- mından oluşmaktadır. Baş kısmının üstüne beş tane küçük misketimsi obje, ince metal çubuklar aracılığı ile monte edilmiştir. Göv- deyi granit kaideye bağlayan iki metal çubuk da kuş formunun bacaklarını oluşturmakta- dır. Dağıstanlı’nın kuş serisinin her parçasın- da olduğu gibi, bu eserde de gözler kazıyarak yüzey üzerinde oluklar açma koşulu ile oluş- turulmuş ve başın üstüne renkli küçük küre- ciklerle başın dekoru yapılmıştır. Toprağın doğal rengine dokunulmadan sade bırakılan göğüs kısmının aksine, sırt kısmı oldukça süslemeci bir yaklaşımla dekorlanmıştır. De- korda dikkati çeken bezemeler, yine Türk çini sanatında sıkça karşılaştığımız Hatayi desen- lerden, yaprak içerisinde beş çiçekle süslen- miş bir çiçek dalı görülmektedir. Bu desende, yaprağın içi çinilerde çok sık kullanılan mavi renge boyanmış olup, çiçeklerde de altın yal- dızlı renk kullanıldığı görülür. Eser Yorumu: Sanatçı bu eserinin de- korunda, orta damarı dört çiçekle süslenmiş dal olan yapraklı hatayi desen kullanarak bahara gönderme yapmış olabilir. Bahar mev- simi doğanın en canlı olduğu mevsim olma- sından dolayı insanın gençlik yıllarına benze- tilmektedir Sanatçı bu bahar dalı ile gençliği- ne güzel günlerine ve mutluluğa gönderme yapmıştır. Eserde baskın renkler mavi ve altın yaldız rengidir. Sanatçının bu eserinde mavi renk huzura dinginliğe gönderme yapılırken, altın yaldız rengi ile de, asalet ve zenginlik vurgulanmıştır. Nitekim sanatçının kendisi de bir söyleşisinde mavi, turkuaz ve yaldızlı renkleri çok sevdiğini belirtmiş olup, bu renkleri eserlerinde kullanmaktan zevk aldı- ğını da belirtmiştir (Resim-7). 314 Gonca Hülya Yayan & Mehmet Ali Gökdemir Resim-8: Tufan Dağıstanlı/ Kuş/ 35x130x0/2013 Eser Analizi: Sanatçı bu eserinde de daha önceki eserlerinde görmeye alışkın ol- duğumuz formu tekrarlamıştır. Formun üstü- ne yerleştirilmiş başta kazıma koşuluyla oluk- lar açılıp gözler çizilmiş ve başın üstünde beş adet küçük kürecik monte edilmiştir. Seramik gövdeyi ayakta tutan iki metal çubuk bacak görevi üstlenmiş olup, gövdeyi granit taştan yapılmış kare kaideyle birleştirmektedir. Ese- rin göğüs kısmında toprağın doğal rengini korumak için, herhangi bir renklendirmeye gidilmemiştir. Buna karşın sırt kısmında ma- vinin değişik tonları kullanılarak adeta bir mavi renk armonisi oluşturulmuştur. Kanat- taki tüyleri soyutlaması niteliğinde olan sgra- fitto çizgiler iki taraftan sırtın üzerinde ‚v‛ harfi şeklinde birleşmektedirler. Bu çizgiler- den her biri turkuaz renginin bir tonuna bo- yanmışlardır. Bu renk geçişi, kuyruk kısmın- da koyu iken boyna doğru gittikçe açılmakta- dır. Eserin başını üstüne monte edilmiş küçük topların rengi mavinin zıttı olan turuncu renkte boyanarak mavinin soğukluğu denge- lenmiştir. Eserin Yorumu: Bu eserde, sanatçı bir şeye odaklanmış vaziyette duran bir kuş for- mu ile hayatın hızı içerisinde odaklandığımız hedeflere gönderme yapmıştır. Kuş formunun sırt dekorunda kullanılan bir birleriyle kesişen oluklar hızlı yaşadığımız günlük yaşam içeri- sinde muhatap olmak zorunda olduğumuz insanların yaşantımızdaki yerlerine gönderme niteliğindedir. Ayrıva ‚v‛ ve ‚vav‛ harflerini andıran çizgilerle de tanrı ve insan arasında bir bağ kurulmaya çalışılmıştır. Ancak kulla- nılan turkuaz ve mavi tonlarına baktığımız vakit, bu yoğunluk içerisinde bir iç huzurun olabileceğinden söz edebiliriz. Çünkü, kuş formu hedefe ulaşmaya odaklanmış ve bu hedefe ulaştığı taktirde mutlu olacakmış gibi durmaktadır. Sanatçının mavi ve turkuaz rengine olan düşkünlüğünü bu eserde de net bir biçimde görülmektedir ( Resim-8). Resim-9: Tufan Dağıstanlı/ Kuş/ 15x35x0/2013 Mustafa Tunçalp ve Tufan Dağıstanlı Seramiklerindeki Kuş Heykellerinin Form, Renk ve Ek Malzeme Açısın… 315 Eser Analizi: Bu çalışmada, sanatçı- nın iki heykeli bir arada kompoze ettiğini görmekteyiz. Kompozisyonun iki parçasında da aynı yuvarlak form kullanılmıştır. Sanatçı- nın kuş serisinde gördüğümüz baş formu, sgrafitto gözler, kuşların tepelerine konulan küçük kürecikler, gövdeyi ayakta tutan birer çift metal çubuk ve kare gri granitten yapılmış kaideler görülmektedir. Sanatçının bu eserde de seramiğin yanında destekleyici malzemeler de kullanmıştır. Bu eserde, her iki kuş figü- ründe baş kısımlarındaki hareketleri saymaz- sak, benzer formlar mevcuttur. Sağ taraftaki figürün başı sola dönük bir biçimde uzanı- yorken, sol taraftaki formda baş, tamamıyla arkaya dönük ve gövdeye yapışık vaziyette- dir. Sanatçımız her iki figürde de toprağın, metalin ve granitin soğukluk veren renklerini sırt dekorlarında kullanılmıştır. Ayrıca figür- lerde yer alan, parlak sarı, turuncu, mavi ve yeşil renklerle; eserde bir sıcaklık sağlanmış- tır. Sağ taraftaki formun sırt kısmında, Sıgra- fitto bantlarla birbirlerinden ayrılmış mavi tonların arasında, Türk çinilerinde görmeye alışkın olduğumuz çiçek ve yaprak motifleri, sarı ve turuncu renklerle bir renk cümbüşü oluşturmuştur. Bu renk cümbüşü, kuşun te- pesine konulan mavi küreciklerle taçlandırıl- mış durumdadır. Sol taraftaki kuş formuna baktığımızda ise, sanatçının dekorda yine sgrafitto bantlarla ayırdığı alanı yeşil tonlar- da, merkezde ise parlak turuncu, sarı ile de geleneksel Türk çini motiflerini kullandığını görmekteyiz. Kompozisyonun bu parçasında sıcak ve soğuk renklerin ustaca dengelendiği- ni ve bu dengeyi daha da etkili hale getiren sarı küreciklerin kuşun tepesine monte edil- diği görülmektedir. Eserin Yorumu: Sanatçının bu düzen- lemede, toplumdaki kadın ve erkek ilişkileri- ne gönderme yapılırken, denge unsuru da düşünülmüştür. Sağ taraftaki kuş figürüne baktığımızda, ürkmüş dişi kuş figürü ve onu koruma çabasına girmiş bir tavır sergileyen diğer bir kuş figürü görülmektedir. Formun- daki hakim renge baktığımızda halk arasında erkek çocuklara yakıştırılan mavi rengin ağır- lıklı olduğunu görmekteyiz. Bu durum da adeta bu tahmini destekler niteliktedir. Form- ların dekorlarını yorumlayacak olursak, dişi- nin sırtında turuncu ve kırmızı ( Dinamizm ve canlılığa gönderme ) tonlarındaki alan içerisi- ne yerleştirilmiş tek bir hatayi deseni ile ba- har, yeniden doğuş ve kadın erkek arasındaki ilişkilerin canlılığına gönderme yapılmıştır. Erkek kuş figürünün dekorlarında birden fazla çiçek görülmektedir. Bu dekorlarda yer alan bu çiçek figürleriyle de toplumdaki kadın ve erkek ilişkilerindeki renklilikler ön plana çıkmaktadır. Resim-10: Tufan Dağıstanlı/ Kuşlar /2013/Almanya Eserin Analizi: Almanya’da bir şirke- tin bahçesinde sanatçının 300 kuş formlu ese- rinden oluşturulmuş bir düzenleme görül- mektedir. Düzenleme, kuş heykellerinin be- lirli bir düzen içerisinde art arda sıralanarak konulmasıyla oluşturulmuş olup, bir turna 316 Gonca Hülya Yayan & Mehmet Ali Gökdemir katarını andırmaktadır. Sanatçının bu düzen- lemeyi yaparken Anadolu kültüründe önemli bir yere sahip olan turnalardan etkilenmiş olabileceği söylenebilir. Bu düzenlemenin her bir parçasının formları birbirine benzemekle beraber büyüklükleri, dekorları ve renkleri birbirinden farklıdır. Dekorlarda sanatçının diğer eserlerinde görmüş olduğumuz gele- neksel Türk çini motiflerinin yanında Anado- lu uygarlıklarından esinlenilerek yapılmış dekorlar da mevcuttur. Eserin Yorumu: Sanatçının bu düzen- lemesi 300 adet kuş heykelinden oluşmakta- dır. Bu kuşlara baktığımız vakit, her biri diğe- rinden farklı şekillerde dekorlanmış ve süs- lenmiştir. Bu düzenleme ile sanatçı, küresel- leşmeye, kalabalıklaşan Dünyaya ve bu kala- balık içerisindeki farklı kültürlerdeki zengin- lik ve çeşitliliklere gönderme yapmış olabilir. Ayrıca artan nüfus yoğunluğuna rağmen insanların teknolojinin etkisiyle ve bireysel- leşmenin etkisiyle ‚ kalabalık içerisinde yal- nızlaşan insanoğluna‛ gönderme yapmış ola- bilir. Yine de bu düzenleme ile insanların bu birliktelikten mutlu olduklarını, birbirlerine farklı şeyler kattıkları, öğrettikleri ve öğren- dikleriyle de bir bütünü teşkil ettikleri anla- şılmaktadır. (Resim-10). SONUÇ Her iki sanatçının eserlerini form, renk ve kullanılan ek malzeme gibi değişken- ler açısından değerlendirdiğimizde, Tunçalp farklı formlar kullanıp zaman zaman formları soyutlayıp detaylardan arındırdığını söyleye- biliriz. Sanatçının kullanmış olduğu güvercin (Özgürlük fikrine gönderme) ve turna kuşu ( Asalet ve gezginciliğe gönderme) formların- da, kimi zaman baş, kanat ve kuyruk gibi uzuvlar uzatılarak forma hareket katılmış, kimi zamanda bu detaylar iyice eritilerek forma bir yuvarlaklık verme yoluna gidilmiş- tir. Makalemizde incelediğimiz sanatçımız Mustafa Tunçalp’a göre Tufan Dağıstanlı’nın form konusunda eserlerinin farklı ölçülerde olmasına karşın, birbirlerine benzeyen form- lar kullandığını söyleyebiliriz. Özellikle kuş- lar serisinde, kuşların baş hareketlerini ve ölçülerini göz önünde bulundurmasak, form- ların birbirinin tekrarı olduğunu söyleyebili- riz. Tunçalp’ın eserlerini renk açısından değerlendirecek olursak, sanatçının eserlerin- de daha çok soğuk ve koyu tonlarda renkler kullandığını görebiliriz. Nitekim sanatçının Resim-1 ve Resim-2 deki eserlerine baktığı- mızda, sanatçının bu eserlerde kullandığı mavi ve yeşil renklerinin, parlaklıktan uzak yer yer koyulaşan ve hatta bazı yerlerde ta- mamıyla siyaha dönen renkler olduğunu gö- rebiliriz. Formların tüm yüzeyleri sırlanmış olduğu için, eserlerde toprağın kendi doğal rengini görememekteyiz. Resim-3 ve Resim-4 de ise tamamıyla siyah rengin tonlarını kul- landığını görebiliriz. Sanatçının, Resim-5 deki çalışmada da yine bakır tonları kullanılarak, renk geleneğini bozmadığını söylemek müm- kündür. Dağıstanlı ise eserlerini renklendirir- ken, kuş formlarının baş ve göğüz kısımlarını sırlamadan bırakıp, eserin ana malzemesi olan toprağın kendi doku ve rengini izleyiciye tadında görme imkanı veriyor. Bu formlarda göğsün aksine sırt kısımlarında oldukça par- lak, fosforlu turuncular, kırmızılar, sarılar, maviler, turkuazlar ve yeşiller kullanıldığını söylemek mümkündür. Bu iki sanatçının eserlerini malzeme konusunda değerlendirecek olursak, Tun- çalp’ın seramiklerinde ana malzemeye ek olarak sadece eserleri ayakta tutan ve muhte- melen ahşaptan yapılmış olan kaideleri göre- biliriz. Bu bağlamda sanatçının eserlerinde, malzeme olarak seramiği yeterli bulduğunu ve bu tek malzeme ile mesajlarını gayet güçlü bir şekilde izleyiciye aktardığını söyleyebili- riz. Dağıstanlı ise malzeme konusunda Tun- çalp’a göre daha esnek davranarak, ana mal- zeme olarak kullandığı seramiği, metal ve taş gibi ek malzemelerle beraber kullanarak kompozisyonlarına farklı ve özgün bir anla- tım katmıştır. Bu bağlamda her iki sanatçının anlatımlarında ana malzeme olarak seramiği kulanmış olduklarını ancak Dağıstanlı’nın destekleyici malzeme kullanımını daha çok Mustafa Tunçalp ve Tufan Dağıstanlı Seramiklerindeki Kuş Heykellerinin Form, Renk ve Ek Malzeme Açısın… 317 tercih ettiğini söyleyebiliriz. Sonuç olarak, her iki sanatçının hey- kel çalışmalarında seramik malzemesini kul- lanarak kuş konusunu ele almalarına rağmen, ortaya çıkan eserlerin tamamen özgün olduk- larını görmekteyiz. Bu sonucun ortaya çıkma- sındaki etkenlerin, sanatçıların farklı kültür- lerde yetişmeleri, yaşantılarının farklı olması ve en önemlisi de farklı iç dünyalarına sahip olmalarının etkili olduğu söylenebilir. Bu bilgiler ışığında, bir sanatçının üreteceği eser- lerin, formu, özgünlüğü, verdiği mesajlar; sanatçının geçmiş yaşantısından, geldiği kül- türden ve duygu-düşüncelerinden derin izler taşıdığını söyleyebiliriz. KAYNAKÇA Alp, K. Ö. (2009). Orta Asya'dan Anadolu'ya kültürel sembollere giriş. Ankara: Efla- tun Yayınevi. Ayaydın, A. , Gökay-Yılmaz, M.,Üstün-Vural, D.,& Tuna, S. (2011). 1. Bölüm: Sanat nedir?.Alakuş, A.O. & Mercin, L. (Edt.). Sanat eğitimi ve görsel sanatlar öğretimi. Ankara: Pegem Akademi Yayınları. Çatalbaş, R. (2011). Türklerde hayvan sembo- lizmi ve din ilişkisi. Turan Stratejik Araştırmalar Merkezi Dergisi, 3(12), 49. Çoruhlu, Yaşar. (1999) , Türk Mitolojisinin ABC’si, İstanbul: Kabalcı Yayınevi. Daşdağ, F. E. (2009).Güzel sanatlar fakültelerin- de seramik tasarımı ile ilgili derslerde uy- gulanan yöntemlerin incelenmesi. Ya- yımlanmamış doktora tezi. Ankara. Gazi Üniversitesi, Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü Duby, G. and Daval, J. (2006). Sculpture From Antiquity To The Middle Ages, Tasc- hen, sayı. 120 Aker, S. (2010), Çini Tasarımı. Ankara: Detay Yayıncılık. Ersoy, Necmettin. (2007), Semboller ve Yorum- ları. İstanbul: Dönence Yayınları Genç, R. (1997) ‚Türk İnanışları ile Milli Gele- neklerinde Renkler ve Sarı-Kırmızı- Yeşil”, Atatürk Kültür Merkezi Yayını, Sayı:118, Ank Hürriyet Gazetesi, (2016). http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/43-yili- seramige-adanmis-bir-hayat-37274863 Adresinden 16.03.2018 tarihinde alınmıştır. Jacquemart, A. and Palliser, B. (1873). History of the ceramic art. London: Sampson Low. Kafalı, M. ‚Türk KültüründeRenk- ler‛http://www.akmb.gov.tr/ata/meti nler/ II_12.html (15.04.2018). Kafesoğlu, İ. (2000), Türk Milli Kültürü, İstan- bul: Ötüken Karasar, N. (2012). Bilimsel Araştırma Yöntemi. Ankara: Nobel Yayıncılık. Kaytan, E. (2009). Modern sanatta figüratif se- ramik heykeller. Yayımlanmamış yük- sek lisans tezi., İzmir. Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi, Güzel Sanatlar Enstitü- sü. Kırımhan, N.(2004) ‚Türk Kültüründe Yedi Rengin Anla- mı‛http://www.akmb.gov.tr/ ata/metinler(15.04.2018). Mülayim Oral, E. (2005), Türkiye'de Çağdaş Seramik Sanatının Gelişimi. www.anadolu.edu.tr adresinden 15.03.2018 tarihinde alınmıştır. Ögel, B. (1998) , Türk Mitolojisi, C. I, 3. Baskı, Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi Tez, Z. (2008), Mitolojinin Kültürel Tarihi, Doğu ve İslam Mitolojisi Mitolojik Söylenceler. İstanbul: Doruk Yayınları. Perakende, (2013). Erişim tarihi: 15.03.2018 :https://www.perakende.org/mustafa- tuncalp-bodrum-nurol-sanat- galerisinde-1342790895h.html Şimşek Yüksekbilgili, N. (2017) Renklerin Anlam Algısında Demografik Özellik- lerin Etkisi Üzerine Bir Araştırma. naimesim- sek.yuksekbilgili.com/wordpress/wp- http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/43-yili-seramige-adanmis-bir-hayat-37274863 http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/43-yili-seramige-adanmis-bir-hayat-37274863 http://www.akmb.gov.tr/ata/metinler/%20II_12.html http://www.akmb.gov.tr/ata/metinler/%20II_12.html http://www.akmb.gov.tr/%20ata/metinler http://www.akmb.gov.tr/%20ata/metinler http://www.anadolu.edu.tr/ https://www.perakende.org/mustafa-tuncalp-bodrum-nurol-sanat-galerisinde-1342790895h.html https://www.perakende.org/mustafa-tuncalp-bodrum-nurol-sanat-galerisinde-1342790895h.html https://www.perakende.org/mustafa-tuncalp-bodrum-nurol-sanat-galerisinde-1342790895h.html file:///C:/Users/DELL/naimesimsek.yuksekbilgili.com/wordpress/wp-content/.../bildiri-kitapcigi_Cilt_I.pd file:///C:/Users/DELL/naimesimsek.yuksekbilgili.com/wordpress/wp-content/.../bildiri-kitapcigi_Cilt_I.pd 318 Gonca Hülya Yayan & Mehmet Ali Gökdemir content/.../bildiri-kitapcigi_Cilt_I.pd Adresinden 18.03.2018 tarihinde alınmıştır. Turkishny, (2012). Erişim tarihi: 16.03.2018: http://www.turkishny.com/new- york/60-new-york/79289-turkevinde- mustafa-tuncalp-seramik-sergisi Uludağ, K. (1997). Seramik sanatının kimlik sorunu. Erişim tarihi: 15.03.2018. www.anadolu.edu.tr Ünver, E. (2002). Sanat eğitimi. Ankara: Nobel Yayınevi. Yıldırım, A. ve Şimşek, H. (2011). Sosyal Bilim- lerde Nitel Araştırma Yöntemleri. Anka- ra: Seçkin Yayıncılık. Citation Information/Kaynakça Bilgisi Yayan, G. H. ve Gökdemir, M. A. (2018). 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work_lmvwnf4ysvdznaywqou6yhu47m	----	Poetic Guard Poetic Guard Daniel Leary American Book Review, Volume 32, Number 4, May/June 2011, pp. 26-27 (Review) Published by American Book Review DOI: For additional information about this article [ This content has been declared free to read by the pubisher during the COVID-19 pandemic. ] https://doi.org/10.1353/abr.2011.0083 https://muse.jhu.edu/article/447527 https://doi.org/10.1353/abr.2011.0083 https://muse.jhu.edu/article/447527 Page 26 American Book Review Poetic GuarD Daniel Leary poEtiC AMusEMEnt Raymond P. Hammond Athanata Arts, Ltd. http://www.athanata.com 136 pages; paper, $14.95 “I have never yet met a man who was quite awake. How could I have looked him in the face?” “I looked at my face in the mirror and saw Open Admissions.” The first line is from Walden (1854). I was 15 when it woke me, and I felt a chill and—and what?—an imaginative stretch? The second line is my very own. It is from an exercise in a poetry course I observed and participated in while evaluat- ing new teachers at CCNY. I was 45 and had lost my way. The difference between the two lines is what Raymond P. Hammond’s book is about. Henry David Thoreau is touched by the Muse and what imagination is. In the second line, I was into my Open Admissions failure and not wanting to openly admit it. Hammond makes a persuasive, unsettling case that contemporary American poetry has become as institutionally deluded as I was in the seventies, that American literary instruction has become the stan- dardized, academically sponsored product of-by-for democratic mediocrity. The American Poetic Muse may not be dead, but she’s got the throat clearing of a nervous versifier. There’s hope! A champion has arrived. You won’t believe me, but it’s on the back cover of Poetic Amusement. Raymond P. Hammond guards the Statue of Liberty as “a law enforcement officer” by day—I’m not kidding—and guards the American Muse by night as Editor of The New York Quarterly, a literary journal. And in his book, he guards the Muse—energetically and persuasively marshalling impressive material in her defense. If that dedication extends to his day job, I can only say that anybody who blows up the Statue of Liberty is in big trouble. I come away from the book with my jaw ajar, thinking Hammond a personified oxymoron—passive/aggres- sive, contemporaneously traditional and patriotically un-American. Before we get to the good stuff, I best polish off reviewer’s chores. The title? Smarter ones have guessed it already. Amusement. That initial “A” prefix negates “Muse.” Hammond is at verses that lack the Muse, lack inspiration, verses passing themselves off as poetry. It’s a playful etymology, the only whimsy in this straightforward book. As I muse on it, the title is straightforward too, since uninspired verse slithers around boredom by being amusing or bemusing— being entertainment or a puzzlement—in short, a way of killing time. While we’re tidying up, add another hat to Hammond’s juggling act: the cop/editor was also a graduate student at NYU, writing this book as his thesis while pursuing an MA. The thesis was completed in 2000 and cites no material after 1999. Don’t let that put you off. It’s not written in dis- sertationese, and it’s not old hat but twirling perkily into our computerized pixilation. It says a great deal about Hammond that he elected for an MA rather than an MFA. There was a sacrifice involved. We’re talking about security. The MFA is a terminal degree equivalent to a PhD in matters of academic evaluation and employment and can be awarded—according to a disgruntled English department chair—after two years of relentless “poetry” writing. I should correct myself: yes, the book is about what poetry is, but equally it’s about the MFA and how it undermines poetry. Hammond, this editor-of-a-student, realized what was and is happening and began to blow his policeman’s whistle. What is happening is dubbed “po’ biz” in college circles. Yes, you’ve guessed this one too. Hammond calls the whole MFA boondoggle “the poetry industry” and claims that conformity is the name of the game if one wants to excel…. Therefore, one learns to write like other contemporary American poets in order to win contests, because the contests are judged by those same contemporary American poets. These students also conform because they need to complete their MFA in order to compete in the job market. Tied in with this completing the MFA is the need, on a weekly basis to produce a poem for re- view in the workshop…. The university, then, becomes the legitimizing aspect for the poet’s work. The matriculated students, sorcerer’s apprentices all, further conform to the po’ biz as they become teachers of classes that gratifyingly over-enroll— gratifying to teachers and administrators—to produce more weekly poetry weakly, thus generating more teachers, etc., etc. The result? The academic cess- pools overflow, meaning that there is no room left for new appointees—certainly no tenured lines—even if their versified efforts bob up in po’ biz journals relentlessly. The MFA is indeed terminal and raises the question: is American poetry in the same terminal cesspool? Hammond makes a persuasive, unsettling case that contemporary American poetry has become as institutionally deluded. This academic po’ biz overflow took me by sur- prise as I read about it in Hammond’s little but very important book. In my beginning paragraph—check it out—is my end. Back in the seventies, I gave the poetry-writing teacher a rave evaluation. I would have accepted “amusement” straight in describing class goings-on, but I recall using “refreshing,” refreshing for me certainly, a burnt-out case enjoy- ing students enjoying the work/play of making paddy/waddy verses—more importantly, enjoying the teacher’s bringing in a real poem to see how John Donne handled it and students on the brink of experiencing what a chilling expanding a poem is—allusive-elusive-delusive-never-conclusive. I realize now that the teacher was violating po’ biz if the rules had ossified already. She was—as the theory goes—discouraging her students by exposing them to excellence. What I saw were students challenged as they saw how serious was their fun. Alright, alright, probably not all of them. Indulge me for a paragraph while I make an instructive parallel. Four years ago, I enrolled in a beginner’s drawing class, and in doing a final assign- ment, I astonished myself by sketching what I saw in a mirror—a mirror again!—producing an image that many agreed looked recognizably like me. I was proud, delighted with my achievement as were most of the others with their self-images. We knew more about perspective, proportion, shading, knew more about what a real artist can sometimes achieve, knew a bit of how she achieved it, and knew that in our present state, we were nowhere near doing so. We had no intention of giving an art class or seeking an agent to pass us off as the new millennium’s Pablo Picasso, the likes of, God help us, Julian Schnabel. Now, the good stuff, the oxymoronic Ham- mond’s three-way championing of the Muse. Passive/Aggressive. I am not concerned with Hammond’s psychic condition, just describing the strategy and tactics he takes in his book. He is there and not there as others confront the po’ biz that he finds destructive to teachers, to their students, and to poetry in America. He uses the term “meta-criticism” in the preface to describe his wide historical approach that avoids specific literary examples while denigrat- ing the impact of our contemporary poetic practices. However distanced he is in theory, he detests the po’ biz and says as much in his own words, but in at least 40 percent of the book, our hero humbly steps aside. He lets recognized poets and critics, contemporaries as well as voices from the past, be heard on what a poem is and what must be present for it to be written. What is surprising is how well his tactics work. Our ears are not bent by an arrogant unknown but per- suaded by a living tradition. Like a few good teachers I’ve experienced, he’s both a sage on stage and a guide along side. He weaves the quotations smoothly and persuasively. Not till the end, when I read his list of “Works Consulted”—well over a hundred—and riffled through the index, did I appreciate how he assembled such a variety and made them one voice with his own voice intertwined. In the index, those cited nine times or more are Sylvia Beach, Charles Bukowski, T.S. Eliot, Donald Hall, Denise Levertov, J. D. McClatchy, Ezra Pound, Rainer Maria Rilke, and throw in the most-quoted of the critics: Dionysius Longinus, Edmund Wilson, and Harold Bloom. In the text, the citations are not a series of clippings, not quotations strung together. His 90 pages of exposition become a symposium on the nature, the value, the mystery of poetry, i.e., the Muse. Leary continued on next page Page 27May–June 2011 Leary continued from previous page Innovative Traditionalist. Again recall the opening paragraph. Hammond weaves the tradition- alist T.S. Eliot with the path-blazing critic Harold Bloom. With both of them in mind, he innovates, or perhaps I should say reinstitutes, an approach to poetry writing that takes us back to classroom I sat in 35 years ago. Eliot, in a timeless essay of 1917, “Tradition and the Individual Talent,” tells us that poetry—that literature—is a living organism, that when a poet—I mean a poet—creates, he engages in a form of magic realism, capturing the present and changing the past: Lear’s five iambic tolling “Never”s become more—more livable?, containable?, under- standable? By a psychic milometer in the listener’s consciousness when Donne challenges death, when Dylan Thomas commands, begs his father to hold on for another breath. Hammond combines this ongo- ing creative immortality with Bloom’s insight into creative despair, that the poet must always live with death, with his knowledge that it has all been done: “The covert subject of most poetry for the last three centuries has been the anxiety of influence, each poet’s fear that no proper work remains for him to perform.” I’ve penciled in the margin “beautifully put” alongside a passage from Seamus Heaney that Hammond approvingly quotes. It conveys the battle that writing poetry is and underscores what Ham- mond/Heaney want from an ideal poetry-writing class: What is involved, after all, is the replace- ment of literary excellence derived from modes of expression originally taken to be canonical and unquestionable. Writers have to start out as readers, and before they put pen to paper, even the most disaffected of them will have internalized the norms and forms of the tradition from which they wish to secede. Un-American Patriot. “Po’ biz”: even the term itself in its shoddy, showbiz, throw-awayness, its corrupt familiarity, is a public acknowledgment that the groves of academe have set up shop in the market place, have become part of a cynically taxless plutoc- racy with mediocrity for all. My reading of po’ biz may be somewhat between the lines, but “mediocre” or some variations of the word must occur in this book at least four score and seven times. I will say this in Raymond P. Hammond’s defense before the recently reconvened House Committee, that he is in good company. From Alexis de Tocqueville who was a qualified admirer of America near its beginning to Jonathan Franzen’s musings about Freedom’s end, there have been many who saw the seeds of decay in its median, consumer mediocrity. Hammond does not dream the American dream. He does not pretend with the rest of us that all men are equal, all potential poets, painters, posers, million- billion-trillion-aires. A democracy’s ability to thrive depends upon a large middle class. It also depends upon the rule of the majority. Both of these factors create a dependence upon the median. From strip malls to Mickey Mouse, our society is one in which a middle class and resultant ambivalence toward the arts flourishes. Most poetry written today reflects this mediocrity. My one reservation about this un-American decla- ration is the exclusive attack on the middle class. According to economists, if this ever-so profitable recession for banks and businesses and their sidekick politicians continues, there will soon be no middle class. Why not put some of the blame on the unedu- cated wealthy: the products of our business schools, our technical institutes, for that matter our colleges of the humanities that award MFA degrees to the readably unread? Consumerism “consumed by that which it was nourished by”: why only yesterday Thanksgiving was consumerized into the day before Black Friday adventing into White Xmas. Let’s end with the poets. Here’s Wordsworth, two hundred and three years ago, in one of those poems MFA candidates are taught to avoid: The world is too much with us; late and soon, Getting and spending, we lay waste our powers: Little we see in Nature that is ours; We have given our hearts away, a sordid boon! Those powers wasted, hearts discarded, are what would have allowed the best to aspire beyond the world. That’s why Hammond is a patriot as well as being outrageously un-American. He’s calling us beyond mediocrity. You can summon the “power” as soul or imagination or muse, Muse—and I’m winging it now—and the Muse exists only when an imagina- tion, a heart, a soul, reaches beyond consciousness to something on the verge of being apprehended. Robert Browning gave words to what I’ve been groping for since Thoreau’s opening line, when Browning has his Andrea del Sarto, who never quite stretched far enough, settling as he did for a handful of gold and a twirl of girl, Browning has him sigh, “Ah, but a man’s reach should exceed his grasp, / Or what’s a heaven for?” For quite a while now, at Canisius College, Syracuse University, Bowling Green State University, Fordham University, City College of New York, La Université de Paris, Daniel Leary has been demonstrating and encouraging having a poem by heart. serPent curve Stephanie Rauschenbusch WhAt’s lEft Susan Sindall Cherry Grove Collections http://www.cherry-grove.com 80 pages; paper, $18.00 Susan Sindall has been writing, reading, and publishing her poems for a long time, and as an editor of Heliotrope has also encouraged other poets to publish. More recently, she has studied with Ellen Bryant Voigt at Warren Wilson College’s MFA poetry program. Her newest book, What’s Left, is a tremendous achievement—a sort of reckoning up of all that she has experienced, sensed, observed, and remembered in her entire life and of all that’s lost or left behind. There are many themes in this book, and they inter- weave gracefully with each other. Among them is music—as in “From Brahms’ Letter Thanking Robert Schumann”: Tenderness, you see, trembles at the edges of everything. Water slips over rocks at the inlet, enlarging the pebbles through the water’s tender moving. Your hands, poised above the keyboard— your nerves’ tricky fires on the piano keys: those sparks, their tortures: we know them… In Italy, for instance, as I watched Clara reach for the ripe figs; how gently she cupped each scrotum : those sacks, fleshy, yellow, and seed-filled— just seeing them generates the notes. Here we have brilliant shoptalk among musi- cians about where notes of music arise—from tenderness, from seeing water move over stones, from watching a woman handle and eat figs so sexual they are likened to testicles. This is an “ars poetica” but also a metaphysical discussion about geology and geography, about water and its mean- ings, about stones and their meanings, a discussion which appears in many other poems in this beauti- fully crafted book. From “Gros Ventre Valley,” we read this stanza: Water writes its own calligraphy. Water gathers rocks, hugs boulders to its sides, spreads them grandly in a long serpent curve, the hem of the water’s skirt. So we find here the geological “serpent curve” echoed throughout the book—introduced actually in the first poem, “After,” in which she sees them dangling everywhere, loops tangled in the branches, heads or tails, indecipherable…. The snake appears even in “Akhmatova’s Fountain House” in which the poet descries a boa constrictor (in a photo?) suffocating a rabbit. Snakes begin to seem objective correlatives, or even symbols, for inspiration, as they were in Stanley Kunitz’s poem about his Provincetown garden. What’s Left is a tremendous achievement. But to go back to “Gros Ventre Valley.” How many poets could reckon with death as baldly as in the couplet, “Not much between me and death. / Not enough years left”? This is another leitmotif of the book—death’s approach and its meaning in the midst of life. There are several wonderful elegaic poems dedicated to the poet’s mother and father—who are curiously both seen as under water. In “Voices,” “the great pike, enormous curve of pisces, / smiles my father’s smile.” In “Offshore,” the poet realizes when her mother speaks out loud to her, You must have been beside me for months beside me swimming, as our fingers Rauschenbusch continued on next page 
work_lnr722a3cfea7kj5vb4ui3kjiq	----	covers MIRÓ Tate Modern 14 April–11 September 2011 ‘A painting must be fertile. It must give birth to a world. It doesn’t matter if it depicts flowers or people or horses, as long as it reveals a world, something alive. Two and twodonotmakefour.Onlyaccountantsthink that. But that is not enough, a painting must make this clear; it must fertilise the imagination.’ So said Joan Miró, the Catalan painter who has a major retrospective at the Tate Modern, in an interview in 1959. This exhibition links his work skillfully with events that were occurring in Spain and Europe generally and demonstrates how the suppression of Catalan autonomy, the Spanish civil war, the rise of Franco and Fascism, even the student riots of 1968 are influential on the surreal abstractism of Miró’s painting. Miró was born in 1893 in Barcelona, in a Catalonia that was an autonomous region of Spain. Modern and free-thinking, the optimismandfreedomofthosetimescanbe gauged by the extraordinary outputs of other Catalan artists of the period, notably Antoni Gaudi and Salvador Dali. Miró always acknowledged, and frequently came back to, his Catalan roots. Abstract representations of peasants, possibly reduced to a motif of the characteristic red cap, populate many of his paintings (Catalan Landscape [The Hunter], Head of a Catalan Peasant). The cap, the barretina, becomes a symbol that, even when only just recognisable, evokes the sensation of an earthy peasant. The barretina acts as a rosetta stone translating Miró’s work. How can these bold colourful pictures with abstract, though frequently biomorphic and vaguely organic, shapes be so insightful, provocative, funny, sexy, and moving? Is it because we recognise a quality or motif about them that, even if we are not aware and cannot name it, evokes these responses? A parallel would be Jung’s archetypes: ‘innate universal psychic dispositions that form the substrate from which the basic symbols or representations of unconscious experience emerge’. It is postulated that the universal presence of certain character representations (for example the wicked witch, the young prince) in the folk tales of many diverse cultures is because they represent manifestations of these ‘innate universal psychic dispositions’. Perhaps the attraction of Miró is that he taps into ‘representations of the unconscious experience’. Miró himself was in no doubt that his paintings were not meant as pretty and colourful designs. In 1937 he said: ‘I cannot understand — and consider it an insult — to be placed in the category of “abstractpainters”...AsifthemarksIputon a canvas did not correspond to a concrete representation of my mind, did not possess a profound reality, were not part of the real itself!’.1 The exhibition at the Tate Modern displayed about 150 paintings, with some sculptures and installations, in a chronological order that allowed you to see the evolution of his work and the effects of the major external influences. The first room is dominated by the work The Farm (1921–1922). This is an almost pictorial representation of his family home in Catalonia. While some architectural and environmental detail is faithfully replicated there is the use of symbolic shapes that foretell his future direction. Around this time Miró moved to Paris and spent time with Surrealist artists and poets, including his fellow Spaniard Pablo Picasso. The spirit of these times is captured by the riotous energy of such paintings as Harlequin’s Carnival (1924–1925). Events in his homeland then started to affect the mood of his work; as savage political events occurred in Spain so the paintings become more bleak and barren. By the time General Franco comes to power in the late 1930s the figures are grotesque and menacing (Head of a Woman, 1938).Believing‘theartist...useshisvoiceto say something’, copies of his propaganda print Aidez l’Espagne were sold to fund the Republican cause at an exhibition where Picasso’s Guernica was displayed. During and after the Second World War Miró and his family lived in ‘internal exile’ in Mallorca. At first his work is angry and disturbed, illustrated by the Barcelona Series of lithographs depicting distorted, violent caricatures. Later a more benign mood is apparent. With a growing international reputation he seemed to want to explore his inner world rather than rage against the forces affecting his outer world. By the 1960s, which should have been a natural home for him, we see sparse but powerful works illustrated by Painting on White Background for the Cell of a Recluse (1968) and the triptych The Hope of the Condemned Man (1974). These canvases are no longer filled with busy symbols but speak loudly through their simplicity. Miró lived long enough to see the fall of Franco and the restoration of democracy in Spain. His work records his emotional responsetothetumultuouseventsofhislife. We cannot be aware of the unconscious by definition, but Miró’s paintings give a little insight into this world. We recognise something that he has managed to capture and represent, and that two and two do not always make four. RichardStevens, GP, East Oxford Health Centre, Oxford. DOI: 10.3399/bjgp11X613241 Exhibition review TheReview ADDRESSFORCORRESPONDENCE RichardStevens East Oxford Health Centre, Manzil Way, Cowley Road, Oxford, OX4 1XD, UK. E-mail:Rstevens.oxford@gmail.com Joan Miró. Head of a Catalan Peasant , 1925. Oil on canvas. 920 x 732 x 26 mm © S uc ce ss io n M ir o/ A D A G P ,P ar is an d D A C S ,L on do n 20 11 . 748 British Journal of General Practice, December 2011 REFERENCE 1. Candela I. Joan Miro. London: Tate Publishing, 2011. 
work_lse663omxjdw7h6woe6hmbdz3e	----	Practice Based Research in Craft Education: Approaches to Research Work Book Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 90 ( 2013 ) 832 – 841 1877-0428 © 2013 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license. Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of the Faculty of Education, University Technology MARA, Malaysia. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.07.158 ScienceDirect 6th International Conference on University Learning and Teaching (InCULT 2012) Practice based research in craft education: approaches to research work book Sumardianshah Silaha*, Abdul Shukor Hashimbm , Badrul Isac, Raiha Shahanaz Redzuand aFaculty of Education, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, 40200, Malaysiaa Abstract Knowledge and understanding towards the variety of cultures that exist among Malaysians are important assets for trainee teachers especially for subjects that involve craft and culture such as courses that are being offered by the Bachelor of Education (Hons.) Art and Design Education, Faculty of Education, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia (UiTM): ADE630 (Craft Design and Function) and ADE680 (Craft, Design and Society). The skill of recognising different cultures that exist in Malaysia should be exposed to the trainee teachers once they are being enrolled into the program. For trainee teachers from UiTM, the exposure towards culture diversity is being conducted by using two approaches. The first approach is via the production of the Research Work Book (RWB) while the second approach is via the production of artwork in the form of traditional and contemporary craft by using the studio based research method. This paper will discuss on the approaches used and challenges towards the implementation of the mentioned approaches. ©2012 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of the Faculty of Education, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia. Keywords: Art and Design Education, Faculty of Education UiTM, Research Work Book, Studio Based Research; 1. Introduction (This paper discusses on the experience of the implementation of cultural understanding that is conducted by the B.Ed (Hons.) Art and Design Education, Faculty of Education, UiTM. The implementation is made via the teaching and learning activity for the craft art subject. Various programs and activities have been conducted through the subject to give chances for the trainee teachers to learn and to experience the importance of understanding various cultures for their future teaching. It is admitted that the ability to understand various cultures is not an easy task and may most of the time, test the patience and emotion of teachers. Therefore, this * Sumardianshah Silah. Tel.: +6-017-978-1914; fax: +6-03-5522-7412. E-mail address: sumard02@salam.uitm.edu.my Available online at www.sciencedirect.com © 2013 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license. Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of the Faculty of Education, University Technology MARA, Malaysia. CORE Metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk Provided by Elsevier - Publisher Connector https://core.ac.uk/display/82629747?utm_source=pdf&utm_medium=banner&utm_campaign=pdf-decoration-v1 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/ 833 Sumardianshah Silah et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 90 ( 2013 ) 832 – 841 effort is conducted by the faculty in hoping that the future teachers may become the mediator to expose the cultures in Malaysia. Hence, future graduates are also expected not to have only abilities in using good pedagogical techniques in teaching but also to attract students to be actively involved in the process of learning in class. 2. Craft Education and the Implementation of the National Culture The National Education Philosophy is a main frame in structuring and arranging the national education development. The national curriculum is arranged to meet the aims of national education philosophy in which it also aims to produce individuals with good personality, balance and harmony in terms of intellectual, spiritual, emotional and physical development. For the Visual Arts Education subject, the curriculum stresses on making the students to be able to recognise the culture via visual arts activities (Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia, 2000, 2002; 2002). In line with the Art and Design Education Program by the Faculty of Education, UiTM, the trainee teachers are being exposed to spread the understanding in their future teaching. According to Mat Desa Mat Rodzi(2002), there are four aspects in developing and enhancing the students’ knowledge. The aspects are known as the culture aspect, the quality of life aspect, the cognitive aspect, and also the health aspect. Other than the implementation of the Discipline Based Art Education (DBAE), the culture aspect has also become an aspect in which the students develop their interest towards the various cultures and arts that exist in every culture that they learnt. The understanding of culture via visual art activities can increase the level of appreciation towards various culture, one which may affect the thinking style and also the artworks style produced by students (Isa, 2008). The exposure regarding the culture also inspires artworks production in which artworks produced tend to be more meaningful and this reflects the effectiveness of learning via visual arts activities. 3. Author Artwork A research via Practice Based research is very synonym for the researcher in the visual arts field especially those related with the study of craft. The studio based research method requires the process of the research to begin from the finding of the research material, sketching, development of idea, basic drawing and up to the final artwork whether in form of painting, statue, new dimensional craft and printing, or art installation. For this to happen, artwork producers, artists, painters, sculptors, and art educators should prepare their own Research Work Book for the purpose of documentation. Among the examples that can be given related with the Research Work Book based on the Practice Based Research are the authors’ experience and observation during the educational trip to Melbourne, Australia in 2011. The higher level institution in Australia offers Masters of Arts by coursework or research, which implies the usage of Research Work Book. The Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology University (RMIT), Monash University and La Trobe University di Melbourne for instance, are among universities that apply the technique for any levels of education such as diploma, bachelor degree, or masters in visual arts. From the perspective of the practice based research, craft education is not exempted in producing the artworks, in which it has to start by the production of Research work book. Fig.1. shows Practice Base Research Framework (Ramlan Abdullah, 2011). “According to Linda Candy (2004), in her essay ‘Practice Based Research: A guide’, research that takes the nature of practice as its central focus is called ‘practice- based’ research. This particular research is carried out by practitioners, such as artist, designers, curators, writers, musicians, teachers and others, often, but not necessarily, within doctoral research programmers.” (Ramlan Abdullah, 2010) 834 Sumardianshah Silah et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 90 ( 2013 ) 832 – 841 Fig.1. Practice Base Research Framework (Ramlan Abdullah, 2011) As trainee teachers, the introduction of the concept of studio based research in which the main criteria is the preparation of Research Work Book, is a form of paradigm shift towards the curriculum renewal and the coursework of syllabus for the National Visual Arts Education. The clear explanation by Ramlan Abdullah (2010) and also the definite definition about the practice based research by Candy (2004) are important in the production of the Research Work Book. Apart from that, artists should also put into consideration, their own local or international references. The purpose is to ensure that the trainee teachers have their own style examples and certain streams to inspire them in creating new artworks. In producing new artworks, trainee teachers must also make art criticism towards the artist in which they have made inferences to either in their research work book or in the craft artworks. “…asserts that the role of art and design in relation to research practices encapsulates three modes of research which is research into art and design, research through art and design and research for art and design.” (Frayling, 1993) According to Jalaini Abu Hassan (2011), the usage of the word ‘I’ or ‘the Artist’ is important as it tells their experience in producing the artworks ain the Research Work Book. This includes the artists’ experience and observation towards the experimentation of their own artworks. This is known as artist statement which is being used in universities that offer masters and PhD in visual arts field such Pratt University, USA and Wollongong University, Australia. This leads to the explanation of the artist’s own preference such as the book written by Syed Ahmad Jamal which is ‘Rupa dan Jiwa’. From the view of practical studio research, visual is a form of documentation of the art pieces through Research Work Book and this soul is a value of intuition and emotions of the artist that is related to the inner issues that is raised by the artwork. According to Linda Candy (2004) in her essay ‘Practice Based Research: A Guide’, research that took the nature of practice as its central focus was called ‘practice-based’ research. This particular research was carried out by practitioners, such as artists, designers, curators, writers, musicians, teachers and others, often, but not necessarily, within doctoral research programmers. (Ramlan Abdullah, 2010) 4. Research Work Book (RWB) approach in Craft Education The implementation of the visual arts research which is employed by the Art and Design Education Program in the Faculty of Education UiTM refers to the Research Work Book to prepare students with idea exploration and visual research. For that purpose, a research guideline is introduced to ease research. Amongst the important aspects which are considered in producing the Research Work Book (RWB) are aesthetic values, national culture, sociological aspects, individuality, solutions to problems on creativity, and critical and innovative thinking skills. Trainee teachers will have to produce the RWB for all practical studio and computer related subjects. This RWB 835 Sumardianshah Silah et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 90 ( 2013 ) 832 – 841 will become an important document in supporting the production of studio or computer related tasks especially for production of final art projects. In short, RWB is a form of documentation on the processes of visual arts research that will contain information in the forms of visual sketches and writing. This document is a record of expression of ideas which is supported through readings and observations as well as analysis on photographic images, sketches, drawings, video recordings, websites etc. Grauer, Kit and Anami Naths (1998) define RWB as: “…similar to, yet different from a sketchbook. It is kept as a type of journal, the content showing visual thinking, narration, reflection, goal setting in a variety of forms: drawing, sketches, collages, photographs, graphics, and personally meaningful symbols. Words invariably become an important part of the RWB, as describe (narrate) and support depictions, becomes graphic devices, aids reflection on personal theme and metaphor” (Grauer, Kit &Anami Naths 1998, p. 14) There are a number of structures available in producing RWB. For the Art and Design Education Program in the Faculty of Education UiTM, the structure and format of the RWB are as follows: Critical Reflection Designers/Artists do reflection and consideration pertaining to sketches. Art Criticism Designers/visual artist critique sketches to see the accuracy and the application of art and design elements. Comment Writing Communication in the form of comments or writings detailing important details. Dialogue A form of interaction between the designer and the sketch to see the impact of the sketch. Experimentation A form of research to see the ability and effects of experimentation on certain methods, techniques and items used on sketches or products. Idea Exploration Inspiration of sketches from early ideas either in borrowed form, what is already available or something that is being innovated. Growth of Idea The growth of idea is in the form of progressed sketches from Idea Exploration (sketches, pre-sketches, comprehensive, pre-comprehensive, thumbnails, drawing, final drawing). Research either in the form of new creations or modification of sketch. It is usually used in graphic design subjects and development of animation and multimedia. The importance of artistic study through the production of RWB requires higher-thinking order skills because it involves intellectual force and sometimes inspiration through feel and emotions. Individuals who communicate visually in classrooms or outside of the classrooms will not be complete if they do not relate their studies in the context of culture and society. Besides that, style exploration through and art materials as well as experimentation of techniques is a compulsory content in RWB. The aim of the RWB is to encourage the research atmosphere which is individual findings which act as proof and documented items. 4.1 Basic Characteristics of RWB Usually A3 in size (297 x 420 mm) Minimum of 40 pages(bounded in landscape format) 836 Sumardianshah Silah et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 90 ( 2013 ) 832 – 841 Is almost similar to sketch book and scrapbook or portfolio but it is more structured and needs to have certain content, format and chronological order. Creative writing and art criticism Characterised by the growth of ideas Experimentation on media and materials Elements exploration and artistic principles. 4.2 Research Workbook and Future Learning Image development is a constant challenge for artist and teacher alike. The type of record keeping encourage by the Research Work Book is not only used by artists. History shows that great thinkers have been recording, documenting, and reflecting on their ideas using a variety of visual forms. One easily envisions Edison’s light bulb sketches, Da Vinci’s flying machine, and recently Stephen Hawking’s space-time diagram. This record of image making is a record of thinking and step towards reflection and metacognition. Thinking about how we think moves us out of the world of reflex and allows us to look beyond the immediate situation. This is essential in a world that is in continuous change. As an art educator, the routine and unprompted use of RWB is what they should attempt to inculcate and expect out of their students. The lecturer’s job, in the studio, is to guide their explorations by providing a variety of tools, methods, media, and the necessary time. Examples of artist employing Research Workbook/Sketchbook are Pablo Picasso, John Singer, Lee KianSeng, Villard d’Harnoncourt, Frida Kahlo, Henry Moore, David Smith, George Back (watercolors) Ella Libermann-Siber (WWII confinement) and Dan Eldon (activism in Somalia, murdered at the age of 23). Besides that, well-known Malaysian contemporary artists such as Amron Omar, Jalaini Abu Hassan, Ramlan Abdullah, Yusof Ghani etc used RWB before producing their art work. Other than that, artists who are also educators who graduated from Maktab Ilmu Khas Cheras (MIKC), the late Datuk Syed Ahmad Jamal and Prof Dr. Abdul Shukor Hashim too stress on the RWB concept in producing their art work and include this in the teaching and learning of the art subjects in the teaching institution. As a visual arts educator, the use of RWB is something that must be included in the everyday teaching and learning situations. The lecturers in studios should guide their students to explore and provide them the necessary and appropriate tools, media and techniques. (Syed Shaharuddin Syed Bakeri, 2005) 4.3 Program Expectations Trainee teachers will get to: Produce artefacts in their RWB that demonstrate clearly in visual and written terms how personal research has led to an understanding of the topics (ideas) being investigated Produce artefacts in the use of creative thinking models to show how ideas are developed, and experimentation to find solutions to visual and technical problems Produce artefacts that show critical analysis about meaning and visual qualities of an art using an informed vocabulary Show awareness of cultural, historical, social aspects of themes from more than one perspective Produce artefacts on your reflections on their performance and processes of their own completed artworks within the context or art 4.4 Content of RWB Research Work Book should contain the following: 1st page contains your personal data and course 837 Sumardianshah Silah et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 90 ( 2013 ) 832 – 841 Personal reports of visits to museum, artist studio, atelier, and galleries. Photographs, photocopies and cut-outs are acceptable if they are accompanied by explanation and critical comments. Evidence of lecturer / students dialogue. Information / research recorded by writing, drawing, painting, collages etc. Sources should always be acknowledged. Workbooks are like visual journal, which should reflect a personal approach or style; they are neither sketchbook nor scrapbook. Workbook entries should be dated and kept in chronological order; they must be not constructed artificially after the work has been completed. Your workbook should not be edited (for example) by discarding weaker beginnings or false start), because this prevents the lecturer and the examiner from assessing your personal progress during the entire semester. Almost all the subjects offered by the Visual Arts Education in the Faculty of Education UiTM are required to produce RWB. Table.1 List of all the subjects offered by the Visual Arts Education: Table 1.List of all the subjects offered by the Visual Arts Education MAJOR (INTER-STUDIO) MINOR (DESIGN & NEW MEDIA) The Child and Visual Art Fundamentals of Drawing Introduction to Art and Design Art Education and Museum/Gallery Art, Ideas and Inspiration 3D Media-Sculptural Form Change and Innovation Art and Religion Images, Meanings and Techniques International Visual Culture Art in Context Typography and Page Composition Drawing and Illustration New Technologies and Artists’ Tool Interactive Multimedia Educational Technologies for Art Education Craft Design and Society Craft Design and Function Design Education Seminar Curriculum Project in New Media 5. Research Work Book in Craft Education In the ADE630: Craft, Design and Function and ADE680: Craft, Design and Society are courses designed for basic crafts to understand the concept and design of traditional craft because it is related to the hardworking processes of the hands to come up with decorations of a surface and manipulation of various materials and tools. At the same time, trainee teachers will do research and will act as designers in the society. Designers will also be judged by society so that they are aware of the aspects of environmental design as faced by students in their everyday life through the RWB approach. In the ADE630: Craft, Design and Function syllabus, a trainee teacher will master a few traditional crafts such as: Handrawn Batik, Batik Pelangi, Batik Cop etc Lino Printing, Silkscreen Printing, Mono Print etc Weaving (Anyaman, Tenunan) Tekat Embroidery Bead Embroidery While for ADE680: Craft, Design and Society, trainee teachers will be exposed to a few traditional crafts such as: 838 Sumardianshah Silah et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 90 ( 2013 ) 832 – 841 Shadow Puppet (WayangKulit) Wau (Kite) Ceramic Craft Book Woodcarving In producing RWB for craft subject, trainee teachers will need to do a research on all the topics available in the syllabus. Fig.2. (a) shows the structure that is necessary for the production of RWB. Figure 2(b) Shows example of Research Work Book (Nurliana Khalid, 2012). Fig.2(a) The structure that is necessary for the production of RWB. Research Work Book (ADE630: Craft, Design & Society) Criteria Topic and Introduction Fig 2(b) Example of Research Work Book (Nurliana Khalid, 2012) History and background study Background study of the figure and making analysis of artwork The study on materials and tools used The study on the process of production by making photo documentations based on photos taken The study on idea growth based on motifs and design The study on experimentation towards materials, colour instruments and composition Final/ Completed RWB 839 Sumardianshah Silah et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 90 ( 2013 ) 832 – 841 History and Background of Study The study on materials and tools used Fig 2(b) Example of Research Work Book (Nurliana Khalid, 2012) The study on materials and tools used 840 Sumardianshah Silah et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 90 ( 2013 ) 832 – 841 Fig.2(b) Example of Research Work Book (Nurliana Khalid, 2012) The study on the process of production by making photo documentations based on photos taken The study on the process of production by making photo documentations based on photos taken The study on idea growth based on motifs and design 841 Sumardianshah Silah et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 90 ( 2013 ) 832 – 841 6. Conclusion This paperwork discusses the implementation of practice based research in the Art and Design Education in The Faculty of Education UiTM. Through Craft Education subject, early research through RWB is implemented so that the research will be more structured and organized. Besides that, the RWB approach will give a clearer exposure on local traditional crafts which are assets and legacy of Malaysia. Amongst others, it has dealt with the implementation of Visual Research, which forms as part of the curriculum of the Art and Design Education Programme in the Faculty of Education, UiTM. The Research Workbook is used as a tool to prepare and aid students in their visualization of ideas and visual research. It is for this purpose that the guideline in utilizing the RWB is introduced. These guidelines will also facilitate research as stipulated by the subject. Amongst the aspects which are given emphasis in the conception of the RWB are aesthetic values, national culture, sociology, personality as well as the solving of creativity issues through creative, innovative and critical thinking skills – all of which are compulsory elements in the formulation of the RWB. Trainee teachers are required to produce a RWB for all subjects which involve practical studio and computer lab work. The RWB serves as a vital document which supports the production of studio or computer lab based assignments, especially those which are final artworks or projects. In short, the RWB is a documentation tool which contains information in the form of visual sketch research and is used to record the visual research process. References Badrul Isa, Abdul Shukor Hashim, Zuraimi Zakaria, Mohd Khairezan Rahmat, & Mohd Shahrudin Mohmud. (2007). Pendekatan menggunakan objek dan artifak muzium sebagai sumber pembelajaran pendidikan seni visual di Fakulti Pendidikan UiTM. Paper presented at the Seminar Kebangsaan Isu-Isu Pendidikan Negara Ke-3 Dasar Dan Pelaksanaan Bertemakan Ke Arah Pengukuhan Hala Tuju Dasar Pendidikan Negara, Institut Latihan Keselamatan Sosial KWSP (ESSET) Bangi. Grauer, Kit & Anami Naths. (1998). Jurnal Visual dalam Konteks. Jurnal Persatuan Kanada Pendidikan melalui Art 29 (1), 14 Haslinda Abd Razak, Baharim Khusil. (2011). Adaptation and Application of Ornament by Malaysian Painting. Proceeding of Seminar Seni Visual. Praktik dan Penyelidikan. TanjongMalim: UPSI Press. Jalaini Abu Hassan. (2009). Bitumania. Exhibition Catalogue of Bitumania Group Show.Petaling Jaya: Pace Gallery. Jalaini Abu Hassan. (2011). Figuring It Out: An Investigation of Painting through Adaptation and Changes within Malaysian Cosmological Jalaini Abu Hassan. (2011). Made to Process. Exhibition Catalogue of Processing Form Group Show. Damansara: Chandan Gallery. P.4-5 Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia (2008). 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Kuala Lumpur: Pusat Pengajian Bahasa Kesusasteraan dan Kebudayaan Melayu, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. Syed Ahmad Jamal. (1992). Rupa & Jiwa. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa & Pustaka. Syed Ahmad Jamal. (2007). The Encyclopedia of Malaysia: Crafts and the Visual Arts. Kuala Lumpur: Archiopelago Press. Syed Shaharuddin Syed Bakeri. (2005). Research Work Book. Student Guide to Studio Research Workbook and Electronic Portfolio. Ijazah Sarjana Muda Pendidikan (Kepujian) Pendidikan Seni dan Seni Reka, UiTM. Shah Alam: Fakulti Pendidikan, UiTM. Taylor, C. L. (1987). Art and the Needs of the Older Adult. Art Education, 40(4), 9-15. Wolins, I. S. (1985). Computers and Museum Education: Keeping up with the Classroom in the Information Age. Art Education, 38(3), 24- 29. Zakaria Ali (1989) Seni dan Seniman: Esei-esei Seni Halus. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa & Pustaka. 
work_lvffpmrkxre5boitqso26z5fda	----	untitled Picasso's Science and Charity: Paternalism Versus Humanism in Medical Practice The Harvard community has made this article openly available. Please share how this access benefits you. Your story matters Citation Katz, Joel T., and Shahram Khoshbin. 2016. “Picasso's Science and Charity: Paternalism Versus Humanism in Medical Practice.” Open Forum Infectious Diseases 3 (4): ofw056. doi:10.1093/ofid/ofw056. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ofid/ofw056. Published Version doi:10.1093/ofid/ofw056 Citable link http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:29408271 Terms of Use This article was downloaded from Harvard University’s DASH repository, and is made available under the terms and conditions applicable to Other Posted Material, as set forth at http:// nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:dash.current.terms-of- use#LAA http://osc.hul.harvard.edu/dash/open-access-feedback?handle=&title=Picasso's%20Science%20and%20Charity:%20Paternalism%20Versus%20Humanism%20in%20Medical%20Practice&community=1/4454685&collection=1/4454686&owningCollection1/4454686&harvardAuthors=e0d18170789bb114de6d84862c6552d3&department http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:29408271 http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:dash.current.terms-of-use#LAA http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:dash.current.terms-of-use#LAA http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:dash.current.terms-of-use#LAA Open Forum Infectious Diseases P E R S P E C T I V E Picasso’s Science and Charity: Paternalism Versus Humanism in Medical Practice Joel T. Katz1 and Shahram Khoshbin2 1Division of Infectious Diseases and 2Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts Keywords. art and medicine; history of doctor patient relationship; infectious diseases; Picasso. To those familiar only with Pablo Picasso’s (1881–1973) groundbreaking modernism for which he is renown, his early realistic paintings may seem surprising. Born in the Mediterranean harbor of Málaga, “Pablito” (as Picasso was called by his fam- ily) was raised in tight quarters by an in- corrigibly optimistic and good humored mother and an unoriginal painter father who “had a twofold problem: the inclina- tion to be an artist but not the gifts, and the temperament of a gentleman of leisure but not the means.” (John Richardson. A life of Picasso: The prodigy, 1881–1906, Volume I. Alfred A. Knopf, NY. (1991) P. 17.) The product of a difficult birth at which he was nearly given up for dead (Normal Mailer. Portrait of Picasso as a Young Man. The Atlantic Monthly Press, NY. (1995) P. 1.), young Pablito—appar- ently spoiled in demeanor and fussed over by indulgent sisters and aunts—is reported to have begun drawing before he could speak. He became an artistic prodigy and master, and his ability to render the figure quickly surpassed his father‘s and then all of his art school contemporaries’, many of whom were a decade or more his senior (Figure 1). Two of Picasso’s most important early influences were physicians, who likely played a role in his choice of early subject matter. His paternal uncle, Dr. Salvador Ruiz, was a respected physician, including to an Augustine convent, who financed both his brother’s (Picasso’s father) and Picasso’s art training. At age 10, Picasso en- tered art school at the Instituto da Guarda, where the director, Dr. Ramon Perez Cou- teles, also a physician, recognized his uni- que talents and became both a role model and patron—the first to commission and purchase works by Picasso. Picasso’s Science and Charity (cover, 1896–1897) is the middle of 3 similarly themed paintings produced during a pro- tracted cholera epidemic in his hometown (from which 1 of his sisters apparently died in infancy) and in the immediate wake of his beloved younger sister Conchita’s death from diphtheria at age 7 in 1895 (Richardson. P. 49). The other disease- themed paintings in the series are The Sick Woman (1894) and Last Moments (1899). During this period, the first glimmers of sci- ence’s promise to alter the course of disease were at the center of public and Picasso’s at- tention. Discoveries in the preceding decade showed significant progress against some of the most feared scourges, including diph- theria, at the time pictured on Sir William Osler’s personal bookplate cartoon as the boldest pathogen in the foreground, unde- terred by science and hygiene (https:// profiles.nlm.nih.gov/ps/retrieve/Resource Metadata/GFBBCJ). The diphtheria bacteria was identified in 1883 and grown in culture in 1884; antitoxin was discovered in 1888, shown to be effective in animals in 1890 and in humans in 1891, and mass produced for wide use in 1895. Tragically, although diphtheria antitoxin was available to weal- thy urban Spanish families, it could not be secured in time to save Conchita, and sub- sequently the family could not afford to give her a proper burial. Picasso’s deep sad- ness, which he later reported inspired him to pursue his passion for art (Ibid. P. 46.), is captured in his inscription accompany- ing a later print: “At the end of the road death waits for everyone, even though the rich go in carriages and the poor on foot.” (Ibid. P. 50.) Drawing on Picasso’s artistic predeces- sors, Science and Charity extends a motif depicting the authoritative and dispassion- ate medical doctor, contrasted in this case to a nun exuding empathy and tenderness, and the patient is positioned squarely be- tween the extremes. The physician coldly monitors the pulse (see another example of this common physician-patient motif at http://www.harvardartmuseums.org/ art/297585), while the nun attends to the patient’s sustenance and family needs and offers a reassuring gaze. This posture of scientific authority and distance reinforced professional prestige in the public eye at a time when there were few or no effective treatments available. Picasso’s father sat as the model for the physician. The paint- ing was exhibited at the Exposición Provin- cial de Málaga (receiving the coveted gold medal) and Exposición General de Bellas Artes in Madrid (honorable mention)— an extraordinary feat for a 15-year-old student (Marilyn McCully. Picasso: The early years, 1892–1906. National Gallery of Art, Washington (1997) P. 26.). Picasso gave the painting to his Uncle Salvador, who likely recognized it as homage to Received 11 January 2016; accepted 5 March 2016. Correspondence: J. T. Katz, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts (jkatz@partners.org). Open Forum Infectious Diseases® © The Author 2016. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs licence (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/), which permits non-commercial reproduction and distribution of thework,inanymedium,providedtheoriginalworkisnotaltered ortransformedinanyway,andthattheworkisproperlycited.For commercial re-use, please contact journals.permissions@oup. com. DOI: 10.1093/ofid/ofw056 PERSPECTIVE • OFID • 1 https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/ps/retrieve/ResourceMetadata/GFBBCJ https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/ps/retrieve/ResourceMetadata/GFBBCJ https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/ps/retrieve/ResourceMetadata/GFBBCJ https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/ps/retrieve/ResourceMetadata/GFBBCJ http://www.harvardartmuseums.org/art/297585 http://www.harvardartmuseums.org/art/297585 http://www.harvardartmuseums.org/art/297585 mailto:jkatz@partners.org http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ himself. Soon after producing Science and Charity, his family pooled their re- sources together to send him to Madrid, where the scope of his artistic influences and possibilities for attention increased dramatically. A skilled draftsman, Picasso aban- doned academic techniques in favor of pioneering contemporary methods (eg, cubism, abstract painting, printmaking, and ceramics) for which he is so closely identified. Throughout all phases of his career, Picasso recognized the power of symbolism and metaphor to stimulate the imagination of his audience. The metaphorical distance portrayed so skillfully by Picasso between doctor and patient—authority and afflicted—was pro- moted by medical organizations as a valued attribute of the profession that, through the 20th century, increasingly became a source of public debate and professional tension. Dr. Francis Weld Peabody—near his own death in 1927—famously bucked the estab- lishment tide, writing that “the secret of the care of the patient is in caring for the patient.” (Peabody FW. The care of the pa- tient. JAMA. 1927; 88(12):877–82.) The debate is not resolved. The modern physician must (1) balance authority and compassion, (2) simultaneously accept their evolving role as interprofessional team members, and (3) master the emerg- ing conflicts between electronic medical records and attentive care. Perhaps the modern version of Science and Charity might have the nun at bedside and the physician at a distance scrambling over a computer keyboard—the newest tool of professional mastery, authority, and distance. Figure 1. Pablo Picasso, “Science and Charity”, 1897. Oil on canvas. 197 × 250 CM. Museu Picasso; Barcelona, Spain. Available at: http://www.wikiart.org/en/pablo-picasso/science-and-charity-1897. Hyperlink 1. Max Brödel, “The Saint – Johns Hopkins Hospital”, 1896. Available at: https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/ps/retrieve/ ResourceMetadata/GFBBCJ [public domain]. Hyperlink 2. Thomas Couture, “The Illness of Pierrot”, 1860. Chalk on paper, study for oil painting of the same title. 47 × 61 CM. Harvard Art Museum; Cambridge, MA. Available at: http://www.harvardartmuseums.org/art/297585. 2 • OFID • PERSPECTIVE http://www.wikiart.org/en/pablo-picasso/science-and-charity-1897 http://www.wikiart.org/en/pablo-picasso/science-and-charity-1897 https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/ps/retrieve/ResourceMetadata/GFBBCJ https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/ps/retrieve/ResourceMetadata/GFBBCJ https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/ps/retrieve/ResourceMetadata/GFBBCJ http://www.harvardartmuseums.org/art/297585 http://www.harvardartmuseums.org/art/297585 
work_m55vwg7z4zhsnkp4e3socuiut4	----	ISSN: 1577-0338 167 2019, 42. 167-180 El acierto de las equivocaciones: Aportaciones de la neurociencia cognitiva al proceso de aprendizaje The success of the mistakes: Contributions of cognitive neuroscience in the learning process David Gamella González* Recibido: 01-4-2019 Aceptado: 19-6-2019 * david.gamella@cardenalcisneros.es Resumen Las nuevas técnicas de neuroimagen nos están permitiendo explorar con gran precisión el com- portamiento cerebral humano a nivel anatómico y electromagnético. Desde la creación del “Proyecto Brain” auspiciado por Obama (2001) la inves- tigación neurocientífica en todo el mundo está aportando enfoques innovadores, que cuando son observados desde el prisma de la educación, adquieren si cabe, una relevancia mayor de cara a desarrollar metodologías de aprendizaje que ope- ren a favor de la mecánica operacional de nuestro cerebro. De esto se deriva la necesidad de reacon- dicionar las estructuras educativas para facilitar el desarrollo de una pedagogía coherente con las evidencias científicas. Nuestro objetivo es analizar cuál es el modelo predominante en el sistema educativo ante la gestión de fallos para poder definir así un modelo de enseñanza más eficiente. Para ello compara- mos dichas dinámicas con las aportaciones que la neurociencia cognitiva nos ofrece. Con ello es- tablecemos la influencia que puede llegar a tener una visión negativa de los errores para las futuras experiencias de aprendizaje. Las conclusiones se construyen desde en el principio de que nuestro cerebro necesita errar para establecer de forma correcta el aprendizaje y que por tanto, evitarlos, entenderlos como algo negativo, dificulta la ad- quisición de esta capacidad y de la búsqueda de situaciones nuevas que requieran el manejo del binomio ensayo y error en todos los ámbitos de la vida. Abstract New neuroimaging techniques are allowing the exploration of the human brain's behavior at the anatomical and electromagnetic level with great precision. Since the creation of the Brain Project sponsored by Obama (2001), neuroscientific research throughout the world is providing inno- vative approaches with significant contributions to education. From this rises the need to readjust educational structures in order to facilitate the de- velopment of a pedagogy consistent with the new scientific evidence. Our goal is to analyze what is the predominant model to deal with mistakes in the education sys- tem in order to delineate a more efficient teaching system. For this end, we incorporate into our analysis the findings of cognitive neuroscience. Through this evaluation we establish how our learning capacities are affected by having a negative perception of mistakes. The baseline assumption is that the brain needs mistakes in order to establish an improved path for the learn- ing process. Avoiding mistakes because they are viewed as negative, hinders our learning capacity which is necessary for the trial and error process present in all aspects of our life. David Gamella González 168 1. A vueltas con la equivocación En tiempos de fake news, tiene mala prensa la equivocación. Los concursos televisivos, las carreras políticas, los diagnósticos médicos o los equipos deportivos nos muestran la baja tolerancia hacia las acciones fallidas. Por eso solemos disimularlas, evitarlas y penalizarlas. En el mundo profesional los errores tienen nefastas consecuencias, máxime cuando afectan a la integridad de las personas. ¿Sucede acaso lo mismo en la educa- ción? ¿Gestionamos de igual manera nuestras equivocaciones? El progreso escolar se articula sobre el binomio del acierto y el fallo, que tienen las formas de aprobado o suspenso. Y lo es hasta tal punto que parece ser el único objetivo operativo que nos importa cuando somos alumnos (y profesores) ¿Qué tengo que hacer para apro- bar? Una pregunta que a todos nos resuena. El error se penaliza y el acierto se premia, lo cual no nos sitúa muy lejos de los ámbitos antes señalados. Hace no pocas generaciones los alumnos que suspendían quedaban señalados, ocupando el fondo de la clase, una especie de destierro para los parias del error. Estaban mal consi- derados hasta que no lograban abandonar esa zona de exclusión, gracias al salvoconducto que todos conocemos. Esto ha configurado durante muchas años un modelo de aprendizaje basado en la observación de una sola regla: saber reproducir la respuesta válida. Nuestro objetivo es reflexionar sobre la relación interior, sobre la gestión cognitiva que mantenemos con nuestros errores y cómo esto determina la forma en la que realizamos nuestros aprendizajes. Un fallo en una respuesta es una señal que puede indicar que no tenemos suficientes habilidades o conocimientos, pero también que no hemos prestado la atención adecuada a la tarea. La experiencia de encontrarnos con un obstáculo constituye en sí misma un aprendizaje situacional que además puede interferir en la gestión de nue- vos aprendizajes y en la forma en que los gestionaremos en lo sucesivo (Giordan, 1985). Es en la escuela donde se nos presentan muchas oportunidades para comprobar esta operatividad. Estamos escolarizados obligatoriamente hasta los 16 años. Esto implica muchas horas de exposición a modelos de pensamiento que pueden ayudarnos o no en el desarrollo de nuestras capacidades. Todas las vivencias, tanto las escolares como las que se dan en el entorno familiar y social, influyen en nuestro carácter, establecen estilos del yo y determinan un sistema de creencias del que luego es difícil deshacerse, salvo realizando un ejercicio sistemático de consciencia y autoanálisis. Si hemos interiorizado que la equivocación se penaliza, nos penaliza, ¿cómo vamos a tomar decisiones en la vida que comporten un riesgo, que impliquen autonomía? ¿Cómo vamos a entender la vida como el acto creativo que es, sino nos ayudan a entender que todo está en continuo cambio y evolución? Viene bien recordar el famoso argumento de Maslow (1966) acerca El acierto de las equivocaciones: Aportaciones de la neurociencia cognitiva al proceso de aprendizaje 1692019, 42. 167-180 de que cuando vemos una herramienta como algo fijo (un martillo), todo lo trataremos de forma correlativa (como clavos). La escuela siempre ha estipulado unos estándares unívocos que combinan trabajo y resul- tado. Si cumplimos con esa lógica todo irá bien. ¿Pero qué pasa con quienes tienen otra ma- nera de aprender o se sienten llamados por un desarrollo diferente de los contenidos? Cada persona tiene un nivel de motivación que responde a unos estímulos determinados, lo cual marca una diferencia entre buena respuesta y respuesta buena. Cuando nos enfrentamos a tareas que no nos suscitan el interés suficiente, ofrecemos un modo de atención de baja calidad y por tanto nuestra participación es deficiente. La teoría de las inteligencias múltiples (Gardner, 1983) vino en cierta medida al rescate de esos alumnos inadaptados a quienes la escuela tradicional no ofrecía posibilidades de desarrollo fuera de sus cánones. Si hay diferentes modos de resolver y encarar un problema, existen por tanto diversas maneras de aprender y por ende, deberían existir maneras alternativas de enseñar alternativas. Por suerte la vida siempre se abre paso y a pesar de la escuela muchas personas, saltan- do sus barreras, han realizado notables aportaciones a la sociedad, haciendo de la inco- rrección y la desobediencia un trampolín para la innovación y el emprendimiento. Recorde- mos nombres como John Gurdon, Stephen Hawking, Évariste Galois, Oprah Winfrey, Eric Clapton, Paul Mc, Pablo Picasso, Craig Venter, Olly Olsen, JK Rowling, Bill Gates o Steve Jobs entre otros, a los que se les calificó como deficientes, académicamente hablando. 2. La facultad de equivocarnos Es conocida la respuesta de Alba Edison, otro escolar fallido, a las críticas de un periodista sobre sus múltiples fracasos con el filamento de tungsteno. Él argumentaba que había encon- trado 999 maneras de saber cómo no se hace una bombilla. Esta perspectiva es un ejemplo evidente de una mente orientada al desarrollo, a la posibilidad que ofrece el “todavía no”, tal y como gustan de calificar en una escuela de Chicago a sus alumnos (Dweck, 2014),. Esto implica asumir los errores como parte sustancial del aprendizaje. El error no es una falla del pensamiento sino la alarma que refleja que estamos en un proceso de búsqueda (Martinand, 1981). El fallo se contempla así como un puente que prolonga el camino hacia otras posibi- lidades del ser, del hacer, en línea con las corrientes constructivistas de la educación. Qué gran acierto sería desarrollar una cultura del error como estímulo, como fuente preciada de información, como señal de que la senda ha de trazarse por otro lado y de que eso es posible. En los años de docencia universitaria hemos observado una característica común en las jóvenes promociones. Sorprende una mentalidad tan paralizada en tan cortas edades, siempre hablando en términos generales. Muchos y muchas estudiantes manifiestan im- 169 David Gamella González 170 plícita o explícitamente miedo a equivocarse y esto les frena. En el área de artes plásticas de los grados de Educación Infantil, Primaria y Educación Social en los que habitualmente trabajamos, observamos cómo su capacidad de aprendizaje está limitada, cuando se les pide arriesgarse, inventar, imaginar, ser resolutivos. Les aterroriza “no hacerlo bien” y que podamos notarlo. Paliar esta tendencia nos obliga a ocupar unas 7 semanas, la mitad del tiempo de la asignatura, desmontando este modelo de creencias que nunca debieron ha- ber sido adquiridas. Es necesario hacerles experimentar de nuevo su capacidad creativa y expresiva para recuperar el sentido del juego, de la exploración, de la curiosidad, etc. Al hilo de esto también se observa una cierta rigidez metodológica a la hora de enfrentar tareas nuevas que impliquen pensar de forma divergente, saliéndose de lo establecido. Parecen sentirse más cómodos con trabajos rutinarios en los que se siga la pauta de un protocolo conocido y por ende, fácil. La iniciativa propia está supeditada a la llegada de una orden, como si hubieran sido ensamblados en una cadena de montaje. Pero lo que es más sorprendente es que cuando se les refleja su baja tolerancia a la frustración, se incomodan y rechazan, con cierto carácter conformista, cualquier tipo de esfuerzo por cambiarlo. Son minoría los que han adquirido una mentalidad de crecimiento hacia el aprendizaje (Moser, Schroder, Heeter, Moran y Lee, 2011), esa que les permite ver los errores como oportunidades para aprender y mejorar mediante el esfuerzo. Hablábamos de creencia porque no hay un elemento disfuncional que evidencie su in- capacidad, sino más bien un subdesarrollo generado por innumerables ejercicios en los que se premiaba la respuesta única, el pensamiento uniformado, el no cesar de hacer “Copy, Paste”, sin reflexión alguna. En el caso de las artes plásticas se puede constatar con facilidad la notable falta de habilidades manuales, la nula reflexión sensitiva y estética o el deficiente manejo de sus capacidades creativas e imaginativas. Gracias a nuestra neuroplasticidad sabemos que esto es algo reversible, aunque no exento de un esfuerzo constante, de un enfoque abierto que desmitifique el concepto no saber y el concepto equivocarse por la idea de pruebo, observo y busco un cambio. Lo más doloroso es que manifiestan las mismas actitudes ante su futuro, ante la vida, ante los retos. ¿Cuánta responsabilidad tiene el periodo educativo anterior a la universidad en todo esto, cuando en la infancia y la adolescencia sufrimos ese proceso selectivo de poda neuronal que determina en cierta medida nuestras funciones cognitivas de por vida? 3. Aprender a aprender, para enseñar a aprender a aprender Usábamos antes la palabra neuroplasticidad. El cerebro está predispuesto para el cambio (Merzenich, 2004). Dispone de mecanismos altamente eficaces para aprender que se van El acierto de las equivocaciones: Aportaciones de la neurociencia cognitiva al proceso de aprendizaje 1712019, 42. 167-180 apoyando en estructuras elaboradas por las experiencias pasadas. Para los neurocien- tíficos es sinónimo de posibilidad, de cambio a nivel conectivo, pero también anatómico. Cajal ya apuntaba que “todo ser humano puede ser, si se lo propone, el escultor de su propio cerebro” (1906). Este acontecimiento que se replica durante toda la vida es la base del reaprendizaje, esa habilidad que una sociedad condicionada por la volatilidad, la in- certidumbre, la complejidad y la ambigüedad que albergan el concepto VUCA (1990) y las teorías del mundo líquido de Bauman (1991) no puede eludir. Los futuros docentes son los constructores educativos de esa sociedad inminente que camina hacia la ultra tecnificación y en la que no se debe desatender aquello que las máquinas nunca podrán aportar. Su formación está basada en adquirir procedimientos de enseñanza que sirvan para inculcar habilidades y contenidos orientados, tanto al mundo exterior como al mundo interior. Han de enseñar a integrar el saber implícito y el saber explícito a través de la consciencia necesaria para saber reconocer lo que sabemos, sentimos, afirmamos o proponemos, y además aprender a hacer un uso responsable de todo ello. Los profesores por extensión, son neuroarquitectos llamados a diseñar espacios flexibles y abiertos al cambio que, siguiendo con la metáfora, puedan albergar cualquier decoración, cualquier actividad. En la realidad, en los centros de formación de profesorado se enseña a enseñar, con- tenidos. Muchas veces perdemos la referencia que Plutarco remarcaba acerca de cómo la educación debía poner su énfasis no en llenar un cubo, sino en encender un fuego (90 d.C). Sin saber generar interés y aprecio por descubrir el mundo, cualquier esfuerzo educativo es un mero derroche. Ningún plan de estudios repara en los mecanismos de aprendizaje que la neurociencia cognitiva y la neurodidáctica están aportando en las últi- mas décadas. Entre otras cuestiones, nos aconseja cuidar el desarrollo de la consciencia y la atención plena para ser mejores receptores del aprendizaje y desarrollar capacidades de escucha, empatía y autoobservación, libres de distrés (Mañas, Franco, Gil MD., Gil C. 2014). Atender también a la salud alimentaria, a la calidad del sueño y al ejercicios aeróbico entre los tiempos de clase, para que el cuerpo esté en un estado óptimo de fun- cionamiento (Mora, 2013). Recurrir a las artes expresivas de forma sistemática como una vía integral de desarrollo y autoconocimiento. Nada de esto se tiene en cuenta, solamente llenar el cubo, fichando (dícese, de la actividad de hacer fichas con la que nos educa para ser sumisos ciudadanos en el futuro). Todas las profesiones se reinventan, todas incorpo- ran procedimientos que aumentan su eficacia. La educación parece observar inmóvil el paso de los tiempos. Cuando comprendemos la funcionalidad de cualquier mecanismo podemos hacer un uso más eficiente del mismo. Conociendo la operatividad del procesamiento cognitivo podemos discriminar qué tipo de acciones y protocolos son realmente lógicos y adecuados en el David Gamella González 172 desempeño de un proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje eficaz y capacitante. Lo contrario reduce sustancialmente la posibilidad de obtener resultados que respondan a los recursos empleados. La capacidad de comprensión, de memorización o de atención son sólo tres de los elementos claves para la percepción interna y la integración de la realidad que del mun- do tenemos. Si no nos leemos el manual de instrucciones particular que cada persona trae consigo a la escuela, además del genérico, podemos estar infra desarrollando a miles de alumnos cada año. Somos lo que pensamos que somos y lo que pensamos que los demás creen de nosotros. Actuamos mañana conforme a la vivencia que emocionalmente hemos registrado hoy, porque a nuestro cerebro le encantan los esquemas, esto le hace ahorrar mucha glucosa. Lo que nos forma, da forma a todo lo demás; son los ladrillos con los que reconstruimos lo que hemos vivido. Por estas razones, una mala praxis docente puede des- virtuar cualquier trayectoria educativa que potencialmente apunte al éxito. 4. Cambios interiores y exteriores Bien es cierto que se están adoptando nuevos enfoques para el aprendizaje derivados del desarrollo del diseño, la ingeniería o la arquitectura de los años 60. Los trabajos de John E. Arnold (1959) y Bruce Archer (1965) en estos campos han dado posteriormente como resultado el “Design Thinking” (Pensamiento de diseño), Aprendizaje basado en compe- tencias (ABC), Gamificación, Aprendizaje basado en Problemas, Aprendizaje Basado en Proyectos (ABP), Aprendizaje Cooperativo, “Flipped Classroom” (aprendizaje invertido), entre otros. Estas metodologías innovadoras hacen posible nuevas herramientas de va- loración del aprendizaje, tales como las rúbricas o la autoevaluación, que nos permiten hacer una lectura diferente de los resultados. Fuera del sistema educativo no cesa de crecer una oferta formativa que suscita el interés del profesorado. Y esto es un dato significativo. Bastaría repasar las ponencias más visita- das en la plataforma divulgativa TED para constatar la necesidad que tenemos de conocer buenos metodologías de aprendizaje realmente eficaces para las aulas del siglo XXI: Ro- binson (2006, 2010 y 2013); Musallan (2013); Aamodt (2014); Khan (2015); Karboul (2017); Gartenberg (2017); Gage (2018), entre otros. A nivel nacional ha surgido en 2018 el foro aprendemosjuntos.elpais.com liderado por BBVA y el diario El País (no son precisamente centros educativos) en donde especialistas de la neuroeducación, la neuropsicología o la pedagogía, como Jesús C. Guillén, David Bueno, Francisco Mora, José Antonio Marina, Matt Goldman, Frances Jensen, Barbara Oakley, Rafael Yuste o Álvaro Bilbao entre otros, aportan un enfoque científico que fácilmente puede ser incorporado a la práctica docente. Otros especialistas como Begoña Ibarrola, Xurxo Mariño, o Carmen Agustín trabajan tam- bién en la divulgación de investigadores especializados que son realmente significativas. El acierto de las equivocaciones: Aportaciones de la neurociencia cognitiva al proceso de aprendizaje 1732019, 42. 167-180 Destacamos como ejemplo las aportaciones del neurocientífico y premio Nobel de fisio- logía de la universidad de Columbia, Eric Kandel (2007). Es el descubridor del proceso a través del cual las neuronas almacenan la memoria y de cómo el aprendizaje produce cambios en el comportamiento al reforzarse las conexiones particulares entre las células nerviosas. Sus postulados refuerzan el principio Hebbiano de 1949, según el cual: “las neuronas que disparan juntas permanecen juntas” (Hebb 1985). Es decir, un aprendizaje bien orientado fomenta el que bloques de neuronas generen expansión en sus cablea- dos y posibilidades de reconexión con nuevos circuitos. Como venimos argumentando, conocer las bases neuronales del aprendizaje, la motivación y la memoria, nos permiten implementar nuestras acciones educativas. 5. Circuitos de alta eficacia ¿Qué sustrato hacemos de lo que vivimos? ¿Qué de lo que percibimos es significativo para poder ser almacenado en la memoria? Nuestros procesos cognitivos tienen un marcado sesgo emocional. No podemos separar razón de emoción, proceso cognitivo de sentimiento, aprendizaje de todo el espectro de sensaciones que se producen en el aprendizaje. Accediendo desde el tronco encefálico con dirección abajo-arriba (bottom-up) los inputs llegan al tálamo, ese gran hall que distribuye y selecciona la información. Éste consulta sobre la experiencia de anteriores episodios almacenada en el hipocampo (170 ms) y antes de llegar al córtex prefrontal y hacernos conscientes de ello (su vía de acceso es más larga, 660 ms.), los centros emocionales de la amígdala han dado cuenta de todo, pues ésta nunca se desconecta, tiñendo de tintes emocionales cualquier información que manejemos. Tálamo, hipocampo y núcleo amigdalino, son sólo tres elementos del entramado límbico, gestor emocional de nuestro cerebro que determina a qué atendemos y qué puede ser asimilado. Es lo que LeDoux denominó en 1980 la emoción precognitiva. Cuando nuestra amígdala percibe una amenaza reduce el nivel de acción cognitiva. Es lo que se denomina el secuestro amigdalino (Goleman, 1996). Esto se traduce en un au- mento del sesgo automático de defensa con niveles extremos de cortisol (glucocorticoide) adrenocorticotrópica (ACTH), serotonina y noradrenalina, que nos hacen adoptar la forma de sentimiento de impotencia e inflexibilidad y nos remite a rutinas primitivas de compor- tamiento. Dichas sustancias hormonales tienen una gran responsabilidad en nuestros estados de estrés y burnout. (Sapolsky, 2015). Siegel (2011) define la amígdala como la escalera de la mente. Subdivide el cerebro en una parte inferior (cerebro reptiliano y límbico) y otra superior (corteza). Cuando experi- David Gamella González 174 mentamos, enfado, fracaso, frustración, miedo… la escalera queda inutilizada impidiendo el acceso a nuestras funciones superiores de atención, reflexión, comprensión, entendi- miento, valoración, etc. Es decir, nuestras funciones relacionados con el aprendizaje se ven anuladas. Ese periodo refractario de la amígdala (Ekman, 2009) puede durar milise- gundos, segundos u horas y sólo nos hace sensibles a la información que es coherente con nuestro estado emocional de supervivencia. Quiero esto decir que rechaza nuevas informaciones. El ambiente en el que se desarrolla la enseñanza, el estilo con el que ambientamos las tareas escolares, determina y condiciona no sólo el aprendizaje, sino la relación que establecemos con él. Y aquí entra en juego la gestión que antes apuntá- bamos sobre la gestión de los errores y el estrés con que afrontamos dicha experiencia. La neurología nos dice que nuestro cerebro emplea el fallo como una vía para llegar al modo óptimo de operatividad (Herzfeld et al., 2014). Es decir, la naturaleza nos ha dotado de un sistema de adquisición de destrezas mediante el procesamiento del error. De ahí que los expertos en Inteligencia artificial estén tratando de emular esta cualidad neural en sus cerebros artificiales. Porque aprender está vinculado a experimentar y a ver cómo otros hacen; tarea en la que participan nuestras neuronas espejo. 6. Mecánica de la memoria Cuando nos ponen por vez primera encima de una bicicleta necesitamos coordinar el movimiento de las piernas, los brazos, las manos y la mirada. Conjugamos córtex motó- rico, visual y auditivo para mantener el equilibrio y la velocidad, dentro de las leyes de la gravedad y la cinética. Ese aprendizaje implica reiterados intentos, múltiples caídas que no se contemplan como errores, sino como un proceso de adecuación a una nueva habilidad. Dado que hay atrevimiento y esfuerzo llegan las satisfacciones en forma de dopamina y por ello ya nunca se nos olvida montar en bicicleta. El aprendizaje es el resultado de la motivación y la memoria asociativa. Dos ejes esen- ciales de nuestras funciones ejecutivas. El neuropsicólogo Ignacio Morgado (2014) señala que aprender es asociar. Si confiáramos todo a la memoria de trabajo que es operativa y procesual algo no funcionaría bien del todo, porque se almacena en plazos cortos de tiempo: almacén viso espacial, buffer episódico y almacén fonológico (Baddeley, 2000). Esa huella memorística ha de dejar un uso a largo plazo, que tiene un componente consciente y otro inconsciente, en sus versiones explícita e implícita respectivamente. La primera es episódica y semántica, se adapta a lo nuevo e implica un procesamiento con- trolado, lo cual quiere decir que incorpora muy rápidamente el aprendizaje. Como antes apuntábamos, reconstruimos los hechos desde la base operativa del hipocampo y éste es El acierto de las equivocaciones: Aportaciones de la neurociencia cognitiva al proceso de aprendizaje 1752019, 42. 167-180 influenciable por las emociones ya que comparte áreas de trabajo. La segunda se refiere a los hábitos que se establecen mediante un aprendizaje de repetición y quedan asentados en los ganglios basales (por eso no sabemos cómo sabemos montar en bici). Aprender implica transformación neuronal, nuevas posibilidades conectivas en la red sináptica (Bueno, 2018). Aprender es sinónimo de cambio físico, anatómico y de cambio electromagnético, ya que se multiplican los enlaces entre neuronas haciendo posible una diversidad más amplía en sus conexiones. Aprender es construcción y reconstrucción de las redes neuronales y este proceso no es lineal ni uniforme, es una elaboración multifo- cal. Cuando un profesor nos invita a hacer intentos de mejora, a probar sin el riesgo de un suspenso, nuestras neuronas se predisponen mejor a sincronizarse consolidando un estilo de acción más efectivo. Esas neuronas constituyen una misma red que se va reforzando conforme aumentan los intentos. Esto es lo que da cuerpo a la neuroplasticidad: coope- ración entre neuronas. Elaboración arquitectónica en lo micro y en lo macro de la corteza (Spitzer, 2005; Davidson & Begley, 2012). La memoria del miedo al error implica una baja actividad eléctrica (rango de 150-550 ms) y es propia de quienes entienden éste como un fracaso en vez de como una oportunidad de desarrollo, tal y como revelan las investigaciones de Blackwell, Trzesniewski y Dweck (2007). En su estudio este tipo de niños marcaban una progresión deficiente de sus resul- tados académicos. Sus grupos de neuronas que estaban aptos para el aprendizaje sólido, no disparaban juntas y por tanto debilitaban su conectividad. Contamos con dos circuitos para procesar las acciones nuevas que realizamos. Mientras uno incorpora las competencias adquiridas, otro gestiona los fallos. Este último detecta y memoriza la discordancia entre lo que pretendíamos lograr y su resultado. Cuando se nos permite contemplar el error como parte natural del proceso de aprendizaje, nuestro cerebro aprende antes y mejor. La mentalidad de crecimiento es aquella que nos hace ver el error como una oportunidad para aprender y mejorar a través del esfuerzo progresivo. Frente a esta categoría están los individuos con mentalidad fija que perciben la inteligen- cia como una habilidad estable (Moser et al, 2011). Estos datos amplifican nuestra perspectiva del aprendizaje. A mayor participación de regiones cerebrales diferentes (segregación), más posibilidades de implementar la adqui- sición un conocimiento, de recordarlo y además de utilizarlo eficazmente. El aprendizaje manipulativo que comporta escucha, observación y emoción, y que además puede ser ex- plicado, aumenta la calidad del registro (integración). Sólo cuando lo ponemos a prueba, sabemos que hemos aprendido. Esta secuencia es esencial para implementar nuestras competencias, ya que el aprendizaje requiere del manejo de nuestra inteligencia ejecutiva (Marina, 2016). A nivel bioquímico nuestro cerebro segrega una sustancia llamada mielina cuya función es la de favorecer la conductividad eléctrica a nivel sináptico. Lo aprendido David Gamella González 176 es útil cuando es sinónimo de poder recuperar el contenido de lo vivenciado. En esto tiene mucho que decir el estado del cuerpo en el momento en el que hicimos la grabación. Es decir, si estudiamos con estrés, niveles altos de cortisol y adrenalina en sangre como antes apuntábamos, sólo accedemos a dichos archivos si volvemos a ese estado físico y a ese estado del escenario en el que hicimos la memorización. Una cosa es la memoria y otra cosa poder acceder a ella. Por eso un contenido puede estar disponible, pero eso no nos garantiza su accesibilidad (Morgado, 2014). Los versos de Machado (1913) decían “Cuando recordar no pueda ¿dónde mi recuerdo irá? Una cosa es el recuerdo y otra cosa recordar”. No podemos olvidar lo que nunca supimos. Conocer el correlato neuronal de nuestros procesos internos va a cambiar de forma de- termínate la educación. Como lo hará el saber la influencia de la actividad cardiaca en la neurogénesis, en la percepción, en la plasticidad sináptica o en la memoria (Park, Correia, Ducorps, y Tallon-Baudry, 2014) o el conocer cómo la microbiota afecta en nuestros pro- cesos cognitivos. Estudios recientes han desvelado que las bacterias tienen la capacidad de generar muchos de los más importantes neurotransmisores (Lyte, 2011); (Matur, 2012); (Barrett et al., 2012). Descubrimientos que hoy día están llevando a los científicos, abandonando las ideas cerebrocentristas, a considerar al cerebro como un órgano extendido por todo el cuerpo (Castellanos, 2018). Cuando lo entendamos como un sistema integral, entenderemos todas sus partes como algo más que la suma de las mismas. Entonces dejaremos de equivocarnos en la educación. 7. Conclusiones Los planteamientos neurológicos que hemos recogido en este artículo nos llevan a pensar que es importante y necesario replantearnos el concepto de fallo dentro de la escuela y por extensión, el procedimiento por el que hacemos transitar a nuestros estudiantes para la adquisición de sus aprendizajes. Si nuestro mecanismo para procesar, gestionar y memorizar destrezas está configurado anatómica y funcionalmente de una manera determinada, no es muy procedente exigirle funciones que vayan en contra de su naturaleza. De igual manera que comprender la lógica de conducción de un vehículo nos permite optimizar su rendimiento y asegurarnos la integridad física, conocer los principios mecánicos que nuestro cerebro realiza nos permitirá aumentar el rendimiento y ahorrar muchos sinsabores. Esta habría de ser una tarea ineludible para todos aquellos que apelamos a su participación y esperamos que funciones tales como las gnosias, la atención, las funciones ejecutivas, las praxias, las El acierto de las equivocaciones: Aportaciones de la neurociencia cognitiva al proceso de aprendizaje 1772019, 42. 167-180 memorias o el uso lenguaje entre otras, contribuyan eficazmente a construir un aprendi- zaje significativo, progresivo y exponencial. En el contexto de la formación, todos, discentes y docentes, aspiramos a ver optimizado el tiempo de trabajo. Todos queremos disponer de metodologías útiles que nos faciliten la resolución de tareas. Todos necesitamos ver avances, saber que hay una lógica de resultados. Consideramos que sólo es apropiado tener estas aspiraciones cuando se están inicialmente sustentadas sobre el conocimiento y manejo operativo de las estructu- ras neuronales subyacentes y comunes a todos los seres humanos. 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work_mahyskvdknbsxlvidiy2djjdeu	----	Revista de Culturas y Literaturas Comparadas​- Volumen 9, año 2019 Presentación Cristina Elgue-Martini El N.º 9 de la ​Revista de Culturas y Literaturas Comparadas del Centro de Investigaciones de la Facultad de Lenguas (CIFAL) de la Universidad Nacional de Córdoba continúa con la temática tratada en el N.° 8: “​La resignificación de los mitos: Siglos XX y XXI”. En la introducción al N.º 8 de la revista, expresaba que, conforme a Northrop Frye (1982), el término mito tiene dos acepciones fundamentales: según la primera, mito es un relato, un ordenamiento secuencial de palabras. En este sentido, todo mito cuenta una historia. Pero en su segunda acepción, siempre según Frye, un mito es una historia que tiene un significado especial para una sociedad, ya que le cuenta acerca de sus dioses, de su historia, de sus leyes o de su estructura social: un mito es una historia sagrada. Como dice el teórico canadiense: “En este segundo sentido, por lo tanto, significa lo opuesto a ‘No realmente verdadero’: significa estar cargado con una seriedad e importancia especial” (33). Y, en efecto, la historia de las culturas da muestra que el sujeto y la cultura han necesitado de los mitos para hablar de su origen, de su historia, de su organización. Mircea Eliade, referencia insoslayable en la temática que nos ocupa, coincide con la aproximación de Frye, y agrega una dimensión histórico-antropológica a su posicionamiento. En efecto, en 1962 escribía, en ​Mito y realidad​: Desde hace más de medio siglo, los estudiosos occidentales han situado el estudio del mito en una perspectiva que contrastaba sensiblemente con la de, pongamos por caso, el siglo XIX. En vez de tratar, como sus predecesores, el mito en la acepción usual del término, es decir, en cuanto «fábula», «invención», «ficción», le han aceptado tal como le comprendían las sociedades arcaicas, en las que el mito designa, por el contrario, una «historia verdadera», y, lo que es más, una historia de inapreciable valor, porque es sagrada, ejemplar y significativa (4). Desde el psicoanálisis, Jacques Lacan también sostiene que todo mito tiene su valor de verdad, porque la verdad sólo puede expresarse en forma mítica: Se trata de algo que intentaremos expresar en una fórmula esencial que muestra cómo en el seno de la experiencia analítica se encuentra algo que, hablando con propiedad, se denomina mito. El mito es precisamente lo que puede ser definido como otorgando una fórmula discursiva a esa cosa que no puede transmitirse al definir la verdad, ya que la definición de la verdad sólo se apoya sobre sí misma, y la palabra progresa por sí misma, y es en el dominio de la verdad, donde ella se constituye. (Lacan, 1952, en ​Textos de Psicología) Como comenté en la introducción al número anterior de nuestra revista –dedicado también a la resignificación de los mitos- en el campo de la literatura, el lanzamiento por parte de la Editorial británica Canongate, en 2005, de la serie ​The Myths “con el objetivo de reunir los mejores escritores del mundo, cada uno de los cuales ha re-escrito un mito en un estilo contemporáneo y memorable”, da cuenta de la Revista de Culturas y Literaturas Comparadas​- Volumen 9, año 2019 vigencia de la temática. La introducción a la serie que acabamos de citar comienza definiendo los mitos como “historias universales y atemporales que exploran nuestros deseos, nuestros sueños y proporcionan narraciones que nos recuerdan lo que significa ser Humano”. En el primer volumen de la serie, dedicado a ​Una breve historia del mito​, su autora, Karen Armstrong, escribe: “la historia del mito es la historia de la humanidad; nuestras historias y creencias; y nuestra curiosidad e intentos de comprender el mundo nos relaciona con nuestros antepasados y entre nosotros mismos” (Atwood, 2​005​). En este número, Guadalupe Barúa concentra su estudio en “los refugios contra el desamparo” en el artículo titulado precisamente “Refugios contra el desamparo: una comparación poética y etno-mitológica en torno a la meditación sobre el mundo arbóreo”. Afirma la autora que en el inter-juego entre la tradición y la modernidad, la memoria tiende a seleccionar recuerdos más felices ante mundos que desaparecen frente a nuestros ojos, una nostalgia meditativa que trata de captar lo eterno en el marco de un mundo transitorio. Ilustra su hipótesis con referencia a la cultura de los wichí bazaneros del noroeste de la Argentina, expresando que las concepciones sobre sus bosques muestran similitudes con concepciones de grandes poetas, como Robert Frost, en la instancia de su análisis. Ambas concepciones surgen de un tipo de razonamiento donde las percepciones e intuiciones vinculadas a ciertos elementos naturales dan lugar a visiones del mundo que fomentan la empatía humana con los seres de la naturaleza. Siempre desde la perspectiva de la autora, los árboles, se asocian aquí con la longevidad, la vitalidad y la fertilidad. Barúa concentra su análisis en aquellas instancias en que los humanos y los árboles están conectados y, como en el poema “Abedules” de Frost, pueden vagar entre el bosque y las estrellas a través de ensueños que están culturalmente modelados. La autora concluye que estas concepciones son importantes en la medida en que son fuente de profundas emociones y alegrías en contextos de privación y malestar. Ellas pueden actuar como refugios frente a la declinación del sentido de pertenencia que causa la modernidad. Irene Chikiar Bauer titula su artículo “Virginia Woolf: una interpretación de Antígona​, ‘obra maestra’, ‘propaganda antifascista’ y algo más”. Explica Chikiar Bauer que, ​desde muy joven, Virginia Woolf sintió la necesidad de encontrar alternativas a las normas instauradas por la sociedad victoriana, que no admitía que las mujeres ingresaran a las universidades. En ese sentido, para ella, estudiar y leer en griego se constituyeron en formas de resistencia y rebelión. Además de que sentía que era indispensable un buen manejo de los autores griegos para su formación como escritora, a lo largo de toda su vida retomó, insistentemente, la lectura de sus obras. Destaca en ese contexto, su relación con la ​Antígona​, de Sófocles, mencionada desde su primera novela ​Fin de viaje y, luego, en sus libros ​Un cuarto propio,​ ​Tres guineas ​y ​Los años​; así como en el ensayo “Acerca de no conocer el griego”, incluido en ​El lector común. En este trabajo y, teniendo como referencia los escritos mencionados, Chikiar Bauer aspira a mostrar cómo, a través de su interpretación y reelaboración del mito de Antígona, la autora inglesa expresó su feminismo (especialmente como resistencia al sistema patriarcal), relacionándolo con su postura pacifista y antifascista. El artículo de Florencia Martini está dedicado a las artes plásticas y performativas. En efecto, la autora centra su análisis en “Susana y los viejos”: partiendo de su primera versión en la pintura barroca, analiza su resignificación desde una perspectiva de género en expresiones artísticas de los siglos XX y XXI. Se trata, entonces, de una indagación de las representaciones de género en la cultura, específicamente en la pintura barroca (s. XVI-XVII), a través del análisis de la obra Susana y los viejos de Tintoretto (1560/65), Artemisia Gentileschi (1610) y Guercino Revista de Culturas y Literaturas Comparadas​- Volumen 9, año 2019 (1617), pinturas que representan una escena del Antiguo Testamento (Daniel 13), para luego examinar las resignificaciones producidas en los siglos XX y XXI -que invierten las representaciones sociales de los siglos XVI-XVII- en la obra de Pablo Picasso (1955), la performance “Ablutions” (1972) -llevada a cabo por Suzanne Lacy, Judy Chicago, Sandra Orgel, Jan Laster y Aviva Rahman- y finalmente en la obra inédita de un artista local, Pablo Martini (2012). En su artículo “La búsqueda de cuerpos ausentes en Argentina: el mito de Antígona retorna cíclicamente”, Virginia Saint-Bonnet indaga en acontecimientos históricos argentinos que, leídos como textos, permiten hacer un análisis comparatista a fin de explorar la cercana relación entre mito e historia, concretamente, el mito de Antígona y su búsqueda de un cuerpo ausente, en estrecha vinculación con sucesos recientes de desaparecidos en dictadura y en democracia. Según la autora, el rol de Antígonas modernas es adoptado inconscientemente por un mandato cultural en el cual el cierre de un rito (como es el reconocimiento y sepultura de un fallecido) se convierte en una misión mítico-histórica de la que se apropia toda una comunidad, asumiendo un rol antiguo, a modo de visión cíclica y transcultural. El número 9 de esta revista concluye con un artículo de Pedro Luis Villagra Diez sobre “Las Ménades” de Julio Cortázar en el que estudia la subversión del mito de Orfeo. Como expresa el autor, resulta casi una obviedad afirmar que la historia de la literatura occidental es forzosa deudora de las letras griegas. Ya en la misma Antigüedad, la apropiación que hace la literatura de Roma de los modelos helénicos denota una clara conciencia de recepción. El autor destaca que esta práctica de la recepción (que a través del tiempo se dio a conocer con diferentes denominaciones: influencia, huella, estudios de fuentes, entre otros) recibió recién su designación definitiva de intertextualidad con Julia Kristeva. En su artículo, se propone, según expresé, atender a la recepción que hace Julio Cortázar del mito de Orfeo en su cuento “Las Ménades”. En este sentido y en una suerte de “diálogo” que supone la intertextualidad entre la versión clásica y la del escritor argentino, Villagra Diez subraya de qué manera la asunción de ciertos motivos míticos y su variación se subordinan a la recreación poética cortazariana. Autores citados Atwood, Margaret. ​The Penelopiad​. Edinburgh: Canongate, 2005. Eliade, Mircea. ​Mito y Realidad​. Barcelona: Editorial Labor, 1991. Frye, Northrop. ​The Great Code. The Bible and Literature​. Toronto: Academic Press Canada, 1982. Lacan, Jacques, 1952. ​Notas de Seminario. ​1952. En “Los textos en el Psicoanálisis”. Textos de Psicología. ​Web. Nota: Se han omitido las obras del corpus. 
work_mbrastzd4raatneejkkyh7oini	----	UvA-DARE is a service provided by the library of the University of Amsterdam (https://dare.uva.nl) UvA-DARE (Digital Academic Repository) The art of influence: When and why deviant artists gain impact Stamkou, E.; van Kleef, G.A.; Homan, A.C. DOI 10.1037/pspi0000131 Publication date 2018 Document Version Final published version Published in Journal of Personality and Social Psychology Link to publication Citation for published version (APA): Stamkou, E., van Kleef, G. A., & Homan, A. C. (2018). The art of influence: When and why deviant artists gain impact. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 115(2), 276-303. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000131 General rights It is not permitted to download or to forward/distribute the text or part of it without the consent of the author(s) and/or copyright holder(s), other than for strictly personal, individual use, unless the work is under an open content license (like Creative Commons). Disclaimer/Complaints regulations If you believe that digital publication of certain material infringes any of your rights or (privacy) interests, please let the Library know, stating your reasons. In case of a legitimate complaint, the Library will make the material inaccessible and/or remove it from the website. Please Ask the Library: https://uba.uva.nl/en/contact, or a letter to: Library of the University of Amsterdam, Secretariat, Singel 425, 1012 WP Amsterdam, The Netherlands. You will be contacted as soon as possible. Download date:06 Apr 2021 https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000131 https://dare.uva.nl/personal/pure/en/publications/the-art-of-influence-when-and-why-deviant-artists-gain-impact(d60898ef-3483-43a7-84ea-30c766d1e31d).html https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000131 The Art of Influence: When and Why Deviant Artists Gain Impact Eftychia Stamkou, Gerben A. van Kleef, and Astrid C. Homan University of Amsterdam Some artists rise to fame, while others sink into oblivion. What determines whether artists make an impact? Considering deviance in its sociohistorical context, we propose that artists whose work deviates from their own previous style (intrapersonal deviance) and other artists’ styles (interpersonal deviance) gain greater impact than nondeviant artists, as long as deviance is directed toward a progressive style. A preliminary study showed that in western cultures nonrealistic styles are considered more progressive than realistic styles (Study 1). Five more studies provide evidence for the effects of the two types of artistic deviance on several aspects of impact (i.e., perceived influence of the artist, valuation of the artwork, and visual attention to the artwork). First, individuals considered artists who deviated from their previous style more impactful than artists who consistently followed a single style (Study 2), effects that were stronger when artists transitioned from a retrogressive style to a progressive one (Study 3). Second, artists who deviated from their contemporaries’ style were considered more impactful than artists who followed the predominant style, effects that were stronger when artists strayed from a predominant retrogressive style by using progressive means of expression (Studies 4 and 5). When the historical context prevented observers from inferring the progressiveness of the deviant artists’ expressive means, artistic deviance enhanced perceived impact regardless of the means by which the artists deviated (Study 6). Supporting our theoretical model, the effects of intrapersonal and interpersonal deviance on impact were mediated by perceived will-power (Studies 3, 5, and 6). Keywords: artistic impact, deviance, influence, norms Supplemental materials: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000131.supp The rue le Peletier is a road of disasters. After the fire at the Opera, there is now yet another disaster there. An exhibition has just been opened at Durand-Ruel which allegedly contains paintings. I enter and my horrified eyes behold something terrible. Five or six lunatics, among them a woman, have joined together and exhibited their works. I have seen people rock with laughter in front of their pictures but my heart bled when I saw them. These would-be artists call themselves revolutionaries, “Im- pressionists.” They take a piece of canvas, color and brush, daub a few patches of paint on it at random, and sign the whole thing with their name. It is a delusion of the same kind as if the inmates of Bedlam picked up stones from the wayside and imagined they had found diamonds. (Leroy, 1876, as cited by Gombrich, 1995, p. 519) Of the few humans who are remembered centuries after their death, a large proportion are artists. Painters like Claude Monet, the famous pioneer of Impressionism, are nowadays considered geniuses, but in their time they were fiercely criticized for violating prominent norms of beauty, as the above review mirthfully illustrates. From a psycho- logical point of view, deviations from prevailing norms pose a chal- lenge to the viewer because they disrupt fluency and render meaning extraction more effortful (Koffka, 1935; Landau, Greenberg, Solo- mon, Pyszczynski, & Martens, 2006; Reber, Schwarz, & Winkiel- man, 2004; Reber, Winkielman, & Schwarz, 1998; Rosch, 1975). Why, then, do visual artworks often deviate from the prevailing artistic norms of their era? And how do deviant artists gain recogni- tion and make a lasting impact? The theoretical model developed here seeks to explain how artists who deviate from prevailing norms gain impact. Our approach bridges theorizing and research in psychology with empirical and philosophical accounts of aesthetics to provide a comprehensive model that accounts for the role of deviance in shap- ing artists’ impact. How Deviance Shapes Artistic Impact How does deviance from prevailing artistic norms shape an artist’s impact? At first blush, one might think that artistic devi- ance undermines impact, because unexpected stimuli are more Eftychia Stamkou and Gerben A. van Kleef, Department of Social Psychology, University of Amsterdam; Astrid C. Homan, Department of Work and Organizational Psychology, University of Amsterdam. This research was supported by a research grant from the Public Welfare Foundation “Propondis” awarded to Eftychia Stamkou, and a research grant from the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Re- search (NWO, 406-11-024) awarded to Gerben A. van Kleef and Eftychia Stamkou. We thank Merei Sandbrink, Mies Wegener Sleeswijk, Eva Specker, and Sam Steltman for their help in collecting the data for this project; the Cobra Museum, Amstelveen, for their kind permission to collect data in the museum café, and the Munch Museum, Oslo, for providing us with high-resolution images; the Hundertwasser Foundation and Pictoright for giving us permission to reproduce images of artworks; and the artists Graham White, Lena Levin, and Richard Whitney for their kind permission to use their artworks in our research. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Efty- chia Stamkou, Department of Social Psychology, University of Am- sterdam, Nieuwe Achtergracht 129B, 1018 WT Amsterdam, the Neth- erlands. E-mail: e.stamkou@uva.nl T hi s do cu m en t is co py ri gh te d by th e A m er ic an P sy ch ol og ic al A ss oc ia ti on or on e of it s al li ed pu bl is he rs . T hi s ar ti cl e is in te nd ed so le ly fo r th e pe rs on al us e of th e in di vi du al us er an d is no t to be di ss em in at ed br oa dl y. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology © 2018 American Psychological Association 2018, Vol. 115, No. 2, 276 –303 0022-3514/18/$12.00 http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000131 276 http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000131.supp mailto:e.stamkou@uva.nl http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000131 difficult to process and comprehend (Koffka, 1935; Landau et al., 2006; Reber et al., 1998, 2004; Rosch, 1975). Indeed, theories of visual perception hold that perceiving predicted stimuli requires fewer cognitive resources and engenders more positive affect (de-Wit, Machilsen, & Putzeys, 2010). Preferences for predictable stimuli have been observed with regard to color (Martindale & Moore, 1988), furniture (Whitfield & Slatter, 1979), paintings (Farkas, 2002), and exemplars of semantic categories (Martindale, Moore, & West, 1988). In the social domain, too, people tend to prefer individuals who adhere to norms and rules rather than individuals who violate norms and rules, because the latter pose a potential threat to smoothly functioning groups and societies (Heerdink, Van Kleef, Homan, & Fischer, 2013; Jetten & Hornsey, 2014; Jonas et al., 2014; Proulx, Heine, & Vohs, 2010; Van Kleef, Wanders, Stamkou, & Homan, 2015). Individuals who violate behavioral norms are more likely to evoke negative emotions such as anger and blame (Helweg-Larsen & LoMonaco, 2008; Kam & Bond, 2009; Ohbuchi et al., 2004), to be punished (Boyd & Richerson, 1992; Zuckerman, 1999), to be considered uncommit- ted to the group (Feldman, 1984), and to lose their leadership position (Yukl, 2010). Furthermore, ideas that violate expectations and people who violate gender norms are often discouraged and treated with suspicion (Mueller, Melwani, & Goncalo, 2012; Okimoto & Brescoll, 2010). Based on this logic, one would expect people to generally prefer art that keeps with tradition to art that deviates from it, because the former contains more predictable patterns and conforms more to implicit norms and expectations. Despite the intuitive plausibility of these arguments, several strands of theorizing and research suggest that people may actually appreciate and reward deviance, both within and outside the artis- tic domain. When it comes to encountering deviant art, unpre- dicted patterns may pose less of a threat as compared with en- countering potentially order-undermining behavior of a deviant group member. In fact, in the safe as-if context of art, works that belie a predicted pattern may even lead to perceptual pleasure, as the wavering state of prediction error amplifies the subsequent positive affect of prediction confirmation by means of a contrast effect (Huron, 2006; Van de Cruys & Wagemans, 2011). Empirical evidence in favor of this account comes from studies investigating the aesthetic appreciation of music. For instance, Sloboda (1991) found that marked violations of expectations in music correlate with “shivers down the spine,” which are associated with increases in flow in reward- and euphoria-related regions of the brain (e.g., ventral striatum and orbitofrontal cortex; Blood & Zatorre, 2001). Other theories of visual perception suggest that incongruent and unfamiliar stimuli can cause interest (Berlyne, 1960), which can motivate the exploration of one’s environment and the learning of new knowledge, skills, and experiences (Silvia, 2006, 2008). Research outside the artistic domain also provides suggestive evidence that deviance can, under particular circumstances, con- tribute to influence. First, research on the perception of social targets has demonstrated that deviating from behavioral standards can bring about positive outcomes. Deviating from norms indicates that one experiences the leeway to act according to one’s own volition in spite of situational constraints and potential repercus- sions (Stamkou & Van Kleef, 2014). Given that social power is associated with lack of constraint (Galinsky, Gruenfeld, & Magee, 2003; Keltner, Gruenfeld, & Anderson, 2003), individuals whose behavior appears unconstrained by normative pressures may be perceived as powerful. Indeed, empirical studies have shown that individuals who violated prevailing norms were considered more powerful than individuals who complied with the norms (Stamkou, Van Kleef, Homan, & Galinsky, 2016; Van Kleef, Homan, Finke- nauer, Gündemir, & Stamkou, 2011). Moreover, norm violators whose behavior benefited others were more likely to be given a leadership role (Popa, Phillips, & Robertson, 2014; Van Kleef, Homan, Finkenauer, Blaker, & Heerdink, 2012). Other studies showed that individuals who entered a boutique wearing gym clothes rather than appropriate attire or who attended a black tie event wearing a red tie were ascribed higher status because they were considered autonomous (Bellezza, Gino, & Keinan, 2014). Of note, when the violator’s behavior was portrayed as uninten- tional, these effects were attenuated, which is consistent with the notion that inferences of power are contingent on the perception that violators have greater will-power. In short, deviant behavior can fuel perceptions of influence in social interactions as long as the actor’s behavior is considered willful. Second, deviation from default thinking styles has been associ- ated with creativity, which is the basis of an artist’s reputation and impact. For example, in one study the activation of counterstereo- typical thinking propelled the generation of creative ideas (Gocłowska, Crisp, & Labuschagne, 2013). Moreover, divergent cultural experiences, such as multiculturalism or living abroad, foster creative performance by diversifying one’s cognitive per- spectives (Maddux & Galinsky, 2009; Maddux, Adam, & Galin- sky, 2010; Tadmor, Galinsky, & Maddux, 2012). In other studies, participants who were primed with cues representing the concept of deviancy showed greater creative engagement than participants who were primed with conformity cues (Förster, Friedman, But- terbach, & Sassenberg, 2005). This association between divergent thinking and creativity may contribute to lay beliefs that maverick artists can create work of high impact (Feist, 1998; Van Tilburg & Igou, 2014). In sum, given that people who deviate from conventional be- haviors or thinking styles gain benefits that may translate into an elevated social position, we propose that artists who use uncon- ventional means of expression in their work may make a greater impact than artists who follow conventional means of expression. Thus, if we accept the premise that deviating from norms and expectations can elevate one’s impact in social hierarchies (see Van Kleef et al., 2015), the hypothesis follows that artists who deviate from a given artistic norm are perceived as more impactful than artists who follow the norm. Although we thus contend that, generally speaking, deviating from prevailing norms and expecta- tions can boost an artist’s impact, we acknowledge that artistic deviance is not a fixed notion—it is bound to the social and historical context that shapes the background against which devi- ance is considered. Considering Artistic Deviance in Its Social Context The social context refers to the immediate social setting in which artists develop their work. Here we focus on two different types of social context that we believe may shape perceivers’ responses to deviant art: the artist’s own previous work and the work of the artist’s contemporaries. Our definition of artistic deviance is derived from the notion of descriptive norms, which describe which behaviors are typically performed (Cialdini, Reno, T hi s do cu m en t is co py ri gh te d by th e A m er ic an P sy ch ol og ic al A ss oc ia ti on or on e of it s al li ed pu bl is he rs . T hi s ar ti cl e is in te nd ed so le ly fo r th e pe rs on al us e of th e in di vi du al us er an d is no t to be di ss em in at ed br oa dl y. 277ART OF INFLUENCE & Kallgren, 1990). Deviance from an artistic descriptive norm thus implies that artists deviate from a prevailing artistic style. Deviat- ing from one’s own previous style can be considered a form of intrapersonal artistic deviance, whereas deviating from the pre- dominant style of one’s contemporaries constitutes a form of interpersonal artistic deviance. In the first case, the focus is on how an artist’s work is judged against the context of his or her own previous style, whereas in the second case the focus is on how an artist’s work is judged against the style adopted by the majority of his or her contemporaries. Intrapersonal Deviance New art movements do not emerge out of a vacuum. Art mostly evolves in an incremental way, where the new is folded into the old (Gombrich, 1995), much alike biological and cultural evolution (Heine, 2015; Nunn, 2008; Voigtländer & Voth, 2012). Accord- ingly, artworks are often judged against the background of the artist’s previous work, and indeed many expositions are structured chronologically so as to highlight the artist’s development over time. This notion of contextual judgment is important, because it implies that the evaluation of a particular piece of art may depend on the type of art the artist made before. In other words, an artwork may be judged differently depending on whether the artist fol- lowed the same style before or whether he deviated from his previous style. According to idiosyncrasy credits theory (Hollander, 1958), one can only deviate from old practices after one has proven oneself capable of following them. Earlier conformity to old practices allows others to develop confidence in a person’s skills and com- mitment to the group, which in turn licenses deviance at a later stage (Bray, Johnson, & Chilstrom, 1982; Stone & Cooper, 2009). The operation of such mechanisms can be seen in the careers of famous artists. For instance, historical analyses of the career of the pop band The Beatles highlight how the early albums of The Beatles conformed to the norms of their time, and how after gaining credits by following these norms they began producing highly innovative music that skyrocketed their sales and fame (Inglis, 1996). Another example is found in the rap scene where Lena and Pachucki (2013) empirically demonstrated that rap artists gained status by first showing a repetition of practices that were understood as legitimate by their audience and then introducing novel artistic content that increased their popularity. In classical music too, Beethoven diligently studied and even copied parts of the works of his musical predecessors (e.g., Haydn, Mozart, Bach) before he pushed the boundaries of traditional compositional tech- nique to infuse his late works with unheard-of passion and drama that account for his international fame (Schonberg, 1997; Swaf- ford, 2014). Extending these ideas to the realm of the visual arts, we argue that it is important for artists to obtain sufficient idiosyncrasy credits by first practicing forms of art that are considered tradi- tional in a given era before allowing themselves the leeway to stray to innovative forms of art. If an artist sticks to the same style, observers may assume that this choice of style is dictated by lack of alternatives— because, for instance, the artist did not have the skills to adopt an alternative style—rather than by a deliberate choice. In contrast, if an artist’s portfolio integrates different styles, observers may assume that the artist is able to produce a certain artistic style, but deliberately chose to adopt another style. In this latter case, the artist’s choice to switch to another style indicates the artist’s will to develop an autonomous artistic path. Appreciating the artist’s course of action under the prism of will-power should in turn enhance perceptions of impact (Bellezza et al., 2014; Stamkou & Van Kleef, 2014). In light of these considerations, we hypothesize that artists who show a variety of styles by deviating from what they were making before (i.e., intrapersonal artistic deviance) are credited more for their work than artists who stay within a certain style by repro- ducing what they were making before. Interpersonal Deviance Existential and evolutionary accounts converge to suggest that humans have an enduring and universal need to distinguish them- selves from others (Burris & Rempel, 2004). Previous research has shown that information is better memorized when it distinguishes the self from others (Leyens, Yzerbyt, & Rogier, 1997). Feelings of extreme similarity to others are associated with negative affect (Fromkin, 1972), positive evaluation of scarce experiences (From- kin, 1970), and greater identification with distinctive groups (Brewer & Pickett, 1999). Accordingly, people generally describe themselves as less similar to others than others are to themselves (Codol, 1987). These findings indicate that individuals are motivated to establish and maintain a sense of differentiation from others by acting in ways that show their distinctiveness to others (Brewer, 1991). Research also indicates systematic differences in the particular ways in which feelings of distinctiveness can be achieved depending on one’s social, cultural, or professional milieu (Dutton, Roberts, & Bednar, 2010; Hornsey, Jetten, McAuliffe, & Hogg, 2006; Vignoles, Chryssochoou, & Breakwell, 2000). In the realm of art, the most straightforward way for artists to differentiate themselves is to depart from the style employed by most other artists in their era (Alvarez, Mazza, Pedersen, & Svejenova, 2005). Because making a difference entails comparison with others, judgments of artists’ work are influ- enced by their contemporaries’ work. In other words, contemporaries’ work constitutes the interpersonal context within which an artist’s work is evaluated (Barkow, Cosmides, & Tooby, 1992; Leder, Belke, Oeberst, & Augustin, 2004; Sammartino & Palmer, 2012). The significance of being different from one’s contemporaries is compatible with theories of aesthetics that see aesthetic apprecia- tion as the outcome of contrastive explanations that compare the respective values of a set of artworks (Stecker, 2003). Further- more, the interpersonal context of an artwork makes people pay attention to and inquire about the intentions of the artist (Bullot & Reber, 2013). For instance, a nonrealistic artwork usually contains features that are difficult to process, and this lack of processing fluency may undermine the viewers’ understanding and apprecia- tion of the artwork (Reber et al., 1998, 2004; Wiersema, Van der Schalk, & Van Kleef, 2012). A nonrealistic artwork that is pre- sented among realistic artworks, however, may prompt viewers to quest into the artist’s reasons for adopting a deviant style and thus to infer the artist’s will to propose novel means of expression. In other words, the context of the artwork may lead people to make sense of the deviance through their inferences about the artist’s will-power (Stamkou & Van Kleef, 2014). Suggestive empirical support for the role of context in shaping the appreciation of artworks comes from a study showing that a mismatch between the T hi s do cu m en t is co py ri gh te d by th e A m er ic an P sy ch ol og ic al A ss oc ia ti on or on e of it s al li ed pu bl is he rs . T hi s ar ti cl e is in te nd ed so le ly fo r th e pe rs on al us e of th e in di vi du al us er an d is no t to be di ss em in at ed br oa dl y. 278 STAMKOU, VAN KLEEF, AND HOMAN style of a focal design object and the style of contextual design objects increased the perceived value of the focal object (Blijlev- ens, Gemser, & Mugge, 2012). In keeping with these theoretical accounts and empirical find- ings, we propose that artists who deviate from their contempo- raries’ styles (i.e., interpersonal artistic deviance) are perceived as more impactful than artists who follow their contemporaries’ styles, because their decision to deviate indicates that their choice of style is dictated by their own will rather than by external influences. Considering Artistic Deviance in Its Historical Context A work of art is an artifact that is embedded in a historical context. Accordingly, modern theories of aesthetics appeal to beholders’ sensitivity to historical contexts and the evolution of such contexts to explain art appreciation (Bullot, 2009; Bullot & Reber, 2013; Davies, 2004; Levinson, 2007). Bullot and Reber (2013), for instance, introduced a psycho-historical framework of art appreciation that posits that individuals’ responses to artworks rely not only on the visible traces of the artwork but also on their knowledge about the historical context in which the artist worked. By the same token, historical contingencies play an essential role in what people consider deviant artistic work. Examples of deviant movements in different eras showcase that the definition of artistic deviance has changed through the ages. Dutch Masters, for instance, dared to show the imperfections of life by depicting their subjects the way they really looked rather than beautified; Cubists created the illusion of three-dimensional forms by depicting their subjects from a multitude of viewpoints rather than a single view- point; and Futurists captured the rush of industrialization by de- picting their subjects in a dynamic rather than static manner. Proponents of these movements were all considered deviants in their era because they led to an artistic development by straying away from tradition. These examples demonstrate that a proper understanding of deviant art requires that one consider the histor- ical evolution of art movements in a given culture (Bullot & Reber, 2013; Leder et al., 2004; Levinson, 2007). In Western cultures, popular styles have changed throughout the centuries, with realistic forms of art mostly being the norm till approximately the second half of the 19th century. This is not to say that painting before that time-point aimed exclusively and entirely at the imitation of reality, as there are examples of art- works that did not aim at a veridical representation of natural objects before that time (Gombrich, 1985). However, the link with nature provided some kind of anchorage in western painting up until the rise of nonrealistic movements.1 By the end of the 19th century most of the movements that rose to prominence rejected the study of natural appearances (Gombrich, 1995). Along other historical events, the shift from realistic to nonrealistic forms of art in western cultures coincides with the spread of photography, which was then seen as a rival to painting (Rosenblum, 1989). Painters of that era were therefore motivated to explore alterna- tives to the representation of nature, which spurred new artistic developments (Gombrich, 1995). The example of nonrealistic art illustrates that artistic deviance is effective when it leads to some kind of artistic progress. On the contrary, artistic deviance that does not move art forward or is backward-looking is less likely to prevail. This possibility reso- nates with evolutionary theories on the accumulation of cultural information. Given that innovations build on previously existing structures (Voigtländer & Voth, 2012), cultural information grows in complexity over time, and so cultural evolution moves like a ratchet—it only goes forward and never slips back (Tennie, Call, & Tomasello, 2009). Similarly, historical accounts of evolution suggest that deviant ideas are culture’s engines that are responsible for the dynamism of human species because they compel us to think, reevaluate, and criticize (Harari, 2015). Apparently the same happens with the evolution of art movements, because artistic development over time is the result of an unquenchable thirst for novelty (Martindale, 1990). As such, artists who embrace older art styles might be seen as retrogressive and therefore less impactful. Our historical analysis suggests that realistic art should be considered less progressive than nonrealistic art because realism appeared earlier than nonrealism, which only prevailed in the latest centuries. Given that deviance is valued when it is progressive, we expected that the hypothesized intrapersonal and interpersonal artistic deviance effects would occur only if the artist deviates toward a progressive movement, such as nonrealism. In other words, we expected that deviating from realism to nonrealism fuels stronger perceptions of impact than deviating from nonrealism to realism because of the historical evolution of art movements in Western cultures.2 Overview of Model and Hypotheses In the current research, deviance and impact are conceptualized within the domain of art, and our findings should thus be inter- preted in the context of artistic judgments. From now on, we therefore use the terms “intrapersonal deviance” and “interper- sonal deviance” to refer to deviance in the artistic domain. Based on the theorizing above, we advance five interrelated hypotheses, including a generic mechanism that drives the effects of artistic deviance. First, because artists are judged against the background of their own previous work, we hypothesize that artists who deviate from their previous means of expression by adopting distinct styles within their career are seen as more impactful than artists who consistently follow a certain style (intrapersonal deviance effect). 1 Artwork styles that aim to render a naturalistic representation of the external world (e.g., realism, symbolism, romanticism) are grouped under the term “realistic.” In contrast, artwork styles that depart from a natural- istic representation of the world (e.g., impressionism, cubism, abstract expressionism) are defined as “nonrealistic.” 2 Given that cultural evolution relies on the pursuit of novelty, artistic movements that do not move art forward (e.g., realism in present-day western cultures) might be seen as retrogressive and thereby less impactful (Tennie et al., 2009; Voigtländer & Voth, 2012). We therefore expected that artists who adopt a rather progressive style, such as nonrealism, will be seen as more impactful than artists who adopt a rather retrogressive style, such as realism. We tested this idea in three studies that we report in the Online Supplemental Material. First, we showed that artists who made nonrealistic artworks were considered more influential than artists who made realistic artworks because nonrealistic artists’ work was perceived to be more unconventional (Study S1). Second, we demonstrated that artworks made in an artist’s idiosyncratic period that is characterized by nonrealistic elements are valuated higher and attract people’s attention more than artworks made in an artist’s academic or transi- tional periods, which are mostly characterized by realistic elements. This effect was replicated among museum visitors (Study S2a) and university students (Study S2b). T hi s do cu m en t is co py ri gh te d by th e A m er ic an P sy ch ol og ic al A ss oc ia ti on or on e of it s al li ed pu bl is he rs . T hi s ar ti cl e is in te nd ed so le ly fo r th e pe rs on al us e of th e in di vi du al us er an d is no t to be di ss em in at ed br oa dl y. 279ART OF INFLUENCE http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000131.supp http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000131.supp Second, we hypothesize that the effect of intrapersonal deviance is more pronounced if the artist’s style transitioned toward a progressive style, for instance, from realism to nonrealism rather than the other way around (moderation of the intrapersonal devi- ance effect by progressiveness). Third, given that artists are evaluated in the context of their contemporaries’ work, we propose that artists who deviate from their contemporaries’ style are considered more impactful than artists who follow their contemporaries’ style (interpersonal devi- ance effect). Fourth, we hypothesize that the effect of interpersonal deviance is more pronounced when artists deviate toward a progressive style, for example, when they deviate from a predominant realistic style by using nonrealistic means of expression rather than when they deviate from a predominant nonrealistic style by using real- istic means of expression (moderation of the interpersonal devi- ance effect by progressiveness). Fifth, we propose that the effects of deviance on artistic impact are driven by observers’ inferences about the artists’ intentionality in their choice of style. Namely, deviant artists may be perceived as more impactful because they deviated from their previous style or other artists’ style out of personal will-power (mediation of the intrapersonal and interpersonal deviance effects through per- ceived will-power). In conjunction, we hypothesize that artists who deviate from the norms they established during their career (intrapersonal deviance) as well as the norms that their contemporaries have established (interpersonal deviance) will be perceived as more impactful than artists who follow the various types of norms. Importantly, artistic deviance at either level is more effective when it is imbued with progressiveness. Our theoretical model is visualized in Figure 1. Overview of Studies We conducted six studies to test our theoretical model. We operationalized artistic deviance by letting the focal artwork be similar to or different from its intrapersonal or interpersonal con- text. Artworks were either of realistic or nonrealistic styles. We used the discernible differences between realistic and nonrealistic art to visualize deviance. We assumed that the contrast between these two styles would make the operationalization of deviance accessible to our sample, which consisted of western individuals with no particular expertise in art. In most studies, we operation- alized progressiveness of deviance by letting the focal artwork be nonrealistic while context artworks were realistic. This operation- alization was premised on the assumption that nonrealistic styles would be considered more progressive than realistic styles. We tested this assumption in Study 1, in which we examined people’s beliefs about the progressiveness of realistic and nonrealistic styles. Next, Studies 2 and 3 focused on intrapersonal deviance (i.e., deviance from one’s own previous style), whether in the direction of realism or nonrealism. Studies 4 and 5 focused on interpersonal deviance (i.e., deviance from the predominant style of one’s contemporaries), whether in the direction of realism or nonrealism. To establish that the effects of artistic deviance are not confounded with abstractness that was common among all art- works of nonrealistic style used in Studies 2 to 5, we further examined interpersonal deviance in Study 6 by operationalizing the motif of the artwork (triangle vs. rectangular) while keeping the style of the artworks constant across conditions, that is, non- realistic. The deviance operationalization in Study 6 allowed us to address the alternative possibility that the predicted effect of artistic deviance is attributable to other positive qualities (rather than artistic deviance) that are associated with the artist’s expres- sive means. Across studies, we used different ecologically valid operation- alizations of artistic impact that were informed by prominent definitions of impact in the field of art (Schönfeld & Reinstaller, 2007). According to these definitions, impactful artists are influ- ential (influence), and produce artworks that are highly priced (valuation) and catch people’s attention (attention). We assessed the influence aspect by measuring the extent to which an artist is perceived to be influential across all studies that tested the effects of deviance (Studies 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6). We assessed the valuation aspect by measuring the estimated price of an artist’s work (Study 2) or intentions to purchase merchandise depicting the artist’s work (Study 5). Finally, we measured the attention aspect by investigating engagement of visual attention while looking at the artwork (Study 5). An overview of the artistic impact operation- alizations per study is presented in Table 1. All studies started with a brief introduction, after which partic- ipants indicated their participation consent. Participants were then presented with high-quality copies of original artworks, and they indicated whether they thought the artists would gain (or had gained) impact in terms of influence, valuation, and attention. We also estimated individuals’ beliefs about the artist’s will-power (Studies 3, 5, and 6) to examine whether inferences about the intentionality of the artist’s actions could explain the effects of deviance on the various indices of artistic impact. Additional measures that functioned as manipulation checks, control vari- ables, and alternative mediators are described in the method sec- tion of each study. The artworks used in each study were retrieved from an online visual art encyclopedia (www.wikiart.org). We used G�Power 3 (Faul, Erdfelder, Lang, & Buchner, 2007) to calculate the required sample size of our studies. In the power analyses we used the cumulative effect size of previous studies to compute the required sample of each follow-up study to achieve statistical power of at least .80, given alpha level of .05. When there were no previous studies available or there was no indication in the literature of the size of the hypothesized effect, we used contemporary conventions regarding number of participants per Figure 1. Theoretical model illustrating that deviating from the style previously employed by the artist (intrapersonal deviance) or the style currently employed by the artist’s contemporaries (interpersonal deviance) enhances an artist’s impact, especially when artistic deviance is directed toward a progressive style. T hi s do cu m en t is co py ri gh te d by th e A m er ic an P sy ch ol og ic al A ss oc ia ti on or on e of it s al li ed pu bl is he rs . T hi s ar ti cl e is in te nd ed so le ly fo r th e pe rs on al us e of th e in di vi du al us er an d is no t to be di ss em in at ed br oa dl y. 280 STAMKOU, VAN KLEEF, AND HOMAN http://www.wikiart.org condition (Lakens & Evers, 2014). In studies where there were multiple artistic impact variables we calculated the average effect size across variables. Study 1 investigated progressiveness, and so it was not included in the estimation of the cumulative effect size of the rest of the studies that investigated artistic impact. Data collection stopped when we had reached at least the required sample size calculated in the power analysis. In all studies the actual sample size was slightly larger than the required sample size because of compensation for anticipated drop-out (Zhou & Fish- bach, 2016). Table 1 gives an overview of the actual and required sample size, as well as the effect size of each study. In the studies below we report all relevant measures and manipulations. Besides the studies reported in the current paper, we carried out five additional studies (S1, S2a, S2b, S3, and S4) that tested effects not focal to this paper. All of these studies replicated our main effect of interest. Information about these studies is provided in the Online Supplemental Material. Study 1 The main tenet of our model is that artistic deviance should enhance an artist’s impact, especially when the artist deviates by means of a progressive style. In light of the historical evolution of styles in Western cultures, we assumed that nonrealistic styles are thought of as more progressive than realistic styles. In Study 1 we set out to substantiate this assumption and lay the groundwork for the ensuing studies, in which progressiveness of deviance is op- erationalized as the artist’s choice for a nonrealistic style (i.e., Studies 3, 4, and 5). Method Because existing literature provided no indication of the size of the hypothesized effect we could expect in Study 1, we aimed for a large sample to ensure we would achieve sufficient statistical power. We recruited 124 participants through Prolific Academic (www.prolific.ac). Participants were citizens of the U.K. with an Asian (6), African American (3), or Caucasian (115) background. The study was administered as an online questionnaire and partic- ipants were compensated with money (see Table 1 for further sample details). Participants were asked to indicate the extent to which they find realistic and nonrealistic art progressive on 7-point bipolar scales ranging from 1 � retrogressive to 7 � progressive. Furthermore, participants were asked to estimate the time-point when painters started making realistic and nonrealistic artworks on 12-point Likert scales ranging from the 10th to the 21st century. Results A paired-samples t test with progressiveness ratings of realistic and nonrealistic styles as paired variables showed that nonrealistic styles (M � 5.16, SD � 1.45) are considered more progressive than realistic styles (M � 3.91, SD � 1.52), t(123) � �6.05, p � .001, d � �0.54. Another paired-samples t test showed that participants dated the beginning of realistic art (M � 5.37, SD � 3.01) earlier than the beginning of nonrealistic art (M � 8.25, SD � 2.96), t(123) � �8.96, p � .001, d � �0.80. Discussion These results demonstrate that participants generally consider nonrealistic styles more progressive than realistic styles. The find- ing that realistic art is dated earlier than nonrealistic art lends additional credence to the idea that nonrealistic art is perceived as more progressive than realistic art. The perceived progressiveness of nonrealistic styles was expected to moderate the effects of intrapersonal and interpersonal deviance on impact in Studies 3, 4, and 5, where the deviance operationalization entailed the adoption of a different style (either realistic or nonrealistic) than adopted previously by the focal artist (intrapersonal deviance) or by the artist’s contemporaries (interpersonal deviance). (In Study 6, where the deviance operationalization did not imply a choice for a Table 1 Sample Characteristics and Operationalization of Artistic Impact per Study Study Sample Age Gender Artistic impact operationalization Required Na Actual N f M (SD) Range Men Women Transgender Unknown 1 — 124 .27 36.09 (11.64) 19–72 55 69 0 0 — 2 96 116 .25 35.12 (15.98) 18–78 57 59 0 0 Perceived influence Price estimation 3 122 136 .18 23.00 (6.85) 18–65 41 95 0 0 Perceived influence 4 168 172 .19 35.88 (11.92) 18–75 95 76 1 0 Perceived influence 5 181 227 .18 20.46 (3.01) 18–44 75 138 1 13 Perceived influence Purchase intention Visual attention 6 181 218 .55 38.62 (12.64) 18–84 85 133 0 0 Perceived influence Note. In Study 5, age and gender data from 13 participants were not recorded. Perceived influence and price estimation correlated positively in Study 2, r(112) � .33, p � .001, and Study 5, r(227) � .33, p � .001. Visual attention correlated positively with purchase intention, r(227) � .15, p � .027, and showed no significant correlation with perceived influence, although their relationship was in the predicted direction, r(227) � .11, p � .090. a In the power analyses we used the cumulative effect size of previous studies to compute the required sample of each follow-up study. The required sample size of Study 2 was based on the cumulative effect size observed in Studies S1 (f � .31) and S2a (f � .50), whereas Study S2b’s effect size (f � .25) was not taken into account because the data for this study were collected in parallel to the Study 2 data. Furthermore, the effect size of Studies S3 (f � .25) and S4 (f � .20) were not included in the power analyses because these studies were conducted after the studies reported in the main text. T hi s do cu m en t is co py ri gh te d by th e A m er ic an P sy ch ol og ic al A ss oc ia ti on or on e of it s al li ed pu bl is he rs . T hi s ar ti cl e is in te nd ed so le ly fo r th e pe rs on al us e of th e in di vi du al us er an d is no t to be di ss em in at ed br oa dl y. 281ART OF INFLUENCE http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000131.supp http://www.prolific.ac nonrealistic style, deviant artists’ impact should not depend on the expressive means by which the artists deviated.) Study 2 The intrapersonal deviance hypothesis holds that artists who deviate from their previous style are seen as more impactful than artists who consistently follow a certain style. This implies that the evaluation of artists is influenced by whether they switch to an alternative style at some point in their career. The current study tested the intrapersonal deviance effect by investigating whether artists would gain greater impact when their portfolio contains artworks of both realistic and nonrealistic styles (intrapersonal deviance) than when their portfolio contains artworks of only one style (no intrapersonal deviance). We assessed the influence and valuation aspects of artistic impact by measuring perceived influ- ence of the artist and price estimation of the artist’s work in an auction. Method Sample. The required sample size of Study 2 (NR � 96) was based on the cumulative effect size observed in Studies S1 and S2a, whereas study S2b was not taken into account because the data for this study were collected in parallel to the Study 2 data. The actual sample consisted of 116 adults who were recruited in a central train station in Amsterdam and participated in the study on a voluntary basis. The study was administered as a paper-and- pencil questionnaire, which could be completed in English (4 participants) or Dutch. The original Dutch questionnaire was trans- lated into English following the back-translation procedure out- lined by Brislin (1986). Further sample details appear in Table 1. Design, materials, and procedure. Participants were pre- sented with a portfolio that consisted of four paintings and they were told that the artworks were made by the same artist. All artworks were made by Dutch artist Willem De Kooning, apart from one that was made by Graham White, an artist who was inspired by De Kooning’s style. We selected paintings from De Kooning because of the stark contrast between his academic period and his abstract expressionism period (Yard, 2007). Participants were randomly assigned to one of three experimental conditions, with the first two being nondeviant and the third one being deviant in terms of showing a departure from the artist’s earlier style. That is, the portfolio either included exclusively realistic style artworks (only realistic style), exclusively nonrealistic style artworks (only nonrealistic style), or an equal number of realistic and nonrealistic style artworks (mixed style). In the first condition we used three artworks from De Kooning’s academic period and one realistic- style artwork from Graham White, in the second condition we used four artworks from De Kooning’s abstract expressionism period, and in the third condition we showed two artworks from each of the previous conditions (see Appendix A and Table 2 for details about the artworks). The artworks were presented on separate pages of the questionnaire in a pseudorandomized order. All art- works were presented in greyscale. After seeing all artworks, participants rated the artist’s perceived influence on a scale that consisted of three items (“I think this artist . . . has influenced his contemporaries,” “. . . made a great contribution to art,” and “. . . is famous”). The items were an- swered on 7-point Likert scales ranging from 1 � strongly dis- agree to 7 � strongly agree (� � .83). They then estimated the artist’s work by filling out an amount in euro they thought one of the artist’s paintings would be auctioned for. Results We tested the effect of artist’s intrapersonal deviance on per- ceived influence and price estimation by means of ANOVAs. We also conducted a planned contrast to compare the difference be- tween the deviant condition (mixed style) and the nondeviant conditions (only realistic-style and only nonrealistic style). De- scriptives for perceived influence and price estimation are dis- played in Table 3, and test statistics are reported in text below. Perceived influence. ANOVA showed a main effect of art- ist’s intrapersonal deviance on perceived influence, F(2, 113) � 7.18, p � .001, �p2 � .11. Specifically, the artist was considered more influential when his portfolio included artworks of mixed styles than when his portfolio included artworks of a single style, t(113) � �3.55, p � .001, d � �0.67 (see left panel of Figure 2). For exploratory purposes we examined the difference between the deviance condition and each of the no-deviance conditions separately. These analyses showed that the artist was considered more influential when his portfolio included artworks of mixed styles than when his portfolio included exclusively realistic style artworks, t(113) � �3.73, p � .001, d � �0.70, or exclusively nonrealistic style artworks, t(113) � �2.39, p � .019, d � �0.45. Price estimation. Four participants did not fill out the price estimation question, leaving a sample of 112 participants. Because the distribution of price estimation scores was positively skewed (skewness � 10.40, SE � 0.23), we applied a logarithmic trans- formation that resulted in a normalized distribution (skewness � 0.75, SE � 0.23). ANOVA indicated that artist’s intrapersonal deviance influenced respondents’ price estimation, F(2, 109) � 3.33, p � .039, �p2 � .06. In line with the intrapersonal deviance hypothesis, participants estimated the artist’s work higher when his portfolio included artworks of mixed styles than when his portfolio included artworks of a single style, t(109) � �2.33, p � .021, d � �0.45 (see right panel of Figure 2). Again, we explored the difference between the deviance condi- tion and each of the no-deviance conditions. These analyses indi- cated that the artist’s work was valuated higher when his portfolio included artworks of mixed styles than when his portfolio included exclusively nonrealistic style artworks, t(109) � �2.57, p � .012, d � �0.70, but not when his portfolio included exclusively real- istic style artworks, t(109) � �1.45, p � .149, d � �0.28. Discussion The results of Study 2 indicate that artists are considered more influential and their work is valuated higher when they use both realistic and nonrealistic forms of expression than when they use only one form of expression. These findings provide initial evi- dence that deviant artists are better off if they also produce art- works of a less progressive style (i.e., realism), presumably be- cause these artworks readily testify that the artist’s choice to depart T hi s do cu m en t is co py ri gh te d by th e A m er ic an P sy ch ol og ic al A ss oc ia ti on or on e of it s al li ed pu bl is he rs . T hi s ar ti cl e is in te nd ed so le ly fo r th e pe rs on al us e of th e in di vi du al us er an d is no t to be di ss em in at ed br oa dl y. 282 STAMKOU, VAN KLEEF, AND HOMAN from a previous style was a product of the artist’s free will rather than lack of skill (Bray et al., 1982; Hollander, 1958). Although these findings are consistent with our theoretical framework, the conclusions that can be drawn from this study are limited by three interrelated issues. First, the results leave open an alternative interpretation in terms of perceived competence or versatility. That is, artists who deviate from their previous style by employing an alternative style may be perceived as more skillful or more versatile than artists who stick with one style.3 Second, the current study does not provide evidence for the underlying mechanism that drives the effect of intrapersonal deviance, which according to our theorizing relates to viewers’ inferences about the artist’s intentional shift to alternative means of ex- pression (rather than perceptions of competence or versatility). Third, the current results do not speak to the question of whether artists are better off endorsing a progressive style before or after a retrogressive one. Such temporal variations may have implications for how an artist’s deviance is inter- preted (e.g., to what extent it is seen as a sign of will-power). These limitations were addressed in Study 3. 3 Although artists who can master more than one style (intrapersonal deviance) would be naturally considered more competent than artists who master only one style (no intrapersonal deviance), perceived competence was not expected to explain the effects of intrapersonal deviance on impact because, according to our theory, the effect of deviance was driven by the inference that the artist made a willful choice for an alternative style. In Study 2 we assessed perceived competence of the artist to rule out the explanation that the effect of intrapersonal deviance on impact would be accounted for by competence. As expected, results showed that the artist was considered more competent when his portfolio included artworks of mixed styles than when his portfolio included artworks of a single style, but perceived competence did not mediate the effect of intrapersonal deviance on perceived influence. Table 2 Details About the Artworks Used in Studies 2 to 6 Artist name Artwork title Date of artwork production Study 2 Willem de Kooning Still Life (Bowl, Pitcher, and Jug)a 1921 Willem de Kooning Portrait of Elainea 1940–1941 Willem de Kooning Untitled (Still Life)a 1916 Graham White Drawings, Winter–Springb 2010 Willem de Kooning Untitled (The Cow Jumps Over the Moon)a 1937–1938 Willem de Kooning Charcoal Drawinga circa 1970–1980 Willem de Kooning Secretarya 1948 Willem de Kooning Figurea 1949 Study 3 Pablo Picasso Bull (plate II)a 1945 Pablo Picasso Bull (plate III)a 1945 Pablo Picasso Bull (plate VII)a 1946 Pablo Picasso Bull (plate IX)a 1946 Study 4 Andrew Wyeth Braids (Helga Terstorf)a 1979 Pablo Picasso Portrait of the Artist’s Mothera 1896 Boris Kustodiev Portrait of a Woman 1920 Salvador Dalí Portrait of Katharina Cornella 1951 Pablo Picasso Portrait of Jacqueline Roque With Her Hands Crosseda 1954 Francis Picabia Ridensa 1929 Study 5 Edvard Munch Self-Portrait 1881–1882 Paul Feeley Portrait of Samuel L. M. Barlow 1932 Jamie Wyeth Portrait of Andrew Wyeth 1969 Thomas Cowperthwait Eakins Portrait of Samuel Murray 1889 Richard Whitney Michael J. McGivney Unknown Juan Gris Portrait of Pablo Picasso 1912 Nadezhda Udaltsova Cubist Portrait 1915 Lyubov Popova Sketch for Portrait 1889 Pablo Picasso William Uhde 1910 Pablo Picasso Portrait of Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler 1910 Study 6 Unknown artists Untitled artworksc Unknown Note. All artworks reproduced in the article are reproduced with permission, unless the artist’s rights are in public domain (e.g., Boris Kustodiev). Copyright on works of visual artists affiliated to the International Confederation of Societies of Authors and Composers (CISAC) organization (i.e., Willem de Kooning, Pablo Picasso, Andrew Wyeth, Salvador Dalí, and Francis Picabia) has been arranged with Pictoright in Amsterdam. Copyright on Graham White’s work has been arranged with the artist himself. a Pictoright Amsterdam, 2018. b © Graham White, 2018. c Artist names, artwork titles, and year of artwork production are unknown because these artworks were derived from Internet service providers (e.g., Pinterest). T hi s do cu m en t is co py ri gh te d by th e A m er ic an P sy ch ol og ic al A ss oc ia ti on or on e of it s al li ed pu bl is he rs . T hi s ar ti cl e is in te nd ed so le ly fo r th e pe rs on al us e of th e in di vi du al us er an d is no t to be di ss em in at ed br oa dl y. 283ART OF INFLUENCE Study 3 The current study investigated a qualification of the intraper- sonal deviance hypothesis, namely that artists gain more impact when their work evolves from a less progressive style to a more progressive one rather than in the opposite order. The logic un- derlying this prediction is that artists who produce traditional artworks early on in their career and then stray away from tradi- tions demonstrate that their style change is driven by a deliberate choice to broaden the horizon of their artistic expression rather than by a shortage of technical skills. To test this idea, we crossed a manipulation of intrapersonal deviance similar to that employed in Study 2 with a manipulation of the artist’s early style, so that the artist who deviated either deviated in the direction of a progressive style (i.e., nonrealism) or in the direction of a retrogressive style (i.e., realism). Furthermore, the design of Study 3 allows us to examine whether perceived competence or versatility explain the interactive effect of intrapersonal deviance and progressiveness of deviance on artistic impact. Artists who deviate toward a progres- sive style should be seen as more willful than artists who deviate toward a retrogressive style, because the artists’ choice to switch to a progressive style indicates their will to develop an autonomous artistic path. At the same time, artists who deviate toward a progressive style should be considered equally competent and versatile as artists who deviate toward a retrogressive style, be- cause in both cases the artist masters the same type and number of styles. We also investigated whether the effect of intrapersonal deviance on artistic impact could be explained by individuals’ perceptions of the artist’s will-power to shape their individual artistic path. Finally, we included a manipulation check of intrap- ersonal deviance. We investigated the above predictions by focus- ing on the influence aspect of artistic impact. Method Sample. The required sample size of Study 3 (NR � 122) was based on the cumulative effect size observed in Studies S1, S2a, S2b, and 2. The actual sample consisted of 136 students from the University of Amsterdam who participated in the study in ex- change for course credits. Participants were recruited via the university’s online system (www.test.uva.nl). Further sample de- tails are provided in Table 1. Design, materials, and procedure. Participants were ran- domly assigned to a 2 (artist’s intrapersonal deviance: no vs. yes) � 2 (artist’s early style: realistic vs. nonrealistic) between- subjects experimental design. They were presented with a portfolio of two paintings made by Spanish artist Pablo Picasso. We selected two realistic and two nonrealistic artworks from Picasso’s bull series, which consists of 11 lithographs that show the development of an artwork from a realistic style to a nonrealistic style (Daix, Table 3 Descriptives of Perceived Influence and Price Estimation Across Conditions of Artist’s Intrapersonal Deviance in Study 2 Measure Artist’s intrapersonal deviance: no (only realistic style) Artist’s intrapersonal deviance: no (only non-realistic style) Artist’s intrapersonal deviance: yes (mixed style) Totala M (SD) 95% CI M (SD) 95% CI M (SD) 95% CI M (SD) 95% CI Perceived influence 3.82 (1.22) [3.47, 4.16] 4.14 (1.05) [3.80, 4.48] 4.72 (0.91) [4.38, 5.05] 4.23 (1.12) [4.03, 4.42] Price estimation 3.68 (0.26) [3.53, 3.82] 3.57 (0.40) [3.43, 3.71] 3.83 (0.58) [3.69, 3.96] 3.69 (0.45) [3.61, 3.77] Note. CI � confidence interval. a Average descriptives of artist’s intrapersonal deviance conditions. Figure 2. Perceived influence and price estimation as a function of artist’s intrapersonal deviance in Study 2. Bars represent means with their associated standard errors. T hi s do cu m en t is co py ri gh te d by th e A m er ic an P sy ch ol og ic al A ss oc ia ti on or on e of it s al li ed pu bl is he rs . T hi s ar ti cl e is in te nd ed so le ly fo r th e pe rs on al us e of th e in di vi du al us er an d is no t to be di ss em in at ed br oa dl y. 284 STAMKOU, VAN KLEEF, AND HOMAN http://www.test.uva.nl 1994). Participants saw two artworks next to each other, and they were told that the artist made the left-side artwork at an earlier stage of his career and the right-side artwork at a later stage. The artworks were presented in their original color shade (see Appen- dix B and Table 2 for details about the artworks). In the no- intrapersonal-deviance condition the two artworks represented the same style, whereas in the intrapersonal-deviance condition the two artworks represented different styles. We then measured the extent to which the artist was considered influential with the same scale used in Study 2 (� � .90). Next we measured the artist’s perceived will-power with the items “I think this artist . . . has a personal artistic vision,” “. . . thinks out-of- the-box,” and “. . . is open-minded” (� � .83). We also asked participants whether they perceived the later artwork’s style to deviate from the earlier artwork’s style to check the manipulation of intrapersonal deviance. Perceived intrapersonal deviance was measured with the items “These two paintings represent two different artistic styles” and the reverse-scored “These two paint- ings represent two similar artistic styles,” r(136) � .35, p � .001. All items were answered on 7-point Likert scales ranging from 1 � strongly disagree to 7 � strongly agree. Results We tested the effects of artist’s intrapersonal deviance and artist’s early style on perceived intrapersonal deviance, perceived influence, and perceived will-power with three two-way ANOVAs, which we followed up with simple effects analyses. Descriptives for perceived intrapersonal deviance, perceived influence, and perceived will-power are displayed in Table 4, and test statistics are reported in text below. Perceived intrapersonal deviance (manipulation check). There was a main effect of artist’s intrapersonal deviance, indicat- ing that the later artwork’s style was perceived to deviate from the earlier artwork’s style to a greater extent when the two artworks represented different styles than when they represented the same style, F(1, 132) � 71.85, p � .001, �p2 � .35. There was no main effect of artist’s early style, F(1, 132) � 1.63, p � .204, �p2 � .01. There was no significant interaction effect between artist’s intrap- ersonal deviance and artist’s early style, which indicated that the manipulation of artist’s intrapersonal deviance was orthogonal to the manipulation of artist’s early style, F(1, 132) � 0.68, p � .411, �p 2 � .01. Perceived influence. There was a main effect of artist’s in- trapersonal deviance, indicating that an artist who deviated from his previous style appeared more influential than an artist who followed his previous style, F(1, 132) � 4.51, p � .036, �p2 � .03. There was no main effect of artist’s early style, F(1, 132) � 0.15, p � .701, �p2 � .01. As expected, there was an interaction between artist’s intrapersonal deviance and artist’s early style, F(1, 132) � 9.57, p � .002, �p2 � .07. Probing the interaction showed that an artist who deviated from his previous style was considered more influential when his early work was realistic rather than nonreal- istic, F(1, 132) � 6.05, p � .015, �p2 � .05; perceived influence of an artist who did not deviate from his previous style did not depend on his early artwork style, F(1, 132) � 3.67, p � .058, �p2 � .03 (see left panel of Figure 3). Perceived will-power. There was a main effect of artist’s intrapersonal deviance, indicating that an artist who deviated from his previous style was perceived as having greater will-power than an artist who did not deviate from his previous style, F(1, 132) � 5.31, p � .023, �p2 � .04. There was no main effect of artist’s early style, F(1, 132) � 0.06, p � .802, �p2 � .01. There was an interaction effect between artist’s intrapersonal deviance and art- ist’s early style, F(1, 132) � 10.35, p � .002, �p2 � .07. Probing the interaction showed that an artist who deviated from his previ- ous style was thought of as having greater will-power when his earlier work was realistic than nonrealistic, F(1, 132) � 6.01, p � .016, �p2 � .05. An artist who consistently followed an earlier nonrealistic style was perceived as having greater will-power than an artist who consistently followed an earlier realistic style, F(1, 132) � 4.40, p � .038, �p2 � .03 (see right panel of Figure 3). This finding likely reflects the greater impact of progressive styles, such as nonrealism, as compared with retrogressive styles, such as realism (see Studies S1, S2a, and S2b in the supplemental mate- rial). Table 4 Descriptives of Perceived Intrapersonal Deviance, Perceived Influence, and Perceived Willpower Across Conditions of Artist’s Intrapersonal Deviance and Artist’s Early Style in Study 3 Measure Artist’s intrapersonal deviance: no Artist’s intrapersonal deviance: yes Totala M (SD) 95% CI M (SD) 95% CI M (SD) 95% CI Perceived intrapersonal deviance Artist’s early style: realistic 3.81 (1.04) [3.42, 4.20] 5.31 (1.04) [4.92, 5.70] 4.56 (1.28) [4.29, 4.83] Artist’s early style: non-realistic 3.40 (1.28) [3.01, 3.79] 5.22 (1.19) [4.83, 5.61] 4.31 (1.53) [4.04, 4.58] Totalb 3.60 (1.18) [3.33, 3.88] 5.26 (1.11) [4.99, 5.54] 4.43 (1.41) [4.24, 4.63] Perceived influence Artist’s early style: realistic 3.78 (1.44) [3.31, 4.26] 5.05 (1.05) [4.57, 5.53] 4.42 (1.41) [4.08, 4.76] Artist’s early style: non-realistic 4.44 (1.49) [3.96, 4.92] 4.21 (1.61) [3.73, 4.69] 4.32 (1.54) [3.98, 4.66] Totalb 4.11 (1.49) [3.77, 4.45] 4.63 (1.41) [4.29, 4.97] 4.37 (1.47) [4.13, 4.61] Perceived willpower Artist’s early style: realistic 4.12 (1.42) [3.69, 4.54] 5.30 (1.17) [4.88, 5.73] 4.71 (1.42) [4.41, 5.01] Artist’s early style: non-realistic 4.75 (1.23) [4.33, 5.18] 4.56 (1.17) [4.13, 4.98] 4.66 (1.20) [4.36, 4.96] Totalb 4.44 (1.36) [4.14, 4.74] 4.93 (1.22) [4.63, 5.23] 4.68 (1.31) [4.47, 4.90] Note. CI � confidence interval. a Average descriptives of artist’s intrapersonal deviance conditions. b Average descriptives of artist’s early style conditions. T hi s do cu m en t is co py ri gh te d by th e A m er ic an P sy ch ol og ic al A ss oc ia ti on or on e of it s al li ed pu bl is he rs . T hi s ar ti cl e is in te nd ed so le ly fo r th e pe rs on al us e of th e in di vi du al us er an d is no t to be di ss em in at ed br oa dl y. 285ART OF INFLUENCE http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000131.supp http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000131.supp Moderated mediation. To test whether the interactive effect of artist’s intrapersonal deviance and artist’s early style on per- ceived influence was mediated by perceived will-power, we spec- ified a bootstrapped moderated mediation model with artist’s early style and intrapersonal deviance as predictors, perceived will- power as mediator, and perceived influence as outcome variable (Hayes, 2012; Model 7 in PROCESS, 1000 reiterations). Artist’s early style was coded as �1 for realistic and 1 for nonrealistic, artist’s intrapersonal deviance was coded as �1 for nondeviant and 1 for deviant, and perceived will-power was centered at its mean. This model was significant with a point estimate of �0.56, SE � 0.17, 95% CI [�0.92, �0.23]. Analysis of the simple effects indicated that an artist who deviated from his previous style was perceived as having stronger will-power when his early artwork represented a realistic rather than a nonrealistic style, and this will-power perception consequently enhanced the artist’s per- ceived influence (�0.30, SE � 0.12, 95% CI [�0.55, �0.09]). Furthermore, an artist who followed his earlier nonrealistic style was perceived as having stronger will-power than an artist who followed his earlier realistic style, and this will-power perception enhanced the artist’s perceived influence (0.26, SE � 0.13, 95% CI [0.001, 0.52]). Discussion Study 3 indicates that artists who deviate from their past style are seen as more influential than artists who follow the same style throughout their careers, especially when artists depart from a rather retrogressive style (realism) by adopting a rather progressive style (nonrealism). The mediation analysis identified an underlying process that explains this effect: Artists who deviate in the direc- tion of a progressive style are seen as having stronger will-power, which enhances individuals’ perceptions of the artist’s influence. Additionally, the design and results of Study 3 refute the alterna- tive account that perceived competence or versatility explain the interactive effect of intrapersonal deviance and progressiveness of deviance on artistic impact, because the artist in both deviance conditions should be considered equally competent and versatile.4 In line with our hypothesis, Studies 2 and 3 jointly indicate that artistic impact depends on the deviance showcased in an artist’s portfolio and the direction in which an artist’s style develops during his or her career. These studies indicate that people evaluate deviant artistic work in the context of the artist’s previous work, which is a means of gaining insight into the artist’s personal history and intentions. As noted in the Introduction, judgments of artists’ work are not only influenced by their own artistic histories but also by their contemporaries’ work, which shapes what is considered the tradi- tion in a given era. In Studies 4 and 5 we investigated how artists who deviate from the traditional style of their era—what we termed interpersonal deviance—may gain impact. Study 4 The style endorsed by an artist’s contemporaries forms the context within which a deviant artwork is judged. The artwork’s context highlights the deviant artist’s intention to introduce new means of expression. We therefore expected that artists who de- viate from their contemporaries’ style would have more impact than artists who follow the predominant style. However, the inter- personal deviance effect should be more pronounced when artists 4 Given that our hypothesized intrapersonal deviance effects were mod- erated by progressiveness of artistic deviance in Study 3, we expected that perceived will-power—rather than perceived competence or versatility—is the mechanism underlying the effect of intrapersonal deviance on impact. We therefore assessed perceived will-power as well as perceived compe- tence and perceived versatility as alternative mediators. There were no main or interaction effects of intrapersonal deviance and contemporaries’ style on perceived competence. There was a main effect of intrapersonal deviance on perceived versatility indicating that artists who deviate from their previous style are seen as more versatile than artists who follow their previous style; there was no main effect of artist’s early style and no interaction effect between intrapersonal deviance and artist’s early style on perceived versatility. A moderated mediation model that included per- ceived competence, perceived will-power, and perceived versatility as competing mediators showed that only perceived will-power mediated the effects of intrapersonal deviance on perceived influence. Figure 3. Perceived influence and perceived will-power as a function of artist’s intrapersonal deviance and artist’s early style in Study 3. Bars represent means with their associated standard errors. T hi s do cu m en t is co py ri gh te d by th e A m er ic an P sy ch ol og ic al A ss oc ia ti on or on e of it s al li ed pu bl is he rs . T hi s ar ti cl e is in te nd ed so le ly fo r th e pe rs on al us e of th e in di vi du al us er an d is no t to be di ss em in at ed br oa dl y. 286 STAMKOU, VAN KLEEF, AND HOMAN deviate from realism by making nonrealistic art than when they deviate from nonrealism by making realistic art, because the for- mer form of deviance reveals the artist’s will to introduce a style that could move art forward whereas the latter form of deviance may be seen as retrogressive (Tennie et al., 2009). The current study tested the interpersonal deviance hypothesis by investigating whether an artist would gain greater impact when his artwork appears among contemporaries’ artworks that represent a different style than among contemporaries’ artworks that represent the same style. Furthermore, contemporaries’ style was manipulated to be realistic or nonrealistic so that the focal artist’s deviance would be directed toward a progressive or a retrogressive style (i.e., nonre- alism or realism, respectively). We examined the above predic- tions by assessing the influence aspect of artistic impact. Method Sample. The required sample size of Study 4 (NR � 168) was based on the cumulative effect size observed in Studies S1, S2a, S2b, 2, and 3. The actual sample consisted of 172 American citizens who were recruited through Amazon’s mechanical Turk (www.mturk.com). The study was administered as an online ques- tionnaire and participants were compensated with money (see Table 1 for further sample details). Design, materials, and procedure. Participants were ran- domly assigned to a 2 (artist’s interpersonal deviance: no vs. yes) � 2 (contemporaries’ style: realistic vs. nonrealistic) between-subjects experimental design. Participants viewed three artworks of the same or different style, and they were told that all artworks dated from the beginning of the 20th century (see Appendix C and Table 2 for details about the artworks). We presented this information so that the various artists would be perceived as contemporaries. The artworks were presented in their original color shade. Participants were then asked to evaluate the second artwork and the artist who made it (the focal artist). All artworks depicted female portraits made by different artists, except for the focal artworks that were both made by the same artist (i.e., Picasso). After showing each artwork to participants, we mea- sured perceived influence with the same scale used in the previous studies (� � .80). Results We tested the effects of artist’s interpersonal deviance and contemporaries’ style on perceived influence with a 2-way ANOVA. We followed up these analyses with simple effects analyses to test the effect of contemporaries’ style on the percep- tion of deviant and nondeviant artists. Descriptives are displayed in Table 5, and test statistics are reported in text below. There was a main effect of artist’s interpersonal deviance, with deviant artists being perceived as more influential than nondeviant artists, F(1, 168) � 6.06, p � .015, �p2 � .04. There was no main effect of contemporaries’ style, F(1, 168) � 1.23, p � .270, �p2 � .01. As predicted, there was a significant interaction effect between artist’s interpersonal deviance and contemporaries’ style, F(1, 168) � 7.13, p � .008, �p2 � .04. Probing the interaction revealed that artists who deviated from a predominant realistic style by using nonrealistic means of expression were seen as more influ- ential than artists who deviated from a predominant nonrealistic style by using realistic means of expression, F(1, 168) � 7.35, p � .007, �p2 � .04. Artists who followed a predominant nonrealistic style did not differ from artists who followed a predominant realistic style, F(1, 168) � 1.31, p � .253, �p2 � .01 (see Figure 4). Discussion Study 4 demonstrated that artists who deviate from their con- temporaries’ style are seen as more influential than artists who follow the predominant style. The results additionally showed that deviating in the direction of a progressive style (e.g., nonrealism) is more effective than deviating in the direction of a retrogressive style (e.g., realism). These findings thus provide evidence for the interpersonal deviance effect and its magnifying conditions, but they provide no insight into the underlying processes that drive the effect of interpersonal deviance on perceived artistic impact. This limitation was addressed in Study 5, where we examined whether inferences about the artist’s will-power mediate the effect of interpersonal deviance on artistic impact. Study 5 Study 5 aimed to replicate and extend the findings of Study 4 in several ways. First, we investigated whether the effect of interper- sonal deviance on artistic impact operates through perceived will- power, which was the main mediator suggested in previous studies that examined the effects of norm violation on power and status (Bellezza et al., 2014; Van Kleef et al., 2011). Second, we used a greater number of contemporaries’ artworks compared with the previous study and changed the position of the focal artwork to see whether we would find similar effects. Third, we included a manipulation check of interpersonal deviance. Finally, we exam- ined whether the effect of interpersonal deviance generalizes to an indirect behavioral measurement of impact, namely visual atten- tion. Because indirect measures are unobtrusive, they can be very insightful as long as they are validated against other direct mea- sures (Palmer, Schloss, & Sammartino, 2013). We therefore also included perceived influence and purchase intention as direct mea- sures of the influence and valuation aspects of artistic impact, respectively. Method Sample. The required sample size of Study 5 (NR � 181) was based on the cumulative effect size observed in Studies S1, S2a, S2b, 2, 3, and 4. The actual sample consisted of 227 Dutch students from the University of Amsterdam who were recruited via an online platform (www.test.uva.nl) and participated in exchange for course credits (see Table 1 for further sample details). Design, materials, and procedure. Study 5 employed the same experimental design as Study 4. In Study 5, however, par- ticipants viewed five artworks that they were told had all been made at the beginning of the 20th century. Participants were asked to evaluate the last artwork and the artist who had made it (focal artist). All artworks were male portraits with the model facing left. We edited the original artworks to be greyscale, and controlled for luminosity and size to standardize the artworks’ visual features (see and Table 2 for details about the artworks). After participants had viewed each artwork, we measured their perceptions of the artist’s will-power, using an adjusted version of the T hi s do cu m en t is co py ri gh te d by th e A m er ic an P sy ch ol og ic al A ss oc ia ti on or on e of it s al li ed pu bl is he rs . T hi s ar ti cl e is in te nd ed so le ly fo r th e pe rs on al us e of th e in di vi du al us er an d is no t to be di ss em in at ed br oa dl y. 287ART OF INFLUENCE http://www.mturk.com http://www.test.uva.nl volitional capacity scale (Magee, 2009). This scale’s focus on inter- personal relations corresponds with the current study’s level of anal- ysis. This 6-item scale includes items such as “To what extent . . . does this artist feel free to do what s/he wants in his/her relations with others?” and the reverse-scored “. . . this artist’s behavior is driven by the wishes of other people?” (� � .91), which were answered on 7-point Likert scales ranging from 1 � strongly disagree to 7 � strongly agree. Participants then reported on the artist’s perceived influence by completing the same scale we used in Studies 2, 3, and 4 (� � .85). Next we evaluated purchase intention by asking partic- ipants to indicate the extent to which they would buy products depicting the artwork on a scale ranging from 1 � not at all to 7 � very much. Furthermore, we recorded the time participants spent looking at the focal artwork, which was included as an unobtrusive measure of participants’ attention to the artwork (Palmer et al., 2013). In the end, we asked participants how different they thought the style of the focal artwork was compared with the style of the other art- works, which we used as a manipulation check of interpersonal deviance. The perceived interpersonal deviance item was answered on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 � strongly disagree to 7 � strongly agree. Results In a series of 2-way ANOVAs we tested the effects of artist’s interpersonal deviance and contemporaries’ style on perceived interpersonal deviance, perceived influence, purchase intention, visual attention, and perceived will-power. We followed up each ANOVA with simple effects analyses to investigate the effect of contemporaries’ style on the various measures of Table 5 Descriptives of Perceived Influence, Perceived Interpersonal Deviance, Purchase Intention, Visual Attention, and Perceived Willpower Across Conditions of Artist’s Interpersonal Deviance and Contemporaries’ Style in Studies 4, 5, and 6 Measure Artist’s interpersonal deviance: no Artist’s interpersonal deviance: yes Totala M (SD) 95% CI M (SD) 95% CI M (SD) 95% CI Study 4 Perceived influence Contemporaries’ style: realistic 4.08 (1.13) [3.71, 4.46] 5.06 (1.19) [4.69, 5.43] 4.57 (1.26) [3.91, 4.84] Contemporaries’ style: non-realistic 4.38 (1.39) [4.00, 4.76] 4.34 (1.27) [3.96, 4.72] 4.36 (1.32) [4.09, 4.63] Totalb 4.23 (1.27) [3.97, 4.50] 4.71 (1.27) [4.44, 4.97] 4.47 (1.29) [4.28, 4.66] Study 5 Perceived interpersonal deviance Contemporaries’ style: realistic 3.92 (1.67) [3.51, 4.32] 5.71 (1.31) [5.30, 6.11] 4.80 (1.75) [4.53, 5.10] Contemporaries’ style: non-realistic 3.60 (1.68) [3.18, 4.02] 5.51 (1.60) [5.09, 5.93] 4.55 (1.89) [4.26, 4.85] Totalb 3.76 (1.68) [3.47, 4.05] 5.61 (1.45) [5.32, 5.90] 4.68 (1.82) [4.48, 4.89] Perceived influence Contemporaries’ style: realistic 3.75 (1.21) [3.44, 4.05] 5.29 (1.10) [4.98, 5.59] 4.51 (1.39) [4.30, 4.73] Contemporaries’ style: non-realistic 4.53 (1.25) [3.57, 4.19] 3.88 (1.15) [3.57, 4.19] 4.20 (1.24) [3.98, 4.43] Totalb 4.13 (1.29) [3.92, 4.36] 4.60 (1.33) [4.36, 4.80] 4.36 (1.33) [4.21, 4.52] Purchase intention Contemporaries’ style: realistic 2.03 (1.22) [1.53, 2.20] 3.47 (1.71) [2.65, 3.32] 2.74 (1.64) [2.47, 3.03] Contemporaries’ style: non-realistic 3.04 (1.69) [2.12, 2.90] 2.80 (1.57) [2.13, 2.82] 2.92 (1.63) [2.63, 3.21] Totalb 2.52 (1.54) [2.25, 2.82] 3.14 (1.67) [2.84, 3.42] 2.83 (1.63) [2.63, 3.04] Visual attention Contemporaries’ style: realistic 0.66 (0.26) [0.58, 0.74] 0.84 (0.36) [0.75, 0.92] 0.75 (0.32) [0.69, 0.81] Contemporaries’ style: non-realistic 0.64 (0.33) [0.55, 0.73] 0.61 (0.36) [0.52, 0.70] 0.62 (0.35) [0.56, 0.69] Totalb 0.65 (0.29) [0.59, 0.71] 0.73 (0.38) [0.66, 0.79] 0.69 (0.34) [0.64, 0.73] Perceived willpower Contemporaries’ style: realistic 3.90 (1.15) [3.62, 4.17] 5.70 (0.87) [5.42, 5.98] 4.79 (1.37) [4.60, 5.00] Contemporaries’ style: non-realistic 5.34 (0.90) [5.05, 5.62] 4.25 (1.33) [3.97, 4.54] 4.80 (1.26) [4.59, 5.00] Totalb 4.59 (1.26) [4.42, 4.82] 5.00 (1.33) [4.78, 5.18] 4.79 (1.31) [4.66, 4.94] Study 6 Perceived interpersonal deviance Contemporaries’ motif: triangle 2.03 (1.16) [1.68, 2.37] 3.94 (1.46) [3.59, 4.28] 2.99 (1.63) [2.74, 3.23] Contemporaries’ motif: rectangular 2.46 (1.18) [2.12, 2.81] 3.98 (1.34) [3.64, 4.33] 3.22 (1.47) [2.98, 3.47] Totalc 2.25 (1.19) [2.00, 2.49] 3.96 (1.39) [3.72, 4.20] 3.10 (1.55) [2.93, 3.28] Perceived influence Contemporaries’ motif: triangle 3.77 (1.35) [3.42, 4.12] 5.25 (1.18) [4.91, 5.60] 4.52 (1.47) [4.27, 4.76] Contemporaries’ motif: rectangular 4.10 (1.53) [3.75, 4.45] 5.46 (1.14) [5.11, 5.81] 4.77 (1.51) [4.53, 5.03] Totalc 3.94 (1.45) [3.69, 4.18] 5.35 (1.16) [5.11, 5.60] 4.65 (1.49) [4.47, 4.82] Perceived willpower Contemporaries’ motif: triangle 4.11 (1.34) [3.82, 4.40] 5.68 (0.93) [5.39, 5.96] 4.90 (1.39) [4.69, 5.10] Contemporaries’ motif: rectangular 4.28 (1.04) [3.99, 4.56] 5.57 (0.95) [5.29, 5.86] 4.92 (1.19) [4.72, 5.13] Totalc 4.19 (1.20) [3.99, 4.40] 5.63 (0.93) [5.42, 5.83] 4.91 (1.29) [4.77, 5.05] Note. CI � confidence interval. a Average descriptives of artist’s interpersonal deviance conditions. b Average descriptives of contemporaries’ style conditions. c Average descriptives of contemporaries’ motif conditions. T hi s do cu m en t is co py ri gh te d by th e A m er ic an P sy ch ol og ic al A ss oc ia ti on or on e of it s al li ed pu bl is he rs . T hi s ar ti cl e is in te nd ed so le ly fo r th e pe rs on al us e of th e in di vi du al us er an d is no t to be di ss em in at ed br oa dl y. 288 STAMKOU, VAN KLEEF, AND HOMAN impact of deviant and nondeviant artists. Even though we had no predictions about the main effects of contemporaries’ style, we report below whether such effects were observed on each measure (details are provided in the supplemental material). Descriptives are displayed in Table 5, and test statistics are reported in text below. Perceived interpersonal deviance (manipulation check). As expected, there was a main effect of artist’s interpersonal deviance, with deviant artists’ style being perceived as more dis- tinct from their contemporaries’ style as compared with nondevi- ant artists’ style, F(1, 223) � 78.48, p � .001, �p2 � .26. There was no main effect of contemporaries’ style, F(1, 223) � 1.51, p � .221, �p2 � .01. There was also no interaction between artist’s interpersonal deviance and contemporaries’ style, which indicated that the manipulation of artist’s interpersonal deviance was orthog- onal to the manipulation of contemporaries’ style, F(1, 223) � 0.08, p � .779, �p2 � .01, as intended. Perceived influence. There was the predicted main effect of artist’s interpersonal deviance, with artists who employed a devi- ant style being perceived as more influential than artists who employed a nondeviant style, F(1, 223) � 8.01, p � .005, �p2 � .04. There was also an unpredicted main effect of contemporaries’ style on perceived influence, F(1, 223) � 3.92, p � .049, �p2 � .02 (see supplemental material). More importantly, we found the pre- dicted interaction effect between artist’s interpersonal deviance and contemporaries’ style, F(1, 223) � 49.08, p � .001, �p2 � .18. Probing the interaction revealed that artists who deviated from a predominant realistic style by using nonrealistic means of expres- sion were seen as more influential than artists who deviated from a predominant nonrealistic style by using realistic means of ex- pression, F(1, 223) � 40.93, p � .001, �p2 � .18. Artists who followed a predominant nonrealistic style were also seen as more influential than artists who followed a predominant realistic style, F(1, 223) � 13.12, p � .001, �p2 � .06 (see top left panel of Figure 5). Again, this finding likely reflects the greater impact of pro- gressive style, such as nonrealism, as compared with retrogressive styles, such as realism (see Studies S1, S2a, and S2b in the supplemental material). Purchase intention. There was a main effect of artist’s inter- personal deviance, which showed that participants were more willing to purchase products that depict artworks made by deviant artists than products that depict artworks made by nondeviant artists, F(1, 223) � 8.38, p � .004, �p2 � .04. There was no main effect of contemporaries’ style, F(1, 223) � 0.67, p � .415, �p2 � .01. We also observed the predicted interaction between artist’s interpersonal deviance and contemporaries’ style, F(1, 223) � 16.31, p � .001, �p2 � .07. Probing the interaction revealed that participants were more willing to purchase products depicting work made by artists who deviated in the direction of nonrealism than products depicting work made by artists who deviated in the direction of realism, F(1, 223) � 5.43, p � .021, �p2 � .02. Participants were also more willing to purchase products depicting work made by artists who followed a predominant nonrealistic style than products depicting work made by artists who followed a predominant realistic style, F(1, 223) � 13.12, p � .001, �p2 � .06 (see top right panel of Figure 5), which may reflect the greater impact of progressive (nonrealistic) art as compared with retro- gressive (realistic) art. Visual attention. Because the distribution of visual attention scores was positively skewed (skewness � 5.66, SE � 0.16), we applied a logarithmic transformation that resulted in a normalized distribution (skewness � 0.31, SE � 0.16). ANOVA showed a marginal main effect of artist’s interpersonal deviance, which indicates that artworks made by deviant artists tended to attract more attention than artworks made by nondeviant artists, F(1, 223) � 2.86, p � .092, �p2 � .01. It also showed an unpredicted main effect of contemporaries’ style, F(1, 223) � 8.05, p � .005, �p 2 � .04 (see supplemental material). More importantly, results showed the predicted interaction between artist’s interpersonal deviance and contemporaries’ style, F(1, 223) � 5.77, p � .017, �p 2 � .03. Simple effects analyses revealed that individuals looked longer at artworks made by artists who deviated toward nonrealism than at artworks made by artists who deviated toward realism, F(1, 223) � 13.90, p � .001, �p2 � .06. The time participants spent looking at artworks made by artists who followed a predominant realistic style did not differ from the time participants spent look- ing at artworks made by artists who followed a predominant nonrealistic style, F(1, 223) � 0.07, p � .791, �p2 � .01 (see bottom left panel of Figure 5). Perceived will-power. There was a main effect of artist’s interpersonal deviance, which showed that people inferred greater will-power when artists deviated from the predominant style than when they followed the predominant style, F(1, 223) � 6.40, p � .012, �p2 � .03. There was no main effect of contemporaries’ style on perceived will-power, F(1, 223) � 0.01, p � .976, �p2 � .01. As predicted, we did find an interaction effect between artist’s inter- personal deviance and contemporaries’ style, F(1, 223) � 101.23, p � .001, �p2 � .31. Probing the interaction revealed that individ- uals regarded artists who deviated toward nonrealism as having stronger will-power than artists who deviated toward realism, F(1, 223) � 51.45, p � .001, �p2 � .23. Individuals further considered artists who followed a predominant nonrealistic style as having stronger will-power than artists who followed a predominant re- alistic style, F(1, 223) � 51.50, p � .001, �p2 � .23 (see bottom right panel of Figure 5), which likely reflects the higher impact of progressive styles, like nonrealism, in comparison to retrogressive styles, like realism. Figure 4. Perceived influence as a function of artist’s interpersonal deviance and contemporaries’ style in Study 4. Bars represent means with their associated standard errors. T hi s do cu m en t is co py ri gh te d by th e A m er ic an P sy ch ol og ic al A ss oc ia ti on or on e of it s al li ed pu bl is he rs . T hi s ar ti cl e is in te nd ed so le ly fo r th e pe rs on al us e of th e in di vi du al us er an d is no t to be di ss em in at ed br oa dl y. 289ART OF INFLUENCE http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000131.supp http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000131.supp http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000131.supp http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000131.supp Moderated mediation. Finally, we performed moderated me- diation analyses to test whether the interactive effect of artist’s inter- personal deviance and contemporaries’ style on each dependent vari- able (i.e., perceived influence, purchase intention, and visual attention) was mediated by perceived will-power. We specified three bootstrapped moderated mediation models with contemporaries’ style and artist’s interpersonal deviance as predictors, perceived will-power as mediator, and perceived influence (Model A), purchase intention (Model B), and visual attention (Model C) as outcome variables that were tested sequentially (Hayes, 2012; Model 7 in PROCESS, 1000 reiterations). Contemporaries’ style was coded as �1 for realistic and 1 for nonrealistic, artist’s interpersonal deviance was coded as �1 for nondeviant and 1 for deviant, and perceived will-power was centered at its mean. All three models were significant, providing evidence for moderated mediation (Model A: point estimate � �0.59, SE � 0.12, CI [�0.83, �0.36]; Model B: point estimate � �0.60, SE � 0.13, CI [�0.87, �0.36]; and Model C: point estimate � �0.06, SE � 0.03, CI [�0.12, �0.02]). Analysis of the simple effects indicated that, compared with artists who deviated in the direction of realism, artists who deviated in the direction of nonrealism were perceived as having stronger will-power, and this perception in turn increased the artist’s perceived influence (point estimate � �0.29, SE � 0.07, 95% CI [�0.44, �0.17]), purchase intentions for the artist’s work (point estimate � �0.30, SE � 0.07, 95% CI [�0.45, �0.17]), and attention paid to the artist’s work (point estimate � �0.03, SE � 0.01, 95% CI [�0.07, �0.01]). Artists who followed a dominant nonrealistic style were also thought of as having stronger will-power than artists who followed a dominant realistic style, and this inference in turn in- creased the artist’s perceived influence (point estimate � 0.29, SE � 0.07, 95% CI [0.17, 0.44]), purchase intentions for the artist’s work (point estimate � 0.30, SE � 0.07, 95% CI [0.16, 0.45]), and attention paid to the artist’s work (point estimate � 0.03, SE � 0.01, 95% CI [0.01, 0.06]). Discussion The results of the current study support the interpersonal devi- ance hypothesis, which holds that artists who deviate from their Figure 5. Perceived influence, purchase intention, visual attention, and perceived will-power as a function of artist’s interpersonal deviance and contemporaries’ style in Study 5. Bars represent means with their associated standard errors. T hi s do cu m en t is co py ri gh te d by th e A m er ic an P sy ch ol og ic al A ss oc ia ti on or on e of it s al li ed pu bl is he rs . T hi s ar ti cl e is in te nd ed so le ly fo r th e pe rs on al us e of th e in di vi du al us er an d is no t to be di ss em in at ed br oa dl y. 290 STAMKOU, VAN KLEEF, AND HOMAN contemporaries’ style gain greater impact than artists who follow the predominant style, especially when artists deviate by employ- ing progressive means of expression (i.e., nonrealism). The medi- ation analyses further revealed an underlying mechanism that accounts for these effects. Consistent with our theoretical argu- ments, artists who deviate from their contemporaries’ style using nonrealistic means of expression are perceived to have stronger will-power, which in turn enhances individuals’ influence percep- tion, willingness to purchase the artists’ products, and attention to the artist’s work. These findings were robust across three measures of artistic impact, including an unobtrusive behavioral measure of attention. Study 6 Study 6 examined the interpersonal deviance effect by incorpo- rating several methodological improvements. First, in all previous studies where we operationalized artistic deviance, the artist would deviate by adopting a realistic or nonrealistic style. Nonrealistic art, however, features abstract elements, which can potentially introduce a confound between deviance and abstractness. In the current study we disentangled the effect of deviance from abstract- ness by keeping the style of the artworks constant across condi- tions (i.e., always nonrealistic) and instead manipulating the motif of the artworks: The focal artist would deviate by adopting a triangle-motif or a rectangular-motif in a nonrealistic artwork. Second, realistic and nonrealistic styles were born out of the Western culture, so our participants might have been familiar with the historical evolution and significance of these styles. For in- stance, because nonrealistic art has become increasingly prominent in the last few centuries, participants may expect artists to produce nonrealistic art nowadays. One might thus argue that in our pre- vious studies, people’s perceived impact of artists who deviated toward a nonrealistic style demonstrates an understanding of what is considered good art nowadays rather than a preference for deviance. To tackle this issue in the current study we used a cover story that neutralized the historical context by placing the artists on another planet with a unique culture and by temporally situating the production of the artworks in the current century. Participants were given no information about what is common and what is considered progressive or good art on this planet, so that they would have no preconceptions about the value of the expressive means used by the artists (i.e., triangle or rectangular motifs). Because the different motifs were thus freed from perceptions of progressiveness we expected that deviant artists would be consid- ered more impactful than nondeviant artists regardless of the expressive means by which they would deviate (i.e., no moderation of the interpersonal deviance effect). Finally, we included a mea- sure of will-power to see whether our proposed explanatory mech- anism would still operate after we stripped the design from ab- stractness (the primary feature of nonrealistic art) and discharged the historical context. This study focused on the influence aspect of impact, which was used across all previous studies that examined the effect of artistic deviance. Method Sample. The required sample size of Study 6 (NR � 181) was based on the cumulative effect size observed in Studies S1, S2a, S2b, 2, 3, 4, and 5. The actual sample consisted of 218 participants who were recruited through Prolific Academic (www.prolific.ac). Participants were citizens of Ireland (6), the United Kingdom (165), and the Unites States of America (44). Three participants did not report their nationality. The study was administered as an online questionnaire and participants were compensated with money (see Table 1 for further sample details). Design, materials, and procedure. Study 6 employed a sim- ilar experimental design to Studies 4 and 5. In Study 6 interper- sonal deviance was operationalized as a choice for a different or the same motif employed by the artist’s contemporaries (triangle vs. rectangular motif). We selected artworks of geometric abstrac- tion, which is a form of nonrealistic art based on the use of geometric forms depicted in 2-dimensional space. The artworks were presented in their original color shade (see Table 2 for details about the artworks). Images of the artworks used in Study 6 may be requested by the first author. Participants were instructed that they will read a story about a country from another planet, named “Aratartland,” where people have developed a culture that is different from human culture. We then presented participants with three artworks that represented the dominant artistic trend in Aratartland. The dominant trend was characterized by either a triangle motif or a rectangular motif. Next participants saw the focal artist’s painting, which employed either the same or a different motif than the other artists. Participants were told that all artworks had been made at the beginning of the century. We measured the focal artist’s will-power with the same scale we used in Study 5 (� � .87). We then measured perceived influence of the focal artist using the same scale we used in the previous studies (� � .91). We also measured perceived deviance of the artwork using the item “I think this artwork . . . is deviant compared with the rest of the artworks” and the reverse-scored item “. . . is similar to the rest of the artworks,” r(218) � .48, p � .001. Finally, participants rated the perceived abstractness of each artwork with a 7-point bipolar item ranging from 1 � realistic to 7 � abstract. Results We first compared the perceived abstractness of the triangle- motif artworks to the rectangular-motif artworks by averaging the abstractness ratings of the artworks in the no-deviance conditions, namely, the conditions where participants were presented with only triangle- or rectangular-motif artworks. This comparison showed than triangle-motif artworks (M � 5.67, SD � 1.43) did not differ from rectangular-motif artworks (M � 5.46, SD � 1.42) in terms of abstractness, F(1, 107) � 0.58, p � .448, which confirms that artworks of different motifs were perceived as equally abstract. Next, we carried out a series of 2-way ANOVAs to examine the effects of artist’s interpersonal deviance and contemporaries’ motif on perceived interpersonal deviance, perceived influence, and per- ceived will-power. Descriptives are displayed in Table 5, and test statistics are reported in text below. Perceived interpersonal deviance (manipulation check). As expected, there was a main effect of artist’s interpersonal deviance, with deviant artists’ motif being perceived as more deviant from their contemporaries’ motif as compared with nondeviant artists, F(1, 214) � 188.24, p � .001, �p2 � .47. There was no main effect of T hi s do cu m en t is co py ri gh te d by th e A m er ic an P sy ch ol og ic al A ss oc ia ti on or on e of it s al li ed pu bl is he rs . T hi s ar ti cl e is in te nd ed so le ly fo r th e pe rs on al us e of th e in di vi du al us er an d is no t to be di ss em in at ed br oa dl y. 291ART OF INFLUENCE http://www.prolific.ac contemporaries’ motif, F(1, 214) � 2.26, p � .134, �p2 � .01. Furthermore, there was no interaction between artist’s interpersonal deviance and contemporaries’ motif, which indicated that the manip- ulation of artist’s interpersonal deviance was orthogonal to the ma- nipulation of contemporaries’ motif, F(1, 214) � 2.39, p � .123, �p2 � .01, as intended. Perceived influence. There was the predicted main effect of artist’s interpersonal deviance, with artists who deviated from the dominant motif being perceived as more influential than artists who followed the dominant motif, F(1, 214) � 63.96, p � .001, �p 2 � .23. As expected, there was no main effect of contempo- raries’ motif, F(1, 214) � 2.20, p � .139, �p2 � .01, and no interaction effect, F(1, 214) � 0.12, p � .729, �p2 � .01 (see left panel of Figure 6). Perceived will-power. There was a main effect of artist’s interpersonal deviance, which showed that people inferred greater will-power when artists deviated from the dominant motif than when they followed the dominant motif, F(1, 214) � 96.55, p � .001, �p2 � .31. There was no main effect of contemporaries’ motif, F(1, 214) � 0.05, p � .829, �p2 � .01, and no interaction effect, F(1, 214) � 0.84, p � .362, �p2 � .01 (see right panel of Figure 6). Mediation. We performed a mediation analysis to test whether the effect of artist’s interpersonal deviance on perceived influence was mediated by perceived will-power. We specified a bootstrapped me- diation model with artist’s interpersonal deviance as predictor, per- ceived will-power as mediator, and perceived influence as outcome variable (Hayes, 2012; Model 4 in PROCESS, 1000 reiterations). Artist’s interpersonal deviance was coded as �1 for nondeviant and 1 for deviant and perceived will-power was centered at its mean. This model provided evidence for mediation (point estimate � 0.16, SE � 0.07, CI [0.03, 0.30]). This indicates that, compared with artists who follow the dominant motif of their era, artists who deviate from it are considered to have stronger will-power, which in turn enhances their perceived influence. Discussion Study 6 showed that artists who deviate from the dominant artistic trend of their era are perceived as more influential than artists who follow the dominant trend. Most important, the means by which the artists deviated did not moderate the effects of interpersonal deviance in this case: Artists who deviated using a triangle motif were consid- ered equally influential as artists who deviated using a rectangular motif. This anticipated nullification of the moderation effect that was consistently observed in the previous studies is consistent with our theoretical argument. In the current study, the use of nonrealistic artworks across conditions erased the condition of progressiveness that was introduced in the previous studies by the contrast between realistic and nonrealistic styles. The fact that the effect of deviance on impact was not moderated when this condition was raised signifies that progressiveness of deviance is an important boundary condition: Artistic deviance is effective when it leads to some sort of progress; when participants cannot make inferences about the progressiveness of the deviant artworks, the effect of deviance remains but it is not moderated. Furthermore, in all previous studies deviation from the contemporaries’ style entailed a choice for either a realistic or a nonrealistic style, which also differed in the perceived abstractness of each style. In the current study we controlled for this stylistic property by using artworks of the same style across all conditions (i.e., nonre- alistic) and by manipulating another element of the artwork, namely, the motif. Importantly, the category of triangle-motif artworks was perceived as equally abstract as the category of rectangular-motif artworks. The results thus indicate that the effect of interpersonal deviance on artistic impact occurs above and beyond abstractness. Moreover, the effect of deviance proved robust in a neutralized historical context, which implies that the observed effect cannot be accounted for by participants’ preconceptions or stereotypes about the value of the expressive means used by the artists since participants had no access to evaluative information of these means. Instead, in keeping with our theoretical argument, the effect of interpersonal deviance on perceived influence was explained by inferences of the deviant artist’s will-power. Meta-Analytic Synthesis of Findings Even though our studies provide rather consistent support for our hypotheses, we carried out meta-analyses that synthesized the findings of different studies to provide more reliable estimates of Figure 6. Perceived influence and perceived will-power as a function of artist’s interpersonal deviance and contemporaries’ motif in Study 6. Bars represent means with their associated standard errors. T hi s do cu m en t is co py ri gh te d by th e A m er ic an P sy ch ol og ic al A ss oc ia ti on or on e of it s al li ed pu bl is he rs . T hi s ar ti cl e is in te nd ed so le ly fo r th e pe rs on al us e of th e in di vi du al us er an d is no t to be di ss em in at ed br oa dl y. 292 STAMKOU, VAN KLEEF, AND HOMAN the intrapersonal deviance main effect and the interpersonal devi- ance main and interaction effects. The intrapersonal deviance interaction effect was not meta-analyzed since it was only tested in one study (Study 3). Because some studies included more than one measure of artistic impact (i.e., Studies 2 and 5), we standardized the scores of each study’s variables to enable combining them into a single estimate of artistic impact per study. The use of composite estimates was necessary because in meta-analysis each effect size estimate has to be based on a unique sample, which means that only one effect size estimate per study can be included (Rauden- bush, 2009). Furthermore, we used standardized regression coef- ficients as effect size estimates because they could be computed in all studies, and we used a random-effects approach because of the variety of methodologies used across studies. Meta-analysis was performed using Comprehensive Meta-Analysis (Borenstein, Hedges, Higgins, & Rothstein, 2009). Meta-analytic results are commonly presented in a forest plot that depicts both the individual effects observed in each study and the overall effects estimated across studies (see Figures 7 to 9). The left part of the figure presents the standardized regression coefficients (beta) that express the difference between the condi- tions under comparison (e.g., Condition A vs. Condition B) as individual and overall effects. The right part of the figure graph- ically presents these effects with their confidence intervals within a range of �1 SD and relative to a reference line set at 0. The individual effects are represented with an empty rectangular, and the overall effects are represented with a solid diamond. When the confidence intervals of an effect fall on the left side of the refer- ence line, participants in Condition A scored higher on perceived artistic impact than participants in Condition B; when they fall on the right side, participants in Condition A scored lower than participants in Condition B; and when they fall in between, there was no significant difference in artistic impact scores between Conditions A and B. Intrapersonal Deviance Main Effect According to the intrapersonal deviance hypothesis, artists who deviate from their previous means of expression by adopting distinct artistic styles are considered more impactful than artists who consistently follow a single style throughout their career. The intrapersonal deviance main effect was tested in Studies 2 and 3, which we combined in the current meta-analysis. The heterogene- ity tests showed that the effect of artist’s intrapersonal deviance on artistic impact did not significantly vary across studies, Q(1) � 0.02, p � .891. The overall statistics showed that artists who deviated from their previous style were considered more impactful than artists who consistently followed a single style throughout their career, � 0.27, SE � 0.08, Z � 3.61, p � .001, 95% CI [0.12, 0.42] (see Figure 7). Interpersonal Deviance Main and Interaction Effects According to the interpersonal deviance hypothesis, artists who deviate from the style adopted by their contemporaries have more impact than artists who follow their contemporaries’ style. The interpersonal deviance main effect was tested in Studies 4, 5, and 6, which we combined in the current meta-analysis. The test of heterogeneity showed that the effect of artist’s interpersonal devi- ance on artistic impact significantly varied across studies, Q(2) � 16.71, p � .001. The difference in the magnitude of the effects is due to the operationalization of deviance (style vs. motif). The direction of the effects, however, was homogeneous, which allows us to interpret the overall statistics. The overall statistics showed that artists who deviated from their contemporaries’ style were considered more impactful than artists who followed their contem- poraries’ style, � 0.27, SE � 0.11, Z � 2.51, p � .012, 95% CI [0.06, 0.49] (see Figure 8). In light of the progressive development of artistic movements (Tennie et al., 2009), we expected that the interpersonal devi- ance effect would be more pronounced when artists deviate toward a progressive style than when they deviate toward a retrogressive style (moderation of the interpersonal deviance effect). For instance, artists who deviate from a predominant realistic style by adopting nonrealistic means of expression should be seen as more impactful than artists who deviate from a predominant nonrealistic style by adopting realistic means of expression, because nonrealism is considered a more progres- Figure 7. Meta-analytic effect of artist’s intrapersonal deviance (no vs. yes) on artistic impact across Studies 2 and 3. CI stands for confidence interval. Diamonds represent overall effects and rectangles represent effects of individual studies. When the CIs of an effect fall on the right [left] side of 0, deviant artists were considered more [less] impactful than nondeviant artists. T hi s do cu m en t is co py ri gh te d by th e A m er ic an P sy ch ol og ic al A ss oc ia ti on or on e of it s al li ed pu bl is he rs . T hi s ar ti cl e is in te nd ed so le ly fo r th e pe rs on al us e of th e in di vi du al us er an d is no t to be di ss em in at ed br oa dl y. 293ART OF INFLUENCE sive movement. The interpersonal deviance interaction effect was expected to be found in Studies 4 and 5 where deviance was operationalized by means of realistic and nonrealistic artworks. This effect was therefore tested in another meta-analysis that included these two studies. The meta-analytic model examined the impact of artists who followed or deviated from a predom- inant realistic or nonrealistic style (as determined by their contemporaries’ style). As predicted, the analysis showed that perceived artistic impact differed depending on whether artists followed or deviated from their contemporaries’ style, Q(1) � 26.04, p � .001. The pattern of the moderation indicated that artists who deviated from their contemporaries’ style were considered more impactful when the predominant style was realistic rather than nonrealistic, � �0.32, SE � 0.07, 95% CI [�0.46, �0.19], Z � �4.71, p � .001 (see Figure 9). Thus, artists who deviated from their contemporaries’ style toward a progressive style (nonrealism) were more influential than artists who deviated toward a retrogressive style (realism). Further- more, artists who followed their contemporaries’ style were considered more impactful when the predominant style was nonrealistic rather than realistic, � 0.16, SE � 0.07, 95% CI [0.03, 0.29], Z � 2.47, p � .014. The greater impact of nonrealistic artists likely reflects participants’ belief that pro- gressive styles, such as nonrealism, are more impactful than retrogressive styles, such as realism (see Studies S1, S2a, and S2b in the Online Supplemental Material). Figure 8. Meta-analytic effect of artist’s interpersonal deviance (no vs. yes) on artistic impact across Studies 4, 5, and 6. CI stands for confidence interval. Diamonds represent overall effects and rectangles represent effects of individual studies. When the CIs of an effect fall on the right [left] side of 0, deviant artists were considered more [less] impactful than nondeviant artists. Figure 9. Meta-analytic effect of artist’s interpersonal deviance (no vs. yes) and contemporaries’ style (realistic vs. nonrealistic) on artistic impact across Studies 4, 5, and 6. CI stands for confidence interval. Diamonds represent overall effects and rectangles represent effects of individual studies. When the CIs of an effect fall on the right [left] side of 0, artists who followed contemporaries’ nonrealistic style were considered more [less] impactful than artists who followed contemporaries’ realistic style. T hi s do cu m en t is co py ri gh te d by th e A m er ic an P sy ch ol og ic al A ss oc ia ti on or on e of it s al li ed pu bl is he rs . T hi s ar ti cl e is in te nd ed so le ly fo r th e pe rs on al us e of th e in di vi du al us er an d is no t to be di ss em in at ed br oa dl y. 294 STAMKOU, VAN KLEEF, AND HOMAN http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000131.supp General Discussion The current research investigated whether deviating from the norms in the world of art enhances an artist’s potential to rise to fame. The results of six studies demonstrate that various forms of artistic deviance influence perceived artistic impact as long as deviance is directed toward a progressive movement. In line with our hypotheses, artists who deviate from their previous artistic style are considered more impactful than artists who consistently follow a single style throughout their career, especially when the artistic path of deviant artists features a transition toward a pro- gressive style, such as nonrealism (intrapersonal deviance). More- over, artists who deviate from their contemporaries’ style gain greater impact than artists who follow their contemporaries’ style, in particular when artists deviate from the predominant style by adopting a progressive style, like nonrealism (interpersonal devi- ance). Contributions and Implications Our findings make a number of contributions to the literature. First, although breaking the rules in art may seem to be the new rule, our research has revealed a crucial boundary condition to the effectiveness of artistic deviance in terms of gaining impact: the progressiveness of deviance. At the intrapersonal level, we saw that artists increase their appeal by first establishing their place within the conventions of their era and then straying away from conventions, whereas artists who start off with ground-breaking work or stick to old practices are less acclaimed. These findings indicate that people are not only interested in art as an end product, but also in the process that led to it. This insight can inform art education programs, which should emphasize not only the devel- opment of a distinct style but also the acquisition of traditional techniques. At the interpersonal level, we observed that artists increase their impact when they break with conventions by adopt- ing a style that is considered progressive, whereas artists that differentiate themselves by adopting an old-fashioned style gain less acclaim. These findings imply that artists need to differentiate themselves from others in such a way that their distinct style is seen as the evolution of previously existing artwork styles; a distinct style that has been employed in the past is seen as back- ward movement and is appreciated less. Apparently, people want to see how an artist’s work contributes to the progress of art over time. Deviant artists could thus benefit from pitching their work as a linkage between past and future artistic trends. Progressiveness, however, is not a prerequisite for the positive effects of artistic deviance when people are not familiar with the historical signifi- cance of the artist’s expressive means. Our last study showed that when art is stripped from the historical context, deviance works irrespective of the means by which the artist deviated. This might imply that for areas of art of which people have less knowledge (e.g., artworks from unfamiliar cultures), deviance in general might be enough. Second, we have shown that artists who break with conventions are more likely to flourish because the public perceives their actions to be intentional. The role of intentionality was established by the mediation analyses in Studies 3, 5, and 6. Study 3 demon- strated that artists who stray away from an earlier realistic style by adopting nonrealism are perceived to have stronger will-power and thereby greater impact potential than artists who stray away from an earlier nonrealistic style by adopting realism. Although realistic artworks are considered less progressive, when they appear at an early stage of an artist’s career they irrefutably prove that the artist’s later nonrealistic works were not a product of incompe- tence but an intentional choice to shape a personal artistic path. Studies 5 and 6 showed that artists who deviate from their con- temporaries’ style are also thought of as having stronger will- power and therefore greater impact than artists who follow their contemporaries’ style. Artists who are impervious to external influences evince that their style choice is dictated by their will to move art forward by introducing innovative means of expression. These findings are consistent with research on the perception of deviant social targets in nonartistic domains who were considered more powerful because of their perceived volition (Van Kleef et al., 2011) or autonomy (Bellezza et al., 2014). Third, there is ample research on the potential of social move- ments to gain influence, but only limited research on the potential of artistic movements to gain ground (but see Inglis, 1996, and Lena & Pachucki, 2013). It is currently unknown whether common social influence mechanisms that have been widely investigated in social psychology and marketing, among other fields, generalize to the domain of art appreciation. For instance, our research provides evidence that the accumulation of innovation credits through con- formity is important in art too (Hollander, 1958). Future research could explore the application of social influence theories in the field of art by taking into account that art appreciation is governed by a unique set of rules that relate to social perceptual processes as well as the historical context (Bullot & Reber, 2013). In fact, our research points out how different aspects of artistic production, such as the evolution of styles within an artist’s career or between artists of an era, interact to explain artistic impact. Finally, our research shows that deviance in art is a decisive factor for people’s aesthetic preferences. This finding builds upon and enriches previous research that aims to explain aesthetic preferences (Heinrichs & Cupchik, 1985; Leder et al., 2004; Lin- dell & Mueller, 2011) and opens up new research directions by highlighting the important role of beholders’ perception of an artwork as deviant. This finding is also consistent with visual perception theories that consider the resolution of expectancy violations a crucial aspect of aesthetic pleasure (Huron, 2006; Van de Cruys & Wagemans, 2011) as well as philosophical theories of aesthetic appreciation, which maintain that the contrast between the negative state of obstruction and the positive state of resolution is the working ingredient of catharsis, that is, the purification of emotions through art (Aristotle, 1965). Strengths, Limitations, and Future Directions We have advanced and tested a parsimonious research model that delineates the effects of artistic deviance on artistic impact at different levels of analysis, in which progressiveness of deviance was conceptualized as a boundary condition and will-power as an underlying mechanism. Across five studies, we demonstrated con- sistent effects of the previous work of the artist and the work of the artists’ contemporaries on three aspects of artistic impact (i.e., influence, valuation, and attention). Furthermore, we used differ- ent operationalizations of artistic deviance that allowed us to rule out the influence of confounding variables (e.g., the artwork’s perceived abstractness) and alternative explanations of our find- T hi s do cu m en t is co py ri gh te d by th e A m er ic an P sy ch ol og ic al A ss oc ia ti on or on e of it s al li ed pu bl is he rs . T hi s ar ti cl e is in te nd ed so le ly fo r th e pe rs on al us e of th e in di vi du al us er an d is no t to be di ss em in at ed br oa dl y. 295ART OF INFLUENCE ings (e.g., preference for deviant art derived from participants’ stereotypes about the value of nonrealistic styles). Our effects were tested in a large sample that spanned a broad age range and included people from diverse educational backgrounds. Our con- clusions were corroborated in a series of meta-analyses that attest to the robustness of the overall effects as well as the homogeneity of the effects of the individual studies. Despite the strengths of our research, one may be concerned about the fact that in our studies we used real-world paintings rather than standardized stimuli. Even though standardized stimuli allow greater control over confounding factors, we opted for real-world stimuli to increase the ecological validity of our stim- ulus set. This approach addresses one of the main criticisms of empirical aesthetics, namely that research on aesthetic experiences is often reduced to the study of visual stimuli devoid of artistic meaning and historical context (Currie, 2003). Additionally, the results of Study 4, which involved exact copies of original art- works, were replicated in Study 5, where the most prominent aspects of the artworks were standardized. We thus conclude that the artwork stimuli we used are both ecologically and methodolog- ically valid. Another consideration may stem from people’s inferences about the age of the artworks. One may argue that in the deviance conditions of Studies 4 and 5 participants might have considered realistic paintings less impactful than the focal nonrealistic paint- ing because the realistic paintings were thought of as older- looking. Participants might have further thought that older paint- ings have more time to accumulate impact, so if they now look unfamiliar it means that they did not stand the test of time. This implies that observers might have evaluated the nonrealistic artist who deviated from his or her contemporaries’ style as more impactful because they considered the contemporaries’ realistic artworks older and unfamiliar rather than the nonrealistic artwork more deviant. However, in both Studies 4 and 5 participants were told that all artworks were made in approximately the same time period to keep the temporal component constant. This means that participants in this study could not have thought that the realistic artworks are less impactful because they look older than the nonrealistic artworks. Furthermore, in Study 6, in which we kept both the artwork style and the temporal component constant by using nonrealistic artworks that were made at the beginning of the century, people’s judgments of impact could only be attributed to artistic deviance rather than artwork age. Although inferences about the artwork’s age cannot explain the pattern of findings in our data, we do believe that investigating the role of artwork age on impact in future studies could further our understanding of the processes that affect artistic impact.5 Our studies reflect how people react to deviance in the context of art, which may limit the generalizability of our findings to artistic judgments. Future studies could further examine whether our model generalizes to judgments in other types of creative industries, such as advertising, fashion, film making, and music (Baker & Faulkner, 1991; Howkins, 2001). For example, it would be interesting to investigate whether experimental music genres, like jazz and contemporary classical music, are appreciated more when the audience becomes aware that they are derived from more conventional music genres, that is, blues and classical music, respectively (Burkholder, Grout, & Palisca, 2006). Another inter- esting avenue for future research is to examine how people’s responses to deviance in the artistic domain compare with their responses in nonartistic domains. Some domains have a restricted range of acceptable behaviors and leave little room for individual discretion in determining behavior (e.g., business), whereas other domains are more ambiguously structured and place fewer external constraints on individuals (e.g., art). The extent to which domains afford or constrain behavioral options has been referred to as situational constraint (Price & Bouffard, 1974). Domains of higher situational constraint may be less tolerant of deviant behav- ior than domains of lower situational constraint. Future research could thus examine whether the constraint of the domain affect people’s reactions to deviance. In our research, artistic deviance was studied within a Western cultural context, which potentially limits the generalizability of our findings. One of the main features of Western societies is the importance given to the concept of the individual (Triandis, 1987). Individualistic values in Western cultures have been an important force that fundamentally changed the way people think about deviance (Baumeister, 1987). The rise of individualism enforced artists’ concerns about being authentic and “staying true to them- selves” (the ideal of authenticity; Trilling, 1971) and allowed the development of idiosyncratic styles in art as well as a constant renunciation of the customary (the notion of counterwill; Rank, 1932/1989). One could therefore assume that reactions to artistic deviance depend on the cultural context. Individuals in Western cultures may have more favorable reactions to artistic deviance because deviant artists fulfill the cultural ideal of being unique. On the contrary, individuals in East Asian cultures may have less favorable reactions to artistic deviance because deviant artists do not fulfill the cultural ideal of conforming to normative standards (Kim & Markus, 1999). Different cultural ideals may also explain why East Asian cultures are more likely to foster incremental innovations, whereas Western cultures encourage more break- through ones (Herbig & Palumbo, 1996). Furthermore, the way people perceive individuals who deviate from the norm and the cultural values people endorse could account for the differential evolution of art movements in different parts of the world. Spe- cifically, artists in East Asia might have been driven to learn basic skills through diligent imitation of old masters, whereas artists in the Western world might have been driven to produce original works, which may explain the rapid succession of different art movements in the West. Future research could thus investigate how the effect of artistic deviance on impact plays out in nonwest- ern populations. Three studies that examined perceived will-power as underlying mechanism suggested that deviant artists are acclaimed because their behavior is considered willful. In other words, artistic devi- ance begets impact because it is seen as a means to some aesthetic or expressive goal. For instance, artists who deviate toward a realistic style may be considered less acclaimed than artists who deviate toward a nonrealistic style, because the latter form of deviance serves the goal of artistic progress. However, the reasons why artists deviate may vary. Artist A might deviate in a certain 5 Study S3, reported in the Online Supplemental Material, shows that older artworks are perceived as more influential than younger artworks; however, artwork age does not moderate the effect of artistic deviance on impact. These findings suggest that the effect of artistic deviance on impact is independent from the effect of artwork age. T hi s do cu m en t is co py ri gh te d by th e A m er ic an P sy ch ol og ic al A ss oc ia ti on or on e of it s al li ed pu bl is he rs . T hi s ar ti cl e is in te nd ed so le ly fo r th e pe rs on al us e of th e in di vi du al us er an d is no t to be di ss em in at ed br oa dl y. 296 STAMKOU, VAN KLEEF, AND HOMAN http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000131.supp direction because she wants to give voice to suffering, whereas artist B might deviate in the same direction because he realizes that the deviant style is more profitable. This raises the question, is willful deviance valued even if it is for ignoble or immoral rea- sons? Philosophical accounts that examine what is considered valuable in aesthetics hold that the evaluation of an artwork is often influenced by concerns about the morality of a certain decision (Guyer, 2005). Accordingly, future research could inves- tigate whether deviant artists whose behavior is considered moral may gain more impact than artists who deviate by the same expressive means but whose behavior is considered immoral. Perceived morality may therefore constitute an interesting bound- ary condition of the current findings.6 Another interesting boundary condition to the effects of artistic deviance on impact relates to observers’ condition of reception while viewing an artwork. Deviance in art may get an edge over convention in situations where the target artwork is not pertinent to urgent goals, and thus when people have the luxury to engage it on their own time (Kant, 1952/2007). Previous research provides suggestive evidence for this account. A study that examined the role of personal need for structure (PNS)—a construct that cap- tures variability in the need to apprehend the world in clear-cut terms— on appreciation of modern art found that high-PNS par- ticipants rated modern paintings less favorably than low-PNS participants. The proposed argument explaining this finding was that high-PNS participants felt more threatened by the lack of direct meaning that modern art may create. This may explain why high-PNS participants liked a modern artwork more when it was imbued with meaning by providing a constructive title (Landau et al., 2006). Another study showed that individuals high in need for cognitive closure (NFC)—a construct that correlates with PNS— evaluated nonrealistic paintings less favorably than realistic paint- ings as compared with individuals low in NFC. Also, under time pressure, individuals preferred realistic paintings more than non- realistic paintings (Wiersema et al., 2012). Similarly, Silvia (2005) reported that participants found visual artworks more interesting when their perceived ability to understand them increased. These findings suggest that observers may appreciate deviant artworks more when their psychological states or traits (e.g., low-PNS, low-NFS, low time pressure, high self-appraised ability to under- stand) allow them to engage the artworks on their own time. Future studies could shed further light on the conditions that facilitate the appreciation of deviant artistic work. Conclusion Although the popular notion “there is no accounting for taste” may be perennial, the current research indicates that people’s aesthetic judgments are reliably predicted by the degree to which and the way in which artists’ works deviate from prevailing artistic norms. We demonstrated that whether artists deviate from their previous style and the conventions of their era may determine the extent to which their artistic ideas persist or perish. The early works of Claude Monet and his associates prove that they were adept at producing a realistic representation of the world, whereas their impressionistic works attest that they were determined to break away from the iron cage of realistic art forms embraced by their contemporaries. The art critic who coined the term “Impres- sionists” to satirically refer to these deviant artists could have never imagined that their artistic work and vision would echo down the ages. 6 Study S4, reported in the Online Supplemental Material, provides suggestive evidence that perceptions of intentionality enhance deviant artists’ impact only when the reason for deviance is perceived to be moral—when deviance is not considered moral, intentionality may back- fire. References Alvarez, J. L., Mazza, C., Pedersen, J. S., & Svejenova, S. (2005). Shield- ing idiosyncrasy from isomorphic pressures: Towards optimal distinc- tiveness in European filmmaking. 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Still life, Willem De Kooning Portrait of Elaine, Willem De Kooning Untitled (still life), Willem De Kooning Drawings, Winter-Spring, Graham White Untitled (cow jumps over the moon), Willem De Kooning Untitled (charcoal drawing), Willem De Kooning Secretary, Willem De Kooning Figure, Willem De Kooning Copyright on works of visual artists affiliated to a CISAC organization has been arranged with Pictoright in Amsterdam. © c/o Pictoright Amsterdam 2018. © Graham White, 2018. (Appendices continue) T hi s do cu m en t is co py ri gh te d by th e A m er ic an P sy ch ol og ic al A ss oc ia ti on or on e of it s al li ed pu bl is he rs . T hi s ar ti cl e is in te nd ed so le ly fo r th e pe rs on al us e of th e in di vi du al us er an d is no t to be di ss em in at ed br oa dl y. 301ART OF INFLUENCE Appendix B Artworks Used in Study 3 Artworks used are listed per condition: No intrapersonal deviance/Realistic early style (top row), No intrapersonal deviance/Nonrealistic early style (upper middle row), Intrapersonal deviance/Realistic early style (lower middle row), and Intrapersonal deviance/Nonrealistic early style (bottom row). Bull (plate II), Bull (plate III), Bull (plate VII), Bull (plate IX) by Pablo Picasso Copyright on works of visual artists affiliated to a CISAC organization has been arranged with Pictoright in Amsterdam. © c/o Pictoright Amsterdam 2018. See the online article for the color version of this figure. (Appendices continue) T hi s do cu m en t is co py ri gh te d by th e A m er ic an P sy ch ol og ic al A ss oc ia ti on or on e of it s al li ed pu bl is he rs . T hi s ar ti cl e is in te nd ed so le ly fo r th e pe rs on al us e of th e in di vi du al us er an d is no t to be di ss em in at ed br oa dl y. 302 STAMKOU, VAN KLEEF, AND HOMAN Appendix C Artworks Used in Study 4 Artworks used are listed per condition: No interpersonal deviance/Contemporaries’ realistic style (top row), No interpersonal deviance/Contemporaries’ nonrealistic style (upper middle row), Interpersonal deviance/Contemporaries’ realistic style (lower middle row), Interpersonal deviance/Contemporaries’ nonrealistic style (bottom row). Note. The focal artwork appears in the middle position of each row. Braids (Helga Terstorf), Andrew Wyeth Portrait of the Artist’s Mother, Pablo Picasso Portrait of a Woman, Boris Kustodiev Portrait of Katharina Cornell, Salvador Dali Portrait of Jacqueline Roque With Her Hands Crossed, Pablo Picasso Ridens, Francis Picabia Copyright on works of visual artists affiliated to a CISAC organization has been arranged with Pictoright in Amsterdam. © c/o Pictoright Amsterdam 2018. See the online article for the color version of this figure. Received November 10, 2016 Revision received December 22, 2017 Accepted December 29, 2017 � T hi s do cu m en t is co py ri gh te d by th e A m er ic an P sy ch ol og ic al A ss oc ia ti on or on e of it s al li ed pu bl is he rs . T hi s ar ti cl e is in te nd ed so le ly fo r th e pe rs on al us e of th e in di vi du al us er an d is no t to be di ss em in at ed br oa dl y. 303ART OF INFLUENCE The Art of Influence: When and Why Deviant Artists Gain Impact How Deviance Shapes Artistic Impact Considering Artistic Deviance in Its Social Context Intrapersonal Deviance Interpersonal Deviance Considering Artistic Deviance in Its Historical Context Overview of Model and Hypotheses Overview of Studies Study 1 Method Results Discussion Study 2 Method Sample Design, materials, and procedure Results Perceived influence Price estimation Discussion Study 3 Method Sample Design, materials, and procedure Results Perceived intrapersonal deviance (manipulation check) Perceived influence Perceived will-power Moderated mediation Discussion Study 4 Method Sample Design, materials, and procedure Results Discussion Study 5 Method Sample Design, materials, and procedure Results Perceived interpersonal deviance (manipulation check) Perceived influence Purchase intention Visual attention Perceived will-power Moderated mediation Discussion Study 6 Method Sample Design, materials, and procedure Results Perceived interpersonal deviance (manipulation check) Perceived influence Perceived will-power Mediation Discussion Meta-Analytic Synthesis of Findings Intrapersonal Deviance Main Effect Interpersonal Deviance Main and Interaction Effects General Discussion Contributions and Implications Strengths, Limitations, and Future Directions Conclusion References Appendix AArtworks Used in Study 2 Appendix BArtworks Used in Study 3 Appendix CArtworks Used in Study 4 
work_me5bvbyqkve6dpmffyoj5hq3gy	----	Global Politics Review, Vol. 1 No. 1, October 2015: 83-94 The Power of Cinema on the Korean Peninsula Samyel Lee Abstract:The Korean peninsula is constantly in a dynamic discussion of identity and direction. For South Korean society, it is no surprise that the Korean War and the existential threat that North Korea poses loom large over its collective conscience. Although mostly disregarded within scholarly discussions in international relations, cinema has always been, and continues to be, an insightful, powerful, and transformative forum. This essay discusses the ways in which cinema as an art form has been able to impact the way that South Korean society evolves, especially as an interpretative medium that argues for the ways in which the Korean demos should understand its own history as well as the the ongoing struggle with the enigma that is North Korea. In particular, the essay examines two movies in detail – Brotherhood and Welcome to Dongmakgol – to reveal how the same socio-political discussions are going on beneath the surface of two seemingly completely different genres of Korean War movies. Led by these persuasive works of art, the essay argues, Korean society is already moving in a post-modern and humanist direction and suggests that as a democracy, Korean society should embrace the power of cinema in both internal and external affairs. Keywords: Cinema; Film; North Korea; Welcome to Dongmakgol; Post-modernism; Korean War. Introduction Art as a Social Force Movies are not direct representations of reality. Everyone knows this. Unless they claim to be documentaries, it would be a stretch to argue that movies have any responsibility to be historically accurate in the same way that novels wouldn’t be required to adhere to such strict standards since they are not works of journalism. At the same time, it is evident that movies have a special place in a society’s socio-political discourse. Governments and interest groups have always been very sensitive to cinema – much more than people would assume. Today, even the general public is very responsive to the smallest details in historical fiction movies. Why is it a big deal, for example, that Christian Bale is playing Moses? Why did the descendants of general Bae Seol feel the need to charge the producers of Roaring Currents for defamation? Don’t we all understand that they are “just movies”? Samyel Lee studied political science, philosophy, and Russian at Duke University and was a first semester student in European Area Studies at GSIS, Seoul National University when he wrote this paper for the joint academic conference between Seoul National and Yonsei University. He is now a first-year law student at Harvard Law School. E-mail: samyel.lee@gmail.com ISSN - 2464-9929, © ARISS, Global Politics Review, http://www.globalpoliticsreview.com 84 S. Lee: The Power of Cinema on the Korean Peninsula Pablo Picasso once said: “We all know that Art is not truth. Art is a lie that makes us realize truth, at least the truth that is given us to understand.”1 The best of art is communicable and worth talking about for many people because it carries elements of truth in it. Artists have long philosophized that art is often more true than tangible reality. Whether this is true or not, this much is clear: art has always had the potential to be provocative, insightful, inspiring, accusatory, consoling, propagandistic, and even incendiary precisely because it has a unique power to persuade. Art, however, derives its social power from the fact that it has the imperative force to demand that we think, feel, and believe in a certain way. As the most multisensory art, cinema does this very effectively. Turkish scholar Sengul argues: “Film is probably the most technologically sophisticated and narratively complete form of aesthetic fiction and a profound medium of inculcating in us a larger symbolic order […] they show us and tell us who we are supposed to be by presenting an ideology that conveys an attitude toward everything from the trivial to the profound, from what we eat for breakfast to whether we should go to war.”2 The Unique Character of Historical Fiction Historical fiction is unique because it places itself within a specific context that existed as a matter of fact, blurring the distinction between what part of the story is historically true and what is not. At the same time, because it is allegorical, historical fiction always contains within it the potential to be polyvalent. As was said in the Middle Ages:“littera gesta docet, quid credas, allegoria” - that is, “the literal sense teaches the facts; the allegory what you should believe.” The set, the characters, the story may all be historically accurate but it is the allegory that makes a narrative relevant to the contemporary audience. It also reflects the personal tastes, interests, and beliefs of the director, which are applied both consciously and subconsciously. Ironically, this is no different from what historians do: they gather hard evidence and write a narrative according to their own interpretation of what would have been closest to the truth. The Evolving Public With the passage of time and the help of archeologists and historians, our understanding of historical events draws ever closer to their original complexity and sophistication. This in turn provides greater breadth for artists to reinterpret and recast events to reveal hitherto hidden truths or imbue them with new meaning. An important element in this process that also evolves with time is the public’s willingness to open up and accept new perspectives. 1 Pablo Picasso, “Statement to Marius De Zayas 1923”, accessed September 20, 2015, http://www. learn.columbia.edu/monographs/picmon/pdf/art_hum_reading_49.pdf. 2 Ali Fuat, Şengül. “Cinema and Representation in International Relations: Hollywood Cinema and the Cold War.” (M.S. diss., Middle East Technical University, 2005): 5. Global Politics Review 85 Generational transition as well as changing circumstances has a lot to do with this but new narratives and perspectives greatly contribute to challenging existing ways of viewing history and the world. This constant evolution in the collective conscience is reflected in works of art because artists themselves are members of the public, both limited by the same circumstances as well as open to the same potentialities. A Serious Mistake Unfortunately, cinema has largely been neglected in discourses about international relations. Mainstream political science tends to condescend on popular culture in general as unworthy of serious consideration when discussing international relations.3 This is a serious mistake especially since decision-makers do care about, and often regulate, cinema. “Lenin called cinema ‘the most important art.’ And whenever the American government had a difficulty in solving problems, the same machine would be at the service of it.”4 Decision-makers understand that cinema is an important tool in communicating with, indoctrinating, and influencing the public. Films also “contribute to the reproduction of foreign policy discourses” and they “produce consent.”5 What also gets lost in macro- political discourse is the fact that decision-makers are also members of the public. This implies that the same medium of film can be used to raise questions and objections to those in power, thereby inspiring a different set of values and propagating a different direction of policy. Cinema in Korea Led by movies such as Old Boy, the Korean filmmaking industry and moviemakers have achieved world recognition. The Korean public is also a very enthusiastic movie- going public, which has made the cinematic landscape in Korea very unique. With the politicization of the mainstream media especially in recent years, cinema has become an alternative forum for social and political discussion and even indictment; appealing directly to the public to raise awareness about issues the media may be negligent of. The greatest example is Dogani6, a movie based on a novel, which was itself based on a true story about the abuse of hearing-impaired children at a school in Gwangju. This movie is an interesting case study because it led to direct legislation bearing its name in the same year. It not only raised moral outrage against what had actually happened but also raised questions about why it had not been investigated by mainstream journalists to begin with. This case is also noteworthy in that a film based on a novel had provided unprecedented impetus for action on the part of otherwise lethargic legislators. 3 Engert, Stefan & Spencer, Alexander. “International Relations at the Movies: Teaching and Learning about International Politics through Film.” Perspective 17, no. 1 (2009). 4 Ali Fuat, Şengül. “Cinema and Representation in International Relations,” 1. 5 Ibid., 2. 6 Silenced, D-Cinema, directed by Dong-hyuk Hwang (2011; Seoul: CJ Entertainment, Film). 86 S. Lee: The Power of Cinema on the Korean Peninsula The Korean War Narrative Since the end of the Korean War in 1953, there were an incredibly large number of movies produced about the Korean War but its content was unsophisticated.7 According to the Korea Creative Content Agency: “the Korean War movies during the 1960s to the 1980s depict North Korea as the perfect enemy. With no tears or blood, they are simply human weapons threatening South Korea. On the other hand, these movies emphasize the loyalty and sacrifice of [South Koreans] fighting for their nation.”8 In 1973, the Park Chung-hee government created the Korean Motion Picture Promotion Corporation mainly for the purpose of censoring movies but also to produce government-backed anti- communist films. Prominent award ceremonies even had a separate category for anti- communist movies. Those were different times, however, and these measures should not be judged by contemporary standards. Still, within this historical context, there could be no real investigative works dealing with the truth of the war. While it was well known by historians, for example, that atrocities were committed on both sides, only the North Korean crimes were highlighted whereas those of the South Korean and United Nations (UN) Forces were ignored. To some extent, opening up to the wartime atrocities on this side of the peninsula is still a sensitive topic but this is neither surprising nor hard to understand. War wounds do not heal easily. Wave of Change on the Korean Peninsula From the end of the 1980s to the early 2000s, there were huge changes taking place on both sides of the peninsula and the world. South Korea was preoccupied with economic development and democratization while the North continued to fall behind. In 1991, the Soviet Union collapsed, finally bringing the Cold War to an end. Meanwhile, Kim Young- sam was elected president in South Korea in 1993, the first civilian president after three decades of presidents from military brass. Perhaps most notably, Kim Il-sung died in 1994, ushering the last prominent Korean War figure into the pages of history. Despite the fact that North Korea still remained a serious existential threat to the South, these changes took away the force of the ideological threat of Communism. Communism had been defeated - this much seemed undeniable. Indeed, the entire world has been waiting for North Korea to collapse ever since. Put another way, it was no longer the formidable threat it used to be but has been exposed as an impoverished pariah state clearly on the losing side of history. All of these things combined produced new confidence in South Korea to talk more boldly about the war and the North. Often overlooked, the financial crisis of 1997 was another important turning point because it broke confidence in government and leadership. It is 7 73 movies were released in the 1960s alone and another 40 were produced in the 1970s. The number decreases in the ensuing decades with 18 during the 1980s and only 11 since the 1990s. 8 “How Korean Movies have been Depicted Over the Years,” Korean Content, last modified June 25, 2013, http://koreancontent.kr/1552. Global Politics Review 87 worth noting that the government at the time was the first civilian government coming on the heels of a hard-fought process of democratization. In the economic turmoil that ensued, many people felt abandoned by society and this led to an increased sense of instability and mutual distrust. Leadership in particular lost the confidence of the people. The once seemingly all-powerful state had exposed its vulnerability and ineptitude.9 But overall, with the stabilizing situation in South Korea and the warming of Korean relations culminating in the first Inter-Korean Summit in 2000, it was now appropriate to revisit the history of the war. Moviemakers did just that. Brotherhood (2004) Taegeukki (Brotherhood) by Kang Jekyu was the first “Hollywood-style blockbuster” movie dealing with the Korean War but it was not his first movie dealing with inter-Korean relations. Shiri in 1999, a story about North Korean spies in South Korea broke the record set by Titanic in South Korea with 6.5 million at the box office. Shiri’s success was a turning point in Korean cinema as well as public discourse because it proved that people were still capable of taking great interest in a subject that had seemed exhausted. What was particularly interesting was the fact that this public was now one that remembered the Korean War as history rather than as experience.10 Brotherhood was released in 2004 with even greater success, attracting 11.74 million. Brotherhood, however, was normatively very different from even Kang’s own previous film. Even in Shiri, the unfeeling, soulless image of the North Korean could still be recognized in some of the characters. But in Brotherhood, this icon of the North Korean is completely absent. Interestingly enough, there isn’t a prominent North Korean character at all until Jintae joins the North Korean forces. Brotherhood is unique in that it takes a war that was long described as fratricidal and makes it literally that. The brothers are not extensions of the state or any ideology but normal people who live simple lives. From the beginning, this story is not about the two Koreas as political entities. The macro-political view is already, or finally, being put aside for a more humanist approach to the history of the Korean War. When the war is imposed on the brothers’ family, they appeal to the fact that there must be some misunderstanding. They don’t see a nexus between them and the war. The brothers are not aggressors or patriotic defenders of their state but victims of a decision beyond their reach. There is no nationalistic rallying around the flag – reflected in the subtle sarcasm of the Korean title “Taegeukki Hwinallimyeo,” which literally means “while waving the [national flag].” Some members of the older generation apparently were turned off by the title because they thought it was another propaganda movie. 9 Kim, Kyoung Wook. “A Study on Historical Changes and Genre Reconstructions of Representing Korean War in Recent Korean Cinema” (Sejong University, 2011). 10 Ibid., 12. 88 S. Lee: The Power of Cinema on the Korean Peninsula Ironically, the title was playing on just this kind of expectation. From the very beginning, everyone’s goal is to get home safely. The centrality of this theme is expressed through the slogan on the main poster, “We must get home alive.” The end goal is life, not victory, and this life reverberates throughout the movie as peaceful memories of family and the quotidian. The battlefield is a hellish juxtaposition of this longing. There is no glory or heroism here, only suffering and death. None of the soldiers have a clear understanding of why they are fighting the North Koreans. After the first battle together as a platoon, two South Korean soldiers witness a severely wounded comrade and have an altercation: Soldier 1: They haven’t given us food or water for days! Soldier 2: We’ll die an honorable death. Soldier 1: Soldiers are human, too! Where’s the honor in starving to death? Soldier 2: You crazy bastard, you’d go to [the other side] for a piece of bread! Soldier 1: It’s better than starving to death! Who gives a shit about who wins! I don’t know what ideology is but is it so important that brothers have to point guns at each other? At least against the Japanese, we fought to save the country, but what the fuck is this for! Soldier 2: You damn commie! This conversation foreshadows what is to come. With the entire country being taken and retaken by the opposing forces, the people caught in the middle do whatever they can to survive. With food lacking, many including Jintae’s wife sign up for the communist party and volunteer at rallies for rice rations. This later becomes the reason many civilians are slaughtered, which is historically true. Soldier 1 says he doesn’t know anything about ideology and indeed, the ideological reasons behind the war are unaccounted for in the movie. Nobody explains or advocates any ideology. It also turns out that Soldier 2 hates the North so viciously only because communists slaughtered his entire family. Even his reason for fighting is love for family, not ideology. Family is placed at the front and center of the entire movie, especially throughout the evolution of the older brother Jintae and this reflects the changing focus of the people from the state unit to the family as the dominant community structure. As the newly wed leader of his family that includes his mute mother, Jintae fights so he can earn a medal and send his younger brother Jinseok home. As Jintae gets drunk on violence and militaristic glory of war, it is his brother who keeps him sane, acting as the voice of conscience and humanity. In a gladiatorial scene, Jintae is abusing North Korean prisoners of war, forcing them to fight each other for food, but the two prisoners are reluctant to fight against their fellow comrade. As the South Korean platoon demands blood and entertainment, Jinseok jumps into the pit and replaces one of the prisoners of war, laying bare the uncomfortable truth that these North Koreans are just like them, literally their brothers, and just as reluctant Global Politics Review 89 to fight the war as they are. The fratricidal nature of the war and the irony of the central place of family become most apparent when Jintae joins the North Korean forces. The only reason he joins the North is because he believes that the South Koreans have murdered his wife and his brother. For the same reason Soldier 2 was fiercely antagonistic towards the North, Jintae now is towards the South. When Jinseok finds Jintae on the battlefield, Jintae has drastically changed: he is the manifestation of the classic image of the soulless North Korean soldier. We have to linger on this final scene just one more moment because there is much more going on here than simply a sad ending. Through Jintae, Brotherhood turns the classic image of the North Korean soldier on its head. The ferocious North Korean soldier is not some ideological fanatic: he is a victim of war. It is only when Jinseok appeals to Jintae’s memory of the good life and his family that he comes back to his senses. The humanist perspective is most prominent here where you realize that the so-called killing machine is actually your own brother who has simply lost his way and is in need of redemption. Welcome to Dongmakgol (2005) This story takes place in a hidden village in the mountain during the Korean War. Two South Korean soldiers and three North Korean soldiers end up staying at the same village under the hospitality of a community that knows nothing about the war. The movie depicts an Eden-esque village. The name Dongmakgol itself, a character explains, means to “live carelessly like children.” Questions have been raised about what exactly this village is since it is not historical. Some have suggested that it is a utopian pre-modern society and the only thing that is important is that it is conceivable.11 Others have also pointed to the possibility that it represents the world after death. These are interesting discussions but neither holds up when we consider other evidence in the film itself. Unlike an ephemeral existence, the village people can, and do, come in contact with people from the outside. People in this village not only physically die; they actually have a history of coming in contact with the outside world. The father of the little boy left for the world under the mountain and the villagers are aware of historical invasions from the Japanese and the Chinese. Therefore, the village is not completely fantastic but rather a depiction of the purely peaceful elements of Korean society and what Korean society today aspires to – a community hospitable for all and a life of peace and harmony. The premise of the movie is that war is imposed on innocent people who are simply trying to live their normal lives – a theme already familiar to us through Brotherhood. The main concern of the people is whether they will have enough to eat for the coming winter. The movie carries within it a very pacifist and post-modern argument that people 11 Kim, Kyoung Wook. “A Study on Historical Changes and Genre Reconstructions of Representing Korean War in Recent Korean Cinema.” 90 S. Lee: The Power of Cinema on the Korean Peninsula really don’t care for political-ideological conflict and that they are perfectly happy in their peaceful civilian lives if the integrity of that life is undisturbed. When the North Korean officer asks the village elder how he is capable of exercising such strong leadership without ever speaking, the elder replies nonchalantly, “Feed them well.” Scholars point to this scene as Korean society’s fatigue and distrust towards leaders who don’t understand the leadership the people want. 12 People don’t want ideology, they want bread. One of the most important scenes is when Moon, the younger South Korean soldier, is explaining to the villagers about the war below the mountain. The villagers ask whether it is the Japanese or the Chinese that have come this time, to which he has trouble explaining because he cannot decide whether North Korea is a “different country” and he also doesn’t have an accurate understanding of why they are fighting. The only thing he knows is that the National Defense Forces are fighting the North Korean ‘puppet army,’ which is a term he clearly got from his authorities. The villagers are left confused. It is just then that the North Korean soldiers appear. Immediately, a chaotic situation ensues. The villagers get caught in the middle with both groups of soldiers essentially treating them like hostages, a miniature version of the situation on the Korean peninsula. Rounded up in the middle, the villagers begin talking to one another about a wild boar that has appeared in their potato field, threatening their crops. Both groups of soldiers try to recover the villagers’ attention but the villagers are uninterested. They remain in this awkward position until the next morning and one by one the villagers get up to move on with their daily chores while the soldiers remain in their ridiculous standoff. After what seems like an entire day, the two groups grow tired and a grenade is accidentally dropped, exploding none other than the storage where the village had been gathering crops for the winter. In the meaningless distrust and enmity, it is the innocent people and their livelihood that suffer. Who could miss the allegorical message here of the half-century standoff between the two Koreas taking the people hostage and threatening the livelihood of both? The soldiers decide to work together to restore the crops for the villagers. It is in this process that they develop a deep friendship and later give their lives to save the villagers - that is, they do what ‘Korean’ soldiers are supposed to do. The movie, therefore, suggests a new direction for Korean relations – one of reconciliation through reconstruction. One more thing that should be pointed out is that the eventual enemy is the South Korean and US forces. The soldiers come into the village assuming that there are communist units hiding in the village. They are right in that there are North Koreans there but the demonic communists they have in their militaristic fantasy do not exist in any real sense. The true threat to the village is militarism and the perpetuation of a fabricated image of the enemy. 12 Kim, “A Study on Historical Changes and Genre Reconstructions of Representing Korean War in Recent Korean Cinema.” Global Politics Review 91 A Postmodern Collective Conscience It is difficult to argue that these movies are the primary movers in inter-Korean relations, especially since the influence of cinema on the public is nearly impossible to quantify. But because cinema is both a projection of already existing sentiments as well as a presentation of a new direction, movies have a significant impact on molding the collective conscience. The success and high regard for Brotherhood and Welcome to Dongmakgol is also a democratic representation of how the people feel about their history as well as their consent and support for these post-modern perspectives. On the flip side, the failure of a recent movie like R2B: Return to Base also demonstrates what the people do not empathize with. R2B was a movie heavily supported by the air force and was meant to be a sequel to Red Muffler, a successful movie in 1964 that brought many to the Air Force Academy. R2B had many elements that could have made it successful including a cast made up of famous celebrities and relatively impressive action scenes. However, the movie was by all accounts a failure at the box office and was ridiculed by many as being corny and militaristic. Indeed, the depiction of North Korea was too simplistic and devoid of sophistication for a public already thinking within a postmodern framework. Just as much as this sort of Cold-War narrative is bound to fail at the box office, a politician who espouses policies in the same vein will also find it very difficult to garner support, especially from the younger generation. The changing ways in which North Korea, the Korean War, and war in general are viewed are making war a nearly impossible option for South Korean decision-makers. When we look back at the past decade, there were many incidents in which military escalation was possible. North Korea committed regional provocations most notably in 2002 and twice in 2010 with the sinking of the ROKS Cheonan and the shelling of Yeonpyeong Island. But in spite of the fact that the latter two were some of the most detrimental and provocative in a long history of North Korean provocations, there was no social push for retaliation beyond limited reciprocation. Although the entire country was outraged after the sinking of the ROKS Cheonan, president Lee was highly criticized for war mongering when he claimed that he was “not afraid of war.” For better or worse, there has developed an adamant unwillingness on the part of the South Korean public to support militaristic policies. As movies such as Brotherhood and Dongmakgol both projected and newly illustrated, people now recognize all too clearly that it is their sons, brothers, and their peaceful lives that will be threatened. Conclusion: The potential of cinema in Korean relations and beyond As all moviemakers know, no movie can be successful if it does not tell a story that the public can empathize and relate to. At the same time, it also has to have an element that is new for the public to be stimulating. In this way, cinema has the power to both illuminate 92 S. Lee: The Power of Cinema on the Korean Peninsula thoughts and sentiments that already exists within the collective conscience while also focusing and funneling them into a particular direction, a particular logic. This is why governments and political leaders have long been both weary and attracted to the medium. Especially in a democratic society like Korea, the public needs to understand that when they are going to the movie theater, they are participating in an inevitably political activity – they are voting with their movie tickets. Moviemakers should continue to make movies that discuss important topics and the public should actively go to the theatres, thereby also protecting the industry from having to turn to particular interests groups for survival. Especially movies that deal with North Korea are even more political today because of just how little we know of the country. This enigmatic quality of a country that is both mysteriously our brother and our greatest threat leaves our understanding of the country to the verdict of an internal discussion between competing interpretations that are politically radioactive. In other words, the debate is less about who North Korea is as a matter of fact but more about how we should be viewing them, which is fundamentally an internal discourse. Korean society is still in the midst of a fierce debate about its identity, its rightful direction, the role of government, and the people’s will, if there is one at all. Knowingly and unknowingly, cinema has been both a mirror and a forum for these debates. It is high time that we take this forum more seriously as a society and fully utilize it as a democracy. It has been, and can always be, more than just entertainment. GPR Global Politics Review 93 Bibliography Crano, R.D. “Cinema and Empire,” Film-Philosophy 14.1. (Ohio State University, 2010) Sengul, Ali Fuat. “Cinema and Representation in International Relations: Hollywood Cinema and the Cold War.” M.S. diss., Middle East Technical University, 2005. Engert, Stefan & Spencer, Alexander. “International Relations at the Movies: Teaching and Learning about International Politics through Film,” Perspective Vol. 17 No. 1 (2009) Kim, Byeong Cheol. “Establishment of Truce Line in The Frontline.” (Dongeui University, 2013) Koh, Boo Eung. “Formation of National Identity in the Film Welcome to Dongmakgol.” (Choong-Ang University, 2006) Bang, Yurina. “Division Epic in the Film The Frontline.” (Mokwon University, 2013) Kang, Mi Jeong. “The Overcoming of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and the Epic of Division in the Movie Welcome to Dongmakgol.” (Konkuk University, 2010) Seo, In Sook. “The Evolution and Repetition of Film Genre, and the Politics of the Representation: Welcome to Dongmakgol.” KALF (2009) Kim, Kyoung Wook. “A Study on Historical Changes and Genre Reconstructions of Representing Korean War in Recent Korean Cinema.” (Sejong University, 2011) Jung, Byung Kee. “The Change of the View of War in Movies about the Korean War.” (Yeungnam University, 2013) Filmography Welcome to Dongmakgol (2005), Directed by Park, Gwang Hyun. Brotherhood (2004), Directed by Kang, Je Kyu. 94 S. Lee: The Power of Cinema on the Korean Peninsula R2B (2012), Directed by Kim, Dong Won. The Frontline (2012), Directed by Jang Hoon. 
work_mevee444jbcu5j3f4ubuafejsm	----	I Am Not Who "I" Pretend to Be: The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas and its Photographic Frontispiece I Am Not Who "I" Pretend to Be: The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas and its Photographic Frontispiece Corinne Andersen The Comparatist, Volume 29, May 2005, pp. 26-37 (Article) Published by The University of North Carolina Press DOI: For additional information about this article [ This content has been declared free to read by the pubisher during the COVID-19 pandemic. ] https://doi.org/10.1353/com.2006.0002 https://muse.jhu.edu/article/192714 https://doi.org/10.1353/com.2006.0002 https://muse.jhu.edu/article/192714 corinne andersen I AmNotWho ‘‘I’’ Pretend toBe TheAutobiographyofAlice B.Toklas and its Photographic Frontispiece � � A photograph by Man Ray (fig. 1) serves as the frontispiece for the first edition of The Autobiography of Alice B.Toklas (1933).1 In the image, a severely cropped ver- sion of Man Ray’s original composition, a waifish Alice B.Toklas, in a loose-fitting, floor-length dress, enters the study where Gertrude Stein sits at her desk, envel- oped in her work. Although Stein dominates the foreground of the photograph, the caption fails to acknowledge her presence. It simply reads, ‘‘Alice B. Toklas at the door, photograph by Man Ray.’’ With the frontispiece, Stein establishes a comparison between two purport- edly direct modes of referentiality: autobiography and portrait photography. The medium of photography, in general, complements Stein’s deconstruction of auto- biography as a genre. The frontispiece, in particular, reads as The Autobiography en abyme.2 The frontispiece, with its seemingly askew caption, highlights the discrepancy between the book’s title and its content. According to Stein’s own specifications, her name did not appear on the spine, front cover, or title page of the first edi- tion. Since the first publication, publishers have exhibited a palpable anxietyabout this absence. While not a household name, by 1933 Stein had achieved a literary reputation in the United States. Toklas, in contrast, was completely unknown. The title, therefore, failed to deliverautobiography’s usual pledge;TheAutobiographyof AliceB.Toklas did not promise to provide the details of an exemplary or otherwise extraordinary life. To this day, republications of The Autobiography almost always feature Stein’s image (sansToklas) on the coverand Stein’s name on the spine, front cover, and title page. In other words, Stein’s transgression of autobiographical con- vention still requires considerable explanation in publishers’ eyes. In 1933, the Literary Guild of New York introduced the book to its members by means of a brief, clarificatory letter. The revised title became The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas: The Life Story of Gertrude Stein, by Gertrude Stein. As editor- in-chief Carl Van Doren states in the letter: ‘‘It is important to know from the outset that while this book is called the autobiography of Alice B. Toklas (a com- panion of Miss Stein), it is actually the story of Gertrude Stein’s life since 1903.’’3 26 T s e n g 2 0 0 5 . 5 . 2 7 0 7 : 5 9 7 3 2 2 T H E C O M P A R A T I S T / V O L U M E 2 9 / s h e e t 2 8 o f 1 7 6 Jonathan Simpson MUSE_logo figure 1. © 2004 Man RayTrust/Artists Rights Society (ars), ny/adagp, Paris Van Doren does not want the reader to judge the book by its cover. With a tone of urgency, he attempts to purge from the title the very ambiguities Stein wanted to project. Van Doren places Toklas within parentheses in more ways than one. For one thing, his introduction dismisses Toklas’s importance both as a narrative persona and as Stein’s lifelong partner. Perhaps more importantly, Van Doren’s imposition hampers the reader’s participation in the construction of the text’s meaning. The The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas and its Frontispiece 27 T s e n g 2 0 0 5 . 5 . 2 7 0 7 : 5 9 7 3 2 2 T H E C O M P A R A T I S T / V O L U M E 2 9 / s h e e t 2 9 o f 1 7 6 ‘‘by Gertrude Stein’’ decreases the reader’s active skepticism about the ‘‘I.’’ Van Doren’s decided explanation of Stein’s ruse of authorship undermines the latter’s interrogation of (self-)representation. Readers expect autobiographies to ‘‘tell all,’’ and Van Doren assures potential readers that while TheAutobiography does not occupy itself with the details of the lesser-known Toklas’s life, it does ‘‘tell the story’’ of the more noteworthy Stein’s life. Obviously, Van Doren was more interested in book sales than genre analysis, but his comments compromise one of Stein’s main purposes for the project. With TheAutobiographyofAliceB.Toklas, Stein asserts that autobiographies reveal much more about the conventions of representation than they do about individual lives. Just as Stein’s ruse of authorship challenges the ‘‘auto–’’ of the book’s title, the frontispiece undermines the illusion of singularity suggested by the photograph’s caption (‘‘Alice B.Toklas at the door’’). In Man Ray’s original photograph,Toklas’s figure marks the center of the plane. In the severely cropped frontispiece, however, Toklas appears left of center. In other words, the image does not privilege either subject’s form, but bifurcates the viewer’s attention. The frontispiece provides important initial clues about The Autobiography’s construction. Toklas, whose form is echoed by the long, slender candles on the desk,seemstoprovideSteinwiththelightof inspiration.WhileToklasbathesinthe glow that emanates from behind the doorframe, Stein’s bulky form remains partly hidden by shadow. The tomes that occupy the lower lefthand corner of the desk add weight to the broad, horizontal plane of the tabletop. Because Toklas appears to materialize from the light, within the symbolic space created by the photograph it appears as if Stein, the brooding genius who toils away in mental solitude at her desk, has conjured up her muse. For some, the frontispiece highlights a power imbalance that pervades the writ- ten text. Leigh Gilmore provides the following reading: ‘‘Stein sits at the desk, pen inhand.SomethinginherposesuggestsProspero’sconjuringskills, forAliceseems summoned to the scene’’ (214). Gilmore claims that Stein, like Prospero, has be- come too absorbed in the pursuit of knowledge. Like Prospero’s Ariel, Stein’s Alice, while potentially mischievous, remains a servant. Gilmore’s use of Toklas’s first name, ‘‘Alice,’’ suggests that Toklas has been victimized by the more powerful Stein. Sidonie Smith’s reading of Toklas’s representation in the text echoes Gilmore’s reading of the photograph: ‘‘The camouflaged Stein displaces her monumental egotism into the self-effacing voice of ‘Alice’’’ (77). Once again, Stein is the over- bearing master and ‘‘Alice’’ the dutiful servant. According to this reading, Toklas exists solely as an instrument of Stein’s desire, and, as a result,TheAutobiography’s ‘‘I’’ becomes nothing more than Stein’s foil. Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar claim that further evidence of Stein’s monu- mental ego surfaces in Toklas’s declaration of ‘‘Gertrude Stein’s’’ genius. 28 the comparatist 29 : 2005 T s e n g 2 0 0 5 . 5 . 2 7 0 7 : 5 9 7 3 2 2 T H E C O M P A R A T I S T / V O L U M E 2 9 / s h e e t 3 0 o f 1 7 6 I may say that only three times in my life have I met a genius and each time a bell within me rang and I was not mistaken, and I may say in each case it was before there was any general recognition of the quality of genius in them. The three geniuses of whom I wish to speak are Gertrude Stein, Pablo Picasso, and Alfred Whitehead (6). Gilbert and Gubar interpret that passage as a self-congratulatory statement. Stein ‘‘turns collaboration into collusion. . . . The result is a kind of cannibalism, Stein makes Alice into a character of her own devising who, in turn, certifies Stein as the genius who will usher in the twentieth century’’ (251). This line of argument re- duces TheAutobiography’s ruse of authorship to a struggle for power. Words such as ‘‘collusion’’ and ‘‘devising’’ corroborate Gilmore’s vision of Stein as Prospero and loudly proclaim her intent as sinister. Furthermore, the accusation of cannibalism, with its suggestion of predation, again casts ‘‘Alice’’ in the role of victim. While his phrasing is more delicate, Charles Caramello also views Stein’s in- tent in The Autobiography as self-serving. He writes about ‘‘the morose theme of erasure’’ in Stein’s autobiographical work and suggests that, in TheAutobiography, Stein has ‘‘erased the real Toklas from history’’(14). The question remains, how- ever, where does one locate ‘‘the real’’ in any text? Ironically, critics who interpret The Autobiography as ‘‘the auto-referential clothed in biographical dress’’ (Neuman 15) mistake Stein’s critique of genre for a clever disguise of her self-centeredness. Although The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas does not represent Toklas’s autobiography, that does not imply that Stein fashioned Toklas as her mouthpiece merely to disguise her own selfish motives. Stein’s innovative ruse of authorship explicitly uncovers the premises of autobiog- raphy’s construction and thereby challenges the genre’s status as a direct mode of referentiality. As Bela Brodski and Celeste Schenck state: To the uncritical eye, autobiography presents as untroubled a reflection of identity as the surface of a mirror can provide. The corresponding assump- tion has been that autobiography is a transparency through which we per- ceive life, unmediated and undistorted (i). In The Autobiography, Stein purposefully distorts Toklas’s reflection in order to magnify the genre’s distortion of identity. She crafts TheAutobiography from Tok- las’s perspective in order to denude the ‘‘I’’ of its unified status. The book’s ruse of authorship, like the double portrait on the frontispiece, privileges Rimbaud’s ‘‘I is an Other’’ over Descartes’ ‘‘I think therefore I am.’’ Brodski and Schenck’s use of a mirror as a metaphor for identity makes implicit referencetoLacan’spoststructuralist theoriesabouttheformationofthecogito.Ac- cording to Lacan, an infant first understands the differentiation between self and The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas and its Frontispiece 29 T s e n g 2 0 0 5 . 5 . 2 7 0 7 : 5 9 7 3 2 2 T H E C O M P A R A T I S T / V O L U M E 2 9 / s h e e t 3 1 o f 1 7 6 Othereven before the infant can recognize its own reflection.The emerging subject both delights in the coherence exhibited by its reflection and despairs at its inner sense of asymmetry. In other words, the mirror’s surface never provides an ‘‘un- troubled reflection’’ of identity. The ideal image in the mirror, this fictional con- struct of a fullycoordinated self, marks the subject’s alienation and foreshadows its lifelong existential crisis. As Ellie Ragland-Sullivan explains, ‘‘Human beings will forever after anticipate their own images in the images of others’’ (25). Although it remains veiled, the illusory image of coherence first found in the reflection fuels the subject’s desire. In order to ease the conflict that emerges as a result of the mirror stage, the subject represses its failure to embody its ideal and builds up conscious defenses against the knowledge. A similar process of denial fuels conventional autobiography. Since ancient times, definitions of ‘the self ’ have revolved around the cogito or the belief that a self-reflective consciousness is knowable. Conventional autobiographers, how- ever, tend only to construct ‘‘the surface of the mirror’’ or the ego. Autobiographies that culminate in the ‘‘always-foreseen fullness’’ of ‘‘the writer’s present life and vocation’’ (Clark 316) perpetuate a fantasy of self-knowledge because they ignore the Other’s alienating effects. Subjects deny their alienation when they retrospec- tively establish, then proclaim they have fulfilled, their own definition of self- actualization. As Shari Benstock suggests, ‘‘autobiography reveals the impossibility of its own dream; what begins on the presumptions of self-knowledge ends in the creation of a fiction that covers over the premises of its construction’’ (11). TheAutobiographyand its frontispiece disturb the fundamental logic that drives both conventional autobiography and the ego or the cogito. In TheAutobiography, Steinuncoversthepremisesofautobiography’sconstructionassheinterrogatesthe foundations of the ego ideal. The ruse of authorship that Stein employs does not strengthen the illusion of her ego’s stability but emphasizes the alienation of the subject, that is, the self / Otherdynamic of subjectivity. InTheAutobiography, Stein investigates the presumption of the autobiographer’s self-knowledge. The narra- tive persona of ‘‘Alice B. Toklas’’ allows Stein to view her own subjectivity from the vantage point of the Other.4 Her critique of autobiography requires ‘I’ to sig- nify improperly. Stein underscores the dependent nature of the subject, that I exist only in the eyes of the Other, as she confounds the transparency of the personal pronoun, that I am not who ‘‘I’’ pretend to be. Photography allows for a similar ‘‘disassociation of consciousness from iden- tity’’ (Barthes 12). When we look at ourselves in a photograph, we better under- stand how the Other sees us. Because ‘‘‘myself ’ never coincides with my image’’ (Barthes 12) a photograph repeats for its subject the frustration first experienced during the mirror stage. The frontispiece of TheAutobiography reminds the reader 30 the comparatist 29 : 2005 T s e n g 2 0 0 5 . 5 . 2 7 0 7 : 5 9 7 3 2 2 T H E C O M P A R A T I S T / V O L U M E 2 9 / s h e e t 3 2 o f 1 7 6 of this frustration. Although the caption (‘‘Alice B. Toklas at the door’’) suggests the presence of one subject, the image does not fulfill the expectation. The viewer– reader anticipates coherence but does not experience it. This failure of one-to-one correspondences prepares the reader for Stein’s critique. With The Autobiography, Stein suggests that neither photography nor autobi- ography should be thought of as ‘‘a straightforward transcription of an observed reality’’ (Owens 16). In the image used for the frontispiece, Stein cannot be dis- tinctlydiscerned; only her hands and back are illuminated.While light accentuates Toklas’s form, shadows obscure the features of her face. In other words, the frontis- piece does not make its subjects accessible to its audience. While the frontispiece can be studied for the internal relationships that structure it, it does not furnish any clues about the inner lives of its subjects (Owens 27). Neither the frontispiece nor TheAutobiography captures ‘‘reality.’’ Man Ray de- picts Toklas and Stein as they pose for the camera, not as they truly are. At first glance, the photograph appears to reproduce a spontaneous moment, just as, on a first reading, ‘‘Toklas’s’’ narrative comes across as off-the-cuff. Upon further in- spection, however, it becomes obvious that the photograph, like The Autobiogra- phy, has been thoroughly constructed. The slight smile on Stein’s shadowed face suggests her anticipation of Toklas’s arrival, as well as her foreknowledge of Man Ray’s presence. Although she holds a pen, Stein does not write upon the papers on her desk, but simulates the activity. Toklas’s blank look in Man Ray’s direction betrays her attempt to ignore the pho- tographer’s position. Her stiff posture breaks the illusion that she spontaneously entered the room. Instead, it appears that she wants to ‘‘hit her mark.’’ The frontispiece upsets the idea that photographs come closer to reality than other modes of representation. Autobiographies, like photographs, are often mis- taken for reality when they are nonetheless only substitutes (Owens 27). Despite autobiography’s privileged relationship to real life, the genre remains highly me- diated. The book’s infamous last paragraph makes this point in an ironic fashion: About six weeks ago Gertrude Stein said, it does not look to me as if you were ever going to write that autobiography. You know what I am going to do. I am going to write it for you. I am going to write it as simply as Defoe did the autobiography of Robinson Crusoe. And she has and this is it (Auto- biography, 310). With those closing remarks, Stein satirizes the conception of autobiography as a simple translation of experience into discourse.5 First of all, it is difficult to be- lieve that the composition of either Robinson Crusoe or The Autobiography was a ‘‘simple’’ task. Furthermore, the Defoe analogy complicates the genre status of The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas and its Frontispiece 31 T s e n g 2 0 0 5 . 5 . 2 7 0 7 : 5 9 7 3 2 2 T H E C O M P A R A T I S T / V O L U M E 2 9 / s h e e t 3 3 o f 1 7 6 autobiography in its own right. With this conclusion, Stein classifies the textual ‘‘I,’’ as well as the entire Autobiography, as fiction. Stein did not intend to represent Toklas’s identity accurately in The Autobiography, nor did she attempt to portray herself accurately in the book. Instead, the last paragraph suggests that The Auto- biography provides a fictionalized account of Toklas’s perceptions of Stein. As Neil Schmitz states, ‘‘The ending of The Autobiography, which twice declares: I am not here, at once contradicts the intention of the form, self-revelation, and the obvious appeal of autobiographical narrative, intimacy’’ (204). Likewise, the photographic frontispiece, which obscures Stein’s image in its shadows and appears staged, or falsely intimate, reinforces Schmitz’s notion of absence, rather than Caramello’s notion of erasure.6 AsSchmitzclaims,therevelationoftheruseofauthorshipinthefinalparagraph undermines the conventional definition of autobiography. In On Autobiography, the influential French theorist Philippe Lejeune defines autobiography as a ‘‘retro- spective prose narrative written by a real person concerning his own existence, where the focus is his individual life, in particular the story of his personality’’ (4). The Autobiographyof Alice B.Toklas is a retrospective prose narrative written by a real person, but it does not focus on an individual life. Stein’s mind-boggling re- fraction of the ‘‘I’’ calls into question the meaning of such terms as ‘real,’ ‘existence,’ ‘individual,’ and ‘personality.’ Instead of providing an intimate portrait, Stein constructs The Autobiography as a text of exteriorities: a first-person narration whose narrator lacks direct access to the consciousness of her cen- tral figure, executed as a portrait by an author who lacks direct access to the narratorial consciousness (Caramello 147). When critics mine TheAutobiography for intimate details about Stein and Toklas’s relationship, they tend to overlookTheAutobiography’s focus on exteriorities (e.g., Stimpson). ‘‘Toklas’s’’ incessant repetition of the name ‘Gertrude Stein’ places such an em- phasis on the exterior that it teeters on the edge of farce. Rarely ‘‘Gertrude,’’ ‘‘Miss Stein,’’ even ‘‘she’’ or ‘‘her,’’ the full name, ‘‘Gertrude Stein,’’ appears an average of four times per page. For example, ‘‘Maddalena, the old Italian cook, came up to Gertrude Stein’s bedroom one morning to bring the water for her bath. Gertrude Stein had the hiccoughs’’(82). Although critics often interpret the repetition of Stein’s name as another masterstroke of her egotism, the reiteration ironically achieves the opposite effect. After hundreds of pages, ‘Gertrude Stein’ does not exist apart from its shape in the composition (Dydo 4).The constant repetition ex- poses instabilities in the relationship between signifier and signified until the full name, ‘Gertrude Stein,’ begins to function as an unstable element within the cycle of resignification. 32 the comparatist 29 : 2005 T s e n g 2 0 0 5 . 5 . 2 7 0 7 : 5 9 7 3 2 2 T H E C O M P A R A T I S T / V O L U M E 2 9 / s h e e t 3 4 o f 1 7 6 Printed in a one-inch circle in the lower righthand corner on the cover of the first edition, Stein’s famous device ‘‘rose is a rose is a rose is a rose’’ operates in a similar fashion. This microcosm of a linguistic system suggests that all signs are simulacra, or false copies. ‘rose’ does not refer to a reality outside of the de- vice itself; its meaning changes in relation to its reiteration in the cycle. Like the repetition of ‘Gertrude Stein,’ the endless repetition of ‘rose’ releases the ‘‘signi- fier from its signified into its wordness and sound’’ (Smith 81). Stein’s unorthodox linguistic play typically draws comparisons with the uncon- ventional visual perspectives introduced by Picasso and Braque at the height of analytical cubism. The broken-down planar components and trompe-l’oeil tech- niques of cubism, with their emphasis on exteriority, remain consistent with The Autobiography’s focus. It is photography’s emphasis on its own duplicability, how- ever, that creates a closer parallel with The Autobiography. Although it would have immediately unraveled Stein’s ruse of authorship, to some degree Picasso’s proto-Cubist Portrait of Miss Gertrude Stein (1906) would have been a good choice for the frontispiece. Just as Stein challenges the traditional mimetic function of autobiography in The Autobiography, Picasso’s portrait chal- lenges the ‘‘traditional mimetic function of painting’’ (Lubar 57). Furthermore, the Portrait serves as a frequent topic of discussion throughout the book. As the in- famous story behind ThePortrait goes, Stein sat for Picasso over eighty times, but the latter was never satisfied with the portrait. In the summer of 1906, Picasso quit ParisforSpainandlefttheunfinishedcanvasbehind.Whenhereturned,hepainted over the portrait’s naturalistic features and replaced them with anti-naturalistic features inspired by ancient Iberian sculpture (Hilton 66, 73). In the early pages of The Autobiography, Stein includes Picasso’s now famous quip about the Portrait: ‘‘. . . everybody says that she [Stein] does not look like it but that does not make any difference, she will . . . .’’ (Autobiography 14). With the remark, Picasso calls attention to his confidence in his ability to change the way people see.While Picasso’s later, fully realized Cubist works will challenge ‘‘the tra- ditional physiognomic reading of portraits as imprints of the sitter’s soul’’ (Lubar 63), his Portrait ofMissGertrudeStein does not. As the previous quotation reveals, Picasso believes that his painting does more than reflect Stein’s essence; it consti- tutes it (Lubar 62). And Picasso’s later reaction to Stein’s short haircut reveals that he feels his painting captures more than Stein’s likeness. ‘‘Let me see, he said. She let him see. And my portrait, said he sternly. Then his face softening he added, mais, quandmême tout yest, all the same it is all there’’ (Autobiography 53). Neil Schmitz aptly reads that statement as an example of ‘‘Picasso’s masculine authority’’ (216). Schmitz suggests that with the comment, ‘‘Picasso speaks a judgment: This iswho you are’’ (215). By writing her autobiography through the assumed consciousness of Alice B. Toklas, however, and by purposefully omitting a visual reproduction The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas and its Frontispiece 33 T s e n g 2 0 0 5 . 5 . 2 7 0 7 : 5 9 7 3 2 2 T H E C O M P A R A T I S T / V O L U M E 2 9 / s h e e t 3 5 o f 1 7 6 of Picasso’s Portrait from The Autobiography, Stein has the last word. To borrow a phrase from Schmitz, in relation to both the Portrait and TheAutobiography, Stein emphatically asserts: ‘‘I am not here.’’ Stein focuses on surface and absence in TheAutobiography not because, as Paul Alkon asserts, she wants to conceal ‘‘the moral emptiness of [her] soul’’ (874), but because she wants to break with the traditional ontological reading of autobiogra- phy as an imprint of the subject’s soul. Whereas a painted portrait is often valued for its ability to capture the essence of its subject, a photograph is often valued for its ability to serve as a mirror of the real. The fact that a photograph perpetually retains the fleeting instant underscores its exteriority. ‘‘The photograph mechani- cally repeats what could never be repeated existentially’’ (Barthes 4). Stein’s use of the continuous present produces a similar effect. Characterized by simple tran- sitions and lightly punctuated run-on sentences that overflow with present parti- ciples, the continuous present breaks from a concept of time as departure and in- stead suggests a ‘‘monumental temporality, without cleavage or escape’’ (Kristeva 14, 16). Transitional phrases such as ‘‘As I was saying . . .’’ (Autobiography 4) and ‘‘Before I tell about . . . I must tell about . . .’’ (Autobiography 8) not only create a casual, conversational spontaneity that establishes an intimacy with the reader, they perpetuate an illusion of a perpetual here and now. No one will ever have the opportunity to enter into Stein’s atelier and find Picasso and Matisse conversing there, and yet the instance perpetually replays itself in the ‘‘snap shots’’ (Autobiog- raphy 11) of the atelier that Toklas looks at, as well as in the text itself. Although the events described in The Autobiography occurred in the past, ‘‘Toklas’s’’ energetic retelling, like a photograph, continuously reproduces a fleeting moment. Where paintings are valued for their uniqueness, photographs are valued for their duplicability. Photographs ‘‘procure their authoritative status’’ because of their ability to duplicate the external (Owens 26). Once a photographic image is captured, through various printing techniques, it can be reproduced ad infinitum. As Rosalind Krauss states in ‘‘A Note on Photography and the Simulacral,’’ the photograph’s repeatability upsets the notion that the photograph might capture the subject’s essence or soul. In its ability to break down the distinction between the original and the copy, the photograph challenges the idea of uniqueness. At a certain point, in its precarious position as the false copy—the image that is resemblant only by mechanical circumstance and not by internal, essential connection to the model—served to deconstruct the whole system of model and copy, original and fake, first– and second-degree replication. (27) Stein makes the point, through her use of the photographic frontispiece, that all autobiographies are ‘‘false copies.’’ TheAutobiography deconstructs the whole sys- tem of model and copy through the narrative persona ‘‘Alice B. Toklas.’’ Stein’s 34 the comparatist 29 : 2005 T s e n g 2 0 0 5 . 5 . 2 7 0 7 : 5 9 7 3 2 2 T H E C O M P A R A T I S T / V O L U M E 2 9 / s h e e t 3 6 o f 1 7 6 explanation of the ruse of authorship suggests that the ‘‘I’’ of The Autobiography resembles Alice B. Toklas by mechanical circumstance only and not as the result of any internal, essential connection to the real Toklas. On the last page of the first edition, Stein includes a facsimile of the handwritten first page ofTheAutobiography’s manuscript.The ability infinitely to reproduce the handwritten manuscript reemphasizes the artifactual nature of all representation. Furthermore, the facsimile returns the reader to the book’s opening.The facsimile, therefore, achieves a similar purpose as the ‘‘rose’’ device. Although the period in- serted at the top of the circle divides the phrase into a beginning, middle, and end, the device perpetually repeats itself. In this way, it ruptures the notion of ‘‘time as departure, progression, and arrival’’ (Kristeva 17). The book’s last line also under- mines the notion of progress. While the titles of The Autobiography’s chapters7 maintain the underpinnings of chronological time, the point of arrival, or the end of the book, does not mark a final destination.The point of arrival perpetually dis- solves into the point of departure, or the book’s beginning. The last line, ‘‘And she has and this is it,’’ like the facsimile of the first page, encourages a second reading. The photographic frontispiece, the repetition of ‘‘Gertrude Stein,’’ the cyclical device on the front cover, and the facsimile of the manuscript all aid Stein in her deconstruction of the genre of autobiography. Within The Autobiography, all ref- erence to an extratextual world becomes nothing more than an illusory effect. Stein not only constructs a time indiscernible from space, but also an ‘‘I’’ indis- cernible from language.The ruse of authorship reduces the subject to the status of a grammatical pronoun (de Man 18). Because the ‘‘I’’ of TheAutobiography does not transparently reflect the identity of the author, it challenges the unified ego as the metonymy of the ‘‘I’’s signification (Lacan 307). The ‘‘I’’ in conventional autobiog- raphyperpetuatesanillusionofarational,knowable,unifiedself. Inotherwords, it reinforces the méconnaissances that constitute the ego and shelter the subject from its own discord.8 The Autobiographyof Alice B.Toklas does not remain focused on the portrayal of the cogito. The double self-portrait that serves as The Autobiogra- phy’s frontispiece, as well as Stein’s innovative ruse of authorship, exposes the ego’s investment in coherence as a denial. In theGeographicalHistoryofAmerica, Stein states, ‘‘I am I because my little dog knows me’’(113). With that quip, she suggests that individual identity requires rec- ognition in the eyes of the Other. Perhaps more interestingly, through the example of her dog, she claims that this recognition occurs outside of the realm of language or any other form of representation. We might harbor an illusion that photogra- phyand autobiography make their subjects more accessible to an audience, but the concepts and notions of identity that these forms of representation rely on prevent an audience from getting to their subjects. Stein does not write TheAutobiography so that the reading public might get to know her. Instead, she stresses that a real The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas and its Frontispiece 35 T s e n g 2 0 0 5 . 5 . 2 7 0 7 : 5 9 7 3 2 2 T H E C O M P A R A T I S T / V O L U M E 2 9 / s h e e t 3 7 o f 1 7 6 human being is quite different from a concept, and neither photography nor auto- biography come close to capturing a real being. Nonetheless, by disrupting com- municative transparency Stein is better able to analyze how language (verbal and visual) exercises power and negotiates desire. She highlights photography’s and autobiography’s conventions in order to test their purposes and strengths. u Peace College, Raleigh notes 1 Born Emmanuel Radnitsky, Man Ray (1890–1976), an American artist–photographer who moved to Paris in 1921, often photographed Montparnasse’s artists and intellec- tuals. He shot the photograph used for the frontispiece in 1922, a full decade before The Autobiography’s publication. 2 ‘‘In the vocabulary of literary criticism, the phrase ‘en abyme’ describes any fragment of a text that reproduces in miniature the structure of the text in its entirety’’ (Owens 17). In other words, Man Ray’s photograph reproduces in miniature the structure of TheAutobiography. For an historical treatment ofmiseenabyme in literary theory, see Dallenbach. 3 Van Doren does not capitalize, italicize, or set off the original title in any way. 4 Here ‘the Other’ refers to the gaze of the symbolic Other and not to the disenfran- chised other. 5 Four years later, in Everybody’s Autobiography (1937), Stein issues a similar lampoon of this misconception. ‘‘Anyway autobiography is easy like it or not autobiography is easy for any one and so this is to be everybody’s autobiography’’ (4). 6 Stein has ‘‘erased the real Toklas from history’’ (Caramello 14). 7 The chapters are ‘‘Before I Came to Paris,’’ ‘‘Gertrude Stein in Paris 1903–1907,’’ ‘‘1907– 1914,’’ ‘‘The War,’’ and ‘‘After the War 1919–1932.’’ 8 Méconnaissances is a Lacanian term, meaning misconstructions, or failures to recog- nize. works cited Alkon, Paul K. ‘‘Visual Rhetoric in The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas.’’ Critical Inquiry 1 (1975): 849–881. Barthes, Roland. Camera Lucida: Reflections on Photography. New York: Hill and Wang, 1981. Benstock, Shari. ‘‘Authorizing the Autobiographical.’’ The Private Self: Theoryand Practice of Women’s Autobiographical Writings. Ed. Shari Benstock. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988. 10–33. Brodski, Bella, and Celeste Schenck. ‘‘Introduction.’’ Life/Lines: TheorizingWomen’s Autobiography. Ed. Bella Brodski and Celeste Schenck. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1988. 1–15. 36 the comparatist 29 : 2005 T s e n g 2 0 0 5 . 5 . 2 7 0 7 : 5 9 7 3 2 2 T H E C O M P A R A T I S T / V O L U M E 2 9 / s h e e t 3 8 o f 1 7 6 Caramello, Charles. Henry James, Gertrude Stein, and the Biographical Act. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996. Clark, Hilary. ‘‘The Mnemonics of Autobiography: Lyn Hejinian’s My Life.’’ Biography 14 (1991): 315–335. Dallenbach, Lucien. Le récit speculaire: essai sur la mise en abyme. Paris: Seuil, 1977. Dydo, Ulla E. ‘‘Stanzas in Meditation: The Other Autobiography.’’ Chicago Review 35.2 (1985): 4–19. Gilbert, Sandra M., and Susan Gubar. No Man’s Land: The Place of theWomanWriter in theTwentieth Century. Vol. 2. Sexchanges. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989. Gilmore, Leigh. Autobiographics: A Feminist Theoryof Women’s Self-Representation. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1994. Hilton, Timothy. Picasso. London: Thames and Hudson, 1975. Kristeva, Julia. ‘‘Women’s Time.’’ Trans. Alice Jardine and Harry Blake. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 7 (1981): 13–35. Krauss, Rosalind. ‘‘A Note on the Simulacral.’’ The Critical Image: Essays on Contemporary Photography. Ed. Carol Squiers. Seattle: Bay Press, 1990. 15–27. Lacan, Jacques. Écrits: A Selection. Trans. Alan Sheridan. New York: Norton, 1977. Lejeune, Philippe. On Autobiography. Ed. Paul John Eakin. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1989. Lubar, Robert. ‘‘Unmasking Pablo’s Gertrude: Queer Desire and the Subject of Portraiture.’’ Art Bulletin 79 (1997): 56–84. de Man, Paul. ‘‘Autobiography as Defacement.’’ MLN 94 (1979): 919–930. Neuman, S.C. Gertrude Stein: Autobiographyand the Problem of Narration. ELS Monographs Series 18. Victoria: University of Victoria Press, 1979. Owens, Craig. Beyond Recognition: Representation, Power, and Culture. Ed. Scott Bryson, et al. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992. Ragland-Sullivan, Ellie. Jacques Lacan and the Philosophyof Psychoanalysis. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1986. Schmitz, Neil. Of Huck and Alice: HumorousWriting in American Literature. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1983. Smith, Sidonie. Subjectivity, Identity, and the Body: Women’s Autobiographical Practices in theTwentieth Century. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993. Stein, Gertrude. The Autobiographyof Alice B.Toklas. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, Inc., 1933. �. Everybody’s Autobiography. 1937. Cambridge: Exact Change, 1993. Stimpson, Catherine R. ‘‘Gertrude Stein and the Lesbian Lie.’’ In AmericanWomen’s Autobiography: Fea(s)ts of Memory. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1992. 152–166. Van Doren, Carl. Rev. of The Autobiographyof Alice B.Toklas: The Life Story of Gertrude Stein by Gertrude Stein.The Current Literary Guild Selection. New York: The Literary Guild, 1933. The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas and its Frontispiece 37 T s e n g 2 0 0 5 . 5 . 2 7 0 7 : 5 9 7 3 2 2 T H E C O M P A R A T I S T / V O L U M E 2 9 / s h e e t 3 9 o f 1 7 6 
work_mfod347e5bbr5kx5qvnxg6j47i	----	It is nearly 80 years since the discovery of carbon-14, a radioactive isotope of the sixth element. Because its decay can be used to track the passage of time, radio- carbon has made myriad contributions across the Earth, environmental, biological and archaeological sciences. In the wonder- fully engaging Hot Carbon, oceanographer John Marra takes this story much further, exploring not just the science, but why we should care about it. Radiocarbon is scarce in nature, formed in the upper atmosphere through the inter action of cosmic rays with nitrogen. It is rapidly converted to carbon dioxide, and filters into a host of carbon reservoirs in the biosphere and ocean. Living organisms constantly take up 14C, and after they die, the isotope decays at a known rate. By measuring the amount left in a carbon-based sample, it is possi- ble to calculate its age. Since the 1940s, the technique has been used to date materials as much as 60,000 years old, capturing eve- rything from the early migration of modern humans out of Africa, by dating bones and charcoal from ancient hearths, through to the incredibly slow growth rates of mosses living on the fringes of Antarctica. In retelling these facts, Marra offers compelling stories about the great researchers — many long forgotten — whose discoveries made p ossible the theory, practice and further findings we now take for granted. There’s enough to sat- isfy the most in satiable informavore. Hot Carbon starts with the extraordi- nary story of chemist Martin Kamen, born in Canada to Russian immigrants. In Febru- ary 1940, Kamen was trying to produce a new isotope of carbon at the Berkeley Radiation Laboratory at the University of California. Sleep-deprived after three nights of collecting sufficient irradiated graphite to measure the hoped-for isotope, he stepped outside. His be draggled appearance caught the attention of police; worse, he fitted the description of an escaped convict who had gone on a murder spree. Hauled to the police station, Kamen was finally released when a survivor of the bloodbath confirmed he was not the suspect. Kamen returned to the laboratory to find that his colleague Sam Ruben had analysed the carefully gathered sample and found that it was measurably radioactive. The story of 14C thus began with a dose of high drama. Originally expected to have a half-life of just minutes or hours, this heavy form of car- bon was considered a low research priority. But Kamen and Ruben’s efforts proved that it would be stable over millennia, opening up a breathtaking number of research avenues (its half-life of 5,730 years was determined some years later). Kamen never received the credit he deserved, becoming a victim of the US anti-communist fervour of the 1940s and 1950s. Those who applied his insight, such as chemists Willard Libby and Melvin Calvin, reaped the scientific reward. We follow the 14C trail through a number of disciplines, learning, for instance, how Calvin and his team used the isotope to trace the way in which plants convert CO2 into sugar, revealing the intricate processes under pinning photosynthesis. We see how radiocarbon was deployed by labs in Britain, Switzerland and the United States to date the flax used to weave the Turin Shroud (believed by some to be the burial cloth of Jesus) to between 1260 and 1390. Radiocarbon dating has shown that Ötzi — the corpse retrieved from melting alpine ice on the Austrian–Ital- ian border in 1991 — is more than 5,000 years G E O S C I E N C E Radiocarbon revolution Chris Turney applauds a book on carbon-14 and its key applications. A human femur, thought to be from medieval times, being sampled for carbon dating. Hot Carbon: Carbon-14 and a Revolution in Science JOHN F. MARRA Columbia University Press (2019) JA M E S K IN G -H O L M E S /S P L 3 0 4 | N A T U R E | V O L 5 7 0 | 2 0 J U N E 2 0 1 9 © 2019 Springer Nature Limited. All rights reserved. © 2019 Springer Nature Limited. All rights reserved. old. And we discover how candidate drugs, labelled with 14C at specific parts of the mol- ecule, can be followed through phases of the body’s metabolism to test the drugs’ safety and efficacy. There is so much more. Marra explains, for instance, how, shortly after 14C was discovered, dissolved CO2 in seawater was used to track the movement of currents in the deep ocean, revealing connections around the planet considered unfathomable before. Carbon-14 may be the star, but scientists, institutions and happenstance have valuable supporting roles. Take Libby, winner of the 1960 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work developing radiocarbon dating. At one point, his team waded into the sewers of Baltimore, Maryland, collecting methane produced from human waste to demonstrate unequiv- ocally that it contained considerably more 14C than did archaeological samples and a precisely dated piece of redwood heartwood. Marra also reveals, in vivid detail, the diffi- culties faced by early researchers in acquiring precious samples of plankton, which opened up a new perspective on ocean productivity and, ultimately, carbon sequestration. His own experience in this area illuminates the researchers’ pioneering spirit in the face of wild conditions, cramped spaces and some- times surly ships’ captains. The technologi- cal limitations were progressively overcome by dogged perseverance and a belief that the work would help them to understand the oceans’ potential for incorporating inorganic carbon into organic compounds — still the focus of fierce investigation. Mysteries remain in the Earth sciences, such as the effectiveness of the carbon cycle and the ramifications of human activity, including our seemingly insatiable hunger for fossil fuels. Importantly, Marra shows how 14C can be used to tease out processes across a range of timescales. He explains why the Southern Ocean is the ‘gatekeeper’ to the planet’s ocean circulation, and how abrupt changes in the formation of deep water and the position of the overlying wind belts can drive dramatic shifts in the carbon cycle. Soberingly, a doubling of atmospheric levels of 14C — arising from mid-twentieth-century nuclear-bomb testing — is preserved as a spike in annually formed natural archives, including tree rings. That marker could be chosen to delineate the start of a new geologi- cal epoch: the Anthropocene. Hot Carbon offers a timely perspective on how mind-bogglingly connected our planet is — and how 14C will continue to be important in helping us to understand what lies ahead. ■ Chris Turney is professor of climate change and Earth science, and director of the Chronos 14Carbon-Cycle Facility, at the University of New South Wales in Sydney, Australia. His website is christurney.com e-mail: c.turney@unsw.edu.au Giants of the Monsoon Forest Jacob Shell W. W. NortoN (2019) In this thought-provoking study, geographer Jacob Shell probes an unusual interspecies alliance: the relationship between people and the working elephants of Indonesia, Myanmar and India. Never selectively bred, the night-roaming pachyderms are essentially wild, yet engage in cognitively demanding tasks such as rescue work during floods. Examining everything from the muscular miracle of the beast’s proboscis to the species’ wartime work, Shell also charts the threats facing Asian elephants, and the dearth of local voices in relevant policymaking. Barbara Kiser The Fate of Food Amanda Little HarmoNy (2019) As Earth’s human population tips towards 8 billion, is our food system up to it? In this tour of the brave new world of adaptive production, environmental journalist Amanda Little encounters robot weeders, aquaponics innovators, permaculture farmers, toilet- to-tap water recyclers and other players in the field — both high- tech innovators and eco-traditionalists. That balanced viewpoint extends to broader discussions of debates over genetically modified crops in Kenya and cultured meat production in the United States. Witty, nimble and timely, this is a gem of crack reporting. The Last Butterflies Nick Haddad PriNcetoN UNiversity Press (2019) Terrestrial ecologist Nick Haddad studies the beleaguered denizens of liminal lands: the world’s rarest butterflies. Far from niche research, he argues, findings on species and subspecies such as the St Francis’ satyr (Neonympha mitchellii francisci) and crystal skipper (Atrytonopsis quinteri) offer a valuable lens on the biodiversity crisis. Yet Haddad does not just gather data on habitat loss and other drivers of decline — although he does that with crystalline acuity. He emphasizes that measures such as restoring ecological systems can protect populations of these fragile “ambassadors of nature”, against the odds. The Trouble with Gravity Richard Panek HoUgHtoN miffliN HarcoUrt (2019) Gravity is, scientifically speaking, an enigma. We know that it is a weak force with infinite reach, pulling at matter to form bodies from black holes to galaxies — but that is what it does, not what it is. Science writer Richard Panek follows the evolution of gravitational theories through time, from Aristotle (arguably the first to question why things fall on Earth but heavenly bodies stay aloft) through the momentous discoveries of Galileo Galilei, Isaac Newton and Albert Einstein. He also touches on insights from the likes of poet Dante Alighieri and philosopher-physicist Ernst Mach. Life Finds a Way Andreas Wagner Basic (2019) From gut microbes to elephants, the embodiments of evolution are marvels of innovation. So writes biologist Andreas Wagner, whose eloquent study finds the “augmented” view of Darwinian evolution echoed in the ‘landscape thinking’ of human creativity — the mental exploration of possibility. Wagner meshes research into areas such as genetic drift with theories on aspects of the creative process (such as serendipity) seen in luminaries from radioimmunoassay inventor Rosalyn Yalow to artist Pablo Picasso, and shows how such a mindset can solve real-world problems. 2 0 J U N E 2 0 1 9 | V O L 5 7 0 | N A T U R E | 3 0 5 BOOKS & ARTS COMMENT Books in brief © 2019 Springer Nature Limited. All rights reserved. © 2019 Springer Nature Limited. All rights reserved. 
work_mhks7theu5ejbjtf7ybjmrdwmy	----	African Journal of Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure, Volume 8 (2) - (2019) ISSN: 2223-814X Copyright: © 2019 AJHTL /Author/s- Open Access- Online @ http//: www.ajhtl.com 1 From crayons to canvas: the enlightenment of children at an arts festival Hanneri Borstlap* TREES, North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom, South Africa Tel: (+27 18) 2991810 E-mail: Hanneri.bosrtlap@nwu.ac Prof Melville Saayman TREES, North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom, South Africa E-mail: Melville.saayman@nwu.ac.za Corresponding author* Abstract From crayons to paintings: Arts festivals and the promotion of children's art "Every child is an artist, but the problem is how to stay an artist when we grow up - Pablo Picasso". Art forms part of cultural history and education (Hetland & Winner, 2001), but also has valuable meaning for young people (Giddens, 1991) by expressing themselves about things they reflect on themselves and the world in which they live (Dobbs, 1998.) It is also a form of communication of how visual arts are seen as language and the how the artists opinions, feelings of expressing their ideas is brought to the fore. Bowen et al. (2013) state that although recent trends reduce exposure to art, it may be primarily due to the curtailment of school-based art programs. The latter proposes that children should be exposed to art by visiting museums, art galleries and cultural institutions and that it is important to teach them how to interpret and create visual arts messages at an early age (National Art Education, 2016). Only a small percentage of parents take their children to these types of institutions as artificial exposure and learn to experience art. While tourism research is increasing, including the perspectives of children, the voices of young preschool children are still lacking. Due to the government's constraints on funding for the arts, this has led to the rise of arts festivals. The private sector has also entered the market strongly, although not everyone can afford to do so. Festivals are just one platform whereby artists can promote their art, including singing, dance, visual arts and theatre. One such festival is Aardklop National Arts Festival, which has been held in South Africa since 1998. In 2016, Aardklop created an art safari to expose visual arts to young children between the ages of 6 and 13 years. The aim of this study was thus to determine the exposure that children find in art and whether they have learned something about visual arts either formally or as a leisure activity. A qualitative, experimental method of data collection was used to gather information from participating children, through a semi-structured interview before and after the art safari. Keywords: Aardklop National Arts Festival, youth, qualitative, experimental, South Africa Introduction Arts form a part of cultural history, and education without it can lead to an impoverished society (Hetland & Winner, 2001). Pablo Picasso said, “Every child is an artist; the problem is how to remain an artist once we grow up”. South Africa’s first democratic President Nelson Mandela also wrote that education is the most powerful tool we have to change the world (Mandela, 2013). One consequence of government cutting funds for the arts is that the opportunity of learning is reduced (Belfiore & Bennett, 2007). Arts have a variety of benefits for students (Kisida, Greene & Bowen, 2013) as well as children because it helps develop self-expression, creativity, and empathy to name but a few (Dewey, 1919; Heilig, Cole & Aguilar, 2010). Russel http://www.ajhtl.com/ African Journal of Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure, Volume 8 (2) - (2019) ISSN: 2223-814X Copyright: © 2019 AJHTL /Author/s- Open Access- Online @ http//: www.ajhtl.com 2 (1967) recognised that the arts enrich one's life, are components of culture since the beginning of time and that what we see and feel cannot always be portrayed in words alone. The author states in his final essay: “There is an artist imprisoned in each one of us, let loose to spread the joy everywhere”. Zweig (1986) adds that art is not only for the artist, but also for those who experience it. Artworks inspire and create opportunities for learners and communities to use their imagination and offer them new ways to look at the past and the future. Belfiore and Bennett draw the conclusion that arts produce positive social impacts. Morris (2003) and other researchers add that it also relates to: health, education, less crime, strong communities and even the economy. Arts have the power to transform lives and communities (Arts Council England, 2002); not only do they contribute to the factors mentioned above, but they also have valuable meaning for young people (Giddens, 1991) by giving them the opportunity to reflect upon their lives and the world they live in (Dobbs, 1998). In this encounter between the young and their intentions, the images deliver messages from one person to another; this visual language thus mediates their opinions, feelings and ideas. Belfiore and Bennett (2007) summarise the statement by Morris (2003), saying that the experience of the arts is to generalise people’s experience of the art within, across art forms and a diverse population, and adds to the creative industry. The White Paper on Arts, Culture and Heritage (1996: 6) defines arts as an expression by an individual through performance, execution, presentation, exhibition and transmission of collective creativity using dance, drama, music, visual art, crafts, design, and written or oral literature. Van Damme and Zijlmans (2008) describe arts as self-expression and communication. The ‘arts’ concept is broad and can be defined as comprising two divisions, namely the performing arts and the visual arts. The performing arts are ways to express opinion, emotion, feeling or taste by means of performance, whereas the visual arts (which can also include writing and literature) are ways to express all the above-mentioned through visual means and can also be referred to as fine arts. There is, furthermore, a relationship between the arts and tourism, especially at events and festivals (Hughes, 2012: 7; Richards, 2001) where artists and tourists meet each other. More and more festivals are creating an opportunity for artists to exhibit their work. Festivals are just one platform where artists can promote and exhibit their art, including singing, dancing, visual arts and theatre; these festivals are known for their ability to fulfil cultural social and economic roles (Andersson & Getz, 2009; Getz, 1997). Saayman et al. (2005) add that festivals stimulate the growth of regional and local economies while also promoting specific destinations. One such festival is the Aardklop National Arts Festival that is annually held, since 1998, in Potchefstroom, South Africa. In 2016, Aardklop introduced an art safari, catering to young children between the ages of six and 13 years old to promote visual arts to children; this took place in three different venues, namely the NWU Botanical Garden, the Sanlam Auditorium and the NWU Gallery. The goal of this initiative was to invite children to join in the art festival and to teach them about the arts. Lopatovska et al. (2016) mention that many scholars had developed an initiative to introduce visual literacy to older children (seven years old and up), but programmes for younger children (four to six years old) are still lacking. Although studies about art and children have been increasing in the last few years, the voices of young preschool learners are still missing. Bowen et al. (2013) state that, despite these trends, disadvantaged groups’ exposure to the arts has decreased notably. This may primarily be due to the cuts in school-based arts programmes, which may not only deprive disadvantaged groups, but children overall. The authors further state that for children to be exposed to art, visitation to museums, art galleries and cultural institutions, it is important to teach them to interpret and create visual art messages at an early age. Only a small percentage of adults take their children to these kinds of exhibitions to learn about and experience art. http://www.ajhtl.com/ African Journal of Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure, Volume 8 (2) - (2019) ISSN: 2223-814X Copyright: © 2019 AJHTL /Author/s- Open Access- Online @ http//: www.ajhtl.com 3 These alternative insights are essential for the tourism industry, especially when considering strategies for catering to and communicating with children and families with children. Since today’s child is tomorrow’s tourist, it becomes apparent that if one can grow the demand for festivals and the arts by investing in the youth, art festivals will also flourish in the future. Khoo- Lattimore (2015) confirms that there is still a lack of tourism-related knowledge from the perspective of children. Therefore, the purpose of this research is to determine the experience of children at an arts festival, what the learning aspect of this experience is and how knowledge is built. Literature view What is art? Let’s start with two very basic questions: “What is art?” and “Where does the word come from?” Art originated from its Proto-Indo-European root ar-, which means ‘to fit together’ and was later adopted as a prefix in the Latin ars (with art- as its stem) for artist and art, meaning skill, profession, science and knowledge. Still later, it was adopted in English as a skill, doing anything as the result of study, practice and human effort to initiate, alter or counteract. In the Middle Ages, art was taught in colleges and was known as ‘liberal arts’. Students first learnt the theory and then the practice. These studies resulted in a Bachelor of Arts and then a Master of Arts degree, which included subjects such as Latin grammar, rhetoric, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music, but nothing regarding the creative arts (drawing, painting etc.) (Pinkerton, 1982). Barzun (1974) defines art as classics of all times and countries and sees art as being creative. The author further assumes that if art is of any importance, it is because it can shape the minds and emotions of men and women; in other words, it has moral and social significance and cannot be seen as only a form of entertainment or a way of passing the time. Tomlin (2007) states in her article that through art maretinals children ar e mor eencourage to talk about what they have seen , heard or experienced. Through this method, is is a way of communication without speaking and develop their aesthitc sensitivities. History of art education in South Africa According to the Syllabus for Art Education in Primary Schools in the 1970s (Transvaal Education Department, 1977, now known as the Department of Basic Education), art was taught in all primary schools, from pre-primary to senior primary schools. These arts included drawing, painting, handcrafts, modelling, textile crafts, woodwork, metalwork, needlework and other techniques. Only at the senior level (standard five, which is now grade 7, with learners becoming 13 years old in that year), there were the following two distinct sections: The first section comprised the arts and crafts component, including drawing, painting et cetera. The second component comprised basic techniques and the sexes were taught separately. The girls were trained in basic needlework and knitting, whereas the boys were trained in wood- and metalwork. In secondary school, these art subjects became independent subjects; in other words, learners either chose to take the subject in a non-school curriculum, or went to schools that offered the subject, comprising paper crafts, textile crafts and graphic arts. Needlework was combined with cookery and mothercraft, also known as home economics. At the tertiary level (universities and technikons), students could choose from a variety of fields. These included art as a major subject, theoretical and practical aspects of the arts and the choice to continue with a post-graduate degree. Students could also choose to study one to four years, depending on the specific course they registered for; the shorter the course, the less intensive the training and the less value it had in teaching the student to become an art teacher (Yule, 1989). Hoadley, Christie and Ward (2009) state that the South African schooling system has undergone a seismic shift, whereas Elliot (2016) makes a bold statement by saying that the schooling system is worse off since 1994; this deterioration is explained by the constant http://www.ajhtl.com/ African Journal of Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure, Volume 8 (2) - (2019) ISSN: 2223-814X Copyright: © 2019 AJHTL /Author/s- Open Access- Online @ http//: www.ajhtl.com 4 changes in the education system. The Department of Arts, Culture, Science and Technology (DACST) stipulated in 1996 that art has to contribute to poverty alleviation (producing artists and artrepreneurs) and reconciliation building. The chairperson of the National Arts Council of South Africa explained that until 1994, the majority of South Africans did not have the freedom to study subjects in art, music and dance where and when they wanted to. The National Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) was introduced in 2013 to reduce the learning areas for learners who advanced from grade 3 to grade 4. The subject Life Skills therefore includes personal and social well-being, physical education and creative arts (comprising visual and performing arts). Elliot (2016) states that although different components form the Life Skills subject, the same educator teaches all aspects, including arts, which are specialised fields of study. The author continues by saying that the implication of this is that the educator is teaching subjects without adequate training skills or knowledge. Arts are only separate subjects from grade 5 to grade 9. The problem is that only a small number of learners attend these subjects and only a few top schools offer it. Yule (1989: 19) explains that teaching is a medium of education, but that not all teaching is educative and people must not be confused in thinking that teaching has to take place in school. It can also be done in an extra-curricular way, implying that it is done through private lessons. Educative art teaching comprises more than just telling the child how to draw a picture, and this is not possible if knowledge about art is absent. Yule further explains that in all teaching situations, the teachers must structure the lesson and methods to be used to fulfil the needs of each learner in the classroom, which will lead to involvement and the enhancement of creativity. In the art class, the teacher has no limit to what can be done in class with regard to ingenuity, improvisation, selection of media and art activities to influence the learners in many spheres. In this context, the teacher is not only instructing the learner, but also encouraging creativity (Yule, 1989). Previous studies in art education focused on artistic development, curriculum studies and pedagogical teaching theories and methods (Júlíusdóttir, 2003: 4). Furthermore, literature focused on the meaning of art in everyday life and the process of identity construction (Sava, 1998); self-identify through art (Rantala, 1998); interpreting works that can be used in understanding and creating the self (Räsänen, 1998); Cullingford’s (1995) exclusive invitation to children and young people to be active research participants; the influence of children on family holiday decision-making (Carr, 2006; Howard & Madrigal, 1990; Nanda et al., 2007; Nickerson & Jurowski, 2001; Segumpan, Zahari & Jamaluddin, 2008; Tagg & Seaton, 1995; Therkelsen, 2010; Thornton et al., 1997; Wang et al., 2004); and families' vacation activities (Howard & Madrigal, 1990; Thornton et al., 1997). Although all the above studies used children in their research, the focus was not on the learning of children at arts festivals, the importance of children’s exposure to arts or how to interpret and appreciate art. The latter is, according to the authors and to their best knowledge, the first of its kind. Tourism studies in which the focus was on children revealed the following: First, existing studies revealing children’s roles in family vacations have been conducted mostly from adults’ perspectives and through the voices of either their parents (e.g., Lehto, Choi, Lin & MacDermid, 2009; Segumpan et al., 2008; Thornton et al., 1997; Turley, 2001) or other adult stakeholders (Gaines, Hubbard, Witte & O’Neill, 2004). This approach, namely to collect data from parents and other adults, has been criticised for its many limitations, although it is methodologically rigorous. Nickerson and Jurowski (2001) selected children between 10 and 17 years old, whereas Blichfeldt et al.’s (2011) participants were between eight and 12 years old (Tagg & Seaton, 1995; Carr, 2006; Small, 2008). Literature shows that in all tourism studies that include children, the youngest recorded age for participation is five (Hilbrecht et al., 2008), six (Schänzel, 2012; Schänzel & Smith, 2011) and seven years (Cullingford, 1995; Gram, 2005). Hilbrecht et al. (2008) state that when they attempted to use children from five years old up, they needed their parents during the interview, which resulted in the latter imposing on http://www.ajhtl.com/ African Journal of Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure, Volume 8 (2) - (2019) ISSN: 2223-814X Copyright: © 2019 AJHTL /Author/s- Open Access- Online @ http//: www.ajhtl.com 5 the children’s responses. Although tourism scholars are focusing increasingly on the perspectives of children, the voices of young preschool learners are still missing. Zweig (1986) adds that art is not only for the artist, but also for those who experience it. Artworks inspire and create opportunities for learners and communities. Second, the literature yielded more results, but there was still no link between festivals’ visual arts exhibitions and the interpretation of children visiting the exhibitions. Critical success factors of visual arts managers and art exhibitions, how they influence the visitors’ expectations, how this process alters experiences, and how managers can manage these alterations to ensure sustainability are very important, since visitors to art exhibitions differ in profile (as visual arts have different categories) concerning their expectations of what they view as important to enhance their experience (Borstlap & Saayman, 2016). It is therefore clear that more research in this field of study is required to understand children’s views and needs concerning the arts, especially at events and festivals. Method of research A qualitative, experimental method of data collection was used to collect data from participating children by conducting a semi-structured interview before and after the art safari. The sample consisted of 49 children (five to 13 years old) interviewed from 2 to 5 October 2016. The parents were approached by fieldworkers who explained the purpose of the study and invited their child (ren) to participate, as well as asked permission to record the interviews. Seeking consent from parents is not uncommon in research with children; in fact, it is required in this case (Greenfield, 2004). It has been found that children as young as four years old are “competent and capable regarding giving consent” (Hedges, 2002: 39). The interviews were guided by a simple questionnaire to accommodate children from five to 13 years of age and to enable them to provide short answers. Parents registered on the online site through the festival webpage, depending on the age of the child. The first tour was for children aged between six and nine years and the second tour started 30 minutes later for children aged between ten and 13 years. The purpose of this questionnaire was to determine children’s understanding of art, their art preference, art exposure and whether they participated in art as an extra subject after school hours. Each child was interviewed before the programme started and given a number to be able to ask the follow-up questions. Basic sociodemographic observations were made, for example the language and gender of the child. The safari lasted about three hours. Upon completion of the tour (after three hours), the children were surveyed for the second time. A set of three follow-up questions were asked to assess their experience of the exhibitions as well as the learning factor. They were asked whether they had learnt something and they had to justify their answer. Lastly, they were asked whether they wanted to revisit the displayed art. The interviews were recorded again and paired with the same number allocated to the child in order to pair it with the same child’s questionnaire. The interviews were audio-recorded and then transcribed verbatim. Results This section is threefold: firstly, the profile of the attendants at the art exhibition will be discussed; secondly, the results of the first interview with the children will be explained; and lastly, a follow-up of the question about the experience and learning before the exhibition will be put into perspective. 18 of the respondents were boys and 29 were girls (see Table 1). The average age was ten years. The majority of the children attended local schools in Potchefstroom; other towns http://www.ajhtl.com/ African Journal of Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure, Volume 8 (2) - (2019) ISSN: 2223-814X Copyright: © 2019 AJHTL /Author/s- Open Access- Online @ http//: www.ajhtl.com 6 include Pretoria, Klerksdorp, Upington, Ventersdorp and Reitz. All the respondents were very positive about the prospect of learning from this experience. Table 1: Profile of children who participated in the art safari Aspects Children Gender 29 female, 18 male Age 5-13 years old Language Afrikaans (95%) Town The majority (87%) lived in Potchefstroom. Expectation of learning before the exhibition safari The majority of the children indicated ‘yes’, except one who indicated ‘maybe’ and ‘no’, respectively. Type of art paintings (21); photography (12); everything (6); drawings (2) Participate in art classes after school The majority (80%) indicated ‘no’, except 18% who indicated ‘yes’ and 2% who took art as a subject at their school. Visited galleries before? 50%: ‘no’; 9%: ‘sometimes’; 40%: ‘yes’ Participated in art exhibitions before? 72%: ‘no’; 20%: ‘yes’; 9%: ‘yes’, at school Learnt something new? 46 indicated ‘yes’, with one who indicated ‘no’ Enjoyed the safari? All participants answered ‘yes’. Source: Authors’ own work Results with regard to learning Children attending the art safari exhibition were asked if they knew anything about art and what they thought they were going to learn that day. The last question (whether they thought they were going to learn something) was asked before the safari and they were asked to justify their answer. Based on the first interviews with the children, three themes were identified, namely the history of art and artists’ works, appreciation and ethnic interpretation of art and, lastly, a lack of knowledge of art and a willingness to learn (as indicated by Table 2). Table 2: Results from interviews prior to the tour (first interview) Themes Prior expectation History of art and artists’ works Only 16% (7 out of 45) of the children indicated something with regard to learning about history, art and/or artists’ works. Four children indicated that they were going to look at and learn about the artists’ works, the history of art and what everyone was doing. Appreciation and ethnic interpretation of art 14% of the children gave answers that were relevant to the appreciation and interpretation of art. When they were asked about their appreciation of art, the majority answered that they liked it. A lack of knowledge of art and a willingness to learn The majority (50%) of the children said that art looked like fun and that they had no knowledge about art; the other half, though, indicated that they were going to learn about plants. After the safari tour, the children were approached to answer three follow-up questions. In the first question, they were asked whether they had learnt anything new; they were also asked to justify their answer. From all the answers, three themes were identified (as seen in Table 3). http://www.ajhtl.com/ African Journal of Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure, Volume 8 (2) - (2019) ISSN: 2223-814X Copyright: © 2019 AJHTL /Author/s- Open Access- Online @ http//: www.ajhtl.com 7 Table 3: Results of the second interview In the second question, they were asked whether they enjoyed the art safari, and all of them (100%) answered ‘yes’. They were asked to explain their answer; again, three themes were identified (as seen in Table 4). Table 4: Appreciation of the tour Themes Answers after the tour Expectation Some (22%) of the answers were: “(I) did not know what to expect”; (It was) different (from) what I expected or what I anticipated”; “(I) thought it is going to be different”; “(It was) very interesting”; and “(I) thought it is going to be boring”. Not impressed The minority (2%) indicated that they did not enjoy it. Impressed The majority (76%) understood art better and they were very surprised and impressed with artists creating art. Findings and implications Although some scholars question the method of using young children in interviews to obtain information, this study found that children definitely have a clear opinion and that they are not too young at six years old for researchers to gain insight into their thoughts. The first finding relates to the timing of the survey. Using an experimental approach is a sound way to evaluate this type of research. The timing of a survey, namely before, during or after an event, could have serious consequences for decision-making and could have an effect on repeat visits, but not necessarily. It could also provide a false impression of aspects that require change. This implies that academics and managers need to take cognisance of the issue of timing concerning a survey, especially where children are involved. They should also be cautious when deciding at which time the research should be conducted (before, during or after an event). What we have learnt is that surveys should be done in a combination of pre-, during- and post-event times or should be done regularly to obtain the best results. The experimental approach has also been found to be very successful for this type of research. The second finding is that children can learn about art during a short period of time. This finding supports the results of Hooper-Greenhill and Moussouri (2002) and Dawson (2006), who state that learning is a process of active engagement with experience, which may involve skill enhancement, knowledge, understanding, values, feelings, attitude and the capacity to reflect. This will lead to the desire to change and to learn more. Art is a form of communication and is present in experiences, feelings and thoughts in a visible manner (Júlíusdóttir, 2003: Themes After the tour Appreciation and interpretation of art 56% of the children gave knowledgeable answers on how to appreciate art and they realised that art has meaning. One replied, “Art cannot always be pretty and art has meaning”. Another child responded, “Different art is deep and has insights, and the different artist(s) use different mediums”. Creation of art 33% of the children gained knowledge on how to create art and use different materials. One answered that “you could make art out of differed things” and it was interesting that “one can use even matches”. One initially thought that “art is just about pencils and paintings, but there are different ways to create art”. Uncertainty 12% answered that they did not know whether they had learnt anything. One even indicated that he/she “learnt nothing”. http://www.ajhtl.com/ African Journal of Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure, Volume 8 (2) - (2019) ISSN: 2223-814X Copyright: © 2019 AJHTL /Author/s- Open Access- Online @ http//: www.ajhtl.com 8 4). Children learn to create visual symbols, which ultimately develop visual literacy. Júlíusdóttir (2003) further explained that visual literacy does not only include the creation of art, but also discussions about it; through discussion, children’s experiences are extended. Parents can help with this process by exposing children to various safe materials, sizes, shapes, and textures (Johnson, 2008). Active experiences with visual arts enable children to develop visual and verbal expression and, at the same time, contribute to their appreciation of art in the long haul. All it takes is someone with knowledge about art to teach and explain to them how it works. Implementing art safaris at festivals will enable children of all races to both appreciate and learn about art which would also then serve to bridge the racial divides in South Africa. Art galleries and museums can initiate art holiday or after-school programmes, which will lead to more exposure and insight. Unal (2012) confirmed that museums offer opportunities to children to gain appreciation of art and self-expression. Children can only experience, understand, know and discover through the experiences that they were exposed to by their peers or adults. For children to comment on, analyse and ponder over art, they need to be provided with the opportunity to be actively engaged in it. Kirchberg and Trondle (2015: 174), who also state that while visiting the exhibition there are factors that can change the visitors’ experiences, for example what they look at, their assessment of the art, their engagement, their learning experience as well as their emotional and cognitive responses (also to other visitors or staff members), are of the opinion that an art safari is a wonderful way of introducing art and the appreciation thereof from a very young age. The third finding revealed that if children are exposed to differed mediums of visual art, they can create with different materials afterwards and are not limited to pencils and paint anymore. Art-making is defined by Dobbs (1998) as the process of responding to observations, ideas, feelings and other experiences by creating works of art with different tools and techniques, and applying these various media in a skilful, thoughtful and imaginative manner. Johnson (2008) adds that young children can learn to convey visually created messages, not only through reading and writing, constructing and decoding words, but also through painting, creating clay collages and drawings. The implications are that children can learn new methods and be creative from a young age, and some will eventually make a living out of it. Festivals attract all kinds of persons, and art managers need to use the marketing strategies of the festival organisers to create curiosity among these visitors and expose them to the different aspects of what art has to offer, especially to young children. Conclusion The purpose of this research was to determine the experience of children at an arts festival, as well as their views on art. This research, which is one of the first of its kind conducted at an arts festival, suggests that art exhibitions are not age restricted and should involve visitors from very young to very old. One of the more surprising aspects of this study was the many children respondents we obtained for participants. Our findings support the literature that states if parents and caregivers involve children in active engagement in art-making, it can lead to positive social encounters. Nonetheless, creativity is directly impacted by the culture and climate that invariably envelops learners. Before the learners can be supported to develop the knowledge, skills, attitudes and dispositions they require to exploit their latent creativity, a culture and climate that is apposite to this learning must be available. Thus it is critically important to provide a positive resourced, classroom and teaching ethos must be in place that is constructive, and is rooted in the notion that all learners have a right to learn and express themselves artistically. Art is learning in and through active engagement that unites mind and body, emotion and intellect, object and subject. Art matters, because experiences in the arts offer opportunities http://www.ajhtl.com/ African Journal of Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure, Volume 8 (2) - (2019) ISSN: 2223-814X Copyright: © 2019 AJHTL /Author/s- Open Access- Online @ http//: www.ajhtl.com 9 to develop creativity and imagination, and to experience joy, beauty and wonder. Art is also about the enrichment of lives, developing new ways of expression, knowledge and feelings. If children are exposed to art’s different forms and its history, they are more likely to express themselves and discover their talents. Art is not just about painting and drawing, it is a story that is expressed by an individual. When children are older, they can exploit their talent or knowledge that they were once exposed to and loved. It is clear from the research that these children were only exposed for three hours to different art in three galleries, but in that small frame of time, they already learnt something new. 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work_mk2gagjjbrb3vpvkpjwglc6rve	----	Atenea 504 II Sem. 2011193 RESUMEn El trabajo analiza el escenario de la crítica de arte en el país, desde las últimas décadas del siglo XIX hasta la mitad de la pasada centuria. Revisa las voces y discursos inicia- les, estableciendo sus modelos, estilos y formas de expresión y difusión. Profundiza en algunos autores tales como Ricardo Richon-Brunet, Antonio Romera y Jean Emar, vin- culando sus discursos teóricos con aquellos momentos y contenidos más importantes del arte nacional. Analiza también la gravitación que tuvieron algunas exposiciones de arte realizadas en Chile, concluyendo con una revisión a la historiografía de la escultura en el país. Palabras clave: Crítica, pintura, escultura, Chile, artistas, modelos. ABSTRACT This work analyses the scene of critics of Art in the country from the last decades of the XIX century up through the last half of the XX century. It reviews the voices and initial speeches, establishing models, styles and forms of expression and diffusion. It goes deeper into some authors such as Ricardo Richon-Brunet, Antonio Romera y Jean Emar, relating their theoretical speeches with the most important moments and con- Artes visuales en Chile durante la primera mitad del siglo XX: Una mirada al campo teórico1 Pedro Emilio Zamorano2 1 El presente artículo corresponde al Proyecto de Investigación “Escultura chilena 1854-1960: el trasluz de su identidad”, Fondecyt nº 1085295, dirigido por el autor de este trabajo e integrado por el académico Claudio Cortés López, coinvestigador; el escultor Francisco Gazitúa, coinvesti- gador, y las historiadoras Marisol Richter y Cynthia Valdivieso. 2 Dr. en Historia del Arte, Profesor Titular Instituto de Estudios Humanísticos Abate Juan Ignacio Molina, Universidad de Talca. Talca, Chile. E-mail: pzamoper@utalca.cl Visual Arts in Chile during the first half of the XX century: a look at the theoretical field ISSn 0716-1840 193 Atenea 504II Sem. 2011 pp. 193-212 194Atenea 504II Sem. 2011 tents of national art. It also analyses the importance that some of the art expositions had in the country, concluding with a revision of the local sculpture historiography. Keywords: Critics, painting, sculpture, Chile, artists, models. AnTECEDEnTES E XISTEn dos momentos claramente diferenciados en el panorama de la crítica de arte en Chile durante las primeras cinco décadas del siglo XX: el primero, que calificaremos como de orientación e in- formación inicial, a través de crónicas escritas, entre otros, por Ricardo Ri- chon Brunet, nathanael yáñez Silva, más algunas figuras provenientes del ámbito literario. Otro, de conformación del gusto o esclarecimiento de los movimientos vanguardistas, en figuras como Jean Emar y Antonio Romera, personalidades que se encargaron de instruir a un público masivo, diletante y con poca información sobre procesos estéticos. La labor crítica de estos autores consistió en alfabetizar al público nacional en torno al desarrollo universal del arte, especialmente las corrientes más vanguardistas. Distinguimos también un tercer momento, materia de otro trabajo, que dice relación con la aparición de un conjunto de críticos, entre ellos Luis Oyarzún, Jorge Elliot y Enrique Lihn, que legitiman sus proyectos de escri- tura desde el campo académico. La actividad de estos teóricos se proyecta hasta la década de los setenta. VOCES y DISCURSOS InICIALES El desarrollo de las artes visuales en Chile ha tenido por característica una cierta orfandad de sustento teórico. Del quehacer de nuestros artistas han quedado sus pinturas o esculturas, y una escasa información sobre aspectos relacionados con la historia, la teoría o la crítica. Durante la segunda mitad del siglo XIX encontramos ya algunas crónicas, ensayos y textos que nos ilustran acerca de la sensibilidad y conceptos estéticos de la época. Entre ellos, el discurso de Alejandro Cicarelli, leído con motivo de la inaugura- ción de la Academia de Pintura en 1849, también algunos textos de José Miguel Blanco, Pedro Francisco Lira Recabarren, Paulino Alfonso, Ignacio Domeyko, Emilio Rodríguez Mendoza, Arturo Blanco, Vicente Grez y Vir- ginio Arias, entre otros3. 3 Escritos de estos autores figuran en Anales de Artes Plásticas de la Universidad de Chile, re- Atenea 504 II Sem. 2011195 En los años iniciales del siglo XX la contribución teórica más importan- te fue el Diccionario biográfico de pintores4, de Pedro Lira (1902). Luego van adquiriendo protagonismo otras voces, entre ellas las de Ricardo Richon- Brunet5 y nathanael yáñez Silva6, además de varios aportes procedentes del ámbito literario, entre ellos Manuel Magallanes Moure7, Pedro Prado8, ál- varo yáñez Bianchi (Jean Emar)9, Augusto D’Halmar10, Vicente Huidobro y, ya hacia el ecuador del siglo, el español Antonio Romera. A estos nombres debemos sumar la figura del maestro Juan Francisco González. Estos in- telectuales, sin lugar a dudas, contribuyeron a la formación de una cierta cultura estético-visual en el país, mas no lograron dar forma a una crítica profesionalizada, o a configurar una tradición historiográfica demasiado profunda en el ámbito de las artes visuales en el país. Hay todavía mucha información referida a movimientos, escuelas, monografías, catalogaciones y otros antecedentes importantes, que están a la espera de un examen teóri- co, de una publicación o, al menos, de su registro documental. copilación de Rosario Letelier, Emilio Morales y Ernesto Muñoz, publicado por el Museo de Arte Contemporáneo de esa Universidad, en 1993. 4 Lira escribió, además, desde 1866 sobre arte en los Anales de la Universidad de Chile, en la Revista de santiago y en el Correo Literario. 5 Ricardo Richon-Brunet (1866-1946), pintor y crítico de arte francés, llegado a Chile en 1900. En 1910 fue designado como Comisario General de la Exposición del Centenario, oportu- nidad en que escribió el catálogo oficial de la exposición. 6 nathanael yáñez Silva (1884-1965). Periodista, dramaturgo y crítico teatral. Obtuvo el Pre- mio nacional de Teatro en 1953. Se dedica también a la crítica pictórica, la que enfrenta desde una mirada tradicional, adhiriendo a los principios neoclasicistas. En la revista Zig-Zag publicó crónicas de arte, bajo el título de “Actualidad artística”, “Horas de taller” y “Visiones artísticas”. En sus crónicas “Interiores” habla de las principales colecciones artísticas de las familias santia- guinas. 7 Manuel Magallanes Moure (1878-1924). Poeta, cuentista, pintor y dramaturgo. Realizaba crítica literaria, crónica, comentarios pictóricos y reportajes. Junto a Pedro Prado y otros integra el Grupo Los Diez y también la Colonia Tolstoyana. En la revistas Zig-Zag, Pacífico Magazine y selecta, entre otras, escribió sobre pintura chilena, escultura, artistas, etc. 8 Pedro Prado (1886-1952). Poeta, novelista y cuentista. En 1949 recibió el Premio nacional de Literatura. Escribió artículos de arte en la revista Arte y Cultura, en Zig-Zag, la revista Juventud, entre otras. 9 álvaro yáñez Bianchi (1893-1964), más conocido como Jean Emar. novelista, crítico, pintor y viajero. Escribió sus crónicas de arte en el diario La Nación. Fue un entusiasta impulsor en Chile de las vanguardias artísticas europeas, especialmente aquellas que estaban en el patrón genético de los artistas vinculados al Grupo Montparnasse. 10 Augusto D’Halmar (1882-1950). Escritor y diplomático, en 1900 fue nombrado redactor de la revista Luz y sombra. Junto a Fernando Santiván y el pintor Julio Ortiz de zárate fundó en 1904 la Colonia Tolstoyana, convocando en ella a algunos pintores y escultores de la época. M. Magallanes A. D’Halmar (retrato de J. F. González) 196Atenea 504II Sem. 2011 CAMPO TEÓRICO: FORMALIDADES y CIRCULACIÓn Al analizar la primera mitad del siglo XX nos encontramos con una pro- ducción, más heterogénea que abundante, de textos que glosan la escena estética local. Es posible distinguir aquí dos tipos de escritos. Uno, a nivel de crónicas y artículos breves, que relevan un tipo de información mono- gráfica y documental. Estos trabajos ilustran sobre distintos aspectos del quehacer estético local: autores, exposiciones, biografías, obras, entre otros. Varios fueron los autores y los medios a través de los cuales se difundieron estos escritos que, en lo formal, se relacionan con un tipo de información más genérica e informativa, muy confiada a “impresiones” y a la sensibili- dad de la pluma de sus autores. El soporte más frecuente de estos escritos fue la prensa escrita. Este tipo de información adquirió en nuestro país una gran significación, pues pasó a ser el orientador, casi exclusivo, de la opinión pública en este ámbito. La breve extensión de un artículo y su ne- cesidad de informar sobre temas contingentes a un público masivo y hete- rogéneo hacen que el texto quede liberado a la crónica y a la opinión y no tanto a la reflexión o la investigación, esferas, éstas, propias de un discurso teórico más profesional, articulado por contenidos y argumentaciones de mayor rigor conceptual. Así como fueron escasas las voces teóricas, también fueron precarias las fuentes de divulgación a nivel de revistas especializadas. En el período que comprende este estudio son pocas las revistas nacionales de estudios o investigaciones estéticos asociadas a espacios académicos o centros de in- vestigación. Algunas de ellas fueron la Revista de Artes de la Universidad de Chile, la revista Pro Arte y, en un plano más misceláneo, la revista Atenea de la Universidad de Concepción, y la revista Zig-Zag, entre otras. Por otra parte, encontramos también otros textos, construidos bajo for- malidades y metodologías más rigurosas, que apuestan por una lectura de escenario y que intentan establecer ciertas articulaciones conceptuales más complejas. En este sentido, el Catálogo Oficial Ilustrado, publicado por Ri- cardo Richon-Brunet con motivo de la Exposición Internacional de Bellas Artes (1910b), intenta dar cuenta del desenvolvimiento de las artes visuales en el país, organizando conceptos y presencia individuales. En 1921 Miguel Luis Rocuant11 publicó en Madrid el ensayo de arte tierras y cromos: Pin- 11 Miguel Luis Rocuant (1877-1948). En 1902 Rocuant publicó el libro Brumas; en 1905, Poe- sías; en 1908, Impresiones de la vida militar. En 1918 fundó, junto a Fernando Santiván, la Revista de Artes y Letras. Publicó una serie de trabajos de orientación estética, entre ellos: “Los líricos y los épicos”, “Las blancuras sagradas”, dedicado a la escultura, y “Los ritmos anunciadores”, dedicado M. L. Rocuant Atenea 504 II Sem. 2011197 tura chilena12. De este autor encontramos también el texto Blancuras sagra- das, en donde examina algunas obras escultóricas. Otro texto que apuesta por una conceptualización de la pintura nacional fue el de Luis álvarez Urquieta13, publicado en 1928 bajo el título La pintura en Chile. En este libro-catálogo se establecen periodos y conceptos tales como precursores, maestros y movimientos, que encontramos todavía vigentes en textos de autores posteriores e incluso contemporáneos. Tomás Lago, por su parte, en su trabajo El Museo de Bellas Artes 1880-1930, intenta establecer crite- rios de ordenación para la colección del Museo. Habla ya de precursores extranjeros, de la Academia de Pintura, distinguiendo algunos maestros nacionales gravitantes. RICARDO RICHOn-BRUnET: LA FROnTERA EXTRAVIADA14 La pluma de este crítico se erigió en las décadas iniciales de la pasada cen- turia en la voz oficial en un escenario fuertemente mediatizado por el cen- tralismo del Estado, por la mirada de las oligarquías sociales y culturales, y por un poder de opinión y formación estética acaparado por la Escuela de Bellas Artes. Sus comentarios de arte, escritos en revista selecta, en cró- nica Conversando sobre Arte, y otros medios, valoran la capacidad de los chilenos, después de haber conquistado su Independencia, de organizar su vida social y cultural tomando como modelo a las naciones europeas, por entender que allí –especialmente en Francia– estaba localizado el epicentro artístico. El comentario a este respecto de Richon-Brunet (Revista selecta 1912) es elocuente: “Todo hombre tiene dos patrias: la suya y París”. En este contexto este crítico confiere a Raimundo Monvoisin el mérito de ser el introductor y fundador del arte de la pintura en Chile, en tanto que a Pedro Lira, la virtud de haberla afianzado y proyectado. Respecto de la escultura, señala a nicanor Plaza como “el iniciador de la gran escuela escultórica chi- a la música. Rocuant siguió la carrera diplomática, llegando a desempeñarse como subsecretario de Relaciones Exteriores. 12 En el texto de 99 páginas se incluyen 7 capítulos. La Luz, Retrato, Desnudo, Paisaje, Marina, Animales, Flores. 13 Luis álvarez Urquieta (Limache, 1874 - Santiago, 1945). Coleccionista, artista e historiador. Se integra a la Academia de la Historia de Chile en 1933. Dos años después, la Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando, con sede en Madrid, lo designa como su Miembro Correspon- diente. Parte importante de su colección personal de pintura pasó luego a la colección del Museo nacional de Bellas Artes de Chile. 14 Para profundizar en este aspecto, ver zamorano y Cortés (1998). 198Atenea 504II Sem. 2011 lena: él hizo en la escultura lo que Monvoisin en la pintura: fundar el arte en Chile, y como el pintor también, supo el mismo levantar monumentos her- mosos y duraderos sobre estos cimientos echados por él” (Richon-Brunet, 1910a). El modelo europeo clasicista fue el paradigma que impregnó el escena- rio de las artes visuales en el país en los inicios de la pasada centuria. Carac- terizó la estructura académica de la Escuela de Bellas Artes, los estándares de la crítica, el incipiente mercado artístico local, los criterios de valor para otorgar becas de estudio y las actividades relacionadas con exposiciones y salones de arte. Adherían a este modelo los actores principales de la ofi- cialidad estética nacional, además de aquellos personajes vinculados con la sociedad influyente y el gobierno. Este paradigma, con las mutaciones románticas y realistas que de hecho tuvo, gozará todavía de vigencia hasta mediados del siglo XX, teniendo mayor fidelidad en el concurso social y en ciertos sectores de la crítica conservadora. Su cuestionamiento proviene de algunas voces vinculadas a la literatura, que comienzan a coparticipar de los movimientos vanguardistas internacionales. Junto a ello, en los prime- ros decenios del siglo XX adquiere mayor gravitación social en el país la cla- se media y los sectores sociales más postergados, quienes acceden a mayores niveles de educación, incluso al mundo universitario. Un buen ejemplo de ello lo constituye la conformación, en la Escuela de Bellas Artes, de la ge- neración de pintores de 1913, integrada por artistas vinculados a sectores sociales medios e incluso bajos, y a sectores campesinos. LA CRíTICA DE ARTE y LOS PROCESOS VAnGUARDISTAS LOCALES La crítica de arte se diversificó con el aporte de literatos e intelectuales. Des- de la revista del grupo Los Diez (1916-17), la revista Juventud (1911-12 y 1918-21) y la revista Claridad (1920-25) comienzan a objetarse las normas académicas, a la vez que a valorarse las tendencias emergentes. El antago- nismo, que se produce entre conservadores y vanguardistas, tiene por pro- tagonistas, de una parte, a aquellos artistas identificados con el Consejo y la Escuela de Bellas Artes y con la crítica más conservadora; y, de otra, a los artistas más jóvenes, liderados por Juan Francisco González. Estos se agru- pan en la Sociedad nacional de Bellas Artes, creada en 1918, entidad cuyo signo contestatario la transforma en alternativa de los esquemas académi- cos predominantes. El cuestionamiento al modelo clásico y la aparición del J. F. González Atenea 504 II Sem. 2011199 fenómeno vanguardista tiene una cierta correspondencia con los procesos políticos y sociales que se dan en el país. Una de las figuras que tuvo un impacto potente en estos procesos de innovación estética en Chile fue el poeta Vicente Huidobro (1893-1948). Su vinculación con los movimientos vanguardistas europeos y el conocimiento directo que tuvo de algunos de sus protagonistas, tales como Guillaume Apollinaire, Jean Cocteau, André Bretón, Pablo Picasso y Juan Gris, entre otros, generan una vinculación entre la vanguardia internacional y los procesos estéticos locales. El Non serviam (1914), del vate creacionista, dio sentido y contenido a la innova- ción en el espacio estético local. Otro antecedente que ilustra acerca del debilitamiento de la hegemonía del modelo clásico proviene de la visión innovadora del grupo Los Diez15, quienes, desde sus distintas disciplinas y sensibilidades, cuestionan al mo- delo imperante, a la vez que manifiestan claros afanes de renovación ar- tística. Se trata de una alianza espontánea de poetas, pintores, músicos y arquitectos. Donde mejor se definen Los Diez es en la “Somera iniciación al Jelsé”, manifiesto escrito por Pedro Prado en 1916. Los Diez represen- tan una organización peculiar, de naturaleza contestataria, que no profesa adhesión disciplinar, ni propuesta estética definida. Su credo consiste en dignificar un concepto de libertad y de ruptura con lo establecido. En cierto modo se representa en nuestro país similares posturas a las planteadas por los intelectuales dadaístas en Europa, más o menos por esta misma época. El grupo Los Diez no establece un estilo corporativo; cada cual cultivó su arte conforme a su propio criterio y visión. En este escenario, varios artistas comienzan a sumar su voz teórica al debate artístico. Muchos fueron los pintores y escultores que incursiona- ron en el ámbito teórico16. Las dos figuras que marcaron con más fuerza el escenario estético local en los inicios del siglo XX, a los cuales cabe la denominación de figuras patriarcales, fueron Pedro Lira y Juan Francisco González, quienes, además de su obra pictórica, destacan por sus escritos e iniciativas artísticas institucionales. Juan Francisco González (1853-1933)17 15 A pesar de su nombre, los integrantes de este grupo no fueron necesariamente diez. El nú- cleo fundamental está constituido por Pedro Prado, Manuel Magallanes Moure, Juan Francisco González, Armando Donoso, Julio Bertrand Vidal, Eduardo Barrios, Alberto García Guerrero, Alberto Ried, Acario Cotapos, Ernesto Guzmán, Augusto D´Halmar y Alfonso Leng. 16 Durante el siglo XIX el pintor Pedro Lira y los escultores José Miguel Blanco, Virginio Arias y Arturo Blanco tuvieron un fuerte protagonismo en el terreno teórico. 17 Juan Francisco González dictó conferencias, escribió en la prensa con el pseudónimo de “Araucano” y se mezcló en crudas polémicas con los defensores del arte académico. P. Prado 200Atenea 504II Sem. 2011 fue un pintor antiacadémico, cuya propuesta innovadora le hacía recha- zar de plano los preceptos tradicionales y el detallismo fotográfico. Estas concepciones innovadoras arraigan fuertemente en los pintores del Gru- po Montparnasse. Otros artistas involucrados en el debate teórico fueron Camilo Mori, Jorge Letelier, Waldo Vila y Samuel Román. En general, la incursión teórica de estos artistas, limitada en cantidad y rigor conceptual, no está articulada por doctrinas o ideas estéticas. Se trata de una escritura impresionista, que nace de una demanda de información y que se posiciona con cierta jerarquía en nuestro medio, durante las primeras décadas del siglo XX, dada la ausencia manifiesta de teóricos del arte. LA MIRADA InnOVADORA DE JEAn EMAR álvaro yáñez Bianchi, que escribió con el pseudónimo de Jean Emar18, ha- bía conocido en París a varias figuras que lideraban la vanguardia europea. En la capital francesa tuvo también contacto con varios pintores chilenos que por esa época residían allí y que luego integran el Grupo Montparnas- se. De regreso a Chile, en febrero de 1923, Emar se transformó en crítico de arte y entusiasta promotor de los pintores asociados a este grupo. Des- de el diario La Nación, empresa periodística de su padre, Eliodoro yáñez, comenzó su trabajo de divulgación a través de artículos que hablaron por primera vez en el país sobre distintos temas del arte moderno. Los nombres de Cézanne, de Vlaminck, Van Dogen, entre muchos otros, a los que habría que sumar los de los artistas chilenos vinculados al Montparnasse, son glo- sados ampliamente en los artículos, crónicas y notas de arte que escribió en La Nación entre los años 1923 y 1927. En cierto modo, Jean Emar dio sustento teórico a un nuevo marco ideológico estético que hacía su estreno en el país, con la presencia de los artistas montparnasseanos. Dedica cróni- cas a cada uno de sus integrantes, en donde ilustra sobre los fundamentos de este nuevo lenguaje estético. Intenta en esos escritos dar cuenta de la evolución personal y artística de ellos, a la vez que relevar la importancia de su formación en París. Su pluma abre un espacio en el medio local para 18 Jean Emar es el pseudónimo de álvaro yáñez Bianchi (1893-1964). novelista, crítico de arte, pintor y viajero. Sus principales obras literarias fueron: Miltín (novela, 1934), Ayer (novela, 1934), Un año (novela corta, 1934), Diez (cuentos, 1937), entre otras. Se ha explicado que Jean Emar viene de “J en ai marre”, lo que significa en argot francés “estoy hasta la coronilla”. Emar había llegado a la capital francesa en 1919, trabajando en la Embajada de Chile como Primer Secretario. Viaja por Europa y asiste a la Academia de La Grande Chaumiére. C. Mori S. Román Atenea 504 II Sem. 2011201 conocer y entender la pintura moderna. Ilustra a la cultura nacional sobre las concepciones de vanguardia y acerca de los debates sobre la estética con- temporánea. Los escritos de Emar ahondaron, sin dudas, los debates ideológico-es- téticos en el país. Los conflictos y desavenencias también se dieron, y con fuerza, al interior de la Escuela de Bellas Artes. En este contexto se da la excéntrica intervención del gobierno del general Carlos Ibáñez del Campo, quien cierra la Escuela en 192919, enviando a veintiséis alumnos y profeso- res a estudiar a Europa. Esta medida debe ser entendida como la reacción de un Estado conservador, orientador e interventor, que no entendía ni respaldaba esta estética de quiebre. AnTOnIO ROMERA: UnA VOz FUnDACIOnAL20 En términos generales, el panorama descrito fue el que conoció el espa- ñol Antonio Romera21 cuando llegó a Chile, a fines de 1939, y sobre este medio ejerció su influencia. Romera desarrolla en Chile una vasta labor en el campo de la teoría y la historia de la pintura. Además de sus libros y catálogos, una parte muy relevante de su obra está constituida por sus artículos de prensa, publicados en el diario El Mercurio y otros medios de información, que en su conjunto cubren casi cuarenta años de reflexión y análisis estéticos. En Chile este autor ha sido considerado como un pio- nero en el estudio de la pintura nacional. Antes de su libro Historia de la pintura chilena, publicado por Editorial del Pacífico en 1951, existían sólo algunas monografías y artículos dispersos publicados en periódicos y re- vistas. Romera marca el escenario de la crítica de arte en Chile por casi cuarenta años, desde su llegada al país y hasta su muerte, en 1975. Su obra literaria y su pensamiento crítico son un referente obligado a la hora de 19 Decreto Supremo del 31 de diciembre de 1929. 20 Para profundizar en el discurso teórico de Romera, ver zamorano et al. (2007), pp. 98-117. También Romera (1967), p. 199. 21 En España Romera había tenido una formación inicial en pedagogía, ejerciendo desde muy joven la docencia. Entre los años 1935 y 1939, en plena época de la Guerra Civil española, es en- viado por el Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores (Junta de Relaciones Culturales del Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores) a ejercer su profesión a la localidad francesa de Lyon, en donde, además, complementa sus estudios de pedagogía y de estética. En 1937 había contraído matrimonio con Adela Laliga, quien le acompañará hasta su muerte. Estando en Chile, entre 1949 y 1952, fue profesor en el Windson School, al mismo tiempo que crítico de artes visuales, dramáticas y de cine, en distintos periódicos capitalinos. Entre 1942 y 1967 ejerció el oficio de caricaturista en Las Últimas Noticias y, también, en El Mercurio. 202Atenea 504II Sem. 2011 P. Lira R. Richon-Brunet n. yáñez S. A. Romera J. EmarV. Huidobro Atenea 504 II Sem. 2011203 analizar el desenvolvimiento estético-plástico chileno. Los escasos estudios o escritos de arte que se habían publicado a fines del siglo XIX y comienzos del XX revistieron algunas de las siguientes connotaciones: fueron concebi- dos principalmente como crónica artístico-periodística, género interesante pero carente de rigurosidad conceptual22; fueron unilaterales y herméticos en sus posiciones estéticas, especialmente a la hora de legitimar los dogmas académicos; y, en general, fueron realizados por personas que no poseían una formación sistemática en aspectos relativos a la teoría o la historia del arte. Al respecto Milan Ivelic señala lo siguiente: “nuestra tradición crítica no se ha caracterizado, precisamente, por el rigor conceptual y por la am- plitud de criterios para ponderar y valorar el fenómeno artístico. nombres como Richon-Brunet, nathanael yáñez o Goldschmidt, ilustran muy bien una etapa de la crítica de arte francamente insuficiente” (Ivelic y Galaz, 1988). A decir de Waldemar Sommer, Romera es una especie de “organiza- dor teórico” (Sommer, 1987) en el desenvolvimiento de la pintura chilena. “Supo situarse respecto a la polémica figuración - no figuración y calibró con mesura y ponderación las nuevas tendencias gracias al estudio que hizo de ellas” (Ivelic y Galaz, 1988). Romera estableció un modelo de análisis para la pintura nacional. Éste consideró una doble mirada. Por una parte, determinó claves y constantes23 (Romera, 1976), es decir, propone una for- ma de organización conceptual, que intenta definir el carácter de nuestra plástica a partir de sus orientaciones y caracteres específicos; por otra, plan- tea una estructuración de desarrollo cronológico, cuyo mérito fue haber es- tablecido un orden, una estructura diacrónica que jerarquizaba presencias individuales y grupos24. Su modelo de análisis no se inscribe en corrientes, ni en escuelas estéticas determinadas. Es un ecléctico, que valora las distin- tas propuestas estéticas, atendiendo su especificidad formal y su contexto 22 En muchos casos, cuando se habla de un pintor, las referencias críticas apuntan más bien a cuestiones de entorno y no a la obra misma, o a su proceso creativo. Consideraciones tales como el abolengo del artista, su amplia cultura de origen europeo, su gusto refinado, etc., son muy frecuentes en los textos de Ricardo Richón-Brunet y nathanael yáñez Silva, quienes intentan sustantivar el mérito estético de la obra en razón de tales argumentaciones. 23 Romera habla de las Claves y las Constantes de la pintura chilena. Dentro de las primeras distingue la Exaltación, la Realidad, el Sentimiento, y la Razón Plástica; dentro de las segundas, el Paisaje, el Color, el Influjo Francés, y el Carácter. Estas categorías fueron definidas por primera vez en el estudio Asedio a la pintura chilena, Santiago, Editorial nascimento, 1969. 24 Romera definió doce conceptos en torno a los cuales articula el desarrollo de nuestra plásti- ca: los Precursores, el Romanticismo, la Academia de Pintura, Tres maestros solitarios, Los cuatro maestros y sus seguidores, la Generación de 1913, Persistencia del naturalismo, los Independien- tes, Grupo Montparnasse, Seguidores y movimientos, Generación del 40, nuevas tendencias y últimos nombres. 204Atenea 504II Sem. 2011 histórico. La particularidad radica en que mira al arte nacional bajo los parámetros del arte europeo, haciendo permanentes extrapolaciones entre nuestra plástica y las escuelas del Viejo Mundo: la francesa, la española y la italiana, principalmente. Tal situación no resulta extraña en un país como Chile, permeado fuertemente en sus manifestaciones culturales por mode- los foráneos. Romera desarrolla y profesionaliza una actividad, cuyo nivel anterior era insuficiente. Ello, tanto por la escasez de críticos cuanto por el bajo nivel de su preparación teórica. De hecho, la posibilidad de realizar estudios de estética, de teoría o crítica de arte en el país es tema reciente. Las universidades nacionales comienzan recién a formar teóricos a partir de los años sesenta25. Estimamos que la obra más importante de este autor, por su extensión y profundidad, fue aquélla desarrollada a través de sus artículos de prensa, publicados en los diarios Las Últimas Noticias (don- de escribe hacia 1940 con el seudónimo de Federico Disraeli), La Nación (1940 a 1952) y El Mercurio (desde 1952 a 1975), medio de información, este último, especialmente relevante por marcar una fuerte línea de opinión estética en nuestro país. ALGUnAS EXPOSICIOnES EMBLEMáTICAS26 Algunas exposiciones de arte han tenido en nuestro país una importancia especial y, en algunos casos, hasta una cierta capacidad de articulación del escenario estético local. Unas lo fueron por su significación protocolar, en tanto que otras por su alto impacto mediático o por los niveles de polémi- ca o nuevos conceptos y miradas que lograron instalar. En este sentido, la primera muestra que destaca, en los inicios del siglo XX, fue la Exposición Internacional de Bellas Artes de 1910, conocida como del Centenario27. En esta actividad es posible colegir un par de consideraciones; en primer lugar, 25 De hecho la formación profesional de teóricos comienza en forma bastante tardía. La Uni- versidad Católica desarrolla algunos cursos de estética a partir de la década del cincuenta. Crea el Centro de Investigaciones Estéticas en 1966; el Departamento de Estética en 1968 y el Instituto de Estética, dependiente de la Facultad de Filosofía, el año 1971. Desde 1975 imparte la carrera de Licenciatura en Estética. La Universidad de Chile crea el Departamento de Teoría e Historia del Arte el año 1969, egresando las primeras promociones en 1975. 26 Aun cuando los Salones Oficiales de Arte cobraron en Chile gran importancia desde el siglo XIX, su análisis e impacto merece ser abordado en toda su extensión en otro trabajo. 27 La exposición se inauguró el 21 de septiembre de 1910 en el nuevo edificio del Museo y la Escuela de Bellas Artes, en el Parque Forestal. Con tal motivo se constituyeron comisiones orga- nizadoras en los principales países de Europa y América. Atenea 504 II Sem. 2011205 la importancia diplomática que tuvo por el hecho de solemnizar los actos conmemorativos de la celebración secular. Una segunda cuestión tiene que ver con la envergadura de la exposición y el impacto que produjo sobre la escena artística local. Recordemos que, aparte de los salones oficiales, esca- sas eran las exposiciones de arte que se efectuaban en el país en los inicios del siglo. La Exposición del Centenario, que sirvió también para inaugurar el nuevo edificio del Museo nacional y la Escuela de Bellas Artes, reunió obras de artistas de más de quince países, principalmente europeos28. La muestra fue administrada por el Consejo de Bellas Artes, entidad que era integrada por artistas e intelectuales influyentes del medio local. El catálogo oficial estuvo a cargo del crítico Ricardo Richon-Brunet (1910b). Detrás de la iniciativa estaba el Gobierno, siendo figuras relevantes en la organi- zación el pintor español Fernando álvarez de Sotomayor29, director de la Escuela de Bellas Artes en esa época, y el diplomático Alberto Mackenna Subercaseaux, a quien se designó, además, como comisario general de la Exposición. La gran cantidad de obras extranjeras exhibidas en la muestra, además de los artistas que en ella figuraban, fue vista por algunos como una forma de traer el mundo del arte a nuestro país. La sola representación española –estimulada por la presencia en Chile de Fernando álvarez de Sotomayor– consideró envíos de casi cuarenta de los mejores artistas pe- ninsulares de la época, muchos de ellos ex becarios Roma y estrechamente vinculados a la Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando30. El co- mentario de nathanael yáñez Silva es elocuente respecto de la percepción que se tuvo en nuestro medio sobre la exposición: “Jamás en Chile había habido una fiesta de arte como aquella. Se refrescaba el espíritu entrando 28 Las bases generales fueron establecidas por el gobierno de Chile mediante Decreto 3786, estableciendo cuatro secciones para la Exposición: a) Internacional, b) nacional, c) Arte Retros- pectivo nacional, y d) Arte aplicado a la Industria. Todo esto, en lo que dice relación con pintura, escultura, grabado y arte aplicado a la industria. 29 Fernando álvarez de Sotomayor (1875-1960) fue contratado en 1908 para servir docencia en la Escuela de Bellas Artes, en la cátedra de Colorido, Dibujo y Composición. En 1910 fue nombrado director de la entidad. Sobre su regreso a España la mayor parte de las fuentes señalan que fue en 1915, sin embargo otras apuntan que su partida fue en 1913. Entre estas últimas apun- tamos los datos aportados por yáñez Silva, nathanael en La segunda, Charlas de los sábados, “La época de Álvarez de sotomayor”, 2 de junio de 1945. 30 Llegaron obras de Fernando álvarez de Sotomayor, Manuel Benedito, Aureliano Berue- te, Ramón Casas, Eduardo Chicharro, Francisco Llorens, Santiago Rusiñol, Joaquín Sorolla, José Villegas, entre otros. La nómina de escultores hispanos estuvo integrada por Mariano Benlliure, con siete piezas de bronce, Miguel Blay y Fábrega, con tres (dos en piedra y una en bronce), Juan Clará, con tres obras, José Clará (seis obras, tres en mármol y tres en bronce), Julio Antonio (dos obras), Antonio Marinas García (una obra), Luciano Oslé (tres obras), Miguel Oslé (cuatro obras) y Enrique Marín Hidalgo, con una obra. 206Atenea 504II Sem. 2011 en esas salas, se sentía uno muy bien, como si visitase Europa, porque Eu- ropa había venido a nosotros, con su mejor producción y su mejor cariño por esta tierra” (yáñez Silva, 1955). Esta opinión releva también una valo- ración al modelo académico europeo que evidenciaba la mayor parte de las obras expuestas. Un modelo todavía vigente en los espacios oficiales del Viejo Continente, como la Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando y la propia École de Beaux Arts de París, en donde no hacían todavía su entrada las voces vanguardistas. Los delegados chilenos que actuaron en Europa, entre los que se cuenta a Alberto Mackenna Subercaseaux, se ha- bían entendido directamente con las tradicionales academias oficiales, enti- dades que tenían aún cierta hegemonía sobre el espacio cultural en el Viejo Continente. Recordemos que, en los inicios del siglo XX, España y Francia tenían academias de Bellas Artes en Roma; el Premio Roma era todavía considerado por muchos como la más alta distinción. Este hecho explica que no hayan sido invitados a la Exposición aquellos artistas vinculados a la vanguardia europea, que circulaban por lo general en la periferia de la oficialidad cultural. En la Exposición del Centenario estuvieron también presentes varios artistas chilenos que habían sido alumnos en la Escuela del pintor espa- ñol álvarez de Sotomayor. Algunos de ellos participan años más tarde, en 1913, en una exposición realizada en los salones del diario El Mercurio, en donde adquiere presencia y connotación en la historiografía artística lo- cal una generación de pintores que será luego conocida como del Trece o del Centenario. Esta muestra inicial estuvo integrada por el artista español José Prida Solares y los pintores chilenos Pedro Luna y Ulises Vázquez31. Se trata del primer grupo generacional que aparece en el arte chileno, unido por circunstancias sociales e intereses estéticos coincidentes. Su obra marca un acento más popular y costumbrista respecto de la pintura que se había hecho en Chile en el siglo XIX. A esto debemos agregar alguna inspiración de raíz hispana, sugerida por el maestro álvarez de Sotomayor. Los artistas de esta generación manifiestan cierta homogeneidad y sintonía como gru- po. En primer lugar, la mayoría procede de niveles sociales medios y bajos, situación que en ocasiones vehicula su pintura hacia un espacio de crítica y enjuiciamiento social. Las pinturas de Gordon, Lobos y Plaza, a modo de ejemplo, plantean una mirada cuestionadora y una vindicación visible 31 Junto a estos artistas, integran luego al grupo los pintores Agustín Abarca, Enrique Bertrix, Abelardo Bustamante, Jerónimo Costa, Jorge Letelier, los hermanos Alberto, Enrique y Alfredo Lobos Aránguiz, Arturo Gordon, Guillermo Vergara, Elmina Moissan, entre varios otros. F. Alvarez S. Atenea 504 II Sem. 2011207 sobre temas sociales. En el plano estético, estos artistas son principalmente figurativos y su paleta está más cercana de la gama de los colores fríos. De- sarrollaron una obra renovada en temas y en concepciones estéticas, que colisionó con los esquemas académicos decimonónicos que imperaban todavía en el corazón de la Escuela. Se trata de una obra muy ajena a los preceptos formales e icónicos en los cuales se había fundado, en la media- nía del siglo XIX, la Academia de Pintura. Por esta razón la obra de estos pintores no fue, en su momento, apreciada y reconocida por la oficialidad cultural, por la crítica y por el poder comprador. Sobre estos artistas se ha ido tejiendo un paradigma, que releva más las difíciles circunstancias de vida de los integrantes del grupo, que el mérito propiamente estético de su obra. “Vivieron –anota Waldo Vila– apresura- damente, como destruyéndose a sí mismos, en una carrera violenta, lle- na de brillo, pero que duró escasamente algunos años” (Meltcherts, 1963). Pablo neruda se refirió a ellos como una “Heroica capitanía de pintores” (neruda, 1966). Independiente de la lectura contemporánea que se haga de la obra de estos autores, su pintura tiene el mérito de acuñar un registro distinto y renovador respecto de los modelos que habían imperado en Chi- le durante el siglo XIX. Algunos críticos e historiadores se refieren a la obra y presencia de estos artistas como un paréntesis de hispanidad en la pintura chilena; lapso de tiempo que comienza en 1908, con la llegada al país del pintor álvarez de Sotomayor, y termina con la irrupción del grupo Montparnasse. A decir de José María Palacios: “Fernando álvarez de Sotomayor venía a crear un paréntesis en el proceso pictórico chileno. Dicho paréntesis tendrá, por un lado, un carácter neutralizador de la influencia francesa y, por otro, vendrá a provocar un cambio de actitud frente a las motivaciones, mostrando a la vez un cambio significativo en el trato del color” (Palacios, 1983). Di- mensionar cuán ancha y profunda fue esta adhesión local respecto de la pintura española es un tema que se hace necesario elucidar. Cierto acento “goyesco” en la obra de Gordon (a quien se llegó a denominar como el “Goya chileno”), la fuerte presencia del retrato y una evidente inclinación hacia la gama de los fríos, pueden definir espacios de coincidencia que, por cierto, resultan insuficientes para apostar por un sello o una inclinación. Quizá sean las nostalgias y los protocolos del Centenario los que propicia- ron una mirada de mayor empatía con la “Madre Patria”. Este sentimiento de hispanidad fue recogido también por algunas plumas locales, tales como la de Domingo Gómez Rojas, cuando comenta el viaje a España del pintor Alfredo Lobos (zamorano, 1994, p. 188). W. Vila 208Atenea 504II Sem. 2011 Renovados aires franceses llegan al país con otra exposición emblemática. Se trata de una muestra realizada en el mes de junio de 1923, en la Casa de Remates “Rivas y Calvo” de Santiago, por los pintores del Grupo Montpar- nasse32. Estos artistas habían tenido contacto con el ambiente parisino y con algunas figuras de la vanguardia europea de ese entonces. “Montparnasse, barrio de artistas en París, en cuyos cafés, academias y exposiciones, bulle gran parte del porvenir de las artes plásticas y donde muchos ‘ídolos cadu- cos’ se han destrozado, muchas ideas rancias sepultado y no pocas semillas, que luego germinaron, han sido sembradas” (Emar, 1923). Reintegrados en el país y liderados por el pintor Luis Vargas Rosas se unen para levantar un testimonio de disconformidad en contra del predominio academicista que todavía imperaba en el país. La exposición de 1923 produjo asperezas y convulsionó al público y a la crítica oficial, que adhería todavía a los relictos academicistas. nathanael yánez Silva, una voz ciertamente conservadora, señaló acerca de la mues- tra: “no creemos que en esta exposición se realice innovación alguna” (yá- ñez, 1923). La muestra pretendió exaltar los lenguajes artísticos y los autores más cercanos a las vanguardias, soslayando los relictos académicos (naturalis- mos, romanticismos, realismos, etc.) que todavía gozaban en el país de gran aceptación. La posición revolucionaria de los montparnassianos produjo más reacciones que adeptos, pero entre los que miraron con buenos ojos esta propuesta se encontraba el maestro Juan Francisco González. El códi- go del Grupo Montparnasse –estimulado por la reflexión teórica de Jean Emar– mira con simpatía los preceptos teóricos de Paul Cézanne, el ra- cionalismo cubista y el desborde cromático de los fauves. Sumemos a todo esto la gran acentuación proyectiva de los sentimientos dados por el Expre- sionismo alemán, recogidos por algunos integrantes del grupo. En junio de 1925 este grupo vuelve a exhibir en la sala “Rivas y Calvo”. La muestra “Salón de Junio” fue apoyada por el diario La Nación y la llamaron “Exposi- ción de Arte Libre”. Se exhibieron también obras “extranjeras” al concurrir con piezas de Picasso, Gris y Lipchitz, entre otros. 32 En junio de 1923, en la Casa de Remates “Rivas y Calvo” de Santiago, se presenta la primera exposición de estos artistas que se habían formado en París. Integran este grupo, entre otros, Luis Vargas Rosas (1897-1977), Enriqueta Petit (1900-1984), Julio Ortiz de zárate (1885-1946), Ma- nuel Ortiz de zárate (1887-1946), Augusto Eguiluz (1893-1969), José Perotti (1898-1956), Jorge Letelier (1887-1963), Hernán Gazmuri (1901-1979), Camilo Mori (1896-1973) e Isaías Cabezón (1891-1936). Atenea 504 II Sem. 2011209 Otra muestra que tuvo un gran impacto en la escena artística local fue la Exposición de Pintura Francesa Contemporánea, conocida con el nombre “De Manet hasta nuestros días”, realizada en el Museo nacional de Bellas Artes, en mayo de 195033. El catálogo oficial de la muestra cuenta con textos del entonces conservador del Museo del Louvre, René Huyghe, y de Gastón Diehl, comisario general de la Exposición. Los textos de ambos teóricos, que reflexionan sobre la escena pictórica francesa de fines del siglo XIX y primera mitad del XX, en cierto modo, reeditan en nuestro país, a partir de obras originales, un debate abierto en Chile, 25 años antes, por los artistas montparnassianos y la pluma de Jean Emar. Huyghe comenta lo siguien- te: Mas, si el ‘Fauvismo’ abría una brecha en la Realidad todavía en pie, si el cubismo empleaba sin escrúpulos sus ruinas derribadas, los Surrealistas traían como secuela la anarquía tras haber introducido la revolución: en medio de esas ruinas dispersas, entre esa ‘membra disjecta’, hicieron saltar su dinamita e imaginaron profanaciones vengativas y refinadas. En sus lienzos asistimos a los vagidos de una génesis todavía incierta o la disolución última de la creación (Huyghe, 1950). La exposición, que se realiza nada más trascurridos cinco años de fi- nalizada la Segunda Guerra Mundial –“1940-1944, ese ancho vacío, esa pesadilla poblada de gritos guturales y de soldados con botas” (Huyghe, 1950)–, además de ser un acontecimiento estético de la máxima jerarquía, puede ser entendido también como un acto de vindicación diplomática; una manera en que Francia se sobreponía a un momento dramático de su historia, mostrando al mundo una parte muy significativa de lo mejor de su producción pictórica. La muestra incluyó 137 obras originales de distintos artistas: impresionistas, simbolistas, fauvistas, cubistas, surrealistas, hasta las generaciones más jóvenes. El público y los artistas locales pudieron ver obras de Edouard Manet, Claude Monet, Berthe Morisot, Camille Pizarro, Augusto Renoir, Henri de Tolouse-Lautrec, Pierre Bonnard, Maurice Denis, George Braque, André Derain, Roaul Dufi, Fernand Leger, André Lhote, Albert Marquet, Henry Matisse, Pablo Picasso, Georges Roault, Jacques Vi- llón, además de los artistas jóvenes más promisorios de la Escuela Francesa. 33 La muestra se realizó con los auspicios del Ministerio de Educación Pública de Chile y a iniciativa del Comité France-Amerique, por el Instituto de Extensión de Artes Plásticas de la Universidad de Chile. 210Atenea 504II Sem. 2011 La exposición fue atacada por algunas voces conservadoras, entre ellas na- thanael yáñez Silva y Miguel Venegas Cifuentes. yáñez Silva hizo el siguien- te comentario: “Al pintor ya formado esta exposición le servirá de estudio. Pero para el joven pintor que está empezando, todo aquello va a ser contra- producente, le va a esgrimir, no lo va a lanzar a la cara. Cosa peligrosísima, como elija de proyectil el cuadro Coutaud (n. 89) ‘Los siete fierros’… ¿Hay en el conjunto un gran cuadro, una gran emoción artística? Fuera de Monet y Sisley, no la sentimos” (yáñez, 1950). La muestra, sin embargo, tuvo un impacto significativo en las genera- ciones más jóvenes de artistas y estudiantes de arte. A decir de José Balmes, tuvo la capacidad de modificar la mirada de los que entonces eran estu- diantes de arte; al respecto comentó: “Para nosotros fue muy importante. Recuerdo que durante más de un mes de exposición pasamos todos los días en el museo. Porque en ese momento encontramos que ahí estaba la respuesta a la modernidad; nos decíamos que así como ellos hablan de sus propios problemas, nosotros teníamos que hablar con ese lenguaje pero de nuestros problemas” (Badal, 1950). En 1968 se realizó en la Quinta normal de Agricultura, en el antiguo edificio del Museo de Arte Contemporáneo, la célebre Exposición “De Cézanne a Miró”. La muestra, cuya importancia radica sobre todo en su capacidad de movilización de opinión pública, fue visitada por miles de personas. Mario Carreño en El Mercurio de santiago, diario que auspició la exhi- bición que se realizó entre el 21 de junio y 17 de julio de ese año, señaló lo siguiente: “Uno de los aspectos más fascinantes de este arte en esta excelente exposición que se inauguró en el Museo de Arte Contemporáneo, es que los maestros escogidos, más que pintores, en su mayoría son inventores” (Ca- rreño, 1968). Fue una exposición que hizo historia en nuestro país, tanto por la singularidad de las obras expuestas como por su efecto mediático. REFEREnCIAS Badal, Gonzalo (Ed.) (1995). “Los años de formación 1939-1959”, Balmes. Via- je a la pintura. Santiago de Chile: Ocho Libro Editores, 50. Emar, Jean (1923, 22 octubre) “Grupo Montparnasse”, diario La Nación, p. 3. Carreño, Mario (1968, 22 de junio). “De Cézanne a Miró. Los inventores nue- vos”, diario El Mercurio, p. 10. Diario El Mercurio (1950, 8 de mayo). “nathanael yáñez Silva”, p. 77. Atenea 504 II Sem. 2011211 El Diario Ilustrado nº 7842 (1923, jueves 25 de octubre). “nathanael yáñez Silva”, p. 4. Emar, Juan (1925, 11 de junio). “Alrededor del Salón de Junio”, en diario La Nación, p. 7. Huyghe, René (1950). “La joven pintura francesa y sus maestros”, Catálogo de Exposición “De Manet hasta nuestros días”. Santiago de Chile: Museo na- cional de Bellas Artes. Ivelic, Milan y Galaz, Gaspar (1988). Chile: arte actual. Valparaíso, Chile: Edi- ciones Universidad Católica de Valparaíso. Letelier, Rosario; Morales, Emilio y Muñoz, Ernesto (1993). Anales de Artes Plásticas de la Universidad de Chile. Santiago de Chile: Editorial Universi- taria. Lira, Pedro (1902). Diccionario biográfico de pintores. Santiago de Chile: Im- prenta Encuadernación y Litografías Esmeralda. Lago, Tomás (1930). El Museo de Bellas Artes 1880-1930. Santiago de Chile: Editorial Universidad de Chile, Departamento de Extensión Cultural y Ar- tística. Lizama, Patricio (2003). Jean Emar, Notas de Arte. Santiago, Chile: Centro de In- vestigación Barros Arana, Dirección de Bibliotecas, Archivos y Museos. Meltcherts, Enrique (1963). “Relaciones entre la pintura chilena y española”. Goya n° 55, julio-agosto, p. 65. neruda, Pablo (1966). “Una capitanía de pintores” (prólogo), en Vila, Waldo, Una capitanía de pintores. Santiago, Chile: Editorial del Pacífico. Palacios, José María (1983). Catálogo exposición del artista Arturo Gordon. San- tiago, Chile: Instituto Cultural de Las Condes. Revista selecta, 5 (1912, agosto). “Richon Brunet”, p. 141. Richon-Brunet, Ricardo (1910a). Catálogo Oficial Ilustrado, Exposición Inter- nacional de Bellas Artes. Santiago de Chile: Imprenta Barcelona. Richon-Brunet, Ricardo (1910b, abril). Crónica Conversando sobre Arte, “Un recuerdo de La Araucana - El Caupolicán” de Don nicanor Plaza. selecta n° 1, p. 9. Romera, Antonio (1969). Asedio a la pintura chilena. Santiago de Chile: Edito- rial nascimento. ______ (1967). “Experiencias de un crítico de Artes Plásticas”. Aisthesis nº 2, La crítica de arte y sus problemas en Chile (Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago de Chile), p. 199. ______ (1976). Historia de la pintura chilena. Santiago, Chile: Editorial Andrés Bello. Sommer, Waldemar (1987). “Panorama de la pintura chilena desde los precur- sores hasta Montparnasse”, en catálogo de exposición del Instituto Cultural de Las Condes. yáñez Silva, nathanael (1923, 25 de octubre). Exposición del grupo Montpar- nasse” (Sala Rivas y Calvo). Diario Ilustrado, p. 4. 212Atenea 504II Sem. 2011 ______ (1950, 8 de mayo). El Mercurio, p. 77. ______ (1955). “Grandes exposiciones de arte”, en número Especial de Revista Zig-Zag, Medio Siglo de Zig-Zag 1905 a 1955, Santiago de Chile, impreso en los talleres de la revista, p. 222. zamorano Pérez, Pedro (1994). El pintor F. Álvarez de sotomayor y su huella en América. La Coruña, España: Ediciones Universidad de La Coruña. zamorano Pérez, Pedro y Cortés, Claudio (1998). “Pintura chilena a comien- zos de siglo: hacia un esbozo de pensamiento crítico”. Aisthesis n° 31, 89- 107. zamorano Pérez, Pedro, Cortés, Claudio y Muñoz, Patricio (2007). “Antonio Romera; asedios a su obra crítica”. Aisthesis n° 42, 98-117. g 
work_mkpr3g5edbalhh3vgk63lcrkc4	----	www.e-neurospine.org S15 Neurospine Endoscopic Spinal Surgery, 2nd Issue The technical advancement of endoscopic spine surgery is inexorable and fascinating. Indications are expanding, the number of surgeons who are beyond their individual learn- ing curves is increasing. Technical skills especially of the younger generation of spine sur- geons are getting better and better. The instruments available for different surgical tecniques are getting more and more sophisticated. This is the second issue of a NASS-Neurospine Visualized Endoscopic Spine Surgery pub- lication on endoscopic spine surgery which contains 19 papers/video technical tutorials, 10 of which I had the pleasure to read/view. There is an introductory paper which describes the clinical and economic advantages of endoscopic spine surgery with a focus on the benefits for patients life quality. Two articles focus a on new indications of endoscopic surgery in the cervical spine. I be- lieve, that the very interesting transcervical retropharyngeal approach to the odontologisch process has the potential to replace transoral surgery. A case report which describes multisegmental full-endoscopic posterior drainage of cer- vical epidural abscess opened a new perspective to deal with this severe disease. For the treatment of central spinal stenosis, the inside-out full-endoscopic cross-over ap- proach is presented including the 1 year clinical follow-up of 127 patients. Even though there is a considerable learning curve, I believe that this technique can produce clinical re- sults comparable to the standard microsurgical cross-over decompression in degenerative lumbar spinal stenosis. Four papers/videos in this issue focus on biportal endoscopic approaches for lumbar de- compression, discectomy, minimally invasive transformational lumbar inter body fusion and even revision surgery e.g., in case of postoperative epidural hematoma. This technical variation of posterior full-endoscopic approaches allows for wider fields of endoscopic vi- sion and a perfect way of triangular surgery such as in knee-arthroscopic techniques. Espe- cially for fusion surgery this might be a promising technique. The clinical application in the cervical spine is described for bilateral foraminotomy in cases with bilateral radiculopathies. Last but not least another microsurgical approach has been ‘transformed’ to a full-endo- scopic technique: the translaminar approach for cranial migrated disc herniations. This is a technically demanding approach but I believe that when it is performed with full-endoscop- ic technique it can be even less invasive as compared to microsurgery. In summary, the papers I could read are excellent examples of the ongoing technical evo- lution (revolution?) of endoscopic spine surgery and I congratulate the authors for their pi- oneering work. Neurospine 2020;17(Suppl 1):S15-16. https://doi.org/10.14245/ns.2040418.209 Neurospine eISSN 2586-6591 pISSN 2586-6583 This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (https://creativecom- mons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Copyright © 2020 by the Korean Spinal Neurosurgery Society Editorial Corresponding Author Michael Mayer https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2555-8126 Schön Klinik München Harlaching, Harlachinger Str. 51, D-81547 München, Germany E-mail: michaelmayer3004@me.com See the article “Inside-Out Approach of Lumbar Endoscopic Unilateral Laminotomy for Bilateral Decompression: A Detailed Technical Description, Rationale and Outcomes” via https://doi. org/10.14245/ns.2040196.098. http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.14245/ns.2040418.209&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2020-07-31 Neurospine Endoscopic Spinal Surgery, 2nd IssueMayer M Neurospine 2020;17(Suppl 1):S15-16.S16 www.e-neurospine.org Title: Accordionist Artist: Pablo Picasso Year: 1911 Picasso’s still life Carafe, Jug, and Fruit Bowl, painted two summers before, shows an earlier stage of this style. Surfaces are broken into sharply defined planes but are not yet complexly fragmented; forms still retain an illusion of volume; and perspective, though dramatically shortened, is not obliterated. At its climax, Braque and Picasso brought Analytic Cubism almost to the point of complete abstraction. Among such works is Picasso’s Accordionist, a baffling composition that one of its former owners mistook for a landscape because of the inscription “Céret” on the reverse. With diligence, one can distinguish the general outlines of the seated accordionist, denoted by a series of shifting vertically aligned triangular planes, semicircular shapes, and right angles; the centrally located folds of the accordion and its keys; and, in the lower portion of the canvas, the volutes of an armchair. But Picasso’s elusive references to recognizable forms and objects cannot always be precisely identified and, as the Museum of Modern Art’s founding director Alfred H. Barr, Jr. observed, “the mysterious tension between painted image and ‘reality’ remains.” More information: https://www.guggenheim.org/artwork/3426 © 2020 - Succession Pablo Picasso - SACK (Korea) 
work_mpl4z7trijbkrc7o63pvaq5edy	----	Psic. da Ed., São Paulo, 47, 2º sem. de 2018, pp. 21-29 DESENVOLVIMENTO DA ATENÇÃO: ATUAÇÃO EM CLASSES DE RECUPERAÇÃO Development of attention: acting in special classes Desarrollo de la atención: acción en las clases de recuperación Juliana Soares de Jesus Vera Lucia Trevisan de Souza Pontifícia Universidade Católica de Campinas Resumo O presente artigo tem como objetivo apresentar práticas psicológicas promotoras do desenvolvimento da atenção em crianças que frequentavam classes de recuperação em uma escola pública de uma cidade do interior de São Paulo. De natureza participativa e tipo interventivo, a pesquisa teve como aporte teórico-metodológico a Psicologia Histórico-Cultural, com ênfase à interpretação de Vigotski sobre desenvolvimento e aprendizagem. Participaram da pesquisa vinte e seis alunos do 4º e 5º anos. Os resultados revelaram que práticas como a orientação e o planejamento de ações em conjunto com as crianças possibilitam a significação das atividades desenvolvidas e de modo concomitante a autorregulação da atenção. Entretanto, a significação para a criança só se consolida quando ela, pela percepção ampliada da situação, passa a planejar as suas ações, baseada em um novo modo de pensar e compreender a realidade, o que ressalta a importância do meio e das mediações para o desenvolvimento da atenção e das demais funções psicológicas superiores. Palavras-chave: atenção, atuação do psicólogo, psicologia histórico-cultural, psicologia escolar, Vigotski. Abstract The following paper aimed to present psychological practices that promoted the development of attention in children who attended Special Classes in a public school from a city located in the State of São Paulo. These Special Classes were designed for students who have not achieved the minimum score in regular school tests. In a participatory nature and interactive type the research assumed as theoretical and methodological perspective the Historical-Cultural Psychology, with an emphasis on Vygotsky’s interpretation of development and learning. Twenty-six students from the fourth and fifth grades from Elementary School participated in the research. The results reveal that practices such as orientation and planning of actions with children enables the meaningfulness of the activities developed, and concomitantly the self regulation of attention. However, meaningfulness to children is only consolidated when, through an expanded perception of the situation, they start to plan their actions based on a new model of thinking and understanding reality. This highlights the importance of the environment and the mediations to the development of attention and other Higher Mental Functions. Key words: attention, psychologist performance, historic-cultural psychology, school psychology, Vigotski. Resumen Este artículo tiene como objetivo presentar las prácticas psicológicas que promuevan el desarrollo de la atención en los niños que asistieron a clases de recuperación en una escuela pública en una ciudad del interior de São Paulo. De naturaleza participativa y tipo intervencionista, la investigación tuvo apoyo teórico y metodológico de la Psicología Histórico Cultural, con énfasis en la interpretación de Vigotski sobre desarrollo y aprendizaje. Los participantes fueron 26 estudiantes del 4º y 5º año. Los resultados revelaron que las prácticas tales como actividades de orientación y planificación junto a los niños permiten la significación de las actividades desarrolladas y concomitantemente la autorregulación de la atención. Sin embargo, la significación para el niño sólo se consolido cuando él, través de la comprensión ampliada de la situación, empieza a planear sus acciones, sobre la base de una nueva forma de pensar y entender la realidad, lo que pone de relieve la importancia de los medios y mediaciones para el desarrollo de la atención y otras funciones mentales superiores. Palabras clave: atencion, actuación del psicólogo, psicologia historico-cultural, psicologia escolar, Vigotski. Psic. da Ed., São Paulo, 47, 2º sem. de 2018, pp. 21-29 Juliana Soares de Jesus e Vera Lucia Trevisan de Souza DOI: 10.5935/2175-3520.20180014 22 Juliana Soares de Jesus e Vera Lucia Trevisan de Souza Psic. da Ed., São Paulo, 47, 2º sem. de 2018, pp. 21-29 O estudo da atenção tem despertado e ocupado lugar de interesse na história da psicologia devido à sua importância na explicação do comportamento, contemplando concepções mecanicistas, a-históricas e subjetivistas que perduram e oscilam com maior ou menor força, a depender da época. Nos espaços escolares, este fenômeno é representado nas queixas e diagnósticos de déficit de atenção ou hiperatividade, que assumiram grande relevância nos últimos anos (Eidt & Tuleski, 2010; Moyses & Collares, 2013; Cor, Gesser, Nunes & Storti, 2015). Essa importância não advém apenas da tenta- tiva de explicar determinada conduta, mas também, e principalmente, pela importância que essa função carrega: a atenção passou a ser considerada um fator determinante no desenvolvimento psíquico, uma vez que diferentes situações sociais passaram a exigir uma atenção dirigida, concentrada, organizada(Martins, 2011).O desenvolvimento da atenção não ocorre pela captação de objetos isolados que resultam em um todo, pelo contrário, é pela percepção do todo mediado pelas experiências sociais, ainda que inicialmente esse todo seja carente de detalhes, que o sujeito capta e discri- mina as partes que o constitui. Contudo, as distinções dos elementos ocorrem devido à conquista da percep- ção desenvolvida (Vygotski, 1931/1995). Aponta-se, assim, a inter-funcionalidade das funções, uma vez que depende das conexões estabelecidas, entre elas o desenvolvimento psíquico do homem. Fato é que, no processo de desenvolvimento, a atenção, que inicialmente operava como reação, torna- -se também ação que se desenvolve em um todo com- plexo, o que não condiz com a visão difundida entre educadores de que só presta atenção um aluno parado e quieto (Jesus, Souza, Petroni e Dugnani, 2013). O desenvolvimento da atenção e da percepção, assim, é condição para que o sujeito reconheça e se aproprie do conhecimento formal, na medida em que são elas que possibilitam a eleição e a significação das informações que serão apropriadas, e a rejeição daque- las que não ajudam na resolução de uma atividade. Esses dois processos são a porta de entrada do conhe- cimento, sendo sua chave a mediação promovida pela linguagem; são eles que sustentam e possibilitam ao sujeito o domínio de sua própria conduta, na medida em que, pela apreensão dos saberes escolares, trans- formam o sujeito ao promover novas possibilidades de funcionamento do sistema psicológico, cada vez mais complexas (Vygotski, 1931/1995). Ao conceber o desenvolvimento como um pro- cesso e, sobretudo, das funções psicológicas fundamen- tais à aprendizagem, tais como a atenção voluntária, a percepção ampliada e o domínio da linguagem, como ferramentas de ação e pensamento, é preciso enfatizar que esse processo é lento, com avanços e recuos (Vygotski, 1931/1995), e, no caso da presente pesquisa, destaca-se a orientação e o planejamento da ação. Compreende-se que, de modo paradoxal, ao inserir elementos de orientação da ação da criança em situação de aprendizagem, há um favorecimento da autorregulação da atenção na atividade proposta, mas o fato de haver necessidade de inserção indica que a regulação não está consolidada, por isso é necessário criar condições objetivas que favoreçam a autorregu- lação (Friedrich, 2012). Assumindo o meio como fonte de desenvolvi- mento, compreende-se que é na internalização dos significados e sentidos configurados na relação inter- subjetiva que as funções psicológicas assumem novas qualidades, possibilitando outros modos de perceber, de prestar atenção, de se relacionar com o conhe- cimento a ser aprendido, enfim (Souza & Andrada, 2013). Partindo desses pressupostos, entende-se que uma reorganização do meio é necessária para que os sujeitos se apropriem desse modo de se organizar tão requerido e imprescindível para que se assumam como protagonistas de seu processo de aprendizagem. Entretanto, tem-se clareza de que apenas a inser- ção de diferentes elementos nas práticas escolarizadas não é suficiente, haja vista as diferentes e recorrentes mudanças de projetos e estratégias nas classes de recu- peração que, há anos, estão almejando se constituir como um espaço de aprendizagem e desenvolvimento e que, apesar de muitos esforços, ainda se constituem para os alunos como um local mal organizado, mal representado e vivenciado de modo negativo (Caldas & Souza, 2014). Se, por um lado, os programas de recuperação revelam um esforço da escola para mudar o espaço de aprendizagem, diminuindo o número de alunos nas salas, oferecendo apoio e suporte aos profes- sores ou mesmo selecionando professores interessados em trabalhar com esse público, de modo a favorecer a implicação com o ensino, por outro, não tem cuidado justamente da parte mais interessada e que justifica essas ações: os sujeitos aprendizes. Diante desse quadro, o estudo ora apresentado tem como objetivo Desenvolvimento da atenção: atuação em classes de recuperação 23 Psic. da Ed., São Paulo, 47, 2º sem. de 2018, pp. 21-29 apresentar práticas promotoras do desenvolvimento da atenção em crianças que frequentam classes de recuperação. MÉTODO A investigação objeto deste relato desenvolveu-se sustentada e orientada pela abordagem qualitativa de pesquisa. O estudo caracterizou-se como pesquisa-in- tervenção, visto a perspectiva dialética necessária ao acercamento do fenômeno investigado, em que as ações voltadas à prática interventiva e à pesquisa, a um só tempo, se constituem como opostas e complementares, se retroalimentando no processo de desenvolvimento da atuação e reflexões sobre o que se observa e se acessa no contexto investigado. Nesse movimento, os sentidos e os significados das intervenções e da pesquisa se configuram permanentemente, visto que ao mesmo tempo em que as ações desenvolvidas cons- troem as informações da pesquisa, também conferem novas significações sobre as práticas,resultando em sua transformação. Atuar, dessa perspectiva está em consonância ao que propõe Vigotski (1931/1995) ao afirmar que para se conhecer algo é preciso colocá-lo em movimento, focalizando as contradições que emer- gem no processo em que se revelam as condicionantes que estão na base da produção do fenômeno. Participantes Foram participantes da pesquisa vinte e seis alunos, com idades entre nove e dez anos (apenas uma aluna tinha doze anos), cursando o 4º e 5º anos do Ensino Fundamental, que frequentavam classes de recuperação paralela, no período contrário ao das classes regulares. Material Duas câmeras fotográficas, reproduções de 15 fotografias da obra “O berço da desigualdade” de Sebastião Salgado e de 10 fotografias de Doisneau, em preto e branco, reprodução da obra “Futebol em Brodosqui”, de Cândido Portinari, e de obras de Pablo Picasso, histórias de heróis e fábulas, Pequeno Dicionário Ilustrativo de Expressões Idiomáticas, de Marcelo Zocchio e Everton Ballardin. Procedimentos As atividades foram realizadas em uma escola pública municipal de uma cidade do interior de São Paulo, que atende alunos do Ensino Fundamental I e II e da Educação de Jovens e Adultos (EJA). Foram realizados encontros semanais de cerca de duas horas com cada turma, durante o ano letivo de 2014, em um total de 22 encontros. Fotografando o cotidiano. Considerando que a atividade de fotografar exige como ação eleger uma situação ou objeto, olhá-las pelas lentes da câmera, ajustar o foco de acordo com a seleção de aspectos do que se quer retratar, avaliou-se que trabalhar com a produção e leitura de fotografia promove o desenvol- vimento da atenção de quem fotografa. Além disso, a possibilidade de se examinar as fotografias tiradas e de se voltar ao objeto ou situação para fotografar novamente é um movimento análogo ao processo da atenção e de sua regulação. A partir dessas considerações, iniciaram-se as intervenções disponibilizando aos alunos duas câmeras fotográficas para a produção de fotografias de diver- sos locais da escola, à escolha dos próprios. Naquele momento, a pesquisadora ensinou-os a manejar o equipamento. O objetivo desses primeiros momentos com os alunos foi a construção de vínculo com a pesqui- sadora e, entre os estudantes, a exploração e domínio no uso do novo material, e a percepção por meio da fotografia, de novos modos de olhar e compreender objetos e cenas do cotidiano escolar. A necessidade de focalizar o que se queria retratar com a câmera foi muito explorada pela pesquisadora. As fotogra- fias tiradas pelos alunos foram-lhes apresentadas em PowerPoint para apreciação e socialização no coletivo. A apreciação de imagens e construção de histórias. A cada encontro, foram apresentadas aos alunos repro- duções de fotografias de Salgado (fotógrafo brasileiro contemporâneo, cujas produções abordam temas sociais) que mostravam crianças em situações sociais precárias, em atividades na escola (lendo e escrevendo, jogando futebol) em cenas do cotidiano (em casa ou na rua).Também foram apresentadas as fotografias de Doisneau (fotógrafo francês, que retrata crianças em situações diversas nos anos 1930). As fotos mostravam crianças em situação escolar, em diversas atividades, em uma escola francesa. O objetivo em apresentar essas realidades tão distantes era refletir sobre as diferen- ças entre culturas e as condições de vida de crianças 24 Juliana Soares de Jesus e Vera Lucia Trevisan de Souza Psic. da Ed., São Paulo, 47, 2º sem. de 2018, pp. 21-29 nos lugares retratados. Os alunos eram convidados a observar as imagens e falar sobre elas, identificando o local, a situação e as relações com suas realidades. Em seguida, era proposto que escolhessem uma das imagens e produzissem uma história escrita. Também foi apresentada a reprodução da obra “Futebol em Brodosqui”, de Portinari,em que apare- cem crianças jogando bola. O objetivo foi verificar o interesse dos alunos por aquele esporte, realçado na época pela ocorrência da Copa do Mundo no Brasil (2014). Os estudantes também acessaram algumas pinturas de Pablo Picasso, visando comparar as diferentes expressões na pintura e diferenciá-la mais profundamente da fotografia. A contação e produção de histórias. Com o intuito de promover a imaginação e criatividade dos estu- dantes, a pesquisadora selecionou contos da literatura infanto-juvenil cujos temas e/ou enredos atraíam os alunos, conforme constatara em observações e con- versas anteriores com as professoras (histórias com heróis, com temáticas envolvendo a luta entre o bem e o mal, fábulas com moral da história, dentre outras). Elas eram lidas pela pesquisadora, comentadas e, em seguida, os estudantes eram convidados a desenhá-las. No encontro seguinte, a partir de seus desenhos, os alunos deveriam produzir uma história própria, que era apresentada por eles aos demais colegas, quando se analisavam as diferenças e semelhanças, os destaques de uma e outra. Os ditados populares. Utilizando o livro de Marcelo Zocchio e Everton Ballardin,em que aparecem ditados populares ilustrados por imagens, e tomando por base a significação metafórica que compõe este gênero tex- tual, dimensão que leva as crianças a pensarem para além da realidade que acessam, as atividades consisti- ram em ler junto, falar sobre o que liam e viam e, em seguida, escolher cenas na escola para fotografar a fim de ilustrar o ditado popular escolhido. Procedimento de análise Os conjuntos de informações construídos ao longo do processo de pesquisa, derivados dos diários de campo, das transcrições de gravação de alguns encontros e das produções dos alunos, foram reuni- dos e organizados por atividade e objetivos. Foram lidos várias vezes, buscando-se eleger indicadores da modulação da atenção dos alunos – quais atividades, momentos, interferiam no modo como se envolviam e interagiam. Uma nova leitura foi feita para identi- ficar que elementos produziam tal envolvimento os quais resultaram em vários indicadores de mudança de atenção. Estes, por sua vez, foram aglutinados tomando-se por base relações de complementariedade, contradição ou similaridade e deram origem a cinco categorias (Jesus, 2015).Para o propósito desse artigo, apresenta-se a análise de uma das categorias relativa à organização de espaços promotores da atenção. RESULTADOS Ao longo do desenvolvimento das ações com os alunos, observou-se, em vários momentos,que uma nova relação com a aprendizagem se instituía quando as crianças conseguiam mobilizar a atenção às ações propostas. É sobre um desses momentos que se discorre no excerto a seguir. Foram as reações e as ações que me surpreenderam. Comecei a perceber as diferenças: no início os encon- trava dispersos pela sala, arrumando as cadeiras do modo que faziam quando tinham as aulas de recupe- ração e, depois de uns meses, passei a observar que ao chegar eles estavam me esperando, já com o espaço organizado de acordo com nossa forma de trabalhar, algumas vezes impacientes e perguntando o que faríamos repetidamente, entusiasmados. (Retirado do diário de campo) Observa-se nesse trecho o envolvimento e par- ticipação na atividade expressos nas ações dos alunos, revelando mudanças em sua forma de agir: se antes o espaço não estava previamente organizado para as atividades, com o passar do tempo não só o espaço estava organizado, como os alunos passaram a pergun- tar sobre as atividades a serem realizadas. É possível supor, a partir da expressão das crianças na chegada da pesquisadora e nas ações que previamente desenvolvem por si só – arrumar a sala e as carteiras – que essas condutas são indicativas de autorregulação da atenção. Entretanto, a mobilização da vontade explicitada pelo envolvimento e pela participação não é capaz, por si só, de organizar um processo complexo como o da significação, sendo necessária a orientação da pesqui- sadora. O trecho abaixo é ilustrativo desta proposição: É nosso nono encontro e enquanto nos aproximamos do lugar onde ocorreria a atividade, uma das alunas disse “a gente não vai escrever não, né? Escrevi a aula toda, Desenvolvimento da atenção: atuação em classes de recuperação 25 Psic. da Ed., São Paulo, 47, 2º sem. de 2018, pp. 21-29 estou cansada!”, ao mesmo tempo em que mantinha o semblante mais fechado, sem sorrisos ou alegria. Os outros alunos prontamente já começaram a se pronunciar com frases do tipo “ah, escrever?!” ou então: “não gosto de escrever”, demandando, a todo momento, relembrá-los do porquê da necessidade da escrita. Naquele momento da intervenção a demanda por minha orientação era muito grande, eu tinha de ir dizendo, passo a passo, o que deveriam fazer, como: “agora vamos sentar à mesa”, “peguem o lápis”, “escrevam as histórias” (algumas vezes tendo que pegar nas mãos dos alunos, os levando até a cadeira para que se sentassem). Em outras ocasiões, se fazia necessá- rio sentar ao lado de cada um enquanto escreviam, lendo as histórias e questionando as frases escritas nas histórias, como: “e depois, o que ele fez?”, “como ele se chama?”, “e eles conseguiram dinheiro ou não?”, além dos comentários acerca da produção realizada, como: “que lindo ficou (ou vai ficar)”, “começou muito bem, agora é só continuar”,ou da imagem escolhida para a construção da história, como: “o que tem na imagem?”, “o que ela parece estar fazendo?”, “olha esse detalhe, o que é?”, para que eles conseguissem continuar a escrita. (Retirado do diário de campo) Percebe-se inicialmente a significação da escrita como cansativa e trabalhosa, a dificuldade em olhar para as figuras mais demoradamente, a desorientação em relação às atitudes necessárias(como sentar, pegar o lápis e o papel)para a realização de dadas atividades, a incompreensão das propostas e, consequentemente, a necessidade da orientação e do apoio para realizar as atividades. Apresenta-se,a seguir na Figura 1,a produção de Laura, baseada numa foto de Doisneu, por ela esco- lhida; esse é um exemplo de histórias que, inicialmente, foram construídas durante as atividades. Figura 1. História construída por Laura no 8º encontro. Pode-se observar, na produção de Laura, que a escrita apresenta características da linguagem oral, não contemplando aspectos textuais necessários à elabo- ração de uma narrativa, tais como o contexto em que se passa a situação, ou uma melhor elaboração do fato narrado. Percebe-se também que não há uma estrutura narrativa de começo, meio e fim, há pouco uso de adjetivos e falta de articulação do enredo. Entretanto, Laura consegue expressar ideias, ainda que não domine as regras textuais de pontuação e construção grama- tical. Esse potencial que se observa é, sem dúvida, ponto de partida para se avançar no desenvolvimento da escrita de Laura, fato que deveria ser considerado pelos professores. É necessário ressaltar que Laura escreveu essa história respondendo às questões da pesquisadora durante a atividade, que tinham como objetivo orientar sua ação. Conforme se pode observar no trecho des- tacado, as intervenções iniciais demonstraram que a linguagem em sua dimensão comunicadora de ações estava apropriada por Laura, restando como desafio o desenvolvimento da dimensão da linguagem como planejadora da ação. E foi esse o foco da ação da pesquisadora, ao buscar orientar a ação de Laura em construir uma narrativa. Verificou-se que a experiência que as crianças tinham daquele espaço não se caracterizava como rotina a se seguir. Este fato foi corroborado pelas observações da classe de recuperação realizadas pela pesquisadora: a prática prevalente da estagiária respon- sável pela turma era passar uma atividade na lousa para as crianças copiarem e dar uma folha com exercícios a serem realizados. Essa desorganização e falta de cla- reza sobre o trabalho que deveriam realizar na classe de recuperação paralela foi apropriada pelas crianças, que não compreendiam a rotina ou o que deveriam fazer por si próprias, necessitando ser guiadas pelo outro ou sucumbindo aos fartos estímulos do meio, como o barulho que vinha de fora ou o movimento dos corredores, ou, ainda, a conversa dos colegas ao lado. 26 Juliana Soares de Jesus e Vera Lucia Trevisan de Souza Psic. da Ed., São Paulo, 47, 2º sem. de 2018, pp. 21-29 Em contrapartida, quando repetidas orientações, instruções e materiais foram fornecidos/utilizados durante as intervenções,ampliou-se o movimento rela- cional entre as crianças e as atividades, promovendo um maior repertório de modos de agir, favorecendo a autorregulação. Diante dos diferentes fatores que faziam parte do meio, como os barulhos produzidos pelos alunos de outras turmas que participavam da aula de educação física ou pela reforma na sala ao lado, a escolha de sentar e produzir uma história, em detrimento das conversas paralelas e de brincadeiras, é indicativa de avanço na autorregulação da atenção. Claramente, nota-se que o curso do desenvolvi- mento prossegue se condições objetivas ideais forem oferecidas e mediadas; contudo, o ritmo do desenvolvi- mento é sustentado pelo modo como o sujeito vivencia as situações propostas. Notou-se que, se em um pri- meiro momento, escrever era considerado espinhoso e toda e qualquer outra atividade era mais interessante, verificou-se que posteriormente a escrita passou a ter um propósito, um objetivo. O sentido da escrita foi se reconfigurando, de modo que seu planejamento passou a ser rotina, sendo uma estrutura inicial da história; “Vou caprichar”, “vou fazer uma história bem bonita”, “vou começar com ‘um certo dia’” eram expressões que revelavam o movimento de planejar a ação pelas crianças. Ainda que aparecessem, nas histórias, repro- duções de termos sugeridos pela pesquisadora (tais como: “era uma vez”, “em um lugar muito distante”, “há muito tempo atrás”, etc.), a atividade de escrever era ressignificada, por ter a autoria das crianças, assu- mindo o caráter de “para si” no processo de apropriação da produção. Evidenciou-se, portanto, uma finalidade subjetiva, construída pelo impacto das atividades desenvolvidas e pelas interações que elas promoveram entre as crianças, a pesquisadora e o conhecimento. As falas das crianças indicavam uma nova qualidade das relações entre as funções psicológicas superiores que, para além da autorregulação da atenção, indicavam o desenvolvimento da fala como planejadora da ação e do pensamento antecedendo a própria ação. A Figura 2, a seguir, traz uma escrita de Laura, cuja produção inicial foi apresentada nas páginas precedentes. Figura 2. História construída por Laura no 20º encontro. Desenvolvimento da atenção: atuação em classes de recuperação 27 Psic. da Ed., São Paulo, 47, 2º sem. de 2018, pp. 21-29 Comparando com a história apresentada ante- riormente, percebe-se o avanço da organização textual que Laura expressa nesta outra história. Por meio do uso de mais personagens, das novas acentuações, pon- tuações, adjetivos, substantivos, nota-se a mudança da escrita. Observa-se que sua história é contextualizada por uma floresta assustadora e apresenta um enredo coerente, que possui as características de um texto narrativo em que aparecem claramente a introdução, o desenvolvimento com o clímax do enredo e um desfecho, adequado à ficção criada. Isso dentro de um tempo e espaço devidamente adaptados ao enredo. O uso de outros e novos elementos para a com- posição da história indica a ampliação da percepção de Laura e o foco de sua atenção na organização da narra- tiva. No movimento entre linguagem e ação, nota-se o avanço na escrita de Laura. E é este direcionamento realizado pela fala, antes colada à ação orientada pelo outro, que passa a ser feito pelos próprios alunos. DISCUSSÃO Do modo como se organizam atualmente, os momentos/ações/situações de recuperação da apren- dizagem não favorecem o envolvimento dos alunos, permitindo questionar: como é possível prestar atenção em alguma coisa que não faz sentido, que não desperta interesse? Se não se pode prestar atenção, entendida como a seleção de um alvo ou objeto e o exame de seus detalhes, de suas relações, então também não será possível a apropriação do conhecimento, pois as signi- ficações que caracterizam o domínio do conhecimento ficam prejudicadas. Aprender é significar, e significar demanda vin- cular a nova experiência a uma experiência anterior. Em sendo assim, é preciso considerar quais as experiências dos alunos e o que já sabem; conhecer essas informações é fundamental para propor ações que favoreçam os pro- cessos de significação tão necessários à aprendizagem e ao desenvolvimento do sujeito. Diante desse quadro, o estudo ora apresentado teve como objetivo verificar os efeitos de uma inter- venção na promoção do desenvolvimento da atenção em crianças que frequentavam classes de recuperação. Para tanto, optou-se por intervir com o uso de fotografias, histórias e desenhos e por pontuar as orientações com o foco nas relações estabelecidas entre as crianças e o aprendizado. Acreditava-se que essa forma mobilizava os motivos que levam os sujeitos a elaborarem novas sínteses e superar relações estabele- cidas com o conteúdo escolarizado (Souza et al., 2014). O que se evidenciou, nos resultados apresentados, é que mudanças no modo de oferecer o que se denomina de recuperação da aprendizagem foram fundamentais para a promoção do desenvolvimento das crianças. Investir em atividades que se aproximavam dos interes- ses dos estudantes foi condição para seu envolvimento e o consequente desenvolvimento da atenção. Observou-se que uma nova relação com a aprendizagem ocorreu, pois as crianças conseguiram mobilizar a atenção às ações propostas, favorecendo a autorregulação. O avanço na autorregulação da atenção demonstrou-se pela escolha de interagir com a atividade escrita, em vez de atentar às conversas paralelas e brincadeiras, e pela própria qualidade da produção escrita. Verificou-se que, no início, a falta de domínio de certo nível de linguagem, oral ou escrita, culminava em condutas dependentes de demandas externas: era o meio que controlava o que elas deveriam fazer, era o outro que ordenava as ações das crianças, direcionando os focos de sua atenção. As crianças não regulavam suas ações por não conseguirem, sozinhas, direcionar a atenção e a percepção necessárias para produzir uma escrita ou desenho, o que exige esforço para se escolher quais estímulos priorizar e quais abandonar. Desse modo, seu foco de atenção alternava-se rapidamente, impossibilitando que se interessassem por algo, uma vez que sequer percebiam as diferentes demandas a que estavam expostos, assim como a organização necessária para executar a atividade proposta. Durante o processo de intervenção, porém, o outro deixou de ordenar as ações das crianças, pas- sando os focos de sua atenção e suas ações a serem direcionados por elas mesmas. Nesse processo, pas- saram a se utilizar de uma leitura para si durante a construção da história, agilizando a imaginação pela recombinação dos elementos acessados nas histórias e imagens apreciadas com suas experiências; então, novos enredos foram possíveis, os quais, por sua vez, produziram novas possibilidades de perceber e atentar para a realidade (Souza, Petroni, Dugnani, Barbosa & Andrada,2014). Uma vez que as funções psicológicas não estão consolidadas, ainda existem tarefas que as crianças não conseguem realizar sozinhas e precisam de ajuda. É pelas (e nas) instruções/orientações fornecidas, pelas 28 Juliana Soares de Jesus e Vera Lucia Trevisan de Souza Psic. da Ed., São Paulo, 47, 2º sem. de 2018, pp. 21-29 (e nas) relações estabelecidas, pelo (e no) diálogo que se criam possibilidades de avanços no desenvolvimento (Prestes, 2010). É importante ressaltar que criar condições obje- tivas não determina que o desenvolvimento ocorra; trata-se apenas do ponto de partida. Há dois polos na constituição do psiquismo humano que se influenciam mutuamente: se, por um lado, existe a criação de pos- sibilidades, por outro existe um sujeito ativo, que se apropria e configura sentidos e significados em relação à situação, conferindo novas qualidades ao funciona- mento do sistema psicológico, o que, por conseguinte, influencia a aprendizagem (Vigotski, 1931/1995). Segundo Vigotski (1931/1995), a criança começa a aplicar em si as mesmas formas de conduta, que, a princípio, outros aplicavam nelas, e isto significa compreender que é o outro mais experiente que pode desenvolver uma ação que colabore para o desenvol- vimento do sujeito. Considera-se que para implicar-se com algo alguns processos são necessários: implica-se com o que se compreende, com o que se considera rele- vante, com o que afeta de algum modo o sujeito (Fleer, 2013). Por serem afetadas, as crianças se antecipam à execução da tarefa, preparando as condições para seu desenvolvimento e, ao fazê-lo, sentidos e significados se reconfiguram, resultando em novos modos de se relacionarem com as atividades desenvolvidas pela psicóloga. Em outras palavras, o desenvolvimento é possível na medida em que se criem situações sociais de desenvolvimento e ocorram vivências (Souza & Andrada, 2013). A vivência é uma experiência que tem em seu centro as emoções, e por ela se ampliam as relações entre as funções psicológicas devido a sua força em afetar o sujeito, que sintetiza dialeticamente a sua relação com o meio (Vigotski, 1935/2010). Neste trabalho, a orientação fornecida pela pesquisadora e o planejamento da ação em conjunto com os alunos são exemplos de intervenção que favo- recem significações e o desenvolvimento de funções psicológicas superiores, fundamentais à aprendizagem dos conhecimentos escolarizados. A atenção e a per- cepção se movimentam quando se investe em uma ação orientada, inicialmente por um adulto e depois, por vezes, pelas próprias crianças como parceiras mais experientes. A esse respeito, observou-se que a criança ainda precisou de instrução, da presença de um outro atuando como orientador e direcionador das atividades, ou seja, de alguém que significou a realidade para que ela se apropriasse. Entretanto, a significação realizada pela criança se consolidou quando ela passou a planejar as suas ações, baseada em um novo modo de pensar e compreender o mundo. Movimento esse que, de acordo com Vigotski (1934/2008), põe em relevo a interação como fundamental à apropriação dos modos de conduta do sujeito. Os resultados mostraram que a utilização de atividades com dimensões artísticas potencializaram e mobilizaram significações e, por conseguinte, um maior domínio da atenção. Explicita-se, todavia, que “prestar atenção” não significa ficar quieto, olhar para a lousa e copiar a lição. Prestar atenção é pensar. E pensar implica questionar, fazer relações entre elementos (ainda que, a princípio, a relação não esteja correta cientificamente) e pode ocorrer que a ação aconteça com um aluno olhando para a parede da sala ou falando com o colega a seu lado. Neste sentido, o “ficar quieto” indica que o processo atencional já ocorreu e exatamente por isso o estudante consegue acompanhar a atividade, expli- citando que, dessa forma,prestar atenção e pensar são processos imbricados permanentemente. No processo de realização e apropriação do sig- nificado do realizado, os sentidos das atividades foram sendo reconfigurados na relação com o conhecimento escolarizado e então as crianças perceberam que podiam ler, podiam escrever, podiam tentar, podiam ser aprendizes e, por vezes, parceiros mais experien- tes que também ensinavam seus colegas e mesmo a pesquisadora. E a relação com a classe de recuperação mudou,porque mudaram as atividades e emergiram as potencialidades. Esse processo, contudo, não é vivido do mesmo modo por todos; é preciso respeitar os ritmos, as experiências, os recursos de cada um dos alunos, sendo necessário pensar em orientações e ações específicas para desafiar cada criança, como no caso de um dos participantes de uma das turmas que não tinha a escrita apropriada. Trabalhar com a oralidade, assumindo o papel de escriba, tendo em vista que ela é fundamental na construção da compreensão e pro- dução da escrita é um exemplo de orientação que pode ser adotada de modo a promover o desenvolvimento do pensamento. Resta, porém, o desafio de implicar os profes- sores e a escola no processo de promoção do desen- volvimento dos alunos e de estabelecer parcerias com outros profissionais. Desafio que, ainda que se busque enfrentar, não foi possível superar e que demanda novas pesquisas rumo à consolidação do trabalho da psicologia na escola. Desenvolvimento da atenção: atuação em classes de recuperação 29 Psic. da Ed., São Paulo, 47, 2º sem. de 2018, pp. 21-29 Prestes, Z. R. (2010). Quando não e quase a mesma coisa Análise de traduções de Lev Semionovitch Vigotski no Brasil Repercussões no campo educacional. (Tese de Doutorado.)Universidade de Brasília, Brasília. Sawaia, B.B. (2000). A emoção como locus de produção do conhecimento – Uma reflexão inspirada em Vygotsky e no seu diálogo com Espinosa. In Universidade Estadual de Campinas (Org.). Anais da III Conferência de Pesquisa Sociocultural (s/.p.). Campinas, São Paulo. Souza, V. L. T. & Andrada, P. C. (2013). Contribuições de Vigotski para a compreensão do psiquismo. Estudos de Psicologia, 30, 355-365. Souza, V.L.T., Petroni, A. P., Dugnani, L. A. C. , Barbosa, E. T., & Andrada, P. C. (2014). O Psicólogo na Escola e com a Escola: A parceria como forma de atuação promotora de mudanças. In Raquel de Souza Lobo Guzzo (Eds.). Psicologia Escolar: desafios e bastidores na educação pública (pp. 27-54). Campinas: Átomo & Alínea. Vigotski, L.S. (2008). Pensamento e Linguagem. (4. ed.). (J. L. Camargo, trad.) São Paulo: Martins Fontes. (Trabalho originalmente publicado em1934.) Vigotski, L. S. (2010). Quarta aula: questão do meio na pedologia. (M. P. Vinha e M. Welcman, trad.). Psicologia USP, 21, 681-701. (Trabalho original publicado em 1935.) Vygotski, L.S. (1995). Tomo III – Obras escogidas (Incluye Problemas del desarrollo de la psique).Madri: Visor Distribuciones. (Trabalho originalmente publicado em 1931.) Vygotsky, L.S. (2001). Psicologia da arte. (Paulo Bezerra, trad.). São Paulo: Martins Fontes. (Trabalho originalmente publicado em 1925.) Desafio que demarca e salienta a necessidade da interlocução entre Psicologia e Educação, uma vez que as especificidades de cada área, integradas, podem promover e organizar, em parceria, um ensino capaz de promover potencialidades e favorecer o desenvol- vimento das funções psicológicas e do sujeito como um todo. REFERÊNCIAS Caldas, R. F. L., & Souza, M. P. R. (2014). Recuperação escolar: uma análise crítica a partir da Psicologia Escolar. Revista Quadrimestral da Associação Brasileira de Psicologia Escolar e Educacional, 18, 17-25. Eidt, N. M., & Tuleski, S. C. (2010). Transtorno de déficit de atenção/hiperatividade e psicologia histórico-cultural. Cadernos de Pesquisa,40, 121-146. Fleer, M. (2013). Affective imagination in Science education: determining the emotional nature of scientific and technological learning of Young children. Science Educaction, 43, 2085-2106. Jesus, J. S. (2015). Sala de recuperação como espaço de desenvolvimento: contribuições da psicologia escolar.(Dissertação de Mestrado.) Pontifícia Universidade Católica de Campinas, Campinas. Friedrich, J. (2012). Lev Vigotski: mediação, aprendizagem e desenvolvimento: uma leitura filosófica e epistemológica. (A. R. Machado e E. G. Lousada, trad.). Campinas, SP: Mercado das Letras. Marinho-Araujo, C. M., & Guzzo, R. S. L. (orgs.). (2011). Psicologia Escolar: identificando e superando barreiras. Campinas, SP: Alínea. Martins, L. M. (2011). O desenvolvimento do psiquismo e a educação escolar: contribuições à luz da Psicologia Histórico-cultural e da Pedagogia Histórico-crítica. (Tese de Livre-Docência.) Universidade Estadual Paulista, Bauru, SP. Jesus, J.S., Souza, V. L. T., Petroni, A. P., & Dugnani, L. A. C. (2013). Os sentidos da aprendizagem para professores da educação infantil, ensino fundamental e médio. Revista Psicopedagogia, 30, 201-211. Moyses, M. A. A., & Collares, C.A.L. (2013). Controle e Medicalização da Infância. DESidades, s/v., 1-21. Juliana Soares de Jesus Doutoranda no Programa de Pós-Graduação em Psicologia como Ciência e Profissão ORCID: 0000-0002-3147-4335 Vera Lucia Trevisan de Souza Professora e Coordenadora do Programa de Pós-Graduação em Psicologia como Ciência e Profissão ORCID: 0000-0003-2062-0680 Pontifícia Universidade Católica de Campinas julianajsj@gmail.com 
work_mthflpex4rfyzbeheb45z6pl3m	----	Multicomponent molecular memory ARTICLE Multicomponent molecular memory Christopher E. Arcadia1, Eamonn Kennedy1, Joseph Geiser1, Amanda Dombroski1, Kady Oakley1, Shui-Ling Chen 1, Leonard Sprague 1, Mustafa Ozmen1, Jason Sello1, Peter M. Weber 1, Sherief Reda1, Christopher Rose1, Eunsuk Kim1, Brenda M. Rubenstein 1 & Jacob K. Rosenstein 1* Multicomponent reactions enable the synthesis of large molecular libraries from relatively few inputs. This scalability has led to the broad adoption of these reactions by the phar- maceutical industry. Here, we employ the four-component Ugi reaction to demonstrate that multicomponent reactions can provide a basis for large-scale molecular data storage. Using this combinatorial chemistry we encode more than 1.8 million bits of art historical images, including a Cubist drawing by Picasso. Digital data is written using robotically synthesized libraries of Ugi products, and the files are read back using mass spectrometry. We combine sparse mixture mapping with supervised learning to achieve bit error rates as low as 0.11% for single reads, without library purification. In addition to improved scaling of non-biological molecular data storage, these demonstrations offer an information-centric perspective on the high-throughput synthesis and screening of small-molecule libraries. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-14455-1 OPEN 1 Brown University, Providence, RI, USA. *email: jacob_rosenstein@brown.edu NATURE COMMUNICATIONS | (2020) 11:691 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-14455-1 | www.nature.com/naturecommunications 1 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 () :,; http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0935-3323 http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0935-3323 http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0935-3323 http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0935-3323 http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0935-3323 http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1926-8827 http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1926-8827 http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1926-8827 http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1926-8827 http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1926-8827 http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3017-336X http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3017-336X http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3017-336X http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3017-336X http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3017-336X http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1643-0358 http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1643-0358 http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1643-0358 http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1643-0358 http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1643-0358 http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9791-704X http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9791-704X http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9791-704X http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9791-704X http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9791-704X mailto:jacob_rosenstein@brown.edu www.nature.com/naturecommunications www.nature.com/naturecommunications S ignificant advances toward useful molecular-scale data systems have been made by exploiting DNA1–8 and other sequence-defined polymers9–11. However, linearly ordered macromolecules represent only a tiny fraction of the near- limitless variety of chemistries, which could be used to represent information. To find alternative examples of molecular infor- mation systems, one need look no further than the simplest single-celled organisms, which have evolved to make use of many complementary forms of chemical information, including loosely ordered mixtures of small molecules, such as metabolites and dissolved ions. Similarly, recent demonstrations have stored digital data not only in DNA4,5,12, but also using short peptides13 and metabolites14. While macromolecules will continue to be important for information systems, complementary small-molecule approaches can offer a number of potential advantages13,15. They do not require polymerization or enzymatic steps; they can be designed to resist cellular digestion16 and extreme environmental condi- tions; and they can be economical to produce. However, previous demonstrations of non-polymeric molecular data have faced capacity scaling challenges, which limited their scope to small files, such as encryption keys17,18. In this work, we encode millions of bits of data, in the form of digital images, using mixtures of small molecules. Rather than representing information in linear molecular sequences, we store data in locally disordered mixtures of small molecules, which can be identified by their molecular structures. This approach may appear comparatively difficult to scale to large amounts of data since we cannot simply add more subunits, as in the case of a polymer. We overcome this hurdle by creating large libraries of unique compounds through automated multi- component reactions. We introduce a process to perform the nanoliter-scale synth- esis and validation of thousands of unique Ugi products per day, without requiring purification or the use of solid supports. Some of these compounds are likely novel and have not been experi- mentally characterized before. To use these Ugi libraries, we have developed tools that can identify information-bearing molecules in complex chemical mixtures. By combining high-resolution mass spectrometry with supervised learning, we show how to use isotopes, adducts, impurities, and chemical interactions to improve the identification of information-carrying compounds. Additionally, we improve on previous demonstrations of non- genomic data storage by implementing a sparse data encoding scheme which dramatically reduces error rates. Furthermore, the techniques used here can be applied to other scalable chemical libraries. An overview of the data storage process is provided in Fig. 1, which depicts the storage of a 0.88 megapixel digital image derived from a Cubist charcoal drawing of a violin by Pablo Picasso19. Other datasets are shown in Fig. 6. These images represent the largest amount of digital data stored in a non- polymeric molecular form (Supplementary Fig. 9). Even in these early demonstrations, encoding between 16 and 575 bits of data per position compares favorably to some aspects of conventional memory devices, in which information is typi- cally encoded using a single scalar parameter (e.g. charge) per location, and where electronic noise sources make it impractical to store more than a few bits per cell20,21. In order to further improve density, semiconductor memory is increasingly struc- tured in three dimensions22. While the physical dimensions of our chemical memory spots are currently much larger than electronic memory, the concept of storing information in diverse small-molecule mixtures is valid down to the nanoscale. In addition to the potential for dense data storage, working with large numbers of complex chemical mixtures provides opportunities to learn from information-rich annotated experi- mental datasets. Just as DNA memory has inspired improvements in synthesis and sequence alignment23,24, advances in non- polymeric molecular data systems can lead to insights that may prove useful for navigating broad small-molecule spaces for drug discovery, metabolomics, and synthetic biology. Results Combinatorial library synthesis. The automated generation of diverse non-polymeric chemical libraries is challenging because of the wide variety and complexity of synthetic protocols. To create scalable small-molecule libraries appropriate for information storage, we use the multicomponent Ugi reaction25, which combines four reagents: an amine, an aldehyde or a ketone, a carboxylic acid, and an isocyanide, into a single product plus water. The number of unique Ugi products that can be formed scales with the number of available reagents (Fig. 2a). For instance, with 10 variations of each reagent, up to 10,000 unique multicomponent products are possible. The Ugi reaction is par- ticularly attractive as a one-pot, single-step, room-temperature reaction26 that has known catalysts27,28, solid supports29–31, accelerated conditions32,33, and multi-step extensions34. Ugi reactions have been previously used as secret molecular encryp- tion keys17, and to create sequence-defined macromolecules35. Here, however, our goal is to encode millions of bits of infor- mation in mixtures of small molecules, requiring that we find efficient strategies to synthesize as many unique products as possible. To this end, we have developed automated protocols for the high throughput synthesis of 1500 Ugi products at a time (Fig. 2b). We begin with a well plate containing five amines, five aldehydes, 12 carboxylic acids, and five isocyanides, and use an acoustic fluid handler (Echo 550, Labcyte) to enumerate all 1500 possible combinations of the four components into a 1536-well plate. After reacting, the wells are diluted to a final volume of 4 μL. Since the minimum transfer volume of the fluid handler is 2.5 nL, each library well can be dispensed more than a thousand times before it is depleted. We initially assumed that it would be necessary to purify each library component, perhaps using solid supports, but were pleasantly surprised to find that with appropriate analysis strategies our molecular datasets could be accurately read using raw reaction solutions. Forgoing purification allowed us to streamline the experimental protocols and minimize labor and material cost, such that over the course of this work we were able to synthesize more than 10,000 compounds. To validate the library, 20 nL from each well was analyzed with mass spectrometry (SolariX 7T, Bruker)36,37, in matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization (MALDI) mode38. The Ugi product monoisotopic masses (M) are mostly between 500 and 700 Da, but we frequently observe sodiated (M + Na) and potassiated (M + K) adducts (Fig. 3b). We analyzed the library spectra for sodiated product peaks, and found that more than 90% (1346/1500) of the products had significant signal ( SNR > 31:44). Additional details about library synthesis and validation are provided in the Methods and Supplementary Figs. 1–4. Writing data as chemical mixtures. The composition of a che- mical sample can represent abstract information, whether the sample consists of a single compound selected from a defined chemical space17, a pool of sequence-controlled polymers4,13, or a mixture of unique compounds15. With small molecule libraries, the most direct way to encode information is to use the presence or absence of each library element in a sample to represent one bit of data14,39. Thus, our 1500 compound Ugi libraries could encode ARTICLE NATURE COMMUNICATIONS | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-14455-1 2 NATURE COMMUNICATIONS | (2020) 11:691 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-14455-1 | www.nature.com/naturecommunications www.nature.com/naturecommunications up to 1500 bits of information per mixture. However, using the full library in this way would strain our current experimental system, requiring large mixture volumes and low analyte con- centrations. Thus when using this simple encoding scheme we often prefer to use a reduced subset of library components. Figure 4 shows a 48,841-pixel binary image of the Egyptian god Anubis, which we encoded across 1527 independent mixtures using a 32-product library subset. In this case, the binary image data is first rearranged as a 1527 × 32 matrix, where each row of the matrix corresponds to one location on a data plate and each column corresponds to one library component. At each position, if a library element is meant to be included, we instruct our acoustic liquid handler to dispense a 2.5 nL droplet from its library well to the data plate. If it is meant to be excluded, no transfer is performed. The data is assembled on a standard MALDI target plate, forming a unique data mixture at each position. Finally, MALDI matrix is added to the mixtures, which are then dried, leaving behind crystalline spots, which can be stored and later read back using mass spectrometry. We often create up to 1536 unique mixtures per data plate, and the storage capacity scales with the number of library compounds used. To encode the 0.88 megapixel image of a Picasso drawing shown in Fig. 1, we used 575 unique compounds. Additional storage experiments are summarized in Fig. 6 and Supplementary Fig. 7. These chemical datasets take several hours to write and read, are stable for at least 9 months, and can be read more than 100 times (Supplementary Figs. 8 and 12). Reading data from chemical mixtures. To recover a chemical dataset, we analyze each mixture with mass spectrometry and train supervised learning algorithms to identify which library elements they contain. In the simplest version of this analysis, we can consider only the sodiated peaks of each Ugi product. If a peak’s intensity exceeds a threshold, we record the compound as present (“1”) and otherwise declare it as absent (“0”). For example, the spectrum shown in Fig. 4d contains the 1st, 2nd, 5th, 12th, 14th, and 17th compounds from a 32-compound sub- library, and thus this mixture encodes the following four bytes: 11001000 00010100 10000000 00000000. Using only sodiated product peaks, the Anubis dataset was recovered with 97.9% accuracy. At least 30/32 compounds were correctly assigned in over 95% of mixtures and the residual errors displayed similar rates of false positives and false negatives (Fig. 4c). While the majority of compounds achieved <5% error, we observed an order of magnitude variation in compound performance (Fig. 4c). We can improve the readout accuracy by using multiple spectral features to determine the presence of each M ix tu re s Violin (Picasso, 1912) a b c 1 0 1 0 0 1 2 M .. . Mix Input Train Infer Recovered A m in e s A ld e h yd e s Carboxylic acids Isocyanides Ugi reaction space Ugi 2 N O OH O Cl N O NH Ugi M N OHO O H N O H N O O Ugi 1 HN N OH O OHO H N O NH O O Fig. 1 Process overview. a Multicomponent reactions such as the four-component Ugi reaction can generate diverse libraries of small molecules. b A file can be stored by mapping its digital information onto a set of vectors which determine the presence (“1”) or absence (“0”) of multiple Ugi products at each location in an array. Here, we encoded a Cubist charcoal drawing of a violin by Pablo Picasso19 (©Estate of Pablo Picasso/Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York). c The molecular data is stored on a thin metal plate in small crystalline spots. The original file can be recovered by interrogating each spot with mass spectrometry and interpreting the spectra with models trained to identify library elements. The spots on the data plate displayed here have an average diameter of 820 μm and a thickness of several micrometers. OHR3 NH2 R1 H O R2 ++ + R4 Ugi product –H2O Amine Carboxylic acid IsocyanideAldehyde a b R3 O O N O N N H R2 R1 R4 +3.2 µL DMSO >24 h 800 nL 125 mM 4 µL 25 mM 200 nL (×4) 500 mM Fig. 2 Library synthesis. a The multicomponent Ugi reaction incorporates an amine, aldehyde, carboxylic acid, and isocyanide into a single peptide- like bis-amide. b We use automated acoustic liquid handling to synthesize combinatorial Ugi libraries of up to 1500 compounds at a time. NATURE COMMUNICATIONS | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-14455-1 ARTICLE NATURE COMMUNICATIONS | (2020) 11:691 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-14455-1 | www.nature.com/naturecommunications 3 www.nature.com/naturecommunications www.nature.com/naturecommunications library element. Although it is difficult to assign the precise origin of every peak in a spectrum (e.g., isotopes, adducts), knowing their physical origin is not strictly required for data recovery. In fact, any feature which reliably correlates with the presence of a compound can be used to improve detection. In order to exploit these correlated background peaks, we use supervised learning to train classifiers on library elements using logisitic or random forest regression. In both cases, we produce a set of regression models, one per library element, which can interpret the contents of a data mixture from its mass spectrum. By applying these machine learning approaches, we have achieved up to a five-fold reduction in error rates (Fig. 5). In addition to improving accuracy, treating the readout as a learning problem has also revealed some interesting and non- intuitive chemical identifiers (Supplementary Fig. 13). For example, some classifiers used information about other library elements, perhaps as a result of competitive ionization. In other cases, compounds were found to form complexes with residual starting reagents, which could have arisen during ionization or during synthesis. Moreover, by learning these difficult-to-anticipate interactions, multi-peak detection can allow us to identify multiple library elements with the same monoisotopic mass. Improving accuracy with sparse data-mixture maps. For the Picasso drawing (Fig. 1) and Anubis image (Fig. 4), each bit of data was independently mapped onto the presence or absence of a single compound in a single mixture. While conceptually straightforward, this mapping limits the design parameters available to optimize experimental throughput and accuracy. For example, it is vulnerable to errors if single chemical components are improperly identified, and it implies that increasing storage capacity per spot requires both larger mixtures and larger libraries. In Fig. 5, we explore an alternate encoding scheme, in which a 16-bit block of data is mapped to an entire mixture, instead of mapping each bit independently. This approach allows us to tune the complexity of the mixtures separately from the library size. Here we use a library subset of 512 compounds, but constrain exactly 32 compounds to be present in each mixture. In theory, there are 512 32 � � � 2169 such combinations. However, only 216 states are needed to represent all possible values of the 16-bit data. This sparse mapping implies that the vast majority of possible mixtures should never be observed. As such, when errors do occur, data can be rounded to the nearest valid mixture, providing some degree of fault tolerance. In this example, the minimum Hamming distance between any two valid mixtures is 36, meaning that perfect recovery of the encoded data can be guaranteed even when up to 17 of the 512 compounds (3.3%) are incorrectly classified. To test this, we performed a series of simulations where a 1600-bit data vector was encoded into 100 chemical mixtures. The virtual mixtures were symmetrically corrupted, at various error rates, and then decoded (Fig. 5b). Even with raw error rates several times larger than the guaranteed threshold, the vast majority of errors could still be corrected. Using this sparse encoding, we wrote a 24,336-pixel digital image derived from a 16th century German illustration of angels seated at a table40. Looking only for the sodiated product peaks, we correctly classified 389 of the 512 library components, and after rounding to the nearest valid mixture, the original data was recovered with 96.67% accuracy (Fig. 5c). Training a logistic regression model to perform multi-peak detection resulted in a 5- fold reduction in raw compound errors (Fig. 5d) and a 30-fold reduction in decoded data errors, yielding a final accuracy of 99.89% (Fig. 5e). Several mapping and detection schemes were tested in this work, and the results summarized in Fig. 6 highlight key trade- offs between the different approaches. The largest file was stored using direct mapping, since it provides a direct scaling of data capacity with library size. In contrast, the lowest error rates were achieved with sparse mapping and multi-peak detection. Discussion In this study, we have introduced chemical information repre- sentations based on mixtures of multicomponent molecules. We can view this as an effort to store information in a superset of the molecular space available to biological systems, where synthetic chemistry is not held to the same environmental and energetic constraints as living cells. The demonstrations presented here are already six times larger than the information capacity of the smallest known genome41, and although it is difficult to quantify exactly how much information is represented in living systems, it is interesting to think about how engineered chemical 100 101 102 103 104 SNR threshold [�] 0 25 50 75 100 F a ll o u t (F P R ) [% ] 0 25 50 75 100 S e n sitivity (T P R ) [% ] 0 10 20 30 50 m/z – M 0 200 400 600 800 O b se rv a tio n c o u n t 40 M M + Na M + K M + Na + 1 M + Na + 2 M + K + 1M + 1 500 600 700 M 0 100 200 C o u n t 1 48 1 32 SNR of expected masses 101 102 103 104 a b c Fig. 3 Library analysis. a A color-coded map of the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of sodiated product peaks across a 1500-Ugi library. b A histogram of the 50 strongest peaks in each product spectra, offset by their expected Ugi product masses (M). Several common salt adducts and isotopes are labeled. Inset: A histogram of the monoisotoptic masses of the 1500- compound library. c The true positive rate (TPR) and false positive rate (FPR) as a function of the SNR threshold for the M+Na peaks. The dashed line (SNR � 31) jointly optimizes the true and false positive rates ( TPR ¼ 89:73%, FPR ¼ 8:71%). ARTICLE NATURE COMMUNICATIONS | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-14455-1 4 NATURE COMMUNICATIONS | (2020) 11:691 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-14455-1 | www.nature.com/naturecommunications www.nature.com/naturecommunications 0 500 1000 1500 Mixture number P e a k in te n si ty [ a rb .] Count Threshold Present Absent 107 106 106 104 1 0 1 0 0 Measured Expected All ×10–3 ×106 ×106 ×10–3 0 2 4 –50 –25 0 25 50 m/z + 594.331 0 2 4 –50 –25 0 25 50 m/z + 560.310 540 560 580 640620600 660 m/z In te n si ty [ a rb .] 1.5 2 1 0 0.5 × 107 a b c 0110 ... 10 d 0.1 1 10 F a ls e r a te [ % ] 1 0 0 1 FPR FNR 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Compound number (Sorted) 80 90 100 [% ] A cc u ra cy Fig. 4 Encoding data into small-molecule mixtures. a This molecular dataset is a 48,841 pixel (221 × 221) binary image of the Egyptian god Anubis52. b Sodiated peak intensities for one library element across the 1527 mixtures. c False negative and false positive rates for the 32 compounds, ordered by overall accuracy. d The mass spectrum of a data mixture containing six molecules from the 32-compound subset of the Ugi library. Left inset: the 8th molecule is absent (“0”). Right inset: the 17th molecule is present (“1”). 1 10 100 Mixture error rate [%] 0 50 100 150 200 M ix tu re c o u n t Single peak Multi-peak� = 4.8% � = 24.1% Single peak Multi-peak a edc b 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Raw error rate [%] 0 10 20 30 40 50 D e co d e d e rr o r ra te [ % ] Equality Simulated Single peak Multi-peak Data blocks Sparse mixtures 16 bits 512 compounds 2 1 6 = 6 5 ,5 3 6 e n tr ie s (3 2 p re se n t in e a ch ) Lookup Fig. 5 Using sparse mixture mapping and multi-peak readout to improve data recovery. a Every 16 bits of data is mapped onto a sparse mixture, based on a 512-Ugi library subset, in which only 32 of the 512 of the compounds are present. There are ~2169 such mixtures, but only 216 are mapped to data. b Simulated read error rates, before and after decoding. Experimental results from single peak (c) and multi-peak (e) detection are also shown. c A 24,336 pixel binary image of angels at a dinner table from a 16th century print40, recovered with single (sodiated) peak readout (96.67% accurate). d Histograms of the raw compound errors per mixture for each recovery scheme. e The digital image recovered with multi-peak detection (99.89% accurate). NATURE COMMUNICATIONS | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-14455-1 ARTICLE NATURE COMMUNICATIONS | (2020) 11:691 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-14455-1 | www.nature.com/naturecommunications 5 www.nature.com/naturecommunications www.nature.com/naturecommunications information systems could similarly take advantage of the inter- play between macromolecules and small molecules. By introducing automated synthesis and analysis approaches for multicomponent Ugi products, we produced the largest small- molecule digital information representations described to date. We showed that by using sparse data-to-mixture mapping and applying supervised learning to mass spectrometry data, we can tolerate impurities, improve accuracy, and produce a workflow that readily generalizes to other classes of small molecules. We previously demonstrated data storage using a library of common metabolites14, which could also benefit from the improved encoding and analysis strategies developed here. However, metabolite memory is more challenging to scale and perhaps more suitable for transient memory or chemical com- putation. Ugi products, on the other hand, offer combinatorial scaling, excellent stability, and comparatively uniform chemical properties. In total, we stored 1.8 million bits of data in Ugi molecules, including more than 0.8 million bits on a single plate (Fig. 6). This is still very far from theoretical capacity limits, and there are many parameters that can be further optimized, including library size, plate spot density, and mixture complexity. With incre- mental improvements in these areas, we could reach several megabytes per plate or more, using largely the same experimental setup. Introducing photolithography or advanced printing could further improve the spatial density and data capacity of a plate by several orders of magnitude. We selected steel plates for their compatibility with available instruments, but future imple- mentations could utilize flexible substrates or reels, or embed chemical information onto the surfaces of three-dimensional objects. MALDI imaging can achieve resolutions finer than 10 microns42, and although reading larger chemical datasets may require different coding strategies, we have not yet approached the information capacity of our readout. The sensitivity of MALDI mass spectrometry is limited by the presence of background ions, such as matrix adducts and impu- rities43. With adjustments to ionization, trapping, and excitation, this chemical noise can be mitigated, enabling attomole limits of detection44,45. In our current demonstrations, we estimate the amount of Ugi product ionized per read to be on the order of 10 femtomoles (Supplementary Fig. 12), offering room for future improvement. There are also other interesting avenues to explore beyond simple capacity improvements. Our sparse mixture mapping (Fig. 5) can be considered a coarse version of block coding, and there would be benefits to exploring more efficient coding schemes for digital error correction. Alternatively, one could leverage sparsity for enhanced information density, and represent many bits per small molecule present. The experimental workflow used here has similarities with early-stage pharmaceutical pipe- lines46, and it would be exciting to consider how error correction and the correlated statistics of encoded mixtures could be applied to drug discovery and medical applications. By automating the Ugi reaction, we found that we could syn- thesize thousands of multicomponent compounds per day using low cost reagents and with minimal manual sample preparation. The yield and quality of the Ugi reactions supported decoding hundreds of bits of data per mixture without any purification, which is partly a result of the fact that here we are interested in the information carried by the unique fingerprint of each library element rather than individual chemical structures. One minor reaction adjustment that we found helpful was to limit the amount of isocyanide to 80% of the other reagents, which seemed to reduce side product formation. Our ability to apply supervised learning to chemical informa- tion recovery stems from the availability of labeled training data, and a willingness to tackle complex mixtures. To utilize the potential of even larger molecular libraries, other approaches may be required. Recent studies have explored the use of autonomous systems for the exploration of chemical spaces47, which pairs well with the idea of mapping chemical mixtures to abstract infor- mation. Screening combinatorial libraries in bulk rather than one at a time is already established in some areas of molecular biol- ogy, such as aptamer design48. Extending these information- centric philosophies to more subtle molecular properties and emergent chemical reaction networks may prove particularly fruitful. Methods Materials and reagents. The solvent dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO, anhydrous, �99.9%, MilliporeSigma) was used to prepare all solutions in the library and data plates. Analytical grade α-cyano-4-hydroxycinnamic acid (HCCA, �99.0%, Milli- poreSigma) was used as the matrix material for all MALDI samples. The library of 1500 Ugi products was constructed with the following five amines: benzylamine, 4-methylbenzylamine, p-methoxybenzylamine, 4-chlorobenzylamine, 4-tertbu- tylbenzylamine; five aldehydes: cyclohexanecarboxaldehyde, 3-cyclohexylpropanal, valeradlehyde, isovaleraldehyde, cyclopentanecarboxaldehyde; 12 carboxylic acids: Boc-glycine, Boc-proline, Boc-N-methyl-L-valine, Boc-L-asparagine, Boc-L- beta-homoleucine, Boc-L-methionine, Boc-L-beta-homoglutamine, Boc-L-beta- homo-methionine, Boc-L-phenylalanine, Boc-N-alpha-N-epsilon-formyl-L-lysine, Boc-N-methyl-L-phenylalanine, Boc-O-methyl-L-tyrosine; and five isocyanides: cyclohexyl isocyanide, ethyl isocyanoacetate, benzyl isocyanide, 2-naphthyl iso- cyanide, methyl isocyanoacetate. These compounds were obtained at synthesis grade or higher and used as received from their vendors (Chem-Impex for the carboxylic acids and MilliporeSigma for the others). Further details about the reagents can be found in Supplementary Fig. 1. Digital-to-chemical mapping Direct Sparse D e te ct io n m e th o d S in g le -p e a k Anubis Dimna 48,841 bits 32 Ugis • 97.90% 12,100 bits 256 Ugis • 99.02% M u lti-p e a k Violin Angels 879,625 bits 575 Ugis • 97.57% 24,336 bits 512 Ugis • 99.89% Fig. 6 A gallery of digital images written into mixtures of Ugi products. The file sizes, number of compounds used, and readout accuracies are shown below each recovered image. Each dataset was represented using ~1500 mixtures. The Violin experiment was performed twice with similar results. The images were adapted from artwork from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (Anubis52, Dimna53, Angels40) and19 the ©Estate of Pablo Picasso/Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York (Violin19). ARTICLE NATURE COMMUNICATIONS | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-14455-1 6 NATURE COMMUNICATIONS | (2020) 11:691 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-14455-1 | www.nature.com/naturecommunications www.nature.com/naturecommunications Library preparation. Each reagent was dissolved in DMSO to a concentration of 500 mM and placed into a 384-well plate. Using an acoustic fluid handler, we dispensed the reagents, 200 nL per inclusion, into a 1536-well plate to enumerate all possible four-component Ugi reactions. The array of reagent mixtures was left to react at room temperature for 1–2 days. After reacting, DMSO was added to each library well to reach a final volume of 4 μL. Mass spectrometry. Mass spectra were acquired with a Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance (FT-ICR) mass spectrometer in positive ion mode. Samples were crystallized in matrix (Supplementary Fig. 17), using an ~100:1 ratio of matrix to Ugi product. Samples were ionized using matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization (MALDI). Spectra produced by FT-ICR are particularly high resolution, often reaching peak widths of 0.001 Da or smaller. To ensure the accuracy of peak assignment, a mass calibration is performed before each run using sodium tri- fluoroacetate as a reference49 (Supplementary Fig. 10). We typically acquire spectra for 1.5 s, which results in a resolving power of 1:3 ´ 105 at 600 Da (Supplementary Fig. 15). The instrument serially addresses each crystallized spot (Supplementary Fig. 11), and takes about 4 h to record all 1,536 spots on a plate. Each measurement is made by ionizing a portion of a sample with a laser configured to take 500 shots at 1000 Hz, over a scan area of 500–900 μm, with medium focus, and ×4 averaging. We convert the raw data files from the instrument into a custom HDF5 file, for more efficient querying and ease of access. To normalize signals across measure- ments, we often convert the raw intensity values of a spectrum to signal-to-noise ratios (SNR) according to the following shift-and-scale relation: SNR ¼ I � μð Þ=σ, where I is an intensity and μ and σ are the mean and standard deviation of the spectrum’s background (see Supplement). Library validation. To identify successful reactions, a small volume (20 nL) from each library well was spotted to a unique location on a stainless steel plate (78 mm ´ 120 mm) along with matrix (20 nL of 176.2 mM HCCA in DMSO). The plated samples were allowed to dry overnight (�10 h) into round crystals (�800 μm in diameter), before analysis via mass spectrometry. In the resulting mass spectra, we looked for peaks corresponding to expected Ugi product masses, and used peak height as a coarse measure of reaction yield. Since the Ugi products have similar ionization profiles, we performed a global statistical analysis of the library spectra, using the SNR of their sodiated peaks. A common threshold (τ) was found using receiver operator characteristic (ROC) curve analysis50. To construct the ROC curve, we look for the sodiated product peaks across all reaction wells, apply a given SNR threshold to assess the presence or absense of these peaks, tally detected library peaks to estimate the true positive (TPR) and false positive (FPR) rates, and repeat this process for all candidate thresholds. Since there should be exactly one product per well, if the expected product is detected, it is counted as a true positive (TP), and if not, then it is marked as a false negative (FN). Similarly, if other products are detected in the well, they are counted as false positives (FP) and otherwise as true negatives (TN). The products with masses that overlap with that of the expected product are counted as TPs or FNs. Error rates can be calculated as TPR ¼ TP=ðTP þ FN Þ and FPR ¼ FP=ðFP þ TN Þ, and used to find an optimal SNR threshold, by minimizing the distance to the (0,1)-corner: ð0 � FPRðSNRÞÞ2 þ ð1 � TPRðSNRÞÞ2 � �1=2 . The Ugi products whose SNR exceeds this threshold ( SNR � τ) are declared present. Data plate preparation. First, a digital file is converted into a one-dimensional binary vector. This vector is then encoded, either with a direct or sparse mapping, into an M ´ N compound-presence matrix, where M is the number of compounds to be used, and N is the number of independent mixtures to be made. The value of element pmn in this matrix indicates the presence (“1”) or absence (“0”) of the m th compound in the nth mixture. To physically generate the mixtures, 2.5 nL droplets are transferred from the 1536-well library plate to their appropriate locations on a MALDI plate. Finally, 30 nL of matrix solution (176.2 mM HCCA in DMSO) is added to each data mixture spot. The overall time to write a data plate ranged from 0.3 to 7.9 h, varying with the encoding scheme and file size (Supplementary Figs. 6 and 7). Once all transfers are complete, the data plate is left to dry in a fume hood overnight or a vacuum chamber for about 2 h. The resulting dried mixture spots are typically 1 mm in diameter. Currently, the number of compounds that can be included in each mixture is limited by the layout of samples on a MALDI plate. For a 1536-well grid, spots can contain up to 200 nL of solution before they begin to merge with adjacent samples (Supplementary Fig. 14). For more complex samples, mixing would have to be done in an intermediate well plate. Data plate analysis. During plate preparation, the matrix solution is spiked with a reference Ugi molecule (Supplementary Fig. 5) which is used to calibrate for small offsets in the recorded masses. After offset calibration, raw mass spectra are resampled to a common m/z grid in order to construct a single analysis-ready matrix containing the mass spectra of all spots on a plate. For single peak detection, the sodiated adduct intensities for a product are simply one row in the spectral matrix, and this vector can be thresholded to determine, which mixtures contain the compound. The detection threshold for each compound was found using ROC analysis of labeled training data, as previously described for library validation. Recovering the data file from the presence matrix depends on the encoding method. For direct mapping, the matrix is simply reshaped to obtain the stored data. For sparse mappings, each matrix row was matched to the nearest valid key and converted to the corresponding binary data value. For multi-peak detection, a similar procedure was followed, except that the presence matrix was found by applying a regression model trained to identify each compound based on multiple spectral features. To reduce computational overhead, instead of building the models on the entire mass spectra matrix, masses whose average intensities were close to the noise floor were discarded, reducing the feature space to <1% of its original size, from four million initial points to at most 20,000 candidate masses. For logistic regression, these features were further refined based on AUROC scores. This additional filtering was not needed for random forest regression since it automatically performs feature selection. The Python library Scikit-learn51 was used to construct a regression model for each compound. Logistic regressions were configured to use 64 spectral peaks, while random forest regressions were configured to use 300 trees of unlimited depth and at most 20,000 spectral features. 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The views, opinions, and/or findings expressed are those of the authors and should not be interpreted as representing the official views or policies of the Department of Defense or the U.S. Government. This work was also made possible by support from the Office of the Vice President for Research at Brown Uni- versity, and by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. 1941344. Author contributions C.E.A., E.K. and J.G. performed experiments. C.E.A., E.K., J.G. and J.K.R. analyzed data. C.E.A., A.D., K.O., S.-L.C. and L.S. synthesized the library. J.S., P.M.W., S.R., C.R., M.O., E.K., B.M.R. and J.K.R. provided direction and oversight. C.E.A., E.K. and J.K.R. drafted the paper. All authors provided notes and edits to the paper. Competing interests A pending patent application (PCT/US2019/038301) has been filed by Brown University with the following authors included on it as inventors [C.E.A., S.L.C., A.D., J.G., E.K., E.K., K.O., S.R., C.R., J.S., P.M.W., B.M.R., and J.K.R.] concerning data storage and computation using small molecules including Ugi reaction products. Additional information Supplementary information is available for this paper at https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467- 020-14455-1. Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to J.K.R. Peer review information Nature Communications thanks the anonymous reviewers for their contribution to the peer review of this work. Peer reviewer reports are available Reprints and permission information is available at http://www.nature.com/reprints Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. 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To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/ licenses/by/4.0/. © The Author(s) 2020 ARTICLE NATURE COMMUNICATIONS | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-14455-1 8 NATURE COMMUNICATIONS | (2020) 11:691 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-14455-1 | www.nature.com/naturecommunications https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-14455-1 https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-14455-1 http://www.nature.com/reprints http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ www.nature.com/naturecommunications Multicomponent molecular memory Results Combinatorial library synthesis Writing data as chemical mixtures Reading data from chemical mixtures Improving accuracy with sparse data-mixture maps Discussion Methods Materials and reagents Library preparation Mass spectrometry Library validation Data plate preparation Data plate analysis Data availability Code availability References Acknowledgements Author contributions Competing interests Additional information 
work_mx3ruyzhjbfjdlmnht3u3gdurm	----	_____________________________________________________________________________________ Akademik Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi, Yıl: 6, Sayı: 86, Aralık 2018, s. 312-321 Yayın Geliş Tarihi / Article Arrival Date Yayınlanma Tarihi / The Publication Date 30.11.2018 31.12.2018 Öğr. Gör. Gülser AKTAN Bursa Uludağ Üniversitesi, Güzel Sanatlar Fakültesi, Resim Bölümü aktangulser@gmail.com DADA VE POP SANAT ARASINDAKİ TEKNİK VE FELSEFİ İLİŞKİ Öz Dada ve Pop Sanat arasındaki teknik ve felsefi ilişkiyi araştıran bu çalışmada amaç, Neo- Dada tanımlamasıyla Pop Sanat’ı, Dada ile ilişkilendirmek isteyen görüşlere karşı, Dada’nın Pop Sanat’tan farkını ortaya koymaktır. Bu amaçla Pop Sanat ve Dada sanatçılarının çalışmaları karşılaştırılmıştır. Aynı zamanda sanatçıların kendi çalışmaları hakkında getirdikleri yorumlara yer verilip, sanatlarının temelinde fel- sefi olarak ne gibi farklılıklar olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Kitap, makale, mektup, gale- ri etiketleri gibi kaynaklar araştırılmıştır. Araştırma sonucu, Dada ve Pop Sanat’ın ortaya çıkış tarihleri; ilgili sanatların hangi sosyolojik, politik ve ekonomik ortam- da belirdiği ortaya konduğunda, bu iki sanat arasında büyük farklar belirlenmiştir. Pop Sanat, tüketim kültürünün ticari markalar, pop müzik, Hollywood filmleri gibi kolayca tanınan imajları nesne olarak kullanmıştır. Dada sanat nesnesi ise atık mal- zemelerden oluşmuş, genel kullanıma ait, marka ve reklam çağrışımı yapmaktan uzak nesnelerdir. Pop Sanat sanatçıları tüketim kültürünü onaylamaları ve hayran- lıklarını dile getirmeleri bakımından var olanı pekiştirici durumdadır. Bu bakımdan Dada ve Pop Sanat’ın, Neo-Dada ismi altında, birlikte anılmamaları gerektiği so- nucuna varılmıştır. Anahtar kelimeler: Dada, Pop Art, Neo-Dada, Andy Warhol, Marcel Duchamp. Dada ve Pop Sanat Arasındaki Teknik ve Felsefi İlişki The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl:6, Sayı: 86, Aralık 2018, s. 312-321 313 TECHNICAL AND PHILOSOPHICAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DADA AND POP ART Abstract The aim of this study that research the technical and philosophical relationship between Dada and Pop art. Against the definition of Neo-Dada which want to es- tablish a connection between Pop Art and the Dada is to show that Dada's differen- ce from Pop Art. For this purpose, the works of Pop Art and Dada artists were compared. At the same time, there are comments about the artists' own work and it has been determined what differences are their philosophically. Sources such as books, articles, letters, gallery labels have been searched. The outcome of the rese- arch, Dada and Pop Art's emergence dates. there are big differences between these two arts when determined the sociological, political and economic environment from which it emerges. The fact that Pop Art's attempt to establish an interest in Dada with the definition of Neo-Dada has been tied to the use of ready-made ob- jects. Pop Art has used easily recognizable images as objects from consumer cultu- re, such as trademarks, pop music, Hollywood films. The Dada art object is made up of waste materials, belonging to general use that not interested in branding and advertising. Pop Art artists, because they admire the consumption culture, are af- firmative and reinforcing. In this respect, Dada and Pop Art came to the conclusion that they should not be mentioned together under the name of Neo-Dada. Keywords: Dada, Pop Art, Neo-Dada, Andy Warhol, Marcel Duchamp. Giriş 2. Dünya Savaşı sonrası galip ülkelerde özellikle Amerika Birleşik Devletleri’nde eko- nomik olarak büyük bir rahatlama görülmüştür. Alım gücünün artmasından dolayı televizyon, çamaşır makinası, elektrikli süpürge, otomobil gibi insan hayatını kolaylaştıran ürünlerin üreti- minde artış olmuştur. Üreticiler kendi marka ve mallarını satmak için reklam sektöründen des- tek almış ve televizyon bu amaca hizmet eden en yaygın araç olmuştur.1950’lerin ortalarından itibaren Amerika ve İngiltere’de reklam sektöründe çalışan bazı sanatçılar ve Pop Sanat şemsi- yesi altına girecek diğer sanatçılar, tüketim kültürünün yeni sosyal yapıyı oluşturmaya başladı- ğını fark etmişlerdir. Tüketim kültüründen ilham alan bu sanatçılar, 1940’lardan itibaren Ame- rika’da baskın sanat eğilimi haline gelmiş Soyut Sanat’a karşı olmuşlardır. Pop Sanat’ın, reklam sektöründen olduğu gibi aldığı imajlar ile Dada’nın Hazır Nesne’si arasında benzerlik olduğu ileri sürülerek Pop Sanat, Neo-Dada kapsamında gösterilen sanat akımlarından biri olarak tarif edilmiştir (Antmen, 2009: 175). Ancak Pop Sanat ve Dada eserleri karşılaştırıldığında Pop Sanat eserlerinin Dada ruhuyla yapılan eserlerle hiçbir ilgisi olmadığı sezilmektedir. Bu çalışma Pop Sanat ve Dada arasında kurulması istenen bağın ne kadar doğru olup olmadığını sorgulanması gereğiyle yapılmıştır. 1.DADA Dada, 1916-1923 yılları arasında Avrupa ve Amerika’da etkili olmuş bir sanat hareketi- dir. Dada sanatına dâhil olmuş sanatçılar Dada’nın bir sanat akımı olmasından çok sanat karşıtı hareket olduğunu belirtmişlerdir. Buna sebep ise 1. Dünya Savaşı’dır. Savaşın ve beraberinde Dada ve Pop Sanat Arasındaki Teknik ve Felsefi İlişki The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl:6, Sayı: 86, Aralık 2018, s. 312-321 314 gelen dehşet verici olaylar sebebiyle, dünyayı savaşa sürükleyen dünya halini, protesto etmek istemişlerdir. Cephede hayatını kaybeden insanlar varken, geleneksel sanat da hayatını kaybet- meli, yıkılmalı, parçalanmalıdır. Savaş karşıtı sanatçı, düşünür ve bilim insanlarının bazıları, savaş başladıktan sonra Amerika ve Avrupa’nın tarafsız ülkesi İsviçre’ye gitmiştir. Dolayısıyla Dada hareketinin başladığı ilk yer 1916’da İsviçre olmuştur (Hodge, 2013: 116). I. Dünya Savaşı patlak verdiğinde can derdine düşen savaş karşıtları çil yavrusu gibi sağa sola dağıldı. En yakın yer İsviçre idi….Zürih’te toplananların neredeyse hepsinin ortak dili Almancaydı. Francis Picabia (1879-1953) ve Marcel Duchamp (1887-1968) ise soluğu uzak bir yerde – Amerika’da- aldı- lar. Sanat tarihinde dada olarak anılacak anlayış, Zürih ve New York’ta eşzamanlı (ancak birbirinden habersiz) bir şekilde, böyle bir dönemde doğmak üzereydi (Yılmaz, 2013: 144-145). Alıntıdan da anlaşılacağı gibi içinde bulunulan sosyolojik ve siyasal ortam sanatçıları benzer bir eğilime, farklı coğrafyalarda benzer felsefi düşünüş ve sanatsal biçime itmiştir. Arala- rında dansçı, aktör, müzisyen, yazar, şair ve ressamların bulunduğu bu kişiler tek bir sanatsal üsluba dahil olmamış ve sanat disiplinleri arası sınırları da yıkmışlardır. Dada, Batı medeniyeti- nin ilerlemesinin sonuçları arasında olan 1. Dünya Savaşı yüzünden, Batı medeniyetinin var olan tüm kurallarını yıkmak istemiştir. Bu sebeple dertleri sanat yapmak olmamış aksine yerle- şik sanat kurallarını yıkmış ve hayranlık verici eser üretmekle ilgilenmemiştir. Dada sanatçıları- nın yaptıkları çalışmalar şok edici, yıkıcı ve protesto edici olmuştur. “Ball, o yıllarda aralıksız tuttuğu günlükte, hem sanat eseri imal etme düşüncesine karşı çıkıyor hem de sanatsal tat denen şeyin aşılması ve dilin tahrip edilmesi gerektiğini belirtiyordu ki bu yaklaşım Duchamp’ınkine çok benziyordu” (Yılmaz, 2013: 146). 5 Şubat 1916'da, Zürih’e gelmiş sanatçılar topluluğunun performanslarını sergileyecek- leri ve bir araya gelebilecekleri yer olarak Voltaire Kabera’sı açılır. Kurucular arasında Alman şair ve dramatörü Hugo Ball, ortağı Emmy Hennings (Alman dışavurumcularıyla bağları olan oyuncu, şarkıcı ve şair), Romanya’dan Janco kardeşler (Marcel, Jules ve Georges), Arthur Segal ve Tristan Tzara’dır (Sandqvist, 2006, 3.pargf.). Sadece beş ay süren kaberada, klasik müzik, popüler şarkılar, soyut dans için Rus balalaika ezgileri, konferanslar, manifestolar ve şiir oku- maları sunulmuştur (Shipe, 2017: 3). 1919’da Zürih Dada sanatçıları arasında görüş ayrılıkları oluşmuştur. Bir tarafta Arp ve Jango diğer tarafta Tzara vardır. Arp ve Jango’yu takip edenler politik mücadeleye devam et- meyi, Tzara’yı takip edenler ise politikadan uzak kalmayı tercih etmiştir (Yılmaz, 2013: 148). Savaştan kaçan veya sürgün edilen Avrupalı sanatçıların diğer bir sığınağı New York’tur. New York’ta, Zürih’tekine benzer bir sanatsal hareket, Amerikalı fotoğraf sanatçısı Alfred Stieglitz’in 291 isimli galerisinde şekillenmiştir. Avangard sanatın savunucularından olan Stieglitz ve Walter ve Louise Arsenberg, Avrupa’dan gelen sanatçılarla iletişim içinde olmuştur. Stieglitz ve Arsenberg çevresindeki sanatçılar, New York Dada sanat hareketini baş- latmışlardır. Bu sanatçılar arasında en tanınanları Fransız Marcel Duchamp ve Francis Pica- bia’dır (Hopkins, 2006: 27-29). Dada Almanya’da, Berlin, Hannover ve Köln şehirlerinde, Amerika ve İsviçre’dekinden daha politik bir şekilde gelişmiştir. Dada 1918’de Berlin’de, Zürih’ten gelen Richard Huelsen- beck öncülüğünde belirmiştir. Almanya’nın 1. Dünya Savaşı’nda yenilmesi, Fransa ve Belçi- ka’ya savaş tazminatı ödeme durumu yüzünden ekonomik olarak çökmüş olması, yönetimdeki partinin muhalefete karşı sert yöntemler uygulaması gibi sebeplerden, Berlin Dada’sı daha poli- tik olmuştur. Sanatçıları arasında Walter Mehring, Wieland ve Helmut (John) Heartfield, Geor- Dada ve Pop Sanat Arasındaki Teknik ve Felsefi İlişki The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl:6, Sayı: 86, Aralık 2018, s. 312-321 315 ge Grosz, Raoul Hausmann, Hannah Höch, Johannes Baader, Kurt Schwitters, Max Ernst ve Alfred Grunewald gibi sanatçılar vardır (Hopkins, 2006: 30-33). Dada, Fransa’da 1919 da Francis Picabia’nın ülkesine dönmesiyle başlar. Paris’i ziyare- te gelen Duchamp ve Picabia’nın sanata yaklaşımlarını takdir eden şair Andre Breton ve çevresi, Dada’ya yönelmiştir. 1920 sonrası Breton, Dada hareketinden uzaklaşıp kendisinin öncülüğünü yapacağı başka bir sanat anlayışına (sürrealizm) yönelir (Hopkins, 2006: 34-35). 1.1.Dada sanatçılarının görsel sanat alanında kullandığı teknikler Dada sanatçılarını bir araya getiren şey, Empresyonizim, Kübizim akımlarında olduğu gibi üslup birliğinden ziyade, benzer dünya görüşleridir. Bu görüş, rasyonel aklın, insanlığı çö- küşe götürdüğü üzerinedir. Dada sanatçıları, bilimsel dünya görüşü temelindeki modernizmin sanat dahil tüm yapılarına karşı yıkıcı, alaycı ve eleştirel yaklaşmıştır. Dada sanatçıları bu ba- kımdan sanatsal tavırlarını ortaya koyarken bir değil ama birçok sanat tekniğini kullanmaktan çekinmemişlerdir. Ortak düşünen ama farklı tekniklerle çalışan sanatçıların, kullandığı teknikle- rin başlıcaları kolaj, fotomontaj, hazır nesneler, asamblaj ve performanslardır. 1.1.1.Kolaj Kolaj, Kübizm’in öncü sanatçılarından, Georges Braque ve Pablo Picasso tarafından ge- liştirilmiş bir tekniktir. Kolaj, kâğıt, kumaş, fotoğraf, gazete gibi iki boyutlu, gündelik yaşamın sıradan nesnelerinin, yüzey üzerindeki kompozisyonuna dâhil edilmesiyle yapılmaktadır. Görsel 1: George Grosz ve John Heartfield, Dada-merica, 1919, fotoğraflar, tipografi, saç, kibrit, 26 x19 cm. Görsel 1 de Dada sanatçılarından George Grosz ve John Heartfield’ın birlikte yaptıkları bir çalışma görülmektedir. Grosz ve Heartfield’in, ortaklaşa gerçekleştirdikleri kolajlarla, Scho- penhauer gibi filozofların sanatçıyı “deha” olarak tanımladığı felsefi düşüncelere karşı çıktıkları söylenebilir. “İradenin kendisini en üst seviyede bir deha ya da deha sanatçı aracılığıyla gösteri- yor olması bir dehanın ya da bir sanatçının ya da bir deha sanatçının iradeyi yani varlığın ger- çekliğini sanat aracılığıyla ortaya koyması demektir” (Coşar, 2009: 34). Alıntıdan da anlaşıla- Dada ve Pop Sanat Arasındaki Teknik ve Felsefi İlişki The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl:6, Sayı: 86, Aralık 2018, s. 312-321 316 cağı üzere Alman filozof Schopenhauer sanatçıya özel bir statü kazandırmıştır. İki sanatçının birlikte yaptığı kolajlar, biricik eseri, biricik deha sanatçının yapabileceği görüşünü yıkmaktadır. 1.1.2.Fotomontaj Fotoğraflarla oluşturulmuş kolaj, fotomontaj olarak tanımlanır. Fotomontaj tekniği ilk olarak 1915 te Dadaistler tarafından 1. Dünya Savaşı’nı protesto etmek için kullanılmıştır. Daha sonra Sürrealistler ve 1923'te Rus konstrüktivist Aleksander Rodchenko tarafından kullanılmış- tır. (TATE). Dada sanatçıları, kelimelerin ve görsellerin masum insanları savaş gibi korkunç gişirim- lere nasıl gönüllü yapabildiğini fark etmişlerdir. Gerçekler, fotoğrafla yapılan propagandalarla topluma farklı yansıtılmıştır. Bu duruma Alman Dada sanatçıları fotomontajla cevap vermişler- dir. Raoul Haussmann ve Hannah Höch fotomontaj tekniğinde öne çıkmıştır. Haussmann insa- nın makineleşmesine gönderme yapan çalışmalar yapmıştır (Willette, 2011: 9. prgf). Höch ise Almanya’nın içinde bulunduğu siyasal, politik durumu vurgulayan ve eleştiren çalışmalar yap- mıştır (Höch, 1996: 60). 1.1.3. Hazır nesne Duchamp, New York’ta sergilediği, günlük yaşam içinde kullanılan, sanatsal olmayan endüstriyel malzemelere hazır-nesneler (readymades) tanımını yapmıştır (Hodge, 2013: 118). Farklı şekillerde, kaide üzerine yerleştirilmesiyle, gerçek kullanım alanından koparılıp sanat alanına sokulan bu nesneler, Dada’nın şok etme, absürt, ironi, mizah gibi amaçları için etkili bir sanatsal malzemeye dönüşmüşlerdir. 1.1.4.Asamblaj (birleşirme tekniği) Üç boyutlu kolaj olan asamblaj tekniğini Picasso, 1912 den itibaren kübist konstrüksi- yonları için uygulamaya başlamıştır. Dada sanatçılarından Kurt Schwitters, 1918'de hurdaya çıkmış ya da atılmış malzemeleri kullanarak "merz" olarak adlandırdığı asamblaj çalışmaları yapmaya başlamıştır (TATE). 1.1.5. Performans Performans sanatı tiyatro, müzik ve görsel sanatların birleşiminden oluşur. Fütürist sa- natçıların, Dada sanatçılarından daha önce kullandığı bir sanatsal dildir. Dada sanatçıları savaş eleştirisini yaparken halkın dikkatini, propaganda, hareketli görüntüler ve dinamizm içindeki gösterileriyle çekmeye çalışmışlardır (Hodge, 2013, 119). Fütürist performansla Dada Perfor- mans arasında düşünsel farklar vardır. Fütürzimin aksine Dada, anti militarist, teknoloji karşıtı ve ilkel olana eğilim içinde olmuştur. 2. NEO-DADA Neo-Dada, 1950'li yılların sonlarında ve 1960’lı yıllarda çoğunluğu New York'ta olan, deneysel çalışmalar yapan bir grup sanatçı işleri için söylenmiştir. Neo- Dada sınıflamasına Yeni Gerçekçiler, Sitüasyonistler, ve Pop sanatçıları gibi gruplar dahil edilmiş ve sadece bir gruba özgü sınıflama olarak görülmemiştir. O sıralarda geçerli sanatsal eğilimi, biçimde ve renkte saflık, sadelik üzerinedir (Postpainterly Abstraction). Ama Neo-Dada sanatçıları geçerli sanat eğiliminin aksine çeşitli malzemlerden oluşan, anlaşılır ve medya ile ilgisi büyük eserler üretmişlerdir. Bu eserler, soyut sanatın ağır felsefesine karşı, hemen tanınabilen imajlar ve ince zekâ gerektiren mizah içermektedir. Robert Rauschenberg, Jasper Johns, Larry Riven, John Dada ve Pop Sanat Arasındaki Teknik ve Felsefi İlişki The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl:6, Sayı: 86, Aralık 2018, s. 312-321 317 Chamberlain, Richard Stankiewicz, Lee Bontecou, Jim Dine ve Claes Oldenburg gibi sanatçıla- ra göre sanat, geniş, kapsayıcı, sıradan gerçekliğin ve popüler kültürün sanatsal olmayan mal- zemeleriyle oluşturulmalıdır. Neo-dada sınıflamasına giren sanatçılar Pablo Picasso'nun ve Kurt Schwitters'ın kolajlarından, Duchamp'ın hazır nesnelerinden, sürrealistlerin gündelik nesneleri değişime uğratmalarından vb. etkilenmişlerdir (Dempsey, 2005: 201-202). Görsel 2: Robert Rauschenberg Kanyon,1959, Combine (birleşik resim), 207.6 x 177.8 x 61 cm Görsel 2’de Kanyon isimli eser, Rauschenberg’in “Combine” lerinden biridir. Combine, Rauschenberg'in resim, kolaj, asamblaj özelliklerini birleştirerek 1954–64 yılları arasında yaptı- ğı eserleri tanımlamak için kullandığı bir terimdir. Kanyon isimli çalışmada, yağlı boya, kalem, kağıt, metal, fotoğraf, kumaş, ahşap, tuval, düğmeler, ayna, doldurulmuş kartal, karton, yastık ve boya tüpü kullanılmıştır. Kanyon, resim ve buluntu nesnelerin bir arada kullanımından oluş- muş bir çalışmadır. Rauschenberg, buluntu malzemeleri, New York sokaklarında gezerken gö- züne çarpan atılmış malzemeleri toplayarak, sanatsal çalışmaları için kullanmıştır. Canyon isim- li çalışmanın merkezinde bulunan doldurulmuş kartal da sanatçının bir arkadaşı tarafından, bir binanın koridoruna atılmış eşya birikintisi arasından bulunmuş ve Rauschenberg’e verilmiştir (Sonnabend, MoMA galeri etiketi). Neo-Dada için tipik olan bu çalışma, günlük yaşamın atık malzemeleri ve hazır nesne kullanımı ile oluşturulan asamlaja, soyut dışavurumcu tarzda fırça vuruşları eklenmesiyle tamamlanmıştır. Dada sanatçılarının (örn. Kurt Schwitters) uyguladığı kolaj ve asamlaj tekniği, Duc- hamp’ın sanat alanına soktuğu hazır nesne ile soyut dışavurumcu Pollock tarzı boyama ile Da- da, soyut sanatın geçerli sanat kabul edildiği zamana uyarlanmasıyla Neo-Dada olarak gündeme gelmiştir. 1950'lerin sonları ve 1960'larda, Rauschenberg, Jasper Johns ve Larry Rivers gibi diğer sanatçılar, geleneksel sanata karşı çıkmaları ve Dada sanatının tekniklerini kullanmaları bakımından “Neo-Dada” olarak tanımlanmışlardır. 3.POP SANAT Pop Sanat (Pop Art) terimi “Popüler Sanat”ın kısaltılmış halidir. Pop Sanat, İngiltere ve Amerika Birleşik Devletleri’nde eş zamanlı olarak ortaya çıkmıştır. 2. Dünya Savaşı sonrasına hakim olmuş Soyut Sanat, nesneyi, resim yüzeyinden kaldırmışken Pop Sanat’la birlikte nesne tekrar resme dahil edilmiştir. Bu sanatçıların en tanınmışları Andy Warhol, Roy Lichtenstein, Dada ve Pop Sanat Arasındaki Teknik ve Felsefi İlişki The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl:6, Sayı: 86, Aralık 2018, s. 312-321 318 Claes Oldenburg ve Tom Wesselmann’dır. Pop Sanat sanatçılarının popüler kültür nesnelerini, sanat malzemesi olarak resme dahil etmeleri soyut sanata karşı tavır olarak yorumlanmıştır. Seçtikleri bu nesneler reklamlar, dergiler, reklam panoları, çizgi roman, pop müzik, marketlerde satılan yiyecek-içecek, televizyon ve film yıldızlarının imajlarıdır. Krausse’a göre resimli medya ile yarışmak için sanatçılar, popüler kültürün imajlarını kullanmışlardır. “Ressamlar popüler kültürün imajlarını resimlerine katarak bu rekabette yer almak istediler. Ortaya çıkan yeni eserler artık sanatçıların düşünsel ürünleri olmaktan çok ‘resme bakarak yapılmış resimlerdi…Bu resimlerde betimlenen şeyleri herkes çok iyi tanıyor- du” (2005:114). Pop Sanat sanatçılarının tüketim kültürünü olumlayıcı yaklaşımları vardır. Bu yaklaşım onların çalışma alanlarından da gelmektedir. Örneğin Andy Warhol bir grafiker (Bolton, 2002:10), James Resenquist ise reklam panosu sanatçısıdır. Pop Sanat çalışmaları, medya imaj- larını sanatçısının seçkisiyle ele alındıktan sonra galerilerde sergilenip yüksek fiyata da satışları yapılmış, alıcı da bulmuştur (Farthing, 2014: 486). Bu nokta; tüketim kültürünü onaylama ve tüketim kültürüne katılma; Dada sanatıyla Pop Sanat’ı zıt kutuplara itmeye yeter görünmektedir. Pop Sanat sanatçılarının soyut sanata karşı olma durumu, felsefik bir zemin taşımaktan çok ekonomik görünmektedir. Bu düşünceyi destekleyen birkaç örnek vermek gerekirse; Peter Blake ve eşi Jann Hawoeth (doğum 1942), The Beatles’ın 1967’de çıkardığı Sgt. Pepper’s Lo- nel Hearts Club Band albümün kapağı için renkli bir kolaj tasarladırlar. Hamilton, The Beatles’ın 1968’de yayımladığı Whitw Album’ün kapağı için çarpıcı bir tasarım fikri verdi; Warhol ise The Rol- ling Stones’un 1971 tarihli Sticky Fingers albümünün plak kabını tasarladı (Farthing, 2014: 486). Andy Warhol örneği üzerinden gidilirse, sanatsal geçmişi, sanatta geldiği nokta hakkında fikir verebilir. Warhol, Glamour and Vogue gibi magazin dergileri için reklam, mağazalar için vitrinler, RCA gibi plak şirketleri için illüstrasyonlar ve çeşitli ticari reklam kampanyaları yap- mıştır. 1956'da, I. Miller Shoes’a yaptığı reklam için Yıllık Sanat Yönetmenleri Kulübü Ödü- lü'nü kazanmış ve çalışmasını sergilemesi için davet edilmiştir. Bu durum Warhol’u sanat için yüreklendirerek 1950’lerin sonlarına doğru sadece ticari bir sanatçı değil aynı zamanda ciddi bir sanatçı olmak istediğini fark etmesini sağlamıştır (Bolton, 2002: 10). Görsel 3 ve 4 bakıldığında yapmış olduğu Campbell'ın Çorba Kutuları ve Yeşil Coca-Cola Şişeleri isimli çalışma ticari alandan pekte uzaklaşmışa benzememektedir. Warhol, sanatı için kendi dünyasının gündelik nesnesini, yine reklam dünyasının nesneleri kullanmıştır. Görsel 3: Andy Warhol, Campbell'ın Çorba Kutuları, 1962, Otuz iki tuval üzerine sentetik polimer boya, Her bir tuval 50,8 x 40,6 cm. Dada ve Pop Sanat Arasındaki Teknik ve Felsefi İlişki The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl:6, Sayı: 86, Aralık 2018, s. 312-321 319 Görsel 4: Andy Warhol 1962, Tuval üzerine yağlıboya, 209,6 cm × 144,8 cm, Whitney Amerikan Sanatı Müze- si, New York City. Warhol gibi sanatçıların işlerinin ciddiye alınmasını desteklemek amacıyla küratör ve sa- nat eleştirmeni olan Lawrence Alloway şöyle demiştir; “Biz bir çok entelektüelin karşı çıktığı ticari kültür standardını bir gerçeklik olarak kabul ettik ve onu ayrıntılarıyla tartışarak hevesle tükettik” (Farthing, 2014: 485). Allow’un söyleminden yorumla Pop Sanatçılarının, Dada sanat- çıları gibi içinde bulundukları ortama, ekonomik, politik, toplumsal ve felsefik herhangi bir karşı koyuşta bulunmak yerine içinde bulunduğu dinamiklerle uyum içinde oldukları çıkar. Warhol kendi sözleriyle bu tespiti onaylar “Resimlerimi neden böyle yapıyorum? Çünkü bir tür makine olmak istiyorum. Ne yaparsam yapayım, makineleşmiş bir halde yapıyorum ve yapmak istediğim de zaten bu. ( ... ) Sıkıcı şeyler hoşuma gidiyor” (Antmen, 2009: 166). Pop Sanat sanatçılarının, içinde bulundukları ortamla barışıklığının farkında olan Duc- hamp, Pop Sanat’ın Neo-Dadacı olarak anılmasına tepki göstermiştir. Duchamp, Dada akımının tarihini kaleme alan Dadacı sanatçı arkadaşı Hans Richter'e (1888- 1976) yazdığı bir mektupta; Bugün Yeni Gerçekçilik, Pop Sanat, Asamblaj gibi terimlerle anılan Neo-Dada'nın kökeni Dada'dır düpedüz; bugünün sanatçılarına da kolay bir çıkış yolu oluşturmaktadır. Ben hazır-nesneyi keşfetti- ğimde estetik olgusunu yerle bir etmeyi amaçlamıştım. Neo-Dadacılar ise benim hazır-nesnelerimde estetik güzellik buluyorlar! Şişeliği ve pisuarı meydan okumak için suratlarına fırlatmıştım, ama bak onlar bunları estetik açıdan övüyorlar! (Antmen, 2009: 161). demiştir. Duchamp Pop Sanat’ın sadece hazır nesne kullanımı açısından dada ile ilgisini onaylar- ken, felsefi açıdan Dada ile Pop Sanat arasındaki farklardan dolayı Neo-Dada başlığı altında dahi olsa Pop Sanat’a karşı rahatsızlığını dile getirmiştir. 3.1. Pop Sanat’ın Kullandığı Sanatsal Teknikler Pop Sanat, tek bir sanatsal üsluba bağlı kalmamıştır. Pop Sanat sanatçıları popüler kül- tür imajlarını kullanmalarıyla aynı başlık altına alınmıştır. Kullandıkları teknikler sanatçının tercihine göre çeşitlilik göstermektedir. “ tek bir süreç, yöntem ya da ortak bir tarza bağlı kal- mamış olan Pop Sanat, genellikle güzel sanatlara yabancı olan malzemeler kullanılarak ortaya çıkarılan teksir, baskı, resim, fotoğraf, kolaj ve üç boyutlu yapıtlar gibi uygulamalar içeriyordu” Dada ve Pop Sanat Arasındaki Teknik ve Felsefi İlişki The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl:6, Sayı: 86, Aralık 2018, s. 312-321 320 (Hodge, 2013: 171). Pop Sanat teknikleri arasında Dada’nın tekniklerinden yeni olanı çoğalma amaçlı kullanılan baskıdır. 3.1.1. Serigrafi Serigrafi tekniğinde amaç bir çalışmanın birden fazla üretimini sağlamaktır. Baskı, bas- kısı yapılacak yüzeye, hazırlanmış kalıbın delik kısımlarından, mürekkebin ya da boyanın, ak- ması sağlanarak yapılır. Bu tekniğin avantajı çeşitli yüzeylere kolayca uygulanıp baskı alına- bilmesindedir. Serigrafi baskı, Elek Baskı, İpek Baskı, Şablon baskı olarak da adlandırılır. Pop Sanat sanatçıla- rı arasında özellikle Andy Warhol İpek baskı tekniğini kullanmıştır. SONUÇ Dada, rasyonel dünya görüşü sonucu gelişen sanayi toplumunun ekonomik, politik ve sosyal ortamına karşıdır. Pop Sanat ise içinden çıktığı tüketim kültürüyle barışık ve bu kültüre hayrandır. Dada, Modern dönemin, insanları makineleştirdiği, savaşın sorumlusu olduğunu ileri sürerek değerlerini eleştirip, yıkmak istemiştir. Pop Sanat ise makineleşme, seri üretim ve rek- lamlarla özdeşleşmek istemiştir. Öyle ki popüler kültür imajlarını olduğu gibi yeniden üretmiş- tir. Dada’nın kolaj, hazır nesne ya da performans gibi tekniklerle ortaya koydukları; İroni, alay, absürt ve eleştiri taşırken, Pop Sanat’ın kolaj, hazır nesne ve serigrafi gibi tekniklerle orta- ya koydukları neyi gösteriyorsa odurlar. Sonuç olarak Dada ve Pop Sanat hem felsefi hem de teknik malzeme temsili bakımın- dan farklıdır. Pop Sanat’ı hazır nesne kullanımı yüzünden Dada ile ilişkilendirmek sırf tuval ve yağlıboya kullandıkları için Rönesans resmini ve Empresyonizm’i ilişkilendirmek gibi olur. KAYNAKLAR Antmen, A. (2009). 20. Yüzyıl Batı Sanatında Akımlar (2. Bs.). İstanbul: Sel Yayıncılık. ISBN 978-975-570-984-8 Bolton, L. (2002). Artists in Their Time Andy Warhol. London: Franklin Watts Library Edition. ISBN 0-531-12225-5 Coşar, M. (2009). Schopenhauer’da “Sanat”ın Anlamı Üzerine. Journal of World of Turks. 1(2). 31-41 http://www.dieweltdertuerken.org/index.php/ZfWT/article/view/50/mcosar Eri- şim:24.07.218 Dempsey, A. (2005). Styles, Schools and Movements: Encyclopaedic Guide to ModernArt. London, United Kingdom: Thames & Hudson Ltd. ISBN10 0500283761 ISBN13 9780500283769 http://faculty.winthrop.edu/stockk/contemporary%20art/styles%20neo%20dada001.pdf Erişim:19.07.2018 Farthing, S. (2014). Sanatın Tüm Öyküsü (G. Aldoğan ve F. C. Çulcu, Çev.) (2. Bs.). İstanbul: Hayalperest Yayınevi. ISBN 978-65-63346-2-7 Höch, H. (1996). The Photomontages of Hannah Höch. Minneapolis: Walker Art Center. ISBN 0935640525 http://www.dieweltdertuerken.org/index.php/ZfWT/article/view/50/mcosar http://faculty.winthrop.edu/stockk/contemporary%20art/styles%20neo%20dada001.pdf Dada ve Pop Sanat Arasındaki Teknik ve Felsefi İlişki The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl:6, Sayı: 86, Aralık 2018, s. 312-321 321 https://www.moma.org/documents/moma_catalogue_241_300063171.pdf Erişim: 27.07.2018 Hodge, S. (2013). Gerçekten bilmeniz gereken 50 sanat fikri (E. Gözgü, Çev.). İstanbul: Do- mingo. ISBN: 978-605-4729-16-6 Hopkins, D. (2006). Dada ve gerçeküstücülük (S. K. Angı, Çev.). Ankara: Dost Kitabevi. ISBN: 975-298-263-8 Krausse, A. C. (2005). Rönesans’tan Günümüze Resim Sanatının Öyküsü (D. Zaptcıoğlu Çev.). Almanya: Literatür. ISBN: 3-8331-1657-9 Sandqvist, T. (2006). Dada East: The Romanians of Cabaret Voltaire. ISBN: 9780262195072. https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/dada-east Erişim:22.07.2018 Sonnabend, İ. Robert Rauschenberg Canyon,1959 (Galeri etiketi) https://www.moma.org/collection/works/165011 Erişim:20.07.2018 Yılmaz, M. (2013). Modernden Postmoderne Sanat (2.bs.). Ankara: Ütopya Yayınevi. Shipe, T. (Küratör) (17 Ocak - 28 Nisan, 2017). Documenting dada // disseminating dada isimli UI Kütüphaneleri Uluslararası DADA Arşivi'nden öğeler içeren Dünyanın en kapsamlı Dada hareketi ile ilgili malzeme koleksiyonu sergisi kataloğu. ABD, Iowa: University of Iowa Libraries. https://www.lib.uiowa.edu/gallery/files/2017/01/Dada-Guide- Booklet_HWB_v5.pdf Erişim: 22.07.2018 Willette, J. (2011). Dada and Photomontage. https://arthistoryunstuffed.com/dada-and-the- photomontage/ Erişim: 24.07.2018 https://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/p/photomontage Erişim:24.07.218 https://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/a/assemblage Erişim:24.07.218 GÖRSEL KAYNAKLAR Görsel 1:http://archives-dada.tumblr.com/post/45024295555/george-grosz-john-heartfielddada- merica-1919 Erişim:08.04.2018 Görsel 2 : https://www.rauschenbergfoundation.org/art/series/combine Erişim:20.07.2018 Görsel 3: https://www.moma.org/learn/moma_learning/andy-warhol-campbells-soup-cans-1962 Erişim: 25.07.2018 Gör- sel4:http://www.wikizero.co/index.php?q=aHR0cHM6Ly9lbi53aWtpcGVkaWEub3JnL 3dpa2kvR3JlZW5fQ29jYS1Db2xhX0JvdHRsZXM Erişim: 25.07.2018 https://www.moma.org/documents/moma_catalogue_241_300063171.pdf https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/dada-east https://www.moma.org/collection/works/165011 https://arthistoryunstuffed.com/author/jeanne/ https://arthistoryunstuffed.com/dada-and-the-photomontage/ https://arthistoryunstuffed.com/dada-and-the-photomontage/ https://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/p/photomontage https://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/a/assemblage https://www.rauschenbergfoundation.org/art/series/combine https://www.moma.org/learn/moma_learning/andy-warhol-campbells-soup-cans-1962 http://www.wikizero.co/index.php?q=aHR0cHM6Ly9lbi53aWtpcGVkaWEub3JnL3dpa2kvR3JlZW5fQ29jYS1Db2xhX0JvdHRsZXM http://www.wikizero.co/index.php?q=aHR0cHM6Ly9lbi53aWtpcGVkaWEub3JnL3dpa2kvR3JlZW5fQ29jYS1Db2xhX0JvdHRsZXM 
work_mydjujgllng67g2brahacanary	----	Menu Cart Book Review: Modigliani January 07, 2018 Art historian Jean Marie Carey reviews the Tate's Modigliani catalogue and is impressed by the range of rich colour reproductions and the thought-provoking essays within the volume. Edited by Nancy Ireson and Simonetta Fraquelli with essays by Cathy Corbett, Sophie Krebs, Vincent Gille, and Kenneth Wayne (Tate Modern Publishing: London, 2017). This catalogue accompanies the eponymous exhibition held at the Tate Modern London, 23 November 2017-2 April 2018. 224 pages with 150 colour reproductions. Log in or Create account � Cart Search EUR EUR EUR � EUR EUR EUR� Home About us Shop by category � Shop by museum � Our gift guide � Features Book reviews https://www.museumbookstore.com/cart https://www.museumbookstore.com/ https://www.museumbookstore.com/account/login https://www.museumbookstore.com/account/register https://www.museumbookstore.com/cart https://www.museumbookstore.com/cart https://www.museumbookstore.com/ https://www.museumbookstore.com/pages/about-us https://www.museumbookstore.com/collections/all https://www.museumbookstore.com/collections/all https://www.museumbookstore.com/collections/all https://www.museumbookstore.com/blogs/blog https://www.museumbookstore.com/blogs/book-review “Could Modigliani have been the same without Paris?” asks Sophie Krebs in the chapter “Modigliani and Paris,” one of the opening essays in the catalogue accompanying the retrospective at the Tate Modern [19]. Krebs and her colleagues lay out the case why the answer is a resounding non in this wonderful volume. In addition to presenting a mind-opening trove of works far less well- known but surpassingly more fascinating than Modigliani’s nudes, the catalog contains carefully crafted theoretical and expository essays that offer completely new approaches, and appreciations, to this uncategorizable artist who is nonetheless a consummate modernist master. By creating work that appeared both out of time and unmistakably of his era, Amedeo Modigliani (1884-1920) deserves a commanding re-evaluation, and gets it in this catalogue. In addition to rich colour reproductions this book is replete with many historical photographs, primary source quotes from letters and documents, a comprehensive chronology, and thorough index. Bafflingly, one critic for a prominent British publication called Modigliani a “gorgeous show about a slightly silly artist,” concentrating upon “the opulently rounded breasts, narrow waist and https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2017/nov/21/modigliani-review-%20tate-modern-%20a-gorgeous-show-about-%20a-slightly-%20silly-artist curvaceous hips” of the painter’s ubiquitous studies of women. In fact the Tate’s careful curation, supported by this thoughtful catalogue, demonstrates precisely the opposite. Modigliani, like Henri Rousseau, is defiantly serious and original, and his body of work consists of much more than the luscious bodies which obscure his oeuvre, though these works are also important. The catalogue is arranged thematically, with an introduction (“Modigliani and Modernity”) by Anna King and the curators Nancy Ireson and Simonetta Fraquelli followed by Krebs’ scene-setting opening. Subsequent chapters investigate Modigliani’s social and professional circles and the overlapping factions of Parisian painters and their patrons (“Modigliani and the Salon D’Automne,” “Modigliani’s Inner Circle,” and “Modigliani’s Modern Women”). Certainly the act of figurative imagery in the first decades of the in the 20th Century was in a state of upheaval, and Modigliani was well aware of this through observation and direct contact with painters, poets, and critics, including Guillaume Apollinaire, Pablo Picasso, and Robert Delaunay. More surprising is Modigliani’s deep engagement with Henri Bergson’s theories regarding the cinema as a model for understanding motion as a sequence of snapshots in time, which Emma Lewis describes in the fascinating chapter “Modigliani & the Age of Cinema:” “One of the very few insights he left on his work is distinctly Bergsonian conceit: ‘What I am seeing is not the real and not the unreal but rather the unconscious, the mystery of the instinctive in the human race.’” [80] Modigliani also had a close and complicated relationship with his art dealer Léopold Zborowski, who both supported and guided the artist’s career, even looking after him during Modigliani’s bouts with chronic tuberculosis. At the same time Zborowski’s indulgent attitude did little to curb Modigliani’s problems with alcohol and drug abuse. One of the great revelations of the exhibition and the catalogue is Modigliani’s prowess as a sculptor. [66-74] Cathy Corbett’s careful research shows that the artist had in fact intended initially to sculpt rather than paint, and that only the cost of materials pushed Modigliani toward the canvas. [47-51] Viewed with this information, Modigliani’s reinvigoration of sculptural busts appears a radical and even a subversive gesture, reigniting a medium that seemed to be a lost cause in the contemporary Parisian art world in the years immediately before and following World War I. By placing his simplified, elongated heads in galleries filled with traditional forms, Modigliani not only highlighted links between antiquity and the contemporary world, he also destabilized the monolithic reverence for classical sculpture which was just loosening its hold on European galleries and museums. The catalogue’s overarching theme, as made clear throughout and particularly in Fraquelli’s “Modigliani & the Impact of the Midi,” is the artist’s perception of himself as an immigrant and an intentional outsider, first as an Italian Jew in France, and second as a dweller in the peripheries of the major artistic currents of the time. Modigliani lived in then-unfashionable Montparnasse during his years in Paris and later left the city altogether for the Côte d’Azur. Modigliani’s unlikely identification or, possibly, dis-identification with his art historical peers certainly can be understood now as an error of anachronism: Modigliani, while publicly admired, has been virtually rejected stylistically by critics and scholars – until now. Looking at Modigliani’s work today, and connecting it with centuries of art (as well as the contemporary state of figurative painting) allows us to question the value of progress as it relates not only to art historical & 'isms' but also how such work can be considered advanced while eschewing references to cultural and political occurrences. Reviewed by Jean Marie Carey, PhD https://www.museumbookstore.com/blogs/book-review/www.germanmodernism.org 
work_n5xdku3i3zhkdlw23cm5n7nu4y	----	Live Theater and the Limits of Human Freedom Craig Wright Published online: 13 September 2011 � The Author(s) 2011. This article is published with open access at Springerlink.com Abstract This paper argues that there is a relationship between the structure of live theater and the question of whether human beings have free will, and that the practice of live theater and the pursuit of philosophical certitude regarding free will are both constructive human experi- ences coalesced around roughly the same set of sensations. Keywords Freedom � Constraint � Painting � Thought experiment My earliest experience having to do with the pleasure of seeing live theater came to me second-hand. When I was seven, my father and stepmother had gone to a revival of ‘‘Camelot’’ at the Kennedy Center and my father had come home positively glowing. Glowing about what? It wasn’t the beautiful tunes or extravagant sets that had launched him into his wise-yet- boyish ‘‘Gosh, ya really gotta hand it to ‘em’’ fervor. It was the fact that Richard Harris, the grizzled, grinning star of the show, had forgotten his lines; and, once the train had jumped the tracks, Mr. Harris drove it into the woods. He sat down on the edge of the stage with the actor playing Lancelot and improvised a dialogue about the struggles of keeping a kingdom running: a dialogue which was also a thinly-veiled code for the difficulties of remembering one’s lines after having reached a certain age and after having drunk a certain amount, over the decades, of alcohol. This interlude lasted several minutes: and during those precious minutes, my father, as he put it, ‘‘enjoyed the living shit’’ out of ‘‘Camelot.’’ What he actually enjoyed was being present in the same room, in real time, in a genuine real-life predicament, with the movie star Richard Harris. Over and over again, the actor playing Lancelot attempted, with comically public effort, to remind Harris of the missing line: but Harris didn’t want help. He didn’t want to go back to the play. He was enjoying taking a break from the unremitting constraint of performing that beloved war horse. Once Harris finally wrung all the humor he could out of his performative faux-pas, he rose to his feet and, with his trademark Irish gameness, leapt back into the story. When he did so, repeating with self-conscious derring-do the last line he’d uttered before the comically cathartic catastrophe, the audience leapt to its feet and applauded and cheered for a long time. For what were they cheering? What had happened? Why was my father so happy? The play had broken open. The real people behind the fiction had been revealed: more importantly, they’d freely elected to reveal themselves. And those real people, led by Richard Harris, then led the audience, after a long soak in the silly ocean of relatively absolute freedom, back into the comforting constraints of an essentially tragic tale. Usually when one attends a performance of ‘‘Camelot,’’ it isn’t until the sweetly melancholic passing-away-of- glory the musical demonstrates has ended that the audience gets the eschatological pleasure, during the curtain call, of being reminded that there is a world where it doesn’t necessarily have to end that way: it’s the real world they’re about to walk out into. But my father and his fellow the- ater-goers got that jolt of hopeful acknowledgment in the middle of the play, and then watched the now more-obvi- ously fictional disassembly of Paradise ensue. For the second half of the performance, from the moment Richard Harris restarted, with modest yet swashbuckling charm, the C. Wright (&) 9100 Wilshire Blvd. #1000 W, Beverly Hills, CA 90212, USA e-mail: craig@craigplaywright.com 123 Topoi (2011) 30:145–149 DOI 10.1007/s11245-011-9102-y play, and on through the end, the audience enjoyed what we might call ‘‘the best of both worlds.’’ They watched it all ‘‘go wrong’’ in Camelot, but they watched it ‘‘go wrong’’ knowing all the time, far more deeply than the average audience, that nothing could really ‘‘go wrong’’—because, obviously, everything in Camelot was unreal. The actors playing Arthur and Lancelot, no matter how much they might fight onstage, were obviously good friends. The friendship they shared, demonstrated by Lancelot’s willingness to join Harris in the unmasking and then by his offers of comradely assistance, assured the audience that they would never be led by this smiling crew into a sorrow from which they couldn’t recover. Of course, the sense of cosmic decay that ‘‘Camelot’’ enacts in min- iature still had its accuracy and truth: but how much more accurate and true seemed those sensations they had enjoyed while the play was completely blown open. Cosmic decay be damned, Mr. Harris’ slip-up, smile, and sly abdication seemed to say: it’s just a bloody play. Thought experiment: which would you rather see? (A) a production of ‘‘Camelot’’ in which the stars playing the leads flawlessly perform the play; (B) a production of ‘‘Camelot’’ in which the stars break character by accident, playfully improvise for a while, and then resume the play; or (C) an entirely different play, flawlessly performed, about actors breaking character in a production of ‘‘Cam- elot,’’ during which the actors pretend to forget their lines and pretend to improvise, but it’s all in the script, word for word. Extra credit: What kind of world do you think you’re living in? Every art form has its own unique interplay of freedom and constraint: and within each form, different artists find their own way of striking a fresh and personal balance of the two competing impulses. In painting, for example, the photorealism of Richard Estes offers a highly constrained vision of the world. Estes’ painstakingly realistic depic- tions of cityscapes are vehement and vivid testimonies to the power of precision, of working within viciously delineated limits. Of course, we never know how reli- giously Estes has actually conformed, in a given painting, to the facts of what was in the photograph from which he worked: but the internal visual syntax of the paintings decree almost audibly that nothing will be allowed to look less than real and everything will be required to appear real to roughly the same degree. The style sets the rules and the rules are exacting. Another kind of exactitude shines forth, in an entirely different manner, from the Abstract Expressionist paintings of Barnett Newman. By confining himself, in much of his work, to a severely limited visual lexicon—solid fields of color bisected by his trademark ‘‘zip’’—Newman presents a highly constrained vision. The viewer looks for freedom within the work and finds it in only four places: what colors did Newman use? Where did he put the ‘‘zip’’? What is the shape and size of the canvas? And: the freedom that can be located by the question: why did he choose to paint this painting at all? Those freedoms are all relatively massive, given the way Newman organizes reality for himself and the viewer. But there are ways of painting that are even more replete with a sense of freedom than the methods of Estes or Newman generate. In the action paintings of Jackson Pollock, to choose a rather obvious example, one is presented with a vision of freedom driven almost to the point of chaos. In the vastly multi-various body of work created by Pablo Picasso, one gets the sense they are watching a mind supremely free, at play with itself and the universe. In the whimsical moves made by Pop artists like Andy Warhol and Claes Olden- burg, a freedom of content, of thought regarding what is the proper subject matter for art, is inherent in the work. (Just to be clear: I’m aware that it’s possible to see all these binary oppositions in exactly the opposite way. Estes might say, in an interview, that in his slavish commitment to painting realistically, he finds himself set free, so to speak, to actually paint. It is also possible to see the action paintings of Pollock not as records of human freedom, but as records of one man’s absolute submission to the con- straints of chance. Fine. My point is simply that within painting, as in any art form, the consumer receives a transmission that contains degrees of freedom and con- straint in various ratios, and, I would say, the ratio of freedom to constraint within a given work of art is either a partial record of the artist’s experience of the world or a pure creation made in response to a world which has been experienced as being to some degree free and to some degree constrained.) Live theater, in which human beings, speaking words from pre-written scripts, moving in patterns dictated by others, go through the motions, as it were, of making free choices, initiating causes and experiencing effects, presents the audience with, to me, the most interesting mixture of freedom and constraint available. Most people, when they say they love live theater, say they enjoy knowing that ‘‘it’s different every night.’’ And it is different every night, but within limits: in some cases, within severely exacting limits. Now, there are many kinds of theater. A company called Too Much Light Makes The Baby Go Blind performs a brand of theater they call ‘‘non-illusory,’’ in which the actors play themselves and no effort is made to create verisimilitude. (The question of whether the word ‘‘them- selves’’ should be in quotations in the previous sentence I’ll leave to stronger minds than mine.) The plays are true right 146 C. Wright 123 then and there and are not intended to duplicate an imag- ined reality. In companies like Second City or The Groundlings, comic actors perform fictional scenes with a large degree of improvisation. People make all kinds of theater. For the purposes of this essay, however, when I say ‘‘live theater’’ I am referring to performances of scripted works in which the general tendency is to adhere to the script and present the audience with roughly the same show every night. What is the worldview of such theater? If an Estes painting is, for the sake of argument, an image of con- straint, and a Pollock is an image of freedom, what is the live theater of Chekhov? What is the live theater of Ma- met? And what vision of human freedom, in general, is live theater transmitting as a form? Is it a celebration of human freedom or a mourning of cosmic constraint? The obvious answer is it’s both: but to what degree freedom is cele- brated in live theater and to what degree constraint is mourned and, conversely, to what degree freedom is mourned and constraint celebrated, and what those ratios say about the human experience, are different and, to me, interesting questions. I’m a playwright, and I’ve written a number of plays that can be seen as messages about cosmic constraint and the limits of human freedom. In ‘‘Recent Tragic Events,’’ for example, an audience member flips a coin—with the help of the stage manager—before the play, and the audience is told that the result of the coin flip will determine a number of plot movements within Act One: each time something occurs which was determined by the flip of the coin, the audience is told, a bell-like tone will sound: and, indeed, all through Act One the action is punctuated by the sounding of the bell-like tone. At the top of Act Two, however, the stage manager addresses the audience once more, reveals herself as an actress, and informs the audience that everything happened in Act One according to the published script and that the coin flip was a scam. There was no chance and no freedom. She then invites the audience to watch Act Two keeping continually aware of the fact that there is only one way the action can unfold. Considering the fact that, within the plot of the play, a life hangs in the balance, it’s a bracing reminder. Similarly, my play ‘‘Grace’’ opens with a triple-murder- suicide, and then goes back in time to show the audience how the characters came to that sorry end. (Tellingly, the play opens and closes with the line ‘‘You can’t’’ in response to the line, ‘‘I want to go back.’’) Several times during the course of the play, the characters go backwards in time and then forwards again for a few pages, each time duplicating the actions of the previous moments without variation. The message is delivered over and over again that no matter how much we feel we could go back and do things differently, we can’t. But near the end of the play, one of the characters undergoes a change of heart that feels like the kind of thing that turns people away from bad choices, and for a few minutes the audience thinks: ‘‘Oh. It’s not going to end that terrible way, is it? Thank God.’’ But then it all happens the way it happened at the begin- ning, leaving the audience (I hope) to respond to the implicit question: ‘‘What is this weird capacity you have for thinking things can turn out any other way than the way you were shown, word for word, they would turn out?’’ Obviously, plays like these transmit explicit messages about human freedom and cosmic constraint, and they use the determinism inherent in the practice of live theater to do so. The message tends to be something like: ‘‘Human beings are free, but not very; and their freedom mostly consists in being able to choose how to think and feel about what will happen no matter what; acknowledging these limitations together, as an audience, provides consolation.’’ Other playwrights, obviously, have less or no explicit interest in these issues, and they write plays about princes dealing with complex legacies, sisters living in the Russian countryside, lovers in roadside motels, or salesmen con- spiring in close quarters. But their plays quite often lead to moments where the protagonists either say out loud, or imply with their actions, some version of: ‘‘This play cannot go any other way than the way it’s going!’’ And this announcement is usually followed by a clarifying of con- fusions followed by an attendant relaxation of tension, and the viewer gets the pleasant sense they are headed for the curtain. In plays with a lot of dramatic action, this moment happens near the end of Act One; in more contemplative plays, it happens late in the final act. The net effect is essentially the same, though: the audience is made to understand that the play (and, implicitly, life itself) is a largely deterministic system, and that they have gathered in the theater to mourn and celebrate, to varying degrees, that fact; for, of course, both anxiety and absolution are acti- vated by such a proclamation. When confronted, in a work of art, by the mostly deterministic systems in which we move, we feel more sharply the cosmic constraint, which results, to some degree, in a feeling of anxiety—‘‘No matter how hard I try, I will never be an artist!’’—but we also, within the frame of that constraint, find a pathway to freedom in the conceptual leap to: ‘‘I don’t have to try to be an artist anymore! It’s not possible!’’ Being in the same room with other human beings who, through an act of self- conscious pretending, release in their bodies the energies of these cosmic confessions of finitude, can be transformative. Any actor who has played Oedipus, Lear, Masha or Teach knows this: to stand on a stage before a voluntary audience and enact a moment of infinite humility before the massive determinism of a dramatic situation that, because it is scripted, cannot be altered or out-maneuvered, is to per- form a priestly role in a secular setting. To bear the pain Human Freedom 147 123 and glory of that ultimate predicament in effigy, as it were, is electrifying work. But mustn’t we acknowledge then, having seen this effect take place over and over again, for centuries, admit to ourselves that the resonances occasioned by these moments attest with almost scientific accuracy to the nature of life itself? Of course, the question of whether human beings possess free will has been debated for centuries, with no conclusive answer in sight. As far as I’m concerned, the question always inaugurates what I would call a ‘‘fake conversa- tion.’’ If the goal of the conversation is to find out what another person believes or if the goal is to state what you yourself believe, then I suppose it has relational value, but when no conclusive answer can ever be arrived at, to carry on a conversation with the tone and vehemence of a genuine search for certainty always feels to me like bad magic. Why can no resolution to the question ever be arrived at? Because in order to prove free will, one would have to be able to live the same moment of choosing twice, and choose differently within that duplicated moment. But we all know the river of time never stops flowing, so there’s no way of testing any hypotheses about free will. Any con- versation about free will is doomed to be only and ever just that: a conversation. That being said, much can be profitably verbalized about how free or constrained life feels. The subjective sensation of having what feels like a free choice set before you; the experience of the texture of the actual act of choosing, whether it’s real or not; the sensations of satisfaction or regret that follow close on the heels of choices that feel freely made: these are all very real sensations and real feelings, and for live theater to create resonance and meaning for the audience, there need be no final certainty about the reality of free will: there need only be basic agreement about how free or constrained life feels. And if live theater and its historical efficacy as an art form are to be trusted, we have to assume that life feels to most people mostly quite constraining, and very rarely free. Playwrights, after all, write about characters in predic- aments: people hemmed from within or without by cir- cumstance: and then those characters push through the predicaments toward partial ruin or partial reward, or, rarely, they remain perpetually in the predicament, and the perpetual nature of the predicament becomes the subject matter. But whatever freedom playwrights afford their characters, the characters’ freedom arises only in response to predicaments: is enacted within its own unique predic- ament (that of the contours of their own character, i.e., ‘‘I could lie and get out of this, but unfortunately, I can’t choose to lie’’): and finally ends in either a fresh predica- ment or in a temporary release from contingency which we know will soon be invaded by a fresh predicament. Live theater’s bread and butter is what Heidegger called ‘‘the constraint of Being.’’ The characters in most plays move with very little freedom through highly constraining situations, and usually make only one extravagantly free- looking act per play. Most of the activity in most plays can be ascribed to character, which means it isn’t free activity and it doesn’t even look free. Most characters do exactly what they would do: they can’t help it. It’s only when a character does something outside what even they expect would be possible for them to do that the mirage of objectively-seen freedom begins to appear. For the most part, live theater sends this message: we’re free, but not very much, and to activate even that small degree of freedom takes a lot of courage and luck. Which is why it’s so pleasant when the actors in a play break character: it gives the audience a brief relief from the highly constrained worldview live theater quietly transmits. It says: there is a reality beyond this highly constrained construct in which we are all very free. What to make of the pleasure such a momentary rupture affords? What kind of world are we living in? What kind of world are we living in? We all have our own answers to that question, and this is mine: we live in a world where our feelings, tastes, ambitions, habits and drives were formed in us before we were old enough to recognize them as something separate from and pasted onto ‘‘reality.’’ We live in a world where we spend most of our time dealing with the effects of causes that preceded us, and preemptively preparing for effects we know we’re currently causing: this leaves very little time to freely act, sui generis, in the here and now, if such freedom is even possible. Most of all, we live in a world where death is unavoidable; where most of our instinctive behaviors, masked by cultural specificities, have to do with forgetting or delaying our awareness of that fact. Caught between the wall of our own certain death and the crashing tidal wave of the past, we are between a rock and a very hard place. Set into this matrix of pre-determined and continually reinforced contingency, however, are a few jewel-like moments where what looks and feels like pure freedom shine, where the constraints of life fall away, either by accident or by design, and another way of being is dis- closed. The essential but perhaps tired example of such a moment is when one person gives up their life to save another’s. (Of course, blind egotism often fuels such decisions; but when it doesn’t, when the decision to sac- rifice oneself is largely altruistic, we sense an infinite freedom.) Also, in the virtuosic leaps of imagination we see enacted in various art forms, we sense the horizonless freedom of minds at pure play. And in small ways every 148 C. Wright 123 day (often very small) we see people around us choose against self-interest and, more importantly, against their own characters, in the service of what seems to be an intrepid, investigative modality with mysterious purposes of its own. (Undoubtedly, some readers will grow either dizzy or bored as I mix metaphors here, or nonsensically ascribe purposes to ways of being which have no intentionality: but I am a firm believer in the idea that language, like light near the singularity of a black hole, bends into complicated shapes when it gets close to the truth.) The essential point is this: as the poet Gerard Manley Hopkins wrote, ‘‘There lives the dearest freshness deep down things’’—and whether the spring of that dear fresh- ness, that puny, potent feeling we call ‘‘freedom’’ is, as Hopkins believed, divine, or whether it is simply a natural layer of our animal experience the depth of which results in it being seen only rarely, when circumstances break open the more common surfaces upon which we move and by which we’re supported, matters less than that the feeling happens. Live theater is one method we have evolved as a species of examining that feeling: celebrating the fact of its existence and mourning the rareness with which it occurs. In live theater, we see our highly constrained predicament played out, as an act of pure pleasure within the parenthesis of imaginative effort: it is thus rendered visible, bearable, and beautiful. When Richard Harris sat down on the edge of the stage and riffed, in rough language, on the problems of staying adequately drunk and adequately in control, he did slightly more than entertain. He functioned in that moment as a sign, in the semiotic sense of the word: a sign that indicated this: Don’t be fooled by how real the constraints of life may seem to be. There is another way. You just have to stop, sit down, and BE. We feel very little free. Live theater makes that very little freedom feel like just enough. Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Noncommercial License which per- mits any noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited. Human Freedom 149 123 Live Theater and the Limits of Human Freedom Abstract Open Access 
work_ndpuahayjffehcbvy6ozv37wvy	----	Journal of Arts Cilt / Volume 3, Sayı / Issue 1, 2020, pp. 31-44 E - ISSN: 2636-7718 URL: https://ratingacademy.com.tr/ojs/index.php/arts/index DOİ: https://doi.org/10.31566/arts.3.004 Araştırma Makalesi / Research Article SANAT-SANATÇI VE BİR META NESNESİ OLARAK SANAT ESERİ ART-ARTIST AND ART WORK AS A META OBJECT Sedat BALKIR * * Dr. Öğr. Üyesi, Mimar Sinan Güzel Sanatlar Üniversitesi, TÜRKEY, e-mail: sbalkir63@gmail.com ORCİD ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0960-3361 Geliş Tarihi: 6 Ocak 2020; Kabul Tarihi: 30 Ocak 2020 Received: 6 January 2020; Accepted:30 January 2020 ÖZET Sanat ve sanatçı; çağlar boyunca insanın ilgi alanında olmuş, klişe tabirle mağara devrinden günümüze ve her alanda olmak üzere hiç eksilmeden etkisini sürdürmüştür. Güzel sanatlar, mimarlık, edebiyat ya da müzik dalında olsun, ortaya konan bu eserler; insanlık tarihini biçimlendirme konusunda yadsınamaz bir öneme sahiptirler. Sanatın önemi konusunda hemfikir olsak da sanat nedir? nasıl anlaşılır? veya neye hizmet eder? türü soruların cevabını vermek zordur. Sanatı tanımlama konusunda nerdeyse tamamen muğlak kriterler söz konusudur ve gerçekte, sanatın kendisi de bu belirsizliği kullandığı için, olasılıkla böyle kalmaya da devam edecektir. İdealist yaklaşım, sanatın maddi çıkarlara değil; yalnızca sanata hizmet etmesi gerektiğini iddia eder. Bu sebeple, ‘halk için sanat’, sanat olarak bile kabul edilmez. Sanatsal gelişim için, idealist tavrın yeterli olmadığı herkes tarafından bilinip kabul edilmesine karşın; ‘sanat yoluyla kazanç elde etme’ konusu gündeme geldiğinde, insanlar genellikle suskun kalmayı tercih ederler. Halbuki sanat eserinin paraya dönüşmesi, diğer her şey için olduğu gibi, sanat için de çok önemlidir. Bu makalede, etik olarak kabullenmekte zorlanıyor olsak da paranın, sanat ve sanatçının gelişimi üzerindeki etkisi ele alınmaya çalışılmıştır. Anahtar Kelimeler: Sanat, Sanatçı, Para, Esaret, Özgürlük ABSTRACT Art and artists have occupied a focal interest for people over the centuries, and this interest has had a continuous effect in every section of the society starting from prehistory. The artworks produced in areas of fine arts, architecture, literature, music, and performance arts, have an undeniable importance in shaping the human history. Although we agree about the importance of art, it is difficult to find answers for such questions of ‘what is art? ‘How is it conceived?’ or ‘what does it contribute to?’ Definition of art is mostly based on ambiguous criteria, and in reality, because artists make use of this ambiguity, it will probably continue to remain as it is. https://www.ratingacademy.com.tr/ https://ratingacademy.com.tr/ojs/index.php/arts/index https://ratingacademy.com.tr/ojs/index.php/arts/index https://doi.org/10.31566/arts.3.004 BALKIR / Sanat-Sanatçı Ve Bir Meta Nesnesi Olarak Sanat Eseri Journal of Arts, Cilt / Volume:3, Sayı / Issue:1, 2020 32 Idealist approach claims that art should only be serving art instead of financial interests. Therefore, ‘art for the society’ is not even accepted as art. Even though it is widely acknowledged that such an idealist attitude is not sufficient for the artistic development, when earning profit through art making is on the agenda, people usually prefer to keep quite. However, monetization of artworks is very crucial, as it is the case for everything else. In this article, although we may find it ethically challenging, the effect of monetary gains on the development of art and artists will be examined. Key Words: Art, Artist, Money, Captivity, Freedom. 1. GİRİŞ Sanatın ne olduğu ve nasıl anlaşılabileceğine dair tartışmalar yüzyıllardır insanların kafasını meşgul eden konulardan (Din, Tanrı ya da Varoluşsal Sorunlar gibi..!) biri olmuş ve neredeyse hiç bir dönem popüleritesini yitirmemiştir. İnsan üstü, hatta bir bakıma tanrı vergisi sayılabilecek özellikleri yardımıyla, ‘Sıradan Ölümlüler’in asla ulaşamayacağı bir mertebede kalabilmeyi başarmış olan sanat, bu durumuna açıklama olabilecek gerekçelere de fazlasıyla sahiptir. Sanatın neden bu kadar önemsendiğine dair süregelen belirsizlik, büyük oranda kendisine atfedilen kriterlerin karmaşık ve müphem yapısı ile ilgilidir. Ağzımızdan hiç düşürmediğimiz şekliyle, eğer sanatta bireyselliği ve özgünlüğü kabul ediyorsak, kişiden kişiye değişen kriterleri de peşinen kabul ediyoruz demektir. Bu karmaşanın, sanatın olmazsa olmaz koşullarından biri olduğu, bunun tersini düşünmenin ise; meselenin özüne aykırı olduğu gerçeği de her zaman göz önünde tutulmalıdır. Çağlar boyunca, farklı coğrafya, farklı kültür, farklı yaşam koşulları ve belki en önemli faktör olarak farklı insan yapıları sebebiyle oluşan çeşitlilik, hem sanatı hem sanatı tanımlama şekillerini de çok çeşitlendirmiştir. 2. SANAT-SANATÇI VE BİR META NESNESİ OLARAK SANAT ESERİ Sanatla ilişki içinde olan insanlar (Sanatçı, Küratör, Eleştirmen, Tüccar, Koleksiyoner ya da Sanata İlgi Duyan) bu kaotik yapılanmayı oluşturan kişiler olmuşlardır. Kısa bir zaman aralığında değil, gerçekte binlerce yıllık bir süreçte oluşmuş bu kriterler, bazen bilinçli bazen de tam tersi olarak, hiç muhakeme edilmeksizin benimsenmiş, bu halleriyle nesilden nesile geçmiş ve muhafaza edilmeye çalışılmıştır. Genel olarak fikir birliğinde olunamayan ve neredeyse hiçbir şekilde formüle edilemeyen sanat, bu şekliyle, herkesin kendine münhasır yorumunu özgürce yapabileceği mükemmel bir malzeme olarak kullanılagelmiştir. Yapılan çalışmanın bir sanat eseri olarak kabul edilme süreci ve bunun kıstaslarının ne olduğu konusu muhakkak ki çok daha ayrıntılı bir incelemeyi gerektirir. Ernst Fischer; “İnsan her zaman olabileceğinden ötede bir şey isteyecek, yaradılışının sınırlarını her zaman aşmaya çalışacak, her zaman ölümsüzlüğe kavuşmak için uğraşacaktır. Bu her şeyi bilme, her şeye üstün çıkma, her şeyi kavrama isteğini yitirdiği gün, insan da insan olmaktan çıkar artık. Bu yüzden, doğadan bütün gizleri ve kendisine üstünlük sağlayacak olanakları elde edebilmek için her zaman bilime gekeksinme duyacaktır. Yalnız kendi yaşayışında değil, hayal gücüyle daha denetim altına alamadığını sezdiği gerçekler karşısında yabancılık çekmemesi için de her zaman sanatın gerekli olduğunu unutmayacaktır” (Fischer, 1968, s. 239) diyerek insanın sanata niçin ilgi duyduğunu açıklamaya çalışır. Bir çalışmanın sanat eseri olduğunu üreten kişi olarak, bizzat sanatçının kendisi mi söyler? Yoksa konuyla ilgili yakın çevresindeki sanatçı, eleştirmen, galerici, sanat izleyicisi ya da koleksiyoner gibi diğer kişiler mi bu kararı verirler? Burada, belirleyici pek çok etken (Eğitim, Mesleki Kariyer, Sosyal Çevre, Alıcı Tercihleri ve Şans faktörü!) sayılabilir. Muğlak yapısı sebebiyle, sanatı herkesin hemfikir olacağı bir şekilde tanımlamak neredeyse BALKIR / Sanat-Sanatçı Ve Bir Meta Nesnesi Olarak Sanat Eseri Journal of Arts, Cilt / Volume:3, Sayı / Issue:1, 2020 33 imkansızdır. Gerçekte bunun böyle olması yanlış da değildir çünkü sanat eseri olarak kabul edilmenin olmazsa olmaz birinci koşulu zaten ‘özgünlük’tür. Daha önce yapılmış olanlardan farklı ve mümkünse bir adım önde olmayı gerektiren bu koşul, öncelikle özgür bir ortamda çalışmayla ortaya çıkar. Herbert Read’in sanata dair görüşü şu şekildedir; Sanat eseri, görmüş olduğumuz gibi bir insanın bilincinde aracısız olarak doğar, anlam kazanır, kuşkusuz bu arada toplumun ya da içinde yaşadığı dönemin genel kültürüyle bütünleşerek gelişir. Her artistik çözümde iki faktör vardır. Bunlardan biri kişinin arzuları, öteki toplumun istekleridir. Kişi becerebilirse, kendisi için bir sanat eseri yapabilir, bu mümkündür, fakat yarattığı o şeyi kabul etmesi için toplumu ikna edebilirse bir sanat eserinin ortaya çıkarılmasından gelen tam doyumu elde etmiş olur. Ne var ki sıradan bir topluluk, sanat eserleri üzerinde bilinçli bir yargıda bulunabilecek bir durumda değildir, bir eseri kabul ya da reddederken bu işi halihazırdaki kültür faaliyetleri içinde yapmaktadır (Read, 1981, s. 104). 3. SANAT NEDİR? Herkes sanat yapıtı üretebilir ve kendini sanatçı olarak gören herkes, mümkünse henüz hayatta iken, kendinde olduğuna inandığı cevherin fark edilmesi ve buna ilave olarak tasdiklenme beklentisi içindedir. Sanat uğruna toplumu karşısına almış, uç noktada marjinal bir yaşam sürdüren ve üreten sanatçı tiplemelerinde bile bunun tersini iddia etmek zordur. Tavır olarak ister toplumun yanında ya da isterse tam karşısında konumlanmış bir görünümde olsun, bütün sanatçılar kendilerini ifade etme amacı içindedirler. Neresinden bakılırsa bakılsın, en basit haliyle “toplum tarafından benimsenme ihtiyacı” olarak görebileceğimiz bu durum gerçekte “topluma yaranma” çabasıdır. Sanatçıların, sanat dışında faaliyet gösteren diğer insanlara göre istisnai bir durum içinde oldukları kabul edilebilir ancak toplum etkisi ve toplumdan beklenti anlamında büyük farklar olduğunu düşünmek zordur. Eserleri yeteri kadar ilgi görmemiş sanatçılar ise; pek tercih etmeseler de bu değerlendirmeyi gelecek kuşakların insafına bırakmak zorunda kalacaklardır. Ancak; kabul etmek gerekir ki, “Öldükten sonra meşhur olma” deyimi ütopik bir parodi olup; çalışmalarının karşılığını mümkünse yaşarken görmek isteyen insan doğasına da çok uygun düşmeyecektir. “Sanat; bir karşılık beklemeden yapılmalıdır; aksi durumda ticarileşir, etki altına girer ve özgürlüğünü kaybeder” demek bir yanıyla doğru ve kulağa hoş gelen bir değerlendirme olabilir, ancak; tam olarak ayakları yere basmayan, biraz klişe ve ayni zamanda sanatçı üzerinde baskı da oluşturan bir çıkarımdır. Herbert Read’in sanatçılar için söylediği şeyler, ilk bakışta biraz basit ama aslında oldukça gerçektirler. “Sanatçı son derece gürültülü olan içgüdüsel ihtiyaçları tarafından dürtülmekte olan bir kişidir; onurlandırılmak, güçlü olmak, zengin ve ünlü olmak ve kadına aşık olmayı ister; fakat kendisini, bu hazları tatmaktan yoksun kılar. Böylece doyurulmayan herhangi bir arzu gibi, gerçeklikten yüz çevirir, bütün ilgilerini başka alanlara taşır, bütün libidosunu, arzularını bir fantazya hayat içinde yaratır” (Read, 1981, s. 108). Ressam, heykeltraş ya da müzisyen olsun, isimlerini andığımızda yere göğe sığdıramadığımız birçok büyük sanatçının hayatlarını nasıl bir yoksulluk ve yoksunluk içinde geçirmiş olduklarını öğrendiğimizde sanatı sadece sanat için yaptıklarına inanmak da güçleşir. Hayatta olsun ya da olmasın ‘Yarı Tanrı’ mertebesine yerleştirdiğimiz o çok büyük sanatçıların, gerçekte sıradan beklentileri olan ve ‘Sokaktaki Adam’ diye tabir ettiğimiz insanlarla aynı şeylerin hayalini kurduklarını kabul etmemiz gerekiyor. Hayatını rahat bir şekilde sürdürmeye yetecek miktarda bir gelir, mutlu bir aile ve onurlu bir hayat beklentisi bazı insanlar için çok klişe görünebilir ancak istisnalar kaideyi bozmaz ve bu durum sanatçılar için geçerlidir. Hangi konuda olursa olsun, çaba gösterilerek bir sonuç alınmışsa eğer; bunun karşılığını beklemek son derece doğaldır. Beklenti deyince de sadece BALKIR / Sanat-Sanatçı Ve Bir Meta Nesnesi Olarak Sanat Eseri Journal of Arts, Cilt / Volume:3, Sayı / Issue:1, 2020 34 parasal karşılık olarak düşünülmemeli; takdir edilme ve bu sayede oluşan tatmin duygusunun yaratacağı motivasyon açısından da değerlendirilmelidir. Ayrıcalıklı olma hissinin getirdiği özgüven, sanatçıyı çok daha istekli ve üretken hale getireceği için, çalışmaya ayrılan zaman ve buna bağlı olarak üretilen yapıt sayısı da artmış olacaktır. Sanatçının ustalaşması; yapıtlarını da olgunlaştıracak ve muhtemelen özgün yapıtlar oluşturabilmenin yolunu açan en önemli etken de bu olacaktır. Donald Kuspit; “Her bir sanat eseri deyim yerindeyse sanatçının kendi kendisiyle karşılaşmasını, yani sanatçının malzemesi aracılığıyla duygularını yeniden yaşayıp, yeniden düzenlediği analitik bir seansı temsil eder. Her ne kadar sonuçta ortaya çıkacak şey sanat kılıfı altında kendini ifade etmekten, kendine ayna tutmaktan (yoksa kendi kendini taklit etmekten mi?) ibaret kalabilecek de olsa, atölye, sanatçının kendi kendini tedavi etmeye çalıştığı bir kliniğe dönüşür” (Kuspit, 2006, s. 31) derken sanat-sanat eseri-atölye ilişkisinin önemini vurgulamaya çalışır. 4. SANAT, SANAT İÇİN Mİ, TOPLUM İÇİN MİDİR? Bazı kimseler; sanatçıların, sadece üretmeye odaklanmaları ve bunu yaparken, konsantrasyonlarını bozacak dış etkenlerden de kendilerini korumaları gerektiğini düşünürler. Adeta bir fanus içinde yaşamak ve üretmek olarak tanımlayabileceğimiz bu izole durum, bazı sanatçılar için ideal çalışma şekli de olabilir. ‘Sanat, sanat içindir ve halk için yapılması durumunda sanat olma vasfını kaybeder’ diyenler, çoğunlukla bu gruba ait sanatçılardır. Sanat eseri şüphesiz ki, sabırlı ve yoğun bir çalışma gerektiren bir süreçte ortaya çıkar. Kavramsal anlamda güçlü olmanın yanında; içerik, teknik ve ustalık olarak başarılı sonuçlar almak, herhalde bütün sanatçıların idealidir. Basit ve sıradan olan ne eseri oluşturan sanatçıyı ve ne de onu izleyenleri tatmin etmeyeceği için, zorluk derecesi yüksek yapıtlar istisnasız her dönem el üstünde tutulmuşlardır. Sanat eserlerini; ‘plastik fikir bağlamında orjinallik ve uygulamadaki ustalık’ olarak ayrıcalıklı kılan değerleri düşündüğümüzde, kolayca üretilmiş ve ayni şekilde kolayca çözümlenerek, tüketilebilen yapıtların kimseyi heyecanlandırmayacağı açıktır. Herkese hitap ediyor olmak her sanatçının istediği şey olsa da herhalde hiç biri, kolayca anlaşılıyor olmayı arzu etmeyecektir. İzleyicinin dikkatini uzun süre boyunca üstünde tutmayı başaramamış; merak ve hayranlık oluşturmadan, hızlı bir şekilde bakılıp geçilen bir yapıt; şüphesiz ki sanatçı için gurur kaynağı değil, bir utanç vesilesi haline dönüşecektir. Norbert Lynton’ın sanat eserine bakış ve değerlendirmeye yönelik görüşü çarpıcıdır: Sanatın en açık ve en zor yanı bir bakışta anlaşılıvermesidir. Bir kitabı, bir oyunu, bir şiiri, bir sonatı, bir pop şarkısını değerlendirmeden önce, kısa bir süre dikkatimizi onlara vermemiz gerekir. Oysa, bir anda yargılayıverdiğimiz sanat bir ömür boyu süren çabaların, hatta bir kuşağın emeklerinin sonucudur. Üstelik sanat eserlerinin bir bölümünü beğenip yücelterek, ötekileri ‘bana hitap etmiyor’ diye bir kenara bırakarak kendimizle övünebiliriz. Bazı sanat eserleri konuşur, bazıları bağırır; ancak en iyileri çok az soru sormayı ve çok fazla dinlemeyi gerektirir. Herseyden önce zor bir çalışmanın ürünüdürler ve bu nedenle hala güven uyandırabilirler (Lynton, 1982, s. 353). ‘Sanat Toplum İçindir’ diyen sanatçılar açısından sözkonusu kriterler biraz daha esnek olabilir. Çalışmalarını içinde yaşadığı toplumun verileri doğrultusunda; onların çıkarlarına yönelik ve yine onların anlayabileceği şekilde biçimlendiren sanatçıların çok yüksek ideallerden bahsetmesine zaten ihtiyaç da yoktur. Gerçekte bu sınırları, çok keskin hatlarla birbirlerinden ayırmak mümkün değildir. Toplum için ürettiğini söyleyen sanatçıları idealist olmamak ve kolaycılıkla suçlayamayacağımız gibi; ‘Sanat Sanat İçindir’ diyenleri, topluma arkasını dönmüş kişiler olarak nitelendirmek de doğru olmayacaktır. BALKIR / Sanat-Sanatçı Ve Bir Meta Nesnesi Olarak Sanat Eseri Journal of Arts, Cilt / Volume:3, Sayı / Issue:1, 2020 35 Ne kadar radikal veya anarşist görüşlere sahip olursa olsun; diğer insanlarla bir arada yaşamaya devam etmek isteyen kişiler, ancak onlar için üreterek o toplumun bir parçası olabilirler. Topluma dair olan her şey, istisnasız her dönem olmak üzere, her türden sanatsal amaca uyarlanmış ve kullanılagelmiştir. İster edebiyatçı ister ressam ya da heykeltraş olsun, bunların hepsine fazlasıyla yetecek malzeme her zaman bulunmuştur. Konu “İnsan” olduğu sürece, ilham perisi yoksunluğu diye bir sorun da olmayacaktır. Sanatçılar içinde yaşadıkları toplumu malzeme olarak kullanırken, toplum için bir geri dönüşüm de sağlamış olurlar. Buradaki herhangi bir kopukluk, şüphesiz ki sanatçı için hayati derecede önemli kaynaklarından birini yitirmesi anlamına gelecektir. 5. SANATIN İŞLEVİ Tarih boyunca, sonu gelmeyen toplumsal olaylar, din olgusu, kendi varlığını sorgulama ya da içinde yaşadığı dünya ve evrenin gizemlerine dair olmak üzere, insanlığın çözemediği (Belki de hiçbir zaman çözemeyeceği!) sorunları hep olmuştur. Bunlar, ayni zamanda, bu sorunlara çözüm üretmeye çalışan insan gruplarını da oluşturmuş; büyücüler, din adamları, filozoflar, bilim insanları ve sanatçılar; binlerce yıldan beri, bu malzemeyi kullanarak toplumsal hayatı şekillendirme konusunda etkili olmuşlardır. “Eski, modası geçmiş dinsel öğretiden doğan duyguları aktaran sanat; kilise düşüncelerine özgü sanat, vatanseverlik duygularını dile getiren sanat, cinsel duyguları içeren sanat, batıl inançlara dayalı korku, gurur, kibir, milli kahramanlara duyulan aşırı hayranlık duygusunu aktaran sanat, birinin kendi milletine duyduğu özel sevgiyi ya da şehvet duygusunu uyandıran sanat kötü ve zararlı olarak sayılacak, sansür edilecek ve kamuoyu tarafından hor görülecektir. Sadece bir grup insana ulaşabilen duyguları aktaran sanat, önemsiz olarak görülecek, ne suçlanacak ne de övülecektir. Genelde sanatın dağerlendirilmesi, bugün olduğu gibi ayrı, zengin bir sınıfın yetkisinde değil, bütün insanların yetkisinde olacaktır” (Tolstoy, 2000, s. 354). Tolstoy’un, yaklaşık 120 sene önce ve aslında başka bir olguyu anlatmaya çalışırken ortaya koyduğu ve sanatı besleyen kaynaklar olarak gördüğü etkenlerin günümüz koşullarında da hala geçerliliklerini koruyor olmaları ilginçtir. Bazı açılardan oldukça doğru bir saptama yapmış olsa da sanatın geleceğine yönelik tahmininde ayni başarıyı gösteremediği de rahatlıkla söylenebilir. Fonksiyonel olan sanat dallarını bir tarafa koyarak sanatın işlevini sorguladığımızda; toplum için doğrudan bir fayda oluşturmak yerine, nerdeyse tamamen estetik hazzı tatmine yönelik bir amaç içinde olduğunu görebiliriz. Tabii ki bu saptama sanatın sadece estetik güzellik ve hoşluk peşinde koştuğu şeklinde algılanmamalıdır. Sanat, mağara devrinden günümüze, topluma bir şeyleri aktarmanın yolu olmuştur. Yazının olmadığı ya da varsa da okuyanın az olduğu dönemler için üstlendiği fonksiyon çok net ve belirleyicidir (Res. 1 & Res. 2). İster büyü amaçlı, isterse dinsel, siyasal ya da toplumsal mesajlar vermeye yönelik olsun sanat en önemli ifade aracı olmuştur. Sadece haz vermeye yönelik değil; çirkinlik bayağılık olarak değerlendirebileceğimiz şeyleri de malzeme olarak kullanmaktan çekinmemiş olan sanat, her türlü kaynaktan beslenmiş ve kendine has bir estetik dil oluşturmuştur. Sanat yoluyla aktarılan hikaye, olay, öğüt, propaganda ya da bir sanat kavramları, ayni zamanda sanatı da güçlendiren bir etki oluştururlar ancak şurası kesinlikle göz ardı edilmemelidir ki sanatta önemli olan ne anlatıldığı değil, nasıl bir sanat diliyle anlatıldığıdır. BALKIR / Sanat-Sanatçı Ve Bir Meta Nesnesi Olarak Sanat Eseri Journal of Arts, Cilt / Volume:3, Sayı / Issue:1, 2020 36 Resim 1: Lascaux mağarası M.Ö. 15.000 Resim 2: Kariye Müzesi, 14. Yy BALKIR / Sanat-Sanatçı Ve Bir Meta Nesnesi Olarak Sanat Eseri Journal of Arts, Cilt / Volume:3, Sayı / Issue:1, 2020 37 6. SANATÇI KİMDİR? Bir sanatçıyı betimlemeye kalktığımızda genel olarak; marjinal, öncü, yerleşik değerler ve kalıplaşmış düşüncelerle barışık olmayan, her daim yenilik peşinde koşan, özgür ruhlu, isyankar, biraz anarşist, biraz da narsist olan ve standart kalıplara sokulamayacak türden insanlar akla gelir. Ne var ki, sanatçı olarak üstlendikleri misyon oldukça ağırdır ve biraz önce sıralanmış olan o fantastik özellikleri yanında, kendilerinden hem kontrollü hem de inandırıcı ve tutarlı bir sanatçı kişiliği beklenir. Sadece bunlar bile sanatçı özgürlüğünün lafta kalması için yeterli sebeptir ve biçimsel anlamda ne kadar özgün ya da marjinal olursa olsun; dikkat çekmeyi başarmış ve talep edilen bir sanatçı haline gelmişse eğer; kendisine şöhret sağlayan biçim anlayışını terkedip yeni arayışlara girmesi risk almak anlamına gelir. Çünkü bu durumun, hem eserlerine para yatırmayı düşünen koleksiyonerler ve hem de hayran kitlesi tarafından hoş karşılanmama olasılığı fazladır. Tamamen özgür yaratımı benimsemek bu kişiler tarafından refüze edilme tehlikesi barındırdığı için de bazı sanatçılar, ‘Tutarlılık’ söylemini ‘Özgürlük’ söyleminden daha çok tercih eder hale gelebilirler. Eserlerinin satılıyor olmasını, sanatçının özgürlüğünü kısıtlayıcı bir etken olarak görmek yanlış olmayabilir; ancak, çelişkili görünse de başka bir açıdan ele aldığımızda, sanatçıyı özgürleştiren bir yanı olduğunu da kabul etmemiz gerekir. “Satış grafiği pek yüksek olmayıp (Hatta hiç!) üretmeye devam eden sanatçıların, ya parasal sorunları yoktur ya da ruhsal sorunları vardır” demek, çok yanlış olmaz. Buna en iyi örnek; hayatı büyük hayal kırıklıkları içinde geçen Vincent Van Gogh olabilir. Yaşadığı süreçte yalnızca bir resim satabilmiş (400 Frank-yaklaşık 1000 $) sanatçı, yaşadığı hezeyanlara dayanamamış, 1890 yılında, henüz 37 yaşındayken intihar etmiştir. Hayatı yoksulluk içinde geçen Van Gogh’un ölümünün tam da yüzüncü yıldönümünde, “Dr. Gachet’nin Portresi” (Res. 3) adlı resminin, 82,5 milyon Amerikan Dolar’ına satılmış olması da bir hayli ironiktir. Van Gogh, eğer Dr. Gachet resminin o fiyata satıldığını görmüş olsaydı, muhakkak ki şaşkınlığı çok büyük olurdu ancak asıl büyük şaşkınlığı; belki de dünyanın gelmiş geçmiş en çok tanınan ressamı olarak bizzat kendisinin gösterilmesi olduğunu farketmesi ile yaşamış olurdu. Resim 3: Van Gogh, Dr. Gachet Portresi, 1890 BALKIR / Sanat-Sanatçı Ve Bir Meta Nesnesi Olarak Sanat Eseri Journal of Arts, Cilt / Volume:3, Sayı / Issue:1, 2020 38 Donald Kuspit, Van Gogh’un içsel yapısı ve hassasiyetini aşağıdaki satırlarla tanımlarken; günümüz sanatının içinde bulunduğu duruma da açıklık getirmektedir: Sanatın para haline geldiği bir dünyada gerçek sanat nedir? Gerçek sanatçı kimdir, tabii eğer sanatın ticari gerçekliğinden başka gerçeklik diye bir şey varsa? Tıpkı İsa’nın Tanrı’nın tapınağını tefecilerden arındırması gibi, Van Gogh da sanatın tapınağını tefecilerden arındırmak istemişti. Ne var ki günümüzde tefeciler sanat tapınağının sahipleri haline geldiler, ya da en azından bu tapınak onların ipoteği altına girdi (Kuspit, 2006, s. 168). 7. SANAT EĞİTİMİ GEREKLİ MİDİR? Sanat eğitimi ve dolayısıyla sanat eğitim kurumları, sanatın gelecek kuşaklara aktarımı konusunda yadsınamaz bir önemde olmalarına rağmen; bu kurumların aynı zamanda, sanatın “özgün olma” kriterleri için tehdit oluşturduğu ve hatta bunu tümden ortadan kaldırdığı yönünde görüşler de vardır. Sanat Akademileri’nin tamamında geçerli olan eğitim, geçmiş dönem sanat ve sanatçılarına ait bilginin öğrenciye aktarılması ve sanatçı adaylarının, bu birikim ışığında, güncel sanata dair çıkarımlarının değerlendirilmesi şeklinde olan yöntemdir. Sanatçı olmanın öğretilebilir bir şey olmadığını iddia edenler, yalnızca sanat akademileri dışındakiler olmayıp; bu konu söz konusu eğitim kurumlarında da tartışılan konulardandır. Başkalarının bilgi, üslup ve deneyimleri konusunda eğitim almış olarak sanat yapmaya soyunan kişilerin, kendilerini bu etkiden tamamiyle soyutlayarak, bütünüyle özgün bir şey ortaya koymaları mümkün değildir(!) şeklindeki iddia, kolayca reddedilebilecek bir olgu değildir. Söz konusu eğitim kurumları Plastik sanatlar, müzik ya da edebiyat dallarında olsun; bir çok zaman bu tür eleştirilere maruz kalmışlardır. Örneğin Tolstoy’un 19. yüzyılda “Bu okulların öğretebilecekleri tek şey, başka sanatçıların yaşadıkları duyguları nasıl, hangi yolla aktarabildikleridir. Böyle bir eğitim, gerçek sanatın yayılmasına yardım etmediği gibi, sanatın taklitlerini arttırarak, insanları gerçek sanatı anlama gücünden yoksun bırakmaktan başka bir işe yaramaz” (Tolstoy, 2000, s. 265) ve “İnsanları sanata benzeyen şeylere alıştırmak, onları gerçek sanatı anlamaktan uzaklaştırmaktadır. Hiç kimse bu meslek okullarından geçen ve buralarda en büyük başarıyı kazanan insanlardan daha çok sanata kayıtsız değildir” (Tolstoy, 2000, s. 267)- şeklinde yaptığı eleştiriler oldukça sert gelebilir ama kabul etmek gerekir ki bir parça haklılık payı da olan söylemlerdir. Tolstoy, bunlarla da yetinmemiş, bu sözleri söylediği zamanla kıyasladığımızda günümüze çok daha uygun düşen bir saptama da ortaya koymuştur. “Çağımızın ve çevremizin sanatı bir fahişe olmuştur ve bu karşılaştırma, en küçük ayrıntısına kadar doğruluk taşır. O fahişe gibi, bu sanat belirli zamanlarla sınırlı değildir. Onun gibi her zaman süslüdür, onun gibi her zaman satılabilirdir ve onun gibi baştan çıkarıcı ve mahvedicidir” (Tolstoy, 2000, s. 348). Bazı açılardan Tolstoy’a hak veriyor olsak da kendisinin taklit sanatı öğretiyorlar diye yok saymaya çalıştığı sanat akademilerinin aslında, eğitim yoluyla sanatçı adaylarını taklit sanattan korudukları gerçeğini göz ardı etmiş oluruz. Şurası çok açık ki; geçmiş sanatın ne olduğu konusunda fikri olmayan bireyler, ürettikleri her çalışmayı, sanat eseri zannetmek gibi bir yanılgı içinde olabilirler. Sanat eğitimi kurumlarının bir işe yaramadıkları yani öğrencilere, yapmaları gereken şeyleri tam olarak öğretemediklerini varsaysak bile; en azından bu kurumların öğrencileri nelerden uzak durmaları gerektiği konusunda bir işlevi yerine getirdiklerini de kabul etmeliyiz. Tamamen özgün eserler yaratabilmeye odaklanmak, her anlamda kulağa hoş gelen ve idealist düşünceyle de tam uyumlu bir görüntü veriyor olsa da aynı zamanda, ‘Sanatçı, taklitçi değil, özgün olmalıdır’ ifadesi aslında tam bir paradoksa sebep olur. Özgünlük, hemen her zaman, “yeni, öncü, taklit olmayan, biricik, orjinal” ve benzeri sözcüklerle ifade edilmiştir. Demokles’in Kılıcı gibi, sanatçının ensesinde hissettiği bu dayatmacı maddeler anlam olarak sanat idealizmine uygun düşüyor olabilir ancak sanatçının BALKIR / Sanat-Sanatçı Ve Bir Meta Nesnesi Olarak Sanat Eseri Journal of Arts, Cilt / Volume:3, Sayı / Issue:1, 2020 39 işini zorlaştırdığı da kabul edilmelidir. Yeni bir şeyler üretebilmek, en basitinden taklitten kaçınmayı gerektirir ve bu da ancak, sanatçının geçmişte olup bitenlerden haberdar olmasıyla mümkün olabilir. Geçmiş sanatı taklitten kaçınmak; özgünlük derken özgürlüğünden olmak, sanatçının üretkenliğinin önündeki en önemli engel haline gelebilir. Tamamen orjinal olmayı hedefleyen sanatçı, farkında olmadan kendini dar bir alanda sıkışmışlık hissi içinde bulabilir ki; bu en basitinden o kişiyi inancını ve üretme hevesini kaybetme durumuyla karşı karşıya getirebilir. Peki bir eserin özgün olup olmadığını saptamak kolaymı? Aslında hiç değil çünkü belirleyici binlerce faktör olduğu, bunların da farklı koşullara bağlı olarak değişkenlik gösterdiği bu koşullarda, bu kriterleri sağlıklı bir şekilde saptamak nerdeyse olanaksızdır. 8. ŞÖHRETİN SANATA ETKİSİ Henüz hayatta iken resimleri sayesinde şöhret ve para sahibi olmuş Claude Monet (1840-1926) (Res. 4) ve Pablo Picasso (1881-1973) (Res. 5) gibi ressamlar, yaşarken hiç resim satmamış olsalardı; ne bu kadar çok iş üretebilir ne de biçim anlayışlarını bu kadar geliştirmiş olurlardı. Yaşadığı dönemde Monet de çok iyi kazanan ve saygı duyulan bir sanatçı olmasına rağmen; Picasso, popülarite konusunda bunun çok ötesinde ayrıcalıklı bir yer edinmiş ve 20. Yüzyılın 2. Yarısından itibaren örneklerini bolca görmeye alıştığımız ‘Pop Star Sanatçı’ türünün de ilk örneği olmuştur. Etrafını çevrelemiş hayran kitlesi, peşinden ayrılmayan basın mensupları ve foto muhabirleri, resimlerini satın almak için bekleşen koleksiyonerler ve tabii hayatına girmiş kadınlar; daha önce bir sanatçının bu yoğunlukta karşılaşmadığı şeylerdi. Bunların hepsini düşündüğümüzde, sanat camiasında magazin kültürü onun sayesinde oluşmuştur demek hiç yanlış olmayacaktır. Resim 4: Claude Monet, Waterlillies, 89x92cm, 1904 BALKIR / Sanat-Sanatçı Ve Bir Meta Nesnesi Olarak Sanat Eseri Journal of Arts, Cilt / Volume:3, Sayı / Issue:1, 2020 40 Resim 5: Pablo Picasso, Large Bather, 182x101cm, 1921 Bütün bu tanınmışlık ve eserlerinin satılıyor olması, Picasso’nun sanatsal üretimine büyük ivme kazandırmış, olasılıkla en çok resmini de bu dönemde yapmıştır. Popülaritesinin artmasıyla birlikte çok daha rahatlamış; hissettiği şımarıkça özgüven sayesinde, belki de ilk kez, gerçek anlamda özgürleşmiştir. Müsvedde kağıtlar, restoranlardaki tabak çanak ve hatta peçetelerin üzerine öylesine yaptığı karalamalar bile kapış kapış giderken, bunun Picasso’nun sanatsal tavrına etkisi olmayacağını düşünmek çok da gerçekçi olmayacaktır. Sanatçının son dönem çalışmalarını, daha önceki analitik kübist dönemiyle (Özellikle de Guernica-1937; Res. 6) kıyasladığımızda, yeterince güçlü ve ağırlığı olan işler değilmiş gibi görünebilirler. Daha yüzeyci bir tavırda çok daha canlı renkler, şematik ve biraz da alaycı bir anlayışıyla kullanılmaya başlanmış; kasvetten uzak, farklı bir enerjiyle resim yapan bir Picasso ortaya çıkmıştır. BALKIR / Sanat-Sanatçı Ve Bir Meta Nesnesi Olarak Sanat Eseri Journal of Arts, Cilt / Volume:3, Sayı / Issue:1, 2020 41 Resim 6: Pablo Picasso Guernica, 3,49 m x 7,77 m, 1937 Resim 7: Pablo Picasso, Rembrandt Figure and Eros, 162x130cm, 1969 Ölümüne kadarki bu son dönemini biraz hafife alma eğiliminde olsak da bir başka açıdan olaya bakmayı denediğimizde, Picasso’nun, belki de hayatında ilk kez, hiç baskı altında kalmadan ve içinden geldiği gibi resim yapmış olabileceği gerçeğini de gözardı edemeyiz. Şöhret ve paranın, sanatçılar üzerindeki etkisi ve sanatın da buna bağlı olarak şekilleniyor olması aslında çok yeni bir tartışma konusu değildir. Olasılıkla “belki de her zaman böyleydi” diyebileceğimiz bu konuyu gözümüze sokan Andy Warhol (Res. 8) olmuştur. Donald Kuspit, Warhol’un sebep olduğu ya da bir başka deyişle ifşa ettiği bu gerçekliği ve bunun günümüz sanatına etkisini şöyle açıklamıştır: Sanat, Warhol’un sanatın gerçek çıkarlarını açığa vurması nedeniyle büyük bir bedel ödemeye devam etmektedir. Kendini en yüksek parayı verene satmıştır ki bu durum ne satacağı BALKIR / Sanat-Sanatçı Ve Bir Meta Nesnesi Olarak Sanat Eseri Journal of Arts, Cilt / Volume:3, Sayı / Issue:1, 2020 42 konusunda belirsizlik içinde olduğunu gösterir. Satacağı şeyler en çok paraya sahip olanların almak isteyeceği şeyler oldukları için değerliyse o zaman sahip olduğu tek değer onların parasından gelen değerdir ki bu da kendi değerine inanmadığı anlamına gelir. İş ve eğlencenin bize eşsiz değer diye bir şey olmadığını gösterdiği bir toplumda zaten sanat nasıl olur da eşsiz bir değere sahip olabilir ki? (Kuspit, 2006, s. 165). Resim 8: Andy Warhol, Skull, 192.4 x 96.5 cm, ipek-baskı, 1976 Yine Kuspit’e göre, “Kapitalizm büyük bir simyasal mucize gerçekleştirmiştir, çünkü sanatı paraya dönüştürerek sanatın, sonsuzluk adı verilen o nihai maddenin dünya üzerindeki temsilcisi olma rolünü geçersiz kılmıştır. İçinde yaşadığımız mahcubiyetten uzak materyalist döneme kadar, sanat dünya üzerinde sonsuzluğa en çok yaklaşan şey olmuştu, zaten kimi zaman “sonsuz şimdi” olarak da anılmasının nedeni budur” (Kuspit, 2006, s. 161). 9. SONUÇ Sanatın ne olduğu, sanatçı olmanın insanlar tarafından nasıl algılandığı konusu hep çok karmaşık sebeplere bağlı olarak tanımlanmaya çalışılmıştır. Geçmiş dönemlerden daha fazla materyalist bir yaşam şekli içinde olduğumuz bu çağda, sanatın ve sanatla uğraşan kişilerin biraz hafife alındığı ve yüksek getirisi olan iş kollarıyla kıyaslandığında daha alt seviyede değerlendirildikleri doğrudur. Hiç azımsanmayacak bu gerçekliği bir yönüyle kabul ediyor olsak da; sanatın sürprizlere açık gizemli yanı ya da ulaşılamaz bir yücelik hissi oluşturan çağrışımları sebebiyle aslında genel olarak bir çok şeyin üzerinde konumlanmıştır. Hakkında ne söylenirse söylensin, sanata olan ilgi hiçbir zaman kaybolmamış; insanlık tarihi boyunca çok güçlü bir ifade aracı olarak benimsenmiş ve yüceltilmiştir. Sanata ilgi muhakkak ki çok farklı sebeplerle oluşabilir. Bu itibarla sadece sanatçılar değil, genç sanatçı adayları açısından da öncelikli olan şeyin; maddi çıkarlar değil, peşinden gitmeyi hayal ettikleri idealleri olduğunu kabul etmeliyiz. Şüphesiz, bütün sanatçılar; eser üretmek dışında başka bir iş yapmak zorunda kalmadan, hayatını sürdürebiliyor olmayı tercih eder çünkü bu durumun sağlayacağı tatmin duygusu, özellikle de motive edici yanıyla hayati BALKIR / Sanat-Sanatçı Ve Bir Meta Nesnesi Olarak Sanat Eseri Journal of Arts, Cilt / Volume:3, Sayı / Issue:1, 2020 43 derecede önemlidir. Maddi çıkar peşinde olmak, rahatlıkla söylenebilir ki sanata soyunan hiç kimsenin önceliği değildir. Paraya dönüşmediği ya da dönüşme ihtimali olmadığı sürece verimli bir üretim süreci de olamayacaktır. Kabul etmek gerekir ki, en çok üretim yapanlar, çoğunlukla en çok satanlardır ve bu üretim artışı da hemen her zaman yapıtları satılmaya başladıktan sonraki döneme tekabül eder. Sanat eserlerinin satılıyor olması birçokları için kabul edilebilir bir şey olmayabilir ama bunu yapılan işin değerini azaltan değil, aksine geliştirici yönüyle kabul etmek daha doğru olacaktır. BALKIR / Sanat-Sanatçı Ve Bir Meta Nesnesi Olarak Sanat Eseri Journal of Arts, Cilt / Volume:3, Sayı / Issue:1, 2020 44 KAYNAKÇA FISCHER, E. (1968). Sanatın Gerekliliği, De Yayınevi, İstanbul KUSPIT, D. (2006). Sanatın Sonu, Metis Yayınları, İstanbul LYNTON, N. (1982). Modern Sanatın Öyküsü, Remzi Kitabevi, İstanbul READ, H. (1981). Sanat ve Toplum, Ümran Yayınevi, İstanbul TOLSTOY, L. (2000). Sanat Nedir? Şule Yayınevi, İstanbul Resim Kaynakları Resim 1. Lascaux mağarası M.Ö. 15000 https://indigodergisi.com/2014/08/varolus-ve-sanat-1/ Alındığı tarih: 02.02.2019 Resim 2. Kariye Müzesi, 14. yy.---https://istanbul.ktb.gov.tr/TR-202454/kariye- muzesi.htmlxLzFlL0xhc2NhdXhfcGFpbnRpbmcuanBn — Alındığı tarih: 22.02.2019 Resim 3. https://resimbiterken.wordpress.com/2014/10/06/vincent-van-goghun-portait-of-dr- gachet-eseri/ Alındığı tarih: 04.02.2019 Resim 4. http://www.muma-lehavre.fr/en/collections/artworks-in- context/impressionism/monet-Waterlilies. Alındığı tarih: 04.20.2019 Resim 5. https://www.musee-orangerie.fr/en/artwork/large-bather. Alındığı tarih: 04.20.2019 Resim 6. https://resimbiterken.files.wordpress.com/2014/06/guernica_all.jpg Alındığı tarih: 08.20.2019 Resim 7. https://www.google.com.tr/search?q=picasso+remrandesque+figur+and+cupid Resim 8. https://www.amazon.com/Berkin-Arts-Warhol-Paintings- Reproduction/dp/B076PD2PFS. Alındığı tarih: 08.20.2019 
work_npijvzrmsfg5th53aywfxjr6ti	----	Microsoft Word - Art 13.doc 159 Entre le 24 février et le 1 mars 2011, monsieur Antony Penrose, fils du photographe Lee Miller et de l’artiste surréaliste et historien de l’art Roland Penrose, a visité notre pays dans une tournée de conférences qui allait le porter sur les pas de sa mère pendant sa deuxième visite en Roumanie, en 1946 (la première s’était déroulée en 1938), lorsqu’elle a parcouru, de long en large, nos contrées et a immortalisé la société roumaine, du haut en bas, du palais royal jusqu’à la maison paysanne et à la chaumière du tzigane. La personnalité forte et versatile de l’artiste a été évoquée avec une exactitude d’historien et une mutinerie d’enfant : toute son activité fut présentée, de sa profession de modèle pour les photos de mode des Années Folles jusqu’aux œuvres surréalistes et le reportage de guerre. Un homme de taille moyenne, bien fait, les cheveux blonds-roux, toujours en désordre, les yeux bleus, un visage doux, constamment illuminé par un large sourire, communicatif et badin, excessivement modeste et sans prétentions dans ses gouts et ses manières : tel est Antony Penrose. Qui pourrait imaginer que cet homme qui a gardé son enfance dans son cœur et la légèreté de la jeunesse dans sa conduite et sa tenue est le possesseur d’un trésor iconographique dont rêvent beaucoup des grands musées du monde? Que ses parents furent ennoblis par la reine Elizabeth II? Qu’à l’âge des interrogations, il avait comme partenaire de jeu le grand Picasso, qui lui a offert quelques- uns de ses ouvrages ? Qu’il a parcouru les continents afin d’entretenir vivante la mémoire artistique de ses parents ? Qu’il est l’auteur de plusieurs livres, best sellers, parus à la prestigieuse maison d’édition Thames & Hudson ? Historien, publiciste, conférencier, cinéaste et fermier, Antony Penrose est le directeur des Archives Lee Miller et de la Collection Penrose de Farley Farm, Chiddingly, dans l’est du comité Sussex de la Grande Bretagne. Sa carte de visite et son palmarès sont assez impressionnants. VIE SCIENTIFIQUE LE PHOTOGRAPHE LEE MILLER A BRAŞOV ET BUCAREST, le 25 février et le 1 mars 2011 J’ai fait sa connaissance en 2002, pendant la XXe édition de la Conférence Internationale ORACLE des curateurs et des directeurs des musées de photographie qui s’est déroulée à Cologne. Je l’ai rencontré de nouveau plusieurs fois, à l’occasion de la même manifestation, et, pendant notre dernière rencontre, à Arles, en 2009, nous avons mis les bases d’une collaboration de longue durée dont le premier résultat a été cette tournée de conférences promotionnelles qui préparent une ample exposition avec les photographies exécutées par Lee Miller en Roumanie. Elizabeth Miller est née en 1907, dans le nord de l’état de New York. Dans sa jeunesse, elle a adopté le nom de Lee, propre plutôt à un jeune homme qu’à une fille. Mais, de petite, elle était garçonne et elle a continué à se comporter – et même à s’habiller – comme un homme pendant toute sa vie. Elève sans application, turbulente et indépendante, elle a eu de gros problèmes à l’école. Attirée par la plastique, elle décide à suivre une carrière artistique et, à 18 ans, elle va à Paris où, sans s’inscrire dans une institution d’enseignement de spécialité, elle fréquente les musées et les galeries. Elle se sépare avec difficulté de la Ville des Lumières et revient en Amérique où, pour échapper à REV. ROUM. HIST. ART, Série BEAUX-ARTS, TOME XLVIII, P. 159–166, BUCAREST, 2011 160 l’ennui de la vie de province, elle suit les cours de scénographie et de danse d’Art Students League de New York. Avec son visage intéressant et ses proportions idéales, elle devient modèle pour les magazines de mode, posant pour le grand photographe Edward Steichen. Ce fut le début de sa collaboration avec la revue Vogue, d’abord, comme modèle, ensuite, comme photographe professionnel. En 1929, elle revient à Paris, là, où elle préfère vivre. Elle se propose d’apprendre la photographie et choisit Man Ray comme professeur. Pendant 4 ans, elle entretient une relation impétueuse avec celui-ci et lui sert de modèle et de muse en même temps. Il va l’initier dans les mystères de l’art photographique. Ensemble, ils découvrent la méthode de la solarisation des images. Elle connaît l’avant-garde et s’intègre dans son tourbillon : Paul Eluard, Max Ernst, Pablo Picasso, Victor Brauner et Roland Penrose (qui sera son mari) seront ses amis pour toute la vie. Picasso lui fait quelques portraits. Lorsqu’elle quitte Ray, ce dernier, bouleversé par la douleur, exécute son célèbre ouvrage Objet à détruire, représentant un métronome sur le bras duquel était collée la photo de l’œil de Lee ; il a aussi réalisé sa peinture de grandes dimensions Le temps de l’observatoire (également connue sous le nom de Les amoureux) où, les lèvres surdimensionnées de la bien-aimée flottent sur le ciel taché de nuages, au-dessus de l’Observatoire Astronomique de Paris. Après un mariage heureux – mais ennuyeux – avec un magnat égyptien, elle retrouve sa liberté toujours parmi les artistes surréalistes, partageant la maison et les voyages avec Roland Penrose. En 1938, après des vacances en Grèce, ils se dirigent vers Bucarest, armés d’une lettre de recommandation de la part de Victor Brauner adressée à son frère, le musicologue Harri Brauner. Ils parcourent ensemble le pays dans l’automobile de Lee, un Packard solide. Le folkloriste passionné a eu la grande chance de bénéficier de la collaboration d’une femme photographe douée et renommée. C’est pourquoi il lui demande de documenter cette excursion, d’immortaliser des gens, des costumes, des habitudes, des formes d’habitat, des instruments musicaux et l’atmosphère du village roumain traditionnel. Le résultat de ce voyage à Târgu Jiu, Tismana, Hurez, Sibiu, Făgăraş, Braşov, Bran, Turtucaia, Silistra, Balcic et aux monastères du Bucovine se matérialise dans plus de 500 clichés d’une grande valeur artistique et documentaire, exécutés avec un appareil Rolleiflex. Penrose, à son tour, écrit un poème surréaliste, publié en 1939, The Road is Wider than Long, illustré avec ses propres photographies. L’éclat de la Guerre mondiale surprend Lee en Angleterre. En même temps que le départ sur le front de nombreux photographes, les éditeurs du périodique Vogue engagent Lee, en janvier 1940, pour fournir le matériel illustratif nécessaire à la version britannique de la revue. En 1944, dans sa qualité de citoyen américain, elle est accréditée comme correspondent de guerre. Dans cette posture, habillée d’un élégant uniforme, de commande, elle arrive de nouveau à Paris, peu après la libération et revoit ses amis, Picasso, Eluard. Elle rend visite à la misanthrope femme écrivain Colette et lui sollicite une interview, elle prend des photos de Jean Cocteau, Jean Marais, Maurice Chevalier, Marlene Dietrich et Fred Astaire, venu en Europe pour amuser les troupes. Elle ne se limite plus à prendre des photos, mais elle écrit également les textes qui les accompagnent, avec un réel talent de journaliste. Ses articles surprenaient les réalités du moment, avec concision et humour. Ensuite, suivant les divisions américaines dans leur évolution vers l’est elle assiste à leur rencontre avec les troupes russes sur l’Elba, à Torgau. Elle est marquée par les horreurs des camps de concentration de Buchenwald et Dachau. Elle immortalise les restes du pont Hohenzollern sur le Rhin, à Cologne, puis, les ruines de Francfort et Bonn. A Munich, elle prend un bain dans la baignoire de 161 l’appartement d’Adolf Hitler et s’endort sur le lit d’Eva Braun, dans la villa si discrète et banale qu’elle avait dans la même ville. L’automne de 1945 la surprend à Vienne, le 25 octobre, elle arrive en Hongrie où elle passe les fêtes du Noël et du Nouvel An, et en janvier 1946, elle vient dans notre pays. Ses impressions de voyage, les aventures, les surprises et les rencontres avec des personnalités marquantes – tel que le Roi Michel I et la Reine Mère Hélène, les hommes politiques Iuliu Maniu, Dinu Bratianu et Lucretiu Patrascanu – ainsi qu’une sélection de photographies sont publiées dans le numéro du mois de mai 1946 de la revue Vogue, les versions américaine et britannique également, revue nommée en argot Brogue (de British Vogue). Aux appels insistants de Roland Penrose, elle revient à Londres où ils vont se marier, en 1947, peu avants la naissance de leur fils unique, Antony. Ils s’installent à Farley Farm, une zone rurale tranquille, où le petit garçon gambade entouré d’animaux domestiques et découvre la nature. C’est là qu’ils étaient visités par des célébrités de la vie culturelle et artistique du temps, dont le plus cher était l’espiègle et le raisonnable Picasso sur lequel Penrose a récemment écrit un livre émouvant, The Boy Who Bit Picasso. Après la mise au monde du petit garçon, Lee n’a plus été attirée par la photographie et, pendant les dernières années de sa vie, elle a trouvé sa vocation de cuisinière inspirée. Elle est morte en 1977, en laissant derrière un fabuleux héritage iconographique, découvert dans le grenier de la maison et valorisé pendant ces dernières décennies seulement. Antony Penrose a parcouru une partie du tracé fait par sa mère en 1946. À Sinaia, il a cherché, avec obstination, la place du cimetière des aviateurs et des soldats américains morts pendant les raids au-dessus des champs pétroliers de Ploieşti, dont l’image a été conservée dans plusieurs cadres de sa mère. Il ne l’a pas trouvé, car, paraît-il, les restes ont été exhumés et enterrés ailleurs. Il a pu, en échange, visiter le cimetière militaire britannique de Tâncabeşti, près de Bucarest. Au Palais de Peleş, il a cherché les angles d’où Lee a pris les images avec la Reine Hélène, assise dans l’un des balcons au-dessus du hall d’honneur, près de l’échelle en spirale, abondamment sculptée, ou la place d’où lui a posé le roi Michel Ier, dans la Galerie des Armes, ayant, à ses pieds, un beau chien loup. Les deux conférences, accompagnées d’images éloquentes, ont été tenues au Musée d’Art de Braşov et à l’Université Nationale de Beaux-Arts. À Braşov, le sujet a été Lee Miller et Roland Penrose à Farley Farm, à Bucarest, Hand Grenades like Cartier Clips. Toutes les deux ont eu un important public universitaire et ont eu un grand succès. À la fin, les étudiants ont posé beaucoup de questions au conférencier, ils se sont intéressés quand pourront-ils visiter la projetée exposition „Lee Miller en Roumanie”, l’atmosphère a été des plus cordiales. Ainsi, l’oeuvre d’une grande artiste photographe du XXe siècle témoigne de sa pérennité par l’intérêt suscité à la jeune génération du XXIe siècle. Adrian-Silvan Ionescu CAROL POPP DE SZATHMARI – EN FOTOPIONJAR I KUNGL. BIBLIOTEKETS SAMLINGAR, Institut Culturel Roumain de Stockholm, le 4 avril 2011 Récemment, le public – roumain et suédois – a été informé de la découverte d’une belle collection d’images de Carol Popp de Szathmari (1812-1887), important pionnier roumain de la photographie. Cette découverte n’est pas nouvelle : il y a 25 ans, Dan Şafran – l’actuel directeur de l’Institut Culturel Roumain de Stockholm – dans sa qualité de bibliothécaire de la Bibliothèque Royale (Kungl.Biblioteket), a trouvé, à la cote no. 182 E 22, sous l’étiquette Paysages roumains, un 162 portefeuille rouge contenant 30 photographies de monuments et de paysages du pays. Ce qui est étonnant c’est que ce portefeuille ne se trouvait pas dans le Cabinet d’Estampes et de Photographies, comme il serait normal, mais dans un rayon, à côté d’autres livres – et c’est là, peut-être, la cause de l’absence d’informations des chercheurs intéressés par l’histoire de la photographie. La mappe avait sur sa couverture le monogramme du prince Eugène, grand collectionneur et patron des arts, qui l’avait donnée à la bibliothèque en 1903. Le prince Eugène-Napoléon-Nicolas, duc de Nericie, était le fils cadet du roi Oscar II et de la reine Sophie – qui était la tante de la reine Elizabeth de Roumanie – et frère du roi Gustav V (1858-1950). On ignore le contexte dans lequel ce précieux portefeuille est entré dans la possession du passionné prince suédois. Il n’y a que des suppositions concernant un possible cadeau fait par le roi Charles I à ses invités, le roi Oscar et la reine Sophie, pendant leur visite au Château de Peleş. Leur séjour laisse derrière un souvenir amusant, mais moins agréable pour les souverains suédois : un soir, tard après le souper, en se promenant à travers les galeries du château tout en admirant les tableaux de la collection royale, sans connaître les règles strictes imposées par le sobre monarque de Roumanie, ils se sont soudainement trouvés dans le noir. À 23 heures précises, pour que tous les locataires – qu’ils soient d’origine royale ou personnel de service, tout simplement – bénéficient des heures nécessaires de sommeil, sans perdre la nuit dans des futilités, le roi avait l’habitude d’interrompre le courant électrique dans l’entier édifice ; il le faisait de sa propre chambre où se trouvait le commutateur. Les invités suédois ont passé une nuit misérable, étendus sur les banquettes froides, en marbre, dans l’impossibilité de trouver leurs chambres. Le temps est passé et, préoccupé par d’autres affaires, le découvreur a oublié sa découverte. Il y a un an, en 2010, l’historien de l’art Alexandru Baboş, qui était en train de soutenir sa thèse de doctorat, a trouvé les mêmes images lorsqu’il complétait sa documentation académique. C’est à ce moment-là qu’est née l’idée d’organiser une exposition sous le titre Carol Popp de Szathmari – en fotopionjar i Kungl.Bibliotekets samlingar, ouverte le 4 avril 2011 dans les beaux salons de l’Institut Culturel Roumain de Stockholm. Grâce à mes contributions liées à l’œuvre photographique de Szathmari, je fus invité à voir les ouvrages, à les encadrer dans la période de création de l’auteur et à tenir une conférence sur son activité dans le monde des arts visuels. À l’ouverture de l’exposition, une table ronde fut organisée et le prof. dr. Mircea Iliescu, dr. Anna Dahlgren, chercheur à Nordiska Museet, Leif Wigh, historien de la photographie et nous-mêmes, nous avons pris la parole. Mircea Iliescu, réputé chercheur du Moyen Âge, a tenu son discours en suédois et il a mentionné la contribution de Szathmari à la connaissance, autant dans le pays qu’à l’étranger, des monuments médiévaux de Roumanie grâce aux albums ou aux planches disparates présentées aux expositions ou commercialisées aux amateurs. Ensuite, ce fut le tour de notre exposé, en anglais, accompagnée de projections. L’œuvre de Szathmari a été placée dans le contexte de l’époque, en soulignant ses contributions à la diversification du langage plastique et à l’évolution de la photographie d’art, ainsi qu’à l’exploration de nouveaux genres, tel que la photographie de guerre et l’ethno- photographie. Nous avons également présenté une étude comparée entre les planches conservées dans le patrimoine de la Bibliothèque Royale et celles qui se trouvent dans les collections roumaines. Szathmari qui, depuis 1863 était peintre et photographe de la Cour princière des Principautés Unis, ensuite de la Cour royale de Roumanie, a réalisé plusieurs albums pendant sa longue et riche carrière. Il a commencé et a gagné sa célébrité avec l’album dans lequel il a présenté les premières images de guerre et les visages des commandants de la campagne 163 danubienne avec laquelle avait débuté la Guerre de Crimée et qu’il avait prises, en avril 1854, à Oltenitsa et Silistra, entre les lignes des combattants russes et ottomans – risquant de devenir la cible des canonniers turcs qui l’ayant pris pour espion, ont ouvert le feu sur lui, mais, heureusement, sans le blesser. Grâce à cette réalisation qui le consacre en tant que premier photoreporter de guerre, il est reçu en audiences privées et amples par l’empereur Napoléon III de France et par la reine Victoria de la Grande Bretagne, qui l’ont comblé de louanges et de décorations. L’album a été remarqué, comme une pièce précieuse, à l’Exposition Universelle de Paris, en 1855, à laquelle l’auteur avait participé en qualité d’exposant privé, sans affiliation aux pavillons nationaux. Un autre album, aux images de petites dimensions, du type carte de visite, avait été offert, en 1863, à la princesse Elena Cuza. Sur la page de titre, l’auteur avait écrit, en encre de chine et aquarelle, le titre Souvenir de la Roumanie. Les tonalités suggéraient le drapeau national. Il y a eu ensuite un album dans lequel il avait rassemblé, en 1867, des images document avec la métropolie Curtea de Arges qui allait être restaurée – à l’aide d’une méthode radicale comportant la démolition jusqu’à la fondation et la reconstruction – par l’architecte André Lecomte du Nouy. Enfin, l’œuvre majeure de sa vie fut l’ouvrage monumental, datant de 1869, Roumanie. Album de SM le Prince Carol I, dans lequel se retrouvent les images des églises les plus importantes de Bucarest et de la Valachie. Un pays dans un album c’est le titre, très inspiré, choisi par la feue chercheuse allemande d’origine roumaine Karin Schuller-Procopovici (1954-2011) pour son étude dédiée à cette œuvre imposante, publiée dans le volume Silber und Salz, édité, en 1989, à Cologne, à l’occasion de la fête de 150 ans depuis la découverte de la photographie. Et telle était la réalité : un pays concentré dans un seul album dans lequel on pouvait admirer, sur des planches de dimensions appréciables (30 x 36 cm), des monuments, des paysages sauvages et des types humains dans des costumes traditionnels. Pour obtenir des images aussi grandes il fallait employer un appareil sur mesure, parce que la technique était celle du cliché sur verre, couvert de collodion humide. Les négatifs étaient copiés, par contacte, sur papier sensible, traité d’albumine. Les 30 photographies exposées à l’Institut Culturel Roumain représentent une sélection du fond plus grand qui constittue l’album Roumanie. L’exemplaire qui se trouve à la Bibliothèque de l’Académie Roumaine contient plus de 60 planches. Pour le portefeuille de Stockholm on a choisi les compositions avec les églises et les monuments d’architecture, en excluant les paysages naturels – tels que les Bucegi, la Vallée de Prahova, les sources de Bistritsa, Dâmbovicioara – et les groupes de paysans costumés pour la fête. Szathmari faisait une documentation systématique, en prenant d’abord des images d’ensemble du complexe monastique, placé dans un cadre naturel, ensuite, il continuait avec une focalisation sur le bâtiment principal, pour passer, finalement, aux détails – le porche, la porte, les sculptures sur les encadrements des fenêtres, les tours, les joyaux de l’église respective. Il a également surpris des moments de la festivité de l’accueil du prince régnant Carol I aux monastères de Nămăeşti, Cernica et Pasărea – manque l’accueil de Rucăr et Petroşiţa, qui figure dans l’exemplaire de Bucarest. Dans ces photographies ne figurent pas le prince et sa suite, il n’y a que les moines ou les religieuses, les hiérarques, l’évangile à la main, quelques paysans et les officialités locales en train d’accueillir le prince. La nature statique, non plus, formée des joyaux de la métropolie de Câmpulung ne figure pas dans l’exposition. Il y a, en échange, des planches qui ne se retrouvent pas dans l’album de la Bibliothèque de l’Académie, provenant d’autres portefeuilles du maître bucarestois : les églises Bucur et Radu Vodă, la Tour Coltsea, les crânes des 164 princes Radu Vodă et Michel le Brave du Monastère Dealul, l’église métropolitaine de Curtea de Argeş en trois variantes, provenant de l’album dédié par Szathmari, à cet édifice, en 1867. On peut également admirer les monastères Cozia et Hurezi et des détails de leurs porches, le Monastère Bistritsa, le Monastère Sinaia, surpris d’un angle plongeant, la Tour Baraţie et la Métropolie de Câmpulung, ainsi que la croix de Matei Basarab, dans la même localité, l’église Flâmânda, les ruines du palais princier de Târgovişte, les monastères Peştera et Cernica, la Métropolie de Bucarest, les églises Coltzea, Antim et St. Spiridon le Nouveau. Tout comme dans les autres albums, chaque image porte la légende écrite par la main de l’auteur, en encre de chine noire, en lettres capitales d’imprimerie. De plus, elles sont signées, à droite, en bas, toujours en majuscules, C. Szathmari. Au long de sa vie, Szarhmari a été une personnalité marquante, de taille internatio- nale. Ernest Lacan, l’un des premiers chroniqueurs de la photographie et principal signataire des articles de la revue La Lumière, organon de presse de la Société Française de Photographie, avait reconnu son mérite de premier reporter de guerre et lui avait consacré tout un chapitre dans son ouvrage Esquisses photographiques. A propos de l’Exposition Universelle et de la Guerre d’Orient (Paris, 1856). En 1864, Szathmari était reçu membre de la Société Française de Photographie, où il avait déjà exposé en 1859, et, en 1870, membre dans l’organisation similaire de Vienne. Après notre exposé, il y a eu un dialogue avec les autres invités, modéré par Anna Dahlgren. Ella a affirmé qu’elle n’a trouvé aucune autre documentation en anglais sur Szathmari, à l’exception de notre étude, publiée en 2009, dans la revue Centropa. Elle a comparé entre eux ce portefeuille du maître roumain et les quelques volumes de l’imposant The North American Indian de Edward S. Curtis, qui, grâce à l’intérêt pour l’ethnographie, se trouvent dans la bibliothèque de Nordiska Museet. Leif Wigh a offert plusieurs détails techniques liés à la photographie avec collodion humide, employé par Szathmari et tous ses contemporains. La découverte, dans la Bibliothèque Royale Suédoise, de cet album oublié témoigne de l’intérêt dont bénéficiaient l’œuvre photographique et le style documentaire que le réputé artiste a pratiqué avec dévouement pendant toute sa vie, en l’abordant dans des techniques diverses, du crayon aquarelle et huile jusqu’au cliché avec collodion humide et ayant comme résultat des images d’une grande force évocatrice. Adrian-Silvan Ionescu DOCUMENTATION AUX ARCHIVES LEE MILLER DE FARLEY FARM HOUSE, CHIDDINGLY, EAST SUSSEX GRANDE BRETAGNE, 14-22 MAI 2011 Entre le 14 et 22 mai 2011, j’ai été invité par M. Antony Penrose, directeur des Archives Lee Miller de Farley Farm House, Chiddingly, East Sussex, à entreprendre une recherche dans ces archives. On sait bien que sa mère, le photographe Lee Miller, a visité deux fois la Roumanie, en 1938 et en 1946 lorsqu’elle a fait une suite de photographies particulièrement intéressantes autant dans le milieu rural que dans le milieu urbain, en finissant par portraiturer la famille royale elle-même et quelques personnes politiques importantes. Dans sa première visite, elle a exécuté plus de 500 images, et pendant la deuxième, presque 400. J’ai eu de longues conversations avec M. Penrose au sujet des archives photographiques de sa mère, on m’a présenté les dépôts, le fichier et la manière d’inventorier dont s’occupe une équipe de jeunes muséographes et archivistes. J’ai eu l’occasion d’étudier les manuscrits de Lee Miller, prêts à paraître dans la revue Vogue, pour laquelle elle avait été correspondent de guerre et à laquelle elle avait contribué 165 avec des photos, accompagnées de textes témoignant qu’elle était, également, une bonne journaliste. En dehors de ma propre documentation – qui va se finaliser par une étude sur les impressions de voyage et les photographies de Lee Miller et, éventuellement, par un livre – j’ai pu me rendre utile à l’équipe coordonnée par M. Penrose par le procès d’identification de certains personnages immortalisés par sa mère en Roumanie, tel que Corneliu Coposu, dr. Ion Jovin et Aurel Leucuţia, ancien ministre de l’Economie Nationale dans les gouvernements Sănătescu et Rădescu, qui apparaissaient à côté de Iuliu Maniu, chef du Parti National Paysan. J’ai établi la location de certaines images prises au pays auprès de divers monuments historiques ou dans de diverses zones ethnographiques. Le musicologue Harri Brauner, un proche du photographe Lee Miller, qui avait établi son trajet à travers le pays et l’avait accompagnée dans ses pérégrinations, en même temps que sa femme, Lena Constante, apparaissaient dans plusieurs cadres, où la sympathie de l’invitée vis-à-vis de ses hôtes attentionnées était évidente. Etant donné que, pendant ma visite, à Farley Farm se déroulait une manifestation liée à l’éclat de la Deuxième Guerre mondiale lorsque, dans la première phase du conflit, Londres était bombardée par Luftwaffe, j’ai eu également l’occasion de voir la collection de photographies réalisées pour un album de propagande, Grim Glory : pictures of Britain under fire. Quoique destiné à relever les conséquences tragiques de l’agression et la courageuse résistance des Britanniques, l’album avait aussi des images avec un message pluri- sémantique qui se prêtait à des décodifications variées, en fonction du bagage culturel de celui qui regarde. Les cadres qui s’offraient à l’immortalisation étaient lus dans une manière très personnelle par l’inspiré photographe, contaminé par l’esprit surréaliste. Lee Miller trouve des motifs d’amusement, en dépit du dramatisme de la situation, comme, par exemple, les deux oies photographiées à travers une grille en fil de fer, ayant au fonds un énorme ballon captif employé contre les attaques aériennes. La légende elle-même est admirablement choisie par l’emploi d’un amusant jeu de mots faisant allusion à la forme d’œuf qu’a le ballon, Eggceptional Achievement – egg ayant en anglais la signification d’œuf. Au cas d’une machine à écrire Remington, détruite pendant le bombardement, elle a choisi la légende Remington Silent. Pour cet événement j’ai aidé M. Penrose à monter sur des mannequins les uniformes de ses parents portées pendant la guerre, respectivement, la tenue de correspondent de guerre américain de sa mère et le veston de capitaine dans Home Guard de son père. Je considère que cette documentation a eu des résultats salutaires concernant l’œuvre photographique de Lee Miller. Adrian-Silvan Ionescu *** Ioana Vlasiu, chef du Département de l’art moderne et contemporain de l’Institut d’histoire de l’art «G. Oprescu», a participé a l’Assemblée Générale de RIHA (International Association of Research Institutes in Art History) qui a eu lieu entre le 4 et 7 novembre 2010, à Bruxelles, à l’invitation de l’IRPA/KIK (Institut Royal du Patrimoine Artistique). *** Contemporary Art Practices on Printmaking: A short survey of an inclusive medium is the lecture held by Marcelo Balzaretti (Mexico) on 24th of November 2010, organized by Olivia Nitis and C. Cinalea in the frame of Experimental Project Association in partnership with the Institute of Art History “G. Oprescu” of the 166 Romanian Academy. Marcelo Balzaretti was born Mexico City where he lives and works. He is founder of the Printmaking Workshop at Mexico City Arts and Crafts Factory FARO where he teaches since 2000. His work has been shown in important museums and art centers in the world and he was recipient of the National Fund for Arts and Culture Young Artists Fellowship two times, in 2002 and 2006. In 2007 he was awarded with the first prize of the National Biennial of Art in Yucatan, Mexico. His lecture was a relevant insight in the field of experimental printmaking taking into account the techniques and materials used in contemporary Mexican printmaking in a close relation to the way in which printmaking has evolved and shifted during the centuries of art history. Printmaking is not only influenced by the new media in contemporary times, but it is also used with different purposes. An important aspect of his lecture was the analysis of the printmaking techniques as an expression of error in a fully conscious or unconscious manner. *** Intitulée A documenta realul. Fotografiile, filmele si picturile lui Ion Grigorescu, la conférence d’Ileana Pârvu, tenue le 7 mars 2011 à l’Institut d’Histoire de l’Art «G. Oprescu» , examinait principalement les œuvres de l’artiste datant des années 1970. Dès lors que le choix du médium photographique est compris comme une tentative d’enregistrement objectif du réel, il s’agit de situer la pratique de Ion Grigorescu par rapport à l’art conceptuel américain. Dans l’œuvre de Grigorescu, la veine documentaire ne se limite pas aux travaux portant sur la vie et l’habitat dans diverses villes roumaines et la conférencière s’est interrogée sur ce qu’il en est du fait de documenter dans les films dont le matériau est le corps de l’artiste. L’aspect vieilli que l’artiste imprime à ses œuvres induit une interrogation sur la construction de leur temporalité et soulève la question des rapports du document avec le passé. *** With the support of the Romanian Cultural Institute in London Olivia Nitis, research assistant in the Institute of Art History “G. Oprescu”, had a two weeks residency in April 2011 that allowed her to research the n.paradoxa archive and to meet Katy Deepwell, n. paradoxa editor. n. paradoxa is the only academic publication dedicated to feminist art theory and practice, founded in 1998. This archive comprises relevant aspects also reflecting the Eastern European feminist art theory and practices before and after the fall of the Iron Curtain. 
work_npxvevzt5rdwdkxyqgrzaxxsym	----	The continuum of causality in human genetic disorders Katsanis Genome Biology (2016) 17:233 DOI 10.1186/s13059-016-1107-9 OPINION Open Access The continuum of causality in human genetic disorders Nicholas Katsanis Abstract Studies of human genetic disorders have traditionally followed a reductionist paradigm. Traits are defined as Mendelian or complex based on family pedigree and population data, whereas alleles are deemed rare, common, benign, or deleterious based on their population frequencies. The availability of exome and genome data, as well as gene and allele discovery for various conditions, is beginning to challenge classic definitions of genetic causality. Here, I discuss recent advances in our understanding of the overlap between rare and complex diseases and the context-dependent effect of both rare and common alleles that underscores the need for revising the traditional categorizations of genetic traits. populations. Introduction At the start of the 20th century, a new post-modernist art movement, known as cubism, sought to deconstruct complex images into small geometrical shapes so that objects could be studied from multiple angles and viewpoints. An example of this type of art is Pablo Picasso’s Girl with a Mandolin (Fig. 1). Unbeknownst to the artists who propagated this aesthetic concept, the decomposition of complex problems into smaller, experimentally tractable parcels has in fact been a fundamental tenet of the scientific enterprise. In a cubist manner, complex multidimensional questions have been deconstructed, the ultimate aspiration being that once each compartment is understood we will be able to synthesize the complete image and gain clarity. Studies of human genetic disorders have traditionally, and faithfully, followed a reductionist paradigm. Human genetics typic- ally separates rare and complex disorders into separate categories; has stratified the effect of alleles on the basis of Correspondence: Nicholas.katsanis@duke.edu Center for Human Disease Modeling, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27701, USA © The Author(s). 2016 Open Access This artic International License (http://creativecommons reproduction in any medium, provided you g the Creative Commons license, and indicate if (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/ze their frequencies in populations; and has argued, passion- ately, over the contributions of rare versus common alleles in various disorders [1]. However, with the advent of data from the exomes and genomes of 105–106 people [2–5], including individuals diagnosed with particular disorders [6–10], it is clear that there is an imperfect fit between observation and traditional reductionist paradigms. For example, we have defined monogenic and polygenic traits on the basis of our perception of whether a phenotype is caused by mutations in one gene or many genes, with the ambiguous term “oligogenic” being using as an interme- diate construct. Likewise, we have delineated an arbitrary cutoff of a 1% allele frequency to label an allele as “rare” (and 0.1% for “ultra-rare”), even though these definitions are both non-quantitative in the strict sense and are derived from imperfect observations in a subset of human Challenging concepts in the study of monogenic human diseases The foundational question of how a genotype influences a phenotype or multiple phenotypes has propagated the development of categories labeled with the approximate titles and imperfect terms mentioned above. This is not a failure of the field. Rather, it is a sign of maturity; a signal that it is time to reconsider how best to put together our first-order constructs to generate an accurate biological understanding of human diseases. Like all events that drive higher-order synthesis, challenges remain in the study of the genetics of human disease, not least because it will be necessary to discard some of our preconceived notions and to develop new language that is capable of capturing and transmitting more complex information efficiently. Human genetics has, to date, exerted its greatest practical influence in the identification of genes and alleles that cause monogenic disorders. When considering the scope of current and planned projects [6–9], the ability to identify the “cause” of disease in most familial cases is likely to be limited. This is in part due to the fact le is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 .org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and ive appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver ro/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated. http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1186/s13059-016-1107-9&domain=pdf mailto:Nicholas.katsanis@duke.edu http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/ Fig. 1 Girl with a Mandolin. © 1910 Estate of Pablo Picasso. Reproduced with permission, Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York, USA Katsanis Genome Biology (2016) 17:233 Page 2 of 5 that definitions of monogenic and polygenic disorders are becoming less distinct, which challenges existing concepts in the field of human disease genetics. At the same time, it is becoming increasingly clear that many of the conceptual aids that we have used to get to this point require reevalu- ation and revision. We first consider perhaps the simplest concept: the concept of “one gene, one phenotype” [11]. We now understand that mutations in a single gene can drive nu- merous disorders in which the phenotype (or phenotypes) can be explained by the direction of a mutational effect (or mutational effects) at a single locus. Two examples of this are Kallman syndrome and Pfeiffer syndrome, both of which are characterized by distinct phenotypes that are caused by loss-of-function and gain-of-function muta- tions in FGFR1 (which encodes fibroblast growth factor receptor 1), respectively [12]. The contribution of muta- tional effects to other so-called “monogenic” diseases is less clear. In such cases, environmental and/or genetic modifiers can influence the observed phenotypes. One such example is Fuchs corneal dystrophy, which is one of two autosomal-dominant disorders caused by muta- tions in TCF4 (which encodes transcription factor 4); in this case, the disease can be defined as a non-penetrant Mendelian disorder or a complex trait [13], as modifier genes and/or environmental factors influence the observed phenotype [14]. For the discussed examples, a complex pattern of transcript splicing might explain the different phenotypes that are observed [15]. An extreme example might be the recessive loss-of-function mutations in CEP290 (which encodes centrosomal protein 290) that cause a range of conditions, from the relatively mild disor- ders Leber congenital amaurosis or nephronophthisis to the perinatally lethal Meckel-Gruber syndrome [16–20]. Perhaps the best-known example is allelic variation in CFTR (which encodes cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator); the same CFTR mutation can cause a range of conditions, from isolated male infertility [21] to severe lung disease [22], probably owing to the influence of genomic context. These exemplars are un- likely to be academic curiosities; emerging reports from exome-based clinical genetic tests are reporting “pheno- typic expansions”, which are defined as an increasing number of monogenic disorders that violate the “one gene, one phenotype” assumption. Presently, as many as ~25% of cases that have been exome sequenced in the clinical setting are being redefined [7]. Taking a cubist view, interpreting CFTR mutational data might be thought of as studying the pattern of a single cube, rather than looking at the relation of that cube to the whole “picture”. Following on from the need to revise the concept of “one gene, one phenotype” is that of necessity and suffi- ciency. For much of the Mendelian disease era, alleles propagated in families or large multigenerational pedi- grees have been described as both necessary and suffi- cient to cause disease; embedded in this concept is the notion that most alleles associated with Mendelian traits are penetrant. This concept is being challenged by the accrual of genomic data that are beginning to suggest that individuals vary in their tolerance of pathogenic mutations [23]; we are now aware of the presence of non-penetrant mutations in individuals with classically defined dominant or recessive traits [24]. Moreover, the traditional argument regarding the penetrance of Men- delian mutations may end up being circular, as the known alleles are those that were detected by available methods. The degree of phenotypic penetrance is influenced by stochastic forces, by imperfect phenotyping, sequencing, or annotation, and by the effect of genetic modifiers is yet to be determined. The degree to which phenotypic penetrance is influenced by stochastic forces, by imper- fect phenotyping, sequencing, or annotation, and by the effect of genetic modifiers is yet to be determined. Following on from the concept of necessity and suffi- ciency, a third concept that needs to be revised is the trad- itional paradigm that alleles associated with a rare disease are themselves rare in a population. This paradigm remains Katsanis Genome Biology (2016) 17:233 Page 3 of 5 largely true, although the phenotypic effect (or effects) of some rare alleles is now known to be potentiated by common alleles. These rare alleles sometimes map to the disease locus, as exemplified by a common regulatory variant in RET (which encodes RET proto-oncogene) that contributes to Hirschsprung disease [25] and a promoter polymorphism in FECH (which encodes ferrochelatase) that regulates the penetrance of a rare mutation further downstream in the same gene [26]. More recently, the phenomenon of cis-complementation was described; this phenomenon describes how the deleteriousness of an allele can be modulated by neutral alleles in the same gene or haplotype [27]. In other instances, the common allele is not present in the “Mendelian gene” but in a discrete locus. For example, a common permissive micro- satellite array at the D4Z4 locus modulates the penetrance of mutations in SMCHD1 (which encodes structural maintenance of chromosomes flexible hinge domain- containing protein 1) and causes facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy type 2 [28]. Similarly, an allele found in 3% of Europeans that potentiates an exonic splice enhancer in CCDC28B (which encodes coiled-coil domain- containing protein 28B) can modify the penetrance of a recurrent mutation in BBS1 (which encodes Bardet-Biedl syndrome 1) in patients with Bardet-Biedl syndrome [29]. Imagining a cubist’s interpretation of this landscape might lead us to dissolve or blend some of the current “hardfixed” boundaries that are used to define monogenic disorders. Critically, it might be important to re-evaluate the usage of deterministic language, such as the terms “causes” or “solved”, as such terms simply and inaccurately imply that monogenic disorders are penetrant and mini- mally variable and that alleles at Mendelian loci cannot be influenced by the surrounding genome. Refining our understanding of complex human disorders The traditional compartmentalization of complex disor- ders is also coming under scrutiny, and we are beginning to understand that the notion that drivers of common diseases are either exclusively common [30] or a collec- tion of rare alleles [31] is an empirical oversimplification [32]. The idea that both common alleles of small effect and rare alleles of large effect are integral constituents of the genetic architecture of complex traits is largely accepted [33]. The purist cubist might argue that some complex traits are a cluster of rare disorders, whereas others are truly complex. For example, age-related macu- lar degeneration is a paragon of complex trait analysis and became the first success story in the field of human disease genetics when genome-wide association studies found that a significant proportion of the genetic burden of disease was attributable to a common allele in CFH (which encodes complement factor H) [34–37]. However, rare alleles in a gene encoding another member of the complement pathway, CFI (which encodes complement factor I), have also been shown to be potent disease drivers [38], but they seem to behave in an almost Mendelian fashion because of their penetrance. In other complex traits, such as autism, the distinction between rare and common causative alleles is even more blurred; epidemio- logical and genomic studies have shown that most of the heritability of autism is due to common alleles, but penetrant de novo mutations can contribute substantially to an individual’s susceptibility to developing autism [39]. Post hoc examination of some of these rare, de novo alleles suggests that they have the capacity to cause syn- dromic phenotypes. An example of such an allele is the 16p11.2 deletion, which is found in >1% of cases of Autism spectrum disorder [40] and is associated with, for example, weight-regulation defects [41, 42], facial dysmorphisms and renal pathologies [43]. Similarly, re-examination of the mutational distribution of neurode- velopmental traits—including epileptic encephalopathy, intellectual disability, autism and schizophrenia—have shown extensive overlap [44]. In light of these findings, some might argue that some complex traits are a cluster of rare disorders, whereas others are truly complex. In the case of autism, for example, is it a constituent component of multiple rare syndromes or is it a continuum of variable expressivity and penetrance that does not fit neatly into either the Mendelian or the complex disease construct? In some ways, cubist deconstruction will teach us that the traditional artificial boundaries are heuristically help- ful but unnecessary, as key questions remain regarding the genetic variants that cause disease, the underlying molecular mechanisms of disease, and the direction of effect of variants associated with disease (i.e., whether they increase or decrease the expression or activity of the gene product). In this context, the rarity of some alleles and the strength of their effect on protein function have provided a bridge between rare and complex traits. For example, mutations in MC4R (which encodes melanocortin 4 receptor) cause a Mendelian form of severe obesity [45, 46] but have been proposed to predispose to adult-onset obesity under a complex trait model [47, 48]. Similarly, recessive mutations in BBS10 (which encodes Bardet- Biedl syndrome 10)—mutations in which cause the rare Bardet-Biedl syndrome, a multisystemic disorder that also manifests truncal obesity [49]—have been found in indi- viduals with morbid obesity and type 2 diabetes but no evidence of syndromic disease [50]. Although the pres- ence of mutations in MC4R or BBS10 in cohorts with adult-onset obesity informs us about the potential drivers of disease in only a miniscule number of individuals, they nonetheless teach us about two signaling cascades that are likely to be relevant to a larger proportion of patients. Similarly, although the contribution of CHD8 (which Katsanis Genome Biology (2016) 17:233 Page 4 of 5 encodes chromodomain helicase DNA binding protein 8) to autism will probably never exceed an infinitesimal proportion of the Autism spectrum disorder burden, understanding how the loss of CHD8 function affects neurodevelopment will be profoundly informative. Given the pace of allele discovery for both “monogenic” and “complex” traits, the discovery of alleles that provide causal evidence for particular loci, and those that establish the direction of effect, will increase dramatically and provide invaluable insights in terms of both biological understanding and drug discovery. Moving beyond traditional definitions of monogenic and polygenic human diseases Using the analogy of cubist art, how then should we move forward and reconstruct the art piece “Girl with a Mandolin” (Fig. 1) so that we can appreciate all of her facets and beauty as a whole? That is, how can we develop a more accurate understanding of human genetic diseases by taking a cubist approach? For clinical diagnosis the emphasis on rare penetrant alleles must persist in order to understand causality and develop interventionist stra- tegies; however, this must be coupled with improved statistical models for assessing the contribution of mul- tiple factors, both genetic and non-genetic, to complex traits. In age-related macular degeneration, for example, the susceptibility of individuals who carry a combination of risk genotypes and smoke is sufficiently high to be clinically meaningful and behaviorally actionable [51], whereas for other disorders, such as type 2 diabetes, a scale and a tape measure remain more effective diagnostic tools than a genetics-based approach. If the question is one of therapeutics, however, then disease frequency becomes less relevant and allele causality, direction of effect, and biochemical cascades become key. In both contexts, it will be important to start conside- ring not just individual alleles or genes, but biological modules and pathways in toto. For example, considering biological modules has informed penetrance and expres- sivity of ciliopathies [52] and also illuminated the genetic architecture of peripheral neuropathies [53]. Likewise, for complex traits, considering genes that encode voltage- gated calcium ion channels as a group has revealed a causal module in schizophrenia that might eventually be druggable [54]. Indeed, one could conceive a pathway or a macromolecular complex as “the locus” and treat it as such, from both genetic and drug-discovery standpoints. Finally, we should not lose sight of the fact that the con- cept of “mutation” signifies nothing more than variation from a reference genome and in itself does not carry a detrimental connotation. In that context, identifying either rare or common variation that is deleterious to protein function but beneficial to an organism might provide unexpected and orthogonal avenues for therapeutic development, as exemplified by the protective effect of loss-of function mutations in SLC30A8 (which encodes solute carrier family 30 member 8) to type 2 diabetes [55]. Welcome to the post-modernist era! Abbreviations ASD: Autism spectrum disorder; BBS1: Bardet-Biedl syndrome 1; BBS10: Bardet-Biedl syndrome 10; CCDC28B: Coiled-coil domain-containing protein 28B; CEP290: Centrosomal protein 290; CFH: Complement factor H; CFI: Complement factor I; CFTR: Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator; CHD8: Chromodomain helicase DNA binding protein 8; FECH: Ferrochelatase; FGFR1: Fibroblast growth factor receptor 1; MC4R: Melanocortin 4 receptor; RET: RET proto-oncogene; SLC30A8: Solute carrier family 30 member 8; SMCHD1: Structural maintenance of chromosomes flexible hinge domain-containing protein 1; TCF4: Transcription factor 4 Acknowledgments I thank Erica Davis and Patrick Sullivan for their critical evaluation and assistance in compiling this work and the investigators of the Center for Human Disease Modeling (Duke University Medical Center, NC, USA) for their thoughtful input. 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work_nqlksuqcwjfedlttcvqw7cagve	----	1 Fundamental conditions of human existence as the ground of life’s meaning: reply to Landau THADDEUS METZ Department of Philosophy, B-602 APK, University of Johannesburg, POB 524, Auckland Park, 2006, South Africa email: tmetz@uj.ac.za Abstract: Taking the good (generosity), the true (enquiry), and the beautiful (creativity) as exemplars of what can make a life noticeably meaningful, elsewhere I have advanced a principle that entails and plausibly explains all three. Specifically, I have proffered the view that great meaning in life, at least insofar as it comes from this triad, is a matter of positively orienting one’s rational nature towards fundamental conditions of human existence, conditions of human life responsible for much else about it. Iddo Landau has raised important objections to this principle, arguing in particular that contouring one’s rationality towards fundamentality is neither necessary nor sufficient for great meaning in life. In this article, I reply to Landau’s objections to the fundamentality account of what makes life very meaningful. I thereby aim to enrich reflection about what it is about the lives of Nelson Mandela, Mother Teresa, Albert Einstein, and Pablo Picasso that made them so significant as well as to indicate how fundamentality implicitly plays a key role in theistic conceptions of meaning in life. 2 Introduction In a previous issue of this journal, I published an article purporting to present a new and promising unified account of what confers great meaning on life (Metz 2011), by which I roughly mean those contingent facets of an individual human person’s existence that merit emotional reactions such as substantial pride, admiration, and perhaps even awe (Taylor (1989), 3–90; Kauppinen (2012), 352– 355; cf. Metz (2013), 24–35). Taking the classic final values of the good (generosity), the true (enquiry), and the beautiful (creativity) as exemplars of what can make a life noticeably meaningful, I sought a principle that would entail and plausibly explain all three. Specifically, I advanced the view that great meaning in life, at least insofar as it comes from this triad, is a matter of positively orienting one’s rational nature towards fundamental conditions of human existence, roughly, conditions of human life responsible for much else about it. In a subsequent issue of this journal, Iddo Landau (2013)1 critically engaged with this view, raising important objections to it that have advanced debate about the nature of what makes life meaningful. In this article, I intend to take the dialectic another step or two further by replying to Landau’s objections to the fundamentality theory of great meaning in life. Happily for me, Landau claims that I have succeeded in showing how the fundamentality theory avoids problems facing other, salient accounts of life’s meaning to be found in the literature (505) and that it is ‘much more attractive than others’ (512) for that reason. However, he launches new criticisms of my view, namely, that contouring one’s rationality towards fundamental conditions of human 3 existence is neither necessary nor sufficient for great meaning in life. With respect to the former, Landau points out, plausibly, that it appears that supporting merely necessary conditions for human existence, such as saving people’s lives, can be one substantial source of meaning in life. And in terms of the latter, Landau contends that it follows from my principle that merely understanding physical laws or works of art could confer great meaning on a life, whereas his hard to question intuition is that discovering or creating them, respectively, would be a much better candidate for that. These are the two claims of Landau’s that I am most concerned to address in this article, although I also take up some less urgent concerns of his, e.g. to the effect that it could be more clear what I mean by ‘fundamental’ conditions and that my account appears neither non-consequentialist nor essentially a matter of self- transcendence, as I had initially characterized it. Although I am naturally keen to clarify the nature of my account to readers, my ultimate purpose is to enrich reflection about what it is about the lives of Nelson Mandela, Mother Teresa, Albert Einstein, and Pablo Picasso that puts them on the higher end of the spectrum with regard to amount of meaning in life, as well as to indicate how fundamentality implicitly plays a key role in theistic conceptions of it. In the next section, I provide a brief overview of the fundamentality theory, sketching enough of it and its motivations to enable the reader to adjudicate the debate between myself and Landau. It is here that I explain more fully what I mean by ‘fundamental’, ‘non-consequentialism’, ‘self-transcendence’, and related terms that I had used to label the theory and why these terms still strike me as apt. Then, I take up Landau’s objection that positive orientation towards fundamental conditions of human existence could involve states that, while meaningful to some degree, are not to a great one. In the following section, I reply to Landau’s thoughtful criticism that 4 positive orientation towards necessary, but not fundamental, conditions of human existence could be meaningful to a great degree. I conclude by indicating how an appeal to fundamentality grounds a promising account of why, if God existed, devoted religious figures would have substantially meaningful lives, a view that secularists and naturalists have no reason to reject, but that they rarely acknowledge. The fundamentality theory The debate between me and Landau, and indeed between a large majority of contemporary theorists about what makes a human life meaningful, takes as relatively uncontroversial that certain lives have had great meaning in them in contrast to others. Most have presumed that the likes of Mandela, Mother Teresa, Einstein, and Picasso had particularly meaningful lives, even if they also had flaws, as human beings characteristically do. Their lives suggest that good deeds, insights, and artworks can confer great meaning on a life, or, more broadly, that moral action, intellectual reflection and aesthetic creation can do so. What, if anything, do these (along with other intuitive sources of meaning in life) have in common? A large majority of contemporary reflection among Anglo-American philosophers with respect to life’s meaning has been a search for a plausible answer to this question.2 Supernaturalists about meaning in life of course are inclined to call the good, the true, and the beautiful ‘spiritual’ (e.g. Steiner (1923); Cottingham (2005)), but on occasion one even finds a secularist doing so in light of their intuitively higher status, as ones beyond our own bodily pleasure (e.g. Gewirth (1998), 174–189). What property might unify this classic triad? My initial answer to this question was the following principle: (FT1) The good, the true, and the beautiful confer great meaning on life insofar as we positively orient our rational nature in a substantial way towards 5 fundamental conditions of human existence (Metz (2011), 401). I briefly explain what this initial version of the fundamentality theory says and then indicate why it is promising as a way to capture the great meaning one can obtain from generosity, enquiry, and creativity. One can think of fundamentality in either metaphysical or epistemic terms, and I tend to switch back and forth between them, as they normally track each other. Metaphysically fundamental conditions are those (mainly, causally) responsible for a wide array of other conditions in a given domain, while epistemically fundamental propositions are those that explain a wide array of other propositions in a given domain. Let me set aside issues of meaning in life briefly, in order to illustrate with some intuitive examples. With regard to water, H20 is fundamental to it, whereas the facts that it is wet, tasteless, odourless, and the like are not. A given one of the latter might well be a necessary condition of water and its other properties; a substance probably could not be water if it lacked such a property. However, the fact that water is tasteless is responsible for, or explains, very little else about water, whereas the fact that water is H20 accounts for much, including the others mentioned above, making the H20 fact fundamental and the others more surface. For another example to illustrate the distinction between fundamental conditions and ones that are not, consider the respective contributions of a janitor and a CEO to the operations of a business. Both are necessary tasks, in that the firm would cease to function, or at least efficiently, if no one were to undertake them.3 However, only the role of the CEO is fundamental to a firm, for that position determines much else about the firm, unlike the position of the janitor. In explanatory terms, the actions taken by a CEO are an independent variable for a wide array of 6 dependent variables with respect to the company, including the janitor’s position, whereas that is not the case for the janitor in respect of others, such as the CEO. These examples should begin to suggest that we prize fundamentality; it tends to be what we seek out theoretically and what we reward practically. However, when it comes to great meaning in life, I submit that we seek out fundamentality in particular domains regarding human life as such. Specifically, my suggestion is that a large part of what makes a person’s life particularly meaningful is that it positively orients her rational nature towards fundamental conditions of either a typical human person’s life, or the life of our species, or the environment in which we live. As per the above examples, a necessary condition of any of these domains is not essentially a fundamental one. To use a case that will be salient in the next section, the fact that an asteroid has not struck the earth is a necessary condition for much about human existence, but it is not fundamental, roughly because it causes and accounts for little of it.4 In his critical discussion, Landau points out that I have not used a term to pick out conditions that are not fundamental (508). However, simply speaking, as Landau often does, of ‘non-fundamental’ or ‘derivative’ is fine, although sometimes talk of ‘surface’ as opposed to ‘deep’, ‘disposable’ versus ‘irreplaceable’, and ‘trivial’ as against ‘significant’, will be apt, too. My hunch has been that such linguistically recurrent ways of speaking about meaningfulness point to something revealing about its nature qua positive orientation towards what is fundamental to human existence. With respect to the good, the true, and the beautiful, my account of in virtue of when and why they confer great meaning in life is that, at least in part, they involve substantial exercises of human intelligence directed towards fundamental conditions of human existence. Like many in the field, and with those inspired by Aristotle, 7 Aquinas, and Kant in particular, I take the exercise of our rational nature, as something distinct from what we share with the mineral, vegetable, and animal kingdoms, to be central to what makes our lives important. According to me, for great meaning to accrue, one’s rationality must be substantially engaged, e.g. by working hard and in a sophisticated manner, and it must be contoured towards a particular object, namely, one fundamental to human life. For example, what is responsible for much of a given person’s life are the choices she has made in light of reflection informed by the norms and values of the community in which she been reared. Mandela’s life was great insofar as he struggled in largely just ways for more than 30 years to overcome apartheid, which had greatly stunted and more generally degraded these conditions on the part of many black people. His life would have been much less important had he, say, instead trimmed many of their toenails or rescued them from chronic halitosis, conditions that have little import for other facets of a characteristic human life. For another example, what accounts for much about the human environment are space and time (among many other conditions). Einstein’s life was significant to the extent that he discovered how these operate with respect to the universe in a way it would not have been had he instead apprehended the number of redheads in Beiseker, Alberta, a proposition that would have explained few other propositions with regard to the place in which human beings live.5 For a last illustration, Guernica conferred notable meaning on Picasso’s life insofar as it is about war, a condition that explains much about the development of the human species. One could not apprehend much about human history were one to leave out discussion of large-scale conflict, quite unlike, e.g. facts about the 8 number of nostrils or toes we have, which, again, account for little of our characteristic experience. At this point, consider why I had labelled these explanations ‘non- consequentialist’ and ones that involve ‘self-transcendence’, both of which construals Landau doubts are apt. Although I do not believe much hangs on these characterizations and I would not want to grasp onto too them too firmly, I do suspect that they are fair and useful ways to differentiate my view from at least large classes of rivals. Landau maintains that my view is in fact consequentialist insofar as I clearly do maintain that the actual consequences of one’s actions are directly relevant to the amount of meaning conferred on one’s life (511–512). I maintain that success matters for meaning in a way that it does not for morality. Trying to make an innocent person’s life better and employing a strategy that is likely to be successful is sufficient in my view for permissible, and perhaps morally praiseworthy, action. In contrast, while I agree that this would confer some meaning on one’s life, much more meaning would accrue, I submit, insofar as the other person were in fact benefited thereby. So, I readily accept that part of what explains the great meaning to be found in Mandela’s and Mother Teresa’s lives is the fact that they succeeded in improving others’ lives. And this leads Landau to question my ‘non-consequentialist’ label for the fundamentality account. There are at least three respects in which (FT1) indeed falls under the heading ‘non-consequentialist’, despite implying that, ceteris paribus, the better the consequences one has produced (at least in certain ways), the more meaningful one’s life. First, the relevant consequences must be those caused by one’s rational nature, and by its intense exercise; the results must at least be foreseen (if not 9 intended) as well as hard to achieve, for substantial meaning to accrue. Unlike the ‘good cause’ theory of meaning in life recently introduced to the literature (Smuts (2013)), utterly accidental benefits would not count. Nor would the benefits of merely using a ‘result machine’ (Nozick (1974), 42–45), or at least not much. Second, the fundamentality theory is meant to include ‘constraints’ on the production of good consequences, something I did not emphasize in the article Landau discusses (but see Metz (2013), 187–191). Many intuitions indicate that using particularly degrading actions as a means undercuts the ability of improved long-term well-being one has brought about to confer meaning on one’s life. For a doctor intentionally to kill someone with a cold in order to save five other good lives with his organs confers no, or very little, meaning, in contrast to the views of a classic consequentialist who, again, cares not about the means employed to bring about the good. Consider, for instance, a plain reading of Peter Singer’s account of how to maximize meaning in life ((1993), 314–335). Third, and something I also did not mention in the initial article, implicit in the fundamentality theory is the ‘agent-relative’ idea that where, and not merely how (à la the first two points), one realizes the good makes a difference, again contra Singer, who is explicit that acting from the ‘point of view of the universe’ is what makes one’s life matter most ((1993), 314–335). To illustrate what I have in mind,6 think of a married couple, both of whom are talented, indeed so talented that they have precisely calculated that the best results would be produced in the long run if the wife stayed home and supported the husband in his professional career, more than if they both worked and shared the domestic labour. Suppose that the amount of extra excellence or virtue realized by the husband through his work would be marginal relative to the other option. On a consequentialist view, the higher the overall amount 10 of excellence one has produced, the more meaningful one’s life, entailing that, to maximize meaning in her life, the wife ought to stay home and support the husband. But that is counterintuitive, and meant to be ruled out by (FT1). Even if the wife had worked hard at home to enable her husband to promote excellence in himself and others, to a slightly higher degree than that of which she were capable, she would have had more meaning in her life if she had instead exhibited quite a lot of excellence in herself. (FT1)’s emphasis on one’s rational nature is supposed to capture that intuition. However, I worry about the way I initially phrased the fundamentality theory as strictly focused on orienting ‘our’ rational nature, which might suggest that it is only by exercising one’s own rationality that meaning can accrue. I also want to account for the intuition that helping others to exercise their rationality in the relevant ways can be meaning-conferring. The wife above would obtain some meaning by virtue of helping her husband exhibit virtue, and surely being a lecturer can be (very) meaningful, and not merely because one has utilized one’s own deliberative faculties, but also because one has enabled (and cajoled) students to use theirs. To make that clear, as well as to make explicit the deontological aspects, I suggest working with the following: (FT2) The good, the true, and the beautiful confer great meaning on life insofar as one, without violating certain moral constraints against degrading sacrifice, employs one’s reason and in ways that positively orient rationality in a substantial way towards fundamental conditions of human existence. This version makes it more clear that meaning comes in the first instance by using one’s own intelligence in the relevant ways, and can also come by getting others to do so, ideally consequent to that. 11 Supposing, then, that the ‘non-consequentialist’ label is reasonable, what about ‘self-transcendence’? By the latter I had had in mind views according to which one’s life is more meaningful, the more one goes beyond some feature of one’s nature, either by actualizing some other feature in oneself or connecting up with something outside of oneself. Views associated with Aristotle, for example, are called ‘self-realization’ accounts, according to which one’s basic justificatory reason for action is developing one’s higher nature or moving away from one’s lower. I had something similar in mind with the fundamentality theory. By this view, one’s life is more meaningful, the more one employs one’s rational nature in a vigorous and intense manner and does so in relation to fundamental conditions of human life, a view that contrasts with, say, getting one’s own desires satisfied (Taylor (1970), 319– 334; Trisel (2002)) or maximizing others’ pleasure in the long run (see also Irving Singer (1996), 101–140), theories that are salient in the literature. Landau notes I am implicitly committed to the view that creating a work of art or discovering a new fact is a greater instance of self-transcendence than is merely apprehending one of these existents, and he is not clear how that might be the case (507–508). My response is two-fold. First, exercising one’s rationality in original ways is intuitively to get farther away from one’s animal or lower nature than is merely using it to copy what someone else has done. In addition to the process, there is, second, the product. The formation of something that had not existed before, consequent to the use of imagination, is to change the environment in ways that nothing else on the planet can and so is also intuitively higher. However, if these explanations seem forced, I would not mind dropping the title of ‘self-transcendence’. There is much more that could be said to clarify and to motivate the fundamentality theory of what makes life particularly meaningful, at least insofar as 12 that is constituted by the good, the true, and the beautiful. However, this analysis should be enough for the reader to grasp the import of Landau’s two most important criticisms of it. Fundamentality as not sufficient for great meaning Landau’s first major objection to the fundamentality theory is that contouring rationality towards fundamental conditions is not always enough to obtain great meaning. He points out that those ‘who just study or understand’ (507) the works of Einstein or Picasso are positively orienting or contouring their intelligence towards fundamental conditions, but are not intuitively obtaining great meaning thereby. Landau also notes that some people, with somewhat lesser native abilities or education, might be working very hard indeed simply to grasp the basics of what these giants have accomplished, and so could count as exercising their rationality ‘in a substantial way’ as per the theory. But, again, Landau maintains, it would be only Einstein or Picasso who has the great meaning, not the average Joe or plain Jane trying to make sense of their accomplishments. I do not at all question Landau’s intuitions,7 and so must either clarify or revise the theory in order to account for them. As Landau notes (507), I have been aware of this issue and initially suggested the strategy of construing the fundamentality theory to require an advancement, so as to differentiate the great meaning from the not so great (Metz (2011), 404–405). That would seem to distinguish Einstein and Picasso, on the one hand, from the first-year physics or art student, on the other. And here is where things get particularly interesting. Landau objects that such a reply is inadequate for failing to capture the respects in which great meaning can come from preventing a decline. Preventing an asteroid from striking the earth, curing HIV/AIDS, stopping global warming, and myriad other ways of reducing the bad 13 would be no less meaning-conferring than producing the good. However, speaking of an ‘advancement’ as the key to great meaning to Landau suggests only the latter condition. As a first response, it is worth considering whether I may plausibly understand the concept of advancement to include the idea of preventing a decline. In particular, one might suggest that one makes an advancement insofar as the state of affairs of which one is the (proximate) cause is much better than what would have obtained in the absence of one’s intervention. Just as without Picasso, we would not have had Guernica and other masterpieces, so without the cure for HIV/AIDS, we would not have had many more (good) lives. However, this principle entails that one would get no credit for doing something that someone else would have done had one not. It is no defence against murder to say that if you had not killed the innocent person for the insurance money, someone else would have. One can be liable for blame for an action, even if someone else would have performed the same type at about the same time. Similarly, one can be liable for praise for an action, even if someone else would have done it. An inventor can be rightly admired for (and proud of) being the first to have created an ingenious gadget, even if someone else was hot on her heels. It is therefore a strike against my suggested understanding of advancement that it entails that a person’s life would be no more meaningful for curing HIV/AIDS, if someone else would have done it soon after. It is natural at this point instead to propose the following: one makes an ‘advancement’ in the relevant sense if and only if one is the proximate cause of a state of affairs that is much better than what would have obtained in the absence of the type of one’s intervention. This construal of advancement avoids the problem 14 facing the initial version, while also capturing Landau’s solid intuition that preventing a decline can make one’s existence significant. However, as it stands, this principle appears to have the odd implication that one could obtain great meaning in life merely by pressing a button that diverts an incoming asteroid, even in the case where a billion other people would have readily pressed the button had you not. Although some meaning might accrue for being the button-presser, it would be a stretch to say that it was great meaning, here. As a final response, I believe that the problem is probably resolved upon considering in more detail not what ‘advancement’ means, but rather what is involved in speaking of exercising reason ‘in a substantial way’, both of which are plausibly essential for great meaning in life. Landau, as I indicated above, reads the latter phrase as relative to the capacities of a specific individual, so that someone who is on the dull and uneducated side can be said to have exercised her intelligence ‘substantially’ if she struggles a lot. However, I mean to exclude such a relativist sense, for it instead appears to be the difficulty of a project not merely for the one engaging in it, but also for characteristic human beings8, that is relevant to whether an action can confer great meaning or not. In rough summation, neither hard work that fails to advance, nor advancement without hard work, is sufficient for great meaning. The fundamentality theory should be understood to require both, this way: (FT3) The good, the true, and the beautiful confer great meaning on life insofar as one, without violating certain moral constraints against degrading sacrifice, employs one’s reason and in ways that positively orient rationality well beyond characteristic human functioning towards fundamental conditions of human existence and thereby make an advancement compared to what would have 15 obtained in the absence of the type of one’s rational engagement (cf. Metz (2013), 235–237). The principle is losing any hope of becoming a slogan, but is gaining in precision and plausibility. (FT3) can now be seen to provide a plausible sufficiency condition for great meaning, at least in relation to the reasons Landau has given for doubting that. Fundamentality as not necessary for great meaning Landau’s second major criticism of the fundamentality theory, and one that still prima facie applies to (FT3), is that one can obtain great meaning in life by directing one’s rational nature (or that of others) towards objects that are not fundamental in the sense I have expounded. According to him, at least on some occasions, contouring one’s intelligence towards merely necessary conditions for human existence can confer great meaning on a person’s life. Here, Landau again uses a clever dialectical manoeuvre, invoking some of my own examples against me. In particular, Landau contends that the meaningfulness to be found in the cases of the incoming asteroid and of Mother Teresa are best explained by the bare fact of saving human life (509–510). Life is obviously a necessary condition for a wide array of aspects of human existence, but I, with Landau, deny that it is a fundamental one, for it causes or explains very little of them. Landau readily agrees that not every advancement consequent to the intense positive orientation of one’s intelligence towards necessary conditions for a variety of facets of human existence is a good candidate for great meaning, and he concludes merely that both fundamental conditions and at least some, as yet unspecified, necessary ones are the relevant objects of rationality (510–511). In the following, I aim to provide good reason to stick with my simpler formulation, which appeals to fundamentality alone. 16 Let us think more carefully about Mother Teresa. Consider, first, Mother Teresa*, who prevents a great many human beings from dying, but foresees that they will merely remain comatose for the rest of their lives. Second, think about Mother Teresa^, who again prevents a great many human beings from dying, but does so in the awareness that they will consequently suffer excruciating torture for the rest of their lives. My intuition is that there is no meaning here, or at the very least no great meaning. These cases strongly suggest it is not the bare fact of saving life, a necessary condition for a wide array of facts about human beings, that is meaning-conferring in the original case of Mother Teresa; for, if it were, then we would judge there to be great meaning in the above two permutations, but we do not. Saving lives that one knows will suffer a fate worse than, or even no better than, death does not confer much, if any, meaning on one’s life.9 There is clearly more that is required, which, I believe, is enough to rebut Landau’s motivation for postulating the idea that contouring intelligence towards what is merely necessary for many aspects of human existence can constitute great meaning in life. However, while that negative rebuttal is welcome, so far as it goes, it is not yet to provide positive reason to think that fundamentality is doing the explanatory work, a claim I now seek to buttress. What I propose is that what differentiates the original case of Mother Teresa from Mother Teresa* and Mother Teresa^ is that only the former is protecting conditions that are responsible for much else about a characteristic human person’s life. What are those? Moving beyond what I had to say in my initial article, I have come to believe that they are centrally a matter of choosing in light of reflection on the norms salient in one’s context (cf. Metz (2013), 227–228, 236–237). What is 17 causally responsible for a large degree of the course of a representative person’s life? Roughly, the answer is: her acting on the non-derivative principles and values that she has adopted consequent to engagement with her community. Such end- pursuit is what is missing in the cases of being comatose and tortured, and what is present in the case of our stereotypical understanding of Mother Teresa, who does not merely save many lives, but saves many lives that are reasonably expected to go on their merry way, as it were. Conclusion: From the classic triad to the ultimate one I close this article by addressing religious issues of a sort more narrow than I have so far. Up to this point I have defended a secular theory of what makes a life (very) meaningful, which is clearly ‘religious’ or ‘spiritual’ only in a broad sense of addressing some of the greatest values in human life, namely, the good, the true, and the beautiful insofar as they can merit great admiration and awe. However, I have not spoken of properly supernaturalist themes yet, and I want to draw the attention of readers to the implications of the fundamentality theory for them. In particular, I conclude by highlighting the respect in which the fundamentality theory can plausibly account for the ability of God as conceived in the monotheistic tradition to confer great meaning on our lives. Unlike nearly all theories of life’s meaning in the field, mine occupies what might be reasonably considered to be middle ground. On the one hand, supernaturalist theories typically maintain that if God did not exist, then life would be meaningless,10 while, on the other, naturalist theories fail to acknowledge the respect in which God could be a source of meaning.11 My view is different, entailing that a (very) meaningful life is possible without God, while also accounting for the judgement that God could be largely constitutive of a (very) meaningful life, if God were to exist. 18 The issue is what in our actual world is fundamental to our environment and our characteristic lives as individuals and as a species. If the world is merely physical, then it will be certain physical facts that are causally responsible for much about our existence, and this is the form of the theory that I normally adopt. However, if our world included a person beyond space and time who were the originator and sustainer of the physical universe, then He would count as fundamental to our environment and the course of our lives. God would be the ultimate CEO, one overseeing the operations of all of existence (to return to an analogy I used earlier to illustrate fundamentality), such that orienting one’s life towards Him would be the central way to live a profound, rather than trivial, life. One might wonder how such an account of God’s centrality to meaning in life squares with the usual route by which one appeals to theistic considerations about this value, namely, as a perfect being who has laid down moral rules for us springing from His nature. My suggestion is to recall that creativity is a perfection, perhaps the highest one (on which see Morris (1990)). If God existed, He would be fundamental to much (on some views, everything) about our lives, precisely in virtue of having been the creative source of it. Hence, the fundamentality view should be attractive to both theists and atheists. It can be seen as interesting value-theoretic common ground among those who have deep metaphysical disputes. Although debate continues about what is fundamental to our lives, for all sides, perhaps, fundamentality is what matters.12 19 References ADAMS, E. M. (2002) ‘The meaning of life’, International Journal for Philosophy of Religion, 51, 71–81. COTTINGHAM, JOHN (2005) The Spiritual Dimension: Religion, Philosophy and Human Value (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press). GEWIRTH, ALAN (1998) Self-Fulfillment (Princeton: Princeton University Press). HOOKER, BRAD (2008) ‘The meaning of life: subjectivism, objectivism, and divine support’, in Nafsika Athanassoulis and Samantha Vice (eds.) The Moral Life: Essays in Honour of John Cottingham (New York: Palgrave Macmillan), 184–200. HURKA, THOMAS (1993) Perfectionism (New York: Oxford University Press). JAMES, LAURENCE (2005) ‘Achievement and the meaningfulness of life’, Philosophical Papers, 34: 429–442. KAUPPINEN, ANTTI (2012) ‘Meaningfulness and time’, Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, 82, 345–377. LANDAU, IDDO (2013) ‘Conceptualizing great meaning in life: Metz on the good, the true, and the beautiful’, Religious Studies, 49, 505–514. 20 MAWSON, TIMOTHY (2013) ‘Recent work on the meaning of life and philosophy of religion’, Philosophy Compass, 8, 1138–1146. METZ, THADDEUS (2011) ‘The good, the true and the beautiful: toward a unified account of great meaning in life’, Religious Studies, 47, 389–409. METZ, THADDEUS (2013) Meaning in Life: An Analytic Study (Oxford: Oxford University Press). MORRIS, THOMAS (1990) ‘Metaphysical dependence, independence and perfection’, in Scott MacDonald (ed.) Being and Goodness: The Concept of the Good in Metaphysics and Philosophical Theology (Ithaca NY: Cornell University Press), 278– 297. NOZICK, ROBERT (1974) Anarchy, State and Utopia (New York: Basic Books). SINGER, IRVING (1996) Meaning of Life, Volume 1: The Creation of Value (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press). SINGER, PETER (1993) Practical Ethics, 2nd edn (New York: Cambridge University Press). SMUTS, AARON (2013) ‘The good cause account of the meaning of life’, The Southern Journal of Philosophy, 51, 536–562. 21 STEINER, RUDOLF (1923) ‘Truth, beauty, goodness’, Rudolf Steiner Archive. http://wn.rsarchive.org/Lectures/19230119p01.html. TAYLOR, CHARLES (1989) Sources of the Self: The Making of the Modern Identity (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press). TAYLOR, RICHARD (1970) Good and Evil (repr. Amherst NY: Prometheus Books, 2000). TRISEL, BROOKE ALAN (2002) ‘Futility and the meaning of life debate’, Sorites, 14, 70– 84. 22 Notes 1 All abbreviated citations in the text refer to this one. 2 So I comprehensively recount and critically address in Metz (2013). 3 Although notice that the loss of only a single person would be enough to impair the firm at CEO level, but not at the janitorial. 4 Similar remarks apply to a dreaded ‘constipation theory’ of meaning in life, according to which we could not exist or do much if we could not defecate, advanced as an attempted reductio against the fundamentality theory by Anna Alexandrova. In reply, I note that such picks out a necessary condition for human existence and not a fundamental one, which I believe explains why it is not a promising view. 5 See Hurka (1993), 155 for the example, but not the same explanation of the lack of importance (albeit one worth taking seriously). 6 This example is taken from Metz (2013), 195–196. 7 Although some might, particularly those who believe that the amount of meaning in a person’s life is a function of the extent to which she has exercised her particular abilities and opportunities, suggested by Adams (2002). 8 Cf. James (2005), 437–440, who focuses on the average for human beings, a statistical notion, as opposed to what is characteristic of them, which is a different notion. For discussion of their different implications, see Metz (2013), 150–154. 9 I first suggested this argumentative strategy in Metz (2013), 237–238. 10 But see Mawson (2013) for a different interpretation of the literature. I have implicitly already responded to him on this score in Metz (2013), 106–108. 11 Hooker (2008), 199 is the only exception that comes to mind beyond Metz (2013), 158–160, 220, 232–233. 23 12 I am grateful to Iddo Landau for having composed his article and corresponded with me about it and related topics, as well as to an anonymous referee for Religious Studies for written comments. 
work_nxdulugj7vdk3jnsbwlapf7p54	----	MTO 13.1: Francis, Review of Carr [1] In 1926, Igor Stravinsky began work on the first of what would become four works on subjects from Classical Greek literature, his opera-oratorio Oedipus Rex. In the following two decades, he completed Apollo Musagète (1927–28), Perséphone (1933–34), and Orpheus (1947–48). All four of these staged works lie squarely within Stravinsky’s neoclassical period, and each offers particular insight into the myriad elements that define this segment of Stravinsky’s oeuvre. In Multiple Masks: Neoclassicism in Stravinsky’s Works on Greek Subjects, Maureen Carr addresses the compositional processes involved in the creation of these pieces, drawing extensively from the respective drafts and sketches owned by the Paul Sacher Stiftung and the Library of Congress. Aligning her sketch studies with excerpts from diaries, letters, and other primary sources, Carr interrogates the philosophical underpinnings of Stravinsky’s neoclassical endeavors and questions the composer’s own statements about his compositional processes. In particular, Carr concerns herself with the metaphor of the “mask” and how it is central to the rhetoric of the neoclassical period, used both to herald a new artistic ethos and to sublimate Stravinsky’s own individualism and compositional techniques. [2] Carr first explores the tenets of the neo-classic aesthetic, and then investigates the works in which this aesthetic is enacted. She begins her inquiry by providing an overview of early twentieth-century writings on neoclassicism and artistic masks with which Stravinsky would have been familiar. These citations include sections of T.S. Elliot, Theodor Adorno, Volume 13, Number 1, March 2007 Copyright © 2007 Society for Music Theory Kimberly A. Francis KEYWORDS: Igor Stravinsky, sketch studies, neo-classicism, Greek, Apollo Musagète, Oedipus Rex, Perséphone, Orpheus ABSTRACT: Igor Stravinsky composed four neo-classical dramatic works based on Greek subjects between 1926 and 1948. Maureen Carr explores the philosophical tenets behind his neo-classical aesthetic, especially the commonplace metaphor of the mask, and what this reveals about Stravinsky’s compositional ethos. After establishing this framework, she examines both the compositional and collaborative processes involved in the creation of these four works, drawing on extensive sketch studies and primary sources. Received February 2007 1 of 6 André Gide, Alexis Roland-Manuel, Paul Valéry, Jacques Maritain, and Arthur-Vincent Lourié. Carr knits these excerpts together to display their connection to a number of Stravinsky’s writings, especially his Poetics of Music in the Form of Six Lessons, a series of lectures given at Harvard University in 1939 that conveys his opinions on musical composition and aesthetics. Carr’s work helps piece together the desire of some early twentieth-century artists to avoid overt emotionalism in music, and shows the diverse origins of neo-classical impulses. Furthermore, while untangling the different threads of Stravinsky’s Poetics of Music, Carr is able to unpick the myth of Stravinsky as autonomous genius. Instead, one learns of Stravinsky as a member of the intellectual milieu in Paris during the 1920s, whose members together laid the foundation for a neo-classical style. (1) [3] The first chapter of the book explores how, in advancing their neo-classic claims of objectivity and intellectualism, these artists found it imperative to remove all residue of the ego from the cultural product. This is what Carr comes to label as Stravinsky’s “objective stance.” (2) To create this sense of the composer’s personal distance from the composition, Carr shows, neo-classicists attempted to erect artificial barriers between the audience and the work. One means by which the removal or blurring of a sense of individual ego was accomplished was by retreating to well-known texts and formal structures of the past. [4] Stravinsky and his colleagues were particularly attracted to the familiar stories of Greek Antiquity, mythological tales that still resonated easily with audiences. By re-introducing these stories and placing them within easily identifiable formal containers, artists such as Stravinsky felt that they were constructing a filter, or mask, between audience and individual artist. Simply put, Carr writes that: “Stravinsky sought to create ‘new conventions’ by using models of the past . . . enhanced by the presence of mythological storylines.” (3) The non-authorial nature of plot, medium, and structure supposedly reduced the voice of the composer to a whisper. [5] Moving beyond these general criteria for the neo-classic aesthetic, Carr reveals other forms of borrowing that Stravinsky used extensively throughout the four works in question. She outlines a catalogue of surface, mid-level, and large-scale musical borrowings imported by Stravinsky to enhance his musical landscape, including quotations from Verdi that appear in Oedipus Rex, and others by Puccini used in Apollo. Carr then proceeds beyond the purely musical and considers neo-classical traits that originated in the visual arts such as the work of Pablo Picasso and photo-montage techniques. By drawing together the visual, aural, and philosophical influences inherent to the neo-classic aesthetic, Carr offers a unique backdrop for the findings of her subsequent sketch-studies and analyses. [6] The next four chapters of Carr’s book deal chronologically with the four neo-classical works on Greek topics, and they all share a similar structure. Each chapter includes a gloss on historical context, analyses, and commentary; musical examples are located in a separate section at the end of each chapter. This format is a slight hindrance to the flow of the argument; it would have been easier to follow the development of Carr’s ideas with excerpts readily accessible. This said, these musical examples are by far the richest resource the book presents and their troublesome location is worth the bother. At the end of each chapter, Carr gathers a wealth of examples drawn both from published scores and the author’s own transcriptions of the sketches held by the Paul Sacher Stiftung and the Library of Congress which in total represent an impressive resource. [7] Carr analyzes each of Stravinsky’s pieces based upon their own idiosyncrasies and with respect to their unique contexts. The Latin scansion of Oedipus Rex; the Alexandrine roots of Apollo’s rhythmic structure; the zigzag motives of Perséphone; and the textural layering of Orpheus are all examined through reference either to autograph libretti or to the sketchbooks. Carr is most clear when guiding the reader through the autograph page, helping to show the evolution of Stravinsky’s ideas, where these ideas manifest themselves in the published score, and how they relate to other contemporaneous pieces. She shows how the sketches betray the connections between Apollo and Beethoven’s Creatures of Prometheus as well to as the music of Glinka. Her explications help to elucidate the rationales behind some of the more bizarre moments in Stravinsky’s music, including what the composer referred to as the “nearly sonata form” structure of the Pas de deux in his Orpheus. (4) There are several moments when Carr incorporates facsimiles of her primary sources, contributing to the clarity of her argument. Her efforts most often show the continuity and chronology of what superficially appear to be random—or in Carr’s words “kaleidoscopic”—sketches. (5) [8] In addition to showing the individual elements of each sketchbook, Carr is also able to show the relationships between them. She delineates how the final moments of Oedipus Rex become the initial ideas for Apollo, which in turn become the 2 of 6 seeds for Perséphone. This methodology allows Carr to trace the evolution of Stravinsky’s neo-classical style while identifying traits that remain constant throughout. Furthermore, Carr shows that Stravinsky’s favorite elements from his Russian period, especially octatonicism and leitmotivic techniques, do not disappear during his neo-classical period. By tracing these connections, Carr reveals Stravinsky’s use of Greek subjects to be “a façade” that allowed him to “draw upon his earlier works and the works of other composers.” (6) [9] Furthermore, she provides evidence that the roots of Stravinsky’s atonal practices appear in the sketches for his final neo-classic ballet, Orpheus. (7) Perhaps most compelling are the moments when Carr uses the sketches to directly contradict Stravinsky’s and Robert Craft’s own comments about these compositions. A recurring example is the influence of the writer Charles-Albert Cingria on Stravinsky’s reception of Petrarch’s The Dialogue Between Joy and Reason. (8) After establishing Cingria’s and Stravinsky’s artistic exchanges, Carr argues that the former served as a catalyst for Stravinsky’s sketches of a ballet inspired by the Petrarch text. Furthermore, she is able to show that Craft misdates these sketches, some of which were eventually recycled for Perséphone, suggesting he did so to conceal Cingria’s involvement. (9) [10] Outside of purely musical considerations, Carr’s book also retraces the many collaborative relationships Stravinsky maintained during the making of these four pieces. For both of the texted works, Oedipus Rex and Perséphone, Carr reconstructs the development of each project beginning with the choice of subject material, the evolution of libretti, and eventual staging issues. Carr recounts the struggles of Jean Cocteau in his creation of the libretto for Oedipus Rex. It is here that the reader learns of Stravinsky’s omnipresent need for control, going so far as to over-rule Cocteau’s choice of color for on-stage curtains. (10) Carr compares the various translations of the work, including e.e. cummings’s English version, to show how Stravinsky’s changes to the the libretto for different editions produced textual variants. [11] The relationship between André Gide and Stravinsky is painted with even greater pathos. Carr shows the numerous painstaking revisions Gide made to his text for Perséphone, using letters and manuscripts to trace Gide’s own attachment to this tale from 1907 through to Ida Rubenstein’s commission in 1933. Stravinsky’s proclivity for tampering with texts with complete disregard for his collaborator is also traced in detail. Carr leads her reader through Stravinsky’s process, from his marginalia in early libretti to his eventual rewriting of entire lines of Gide’s text in the sketchbooks. Carr shows how this conflict caused Gide to boycott Perséphone’s premiere, and led Stravinsky, via the influence of Cingria, to make some of his most infamous statements about the problems inherent in setting text to music. (11) [12] Carr also traces the chronological development of the ballets, presenting the diaries of the first Apollo, Serge Lifar, and the study maquettes of Orpheus’ set designer, Isamu Noguchi, to clarify events and relationships that informed these productions. The relationship of Georges Balanchine and Igor Stravinsky is also painted in great detail. Carr uses her observations about these source materials not merely to extend our understanding of the influence exerted upon Stravinsky by his collaborators, but also to challenge that understanding by continually asking, where and how do we draw the line between their respective contributions? (12) [13] Perhaps this book’s most valuable contribution is its provision of a jumping-off point for future research. Carr herself admits that over the course of her own work she has “produced enough material to fill four volumes,” and that practicality imposed certain limits on what could be included in Multiple Masks. (13) These limitations leave several themes open for development. Certainly Carr’s early section on the Parisian circle of the 1920s only begins to fill a great lacuna in Stravinsky scholarship. With the possible exception of Charles Joseph’s book Stravinsky and Balanchine: The Journey of Invention, the theme of collaboration, particularly in relation to these four works on Greek subjects, has not been much discussed. (14) Carr’s work brings to light this rich and underdeveloped area of research and provides the essential building blocks for some much-needed further investigation. [14] There are other tantalizing threads that Carr leaves dangling for future scholars. She calls attention to the need for a closer examination of the relationship between Modest Moussorgsky’s Boris Godunov and Stravinsky’s Oedipus Rex beyond the obvious borrowings found in the latter’s Gloria movement. (15) Twice, Carr alludes to the possibility of collaboration between Nadia Boulanger and Stravinsky, discussing the Parisian pedagogue’s involvement in the development of his Poetics and her importance in introducing Stravinsky to Monteverdi. (16) And she admits that there is a great deal more work to be done on the Apollo sketchbook, due to the overwhelming amount of material there. (17) Though she provides an excellent skeleton and 3 of 6 summary of the Apollo documents, she makes it clear that here is a resource that deserves to be the center of a study in its own right. [15] Ultimately, engaging Igor Stravinsky’s opinions on composition and aesthetics is a daunting task, for to do so one must navigate the nebulous autobiographical and pseudo-biographical writings associated with the composer. Stravinsky is notorious for rewriting or misremembering his past, and there is always a pall of skepticism surrounding anything written on Stravinsky either by, or with the help of, Robert Craft. But with the primary source documents recently accessible at the Paul Sacher Stiftung, other ways of engaging Stravinsky’s legacy become available. Maureen Carr’s work joins a body of recent studies that reveal what we learn when we bypass Stravinsky’s constructed narrative and refer directly to primary source documents. (18) In this way, Stravinsky scholarship takes on a new dimension, and we as a scholarly community gain entirely new insights into Stravinsky’s legacy. Kimberly A. Francis University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Department of Music Chapel Hill, NC 27599-3320 kafranci@email.unc.edu Footnotes 1. Much scholarly ink has been spilt reinforcing the idea of Stravinsky’s immunity to extra-musical influences. See for example: Louis Andriessen and Elmer Schönberger, The Apollonian Clockwork: On Stravinsky, trans. Jeff Hamburg (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990); and Pieter C. van den Toorn, Music, Politics, and the Academy (Berkley: University of California Press). The example of which Carr is most critical is that of Robert Craft and Igor Stravinsky’s, Dialogues (Berkley: University of California Press, 1982). Return to text 2. Carr, 300. Return to text 3. Ibid., 300. Return to text 4. The “nearly sonata form” here refers to Stravinsky's disruption of the musical structure at exactly the moment where Orpheus tears the bandage from his face to turn and look at Euridice. Ibid., 264. Return to text 5. Ibid., 35. Return to text 6. Ibid., 9. Return to text 7. Ibid., 266. Return to text 8. Ibid., 169. Return to text 9. Ibid., 169–170 and 192–200. Return to text 4 of 6 10. Ibid., 26. Return to text 11. Ibid., 192. Return to text 12. See, for example, her discussion of Stravinsky’s use of Mussorgsky and Beethoven thematic materials for his Apollo: Ibid., 108. Return to text 13. Ibid., xix. Return to text 14. Charles M. Joseph, Stravinsky & Balanchine: The Journey of Invention (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002). Carr also mentions this in her preface. Carr, xiii. Return to text 15. Carr, 62. Return to text 16. Ibid., 6, 242, and 245. Return to text 17. Ibid., 116. Return to text 18. Other examples of recent forays into Stravinsky sketch studies include: Gretchen Horlacher, “Running in Place: Sketches and Superimposition in Stravinsky’s Music,” Music Theory Spectrum 2 (2001): 196–216; David Smyth, “Stravinsky as Serialist: The Sketches for Threni,” Music Theory Spectrum 2 (2000); and Lynne Rogers, “Stravinsky’s Break with Contrapuntal Tradition: A Sketch Study,” The Journal of Musicology 4 (1995): 476–506. Return to text Copyright Statement Copyright © 2007 by the Society for Music Theory. All rights reserved. [1] Copyrights for individual items published in Music Theory Online (MTO) are held by their authors. Items appearing in MTO may be saved and stored in electronic or paper form, and may be shared among individuals for purposes of scholarly research or discussion, but may not be republished in any form, electronic or print, without prior, written permission from the author(s), and advance notification of the editors of MTO. [2] Any redistributed form of items published in MTO must include the following information in a form appropriate to the medium in which the items are to appear: This item appeared in Music Theory Online in [VOLUME #, ISSUE #] on [DAY/MONTH/YEAR]. It was authored by [FULL NAME, EMAIL ADDRESS], with whose written permission it is reprinted here. [3] Libraries may archive issues of MTO in electronic or paper form for public access so long as each issue is stored in its entirety, and no access fee is charged. Exceptions to these requirements must be approved in writing by the editors of MTO, who will act in accordance with the decisions of the Society for Music Theory. This document and all portions thereof are protected by U.S. and international copyright laws. Material contained herein may be copied and/or distributed for research purposes only. 5 of 6 Prepared by Brent Yorgason, Managing Editor and Tahirih Motazedian, Editorial Assistant 6 of 6 
work_nytbtr3rtjbnxlzwcrzj7mzcse	----	A la Recherche du Temps Perdu Editor’s Note A la Recherche du Temps Perdu THE SPANISH PEOPLE ARE NOW BEGINNING TO PASS JUDGMENT O N THE legacy of Francisco Franco to his country. But we non-Spaniards cannot emphasize enough how much we feel that these forty years of quarantine (the pun is accidental) in which Franco kept Spain - of forcible separation between the western world and one of the greatest cultures in history - have been, on both sides, a terrible waste. If between 1936 and 1938 Spain was the magnetic centre of all the hopes and despairs of an entire generation of the western worId born in the ‘Angst’ of totalitarianism, after the end of the Civil War the paths of Spain and of the western world drifted further and further apart. The second world war was in many respects ‘the continuation by other means of the Spanish Civil War’: would international fascism already victorious in Spain conquer the whole of Europe? But the second world war which ravaged the whole of Europe stopped at the Pyrenees. Beyond them lay Spain, dramatically silent, like the ‘great graveyards under the moon’. And so it remained, in spite of constant and symptomatic outbursts of social and political revolt which sounded to the absent- minded western world rather like a family quarrel next door, until the day of liberation approached as the iron law of mortality brought Franco’s final bow nearer and nearer. But this was after almost four decades of ‘accelerated history’ for the west, while Spain was submitted to Franco’s own cure of historical deceleration. For, during these four decades, the Francoist regime had used, as a complement to the police terror essential to its viability, a permanent campaign of persuasion of the Spanish people that they should be grateful for the fact that the regime ‘protected’ them against the terrible things which were happening in Europe. Unamuno’s passionate belief in the uniqueness of the Spanish genius was parodied by these people (who in the exercise had broken Unamuno’s heart - he died on the very last day of the h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. h tt p s: // d o i.o rg /1 0. 11 11 /j .1 47 7- 70 53 .1 97 6. tb 00 65 2. x D o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . C ar n eg ie M el lo n U n iv er si ty , o n 0 6 A p r 20 21 a t 01 :4 0: 58 , s u b je ct t o t h e C am b ri d g e C o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1477-7053.1976.tb00652.x https://www.cambridge.org/core I34 GOVERNMENT A N D OPPOSITION annus terribilis 1936) to show that by representing that specific genius they had managed to extricate Spain from the successive agonies of the western world. During the war the regime’s spokesmen insisted that they were keeping S ain ‘neutral’, and answered their democratic critics by arguing J a t their neutrality, which amounted to letting down their friends, Hitler and Mussolini, was in the interests of the western allies. Then having shrewdly survived the three years which elapsed between the end of the second world war and the beginning of the Cold War, they fell with gusto upon the arguments of the west in their denunciations of Stalinism and used them p ~ o domo suo. During the whole of the Cold War the Francoist regime, and especially the Falangist Party, presented Spain as the one European state which, thanks to the foresight and determination of its Caudillo, had never faltered in the supreme duty of Christian civilization: to fight against the latter’s irreconcilable enemy, the Soviet Union. In the mid-1950s the Cold War was replaced by de‘tente. At the same time modern western capitalism was enjoying an unprecedented ‘boom’. The Francoist regime, under the inspiration of the technocrats of the Opus Dei, then opened the doors to trade with the west and to western capital investment in the hitherto fiercely autarkic and traditionalistic economy. Spain, potentially one of the richest countries in Europe, well endowed with raw materials, showed at once how apt and eager she was for industrialization and modernization. In less than a decade the country was transformed. Whether all the new wealth thus created went back to where it belonged, to the Spanish people itself, or indeed how much of this wealth was retained by the lenders of foreign capital, and by the national establishment, is another matter. The fact that the nation as a whole benefited only marginally fiom this industrialization was metaphorically embodied in the way in which the whole of Spain’s coastline was festooned with sky-scraper hotels full of two-week holiday-makers, while these same holiday-makers hardly ventured inland to get to know the country and the people. Since the mid-1960s the refrain has changed again. Although a prehensive of the darkening horizon of the western economy, a certain amount of Schadenjeude at seeing at least some highly industrialized countries of western Europe at bay when faced with t K e Francoist regime, and especially Falangist circles, did not hide h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. h tt p s: // d o i.o rg /1 0. 11 11 /j .1 47 7- 70 53 .1 97 6. tb 00 65 2. x D o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . C ar n eg ie M el lo n U n iv er si ty , o n 0 6 A p r 20 21 a t 01 :4 0: 58 , s u b je ct t o t h e C am b ri d g e C o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1477-7053.1976.tb00652.x https://www.cambridge.org/core EDITOR’S NOTE 13s the new and acute problems of the affluent society, and of the economic, re ional and especially social centrifugalism which it communist regimes, took comfort from the fact that it had never loosened the arch-centralistic controls of economic, regional and industrial relations. This was coupled with the regime’s claim that it had also, and above all, defended the Spanish traditional virtues and especially that national foundation of society, the family, against the moral corruption which had overwhelmed western society - its licentiousness, its commercial pornography, its obsessive sexualism, its addiction to drugs. While all this was proclaimed at home to a captive audience, the genius of Spain was kept alive abroad by its ‘exiles’ - Pablo Picasso, Salvador de Madariaga, Pablo Casals, Jorge Guilkn, Severo Ochoa and the tens of thousands of Spaniards adopted by other countries - thus fulfilling a strange prophecy by Unamuno himself. ‘Emigration will become the deepest form of patriotism. But Spain will become depopulated! Well, what is there to be done about that? It will not be the fault - if fault it is - of those who go, of the emigrants, but of those who made them go, the begrudgers. Those are the only ones who can live, like moss, on the ancestral rocks, clinging to the cliffsides. Oh to be young! To be young so as to put Spain in order to clean her!” A t the same time opposition within the country was mounting, bringing increasing pressure to bear from below on the shrinking layers at the to of the system of communicating vases of the the Church, of the universities, of the economy, of provincial administration, etc. But the opposition movements which attracted most attention and were best known abroad were the Communist Party on the one hand, the nationalist movements on the other. This was in great part to be explained by the fact that the tight organization of communist parties is articularly well suited to illegal underground life, and that muc\ of the news from Spain reaching the outside world came through international communist channels. On the other hand the world learnt more of the separatist Basque opposition, in part because the Basques benefited more than the Catalans from the instant if macabre publicity which the mass media throughout the west accord to acts ‘ M . de Unamuno ‘Los salidos y 10s mestureros’, in Espaiia y 10s Espatioles, 1942. generates. T a e Francoist regime like, for that matter, the different hierarc rl ies: the hierarchy of the official trade unions, of h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. h tt p s: // d o i.o rg /1 0. 11 11 /j .1 47 7- 70 53 .1 97 6. tb 00 65 2. x D o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . C ar n eg ie M el lo n U n iv er si ty , o n 0 6 A p r 20 21 a t 01 :4 0: 58 , s u b je ct t o t h e C am b ri d g e C o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1477-7053.1976.tb00652.x https://www.cambridge.org/core GOVERNMENT A N D OPPOSITION 136 of terrorism. But few people were really aware of the major changes which were taking place in the real positions of power within the structure of Spain - with the gradual erosion of the regime under strong and silent pressures from within. Spain was of course in contact with the outside world. Representatives of the Spanish opposition travelled widely in the 1960s and 1970s and established contacts with international organizations and western governments. Diplomats, economists, rectors and deans of universities, dignitaries of the Catholic Church, artists, were increasingly in contact with their opposite numbers in Spain. This was true also of many categories of scholars, from historians to physical scientists. The most difficult contact was that between social scientists and, I believe, especially between political scientists. This was understandable for several reasons. It is the doubtful privilege of students of politics that authoritarian regimes frown upon their work, precisely because it consists of the analysis in depth and the critical definition of political processes. Political science cannot begin to be a science if it is forbidden to call a spade a spade. The double talk which was inevitably used by political scientists in Spain was at variance with the analytical methods of the west. O n the other hand, some of the r a 3 assessments sometimes made by insufficiently informed or partisan western students of politics left Spanish political scientists unconvinced. If one adds to this the suspicions with which social scientists from Spain were at times received in the west (‘is he a Franco man?’, ‘are they collaborators?’), and the suspicion with which Spanish social scientists received their western colleagues (‘are they sympathetic to the regime, and if not with what Spanish opposition groups are they linked?’), one can realize how students of politics of all people had the greatest difficulty in keeping in touch during the Francoist quarantine. Some two years before Franco’s death a group of social scientists from Spain approached us with the idea of publishing a special issue of Qur journal in which Spanish and British experts could examine the options facing Spain at the end of the Franco regime. The rhythm of this kind of transnational collaboration is usually slow, especially when it is effected in the unusual conditions described above. Thus, although the project was well under way before Franco’s death, and much of the material was already in our hands, the first articles could appear only in January 1976. * * * h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. h tt p s: // d o i.o rg /1 0. 11 11 /j .1 47 7- 70 53 .1 97 6. tb 00 65 2. x D o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . C ar n eg ie M el lo n U n iv er si ty , o n 0 6 A p r 20 21 a t 01 :4 0: 58 , s u b je ct t o t h e C am b ri d g e C o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1477-7053.1976.tb00652.x https://www.cambridge.org/core EDITOR’S NOTE I 3 7 One view held in common by most of the contributors of the seven articles which we have published2 on the evolution of Spanish politics after the death of Franco is that, given the idiosyncratic back round, evolution must be assessed by bearing more so. Our comparative analyses based on analogies run the risk of being utterly out of focus. ‘Spain is not Portugal’ is one of the remarks most currently heard in Madrid. Another view common to the seven articles is that most of the drumatis personae, collective or individual, of the current Spanish crisis are divided within themselves on two major issues. The first is the question of how far and how deeply should the social, administrative and economic reforms go before a new political order can be established? A frail constitutional consensus, even if it could be attained, would have very little chance of lasting if it were superimposed on a profound and violent social, economic and national dissensus. And deriving from this, and yet forming perhaps the most important simple political question, there is the issue of what is called ‘The timing of the decompression’: how slowly and gradually should the ‘lid put on the opposition’ (to use Lenin’s famous formula of 1921, applied since then by most modern dictatorships) be lifted in order to prevent the pot from boiling over and exploding in the process. Joaquin Romero Maura deals with the two dramutis personae, the king and the armed forces, about which least is known. The king is still an unknown quantity and few have seen him as yet at work. The Spanish armed forces are still an almost forbidden subject for the social scientist and must be judged by their deeds not their intentions. Nevertheless, Romero Maura believes that ‘it is improbable that the military will, in the near future, act politically in any but a collective way. . . . N o sympathy for Right-wing or Left-wing solutions could easily crystallize into active factions prepared to take actions which do not conform to the military’s collective psychology. ’ The slogan ‘Spain is not Portugal’ is particularly apposite in the in mind the fact t a at if all people are special, the Spaniards are * Three of these articles appeared in our preceding issue (Vol. 1 1 , No. I ) : Joaquin Romero Maura, ‘After Franco, Franquismo?’; Paul Preston, ‘The Dilemma of Credibility, the Spanish Communist Party’; and Pedro Schwartz, ‘Politics First, the Economy after Franco’. An eighth article, by Ernest Gellner on ‘Revolution and Liberalization’, will appear in our next issue (Vol. 1 1 , No. 3 ) - h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. h tt p s: // d o i.o rg /1 0. 11 11 /j .1 47 7- 70 53 .1 97 6. tb 00 65 2. x D o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . C ar n eg ie M el lo n U n iv er si ty , o n 0 6 A p r 20 21 a t 01 :4 0: 58 , s u b je ct t o t h e C am b ri d g e C o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1477-7053.1976.tb00652.x https://www.cambridge.org/core 1 3 8 GOVERNMENT AND OPPOSITION case of the armed forces. The Spanish armed forces did not have to fight a protracted and losing battle in defence of a crumbling empire while its young officers and soldiers were being contaminated by the ideas and ideals of those whom they had been sent to repress. And Franco had managed to keep the armed forces in a kind of dignified autonomy, which neither the Falange, nor especially the police, had been able or willing to observe. If the ‘timing of the decompression’ is not fraught with violent explosions the armed forces may effect their own transformation, and assist the transformation of the country, without themselves splitting into opposing groups. But otherwise, such opposed quarters as the Catholic Church (in Fierro Bardaji’s study) at one end of the spectrum, and the Communist Party of Spain (in Paul Preston’s study) at the other end, all bear the marks of the dilemma facing them, of a choice between massive structural adjustments and slow constitutional reforms. Maravall’s study on the students shows how the same cleavages affect the younger generation of Spaniards; Kenneth Medhurst draws our attention to the immanence, and imminence, of regional centrifu alism - a point made very strongly also by by the same two roblems among those thinking of the Spanish Pedro Schwartz takes us a little further by throwing the ball back into the court of politics, in his conclusions as well as in his title ‘The Spanish Economy: Politics First’, and then by showing how all these quarters and groups, split as they are into opposed fragments, according to the issues they consider, prefer to think of solutions which would reconcile all viewpoints and solve all problems. He frequently uses the adjective ‘confusing’ or ‘confused’ when he examines the solutions proposed. One example he gives of these kinds of undiscriminating and therefore inapplicable programmes is that of the Church hierarchy which, he says, called for the ‘curbing of inflation and a full integration with Europe, while proposing a reduction of wage and salary differentials and denouncing the excesses of a consumer society’! Most of the contributors agree that one common thread runs through all the groups concerned in the Spanish crisis, namely the expressed hope of joining the European Community. The Spanish Communist Party, as Paul Preston points out, adopts here, too, the attitude of the Italian and French Communist Parties. Pedro Schwartz in f is lucid examination of the divisions created economy as a who P e. h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. h tt p s: // d o i.o rg /1 0. 11 11 /j .1 47 7- 70 53 .1 97 6. tb 00 65 2. x D o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . C ar n eg ie M el lo n U n iv er si ty , o n 0 6 A p r 20 21 a t 01 :4 0: 58 , s u b je ct t o t h e C am b ri d g e C o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1477-7053.1976.tb00652.x https://www.cambridge.org/core EDITOR’S NOTE I 3 9 This point is especially developed in Manuel Medina’s paper on the possibilities of Spain joining the European Community. This is of course a very natural solution. Europe needs Spain, once so closely associated with the Holy Roman Empire, on whose ma the hard core of the present European Community is now situate!, for her distinct contribution to the genius of Europe; for her important strategic position; and for her resources in economic wealth and in manpower which might make her, one day, when the Francoist feudalism will have been forgotten, one of the richest countries on the continent. And Spain needs Europe for the technological capital and know-how indispensable for her economic progress; and for the major political reason that throu h strengthened. In other words, in so far as the principal condition for membership of the club is the political democracy of members and candidates, those who, like most of our contributors, believe that Spain should join have a further incentive to press forward with putting her constitutional house in good parliamentary order. Moreover, it could be argued that membership of the European Community might serve later to restrain Spain from falling into a dictatorship of the Right or of the Left, since such a develo ment the Italian central parties whose passionate interest in the European Parliament is in part motivated by the hope of finding a source of political stability at the supranational level.) Finally, it is also surmised that European integration could have the effect of ‘defusing’ some acute national problems, and specially the regional ones, by opening new and more feasible solutions on the future organization of Western Europe as a whole. But this harmonious and logical story will, alas, not reach its happy ending so soon. The reservations on both sides are very strong. O n the side of the Community, both Council and Commission have little hope that the passage to constitutional- pluralism of a political system held down under a dictatorship for more than forty years will be as easy as it seems to have been in Greece, where of course the dictatorship lasted a much shorter time. Europe might also wonder whether political order can be achieved with such antiquated social and economic structures; and whether structural reforms should not come first, and how long then will it take? Then it is known that the Commission, more than the Council, has found that the collaboration with membership in the Community her political stability would % e would jeopardize it. (This reasoning is somewhat akin to t 1 at of h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. h tt p s: // d o i.o rg /1 0. 11 11 /j .1 47 7- 70 53 .1 97 6. tb 00 65 2. x D o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . C ar n eg ie M el lo n U n iv er si ty , o n 0 6 A p r 20 21 a t 01 :4 0: 58 , s u b je ct t o t h e C am b ri d g e C o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1477-7053.1976.tb00652.x https://www.cambridge.org/core GOVERNMENT A N D OPPOSITION 1 40 underdeveloped parts of Europe, while broadening the territory of the Community, slows down the rhythm of its economic progress and its integration as a whole. Unlike the Council, the Commission has made clear reservations on this score against inviting not only Portugal and Spain, which are also politically still unqualified to join, but even Greece. From the Spanish point of view one must reckon also with the traditional narcissism and isolation from Europe deeply engraved in Spanish political psychology, and aggravated by the forty years of Francoist quarantine. Since the end of her empire, Spain has turned her eyes away from Europe and has rather fixed them on herself - the Civil War was an exercise in adoration of opposing images of Spain. One should reread Unamuno’s essay of December 1906 on ‘Europeanization’ and ponder his ‘profound conviction, arbitrary though it may be (but all the more profound for being arbitrary, because this is the way with articles of faith) that the true and intimate Europeanization of Spain, that is to say our absorption of that part of the European spirit which can become our spirit, will begin only when we Spaniards shall have tried to impose our spiritual order on Europe, to make her swallow what is ours, essentially ours, instead of what is hers, when we shall have tried to hispanify Europe! ’ * * * Like the crisis which it analyses, this analysis is only incipient. Developments are only now beginning, some will be fast, some, on the contrary, profoundly slow. In these first six months, nothing unexpected has happened. The pieces have taken up their places on the chess-board, and the opening gambits were to be foreseen: some violence in the Basque Provinces and Catalonia, an increasing rigidity in the Ministry of the Interior (and in its Minister) as well as a pronounced deter- mination of the police to show that it was still in control of public order. But not all the pieces are yet on the chess-board: for instance the political parties are not yet le alized. Moreover, these few months have shown very clearly t a e various contradictions and tensions within the two camps themselves, that of the regime and that of the opposition. The regime is divided on the question of whether to go ahead, even at a moderate pace, with constitutional reforms, such as the h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. h tt p s: // d o i.o rg /1 0. 11 11 /j .1 47 7- 70 53 .1 97 6. tb 00 65 2. x D o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . C ar n eg ie M el lo n U n iv er si ty , o n 0 6 A p r 20 21 a t 01 :4 0: 58 , s u b je ct t o t h e C am b ri d g e C o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1477-7053.1976.tb00652.x https://www.cambridge.org/core EDITOR’S NOTE 141 legalization of the political parties, abolition of the censorship, preparation for elections by universal suffrage. It is faced with the resistance of the so-called Bunker which according to our colleague on the Advisory Board, Enrique Tierno Galvan, is most strongly entrenched in the Council of the Realm, and in the Cortes them- selves. Thus do Franco’s careful constitutional improvisations bind his successors. While most of the Church and the most important financial groups favour democratization and the army on the whole stands on the sidelines, the last ditchers in the Bunker can put an effective brake on progress. The slow pace of change has led to a disbelief not only in the capacity but in the sincerity of the government’s desire for change. Delay can only further exacerbate a critical situation. At present, in a climate of tremendous expecta- tions some 60% of Spaniards would vote for the Centre and the Right. But if elections were to be held in an atmosphere of turbulence and extreme centrifugalism, a very different pattern might emerge. W e are back to the problem of the timing of the decompression, but minus six months. But nor has the opposition all the answers. For instance on the supremely important question of the autonomy of the regions, when the national political parties are finally legalized, will they be able to bring together in support of their national ideologies, programmes, or platforms the sections and branches located in the centrifugal regions? O r will regional Chauvinism sweep the board in each region, leaving the major problem of the rebirth of Spain herself, as a democratic country, unattended? Then there are ideological and strategic divergencies within the Left itself. The Popular Socialist Party and the Communist Party of Santiago Carrillo may achieve an alliance similar to the Socialist - Communist alliance in France (in which the Socialists are gradually emerging as the victors in the game). But this alliance may prove fragile under the double pressure from the Right and the Radical Left, i.e. the other fractions of the Communist Party itself, the Maoists, the Trotskyists, and last but not least, bearing in mind the Spanish political tradition, the Anarchists and Anarcho- syndicalists. Though not much is heard of this great movement now, it is not difficult to foresee that the Anarchists may once again penetrate the syndicates, the universities, some regional industries. O n one end of the spectrum of the traditional Spanish ideologies there is, on the Right, the absolute and mystical hispano- Catholicism, and at the other, on the Left, the absolute and h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. h tt p s: // d o i.o rg /1 0. 11 11 /j .1 47 7- 70 53 .1 97 6. tb 00 65 2. x D o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . C ar n eg ie M el lo n U n iv er si ty , o n 0 6 A p r 20 21 a t 01 :4 0: 58 , s u b je ct t o t h e C am b ri d g e C o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1477-7053.1976.tb00652.x https://www.cambridge.org/core 142 GOVERNMENT A N D OPPOSITION inadaptable hispano-anarcho-syndicalism. These are the ultimate passions of a passionate people. The search for order at one end is as intransigent as the search for freedom at the other. Thus, as we watch the difficult journey of the h t u r e Spanish democracy across what Juan Linz has called the ‘eight Spains’, we might well recall the words of Salvador de Madariaga, written in 1942: When therefore we approach Spain with our plans, charts, statistics and history manuals, let us bear in mind these natural facts which in a nation correspond to the physical and chemical indexes whereby we define metals and metalloids. No one expects mercury to behave like platinum, nor carbon like sulphur. . . . Spain is a heap of rough-hewn granite blocks touching each other at as few points as possible and hurting each other as much as possible to the square inch of contact. . . . What is, then, the use of preaching liberty to Spain? Liberty comes naturally to the Spaniard. . . . The chief need of the Spanish people is to learn to create order, i.e. to grow and feed the social tissue of institutions. PS Since we have still not received any reply to our enquiry from the High Commissioner of India as to the present whereabouts of our colleague on our Advisory Board, Mr Asoka Mehta, we are reproducing from The Times of 8 March 197s the following information: ‘Mr Mehta, now aged 65 and a former minister in Mrs Gandhi’s Cabinet, was one of the first detained. He was served with a detention order which states that his arrest was necessary to prevent him from acting in a manner prejuhcial to the maintenance of public order. For the first four months in jail he was allowed no visitors. But on November 6 last year the High Court in Delhi ruled that he should be allowed a visit. The same day the Government renewed the detention order a ainst him, and he was denied the opportunity of have done before the declaration of the emergency. appealing to an a % visory board against the order, something he could He is now held in solitary confinement at Rohtak jail. Mr Mehta, who was educated at Wilson College, a Scottish missionary university in Bombay, was once a favourite of Mrs Gandhi. A founding member of the Socialist Party with Mr Narayan, he was known in the Lok Sabha for his highly analytical and closely reasoned speeches.’ G.I. h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. h tt p s: // d o i.o rg /1 0. 11 11 /j .1 47 7- 70 53 .1 97 6. tb 00 65 2. x D o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . C ar n eg ie M el lo n U n iv er si ty , o n 0 6 A p r 20 21 a t 01 :4 0: 58 , s u b je ct t o t h e C am b ri d g e C o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1477-7053.1976.tb00652.x https://www.cambridge.org/core 
work_nzmfhpmfrra37htfobo2omtznm	----	Violeta Bakalchev, Sasha Tasic, Minas Bakalchev LINES AND FRAMES: ARCHITECTURE IN A PERIOD OF MIGRATION | 43 Lines and Frames: Architecture in a Period of Migration _____ Violeta Bakalchev, Sasha Tasic, Minas Bakalchev Abstract The current state of growing uncertainty, instability and change in the current world has rendered our spatial perceptions blurred, fragmented and contradictory. In a period of substantial geopolitical crisis, uneven economic distribution, and climate change, with a growing number of people in a state of transit from poor and war-torn countries to more prosperous parts of the world, we can hardly talk about stable forms in a social and physical sense. But what are the forms and spatial patterns of the world during a period of continuous change? Could a certain depth structure be recognized in the contemporary dynamic of social and spatial transformation? Starting from the basic structure of human perception, and the basic spatial patterns such as center, line and domain, we shall attempt to derive the defined forms, not just as a form of representation but also as a form of action in the contemporary world. The aim of this chapter is to explore the connection between physical and social change; firstly through the elicitation of the defined forms of representation; and, secondly through an ability to act through them. Through a series of examples of hybrid spatial and social situations, we shall map the effectiveness of the defined spatial forms as strategies of transformation in different contexts in the world. As such, the line and the frame as opposing forms, act as the representation of the condition of change, but additionally as an opportunity for a new formal structure in the period of migration. Keywords: line, frame, square, transformation, non-figurative architecture, migration. DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.4480083 Rethinking Migration, Economic Growth аnd Solidarity in Europe  44 |  Introduction In a period of substantial geopolitical crisis, uneven economic distribution, and climate change, we can hardly talk about stable forms in a social and physical sense. We are now witnessing the highest levels of displacement on record. An unprecedented 65.3 million people around the world have been forced from their homes. Among them are nearly 21.3 million refugees, over half of whom are under the age of 18. There are also 10 million stateless people who have been denied a nationality and access to basic rights such as education, healthcare, employment and freedom of movement. In a world where nearly 34,000 people are forcibly displaced every day as a result of conflict or persecution (UNHCR, 2017). But what are the forms and spatial patterns of the world during this state of continuous change? Could a certain depth structure be recognized in the contemporary dynamic of social and spatial transformation? The form of inhabitation incorporates the physical structure, spatial configurations and the social structure. Housing is defined as a process and an artifact, as a way of living and its physical imprint. Different cultures in different conditions project different types of housing (Rapoport, 1969). They have different types of expression and a different investment in physical, material and meaningful, symbolic structures. This is why in extremely unstable, insecure and shifting conditions, the question of the form of inhabitation is important in recognizing, understanding and practicing the typologies of housing as well as distinct socio-cultural contexts. Christian Norberg Schultz has pointed out the archetypical conditions of behavior in space, which he connected to the psycho-physical dealings of man (Norberg Schultz, 1985). In his eyes, existence is the establishing of a meaningful relationship between man and a given environment. This relationship is represented, firstly by the act of, “identification”, belonging to a certain place, the determination of the world and secondly by the act of “orientation”, the ability to move through the world. Therefore, the dialectics of the place and the path of departure and return, is essential in any existential space. He defined the basic schemes of spatial orientation as the “center”, “path” and “domain” (surface). But what happens in the periods of change, in extreme social, cultural and spatial conditions? How will these basic spatial schemes express themselves as the exclusive results of changed conditions? In the conditions of evermore intensive migrations, resettling from the crisis ridden areas to the more stable regions of the world and when an ever-growing number of emigrants are moving from east to west, from south to north, from Africa and Asia to Europe, the changes in the social and spatial conditions of the world are expressed in Violeta Bakalchev, Sasha Tasic, Minas Bakalchev LINES AND FRAMES: ARCHITECTURE IN A PERIOD OF MIGRATION | 45 the most direct way (Figure 1). These are movements along certain corridors, certain geographical lines which have the best economy of motion and through which the emigrants penetrate into Europe. In the same way, the transit countries which are attempting to stop these motions are using lines of exclusion, such as barriers, fences and walls, as well as exclusion zones, surfaces and frames as temporary stopping points for migrants. So, in a dramatic way, we are back to the main geometrical characteristics and schemes of the organization of space. Hence, in the metastable contemporary world, things with their historic occurrences are neither surpassed nor do their boundaries disappear, but they occur in different ways in the new reality. How can we today recognize the lines and frames as the main organizational form and use them in architectonic projects? In several episodes, we shall show a different interpretation of the line and surfaces in different urban - rural contexts. Figure 1: A columns of migrants moves along the path in Rigonce, Slovenia, in October, 2015. It is exactly the unequal development, the unequal distribution of goods and resources that are the source of geopolitical polarization, militarization, and the uncontrolled motion of people. What should have been overcome a long time ago, becomes the basis of our world. The simultaneously uneven geographic development caused opposing motions of neo-liberalism with a number of possibilities and barriers in looking for alternatives (Harvey, 2006, pp. 69-116). Rethinking Migration, Economic Growth аnd Solidarity in Europe  46 |  Sequences of Inhabitation, Figures of Exclusion In critical situations forms of inhabitation are to be understood as dynamic sequences. The migrant crisis became a context through which we could unfold conflicting settlement procedures. The recent wave of migrants reconsiders Europe in many essential aspects; social, cultural, and spatial. A particular segment of migrant flow, currently known as the Balkan Route, dramatically sets elementary human values. The Balkan route covers the period 2014-2016, although informally as a line of refugees and migrants it is not a new phenomenon, but in the summer of 2015 with the escalation of the wave of migrants this has been transformed into a formalized corridor (Beznec, Speer, Stojić Mitrović, 2016). The Balkan Route, 2014-2016 The Balkan route was the only channel which allowed migrant inflow into Europe, it is estimated that nearly 800,000 migrants have passed through this route. The route consists of sequences of an array of countries from Turkey, Greece, Macedonia, Serbia, Croatia to Slovenia, as transit countries (bridge countries), as opposed to destination countries, primarily Germany. In the initial period the route continued from Serbia to Hungary, but because of the militarization of the southern border of Hungary, the route was redirected to Croatia and Slovenia (Figure 2). Figure 2: The Balkan Route, 2014-2016. / Source: Eurostat, Frontex. Violeta Bakalchev, Sasha Tasic, Minas Bakalchev LINES AND FRAMES: ARCHITECTURE IN A PERIOD OF MIGRATION | 47 With regard to the form of inhabitation in an intensive migration period, we can differentiate certain models throughout the flow. The differentiation of the migrant wave is best understood as the unfolding of two parallel processes: (1) the evolving population structure of the migrant population; and (2) the gradual replacement of criminal mechanisms of migration with government mechanisms (Mandić, 2017). Migrant structure is transformed in a few crucial phases: social, economic, gender and age structure changes from a well-educated majority of young men to a poorer, less educated majority of women, children and the elderly; the ethnic/national ratios evolved from diferent nations to only three source nations: Syria, Iraq and Afghanistan; traveling units evolved from individuals and couples to groups of five to fifteen; transport transformed from illegal movement toward government-sponsored transportation; as the speed of migration accelerated. Consequently, the forms of inhabitations should look at the stages of this dynamic process. If the first phase is assimilated to existing physical structures of urban and rural situations in informal illegal camps or "safe" houses. Reports indicate the two villages, Lojane and Vaksince on the northern border of the Republic of Macedonia, led by illegal structures. In the second phase there were sequences of movement, from the camp in Gevgelija on the border with Greece, to the camp in Tabanovce on the border with Serbia. The transformation of the patterns of movement reflect the speed, from five to fifteen days in an informal illegal flow, up to 24 hours in the corridor formalized by the introduction of 72-hour document for transit through Macedonia. 72-hour city: Thus the whole system turned into a certain paradigm of movement: the camp in Gevgelija, the organized rail transport from the southern to the northern border and camp in Tabanovce. Thus the forms of settlement were a sequences of this mass movement as places to stop and the line of travel, a sort of “72-hour city”. The experience of the Balkan corridor as the most direct way set patterns of inhabitation within the mass movement as basic schemas of paths and goals. The basic sequences that are a fragmented and reduced practice of inhabitation can be seen in the various situations in which the usual spatial syntax of human habitats is composed. We will adopt the line and the square (the frame) as basic spatial images, extracted from the basic schemes of spatial orientation, the path and the goal. Through several different historical episodes and spatial situations, we will reconstruct their phenomenon as exclusive figures of settlement and organization. Rethinking Migration, Economic Growth аnd Solidarity in Europe  48 |  A Line A line is length without breadth (Pickering, 2010/1847). A line’s character depends on the interpretation of this geometrical characteristic. Lines are symbolic and concrete organizational forms of the new modern times. In several key positions, we shall consider the genesis and the modes of their interpretation. Architecture as a part of the modern movement accepted the consequent stage of production. The practices of Taylorism and Fordism were proposed as models for the regeneration of architecture and society (Hill, 2003; McLeod, 1983). Architecture should been seen as a means of dissolving the existing needs of people at different levels and their massive application. To that effect, the line of connection, or the line of production in both a conceptual and concrete sense as a line of machines and workers in a factory with a product that moves along while it is being built or produced became the main organizational model of space. The use of an assembly line reduced the assembly of cars from 12 hours to 93 minutes. The increase in the speed of assembly meant faster availability, giving an impetus to the American car culture as well as an increase in the mobility of society (Figure 2). Figure 2: Workers on an assembly line at the Ford Motor Co.'s Highland Park. The use of an assembly line reduced the assembly of cars from 12 hours to 93 minutes. Retrieved from http://www.cleveland.com/business/index.ssf/2012/07/minimum_wage_hike.html Violeta Bakalchev, Sasha Tasic, Minas Bakalchev LINES AND FRAMES: ARCHITECTURE IN A PERIOD OF MIGRATION | 49 The line as a continuous action is an expression of the modern paradigm, both of production and the social and spatial organization. We are following the spatial approximation of production models in a number of anthological examples, namely architecture as an infrastructure in the proposals for the city-viaduct by Le Corbusier. These showed the idea of the line in a most suggestive way, as a pluralistic infrastructure, as a dialogue between architecture and theory, and as a programmatic layering of parallel bands. In the 1930s, ideas about the linear form of the city developed as extreme scenarios in respect to their structure and position. Le Corbusier proposed a model of the city arising from the logic of traffic infrastructure, a city-viaduct, on two challenging locations, namely Rio de Janeiro (1929) and Alger (1930-33) (Frampton, 1985/1980, Frampton, 2001) (Figure 3). Figure 3: Le Corbisier, A city-viaduct against the dramatic background of Rio de Janeiro, 1930. Source: Tossiaki Oba, 2015. In the drawings of the city-viaduct, we see a wavy line that penetrates into or is layered and juxtaposed in relation to the landscape. The theme of the linear form is derived through the direct relationship between architecture and territory. The territory and its environment is not only a background, nor is it simply a system in which architecture dissolves, but the actual material of the architecture that it modifies or Rethinking Migration, Economic Growth аnd Solidarity in Europe  50 |  governs. In their sensual play, the play of the line and the ground, we may refer to the eroticized lines of the Le Corbusier’s drawings of female figures from this period (Figure 4). Figure 4: Le Corbusier, female nude. Alger, 1931. Source: McLeod, 1998, p. 500. But behind the modernization of a territory, a colonial mission of transformation and integration can be found, through which, in the case of Algeria, the French rule, of not just Algeria but the entire continent will be established (Çelik, 1992). In several of Le Corbusier’s drawings a spatial axis which from Europe continues to Africa is represented, connecting France through the Mediterranean to Algeria (Figure 5). Along this axis, tall structures are distributed, which are meant to unify Greater France through novel architecture and urbanism. So the meaning of the axis as a linear distribution of new architectural transformation confirms the colonial discourse as an affirmation of the mission of civilization (mission civilisatrice). Violeta Bakalchev, Sasha Tasic, Minas Bakalchev LINES AND FRAMES: ARCHITECTURE IN A PERIOD OF MIGRATION | 51 Figure 5: Le Corbusier, diagrammatic maps showing geographical axis between France and Algiers. Source: Çelik, 1992, pp. 58-77. In the “Bull” series of 1946, Picasso demonstrated how the entirety of the presentation of the bull is reduced to just a continuous linear gesture. Through 12 lithographs of one and the same object of presentation, he shows the development of a piece of art from academic to abstract level. In the series of presentations, Picasso sets apart the image of the bull to disclose its essential presence through a progressive analysis of its form. Each sheet is a successive level of research toward expressing the spirit of the presentation by reducing the drawing. In the final presentation, Picasso reduces the bull to a simple contour (Figure 6). However, while the line resulting from progressive reduction and showing the essence of the presentation fascinates and captivates us, the entirety of the body with all the brutalities and attractions of its animal energy is lost and missing. Rethinking Migration, Economic Growth аnd Solidarity in Europe  52 |  Figure 6: Pablo Picasso, 'Bull - plate 11', January 17, 1946 (lithograph). / Source: Pablo Picasso – Bull: A Master Class in Abstraction. Retrieved from http://www.artyfactory.com/art_ appreciation/animals_in_art/pablo_picasso.htm A Square In geometry, a square is a flat, two-dimensional geometrical figure with four equal sides and four straight angles. It represents a certain surface extracted from its environment, and is described as closeness, exclusion, surrounding, and confinement; something which is projected upon something else, something that needs protection, framing and closing. Therefore, through a square, through its frame, different spatial and social conformations are conveyed. The square is a window of imaginary utopic visions or an example of different spatial, social experiments. The figure of the sanctuary of Asklepios Soter in Pergamon is constructed as a basic frame, a square and supplement, upgrade or ingrade, as a type of mechanism, or instrument of healing and protection (Figure 7). We can connect the term apparatus (apperecchio) as a means or an instrument for unfolding the events (Rossi, 1981). This exclusivity of the frame and the surface will remain in any further interpretation. Violeta Bakalchev, Sasha Tasic, Minas Bakalchev LINES AND FRAMES: ARCHITECTURE IN A PERIOD OF MIGRATION | 53 Figure 7: The sanctuary of Asclepios Soter at Pergamon. / Source: Sanctuary of Asclepius. Retrived from http://kannelura.info/?p=1317 The projection of the “society of equality” by Robert Owen in spatial interpretation is in the ideal figure, the square (Figure 8). Robert Owen believed that in the forming of the character of man, the key influence is the environment. Therefore it is necessary for new generations to be placed in a better and superior environment (Owen, 1920). From 1816, Robert Owen elaborated the concept of new types of communities of 500 to 1,500 individuals, with a balanced combination of agriculture and production in the form of a large square. Traditional practices of collaboration in rural agriculture are now provided by a modern and rational spatial frame. Rethinking Migration, Economic Growth аnd Solidarity in Europe  54 |  Figure 8: Robert Owen (1817). Plan for Villages of Unity and Mutual Cooperation. A New View of Society. / Source: Robert Owen: The Delicious Dream of the Future. Retrived from http://specialcollections.vassar.edu/exhibit-highlights/2006-2010/owen/communities.html The relationship between geometry and the geopolitical landscape is shown in a very explicit way in the project entitled ‘The City of Refugees’, Cité de Réfuge (Office, Geers & Van Severen, 2007) (Figure 9). The project expresses the polarized condition of the border zone between Ceuta and Tangier, between Spain and Morocco, between Europe and Africa. A square of 483x483m is interpolated in the no man’s land, as a frame constructed from a colonnade structure. Inside the perimeter are all the infrastructural and program elements of a border crossing. The space inside is left free, without a predetermined program. In this way, through an extreme scenario the contradiction of this border is expressed, but at the same time, the project explores the city, the form of inhabitation in most radical and concise form as a conceived deed, a political decision (Office, Green, Van Severen, 2007). Violeta Bakalchev, Sasha Tasic, Minas Bakalchev LINES AND FRAMES: ARCHITECTURE IN A PERIOD OF MIGRATION | 55 Figure 9: Office Kersten Geers David Van Severen, (2007). Cité de Réfuge. / Source: Office, Geers, Van Severen, 2007. In 1915 Kazimir Malevich represented the “Black Square” in the “Last Futuristic Exhibition of Paintings 0.10”, in Petrograd. The painting of a “Black Square” was a twist towards non-objective painting, the prevailing interpretation of the realistic appearance of reality. This was an icon of the theory of non-objectiveness, that was meant to evoke pure immaterial experience in a white void, to go to the other side of the known towards the new realism of incorporeal creation (Figure 10). “Only when consciousness is liberated from the habit of seeing pieces of nature, Madonnas and shameless Veneras in the paintings, shall we witness the true work of art” (Malevich, Rethinking Migration, Economic Growth аnd Solidarity in Europe  56 |  1916). Thus, apostrophizing the pure form returns us the null position of a “new realism”, about which Malevich spoke, whilst facing us with the basic ontological questions of our own existence. Figure 10: Kazimir Malevich (1915). Black Square. / Source: Retrived from https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki /File:Kazimir_Malevich,_1915,_Black _Suprematic_Square,_oil_on_linen_c anvas,_79.5_x_79.5_cm,_Tretyakov_ Gallery,_Moscow.jpg Through the critical phases of comprehension and practice of the form of inhabitations, we can perceive a historical dedication to certain spatial themes as well as their application in the specific period of questioning and deconstructing the continuous architectural language. From the application of political and production models, to the idea of architecture as a tool, the spatial syntax of figurative architecture in the architectural figures of exclusion is broken. In this way the complex continuity has been reduced and excluded in particular extracted figures. But the line and the square in the history of architecture have a complex and contradictory geometrical and program meaning as primary forms which experience different ideal imprints. This ambivalence, the program interpretation and elemental formality of their dedication, makes them essential for spatial and social questions throughout history, from open forms of distribution to closed, conserved forms of architectural artifacts. Thus, we want to use this duality of forms in the line and the square as a basis of non-figurative architecture, which will establish a distinct dialogue with a program, as well as a place, thereby resulting in an archetypical form which can have a direct, but at the same time autonomous relationship with the program as a changeable content, and a place as a territorial entity. Violeta Bakalchev, Sasha Tasic, Minas Bakalchev LINES AND FRAMES: ARCHITECTURE IN A PERIOD OF MIGRATION | 57 Towards Non-figurative Architecture In a number of projects from architectural studies , we used the basic conditions, the line and the frame, not as dominant models related to systems and strategies of hierarchical organization but as a direct tactic of urban and rural transformation - to return it to the real needs for surprise and utilization. In the research carried out through the project, we called the referent approaches and methods of transformation, tactics unlike strategies that meant complete systemic and hierarchical approaches to the city. Tactics are approaches that arise from the local situation. Through two explored cases we will reflect the recent situation, in relationship with the domination of the formal organization, as the linear distribution of a frame. Roadside Picnic In the project “Roadside Picnic”, the condition of the Balkans from the perspective of a certain unforeseeable future is presented (Tasic, 2016). The project consists of the graphical part of a diagram, and a picturesque representation and a story (Figure 10). The story is shown in its entirety: “Roadside Picnic: The Lost Balkan city” For a long time, the vertical structures in a regular rhythm along the Vardar valley, running in the north-south direction, in the southern part of the Balkan Peninsula have been an enigma. Who erected them and why? Their regularity points to a certain intent and activity, their configuration and typology towards certain symbolisms and permanence. For a long time, they have been deserted, and afterwards the entire surrounding zone closed off. Different stories have been spread about the previous inhabitants of the area, thousands that at a certain moment erected the vertical structures as a linear city. Some said that they are symbolic monuments, without a specific purpose, that they are necropolises, fortifications, the deeds of a faraway civilization and even alien artifacts from unknown visitors. But no one ever knew anything with certainty, except that they originated in the early XXI century. There were witnesses of strange and inexplicable things, happening in the closed zones, shadows of people, sightings of desperate children, women and men, of desperation and hope, of different voices telling their own stories. At the edge of these zones, existed people who had the ability to enter them, and they were guides into the uncertainty of these areas, which are rumored to contain the secret of this world” (Tasic, 2016). Rethinking Migration, Economic Growth аnd Solidarity in Europe  58 |  The diagram relates to the north-south direction, which leads along the Vardar and Morava valleys in the territory of Republic of Macedonia and the Balkan Peninsula. The marked lines point towards a certain intensity in the past, a distribution in a certain interval of identical physical mechanism. The structures are utilitarian but also symbolic, from the current perspective connected to recent or possible massive movements. So these vertical structures provide places to stay, but also serve as a symbol of presence. In the future there is no document of the events. This project is inspired by the science fiction novel “Roadside Picnic” (Strugatsky and Strugatsky, 1972/77) and furthermore by the movie “Stalker” by Andrei Tarkovsky (1979). The project extends and shows the impossibility of the contact of different civilizations. In the movie an alien visit is suggested, while in the project this is unclear, but is definitely a marking from someone else. Exactly in this condition the layering and interposition as the source of an enigma and oblivion is expressed. The lost city is a repressed memory, but also an opportunity to unfold the relationship between different socio-cultural layers. Figure 11: Sasha Tasic (mentor), Viktorija Taseva, Maja Velkova, Katerina Ristomanova, Bojan Gjurov, (2016). Architecture during migration. Violeta Bakalchev, Sasha Tasic, Minas Bakalchev LINES AND FRAMES: ARCHITECTURE IN A PERIOD OF MIGRATION | 59 Square, Forms of Inhabitation, 72-hour City In the project “Square, forms of Inhabitation”, we develop a scenario for a possible transition of the interaction between different people from different socio-cultural backgrounds. On the border between Greece and the Republic of Macedonia, between the railway and highway lines is an interpolated square, to accept and encourage the refugees in their journey, forming a transfer center of sorts, as a temporary city, a 72-hour city (based on the 72-hour document for transit through Macedonia). The frame is a square shape with dimensions 400x400m, containing a closed service perimeter and an open structure which can accept standard containers, depending on the capacity of visitors. In this way, a continuously mobile system in perpetual construction is formed. The space in the middle remains open and within it is installed the common content, with a utilitarian but also narrative character, a theme park of an instantaneous archeology which is being built and handmade by the refugees, and which references the local area, as well as their home countries. “Amphitheaters”, “temples” and “stoas” are traces of the presence of the refugees from different cultural and spiritual backgrounds (Figure 12). Figure 12: Katerina Ristomanova, Bojan Gjurov, (2016/2017). Square, forms of inhabitation. Border Crossing, Bogorodica, Integrative Studio UKIM. Rethinking Migration, Economic Growth аnd Solidarity in Europe  60 |  Spellbound – Lines on a White Tablecloth There is something odd about Edwards, the character in the film Spellbound by Alfred Hitchcock (1945). He exhibits a hostile reaction when young psychoanalyst Peterson draws certain lines with a fork upon a tablecloth. The main character in this film has a phobia of lines on a white background (Figure 13). An incident caused by his amnesia and a general guilt complex. The lines are connected with tragic events, the murder of his friend during skiing and the accident that happened to his brother in his childhood. These two incidents are associated with a linear structure and disturb him by evoking memories that make him feel guilty hence his attempt at trying to suppress these memories. Figure 13: Lines on a tablecloth with a fork, footage from the Alfred Hitchcock’s film, Spellbound (1945). We are confronted with a world of fragments from different layers of modernization that disturb us consequently we try to suppress our memories of them. However, they are still present. Their historic failure in reorganizing society and the total Violeta Bakalchev, Sasha Tasic, Minas Bakalchev LINES AND FRAMES: ARCHITECTURE IN A PERIOD OF MIGRATION | 61 environment, blurs their contours. We associate our failure not with the mode of behavior, but with them, as the subject of action. But what are the forms and spatial patterns of the world during the state of continuous change? Could a certain depth structure be recognized in the contemporary dynamic of social and spatial transformation? Obviously they arise from certain crisis situations. In the condition of continuous change we can recognize certain forms of inhabitations such as extreme scenarios in our everyday lives. If in the past they were a part of an exclusive paradigm of domination, today they appear as fragments of order, but also as opportunities for a new interpretation. How can we today perceive these elementary formal organizations? Firstly, crisis situations lead us to extreme interpretations of formal patterns. We lose the complex syntax of man’s spatial organization and it is reduced to certain primary gestures. In periods of migration, the linear and closed formations become dedicated to the intervention of forms of inhabitation. Secondly, crisis situations lead us to a reinvestment of the founding principles of order, towards the reconstruction of the basic forms of settlement, as defined forms. Contrary to the continuous deconstruction of form, the basic forms bring us closer to the new realism of the word. Both cases, “Roadside Picnic, the lost Balkan City” and “Square, Forms of Inhabitation” are related to different conditions of form; firstly, in a metaphysics of form; secondly, in a pragmatic interaction of form. The first describes the impossibility of a true relationship of different cultural affiliations, while the second is about a social and cultural continuity. Formal organizations are traces of possible events, which describe the tragic exclusivity of a lost Balkan city and of the pragmatic performance of a transit city. If both cases depict the separation of human experience, the redirection towards elementary forms depicts the potential, opportunities and limitations of a new reality of a non-figurative architecture. References Beznec, B., Speer, M., Stojić Mitrović, M. (2016). Governing the Balkan Route: Macedonia, Serbia and the European Border Regime. Beograd: Rosa Luxemburg Stiftung Southeast Europe. Retrieved from https://www.rosalux.de/fileadmin/rls_uploads/pdfs/engl/Governing_the_Balkan_Route.pdf Çelik, Z. (1992). Le Corbusier, Orientalism, Colonialism. Assemblage, 17. pp. 58-77. Rethinking Migration, Economic Growth аnd Solidarity in Europe  62 |  Mandić, D. (2017). Anatomy of a refugee wave: Forced migration on the Balkan route as two processes. Europa Now, 3, Jan 2017. Retrieved from http://www.europenowjournal.org/issues/issue-3-jan-2017/ Frampton, K. & Kolbowska, S. (Eds.). (1981). Ivan Leonidov. New York: Rizzoli. Frampton, K. (1985/1980). Modern Architecture, A Critical History. London: Thames and Hudson. Frampton, K. (2001). Le Corbusier. London: Thames and Hudson. Gozak, A. & Leonidov, A. (1988). Ivan Leonidov. New York: Rizzoli. Harvey, D. (2006). Notes Towards a Theory of Univen Geographical Development. Space of Global Capitalism. London: Verso. Hill, J. (2003). Actions of Architecture: Architects and Creative Users. London: Routledge. Hitchcock, A. (Director). (1945). Spellbound [Motion picture]. USA: Selznik International Pictures / United Artist. Maljevic, K. (1916). Od kubizma i futurizma do supermatizma, novi slikarski realizam. In S. Mijuskovic (Ed). (1980). Kazimir Maljevic, Supermatizam – Bespredmetnost. Beograd: Studentski Izdavacki centar. McLeod, M. (1983). “Architecture or revolution”: Taylorism, technocracy, and social change. Art Journal, 43, 2. Revising Modernist History: The Architecture of the 1920s and 1930s (Summer, 1983), pp. 132-147. Retrieved from http://web.uvic.ca/~jlutz/courses/hist317/pdfs/McLeod%20Architecture%20or%20Revolutio n%20article.pdf. McLeod, M. (1998). Le Corbusier and Alger. In K. Michael Hays (Ed.) Oppositions Reader. Selected Readings from a Journal for Ideas and Criticism in Architecture 1973-1984. New York: Princeton Architectural Press. Norberg-Schulz, C. (1985). The Concept of Dwelling, On the Way to Figurative Architecture. New York: Electa/Rizzoli. Office, Geers, K., Van Severen, D. (2007). Cité de Réfuge. Retrieved from http://www.officekgdvs.com/ Owen, R. (1920). The Life of Robert Owen. London: G. Bell. Retrieved from https://archive.org/details/lifeofrobertowen00owenuoft Pickering, B. (2010/1847).The Elements of Euclid, the First Six Books. Koln: Taschen (reprint, London: William Pickering) Rapoport, A. (1969). House Form and Culture. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. Violeta Bakalchev, Sasha Tasic, Minas Bakalchev LINES AND FRAMES: ARCHITECTURE IN A PERIOD OF MIGRATION | 63 Rossi, A. (1981). A Scientific Autobiography. Cambridge: The MIT Press. Strugatsky, A. & Strugatsky, B. (1972/77). Roadside Picnic. New York: MacMillan Publishing. Tarkovsky, A. (Director). (1979). Stalker. Spellbound [Motion picture]. Soviet Union: Mosfilm. Tasic, S. (2016). Architecture during migration. ASK 2016. In M. Hadzi Pulja & M. Bakalchev (Eds.), IAS 08. Skopje: Faculty of Architecture, Ss. Ciril and Methodius University, pp. 96-97. Tossiaki Oba, L. (2015). Arquitetura no papel. A obra não construída como referência histórica. Arquitextos, 180/3, 15, May 2015. Retrived from http://www.vitruvius.com.br/revistas/read/arquitextos/15.180/5558 UNHCR. (2017). Statistical Yearbook 2017. Retrieved fromhttp://www.unhcr.org/figures-at-a- glance.html 
work_o5yeboc24bak7cdl35o54b6eju	----	www.e-neurospine.org 15 Editorial Corresponding Author James D. Kang E-mail: jdkang@bwh.harvard.edu https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7499-2909 Harvard Medical School, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, MA, USA See the article “Gene Therapy Approach for Intervertebral Disc Degeneration: An Update” via https://doi.org/10.14245/ ns.2040042.021. Commentary on “Gene Therapy Approach for Intervertebral Disc Degeneration: An Update” In this paper authored by Takeoka et al.,1 the authors provide a nice general review of the concepts of gene therapy over the past decade as it applies to the field of intervertebral disc degeneration research. The authors review the historical advancements made in the field of gene therapy, whereby certain therapeutic genes are delivered to native cells using viral or nonviral techniques in order to produce a biologic effect on the host tissue or organ. Be- cause the intervertebral disc degeneration is a chronic condition which is associated with numerous clinical maladies (low back pain, disc herniations, spinal stenosis, instability, and more), it would seemingly be an ideal target for gene therapy. The original supposition in the 1990’s when gene therapy was receiving enormous optimism for curing many diseases was that this new molecular approach may one day actually help “regenerate” the disc if the right cocktail of anabolic genes mixed with anticatabolic genes were delivered to the cells within the disc.2 Many studies investigated this concept and there were major advancements made that confirmed, both in vitro and in vivo, that the concept was indeed viable. Adeno- virus followed by adeno-associated viruses seemed to transfect cells of the disc with the transgene efficiency which would allow a therapeutic gene to be delivered with a sustained effect enough to alter the natural history of disc degeneration (in animal models). However, this great optimism in gene therapy was tempered when the powers of manip- ulating the genome were viewed through the lens of patient safety. Viral constructs were known to have immunologic effects by the host, and the issue of transgene production of proteins that are “unchecked” or accidentally misapplied, were issues that needed further investigation prior to human clinical trials. Indeed, when such experiments were carried out,3 gene therapy seemed to have a potential dark side where over production of certain proteins in tissues other than the disc may have serious clinical consequences and therefore create a potential safety hazard for patients. Therefore, the early wave of enthusiasm was rightfully tempered, and the field turned to look for safer vectors and inducible agents (for controlling the transgene product). In addition, it was seemingly more reasonable and safer to inhibit the catabolic cascade that is associated with disc degeneration rather than trying to ramp up the production of matrix proteins with anabolic growth factor genes. Takeoka et al.1 discuss the recent advances made in gene therapy in the past decade. In the spirit of a safer therapeutic application of gene therapy, the authors review the concept of RNA interference which specifically inhibits various biochemical pathways that are now better understood in the pathogenesis of disc degeneration. Specifically, they focus on the autophagy molecular pathways which seem to be ideal candidates for inhibiting certain components of the mammalian target of rapamycin pathways which could affect the cell state of autophagy and indirectly have a clinical effect on the march toward disc aging and Neurospine 2020;17(1):15-16. https://doi.org/10.14245/ns.2040092.046 Neurospine eISSN 2586-6591 pISSN 2586-6583 This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (https://creativecom- mons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Copyright © 2020 by the Korean Spinal Neurosurgery Society http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.14245/ns.2040092.046&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2020-03-31 Commentary on Gene Therapy for Disc DegenerationKang JD https://doi.org/10.14245/ns.2040092.04616 www.e-neurospine.org degeneration. Such use of gene therapy is novel and clever, and the authors should be commended on their research on this topic, since it has opened up a new avenue into solving the dif- ficult clinical problem that is disc degeneration. However, this story is still far from being complete, since they do not have any convincing animal models to substantiate the theoretical bene- fit to this type of therapy. It would seem logical that a single therapeutic attack on this clinical entity is likely not going to succeed, but a strategy that is multipronged with the introduction of various therapeutic genes that either inhibit or promote certain proteins and also alter cell states to tip it into a more conductive anabolic environment will have the best chance of succeeding in patients. REFERENCES 1. Takeoka Y, Yurube T, Nishida K, Gene therapy approach for intervertebral disc degeneration: an update. Neurospine 2020:17:3-14. 2. Nishida K, Kang JD, Suh JK, et al. Adenovirus-mediated gene transfer to nucleus pulposus cells. Implications for the treatment of intervertebral disc degeneration. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 1998;23:2437-42; discussion 2443. 3. Wallach CJ, Kim JS, Sobajima S, et al. Safety assessment of intradiscal gene transfer: a pilot study. Spine J 2006;6:107- 12. Title: Girl on the ball Artist: Pablo Picasso Year: 1923 In this painting, the pinky tones of the Rose Period are apparent, though the chilling grey of the acrobat’s bodysuit strangely arrests the young girl's fluid animation. Her lithe, rounded motions, echoing the shape of the ball, are in obvious opposition with the square muscular form of the man, whose shape is interrelated with the solid, cubed seat. Like the Mother and Child (Maternity) (1901), the strong, upward, angular lines are crossed by a series of horizontal blocks, but in this instance they are allowed to undulate to create a further flowing movement that compliments the rolling force of the girl standing on the ball. The whole picture is a study of stasis versus movement, reflecting an interesting evolution in Picasso's own aesthetic advancement as he moves into this new period. More information: https://www.pablopicasso.org/young-acrobat-on-a-ball.jsp © 2020 - Succession Pablo Picasso - SACK (Korea) 
work_o6pvmd3rfveitkpkmngtbtprqm	----	Reaching for Success: Picasso’s Rise in the Market (The First Two Decades) arts Article Reaching for Success: Picasso’s Rise in the Market (The First Two Decades) Enrique Mallen College of Humanities and Social Sciences, Sam Houston State University, 1901 Avenue I, Huntsville, TX 77340, USA; mallen.shsu@gmail.com; Tel.: +1-979-739-8187 Academic Editor: Annetta Alexandridis Received: 30 October 2016; Accepted: 22 March 2017; Published: 6 April 2017 Abstract: This article explores the exhibitions of Picasso’s works in the first two decades of his artistic career, as well as the dealers and collectors who came into contact with them. It describes the relationship between Picasso and his first dealers, Pere Manyach, Berthe Weill, Clovis Sagot, Père Soulier, Ambroise Vollard, Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler, Georg Caspari, L. W. Guthier, Hans Goltz, Heinrich Thannhauser, Otto Feldmann, Alfred Flechtheim, Emil Richter, Gottfried Tanner, Michael Brenner, R. J. Coady, Léonce Rosenberg, Paul Rosenberg, etc.; as well as his first collectors, Leo and Gertrude Stein, Olivier Sainsère, Joachim Gasquet, Wilhelm Uhde, Herman Rupf, Vincenc Kramář, Frank Stoop, Hugo Perls, Edwin Suermondt, Dr. Paul Ferdinand Schmidt, Princess Mechtilde Lichnowsky, Henry Simms, Ludwig and Rosy Fischer, Professor Wilhelm Kreis, Adolf Erblösch, Justin K. Thannhauser, Sergei Ivanovich Shchukin, Ivan A. Morosov, etc. It also identifies all important Picasso expositions in this time period and how those dealers and collectors were involved in their arrangement. The information provided here has been excerpted from an exhaustive study of the critical literature on Pablo Picasso, as well as from published exhibition catalogues. Keywords: Picasso; dealers; collectors; exhibitions; market 1. Introduction Picasso’s first known public showing took place in August 1893, when he was included in a group exhibition at the Escuela de Bellas Artes1 in A Coruña featuring the works by selected students in the 1892–1893 class, among whom was Picasso, who had completed his first year of ‘Figure and Ornament Drawing’ at the school ([1], p. 463). Two years later, Picasso would have his first solo exhibition in a non-academic establishment. It took place in February 1895, when he showed two studies of heads in the shop windows of a furniture store owned by Joaquín Latorre at No. 20, Calle Real ([1], p. 468; [2], p. 55). In September of that same year, the family would leave A Coruña and relocate to Barcelona ([3], p. 49).2 Their first residence was an apartment at No. 4, Carrer Llauder, near the Escuela de Bellas Artes (La Llotja), where Don José had assumed his new post. Some months later they would move around the corner to the second floor of No. 3, Calle Cristina, again conveniently close to the art school ([6], p. 91). Soon after their arrival, Picasso had applied to La Llotja and had easily passed the entrance exam, presumably completing it in one day. He was allowed to skip the early classes and take the entry examination for the Senior Course in Classical Art and Still Life. From the very start, he made friends with his classmate Manuel Pallarés Grau (1876–1974), a Catalan painter from Horta in the 1 The chronological list of exhibitions is provided in the Appendix A. 2 Others date their settling in the city simply to September ([4], p. 396; [5], p. 324). Arts 2017, 6, 4; doi:10.3390/arts6020004 www.mdpi.com/journal/arts http://www.mdpi.com/journal/arts http://www.mdpi.com http://www.mdpi.com/journal/arts Arts 2017, 6, 4 2 of 21 Ebro valley ([6], p. 91), among others. They would eventually share a small studio at No. 4, Carrer de la Plata, where Don José encouraged his son to work on a large academic canvas. The painting he would eventually complete would be known as La première communion ([7], OPP.95:004)3 and would be exhibited from April through 26 July at the ‘Exposición de Bellas Artes y Industrias Artísticas’ in Barcelona’s Palacio de Bellas Artes ([6], p. 91; [8], p. 211; [9], p. 72). Other paintings in the exhibit were by well-established painters such as Rusiñol, Ramón Casas (1866–1932), and Isidre Nonell (1872–1911) ([8], p. 211). In a review in Diario de Barcelona (25 May 1896), the critic Miquel i Badia commented that the painting was clearly ‘the work of a novice’, although in it ‘one perceives sensibility in the principal figures. Certain areas are painted with strength’ ([10], p. 101). In 1897, Picasso’s father again pushed his son to work on a second academic work, Science et charité ([7], OPP.97:001), a large allegorical painting for which Don José also served as the model for the doctor. It would be exhibited at the ‘Exposición General de Bellas Artes’4 in Madrid, alongside paintings by the recognized portraitist Antonio Caba, director of the Escuela de Bellas Artes. The painting obtained an honorable mention [2]. Nonetheless, a Madrid critic would find a certain clumsiness and sentimentality in the composition: ‘I am sorry to laugh callously at such grief, but I cannot help it, for surely the doctor is feeling the pulse of a glove’ ([11], p. 21). Afterward Science et charité ([7], OPP.97:001) would also be exhibited at the ‘Exposición Provincial’ de Málaga, where it was awarded a gold medal.5 These reviews had a clear impact on the young artist, who moved out of No. 4, Carrer de la Plata and would not tell anyone the location of his new studio ([12], p. 22). On 12 June, an establishment that would play a crucial role in promoting Picasso’s career opened its doors on No. 3, Carrer Montsió ([6], p. 92).6 Named Els Quatre Gats, after the famous Chat Noir in Paris, it would soon become a focal point of Pablo’s Barcelona life. The founder was Pere Romeu (1862–1908), but its moving spirits were the artists Ramón Casas (1866–1932), Isidre Nonell (1872–1911), Santiago Rusiñol (1861–1931), and Miquel Utrillo (1863–1934). The first exhibition at the Els Quatre Gats took place on 10 July 1897 and showed the work of these local artists. The artistic creed they followed was that of Modernism, being great admirers of Romantic figures such as Friedrich Nietzsche, Richard Wagner, Joris-Karl Huysmans, Maurice Maeterlinck, and Henrik Ibsen. In art, they were interested in the work of Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, James Abbott McNeill Whistler, Théophile Steinlen, Dante Gabriel Rossetti, and Edvard Munch. While Casas personally had studied in Paris in 1882, Rusiñol paid frequent visits to the French capital, mostly between 1887 and 1894, and Nonell spent time there in 1897 and 1900 ([13], pp. 87–88). Following the directives of his father, Picasso left for Madrid in September of 1897 to study at the Real Academia de San Fernando ([6], p. 93; [10], p. 133). He completed the admission drawings in one day, thus equaling his remarkable performance in Barcelona ([6], p. 93). He registered for courses by cronies of Don José, including Moreno Carbonero (1860–1942) and Muñoz Degrain (1840–1924). Soon, however, he lost interest in his classes, preferring to sketch outside, at cafés, and in the Museo del Prado. While in Madrid, he probably read a newspaper note, which appeared in February 1898, calling for artists to participate in the 1900 Paris Exposition Universelle ([10], p. 162) and would soon heed the call. His artistic ambition was somewhat curtailed as he was forced to return to Barcelona in May to convalesce from a serious illness.7 In order to fully recover, he even accepted Pallarés’ invitation to stay in his family’s home in the remote town of Horta d’Ebre (now Horta de Sant Joan) on the border of Catalonia and Aragon. They traveled there in June ([6], p. 93) and stayed until late January 1899, when Picasso returned to Barcelona ([3], p. 56; [6], p. 93; [9], p. 31).8 He gave up any intention of 3 OPP: Mallen, Enrique. Online Picasso Project. Sam Houston State University. 1997–2017. 4 Others date the exposition to June ([6], p. 92). 5 Some date the presumed event to 8 June 1897, but this fact has even been contested by Rafael Inglada [1], since there is no record of any such exhibit in Málaga at the time. 6 Others date the opening to July ([9], p. 32). 7 Others date the return to June ([6], p. 93); also others place him still in Madrid on 12 June ([12], p. 25; [14], p. 15). 8 Others date his return earlier to November 1898 ([12], p. 26), or later to February ([8], pp. 211–22). Arts 2017, 6, 4 3 of 21 continuing his formal studies in Madrid and embarked instead on a career as a graphic artist, earning some money through drawing contributions for journals and books. He would still participate in the ‘Exposición General de Bellas Artes’ in Madrid from 8 May to 10 June 1899 with a work representing his experience in the countryside, titled Coutumes Aragonese or Dans la cour d’une maison aragonaise. It would be awarded an honorable mention ([6], p. 94). In the summer, Picasso took his friend Carles Casagemas (1880–1901) to Málaga ([9], p. 32), where the former exhibited three paintings at the ‘Exposición Regional de Bellas Artes’ organized by the Liceo Arts Club: Coutumes Aragonese (which he probably retrieved in Madrid on his way to Málaga), Derniers rites (or Les derniers moments), and an unidentified portrait (possibly the Portrait of Josep Cardona) ([2], p. 126; [6], pp. 94–95). In January 1900, he and Casagemas agreed to share a studio at No. 17, Riera de Sant Joan, not too far from where Picasso’s parents lived ([6], p. 95). Picasso worked intensively throughout the winter to finish many portraits of his friends (between 50 and 150) for the purpose of exhibiting them at Els Quatre Gats in February ([6], p. 95).9 At this show, he also exhibited three paintings, including Les derniers moments ([7], OPP.00:317), which he had first shown in the Summer of 1899 in Málaga. The show at Els Quatre Gats was Picasso’s first full exhibition. About Les derniers moments, Manuel Rodríguez Codolà wrote in La Vanguardia (3 February): The only painting which Ruiz Picazzo [sic] has in the IV Gats portrays a young priest standing with a prayer book in his hand, looking at a woman on her deathbed. The light of a lamp radiates weakly and is reflected in patches on the white bedspread over the dying woman. The rest of the canvas is in shadow, which dissolves the figures into indecisive silhouettes. There are qualities in this work, painted with a natural ease that we appreciate; qualities that we hope will reach maturity the day when Señor Ruiz Picazzo [sic] frees himself of prejudice and brings his work richer experience and study than he shows today, when he reaches the age when one dares all and produces typically personal works. ([16], p. 68)10 Reporting on the same show, Sebastià Trullol i Plana in Diario de Barcelona (7 February) suggested that the influence of Barcelona modernisme detracted from Picasso’s work: Currently on exhibition in the salon of Los Quatre Gats are several drawings and color sketches by D. R. Picassó [sic], a youth who enters into [the world of] art with the obsession of the most extreme modernismo. One cannot deny that Señor Picassó has talent and feeling for art; he proves this in three oils which appear in the exhibition, in which he demonstrates intuition and knowledge of the expressive potential of color; but in contrast to this, the exhibition reveals in the painter, as in many others who have preceded him and are madly in love with the modernista school, a lamentable confusion of artistic sensibility and a mistaken concept of art...In the collection of pencil portraits, which forms part of the exhibition, several stand out for the confidence of drawing, but it is only necessary to glance at them as a whole to recognize that this is a gallery of melancholy, taciturn, and bored characters that produces in the spectator an impression of sadness and compassion for their unsympathetic portrayal’. [17]11 On 24 February, La Vanguardia finally published a list of artists whose work had been selected for the Paris ‘Exposition Universelle’, which would open on April 14.12 Les derniers moments was one of the works chosen, and Picasso made plans to go to Paris to see his work hanging in one of the two hundred pavilions from different countries lining the Seine. Before his departure, a second exhibition 9 Others date the opening to 2 February ([9], p. 111). 10 See also [15]. 11 See also ([16], p. 70). 12 Others date the opening to May ([9], p. 33). Arts 2017, 6, 4 4 of 21 at Els Quatre Gats showed four of his ‘bullfight’ pastels in July ([6], p. 96). One of them was bought by the Basque painter Ignacio Zuloaga. By the end of September, Picasso had taken off for France in the company of Casagemas ([3], p. 60; [6], p. 96; [9], p. 33).13 Pallarés would join them in late October. Nonell introduced Pablo to the dealer Pere Manyach (b. 1870) (a. k. a Mañac or Manyac) in mid November ([9], p. 178). He would soon sign a contract with him, agreeing to receive 150 French Franks (FRF) per month for his work in exchange for his representation. Manyach was involved in supplying works to several dealers, including Berthe Weill, who would open her own gallery in December 1901 ([18], p. 26). In addition to taking three of Picasso’s bullfight pastels for 100 FRF, which she would immediately resell for 150 FRF, she arranged the sale of a painting to Sainsère. Picasso later recalled that Sainsère, a conseiller d’Etat, also provided a measure of protection against the police, which systematically suspected all young Spaniards of anarchism ([19], p. 159). At Manyach’s urging, the Spanish consul Emmanuel Virenque also bought La danseuse bleue directly out of the artist’s studio ([20], p. 20). Thus, by the time Picasso returned to Barcelona with Casagemas on 23–24 December, he felt that his visit to Paris had been a tremendous success [2].14 2. First Exhibitions in Paris The year 1901 saw a significant increase in interest regarding Picasso’s work. By February, he had relocated once again to Madrid ([9], p. 198).15 In February, news arrived that his friend Casagemas, who had returned to Paris on his own, had committed suicide, influencing Picasso’s decision in the Spring to start preparations for a return to Paris. The excuse was an exhibition, which had been arranged by Manyach for June at Ambroise Vollard’s gallery. Before his return to the French capital, he participated with Ramón Casas in a joint exhibition arranged by Miquel Utrillo at Sala Parés, Barcelona in April ([6], p. 99). The Sala Parés would organize another exhibition dedicated to Picasso’s pastels the following month; while in Madrid, his oil Femme en bleu ([7], OPP.01:030) was also shown at the ‘Exposición General de Bellas Artes’ ([6], p. 99). By mid May, Picasso traveled back to Paris, this time with his friend Jaume Andreu Bonsons ([2], p. 193). He moved with Manyach into Casagemas’ studio at No. 130ter, Boulevard de Clichy,16 a few meters from the café where his friend had killed himself ([6], p. 99; [14], p. 16; [21], p. 100). On 17 June, an article by Gustave Coquiot (1865–1926) in Le Journal announced the impending exhibition at Vollard’s on No. 6, rue Laffite ([22], p. 361). The show formally opened on 24 June and featured works by Picasso and the Basque painter Francisco Iturrino (1864–1924) ([5], p. 324; [6], p. 100; [14], p. 16).17 This was Picasso’s first significant exhibition, containing some 64 paintings, pastels, and watercolors, as well as a number of drawings, many of which were executed in only three weeks. Gustave Coquiot was enlisted to write a preface for the catalogue. Later he recalled that the canvases [at the Vollard show] were not presented as they usually are today, with plenty of space and in a single line, but on top of one another almost to the ceiling and unframed, while some were not even on stretchers but in large folders, at the mercy of any collector or visitor. ([23], p. 257) 13 Others date the departure to October ([4], p. 397) or to late October ([10], p. 200). At first they stayed at No. 9, rue Campagne Première in Montparnasse ([9], p. 174), but later they switched to the studio vacated by Nonell at No. 49, rue Gabrielle in Montmartre ([9], p. 174; [14], p. 15). 14 Others date the return simply to December ([4], p. 397), to end of December ([6], p. 98), or to the second half of December ([9], p. 188). 15 Others date the departure to mid January ([2], p. 177; [6], p. 98). At first they lived in a pension at No. 4, Calle Caballero de Gracia ([6], p. 98) and later at No. 28, Calle Zurbano ([2], p. 177; [6], p. 98; [9], p. 198). 16 Others date this second trip simply to May ([4], p. 397). 17 Others date the opening of the exhibition to June 25 and the closing to mid July ([20], p. 16). Arts 2017, 6, 4 5 of 21 Despite Vollard’s assertion that the show was unsuccessful, fifteen works (more than half of those shown) were sold even before the exhibition had even opened ([24], p. 29). A few of the buyers have been identified; L. Besnard, Monsieur Ackermann, Eugène Blot, and Käthe Kollwitz ([10], pp. 247–57; [20], p. 16). Pere Coll reviewed the show for the Barcelona journal La Veu de Catalunya (10 July): Picasso is very young...and at his age I doubt if there are many who have done what he has. He has very great qualities but also great defects. The portraits of his companion Iturrino and one of another friend, Manyach, and a self-portrait are done with great courage and great confidence, indicating the genius of the painter’. [25] Félicien Fagus (nom de plume of the poet Georges Faillet (1872–1933)) also reviewed the show in La Revue blanche (15 July): ‘[Picasso] is the painter, utterly and beautifully the painter; he has the power of divining the essence of things...Like all pure painters he adores color for its own sake...He is enamored of all subjects, and every subject is his’ [26]. Fagus traces not only Picasso’s Spanish ancestry but also his French antecedents and concludes: Each influence is transitory...One sees that Picasso’s haste has not yet given him time to forge a personal style; his personality is in this haste, this youthful impetuous spontaneity (I understand he is not yet twenty, and covers as many as three canvases a day)... The danger lies in this very impetuosity, which could easily lead to facile virtuosity and easy success...That would be profoundly regrettable since we are in the presence of such brilliant virility. [26] Problems with Manyach soon arose. By the end of January 1902, Picasso had already broken his contract and moved out of the apartment they shared. After receiving funds from home, he took the train back to Barcelona ([5], p. 324),18 sharing a studio with Angel Fernández de Soto (1882–1938) and another aspiring artist, Josep Rocarol (1882–1961), at No. 6 (or 10), Carrer Nou de la Rambla (today Calle Conde del Asalto). Even in Picasso’s absence, Manyach continued to promote his work and arranged a joint exhibition with the artist Louis Bernard-Lemaire at Galerie Berthe Weill during the first two weeks of April ([5], p. 324; [6], p. 101; [22], p. 362). It showed La chambre bleue (Le tub) ([7], OPP.01:027), Courtisane au collier de gemmes (L’hétaïre) ([7], OPP.01:032), Le quatorze juillet ([7], OPP.01:070), Le clown au singe ([7], OPP.01:111), Enfant assis dans un fauteuil ([7], OPP.01:165), Enfants dans le Jardin du Luxembourg ([7], OPP.01:225), and Pierrot ([7], OPP.01:226).19 The dealer also arranged for Picasso’s participation in another group exhibition along with Matisse, Villon, Marquet, and Maillol at the Galerie Berthe Weill during the first two weeks of June. This recapitulaton of six previous exhibitions, as Berthe Weill called it, was a mixture of drawings, watercolors, and paintings and may have been the first occasion in which Matisse and Picasso were exhibited together. Picasso, cloistered in Barcelona since the previous winter, did not get to see this exhibition. He would not return to Paris until the end of October ([22], p. 362). In response to Weill’s show, an article in La Revue blanche (1 February) by Félicien Fagus discussed the work of Picasso and other Spanish artists in Paris (most of whom were represented by Manyach). On 19 October, Picasso finally left Barcelona for Paris with his friends Josep Rocarol and Julio González ([6], p. 101).20 His departure was reported in the Barcelona newspaper El Liberal (20 October): ‘The celebrated artist, Pablo Ruiz Picasso, left for Paris on yesterday’s express’ ([8], p. 212; [27], p. 36). From November 15 through December 15, Manyach had again arranged an exhibition, ‘Peintures, pastels et dessins de MM. Girieud, Launay, Picasso et Pichot’, at Galerie Berthe Weill ([4], p. 397; [6], p. 102; [22], p. 362; [28], p. 322). Several blue canvases were shown, among them 18 Others date the move to Barcelona to early January ([27], p. 34). 19 See also ([19], p. 334). 20 Others date the third trip simply to October ([4], p. 397). Arts 2017, 6, 4 6 of 21 Dans un cabaret ([7], OPP.02:013) and La maison bleue ([7], OPP.02:095). The catalogue for the exhibition included an essay by Thilda Harlor (nom de plume, Jeanne-Fernande Perrot) in which she emphasized the freedom and indefatigable approach reflected in Picasso’s work. Another favorable article appeared in an article in Mercure de France (December) by the Symbolist poet Charles Morice: ‘What drawing!... What composition!...As disturbing and provocative as one of the Fleurs du mal’. Morice spoke of this very young man’s work [with] a body of work that is already beyond counting. Picasso, who was painting before he learned to read, seems to have been given the mission of expressing everything that exists, and of expressing it with his brush. It might be said that he is a young god who wants to refashion the world. ([21], p. 115) Around mid January 1903, Picasso decided to return to Barcelona after receiving 200 FRF for the fare from Madame Besnard, one of his first buyers, in exchange for Les adieux du pêcheur ([7], OPP.02:010) or Mère et enfant au bord de la mer (À Dr. Josep Fontbona) ([7], OPP.02:011).21 He moved again into the studio he had shared with Casagemas at No. 17, Riera de Sant Joan, splitting it now with Angel Fernández de Soto. An article in El Liberal (7 March) referenced an exhibition of his works in the Catalan city: ‘The head which he (P. P.) is now exhibiting is not only attractive because of the impulsive force one can divine in this pastel; it is also captivating in the tenderness and spontaneity to be observed in the form’ [29]. El Liberal (4 June) also reported the sale of La vie ([7], OPP.03:001) ‘for a respectable price, to the Parisian collector M. Jean Saint-Gaudens’ [30]. On 11–12 April, El Liberal reported that ‘The artists Messrs. Sebastià Junyer-Vidal and Pablo Ruiz Picasso are leaving on today’s express for Paris, where they propose to hold an exhibition [never realized] of their latest works’ ([27], p. 38). Their journey was recorded by Picasso in traditional Catalan comic-strip form as an ‘alleluia’ ([8], p. 212). The trip actually took place on 13 April ([10], p. 371).22 They stayed for a short time with the González brothers in Montparnasse before taking over Paco Durrio’s (1868–1940) studio at No. 13, rue Ravignan (now Place Emile Goudeau) in mid June ([8], p. 213).23 The building where he moved (perched on a hill in Montmartre) was named Bateau-Lavoir by poet Max Jacob because of its resemblance to a Seine washing barge and because the floorboards in the old ramshackle hallways creaked like a boat ([8], p. 213; [21], pp. 132–33). 2.1. André Level and Other Major Early Collectors Starting on 24 October and continuing through 20 November, Picasso had his last showing at Galerie Berthe Weill, ‘Exposition de Mm. Charbonnier, Clary-Baroux, Raoul Dufy, Girieud, Picabia, Picasso, Thiesson’, featuring watercolors, pastels and drawings ([6], p. 104; [22], p. 362). About a dozen of the works included had been produced during the previous three years; La fin du numéro ([7], OPP.00:026), Dans la rue ([7], OPP.00:068), Les amants dans la rue ([7], OPP.00:131), Marchande des fleurs dans la rue ([7], OPP.01:016), Evocation (L’enterrement de Carles Casagemas) ([7], OPP.01:046), and Femmes et enfant (Intimité) ([7], OPP.02:096). Maurice Le Sieutre wrote the catalogue preface: [Picasso] is a good image maker. A fine enameler, if one may express it that way. In his pastels, one finds sharp tones...left intentionally as a result of chemical oxidation. Their line is elegant, outlining the splashes of pinks and particularly blues that represent flowers, draperies, dresses, [and] the shawls of lively Spanish women. ([19], p. 238) The last of the works listed, Femmes et enfant (Intimité) ([7], OPP.02:096), was purchased by André Level for La Peau de l’Ours, an art investment group he had established in February 1904 ([20], p. 71). This enterprise would prove of crucial importance to Picasso’s status in the art market ([18], p. 271). The following year, Level would purchase six additional paintings and watercolors from Picasso’s 21 See also ([6], p. 102; [8], p. 212; [27], p. 36). Others date the return merely to January ([4], p. 397; [20], p. 22). 22 Others date the return to mid April ([27], p. 38) or merely to April ([4], p. 397; [5], p. 324; [20], p. 22; [31], p. 14). 23 Others date the move earlier to mid April ([6], p. 103; [14], p. 17; [27], p. 38). Arts 2017, 6, 4 7 of 21 early period from Berthe Weill and Père Soulié: ‘The half-dozen works on cardboard, canvas and watercolors strained our meager budget’ ([20], p. 71). 2.2. Wilhelm Uhde and the Steins In 1905, a new Picasso collector would also arrive in Paris, Wilhelm Uhde (1874–1947). He had started studying law in Dresden before switching to art history and relocating to Munich and Florence. After his move to Paris, he progressively became one of Picasso’s top enthusiasts. However, despite sporadic sales, Picasso was still under financial stress. He wrote to Cinto Reventós in Barcelona on 22 February: It’s such a terrible waste of time, scrounging the last peseta to pay for the studio or a restaurant...I am forced to deal...because of interest and the need to have something to eat, but ought not to have to waste so much time...It teaches you a stupid but important lesson anyone learns in business in Barcelona: grab what you can...Anyway, I continue working and in a few days I’m going to have a small exhibition...[Charles Morice] is in charge...He always does well by whatever he has his sticky fingers in...We’ll see what comes of it... God willing, people will like it and I’ll sell everything I’m showing. ([8], p. 51; [12], p. 45) From 25 February through 6 March, he joined Albert Trachsel and Auguste Gérardin in the exhibition sponsored by the critic Morice at the Galeries Serrurier on 37, boulevard Haussmann. ([5], p. 324; [6], p. 104). The catalogue (the introduction for which Morice also wrote) listed 30 paintings and gouaches plus three engravings and an album of drawings ([2], p. 355; [14], p. 17).24 Among the artworks exhibited were; Femme à la corneille (Marguerite Luc) (Margot) ([7], OPP.04:005), Le Christ de Montmartre (Le suicidé) ([7], OPP.04:086), Le saltimbanque ([7], OPP.04:036), one of his first ‘Rose Period’ works, and probably Famille d’acrobates avec singe ([7], OPP.05:003).25 Eight of them represented ‘Saltimbanques’, making it the first exhibition on the ‘Circus’ theme. Although his work was discussed in the press, the Spaniard probably sold little. According to the American collector Leo Stein (1872–1947), he discovered Picasso at an exhibition recommended to him by Clovis Sagot, which must have been this one, the only one occurring early in the year. His sister, Gertrude Stein (1874–1946), described the venue as ‘a little furniture store where there were some paintings being shown by Picasso’. Although Serrurier’s premises could hardly have been considered a ‘little store’, they were definitely devoted to ‘furnishings and artistic decoration’ ([22], p. 362). Having made an offer for a painting from the establishment, which remained unanswered, Leo would eventually acquire Famille d’acrobates avec singe ([7], OPP.05:003) from Sagot before the summer ([22], p. 362). By 8 March, Henri-Pierre Roché (1879–1959) wrote Picasso to set up a proper introduction: ‘I shall bring the American of whom I spoke to see you at your house tomorrow, Wednesday morning, at 10.00 a.m.’ ([22], p. 362). The actual meeting probably took place at the Bateau-Lavoir in late spring ([22], p. 362). In November Leo would discover another Picasso at Clovis Sagot’s, Jeune fille à la corbeille de fleurs ([7], OPP.05:030). Although his sister Gertrude did not approve of the selection, they would eventually agree to purchase it ([14], p. 18; [32], p. 340; [33], p. 105). In Leo’s words, ‘I dropped in at [the dealer] Sagot to talk about Picasso; he had a picture by him, which I bought. The ape looked at the child so lovingly that Sagot was sure this scene was derived from life, but I knew more about apes than Sagot did and was sure that no such baboon-like creature belonged in such a scene. Picasso told me later that the ape was his invention, and it was a proof that he was more talented as a painter than as a naturalist’ ([34], p. 169). Sagot would go on to also sell them Famille d’acrobates avec singe ([7], OPP.05:003). The Steins had set up residence in Paris and, with their inheritance, were putting together an extraordinary art collection. In a probable second visit to the Bateau-Lavoir, Leo purchased 24 Others date the opening of the exhibition to 24 February ([22], p. 362; [27], p. 38). 25 See ([20], p. 23). Arts 2017, 6, 4 8 of 21 several more paintings by Picasso for a total of 900 FRF. Pablo would also become a frequent visitor at the Steins’ salons. Some months later he agreed to make portraits of Leo and his brother, Michael’s son, Allan. At approximately this time, Gertrude also voluntarily sat for 80 to 90 sessions while he worked on Portrait de Gertrude Stein ([7], OPP.06:027). She would become a close friend and patron, encouraging a number of her American friends, including Etta Cone (1870–1949) and Claribel Cone (1864–1929) of Baltimore to buy drawings and paintings by Picasso: ‘Etta Cone found the Picassos appalling but romantic. She was taken there by Gertrude whenever the Picasso finances got beyond everybody and was made to buy 100 FRF worth of drawings’ ([35], p. 52). André Level’s organization La Peau de l’Ours continued to set the pace in 1906. The largest portion of their budget for that year was spent on the work of a single artist, Pablo Picasso. Picking through Berthe Weill’s stock, and with Clovis Sagot as his agent, Level purchased six paintings and watercolors for the collection. The works were primarily confined to the early 1900s, among them La maison bleue ([7], OPP.02:095).26 Ambroise Vollard, for his part, had shown interest in Picasso’s Rose Period. In March be bought the bulk of his output from that time. The purchase was finalized on 6 May, when he paid a total of 2000 Gold Franks (GDF) for 20 canvases ([14], p. 18; [33], p. 105).27 This would provide the artist with the necessary measure of financial security to return to Spain through August ([6], p. 105; [36], p. 83). The following year, Level entered negotiations with Picasso for the purchase of La famille de saltimbanques (Les bateleurs) ([7], OPP.05:002). To cut off other potential buyers, he made an offer of 1000 FRF through Lucien Moline. Hoping for a higher price, Picasso did not initially take it, but he would eventually be forced to accept from them a partial loan of 300 FRF to relieve his financial distress ([18], p. 31). In February, Pablo sent Gertrude Stein happier news; Vollard had agreed to buy out his studio for 2500 FRF, the balance to be paid in six months: ‘Vollard came this morning. The deal is settled’ ([32], p. 342; [37], p. 334; [38], p. 17). By mid February, the dealer had given him a down-payment of 1400 FRF for a batch of canvases and drawings ([33], p. 110).28 However, there was also a certain amount of negativity about the transaction. According his friends, the artist found bargaining exhausting, but, much more that that, he also hated parting with his pictures ([21], pp. 143–44; [39], p. 81). By mid September, Vollard had retrieved eleven paintings and given him a check for the remaining 1100 FRF ([33], p. 110; [38], p. 48). 2.3. Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler A new dealer, the German Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler, entered the scene in late February. He had rented space for a small gallery at No. 28, rue Vignon in Paris. His gallery opened on 11 July ([38], p. 34). At first, he showed the Fauves Derain and Vlaminck, van Dongen and Braque ([20], p. 27).29 Soon after the opening, Picasso went to check the premises, even returning a second time accompanied by Vollard ([38], p. 36). Wilhelm Uhde, who was one of Kahnweiler’s acquaintances, had told him that he had seen in Picasso’s studio in March an astonishing large painting still in progress. Impelled by these comments, Kahnweiler went to see for himself the canvas in question, Les demoiselles d’Avignon ([7], OPP.07:001), at the Bateau-Lavoir in early-August, and was immediately enthralled ([38], p. 59; [40], p. 149). In the spring of 1908, Kahnweiler visited Picasso again with the Swiss collector Herman Rupf, who bought Feuillage (Arbres) ([7], OPP.07:109) on that occasion. Later in the year, he would purchase two additional works: Tête d’homme ([7], OPP.08:251) and Paysage (La rue des bois) ([7], OPP.08:114). Along with the Frenchman Roger Dutilleul (1873–1956), the Russians Sergei Ivanovich Shchukin (1854–1936) ([37], p. 339; [38], p. 159) and Ivan A. Morosov (1871–1921), the Czech Dr. Vincenc Kramář, 26 See ([18], p. 30). 27 Others date the visit earlier to April ([18], p. 30), or merely to May ([32], p. 341), or early May ([22], p. 363). 28 Others report the amount he receives as 1500 FRF ([20], p. 17). 29 Others date the opening of the gallery simply to February ([38], p. 36). Arts 2017, 6, 4 9 of 21 and the Americans Leo and Gertrude Stein, Rupf became part of a circle of reliable customers at Galerie Kahnweiler ([20], pp. 85–86). One of the first Picassos exhibited at the gallery was Tête de femme (Fernande) ([7], OPP.09:048), which he would soon sell to Lotte and Paul von Mendelssohn-Bartholdy. During this same time, the German Alfred Flechtheim, initiated his career as a Parisian dealer, becoming well acquainted with the colony of his compatriots who frequented the Café du Dôme on Boulevard Montparnasse. Through Uhde, Flechtheim also met Kahnweiler, and, in just a few years, he would come to acquire a large number of works by the Cubists. In addition to these collectors, mention must be made of André Level’s dealings in his function as director of La Peau de l’Ours. Early in 1907, he had agreed to buy La famille de saltimbanques (Les bateleurs) ([7], OPP.05:002) for his association for 1000 FRF.30 With these funds and an additional 2200 FRF he had received from Vollard in early-May, Picasso traveled to Horta d’Ebre in June, living a life of near luxury ([33], p. 111).31 In a telling anecdote, a grocery store owner in Horta d’Ebre refused to change a bill from Picasso’s mistress Fernande Olivier for one thousand pesetas into smaller currency. The shopkeepers were astonished to see such a large bill. The kids ran all over town trying to find someone who could offer change but to no avail. By early September they traveled to Barcelona, staying at the fancy Grand Hôtel de l’Orient ([38], p. 137). Once back in Paris ([22], p. 365; [27], p. 58; [32], p. 363; [37], p. 338) in mid September, they left the Bateau-Lavoir and moved to better quarters at No. 11, boulevard de Clichy, near Place Pigalle ([32], p. 363).32 This new apartment was on the top floor with a good view of Sacré-Cœur ([38], p. 145). In 1946, Maurice Raynal described the move: ‘What a change it was! It was Picasso’s first ‘bourgeois’ residence in Paris. A studio with a north light, large and airy; and a sunny apartment, with a southern exposure, looking out on the trees of avenue Frochot’ ([40], p. 158; [41], p. 199). 2.4. Kahnweiler’s International Market Strategies By 1910, Kahnweiler ’s inventory of works by Picasso had reached 60 canvases ([18], p. 34). In order to promote his artists abroad, primarily in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland, he established contacts with dealers such as Georg Caspari, Hans Goltz and Heinrich Thannhauser (Munich), Otto Feldmann (Cologne, later Berlin), Alfred Flechtheim (Düsseldorf), Emil Richter (Dresden), Galerie Miethke (Vienna), and Gottfried Tanner (Zürich), as well as in Britain and the United States at the Grafton Galleries (London) and Washington Square Gallery (New York), whose agents, Michael Brenner and R. J. Coady, would become his exclusive representatives in America ([20], p. 32). In May, an article written by Frank Gelett Burgess in 1908, ‘The Wild Men of Paris’ [42], appeared in the American journal The Architectural Record with a photograph of Les demoiselles d’Avignon ([7], OPP.07:001). This is the first time the painting had been reproduced. Other works illustrated were La dryade (Nu dans une forêt) ([7], OPP.08:001), Femme nue assise ([7], OPP.08:112), and Trois femmes ([7], OPP.08:009).33 Around this time, Picasso also participated in a group exhibition at Uhde’s Galerie Notre-Dame-des-Champs ([18], p. 33; [20], p. 33; [22], p. 365; [38], p. 162) with paintings dating from 1908–1909, among them the oil Pressoir d’olive à Horta de Sant Joan (L’usine) ([7], OPP.09:028). The critic Léon Werth observed in La Phalange (10 June): These pictures borrow nothing from geometry, and if their sources of inspiration are diverse Mr. Picasso should not be reproached for that. Like all artists at their beginnings, he has sometimes, in seeking for himself, found others. These pleasing and ingenious works lead Mr. Picasso finally to this fruit dish and glass, which display their structure, substructure, and superstructure, and whose harmony, simplified as it is, is made up of the yellows and 30 On 21 January 1907 ([22], p. 364). 31 Others date the trip to 12 May ([22], p. 365), or simply to May ([4], p. 398), or to Early-May ([14], p. 19; [32], p. 360). 32 Others date the move to late-September ([22], p. 365). 33 See ([22], p. 365; [40], p. 159). Arts 2017, 6, 4 10 of 21 greens of certain Cézannes; and to this landscape of cubic roofs, cubic chimneys, and trees that are like the chimneys but decorated at the top with palms. [43] The latter comment refers to Pressoir d’olive à Horta de Sant Joan (L’usine) ([7], OPP.09:028) which had been purchased by Haviland the preceding October and was later bought by Shchukin ([22], p. 365; [32], p. 365; [37], p. 338). Towards the end of June, Picasso left for Cadaqués for a period of two months ([38], p. 153; [44], p. 86).34 After his return to Paris, Kahnweiler bought one of the paintings he had brought back with him while Vollard purchased the rest, paying 950 FRF for nine paintings and advancing 1000 FRF on future work ([33], p. 111). During the first two weeks of September, Picasso and Braque were exhibited together in the ‘II. Ausstellung. Turnus, 1910–1911’ at Galerie Heinrich Thannhauser (Moderne Galerie), Munich. Kahnweiler lent three works by Picasso, Tête de femme (Fernande) ([7], OPP.09:048), a Nature morte, and a pastel, and four works by Braque ([20], p. 33; [32], p. 368). ‘These shows familiarized experts with their work but were largely ignored by the broader public... Now Picasso stood center-stage, vilified and acclaimed as the innovator par excellence’ ([46], p. 206). Despite the general rejection of Cubism, Picasso continued to attract buyers. On 20 October, the Czech collector Vincenc Kramář came for the first time to Paris and acquired Tête ([7], OPP.06:375) and L’étreinte ([7], OPP.06:067) from Clovis Sagot.35 Starting on 20 December and continuing through 11 February 1911, a Picasso retrospective was organized at Galerie Vollard ([20], p. 33; [22], p. 365; [32], p. 371; [38], p. 172), featuring the Cubist sculpture Tête de femme (Fernande) ([7], OPP.09:017). This exhibition would be his last in Paris until he agreed to a public showing during the Salon d’Antin in 1916 ([37], p. 340). Apollinaire alerted readers of L’lntransigeant (21 December) to the importance of this exhibition. It contained older works ‘of great artistic value’ plus ‘a very fine set’ of works hung without frames but whose ‘major importance’ was increased by the fact that Picasso did not regularly exhibit in any of the salons ([37], p. 340). André Salmon also commented in Paris-Journal (22 December): ‘I recall the intense impression I had on first seeing these painful, powerful works’ ([32], p. 371; [37], p. 340). In 1911, La Peau de l’Ours, through Level’s leadership, acquired two more works, Arlequin à cheval ([7], OPP.05:033) and Les trois Hollandaises ([7], OPP.05:026).36 This same year, the Museumsverein Elberfeld purchased Acrobate et jeune arlequin ([7], OPP.05:214), presenting it to the Städtisches Museum (later Städtische Galerie Wuppertal-Elberfeld). This was the first time Picasso’s work had been featured in a museum ([20], p. 34). Around this time, another dealer, Léonce Rosenberg, became a noted champion of Cubism, a lead his brother Paul Rosenberg would soon follow. Working initially with his brother-in-law Kahnweiler, Paul, along with his partner Georges Wildenstein, would establish and then win over from Léonce exclusive relationships not only with Picasso (from 1918 on) but also with Braque (from 1922), Marie Laurencin and Fernand Léger (from 1927), and Matisse (from 1936). Through Kahnweiler’s efforts in the 1910s, Picasso had grown in international recognition, evidenced by his inclusion in the collective exhibition ‘XIII. Jahrgang, VI. Ausstellung’ (January– February) at Galerie Paul Cassirer, Berlin, with two works, one of which was Tête de femme (Fernande) ([7], OPP.09:048). Also in the Spring, he was featured in the XXII. Ausstellung der Berliner Secession, represented by La coiffure ([7], OPP.06:015) and three other works ([20], p. 34). Further, from 28 March through 25 April, 49 drawings and watercolors from 1905–1910 plus 34 additional drawings available to viewers on request appeared at Stieglitz’s 291, Little Galleries of the Photo-Secession in New York ([22], p. 365; [32], p. 372).37 This was Picasso’s first American exhibition. The selections, which ranged from Paysanne au châle ([7], OPP.06:281) to Tête de femme (Fernande) (Étude) ([7], OPP.09:099) 34 Others date this trip to 26 June ([32], p. 366; [37], p. 339), to the end of June ([14], p. 20), to 1 July ([27], p. 365; [38], p. 153), or simply to Summer ([45], p. 35). He returns to Paris on August 25–26 ([38], p. 165; [44], p. 87; [45], p. 36). Others date the return to 5 September ([22], p. 365) or simply to September ([14], p. 20). 35 Others date the visit merely to October ([20], p. 30). 36 See ([18], p. 37; [20], p. 72). 37 Others date the closing to 5 April ([20], p. 51, 203). Arts 2017, 6, 4 11 of 21 and Femme nue debout ([7], OPP.10:014), were made by Marius de Zayas, Eduard J. Steichen, Frank Burty Haviland, and the sculptor Manolo Hugué. Alfred Stieglitz, the owner of the gallery, would acquire Femme nue debout ([7], OPP.10:014) from the show. In his memoirs, Steichen mentioned that ‘Gertrude Stein was instrumental in softening Picasso for us’ ([37], p. 341), getting him to agree to showing at the Photo-Secession in New York. Stieglitz advertised this as Picasso’s ‘First one-man show anywhere’, although he had in fact already had two such exhibitions in Paris in 1910. An English translation of Marius de Zayas’s interview with Picasso was also published in Camera Work of April–July 1911 ([37], p. 339). 2.5. Vincenc Kramář Towards the end of April, Vincenc Kramář traveled again to Paris ([40], p. 160) and went on a buying spree, purchasing Femme couchée ([7], OPP.04:042), Femme debout ([7], OPP.06:065), and Femme nue ([7], OPP.06:066) from Clovis Sagot; Tête de femme (Fernande) ([7], OPP.09:017) from Vollard for 600 FRF; Buste d’arlequin ([7], OPP.09:059) at Hôtel Drouot for 275 FRF ([20], p. 30); Le port de Cadaqués ([7], OPP.10:008) for 800 FRF and Torse de femme ([7], OPP.08:110) for 1000 FRF, both from Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler ([20], pp. 30–31; [38], p. 308). At the end of November, Kramář visited Paris again and brought from Kahnweiler Coffret, tasse, pommes et verre ([7], OPP.09:195) (700 FRF), Mandoline et verre de Pernod ([7], OPP.11:069) (700 FRF), Femme à la guitare près d’un piano ([7], OPP.11:007) (900 FRF), La clarinette ([7], OPP.11:009) (900 FRF), Guitariste (La mandoliniste) ([7], OPP.11:119) (900 FRF), Pomme ([7], OPP.08:293), Petit moulin à café et pipe sur une table ([7], OPP.09:104), and Femme nue ([7], OPP.10:072) and, from Vollard, the artworks Autoportrait à la mèche ([7], OPP.07:002) (400 FRF), Buste de femme ([7], OPP.10:134) (550 FRF), and Femme assise dans un fauteuil ([7], OPP.09:016) (900 FRF).38 On 23 April, the show ‘26 Drawings by Picasso’ opened at Stafford Gallery, London; Picasso’s first solo exhibition in the British capital. The 26 exhibited drawings included Le meneur de cheval nu: jeune homme et cheval (Étude) ([7], OPP.06:011), which was on sale for 22 GBP, the most expensive work on display. Almost all the works dated to before 1907, mostly from Picasso’s Blue and Rose periods. Stockbroker and collector Frank Stoop acquired Le meneur de cheval nu: jeune homme et cheval (Étude) ([7], OPP.06:011) and Jeune femme en chemise (Madeleine) ([7], OPP.04:053).39 In May and through July, the gallerist Herwarth Walden brought together works by many of the French artists represented at the XXII Berliner Secession for the opening of his Sturm Galerie, labelling them once again as ‘expressionists’.40 Twenty-two drawings, gouaches and engravings by Picasso, mostly from before 1907, were shown, among them Tête de femme (Fernande) ([7], OPP.09:048). Thirty-three works by other European artists, including Kandinsky and Marc, were exhibited in adjacent rooms as well. Also in May, Picasso was represented at the XXIV. Ausstellung der Berliner Secession with five works, among them La dame au chapeau noir ([7], OPP.09:105) and Le Pont-Neuf ([7], OPP.11:022), both on loan from Wilhelm Uhde. In his review of the exhibition, Curt Glaser (1879–1943) wrote that he was thankful ‘that the new works of Picasso are shown here in Berlin for the first time...Cubism, about which, in its short time in existence enough has been said, is undoubtedly only a side track, and we do not think that one day painting as a whole will lean in this direction’ ([20], pp. 37–38; [32], p. 374). From 23 May through 30 September, the fourth international exhibition ‘Sonderbund Westdeutscher Künstler’ was organized in Cologne.41 A room was reserved especially for Picasso, which included sixteen works from periods between 1901–1905 and 1907–1912; among them, Arlequin accoudé ([7], OPP.01:010) (lent by Edwin Suermondt), Les pauvres au bord de la mer (La tragédie) ([7], OPP.03:003) (lent by Professor Kreis), Acrobate et jeune arlequin ([7], OPP.05:214) (lent by Museumverein Elberfeld), L’acteur ([7], OPP.04:029) (lent by P. Leffmann), Garçon tenant un 38 See ([20], p. 31; [38], p. 308; [40], p. 160). 39 See ([47], p. 220). 40 Others date the opening to June ([48], p. 373). 41 Others date it to 25 May ([22], p. 366; [37], p. 345; [48], p. 375). Arts 2017, 6, 4 12 of 21 vase ([7], OPP.05:364), Les deux frères ([7], OPP.06:074), Tête de femme ([7], OPP.07:285), L’éventail (Pomme et éventail sur une table) ([7], OPP.09:197), Le mandoliniste ([7], OPP.11:025), L’Avenue Frochot, vu de l’atelier de l’artiste ([7], OPP.11:077) (lent by Alfred Flechtheim), and La violiniste ([7], OPP.11:072) (from Galerie Kahnweiler, later purchased by Flechtheim) ([20], pp. 46–47). A few days before Picasso’s departure for Céret on 6 May ([38], p. 235; [45], p. 51), Gertrude Stein had bought two still lifes, Le petit verre ([7], OPP.11:102) and Nature morte au journal ([7], OPP.12:073).42 Kahnweiler wrote to him in July: ‘Shchukin is in Paris. As you know, he didn’t want to buy the painting. He insisted on buying the other, the one I didn’t want to sell. And so the flesh is weak I let myself be tempted...I sold it for 10,000 FRF’ ([20], p. 31; [32], p. 400). On 24 September, Picasso returned to Paris and, with his increased earnings, was able to move from No. 11, boulevard de Clichy and Bateau-Lavoir, where works have been stored, to a new residence at No. 242, boulevard Raspail, which had been located for him by Kahnweiler ([38], p. 248; [45], p. 61).43 Starting on 5 October and continuing through 31 December, the ‘Second Post-Impressionist exhibition’ Picasso would be featured again in London at Grafton Galleries ([22], p. 367; [49], pp. 405–06). The show included thirteen paintings and three drawings; among them, Composition: Les paysans ([7], OPP.06:014) of 1906, lent by Vollard; Bol vert et flacon noir ([7], OPP.08:154), lent by Leo Stein; and Nature morte aux bananes ([7], OPP.07:204), Paysage (Deux arbres) ([7], OPP.08:152), Tête de femme (Fernande) ([7], OPP.09:039), Tête d’homme ([7], OPP.09:134), Femme et pot de moutarde ([7], OPP.09:140), Flacon et livres ([7], OPP.10:090), Buffalo Bill ([7], OPP.11:023), Tête d’homme moustachu (‘Kou’) ([7], OPP.12:052), and La tasse (Le bouillon ‘Kub’) ([7], OPP.12:197), all lent by Kahnweiler. Four works by Braque were also shown, most of them also lent by Kahnweiler. Matisse was represented by 27 paintings and sculptures and many drawings. For the first time Picasso’s works were displayed alongside his British contemporaries, including Duncan Grant and Wyndham Lewis. In his introduction to the catalogue, Roger Fry presented Picasso and Matisse as the leaders of the avant-garde in France. He emphasized that Picasso’s recent work aimed to create a language of purely abstract forms, a kind of ‘visual music’. 2.6. Albert C. Barnes In early December, Albert C. Barnes spent some time in Paris. After becoming a millionaire, he had dedicated himself to the study and collecting of art and had commissioned one of his former high school classmates, the painter William Glackens, who had been living in Paris, to buy several ‘modern’ French paintings for him. During Barnes’ visit, he bought from Kahnweiler seven paintings by Picasso; Tête de femme ([7], OPP.07:279), Tête d’homme ([7], OPP.07:009), Verre et fruits ([7], OPP.08:265), Pot et fruits ([7], OPP.09:173), and Paquet de cigarettes et journal ([7], OPP.11:108). He would later also purchase Violon, partition et bouteille ([7], OPP.14:292). Nevertheless, under the influence of Leo Stein, he would eventually lose interest in Cubism, judging it too ‘academic, repetitive, and dead’ ([20], pp. 177, 179). On 17 December, Kahnweiler finally managed to convince Picasso to a contract for three years ([14], p. 21; [18], p. 34; [20], p. 27; [22], p. 367; [45], p. 95). The artist pointedly noted: ‘I shall moreover reserve the right to keep as many drawings as I deem necessary for my work’. Also notes: ‘You will allow me to decide when a painting is finished’ [50]. While the mean value of a drawing was 100 FRF, the value of a size 25 painting (81 cm × 65 cm) ran to 1000 FRF and a size 60 (130 cm × 97 cm) to 3000 FRF ([32], p. 412). Kahnweiler had earlier agreed to pay Braque just 40 FRF for drawings, 75 or 50 FRF for ‘drawings with wood-paper, marble, or any other accessories’, and 250 FRF for canvases, exactly a fourth of what he would later offer Picasso ([32], p. 411; [46], p. 207). After signing the contract with Kanweiler, Picasso returned to Céret, where he spent Christmas night with Haviland and Manolo, before continuing to Barcelona ([14], p. 21; [22], p. 367; [32], p. 412; [37], p. 349; [45], p. 84). 42 See ([38], p. 223). 43 Others date the move simply to late September ([27], p. 72) or to the end of September ([5], p. 325). Arts 2017, 6, 4 13 of 21 As further evidence of Picasso’s increased prices, Vollard let his Portrait d’Ambroise Vollard ([7], OPP.10:012) go to the Russian collector Ivan Morozov in 1913 for 3000 FRF. Moreover, after the expiration of his contract in January, Kahnweiler priced the artist’s new works at triple what he had assigned them before ([20]. p. 28). His reputation in America was also growing. Starting on 17 February and continuing through 15 March 1913, Picasso was included in the ‘International Exhibition of Modern Art’ (Armory Show) at the 69th Regiment Armory, New York, with eight works ([20], p. 51): the bronze sculpture Tête de femme (Fernande) ([7], OPP.09:017), lent by Stieglitz; the three paintings and one gouache Paysage (Deux arbres) ([7], OPP.08:152), Portrait de Madame Soler ([7], OPP.03:018), Femme et pot de moutarde ([7], OPP.09:140), and Tête d’homme, all lent by Kahnweiler; and the drawing Femme nue (1910) plus two still lifes, lent by Leo Stein, one of which was Vase, gourde et fruits sur une table ([7], OPP.09:136), the other being Bols et cruche (Cruche, bol et compotier) ([7], OPP.08:002). It also included three works by Braque, also lent by Kahnweiler, and twelve by Matisse. The exhibition subsequently traveled to The Art Institute of Chicago and Copley Hall, Boston ([22], p. 367; [27], p. 73). 3. Picasso’s Retrospective in Germany In late February, the first Picasso retrospective in Germany, titled ‘Picasso, œuvres de 1901 à 1912’ was held at Galerie Heinrich Thannhauser (Moderne Galerie), Munich. It featured 76 paintings and 38 watercolors, pastels, drawings, and engravings from 1901 to 1912 ([22], p. 367).44 Of these, 24 paintings and nine drawings and engravings were on loan from private German collectors. Five paintings and nine drawings and engravings were from the collection of Alfred Flechtheim (Düsseldorf); four paintings from the collection of Franz Kluxen (Boldixum); three each from the collections of Hugo Perls (Berlin) and Edwin Suermondt (Aachen); and two each from the collections of Dr. Paul Ferdinand Schmidt (München), Princess Mechtilde Lichnowsky, and Henry Simms (Hamburg). Other loans were from Ludwig and Rosy Fischer (Frankfurt), Professor Wilhelm Kreis (Düsseldorf), and the painter Adolf Erblösch, co-founder of the Neue Künshändler-Vereinigung München. The person in charge of the organization had been Kahnweiler, who also exhibited 29 drawings and gouaches and a series of engravings ([20], p. 55). Justin K. Thannhauser commented in the catalogue preface: ‘It is widely believed that Picasso’s work stands at the origin of the whole Expressionist, Cubist, and Futurist movements. In fact, Picasso has nothing to do with any of these, except that he did provide the initial artistic impulse; nor does he want to have anything more to do with them. What distinguishes him from all these movements, even at first sight, is that unlike them he has never expressed his artistic intentions in programs, manifestos, or similar pronouncements; and he has never sought to explain his own new departures either psychologically or psychologistically: he has simply painted’ ([32], p. 414).45 Among the works on display were Arlequin accoudé ([7], OPP.01:010), Le jardin enchanté ([7], OPP.01:195), Le repas de l’aveugle ([7], OPP.03:024), Portrait de Suzanne Bloch ([7], OPP.04:028), Le garçon bleu ([7], OPP.05:328), La mort d’arlequin ([7], OPP.05:504), Fleurs sur une table ([7], OPP.07:003), Femme nue sur un lit ([7], OPP.07:358), Paysage, coucher de soleil ([7], OPP.08:148), Buste de femme ([7], OPP.08:245), Tête de femme ([7], OPP.08:248), Femme aux poires (Fernande) ([7], OPP.09:024), Tête de femme (Fernande) ([7], OPP.09:048), Tête de femme (Fernande) ([7], OPP.09:106), Pomme et tasse ([7], OPP.09:193), L’éventail (Pomme et éventail sur une table) ([7], OPP.09:197), La corbeille de faïence ([7], OPP.09:200), Vase de fleurs ([7], OPP.10:005), L’huilier ([7], OPP.10:089), La bouteille de rhum ([7], OPP.11:012), Le Pont-Neuf ([7], OPP.11:022), Le mandoliniste ([7], OPP.11:025), La grenade ([7], OPP.11:056), La violiniste ([7], OPP.11:072), L’Avenue Frochot, vu de l’atelier de l’artiste ([7], OPP.11:077), Verre et tasse ([7], OPP.11:092), Femme à la guitare (‘Ma Jolie’) ([7], OPP.11:115), Compotier et fruits ([7], OPP.12:030), Le poète ([7], OPP.12:036), Guitare, verre et journal ([7], OPP.12:093), Le saucisson ([7], OPP.12:290), and 44 Others date the opening to January ([37], p. 349). 45 See also [49]. Arts 2017, 6, 4 14 of 21 Violon, verre, pipe et ancre (Souvenir du Havre) ([7], OPP.12:005). The latter was bought by Vincenc Kramář from Thannhauser after the show. Before Picasso’s return to Céret,46 Kahnweiler had visited his studio and made a major purchase worth 27,250 FRF at the prices set forth in the December contract. In exchange, the dealer had received 23 recent paintings of varying sizes, three earlier ones, 22 gouaches (including papiers collés), 46 recent, and four earlier drawings. Additionally, he paid Picasso 1000 FRF for repainting the background of Le déjeuner sur l’herbe de la famille Soler ([7], OPP.03:083).47 By the end of March, due to this father’s failing health, Picasso was forced to rush back to Barcelona.48 Don José would pass away on 3 May. A couple of days later and through 25 June, Vincenc Kramář started negotiations with Kahnweiler for the purchase of Bec à gaz et guitare ([7], OPP.12:028). The collector, in fact, would have the opportunity to meet Picasso on one of his visits to Paris ([40], p. 162). At the end of the month, Kahnweiler was also involved in negotiations with Gertrude Stein. He had sent her an appraisal of the Picassos she owned, among the most important of which were Trois femmes ([7], OPP.08:009) (20,000 FRF), Le meneur de cheval nu ([7], OPP.06:012) (12,000 FRF), Femme nue debout (Fernande) (Grand nu rose) ([7], OPP.06:020) (10,000 FRF), Jeune fille à la corbeille de fleurs ([7], OPP.05:030) (10,000 FRF), Acrobate à la boule (Fillette à la boule) ([7], OPP.05:069) (10,000 FRF), La femme à l’éventail (Juliette) ([7], OPP.05:029) (6000 FRF), and Portrait de Gertrude Stein ([7], OPP.06:027) (6000 FRF). The appraisal of the collection was needed due to her estrangement from her brother Leo ([20], p. 31; [32], p. 418). There were two other important exhibitions of Picasso’s works around this time; ‘II. Gesamtausstellung’ started in August and ran through September at Galerie Goltz, Munich, where he was represented by five works, among them Tête de femme ([7], OPP.07:285), Violon et raisins ([7], OPP.12:044), and L’Arlésienne ([7], OPP.12:254). Another exhibition in the Autumn took place at the Berliner Secession, where 21 of his paintings were shown, among them Les pleureuses ([7], OPP.01:224), Portrait de Mateu Fernández de Soto ([7], OPP.01:008), Le repas de l’aveugle ([7], OPP.03:024), La repasseuse ([7], OPP.04:002), L’acteur ([7], OPP.04:029), Au Lapin Agile (Arlequin au verre) ([7], OPP.04:031), Hollandaise à la coiffe (La belle Hollandaise) ([7], OPP.05:037), Les deux frères ([7], OPP.06:074), Tête de femme ([7], OPP.07:285), and Le mandoliniste ([7], OPP.11:025).49 Further, in October through November, he was also featured in the ‘Erste Ausstellung’ of the Neue Galerie, Berlin, just opened by Otto Feldmann on Lennéstrasse 6a ([20], p. 57). One of the works exhibited there was Paysage ([7], OPP.07:354). These are Picasso’s most innovative and fruitful months in his entire career ([45], pp. 94, 100). He carefully noted his earnings from La Peau de l’Ours in his own handwritting. Covering the period through January 1916, his informal list also included an entry for 1914 of Level 4 Avril 3978.85 FRF ([18], p. 44). In a note from 15 November, Picasso also inscribed his earnings from sales to Kahnweiler, which amounted to 4950 FRF ([18], p. 278). In another note from 22 December, he would write down an additional 3250 FRF from sales to the dealer ([18], p. 278). Such high earnings had allowed him to relocate to a new residence at No. 5, bis, rue Schoelcher, boulevard Raspail in early October ([38], p. 285; [45], p. 61). Additional Exhibitions in Germany Kahnweiler finally managed to close the deal with Gertrude on 17 October, after she had settled things with Leo ([32], p. 423), purchasing Acrobate à la boule (Fillette à la boule) ([7], OPP.05:069), together with two other earlier works, for 20,000 FRF, and, in exchange, he gave her Homme à la guitare ([7], OPP.13:028). He would immediately sell Acrobate à la boule (Fillette à la boule) ([7], OPP.05:069) to Ivan Morozov for 16,000 GDF ([20], p. 31). In December, Kahnweiler organized an important second exhibition at Otto Feldmann’s Neue Galerie, Berlin, entitled ‘Picasso und Negerplastiken’. It would 46 On 10 March 1913 ([22], p. 367; [32], p. 414; [38], p. 274; [45], pp. 84, 96). Others date this trip to Mid-March ([5], p. 325; [37], p. 349) or simply March ([14], p. 21). 47 See ([18], p. 44; [38], p. 274; [45], p. 96). 48 Others date the trip to Late-March ([38], p. 274; [45], p. 97). 49 See ([20], p. 57). Arts 2017, 6, 4 15 of 21 later travel to Dresden, Vienna, Zürich, and Basel. The works, among which was Paysage, coucher de soleil ([7], OPP.08:148), were shown along with African sculptures ([20], p. 57). By this date, Kahnweiler handed over to Picasso an additional 24,150 FRF, for a grand total of 51,400 FRF that year. Picasso was on his way to becoming a very wealthy man ([18], p. 44). During Christmas, there was an additional exhibition, entitled ‘Beiträge zur Künst des 19. Jahrhunderts und unserer Zeit’ at Galerie Alfred Flechtheim on Alleestraße 7, Düsseldorf. Among the Picassos on display were bronze casts of three of his early sculptures; Le fou ([7], OPP.05:223), Tête de femme (Fernande) ([7], OPP.06:091), and Tête de femme (Fernande) ([7], OPP.09:017). This was the first showing of Picasso’s sculptures in Germany. None of his three-dimensional works or his most recent constructions had been included in his exhibitions at the Galerie Hans Goltz in 1912 or Heinrich Thannhauser’s Moderne Galerie in Munich in late February, 1913 ([27]. P. 75). In January 1914, Galerie Paul Rosenberg opened at 21 rue La Boétie, Paris. Jacques-Emile Blanche provided a description of the fancy locale: ‘A façade entirely of marble, a vestibule of marble, a staircase of onyx...vast rooms hung with watered silk receiving torrents of light thanks to ingenious lozenge-shaped ceiling fixtures in which a dozen bulbs cluster like grapes on the vine’ ([18], p. 78). This same month, on the second station at Kunstsalon Emil Richter in Dresden of the exhibition ‘Picasso und Negerplastiken’, Kahnweiler added fourteen Cubist drawings to the 40 works already shown earlier. Among the Picassos on display was Trois femmes: nu debout (Étude) ([7], OPP.08:049).50 The exhibition would move in February through March to Galerie Miethke, Vienna ([20], p. 60), where 57 artworks would be shown, among them Femme et pot de moutarde ([7], OPP.09:140), Vase de fleurs ([7], OPP.10:005), L’huilier ([7], OPP.10:089), La bouteille de rhum ([7], OPP.11:012), Buffalo Bill ([7], OPP.11:023), La grenade ([7], OPP.11:056), L’étagère ([7], OPP.11:064), Verre et tasse ([7], OPP.11:091), Femme à la guitare (‘Ma Jolie’) ([7], OPP.11:115), Tête d’homme à la pipe (‘Boxeur’) ([7], OPP.12:062), and Le saucisson ([7], OPP.12:290). In February, Kahnweiler purchased from Leo Stein the painting Le meneur de cheval nu ([7], OPP.06:012) for 10,000 FRF, selling it to Ivan Morozov for twice what he paid ([20], pp. 32, 69). He also offered the Russian Femme fatiguée, ivre ([7], OPP.02:003) for 8000 FRF, but Morozoy would not take the offer ([20], pp. 210–11). While Leo’s collection was on the decline, Albert C. Barnes’ kept increasing, many of them bought from Kahnweiler. Around this time he wrote to him: ‘I have counted twenty-five Renoirs, twelve Cézannes and twelve Picassos in my house’ ([20], p. 176). However, during the years before the war, Kahnweiler seemed to have sold only about 40% of the Picassos he had acquired. Following Vollard’s example, he focused on building an inventory of his artists’ work with the goal of holding it until the artists’ reputations were sufficiently established for their paintings to command high prices. He rarely organized exhibitions in France, preferring instead to encourage critics and other dealers to spread his artists’ acclaim ([18], p. 43). This same month, Michael Brenner signed a contract with Kahnweiler, whereby the Washington Square Gallery, New York, became the exclusive North American outlet for works by Picasso, Braque, Gris, and Léger in exchange for a 2500 FRF guarantee, which would be subsequently raised to 5000 FRF and, a month later, to 6000 FRF ([18], p. 43; [38], p. 296). On 20 February, the dealer wrote to Sergei Shchukin and Ivan Morozov, urging them to bid on La famille de saltimbanques (Les bateleurs) ([7], OPP.05:002) at the upcoming auction of the collection of La Peau de l’Ours ([18], p. 42). The collection included twelve paintings, gouaches, and pastels by Picasso, among them, L’homme à la pèlerine ([7], OPP.00:058), Mère tenant deux enfants (La mère) ([7], OPP.01:077), Mère et enfant (Maternité) ([7], OPP.01:217), Femmes et enfant (Intimité) ([7], OPP.02:096), Le poète Cornuti (L’Absithe) ([7], OPP.02:110), Les trois Hollandaises ([7], OPP.05:026), and Compotier et fruits ([7], OPP.08:036). The auction took place at Hôtel Drouot in Paris on March 2, featuring one hundred and 45 works, with 88 paintings and 57 drawings by 50 See ([20], p. 59). Arts 2017, 6, 4 16 of 21 60 different artists ([18], p. 15; [20], p. 70).51 Young Cubist painters were represented, but Picasso only by pre-Cubist works, of which twelve were included. It also included ten paintings by Matisse. Thannhauser’s purchase of Picasso’s La famille de saltimbanques (Les bateleurs) ([7], OPP.05:002) for 11,500 FRF would cause a huge scandal, although it did not break a record, since Kahnweiler had sold Acrobate à la boule (Fillette à la boule) ([7], OPP.05:069) to Morosov in 1913 for 16,000 FRF ([20], p. 69). Matisse’s Compotier of Apples and Oranges by contrast sold only for 5000 FRF ([22], p. 368). The total result of the auction was 116,545 FRF, the quadruple of the purchase cost (27,500 FRF over a ten-year period). Although the paintings by Gauguin and van Gogh commanded high prices (4400 FRF and 4620 FRF, respectively), paintings by Picasso and Matisse brought the highest bids: 31,301 FRF was paid for works by Picasso and the total profit was 63,207 FRF, of which they gave 20% to the artists, i.e., 12,641 FRF. For Picasso, this would constitute one-fifth of his recorded income for 1914 ([22], p. 44). Salmon spoke of a ‘Hernani of painting’, an allusion to the famous battle between opposing factions of Romantics and Classicists at the first performance of Victor Hugo’s drama Hernani in 1830. In Gil Blas, Thannhauser was quoted as saying that he would have even ‘willingly paid twice as much’. An anti-German campaign was immediately launched in the press. However, among the bidders, in addition to the German dealers Heinrich Thannhauser (Munich), Alfred Flechtheim (Düsseldorf), Georg Caspari (Munich), and L. W. Guthier (Dresden) were the French collectors Coquiot and Joachim Gasquet, as well as artists and critics like Albert Gleizes, Jean Metzinger, André Salmon, and Max Jacob and the curators of Le Louvre, Paul Jamot and Léon-Jacques Blocq ([18], pp. 39–40; [20], pp. 70–73). As FitzGerald points out, the critics perceived the auction as a confirmation of the art’s importance that their own aesthetic evaluations could not confer. Thus, this auction served to cast the issue of the interdependence between critical and commercial acclaim in a historical light and demonstrated the role of commercial success in the development of artistic reputation ([18], pp. 17–18). On 4 April, Kahnweiler arranged for the exhibition ‘Picasso und Negerplastiken’ to move to the Moderne Galerie (Gottfried Tanner), Zürich, where it opened as ‘Sonderaustellung Pablo Picasso’. Forty-six paintings, seventeen drawings, and sixteen engravings were shown, among them, probably Courtisane au collier de gemmes (L’hétaïre) ([7], OPP.01:032) or Femme au collier de gemmes ([7], OPP.01:211), Garçon de profil, à la collerette ([7], OPP.05:350), Nature morte aux bananes ([7], OPP.07:204) (priced at 3000 FRF), Trois femmes (Étude) ([7], OPP.07:047), Trois femmes: nu debout (Étude) ([7], OPP.08:049) (priced at 18,000 CHF), Femme et pot de moutarde ([7], OPP.09:140), Le guitariste ([7], OPP.10:018), L’huilier ([7], OPP.10:089) (priced at 1000 FRF), Tête de jeune fille ([7], OPP.11:059), Vase de fleurs ([7], OPP.10:005), Soldat et fille ([7], OPP.11:095), Buffalo Bill ([7], OPP.11:023), La pointe de la Cité ([7], OPP.11:014) (priced at 7000 FRF), Cartes à jouer et verre ([7], OPP.11:097), La bouteille de rhum ([7], OPP.11:012), Verre et pipe ([7], OPP.11:101), Femme à la guitare (‘Ma Jolie’) ([7], OPP.11:115), La grenade ([7], OPP.11:056), La carafe (Bouteille et verre) ([7], OPP.11:084), L’étagère ([7], OPP.11:064), La tasse (Le bouillon ‘Kub’) ([7], OPP.12:197) (priced at 1500 FRF), Coquillages sur un piano ([7], OPP.12:065), Tête d’homme moustachu (‘Kou’) ([7], OPP.12:052), Le saucisson ([7], OPP.12:290), Guitare, verre et journal ([7], OPP.12:092), and Tête de jeune fille ([7], OPP.13:023); as well as Feuillage (Arbres) ([7], OPP.07:109) and Paysage (La rue des bois) ([7], OPP.08:114) from the collector Hermann Rupf (neither one illustrated in the catalogue) ([20], pp. 60–62). On 10 May and through 30 May, the exhibition moved the Kunsthalle Basel as part of the ‘Mai-Ausstellung’ through the efforts of Wilhelm Barth, who had gotten in contact with Gottfried Tanner about the possibility of continuing the Zürich exhibition in Basel. Twenty-one works were exhibited, among them Garçon de profil, à la collerette ([7], OPP.05:350) and Deux femmes nues se tenant ([7], OPP.06:021) (priced at 11000 CHF) ([20], pp. 60–64). In April, May, and June, Picasso noted additional earnings from sales to Kahnweiler: 5688 FRF, 1650 FRF, and 12,400 FRF, respectively ([18], pp. 47, 278). In mid-June, Picasso left for Avignon, while Kahnweiler went on his summer vacation to the Bavarian Alps ([18], p. 47). After World War I was declared in August, Picasso wrote to Gertrude 51 Others number the works auctioned at 150 paintings and drawings ([38], p. 297). Arts 2017, 6, 4 17 of 21 that he may have to make a trip to the capital in October as he was waiting for news of a check, presumably from Kahnweiler for the 20,000 FRF still owed him ([38], p. 354). On 17 November, Picasso took the night train to Paris, returning to No. 5, bis, rue Schoelcher ([38], p. 354; [45], p. 145).52 With most of its young men at war, the city appeared cheerless. Somewhat ambivalent in his attitude toward the war and as a foreigner with strong attachments to German patrons such as Kahnweiler and Thannhauser, Picasso was viewed with mistrust. Cubism as a whole became associated with les boches. ‘Kahnweiler’s strategy of developing the market primarily in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, and Eastern Europe, where his family was well connected, did not help with this perception’ ([18], p. 54). By mid December, Kahnweiler left Italy for Switzerland, where he would reside for the duration of the war. On 12 December, the stock of his gallery at 28, rue Vignon, Paris was sequestered by the French government. Having been declared an ‘enemy alien’, his property was subject to confiscation. Seven years later, the confiscated stock would be put up for sale in a series of four auctions at the Hôtel Drouot in Paris ([27], p. 80). Picasso would have to wait until May 1923 to receive the 20,500 FRF Kahnweiler owed him. Even after the debt had been settled, Picasso would keep him at bay for six more months before allowing him to make even a modest purchase ([18], pp. 152–53, 293–94). 4. Conclusions We have seen how Picasso’s early career followed the usual steps of many conventional artists. He was educated at regional and national art schools and was first shown at local establishments, advancing subsequently to national exhibitions in his native country. His relocation to Paris also followed a pattern that was common with many Spanish painters of this period. Although he underwent the usual challenges of his early years in the French capital, he was soon recognized as a ground-breaking artist and a secure investment by important dealers and collectors. Abiding by the recommendations of his first long-term marchand, Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler, whose strategy was to avoid the French salons, Picasso exhibited at small avant-garde galleries not only in Paris but, very importantly, in ‘Germanic’ enclaves such as Munich, Düsseldorf, Berlin, Amsterdam, Vienna, Zürich, and Prague. This would have dramatic consequences when World War I broke out, as Picasso’s works (specifically his Cubist output) were identified as Boche (German). While he had equally attracted buyers of American (Stein, Barnes) and Russian (Shchukin, Morosov) origins, the fact that many of his collectors were of German affiliation (Uhde, Rupf, Perls, Suermondt, Schmidt) did not help assuage the popular misgivings. Furthermore, during the war, the entire holdings of Kahnweiler, a German national, were confiscated by the French government, which deeply affected the value of his works in the market when they were auctioned in the 1920s. French collectors such as André Level and his organization La Peau de l’Ours served to compensate for Picasso’s economic worries of these difficult years. The purchase of one of his Rose period paintings for 11,500 FRF by Galerie Heinrich Thannhauser (Moderne Galerie) at auction in 1914 allowed Picasso to take aesthetic risks that would eventually lead to the innovations of Cubism. Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest. Appendix: Chronological List of Exhibitions • Picasso (Barcelona, Els Quatre Gats, February 1900). • Primera Exposición de Arte Modernista (Escuelas Albia, Bilbao, August 1900). • Utrillo, Miguel, ed. Dibujos de Pablo Picasso y Ramón Casas (Barcelona, Sala Parés, 1–14 June 1901). • Exposición de Bellas Artes (Madrid, 1901). Madrid. 1901. 52 Others date the return earlier to late October ([22], p. 368), to mid November ([14], p. 22), or later to the end of November ([4], p. 398). Arts 2017, 6, 4 18 of 21 • Coquiot, Gustave, et al. Exposition de tableaux de F. lturrino et de P. R. Picasso (Galeries Ambroise Vollard, Paris, 24-25 June–14 July 1901). • Manyach, Père & Emile Seyden, eds. Exposition Grand Prix d’Auteuil: Matisse, Villon, Marquet, Maillol, Picasso, etc (Galerie Berthe Weill, Paris, 2–15 June 1902). • Harlor, Thilda, et al. Peintures, pastels et dessins de MM. Girieud, Launay, Picasso et Pichot (Galerie Berthe Weill, Paris, 15 November–15 December 1902). • Manyach, Père & Adrien Farge, eds. Tableaux et pastels de Louis Bernard-Lemaire et de Picasso (Galerie Berthe Weill, Paris, 1–15 April 1902). • Le Sieutre, Maurice, ed. Exposition de MM. Charbonnier, Clary-Baroux, Raoul Dufy, Girieud, Picabia, Picasso, Thiesson (Galerie Berthe Weill, Paris, 24 October–20 November 1904). • Morice, Charles, et al. Exposition d’Oeuvres de MM. Trachsel Gérardin, Picasso (Galeries Serrurier, Paris, 25 February–6 March 1905). • Exposition (Galerie Notre-Dame-des-Champs. Paris, 21 December 1908–15 January 1909). • Ausstellung (Galerie Heinrich Thannhauser (Moderne Galerie), München, December 1909). • Kahnweiler, Daniel-Henry, ed. Picasso (Galerie Kahnweiler, Paris, 1909). • Ausstellung des Sonderbundes Westdeutscher Kunstfreunde und Künstler (Städtischer Kunstpalast, Düsseldorf, 16 July–9 October 1910). • Braque und Picasso (Galerie Heinrich Thannhauser (Moderne Galerie), München, 1–15 September 1910). • Uhde, Wilhelm, ed. Exposition Picasso (Galerie Notre-Dame-des-Champs, Paris. May 1910). • Exposition Picasso (Galerie Vollard, Paris, 20 December 1910–11 February 1911). • Nemzetkozi Impresszionista Kidllitas (Müvészház, Budapest, April–May 1910). • Neue Künstlervereinigung München. Ausstellung Pablo Picasso. Turnus, 1910–1911 (Galerie Heinrich Thannhauser (Moderne Galerie), München, 1–14 September 1910). • Fry, Roger, ed. Manet and the Post-Impressionists (Grafton Galleries, London, 8 November– 15 January 1911). • XXII. Ausstellung der Berliner Secession (Secession Ausstellungshaus, Berlin, Frühling– Sommer 1911). • Exposition (Galerie Bernheim-Jeune, Paris, 1911). • Exposition (La Peau de l’Ours, Paris, 1911). • Moderne Kunst Kring. Internationale Tentoonstelling van moderne Kunst (Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam, 6 October–5 November 1911). • de Zayas, Marius, Eduard J. Steichen, Frank Burty Haviland & Manolo. Pablo Picasso. An Exhibition of Early and Recent Drawings and Watercolors. First Picasso exhibition in USA (Photo-Secession Gallery ‘291’ (Alfred Stieglitz), New York, 28 March–24-25 April 1911). • XIII. Jahrgang, VI. Ausstellung (Galerie Paul Cassirer, Berlin, January–February 1911). • 26 Drawings by Picasso (Stafford Gallery, London, 23 April–May 1912). • XXIV Ausstellung der Berliner Secession (Secession Ausstellungshaus, Berlin, Frühling, 1912). • Buhnoviy Valet (Jack of Diamonds) (Moscow. January 1912). • Der Blaue Reiter. Schwarz-Weiss (Galerie Hans Goltz, München, February 1912). • Dritte Ausstellung. Graphik (Galerie Der Sturm. Berlin, May 1912). • Erste Gesamtausstellung (Galerie Hans Goltz, Neue Kunst. München, October 1912). • Exposició Picasso (Galeria Dalmau, Barcelona, February–March 1912). • III. Juryfreie Kunstschau (Kunsthaus Lepke. Berlin, 26 November–31 December 1912). • Leipziger Jahresausstellung (Verein LIA, Leipzig, 7 April–End of June 1912). • Moderne Kunst Kring 2 (Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam, 6 October–7 November 1912). • Bell, Clive, Roger Fry, Boris von Anrep, et al. Second Post-Impressionist Exhibition. British, French and Russian Artists (Grafton Galleries, London, 5 October–31 December 1912). Arts 2017, 6, 4 19 of 21 • Reiche, Richart, et al. Sonderbund Internationale Kunstausstellung (Städtische Ausstellungshalle, Köln, 25 May–30 September 1912). • 11. Gesamtausstellung (Galerie Hans Goltz, München, August–September 1913). • Beiträge zur Kunst des 19. Jahrhunderts und unserer Zeit (Galerie Alfred Flechtheim, Düsseldorf, Weihnachten, 1913). • Bubnoviy Valet (Jack of Diamonds) (Moscow, 3 March–2 April 1913). • Basler, Adolphe, ed. Die Neue Kunst (Galerie Miethke, Wien, January–February 1913). • Erste Ausstellung (Neue Galerie (Otto Feldmann), Berlin, October–November 1913). • Exhibition (Bellevue-Stratford Hotel, Philadelphia, December 1913). • Herbstausstellung (Ausstellungshaus der Kurfürstendamm, Berlin, December 1913). • Pablo Picasso. Der Rheinischer Kunstsalon (Galerie Otto Feldman, Köln, 15 March–15 April 1913). • Kahnweiler, Daniel-Henry, ed. Picasso und Negerplastiken (Neue Galerie (Otto Feldmann), Berlin, December 1913). • Thannhauser, Justin K., et al. Picasso, œuvres de 1901 à 1912 (Galerie Heinrich Thannhauser (Moderne Galerie), München, February 1913). • Postimpresszionista Kidllitds (Müvészház, Budapest, April–May 1913, Nemzetkozi). • Benes, Vincenc, ed. Skupina Vytvarnych Umelcú, III. Vystava (Obecni Dum Mésta Prahy, Prague, May–June 1913). • XIX. Század Nagy Francia Mesterei (Ernst-Múzeum, Budapest, Autumn, 1913). • XX. Ausstellung: Albert Bloch (Galerie Der Sturm, Berlin, December 1913). • ‘The Armory Show’ International Exhibition of Modern Art (69th Regiment Armory, New York, 17 February–15 March; The Art Institute of Chicago, 24 March–16 April; Copley Hall, Boston, 28 April–18-19 May 1913). • Post-Impressionist and Futurist Exhibition (Doré Galleries, London, 12 October 1913–16 January 1914). • Bubnoviy Valet (Jack of Diamonds) (Moscow, January–February 1914). • Erste Ausstellung der freien Secession (Secession Ausstellungshaus, Berlin, 12 April–End of September 1914). • Exposition (La Peau de I’Ours, Paris, 2 March 1914). • Grapon Group (Alpine Club Gallery, London, January 1914). • Internationale Ausstellung (Kunsthalle. Bremen, 1 February–31 March 1914). • Picasso (Galerie Caspari, München, Summer, 1914). • Picasso (Washington Square Gallery, New York, Summer, 1914). • Picasso und Negerplastiken (Galerie Miethke, Wien, February–March 1914). • Picasso und Negerplastiken (Kunstsalon Emil Richter, Dresden, Januar 1914). • Picasso und Negerplastiken (Sonder-Ausstellung Pablo Picasso) (Moderne Galerie (Gottfried Tanner), Zürich, 4 April 1914). • Skupina, I V Vystava (Obecni Dum Mésta Prahy, Prague, February–March 1914). References 1. Inglada, Rafael. “Cronología.” In El Primer Picasso: A Coruña—20 de Febrero–24 de Mayo, Museo de Belas Artes da Coruña. Edited by Malén Gual. A Coruña: Ayuntamiento de A Coruña, 2015, pp. 385–99. 2. Richardson, John. A Life of Picasso, 1881–1906. New York: Random House, 1991, vol. 1. 3. Gual, Malén. “De la Academia a los inicios de la Modernidad. Barcelona 1895–1900.” In Picasso Joven—Young Picasso: Fundación Pedro Barrie de la Maza, A Coruna, 17 Diciembre 2002–17 Marzo 2003. 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Gordon, Donald E. “On the Origin of the Word 'Expressionism.” Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 29 (1966): 368–385. [CrossRef] 49. Cousins, Judith, and Pierre Daix. “Chronology.” In Picasso and Braque: Pioneering Cubism. Edited by William S. Rubin. New York: Museum of Modern Art Graphic Society, 1989, pp. 335–452. 50. Kahnweiler, Daniel-Henry, and Pablo Picasso. “Deed of sale.” 18 December 1912. © 2017 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/750724 http://creativecommons.org/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Introduction First Exhibitions in Paris André Level and Other Major Early Collectors Wilhelm Uhde and the Steins Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler Kahnweiler’s International Market Strategies Vincenc Kramář Albert C. Barnes Picasso’s Retrospective in Germany Conclusions : Chronological List of Exhibitions 
work_obwgvhwgkvfynlhskbyucbcacq	----	heritage Article LODsyndesis: Global Scale Knowledge Services Michalis Mountantonakis 1,2,* and Yannis Tzitzikas 1,2,* 1 Institute of Computer Science, FORTH-ICS, 70013 Heraklion, Greece 2 Department of Computer Science, University of Crete, 70013 Heraklion, Greece * Correspondence: mountant@ics.forth.gr (M.M.); tzitzik@ics.forth.gr (Y.T.) Received: 27 October 2018; Accepted: 14 November 2018; Published: 17 November 2018 ����������������� Abstract: In this paper, we present LODsyndesis, a suite of services over the datasets of the entire Linked Open Data Cloud, which offers fast, content-based dataset discovery and object co-reference. Emphasis is given on supporting scalable cross-dataset reasoning for finding all information about any entity and its provenance. Other tasks that can be benefited from these services are those related to the quality and veracity of data since the collection of all information about an entity, and the cross-dataset inference that is feasible, allows spotting the contradictions that exist, and also provides information for data cleaning or for estimating and suggesting which data are probably correct or more accurate. In addition, we will show how these services can assist the enrichment of existing datasets with more features for obtaining better predictions in machine learning tasks. Finally, we report measurements that reveal the sparsity of the current datasets, as regards their connectivity, which in turn justifies the need for advancing the current methods for data integration. Measurements focusing on the cultural domain are also included, specifically measurements over datasets using CIDOC CRM (Conceptual Reference Model), and connectivity measurements of British Museum data. The services of LODsyndesis are based on special indexes and algorithms and allow the indexing of 2 billion triples in around 80 min using a cluster of 96 computers. Keywords: Semantic web; connectivity analytics; british museum; cultural RDF datasets; CIDOC CRM 1. Introduction In recent years, a large volume of open data has been published and this number keeps increasing. However, it is necessary such open data to be Findable, Accessible, Interoperable and Reusable (FAIR; see more information for the FAIR principles in [1]), and for this reason there is an attempt for using standards and good practices, to achieve these targets. Moreover, one major objective is to link and integrate these data, to enable fast access to all the available information about an entity (by also preserving their provenance), and to estimate the veracity and correctness of these data. One way to achieve linking and integration is to publish such data in a structured way, by using Linked Data, and thousands of datasets from various domains that use linked data techniques have already been published, i.e., approximately 10,000 datasets according to [2]. However, the semantic integration of data at a large scale is not a straightforward task, since there are various difficulties that should be tackled to achieve such a target. The main difficulties follow: (i) publishers tend to use different models and formats for the representation of their data; (ii) different URIs (Uniform Resource Identifiers) or languages are used for describing the same entities; (iii) publishers describe their data by using different concepts, e.g., CIDOC CRM (Conceptual Reference Model) [3] represents the birth date of a person as an event, while DBpedia [4] uses a single triple for the same fact; (iv) data from different sources can be inconsistent or conflicting; (v) a lot of complementary information occur in different sources; and (vi) many datasets are updated very frequently. Heritage 2018, 1, 335–348; doi:10.3390/heritage1020023 www.mdpi.com/journal/heritage http://www.mdpi.com/journal/heritage http://www.mdpi.com https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1951-0241 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8847-2130 http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/heritage1020023 http://www.mdpi.com/journal/heritage http://www.mdpi.com/2571-9408/1/2/23?type=check_update&version=2 Heritage 2018, 1 336 For instance, suppose that one desires to describe a specific real fact, say “Heraklion is the birth place of El Greco”. Even for this simple example, two or more datasets can use different URIs to describe the entities of that fact, i.e., “Heraklion” and “El Greco”, and the schema element “birth place”. By using RDF (Resource Description Framework) and Linked Data, the difficulties of different schemas and URIs for the same concepts and entities can be partially tackled by creating equivalence relationships between entities and schemas of different datasets. In particular, it can be achieved through the exploitation of some predefined equivalence relationships (or properties), such as owl:sameAs, owl:equivalentProperty and owl:equivalentClass. However, the aforementioned relations are symmetric and transitive, therefore it is mandatory to compute their transitive and symmetric closure, in order to collect all the available data for an entity, without missing entities and facts that occur in two or more datasets. Moreover, this presupposes knowledge from all the available datasets, otherwise we would fail to find all the URIs that are used (from different datasets) for representing an entity. As a consequence, in order to find all URIs and facts about an entity, say El Greco, we have to index and enrich numerous datasets, through cross-dataset inference. For this reason, i.e., assisting the process of semantic integration of data at large scale, we have designed and developed novel indexes, methods and tools [5–7]. The current suite of services and tools that have been developed are known as “LODsyndesis” (http://www.ics.forth.gr/isl/LODsyndesis). The major characteristic of LODsyndesis is that it indexes the whole content of hundreds of datasets in the Linked Open Data cloud, by taking into consideration the closure of equivalence relationships, and to the best of our knowledge LODsyndesis is the “largest knowledge graph of Linked Data that includes all inferred equivalence relationships”. All these semantics-aware indexes are exploited, to perform fast connectivity analytics and to offer advanced connectivity services that are of primary importance for several real world tasks. An overview of the available LODsyndesis-based services for these tasks can be seen in Figure 1. With respect to the work that have been made [5–7], in this paper: • We describe in brief the process of constructing semantic indexes and performing connectivity measurements for any subset of datasets. • We introduce specific use cases and services, we mention how they can also be important in cultural domain by showing specific examples, whereas we show ways to exploit them (e.g., programmatically through a REST API or through an HTML page). • We report connectivity analytics for hundreds of LOD Cloud datasets, by focusing on publications (and cultural heritage) domain, and we show measurements for datasets that use CIDOC CRM model, such as British Museum. Figure 1. The services provided by LODsyndesis with examples from cultural domain. http://www.ics.forth.gr/isl/LODsyndesis Heritage 2018, 1 337 Figure 2. Running Example-The process of Global Indexing. Heritage 2018, 1 338 The rest of this paper is organized as follows. Section 2 introduces the background and discusses related work, Section 3 shows in brief the process of semantics-aware indexes construction and how to perform connectivity analytics. Section 4 introduces real use cases where the aforementioned indexes and connectivity analytics can be exploited, whereas Section 5 reports connectivity analytics for hundreds of LOD (Linken Open Data) Cloud datasets, especially from publications domain and for the dataset of British Museum. Finally, Section 6 concludes the paper and outlines directions for future work. 2. Context and Related Work Here, in Section 2.1 we introduce some information about RDF and Linked Data, while in Section 2.2, we mention related approaches and services. 2.1. RDF and Linked Data Resource Description Framework (RDF) [8,9] is a graph-based data model. It uses Uniform Resource Identifiers (URIs), or anonymous resources (blank nodes) to denote resources, and constants (Literals), while triples are used to relate a resource with other resources or constants. A triple is a statement of the form subject-predicate-object (s,p,o), and it is any element of T = (U ∪ Bn)× (U)× (U ∪ Bn∪ L), where U, Bn and L denote the sets of URIs, blank nodes and literals, respectively, whereas an RDF graph (or dataset) is any finite subset of T. For instance, the triple (d1:El_Greco, d1:birthPlace, d1:Heraklion), contains three URIs, where the first one (i.e., d1:El_Greco) is the subject, the second one (i.e., d1:birthPlace) is the predicate (or property) and the last one (i.e., d1:Heraklion) is the object. Moreover, the set of URIs can be distinguished in three different subsets, (i) entities (e.g., El Greco), (ii) properties (e.g., birthPlace) and (iii) classes (e.g., Human, Painter, Museum). An entity can occur as a subject or object in a triple, a property occurs always as a predicate, while a class can be found in the object of a triple and corresponds to the type/category where an entity belongs to, e.g., the triple (El_Greco, rdf:type, Painter) can be used to denote that the type of El_Greco is Painter. By using Linked Data, the linking of datasets can be achieved by the existence of common URIs or Literals, or by defining equivalence relationships among entities, e.g., by using owl:sameAs relationships, or among schema elements (properties and classes), e.g., by using owl:equivalentProperty and owl:equivalentClass relationship, respectively. 2.2. Related Work Here, we first introduce Linked Data approaches that focus on cultural domain, but also generic approaches at scale that contain datasets from multiple domains. Europeana [10] is a digital platform for cultural heritage and contains data from 3,000 institutes (e.g., museums, digital libraries). It uses a common model, called Europeana Data Model (EDM) [11], for mapping the different sources (that contain different schemas and/or formats) to a global common standard. LODLaundromat [12] is a set of services, which crawls and indexes over 650,000 documents from several domains (including cultural ones). One can exploit the offered services in order to find all the documents of a given URI or namespace. LOD-a-LOT [13] is a service that collects all the documents of LODLaundromat in a single file, i.e., it enables query answering at large scale. LODStats [2] collects metadata for approximately 10,000 RDF datasets and offers statistics and metadata for them, while LOV (Linked Open Vocabularies) [14] has collected hundreds of ontologies (including CIDOC CRM), and offers a keyword search for finding the most relevant schema elements for a given keyword, e.g., by typing Birth, it can return as relevant class the “E67_Birth” of CIDOC CRM. Moreover, datahub.io (http://datahub.io) is a portal that contains thousands of datasets from several domains. An organization can publish and share their datasets through that portal, for making them findable, accessible and reusable. Comparing to the above services, the presented suite of services, i.e., LODsyndesis, computes the transitive and symmetric closure of equivalence relationships, while it offers connectivity measurements among any possible combination of datasets. http://datahub.io Heritage 2018, 1 339 3. The Process for Performing Semantic Indexing and Connectivity Analytics Here, in Section 3.1, we describe in brief the process of semantic indexing at large scale, while in Section 3.2, we mention briefly the methods that we follow for performing connectivity analytics. 3.1. Semantic Indexing Process The process of global indexing comprises of five steps, which can be seen in the running example of Figure 2 and are described below. Step 1. Input. In the first step, we collect several datasets and equivalence catalogs (see the upper left side of Figure 2). Our running example contains four datasets (each one having six triples), which include mainly information for two Painters, and several equivalence relationships. Each dataset contains entities (they are represented in bold), properties (they are underlined), classes (they are in italics) and literals (they are written by using quotes). As we can see, these datasets either use different schemas or different versions of CIDOC CRM schemas (e.g., CIDOC CRM or Erlangen CRM) and different URIs for the same entities (e.g., d1:Theotokopoulos, d2:El_Greco, ex:El_Greco for the painter El Greco). Moreover, we can observe the equivalence relationships for entities (i.e., owl:sameAs relationships) and schema elements (i.e., owl:equivalentProperty and owl:equivalentClass relationships). Step 2. Creation of Equivalence Catalogs. The second step includes the computation of transitive and symmetric closure of schema and instance equivalence relationships, where catalogs containing for each URI an identifier are produced (see the upper right side of Figure 2). As we can see, all the URIs that refer to the same entity are assigned the same identifier, e.g., in the Entity Equivalence Catalog that all the URIs of El Greco are assigned the identifier E1. The same holds for the properties and the classes, e.g., in the Property Equivalence Catalog, all the properties for crm:P98_brought_into_life are getting the identifier P1, and in the Class Equivalence Catalog the two URIs for class E21_Person are getting the identifier C1. Step 3. Creation of Real World Triples. In the third step, we use the initial datasets and the produced equivalence catalogs for creating a set of “real world” triples (see the third step in the left side of Figure 2), i.e., we replace each URI (entity, property or class) with its corresponding identifier (i.e., we replace each URI referring El_Greco with E1). Moreover, we perform a simple conversion to Literals (e.g., in our example, we removed the data type “xsd:Year” of “1541”xsd:Year in dataset D1). Step 4. Global Indexing including all inferred equivalence relationships. In the fourth step, we use the aforementioned set of real world triples, to create semantically enriched inverted indexes for different sets of elements (e.g., triples, entities), and we store the dataset IDs (i.e., a posting list) where they occur (see the indexes in the middle part of Figure 2). In particular, we create an Entity-Triples Index, where we store together all the facts for a specific entity (e.g., for El Greco), and since some entities occur as an object in a triple, we store such triples twice in that index (they are represented in blue in Figure 2). For instance, we store the triple (El_Greco,livedAt,Spain) twice, one time in the entry of El_Greco and one time in the entry of Spain. Moreover, we also store together all the values of a property for a given entity (e.g., the birth date of El Greco), for enabling the comparison of the values of each property. As an example, in Figure 2, we can see that we can easily compare the values for the birth date of “El Greco", i.e., two datasets state that the birth date of that person was “1541”, while one dataset mentions the year “1542” as the birth date of that person. Moreover, we can easily check which information are common in two or more datasets (e.g., two datasets agree about the population of the city of Heraklion) and to find complementary information for the same entity, e.g., in Figure 2, one dataset contains information about the population of Toledo and another one for a painting which was produced in that city. In addition to that index, we create also some smaller indexes (see the indexes in the right side of Figure 2), for storing the datasets where a specific element occurs, i.e., an entity (see Entity Index), a schema element (see Property and Class Index) and a constant (see Literals Index). Step 5. LODsyndesis Services and Use Cases. After the creation of these indexes, we can exploit them for several purposes, as it can be seen in Figure 1 and in the bottom part of Figure 2. Heritage 2018, 1 340 The methods and the construction algorithms of the above indexes can be found in [5–7], whereas all the offered services, which depend on the aforementioned indexes are described in Section 4. 3.2. Performing Connectivity Analytics The constructed semantically enriched indexes are given as input for performing connectivity analytics. We have performed measurements about the commonalities (i.e., intersection) among any combination of datasets, for several measurement types, which are the following: number of common entities, common properties, common classes, common literals and common facts (or triples) [5–7]. An example can be seen in the lower right part of Figure 2, where we can observe the number of common entities among any combination of the four datasets of our running example. For instance, in our running example, all the datasets have one entity in common (i.e., El Greco), while the datasets D3 and D4 share three entities: El Greco, Picasso and Spain. The process that we follow comprises of two different steps, which are described in brief below. Specifically, we first scan an index, e.g., Entity Index, and we measure the frequency of a subset of datasets in the posting lists of each index, and we create a table, called directCounts list, for storing that information. For instance, in our running example (in the lower right part of Figure 2), we can see a possible query “Give me the most common entities among all the datasets”. For answering such a query, we traverse the Entity Index, and we measure the frequency of each subset in that index, e.g., “3,4” exists two times in the posting lists of that index. Afterwards, we use the produced list as an input to an incremental algorithm, which is based on lattices and set theory properties, for computing the number of common elements among any subset of datasets. In particular, for finding the common elements of a subset of datasets B, we should find which supersets of B occur in directCounts list, and then we just sum their scores (which are stored in directCounts list). As an example, for finding the common entities between datasets D3 and D4, the supersets of D3, D4 that can be found in that list are the following: (“3,4” ,“1,2,3,4”). If we take the sum of their score in the directCounts list, i.e., the score of “3,4” is 2, and the score of “1,2,3,4” is 1, we will find that these two datasets contain three common entities. For performing the measurements fast, for any combination of datasets, we have proposed two different incremental lattice-based algorithms, which can compute the commonalities between millions of subsets in less than 3 s. All the technical details about the aforementioned algorithms can be found in [5–7]. 4. LODsyndesis Services and Use Cases In this section, we introduce specific use cases and services that are offered by the webpage of LODsyndesis (http://www.ics.forth.gr/isl/LODsyndesis) and from the REST [15] API of LODsyndesis. First, in Section 4.1, we show how to find the URI of one or more keywords (e.g., the URI of Pablo Picasso), while in the remaining sections, we show five different use cases. In particular, in Sections 4.2 and 4.3, we show services and use cases (UC) that can be exploited to find all the available information or to check facts about an entity, while in Section 4.4, we show how the connectivity analytics can be exploited for the creation of advanced dataset discovery and selection services. In Section 4.5, we show how to exploit LODsyndesis, in order to create features for machine learning datasets, while in Section 4.6 we introduce a global namespace service. 4.1. How to Find the URI of an Entity For most of the services that are described in Sections 4.2–4.6, the input is a URI, e.g., http: //dbpedia.org/resource/Pablo_Picasso. For this reason, we offer a keyword to entity service, which can be used in order to find the URI for one or more keywords (e.g., Pablo Picasso). How to use it: in the services that are offered through an HTML page, users can type one or more keywords and automatically, the webpage shows to the users a list of URIs, containing that keywords. For instance, by typing “Pablo Picasso", it will automatically show to the users the URI http://dbpedia.org/resource/Pablo_Picasso. Moreover, one can use our REST API (see the first service http://www.ics.forth.gr/isl/LODsyndesis http://dbpedia.org/resource/Pablo_Picasso http://dbpedia.org/resource/Pablo_Picasso http://dbpedia.org/resource/Pablo_Picasso Heritage 2018, 1 341 in Table 1) to find the corresponding URIs for a specific keyword, e.g., one can send the following GET request: LODsyndesis/rest-api/factChecking?keywordEntity=Pablo_Picasso, to find the URI of Pablo Picasso. The REST API provides the output in CSV [16], JSON [17] or XML [18] format. Table 1. LODsyndesis REST API - GET Requests. ID Service URL Description Parameters Response Types 1 LODsyndesis/rest-api/ keywordEntity Finds all the URIs, containing one or more keywords. keyword: Put one or more keywords. text/csv, application/json, application/xml 2 LODsyndesis/rest-api/ objectCoreference Finds all the equivalent entities of a given URI or the datasets where it occurs. uri: Put any URI (Entity or Schema Element). provenance: It is an optional parameter. Put true for showing the datasets where the selected entity occurs. application/n-triples, application/json, application/xml 3 LODsyndesis/rest-api/ allFacts Finds all the facts (and their provenance) for a given URI (or an equivalent one). uri: Put a URI that represents an entity. application/n-quads, application/json, application/xml 4 LODsyndesis/rest-api/ factChecking Checks a specific fact for a given entity. uri: Put a URI that represents a single entity. fact: Put a fact, separate words by using space. threshold: Ratio of how many words of the fact should exist in the triple (optional). application/n-triples, application/json, application/xml 5 LODsyndesis/rest-api/ datasetDiscovery Finds the most connected datasets to a given one for several measurement types. dataset: Put a URI of an RDF Dataset. connections_number: It is optional. It can be any integer greater than zero, i.e., for showing the top-k connected datasets. subset_size: It can be any of the following: [pairs, triads, quads] (e.g., select pairs for finding the most connected pairs of datasets). measurement_type: It can be any of the following: [Entities, Literals, Properties, Triples, Classes, SubjectObject]. application/n-triples, application/json, application/xml 6 LODsyndesis/rest-api/ namespaceLookup Finds all the datasets where a namespace occurs. namespace: Put any namespace. text/csv, application/json, application/xml 4.2. UC1. Object Coreference and All Facts for an Entity Service It is important to find all the available URIs and information for a given entity, e.g., suppose a scenario where a user would like to find all the available information about El Greco or which museums contain paintings of El Greco (e.g., see in Figure 2 that there exists three different URIs for El Greco). For this reason, we offer an object co-reference service for finding all the equivalent URIs for a given URI, and all its triples by showing also their provenance. In particular, we offer these services for 412 millions of URIs and over 2 billions of triples from 400 datasets. By using such a service, one can browse or export all the available information for an entity and possibly use these data for various purposes, e.g., creating an application for an entity (or a set of entities), finding complementary information for a set of entities, etc. Except for entities, one can also find all the datasets where specific schema elements occur, e.g., a CIDOC CRM property or class, and all the equivalent URIs for those schema elements. How to use it: we offer an HTML page where a user can type a URI and select whether they desire to find equivalent URIs, all the triples of that URI or/and datasets where that entity occurs. Moreover, one can use our REST API (see the second and the third service in Table 1), to exploit these services programmatically. For instance, all the equivalent URIs for Pablo Picasso can be found by sending to LODsyndesis the following GET request: LODsyndesis/rest-api/ objectCoreference?uri=http://dbpedia.org/resource/Pablo_Picasso, while for finding all the facts (i.e., all the available data) for this entity, one can send the following GET request to LODsyndesis: LODsyndesis/rest-api/allFacts?uri=http://dbpedia.org/resource/Pablo_Picasso. The results of these services can be seen either as an HTML page, or in N-Triples [19] (for object coreference), N-Quads [20] (for all the facts of an entity), JSON or XML format through our REST API. This service needs on average less than one second for deriving the equivalent URIs of an entity (e.g., 0.1 s to retrieve in JSON format the equivalent URIs of Pablo Picasso), and less than 10 seconds to retrieve all the facts for an entity (e.g., 3.5 s for collecting all the triples for Pablo Picasso in JSON format). Heritage 2018, 1 342 4.3. UC2. Fact Checking Service By collecting all the available information for an entity, one can easily search whether a specific fact is verified from one or more datasets for a given entity (i.e., to verify the correctness and veracity of information). For example,“Had El Greco lived in Venice?”, or check all the values for a specific fact, e.g., “I want to find the birth date of El Greco”. For the first type of questions, we can see which datasets verify that fact, while for the second type of questions, two or more datasets can provide conflicting answers, therefore, we can compare them for deciding which is the correct one. Moreover, one can submit comparative questions, e.g., “Which is the relationship between El Greco and Jack Levine?” and the possible answer would be that the painter Jack Levine was influenced by El Greco. For answering all these questions, we offer a fact checking service, that contains over 2 billions of facts. How to use it: we offer an HTML page where a user can type a URI and a set of words representing a fact. Moreover, one can use our REST API (see the fourth service in Table 1) to check for a fact programmatically. For instance, in order to find which is the birth date of Pablo Picasso, one can send the following GET request: LODsyndesis/rest-api/factChecking?uri=http:// dbpedia.org/resource/Pablo_Picasso&fact=birth date. The output of this service can be seen as tables in HTML page, while the REST API offers the output in N-Quads, JSON or XML format. This service needs on average less than 10 s to check a fact, e.g., to find the birth date of Pablo Picasso we needed 3.5 s. 4.4. UC3. Dataset Discovery and Selection Services The proposed connectivity measurements can be directly used for dataset discovery and selection services. In particular, it is crucial to collect information for the same real world entities from many datasets, for enabling the comparison of their values, in order to verify that information and produce a more accurate dataset. Moreover, it is also important to explore even more information for the entities of a given dataset. For instance, queries like “find the K datasets that are most connected to British Museum” can be important, if we want to select the datasets that are worth to be integrated with British Museum (since they contain information for the same entities). As a result, one can produce a dataset with high “pluralism factor”, i.e., a dataset where the number of datasets that offer information about each entity is high, e.g., suppose a use case where one wants to “find the K datasets that maximize the pluralism factor of the entities of British Museum”. For this reason, we offer a Dataset Discovery and Selection Service, where one can find all the connections for a specific dataset (we provide measurements for 400 real world datasets) for assessing its connectivity for several measurement types (entities, literals, schema elements, etc.). How to use it: we offer an HTML page, where a user can select a dataset from a list for finding its most connected datasets for different measurement types. Moreover, one can use the offered REST API (see the fifth service in Table 1) for retrieving the most connected datasets to a given one, programmatically. For instance, for discovering the five most connected triads (according to the number of common entities [5–7]) of datasets that contain the dataset of British Museum, one should send the following GET request: LODsyndesis/rest-api/datasetDiscovery?dataset=http://collection.britishmuseum.org/&connections_ number=5&subset_size=triads&measurement_type=Entities. One can see the output of this service, either as a table in HTML format, or in N-Triples, CSV, JSON and XML format by using the aforementioned REST API. This service needs on average less than 5 s for returning the most connected datasets for a given one, e.g., for retrieving the most connected triads containing British Museum, we needed 1.5 s. Finally, we have published the results of the connectivity measurements in datahub in CSV and N-Triples format (http://old.datahub.io/dataset/connectivity-of-lod-datasets). 4.5. UC4. Dataset Enrichment for Machine Learning Based Tasks First, we mention a possible use case for the cultural domain. Suppose that one wants to classify a set of paintings according to their genre [21], e.g., Impressionist, Renaissance and others, by using a http://old.datahub.io/dataset/connectivity-of-lod-datasets Heritage 2018, 1 343 machine learning algorithm. However, there are either few or even no available information for these entities, therefore, one should search on the web for those paintings to create more features. Such a process can be time-consuming, while the discovered data often should be transformed before being used in a Machine-Learning task. For this reason, we have created a tool, called LODsyndesisML [22], which can be used for the enrichment of Machine-Learning datasets. The first step of LODsyndesisML is to discover datasets and URIs containing information for a set of entities (e.g., for paintings) by exploiting LODsyndesis. Afterwards, it sends SPARQL queries to the selected datasets for discovering and showing to the user a large number of possible features (belonging in nine different categories) [22], that can be created for that entities and finally it produces automatically, by sending SPARQL queries, a dataset that contains the features that have been selected by the user. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that LODsyndesisML can create features even for direct and indirect related entities of any path, e.g., to classify the genre of a painting, it could be also important to create features for the painter (of that painting). The produced dataset can be directly used as input for any machine learning algorithm. We have tested the aforementioned tool to classify how popular are a set of books and movies according to the number of their Facebook likes [23] and the accuracy of predictions was improved in both cases [22]. 4.6. UC5. Global Namespace Service In many cases, one would like to find fast all the datasets that contain a specific namespace (or prefix). A namespace is the first part of the URI, and it usually indicates the provenance of a URI, e.g., for the URI http://dbpedia.org/resource/Pablo_Picasso, the namespace is http://dbpedia.org. In such a way, one can find the datasets which contain terms from a specific ontology (e.g., http: //www.cidoc-crm.org). For this reason, we offer such a service containing approximately 1 million namespaces. A user can type a namespace, and it returns back all the datasets that contain it, and the number of distinct URIs, where the given prefix occurs. How to use it: we offer an HTML page, where a user can type a namespace for finding all the datasets where it occurs. Alternatively, through our REST API (see the last service in Table 1) one can send such a GET request to LODsyndesis: LODsyndesis/rest-api/namespaceLookup? namespace=http://www.cidoc-crm.org. The output can be an HTML page, or N-Triples, XML and JSON (through the REST API). It needs less than 1 s for deriving all the datasets for a namespace (for the previous example, 0.1 s was needed). 5. Connectivity Analytics over Hundreds of Linked Datasets (Focus on Datasets of Publications and Cultural Domain) Here, we report measurements about several linked datasets, mainly from publications domain, since the datasets of cultural domain also belong in that category. In particular, we have indexed 400 real RDF datasets containing 2 billion of triples and we have computed the transitive and symmetric closure of 45 million of equivalence relationships [5–7]. This set of 45 million of equivalence relationships has been collected from those 400 datasets. They have been created either by domain experts or by the owners of datasets, e.g., manually or by using entity matching techniques and tools [24]. Therefore, we do not create equivalence relationships, we just use the predefined ones and we compute their transitive and symmetric closure [5–7]. For performing all these computations and tasks, we needed 81.5 min by using a cluster of machines in okeanos cloud service [25], which consists of 96 virtual machines, each one having 1 GB memory and a single core. From the 400 datasets, 94 of them belong to publications domain (which consists of 667 million of triples). First, in Section 5.1, we show how connected are the datasets from publications domain, which vocabularies (e.g., CIDOC CRM) are used from datasets of that domain, and how connected specific datasets are. Moreover, in Section 5.2, we introduce measurements for British Museum dataset [26] (which uses CIDOC CRM), while in Section 5.3, we introduce conclusions about the connectivity in the LOD Cloud. http://dbpedia.org/resource/Pablo_Picasso http://dbpedia.org http://www.cidoc-crm.org http://www.cidoc-crm.org Heritage 2018, 1 344 5.1. Connectivity Analytics for Publications Domain From the 94 datasets belonging to publications domain that we have indexed, five of them use CIDOC CRM for describing their entities (however, we have observed that different versions of CRM are used in some cases). In particular, the five datasets are: British Museum [26], ARTIUM [27], Sandrart [28], Szépművészeti Múzeum [29] and Data Archives Hub [30]. Concerning vocabulary usage, we found there are some vocabularies that are used in most datasets, such as RDF, RDFS and FOAF (Friend of a Friend), while most vocabularies (72% of vocabularies) are used only in one dataset. Finally, only 14% of vocabularies (including CIDOC CRM) are used from five or more sources. In Table 2, we can see how connected the publication domain is, while we compare its connectivity with the average connectivity of the LOD Cloud datasets. As we can see, only 14.3% of pairs of datasets belonging in Publications domain share common entities, while 88.7% contain common literals. Comparing to the average connectivity of LOD datasets, we can observe that this domain is more connected, almost for all the difference cases (except for the case of common triples), and especially in the case of schema elements. In particular, 44.8% of pairs of datasets of that domain share properties, and 11.1% of pairs share classes, while the corresponding average percentages for all the pairs of datasets (of any domain) is 24.4% and 5.4%, respectively. Concerning triads of datasets, again the datasets of that domain are more connected, however, the percentage in some cases is very low, e.g., only 2% of triads of datasets share common entities. Table 2. Connectivity of Datasets belonging in Publications Domain and comparison with the average connectivity in LOD (Linked Open Data Cloud. Category % of Connected Pairs in Publications Domain (Average Connectivity of All the Datasets) % of Connected Triads in Publications Domain (Average Connectivity of All the Datasets) Entities 14.3% (11%) 2% (1.24%) Literals 88.7% (78%) 68.2% (46.44%) Properties 44.8% (24.45%) 16.87% (5.38%) Classes 11.1% (5.42%) 2.1% (0.5%) Triples 8.2% (10%) 0.5% (1%) Concerning the commonalities among different datasets, it is worth noting that Library of Congress [31] and VIAF [32] share more than 9 millions of entities. Moreover, in Table 3, we show which triads of datasets of publications domain contain the most common entities. The most connected triad (with 1.3 millions of common entities) contains DNB [33], Library of Congress and VIAF, while the last two datasets and British Library [34] share a million of entities. Moreover, the above datasets share common entities with BNF [35] dataset (see the positions 3–5 in Table 3). Table 3. The five most connected triads of Datasets of Publications Domain. Position Subset of Datasets # of Common Entities 1 {DNB, Library of Congress ,VIAF} 1,333,836 2 {British Library, Library of Congress ,VIAF} 1,040,862 3 {BNF, Library of Congress,VIAF} 1,007,312 4 {DNB, BNF, VIAF} 592,367 5 {DNB, BNF, Library of Congress} 516,323 In Figure 3, we can see the 15 most popular datasets from the publications (and cultural) domain, i.e., the datasets that contain common entities with a lot of datasets. In particular, Library of Congress contain common entities with 188 datasets (43 of them belong to publications domain), while DNB, BNF, VIAF and British Library have over 150 connections. Moreover, eight other datasets, i.e., IDREF [36], ZBW [37], EUScreen [38], Worldcat [39], LOD GESIS [40], COLINDA [41], mcu.es [42] and Data Archives Hub are connected with at least 100 datasets. Finally, the last two datasets that are shown in Figure 3, i.e., British Museum and SUDOC [43], have over 80 connections. Regarding datasets that are Heritage 2018, 1 345 using CIDOC CRM and are highly connected, e.g., British museum has 95 connections, “Sandrart” is connected with 71 datasets, while ARTIUM has 51 connections. Concerning the popular datasets from any domain, it is worth mentioning that the 15 most connected datasets include seven datasets from cross-domain (especially some very popular ones, such as Freebase [44], DBpedia [4], Wikidata [45] and YAGO [46]), seven datasets from publications domain and one from geographical domain, which means that most publishers tend to connect their data with sources from cross or publications domain. Figure 3. The 15 most popular datasets from publications (and cultural) domain and the number of their connections. 5.2. Connectivity Analytics for British Museum In Table 4, we can see the number of connected datasets for British Museum concerning entities, literals, classes, properties and triples. This dataset has common entities with 95 datasets (26 of them from the publications domain), however, British museum shares over 1000 entities with only 13 of them, whereas it contains 21,119 common entities with Wikidata (which is a cross-domain dataset). Concerning other measurements, it shares literals with a almost all the datasets, i.e., 393 out of 400, and especially with YAGO. In particular, it shares 2,317,234 literals with that source. Concerning schema elements, it mainly shares properties and classes with datasets containing information about museums, i.e., Szépművészeti Múzeum and datos.artium.org, since they both use CIDOC CRM model for describing their data. In particular, it shares 14 properties with Szépművészeti Múzeum dataset, and 14 classes with ARTIUM dataset. Moreover, it shares thousands of triples with eight datasets, while it contains 15,305 common triples with Library of Congress dataset. Table 4. Number of Connections of British Museum. Measurement Type Number of Connected Datasets Datasets with at Least 10 Commonalities Datasets with at Least 100 Commonalities Datasets with at Least 1000 Commonalities Most Connected Dataset to British Museum for Each Measurement Type Entities 95 44 27 13 Wikidata Literals 393 359 263 132 YAGO Classes 4 2 0 0 Szepmuveszeti Muzeum Properties 143 2 0 0 Datos ARTIUM Triples 48 26 14 8 Library of Congress In Table 5, we can see the top five triads of datasets that share common entities and contain British Museum dataset. As we can see, the triad of datasets, consisting of British Museum, VIAF and Wikidata, shares 18,865 entities. Moreover, a lot of entities, i.e., 15,317, are common in a triad that contains only datasets from publications domain, i.e., British Museum, Library of Congress and VIAF, while the dataset of British Museum has also a lot of common entities with DBpedia dataset. Heritage 2018, 1 346 Table 5. The five most connected triads of Datasets including British Museum that contain common entities. Position Subset of Datasets # of Common Entities 1 {British Museum, VIAF, Wikidata} 18,865 2 {British Museum, DBpedia, Wikidata} 17,172 3 {British Museum, DBpedia, Yago} 16,039 4 {British Museum, Yago, Wikidata} 16,036 5 {British Museum, Library of Congress, VIAF} 15,317 5.3. Conclusions about Connectivity of the LOD Cloud We observed that publications domain (which includes datasets from cultural domain) is more connected comparing to the average connectivity in LOD Cloud. In particular, datasets even from other domains contain common entities with these datasets, while 13 datasets from publications domain have common entities with more than 100 datasets. However, only a small percentage of pairs of datasets of that domain (i.e., 14.3% of pairs of datasets) share common entities, which shows the sparsity of LOD cloud. We have also observed that publishers tend to use different vocabularies to describe their data, which makes it difficult to integrate their information. In particular, most ontologies (i.e., 72%) are used only in one dataset, while some popular standard ontologies (such as RDF and FOAF) are used in almost all the datasets. Regarding datasets that use CIDOC CRM (e.g., British museum, Sandrart, etc.), they are highly connected with other datasets. For example, British Museum dataset contains common entities with 95 datasets, while it is highly connected with datasets from cross and publications domain. Moreover, British museum dataset shares schema elements with other datasets that use CIDOC CRM model for describing their data. Concerning the challenges for publications and cultural heritage domain, there is a need to create more connections among the datasets of that domain, since only a small percentage of datasets share commonalities. Moreover, we observed that most datasets of that domain use different ontologies for representing their data, thereby, it should be good, most of these datasets, to use some standard ontologies (like CIDOC CRM). Generally, two processes, which are required to achieve data integration and data enrichment, are schema matching and entity matching [47], and both of them require a big effort. However, by using the same standard ontology (or ontologies) and by increasing the connections among datasets of that domain, the aforementioned effort of those two processes can be decreased, thereby, the tasks of data integration and data enrichment can be highly benefited. 6. Conclusions In this paper, we presented LODsyndesis, a suite of services over the datasets of the entire Linked Open Data Cloud. We described in brief how we construct semantics-aware indexes that take into account the cross-dataset reasoning, and how we perform connectivity analytics. Moreover, we introduced several services that are offered through LODsyndesis, such as services for object coreference, dataset discovery and selection, fact checking, dataset enrichment for machine learning-based tasks and others, whereas we described how one can exploit them (through an HTML page or by using the provided REST API). Moreover, we showed measurements from the current LOD Cloud that reveals the sparsity of the current datasets, as regards their connectivity, which in turn justifies the need for advancing the current methods for data integration. We focused on measurements over datasets from the publications and cultural domain, while we showed connectivity analytics about the British Museum dataset. In particular, British Museum has several connections with datasets from cross-domain and publications domain, while the most “popular” dataset (having the most connections) of publications domain is the dataset of Library of Congress. As future work, we plan to improve and extend this suite of services, while we plan to propose more services for improving the veracity of data and for offering more advanced dataset discovery and selection services. Heritage 2018, 1 347 Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.M. and Y.T.; Data Curation, M.M.; Funding acquisition, Y.T.; Investigation, M.M.; Methodology, M.M. and Y.T.; Project administration, Y.T.; Software, M.M.; Supervision, Y.T.; Writing-original draft, M.M. and Y.T. Funding: The research work was supported by the Hellenic Foundation for Research and Innovation (HFRI) and the General Secretariat for Research and Technology (GSRT), under the HFRI PhD Fellowship grant (GA. No. 31443). Conflicts of Interest: The funding sponsors had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, and in the decision to publish the results. References 1. 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Introduction Context and Related Work RDF and Linked Data Related Work The Process for Performing Semantic Indexing and Connectivity Analytics Semantic Indexing Process Performing Connectivity Analytics LODsyndesis Services and Use Cases How to Find the URI of an Entity UC1. Object Coreference and All Facts for an Entity Service UC2. Fact Checking Service UC3. Dataset Discovery and Selection Services UC4. Dataset Enrichment for Machine Learning Based Tasks UC5. Global Namespace Service Connectivity Analytics over Hundreds of Linked Datasets (Focus on Datasets of Publications and Cultural Domain) Connectivity Analytics for Publications Domain Connectivity Analytics for British Museum Conclusions about Connectivity of the LOD Cloud Conclusions References 
work_oeovey4y7zbtfhtvvmpdl2nice	----	ATENEA 494 175 Atenea 494II Sem. 2006 LOS AÑOS CUARENTA DEL SIGLO XX A fines de la década del treinta el panorama mundial es inquietante. Euro- pa en guerra y azuzada por la Alemania beligerante, tiñe su desasosiego a los otros continentes. España, aún desgarrada por una confrontación inter- na junto a América, son atónitos espectadores del conflicto. El año 1937 es hito en la historia de las artes visuales contemporáneas. Dos acontecimientos son claves en la revisión de los hechos. Uno, la expo- sición de arte degenerado hecha en Munich y organizada por la Nacional Socialista para desacreditar las vanguardias plásticas y expurgar de ellas las imágenes díscolas y aberrantes del modernismo de posguerra. Otro, cual contrapartida, la organización de la Exposición Internacional de París. Dos artistas exponen obras en el pabellón de España, que reformulan en gran medida, los procedimientos e imaginerías del arte del momento. Se tratan de “Guernica” de Pablo Picasso (1881-1973) y “La Monserrat”, de Julio González (1876-1942). El primero es un grito de indignación pro- clamado tras el bombardeo del pueblo vasco, el día 26 de abril por la avia- ción alemana. El descomunal lienzo épico, es resumen, además, de la propia iconografía llevada a cabo durante cuatro décadas. La escultura “La Mon- serrat”, hierro batido y soldado, es la figuración de una joven mujer que en el brazo izquierdo porta a su hijo y, en el derecho, una hoz. De improvisado * Magíster en Teoría e Historia del Arte y Miembro de la Asociación Internacional de Críticos de Arte. Profesor de Historia del Arte en Facultad de Ciencias Físicas y Matemáticas de la Univer- sidad de Chile. E-mail: enriquesolanich@hotmail.com ISSN 0716-1840 ENRIQUE SOLANICH SOTOMAYOR* Escultura pública y la cúpula de la Basílica de Lourdes de Santiago 175 Atenea 494II Sem. 2006 pp. 175-186 176Atenea 494II Sem. 2006 realismo, tan rígida y dura como el material en que esta forjada, se presenta también como clamor y resistencia a los desmanes belicistas. El rumano Constantino Brancusi (1876-1957), el verdadero primitivo de lo moderno, retorna ese año a si tierra natal y, en Tirgu Jiu, zona de Los Cárpatos, alza dos proyectos monumentales que condensan su labor. En “La puerta del beso” y “La columna sin fin” encarna los ideales temprano de concebir esculturas que privilegien formas matrices y arcanas universales. Destierra, así, la anécdota y obviedad del relato escultórico, instalando obras de gran formato en el espacio abierto. O, si se quiere, al decir de Henry Moore (1898-1986), que desde el gótico “la escultura europea se había ido revistiendo de musgo, de maleza, de toda clase de excrecencias superficiales que habían ocultado completamente la forma. La misión específica de Brancusi ha sido la de eliminar esa maleza y devolvernos la conciencia de la forma”1. Sin embargo, desde 1940 a 1945 la actividad artística europea se apaga y diluye al fragor de la contienda. No hay diálogo ni convivencia entre los artistas, por el contrario, permanecen aislados, trabajando en solitario. A pesar de que algunos emigran a los Estados Unidos la atmósfera de terror y tinieblas los embarga y, lo único que ansían, es dominar el miedo y esperar la paz. En esos años la Universidad de Chile desempeña para la vida intelectual de la nación una tarea insustituible. Difunde y extiende las actividades cul- turales de modo sostenido y creciente. Bajo el fecundo rectorado de Juvenal Hernández Jaque (1899-1979), comprendido entre 1933 y 1953, en el dece- nio se fundan, acogen y promueven distintas instituciones. En rápida reseña es fácil citar lo siguiente: el año 1940 se crean la Escuela de Danza y el Insti- tuto de Extensión Musical; en 1941 se reconoce, oficialmente, el Teatro Es- tudiantil o cuna del Teatro Experimental, la Orquesta Sinfónica de Chile, el Ballet Nacional Chileno y el Coro de la Universidad. En 1942 se anexa a la Facultad de Bellas Artes, una Escuela de Estudios Instrumentales y de Canto cuya enseñanza es preparatoria para el ingreso al Conservatorio Nacional de Música. Al año siguiente, 1943, la casa de estudios recibe como donación un edi- ficio en la Terraza Hidalgo del Cerro Santa Lucía que se destina como sede del Museo de Arte Popular Americano. La colección inicial la constituyen los envíos de los distintos países participantes en la exposición de arte po- pular y artesanías americanas hecha para conmemorar el centenario de la institución. En consonancia, se inaugura la Escuela de Canteros Pedro Aguirre Cerda, bajo la dirección de Samuel Román Rojas (1907-1990). En 1944 se crean la Facultad de Arquitectura y el Instituto de Investigaciones Folklóricas 1 Citado por Chilvers, Ian: Diccionario de arte, Madrid: Alianza Editorial, 1995, p. 144. “Cabeza de La Monserrat...” “Guernica” 177 Atenea 494II Sem. 2006 Musicales, dependiente de la Facultad de Bellas Artes. Durante 1945 se des- taca la apertura del Departamento de Extensión Popular Universidad Valentín Letelier. Y, por último, el año 1947 se funda el Museo de Arte Con- temporáneo, corolario de los afanes de modernidad y transferencias cultu- rales reseñadas2. De las obras escultóricas de envergadura asentadas en el espacio urbano en el transcurso del decenio, cabe hacer mención a las siguientes: de Loren- zo Domínguez (1901-1963) Monumento al Doctor Luis Calvo Mackenna, en 1941; de Raúl Vargas Madariaga (1907-1990), el Homenaje a Rubén Darío; de Samuel Román Rojas el Monumento a las educadoras Isabel Lebrun y Antonio Tarragó en 1946; de Tótila Albert (1892-1967) la ornamentación para la tumba del Presidente Pedro Aguirre Cerda, en 1947 y del mismo Román el monumento al Presidente José Manuel Balmaceda, de 19493. LA ESCENA CULTURAL Desde 1945 Europa asiste al retorno, a la escena cultural, de sus grandes maestros que exiliados o refugiados en provincias, reciben los reconoci- mientos y homenajes debidos, sus trabajos son difundidos en libros y mues- tras itinerantes, consolidando definitivamente el arte moderno. A su vez, los museos se reconstruyen, exhiben sus obras preciadas y comienzan una sistemática labor de extensión y educación, más cercana al público y estu- diosos. Algunos ejemplos son notables. En 1946 Henri Matisse (1869-1954) reanuda su actividad en litografía ilustrando “Cartas portuguesas” de Ma- ría Alcoferado y “Visages” de Pierre Reverdy; Pablo Picasso reside en el Museo de Antibes, antiguo Palacio Grimaldi, pintado cuadros que luego dona, en- tre ellos “La alegría de vivir”, el más elocuente de su estilo nuevo e irrefuta- ble imagen de los momentos de tranquilidad y libertad alcanzadas. Como siempre, es él quién mejor espejea los ánimos y sensibilidades de la época4. Dichas experiencias visuales portadoras de orientaciones estéticas y estilísticas remozadas, unidas a las apropiaciones de materiales y procesos que la tecnología del momento suministra, desencadenan acciones simila- res en los artistas locales, basamento que ayuda comprender el desarrollo y expansión de las modernidades visuales incubadas en el decenio del cua- renta en Chile. 2 Panorama cultural de la década del cuarenta se halla en Godoy Urzúa, Hernán: La cultura chilena. Santiago: Editorial Andrés Bello, 1982. 3 Secuencia cronológica de instalación de escultura urbanas se enumeran en Solanich Sotomayor, Enrique: Escultura chilena: otra mirada para su estudio. Santiago: Ediciones Amigos del Arte, 2000. 4 Véase de Jaffe, Hans: El arte del siglo XX. EDAF, Ediciones y Distribuciones S.A., H. Matisse P. Picasso 178Atenea 494II Sem. 2006 Varios factores políticos y sociales convergen. Catorce años de gobiernos radicales, entre 1938 y 1952, singularizan un período de tolerancia y estabi- lidad política basados en distintas alianzas de gobierno que permiten la in- tegración participativa de amplios sectores e ideologías de la sociedad chi- lena. Un afán de progreso y crecimiento marca a todo el país. La creación de la Corporación de Fomento de 1939 incentiva el desarrollo económico e industrial con un plan ambicioso de electrificación y habilitación de cen- trales. Ello, a pareja de la apertura de escuelas industriales, técnicas y mine- ras. LA CUPULA DE LA BASILICA DE LOURDES Antaño, en la Roma Imperial, basílica es el espacio civil que funciona como tribunal de justicia, derivando su nombre de basilieos, rey en griego. Se usa- ba como recinto de reuniones o asambleas varias o lonja de contrataciones y comercio. De estructura rectangular más una exedra semicircular en el testero, es adaptada por los cristianos para sus primeros templos desde el siglo IV. Generalmente de tres naves, separadas entre sí por hileras de co- lumnas son cubiertas con techumbres de madera a dos vertientes. La altura mayor de la nave central posibilita la apertura de ventanas en sus muros que iluminan el interior y en la cabecera el ábside acoge el presbiterio o lugar donde se halla en altar mayor, en sobre nivel de la planta y separada de la nave por una cancela o balaustrada. Algunas, ostentan en su entrada un atrio, por cierto descubierto. Vale tener presente que hoy basílica es el nombre que concede la Iglesia a templos singulares y de gravitación, sea por su tamaño, calidad material de la fábrica o por significación de a quién o quiénes estén destinado. Por otro lado, la cúpula en la arquitectura es la bóveda semiesférica a la que también se la llama, por su forma, media naranja, pero las hay también de planta elíptica y poligonal regular. Domo o duomo son sinónimos en el léxico de la arquitectura y procedimientos constructivos, impuestos para la historia del arte por el idioma italiano, denotando el segundo vocablo por extensión, catedral. La Congregación de los Religiosos Agustinos de la Asunción, encarga- dos de las peregrinaciones en Francia, pasan a Chile en 1890 para divulgar y administrar la parroquia de Yungay, llamada Nuestra Señora de Lourdes, en plena Quinta Normal. En los años treinta del siglo pasado se decide la erección de un segundo templo, de mayor envergadura y capacidad para atender a los feligreses. El proyecto lo asumen los arquitectos Eduardo Costabal y Andrés Garafulic, convirtiéndose en la tentativa arquitectónica sacra más contundente y sólida del período. De estilo bizantino, con planta cruciforme, de amplia nave central y dos laterales, es construida en albañi- 179 Atenea 494II Sem. 2006 lería de ladrillo y hormigón. Ostenta en sus vanos vitrales encargados a Fran- cia, al taller de Gabriel Loire en Chartres, desplegados en 650 metros cua- drados que le imprimen al interior una atmósfera policroma y evanescente5. Las figuras de los dieciséis profetas que circundan la cúpula de la Basílica de Lourdes, es encargada a Lily Garafulic Yankovic. Rostros de artistas, inte- lectuales o políticos que estima o conoce, sirven de bocetos para delinear las fisonomías definitivas de los personajes bíblicos. Así, lo llamados mayores, Isaías, Jeremías, Ezequiel y Daniel y los menores Oseas, Joel, Amós, Abdías, Miqueas, Jonás, Nahum. Habacuc, Sofonías, Ageo, Zacarías y Malaquías podrían ser reconocidos por su semejanza con los que delinea al asumir el proyecto6. En la iconografía sacra los profetas del Antiguo Testamento se los repre- senta en figuras masculinas convencionales. Durante la época medieval se colocan en sus manos unas filacterias o cintas con los nombres y aureolas poligonales en sus cabezas. Pero, como fuese en el pasado, no se olvide que la exhibición de sus cuerpos importa metáforas llenas de significados y ne- cesarias de descifrar para su correcta apreciación. La titánica faena es emprendida en 1946 y dura parte de 1947, cerrando –según propias confesiones de la escultora–, un ciclo inicial de su promisoria labor como escultora. A la vez, no existe obra alguna en la historia de la escultura local que conceda de inmediato tanto reconocimiento y aprecio a su autor. Su formación, conseguida en la Escuela de Bellas Artes de la Universidad de Chile, en la década del treinta, se moldea en una didáctica artística remozada, que asume las orientaciones plásticas provenientes de los círcu- los de avanzada de Europa y que en Chile pregonan, entre otros, Tótila Albert y Lorenzo Domínguez los más incisivos por asentar una parte de la moder- nidad artística y cuyos influjos de purismos morfológicos clarifican los idearios de la moza escultora. Su trabajo anterior, comenzado con retratos y estudios de figuras, lo rea- liza en metales y piedras. Temprano queda marcado por afanes de depura- ción formal y concisión material, correspondiendo al consular proceso de aprendizaje y apropiación juveniles de procedimientos y métodos de hacer, escatimando las afinidades visuales derivadas de la inmersión en maestros y escuelas en boga. El conjunto que se refiere son efigies de anatomías completas y ascético realismo. Frontales y cercanas a los tres metros y medio de altura cada una de ellas, adosadas a los muros curvados externos y elevadas a más de cin- 5 Véase Laborde, Miguel: Templos históricos de Santiago, Santiago, El Mercurio S.A.P., 1987. 6 Se cita un manuscrito del diario de viaje de la artista que anota catorce rostros, precedidos del título Apóstoles, en Cruz de Aménabar, Isabel: Lily Garafulic. Forma y signo en la escultura chilena contemporánea. Santiago: Ediciones de la Universidad Católica de Chile, 2003, p. 245. 180Atenea 494II Sem. 2006 cuenta metros del suelo, cumplen solo con los ornamentos debidos en una descomunal construcción y, si se trata de buscar afinidades de estilo, habrá que mirar al románico renovado. A la vista de los espectadores asoman como altorrelieves, tan hieráticos y adustos que desafían el paso del tiempo, per- petuados en su inconmovible solemnidad, majestuoso porte y rango estéti- co sin par al momento de ser ejecutadas. La utilización del hormigón armado –mezcla de cemento, arena y gra- va–, que por medio de encofrados y armazones de hierro permiten la forma deseada- y la voluntad tenaz de situar la escultura en la mirada pública, son hitos que cambian el curso de las artes plásticas locales. Se conjugan técni- cas constructivas incipientes con audacias formales, paso seguro que afian- za la escultura moderna y, por obvia consecuencia, el momento preciso en que comienza un inédito arte público urbano. O, lo que es afirmar, la conso- lidación de la modernidad visual. Yendo más allá, Lily Garafulic propicia, sin sospecharlo, una fresca poé- tica del espacio urbano y colectivo como soporte de arte, retomada luego por algunos continuadores al comprobar que la homogeneidad y fácil ma- nejo, convierten al hormigón armado en una material adecuado a las nece- sidades plásticas circunstanciales, pues se amolda a la arquitectura, adecua a proyectos plásticos de morfologías y diseños complejos, resiste tensiones y vence la fuerza de la gravedad. En breve, ella y esa realización de casi sesenta años atrás, vaticinan la renovación en lo atinente de la escultura de gran formato en la ciudad, al inaugurar una alternativa citadina de imaginarios encantados, místicos y religiosos que concurren a la educación estética de la urbe. Mérito más que superior e inigualado. �� 181 Atenea 494II Sem. 2006 Lorenzo Domínguez Villar: Monumento al Doctor Luis Calvo Mackenna, piedra azul, 235 x 107 x 112 cm. Parque Balmaceda, comuna de Providencia, 1941. 182Atenea 494II Sem. 2006 Lorenzo Domínguez Villar: Homenaje a Juan Sebastián Bach, piedra amarilla, Parque Forestal, comuna de Santiago, 1931. 183 Atenea 494II Sem. 2006 Lily Garafulic en su taller. Santiago de Chile, 1960. 184Atenea 494II Sem. 2006 Lily Garafulic en la cúpula concluida de la Basílica de Lourdes, comuna de Quinta Normal, 1946. 185 Atenea 494II Sem. 2006 Vista de los profetas en la Cúpula de la Basílica de Lourdes, hormigón armado, comuna de Quinta Normal, 1946. Proyecto arquitectónico de Andrés Garafulic y Eduardo Costabal. 186Atenea 494II Sem. 2006 
work_ofns3rivfjfi3d3drcmemqisga	----	www.e-neurospine.org S9 Essay Corresponding Author Jeffrey C. Wang https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6297-7410 Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, 1520 San Pablo St., Suite 2000, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA E-mail: Jeffrey.wang@med.usc.edu Received: February 20, 2020 Revised: April 7, 2020 Accepted: April 10, 2020 The Rationale for Endoscopic Spinal Surgery Andrew S. Chung, Jeffrey C. Wang Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA INTRODUCTION While spinal endoscopy was first introduced several decades ago, limitations in surgical technique and equipment combined with a steep learning curve hindered its initial populari- ty amongst surgeons.1-4 However, recent technological advancements have facilitated more widespread adoption of the technique. Surgeon and patient demand for less invasive proce- dures have further driven a global surge in interest in spinal endoscopy. Furthermore, with healthcare costs increasing at unsustainable rates, there has been increasing emphasis placed on the development of more cost-effective treatment strategies.5 Today, transforaminal, interlaminar, cervical, and thoracic approaches have all been de- scribed utilizing spinal endoscopy. While the most compelling evidence supports the role of spinal endoscopy in the treatment of lumbar disc herniations and spinal stenosis,6-10 more recently, surgical indications have further expanded to include spinal instrumenta- tion and the management of tumors and infection. THE LEAST INVASIVE OF ALL CURRENT SPINAL SURGICAL TECHNIQUES? Similar to other minimally invasive spinal surgical (MISS) techniques, the main benefits of spinal endoscopy are related to its ability to substantially decrease bony and soft tissue disruption when compared to equivalent open surgeries. This appears to mitigate intraop- erative blood loss, lessen postoperative pain, facilitating quicker postoperative mobilization and recovery.6,7,11-13 Additionally, advocates of spinal endoscopy believe that it allows for im- proved and more targeted visualization of pathology even when compared to more con- ventional MISS techniques—due to superior maneuverability of the spinal endoscope and the ability to use an angled lens. This enables the surgeon to inflict the least amount of iat- rogenic damage to normal anatomy, further decreasing the theoretical risks of iatrogenic segmental destabilization and resultant adjacent segment degeneration. Furthermore, the use of continuous fluid inflow facilitates safer dissection of tissue planes, enhancing the safety profile of this MISS technique. Finally, as this can all be achieved through an incision that is less than 1 cm in length, spinal endoscopy may indeed represent the least invasive of all modern-day spinal surgical techniques. Neurospine 2020;17(Suppl 1):S9-12. https://doi.org/10.14245/ns.2040104.052 Neurospine eISSN 2586-6591 pISSN 2586-6583 This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (https://creativecom- mons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Copyright © 2020 by the Korean Spinal Neurosurgery Society http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.14245/ns.2040104.052&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2020-07-31 The Rationale for Endoscopic Spinal SurgeryChung AS and Wang JC Neurospine 2020;17(Suppl 1):S9-12.S10 www.e-neurospine.org THE PRODUCT OF A SHIFTING SURGICAL LANDSCAPE We are amidst a shifting surgical landscape that is becoming increasingly patient centric and cost-conscious. In this context, and as discussed earlier, there has been a consequent surge in interest in surgical techniques that maximally expedite the re- covery process through the least invasive approaches. As sur- geons across the globe continue to push the boundaries of spi- nal endoscopy and demonstrate that it may provide equivalent (or even superior) outcomes to more conventional techniques, spinal endoscopy may ultimately represent the next evolution of MISS techniques. In Asian countries, this evolution is pro- gressing at a fairly rapid rate, from progressively smaller tubu- lar-based surgeries to increasingly widespread usage of endo- scopic techniques. In the United States in particular, efforts to minimize health care expenditures are becoming increasingly important. As long inpatient stays are oftentimes associated with high facility fees, outpatient surgeries may reduce the overall cost associated with surgical episodes of care. Furthermore, outpatient spinal sur- geries may be associated with superior short-term outcomes when compared to equivalent inpatient surgeries.14-16 Ultimate- ly, in this context, health care economics are quickly pushing an increasing number of surgeons to adopt MISS techniques as they may enable the fastest recoveries.15,17 It therefore appears inevitable that spinal endoscopy will continue to gain traction, particularly in the United States, as many of these techniques can be very readily performed in an outpatient setting. More- over, with spinal endoscopy now being effectively performed without the routine use of general anesthesia, spinal endoscopy may indeed become the ideal outpatient spinal surgical tech- nique.13,18-20 SPINAL ENDOSCOPY – IMPORTANT TO MAINTAIN PERSPECTIVE While the potential benefits of spinal endoscopy are certainly quite alluring, it is important to put things into perspective and shed light on one of the significant barriers to technique adop- tion: the steep associated learning curve.1-4 While this learning curve depends, to some degree, on the specific procedure being performed,2,21 surgeons must nonetheless exercise a sense of surgical restraint when first adopting these techniques. During the initial phase of skill development, the risk of complications is comparatively higher with spinal endoscopy when compared to more conventional surgical techniques. Therefore, a slow pro- gression of technique adoption through initial cadaveric dissec- tions and expert mentorship is a must. Adherence to strict indi- cations and a careful and graduated incorporation of endoscop- ic techniques into one’s practice are all crucial during the early adoptive phase. Surgeons should start with only the simplest surgical cases. Fortunately, while an inverse relationship between surgeon experience and the risk of complications and rates of treatment failure appears to exist,22,23 it is nonetheless important for surgeons to maintain a healthy perspective on these latter realities during the early phases of technique adoption. Finally, self-awareness and humility are crucial, as a ceiling effect in surgical skill may ultimately limit a surgeon’s ability to adopt the most advanced endoscopic techniques without compromis- ing patient safety. THE RATIONALE FOR SPINAL ENDOSCOPY Patient demand for the least invasive procedures, surgeon desire to maximally shorten the postoperative recovery period, and a health care economy that demands the most cost-effec- tive care, appear to be the driving forces behind the ongoing surgical evolution towards spinal endoscopy. While higher level evidence is much needed to support the clinical utility of the latest endoscopic techniques, current evidence supporting the efficacy of endoscopic discectomies and decompressions for the treatment of disc herniations and lumbar stenosis is very compelling.24 The future of spinal endoscopy appears quite prom- ising and it is becoming increasingly evident that spinal endos- copy is becoming a useful surgical tool for the modern-day spi- nal surgeon. CONFLICT OF INTEREST The authors have nothing to disclose. REFERENCES 1. Wang H, Huang B, Li C, et al. Learning curve for percutane- ous endoscopic lumbar discectomy depending on the sur- geon’s training level of minimally invasive spine surgery. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2013;115:1987-91. 2. Hsu HT, Chang SJ, Yang SS, et al. Learning curve of full-en- doscopic lumbar discectomy. Eur Spine J 2013;22:727-33. 3. Lee DY, Lee SH. Learning curve for percutaneous endoscop- The Rationale for Endoscopic Spinal SurgeryChung AS and Wang JC Neurospine 2020;17(Suppl 1):S9-12. www.e-neurospine.org S11 ic lumbar discectomy. Neurol Med Chir (Tokyo) 2008;48: 383-8; discussion 388-9. 4. Lee CW, Yoon KJ, Kim SW. Percutaneous endoscopic de- compression in lumbar canal and lateral recess stenosis - the surgical learning curve. Neurospine 2019;16:63-71. 5. Choi KC, Shim HK, Kim JS, et al. Cost-effectiveness of mi- crodiscectomy versus endoscopic discectomy for lumbar disc herniation. Spine J 2019;19:1162-9. 6. Gibson JNA, Subramanian AS, Scott CEH. A randomised controlled trial of transforaminal endoscopic discectomy vs microdiscectomy. Eur Spine J 2017;26:847-56. 7. Komp M, Hahn P, Oezdemir S, et al. Bilateral spinal decom- pression of lumbar central stenosis with the full-endoscopic interlaminar versus microsurgical laminotomy technique: a prospective, randomized, controlled study. Pain Physician 2015;18:61-70. 8. Nomura K, Yoshida M. Assessment of the learning curve for microendoscopic decompression surgery for lumbar spinal canal stenosis through an analysis of 480 cases involving a single surgeon. Glob Spine J 2017;7:54-8. 9. Lin GX, Kotheeranurak V, Mahatthanatrakul A, et al. World- wide research productivity in the field of full-endoscopic spine surgery: a bibliometric study. Eur Spine J 2020;29:153- 60. 10. Park CK. The successful evolution of endoscopic spine sur- gery: coincidence or human spirit? Neurospine 2019;16:1-2. 11. Zhang B, Liu S, Liu J, et al. Transforaminal endoscopic dis- cectomy versus conventional microdiscectomy for lumbar discherniation: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Or- thop Surg 2018;13:169. 12. Khoo LT, Fessler RG. Microendoscopic decompressive lam- inotomy for the treatment of lumbar stenosis. Neurosurgery 2002;51(5 Suppl):S146-54. 13. Wang MY, Grossman J. Endoscopic minimally invasive trans- foraminal interbody fusion without general anesthesia: initial clinical experience with 1-year follow-up. Neurosurg Focus 2016;40:E13. 14. Sivaganesan A, Hirsch B, Phillips FM, et al. Spine surgery in the ambulatory surgery center setting: value-based advance- ment or safety liability? Neurosurgery 2018;83:159-65. 15. Pendharkar AV, Shahin MN, Ho AL, et al. Outpatient spine surgery: defining the outcomes, value, and barriers to im- plementation. Neurosurg Focus 2018;44:E11. 16. McClelland S, Oren JH, Protopsaltis TS, et al. Outpatient anterior cervical discectomy and fusion: a meta-analysis. J Clin Neurosci 2016;34:166-8. 17. Friedlander DF, Krimphove MJ, Cole AP, et al. Where is the value in ambulatory versus inpatient surgery? Ann Surg 2019 Aug 23 [Epub]. https://doi.org/10.1097/SLA.0000000000003578. 18. Sairyo K, Chikawa T, Nagamachi A. State-of-the-art trans- foraminal percutaneous endoscopic lumbar surgery under local anesthesia: Discectomy, foraminoplasty, and ventral facetectomy. J Orthop Sci 2018;23:229-36. 19. Shen J. Fully endoscopic lumbar laminectomy and transfo- raminal lumbar interbody fusion under local anesthesia with conscious sedation: a case series. World Neurosurg 2019; 127:e745-50. 20. Kolcun JPG, Brusko GD, Basil GW, et al. Endoscopic trans- foraminal lumbar interbody fusion without general anesthe- sia: operative and clinical outcomes in 100 consecutive pa- tients with a minimum 1-year follow-up. Neurosurg Focus 2019;46:E14. 21. Xu H, Liu X, Liu G, et al. Learning curve of full-endoscopic technique through interlaminar approach for L5/S1 disk her- niations. Cell Biochem Biophys 2014;70:1069-74. 22. Lewandrowski KU. Incidence, management, and cost of complications after transforaminal endoscopic decompres- sion surgery for lumbar foraminal and lateral recess steno- sis: a value proposition for outpatient ambulatory surgery. Int J Spine Surg 2019;13:53-67. 23. Yeung A, Roberts A, Zhu L, et al. Treatment of soft tissue and bony spinal stenosis by a visualized endoscopic transfo- raminal technique under local anesthesia. Neurospine 2019; 16:52-62. 24. North American Spine Society. Current Coverage Policy Recommendations - Endoscopic Decompression [Internet]. Burr Ridge (IL): North American Spine Society; c2020 [cit- ed 2019 Sep 3]. Available from: https://www.spine.org/cov- erage. The Rationale for Endoscopic Spinal SurgeryChung AS and Wang JC Neurospine 2020;17(Suppl 1):S9-12.S12 www.e-neurospine.org Title: Bullfight Artist: Pablo Picasso Year: 1934 More informationhttps://www.pablopicasso.org/girl-before-mirror.jsp © 2020 - Succession Pablo Picasso - SACK (Korea) 
work_onmcr3t7nba7hcsprrje7rc3n4	----	Revista de Psicología de la PUCP. Vol. XIII. No l. 1995 CREATIVIDAD: APROXIMACION IDIOGRAFICA VERSUS NOMOTETICN Franz J. Monks 2 El arrlculo trata de la importancia de la aproximación idiográfica en el estudio de los individuos creativo-productivos. Se hace un análisis del planteamiento de Gardner en su libro "Creating Minds", respecto a las numerosas áreas de producción creativa, para posteriormente analizar al detalle las experiencias y logros creativos de Sigmund Freud a lo largo de su vida, como ejemplo de un individuo creativo-productivo con elevada inteligencia intrapersonal. Finalmente se hace un análisis de las características comunes encontradas entre los individuos excepcionalmente creativos y los factores determinantes en sus logros. Palabras claves: creatividad, superdotación, talentos, inteligencia y desarrollo humano. Creativiry: Idiographic versus nomothetic approach. This article is about the importance of the idiographic approach in the srudy of the creative-productive individuals. An analysis of Howard Gardner's Creative Minds is carried out, focusing on the seven kinds of intelligence. The life of Sigmund Freud is analyzed as an example of a creative personaliry with creative achievements, regarding the intrapersonal intelligence. Finally, there is an analysis of the common characteristics among the creative-productive individuals and the determinant factors of their creative exceptional achievements. Keywords: creativiry, giftedness, talented, intelligence, human development. l. El autor agradece a Sheyla Blumen por la traducción del presente artículo 2. Es Profesor Principal del Departamento de Psicología del Desarrollo de la Universidad Católica de Nimega, Holanda, y Director del Centro para el Estudio del Talentoso en la misma universidad. Ha publicado y editado numerosos libros y artículos en revistas profesionales (holandés, inglés, alemán) en psicología del desarrollo y educación del talentoso. Desde los inicios de la década de los 80 ha centrado su interés en la enseñanza e investigación en el desarrollo y educación del individuo talentoso. En Octubre de 1992, fue elegido Presidente del Consejo Europeo de Altas Capacidades Intelectuales. Dirección: Prof. Dr. Franz Monks, Center for the Study of Giftedness, Universiry of Nijmegen, internet: monks@psych.kun.nl, P.O.Box 9104, 6500 Nijmegen, The Netherlands. 3 Existe una variedad de aproximaciones al estudio de la personalidad y del desarrollo humano. Una forma de clasificarlas es en términos de la diferenciación idiográfica en contraposición a la nomotética. La aproxima- ción idiográfica pone énfasis en la descripción minuciosa sobre el desarrollo del individuo. En contraste, la aproximación nomotética resalta las normas y explicaciones generales. Ambas aproximaciones pueden ser combinadas en aquello que Thomae ( 1968) denomina biografía psicológica, p.e. objetivos nomotéticos y minuciosidad idiográfica. Es obvio que el resultado de un estudio está altamente influenciado por la aproximación metodológica utilizada. Y, esto es especialmente importante en el estudio de los indi- viduos creativos dado que es importante prestar atención a los detalles biográficos relacionados con la producción creativa. Por lo general, la creatividad es vista como una expresión de la originalidad de la producción de una persona, sin embargo, existen numerosas áreas de producción creativa tales como el lenguaje, la música y las artes plásticas, la mecánica, la matemática y la filosofía. La creatividad debe ser percibida como una característica de una conducta específica. Estamos de acuerdo con aquellos autores que sostie- nen que la creatividad como tal no existe y que las conductas creativas no se deben a factores humanos triviales o a casualidades. Una personalidad creativa es única y los logros creativos son siempre significativos en tér- minos del desarrollo. En el presente artículo concentraremos nuestra atención en el libro "Creating Minds" (1993) de Howard Gardner para demostrar el valor de una aproximación más idiográfica y el desarrollo adornado por los logros creativos de algunas personas. Potencial Creativo -exploración y desarrollo podría haber sido el título del libro de Gardner "Creating Minds" (Mentes Creadoras). El distingue siete tipos de inteligencia y las ilustra con la historia del desarrollo y 5 producción de siete individuos creativo-productivos. Las siete inteligencias (ver Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple lntelligences, 1983) son: 1) lingüística 2) lógico - matemática 3) visual - espacial 4) musical 5) corporal - kinestésica 6) intrapersonal 7) interpersonal. Los siete individuos creativo-productivos cuyas biografías son descritas e interpretadas por Gardner en su libro, pueden estar relacionadas con los siete tipos de inteligencias. Gardner describe en relación a cada inteligencia las siguientes personalidades creativo-productivas: 1) T.S. Eliot (1888-1965). Poeta nacido en los E.E.U.U., dramaturgo y crítico, quien vivió desde 1914 en el Reino U nido y se nacionalizó británico en 1947; fue una figura literaria muy importante en Europa; recibió el Premio Nobel de Literatura en 1948. 2) Albert Einstein (1879-1955). Físico y matemático estadounidense, nacido en Alemania; modificó la conceptualización del tiempo, espacio y luz; recibió el Premio Nobel de Física y de la Paz. 3) Pablo Picasso (1881-1973). Pintor y escultor español, residente en Francia; un artista prolífico que influyó en el arte del siglo 20 y -junto con George Braque- fue el fundador del cubismo. 4) Igor Stravisnky (1882-1971). Compositor estadounidense, nacido en Rusia; ha sido uno de los compositores que ha influenciado más en el siglo 20 a través de la armónica politonal y los nuevos arreglos de instrumentación. 5) Martha Graham (1894 -1965). Bailarina y coreógrafa estadounidense; desarrolló nuevas formas de danza, creando una nueva comprensión de la coreografía, y fue una de las personas más influyentes en el siglo 20, en relación a la danza y coreografía. 6) Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Psiquiatra y neurólogo austríaco; des- cubrió a través de un autoanálisis intensivo nuevas dimensiones psi- 6 cológicas en la conducta humana; dio origen al psicoanálisis; su teoría ha influenciado a casi todas las áreas de la vida cultural. 7) Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948). Político hindú y líder espiritual, quien a través de su concepción de la política, su estilo de vida ascética y su profunda religiosidad, tuvo una influencia sustancial en la indepen- dencia de la India. El desarrolló métodos novedosos de resistencia pacífica que tuvieron impacto mundial. Gardner escogió estos siete individuos creativos-productivos dado que todos ellos provenían del mismo período histórico -entre 1885 y 1935- y todos llegaron a ser famosos mundialmente. Desde esta perspectiva, las dos personas siguientes que pudieron haber sido escogidas: María Montessori (1871-1950). Prodigio matemático, quien desarrolló métodos innovativos en educación que tuvieron y aún tienen impacto mundial (ella puede relacionarse con 2) y 7). Lewis M. T erman (1877 -1956). Desarrolló métodos innovativos en la investigación científica y en la detección de diferencias humanas (él puede relacionarse con 1) y 7). Inteligencia y creatividad ¿El estudio de la creatividad necesariamente incluye el estudio de la inteligencia? Al parecer existe un acuerdo respecto a que la inteligencia está más relacionada con el pensamiento convergente y con sistemas cognitivos controlados culturalmente. La inteligencia es percibida más como pensa- miento reproductivo, y, en contraste, la creatividad es percibida como pensamiento divergente y productivo. Gardner sigue esta línea, pero no es rígido al realizar una distinción. Es evidente que siempre habrá una discusión interminable respecto a si la creatividad y la superdotación son expresiones diferentes de la mente humana. Aproximaciones a la creatividad ¿Es posible identificar las fuentes de la creatividad humana? ¿Es esta genéticamente "programada" o es una mezcla favorable de habilidades innatas y condiciones ambientales? 7 1) Según Freud, los individuos creativos están sublimando mucha de su energía libidinal en producciones creativas tales como componer, escribir, pintar o investigar cuestionamientos científicos. Freud com- para la conducta del niño en el juego con la del artista creativo cuando señala: ["¿No deberíamos decir que cada niño en el juego se comporta como un escritor creativo, dado que él crea un mundo para sí mismo, o recompone las cosas de su mundo en una nueva forma que le complace? ... ] El escritor creativo hace lo mismo que el niño en el juego. El crea un mundo de fantasía que toma muy seriamente -en el que invierte grandes cantidades de emoción- mientras lo separa claramente de la realidad". (Gardner, 1993, p. 24). 2) La perspectiva conductista es algo diferente del punto de vista freudiano psicoanalítico. De acuerdo con los seguidores de Skinner, las personas son creativas porque conectan actividades creativas con reforzamientos positivos previos. 3) El concepto de "motivación intrínseca" implica que las personas se comprometen en actividades creativas porque les gusta, por puro placer. Csikszentmihalyi habla sobre la experiencia de flotar. "El flotar" quiere decir que las personas están totalmente comprometidas y ab- sortas en una actividad. El músico Haendel, por ejemplo, compuso "El Mesías" en dos semanas. Durante este período estaba totalmente absorto por un objeto de su atención. Estas pueden ser denominadas "experiencias pico". 4) Uno de los que propone la aproximacwn historiométrica es Dean Simonton. El está más interesado en una aproximación cuantitativa y no tanto en casos históricos individuales. El propone "lidiar con una base de datos lo más grande posible" (Gardner, p. 26). Su aproxima- ción es nomotética en contraste con Gruber, cuya aproximación es idiográfica ("El hombre Darwin"). Gardner sostiene que su propia aproximación es una combinación de lo ideográfico con lo nomotético, p.e. biografía psicológica (ver Thomae, 1968). Gardner aplica tres núcleos de relación como principios organizadores: a) La relación entre el niño y el adulto creador. b) La relación entre el creador y los otros (familia, profesores, oponentes). e) La relación entre el creador y su trabajo. Gardner está convencido que los logros de los adultos creativos tienen sus raíces en su infancia. Los creadores "encuentran" un área u objeto de interés muy temprano en sus vidas. El proceso de descubrimiento del mundo y de sí mismos continúa inicialmente el patrón moldeado culturalmente. La calidad de la exploración, del pasar por diferentes vi- vencias es crucial para el desarrollo posterior de la creatividad. Los adultos creadores demuestran que ellos empezaron temprano en sus vidas encon- trando sus propias soluciones e intereses. En todos los siete casos Gardner pudo identificar signos tempranos de interés por objetos y áreas en los que demostraron luego creatividad productivad. Durante su infancia, todos ellos tuvieron experiencias cristalizadas. El dominar una disciplina o arte conlleva "por lo menos 1 O años de trabajo continuo y arduo en la disciplina o arte". Ni siquiera Mozart es una excepción. Todas las personas creativas necesitaron por lo menos una década de ejercitación y actividad antes que logros innovadores pudieran ser alcanzados. El dominio, por lo tanto, es dependiente del esfuerzo y la dedicación. Otra característica común es que los creadores no están esperando lograr un producto para ver el impacto que éste tiene, sino que están permanentemente ocupados en algo que les interesa. La definición de Gardner respecto al individuo creativo está bien balanceada y reúne algunos conceptos conocidos: "El individuo creativo es una persona que regularmente resuelve problemas, logra productos, o define nuevos cuestionamientos en un tema, de tal forma que es en un principio considerada novedosa pero logra ser aceptada dentro de un entorno cultural particular". (Gardner, 1993, p.35). 1) ... en un tema ... ¿Hay algún rasgo creativo que esté a la base de las pruebas de creatividad? ¿Puede ser la creatividad medida como un ítem psicométrico? 9 2) ... regularmente ... generalmente se presentan una serie de momentos creativos,. o ¿Puede considerarse a la creatividad como un "dar en el blanco" en un momento determinado? 3) ... logra productos o define nuevos cuestionamientos ... nuevos productos y el descubrimiento de áreas desconocidas u olvidadas. ¿Es la novedad un criterio esencial? 4) ... aceptada dentro de un entorno cultural particular ... nada es creativo en y por sí mismo, sino que es siempre el resultado de un juicio comunal o cultural. ¿Son los productos creativos independientes del juicio externo? Una mente creativa: Sigmund Freud Dentro de los siete creadores, Freud fue el que tuvo las mayores habilidades, según Gardner. Era visto como un niño muy talentoso y especial, y su ambiente respondía a sus talentos de manera apropiada. En la secundaria fue siempre el mejor alumno, y pasó sus exámenes finales con honores summa cum laude. La vida familiar estaba organizada alrededor de las necesidades de este niño talentoso: tenía su dormitorio propio, e incluso su propio comedor, y "cuando las prácticas de piano de su hermana le molestaron, el piano fue retirado de la casa" (Gardner, p.52). Le gustaba leer, estaba siempre entre sus libros, y, sin embargo, su infancia fue "normal": Era un buen nadador, patinador y tenía amigos. Su padre, completamente impresionado por los talentos de su hijo dijo una vez: "el dedo meñique del pie de mi Segismundo es más inteligente que mi cabeza". Cuando Freud decidió volverse médico dijo que su decisión estaba guiada por el deseo de saber más sobre los seres humanos y su naturaleza. Sus intereses de lectura fueron extremadamente amplios: leía las obras de Shakespeare en alemán y en inglés, y las obras de Moliere, Goethe y Schiller. Dominó el inglés y el francés y se enseñó a sí mismo español para ser capaz de leer a Cervantes en su versión original. Le encantaba las artes y el teatro y tuvo un fuerte interés en la filosofía. Tradujo a John Stuart Mill al alemán. 10 Por años mantuvo correspondencia intensiva con colegas y con su novia Martha Bernays. Era un experto describiendo situaciones y conflictos y también resolviendo conflictos. Durante su adolescencia expresó en sus cartas que él lograría algo importante durante su vida. Era muy seguro de sí mismo y tenía un fuerte autoconcepto. La pregunta no era si es que, sino en qué drea lograría algo especial. Siempre quizo conocer las razones profundas de situaciones o conductas. Estuvo siempre preocupado en acertijos y rompecabezas, importantes para el análisis de sueños en su vida adulta. Estudió neuroanatomía y una vez pensó que había realizado una innovación importante con sus experiencias con la cocaína. Encontró que esta sustancia tenía un efecto positivo en el dolor, y que podía convertir un mal humor en alegría. Estuvo tan entusiasmado que dio su nuevo producto a sus amigos, hermanas e incluso a su novia. Sin embargo, cuando se descubrió que la cocaína era altamente adictiva, detuvo sus experimentos inmediatamente. En 1895 obtuvo una beca para trabajar por cinco meses en el Hospital Salpetriere en París que era dirigido por el psiquiatra Charco t. Allí aprendió a tratar la histeria con hipnosis. Estaba completamente impresionado por la genialidad de Charcot y escribió a su novia: "Acá lo único que hago es permitirme a mí mismo ser llevado entre las nubes por Charcot durante las mañanas, y durante la tarde tengo tiempo de aterrizar y escribir cartas entre tanto ... " Debe ser posible llegar al "nivel de Charcot" (Gardner, p. 57). El resultado de la estadía con Charcot fue el confirmar que el trabajo en el laboratorio no era para él, sino que los desórdenes nerviosos deberían ser su área de interés y de trabajo científico. Estaba muy bien preparado dado que poseía las destrezas necesarias, llámense observación, clasificación y explicación. De regreso a Viena, trató, junto con Breuer a la paciente Anna O. (Bertha Pappenheirri). Ella había desarrollado una serie de síntomas his- téricos, especialmente una incapacidad para ingerir líquidos. Bajo hipnosis, ella reprodujo experiencias desagradables emocionalmente mientras aten- 11 día a su padre enfermo, y desde ese momento fue capaz de beber. Esta "cura hablada" fue una nueva aproximación en el tratamiento de la histeria. Pero pareció ser más complicada dado que Anna O. presentó nuevos desórdenes y señaló posteriormente, mientras sufría de calambres muy intensos, "Ahora viene el hijo del Dr. B" (Gardner, p. 59). Este nuevo desarrollo en la historia de enfermedades de Anna O. fue el comienzo del fin de la amistad entre Freud y Breuer. El tema de la transferencia entre médico y paciente, y especialmente la importancia de los motivos sexuales, más la discusión de los procesos inconscientes -estos componentes de un punto de vista dinámico fueron un obstáculo para la continuación de la amistad y cooperación entre Breuer y Freud. "No es fácil para mí", dijo Freud, quien estaba convencido que estaba en el camino correcto, "el pagar este precio (pérdida de su amistad) pero no lo voy a dejar" (Gardner, p.60). Freud se convenció cada vez más que los desór- denes nerviosos eran "causados" por experiencias sexuales y fantasías. Esto fue demasiado para sus amigos, sus colegas, su familia e incluso su esposa. Freud se quedó solo y aislado. Una década de "aislamiento espléndido" empezó en 1890. En este período crítico, Wilhelm Flieí~, un médico de Berlín, se hizo amigo de Freud, y fue importante por dos razones: 1) actuaba como una caja de resonancia para sus ideas, siempre asequible, escuchaba y estaba deseoso de comprender. Sin FlieB, Freud hubiera estado completamente aislado como científico. ' 2) FlieB le daba soporte y Freud se sintió muy compenetrado personal- mente; aparte de las discusiones científicas, compartían también los más íntimos pensamientos. Ahora, alrededor de los 40 años de edad, Freud tenía la sensación de tener la última oportunidad en su vida para realizar su enorme potencial. Tuvo que atravesar por un período de problemas y preocupaciones. Estaba en muy malas condiciones cuando su último hijo, el sexto, nació en 1895, y su padre murió en 1896. Este período de aislamiento fue el período más productivo de su inteligencia intrapersonal. El tratamiento de la histeria y la neurosis estaba, 12 hacia fines del siglo 19, en una etapa preliminar. Los desórdenes como la histeria eran vistos como determinados por la herencia (ver Charcot). Una interpretación dinámica de los desórdenes nerviosos era completamente nueva!! El autoanálisis y el análisis de los sueños no era considerado algo serio para un médico o psicólogo de ese tiempo. La contribución de F reud y su trabajo pionero puede resumirse de la siguiente manera: 1) Tuvo que enfrentar la conducta desviada de los pacientes histéricos; esta conducta no podía ser explicada con el conocimiento existente ni por factores orgánicos. 2) Los esfuerzos para explicar la conducta histérica abrieron el camino para explicar otras conductas neuróticas que no estaban relacionadas con una determinada parte del cuerpo humano; p.e. una ... osis (p.e. neurosis) es un desorden sin una parte enferma del cuerpo comparado con una ... itis (p.e. encefalitis). 3) Desarrolló un nuevo lenguaje con su propio marco de explicación. 4) Desarrolló nuevos métodos para comprender y curar desórdenes sin una causa orgánica evidente. 5) "Lidió con todo un rompecabezas de factores más que con un pro- blema focalizado o un conjunto de problemas" (como Einstein). 6) Demostración de un replanteamiento creativo con el uso de una inteligencia particular: "a través del examen intrapersonal de sus pro- pios pensamientos y sentimientos, y en su caso, persistencia aún cuando nadie le mostraba simpatía o comprensión hacia lo que estaba hacien- do" (Gardner, p.86). Luego de haber presentado esta descripción detallada de la mayor contribución de Gardner a la psicología y al desarrollo de la creatividad, debemos plantearnos la siguiente pregunta: ¿Son estos siete ciclos de vida tan sólo estudios de casos o ellos nos presentan evidencia para algunas generalizaciones más amplias? Pienso que, por lo menos, se pueden hacer las siguientes cuatro generalizaciones: 13 a) La infancia y la adolescencia son período decisivos para el desarrollo de talentos especiales. Los talentos y habilidades pueden ser observadas en la infancia y adolescencia en todos los siete creadores. Este período fue un tipo de "prueba". Al parecer este período fue para todos los individuos un período libre de ejercicio sin presión externa. Por ejem- plo, en relación a Freud, se sabe que era un excelente observador, cuando adolescente era una pareja ideal para conversar y un escucha muy atento, quien demostró empatía y habilidad emocional y social para asumir roles. No era tan sólo capaz de observar y escuchar, sino que podía dar una ayuda efectiva en la resolución de problemas personales. Le encantaban los rompecabezas y acertijos, de mitos y cuentos de hadas, y su interpretación, todas ellas habilidades y des- trezas que necesitaría para su autoanálisis y para el desarrollo del psicoanálisis. b) Los talentos excepcionales no se desarrollan "automáticamente". Siem- pre es necesario que un ambiente de soporte (padres, profesores, educadores, hermanos, amigos) esté dispuesto; los talentos excepcio- nales necesitan el soporte social para su desarrollo óptimo. e) Un período de "aislamiento espléndido" de cerca de diez años tuvo que ser atravesado por todos los siete individuos. Este es el tiempo en el que nadie "cree" en ti. En el caso de Freud, este período estuvo entre 1890 y 1900, cuando tenía entre 35 y 45 años de vida. d) Logros creativos excepcionales son dependientes de las necesidades históricas y sociales. En la actualidad, por ejemplo, no existe mucha necesidad del talento musical, sino de creadores que sean capaces de resolver problemas sociales relacionados con la energía, el tráfico, la polución y la basura. La creatividad excepcional está siempre relacio- nada con una situación histórica particular y cultural. Estas generalizaciones demuestran que el desarrollo humano y el desarrollo de la personalidad creativa no es simplemente un proceso de maduración. Sino que es siempre el resultado de la interacción entre las habilidades e intenciones del individuo y un ambiente de soporte. Los padres y educadores juegan un rol crucial en el desarrollo de cada niño y en particular en el desarrollo del individuo creativo-productivo. 14 Referencias Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: the theory of multiple intelligences. Nueva York: Basic Books. Gardner, H. (1993). Creating minds. Nueva York: Basic Books. Thomae, H. (1968). Das Individuum und seine Welt: Eine Personlich- keitstheorie. Gottingen: Hogrefe. 15 
work_oqs444cepja5leqqoxhf5zhmoa	----	http://www.diva-portal.org Postprint This is the accepted version of a paper published in Scandinavian Journal of Management. This paper has been peer-reviewed but does not include the final publisher proof-corrections or journal pagination. Citation for the original published paper (version of record): Bureau, S., Zander, I. (2014) Entrepreneurship as an art of subversion. Scandinavian Journal of Management, 30(1): 124-133 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scaman.2013.12.002 Access to the published version may require subscription. N.B. When citing this work, cite the original published paper. Permanent link to this version: http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-225228 Scandinavian Journal of Management, version non définitive, à paraître. 1 Entrepreneurship as an Art of Subversion Sylvain Bureau Associate Professor, ESCP Europe and Associate Researcher PREG-CRG, Ecole Polytechnique & Ivo Zander Anders Wall Professor of Entrepreneurship, Uppsala University Summary: This paper proposes subversion and resistance as two fundamental aspects of entrepreneurship and the entrepreneurial process. Taking a start in the established notion of subversive activities in art, we outline their main expressions and consequences in the entrepreneurship setting. We further address the accompanying issue of resistance, and define and illustrate its role in art and the introduction of novel business ideas. Ultimately arriving at the concept of artful entrepreneurship, we suggest the analysis of subversion and resistance as a promising but hitherto neglected avenue of research in entrepreneurship studies. Scandinavian Journal of Management, version non définitive, à paraître. 2 Introduction “Being good in business is the most fascinating kind of art. Making money is art and working is art and good business is the best art.” (Andy Warhol) Art and entrepreneurship have recently been compared and several analogies discussed between these human practices (Scherdin & Zander, 2011). Most of these discussions are dealing with the creative element of the two activities (Bonnafous-Boucher, Cuir, & Partouche, 2011) and how this creativity is developed in specific environments, for example where there are high levels of uncertainty (Meisiek & Haefliger, 2011). Much less has been said about the fact that both creative artists and entrepreneurs must alter and transgress the operating rules of a field (Brenkert, 2009; Burgelman & Grove, 2007, p. 315; Zhang & Arvey, 2009) so as to change the status quo (Bureau & Komporozos-Athanasiou, 2013; Chell, Hawort, & Brearley, 1991, p. 22). Among artists, this is especially true in the case of ground-breaking or revolutionary new ideas that challenge contemporary conventions and norms (Lindqvist, 2011, p.10). Artists aspiring more radical shifts in artistic expressions must then often face and overcome hostile reactions and institutional environments (Wijnberg & Gemser, 2000). Similarly, the entrepreneur engaging in creative destruction (Schumpeter, 1994 [1942]) must be prepared to take on the role of the diverging figure (Bureau & Fendt, 2011; Danns, 2008), or even the role of the rebel (Fayolle, 2004, p. 447; Hagen, 1960; Moody, 2001), and surpass inhibitions and fears of being called an iconoclast (Bureau & Fendt, 2012; Goss, 2005, p. 206). In some cases, the entrepreneur can find himself completely marginalized by society and be forced to create pirate organizations (Durand & Vergne, 2010). Some authors have addressed the subversive dimension of artistic and business entrepreneurship (Bonnafous-Boucher et al., 2011; Hjorth, 2003; Smilor, 1997). Yet, while the concept if widely known and applied in art it has received but marginal attention in the entrepreneurship literature. To illustrate the huge discrepancy between the worlds of art and entrepreneurship regarding the intensity of the debate on subversion, the outcome of two queries made on Google produces more than 4 million results for the association “art and subversion” or “subversion and art” whereas there are only 2 (!) occurrences for “entrepreneurship and subversion” or “subversion and entrepreneurship”1. If subversive attitudes and activities are needed to launch and develop new ideas and projects, whether in art or entrepreneurship, resistance is found on the other side of the coin. As in the case of subversion, it is a well-known phenomenon in art, where throughout history different artistic styles have had to fight hard against opposition from conventions and established institutions. Despite the fact that resistance appears as a central element in many entrepreneurs’ stories about the development of their businesses, it has nevertheless been discussed very sparingly in the entrepreneurship literature (for an exception, see Berglund & Gaddefors, 2010). To capture the “drama of entrepreneurship” (Hjorth, 2007), in this paper we extend the parallel between art and entrepreneurship to argue that just like many artists, many entrepreneurs incorporate subversive attitudes, behaviour as well as activities in the development of their projects. We further explore the concept of resistance, how it is connected to subversion, and how it may 1 Search executed on the 10th of January 2013. Scandinavian Journal of Management, version non définitive, à paraître. 3 affect the unfolding of the entrepreneurial process. The ultimate aim is to highlight how the two concepts offer broad opportunities for better understanding, conceptualizing, and empirically exploring hitherto marginalized aspects of the entrepreneurial process. Rather than seek to build up a full metaphor, which typically involves “a more extended reach in terms of the domains of knowledge and language use connoted or drawn into the comparison” (Cornelissen, Holt, & Zundel, 2011, p. 1705), we suggest a form of analogy in the sense that we transfer some information from a specific domain – e.g. art – into a new domain – e.g. entrepreneurship (Tsoukas, 1993). Using analogical frames creates new categories of understanding to foster new perceptions of a phenomenon (e.g. subversion). This work helps to leverage specific similarities in relationships between these two domains (Gentner, 1983; Tsoukas, 1993). In this specific case, we refer to a heuristic analogy which “attempts to capture the dynamic nature of a situation without necessarily specifying concrete courses of action” (Tsoukas, 1993, p. 332). The main purpose is not so much to offer instrumental solutions for practitioners (at least in this first stage) but to show how the explanatory structure (Gentner, 1983) used to address subversion in art could be transferred in entrepreneurship. Last but not least, if analogical thinking can stress similarities and shed light on dissimilarities (Etzion & Ferraro, 2010), we will mainly focus on the similarities in this paper. The paper is organized in three parts. In the first part, we discuss and argue for the existence of a subversive dimension of artistic and entrepreneurial activities. We then turn to the issue of resistance to outline its conceptual foundations and multi-faceted sources. The third part then introduces the notion of artful entrepreneurship, which by capturing the elements of subversion and resistance also defines two fundamental and core mechanisms of the entrepreneurial process. Subversion in Art and Entrepreneurship “That which comes into the world to disturb nothing deserves neither respect nor patience.” (René Char, 1948) The etymology of the term subversion, stemming from the low Latin subversio, means “to overthrow,” and can be defined as the literal and figurative destruction of the established order.2 In old French, the word subvertisseoir designates the person who overthrows3. In the 20th century, the word was used in a variety of historical contexts: the Cold War, decolonization, the period of May ‘68 in France, avant-garde artistic movements, and the sexual revolution. While there is no legal definition of the term per se4, the word is used as a conceptual notion in many different fields, such as sociology, political science, law, history, and literature. Despite this diversity in usage, meaning and occurrence, the field of business studies barely uses this term, or only in very rare cases or rather anecdotal fashion. In order to better understand the meaning of the word and the way it is used, we suggest first examining and explaining the notion 2 http://www.cnrtl.fr/etymologie/subversion 3 http://micmap.org/dicfro/chercher/dictionnaire-godefroy/subversion 4 Though they do not possess any legal authority, official documents sometimes attempt to define subversion. Thus, in the early 1980s, the Canadian Security Intelligence Service whose role is to “warn and advise the government on security threats” defined subversion as: "activities directed toward undermining by covert unlawful acts or directed toward or intended ultimately to lead to the destruction or overthrow of the constitutionally established system of government in Canada" (Brodeur, Gill, & Töllborg, 2003). http://www.cnrtl.fr/etymologie/subversion http://micmap.org/dicfro/chercher/dictionnaire-godefroy/subversion Scandinavian Journal of Management, version non définitive, à paraître. 4 outside the field of business in order to shed light on a few core concepts that can then be applied to entrepreneurship in a subsequent stage. To do so, we propose to analyse the way subversion is discussed in the art world as this domain is especially concerned with the term, as we will see below. Our analysis breaks down into two steps: first we list the conditions (both necessary and sufficient5), which are required to create a potential of subversion, and then develop a framework describing how the dynamics of subversion operate. In each part, we study the phenomenon both in art and entrepreneurship. The Subversive Potential of Art “I am a subversive being at all times.” (Salvador Dali) In discussing the subversive potential of art, we would like to reveal the intensity and the diversity of questions that are raised to support the coming discussion on the subversive dynamics of entrepreneurial activities. Beyond this preliminary remark, we would like to underline that we do not consider art as a well-defined and homogeneous field. Art can only be understood through the analysis of certain practices and representations in “specific configurations, specific regimes of identification, that allow for certain social functions or certain political possibilities” (Rancière, Wright, & Dronsfield, 2008). Obviously, there are many different kinds of art which mandate various types of audience responses (Carroll, 2000, P. 358). To take this difficulty into account, we will always introduce very specific examples taken from the art world to avoid a list of general assertions. Having said that, we would like to emphasize that subversion has been analysed across many and very different artistic areas: researchers have studied the subversive dimension of art in literature (Booker, 1991; Godin, 1996; Seibert, 2006), poetry (Godin, 1996), painting (Bonnett, 1992) but also in theatre (Chafra, 2009), cinema (Gutman, 2011) or photography (Béhar & Carassou, 2005). Moreover, the question of subversion is discussed within various spatiotemporal contexts: in the 21st century with the evolution of art in China (Wiseman & Yuedi, 2011), in the 20th century – with the avant-gardes of the beginning of the 20th century with artists like James Joyce (Lachaud & Neveux, 2009), the Surrealists (Weisgerber, 1984) or later with the Postmodernists (Giroux, 1993) – as well as in the 19th century with artists like Charles Baudelaire or Edouard Manet (Weingarden, 2008), but also in the 16th with William Shakespeare (Greenblatt, 1988, p. 40) or even in the Middle-Ages. This list is obviously not comprehensive. It simply emphasizes the tremendous diversity of the empirical contexts where subversive dynamics have been described. To make sense of this proliferation, we propose to study the conditions for the process of subversion to operate. We list three necessary conditions and one sufficient condition for artworks to have a subversive potential. 5 “A condition A is said to be necessary for a condition B, if (and only if) the nonexistence of A guarantees the nonexistence of B” (http://www.sfu.ca/~swartz/conditions1.htm). “A condition A is said to be sufficient for a condition B, if (and only if) the existence of A guarantees the existence of B” (http://www.sfu.ca/~swartz/conditions1.htm). http://www.sfu.ca/~swartz/conditions1.htm http://www.sfu.ca/~swartz/conditions1.htm Scandinavian Journal of Management, version non définitive, à paraître. 5 The Subversive Potential in Art: Three Necessary Conditions Three main necessary conditions are required for art to have subversive power: first, it has to be connected to the rest of society; second, art has to involve practices which will create new cognitive representations and elicit emotional responses and perceptions; third, the productions in art must have consequences beyond the sole world of art. Necessary condition #1: to be subversive, art should not be totally autonomous but connected to society “The puerile utopia of Art for Art’s sake, by excluding morality and often even passion, was inevitably sterile. It placed itself in flagrant contravention of the genius of humanity.” (Baudelaire, 1851) The value of artworks for their own sake (e.g. art for art) is certainly a project supported by some artists looking for a strong separation of art from society (Carroll, 2000). According to this current, art is perceived as a pure aestheticism without any social or political impact. In this extreme situation, artists have been fighting to obtain total autonomy and legitimacy to produce works of pure aestheticism (Bourdieu, 1992). If they succeed, they can do whatever they want and are always protected from legal pursuits: they have unlimited freedom without having to assume any responsibilities. Eventually, this world of art becomes a sort of “entrenched camp” (Ratiu, 2007). With such a posture, subversion is not conceivable, as artistic production has no intentions to overthrow anything. But this argument of autonomy is mainly a social construction, which could have been developed to protect artists from the control of various influences (mainly political and economic) and to offer them a specific status in society (Bourdieu, 1992). In practice, the idea that art offers purely an aesthetic experience is simply not a universal criterion which could support the idea that art could function as an autonomous field. First, because it is not applicable to all sorts of art – for instance Ai Weiwei’s pictures are not only about aesthetics (Arsène, 2011) – and second there are many aesthetic experiences that occur outside the art world: waterfalls and songbirds provide the kind of experience which could be compared to what autonomist artists endeavour to create with their art (Carroll, 2000, p. 359). Most of the time, the autonomy of artistic production is simply not sought nor possible. Therefore, most of the time artworks are necessarily connected to the rest of society and can potentially affect the status quo, defined as “the existing state of affairs, especially regarding social or political issues”(Marcuse, 1965, p. 1). The main evidence backing the argument that art cannot be totally cut off from politics and society is no doubt the history of censorship (Schlesser, 2011): artworks have always been censored and probably will always be. This situation is very frequent in countries like China (Calkins, 1998-1999) or Russia – the cases of the Pussy Riots or Voïna being current illustrations. But even in democratic countries, there is still heated debate about artworks, some artists being accused of transgressing important social norms and values – like for example the exhibition by Murakami at the Versailles Castle. Sometimes, this can lead to trials with sanctions against artists: Robert Mapplethorpe was for instance condemned for an exhibition (The Perfect Moment, 1990) with pornographic pictures involving children (Ratiu, 2011, p. 540-541). Scandinavian Journal of Management, version non définitive, à paraître. 6 Necessary condition #2: to be subversive, art should produce new representations and emotional perceptions “The greatness of the artwork is always linked to the subversion of instituted frames, whether they be boundaries between genres, boundaries between arts or, more recently, boundaries between art and non-art.” (Schaeffer, 1997, p.96) A second pre-requisite for subversion in art is that it should give rise to new representations – for “political subversion presupposes cognitive subversion” (Bourdieu, 2001, p. 127-128) – and also new emotional perceptions – for “without a change in the sensibility, there can be no real social change” (Kellner, 2007, p. 48). We know that art can give rise to conceptions that are provocative and challenge conventional suppositions (Edelman, 1995, p. 35). More precisely, art regularly reframes traditional boundaries of how things should be thought of (Natoli & Hutcheon, 1993). Some artists radically change, deny and even overturn old values through a total destruction of ideas that are currently taken for granted (Weisgerber, 1986, p. 666). Postmodernists could be an example of such a transformation of canonical boundaries as they created a “discourse of disruption and subversion by tinkering traditional boundaries: they reject the clear distinction made by modernists between life and art, or elite culture and the culture of everyday life” (Giroux, 1993, p. 462). Truisms are without doubt present in the art world, but most artworks also offer an experience where people can think and feel about otherness. In the case of literature, one can experience the lives of criminals (Crime and Punishment by Fiordor Dostoïevski), alcoholics (Under the Volcano by Malcom Lowry), or amateur scientists (Quest for the absolute by Honoré de Balzac), allowing readers to apprehend new ways of thinking and acting which would not have been possible otherwise. Beyond this as if argument, by creating thoughts and feelings about otherness art can create new forms of sensitivity which could “challenge accepted moral wisdom and clear the path for audiences to revise their moral beliefs” (Carroll, 2000, p. 365). Indeed, some artworks – especially the so-called avant-gardes (Keller, 2007, p. 50) – “present readers, viewers, and listeners with depictions or descriptions that call into question or subvert our (…) settled moral views” (Carroll, 2000, p. 364). For instance, “by inscribing both “continuity” with, and “critical distance” from, the old masterpieces in the new ones, Manet sought to subvert the viewer’s aesthetic expectations, promote critical self- reflection and, thereby, advance an ongoing process of cultural renewal” (Weingarden, 2008). Art is thereby a means of emancipation and a catalyst for the creation of utopia (Lachaud & Neveux, 2009). By producing new representations and emotions, art supports the emergence of imaginaries to go beyond the world as it is: “subversion exploits the possibility of changing the social world by changing the representation of this world which contributes to its reality or, more precisely, by counter posing a paradoxical pre-vision, a utopia, a project, a programme, to the ordinary vision which apprehends the social world as a natural world” (Bourdieu, 2001, p. 128). Therefore art can be described as a sort of “laboratory” where the hypothetical contours of the yet inexistent are sketched from a few fragments of empirical reality (Bloch, 1978 [1935]). Scandinavian Journal of Management, version non définitive, à paraître. 7 Necessary condition #3: to be subversive, art should have a behavioural impact beyond the art world “Art needs no longer be an account of past sensations. It can become the direct organization of more highly evolved sensations. It is a question of producing ourselves, not things that enslave us.” (Guy-Ernest Debord,1958) If many artworks introduce innovative moral perspectives or reorient understandings and moral emotions in unexpected ways (Carroll, 2000, p. 369), does that suffice to change effectively our behaviour and practices beyond the art world? “Naturally, no chef-d’oeuvre ever got the masses to “take to the streets’ – nor will it ever do so”” (Marcuse, 1972, p. 186) but art has determinate, regularly recurring behavioural consequences as the simulation of fictional characters yields information of what it would be like to undertake certain lines of action, and in this way is pertinent to moral and practical reasoning (Carroll, 2000, p. 372) and could lead to the adoption of new behaviour. For instance, some people are known to have begun smoking drugs after having read On The Road by Jack Kerouach (Carroll, 2000). Moreover, sometimes art does not only simulate otherness, it creates conditions for a total reconfiguration of traditional conceptions. According to cognitive learning theories (Watzlawick, Bavelas, & Jackson, 1967; Watzlawick, Weakland, & Fisch, 1975), we know that the way we process information that influences our actions depends on our knowledge and beliefs. As art can create new cognitive representations and influence our sensibility (e.g. second necessary condition), therefore, it can transform core values that also in other domains lead to the creation of new heuristics allowing the emergence of new behaviour. This dynamic is especially accurate when changes occur in the context of non-routine situations. In the case of radical change in the art world, we can expect a strong disruption in the audience’s routine, which will support the emergence of new values and as a consequence new behaviour. This perspective is especially relevant to capture the role of the avant-gardes who attempted “to forge a form of expression that could be both productive for social change and “artistic” at the same time” (Golley, 1995p. 369). Notably, however, there might also be instances of change in behaviour that does not spring from more deeply rooted changes in perception and values. Those would be instances of fads and fashions, which experience periods of intensive expressions and adoption yet disappear as quickly as they emerged without any traces of overthrowing the established. In this sense, behavioural impact beyond the art world is not necessarily a sufficient condition for subversion to occur. The subversive potential of art: activism as a sufficient condition "The people are a silence. I will be the mightly advocate of that silence; I will speak for the dumb; I will speak of the little to the great -- of the weak to the powerful." (Victor Hugo, 1869) “I have but one passion: to enlighten those who have been kept in the dark, in the name of humanity which has suffered so much and is entitled to happiness. My fiery protest is simply the cry of my very soul. Let them dare, then, to bring me before a court of law and let the enquiry take place in broad daylight! I am waiting.” (Emile Zola in L'Aurore, 1898) Scandinavian Journal of Management, version non définitive, à paraître. 8 In the previous section, we highlighted that the possible subversive effect of art is due to the effect of aesthetic experience and not the effect of conscious and explicit artistic strategies (Rancière, 2008). Art is defined as being subversive because it can contribute to producing new changes in the cartography of the visible and sensitive, but it cannot anticipate and calculate its own effect (op. cit., 2008). In this section, we consider art practices where artists deliberately try to subvert society through a certain strategy. They consciously produce artworks with the intention to impact the real world beyond art considerations. In this approach, subversion is a fundamental principal in the sense that creation and revolt work together (Weisgerber, 1986, p. 638). James Joyce is famous for his clear position against key components of the society of his time. The following sentence is more than explicit on this aspect: “my mind rejects the whole present social order and Christianity - home, the recognised virtues, classes of life, and religious doctrines. […] Six years ago I left the Catholic church, hating it most fervently. I found it impossible for me to remain in it on account of the impulses of my nature. I made secret war upon it when I was a student and declined to accept the positions it offered me. By doing this I made myself a beggar but I retained my pride. Now I make open war upon it by what I write and say and do” (Joyce, 1975 [1904], p. 24-26). Many French artists, like Paul Eluard, Louis Aragon or André Breton, who grouped together to form the Surrealist movement, are another classical figure of activism in art. As claimed by André Breton, their goal was to gain the “independence of art – for the revolution” and “the revolution – for the definitive liberation of art” (Breton & Rivera, 1938, p. 500). They regularly claimed that through their art they sought to exert direct influence on society6. Another illustration of this posture is the Situationist International. Introducing the Situationist movement in only a few lines is a challenge because it was neither unified nor did it have one single homogenous and structured philosophy. There were nevertheless two phases in Situationist activity: from 1957 to 1962, when the pursuit of superiority of art was the primary objective, and from 1962 to 1972, when it became a more radical, more holistic revolutionary project (Hussey, 2000), concerned with a radical societal change. Whether in the context of art or in politics, “the Situationists appropriated the dialectic that emerges from the juxtaposition of Rimbaud’s “change life” and Marx’s “transform the world” (Genty, 1998, p. 5). They developed a radical critical outlook that aimed to both destroy and create: “SI explores the dialectic of achievement and elimination in one single movement” (Genty, 1998, p. 23). To construct life differently, one must destroy the framework in which we normally live. In this perspective, the members of SI, called Situs, developed a number of techniques, whimsical creations, or “games of a new essence” (Debord, 1957) that could “affect human behaviour” (Comisso, 2000, p. 12). For this to be possible, new situations had to be constructed: everyone had to be permitted to create new situations in order to create a new reality and thus change life (Barnard, 2004). One of these practices, the détournement (a kind of deviation or hijacking), illustrates their approach. This technique consists of “ integrating current or past artistic productions into a superior construct” (Situationnistes, 1958). According to this principle, “It goes without saying that we may not only correct a work or integrate various fragments of outdated works into a new one, but also alter the meaning of these fragments and doctor, in any way we please, what imbeciles insist on calling quotations” (Debord & Wolman, 1956). In this manner SI hijacked a number of artworks, comics, political slogans or ads to produce new texts, paintings, images, or films. SI distinguished between two kinds of détournements: minor and abusive. In the first case, the hijacked element is not 6 http://www.envplan.com/abstract.cgi?id=d100069 ; http://www.envplan.com/abstract.cgi?id=a280405 http://www.envplan.com/abstract.cgi?id=d100069 http://www.envplan.com/abstract.cgi?id=a280405 Scandinavian Journal of Management, version non définitive, à paraître. 9 important: “newspaper clippings, a neutral sentence, the photograph of a random subject” (Debord & Wolman, 1956). An abusive détournement, on the other hand, specifically hijacks a culturally significant element: “one of Saint-Just’s slogans, or one of Einstein’s sequences for example” (op.cit.). This hijacked element will derive from the new context a meaning, a different reach. This technique of détournement, whether minor or abusive, encourages a process of creation through destruction because it authorizes the destruction of a past work in order to produce a new work: “our past is full of futures (…) only he who is capable of devaluing can create new values” (Jorn, 1989, p. 7). Of course, it is not because an artist is an activist that his subversive strategy will have a powerful impact: the most explicit art is not necessarily the most radical or most productive. Some major pieces of art without apparent political claims made greater contributions than pieces openly supporting an activist posture (Lachaux & Neveux, 2009). Moreover, sometimes subversion in art can simply be a sort of comedy, a way to gain popularity and funding (Rochlitz in Chiapello, 1998, p. 19) without any strong motivation of the artists for a real transformation of society. The Subversive Potential of Entrepreneurship After this description of the pre-conditions for subversion in art, we now turn to address the question in the field of entrepreneurship without changing our conceptual lens. Some authors have already voiced the idea that entrepreneurship is a subversive activity (Bonnafous-Boucher et al., 2011; Smilor, 1997) but have not explored the issue in greater depth. Beyond these occurrences, the word subversion is very rarely used in the literature; maybe because it has strong or even taboo connotations. We could have expected to find at least some case studies on subversion in specific and controversial contexts, but this has not been the case. This situation is especially intriguing because if we consider the three necessary and sufficient conditions listed above for the art world, one can surmise that entrepreneurship in the shape of creative destruction also has a strong subversive potential. Three Necessary Conditions Necessary condition #1: to be subversive, entrepreneurship should not be totally autonomous but connected to society The idea that entrepreneurship could be autonomous, that is to say separated from society, is simply not conceivable. Some entrepreneurs could be solely interested in money and develop activities with the singular aim of creating a new company, but these dynamics remains very limited among entrepreneurs as shown by many researchers (Amit, MacCrimmon, Zietsma, & Oesch, 2000; Carter, Gartner, Shaver, & Gatewood, 2003). A lot of entrepreneurs are instead driven by the desire to realize their new ideas, which sometimes originate from experienced problems with existing products and services. Many (but not all) of these products and services are used in contexts which have little or nothing to do with commercial activities. They typically draw upon already existing resources, which are then reconfigured and coordinated in novel ways to produce economic value, processes that inevitably will have an effect on business and the larger society. One of the best examples of the connection between entrepreneurship and society is certainly the diffusion of social entrepreneurship, inherently defined by the fact that its goal is to solve social problems (Grimes, McMullen, Vogus, & Miller, 2013). Prominent figures in strategy like Michael Porter even claim that Scandinavian Journal of Management, version non définitive, à paraître. 10 “we have to take money from what we make in the business [to] deploy it for social things” (Driver & Porter, 2012). Social entrepreneurs “address social problems, create new institutions, and dismantle outdated institutional arrangements” (Montgomery, Dacin, & Dacin, 2012). As a consequence, this movement decreases the number of domains which used to be disconnected from the business world – environmental and social affairs being two of them. Necessary condition #2: to be subversive, entrepreneurship should produce new representations and emotional perceptions Entrepreneurship is a process which involves the production of cognitive representations and perceptions. Indeed, entrepreneurs could not develop innovations with new functionalities without transferring new knowledge and emotions to others (Verganti, 2009). The entrepreneur’s ‘model of the world’ (Nonaka, 1994) includes images of reality and visions for the future – i.e. images of what is and what ought to be – and for novel ideas to become realized those images and visions need to be conveyed others. This may be achieved through setting up firms and directing own employees (Zander, 2007), by which new meanings are gradually created through personal experiences. It also comes with the persuasion of actors external to the firm, which includes framing intended to construct meaning and convey a picture of ‘reality’ to other people (Benford & Snow, 2000; Cornelissen & Clarke, 2010; Czernich & Zander, 2010). Entrepreneurs are not passive participants in their cultural context, they act strategically to manipulate symbols to gain new resources and diffuse their innovations (Aldrich & Fiol, 1994; Hargadon, 2003; Zott & Quy Nguyen, 2007). By doing so, they create new frames and schemes which change the way people perceive reality (op. cit.). This process is based on both individual and collective strategies. The emergence of crowdfunding is an example of a process where several entrepreneurs gather to develop lobbying activities to limit the negative impact of regulations on this emergent sector, which could potentially disrupt the banking industry7. Necessary condition #3: to be subversive, entrepreneurship should have a behavioural impact beyond the business world If the question about the consequences of artworks beyond the art world is debatable, no one would question the fact that entrepreneurship implies activities which have an impact on our everyday lives. Inventions such as the personal computer, the cell phone, and associated software programs, have had a profound effect on human work practices and interaction, and more recently also on social movements and politics. The case of fast-growing economies could be used as an illustration of the powerful (and sometimes dramatic) impact of entrepreneurship on human behaviour. China is one the most emblematic examples of how entrepreneurship led to the expansion of consumer society (Jing Yu & Jiatao, 2008). In this type of transition economy, entrepreneurs diffused many new products and services in just a few years, which completely changed the way millions of people live in these countries (McMillan & Woodruff, 2002). Drinking coffee, which used to be a very limited practice in China, has become widespread through the diffusion of Western brands. For instance, Starbucks opened hundreds of stores (one is even located in the Forbidden City) and is planning to pursue this very fast expansion in the years to come8. Although this global brand does not mean the same thing to American and Chinese consumers, this firm has the ability to change a thousand-year- 7 Schmidt, R. 2012. Lobbyists Wanted: No Experience Required. Bloomberg Businessweek.(4281): 31-32. 8 http://money.cnn.com/2013/07/26/news/companies/starbucks-china-sales-surge/index.html Scandinavian Journal of Management, version non définitive, à paraître. 11 old tradition and to provoke an evolution in the drinking behaviours of many Chinese people in a very short span of time (Bengtsson & Venkatraman, 2008). Obviously, this example is just a tiny facet of the tremendous transformations led by the expansion of new firms in China. The subversive potential of entrepreneurship: activism as a sufficient condition “In business, people are thinking about what's going to change the world” (Peter Thiel, 2010) As demonstrated above, we believe the three necessary conditions for entrepreneurship to have a subversive potential are present, but there is also a sufficient condition which involves activism on the part of entrepreneurs. Many entrepreneurs who position themselves as activists try to change the world radically by destroying former systems. To illustrate this posture, we propose to quote two famous American entrepreneurs operating in two different industries. First, Peter Thiel, one of the co-founders of PayPal, claimed in 2008 that the underlying ideology when setting up his firm “was if you could lessen the control of government over money and somehow shift the ability of people to control the money that was in their wallets, this would be a truly revolutionary shift” and continued by saying that “technologies like PayPal have been a major contributing factor toward the weakening of the nation-state over the last few decades”9 (Peter Thiel, op. cit.). As for Larry Flynt, who developed a business in the pornographic sector, he was aware of the specificities of this industry which he voiced out loud, declaring that “sex is subversive, it smacks of revolt and freedom”10. He claimed that he was not only motivated by money but that, quite on the contrary, he “never, from the very beginning, ever compromised [his] core beliefs” even if he had “been in prison four times, shot and paralyzed”. Eventually, just like many subversive activists, he “decided to devote what is left of [his] life to expanding the parameters of free speech”11. Beyond these two examples, entrepreneurs develop world views which always involve some form of ideology that could potentially challenge traditional representations and more generally systems that are taken for granted. Entrepreneurs tend to alter and transgress the operating rules of an industry (Brenkert, 2009; Burgelman & Grove, 2007, p. 315; Zhang & Arvey, 2009) so as to challenge and change the status quo (Chell et al., 1991; Dyer, Gregersen, & Christensen, 2011, p. 22). Indeed, entrepreneurship can be seen as an agent of social change which involves the transformation, the reinvention of the boundaries structuring our world (Steyaert & Hjorth, 2007, p. 1). If we agree on this notion of entrepreneurship as “a subversive activity (that) upsets the status quo, disrupts accepted ways of doing things, and alters traditional patterns of behavior” (Smilor, 1997), the question of how it works nevertheless remains to be addressed in much greater detail. 9 “The basic thought was if you could lessen the control of government over money and somehow shift the ability of people to control the money that was in their wallets, this would be a truly revolutionary shift (…) Technologies like PayPal have been a major contributing factor toward the weakening of the nation-state over the last few decades (…) [and] will lead to a world in which there's less government power and therefore more individual control” Bailey, R. (2008). 'Technology Is at the Center'. Culture and Reviews, 1st May. 10 Flynt, L. 2008. An Unseemly Man: My Life as Pornographer, Pundit, and Social Outcast. Phoenix: Phoenix Books, p.130. 11 Anonyme (2004). 'Porn is business, politics is a hobby': Larry Flynt made his fortune peddling smut. But he is also a fierce political campaigner. He talks to Dan Glaister about cronyism, corruption - and why his Hustler empire has now reached Birmingham. Caroline Roux , below right, gets a preview, The Guardian, 20th of Oct. javascript:void(0) Scandinavian Journal of Management, version non définitive, à paraître. 12 How do the subversive dynamics operate? To speak of subversion, of a subversive behaviour, or of a subversive attitude without specifying the context makes no sense. Subversion is an eminently relative notion; it is fundamentally contingent (Cochet & Dard, 2009, p. 8) and must be situated. To subvert is indeed a transitive verb: “one subverts something at a given time, or nothing at all” (Eribon, 2010). Consequently, unlike the connotation usually ascribed to it, the word “subversion” is “axiologically neutral” (Dufrenne, 1977, p. 10); that is, it takes on a value, positive or negative, depending on the choices of the person who pronounces it. These choices are obviously different for the authority that embodies the system than for the actor who wishes to destroy the system through subversive action. To say that subversion is a contingent notion does not mean that it is impossible to define how subversive activity emerges and unfolds. Subversive dynamics rest on three fundamental elements: a triad of interdependent actors, an intent to destroy or overthrow a system in place, and limited resources. A Triad: The System, the Masses, and the Activists Subversion does not refer to a situation in which two groups battle each other in a more or less violent duel. For an activity to be subversive, three interdependent actors must be present: a group of activists, a dominant system, and the masses. Thus, when activists oppose a system they wish to destroy, they always take into account the masses, this relatively quiet and passive population. This desire to implicate the masses is of course shared by the system, so that “the control of the population (…) is always the objective and the issue of subversive and counter-subversive practices” (Cochet & Dard, 2009, p. 10). Even when the masses are relatively apathetic — people, citizens, consumers — they must be transformed or at least neutralized for the subversive action to take place (Mucchielli, 2010, p. 51-53). In this context, the system is usually an institution such as a State or a Church, but it can also refer to a system of informal values such as puritan morality. In many cases, these formal and informal dimensions are interdependent. Finally, the group of activists is defined by its small size; it can even be a single individual. However, in light of the recent growth of information technologies, the size of the group tends to be larger, as coordination cost are reduced. Whatever its size, the particularity of this group is its activism or, in other words, its intent to destroy the system, to a more or less radical degree. An Intent to Destroy “Shatter sacred ideas, anything that brings tears to the eyes, shatter, shatter, I deliver to you for free this opium more powerful than any drug: shatter” (Aragon, 1966) “Every act of creation is first an act of destruction” (Pablo Picasso) “A painting was a sum of additions. For me, a painting is the sum of destructions.” (Pablo Picasso) Scandinavian Journal of Management, version non définitive, à paraître. 13 Subversive dynamics originate from groups that hold a political discourse of a certain radical nature. This radical nature can be of varying intensities and can take multiple forms, as we will see further on. It depends in particular on the type of system targeted: is it a supra-system like a State? Or a more specific system such as a particular organization (company, university,…)? The intent to destroy does not necessarily imply a structured theoretical construct or a coherent ideology; the activists’ ambitions might not even have to be realized. What is required is not so much a structured philosophy as “political attitudes of refusal” (Cochet & Dard, 2009, p. 9), a desire to destroy the system in place. This will, this desire, necessarily emerges from an interaction with the system, an experience and a consciousness of this system (Dufrenne, 1977). Unlike revolutionaries who seek to put in place a new system, the subversive group does not always aim to establish a new order. Nevertheless, subversion involves two intrinsically linked aspects: “negatively, it is a refusal of the system; positively, it is a search for a different world” (Dufrenne, 1977, p. 127). In fact, it seems difficult to imagine a radical critical process that does not lead to some form of creation or change in human behaviour. Once more, we encounter the terminology of the previous discussion on creative destruction: “any negative implies a simultaneous affirmative; any destruction entails a construction” (Sanouillet, 1965, p.428). Actions with Limited Resources Subversion necessarily involves action: it more readily designates a dynamic of successive activities than a state or a static situation (Dufrenne, 1977, p. 10). In order to act, one needs operational techniques. Subversion is often linked to utopian projects but that is not necessarily antithetical to pragmatic undertakings (Dufrenne, 1977, p. 153). To best conduct a subversive project, one needs to develop a certain expertise that will make subversive actions more effective. Subversion is thus also a technique “based on knowledge of the laws of psychology and psychosociology, because it targets public opinion as much as authority (…). It is an action upon public opinion through subtle and convergent means” (Mucchielli, 1976, p. 7). These actions, and this is particular to subversive actions, are always undertaken with very limited resources. Subversion is thus an “‘economical’ means in the sense that it does not require any substantial material or financial investments (…). It is first and foremost about intelligence, science, and know-how” (Mucchielli, 1976, p. 7). This technical aspect refers to the De Certeau's concept of tactics which allows us to think and study the subversive nature of entrepreneurship (Hjorth, 2007, p.724). These techniques may include violent actions such as riots or terrorist attacks (Kilcullen, 2009, p. 252; Rasmussen & Downey, 1991), but it can be limited to a simple story which could “delegitimize existing institutions and destabilize field boundaries by calling into question institutions’ abilities to satisfactorily manage the dramatic events recounted” (Calvin & Owen-Smith, 2002). These “subversive stories thus carry with them normative elements by tacitly suggesting that existing arrangements should be changed” (op. cit.). The so fashionable “storytelling” could be translated in the terms of Bourdieu by the “labour of enunciation which is necessary in order to externalize the inwardness, to name the unnamed and to give the beginnings of objectification to pre-verbal and pre-reflexive dispositions and ineffable and unobservable experiences, through words which by their nature make them common and communicable, therefore meaningful and socially sanctioned” (Bourdieu, 2001, p. 129). Beyond enunciation, taking the example of Shakespeare, Hjorth (2007) points to the importance of dramatization to develop these subversive stories. This labour of dramatization “is capable of destroying the self-evident truths of the doxa and (…) the transgression which is indispensable in order to name the unnamable, to Scandinavian Journal of Management, version non définitive, à paraître. 14 break the censorships” (Bourdieu, 2001, p. 129). A certain type of story is especially powerful: the humoristic one. Black humour for instance, because of its ferocity, its corrosive characteristic, its extremisms, represents in this sense the apex of subversion (Weisgerber, 1986, p. 756)12. Scandals: A Frequent Output of Subversive Activities “Art seems to generate scandals.” (Lindqvist, 2011, p.10) “I wanted to kill art.” (Marcel Duchamp, 1968) Subversive activities appear to be paired with scandals. Scandal is etymologically defined as any words or actions that can make others fall into sin. The more an action is subversive, the more the system will react by presenting it as scandalous, underlining its corrupting and harmful powers over individuals perceived as being “led astray”. History is full examples of subversive scandals in very diverse empirical areas like religion (Calvin, Suaud, & Viet-Depaule, 2010), sex (Wolton, 1994), or gender (Toubiana, 2010). Scandal can appear in many different ways: it is often visible in press headlines, street demonstrations and “highly publicized trials”. Divisions between groups that take a stance on the more or less corrupting influence of subversive actions are also symptomatic of subversion. One must note however that although subversion always implies scandal (Godin, 1996), the latter does not always involve subversive action. What Subversion is Not As we conclude this section, it is perhaps useful to specify what subversion is not, in order to avoid certain amalgams prejudicial to our understanding of the phenomena under study. In particular, we will show how subversion should not be assimilated to revolution, to delinquency, or to perversion. Subversion should not be assimilated to revolution. The will to seize power can be part of a subversive project, but it is not always the case. Subversion has a quality that is more spontaneous, and more often punctual and fragmented than revolution (Dufrenne, 1977, p. 148). Moreover, revolution tends to involve a form of popular uprising, which is not necessarily true for subversion, even though both are often linked, since subversion can contribute to popular uprising (revolutions taking place in the Arab world at the end of 2010 and into 2011 are perfect illustrations of this aspect). Subversion cannot be assimilated to fraud. Tax evasion, for example, is “not subversive because it is not motivated by a desire but by an interest. And most of all, it hopes to stay secret and singular; it is not meant to be exemplary. Those who cheat need others who do not, otherwise cheating is useless (Dufrenne, 1977, p. 125). For an act to be subversive, it must not want to violate a rule but to eradicate it because it is a part of the system in place. 12 http://surreal.web.its.manchester.ac.uk/papersofsurrealism/journal1/acrobat_files/Suleiman.pdf http://surreal.web.its.manchester.ac.uk/papersofsurrealism/journal1/acrobat_files/Suleiman.pdf Scandinavian Journal of Management, version non définitive, à paraître. 15 Subversion can lead to acts that do not respect the current laws of morality, as was the case with the activities developed by Larry Flynt of Hustler. However, subversion cannot be assimilated to perversion. Indeed, perversion is necessarily negative, whatever the context of the viewpoint, whereas, as we have previously defined it, subversion is neither positive nor negative as such (Dufrenne, 1977). Subversion in Art and Entrepreneurship Contrasted It is clear from the above that both art and entrepreneurship are potentially subversive, and that the fundamental subversive dynamics apply in both fields as well. There is, however, an asymmetry across conditions and dynamics that warrant some further contemplation. As summarized in Table 1, in the field of art it is common to see both subversive intent and in those cases also clear manifestations of the subversive dynamics. Yet, in many cases it proves difficult to extend or immediately perceive an impact beyond art and into society, and in this respect the broad-based effects on cognition and human behaviour often remain elusive. In contrast, entrepreneurship displays all the necessary and also sufficient conditions for subversion to occur, in particular the firm connection to and influence on what happens in society, but there are much fewer cases of conscious and outright subversive intent. It is perhaps this latter aspect that explains why in general entrepreneurs as well as entrepreneurship researchers do not perceive entrepreneurial activities as subversive, and also why the consequences we will turn to next often come as a surprise and so far have been given only limited attention in the field of entrepreneurship research. ***** Insert Table 1 about here ***** Resistance Whenever there is subversive activity it is bound to be accompanied by resistance. The term resistance, stemming from French résistance and earlier Latin resistentem13, may be defined as “a force that opposes another”. In the fields of art and entrepreneurship, it is then related to the various forces that oppose subversive action or the introduction of novelty, be it in the form of novel artworks and performances or the attempted implementation of new business ideas. Resistance appears in contexts that include individuals, organizations, and society, and it is intertwined with issues that concern power and authority relationships (cf. Barbalet, 1985). While the term has been given many interpretations, two of its core dimensions are action and opposition (Hollander & Einwohner, 2004). Action implies that individuals or groups of individuals engage in some form of active behaviour, including physical, verbal, or cognitive attempts to address and deal with an opposing force. It is most commonly associated with physical behaviour such as marches, riots, and other forms of public protests (such as scandals), but also includes more subtle forms such 13 http://www.etymonline.com Scandinavian Journal of Management, version non définitive, à paraître. 16 as delaying work processes or displaying particular types of symbols or clothing. Action also includes various forms of verbal and non-verbal communication, for example the use of silence as a means of protest. Resistance implies the existence of opposition to someone or something else, the potential targets being individuals, groups of individuals, organizations, or more abstract social structures and institutions. The definition of resistance as a force which opposes another gives rise to intricate questions about its relationship to subversion. In some cases, and as illustrated in the preceding sections, subversion can be seen as form of resistance in its own right – resistance to established convention and institutions, manifested in individual or collective acts of emancipations (Rindova, Barry, & Ketchen, 2009). The various independent exhibitions staged by the impressionists can be seen as acts of resistance to the Salon and its consistent refusal of pieces of work that challenged institutionalized ideas about representative and legitimate art. In the context of entrepreneurship, resistance to established conventions and institutions are evident Peter Thiel’s work on PayPal, particularly his strong personal conviction about the need to lessen the control of government over money and to work towards a world in which individual control takes precedence over government power. Some contemporary performance artworks further illustrate the often fleeting boundaries between subversion and resistance (Garoian & Gaudelius, 2004). To simplify from what could be regarded as fundamentally interactive processes of resistance, subversion may be seen as an initiative aimed at overthrowing or introducing some form of change in a larger system, rather than a reaction designed merely to stall oppressive measures imposed by others. This said, and recognizing the frequent pro-social and pro-change aspects of resistance, the continued interplay between subversion and resistance and the extent to which they can be treated as synonymous concepts (e.g. McFarland, 2004; Vander Zanden, 1959), will not be addressed in further detail in the accounts that follow. Resistance to Art The history of art is replete of struggles where novel ideas have been met with forceful resistance, and it is accentuated in contexts where wealth and established positions have been threatened. Such was the case in the late 19th century, when faced with the new impressionist movement members of the French Salon risked losing their secure privileges and sources of income as well as power over the dominant selection system (Wijnberg & Gemser, 2000). Honour and Fleming (2002, p. 713) further note that attacks on artists by the public were common in the mid-19th century, and that hostility to activities such as the Salon des refusés and later independent exhibitions by the impressionists were “at an intensity that is now difficult to comprehend.” Verbal resistance has been a common way of discrediting novel art movements. In La Presse, April 29, 1874, Emile Cardon launches an acid attack on the independent exhibition staged by members of the impressionist movement: “In examining the works exhibited (I particularly recommend numbers 54, 42, 60, 43, 97 and 164) one wonders whether one is seeing the fruit either of a process of mystification which is highly unsuitable for the public, or the result of mental derangement which one could not but regret. In this latter case, this exhibition would no longer be the concern of the critics, but of Dr. Blanche.” Equally known, and also an illustration of the scandals that are frequent companions of subversive artistic actions, are the public reactions to Stravinsky’s ballet The Rite of Spring, when first performed in Paris in 1913. Goulding (1992, quoting Van Vechten), describes how the premiere Scandinavian Journal of Management, version non définitive, à paraître. 17 included composer Saint-Saëns leaving in anger and protest as soon as the performance began, loud laughter, barracking, spitting and physical violence in the audience, and noise levels and turmoil that rose to levels where both musicians and dancers found it difficult to hear the music that was played. While such verbal and physical resistance may set in motion the formation of supportive groups and counter-movements, the effects can be significant delays in the introduction of the new. As reported by Berglund and Gaddefors (2010, p. 153), the House on the Moon project by artist Mikael Genberg raised doubt, bewilderment, and anger; a letter to a local newspaper “was so negative that it postponed one of the sponsors to contribute financially to the project.“ As for Stravinsky’s The Rite of Spring, it played for a short period of time and was not staged again until seven years after the premiere in Paris. Resistance to Entrepreneurship To capture entrepreneurship that reflects both acts of creation and those driven by emancipatory desires, its subversive element is best associated with initiatives aimed at introducing some form of change in the economic system. Change may then be captured by the introduction of new business ideas, which requires a number of concurrent changes in the behaviour of others, typically the intended customers and a set of actors that include financiers, suppliers, distributors, and others in possession of valuable resources. In this sense, it involves all the players of subversion – a group of activists (as represented by the entrepreneurs), the masses (as represented by the customers), and the dominant system (as represented by existing firms and actors in the possession of valuable resources). While some research has addressed how novel business ideas are received (Dimov, 2007; Fletcher, 2006; Lindgren & Packendorff, 2009), the concept of resistance to the entrepreneurial process has nevertheless received comparatively limited attention (Berglund & Gaddefors, 2010). It is generally known and understood that many entrepreneurs struggle to get their novel ideas known and accepted in the marketplace, a struggle which plays an important role in sustaining the notion of the heroic entrepreneur who against all odds overcomes adversity and ultimately establishes a successful business. But there is relatively limited systematic information about the causes of that struggle, how it is expressed in the form of resistance, and the various ways by which resistance to novelty can be overcome. From a behavioural point of view, resistance occurs when others actively decide to take an impassive stance towards a novel entrepreneurial idea, resulting in the withholding of critical resources that could potentially have been allocated to support its implementation, and/or commit to actions explicitly aimed at discrediting the idea and preventing its realization. It may thus occur in the form of both non-action and action, and represent resistance primarily aimed at maintaining status quo (cf. Delacruz, 2003; Hirsch, 1995; Miller, 1997; Moghissi, 1999). The most significant sources of resistance are likely to be found among actors with established positions and vested interest in the preservation of the old. Those actors typically include supplier of competing and substitute products and services, or actors with stakes in the value chains they form part of. They may also be found among various public organizations and agencies as representatives of the larger institutional environment. To these actors, subversive new business ideas represent threats to an established order and therefore must be met by active resistance. Such resistance may take many shapes and forms, including the withholding of critical resources and investments, competitive retaliation such as Scandinavian Journal of Management, version non définitive, à paraître. 18 temporary price wars and new product development (cf. Howells, 2002), or various attempts at publicly discrediting the new idea. Other examples include threatening existing suppliers with repercussions if they associate with new product and service providers (such was the reaction among established furniture retailers when Ingvar Kamprad started IKEA), or lobbying aimed at sustaining a regulatory environment that protects established businesses or old monopoly positions. The causes of resistance to novel ideas may not be immediately connected to the threat to an established order. In many cases, and especially because of the unproven nature of novelty, people may simply have different opinions about new business ideas and their chances of ultimate success. The perceived chances of commercial success may be particularly important to financiers and suppliers (who may need to commit to new and uncertain investments), but also among potential customers who may worry about product performance and the future availability of service of new and untried products. The local townsfolk’s reaction to Eli Terry’s experimentation with large-volume clock manufacturing in the early 19th century is illustrative: “The foolish man, they said, had begun to make two hundred clocks; one said he never would live long enough to finish them; another remarked, that if he did he would, nor could possibly, sell so many, and ridiculed the very idea.” (Murhpy, 1966: 173, quoting Jerome, 1860). More subtly, the causes of resistance include misunderstandings, which inadvertently delay the introduction of new business ideas (cf. unwitting or target-defined resistance; Hollander & Einwohner, 2004, p. 544). In this case, individuals actually agree about the viability of a new business undertaking, but implicitly have misinterpreted what the entrepreneur believes are the best or most appropriate ways to proceed. The result may be official support for the novel idea and the associated allocation of resources and efforts, but because of a mismatch of perceived and required efforts the new venture will experience significant delays, imperfect execution, or ultimate failure. Put somewhat differently, there may be perfectly good intentions but misdirected efforts to help out in the implementation process. The causes of resistance can also be traced to the consequences of novel ideas. Here, different individuals may again be in perfect agreement about the viability of a novel idea and undertaking, but for some it comes with significant negative consequences. Whenever novel ideas break with or contradict traditions and prior experiences they may elicit strong cognitive reactions, which in turn can translate into obstructive action (Huy, 2002). Such was the case when in response to competitive threats in the 1980s Coca Cola decided to change its original formula by sweetening its main product. “Groups of consumers organized to resist the change. Bottlers also contributed to the clamor: to them, the traditional formula was synonymous with motherhood and apple pie” (Wayland, 1991, p. 12). A perhaps even more compelling cause of resistance is the prospective and irreversible loss of power, position, or wealth (e.g. Harris, 2002; Rothman, Schwartzbaum, & McGrath, 1971). The larger the extent to which existing positions and wealth are threatened, the higher the expected levels of resistance in all its forms, including the physical and verbal, as well as the overt and covert. The effects of resistance are delayed implementation or ultimate failure of further attempts to promote and realize the novel business idea. Obviously, from the perspective of the entrepreneur these are unwanted outcomes, and they are also unwanted among those actors who for a number of reasons may have become involved in financing or otherwise supporting the new venture. Yet, resistance can also have important legitimizing and mobilizing effects (Berglund & Gaddefors, 2010). Official attempts to curtail the new signal acknowledgement of its potential claims on the future, thus legitimizing its role as at least a contender in current debates. Resistance may also lead entrepreneurs to discover the subversive purpose of their actions and force them to sharpen their Scandinavian Journal of Management, version non définitive, à paraître. 19 communication and actions to reduce or circumvent opposition. In this sense, resistance enhances the degree to which the meaning of what is done by the entrepreneur is diffused and understood. Artful Entrepreneurship “Any artist who wants to ‘challenge’ or ‘disturb’ must be prepared to do so in inverted commas, so to speak: to play the game according to the rules. Sponsors, promoters, government funding agencies, galleries and museums and, of course, the media all expect, even demand, some semblance of revolt, some supposed challenge to accepted ideas.” (Timms, 2004, p. 69) The explorations of subversion and resistance allow us to piece together the characteristics of what may be referred to as artful entrepreneurship. To paraphrase Davies (2006) and Barry (2011), artful entrepreneurship is the “upper case” form of entrepreneurship which subverts, redirects, and upends default business practices of the time. In that capacity, it is also the type of entrepreneurship that attracts the most forceful resistance, as it challenges conventional understandings of what constitutes useful products and services and also the wealth and positions of already established firms and organizations. Like art that strives for originality and desires to break with and transform the old, artful entrepreneurship is subversive at its core. It intentionally seeks to introduce novel solutions that challenge established structures, institutions, and perceptions about what characterizes useful products and services. The subversive intent is a forceful motivator and driver, which sharpens the entrepreneur's sense of mission and exposes the deficiencies of existing solutions in the marketplace. The resistance it tends to generates puts into focus the unique elements of the novel solution, and how these unique elements are to be developed and framed to effectively replace the old. From these perspectives, and while recognizing the substantial risks associated with subversive activities, artful entrepreneurship epitomizes many of the requirements and qualities which have become associated with successful entrepreneurship. Connecting the Future with the Past “the avant-garde is (…) paradoxical, denoting both opposition and assimilation.” (King, 2007, p.70) In terms of execution, artful entrepreneurship is about the balancing of subversion with a view to the future and actions that connect with the past. Its end result is creative destruction, but to be accepted by customers and gain support from surrounding firms and organizations it requires a point of reference, specifically traditional yet imperfect solutions that leave important aspects of human needs unsatisfied. Entrepreneurs involved in artful entrepreneurship are well aware of this fact, and in the process of introducing novelty carefully balance the novel and groundbreaking properties of their new ventures against preconceived notions and behaviours in the surrounding environment. As an example, well aware of the radical nature of his invention, Edison went to great length to balance the novelties and distinguishing characteristics of his electric lighting system against institutionally shaped understandings of the value and uses of existing technologies (Hargadon & Douglas, 2001). Scandinavian Journal of Management, version non définitive, à paraître. 20 From this perspective, artful entrepreneurs “must carefully choose designs that couch some features in the familiar, present others as new, and keep still others hidden from view” (ibid., p. 480). Limitations There are several notable limitations to the current study. Focusing on the connections between art and entrepreneurship in the form of creative destruction, it does not explore how subversion and resistance apply and are played out in other settings, such as entrepreneurship that merely refines the existing order or the introduction of novelty within the confines of already exiting corporations and organizations. Contemplating subversion and resistance also raises the question how resistance may be overcome. Such attempts may take many forms – for example the development of prototypes, promising shares of future profits, or the strategic framing of the nature and consequences of new business ideas (e.g. Martens, Jennings, & Jennings, 2007; Rindova, Barry, & Ketchen, 2009; Rindova, Petkova, & Kotha, 2007) - but these and other strategic activities are left unaccounted for in the present study. Subversion and resistance also raise important ethical issues together with questions about what represses productive, unproductive, and destructive entrepreneurship (Baumol, 1990). While typically entrepreneurship is seen as something desirable and positive (Berglund & Johansson, 2007), subversive entrepreneurship may come with both positive and negative connotations. Similarly, in sociological accounts resistance is typically seen as a pro-social activity that is performed by the wrongly oppressed (Hollander & Einwohner, 2004), whereas in management and organization studies it has tended to be perceived as erroneous and based on wrong assumptions (Nord & Jermier, 1994; Piderit, 2000). There are good reasons to contemplate whether in individual cases subversion and resistance are to be considered ethically defensible, but these are issues of significant depth and magnitude that cannot be dealt with effectively in the present paper. Contributions and Avenues for Future Research Given the often arduous process of getting new business ideas established in the marketplace, particularly in the case of more radical or revolutionary business ideas (Schumpeter, 1934; also, Kirzner, 1999), it is somewhat surprising that subversion and resistance have not received more systematic attention in the entrepreneurship literature. Taking a start in the established notion of subversive activities in art, in this paper we have explored how subversion and resistance are played out in the entrepreneurship context, summarizing the central themes and implications in the concept of artful entrepreneurship. We perceive three main contributions of our study. First, it re-emphasizes the fruitfulness of examining entrepreneurship through the lens of other fields of inquiry, in the present case illustrating how concepts long known and applied in the field of art can have a bearing on our understanding of entrepreneurial processes (Barry, 2011; Scherdin & Zander, 2011). Second, we outline the nature and characteristics of subversion and resistance, which have been dealt with extensively in fields such as art, sociology, and organization studies, but so far have received only marginal attention in the entrepreneurship literature. Finally, and while we have only been able to capture a small part of two complex phenomena, we hope to have opened up for further and more fine-grained investigations of the unfolding of the entrepreneurial process. 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Subversion in Art and Entrepreneurship The Subversive Potential of Art The Subversive Potential in Art: Three Necessary Conditions Three main necessary conditions are required for art to have subversive power: first, it has to be connected to the rest of society; second, art has to involve practices which will create new cognitive representations and elicit emotional responses an... Necessary condition #1: to be subversive, art should not be totally autonomous but connected to society Necessary condition #2: to be subversive, art should produce new representations and emotional perceptions Necessary condition #3: to be subversive, art should have a behavioural impact beyond the art world The subversive potential of art: activism as a sufficient condition The Subversive Potential of Entrepreneurship Three Necessary Conditions Necessary condition #2: to be subversive, entrepreneurship should produce new representations and emotional perceptions The subversive potential of entrepreneurship: activism as a sufficient condition How do the subversive dynamics operate? A Triad: The System, the Masses, and the Activists An Intent to Destroy Actions with Limited Resources Scandals: A Frequent Output of Subversive Activities What Subversion is Not Subversion can lead to acts that do not respect the current laws of morality, as was the case with the activities developed by Larry Flynt of Hustler. However, subversion cannot be assimilated to perversion. Indeed, perversion is necessarily negative... 
work_p7f4lsofgvcu3jt6zqpnn3pf2y	----	Revista de Lenguas ModeRnas, N° 16, 2012 / 285-291 / ISSN: 1659-1933 Resumen Dios es la Belleza Suprema. Lo que existe en el mundo y lo que crea el ser humano con su ingenio es “lo bello” que participa en parte de la belleza. El cristiano debe descubrir y dar a conocer la alegría y la belleza de su fe en los diversos ámbitos de la vida cotidiana. El arte es una manifestación del ser de la persona: de sus ideales, de sus alegrías y preocupaciones, en fin, de los valores y experiencias que conducen su existencia. Palabras claves: belleza, Dios, Gabriel Dondo, arte, cristianismo Abstract God is the Supreme Beauty. What exists in the world and what the hu- man being creates with his wit is “beauty”, a beauty that participates in beauty. The Christian artist must discover and aknowledge the joy and beauty of his faith in the various areas of everyday life. Art is a manifes- tation of the human being, of his ideals, joys, concerns, purpose, values and experiences that lead his life. Key words: beauty, God, Gabriel Dondo, art, christianity La belleza: anotaciones para apuntar a una visión más unitaria de Gabriel Dondo Juan Luis GaLLardo Pirovano Academia del Plata (Argentina) jlgallardo@boschyasoc.com.ar Recepción: 24-10-11 Aceptación: 5-12-11 N o es fácil tarea analizar el libro de Gabriel Dondo (2011). Y digo que no es fácil tarea presentar este libro porque tiene una enorme densi- dad y transita temas de gran profundidad, hasta el punto de tornar arduo su abordaje por parte de alguien que, como yo, no sea teólogo ni filósofo, lo cual limita sus aptitudes a la de narrador con cierto oído poético. Pero en fin, he aceptado la amable invitación del autor para ocuparme de su libro. Revista de Lenguas ModeRnas, n° 16, 2012 / 285-291 / issn: 1659-1933286 * Señalaré, por lo pronto, que la obra no se llama solamente La Belleza sino que cuenta con un subtítulo que se las trae, pese a la modestia de su tono tentati- vo. Aclara ese subtítulo lo siguiente: “anotaciones para apuntar a una visión más unitaria”. Declaración que, con aparente inocencia, previene sobre las dificultades que nos aguardan, ya que no es sencillo descubrir en qué puede consistir la unidad en lo que a la belleza atañe. Aspecto que, en realidad, sintetiza lúcidamente Jorge Mario Cabrera Valverde cuando, en el prólogo, nos informa que “el autor asegura que el primer paso para llegar a la belleza es conocer y acercarse a Dios” (Dondo: 9), Dondo se pregunta luego respecto de la ubicación de la belleza y se responde que está en toda la realidad y en cada cosa, pues en ellas se halla la impronta del Creador. Para fundar su afirmación aporta cinco testimonios disímiles y eminen- tes: San Josemaría Escrivá, Platón, Aristóteles, Plotino y Leopoldo Marechal. Respecto a la labor del artista, trae a colación una sentencia de Dante, ex- presiva y original, que dice: “Vuestro arte es de Dios nieto” (Dondo: 16). Y aclara Dondo: “El hijo es lo creado, la belleza natural y el artista o artesano recrea con ese material regalado algo que resulta ‘nieto’ de Dios” (Dondo: 17) y agrega ense- guida: “Cuando en la ‘generación’ del ‘nieto’ se rechaza el vínculo real, se puede afirmar que queda de alguna manera empobrecido el resultado” (Dondo: 17); este es el rumbo general que sigue el libro. Y en el fluir de su desarrollo aparecen aciertos que me gustaría poner de manifiesto, a manera de muestra e incluso con independencia de la totalidad del discurso. Por ejemplo, dice el autor al final de una extensa nota: “Urge, por eso, el despertar alegre e inteligente de la normalidad cristiana” (Dondo: 23). Párrafo delicioso vinculado al fondo de la crisis que padece el arte de nuestro tiempo, carcomido por la incertidumbre, la angustia y la fealdad. ¡Sí, señor!, repito con Dondo, ¡urge el alegre e inteligente despertar de la normalidad cristiana! Y, más adelante, emplea otra expresión oportunísima, que llena la boca y con- forta el corazón, la cual aparecerá varias veces a lo largo del texto. Menciona, en efecto, la “vida buena” (Dondo: 11). Es decir, la vida tal y como debe ser, acorde con lo que Dios manda y la naturaleza propone. La “vida buena” resultaría contrafigu- ra de la “buena vida” en su acepción corriente. ¿Qué es la buena vida? Pues, como dirían en España, “pasársela pipa”. O, como dice el tango, pasarla “panza arriba en la catrera”. O, acudiendo a la metáfora evangélica, buena vida sería la que se prometía aquel chacarero que, ampliados sus galpones para contener una cosecha extraordinaria, instaba a su alma al gozo y a la holganza sin saber que moriría esa noche. ¿Y qué es la “vida buena”? Ya lo dije: una existencia sobria y fecunda, acorde con lo que Dios manda y la naturaleza propone. Pues, como señala Claudel, en cita recogida por Dondo, “la naturaleza no es ilusión sino alusión” (Dondo: 31). En esta línea explica el autor más adelante: En síntesis, cuando se acepta la Encarnación y la Redención, las posibi- lidades de dar y captar mayor belleza son evidentes: lo comprueba –si no se dan prejuicios en el análisis– la historia de la cultura. El despliegue GALLARDO. La beLLeza: anotaciones paRa ... 287 fantástico e incomparable del arte occidental como resultado de la acep- tación admirada del plan de la salvación ofrecido por la revelación judeo cristiana es difícil de rebatir con seriedad. (Dondo: 26) Y poco después, se interna en una temática ardua y profunda cuando ex- presa: “La belleza, al ser derivada –esplendor de– conserva cierta fragilidad que ha permitido y permite ‘desglosarla’ de la verdad y el bien: ese es su riesgo y su desafío…” Completa, luego, esta idea al señalar: Por libre, el artista es responsable. No existe, por tanto, el arte ‘aséptico’, totalmente ‘neutro’, el ‘arte por el arte’. De lo cual se deriva que “el mal uso de ese don (el don artístico) depende de la categoría técnica del traba- jo, del mejor o peor hacer del instrumento; y de su calidad de vida, de las virtudes y también del pecado y sus huellas en el artista. (Dondo: 39, 37). Alberto Boixadós trató la cuestión en un libro importante llamado Arte y subversión, que leí hace mucho y que ignoro si todavía se puede conseguir. Tam- bién la consideré yo en algún momento, vinculándola con dos grandes cuadros de sendos maestros españoles que vivieron separados por varios siglos. Uno de esos cuadros es La Rendición de Breda, también conocido como Las Lanzas, pintado por Diego Velázquez en el siglo XVII. Curiosamente, se trata de un motivo bélico, o al menos post-bélico, ya que representa la capitulación de una plaza asediada largamente por los tercios españoles durante las Guerras de Flandes. Sin embargo, pese a presentar una escena guerrera, es un cuadro apa- cible, equilibrado, cuya escena central transmite elegancia y misericordia. Allí, en efecto, se ve al General Ambrosio Spínola que, con gesto amable, invita a er- guirse a su rival vencido, Justino de Nassau, quien le ofrece la llave de la ciudad, todo ello con un fondo de picas simétricas (que son picas de infantería y no lanzas de caballería, a despecho de lo que diga el nombre del lienzo). Admito haberme detenido largamente ante él, en el Museo del Prado, más de una vez. Mientras venían a mi memoria algunas estrofas de aquel poema de Eduardo Marquina, también referido a las Guerras de Flandes, donde menciona a un capitán de “tor- cida espada”, cierta “espiga tronchada” y “los extraños reflejos del fosco cielo ale- mán”. Pues bien, dicho cuadro bélico trasunta paz y armonía, sugiere la nobleza de un jefe victorioso y, veladamente, habla bien del artista que lo pintó, caballero de Calatrava a juzgar por cómo se retrató a sí mismo en Las Meninas. En cambio, el que le contrapongo es un cuadro que representa un motivo apacible y burgués, pero que produce en el espectador un violento desasosiego y puede ser definido como una incitación a la rebeldía. Me refiero a Las señoritas de Aviñón, conocida obra de Pablo Picasso respecto a la cual me detendré breve- mente. Parecería que hasta el título del cuadro tiene una intención provocadora pues, de manera casi inevitable, si a uno le mencionan Aviñón lo más probable es que recuerde aquella vieja canción infantil referida al puente de esa ciudad, Revista de Lenguas ModeRnas, n° 16, 2012 / 285-291 / issn: 1659-1933288 donde “todos bailan y yo también”. Y ocurre que dicha obra, sobre un tema apaci- ble y burgués, vinculado por asociación de ideas con un cantito de chicos muestra un grupo de mujeres espantosas, de caras asimétricas, con los dos ojos del mismo lado del rostro como ciertos bichos que yacen en las profundidades marinas y entre las cuales se destaca, nítidamente, la que ocupa el extremo izquierdo del grupo, o sea a la derecha del espectador. No puede afirmarse en realidad que di- cho personaje sea también una mujer o no, ya que su aspecto es, explícitamente, el de un horrible demonio negro que nada tiene que hacer allí. ¿Qué quiso trans- mitir Picasso con ese cuadro? No lo sé. Aunque estoy seguro de que nada bueno. Dondo afirma, según dije, que no hay un arte neutro ni aséptico. Y agrega que el uso del don artístico revela la calidad de vida, las virtudes o las huellas del pecado en el artista. Es por ello que mencioné la condición de Caballero de la Orden de Calatrava que investía a Velázquez y menciono ahora la turbulenta vida de Picasso, a quien sus mujeres presentaban como un dechado de soberbia y egoísmo, según nos informara un artículo aparecido hace poco en la revista ADN Cultura, del diario La Nación. * No permanece Dondo, sin embargo, en las alturas donde se aposentan el arte y el espíritu. Por el contrario, en su libro asienta algunas cuestiones prác- ticas que conviene atender. Por un lado, propicia que el Estado asuma el “inteli- gente fomento de lo valioso”, al llevar adelante “políticas de aliento cultural más selectivas” (Dondo: 51), lo cual merece de mi parte un estruendoso ¡bravo! Por otro lado, se mete con los críticos y les pide “profundidad y aplomo, claridad”. ¿Por qué? Porque “la crítica es exigente o termina por no ser crítica” (Dondo: 52). Nuevamente ¡bravo! Insta, además, a discernir con valentía. O sea, dicho de otro modo, a discriminar, con perdón de la palabra. Pues, glosando a San Agustín, expresa que “las cosas no responden sino al que las interroga como juez”. ¡Bravo! Y, por último, con ánimo docente invita a que los guías de turismo cumplan ade- cuadamente su cometido. Un ¡bravo! final. * Pero ya es hora de manifestar que Gabriel Dondo no aparece en este cam- po de las artes por generación espontánea. Lejos de ello, es “hijo ‘e tigre”, como dirían en el oeste de la provincia de Buenos Aires. Su padre, en efecto, fue Os- valdo Dondo, poeta relevante de los Cursos de Cultura Católica. Pariente a su vez de Miguel Ángel Etcheverrigaray, también magnífico vate de los Cursos, al igual que Marechal, Fray Vallejos, Castiñeiras de Dios, Jacobo Fijman, Bernár- dez y Anzoátegui. Constelación de poetas casi desconocidos a la fecha. Omisión que, dicho sea de paso, resulta de justicia remediar lo antes posible. Pero ¿qué fueron los Cursos de Cultura Católica? En un libro ameno y conciso se ocupó de ellos Raúl Rivero Olazábal, a quien recuerdo con afecto como seguramente lo recordará también Gabriel Dondo. Pero, para hacerlo de manera más sintética, GALLARDO. La beLLeza: anotaciones paRa ... 289 transcribiré lo que dijo mi amigo Juan Manuel Medrano sobre los Cursos, en una conferencia que pronunció en algún momento sobre Leopoldo Marechal. Escribió Medrano: Años atrás Tomás Casares convocaba a un grupo de amigos con la inten- ción de restaurar los estudios católicos. Exponía la necesidad de reinser- tar a la Argentina en la Cristiandad a la cual siempre había pertenecido. Pero que, particularmente entre los hombres, vivía sólo con vida latente. Con esta consigna el mencionado Casares, Atilio Dell’Oro Maini, César Pico, Samuel W. Medrano, Faustino Legón y otros hicieron esa memorable creación que habría de incidir tanto en la vida pública como la privada de la Nación. En el erial del pasado, desde las luchas de Estrada, Goyena y Achával Rodríguez, diríase que triunfaba el propósito laicista de eliminar a Dios revelado de la escuela y de todos los ambientes. Ferry y Combes, redivivos, extendían, a través de sus prosélitos de logia, esta guerra contra la religión de nuestra Patria y de nuestros padres, que tanto éxito había tenido en territorio francés. Juan B. Terán, Ernesto Padilla, Tomás Cu- llen, Indalecio Gómez y otros pocos más defendían la ciudadela católica, devastada por las andanadas del tiempo. De modo que la irrupción en escena de los Cursos de Cultura Católica constituyó la reaparición –im- portante, organizada y significativa– del pensamiento católico en el pano- rama nacional. Pero no sólo en el plano del pensamiento influyeron los Cursos. También lo hicieron en el de la plástica, a través de Ballester Peña, Spotorno, Buitrago, Fornieles. Y hasta podría decirse que acuñaron un estilo gráfico propio, que se revela en sus ediciones tuteladas por Enrique Lagos y en la revista Sol y Luna que dirigía Juan Carlos Goyeneche. Allí está la fuente cultural en que abreva Dondo. Una fuente que quizá cons- tituyó uno de los factores determinantes de la inesperada explosión de fe que se manifestó en el Congreso Eucarístico de 1934, el cual modificó profundamente el alma de los argentinos. Acorde con el sesgo de su trabajo, Gabriel Dondo lo remata con un poema suyo vinculado con los temas tratados. He aquí una de sus estrofas: Bendito secreto luminoso que estás en todo lo que llega; dichoso caminar de lo insondable; saber con sosiego que sólo me aproximo, que me acerco, que rondo, que vislumbro; que siempre hay más, detrás de esbozos, esquemas y señales… ¡Oh, verdad!... con tu aspereza sola no llegas: te urge, siempre, el aliento primordial de la belleza… (Dondo: 64) Revista de Lenguas ModeRnas, n° 16, 2012 / 285-291 / issn: 1659-1933290 Con Gabriel Dondo nos unen varias afinidades. Una es la adscripción a cierta espiritualidad específica. Otra es el tenis, que hemos practicado quizá con más empeño que pericia. Otra, contarnos entre los seguidores de San Lorenzo del Almagro. Y, por último, determinadas inclinaciones concordantes en materia artística. Para acreditarlas acudiré a algunos dísticos incluidos en un pequeño volumen que titulé Las Cosas, aparecido en 1977: Detesto los poemas herméticos, presiento que encubren casi siempre la falta de talento. Detesto esa pintura donde cada detalle pareciera burlarse del hombre de la calle. Pintura incomprensible, sin forma ni belleza, rebelde a la armonía de la naturaleza. Celebro a Miguel Ángel contemplando a través de un gran bloque de mármol su futuro Moisés. Celebro al dibujante cuyos trazos precisos poblaron Altamira de bisontes rojizos. Celebro al arquitecto del templo de Luxor, en Chesterton celebro su docto buen humor. Celebro a Fray Angélico poniendo en su pintura la dimensión flamante del relieve y la hondura. Celebro a William Shakespeare, a Dominico Greco y a don Segundo Sombra, de los pagos de Areco. Celebro a quien conoce la humana condición y procura no obstante lograr la perfección. Con esto pensaba concluir con mi parte en esta presentación. Pero ocurre que casualmente tropecé luego con un poema que otro amigo común, Jorge Ma- zzinghi, dedicara a la memoria de nuestro querido Paqui Fornieles, al cual men- cioné hace un rato como pintor de los Cursos de Cultura Católica. Y, por coincidir con el pensamiento expuesto en su libro por Gabriel Dondo, elijo dos cuartetas de dicho poema como cierre de mi participación de esta tarde. Dicen así: ¿Cómo hilvanar tercetos fugitivos? ¿Y cómo aprisionar en el papel la brisa que conmueve los follajes y resiste la traza del pincel? GALLARDO. La beLLeza: anotaciones paRa ... 291 ¿Dónde está lo importante y lo superfluo? ¡Quién pudiera decirlo con certeza! Paqui bien lo sabía: sólo importan las cosas en que Dios se hace belleza. Bibliografía Dondo, Gabriel. 2011. La belleza: anotaciones para apuntar a una visión más unitaria. San José, Costa Rica: PROMESA. 
work_pbpm5kpnune7rd3itf42ouibwe	----	Variaciones sobre el concepto de cultura VARIACIONES SOBRE EL CONCEPTO DE CULTURA 2B VARIACIONES SOBRE EL CONCEPTO DE CULTURA JOSÉ ENRIQUE RODRÍGUEZ IBAÑEZ Universidad Complutense de Madrid PALABRAS CLAVE ADICIONALES ADDITIONAL KEYWORDS Sociología de la cultura, Cambio social, Política Sociology of Culture, Social Change, Cultural cultural. Policy. El concepto de cultura, desde mi punto de vista, es ciertamente torrencial. Esconde muchos significados, se confunde a veces con otros conceptos próxi- mos —sabiduría, instrucción, educación, tradición, civilización, costumbres, etc.— y es difícil de concretar. Sin embargo, cuando se habla de cultura todo el mundo sabe más o menos de qué se trata. Un dato crucial es el contexto en el que se evoca la noción de cultura y, más aún, la audiencia a la que la evocación se dirige. Hablar de cultura depende de quién hable de ella y a quién o a quiénes se les hable de ella. Como el catálogo de variantes del concepto de cultura resultaría interminable si nos lo tomáramos demasiado en serio, me voy a permitir ceñirme tan sólo a cuatro facetas o dimensiones de la misma, a saber: la noción de cultura a la que aluden los científicos sociales; la cultura que tienen in mente los filósofos, teóri- cos y ensayistas; la idea de cultura que manejan políticos y gobiernos y, por fin, la cultura que los diferentes públicos reciben y avalan como tal. Todas ellas están interrelacionadas, naturalmente, pero no pasa nada por echar ojeadas por separado a cada una de estas «culturas». Empecemos, así pues, con la cultura de los científicos sociales. A este res- pecto, la definición más simple la dio el gran antropólogo inglés Malinowski cuando se refirió a ella como «herencia social». La cultura no sería sino la suma de rasgos no estrictamente biológicos que distingue a una comunidad humana de otra. Entre esos rasgos se incluirían, a modo de ejemplo, la lengua, la religión, la Revista Internacional de Sociología (RIS) Tercera Época, n° 26, Mayo-Agosto, 2000, pp. 213-219. Revista Internacional de Sociologia, Vol 58 Num 26 (2000) (c) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas Licencia Creative Commons Reconocimiento 4.0 Internacional (CC BY 4.0) http://revintsociologia.revistas.csic.es/index.php/revintsociologia 214 JOSÉ E. RODRÍGUEZ IBANEZ economía, el arte, la arquitectura, el vestido, las reglas de parentesco, la política, la cocina, etc.. Malinowski era un antrópogo de rígida observancia funcionalista, en- tendiéndose por ello que hacía derivar cualquier rasgo cultural, de las necesidades genéricas («funciones») de la comunidad humana en cuestión y de su medio ambiente. Para Malinowski, la cultura es un simple instrumento de adaptación y supervivencia. Tuvo que surgir otro antropólogo también inglés y también funcionalista, si bien más matizado, Radcliffe-Brown, para que la noción antropológica de cultu- ra cobrara mayor autonomía y dejara de depender tan rígidamente de unas primi- tivas condiciones que motivaran su aparición. Según Radcliffe-Brown, por ejem- plo, los rituales religiosos pueden convertirse en rituales sociales más allá de una etapa de estricta observancia religiosa. En cualquier caso, tanto Malinowski como Radcliffe-Brown se apuntaron el tanto de desvincular el concepto de cultura de todo aquello que había venido significando a lo largo del siglo XIX, esto es, universalismo, misión histórica o destino común de la humanidad. Al hacer depender la dimensión cultural de una determinada comunidad humana en particular, estos clásicos del pensamiento antropológico sentaron las bases, en los años veinte y treinta del siglo XX, de algo que hoy nos resulta muy común. Me refiero a la desabsolutización o relativización de la cultura, que pasa de ser una Cultura común con mayúscula a constituir un mosaico de culturas con minúscula, o multiculturalidad. No fueron ellos los únicos que impulsaron esa evolución semántica en el discurso de las ciencias sociales y, por extensión, en los debates de la opinión pública. También podríamos citar, en este sentido, a otros autores bien conoci- dos, como Ruth Benedict, Peter Winch, A.L. Krober y Clyde Kluckhohn. Al margen de la génesis intelectual de la idea de multiculturalidad, aconteci- mientos de alcance planetario, como la descolonización en Asia y África y la aparición de nuevas voces en foros importantes como la ONU o la UNESCO, terminaron por dar carta de naturaleza a la identificación entre cultura e identi- dad de país o grupo. Todo esto genera una serie de vivas polémicas en diversos campos que llena nuestra actualidad cotidiana. Fijémonos, por ejemplo, en la noción de lealtad política y en la muy próxima de ciudadanía. ¿Debe haber en las políticas de Estado o incluso en la política internacional, una suma de valores comunes que vayan más allá de las diferen- cias culturales o, por el contrario, estas políticas deben ser deudoras del mosaico multicultural?. En momentos en los que asistimos a la creación de proyectos transnacionales, como la Unión Europea, lo mismo que a un incipiente boceto de justicia internacional, la cuestión no puede ser más candente. Y para demostrarlo tenemos la problemática que despiertan los movimientos nacionalistas y/o integristas, con el telón de fondo de diversas voces cualificadas que, en el terre- (c) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas Licencia Creative Commons Reconocimiento 4.0 Internacional (CC BY 4.0) http://revintsociologia.revistas.csic.es/index.php/revintsociologia VARIACIONES SOBRE EL CONCEPTO DE CULTURA 215 no de las ideas, toman partido por una u otra opción (asi, Habermas y Kymlicka en pro del universalismo de la ética democrática, y Charles Taylor en pro de los derechos preferentes de las distintas culturas incluso en el seno de un mismo país). Hasta hay incluso quien —como Russell Jacoby muy recientemente en los EE.UU.— argumenta que la nueva ideología del multiculturalismo es sólo una coartada para la desmovilización política y la fragmentación de una sociedad, con beneficios indudables para las fuerzas conservadoras. Entremos ahora en otro terreno resbaladizo, el de la educación. Se ha dicho a este respecto que, en no pocas ocasiones, lo que se enseña en las escuelas y universidades como cuerpo acumulativo de las distintas disciplinas —preferen- temente las humanísticas y sociales— no es un legado objetivo e indiscutible sino, simplemente, el resultado de una determinada lectura unilateral de la histo- ria por parte de los depositarios de una cultura singular (como, por ejemplo, la «cultura occidental»). Ha habido personalidades que se han opuesto rotunda- mente a esta clase de relativización. En concreto, ha sido Harold Bloom quien con mayor ahínco ha tratado de demostrar que el respeto debido a figuras como Platón, Dante, Maquiavelo, Hegel, Cervantes o Shakespeare no proviene de la común condición de europeos de todos ellos, sino, muy fundamentalmente, de su importancia como forjadores de una larga saga estética y filosófica que se consagra como «canon» universal. También hace muy poco tiempo. Alan Sokal y Jean Bricmont han salido al paso en su muy difundido libro. Imposturas inte- lectuales, de la extendida tentación de descalificar el universalismo de la ciencia andándola en sus contextos culturales. Ciertamente, los programas educativos no pueden disolverse en particula- rismos de parroquia étnica, lingüística o nacional. No obstante, tampoco parece adecuado absolutizar la idea de canon, haciendo inconmovibles los pilares de unas disciplinas, como las históricas y estéticas, que sin duda se enriquecen con el descubrimiento, por parte de las diversas comunidades lingüísticas, de aporta- ciones en otros ámbitos que la traducción puede universalizar. En fin, hay que prosperar en el difícil arte del equilibrio, que a veces trae fracasos como el de la ex-ministra de Educación española, Esperanza Aguirre, que no fue capaz de armonizar unos mínimos comunes en los programas de enseñanza de la historia española en el conjunto de las competencias de cada una de las Comunidades Autónomas. Consideremos igualmente el mundo de las relaciones internacionales. Aquí, el peso de las variables culturales es innegable, hasta el extremo de que han surgido autores como Samuel Huntington que propugnan que, tras la época del conflicto entre Estados, clases sociales y/o ideologías, lo que se nos echa encima es un conflicto entre áreas culturales de amplia magnitud, tales como la euroamericana, la eslava, la musulmana y la china. Más matizado resulta ser Zygmunt Bauman, quien, antes que de multiculturalismo en una sociedad más o menos global, prefiere hablar de una «multisociedad» agrupada en visiones al- (c) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas Licencia Creative Commons Reconocimiento 4.0 Internacional (CC BY 4.0) http://revintsociologia.revistas.csic.es/index.php/revintsociologia 216 JOSÉ E. RODRÍGUEZ IBANEZ ternativas del mundo que trascienden las fronteras. En cualquier caso, y se mire como se mire la cuestión, resulta un hecho innegable que la definición y los términos del conflicto y cambio sociales en la actualidad descansan sobre varia- bles explicativas de índole mayoritariamenté cultural, tras el predominio de va- riables economicistas en el siglo XIX y rabiosamente políticas en el XX. Una vez visto a vuelapluma el concepto de «cultura de los científicos socia- les», con las connotaciones que comporta, nos llega la hora de detenernos en la segunda de las variantes prometidas, la cultura de los pensadores. Bajo este ángulo, la cultura se convierte en sinónimo de conocimiento y, en particular, conocimiento artístico, humanístico y filosófico. Incluso yo diría que, hasta la crisis sin precedentes que supuso la Primera Guerra Mundial, «cultura» y «alta cultura» resultaban sinónimos en la tradición de Occidente. Con la llegada del período de entreguerras, la obsesión por las «masas» y, en particular, la «cultura de masas» impregna la conciencia política e intelectual europea, dando lugar a una muy rica reflexión que trataba de conciliar los avan- ces tecnológicos en la difusión cultural —eso que Walter Benjamín inmortalizó como «la era de la reproducción técnica del arte»— con la calidad o esencia de la alta cultura. Tres fueron a este respecto las respuestas señeras: una «liberal», a cargo de Ortega y Gasset; otra, «socialdemócrata», a cargo de Karl Mannheim, y, otra, de corte «existencial», a cargo de Hannah Arendt. En su clásica Rebelión de las masas, Ortega realizaba un diagnóstico sobre el empobrecimiento moral del individuo prototípico de la Europa azotada por los totalitarismos, preconizando una revigorización de la conciencia cívica que aca- bara con los particularismos y las tentaciones dictatoriales, a la sombra de la tradición liberal y europeísta. Por su parte, Mannheim, en la obra El hombre y la sociedad en la época de crisis reflejaba el grado de confusión y hasta proletari- zación que caracterizaba a la producción cultural de los años treinta, optando por un criterio de «planificación» de la política cultural, acorde con la ideología del Estado de bienestar. En lo que respecta a Arendt, su trabajo Los orígenes del totalitarismo rememora lo que ella denominaba «alianza entre la élite y el popu- lacho», típica de la ascensión del fascismo, abogando por el rescate del sentido de proyección personal y, a la larga, regeneración colectiva que posee el ejerci- cio del raciocinio filosófico (o actividad cultural). El debate alta cultura versus cultura de masas pudiera decirse que vivió un proceso de normalización o desdramatización con la aparición de Umberto Eco en los años sesenta del siglo XX. En Apocalípticos e integrados ante la cultura de masas, en efecto, el profesor de Bolonia zanjaba los términos del debate, incorporando al panteón del arte y la cultura a aquellos géneros hasta entonces tenidos por menores —cine, televisión, historieta gráfica, fotografía— y sentan- do como criterio definidor último de lo «alto» o lo «bajo» unos estándares de calidad objetivamente enunciables. (c) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas Licencia Creative Commons Reconocimiento 4.0 Internacional (CC BY 4.0) http://revintsociologia.revistas.csic.es/index.php/revintsociologia VARIACIONES SOBRE EL CONCEPTO DE CULTURA 217 Casi paralelamente, Raymond Williams daba carta de naturaleza académica en Gran Bretaña —y, por extensión, en todo el mundo anglosajón— a unos nue- vos «estudios culturales» de raíz sociológica que, en la actualidad, se alzan como conglomerado interdisciplinar e intercuiricular en el ámbito editorial y universitaiio. El empuje arrollador de los «estudios culturales» hace que la misma desdrama- tización de Eco aparezca como algo obsoleto, dando pábulo a un clima de mez- colanza entre cantidad y calidad, vanguardia y marketing, creación y entre- tenimiento, que a unos parece simple confusión y a otros sano fin de las je- rarquías del gusto. Por recordar una mordaz frase de Fred Inglis, «si Horkheimer fue capaz de hacer metafísica de un chicle, entonces la cultura puede incluir cualquier cosa hecha por humanos». ¿Es esto cierto? En mi opinión lo es sólo a medias. Por supuesto que toda obra humana es «cultura» en sentido antropológico. Pero no toda obra humana es por naturaleza contribución significativa a un determinado género artístico o literario. Entremedias queda todo lo relativo a la exaltación de los géneros híbridos o, dicho de otra manera, a la pérdida de respeto a ciertas manifestaciones tenidas por venerables. Por poner un ejemplo: aunque hace treinta años me hubiera pare- cido una blasfemia, hoy no tengo sinceramente nada que decir ante una provocadora portada —que encuentro en un libro sobre «estudios culturales» firmado por Tony Bennett— en la que el más famoso icono artístico de la resis- tencia antifascista —el Guernica de Picasso— aparece parodiado, con los perso- najes típicos de Walt Disney rematando las cabezas de las trágicas figuras del cuadro. Quizá haya que regresar a Eco y recordar, con él, que lo importante es sentar las escalas de calidad, aunque no en abstracto, sino en el seno de contextos defi- nidos. La tarea ha de ser, probablemente, descubrir aquellos mecanismos que hacen que una sociedad dé prioridad a un cuerpo de visiones (o «figuraciones», como decía Norbert Elias) frente a otro, a través de sus sistemas educativos, museos y fundaciones y medios de comunicación. Dicha sociologización de la cultura, no obstante, es tan sólo un punto de partida que no puede obviar la consolidación de cánones con visos de univer- salidad. De este modo es como quedan resueltas paradojas tan conocidas como el hecho de que Van Gogh no vendiera un solo cuadro en su vida y muriera enloquecido, y la circunstancia de que la valoración histórica de la pintura de El Greco fuera zigzagueante hasta el extremo de que tuvo que reivindicarle como genio indiscutible nada menos que Pablo Picasso. El estudio de los mecanismos sociales a los que antes me refería nos lleva al tercer aspecto de la cultura que prometí exponer, es decir, la cultura de los go- biernos y los políticos. Desde tal perspectiva, «cultura» equivale a política cultural u oferta cultural, fiada a una red institucional coronada por un Ministerio o una Secretaría de Estado (cuya pervivencia en un futuro queda, por cierto, en tela de juicio en los (c) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas Licencia Creative Commons Reconocimiento 4.0 Internacional (CC BY 4.0) http://revintsociologia.revistas.csic.es/index.php/revintsociologia 218 JOSÉ E. RODRÍGUEZ IBAÑEZ países que abogan por la huida del dirigismo y la «devolución de poder» o «re- torno» de la sociedad civil). Capítulo muy significado de las políticas culturales lo constituye sin duda la política museística, en cuya evolución desde el siglo XIX hasta el presente me quisiera detener. A este respecto, es curioso constatar, con Tony Bennett, cómo la museística evidencia las grandes obsesiones pedagógicas e intelectuales a lo largo del tiem- po. En el siglo XIX, sin ir más lejos, la concepción dominante en lo que a mu- seos atañe es «darwiniana». En casi todas las grandes capitales (Viena, Nueva York y Madrid a su manera), se diseñan y erigen edificios de arquitectura simé- trica, destinados, por parejas, a exhibir la historia del arte y, por otro, la «historia natural». Hay igualmente, en este momento de «grandeur» museístico, un evi- dente espíritu «imperial». Londres, Berlín y París, compiten en exhibir espacios en los que la arqueología reunida remeda la posición imperial de cada una de esas metrópolis. También los grandes museos disputan en el anterior cambio de siglo por escenificar el «espíritu nacional» —siendo el Louvre y el Prado muy representativos en este sentido. En el caso de Washington, su colección de mu- seos, coronada por la Galería Nacional, engrosa el patrimonio de religión civil o sede seudosagrada de una nación que se crea y recrea en ceremoniales como los relevos en la Presidencia y las visitas familiares a un espacio tan geográfico como simbólico que no en balde lleva el nombre del fundador del país. Con las crisis sucesivas acaecidas en el siglo XX, los grandes conceptos —historia humana, imperio, nación— van perdiendo capacidad de moviliza- ción, y los museos se identifican más con mecenas, instituciones, ciudades y hasta artistas individuales (como Picasso, Dalí, Miró o Tapies). Al llegar el siglo XXI, la apoteosis museística recupera «grandeur», aunque esta vez como inver- sión global, mitad patrimonio urbano, mitad negocio y atractivo turístico, que hace de la agraciada ciudad soporte de tal inversión una simple anécdota de la presencia definitoria del nuevo museo. En la mente de todos estará el Guggenheim de Bilbao y el Getty Center de Los Angeles, obras colosales y faros del peregri- naje cultural cuyo valor primordial, más allá del referente arquitectónico, lo cons- tituye el sentido emblemático de su presencia misma. Museos admirables por su traza y poder de convocatoria, pero en los que, paradójicamente, el continente supera muy mucho al contenido. Y es ese público del Guggenheim o el Getty Center el que protagoniza pri- mordialmente, en nuestra actualidad, la última faceta del concepto de cultura que prometí tocar, esto es, la «cultura de los públicos». En efecto, el público contemporáneo pasa a ser un consumidor de cultura no individual y proyectivo (como lo era el ocioso fláneur decimonónico) ni solida- riamente gregario (como lo ha sido el ciudadano de la cultura de masas del Esta- do de bienestar). Ahora, en tiempos de globalización y giro posmodernista, los asuntos y ceremoniales culturales son tan espasmódicos, poco reflexivos y tutelados, como las visitas turísticas a otro país. El público que consume cultura (c) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas Licencia Creative Commons Reconocimiento 4.0 Internacional (CC BY 4.0) http://revintsociologia.revistas.csic.es/index.php/revintsociologia VARIACIONES SOBRE EL CONCEPTO DE CULTURA 219 contemporánea interioriza en su propia sociedad la actitud del turista o visitante ocasional. Condescendiente y autosatisfecho, el nuevo turista cultural se deja influir por guías y rutas, suplementos literarios o artísticos y reportajes en televi- sión para marcar sus hitos, crear sus expectativas y prefigurar los éxitos por anticipado. La nueva cultura neoturística y cosmopolita devora literalmente a la demanda, convirtiéndose en oferta multipresente y definidora. Se ha llegado a un estado de cosas que mueve a unos a un pesimismo exage- rado («todo vale», «no quedan valores en pie», etc.) y a otros a un no menos exagerado ánimo de celebración («adiós a las torres de marfil», «viva la diferen- cia» etc.). Quizá podrían establecerse, entre ambos polos o extremos, unas bases fundamentales de acuerdo que, de paso, nos servirían para ir poniendo punto final a estas «variaciones sobre el concepto de cultura». Yo deduciría, en primer lugar, de lo mencionado, que debe darse la bienveni- da a la democratización de la cultura y a la renovación de los géneros. Insistien- do en lo dicho, hay, entre estos últimos, géneros que se tuvieron por «menores» y, por supuesto, deben dejar de serlo. No me refiero sólo a campos ya venerables como la fotografía y el comic, sino también a géneros como la publicidad y el video promocional. Ahora bien, sentado lo anterior, no es menos cierto que las jerarquías de calidad estética y artística no pueden menospreciarse. Sin duda los viejos cáno- nes y las rígidas adscripciones no tienen ya razón de ser, pero algún criterio habrá que saber descubrir para que el mundo de la cultura no derive hacia una cacofonía sin rumbo. No voy a sugerir nada original. Me bastará con recordar la perogrullada de que, en este terreno, la conjunción de buenas críticas y éxito de público parecería ser un buen termómetro de la bondad de un producto cultural cualquiera. Y, de producirse discontinuidades o décalages entre crítica y público (el eterno pro- blema de las mayorías y las minorías), probablemente no quede otro tribunal más valioso que el del tiempo que fija a los auténticos clásicos, y no porque queden revestidos de una supuesta e incuestionada aura reverencial, sino porque se consoliden como las mejores miradas, ventanas o filtros de cosas, personas o problemas. Terminaré con un recuerdo del Ortega de La deshumanización del arte. De- cía nuestro gran compatriota que «en el museo se conserva a base de barniz el cadáver de una evolución», si bien, continúa Ortega, «no sería difícil resucitar al cadáver. Bastaría con colocar los cuadros en un cierto orden y resbalar veloz- mente la mirada sobre ellos —y, si no la mirada, la meditación». Pues bien, resucitemos el cadáver de la cultura. Miremos y meditemos incan- sable y autocríticamente sobre todo lo que se nos presenta como tal, gocemos y despotriquemos ante ello, atrevámonos a crear, y fiemos el juicio final de la valía de todo lo resultante al implacable tribunal del tiempo. (c) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas Licencia Creative Commons Reconocimiento 4.0 Internacional (CC BY 4.0) http://revintsociologia.revistas.csic.es/index.php/revintsociologia 
work_pg3id7st2baafambphu7s3ainy	----	(JPMNT) Journal of Process Management – New Technologies, International Vol. 7, No3, 2019. 10 www.japmnt.com STYLISTIC APPROACH TO TEACHING POETRY IN ESL CLASSROOMS Leila Tahmasebi Lebanese French University, Iraq leila.tahmasebi72@gmail.com Original Scientific Paper doi:10.5937/jouproman7-22087 Abstract: In this study we tried to illustrate the importance of stylistic approach in teaching literature in general and poetry in particular. The context of the study is classrooms of universities featuring ESL classes. The objective is inducing critical thinking and purposeful essay writing based on linguistic features of texts. Initially, we try to have an overall understanding of stylistics by having a glimpse at the concepts of style and stylistics. Deviation and foregrounding the important elements of stylistics are discussed next. Following the introductory section, the main question and the thesis of the paper, the importance of application of stylistics approach in teaching literature in ESL classes, is discussed. The paper is aimed towards a practical exploration of the topic, hence, ESL classroom analysis procedure and levels of the procedure are depicted. The closing section of the paper is a short analysis of a poem by E. E. Cummings based on stylistic approach and its two basic aspects, deviation and foregrounding. In this section the aim is coming to a comprehensive and practical conclusion regarding stylistic approach in teaching poetry. Keywords: poetical analysis, stylistics, deviation, foregrounding. Stylistic Approach to Teaching Poetry Style is the repetition of a specific selected pattern. This selection can be done consciously or unconsciously. For instance, people have a special style of living or speaking but they are not aware of their style, unless for some reason they become conscious of it and decide to change it. Good health or success is the outcome of current life style and a person’s prestige and reputation can be the result of good speaking style and behavior. A correct life style includes the recurrence of good habits like eating healthy, daily workout, regular studying and so on. Speaking style results from the lexical choice and syntactical patterns of speaking. The unconscious life style occurs due to the cultural and social background of an individual’s life style. Likewise, one can find style in art and literature. A short glance at the definition of style points to the presence of style in various genres of art. Style can be defined as the distinctive manner in which a work of art is produced. This distinctive manner is the result of a creator’s unique way of treating a subject. For instance in music, style is the characteristic arrangement of rhythm, harmony and melody associated with a particular ethnic culture, type or genre. Painting style is the range of colors or brush techniques and paint application defined by a school of thought or an era. Style in literature is the way an author uses words, sentence structures and literary devices to establish the desired effect to convey what he aims for. Let’s sum up our introductory argument regarding style with a literary definition of style by Abrams (1993) who defines style as: http://www.japmnt.com/ mailto:leila.tahmasebi72@gmail.com http://dx.doi.org/10.5937%2Fjouproman7-22087 (JPMNT) Journal of Process Management – New Technologies, International Vol. 7, No3, 2019. 11 www.japmnt.com “…the manner of linguistic expression in prose or verse--- it is how speakers or writers say whatever it is that they say. The style of a particular work or writer has been analyzed in terms of the characteristic modes of its diction, or choice of words: its sentence structure and syntax; the density and types of its figurative language; the pattern of its rhythm, component sounds, and other formal features; and its rhetorical aims and devices.”(p.203) The above definition of style encompasses style both in prose and verse, but since the focus of this paper is on poetry, we continue the paper by solely considering style in poetry. Stylistics Stylistics or linguistic criticism is the study of linguistic features in works of literature. While linguists consider the study of language objectively, literary scholars study language in a more subjective way. Stylistics bridges the gap between the aforementioned views of the linguists and literary critics by making a relation between language and literature. As Simpson (2004) points out, stylistics “enriches our ways of thinking about language” (p.3), so the one-dimensional linguistic observation of the language is expanded towards the multi-dimensional literary observation of it. Stylistics views language far beyond mere symbols by decoding those symbols to explore different layers of meaning and how that meaning is conveyed in the most effective way. In short, stylistics can be considered as the interpretation of literature via language. This approach is very influential in schools and universities in the western world because it gives rise to critical essays about what a text means and how it affects the reader. What is especially more important for stylisticians is deviation from ordinary language which is called foregrounding. Foregrounding Foregrounding reaches far beyond the textual characteristics to a psychological dimension of reading a text. Foregrounding which has been inaugurated by Russian formalists like I. A. Richards, suggests that some parts of texts have more effect on the readers because they are deviant from ordinary language. This fact that foregrounding theory has started from visual arts by making contrasts between colors to make an object more conspicuous and attention grabbing, makes foregrounding effect more significant. In similar manner, for Russian formalists, literary texts generate a special psychological effect on the readers by defamiliarization, by distancing from conventional linguistic structure. Foregrounding is the key term for stylisticians who consider different dimensions of foregrounding in a text. The mentioned aspects of foregrounding enable us to understand the importance of it as an element of stylistic approach to teaching poetry, so as McIntyre(2003)says: “The memorability of a lecture may be explained in part using linguistic foregrounding theory, arguably the cornerstone of stylistic analyses” (p.3). As foregrounding effect presses a poem into the students’ minds it is better to have a closer look at foregrounding. http://www.japmnt.com/ (JPMNT) Journal of Process Management – New Technologies, International Vol. 7, No3, 2019. 12 www.japmnt.com There are two main types of foregrounding, parallelism and deviation. Parallelism can be described as unexpected regularity. In other words parallelism is the use of components in a sentence that are grammatically the same; or similar in their construction, sound, meaning, or meter. This method adds balance and rhythm to the sentences, giving ideas a smoother flow and persuasiveness, because of the repetition technique which it utilizes. Deviation can be seen as unexpected irregularity. It is the use of a language different from the conventional and everyday language to make a strong impression on the reader’s mind. There are different types of deviation: lexical deviation, like neologism which is the invention of new words, grammatical deviation, like an unusual grammatical structure, phonological deviation, such as special pronunciation for the convenience of rhyming and eventually graphological deviation, the strangeness of pronunciation or systems of spelling. In this study, we try to focus on how stylistic approach to teaching poetry in our ESL classrooms can help us have a systematic and cohesive approach to teaching poetry. Review of Literature There are miscellaneous writings about stylistics in literature. Carter and Simpson (1995) consider the aims and methods of stylistics. They point to the significance of theory and the study of its development because they believe literary theory is a prerequisite for literary analysis. Miall and Kuiken (1994) point out the importance of foregrounding effect and they believe foregrounding through affecting the feelings triggers more reading of the work. They also discuss the reasons behind this kind of readers’ reaction to foregrounding effect. Shen (2008) likewise focuses on the marked foregrounding and backgrounding elements of a literary text and the levels of foregrounding effect. The Problem Teaching English literature in ESL classes needs special considerations. There are two major problems which an English literature instructor deals with. One is that when the students encounter the literature of another nation with a different language, they become perplexed and finally frustration overcomes. The second problem is that, since the instructors are also non- English speakers, they need to reach for a systematic way to prevent the first problem. Facing these two major problems, the instructor has to follow a comprehensive method aiming at preventing frustration on the part of the students. One of the newest and most effective methods to be applied in English literature classes is stylistic method. As far as the focus of this study is on teaching poetry, it is essential to see why stylistic approach is a preferred method to teach poetry. Why Stylistic Approach Is an Appropriate Approach to Teach Poetry? One of the best methods of teaching poetry in a non-English speaking context is stylistics. Firstly, the application of this method leaves enough space for the students to discuss. Secondly, it provides both the instructor and the student with a cohesive and systematic way of literary analysis. http://www.japmnt.com/ (JPMNT) Journal of Process Management – New Technologies, International Vol. 7, No3, 2019. 13 www.japmnt.com This method limits teacher talking since the instructor’s role is limited to priming the students with enough knowledge about poetry, and then monitoring the application of that knowledge by the students. This is a farewell to the conventional ways of lecturing in which the lecturer is a preacher who does not give opportunity to the students to present their ideas or be creative. In this method, active student involvement in the process of learning assists the students in becoming more competent and more confident to interpret and analyze poems independently. Another advantage of this method according to My Van (2009) is that since stylistics deals with language and form, it can “highlight the aesthetic value of literature” hence “the students appreciate the beauty of literary language” (p. 5). Stylistics is an approach towards appreciation, the appreciation of art, and what a writer wants to convey trough his art. The thesis As an approach to teaching poetry in ESL classrooms, stylistics is very comprehensive and cohesive. It is a way of approaching literature in general and poetry in particular through linguistic elements. The realm of linguistics consists of semantical and syntactical aspects of a text. In analyzing a poem by using stylistic approach, the instructor needs a plan based on semantic and syntactic layers of a poem. By practicing a stylistic approach in teaching poetry on semantic and syntactic levels, ESL students find their ways to an independent appreciation to analyze poems. Stylistic Approach ESL students who start studying literature should be primed in two ways. One is gaining enough knowledge of the four skills of English language. The next is being primed with enough knowledge of English literature. In non-English classrooms where the students have initiated studying English literature, they pass many English learning courses until they are well prepared to study literature. Once the students are competent enough, they are primed with sufficient knowledge of English literature. After passing the introductory stages, the students are ready to appreciate and analyze literature using stylistic approach. Foregrounding and deviation are two important concepts of stylistic analysis. For any given poem the students are encouraged to have a look for any deviation from standard norms of using language. Close studying of a text to explore deviation, is what makes stylistics the best approach to studying English. An in-depth reading of a poem according to Leech(2008) is “a close examination of the language of the poem which leads to a greater understanding of its meaning and value: I. E. to a greater APPRECIATION of it as a work of art”(p. 41). As the students find out the purpose behind the deviation, the power of foregrounding effect impresses them so that an instinctual sense of appreciation of the beauty of the poem directs them towards an imaginative reading of the poem. According to Leech (2008), “foregrounding invites an act of IMAGINATIVE INTERPRETATION by the reader. When an abnormality comes to our attention, we try to make sense of it” (p. 47). http://www.japmnt.com/ (JPMNT) Journal of Process Management – New Technologies, International Vol. 7, No3, 2019. 14 www.japmnt.com Using imagination while reading poetry triggers the creative thinking on the part of the students and this ascertains the significance of employing stylistic method for students who are meant to be imaginative, creative and independent interpreters of poetry. In the following sections we try to plan a systematic stylistic teaching method in a poetry class by focusing on deviation and foregrounding effect at the same time. Before planning any teaching program for a lecture in poetry based on stylistic approach there is an introductory task which should be performed when students are thought a new poem. Before analyzing any poem the students need to understand the poem fully. According to Leech and Short (2007), “The procedure in each case will be to begin with some general first impression of the passage …” (p. 82). Thus, before analyzing any poem students are asked to grasp the general meaning of the poem individually or in literary circles. The students are assigned to look up the meaning of the new words and in an introductory session share their impressions of the poem as a class. Once the instructor is sure that all the students have understood the meaning of the poem a systematic stylistic analysis of the poem is aroused. But the instructor is to be sure that the students are primed with enough knowledge of poetic language and literary devices. To do so an easy initiation is essential in ESL classes. Beginning with an easy poem is an essential factor affecting the selection of the poems. Another important factor in selecting a poem for teaching is dominant figures of speech of the selected poem. The important figure of speech or figures of speech of the poem under study are taught in advance. For example in most ESL classes teaching poetry starts with a poem like “The Eagle,”by Alfred Lord Tennyson (1851). In this poem the dominant figure of speech in this poem is imagery and the structural deviation is both conspicuous and understandable for the students. Therefore the students can find the vivid examples of imagery and understand the examples of grammatical deviation of this poem. Thereafter they try to relate all these findings to the whole semantic body of the poem. The method of initiation paves the way for the students’ poetic analysis in a straightforward way. The class discussion of a poem is divided into two levels, the semantic level and syntactic level. On the semantic level, meaning based and sound based features of poems are discussed. In the semantic level, by the act of decoding language, we try to come to the desired purpose and meaning of the device and the significance of deviation from standard use of language. In the syntactic level, we examine and discus the structure of the poem along with the connection between the normal or deviated structure and the meaning of the poem as a whole. Finally, so long as any piece of a poem is a living whole body of language, we connect our pieces of the findings to come to a concluding appreciation of the poem as a whole. Considering deviation and foregrounding, we come to the coherence of foregrounding which according to Mukarovsky (1964) is “maximum of foregrounding” of a poem not only in the “foregrounded components” but also “in the consistency and systematic character of foregrounding. http://www.japmnt.com/ (JPMNT) Journal of Process Management – New Technologies, International Vol. 7, No3, 2019. 15 www.japmnt.com The consistency manifests itself in the fact that the reshaping of the foregrounded component within a given work occurs in a stable direction …” (p. 44). In a given poem, all elements, including foregrounding elements, work together as a systematic whole. Concluding interpretation of the poem under study is integrated by connecting and relating all the elements and pieces of meaning to the general meaning, and the effect of the poem as a whole. Deviation, which is a key term of stylistics, can be found in all poetry. Considering deviation, there is no poem that does not lend to stylistic approach of analysis. Based on the view of Levin (1965), “ it can be shown that most, if not indeed all, of poetry’s characteristic devices exemplify deviation in one way or another” (p. 225). He hints at examples of poetic devices and the deviation they carry in themselves. Rhyme, rhythm, alliteration, metaphor, symbolism, myth and imagery all are elements of poetry that manifest deviation from the normal use of language. The result is the foregrounding effect which elicits the reader and in our case the learners’ interest in reading and enjoying the beauty of poetic language. Levin (1965) goes on saying “It is this characteristic of a deviant expression, that of calling attention to itself as object, which gives it its importance in stylistic analysis” (p. 226). So far, we know that the focus of stylistic approach is mostly on deviation, which results in foregrounding effect. In the next section of this study a poem by E. E. Cummings was selected to be analyzed using the stylistic approach. The reason for selecting E. E. Cummings’ poetry is that he is one of the most innovative poets of his time. He is famous for using eccentric poetic language to create his own style. As an avant-garde poet, he has invented new words, he has reversed grammar of the sentence, and he has sacrificed punctuation in favor of flexibility of his poetic language. Analyzing “Listen” Mclntyre (2004) elaborates on the deviation of the poem by pointing to “the almost constant use of lower case letters where we would normally expect capitals” (p.7). This kind of initial deviation is called graphological deviation which Mclntyre (2004) elaborates by saying,“ However, one of the effects of this graphological deviation is to foreground any instances where Cummings does use capitalization” (p.7).This example shows us how a poet utilizes foregrounding effect in order to convey what he wants to convey in the most effective and impressive possible way. E. E. Cummings is also considered one of the best authors of love poems of all time. “I Carry Your Heart With Me” is his most famous love poem. The poem can be compared with a sonnet due to its similar structure, but Cummings adds modern twists to it. It begins with the speaker describing the universal influence of his love in his life and goes on to touch several themes including oneness and love as the originators of life. Its popularity can be ascertained by the fact that its opening line remains to be often tattooed by people and its lines have been used in several works. Before analyzing the poem we have a glimpse at an ESL poetry class. http://www.japmnt.com/ (JPMNT) Journal of Process Management – New Technologies, International Vol. 7, No3, 2019. 16 www.japmnt.com ESL Class Analysis Procedure Analysis of a poem in a stylistic based ESL classroom, is a three dimensional process. After a full introductory comprehension of the poem which can be more appealing if it is done in groups, the students start identifying the literary features of the poem. This stage can be called the identification stage. In the second stage, which is the exploring stage, the students are encouraged to explore any deviation they can see in the application of the specific identified feature of the poem. The final stage is the concluding stage. In this phase, the students pinpoint the foregrounding effect behind the deviation. All these activities are performed on both semantic and syntactic levels. Following this procedure is sometimes flexible as long as students undergo analyzing different poems, even conventional ones. But the overall form of the procedure is the same. For example, a poem in which there is few or no deviation for the students to identify may be read in the class. In this case, the students just identify the literary devices and make a connection between the device and the content of the poem. Whether the poem is an experimental poem or a conventional one, following this procedure leads the ESL students through the way of a systematic and purposeful interpretation of any poem in an independent way. Semantic Level On the semantic level, sound based and meaning based devices of “[i carry your heart with me (I carry it in],” by E. E. Cummings (1952) are elaborated. Sound based devices include meter, rhyme, alliteration and other specific figures related to the sound pattern of the poem. Meaning based devices are imagery, simile, metaphor and other devices associated to the meaning of the poem. After reading the poem and understanding the meaning of it, our students who have been primed with enough knowledge of poetic language are asked to identify the elements of the poem. For each element the students are asked to spot any deviation they can find in the poem. Eventually the students experience and enjoy the foregrounding effect of the poem. It is in this stage that the learner’s creative part of mind is induced towards an active act of creativity. As Leech (2008) puts out, “In addition to the normal process of interpretation which apply to texts, whether literary or not, foregrounding invites an act of imaginative interpretation by the reader. When an abnormality comes to our attention, we try to make sense of it” (p. 61).This can be considered as the ultimate objective of a poetry class, to encourage and lead the students to meditate, contemplate and create ideas. Syntactic Level Hence, Cumming’s poetry is outstanding for the graphological deviation, in the syntactic level we focus on the different graphological deviations of his poem. Graphological deviation is all about the shape of the text, capitalization or decapitalization and punctuation. One of the effects of graphological deviation is to foreground any instances of deviation like a painter playing with his brush to stroke a pallet with astonishing figures. http://www.japmnt.com/ (JPMNT) Journal of Process Management – New Technologies, International Vol. 7, No3, 2019. 17 www.japmnt.com The Poet Estlin Cummings was one of the most idiosyncratic and notable American poets of the twentieth century. His idiosyncrasy is rooted in his intense interest in poetry. He considered himself as a painter and was one the admirers of Pablo Picasso. His poetry was highly visual and he used typography, to say forming patterns in texts, to play more with the form of poems. He played with the established styles of poetry for the benefit of meaning and aesthetics. Aesthetics of his poetry play a role in the way the message is being delivered. His desire was to make people notice their own lives, to break down from the frenzy of our rushing world and all the rules that hold us in place. He accomplished this by using a few techniques in his poem, such as experimenting with form. He experimented with poetic form and language to create a distinct and personal style. His poetry is best known for his unorthodox usage of both capitalization and punctuation, in which unexpected and seemingly misplaced punctuation sometimes interrupt sentences and even individual words. In “[i carry your heart with me (i carry it in]” the eccentricity of Cummings’ poetry is more conspicuous. Subject and Form Cummings has mingled a conventional subject with an unconventional form. The poem is a love poem in which the speaker is telling his beloved that wherever he goes, he always carries his lover’s heart with him. Unlike the conventional sonnet form of love poems, Cummings’ use of free verse with four stanzas of varying lengths makes his poem an unconventional love poem. Semantic Level The poem starts with a beautiful metaphor. The students are encouraged and directed by the instructor to identify the metaphorical expression. People cannot really carry a person’s heart. Students then explore the deviated use of expression. The speaker carries his beloved heart to point to his depth of his love for her. In this stage students tell the class the foregrounding effect of the metaphor. They can be asked to write the foregrounding effect as an assignment. The same procedure can take place for another unconventional use of language. The paradoxical phrases throughout the poem engender a sense of clash in the readers’ mind only to show that the power of love is the constant dominant force in the speaker’s world. “i fear,” “no fate,” tells the reader he doesn’t fear any fate since his lover is his fate or , “I want,” “no world,” means he doesn’t want anything since his beloved means the whole world to him. In groups, the students identify, explore and analyze the foregrounding effect of the paradoxical expressions with the instructor’s supervision. The second stanza contains beautiful imagery. The speaker tells his lover that whatever the moon is it has always been for her, and the sun’s song is sung for her, as well. At the same time, Cummings makes use of personification of the moon and the sun. The speaker empowers two huge natural icons by personifying them to serve his beloved. The effect is the powerful love he feels for his dearest. http://www.japmnt.com/ (JPMNT) Journal of Process Management – New Technologies, International Vol. 7, No3, 2019. 18 www.japmnt.com Syntactic Level On the syntactic level, we explore the grammatical aspects of the poem considering the grammatical deviation. The deviant use of punctuation, unusual bracketing, usage of lower case letters and disruptive word order are typical of Cummings’ poetry. As pointed before, one of the main purposes behind any instance of breaking with the standard rules is to foreground. The special punctuation positions are intended to foreground a special motif, inserting brackets serves to insert and foreground feelings and emotions, the use of lowercase letters where we normally expect capitalization is a way to foreground un-capitalized word and, eventually, Cummings plays with the word order to create a sort of unconventional sentence structure, in an attempt to foreground special words and concepts. In “i carry your heart with me,” phrases are bracketed where there is no grammatical need. Brackets are supposed to add something to the text without interrupting the flow of mind. In this poem there is something more to the use of brackets. For example, in lines two and three brackets function with the same purpose but they have got something more to say. The use of brackets foregrounds the idea that the lovers are always connected since they are often together in the same word combination. On the other hand the reader can see the weird lack of spaces between clauses in line four. This technique is utilized to stress and foreground the idea of unity between the lovers. We can find many cases of unspacing throughout the poem. Cummings frequently uses the pronoun I and all single letters in lower case in the poem. There are different theories as to why Cummings would not capitalize the pronoun. One reason could be the fact that he wants to be the same level with his beloved. Another instance of graphological deviation in the poem is the run-on lines or enjambment device. Each line flows into the next without any punctuation. It is a sort of deviation from ordinary sentence writing in which the end of the sentence as the unit of meaning, does not finish with full stop but the first stanza is written as one long run-on sentence. The lines do not end in full stops to point to the speakers’ limitless love. Conclusion Stylistic approach is an effective method of teaching literature in ESL classes. In this method, a relation between linguistic features and the purpose of a work of art and in our case a poem is made. The focus of this method is on the style, the typical way in which a poet makes use of semantical and syntactical elements of the work towards the ultimate desired objective. All the specific features of stylistic method enable the instructor to plan a purposeful and meaningful method of teaching to assist and prime the learners to become confident and competent enough to analyze a poem so as to write rich and mature essays about poems independently. Gradually the application of this systematic method is internalized by the learners and they become skillful and confident enough to brainstorm new ideas of their own. http://www.japmnt.com/ (JPMNT) Journal of Process Management – New Technologies, International Vol. 7, No3, 2019. 19 www.japmnt.com This is an ideal objective of teaching and training non-English language students of literature, who have never been in touch with English literature. Application of this method is a big step forward in the field of teaching literature before. It must be mentioned that any suggested method of teaching should not be inflexible and rigid. What gives life and soul to any classroom teaching is the teacher’s creativity to adjust the style of teaching to the specific characteristic of a class. The application of this method joined with the instructors’ own teaching strategy, provides the desired outcome in any English literature classes. References Abrams, M. H. (1993). A Glossary of Literary Terms. The United States of America: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Carter, R. & Simpson, P. (Eds).(1995), Language, Discourse and Literature.London: Routledge. Leech, G. & Short, M. (2007).A Linguistic Introduction to English FictionalProse. Harlow: Pearson Longman. Leech, G. (2008). Language in Literature: Style and Foregrounding. Harlow: Pearson Longman. Levin, S. R. (1965). Internal and external deviation in poetry.Word, 21(2), 225-237. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1080/00437956.1965.11435425 ManIntyre, D. (2003).Using foregrounding theory as a teaching methodology in astylistic course.Style.37 (1), 1-13. Mclntyre, D. (2004). Linguistics and literature: stylistics as a tool for the literary critic. Stylistics Research Centre Working Papers 1. Retrieved fromhttps://pdfs.semanticscholar.org Miall, D. S. &Kuiken, D. (1994). Foregrounding, defamiliarization, and affect response to literary stories. Poetics, 22, 389-407. Mukarovsky, J. (1964).Standard language and poetic language.A Prague School Reader on Esthetics, Literary Structure, and Style,pp. 17-30. My Van, T. T. (2009).The relevance of literary analysis to teaching literature in the EFL classroom.English Teaching Forum,47 (3), 2-9. Simpson, P. (2004).Stylistics: A Resource Book for Students. London: Routledge. http://www.japmnt.com/ https://doi.org/10.1080/00437956.1965.11435425 https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/ 
work_pgbyrtel4fbubhglbnokwwoxbm	----	Submitted : 29.09.2020 Accepted: : 02.12.2020 Year : December 2020 Volume: 1 Issue: 2 DOI : 10.47333/modernizm.2020265881 10 MODERN SANAT Gülderen Görenek 1 Öz 1860-1960 yılları arasında yüz yıllık bir dönemi kapsayan modern sanatta, natüralizmden uzak bir anlayışla doğaya yaklaşılmıştır. Modernizmle gelen yabancılaşmaya karşı sanatçıların tek sığınak alanı sanat olmuş, “sanat için sanat” mottosuyla işlevsellik önemsenmiş ve her türlü süs olgusu bertaraf edilmiştir. Hep yeniye ulaşma arzusuyla resimde yüzey, biçim ve renk önemsenmiş ve öze varma isteği içinde temel formlar değer kazanmıştır. Modern sanatta tuval yüzeyi ve boya, geleneksel sanatın tersine bir anlayışla sahiplenilen ve hatta öne çıkarılan unsurlar olmuştur. Cleement Greenberg‟e göre ilk modern sanatçı Edouard Manet‟dir. Sanatçı resim yüzeyini izleyiciye göstermekten çekinmemiş ve onun önderliğinde ilerleyen Empresyonistler açık havada ışığın peşine düşerek artık hazır, tüpe girmiş boyayı, olduğu gibi ham haliyle kullanmışlardır. Cezanne ise tuvalin yatay dikeyliğini vurgulama adına biçimlerini deforme etmekten kaçınmamış, gerçekliğin ardındaki özü, geometrik form yardımıyla yapıda aramıştır. Derinliğin iki boyuta indirgenerek yüzeye çekildiği ve adına soyut espas denilen modern sanat anlayışında, kullanılan biçimler doğa taklidinden uzaktır. Mimesisin (taklit) terk edildiği yaklaşımda form, soyutlama yoluyla stilize ya da deforme edilmekte ve paralel düzlemler oluşturacak şekilde yan yana ya da art arda parçalanarak yerleştirilmektedir. Üretimin ve yaşantının, Fordist üretim anlayışıyla parçalara bölündüğü bir süreçte fragman estetiğinin modern sanatın dili olması da bir tesadüf değildir. Yine modern sanat içinde görülen gerçeklikten tamamen koparak ruhsal deneyimlerin, saf duygu yoğunluklarının aktarımına giden sanatçılar, doğadan tamamen koparak metafizik bir evrene, soyut sanata varmışlardır. Postmodern sanatı anlamak için öncelikle modern sanatın iyi kavranması gerektiği düşünülmektedir. Çalışmada, Modern Döneme ait resim sanatı akımları, analitik bir bakış açısı ve sürece etki ederek, akışı kökten değiştirmiş örnek resimlerle ele alınmıştır. Bu çalışma ile onlarca akıma sahip modern sanatın temeli ve bu temel doğrultusunda ortaya çıkan akımların kolaylıkla anlaşılması amaçlanmıştır. Çalışmada nitel araştırma yöntemi kullanılmıştır. Anahtar Kelimeler: Modern Dönem, Modern, Modern Sanat, Akım, Yüzey, Biçim, Renk. MODERN ART Abstract In modern art covering a century between 1860-1960, nature was approached with an understanding far from naturalism. Against the alienation that came with modernism, art has been the only shelter for the artists putting functionality in the center with the motto “art is for art” and disgarded all kinds of ornaments. With the desire to reach new, the surface, shape and color in painting have been cared for, and basic forms have gained value in the desire to reach the essence. In modern art, the canvas surface and paint have been elements that are embraced and even highlighted with an understanding contrary to traditional art. According to Cleement Greenberg, Edouard Manet was the first Modern artist. The artist did not hesitate to show the painting surface to the viewer, and the Impressionists, who proceeded under his leadership, followed the light in the open air and used the ready-made, tubed paint in its raw form. On the other hand, Cezanne did not hesitate to deform the forms in order to emphasize the horizontal verticality of the canvas, and sought the essence behind reality in the structure with the help of geometric forms. In the modern art understanding, where the depth is reduced to two dimensions and drawn to the surface and called abstract space, the forms used are far from imitation of nature. In the approach where mimesis (imitation) is abandoned, the forms are stylized or deformed through abstraction and placed side by side or successively fragmented to form parallel planes. It is no coincidence that fragment aesthetics is the language of Modern Art in a process where production and life are fragmented with the Fordist understanding of production. The artists, who completely broke off from the reality seen in modern art and went to the transfer of spiritual experiences and pure emotional intensities, came to a metaphysical universe, abstract art, by completely breaking away from nature. 1 Doçent, Resim, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart Üniversitesi, gulderengorenek@gmail.com, https://orcid.org/0000- 0002-9561-1925. MODERN SANAT Gülderen Görenek 11 In order to understand postmodern art, it is thought that modern art should be understood well. In the study, the painting movements of the Modern Period are discussed with an analytical perspective and sample paintings that have radically changed the flow by influencing the process. With this study, it is aimed to easily understand the basis of modern art, which has dozens of movements, and the approaches that emerged in line with this foundation. Qualitative research method was used in the study. Keywords: The Modern Period, Modern, Modern Art, Movement, Surface, Form, Color. Giriş 1789 Fransız Devrimi, yeni bir devlet yapılanmasına; Aydınlanma, yeni bir kültürel etkiye; 1770 yılı Sanayi Devrimi ise tarım ve hayvancılıkta ilerlemelere, nüfusta büyümeye, kırsaldan kentlere göçe ve endüstride gelişmelere neden olmuştur. Özellikle sanayileşmeyle gelen değişimler sonrasında politik ve ekonomik bunalımlar baş göstermiş bu da 1848 ve 1871 ayaklanmalarıyla sonuçlanmıştır (Harvey 39). Modernizm de tüm bu gelişmelerin ardından bir dönem özelliği göstererek ortaya çıkmıştır. Modernizm, sanayileşmeyle birlikte gelen kentsel bir olgudur ve kentleşmeyle birlikte bireyselleşme, endüstrileşme, yabancılaşma, laikleşme ve metalaşma modernizmin kapsamı içinde ele alınmaktadır. Huns Robert Jauss‟a göre modern terimi V. yüzyılda „şimdi‟ anlamında Latince “modo” kelimesinden türemiştir ve modern, şimdiyi yücelterek bugünün dünden, geleceğin ise bugünden ileri olduğunu ima etmektedir (Habermas 31). Modernizmin temelinde yeniye bir tutku vardır. Yeniye olan bu tutku, sanayileşmeyle gelen tüketim kültürünün körüklediği bir yaklaşım olmuştur. Çünkü tüketim kültürüyle gelen meta toplumu hep yeniyi elde etme davranışıyla sürecin devamlılığı için bir tampon görevi üstlenmiştir (Burger 123). Bu anlamda Walter Benjamin (131), kentli toplumun tüketim kültürünün yeni alışkanlığı olan endüstriyel lüksün icadı pasajlardan bahsetmekte ve pasajları, camlı çatılarıyla ışığı yukarıdan alan ve her iki yakasında dükkanların bulunduğu caddeyle iç mekân arası bir yer olarak tarif etmektedir. Böylece pasajlarla bulvarlar, iç mekâna dönüşmekte ve yeni kentli tip olan modern zamanların kent gezgini “flâneur” için cadde konuta dönüşmektedir. “Flaneur olgusunda aydın pazara çıkmıştır. Pazarı görmek için çıktığını sanmaktadır, ama gerçekte alıcısını bulmak için çıkmıştır,” (Benjamin 39). Baudelaire için de kalabalıklarda var olan ve gördüğü her şeyi derin bir duyarlılıkla gözlemleyen sanatçı tipi, bu kentli ortamda “flâneur” olmalıdır. Hatta Baudelaire (207), sanatçı sıfatı için “…çoğu hünerli kaba saba insanlar, katıksız zanaatkârlar, köyün zekileri dar kafalılarıdır.” diyerek yermiş ve modern yeni sanatçı tipini, dünya insanı olarak nitelendirdiği Bay G üzerinden tarif etmiştir. Baudelaire, Bay G için bu dünyanın manevi işleyişine ilişkin ince bir duyarlılığa sahip dünya insanı oluşuna ad koyarken sanatçı yerine ona, “dandy” demiştir. Modern Sanat Modernizm, resim sanatında 1860-1960 yıllarını kapsayan bir dönem olarak ortaya çıkmıştır. Resim sanatında bu başlangıç 1830 Romantizm ve Gustave Courbet‟ye kadar taşınsa da 1860 Edouard Manet ile başlayıp 1900‟lerde estetik bir dil kazanan ve 1945‟lerde olgunlaşıp 1960‟ta sonlanan modernizm, yüz yıllık bir süreci kapsamıştır (Şimşek). Resim sanatında bu yüz yıllık süreçte modernizmin getirmiş olduğu yabancılaşmaya karşı sanatçıların tek sığınak alanı sanat olmuştur. Sanat için sanat mottosuyla işlevselliğin önemsendiği ve her türlü süs olgusunun bertaraf edildiği modernizmde hep yeni olma arzusuyla resimde geleneksel anlayıştan uzaklaşılmış ve o zamana kadar saklanması gereken bir unsur olarak görülen resim yüzeyi tam tersine öne çıkarılmıştır. Bu bağlamda modern sanatta; yüzey, biçim ve renk önemli olmuş ve sanatta öze varma isteği, temel formları değerli kılmıştır. Modern anlayışın en önemli eleştirmenlerinden biri olan Clement Greenberg, modern sanat estetiğini şu dört madde ile sıralamıştır. Modern sanat: 1. İçerikten çok biçime önem verir. (“Bu aslında ortamın (medium) gelişmesi ve soyutlamaya indirgenmesi anlamına gelir.”) 2. Biçim, yüzey, renk önemsenen önemli unsurlardır. 3. Estetik etki başlıca unsur olarak politik etki ya da toplumsal anlamın önünde durur. 4. İzleyen sanatsal bir uğraş içinde olur. Günlük yaşamın getirdiği her türlü karmaşadan uzaktır (Whitham ve Pooke 17-18). JOMOPS - 2020 / Volume: 1 / Issue: 2 (December) Gülderen Görenek 12 Modern Sanatta tuval yüzeyi ve boya geleneksel sanattın tersine bir anlayışla sahiplenilen ve öne çıkarılan unsurlar arasında yer almıştır. Bu esasta Edouard Manet, resim yüzeyini ve boyayı çeşitli geleneksel tekniklerle saklamadan izleyiciye olduğu gibi göstermekten çekinmemiştir. Bu özelliğinden ötürü Greenberg resim sanatında ilk modern olarak Manet‟yi ve ilk modern resim olarak sanatçının 1863‟de yapmış olduğu “Olimpia„yı” göstermiştir (Greenberg 357). Sanatçı, gerek “Kırda Öğle Yemeği‟nde” gerek “Olimpia‟da” gündelik hayattan olay ve insanları seçerek izleyicileri şok duygusu içinde bırakacak resimler üretmiştir (Şekil 1 ve 2.). Örneğin “Olimpia‟da” dağınık beyaz çarşaf üzerinde davetkâr yarı çıplak yatan kadın, artık kendi gerçekliği dışında herhangi bir şeye imada bulunmamaktadır. Bu resimde boyanın boya olarak gösterildiği ve bir genelev kadınının müşterisinden gelen çiçeği kabul ettiği modern zamana ait bir an resmedilmiştir. Şekil 1. Edouard Manet, 1863, Kırda Öğle Yemeği, 208 x 265,5 cm Şekil 2. Edouard Manet, 1863, Olympia, 130,5 x 190 cm Manet‟nin önderliğinde ilerleyen Empresyonistler boyayı, tüpten çıkmış ham haliyle beyaz astarlı tuvallere kullanmışlardır. Böylelikle zaten ışığın peşinde olan Empresyonistler için resimler daha ışıklı olmuştur. Fotoğraf makinesinin olanaklarından, Japon estamplarından ve Michel Eugène Chevreul‟ün “Renklerin Eş Zamanlı Kontrastı Kanunu” çalışmasından etkilenen Empresyonistler, doğadan duyumlarıyla edindikleri izlenimleri resimlerine aktarmışlardır. En önemli Empresyonist sanatçı Claude Monet‟dir. Bir süre Argenteuil‟in açık havasında Manet ile birlikte de çalışan Monet, hayatı boyunca Empresyonist resimler yapmıştır. Yağlı boyanın, endüstrileşerek tüp içine girmesi, bu dönemde Monet gibi diğer ressamlara da açık havada çalışma fırsatı vermesi açısından önemli olmuştur. Monet resimlerinde günün herhangi bir saatinde ışığı, yakalamak istemiş ve ışıkla birlikte değişen renkleri resimlerine yansıtmıştır. Sanatçı, açık havada çalışmanın olanağı içinde kesik fırça vuruşları kullanırken resimlerinde formlar hacimlerini kaybederek yassılaşmıştır. Hatta resimlerde dağılan formlar, ancak belli bir mesafeye ihtiyaç duyarak anlam kazanmaktadır. Monet, Empresyonist anlayışın temelinde ışıkla birlikte değişen gerçekliği yakalama adına günün başka zamanlarına ait görünüşleri tekrarlayarak birçok seri resimler yapmıştır. Sanatçının seri resimlerinden biri olan “Saman Yığınları” (Şekil 3) daha sonra Wassili Kandinsky gibi soyut resmin öncüsüne de ilham olmuştur. MODERN SANAT Gülderen Görenek 13 Neo-empresyonist akımın öncü ressamlarından biri olan George Seurat, renk üzerine Chevruel ve Ogden Rood‟un bilimsel çalışmalarını resim alanına taşımıştır. Renkleri palette karıştırıp renk yoğunluklarını azaltmak yerine tüpten çıktığı gibi ham, rengin en yoğun haliyle tuvale noktalar halinde yan yana sürmüş ve ara renklerin optik yanılsamayla izleyenin gözünde oluşmasını sağlamıştır. Sanatçı, “Grande Jatte Adası‟nda Bir Pazar Öğleden Sonra” (Şekil 4) resmini 1884-86 yılları arasında iki yılda bitirmiştir. Bu resmi planlarken onlarca büyük ebatta taslak resimler yapmıştır. Bu resimde sanatçı hem renk üzerine bilimsel bulguları sanata taşırken hem de modern bir kentlinin hafta sonlarını nasıl geçireceklerine dair bir hayat önerisi de sunmaktadır. Ancak sanatçı, modern sanat anlayışı içinde yüzey, renk ve biçim kaygılarını bir kenara bırakmadan resmini oluşturmaktadır. Modern sanatta önemli bir unsur olan tuvalin yatay ve dikeyliğini vurgulamak için resmi biteviye dolaşan boyalı tuşlarla renkli bir çerçeve oluşturmuştur. Şekil 3. Claude Monet, 1872, İzlenim- Gündoğumu, 48 x 63 cm Şekil 4. Georges Seurat, 1884-86, Grande Jatte Adası'nda Bir Pazar Öğleden Sonra, 207,5 x 308 cm Şekil 5. Paul Gauguin, 1897, Nereden Geldik, Kimiz, Nereye Gidiyoruz, 139,1 x 374,6 cm Şekil 6. Vincent Van Gogh, 1890, Buğday Tarlası, 50,5 x 103 cm Şekil 7. Paul Cezanne, 1889, Kırmızı Yelekli Çocuk, Tuval üzerine yağlı boya, 64,5 x 80 cm JOMOPS - 2020 / Volume: 1 / Issue: 2 (December) Gülderen Görenek 14 Paul Gauguin, Vincent van Gogh ve Paul Cézanne, Post-empresyonist sanatçılardır. Paul Gauguin, Modern Dönem‟de primitif sanatlara karşı duyulan ilginin etkisiyle Avrupa dışına çıkarak Tahiti‟ye yerleşmiş burada ilkel hayatın saflığı içinde öze varmak istemiştir (Şekil 5). Resimleriyle Fovizm ve Renk Alan Resmine öncülük etmiştir. Yine diğer Post-empresyonist sanatçı Vincent van Gogh kendine özgü atak fırça vuruşu ve renk kullanımıyla modern sanatın önemli sanatçılarından biri olmuş ve resimleri Ekspresyonist sanatçılara ilham vermiştir (Şekil 6). Paul Cezanne ise Kübizm‟e öncülük etmiştir. Sanatçı kendi anlayışını oluştururken doğaya duyular yardımıyla varmış ve böylece yakaladığı gerçekliğin ayakları yere basarken rengin ve biçimin ahengine ulaşmıştır (Read 205). Ancak Cezanne, Empresyonist sanatçıların duyumlara bağlı uçucu form anlayışını reddetmiş, küp, küre, prizma, silindir gibi temel biçimler aracılıyla doğayı akıl yoluyla kavrayarak yapı arayışına girişmiştir. Sanatçı, (Şekil 7) resimlerinde modülasyon tekniğiyle tuvalin yatay dikeyliğini vurgulamak için biçimlerini deforme etmekten çekinmemiştir (Greenberg 357). Sanatçı, modern sanat anlayışını kavrayışıyla özellikle Kübizm ve soyut sanatın gelişimine öncülük etmiştir. Ekspresyonizm yine 20. yüzyılın başlarında ortaya çıkan akımlardan biri olmuştur. Van Gogh‟un açmış olduğu yolda duygularıyla ilerleyen sanatçılar, Almanya‟da 1905‟te Dresden‟de Die Brücke Grubu‟nu kurmuşlardır ki grup daha sonra çalışmalarını Berlin‟e taşımıştır. 1913 yılında grup dağılana kadar Ekspresyonist sanatçılar doğayı, kendilerinde uyandırdığı duygular temelinde resimlemişlerdir (Şekil 8). Akımın diğer grubu ise 1911 yılında Münih‟de kurulan Der Blaue Reiter grubu olmuştur. Wassili Kandinsky grubun kurucusu ve önemli sanatçısı olarak soyut resim denemelerine girişmiştir. Der Blaue Reiter (Mavi Binici) sanatçıları, grubun adında da geçen mavi rengine ve at figürüne, Franz Marc gibi diğer grup üyeleriyle birlikte mistik anlamlar da yükleyerek resimlerinde sıklıkla kullanmışlardır (Şekil 9 ve Şekil 10). I. Dünya Savaşı‟nın başlamasıyla grup dağılmış ancak Kandinsky, rengin ve biçimin müzikle kurulmuş olan ritmik birlikteliğini duyumsattığı resimleriyle soyut resmin ilk ressamı olmuştur. Şekil 8. Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, 1913-14, Berlin Sokağı, 121x 95 cm Şekil 9. Wassili Kandinsky, 1911, Kompozisyon IV, 159,5 x 250,5 cm Şekil 10. Franz Marc, 1911, Büyük Mavi Atlar, 104,78 x 181,61 cm Henri Matisse, 20. yüzyılda Paris‟te ortaya çıkan akımlardan olan Fovizmin kurucusu ve önemli bir sanatçısı olmuştur. Neo-empresyonistlerden etkilenen sanatçı, sonrasında rengi daha atak ve yalın haliyle yüzeye sürerek renkçi bir anlayışta resimler üretmiştir. Derinliği yüzeye çekerken espası aynı değerde tuttuğu sıcak soğuk renk zıtlıklarıyla yakalayan sanatçı, modern sanatın yeniye olan tutkusunu 20. yüzyılın başlarında rengi egemen kılarak ortaya koymuştur (Şekil 11). Matisse‟in parlak ve atak renk kullanımındaki cesareti, Pablo Picasso için itici bir güç olurken sanatçıyı başka arayışlara sürüklemeye kaynaklık etmiştir (Şekil 12). MODERN SANAT Gülderen Görenek 15 Şekil 11. Henri Matisse, 1910, Dans II, 391 x 260 cm Şekil 12. Picasso, 1907, Avignonlu Kadınlar, 243,9 x 233,7 cm Pablo Picasso Matisse‟den ve modern sanat anlayışından aldığı yeniye dönük ilhamı, Afrika ve İberya masklarıyla harmanlamış ve babamız dediği Cézanne‟nın çizdiği yolda ilerleyerek George Braque‟la birlikte 20. yüzyılın önemli akımlarından biri olan Kübizmi kuran önemli sanatçılarından biri olmuştur. Cézanne‟nın temel geometrik formlarla doğadaki yapıyı görme yaklaşımını sahiplenen sanatçı, Braque‟la birlikte Fransız Pireneleri‟nde bir yıl sürecek çalışmalara girişmiştir. Manzara, portre ve özellikle natürmort resim türünde örnekler veren bu iki sanatçı, doğaya duyumlarla değil akıl yoluyla varmaya çalışmışlardır. “Kübizmde soyut biçimlerin oluşturduğu bir varlık düzeninde var olan salt biçimdir (Tunalı 165-166).” Şekil 13. Pablo Picasso, 1911, Piyano Üzerinde Natürmort Şekil 14. Pablo Picasso, 1912, Gitar, Kâğıt, Müzik ve Şişe Şekil 15. George Braque, 1913, Dama Tahtası Tivoli Sinema, 92,3 x 65,5 cm Kübist anlayışta ilk olarak Analitik Kübist resimler veren sanatçılar bu yaklaşımda faklı açılardan aldıkları görüntüleri parçalara bölmüş ve üst üste ya da yan yana yerleştirerek resim yüzeyinde tüm açıları tek bir görünüşe yani tek bir ana sıkıştırmışlardır. Böylece tamamen temsil sisteminden uzaklaşılırken Einstein‟nın Görelilik Kuramı‟nda da bahsi geçen dördüncü boyut olan zaman kavramı resmin içine girmiştir. Sentetik Kübizmde ise zaman kavramı, başka mekân, dolayısıyla başka anlardan toplanan gazete, duvar kâğıdı ya da hasır gibi malzemelerin kolaj tekniğiyle resimde kullanılmasıyla gerçekleştirilmiştir (Şekil 13,14 ve 14). Modern sanatın en önemli eleştirmenlerinden Greenberg, Kübizm ile resimde kullanılan imgelerin artık zorlukla seçildiğini ve Batı sanatında Cimabue‟den beri görülmeyen bir düzlüğün varlığının Kübist yaklaşım ile resme taşındığını ifade etmiştir (Greenberg 359). Fütürizm 1909 yılında İtalya‟da etkinlik kazanmış bir akımdır. Bir grup sanatçının, Kübist form anlayışına ve modernizmle gelen makineleşmeye karşı duydukları hayranlığın göstergesi olarak ortaya çıkmıştır. Kent görüntüleri, tren istasyonları ve trenler, fabrikalar, elektrik direkleri gibi modern hayatla gelen unsurlar hayatın dinamizmini yüceltme adına Fütürist resme konu olmuştur. Dolayısıyla makineleşmenin getirmiş olduğu hız ve dinamizm bu akımda, dile getirilmesi gereken en önemli unsurdur. Akımın sanatçısı olan Umberto Boccioni 1911 yılına ait “Ruh Durumları: Uğurlamalar” (Şekil 16) adlı triptik resminde Analitik Kübist yaklaşıma ritmik hareketlerle yakaladığı dinamizmi eklemiştir. Resimde kullanılan parçalanmış ve çoğaltılmış hayatın temsili olan biçimler, saydam JOMOPS - 2020 / Volume: 1 / Issue: 2 (December) Gülderen Görenek 16 parçalar halinde üst üste yerleştirilirken nesneleri tanımak ve onları birbirinden ayırmak zorlaşmıştır (Lynton 88-89). Şekil 16. Umberto Boccioni, 1911, Aklın Durumu I, Uğurlamalar, 70,5 x 96,2 cm Şekil 17. Kazimir Malevich, 1915, Siyah Kare, 106 x 106 cm Şekil 18. Marcel Duchamp 1917, Fountain-Çeşme Modern sanatta, Kandinsky ile başlayan soyut sanat, Kazamir Maleviç‟in de başvurduğu bir modern sanat dili olmuştur (Şekil 17). Maleviç‟in resim anlayışında formlar doğa taklidinden tamamen uzaktır. Hiçbir form doğada izlenebilecek bir gerçekliğe göndermede bulunmamaktadır. Süprematizm denilen bu sanat akımında, güzellik ve gerçekliğin ardındaki öz; kare, dikdörtgen, daire gibi salt geometrik formlarda aranmıştır. “Siyah Kare” (1915), saf duygunun ifade alanı olarak hiçbir şeyin resmi; resmin sıfır noktası olmuş ve Maleviç (207) tarafından şöyle ifade edilmiştir: “Kare, bilinçaltı bir biçim değil. Sezgisel aklın yaratımı. O yeni sanatın yüzü. Kare canlı bir kraliyet çocuğu. Sanatta saf yaratımın ilk adımı. Ondan önce, doğanın naif çarpıtmaları ve kopyaları vardı. Bizim sanat dünyamız yeni, nesnel olmayan, saf bir şey oldu.” Marcel Duchamp Paris‟te başladığı sanat hayatına, I. Dünya Savaşı‟nın patlak vermesiyle 1914‟te gittiği Amerika‟da devam etmiştir. 1917 yılında Amerika‟da kendisinin de üye olduğu Bağımsız Sanatçılar Birliğinin ücretli sergisine R.Mutt imzasıyla göndermiş olduğu “Foundation/ Çeşme” (Şekil 18) adlı eseriyle katılmıştır. Bir nalburdan aldığı hazır yapım bir pisuarı imzalayarak ters çevirmiş ve adına “Çeşme” diyerek onu kendi bağlamından koparmıştır. Böylece Duchamp ready- made/hazır nesne kavramını sanatın içine katmış ve sanatçının seçimi doğrultusunda ele alınacak sanat eserini göz ile izlenmekten akılla kavranacak bir anlama taşımıştır. Bu eser sergiye kabul edilmemiş ancak o zamana kadar devam eden sanatsal yaklaşımların akışını değiştirmiştir. Öyle ki Duchamp ve Dadaistler 20. yüzyılın en sıra dışı yaklaşımlarını gerçekleştirdikleri sanat eserleriyle günümüz sanat yaklaşımlarına halen kaynaklık etmektedir. Şekil 19. El Lissitzky, 1925, Proun, Kolaj, guaj, mürekkep Şekil 20. Vladimir Tatlin, 1919-1920, III. Uluslararası Hareket'in modeli, Heykel Şekil 21. Bauhaus Atölye Şekil 22. Laszlo Moholy- Nagy, 1933, Construction AL6 1913 yılında Konstrüktivistler, yeni bir dünyanın inşasını gerekli görmüşlerdir (Şekil 19, 20 ve 22). Rusya‟da 1917 Ekim Devrimi ile gelen değişimler, yeni bir dünya için sanatı da kendi bağlamından koparmış, sanatçılar, sanatı, gündelik hayatla buluşturarak işlevselliği önemli kılmışlardır. Sanatçılar kullanışlı tasarım ürünlerini geniş bir tabanın hizmetine sunarken işleve tasarım eklemeyi amaçlamışlardır (Antmen 103). MODERN SANAT Gülderen Görenek 17 Bauhaus, sanat ve zanaatı buluşturan 20. yüzyılın en önemli okullarından biri olmuştur. 1919 yılında Almanya‟da, Weimer kentinde kurulan ve dört yıl burada eğitimin verildiği okul, (Şekil 21) daha sonra Dessau‟ya oradan da 1932‟de Berlin‟e taşınmış, Naziler tarafından 1933‟te kapatılana kadar burada eğitime devam edilmiştir. Konstrüktivistler gibi sanat, toplum içindir yaklaşımıyla Bauhaus sanatçıları, modern hayat içinde seri üretimle herkesin evine girecek olan günlük kullanım eşyalarına bir sanatçı dokunuşu getirmek istemişlerdir. Seramik, tekstil, cam, metal, baskı gibi okul atölyelerinde endüstrinin talebi doğrultusunda tasarım prototipleri üretmişlerdir. Hollandalı sanatçı Mondrian, doğadan edindiği izlenimleri Natüralist, Empresyonist, Puantislist, ve Fovist potada erittikten sonra 1911‟de Hollanda‟da açılan sergiden etkilenerek Kübist eğilimler taşıyan resimler yapmıştır. Kübizm, sanatçıda daha derin izle bırakarak onun Paris‟e taşınmasına vesile olmuştur. Daha Paris‟e taşınmadan önce Helena Petrovna Blavatsky‟nin “Gizli Öğreti” kitabından etkilenen sanatçı, Blavatsky‟nin, kurmuş olduğu Teozofi akımıyla ilgilenmiştir. I. Dünya Savaşı patlak vermeden önce Paris‟ten Hollanda‟ya geri dönmüş ve savaş nedeniyle dönüşünü ertelemek zorunda kalmıştır. 1917 yılında, Mondrian, De Stijl dergisi çevresinde var olan oluşuma dergi kurucusu Theo van Doesburg‟un daveti ile katılmıştır. Mondrian‟nın resimlerinde temel gaye, öze ulaşma, hakikate varma edimi olmuştur. Bu esasta sanatçı, resimlerinde en temel biçim ve renkleri kullanmıştır (Şekil 23). Tuvalin beyaz yüzeyine, yine tuvalin yatay dikeyliğini, çoklu siyah şeritler yardımıyla taşımış ve kesişen şeritlerin oluşturduğu kare ya da dikdörtgen biçimlere, kırmızı, mavi, sarı gibi ana renkler ya da siyah, gri gibi nötr renkler sürmüştür. Şekil 23. Piet Mondrian, 1923, Kompozisyon A Şekil 24. Max Ernst, 1941, Yağmurdan Sonra Avrupa, 54 x 146 cm Şekil 25. Salvador Dali, 1931, Belleğin Azmi (Eriyen Saatler), Tuval üzerine yağlı boya, 24,1 x 33 cm Sürrealizm, 1924‟te başlayıp 1939‟a kadar devam etmiştir. Yine Sürrealizm, Dadaizm ve Sigmund Freud‟un çalışmaları temelinde anlam kazanan bir akım olmuştur. Andre Breton I. Sürrealizm Manifestosu‟nda: “… Sürrealizm şimdiye kadar görmezden gelinmiş belli çağrışım biçimlerinin üstün gerçeğini, düş kurmanın mutlak gücünü ve düşüncenin önyargısız işleyişini temel alır.” demiştir (Hopkins 38-39). Tüm önyargılardan kurtularak hayal gücünü serbest bırakma adına otomatizm ve oneirizm gibi teknikleri kullanan Sürreal sanatçılar, yaratıcılığa ket vuracak her türlü otoriteden kendilerini azat etmişlerdir. Bu serbest bırakış, her türlü estetik hazır bulunuşu da içermektedir. Böylece saf yaratıcılık eylemi içinde hayaller, uyanıkken kurulan düşler, harekete geçmekte; böylece izleyen, gerçek dünyaya ait imgelerden şaşkınlık yaratıcı düşsel bir dünyaya taşınmaktadır (Şekil 24, 25). Max Ernest akımın en önemli sanatçılarından biri olarak, kolaj, frotaj, grataj, dekalkomani ve oscillation/salınım gibi yenilikçi teknikleri resimlerinde kullanmıştır. Şekil 24‟te görüldüğü üzere dekalkomani tekniğini kullanan sanatçı, yüzeye sürdüğü boyayı başka bir yüzey aracılıyla dağıtmış ve ön tasarımsız biçimler elde etmiştir. Sonrasında denetimli sürdüğü boyayla etkileyici sürreal bir dünya yaratmıştır. 1940‟tan sonra sanat merkezi Paris‟ten New York‟a taşınmıştır. Bunun nedenlerinden biri, I. Dünya Savaşı nedeniyle Avrupa‟dan Amerika‟ya göç eden Duchamp, Picabia, Mondrian, Leger, Max Ernst, Dali, Chagall, Moholy-Nagy gibi sanatçıların kendileriyle birlikte Avrupa sanatını Amerika‟ya taşımış olmalarıdır. Diğer bir neden ise Amerika‟nın dünya üzerinde tek güç olma isteği ve bu tek güç olma politikasında sanatı bir araç olarak kullanmak istemeleridir. Soyut-dışavurumcu sanatçıları her ne JOMOPS - 2020 / Volume: 1 / Issue: 2 (December) Gülderen Görenek 18 kadar bu politikayı desteklemeseler de devlet destekli sanat yapma yaklaşımına da karşı durmamışlardır. Bu yüzden Soyut-dışavurumcu yaklaşım, Amerikan Hükümeti desteğiyle dünya ölçeğinde tanıtımı yapılan küresel bir sanat akımı olmuştur. Şekil 25. Jackson Pollock, 1950, Sonbahar Ritmi (Sayı 30), 105 x 207 cm Şekil 26. Mark Rothko, 1949-50, No.5 No.22, 297 x 272 cm Jackson Pollock Soyut-dışavurumun önemli sanatçılarından biridir. Sanatçı yere serdiği bezlere boyayı damlatmış, sıçratmış, serpmiş ve yaptığı resme kendi beden hareketlerinin yaratmış olduğu ritmi de katarak çalışmalarını oluşturmuştur (Şekil 25). Bu esasta Pollock kendi sanatını açıklarken resminin şövaleden gelmediğini ifade etmiştir. Resimlerini katı bir yüzeye ihtiyaç duyduğu için yere serdiğini ve çevresinde gezinebildiğini böylece resmin içine rahatlıkla girebildiğini söylemiştir. Sanatçı, resim yaparken bilindik geleneksel malzemeler yerine sopa, mala ve bıçak gibi materyaller kullanmıştır. Damlatmaya uygun akıcı boya ya da cam kırıkları veya kumla ağırlaştırılmış kalın boyayı tercih etmiştir (Pollock 610). Yine Soyut-dışavurumculuğun içinde ele alınan başka bir yaklaşımda Renk Alan Resmi ve bu akımın en önemli sanatçılarından biri de Mark Rothko‟dur. Köklerini Gauguin‟e kadar götürülebilen bu yaklaşımda, sanatçı geniş ebatta tuttuğu resimlerine kat kat şeffaf sürdüğü monokrom renklerin titreşimlerinden izleyen üzerinde ruhsal etkiler bırakmayı amaçlamaktadır (Şekil 26). 1960‟ta Pop Sanat, Amerika ve İngiltere‟de birbirinden bağımsız gelişen ancak aynı kaygıları güden bir akım olmuştur. Amerika‟da akımın önemi sanatçıları; Andy Warhol, Roy Lichtenstein, Tom Wesselmann, James Rosenquist, Claes Oldenburg, Edward Ruscha sayılabilir. Duchamp‟ın hazır nesne işleri üzerinden sanatı kavramsal boyuta taşıdığı yoldan Pop sanatçıları ilerlemiş, kitle kültürünü ve ürünlerini resimlerinin konusu yapmıştır. Özellikle Andy Warhol pop kültürünü yansıttığı işleriyle dikkat çekmektedir. Makine gibi resim yapmak istiyorum diyen sanatçı, resimlerinde herhangi kişisel iz bırakmamaya özen göstererek seri işler yapmış bu seri işlerinde özellikle pop sanatçıları, devlet adamları gibi ikon karakterleri yanı sıra yaşanılan yıllara ait Campbell Çorbası Kutuları gibi popüler nesnelerin serigrafi baskılarını almıştır (Şekil 27, 28). Şekil 27. Andy Warhol, 1962, Campbell Çorbası Kutular, Şekil 28. Andy Warhol, 1964, Marilyn, MODERN SANAT Gülderen Görenek 19 Optik Sanat, 1960‟lı yıllarda ortaya çıkan ve sanata, bilim ve teknoloji de katan bir yaklaşım olmuştur. İzleyiciden sanatlarını anlama konusunda herhangi bir hazır bulunmuşluk beklemeyen Op Art sanatçıları, eserlerinde göz yanılsaması yaratacak buluşlarla izleyicinin görsel algısını yönetmişlerdir. Akımın önemli sanatçılarından biri olan Victor Vasarely, 1957 yılında yapmış olduğu “Vega” resminde (Şekil 29) iki boyutlu yüzeyde hem derinliğin hem de hareketin yaratılabileceğini, diğer Op Art sanatçıları gibi siyah beyaz karşıtlığı, renk kontrastları ve merkez noktaların farklı düzenlenmesiyle gerçekleştirmiştir (Tuğal 96). Şekil 29. Victor Vasarely, 1957, Vega Şekil 30. Carl Andre, 1969, 144 Magnezyum Kare 1960 yılında Minimalizm ile modern sanatta, başka bir sürece girilmiştir. Artık izleyici, eser önünde sanatçısının öznel yaklaşımını taşıyacak herhangi bir izle karşılaşmamaktadır. Minimalizm‟de; kare, dikdörtgen, silindir, küre gibi temel formların kullanıldığı ve mekân olanaklarının işin içine katıldığı üç boyutlu çalışmalar görülmektedir. Daha çok heykel alanında izlenen eserlerde endüstriyel malzemeler kullanılmıştır (Ateş 2314). 1950‟lerden itibaren Minimalist çalışmalar içine giren Carl Andre, 1969‟da 30,48 x 30.48 santimetrelik tek bir birim magnezyum ve kurşun plakayı 144 plaka daha çoğaltarak oluşturduğu düzenlemeyi, izleyicinin üzerinden geçmesine izin verecek şekilde mekânın zeminine yerleştirmiştir. “Magnezyum Kare”, alüminyum, çelik, çinko, bakır ve kurşundan oluşan başka altı seriden biridir. Sanatçı plakalar üzerinde öznel iz olacak hiçbir değişiklik yapmadan ham haliyle kullanmıştır. Çalışma 1969'da New York Dwan Gallery'de sergilenmiştir (Hodge). Sonuç 1960‟lardan sonra büyük ivme kazanan sanatta değişim, ilk köklerini Duchamp ile atmıştır. Özellikle 1972‟de Minoru Yamasaki‟nin Pruitt-Igoe toplu konutlarının dinamitle ortadan kaldırılması postmodern denen başka bir süreci başlatmıştır. Piyasa, toprak rantı, küreselleşme ve metropolleşen kent olgusu sonucu 1980‟den sonra postmodern, uluslararası bir boyut kazanmıştır. Eklektizm, kolaj, montaj, üst üste bindirilmiş alıntı imgeler, ayakları üzerinde duran kültürel nesneden çok çökmüş bir zaman ve mekân duygusu, melezleşme, pastiş, ironi ve parodi, postmodern sanatın dili olmuştur. Postmodern denen dili doğru anlamlandırmak için “post” öncesi modernizme baktığımızda modernizmle gelen yabancılaşmaya karşı sanatçıların tek sığınak alanı sanat olmuş, sanat için sanat mottosuyla işlevsellik önemsenmiş ve her türlü süs olgusu bertaraf edilmiştir. Art arda gelen akımlarla hep yeniye ulaşma arzusuyla resimde yüzey, biçim ve renk önemsenmiş ve öze varma isteği içinde temel formlar değer kazanmıştır. Modern sanatta tuval yüzeyi ve boya, geleneksel sanatın tersine bir anlayışla sahiplenilen ve hatta öne çıkarılan unsurlar olmuştur. Modern, mahareti sanatçıda biten ve belli kurallar ölçüsünde ilerleyen bir sanat anlayışına sahipken, postmodern tam tersi olarak belli kurallar ölçüsünde ilerlemenin yerine belli bir üsluplaşma özelliği görüldüğü takdirde tam aksi hareket edebilen bir tavır göstermekte ve izleyiciden işe karşı anlam çıkarma becerisi isteyecek noktada son derece talepkâr olmaktadır. Modern sanatta öze ulaşma çabası ve inancı, formu, saf biçim ve renge indirgerken, postmodern böyle bir öze ulaşma çabası içine hiç girmemektedir. Hatta böyle bir özün varlığına da inanmamakta ve sanatın bir form işi olduğu fikrini tümden reddetmektedir. JOMOPS - 2020 / Volume: 1 / Issue: 2 (December) Gülderen Görenek 20 Bu çalışmayla onlarca akıma sahip modern sanatın temeli ve bu temel doğrultusunda ortaya çıkan akımların kolaylıkla anlaşılması amacıyla başta sanat öğrencilerine, sanat severlere ve araştırmacılara modern sanatın temelinin ne olduğuna dair araştırmalarında kaynaklık etmesi temenni edilmektedir. KAYNAKÇA Breton, Andre. Resimde Yeni Gerçekçilik, eds. Charles, Harrisson, ve Paul Wood. Sanat ve Kuram 1900-2000 Değişen Fikirler Antolojisi, Çev. Sabri Gürses. İstanbul: Küre, 2011. Antmen, Ahu. Sanatçılardan Yazılar ve Açıklamalarla 20. Yüzyılın Batı Sanatında Akımlar, İstanbul: Sel, 2014. Ateş, K. Selvihan. Baskıresimleri ile Minimalist Bir Sanatçı: Richard Serra, DOI: 10.7816/idil-06-36- 11 Cilt 6, Sayı 36, Volume 6, Issue 36 idil, 2017: 2311-2323. Web. 8 Eylül 2020. Baudelaire, Charles. Modern Hayatın Ressamı, Çev. Ali Berktay. İstanbul: İletişim, 2009. Benjamin,Walter, Pasajlar, Çev. Ahmet Cemal. İstanbul: Yapı Kredi, 2002. Burger, Peter. Avangar Kuramı, Çev. Erol Özbek. İstanbul: İletişim, 2009. Şimşek, Ali. “Modernizm ve Sanat” Online video clip. YouTube. YouTube, 25 Ekim 2018 Web. 10 Temmuz 2020. Hodge, David. “Carl Andre 144 Magnesium Square 1969”, 2014. Web. 9 Ağustos 2020. Greenberg, Clement. Modernist Resim, Haz. Enis Batur. Modernizmin Serüveni Bir “Temel Metinler” Seçkisi 1840-1990, İstanbul: Yapı Kredi, 2002. Habermas, Jurgen. “Modernlik: Tamamlanmamış Bir Proje”, Dipnot Dergisi, Sayı 1 (2010): 29-41. Harvey, David. Postmodernliğin Durumu, Çev. Sungur Savran. İstanbul: Metis, 2010. Hopkins, David. Dada ve Gerçeküstücülük, Çev. Suat Kemal Angı. İstanbul: Dost, 2004. Lynton, Norbert. Modern Sanatın Öyküsü, Çev. Cevat, Çapan, ve Sadi Öziş. İstanbul: Remzi, 1991. Maleviç, Kazimir. Kübizm ve Fütürizmden Süprematizme: Resimde Yeni Gerçekçilik, eds. Charles, Harrisson, ve Paul Wood. Sanat ve Kuram 1900-2000 Değişen Fikirler Antolojisi, Çev. Sabri Gürses. İstanbul: Küre, 2011. Pollock, Jackson. İki Açıklama, Resimde Yeni Gerçekçilik, eds. Charles, Harrisson, ve Paul Wood. Sanat ve Kuram 1900-2000 Değişen Fikirler Antolojisi, Çev. Sabri Gürses. İstanbul: Küre, 2011. Read, Herbert. Sanatın Anlamı, Çev. Güner, İnal, ve Nuşin Asgari. İstanbul: İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları, 1960. Tuğal, Sibel Avcı. Oluşum Sürecinde Op Art, İstanbul: Hayal Perest, 2018. Tunalı, İsmail. Felsefenin Işığında Modern Resim, İstanbul: Remzi Kitabevi, 1992. Whitham, Graham, ve Pooke Grant. Çağdaş Sanatı Anlamak, Çev. Tufan Göbekçin. İstanbul: Optimist, 2013. Whitham, Graham, ve Pooke Grant. Sanatı Anlamak, Çev. Tufan Göbekçin. İstanbul: Hayalperest, 2018. GÖRSEL KAYNAKÇA Şekil 1. Edouard Manet, 1863, Kırda Öğle Yemeği, 208 x 265,5 cm, https://www.wikiart.org/en/edouard-manet/the-luncheon-on-the-grass-1863 Şekil 2. Edouard Manet, 1863, Olympia, 130,5 x 190 cm, https://www.wikiart.org/en/edouard- manet/olympia-1863 https://www.tate.org.uk/art/artists/carl-andre-648 https://www.wikiart.org/en/edouard-manet/the-luncheon-on-the-grass-1863 https://www.wikiart.org/en/edouard-manet/olympia-1863 https://www.wikiart.org/en/edouard-manet/olympia-1863 MODERN SANAT Gülderen Görenek 21 Şekil 3. Claude Monet, 1872, İzlenim-Gündoğumu, 48 x 63 cm, https://www.wikiart.org/en/claude- monet/impression-sunrise Şekil 4. Georges Seurat, 1884-86, Grande Jatte Adası'nda Bir Pazar Öğleden Sonra, 207,5 x 308 cm, https://www.wikiart.org/en/georges-seurat/study-for-a-sunday-on-la-grande-jatte-1885 Şekil 5. Paul Gauguin, 1897, Nereden Geldik, Kimiz, Nereye Gidiyoruz, 139,1 x 374,6 cm, https://www.wikiart.org/en/paul-gauguin/where-do-we-come-from-what-are-we-where-are- we-going-1897 Şekil 6. Vincent Van Gogh, 1890, Buğday Tarlası, 50,5 x 103 cm, https://www.wikiart.org/en/vincent-van-gogh/wheatfield-with-crows-1890 Şekil 7. Paul Cezanne, 1889, Kırmızı Yelekli Çocuk, Tuval üzerine yağlı boya, 64,5 x 80 cm, https://www.wikiart.org/en/paul-cezanne/boy-in-a-red-vest-1889 Şekil 8. Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, 1913-14, Berlin Sokağı, 121x 95 cm, https://www.wikiart.org/en/ernst-ludwig-kirchner/berlin-street-scene-1914 Şekil 9. Wassili Kandinsky, 1911, Kompozisyon IV, 159,5 x 250,5 cm, https://www.wikiart.org/en/wassily-kandinsky/composition-iv-1911 Şekil 10. Franz Marc, 1911, Büyük Mavi Atlar, 104,78 x 181,61 cm, https://www.wikiart.org/en/franz-marc/the-large-blue-horses-1911 Şekil 11. Henri Matisse, 1910, Dans II, 391 x 260 cm, https://www.wikiart.org/en/henri- matisse/dance-ii-1910 Şekil 12. Picasso, 1907, Avignonlu Kadınlar, 243,9 x 233,7 cm, https://www.wikiart.org/en/pablo- picasso/the-girls-of-avignon-1907 Şekil 13. Pablo Picasso, 1911, Piyano Üzerinde Natürmort, https://www.wikiart.org/en/pablo- picasso/still-life-on-the-piano-cort-1911 Şekil 14. Pablo Picasso, 1912, Gitar, Kâğıt, Müzik ve Şişe, https://www.wikiart.org/en/pablo- picasso/guitar-sheet-music-and-wine-glass-1912 Şekil 15. George Braque, 1913, Dama Tahtası Tivoli Sinema, 92,3 x 65,5 cm, https://www.wikiart.org/en/georges-braque/checkerboard-tivoli-cinema-1913 Şekil 16. Umberto Boccioni, 1911, Aklın Durumu I, Uğurlamalar, 70,5 x 96,2 cm, https://www.wikiart.org/en/umberto-boccioni/states-of-mind-i-the-farewells-1911 Şekil 17. Kazimir Malevich, 1915, Siyah Kare, 106 x 106 cm, https://www.wikiart.org/en/kazimir- malevich/black-square-1915 Şekil 18. Marcel Duchamp 1917, Fountain-Çeşme, https://www.artsy.net/article/artsy-editorial- duchamps-urinal-changed-art-forever Şekil 19. El Lissitzky, 1925, Proun, Kolaj, guaj, mürekkep, https://www.wikiart.org/en/el- lissitzky/proun Şekil 20. Vladimir Tatlin, 1919-1920, III. Uluslararası Hareket'in modeli, Heykel, https://www.wikiart.org/en/vladimir-tatlin/model-of-the-monument-iii-international-1920 Şekil 21. Bauhaus Atölye, https://www.kulturservisi.com/p/sanat-ve-zanaat-okulu-bauhaus/ Şekil 22. Laszlo Moholy-Nagy, 1933, Construction AL6, https://www.wikiart.org/en/laszlo-moholy- nagy/construction-al6 Şekil 23. Piet Mondrian, 1923, Kompozisyon A, https://www.wikiart.org/en/piet- mondrian/composition-a-1923 Şekil 24. Max Ernst, 1941, Yağmurdan Sonra Avrupa, 54 x 146 cm, https://blog.singulart.com/en/2019/09/13/europe-after-the-rain-ii-an-abstract-apocalyptic- landscape/ https://www.wikiart.org/en/claude-monet/impression-sunrise https://www.wikiart.org/en/claude-monet/impression-sunrise https://www.wikiart.org/en/georges-seurat/study-for-a-sunday-on-la-grande-jatte-1885 https://www.wikiart.org/en/paul-gauguin/where-do-we-come-from-what-are-we-where-are-we-going-1897 https://www.wikiart.org/en/paul-gauguin/where-do-we-come-from-what-are-we-where-are-we-going-1897 https://www.wikiart.org/en/vincent-van-gogh/wheatfield-with-crows-1890 https://www.wikiart.org/en/paul-cezanne/boy-in-a-red-vest-1889 https://www.wikiart.org/en/ernst-ludwig-kirchner/berlin-street-scene-1914 https://www.wikiart.org/en/wassily-kandinsky/composition-iv-1911 https://www.wikiart.org/en/henri-matisse/dance-ii-1910 https://www.wikiart.org/en/henri-matisse/dance-ii-1910 https://www.wikiart.org/en/pablo-picasso/the-girls-of-avignon-1907 https://www.wikiart.org/en/pablo-picasso/the-girls-of-avignon-1907 https://www.wikiart.org/en/pablo-picasso/still-life-on-the-piano-cort-1911 https://www.wikiart.org/en/pablo-picasso/still-life-on-the-piano-cort-1911 https://www.wikiart.org/en/pablo-picasso/guitar-sheet-music-and-wine-glass-1912 https://www.wikiart.org/en/pablo-picasso/guitar-sheet-music-and-wine-glass-1912 https://www.wikiart.org/en/georges-braque/checkerboard-tivoli-cinema-1913 https://www.wikiart.org/en/umberto-boccioni/states-of-mind-i-the-farewells-1911 https://www.wikiart.org/en/kazimir-malevich/black-square-1915 https://www.wikiart.org/en/kazimir-malevich/black-square-1915 https://www.artsy.net/article/artsy-editorial-duchamps-urinal-changed-art-forever https://www.artsy.net/article/artsy-editorial-duchamps-urinal-changed-art-forever https://www.wikiart.org/en/el-lissitzky/proun https://www.wikiart.org/en/el-lissitzky/proun https://www.wikiart.org/en/vladimir-tatlin/model-of-the-monument-iii-international-1920 https://www.kulturservisi.com/p/sanat-ve-zanaat-okulu-bauhaus/ https://www.wikiart.org/en/laszlo-moholy-nagy/construction-al6 https://www.wikiart.org/en/laszlo-moholy-nagy/construction-al6 https://www.wikiart.org/en/piet-mondrian/composition-a-1923 https://www.wikiart.org/en/piet-mondrian/composition-a-1923 https://blog.singulart.com/en/2019/09/13/europe-after-the-rain-ii-an-abstract-apocalyptic-landscape/ https://blog.singulart.com/en/2019/09/13/europe-after-the-rain-ii-an-abstract-apocalyptic-landscape/ JOMOPS - 2020 / Volume: 1 / Issue: 2 (December) Gülderen Görenek 22 Şekil 25. Salvador Dali, 1931, Belleğin Azmi (Eriyen Saatler),Tuval üzerine yağlı boya, 24,1 x 33 cm https://www.wikiart.org/en/salvador-dali/the-persistence-of-memory-1931 Şekil 25. Jackson Pollock, 1950, Sonbahar Ritmi (Sayı 30), 105 x 207 cm, https://www.wikiart.org/en/jackson-pollock/not_detected_185311 Şekil 26. Mark Rothko, 1949-50, No.5 No.22, 297 x 272 cm, https://www.wikiart.org/en/mark- rothko/no-5-no-22 Şekil 27. Andy Warhol, 1962, Campbell Çorbası Kutular, https://www.wikiart.org/en/andy- warhol/campbells-soup-cans-1962 Şekil 28. Andy Warhol, 1964, Marilyn, https://www.wikiart.org/en/andy-warhol/marilyn-1 Şekil 29. Victor Vasarely, 1957, Vega, https://www.wikiart.org/en/victor-vasarely/vega-1957 Şekil 30. Carl Andre, 1969, 144 Magnezyum Kare, https://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/andre-144- magnesium-square-t01767 https://www.wikiart.org/en/jackson-pollock/not_detected_185311 https://www.wikiart.org/en/mark-rothko/no-5-no-22 https://www.wikiart.org/en/mark-rothko/no-5-no-22 https://www.wikiart.org/en/andy-warhol/campbells-soup-cans-1962 https://www.wikiart.org/en/andy-warhol/campbells-soup-cans-1962 https://www.wikiart.org/en/andy-warhol/marilyn-1 https://www.wikiart.org/en/victor-vasarely/vega-1957 https://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/andre-144-magnesium-square-t01767 https://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/andre-144-magnesium-square-t01767 
work_pgtewhhqxbdrfjm6zvibbvoy2e	----	old. And we discover how candidate drugs, labelled with 14C at specific parts of the mol- ecule, can be followed through phases of the body’s metabolism to test the drugs’ safety and efficacy. There is so much more. Marra explains, for instance, how, shortly after 14C was discovered, dissolved CO2 in seawater was used to track the movement of currents in the deep ocean, revealing connections around the planet considered unfathomable before. Carbon-14 may be the star, but scientists, institutions and happenstance have valuable supporting roles. Take Libby, winner of the 1960 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work developing radiocarbon dating. At one point, his team waded into the sewers of Baltimore, Maryland, collecting methane produced from human waste to demonstrate unequiv- ocally that it contained considerably more 14C than did archaeological samples and a precisely dated piece of redwood heartwood. Marra also reveals, in vivid detail, the diffi- culties faced by early researchers in acquiring precious samples of plankton, which opened up a new perspective on ocean productivity and, ultimately, carbon sequestration. His own experience in this area illuminates the researchers’ pioneering spirit in the face of wild conditions, cramped spaces and some- times surly ships’ captains. The technologi- cal limitations were progressively overcome by dogged perseverance and a belief that the work would help them to understand the oceans’ potential for incorporating inorganic carbon into organic compounds — still the focus of fierce investigation. Mysteries remain in the Earth sciences, such as the effectiveness of the carbon cycle and the ramifications of human activity, including our seemingly insatiable hunger for fossil fuels. Importantly, Marra shows how 14C can be used to tease out processes across a range of timescales. He explains why the Southern Ocean is the ‘gatekeeper’ to the planet’s ocean circulation, and how abrupt changes in the formation of deep water and the position of the overlying wind belts can drive dramatic shifts in the carbon cycle. Soberingly, a doubling of atmospheric levels of 14C — arising from mid-twentieth-century nuclear-bomb testing — is preserved as a spike in annually formed natural archives, including tree rings. That marker could be chosen to delineate the start of a new geologi- cal epoch: the Anthropocene. Hot Carbon offers a timely perspective on how mind-bogglingly connected our planet is — and how 14C will continue to be important in helping us to understand what lies ahead. ■ Chris Turney is professor of climate change and Earth science, and director of the Chronos 14Carbon-Cycle Facility, at the University of New South Wales in Sydney, Australia. His website is christurney.com e-mail: c.turney@unsw.edu.au Giants of the Monsoon Forest Jacob Shell W. W. NortoN (2019) In this thought-provoking study, geographer Jacob Shell probes an unusual interspecies alliance: the relationship between people and the working elephants of Indonesia, Myanmar and India. Never selectively bred, the night-roaming pachyderms are essentially wild, yet engage in cognitively demanding tasks such as rescue work during floods. Examining everything from the muscular miracle of the beast’s proboscis to the species’ wartime work, Shell also charts the threats facing Asian elephants, and the dearth of local voices in relevant policymaking. Barbara Kiser The Fate of Food Amanda Little HarmoNy (2019) As Earth’s human population tips towards 8 billion, is our food system up to it? In this tour of the brave new world of adaptive production, environmental journalist Amanda Little encounters robot weeders, aquaponics innovators, permaculture farmers, toilet- to-tap water recyclers and other players in the field — both high- tech innovators and eco-traditionalists. That balanced viewpoint extends to broader discussions of debates over genetically modified crops in Kenya and cultured meat production in the United States. Witty, nimble and timely, this is a gem of crack reporting. The Last Butterflies Nick Haddad PriNcetoN UNiversity Press (2019) Terrestrial ecologist Nick Haddad studies the beleaguered denizens of liminal lands: the world’s rarest butterflies. Far from niche research, he argues, findings on species and subspecies such as the St Francis’ satyr (Neonympha mitchellii francisci) and crystal skipper (Atrytonopsis quinteri) offer a valuable lens on the biodiversity crisis. Yet Haddad does not just gather data on habitat loss and other drivers of decline — although he does that with crystalline acuity. He emphasizes that measures such as restoring ecological systems can protect populations of these fragile “ambassadors of nature”, against the odds. The Trouble with Gravity Richard Panek HoUgHtoN miffliN HarcoUrt (2019) Gravity is, scientifically speaking, an enigma. We know that it is a weak force with infinite reach, pulling at matter to form bodies from black holes to galaxies — but that is what it does, not what it is. Science writer Richard Panek follows the evolution of gravitational theories through time, from Aristotle (arguably the first to question why things fall on Earth but heavenly bodies stay aloft) through the momentous discoveries of Galileo Galilei, Isaac Newton and Albert Einstein. He also touches on insights from the likes of poet Dante Alighieri and philosopher-physicist Ernst Mach. Life Finds a Way Andreas Wagner Basic (2019) From gut microbes to elephants, the embodiments of evolution are marvels of innovation. So writes biologist Andreas Wagner, whose eloquent study finds the “augmented” view of Darwinian evolution echoed in the ‘landscape thinking’ of human creativity — the mental exploration of possibility. Wagner meshes research into areas such as genetic drift with theories on aspects of the creative process (such as serendipity) seen in luminaries from radioimmunoassay inventor Rosalyn Yalow to artist Pablo Picasso, and shows how such a mindset can solve real-world problems. 2 0 J U N E 2 0 1 9 | V O L 5 7 0 | N A T U R E | 3 0 5 BOOKS & ARTS COMMENT Books in brief © 2019 Springer Nature Limited. All rights reserved. © 2019 Springer Nature Limited. All rights reserved. 
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work_pkug7h2nyjdk5mlfhzrbmt4qyy	----	Transatlantica, 2 | 2011 Transatlantica Revue d’études américaines. American Studies Journal  2 | 2011 Sport et société / Animals and the American Imagination Colloque « Gertrude Stein et les Arts » Grand Palais, Paris, 20-21 octobre 2011 Emöke Simon Édition électronique URL : http://journals.openedition.org/transatlantica/5433 DOI : 10.4000/transatlantica.5433 ISSN : 1765-2766 Éditeur AFEA Référence électronique Emöke Simon, « Colloque « Gertrude Stein et les Arts » », Transatlantica [En ligne], 2 | 2011, mis en ligne le 16 juin 2012, consulté le 11 février 2021. URL : http://journals.openedition.org/transatlantica/5433 ; DOI : https://doi.org/10.4000/transatlantica.5433 Ce document a été généré automatiquement le 11 février 2021. Transatlantica – Revue d'études américaines est mis à disposition selon les termes de la licence Creative Commons Attribution - Pas d'Utilisation Commerciale - Pas de Modification 4.0 International. http://journals.openedition.org http://journals.openedition.org http://journals.openedition.org/transatlantica/5433 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ Colloque « Gertrude Stein et les Arts » Grand Palais, Paris, 20-21 octobre 2011 Emöke Simon 1 Ce colloque a été organisé par Isabelle Alfandary et Vincent Broqua dans le cadre de l’exposition « Matisse, Cézanne, Picasso… L’aventure des Stein » (présentée au Grand Palais du 5 octobre 2011 au 16 janvier 2012) et avec le concours de la RMN (Réunion des musées nationaux), du Grand Palais, de la Terra Foundation for American Art et de l’Université Paris-Est Créteil. Le colloque a également bénéficié du soutien des services culturels de l’Ambassade des États-Unis d’Amérique. 2 L’œuvre énigmatique de Gertrude Stein s’impose comme une œuvre qui s’est nourrie des arts et qui les a nourris à son tour. À partir de ce constat, le colloque s’est donné comme objectif d’interroger la nature des rapports d’influence, de coprésence ou de superpositions qui se déplient dans les domaines des arts plastiques, du cinéma ou encore du théâtre. La proximité des tableaux au milieu desquels elle vivait et écrivait a concrétisé l’espace de réflexion du colloque en actualisant la problématique de Gertrude Stein et les arts. Comme Vincent Broqua (Université Paris-Est) le soulignait dans sa communication « Gertrude Stein traduite en art », dans un tel contexte, le nom de Gertrude Stein se charge d’une multiplicité de signifiés qui renforce davantage la nécessité de considérer l’œuvre dans un contexte élargi, à la croisée de l’histoire de l’art, de la biographie et du poétique. Gertrude Stein et « l’art interrogatif » 3 L’influence de la peinture, plus précisément celle des tableaux de Matisse, de Cézanne et de Picasso qui enrichissent la collection de la famille Stein (Leo, Michael et sa femme Sarah, et Gertrude) à partir du Salon d’Automne de 1905, peut être retracée, selon Joan Retallack (Bard College), dans le changement de style qui s’opère au sein de l’œuvre de Stein. La révélation du Salon est celle de la possibilité d’un « art interrogatif », un art qui commence et qui continue par des questions. Dans sa communication intitulée Colloque « Gertrude Stein et les Arts » Transatlantica, 2 | 2011 1 « Stein and the Arts : What is the Question ? », Joan Retallack soutient qu’un tel mode de fonctionnement est reconnaissable dans les textes de la collection Tender Buttons, écrits en 1912 et publiés en 1914 à New York. La rupture qui marque la différence et qui permet justement à la différence de se « répandre » (« difference is spreading », Gertrude Stein) est palpable dans la façon dont l’écriture n’est plus soumise à la rationalité descriptive mais la dépasse pour devenir elle-même vie — « living » — c’est- à-dire un dispositif de vitalité immédiate. Par là, cette nouvelle écriture que Stein expérimente avec Tender Buttons répond pleinement à l’appel que lance John Dewey dans Art as Experience (1934) pour un art qui est en mesure de rétablir le contact avec la matérialité vibrante du monde, mais également avec la vibration vitale de la langue. C’est ainsi que la langue peut enfin s’affirmer et acquérir un statut qui, en termes wittgensteiniens, est identifiable comme une forme de vie en elle-même. 4 Pour Charles Bernstein (University of Pennsylvania) et Dominique Fourcade (écrivain, critique d’art), la source de la nouvelle syntaxe steinienne est localisable dans la peinture de Matisse dans la mesure où celle-ci proposait une nouvelle composition du monde avec une nouvelle grammaire des couleurs. La grammaire qu’élabore Stein témoigne de la façon dont celle-ci a su reconnaître cette nouvelle composition, en même temps que celle de Cézanne ou de Picasso, et trouver une façon d’écrire qui soit en mesure de remettre en question la notion même de grammaire. Une proximité avec le Nu descendant un escalier1 (1912) est à noter selon Bernstein dans l’épaississement des aspects quadridimensionnels des mots, à travers leurs inscriptions dans un processus toujours en train d’advenir. 5 La communication de Marjorie Perloff (Stanford University), intitulée « A Cessation of Resemblances : Gertrude Stein’s Duchamp Connection », a interrogé de près la proximité entre Marcel Duchamp et Gertrude Stein, localisable, selon elle, dans leur façon de jouer avec la langue. En 1920, Marcel Duchamp pose pour Man Ray maquillé et portant des accessoires de femme2. Son alter ego féminin ainsi créé est baptisé Rose Sélavy, une coïncidence qui ne peut pas être anodine si on considère que Duchamp avait la possibilité de connaître le poème de Stein « Sacred Emily » (écrit en 1913 et publié en 1922) dans lequel apparaît pour la première fois la fameuse « A rose is a rose is a rose is a rose ». Si l’on considère les titres des ready-made de Duchamp, la liberté ludique avec laquelle il utilise la langue est d’autant plus flagrante (par exemple L.H.O.O.Q3). À ceci s’ajoutent des rapports de l’ordre de la collaboration artistique dans le cadre de l’exposition de Francis Picabia organisée par Léonce Rosenberg en 1932. Stein écrit un texte court pour la préface du catalogue de l’exposition de Francis Picabia (intégré par la suite dans Stanzas in Meditation), et Duchamp le traduit. Marjorie Perloff conclut que les deux artistes érotisent la langue par le même geste artistique qui consiste à décontextualiser les mots pour Stein et les objets pour Duchamp, dans le but de leur attribuer une nouvelle dimension et une nouvelle fonction. En revanche, comme l’ont souligné Charles Bernstein et Dominique Fourcade, la démarche de Gertrude Stein lui a valu une certaine marginalisation : si sa radicalité dans le domaine l’a conduite à une reconnaissance immédiate auprès de ses contemporains, en littérature elle s’est heurtée à une méfiance, voire à un rejet, dans la mesure où sa nouvelle grammaire portait atteinte « au corps même du monde » (Dominique Fourcade), c’est-à-dire à la langue. Colloque « Gertrude Stein et les Arts » Transatlantica, 2 | 2011 2 La fabrication de Gertrude Stein par Gertrude Stein 6 Gertrude Stein avait néanmoins tenté d’assurer la promotion de cette radicalité littéraire, comme l’a montré la communication de Wanda Corn (Stanford University), intitulée « Portraiture and the Making of Gertrude Stein ». En effet, Stein avait posé pour environ 25 artistes, aussi bien pour des peintres (Pablo Picasso, Francis Picabia, Francis Rose) que pour des photographes (Man Ray, Cecile Beaton, Carl Van Vechten). L’étude de la journaliste Corinne Gonnard (« Les femmes dans l’Autobiographie d’Alice B. Toklas ») a souligné également l’importance du cercle de femmes artistes qui entouraient Stein et qui ont contribué à la fabrication de son image (Nathalie Barney, Claribel et Etta Cone). 7 Wanda Corn considère donc ces portraits comme une forme moderne d’échange. D’une part ils permettaient à certains jeunes artistes d’avoir accès au monde de l’art contemporain, d’autre part ils ont ouvert un espace de construction d’une identité sur la scène artistique. Cette identité se veut multiple et soumise à un devenir qui, à partir de la posture de « New American Girl » que les premiers portraits révèlent, jusqu’à l’affirmation du « style impérial » en passant par le « type bohémien », défie les conventions de représentation du genre, du couple, mais aussi de l’acte d’écrire. Gertrude Stein n’a pas manqué de profiter de chaque occasion pour s’affirmer et s’imposer comme une figure emblématique du modernisme (comme en atteste l’un des derniers portraits réalisés par Man Ray qui la montre à côté de son portrait réalisé par Picasso), mais également comme ambassadrice des États-Unis (comme c’est le cas par exemple de la photo de Carl Van Vechten de 1935, prise après la grande tournée américaine, qui la place devant le drapeau américain). 8 C’est donc d’abord par le biais du portrait que Gertrude Stein marque une présence dans le monde des arts plastiques et s’impose pour beaucoup comme « The Mother of Us All » (titre de l’opéra écrit par Stein, puis repris, entre autres par Richard Foreman). Gertrude Stein, personnage excentrique, a ouvert de multiples voies par lesquelles son écriture résonne et revit dans l’art et la littérature contemporains. Jean-Claude Lefevre, Franck David, Stan Brakhage, Carl André ne représentent qu’une infime partie de la panoplie d’artistes inspirés de ou influencés par Gertrude Stein. Comme Vincent Broqua l’a montré, l’œuvre de Carl André est un exemple adéquat de la façon dont la fameuse « A rose is a rose is a rose is a rose » peut être recyclée pour devenir matière première d’un carré sculpté sur la page. La parole steinienne — entre mouvement, image et performance 9 Objet à recycler, à ouvrir comme une boîte ou à transformer, la parole steinienne est aussi présente sur la scène théâtrale depuis 1934 — date de la première représentation de l’opéra Fours Saints in Three Acts à Hartford (musique composée par Virgil Thomson). Dans une communication intitulée « Théâtre et théâtralité de Gertrude Stein », Marie- Claire Pasquier (Université Paris-Ouest) a retracé la manière dont le théâtre postmoderne s’est emparé du texte steinien chez Al Carmines ou Richard Foreman par exemple. La disponibilité à l’espace scénique du texte steinien, comme Thalia Field (écrivaine) l’a suggéré lors de la table ronde qui réunissait, entre autres, Marie-Claire Colloque « Gertrude Stein et les Arts » Transatlantica, 2 | 2011 3 Pasquier, Alexis Forestier (metteur en scène de Docteur Faustus ou la fête électrique), Cécile Saint-Paul (actrice), ne fait que renforcer la manière dont la parole steinienne est déjà un objet de performance sur la scène de la page avec un souci plastique digne d’un metteur en scène. Cette performance se double d’une autre qui, elle, peut être conditionnée par un processus d’obscurcissement : comme l’indique Antoine Cazé (Université Paris-Diderot) dans sa communication intitulée « Stein : Méditations sans images », il s’agit d’opacifier la vue pour voir et d’ouvrir ainsi un espace qui soit un milieu dans la langue même. Afin d’être saisissable, cette façon de « monter dans le langage pour faire stationner la langue » (Antoine Cazé) nécessite un changement de perspective — le rapport langue-objet, au lieu d’être soumis à un résultat valide, vérifiable par l’adéquation mot/image doit être perçu dans le flux même du processus par lequel le mot pointe l’objet. 10 La modernité de la perception qui caractérise la composition steinienne est également saisissable dans sa proximité avec le cinéma. La communication d’Isabelle Alfandary (Université Paris-Est) intitulée « Gertrude Stein et Eadweard Muybridge » exploitait le « cinématographe intérieur » chez Stein, c’est-à-dire les points de rencontres entre l’image précinématographique et la technique d’écriture steinienne. Nourrie par la tension entre l’immobile et le mobile, les variations d’intensité de l’excitation, l’obsession du présent, l’écriture de Gertrude Stein donne à voir le rythme, un « voir sonore », qui, à la manière des images de Muybridge, est susceptible de rendre visible le devenir-imperceptible du temps. Les propos d’Abigail Lang (Université Paris-Diderot) au sujet de « Stein cinématographe » suggèrent que le devenir-imperceptible est également localisable dans la façon dont le cinéma exprime ce que Stein désignait par l’expression « the quality of being disembodied », c’est-à-dire une présence absente que l’écran cinématographique assure aux personnages. C’est ainsi que Stein définissait la spécificité américaine, mais c’est aussi une manière d’être de l’image cinématographique que Stein semblait maîtriser parfaitement, comme en témoigne le texte « A Movie » destiné à être le script d’un film. L’analyse d’Abigail Lang de ce texte a permis également d’interroger la manière dont les techniques cinématographiques telles que le zoom sont intégrées dans l’écriture de Stein. 11 La réflexion personnelle de Jean-Marie Gleize (écrivain ; ENS Lyon), doublée de la lecture d’un extrait d’Everybody’s Autobiography (1937) — récit d’une ronde de nuit à Chicago dans une voiture de police — dans le cadre de la soirée de lecture dédiée à Stein4, met en évidence la manière dont elle célébrait le mouvement avec une passion pour l’immobilité, les deux dimensions étant deux formes d’être au présent. Par là, selon Jean-Marie Gleize, Gertrude Stein propose une pratique expérimentale de la vie et lance un appel à veiller « pour être présent au présent », sans pathos, sans action. Vivre et écrire se superposent comme deux dimensions de la même pratique, d’une œuvre qui demeure une « œuvre à venir », dans « l’assomption de l’obscurité comme lumière » (Jean-Marie Gleize). 12 Organisé autour de l’idée du dialogue, le colloque a réaffirmé le dynamisme et la plasticité de l’écriture steinienne, toujours prête à se laisser investir par le lecteur et le transformer en partenaire actif de la fabrication du texte. Mais ce colloque lui a surtout assuré une présence qui a su déborder les frontières du monde universitaire. De nouveaux espaces de résonances de la parole steinienne ont été ainsi ouverts. 13 Lien vers le programme du colloque : http://www.rmn.fr/activites-culturelles- gratuites-2509. Colloque « Gertrude Stein et les Arts » Transatlantica, 2 | 2011 4 http://www.rmn.fr/activites-culturelles-gratuites-2509 http://www.rmn.fr/activites-culturelles-gratuites-2509 NOTES 1. http://www.marcelduchamp.net/news.php?id=701 2. http://www.artandculture.com/media/show?media_id=70588&media_type=Image 3. http://www.centrepompidou.fr/Pompidou/Manifs.nsf/0/ F6B2462E8A10AD95C125704500318AD9?OpenDocument 4. Les lectures bilingues de Charles Bernstein, de Joan Retallack, de Thalia Field, d’Abigail Lang ou encore de Martin Richet, ont également ouvert de nouvelles perspectives de lecture ou d’approche du texte steinien. INDEX Thèmes : Actualité de la recherche AUTEUR EMÖKE SIMON Université Lumière Lyon 2 Colloque « Gertrude Stein et les Arts » Transatlantica, 2 | 2011 5 http://www.marcelduchamp.net/news.php?id=701 http://www.artandculture.com/media/show?media_id=70588&media_type=Image http://www.centrepompidou.fr/Pompidou/Manifs.nsf/0/F6B2462E8A10AD95C125704500318AD9?OpenDocument http://www.centrepompidou.fr/Pompidou/Manifs.nsf/0/F6B2462E8A10AD95C125704500318AD9?OpenDocument Colloque « Gertrude Stein et les Arts » 
work_plm7kkgxvrbb3c4bdl3r5yobvm	----	Turkish Studies Volume 14 Issue 1, 2019, p. 359-370 DOI: 10.7827/TurkishStudies.14951 ISSN: 1308-2140 Skopje/MACEDONIA-Ankara/TURKEY Research Article / Araştırma Makalesi A r t i c l e I n f o / M a k a l e B i l g i s i  Received/Geliş: Şubat 2019 Accepted/Kabul: Şubat 2019  Referees/Hakemler: Doç. Dr. Aygül AYKUT – Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Gökçen ŞAHMARAN CAN This article was checked by iThenticate. PABLO PICASSO’NUN RESİMLERİNDEKİ FİGÜR ANLAYIŞININ SERAMİK ÇALIŞMALARINA YANSIMASI Fahrettin GEÇEN* - Tahir ÇELİKBAĞ** ÖZET 20. yüzyıl Dünya Resim Sanatı’nın en ünlü ressamlarından birisi olarak görülen ve Kübizm sanat akımının öncüsü olarak kabul edilen İspanyol ressam Pablo Picasso, resim sanatına kazandırmış olduğu eşsiz yapıtlarıyla birçok dünya müzesini süsleyen ve sanat camiasında da önemli yeri olan bir sanatçıdır. Sanatçı özellikle resim ve heykel sanatlarında birçok ürün verip seramik çalışmalarıyla da tanınan bir sanatçıdır. Sanatçı kendine özgü resimlerindeki üslubunu diğer sanatsal çalışmalarına da yansıtmıştır. Sanatçı realist çalışmalarından sonra kübizm akımına çok sayıda eseriyle katkıda bulunmuş, basit kontur çizgilerle çizdiği desen biçimindeki çalışmalarıyla da ön plana çıkmıştır. Sanatçının önemli özelliklerinden bir tanesi de sanat tarihine kendisini taşıyan üsluplarını üç boyutlu ve iki boyutlu olarak seramik ve heykel çalışmalarına da yansıtmasıdır. Pablo Picasso’nun resim çalışmalarında kullandığı geometriksel ifade, eş zamanlı gösterim, iki boyutlu yüzey üzerinde üç boyutlu ifade biçimi, çocuksu çizgisel form ifadesinin çalıştığı seramik çalışmalarında yansımasını ortaya çıkarmak araştırmada amaç edinilmiştir. Resimler üzerindeki iki boyutlu yüzey üzerinde üç boyutlu ifadenin ve basitleştirilmiş imgesel ifadelerin seramik çalışmalarında üç boyutlu ifadesi ve basit imgelerin seramiklerin üzerinde iki ve üç boyutlu yansımaları ve başarısını ortaya çıkarmakta araştırmada büyük önem taşımaktadır. Araştırmada Picasso’nun yaptığı iki boyutlu ve üç boyutlu seramikler evreni seramiklerde yer alan figür imgeleri ise sınırlılığı ve örneklemi vermektedir. Araştırma da figür imgesinin ele alınmasının temel amacı ise iki boyutlu düzlem üzerinde figür imgelerini üç boyutlu vermesiyle figür imgesinin ön plana çıkmasıdır. * Dr. Öğretim Üyesi, İnönü Üniversitesi Güzel Sanatlar ve Tasarım Fakültesi Resim Bölümü, E-posta: fahrettin.gecen@inonu.edu.tr ** Dr. Öğretim Üyesi, Fırat Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Güzel Sanatlar Eğitimi Bölümü, E-posta: tcelikbag@firat.edu.tr http://dx.doi.org/10.7827/TurkishStudies. mailto:fahrettin.gecen@inonu.edu.tr mailto:tcelikbag@firat.edu.tr https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0787-7505 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9905-222X 360 Fahrettin GEÇEN - Tahir ÇELİKBAĞ Turkish Studies Volume 14 Issue 1, 2019 Araştırma, Nitel araştırma deseni ile yapılmış olup, literatür taranarak Picasso ve sanatsal çalışmaları hakkında bilgiler elde edilmiştir. Verilerde yer alan sanatçıya ait eser görselleri betimsel analiz yoluyla analiz edilmiş sanatçının resimsel çalışmalarıyla karşılaştırılarak araştırma yapılan konuyla ilgili yeni bilgilere yordama, analiz yollarıyla ulaşılmıştır. Anahtar kelimeler: Picasso, Seramik, Resim, Kübizm, Figür THE REFLECTION OF FIGURE CONCEPTION IN PABLO PICASSO'S PAINTINGS ON CERAMIC WORKS ABSTRACT Seen as one of the most famous painters of the 20th century world of the painting and regarded as a pioneer of the art movement of Cubism, Spanish painter Pablo Picasso, is an artist who graces the walls of museums around the world with his unique works which he redounded to painting art and has an important place in the art community. The artist is recognized ceramic works with many products especially in the arts of painting and sculpture. The artist reflected his distinctive style in the paintings to other artistic works. After realistic works, contributed to the Cubism movement with numerous publications studies,the artist come to the forewith his the pattern drawn with simple contour lines in the form of the work. One of the important features of the artist is to reflect styles, carrying himself to the history of art , to ceramics and sculpture works as three-dimensional and two-dimensional. In the research, it is purposed to find out the reflection of the geometric expression that Pablo Picasso used in his paintings, simultaneous display, a three dimensional expression on a two-dimensional surface and the childish linear form expression in the ceramic works. It has a significant role to reveal the three dimensional reflection and the success of the three dimensional expression on a two-dimensional surface on the paintings, three dimensional expression of the simplified imaginative expression in the ceramic works and simple images on ceramics in the research. In the research, in two-dimensional and three-dimensional ceramics made by Picasso gives the universe sample and also figures and symbols on ceramic gives limitation sample. In the Researchthe main purpose of engaging with the figure images is to come to the foreground theimages by issuing three- dimensional image of the figure on the two-dimensional plane. The research was made with qualitative design and information about Picasso and his artistic work was obtained by scanning the literature. The images of the artist's works in the data has been analyzed through descriptive analysis and research have reached new information on the subject of the procedure by the means of analysis by comparison with the artist's pictorial work. Pablo Pıcasso’nun Resimlerindeki Figür Anlayışının Seramik Çalışmalarına… 361 Turkish Studies Volume 14 Issue 1, 2019 STRUCTURED ABSTRACT Seen as one of the most famous painters of the 20th century world of the painting and regarded as a pioneer of the art movement of Cubism, Spanish painter Pablo Picasso, is an artist who graces the walls of museums around the world with his unique works which he redounded to painting art and has an important place in the art community. The artist is recognized ceramic works with many products especially in the arts of painting and sculpture. The artist reflected his distinctive style in the paintings to other artistic works. After realistic works, contributed to the Cubism movement with numerous publications studies, the artist come to the forewith his the pattern drawn with simple contour lines in the form of the work. One of the important features of the artist is to reflect styles, carrying himself to the history of art, to ceramics and sculpture works as three-dimensional and two-dimensional. In the research, it is purposed to find out the reflection of the geometric expression that Pablo Picasso used in his paintings, simultaneous display, a three dimensional expression on a two-dimensional surface and the childish linear form expression in the ceramic works. It has a significant role to reveal the three dimensional reflection and the success of the three dimensional expression on a two-dimensional surface on the paintings, three dimensional expression of the simplified imaginative expression in the ceramic works and simple images on ceramics in the research. In the research, in two-dimensional and three-dimensional ceramics made by Picasso gives the universe sample and also figures and symbols on ceramic gives limitation sample. In the Researchthe main purpose of engaging with the figure images is to come to the foreground theimages by issuing three-dimensional image of the figure on the two-dimensional plane. The research was made with qualitative design and information about Picasso and his artistic work was obtained by scanning the literature. The images of the artist's works in the data has been analyzed through descriptive analysis and research have reached new information on the subject of the procedure by the means of analysis by comparison with the artist's pictorial work. Picasso moved his artistic works to different artistic applications with the life that directed him. On May 1948, he places his family Vallauris. There, he discovers produces in Madurapottery factory. Among craftsmen, he learns how to turn the wheel, work with clay and knead it by using creative imagination in a relaxed manner. Created metamorphosis, Picasso can bend a vase with the tip of his finger in order to turn it into a pigeon with the power of clay and he can turn it into a woman by pressing the sides of the pitcher like the painting ‘one-legged round tables with still-life’(Herscher, 2002:145) so Picasso reflected his the artistic identity to ceramics and enjoyed this by turning a two-dimensional form into three dimensions located on the surface of the painting by feeling clay. In the next 25 years, he would produce 3500 pieces (vases, pitchers, bowls)in the image of the figure; he would describe faces, animals and women in ceramics. 362 Fahrettin GEÇEN - Tahir ÇELİKBAĞ Turkish Studies Volume 14 Issue 1, 2019 Picasso used female figures, mythological scenes, still-lifes, faces, clowns, drinkers, musicians, dancers, festivals and etc. inspired by Greek mythology as a theme in general in his ceramics. As in the work named Picasso's“Weeping Woman”, he made simultaneous impressions in figure in the ceramic work named “Woman’s Head with Crown of Flowers”. The artist made a representation both profile and frontal on the same plane. it can be clearly seen the cubism impact in the ceramic figüre application named “A woman's head with Crown of flowers”. Pablo Picasso reflected his private life in the works. One of the best examples of this is the habit of eating. Especially Picasso reflected the habit of eating to the art. it is possible to see the fish in his paintings and ceramic work, still-lifes and dishes. Although it looks like from the hands of a kid, It is seen that he transfers his feeling to ceramic form and surface with a few brush strokes in the figure images that the artist uses in his works. The patterns drawn to the surface of the ceramic lacks of aesthetic and anatomical concerns (İnan, 2018: 13). it is observed that he gives portrait of the figure with each independent curved lines in the work of a ceramic plate named “the musician Faun” Which is located above. It is seen thatThe outer frame of the plate forms the outer contours of the head and the jaw With outer head form is given artfully with the two extrovert curved lines. In the drawing, given face form and dimension with simple lines settled in the Introverts pit reveals not only the personalitybut also the skillfully given identity of the artist. In the work of “fish” made with taking advantage of the handle structure, the artist shaped the clay like a fish Keywords: Picasso, ceramics, painting, cubism, figure 1. Giriş Sanat; insanların binlerce yıldır düşüncelerinin ifadesinde, duygularının yansımasında, estetik hazlarının alınmasında, yaratıcı ifadelerinin sunumunda, yaşamlarının kültürel formunun devamında ve sayabileceğimiz birçok gerekçeli nedenden ötürü varlığını gösterip devam etmiştir. Sanat aynı zamanda bir gösterim ve güç aracı olarak da kullanılmaktadır. Sanat bir taraftan dinin yansıtılmasında kilisede, vitray, camide hat ve süsleme gibi kendini yansıtmıştır. Diğer taraftan düşünsel, toplumsal ve sanatçının tarzı olarak kendini ortaya çıkarmıştır. Modern sanata kadar bölgesel, toplumsal, fikirsel benzerliklerle belirli bölgelerde benzer üsluplar görülürken modern sanatla birlikte birden fazla sanatsal üslup sanatçıların sanatsal kişilikleriyle kendini göstermiştir. Modern sanatın önemli kişiliklerinden biri de dünyaca kabul görmüş sanatsal şahsiyetiyle kendini göstermiş bir kişi olan Pablo Picasso’dur. Picasso eserlerine kendini ve sanatsal üslubunu yansıtmış özelliklede figür betimlerinde dikkat çekmiştir. Picasso resim, heykel ve seramik alanlarında çok sayıda eser üretmiş bir sanatçıdır. Pablo Picasso’nun resimlerine bakıldığında; kübizm akımında yaptığı resimlerde biçimsel olarak geometriksel formlarda verme, iki boyutlu yüzeyde üçboyutlu resimsel ifade biçimi oluşturma, aynı düzlem üzerinde görünmeyen kısmı göstererek eş zamanlı ifade formu verme biçiminde görülmektedir. Sanatçının resimlerinde bu özelliği gösteren bir eser örneği olan “Ağlayan Kadın” isimli sanatsal yapıtında sanatçı iki boyutlu düzlem üzerinde üç boyutlu resmetmesi (yüzün hem profilini hem de cephesini aynı düzlemde vermesi), geometriksel Pablo Pıcasso’nun Resimlerindeki Figür Anlayışının Seramik Çalışmalarına… 363 Turkish Studies Volume 14 Issue 1, 2019 ifade biçimi ile resmi çözümlemesi (şematik dönem çocuklarında görüldüğü gibi resmin formları geometriksel biçimlerle betimlenmiş) örnek gösterile bilinir. Resim 1. Pablo Picasso Ağlayan Kadın Picasso’nun resimlerinde gösterdiği kendine özgü sanatsal ifade biçimini çalıştığı diğer sanat formlarında (seramik, heykel) başarıyla verebildiği varsayılmaktadır. Sanatçının ilgilendiği seramik çalışmalarında resim sanatında gösterdiği sanatsal kimliği gösterip gösteremediği araştırmanın temel problemini oluşturmaktadır. Pablo Picasso’nun resim çalışmalarında kullandığı geometriksel ifade, eş zamanlı gösterim, iki boyutlu yüzey üzerinde üç boyutlu ifade biçimi, çocuksu çizgisel form ifadesinin çalıştığı seramik çalışmalarında yansımasını ortaya çıkarmak araştırmada amaç edinilmiştir. Resimler üzerindeki iki boyutlu yüzey üzerinde üç boyutlu ifadenin ve basitleştirilmiş imgesel ifadelerin seramik çalışmalarında üç boyutlu ifadesi ve basit imgelerin seramiklerin üzerinde iki ve üç boyutlu yansımaları ve başarısını ortaya çıkarmakta araştırmada büyük önem taşımaktadır. 2. Literatür Eserleriyle dünya sanatında ses getiren ve yer edinen; “Pablo Ruiz Picasso, 25 ekim 1881’ de Malaga ve Andalusia'da doğdu”(Praeger, 1957: 6). Picasso’nun yaşamı kimliğini yaptığı sanatsal eserleri etkilemiştir. “Picasso’nun babası desen hocasıydı. Çocuk Picasso, edebiyat öğrenimini öteki okullar gibi, resmi “yazı ile öğrendi. ”( Buchholz, E. L. ve Zimmermann, 2005: 9). Resmi yazı ile öğrenen Picasso’nun kontur çizgileriyle çizilen resimlerinde de yazının çizgisel etkileri görülmektedir. Resim 2. Picasso çalışırken 364 Fahrettin GEÇEN - Tahir ÇELİKBAĞ Turkish Studies Volume 14 Issue 1, 2019 Picasso’nun sanat yaşamı tekdüze olmamış, sanat yaşamında çeşitli evreler geçirmiştir. “Picasso ilk dönemlerinde realist yönelimleri olmuş 1900’lu yıllarda Paris’e gitmiş daha sonrasında mavi dönem, pembe dönem, kübizm, yeni klasizm, gerçeküstücülük, barbar yıllar, ve biçimleri görünümü bozulmuş eserleriyle”( Buchholz, E. L. ve Zimmermann, 2005: 4-5) son dönemlerini yaşamıştır. Kübizm akımının babalarından olan “Picasso’nun en etkili vurgusu “bir resim, yıkmalardan oluşan bir toplamdır” sözüdür”(Eroğlu, 2016:15). Kübizmi, en önemli yapısıyla ifadelendiren Picasso eserleri ve öncülüğüyle kübizm sanat akımına önemli katkılarda bulunmuştur. “Picasso, söz konusu zaman dilimi içinde, iki türlü analitik ve sentetik kübizme dayalı olmak üzere çalışmalar sunmuştur”(Eroğlu, 2016:74). Kübizm akımına katkıda bulunduğu eserlerden bazıları; Avignonlu Kızlar, Guernica, Ağlayan Kadın, Ma Jolie, Ayna Karşısındaki Kızlar ve sayılacak başka birçok eseri başlıca yapıtları sayılabilir. Resim 3. Avignonlu Kızlar-Les Demoiselles d’Avignon, 1907 (New York Modern Sanat Müzesi) Picasso sanatsal eserlerini kendini yönlendiren hayatla farklı sanatsal uygulamalara taşımıştır.1948 Mayısında, Vallauris’e ailesini yerleştirir. Burada Madoura çömlek fabrikasında üretilen keşfeder. Zanaatkârların arasında kille çalışmayı, onu yoğurmayı, yaratıcı hayal gücünü rahat bir şekilde kullanarak çarkı çevirmeyi öğrenir. Metamorfozlar yaratan Picasso kilin gücüyle vazoyu bir güvercine çevirmek için parmağının ucuyla onun bükebilir, ibriğini yanlarını bastırarak ‘Tek ayaklı yuvarlak masalı naturmort’ resmindeki gibi onu kadına çevirebilir (Herscher, 2002:145) yani kili hissederek resim yüzeyinde yer alan iki boyutlu formu üç boyuta dönüştürerek Picasso sanatçı kimliğini seramiğe yansıtmış ve bundan haz almıştır. Sonraki 25 yılda 3500 adet (vazo, sürahi, kase) üretecek figür imgelerinde; yüzler, hayvanlar ve kadınları seramiklerinde betimleyecektir(goo.gl/ngJiEW). Picasso yaptığı seramiklerde tema olarak genelde yunan mitolojisinden esinlenerek kadın figürleri, mitolojik sahneler, natürmortlar, yüzler, palyaçolar, içenler, müzisyenler, dansçılar, bayramlar vs kullanmıştır (goo.gl/MCxDvN). https://www.google.com.tr/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwjN4-2O99baAhUK_aQKHe9HCcgQjRx6BAgAEAU&url=http://www.sacred7travel.com/pablo-picassonun-avignonlu-kizlar-tablo-okumasi-02-02-2018&psig=AOvVaw07J_Cr-0Qzh0Udfz1i8SAs&ust=1524797268367815 Pablo Pıcasso’nun Resimlerindeki Figür Anlayışının Seramik Çalışmalarına… 365 Turkish Studies Volume 14 Issue 1, 2019 Resim 4. Pablo Picasso, Tetede femme a la courronne de fleurs (Woman’s Head with Crown of Flowers), 1964, Picasso yaptığı Pablo Picasso “Ağlayan Kadın” isimli resim eserinde olduğu gibi “Woman’s Head with Crown of Flowers” isimli seramik eserinde de figürde eş zamanlı gösterim yapmıştır. Sanatçı hem profilden hem de cepheden gösterimi aynı düzlem üzerinde yapmıştır. “Woman’s Head with Crown of Flowers” isimli seramik figür uygulamasında da Kübistik etki net bir şekilde görülmektedir. Pablo Picasso özel yaşamını eserlerine yansıtmaktaydı. Buna en iyi örneklerden bir tanesi de yemek alışkanlığıdır. Picasso özellikle yemek alışkanlığını sanatına da yansıtırdı. Yaptığı resimler de ve seramik çalışmalarında balıklar, natürmortlar ve yemekleri görmek mümkündür. Resim 5. Gazete üzerindeki balık, 1957’ler, Nice komünist gazetesi, “La Patriote”a alınan kalıba basılmış kil ve boyalı seramik (Herscher, 2002:145). “Gazete üzerindeki balık” isimli eserinde balık imgesini resimsel çalışmaları gibi basit formlar ve lekesel çizgisel etkilerle verdiği görülmektedir. Ayrıca esere bakıldığında sırlanan bu kil kalıp çalışmanın zemininde gazete hissisini vermek amacıyla kahverengi ve siyah renklerinde 366 Fahrettin GEÇEN - Tahir ÇELİKBAĞ Turkish Studies Volume 14 Issue 1, 2019 çizgisel ve noktasal formların olduğu seramiğin ise tümüyle kıvrımlı boyutlandırıldığı görülür. Sanatçının seramik çalışmasının, resim çalışmalarında yer alan basit formsal yapılara benzediği anlaşılmaktadır. Picasso seramik çalışmaları dışında resimsel ifadelerini boyutlandırabildiği diğer bir alanda heykeldir. Resim 6. Human Skull. Paris, 1943. Bronze. Height, II 5/8 (Praeger, 2007:213) İnsan başını kendi stili olan basitleştirme formlarıyla yapan sanatçı, bronz heykeli resimsel ifade biçimine uygun şekilde üç boyuta dönüştürmüştür. Bu çalışmada figürde anatomik ve estetik kaygı gözetilmemiştir. Baş ve göz çukurları geometriksel verilmiş kübistik etki hissettirilmiştir. Yaptığı heykel çalışmalarının da üç boyutlu seramik çalışmalarıyla benzerlik gösterdiği görülmektedir. Resim 7. Pablo Picasso, Müzisyen Faun, Sırlı Seramik Tabak. Sanatçı eserlerinde kullandığı figür imgelerinde çocuk elinden çıkmış gibi görünse de anlatmak istediği duyguyu birkaç fırça darbesi ile seramik form ve yüzeyine kendi duygularını aktardığı görülmektedir. Seramik yüzeyine çizdiği desenler anatomik kaygıdan ve estetikten yoksundur (İnan, 2018:13). Yukarıda yer alan “Müzesyen Faun” isimli sırlı seramik tabak çalışmasında sanatçı, portre imgesini birbirinden bağımsız kavisli çizgilerle verdiği görülmektedir. Sanatçının, bu seramik tabak çalışmasında tabağın dış çerçevesini başın dış hattı olarak, çene Pablo Pıcasso’nun Resimlerindeki Figür Anlayışının Seramik Çalışmalarına… 367 Turkish Studies Volume 14 Issue 1, 2019 kısmını ise dışa dönük iki kavisli çizgiyle dış hattın devamı olarak verdiği görülür. Çizimde içe dönük çukura yerleşen basit çizgilerle verdiği yüz formu ve boyut sanatçının hem kişiliğini hem de sanatçı kimliğini ortaya çıkartmaktadır. Resim 8. Pablo Picasso, Fish, 1952. Kulplu yapısından yararlanarak yaptığı ‘fish’ isimli seramik eserinde; sanatçı kili geometrik formda balık şekline benzetmiş, basit noktasal ve çizgisel çizimlerle nesneyi meydana getirmiştir. Sanatçı çalışmada hem nesnenin boyutundan hem de kendi resim çizim tekniğinden yararlanarak eserini meydana getirmiştir. Böylece üç boyuttan yararlanıp bazı formları verip resimsel çizgileri de kullanıp sanat üslubunu farklı bir yolla icra etmiştir. Resim 9. Vase Deux Anses Hautes (Vase with two high handles) (The Queen), 1953 Sanatçı “The Queen” isimli sırlı vazo seramik çalışmasında kraliçe imgesini meydana getirmek için boyanmış vazo kili çizgisel kazıma tekniğiyle şekillendirmiş, yine kendine has basit çizgilerle yüz vücut imgelerini şekillendirmiştir. Vazo nesnesinin kulplarını kol, ağız kısmını baş, alt kısmını ismini ayak bölgesi olarak formlaştırmıştır. https://www.masterworksfineart.com/artists/pablo-picasso/ceramic/vase-deux-anses-hautes-vase-with-two-high-handles-the-queen-1953-2/id/w-6371 368 Fahrettin GEÇEN - Tahir ÇELİKBAĞ Turkish Studies Volume 14 Issue 1, 2019 Resim 10. Grand Vase Pékiné (Big candy-striped vase), 1956 Sanatçı bu seramik vazo çalışmasında çukur ve tümsek etkileri kullanılmıştır. Sanatçı şekillendirdiği portre imgesinin bazı yerlerini kazımış bazı yerlerine de üst zemine kil ekleyerek boyutlandırmıştır. Sanatçı vazoda yer alan portre imgesinde çizgisel basit formlar kullanmıştır. Sanatçı basit ve sade formlarla uygulamayı kendi sanatsal üslubuyla tamamlamıştır. Resim 11. Grey Engraved Pitcher Sanatçı “Grey Engraved Pitcher” isimli seramik çalışmasında boyanmış vazo çalışma üzerinde kazıma yapıp çizgisel figür desenleri çizmiştir. Çizdiği portre figür imge deseni üstüne siyah çizgisel formlarla çizgiyi güçlendirmiştir. Ayrıca sanatçı insan portre imgesinde yüzü profilden gözü de cepheden çizerek, resimlerinde olduğu gibi tek düzlem üzerinde eş zamanlı gösterim yapmıştır. 3. Veri ve Yöntem Araştırma, Nitel araştırma deseni ile yapılmış olup literatür taranarak Picasso ve sanatsal çalışmaları hakkında bilgiler elde edilmiştir. Verilerde yer alan sanatçıya ait seramik eser görselleri betimsel analiz yoluyla analiz edilmiş ve sanatçının resim çalışmalarıyla karşılaştırılarak araştırma yapılan konuyla ilgili yeni bilgilere yordama, analiz yollarıyla ulaşılmıştır. Araştırmada Picasso’nun yaptığı iki boyutlu ve üç boyutlu seramikler evreni seramiklerde yer alan figür imgeleri ise sınırlılığı ve örneklemi oluşturmaktadır. Araştırma da sanatçının seramik çalışmalarındaki figür imgeleri ele alınıp sınırlaması ile amaçlı örneklem yoluna gidilmiştir. https://www.masterworksfineart.com/artists/pablo-picasso/ceramic/grand-vase-pekine-big-candy-striped-vase-1956/id/W-5538 Pablo Pıcasso’nun Resimlerindeki Figür Anlayışının Seramik Çalışmalarına… 369 Turkish Studies Volume 14 Issue 1, 2019 4. Bulgular Sanatçının figürsel seramiklerinde genelde çizgisel formlar görülmüştür. Sanatçının tabak seramiklerinde çizgisel iki boyutlu veyahut boyutlandırılmaya çalışılmış çizgi formları görülmüştür. Sanatçının üç boyutlu seramiklerinde ise figür imgelerinin üzerinde konturlu çizgisel müdahaleler mevcuttur. Seramiklerde yer alan figür imgelerinin anatomik olarak bozuk olduğu ve estetik kaygısı duyulmadan betimlendiği görülmüştür. Seramiklerde yer alan figür imgelerinde, resimlerinde kullandığı kübistik etkilerle oluşturulmuş geometrik formlar saptanmıştır. Seramiklerde yer alan figür imgelerinde, resimlerinde kullandığı kübistik etkilerle, düzlem üstünde hem profil hem cephe formunu birlikte kullanmasını üç boyutlu ve iki boyutlu seramiklerde de uyguladığı bulgulanmıştır. Birçok seramik çalışmalarında figür imgelerinde formların bozulduğu ve formsal açıdan estetik kaygının duyulmadığı bulgulanmıştır. Sanatçının yaptığı seramik tabaklarda ve vazolarda tümsek ve çukur etkileriyle üç boyut verdiği bulgulanmıştır. 5. Sonuçlar Pablo Picasso yaptığı seramik çalışmalarında resimlerinde kullandığı çizgisel konturleri kullanmıştır. Sanatçı seramik tabak çalışmalarında kullandığı çizgisel konturlar ile oluşturduğu çocuksu ifadeli çizimler kimi zaman çizgisel resim gibi kimi zaman ise azda boyutlandırılmış resim görünümünde resmedilmişdir. Picasso yaptığı üç boyutlu seramik çalışmalarında kendine has üslubu olan resimsel çizgileri boyutlandırmıştır. Sanatçı yaptığı seramik figür imgelerinin üzerine çocuksu resimsel ifadesini çizme ya da kazıma yoluyla güçlendirerek üç boyutlu formla vermeyi başarmıştır. Sanatçı birçok seramik çalışmasında figürleri anatomik kaygı taşımadan formlarını bozmuş resimlerinde olduğu gibi geometrik formlarla biçimlendirmiştir. Sanatçı yaptığı seramik çalışmalarında güzel etkisi yaratma kaygısı taşımadan vermek istediği formu vermiştir. Sanatçı yaptığı bazı seramik çalışmalarında nesneye verdiği tümsek ve çukur etkileriyle düz yüzey üzerine çizdiği figürlere boyut etkisi katmıştır. Örneğin Müzisyen Faun, Sırlı Seramik Tabak çalışmasında tabağın dış hattındaki yapı tümsek etkisi iç kısımdaki kısım ise çukur yapısıyla içte düzlemsel çizilen yüze boyut katmıştır. Bazı seramik çalışmalarında aynı düzlem üzerinde resimlerinde olduğu gibi eş zamanlı gösterimler yapmıştır. Seramiklerde yaptığı portre ve figürleri hem cepheden hem de profilden aynı düzlemde biçimlendirmiştir. Sanatçı üç boyuttan yararlanmış yaptığı figürün bazı formlarını seramik nesnesinden yapıp resimsel çizgileri de kullanıp sanat üslubunu farklı bir yolla icra etmiştir. Örneğin vazonun ağzını baş, kulplarını kol olarak kullanması gibi. KAYNAKÇA Buchholz, E. L. ve Zimmermann, B. (2005), Picasso, (Dumanoğlu, M. Çev.) İtalya: literatür Yayıncılık Eroğlu, Özkan. (2016), Matisse Ve Picasso, İstanbul: Tekhne Yayınları Herscher, Ermine (2002). Picasso Sofrası (çev. emine çaykara-şeyda taluk). İstanbul: Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları 370 Fahrettin GEÇEN - Tahir ÇELİKBAĞ Turkish Studies Volume 14 Issue 1, 2019 İnan, Hasan Basri (2018), Seramik Form Ve Yüzeylerde Resimsel Anlatımlar Ve İmgeler, Yüksek Lisans Sanat Çalışması Raporu, : Hacettepe Üniversitesi Güzel Sanatlar Enstitüsü Seramik Anasanat Dalı Praeger, Frederick A. (2007), Picasso, New York: library of congress. Stein, G. (2006), Picasso.(Özsezgin, K. Çev.) İstanbul: Dünya Yayıncılık WEB Kaynakları RESİM 1. goo.gl/wGvEiS, 19.10.2018 Resim 2. goo.gl/v5BUCa, , 24.11.2018 Resim 3. goo.gl/csmex4, 25.10.2018 Resim 4. goo.gl/La8sAa, 14.10.2018 Resim 7. goo.gl/Eu4G7D, 02.12.2018 Resim 8. goo.gl/mUHYZo, 11.10.2018 Resim 9. goo.gl/NwzhfY, 12.10.2018 Resim 10. goo.gl/DhyXZL, 12.10.2018 Resim 11. goo.gl/Wdq8Hz, 13.10.2018 goo.gl/ngJiEW, 19.10.2018 https://drive.google.com/file/d/1iJJOUioKat5bBRBCmtRc6QhmVL4dGesf/view URL kısaltma: goo.gl/SfYWXT, 11.012.2018 https://drive.google.com/file/d/1aPtNddP1LntzrtrXjXGgHASQklM4bf06/view URL kısaltma: goo.gl/Xo9Ji7, 13.01.2019 https://news.artnet.com/market/the-story-behind-picasso-ceramics-45590 URL kısaltma: goo.gl/Ktx7a7, 07.11.2018 https://www.masterworksfineart.com/artists/pablo-picasso/ceramics URL kısaltma: goo.gl/Ky1Uqm, 22.11.2018 https://www.pablo-ruiz-picasso.net/work-3875.php URL kısaltma: goo.gl/hxNTv7, 19.10.2018 https://www.entelaylak.com/pablo-picasso-kimdir-hayati-ve-eserleri/ URL kısaltma: goo.gl/rj9pV9, 04.10.2018 https://drive.google.com/file/d/1iJJOUioKat5bBRBCmtRc6QhmVL4dGesf/view https://drive.google.com/file/d/1aPtNddP1LntzrtrXjXGgHASQklM4bf06/view https://news.artnet.com/market/the-story-behind-picasso-ceramics-45590 https://www.masterworksfineart.com/artists/pablo-picasso/ceramics https://www.pablo-ruiz-picasso.net/work-3875.php https://www.entelaylak.com/pablo-picasso-kimdir-hayati-ve-eserleri/ 
work_pow3yod6ebhmnnrg3nvmf6k2xe	----	Microsoft Word - Muzikologija2006.doc Весна Микић Различити видови модернизма... 267 Весна Микић РАЗЛИЧИТИ ВИДОВИ МОДЕРНИЗМА/НЕОКЛАСИЦИЗМА ДУШАНА РАДИЋА Апстракт: Рад је намењен разматрању могућих сагледавања неокласи- цизма у (српској) музици као модернистичке појаве. У случају послерат- не домаће музичке продукције ова врста проблематизације чини се неоп- ходном, јер се неокласицизам појављује као вид реакције на соцреализам с једне, док са друге стране, постмодерна додатно актуелизује његову позицију. Стваралаштво Душана Радића се у овом контексту намеће као прави избор за аргументацију почетне претпоставке, те је она и изведена на примеру неких његових дела из педесетих година прошлог века. Кључне речи: Душан Радић, неокласицизам, модернизам, хорска музика, Гунгулице, Списак, Ћеле кула. Кад се питања односа између традиције класичне музике и мо- дернистичких иновација нађу у центру пажње музиколошких истра- живања, одговори се обично траже кроз испитивање оних појава и стваралачких опуса који у извесној мери радикализују, или у потпу- ности преусмеравају датим контекстом установљену релацију изме- ђу традиционалног и новог. Из тога даље проистичу различити ти- пови вредновања и позиционирања проучаваних појава, најчешће у оквире канонских музиколошких дискурса у којима се, опет по оби- чају и правилу, као „напредне“ фаворизују оне које према традицији иступају радикално. И поред тога што су неки од „најрадикалнијих“ уметника1 прошлог столећа указивали на своје везе са традицијом, добар део музиколошких потрага у прошлом веку је протекао у по- кушају етаблирања главног тока историје музике по горенаведеним узусима. Управо због таквог наслеђа, покушаји откривања „скривених“ историјских појединости и доказивања значаја и значења које неке, на први поглед не толико радикалне појаве у историји музике XX века имају, чине се битним јер пружају могућност за садржајнију, потпуни- ју и актуелнију контекстуализацију композиторског стваралаштва, и то посебно кад оно припада „малим“ културама, попут српске. 1 Подсећамо на један од најпознатијих примера, на Aрнолда Шенберга (Arnold Schönberg) и његово указивање на везе сопствене музике са музиком Брамса (Johannes Brahms). Музикологија 6 – 2006 Musicology 268 Имајући у виду околности и особености развоја, као и умет- ничка достигнућа српске музике прошлога столећа, разумљиво је што је знатна пажња посвећивана продорима које је српско музичко стваралаштво остваривало у правцу „приближавања“ актуелним ев- ропским и светским музичким праксама, обично праћеним радикал- ним нарушавањем или напуштањем традиције, док су други његови аспекти, они чије су везе са традицијом биле наизглед чвршће и вид- љивије, опет разумљиво, у оваквим читањима донекле занемаривани. Стајемо, овом приликом, „у одбрану“ оних појава у српској му- зици прошлог столећа које су, мада по обиму продукције значајне, захваљујући својим наизглед снажним везама са традицијом, прем- да признаване и уочаване, у разматрањима остајале некако по стра- ни. Наиме, наша је „борба“ овде намењена указивању на могућа ту- мачења и контекстуализације музичког неокласицизма као специ- фичне модернистичке појаве у историји (српске) музике, а „извођење доказа“ ћемо покушати да остваримо на случају појединих остваре- ња која припадају стваралаштву еминентног српског композитора, академика Душана Радића (1929). Бројни су поводи због којих се неокласицизам одвећ дуго нала- зио на маргинама проучавања, а њих је управо могуће наћи у самој природи овог уметничког усмерења. Наиме, неокласицизам у европ- ској музици одликује, за доба у којем се, наизглед неочекивано појавио, тешко објашњиво и одвећ отворено окретање прошлости. Тај први утисак који је својом појавом остављао узроковао је и касније разумевање правца као превасходно рестаураторског, назад- ног и реакционарног покушаја сналажења уметника у новонасталим друштвено-идеолошким и тржишним околностима по завршетку Првог светског рата. У тим околностима се такође могао ишчитава- ти „жал за прошлим временима“, неретко у блиској вези са екс- тремним идеолошко-политичким позицијама, десним или левим. Овде првенствено имамо у виду француски „rappele à l’ordre“2, чије бисмо (пре)поруке, на различите начине формулисане, могли про- наћи и у другим европским срединама у међуратном раздобљу. Ипак, после почетних изненађења, заслепљености и осуда нео- класичне „промене правца“ у односу на предратни радикални мо- 2 Текст „Позив на ред“ (1923), вероватно је један од најпознатијих Коктоових (Jean Cocteau) текстова везаних за ову проблематику, мада и у Петлу и арлекину (1918) проналазимо „исте тонове“. Ипак, читаво се уметничко усмерење руко- вођено овим прогласом означава истим термином, а и у његовој основи стоји позив на повратак класичном реду, на одбацивање немачких елемената у умет- ности и повратак „чистој“ француској уметности. Читаву проблематику неки историчари повезују и са националистичким, десничарским позицијама. Весна Микић Различити видови модернизма... 269 дернизам, све су чешће уочаване сличности између предратног и међуратног стваралаштава појединих аутора, да бисмо данас нео- класицизам разумевали и као особен вид модернизма, који поседује сопствене разнолике манифестације. У основи, ради се о типу мо- дернизма који инсистира на својим везама са прошлошћу у најши- рем смислу, те као уметнички резултат генерално продукује остварења која се најчешће одликују полимузичношћу3, истовременим и/или сук- цесивним протоком више различитих музика. Овакав вид „умереног“ односа према традицији може бити проблематизован и у односу на читања неокласицизма као искључиво рестаураторског и реакцио- нарног правца, с обзиром на то да је можда управо неокласичарски однос према музици прошлости радикалније угрозио њена достиг- нућа, кријући се иза маске решења које је на први поглед одражава- ло респект према прошлости, али и према захтевима садашњности. Разнолике манифестације неокласицизма у музици, у светлу његовог тумачења као модернизма оствареног на темељу комуни- кације са традицијом, могуће је сврстати у неколико (међусобно блиских) усмерења. Може се говорити о историцистичко4-академ- ском модернизму и „маскираном“ модернизму, заснованом на фе- номену „реакција-формација“5. Неретко од истих аутора потичу остварења радикалног модернизма, или пак његови елементи ко- ришћени у контексту „маскираног“ модернизма, али и остварења са постмодернистичким цртама, које такође најчешће имају функцију субверзивних модернистичких потеза. 3 Термин Владана Радовановића, Шостакович и стваралаштво, рукопис, Бео- град, 1955. 4 Термин је преузет и преведен са енглеског („Historicist Modernism“) из: Walter Frisch, German Modernism. Music and the Arts, University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, 2005, 138–186. 5 Уп. Hal Foster, Rosalind Krauss, Yves-Alain Bois, Benjamin H. D. Buchloh, Art Since 1900. Modernism. Antimodernism. Postmodernism, Thames & Hudson, London 2005, 164–165. Мада аутори сврставају Пикасово стваралаштво од 1919. године у антимодернизам, они његов „заокрет“ у основи кога и даље уочавају црте кубизма нпр., објашњавају користећи се фројдовским моделом „реакција-фор- мација“, којим описује „чудну трансформацију потиснутих потреба, трансфор- мацију која као да пориче те ниске, либидинално вођене импулсе замењујући их нечим што је био њихов прецизни опозит: понашањем које је било „узвише- но“, похвално, ваљано. Aли тај опозит, истиче Фројд, заправо је начин да се на- стави забрањено понашање његовим кријумчарењем испод очишћене, сублими- ране маске. (...) Даље, каже Фројд, реакција-формација собом носи „секундарну добит“. Не само да је субјект у стању да искаже своје импулсе, већ и то по- нашање сада постаје друштвено признато“. Aутори даље истичу да је овакво сагледавање двоструко корисно јер с једне стране објашњава везе предратног и међуратног стваралаштва, а са друге различите видове „повратка реду“. Музикологија 6 – 2006 Musicology 270 Схватање неокласицизма као модернистичке манифестације у српској музици након Другог светског рата показује се изузетно за- нимљивим, посебно ако се имају у виду друштвенополитичке окол- ности. С обзиром на чињеницу да се неокласицизам појављује педе- сетих година XX века6, у тренутку када је у званичној политици дошло до разлаза са СССР-ом, те самим тим и до попуштања зах- тева ригидне културне политике соцреализма, његова се достигнућа морају проблематизовати у односу на ту, непосредно претходећу ситуацију, као и у односу на шири културно-уметнички, али и кон- текст музичке продукције истог периода. Када је 1951. године Добрица Ћосић објавио роман Далеко је сунце, Петар Лубарда остварио своју самосталну изложбу, а Милан Ристић (1908–1982) представио јавности своју Другу симфонију, постало је евидентно да је у српској уметности отпочело „ново до- ба“, у први мах обележено бројним полемикама и сукобима између заступника реализма и представника модернизма у књижевности. Пошто сродне појаве бележимо и у ликовним уметностима, постав- ља се питање да ли је сличне тензије могуће препознати у музичком стваралаштву истог раздобља? Имајући у виду чињеницу да су пи- тања реализма у музици далеко компликованија него у другим умет- ностима, тешко је „супротстављена“ усмерења у музици педесетих година свести на релацију реализам – модернизам, но њу је ипак могуће транспоновати и потом препознати у односима између представника и остварења националног романтизма (који и није био у отвореном „сукобу“ са захтевима соцреализма) с једне, те модер- низма/неокласицизма са друге стране. Јерко Денегри различите манифестације новонасталог стања у српском сликарству педесетих година тумачи као послератни позни модернизам, указујући на његове везе са традицијом, његов интер- национални карактер и његову „склоност“ ка академизацији до које је, пред крај педесетих година и дошло.7 Захваљујући управо овим околностима, неокласицизам се у срп- ској музици, донекле парадоксално у односу на уврежена поимања овог правца као ретроградног, наједном испоставља као носилац значајних, и очито, јединих могућих промена и продора. Отклон од националног романтизма, те отклон од тема и изражајно-техничких прописа соцреализма, био је, ако не на први поглед радикалан, оно 6 Поменимо овде да у српској музици ранијег раздобља постоје неокласични опуси, нпр. онај Предрага Милошевића, но овде мислимо на установљење нео- класицизма у већем броју стваралачких опуса, те знатно већој продукцији. 7 Уп. Ješa Denegri, Pedesete:Teme srpske umetnosti, Svetovi, Novi Sad 1993, 5–20. Весна Микић Различити видови модернизма... 271 ипак, дефинитиван. Управо они аспекти међуратног европског нео- класицизма, због којих се нпр. стваралачки поступци Стравинског (Игорь Стравинский) и Пикаса (Pablo Picasso) објашњавају као „реакција-формација“, маскирани модернизам, имали су, у услови- ма у којима се развијала српска музика педесетих, субверзивно дејство у односу на утврђене обрасце и теме „главног тока“. Јер, подсетимо, српском неокласицизму није, као европском, претходио радикални модернизам, него је реакција која га је непосредно подстакла била реакција на соцреалистичко тумачење односа према традицији и улоге уметности у друштву. Отуда је једини пут за исказивање ове реакције водио преко привидног, умереног прихва- тања захтева у комбинацији са суберзивним отклонима од њих. Зарад те своје (привидне) умерености, неокласицизам постепено продире у различите сфере стваралаштва, у програме студија ком- позиције и подлеже академизацији, те ће, очекивано, временом постати предмет реакција и отклона који резултују отвореније ради- калним и авангардним продорима у потоњој српској музици. Различити видови српског музичког модернизма педесетих го- дина с почетка се испољавају у стваралаштву предратних авангард- них стваралаца, припадника прашке групе, и то у распону од исто- рицистичко-академског (неоромантичарског) Рајичићевог, преко мас- кираног (неокласичног) Ристићевог до оног радикалнијег (неоекс- пресионистичког) Љубице Марић. Паралелно с њима, опстајао је и „реализам“ старијих композиторских генерација и композитора блис- ких социјалистичком реализму. У таквом окружењу, у којем је, подсетимо, стабилизован и институционални оквир за композиторско школовање, почетком педесетих почео је да ствара Душан Радић. Теза од које полазимо јесте да се у Радићевом стваралаштву, првенствено из шесте деце- није века, могу препознати сви витални пунктови домаћег (после- ратног позног?8) музичког модернизма, те да се заправо на основу проучавања његових остварења могу изводити претпоставке и зак- ључци о видовима у којима се, превасходно у својој неокласичној варијанти, модернизам рефлектовао у домаћој музичкој продукцији. На које се начине Радић стваралаштвом одређивао према тради- цији (српске) уметничке музике и према захтевима културне поли- тике времена, и како се конкретни резултати тих његових ствара- лачких реакција могу тумачити у контексту о којем је било говора? Који су, дакле, конкретни видови у којима се испољава Радићев модернизам? У односу на раније наведене видове модернизма, чини 8 Isto. Музикологија 6 – 2006 Musicology 272 се да је, с обзиром на ауторов избор тема, начин њихове презента- ције и конкретне материјале које користи у реализацији својих иде- ја, Радићево стваралаштво педесетих година најближе позицији „маскираног“ модернизма, модернизма заснованог на „реакцији-фор- мацији“. Ти избори сведоче о другачијој природи његовог модер- низма у односу на елитистичко-академски, они омогућавају Радићу искорак у радикалније сфере модернистичког израза, као и повре- мено отворено експонирање постмодернистичких одлика. Генерал- но говорећи, све се ове одлике препознају онда када се његово дело посматра у релацији према наслеђу националног романтизма, дома- ћем фолклорном наслеђу, те у релацији с тада омиљеним темама (НОБ и обнова и изградње земље) и жанровима (вокалноинструмен- тални) времена у којем Радић стасава. Управо у начину на који под маском прихватања, симулирајући и парафразирајући их, Радић субвертира, редефинише и коментрише та наслеђа, откривамо меха- низме уз помоћ којих функционише његов модернистички сензиби- литет. Руковођени овим замислима, осврнућемо се сада на неке од Радићевих композиција. Веома је интригантна чињеница да су се готово све кључне одлике Радићевог стваралаштва, које обухвата период дужи од пола века, испољиле, па и установиле још у раним, готово студентским годинама. Горица Пилиповић у том погледу правилно закључује да су педесете године „чворне“ за Радићево стваралаштво9, те у том смислу, и неке од оних одлике које су нам овде релевантне, проналазимо већ у Гунгулицама, хорским обрасцима за мешовити хор (1953). Уколико се домаћи аутор одлучи да, на темељу обраде народ- них песама организованих у сплет компонује музику за мешовити хор, онда је сасвим разумљиво да се Мокрањчево (ређе Маринко- вићево) дело наметне као могући модел према којем се компонује. Још прецизније, тај ће модел, пре или касније искрснути као зна- чајан за наше проучавање композиторових поступака и намера. Та- ко и у случају Гунгулица можемо разматрати Радићев однос према Мокрањцу, тачније: Радићев отклон од Мокрањца и традиције ње- гових руковети. У којим то поступцима ишчитавамо Радићеву мо- дернистичку формулу „отпора“, где се потврђује његов „маскирани“ модернизам? Најпре, у „непоштовању“ неких генералних Мокрањ- 9 Gorica Pilipović, Stvaralačke koordinate Dušana Radića, magistarska teza, rukopis, FMU, Beograd, 1993. Поменимо овде да је Горица Пилиповић ауторка која је свакако највише писала о Душану Радићу, и њеним радовима дугујемо многа вредна сазнања. Овде истичемо и књигу исте ауторке: Поглед на музику Душа- на Радића, СAНУ, Посебна издања, књ. DCXLV, Одељење ликовне и музичке уметности, књ. X, Београд 2000. Весна Микић Различити видови модернизма... 273 чевих поставки. Прво, Радић не бира песме из истог краја, дакле за њега нису важни порекло и „аутентичност“ материјала, а тај његов став још снажније потврђује и чињеница да су његови материјали потекли „из друге руке“, дакле, није их сам сакупљао, што би сваки „прави“ српски романтичар урадио. Радић се „задовољава“ збирком записа Владимира Ђорђевића Из предратне Србије (1931), и у њој проналази песме које ће у свом остварењу обрадити. Друго, Радић „изневерава“ Мокрањца и у погледу жанровског јединства одабра- них песама, јер у Гунгулицама се мешају обредне, љубавне, шаљиве, дечје... песме, без икаквог покушаја реализације латентне драма- тургије, било у текстуално-садржајном, било у формално-музичком погледу. Даље, он користи могућности које му пружа и фолклорна традиција, својом праксом комбиновања различитих текстова на исту мелодију и обратно, те и сам прави сопствене мини-колаже, користећи текст једне песме, на мелодију друге, или припев из једне песме у другој; тако, екстрахујући један од припева, долази и до наслова свог остварења. Додајмо свему овоме и чињеницу да је Ра- дићев избор песама (кратке једноставне мелодије, често уског оби- ма и секундног кретања, модалних основа) очито био руковођен жељом да се постигне потпуно нов звучни резултат, који свакако није заснован на потрази за „аутентичним“ фолклорним звуком. Тиме је реализован и очекивани отклон од српске фолклорне тра- диције. Већ се у Гунгулицама испољава ауторова наклоност према изградњи форме у остинатним блоковима и рескијим, углавном секундним или квартним вертикалним структурама, које ће остати карактеристичне и у каснијем стваралаштву. Међутим, чини се да, уколико се управо у контексту ауторовог модернизма посматра његово касније дело, Гунгулице крију и један други, за свог аутора типичан квалитет, квалитет којим се његов модернизам препознаје као супротан академском и у извесном погледу близак порукама модела француског неокласицизма, а тај је – једноставност. Довољ- но је кренути само од наслова и поднаслова, па уочити Радићеву поруку о непретенциозности и једноставности. Не само да за наслов бира „бесмислене“ слогове припева од којих сачињава именицу женског рода у множини, чиме као да хоће да каже да се ради о необавезним, насумично прикупљеним песмицама, које могу да буду „припеване“, него поднасловом објашњава да оне нису ништа више (или можда и ништа мање?) од хорских „образаца“ за одређе- ни број певача. Ту је одлику надаље могуће тражити и у поменутом одабиру песама, како у погледу тематског, тако и у погледу музич- ког садржаја (нпр. Престан, престан ћишице или Коларићу, пани- ћу), потом кратким трајањем сваке од песама и једноставним захва- тима у односу на Ђорђевићеве моделе, коначно у завршном „уздаху“ Музикологија 6 – 2006 Musicology 274 хора „уморном“ од канонских преплитања, тој „наглој“ и (за руко- вети) неочекиваној завршници, која као да треба да поништи сваку могућност да се дело схвати „озбиљно“. На овај начин Радић оства- рује дело које само на први поглед кореспондира са захтевима вре- мена и школе, односно с канонским поставкама традиције српског националног романтизма, док у основи редефинише и реинтерпре- тира традицију „изнутра“, подривајући прописане норме.10 Ту својеврсну промоцију једноставности Радић наставља и у свом вероватно најпознатијем опусу, у „тринаест крокија за три- наест извођача“ под насловом Списак (1952–1954), и пружа нам пример како и нешто свакодневно и једноставно може у одређеним контекстима да постане синоним за радикално, модерно и авангард- но. Радићева непретенциозност остварила је опус који ће бити нај- запаженији у оквиру концерта који историја српске музике бележи као „историјски концерт“. Сходно овоме, нема Радићевог дела о којем и око којег је више писано, почев од полемика које су усле- диле након његове премијере и поделиле стручну јавност на начин сродан ономе каква је била подела књижевне јавности у полеми- кама око реализма и модернизма. Стога, нећемо и овом приликом понављати све чињенице везане за Списак и концерт од 17. марта 1954. године, него ћемо, као и у случају Гунгулица, покушати да докучимо могуће проблематизације Списка у контексту Радићевог модернизма. Није нимало једноставно говорити о Списку, јер, имајући у виду тренутак у ком је настао, тип примењеног музичког језика, те ко- начно (и, ако се баш мора), позицију српске музике у односу на европску музику тога времена, нуде се могућности за макар исто то- лико читања. Уколико се ослонимо на закључке изведене из разматрања Гунгулица, потражићемо могуће сличне манифестације отклона од традиције и обрачуна са пожељним нормама „главног тока“ тадаш- њег музичког стваралаштва и тачке у којима се оне испољавају. У случају Списка отклон од српске музичке прошлости није сакривен јер не постоји узор на који се Радић директно позива и ослања. У том смислу, додатно се може проблематизовати неокласичност овог остварења, но, као што ћемо касније видети, све у вези с њим мора се у извесној мери подвргнути неком виду степеновања, или дру- 10 Поменимо у овом контексту клавирску Sonatu lesta из 1950. године, која на сличан начин зрачи ведрином, али и формалним решењима која су једноставна и резултују кратким ставовима, готово у маниру сонатине. Узгред, Радић и овде парафразира народну мелодику „из друге руке“, али сада је то Мокрањчева „рука“ и песма „Цвеће цафнало“. Весна Микић Различити видови модернизма... 275 гостепеног проблематизовања. Будући, дакле, да нема непосредног позивања ни на српску музичку прошлост, ни на српски музички фолклор, Списак је, посматран из угла захтева времена, од првог тренутка у раскораку и сукобу са њима. То одсуство резонанце још је оштрије у погледу тематског садржаја који је основ дела. И у том одабиру уочавамо континуитет са Гунгулицама, но овде је Радићева склоност ка једноставности и свакодневности које нису толико далеко ни од апсурда, нашла свој литерарни пандан у поезији Васка Попе. Друга линија континуитета може се сагледавати у компози- ционом поступку који није битно другачији од оног примењеног у Гунгулицама, али је овде, захваљујући типу третмана камерног извођачког ансамбла, разрађенији и упечатљивији. Даље, колико појам кроки подсећа на појам образац, у погледу „дубине“ и сло- жености захвата које и један и други подразумевају? Дакле, наново кратко, јасно, једноставно и непретенциозно. Па и тамо где би могао да се у романтичарском маниру „размахне“, дакле у третману гласова и инструмената, као и у тумачењу текста, Радић намерно, следећи своју основну замисао, остаје на нивоу цртежа. Отуда ансамбл, захваљујући саставу и третману, најчешће звучи „суво“, попут неког скицираног аранжмана, претежно „ударачки“ и неретко попут џез ансамбла. Дакле, никако према очекивањима ондашњег музичког укуса. Гласови, пак, певајући на текст заснован на дес- крипцији свакодневних предмета и бића, делују сасвим „страно“, отуђено антиромантичарски и херметично. На овај начин Радић постиже неки вид „празнине“ и два паралелна тока који нити желе, нити могу да се сусретну, јер, и зашто би се сусрели када је њихова улога само констатовање неке реалности. У том празном трбуху ансамбла и у празнини која зјапи између гласова и ансамбла, почива Радићева модернистичка критика стварности, с којом је већ у фор- малном смислу ступио у отворен окршај. (Зашто Радић бира баш вокалноинструментални жанр – омиљени жанр соцреализма?) Буду- ћи да, сходно свему истакнутом, модернистички дискурс који Радић присваја у Списку очито нема директне везе са српском музичком прошлошћу, па се тешко може констатовати да је исти као и онај примењен у Гунгулицама, – постаје проблематично и везивање Списка за неокласични музички израз. Мада би за расправу о полимузичности и колажу можда и могло да се нађе простора и аргумената, остаје чињеница да нема модела из прошлости који је парафразиран или симулиран. Тим констатцијама улазимо у поље проблема који су иначе везани за неокласицизам у српској музици, а који се тичу односа према његовом „имењаку“ из европске музике чија су остварења могла такође бити модел за рад. Ова пробле- матика може се донекле односити и на подручје неоекспресионизма Музикологија 6 – 2006 Musicology 276 и других нео- праваца у српској музици. Када је у питању Списак, модел за симулацију у основи постоји, али њега треба тражити у ближој прошлости и његов одабир треба разумевати и у контексту Радићевог односа према средини у којој је сазревао. Отуда се и по музичким решењима и по типу звучности, али и по значењима која производи, модели могу тражити у „прелазним“ делима Игора Стравинског, Свадби и пре свих, Причи о војнику. Наново, „кориш- ћењем“ свакодневице, истицањем апсурда и подстицањем шока, Радић се приближава сфери неокласицизма Ерика Сатија (Erik Satie) и француске Шесторке. Из овог аспекта може се размишљати и о читавом концепту историјског концерта као догађаја, осмишљеног на веома сличан начин како су некада били осмишљавани наступи Шесторке или пројекти неких њених чланова у сарадњи са другим врхунским уметницима. Отуда онај (парадоксални) тренутак у којем неокласицизам мо- же својим продуктом деловати радикално у односу на традицију, па и авангардно (у смислу локалне авангарде)11, пре свега у одређеном друштвеноисторијском контексту и неким својим спољњим мани- фестацијама, но и као вид модернизма „реакције-формације“ типа Игора Стравинског и француских аутора, уколико се српска музика посматра из аспекта европског међуратног неокласицизма. И погледајмо, коначно, како Радићев неокласицизам/модерни- зам, за чије ћемо механизме констатовати да нису битно измењени, већ можда чак и оштрије испољавани, у рецепцији постаје део „главног тока“ крајем педесетих година, у време када и све остале појаве у српској уметности које смо означили као модернистичке подлежу академизацији. „Епско виђење у четири певања“, Ћеле- кула за солисте, хор и оркестар (1957), спада у остварења која у потпуности формално задовољавају захтеве времена. Тематика јесте донекле другачија, у смислу да је национално обојена и бави се да- љом српском историјом, у основи вечним питањем човекове борбе, односно борбе народа за слободу. Ипак, наново у сарадњи са Вас- ком Попом, Радић успева да и од овако „прихватљиве“ поставке, не извргавајући руглу опште хуману поруку, сачини опус интригант- ног модернистичког сензибилитета. Најочитији пример за то је чу- вени завршни став, истог имена као и цело дело. Мада се у Ћеле- кули чини да је Радић макар привремено оставио по страни њему прирођене замисли о једноставности, па и апсурду, овде смо сведо- ци њиховог смелог пласирања у први план, у звучном и смисаоном 11 Уп. Mirjana Veselinović-Hofman, Stvaralačka prisutnost evropske avangarde u nas, Univerzitet umetnosti, Beograd 1983, 337–343. Весна Микић Различити видови модернизма... 277 погледу у потпуности неочекиваног за тематику која се обрађује, и за конвенционалне начине њене тонске обраде. Наново дакле, доби- јамо неочекивани обрт, сада у знатно ширем захвату него у Гунгу- лицама, па и у Списку (крај „без краја“ у Кактусу, као да музика иде у fade out док кактусове бодље/удараљке настављају да „боду, бо- ду...“), завршетак који изоштрава аспурд ситуације. Наиме, музич- ко-технички Радић разрешава ствар тако што „вечиту“ тему смрти, која је већ захваљујући Попиним стиховима постављена у сфере пркоса и ироније, спаја са „свакодневним“, жанру кантате неприпа- дајућим, boogie-woogie обрасцем, који ће, ипак, на крају трансфор- мисати у образац alla Marcia. У односу према фолклорној традицији Ђеле-кула такође доноси отклон од, чак и за Радића уобичајеног, с обзиром на то да овде композитор користи неки вид фоклорних интонација општијег типа (нпр. симулација свирке гусала или нешто шира мелодика Запевке произашла из генералних одлика тужбалица). Коначни резултат је негде на трагу хонегеровских „великих ма- шина“ и према начелима изградње форме (циклично понављање мо- тива) и према средствима којима се дочарава апсурдност ситуације (нпр. Суђење из Јованке Орлеанке на ломачи и Ђеле-кула). С обзиром на ове одлике, можемо да кажемо да је и у Ђеле-кули на делу модер- низам „реакције-формације“, модернизам који подривајући конвен- ционални жанр, обезбеђује делу другачију позицију од очекиване. Осим што нам је уочавање Радићевог интересовања за једно- ставност и свакодневно послужило у претходним примерима као основ за извођење аргументације у „одбрани“ његових модерни- стичких позиција, то и није био једини разлог за скретање пажње на ове одлике Радићеве поетике. Имајући у виду нашу ранију експли- кацију модернистичких одлика, где смо истакли и могућности појаве протопостмодернистичких елемената у склопу различитих модер- низама, везе свакодневног и популарног са постмодерном, омогу- ћавају читање неких појава у Радићевом опусу и са овог полазишта. Уколико већ истицаним моментима у којима Радићев музички језик и у конкретном смислу резонира са свакодневним и популарним, додамо узгред и податаке о балету Балада о месецу луталици (1957– 1960), са комбинованим симулацијама модела фолклорне и попу- ларне музике, као и замисао и начин реализације грандиозног Ora- torio profanо (1974), – онда нам се Радићев модернизам јасно у по- јединим моментима указује као протопостмодернистички. Макар је то у оноликој мери, у коликој на своје везе указују уметнички продукти француског међуратног модернизма и постмодерне, као и уопште везе између метода и поступака музичког неокласицизма и Музикологија 6 – 2006 Musicology 278 постмодерне у музици.12 Тај сложени однос између ове две појаве додатно усложњава чињеница да су оне у неким опусима (посебно домаћих аутора, па и Душана Радића) „савременице“. У таквом окружењу, Радићево стваралаштво наново се актуелизује и размат- ра, те је и наш поглед на њега један од таквих прилога. Сигурни смо да је Радићева позиција дефинитивно модернистичка (у контексту разматрања неокласицизма као модернизма које смо на почетку из- вели), макар видови тог модернизма били ту и тамо мање пре- познатљиви и убедљиви. Могуће је да би разматрања односа између модернизма и постмодернизма у Радићевом случају произвела и другачија мишљења, али их остављамо за неку другу прилику. Оно што је сигурно јесте да Радићев опус до данас остаје усидрен у „водама“ у које је „упловио“ током педесетих година прошлога века. Можда због тога можемо да тврдимо, захваљујући првенстве- но непрестаним трагањима композитора, њему прирођеном антикон- формизму, његовој радозналости, непретенциозности и чврстим ве- зама са „реалним“ животом, да свако његово дело може да поседује атрибуте неке од уочених радићевских модернистичких субверзија. Vesna Mikić DIFFERENT SHAPES OF MODERNISM/NEOCLASSICISM: A CASE STUDY OF DUŠAN RADIĆ’S CREATIVE OUTPUT (Summary) This paper deals with musical neoclassicism in the context of modernism, and shows that some neoclassical features, usually considered to be reactionary and retrograde, could and should be understood as modernist. This kind of contextualization is especially important when Serbian postwar music is in question. Neoclassicism in Serbian music began in a specific ideological milieu. Paradoxically, and despite its “call for order” characteristics, it turned out to be a kind of modernistic phenomenon. On one hand it received all typical shapes of European modernism, while on the other it remains as a typical idiom of postwar Serbian musical production, blending in perfectly with the postmodern. These issues are argued and proved through analysis of some pieces written by Dušan Radić during the 1950’s. We see a kind of “disguised” modernism in the composer's subversion of the norms of national romanticism and socialist realism in the neoclassical choir piece Gungulice (1953), a modernism that is based on Freud's “reaction-formation” notion. Then, a more radical kind of modernism is followed in the piece The List for chamber ensemble (1952– 12 О овој проблематици видети у: Mirjana Veselinović-Hofman, Fragmenti o mu- zičkoj postmoderni, Matica srpska, Novi Sad 1997. Весна Микић Различити видови модернизма... 279 1954), arguing the notion of radical in the context of Serbian music, and coming to the conclusion that different interpretations of this piece as avant-garde, radical, or neoclassical/modernist can occur as a consequence of the listener's position. In the case of The Tower of Sculls we observe the same kind of “disguised” modernism, but now directly interwoven with proto-postmodern elements, coming from popular music practices, which is also the case in other pieces by Dušan Radić. The composer’s nonconformity, lack of pretentiousness, and inclination toward the simplicity of everyday things form his modernistic identity. UDC 78.071.1 Radić Dušan:78.036.01 Музикологија 6 – 2006 Musicology 280 Без наслова Untitled 1929 Никола Вучо Nikola Vučo 
work_prixtkgelrflrkkrwooubqxpzy	----	ON THE COVER Channel by Mark Craig Portions of the following are based on an interview with the artist on September 4, 2020. The initial appeal of art for Mark Craig, a Canadian contemporary artist, was academic: art history. He painted in his spare time but studied the history of art and artists as he pursued his degree. Following graduation, he was an advertising art director, always knowing that what he really wanted to be doing was painting. He felt that it would be a luxury to fully engage in doing something that he loved, recognizing that not everyone gets the chance to strike out on their own. Five years ago, he made that move, “pushed off from the dock,” and has not looked back. Through his studies, Craig admired artists such as George Braque, French painter and sculptor; Pablo Picasso, Spanish painter, sculptor; and Kurt Schwitters, German painter—all of whom brought collage to their painting. Craig gravitated toward their work when he began painting full-time. Collage-like techniques have existed since the Chinese invented paper. But modern artists of the late 18th and early 19th centuries adapted and brought collage into their work. From a technique perspective, when artists like Braque and Picasso incorporated pieces of paper into their oil paintings, they added texture, and often the collage material contained references to current events or items from popular culture. Viewers could witness the process; they could see the brush strokes that artists combined with collage material in the finished work. The insertion of collage “brought meaning to the ordinary.” Using collage in creating abstract images was a departure from the neo-expressionist painting that Craig had been doing. He began to realize that he needed to get out of a rut. Neo-expressionists paint recognizable objects—such as hu- man bodies—in an emotional way to express the artist’s inner feelings. They are known to be bold with their mate- rials and often use the vivid colors of the Fauves. Craig turned to abstract images while keeping the brightness of color that he had been using. Craig starts his creative thinking with different colored shapes that he moves around, searching for a combination he likes. It is often not what he would have first thought to do but rather, Craig conveys, [It is a way to] explore and refine composition, color, pattern and texture, and to juxtapose design elements that might not necessarily occur to me. Once I start painting, I feel free to use the collage as a starting point and allow the paint and the textured canvas surface to dictate the direction that the final piece takes. My work is purely abstract but usually makes reference, if only in an oblique way, to specific places or ideas that inspire me. (Elaine Fleck Gallery, artist’s statement) Craig commented that collage works well to open his mind for his abstract painting. He tends, however, not to use collage for his landscapes and portraits. At the moment, he displays only his abstracts, whereas he considers his other work is still premature. He is waiting to find out what direction it will take. Will he meld abstraction with land- scapes and portraits whether collaged or not? He states that all painting boils down to color, texture, patterns, shapes— and good design applies to everything. Channel, the painting on the cover of this issue of the American Psychologist, began as a collage. The lower left and lower right of the painting include collage material such as crushed gravel and sand. There are also bits of the internal pieces of exploded firecrackers. This painting con- tains both oil and acrylic paint: Dry-brush oil highlighted the sand and other material; some of the shapes are placed over an acrylic underpainting. The dry-brush oil technique picks up and highlights the gritty hard edges and textures in the painting. Craig finishes many of his pieces with dry- brushed oil paints both to emphasize the surface texture and to enrich the colors. Craig wanted the blue shape in the center of Channel to be flowing and provide a sense of fluidity—a cascade of water. The channel of water adds energy and an organic feeling. The green shape and its shadow also have an organic quality. The black shape brings the eyes of the viewer to that side of the painting. The drips of paint add a sense of movement and hint at an overall impression of a watercolor. Craig said that it takes a lot of work to get those drips to look just right. And, of course, if he had not wanted them there, he could have painted them out. The drips are intentional. Craig is still an art historian at heart. Although he has never worked derivatively, that is, copying the work of his favorite artists, he knows that they are there with him as he paints. Sandra M. Fowler Art Co-Editor T hi s do cu m en t is co py ri gh te d by th e A m er ic an P sy ch ol og ic al A ss oc ia ti on or on e of it s al li ed pu bl is he rs . T hi s ar ti cl e is in te nd ed so le ly fo r th e pe rs on al us e of th e in di vi du al us er an d is no t to be di ss em in at ed br oa dl y. American Psychologist © 2020 American Psychological Association 2020, Vol. 75, No. 8, 1183 ISSN: 0003-066X http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/amp0000759 1183 http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/amp0000759 Channel by Mark Craig 
work_psbukd5xjbbmhje4pnb3tbsbwi	----	a16v29n4.pdf Revista Brasileira de Ensino de F́ısica, v. 29, n. 4, p. 575-583, (2007) www.sbfisica.org.br Produtos e Materiais Didáticos Teoria da relatividade restrita e geral no programa de mecânica do ensino médio: uma posśıvel abordagem (Special and general theory of relativity in the high school: a possible approach) Andreia Guerra11, Marco Braga1 e José Cláudio Reis2 1Grupo Teknê, Laboratório de Difusão de Ciência e Tecnologia, Centro Federal de Educação Tecnológica, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil 2Grupo Teknê, Colégio Pedro II, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil Recebido em 7/3/2007; Revisado em 10/9/2007; Aceito em 20/0/2007 Esse artigo pretende contribuir para o debate em torno ao ensino de f́ısica, trazendo uma proposta curricular de inserção do estudo das teorias da relatividade restrita e geral na primeira série do ensino médio. Tal proposta foi constrúıda a partir de uma abordagem histórico-filosófica da ciência, onde a relação entre a f́ısica com outras produções culturais constituiu-se no viés privilegiado para se trabalhar com os adolescentes as questões cient́ıficas respondidas pelos trabalhos de Albert Einstein. Palavras-chave: ensino de f́ısica, teoria da relatividade, história e filosofia da ciência, cultura. The present article aims to contribute for the debate about the teaching of physics in the first year of high school, as far as the study of the theory of relativity (restrict and general) is concerned. Based on a historical and philosophical approach, it discusses the relationship between science and other cultural productions, in an effort to make students reach a more meaningful understanding of how knowledge is built and therefore, better apprehend the questions and solutions presented by Albert Einstein in his works. Keywords: physics teaching, theory of relativity, history and philosophical of science, culture. 1. Introdução A questão do curŕıculo de f́ısica para o ensino médio é um tema muito pensado e discutido entre os pesquisa- dores da área. A publicação dos Parâmetros Curricu- lares Nacionais (PCNs) trouxe contribuições ao debate, apresentando de forma sistematizada as propostas cons- trúıdas pela comunidade ao longo dos últimos 20 anos, expostas em eventos como o Simpósio Nacional de En- sino de F́ısica. Com o estabelecimento dos parâmetros não se pretendeu a formulação de um curŕıculo pronto e fechado a ser executado por todas as escolas. A idéia era que a partir das orientações de temas e das ha- bilidades espećıficas a serem desenvolvidas, diferentes propostas curriculares pudessem ser criadas de acordo com a especificidade de cada escola [1]. Nas orientações dos Parâmetros Curriculares está clara a necessidade da abordagem de temas relacio- nados à f́ısica do século XX. Na época da publicação daquele documento, essas questões estavam alijadas do curŕıculo praticado na maioria das escolas brasileiras. A mesma ausência era registrada nos livros didáticos. Fazendo uma retrospectiva, percebemos que no que tange ao ensino da f́ısica moderna, o cenário nacional não sofreu mudanças significativas após a publicação dos PCNs. O tema continua exclúıdo da maioria dos exames de vestibulares nacionais. Apesar desse não ser o elemento norteador do ensino médio, o privilégio atribúıdo à f́ısica clássica e ao formalismo matemático a ela inerente por parte desses exames reforça a re- sistência de muitos educadores em ampliar a aborda- gem da f́ısica para além do século XIX. Em relação aos livros didáticos houve mudanças. As novas edições de algumas coleções [2-5] muito usadas pelos professores de f́ısica inseriram no último volume temas de f́ısica moderna, como: a f́ısica relativ́ıstica, a f́ısica do mundo microscópico e a cosmologia. Na ver- dade, a mudança não partiu de uma demanda dos pro- fessores, mas da exigência do Ministério da Educação da adequação dos livros didáticos às metas anunciadas nos PCNs. Parte dessa tendência se deve ao plano do governo federal de ampliação do programa de aquisição de livros didáticos para as disciplinas cient́ıficas. Apesar da resistência das escolas brasileiras em relação ao ensino da f́ısica moderna, estudos foram rea- lizados no intuito de criar bases para uma mudança cur- 1E-mail: grupo@tekne.pro.br. Copyright by the Sociedade Brasileira de F́ısica. Printed in Brazil. 576 Guerra et al. ricular [6]. Além disso, nas últimas décadas vários pes- quisadores da área de ensino de f́ısica têm desenvolvido trabalhos envolvendo construção de materiais didáticos, pesquisas educacionais e projetos de formação de pro- fessores que se propõe fornecer a estrutura para que professores possam reconstruir seus curŕıculos, trazendo aos alunos a f́ısica do século XX [7-11]. No ano de 2005, comemoramos o centenário do ano miraculoso de Einstein. No mundo inteiro, ocorreram eventos para comemorar a data. Motivados pela comemoração, mui- tos professores brasileiros realizaram atividades de di- vulgação em suas escolas da obra de Einstein, mas pou- cos inclúıram essa temática como parte do curŕıculo re- gular. Os resultados de várias pesquisas educacionais, o trabalho pontual de alguns professores, a pequena mu- dança nos livros didáticos e a validade dos PCNs mos- tram que a introdução de temas de f́ısica moderna deve ser objeto de discussão entre aqueles que se dedicam ao ensino médio. Procurando contribuir para o debate o presente artigo centrará atenção numa proposta de inserção da teoria da relatividade, restrita e geral, no ensino médio formal. 2. Por que tratar de um tema desenvol- vido há cem anos como a teoria da relatividade restrita? Nas reflexões voltadas para a busca da identidade do ensino de f́ısica, fica claro que esse ensino precisa preocupar-se em construir caminhos que facilitem a formação da cidadania dos envolvidos no processo edu- cacional. Nesse sentido, é importante que ao longo de toda a sua formação, o aluno seja instigado a refletir sobre a ciência, pensando sobre os limites e as possibi- lidades desse conhecimento [13]. Mas em que a f́ısica moderna, e, mais particular- mente, o estudo da relatividade restrita e da geral po- dem contribuir à reflexão dos limites e possibilidades da ciência? A resposta a essa questão será constrúıda a par- tir da reflexão sobre uma proposta de introdução do tema na primeira série do ensino médio. Essa inserção não é algo inédito. Alguns pesquisadores/educadores já propuseram ser este um caminho para que a f́ısica relativ́ıstica esteja presente nos cursos de f́ısica [14,15]. 3. Relatividade restrita - uma breve passagem Einstein no artigo de 1905 “A eletrodinâmica dos cor- pos em movimento” solucionou, a partir de dois pos- tulados, problemas que alguns f́ısicos de fins do século XIX estavam se defrontando. Dentre essas questões, podemos destacar: a não validade do prinćıpio da rela- tividade galileana para o eletromagnetismo. Nesse con- texto, deve-se acrescentar o caráter absoluto atribúıdo ao éter, meio que sustentava a propagação das ondas eletromagnéticas. Algumas dessas questões já haviam perturbado a mente de outros cientistas, como Lorentz e Poincaré, mas os caminhos constrúıdos para respondê-las foram menos revolucionários e ao mesmo tempo mais tortuo- sos do que os de Einstein [16,17]. Einstein, como um homem de seu tempo, confrontou-se com a ciência de sua época. Nesse pro- cesso, defendeu que o prinćıpio da relatividade esta- belecido por Galileu deveria ser mais abrangente, ou melhor, válido para todas as leis da f́ısica, e não apenas para as da mecânica. Paralelamente a isso, rejeitou o éter, a complexidade e a estranheza f́ısica desse meio impulsionou-o a considerar supérfluo assumir um meio material que sustentasse a propagação das ondas ele- tromagnéticas. Estabeleceu, ainda, que o conceito de repouso absoluto não correspondia a nenhuma proprie- dade dos fenômenos mecânicos ou eletrodinâmicos, e que as leis de Maxwell eram aquelas que deveriam ser vistas como verdadeiras [18]. Ao assumir essas considerações dentro de sua ciência, Einstein precisou alterar conceitos estabeleci- dos e vivenciados no senso comum como os de tempo e espaço. Esse breve levantamento das idéias defen- didas pelo f́ısico alemão não pretende explicar o seu trabalho, mas fazer uma rápida descrição dos proble- mas que a relatividade restrita resolveu e alguns dos que ela apresentou. Isto porque foi tomando esse eixo de centralidade que a proposta curricular a ser apresen- tada possibilitou a discussão da ciência, de seu papel e de seus limites na sociedade contemporânea, de modo a tornar esse estudo algo integrado ao curŕıculo do ensino médio. 4. Construindo uma proposta curricu- lar Nessa sessão, será descrito um estudo de caso, uma pro- posta curricular preliminar aplicada em uma escola da rede federal. Esse trabalho partiu do pressuposto que o ensino de f́ısica deve ter por objetivo apresentar as teorias da f́ısica dentro de seu contexto de produção, de forma a possibilitar em sala de aula um debate em torno à ciência, seus limites e possibilidades [19]. O tema central do trabalho foi a mecânica, sendo a cinemática dos movimentos o primeiro assunto abor- dado. Não se pretendeu com esse estudo analisar exaustivamente as funções matemáticas capazes de descrever os movimentos retiĺıneos uniforme e uni- formemente variados. Rompendo com o formalismo matemático, abordou-se o tema numa perspectiva histórico-filosófica, enfatizando a obra de Galileu Gali- lei no que se refere às suas contribuições para o estudo da cinemática, e o contexto cultural em que a mesma foi produzida [20]. Dessa forma, o conceito de referen- Teoria da relatividade restrita e geral no programa de mecânica do ensino médio 577 cial e as grandezas posição, deslocamento, velocidade e aceleração foram definidas, enfatizando-se as trans- formações de Galileu. Para desenvolver a discussão histórica fez-se uso do filme O Nome da Rosa dirigido por Jean-Jacques Annaud no ano de 1986, baseado na obra homônima de Umberto Eco. A projeção e o debate do filme foi o caminho encontrado para envolver os alunos com o tema nascimento da ciência moderna, e, assim, situar a obra e vida de Galileu Galilei. Cabe aqui destacar que o professor que aplicou a proposta esteve direta- mente envolvido na construção e avaliação da mesma. Assim, ele, enquanto professor/pesquisador preocupou- se a cada aula em registrar suas impressões a respeito de como os alunos envolviam-se com o curso. Nessa primeira parte, os registros foram anotações escritas a respeito das falas dos alunos durante as aulas e, mais particularmente, ao longo do debate em torno ao filme. A projeção e discussão do filme O Nome da Rosa já havia sido realizada em outros cursos de mecânica, em que a teoria da relatividade restrita não fora dis- cutida. Nessas outras experiências educacionais, o tra- balho com o filme foi realizado em conjunto com profes- sores de história. Observou-se que nessas oportunida- des os alunos utilizaram ao longo do debate um número maior de exemplos e associações históricas. E que tais associações também se fizeram presente em outros mo- mentos do curso. Assim, acreditamos que a atividade teria sido mais rica se desenvolvida com outros profes- sores de forma a explorar melhor seu potencial interdis- ciplinar. Porém a organização dos tempos regulares das disciplinas, na escola em que esse trabalho foi aplicado, impediu esta integração. O estudo dos movimentos constituiu-se na porta de entrada para a relatividade restrita, pois os alunos pu- deram ser defrontados com os seguintes problemas: o prinćıpio da equivalência e as transformações de Galileu possuem limites, ou são válidas para quaisquer casos? Nesse momento, os alunos foram divididos em gru- pos, que tinham por função responder à pergunta, através de exemplos concretos. Ao final, cada grupo apresentava suas conclusões para o restante da turma. O professor durante esse processo ficou atento para en- caminhar a discussão em torno aos limites e possibilida- des de uma teoria cient́ıfica. Dentro dessa abordagem, os conceitos de espaço e tempo foram priorizados. Para trabalhar esses conceitos muitos caminhos poderiam ser trilhados, um dos encontrados foi trazer à sala de aula um diálogo entre f́ısica e arte. O objetivo dessa parte do curso era fazer os alu- nos refletirem sobre as diferentes concepções de tempo e espaço constrúıdas pelos homens ao longo da história. [21] Para que o propósito se cumprisse não foram sufi- cientes exposições orais do professor. Isto porque du- rante as exposições a dispersão foi grande e o envol- vimento com o assunto limitado. Por isso, o profes- sor propôs às turmas um trabalho que se iniciou com a apresentação de uma seleção de imagens contendo afres- cos e pinturas produzidas por artistas da Idade Média até o século XX. Cinco obras de arte foram escolhidas para a construção desse painel: Entrada em Jerusalém, 1308/11 de Duccio de Sienna, A Madona do Chanceler Rolin, 1435 de JanVan Eyck, Piquenique sobre a relva”, 1863, de Édouard Manet, A Catedral de Rouen, 1892- 94, de Claude Monet, As moças de Avignon, 1907, de Pablo Picasso. A catedral de Rouen, de Claude Monet. As moças de Avignon, de Pablo Picasso. 578 Guerra et al. Entrada em Jerusalém, de Duccio de Sienna. Piquenique sobre a relva, de Édouard Manet. A Madona do Chanceler Rolin, de JanVan Eyck. Essa primeira apresentação foi bastante simples e rápida. O propósito era que os alunos selecionassem uma das imagens para trabalhar. Eles deveriam, então, realizar uma pesquisa com o propósito de responder as seguintes questões: • Como as pessoas e os objetos eram retratados na imagem? • Outras obras do pintor escolhido seguiam o mesmo padrão de representação? • Outros pintores da época seguiam o mesmo ca- minho de representação? • Quais eram as teorias cient́ıficas mais importan- tes da época para explicar os movimentos celestes e os terrestres? Exigiu-se dos alunos que as respostas fossem apre- sentadas por meio de um painel, a ser exposto à turma, contendo imagens e pequenos textos, de forma que as primeiras prevalecessem em relação ao texto. O pro- fessor recebeu o projeto dos painéis com antecedência, o que possibilitou criar estratégias de trabalho em sala para que ao final da apresentação de cada grupo, os aspectos, a seguir relatados, de espaço e tempo de cada pintura pudessem ser enfatizados. A primeira pintura, por ter sido constrúıda den- tro do peŕıodo medieval, destaca um espaço hierar- quizado. O tamanho das pessoas retratadas corres- ponde à posição social que elas ocupam naquele con- texto cultural. Existe uma clara distinção entre céu e Terra. O primeiro sendo representado como uma Teoria da relatividade restrita e geral no programa de mecânica do ensino médio 579 imagem uniforme, monótona e de cor dourada e o se- gundo compondo as suas diversidades. Essa, como mui- tas outras obras pictóricas do medievo, ilustra a con- cepção espacial do homem europeu daquela época. O espaço era percebido como algo heterogêneo. Cada elemento daquele universo possúıa seu lugar natural, estando ao céu reservado o movimento perpétuo e a imutabilidade. A segunda por ser uma representação pictórica do século XV, não mais apresenta o espaço hierarquizado do medievo. Céu e Terra formam um todo. O céu não é o local da permanência. Assim como a Terra, ele apre- senta fenômenos efêmeros. O tamanho atribúıdo às pes- soas, às árvores, às montanhas é calculado pela técnica da pintura em perspectiva. É o ponto de fuga que de- termina como a imagem é representada. O espaço não tem mais um limite claro, o infinito pode ali ser con- templado. Essa é uma percepção espacial presente no mundo de Isaac Newton, onde os fenômenos celestes, as- sim como os terrestres apresentam um ińıcio, um meio e um fim. Não há lugares privilegiados. O espaço é homogêneo e isotrópico, a presença de objetos não o altera. A terceira pintura não mais coloca a homogenei- dade espacial da anterior. As regras da perspectiva clássica não estão plenamente respeitadas. Há uma mulher na pintura retratada com um tamanho que não corresponde a sua posição espacial. A pintura de Manet do século XIX mostra de certa forma uma integração entre objeto e espaço. A retirada de objetos daquela imagem altera a representação ali disposta [22]. O quadro de Monet faz parte de uma série de pin- turas sobre a mesma catedral. Apesar dessa particula- ridade, em cada quadro Monet representou-a com im- pressões bem distintas, ao retratá-la em diferentes tem- pos. O momento registrado alterava aquele espaço. Por último a pintura de Picasso e com ela um espaço distorcido, em que as regras da perspectiva não mais se fazem presentes. Vários ângulos de uma mesma figura são representados num mesmo plano. Não há o espaço fechado e hierarquizado do medievo, mas também não encontramos o espaço homogêneo e isotrópico da época de Galileu [23]. O que esse trabalho com as imagens proporcionaram às aulas de f́ısica? Na aplicação e avaliação dessa proposta não houve uma preocupação em realizar uma pesquisa quantita- tiva capaz de tabular a mudança de concepção dos alu- nos. Acreditou-se naquele momento, que o caminho mais eficaz para avaliar o processo seria, através da imersão direta na realidade, registrar por escrito dia- riamente as impressões do trabalho. Dessa forma, o professor construiu um escrito antropológico daquela realidade [24]. Esse trabalho mostrou que o trabalho realizado pelos alunos e as discussões de espaço e tempo desenvolvidas a partir das pinturas permitiram a com- preensão de que toda concepção espacial é histórica e faz parte da cultura dos homens. A seguir destacamos recortes dos textos apresentados pelos alunos, durante a apresentação do painel, que ilustram o resultado de seus trabalhos: Grupo A – turma 1 “O céu amarelo e superior, bem destacado, pois já que o céu era a morada de Deus, e a morada de Deus é feita de ouro e pedras preciosas, o céu deveria ser também dourado. “O mesmo pintor e outros pintores da época se- guiam o mesmo caminho, pois a influência religiosa era muito grande e os pintores queriam retratar a sua rea- lidade.” Grupo A – turma 2 “O céu é retratado dourado por ser considerado como perfeito, a morada de Deus. As figuras do quadro estão extremamente separadas do céu retratado. E as pessoas são retratadas por sua im- portância, quanto maior sua importância, maior seu ta- manho (no quadro). O céu era imutável e perfeito, seguindo a teoria de Aristóteles. A Terra ficava imóvel no centro do Uni- verso, e os planetas, a Lua e o Sol giravam em volta da Terra.” Grupo B – turma 2 “A pintura medieval, sem pers- pectiva, corresponde a uma visão de mundo aristotélica, geocêntrica, explicada pela B́ıblia; a perspectiva surge com o Renascimento, rompendo com as explicações re- ligiosas para os fenômenos e buscando explicações ra- cionais, que correspondessem à realidade da natureza... “Quando se começa a mudar a mentalidade em relação à natureza, descobrem-se várias concepções reais da verdade que quebram a hierarquia da Igreja. Essas mudanças refletem sobre a pintura fazendo surgir uma maior noção de profundidade, proporção perspec- tiva e tridimensionalidade.” Grupo C – turma 1 “No quadro tem dois homens e duas mulheres, sendo que uma mulher que se encontra bem atrás tem o mesmo tamanho que as outras três pes- soas. No quadro, o espaço é representado não na forma como nós vemos, onde a mulher que está atrás seria de- senhada menor do que as outras para dar a impressão de proporção, mas sim da forma como nós sentimos, como nós sabemos que é; que a mulher de trás é do mesmo tamanho das pessoas da frente. Como na época a fotografia já tinha sido inventada, os pintores não que- riam mais retratar a realidade, mas sim impressionar, impactar as pessoas que vêem o quadro, para dar uma noção de espaço. Com a invenção da fotografia, os pintores não se preocupavam mais em transmitir a realidade, dimi- nuindo a perspectiva e a perfeição. Esta imagem per- tence a era do impressionismo fazendo uso a sensuali- dade.” Grupo D – turma 1 “Nesse quadro ainda pode-se notar a presença da perspectiva. Entretanto já mostra- se bem menos preso à realidade do que as do Renas- cimento. Isto ocorria porque nessa época a fotografia foi inventada e os pintores não importavam tanto com 580 Guerra et al. a perspectiva.” Grupo E – turma 1 “A arte do ińıcio do século XX era extremamente revolucionária, já que quebrava a percepção espacial imediata dos corpos, dando-lhes novos contornos e nuances, numa visão “além” que menosprezava a perspectiva (as três dimensões). Os fenômenos não são apenas aqueles que o olho humano pode presenciar e identificar no dia a dia.” Interessante que esse grupo, referiu-se à teoria da relatividade. Apesar deles, ainda não terem estudado o assunto, sabiam que esse era o tema do curso. -“A relatividade modificou as velhas concepções da época em que exerceu “grande influência”: sobre os ra- mos do conhecimento das ciências às artes. O ińıcio do século XX foi marcado pela “procura” de se criar no- vas concepções através do questionamento das velhas concepções”. Cabe ainda destacar que se percebeu a formação de dois grupos em sala de aula. Um que, muito preocu- pado com os resultados das avaliações, empenhava-se para realizar o painel solicitado, porém se dispersava muito facilmente durante as discussões. Era como se tivessem a certeza de que aquilo não seria assunto de prova e, portanto, poderia ser desconsiderado. O ou- tro grupo envolveu-se muito com o debate ocorrido du- rante a apresentação dos painéis. Nem sempre os tra- balhos constrúıdos por eles eram os melhores, mas ao longo das aulas estavam atentos, trazendo aspectos no- vos para o debate. Muitos alunos se remeteram às dis- cussões realizadas em torno ao nascimento da ciência moderna. Concretizada essa etapa, partiu-se para uma viagem histórica aos fins do século XIX, ressaltando a situação da f́ısica naquele contexto. Devido ao objetivo do trabalho, apresentaram-se experimentos simples de indução eletromagnética para discutir do que trata o eletromagnetismo. Esse foi o ińıcio da discussão em torno às novidades trazidas por essa área de conheci- mento e aos problemas cient́ıficos derivados daquele de- senvolvimento. Nesse ponto foi explorado o significado das ondas eletromagnéticas e, mais, particularmente, o fato da luz ser uma onda eletromagnética. A profundi- dade desse debate variou com a maturidade do grupo de alunos que se estava trabalhando e também do tempo dispońıvel para o tema. Porém experimentos simples com molas e cordas foram úteis para se discutir o que vem a ser uma onda e a questão da necessidade ou não de um meio como suporte à sua propagação. Após o breve panorama da f́ısica dos fins do século XIX, Albert Einstein e sua teoria da relatividade res- trita e geral foram os assuntos tratados. Os registros da pesquisa sobre a concepção espacial indicaram que um bom recurso para explorar essa parte do curso seria propor aos alunos um trabalho em grupo, cada um es- colheria um tema para trabalhar. Em todos os casos o grupo precisava abordar no mı́nimo os itens a respeito do assunto destacado pelo professor. Tema 1: Albert Einstein antes de 1905. • A vida de Einstein antes de 1905, enfatizando sua formação acadêmica. • O ambiente sócio-cultural em que Einstein vivia. • As incoerências entre o eletromagnetismo e a mecânica. • As soluções propostas pelos f́ısicos Poincaré e Lo- rentz. Tema 2: Reflexões sobre o tempo e espaço em fins do século XIX e ińıcio do XX. • A máquina do tempo de H.G. Wells. • O impressionismo. • O cubismo. • Um problema técnico: a sincronia dos relógios. Tema 3: A relatividade restrita. • A proposta de Einstein para resolver o pro- blema da incoerência entre o eletromagnetismo e a mecânica. • As inspirações para resolver o problema. • As implicações do fato de se considerar a veloci- dade da luz constante. • E = m.c2. • O impacto no meio acadêmico e na sociedade da teoria da relatividade. Tema 4: O efeito fotoelétrico. • O quanta de Planck. • O efeito fotoelétrico • Implicações da explicação do efeito fotoelétrico para explicar fenômenos como a fotosśıntese. Tema 5: A relatividade geral. • A proposta de Einstein para explicar os efeitos gravitacionais. • A curvatura espaço-tempo. • Buraco negro. • O eclipse de Sobral. Tema 6: Albert Einstein após 1905. • A vida de Einstein após 1905, o que mudou ime- diatamente com a publicação dos artigos de 1905. • O ambiente sócio-cultural em que Einstein vivia. • Os motivos que o levaram a morar nos Estados Unidos. Teoria da relatividade restrita e geral no programa de mecânica do ensino médio 581 Tema 7: Einstein e a bomba atômica. • Prinćıpios básicos do funcionamento da bomba atômica. • Relações entre teoria da relatividade e a bomba atômica. Como o registro do professor apontou alguma dis- persão dos alunos durante a apresentação dos trabalhos sobre as pinturas do medievo ao século XX, buscou- se desenvolver atividades capazes de solucionar o pro- blema. Por isso propôs-se que cada grupo escolhes- se uma forma diferente para expor seus resultados. Ninguém poderia optar apenas por apresentações orais, era preciso encontrar caminhos alternativos, como: es- quetes de teatro, filmagens, poesia etc. As apresentações foram divididas ao longo do curso de modo que após cada uma delas o professor, através de aulas expositivas, pudesse aprofundar o assunto abordado. Cabe destacar que a criatividade dos alunos para construir seus modos de exposição foi surpreen- dente. Um grupo montou um esquete de teatro para apre- sentar o tema 2. Eles constrúıram cenário com suca- tas, figurino e até trilha sonora. A estória girava em torno a um grupo de alunos que precisava desenvolver uma pesquisa para a aula de f́ısica sobre “Einstein e seu tempo”. O grupo necessitava tirar uma nota alta no trabalho, devido aos resultados das provas anterio- res. Eles dividiram as tarefas, mas o tempo passava e nenhum deles conseguia realizar sua parte. Depois de muitas brigas e confusões, um aluno sonhou com Al- bert Einstein. O cientista lhe guiou a uma viagem ao fim século XIX e ińıcio do século XX, que permitiu ao aluno no dia seguinte apresentar a seu grupo todo o trabalho pronto. Para narrar o sonho, um dos alunos se vestiu de Einstein e através de projeção de fotos, tex- tos e pinturas apresentou as conclusões da pesquisa que haviam realizado. Esse grupo em particular era com- posto por alunos muito integrados. Como o trabalho foi proposto antes do peŕıodo das férias de inverno e a entrega apenas ocorreu em final de agosto, eles se reuniram várias vezes nas férias para trabalhar. Outro grupo que apresentou o tema 3 envolveu fa- miliares na execução da atividade. Eles montaram e filmaram um documentário fict́ıcio sobre Albert Ein- stein para tratar do terceiro tema, e tomaram o avô de um dos componentes do grupo, para representar o cien- tista. O avô estudou um texto constrúıdo pelo grupo, proporcionando um resultado muito interessante. As falas do Einstein entrevistado e do apresentador eram grandes e didáticas. Para tornar o v́ıdeo “mais legal”, como declarou uma das alunas, o grupo bolou a inserção de intervalos comerciais. Elas criaram, então, vários produtos fict́ıcios para brincar com a turma. Conclúıda a relatividade restrita, o curso voltou-se para o estudo da dinâmica e mais particularmente das leis de Newton. Nesse momento, apenas os grupos que se dedicaram aos temas 1, 2 e 3 haviam conclúıdo suas apresentações. Aqui foram analisados aspectos expe- rimentais e teóricos do tema, que visavam ultrapassar a análise estritamente matemática comum no ensino médio, capaz de restringir o estudo das leis de Newton à resolução de problemas numéricos envolvendo bloquin- hos. Com a perspectiva de que esse estudo enriquecesse a discussão em torno à ciência, aulas expositivas fo- ram utilizadas para apresentar o legado de Newton, de forma a destacar o contexto cultural da Europa, e mais especificamente da Inglaterra de fins do século XVII e ińıcio do século XVIII. Em termos teóricos as três leis de Newton e a lei da gravitação universal foram enfoca- das simultaneamente. Dessa forma, foram exploradas as questões da ciência do século XVII respondidas por Newton, as controvérsias em torno ao seu trabalho, os debates com seus contemporâneos, as questões deixa- das em aberto, os problemas suscitados e por fim como essa obra foi absorvida pelos cientistas e também por outros homens ao longo do século XVIII [25]. O término desse estudo foi o aporte para a última fase do curso, ou seja, o estudo da relatividade geral. O trabalho com a relatividade geral requisitou um pouco mais de cuidado, devido à complexidade matemática do tema. Escolheu-se discutir questões importantes dessa teoria sem avançar nos aspectos mais distantes dos alu- nos, como a geometria do espaço curvo. Os grupos responsáveis pelos temas 4 e 5 apresentaram suas pes- quisas. O tema 4 por estar mais desconectado do curso não foi muito aproveitado nas aulas seguintes. Porém na apresentação do tema 5 os alunos utilizaram muitas imagens que foram, ao longo do estudo da relatividade geral, exploradas pelo professor. Trabalhar o legado de Newton ultrapassando o for- malismo matemático comum aos livros didáticos propi- cia discutir a visão mecanicista de natureza fortemente presente no século XVIII. Fora isso podem ser explora- das as controvérsias em torno à obra de Newton e ao modo de propagação da ação gravitacional, a possibili- dade de se pensar num meio especial e o éter, como um caminho para responder a ação a distância entre cor- pos de massas diferentes de zero. Além dessas, outra questão que se destaca é o limite das leis de Newton, ou melhor, o caso dos referenciais não-inerciais. Es- ses aspectos da obra de Newton além de possibilitarem uma reflexão sobre a ciência e seu modo de produção permitiram problematizar com os alunos a obviedade da sentença: a pedra cai, pois a Terra a atrai. O enfrenta- mento aos problemas em torno a essa questão permitiu discutir que o modo de propagação gravitacional foi um problema em aberto por muitos anos. Assim, por mais nova que fosse a idéia de um espaço curvo, ela respon- dia de alguma forma a uma questão filosófica e cient́ıfica que ficou adormecida por muito tempo. Mas o que enfocar da teoria da relatividade geral, se os alunos não têm o suporte matemático necessário 582 Guerra et al. à exploração do tema? O prinćıpio da equivalência e a nova concepção espaço-temporal foram os temas estudados nessa etapa final do curso. Com o primeiro assunto, pôde-se discutir o que a teoria da relatividade geral ampliou tanto em relação ao prinćıpio da equivalência galileano, quanto à teoria da relatividade restrita. Essas abordagens foram desenvolvidas sem as ferramentas matemáticas indis- pońıveis aos alunos do ensino médio. Durante as au- las, foi retomada a mudança de representação espacial dos pintores renascentistas para a dos que viveram no ińıcio do século XX, como a dos representantes do cu- bismo. Esse paralelismo foi important́ıssimo, uma vez que permitiu ao aluno mergulhar no ambiente cultu- ral em que a teoria analisada se construiu. Assim, os posśıveis obscurantismos ligados ao olhar do senso co- mum puderam ser confrontados com a cultura da época, de forma a ressaltar que tanto as questões quanto as respostas estavam ligadas ao ambiente cient́ıfico e cul- tural em que o cientista ou grupo de cientistas que a enfrentou encontrava-se inserido. Algumas das falas dos alunos resgatadas pelo pro- fessor durante as aulas reforçam essa análise. Aluno 1 -“Analisando atenciosamente a obra art́ıstica contemporânea à formulação da teoria relativ́ıstica pode-se notar seu esforço na tentativa de romper com as an- tigas relações de espaço e tempo do século XIX, baseada na tese newtoniana com su- porte na geometria euclidiana. A deformi- dade espaço-temporal proposta por Eins- tein, bem representada na pintura cubista, caracterizada pela múltipla percepção dos objetos, enxergados de variadas angulações e posições, eliminando a perspectiva renas- centista que encerrava emancipadamente os conceitos de massa, tempo e espaço”. Aluno 2 -“Havia um conflito naquela época: o de se “quebrar” com as concepções antigas. Com isso, Einstein ao tentar solu- cionar as inconsistências da f́ısica clássica, recorreu a concepções de realidade que “pa- recem” absurdas para as nossas noções coti- dianas. Assim como os artistas desta época, ele substituiu conceitos até então inques- tionáveis”. Aluno 3 -“... o conhecimento da arte de- lineia o contexto em que as mudanças acon- teceram, o ambiente e o momento que as possibilitaram. ... o conhecimento da arte em si permite que nos livremos dos concei- tos já estabelecidos de espaço e tempo; da forma mecanicista de enxergar o mundo”. 5. Conclusão A proposta curricular que aqui apresentamos foi efe- tivada, como já salientamos, em uma escola da rede federal de ensino. Não se pretende que ela seja um exemplo a seguir, a especificidade dos professores, da escola e até mesmo das turmas, faz com que sejam ne- cessárias diferentes metodologias de trabalho. Porém o registro de trabalhos, mesmo que pontuais, é fundamen- tal para que os autores do processo educacional tenham subśıdios para reinventar suas práticas. Não realizamos ao longo de nosso trabalho uma pes- quisa quantitativa para medir o quanto o grupo de alu- nos apreendeu dos conteúdos abordados. Privilegiamos uma pesquisa qualitativa, onde o professor a partir de uma proposta curricular entrou em sala de aula como um ator-espectador, registrando diariamente suas im- pressões do trabalho desenvolvido. O professor, nessa posição, tinha sempre atenção ao comportamento dos alunos, ao tipo de questões que eles lhe colocavam e ao desempenho das atividades. Os registros do professor mostraram que a integração da teoria da relatividade restrita e geral ao curŕıculo, de forma que esses assuntos não fossem percebidos pelos alunos como um apêndice aos conteúdos importantes da série, é um caminho para trazer esses temas ao ensino médio. Para superar os supostos problemas dos pré-requisitos, sugere-se um trabalho interdisciplinar, em que as produções cultu- rais, diferentes da cient́ıfica, sejam discutidas. Fora isso uma proposta curricular centrada numa aborda- gem histórico-filosófica, em que as questões enfrentadas pelos cientistas, as controvérsias que se envolveram, o ambiente cient́ıfico cultural de seu trabalho sejam as- suntos privilegiados, é um caminho viável para o estudo das teorias da relatividade restrita e geral no ensino médio. As conclusões da implementação da proposta indica- ram, também, caminhos a serem seguidos num trabalho de pesquisa futuro. De um modo geral, os alunos esta- vam predispostos a estudar o tema. Eles manifestavam interesse em conhecer algo que lhes parecia mágico e poderoso. Essa percepção inicial encaminhou uma pes- quisa, que está sendo desenvolvida ao longo de 2007, sobre fatores que levam os alunos a terem um interes- se especial em estudar relatividade. A importância de uma pesquisa como essa se deve a necessidade de cons- truir materiais capazes de trazer aos educadores ferra- mentas para conhecerem melhor sua realidade e a partir disso melhor interferirem nela. Referências [1] Brasil, Bases Legais – Parâmetros Curriculares Nacio- nais Ensino Médio (Ministério da Educação, Braśılia, 1999). [2] A. Máximo e B. Alvarenga, Curso de F́ısica (Editora Scipione, São Paulo, 2006). Teoria da relatividade restrita e geral no programa de mecânica do ensino médio 583 [3] A.Gaspar, F́ısica (Editora Atual, São Paulo, 2001). [4] F. Ramalho, N.G. Ferraro e P.A. Toledo, Fundamentos da F́ısica (Editora Moderna, São Paulo, 2003). [5] J.B.Gualter, V.B. Newton e R. Helou, Tópicos da F́ısica (Editora Saraiva, São Paulo, 2001). [6] F. Ostermann e M.A Moreira, Investigações em Ensino de Ciências 5, 1 (2000). [7] A. Hellstrand e A. Ott, Physics Education 30, 5 (1995). [8] J.F.K. Köhnlein e L.O.Q. Peduzzi, Caderno Brasileiro de Ensino de F́ısica 22, 36 (2005). [9] A. Medeiros e C.F. de Medeiros, Caderno Brasileiro de Ensino de F́ısica 22, 299 (2005). [10] F. Ostermann e T.F. Ricci, Caderno Brasileiro de En- sino de F́ısica 19, 176 (2002). [11] F. Ostermann e T. F. Ricci, Caderno Brasileiro de En- sino de F́ısica 21, 83 (2004). [12] M. Braga, A Nova Paidéia (E-papers, Rio de Janeiro, 2001). [13] A. Guerra, M. Braga e J.C.O. Reis, Caderno Brasileiro de Ensino de F́ısica 22, 224 (2004). [14] R.A.S. Karam, S.M.S.C. de Souza Cruz e D. Coimbra, Revista Brasileira de Ensino de F́ısica 28, 373 (2006). [15] R.A.S. Karam, S.M.S.C. de Souza Cruz e D. Coimbra, Revista Brasileira de Ensino de F́ısica 29, 105 (2007). [16] J.M. Sanches Ron, el Origen y Desarrollo de la Relati- vidad (Alianza Universidad, Madri, 1983). [17] G. Holton and Y. Elkana, Albert Einstein Historical and Cultural Perspectives (Dover Publications, Nova York, 1997). [18] A. Einstein, A Teoria da Relatividade Especial e Geral (Contraponto, Rio de Janeiro, 1999). [19] A. Guerra, M. Braga, J.C.O. Reis e J. Freitas, Caderno Brasileiro de Ensino de F́ısica 15, 32 (1998). [20] A. Guerra, J. Freitas, J.C. Reis e M. Braga, Galileu e o Nascimento da Ciência Moderna (Editora Atual, São Paulo, 1997). [21] S.Y. Edgerton Jr., The Heritage of Giotto’s Geometry: Art and Science on the Eve of the Scientific Revolution (Cornell University Press, Nova York, 1993). [22] A.I. Miller, Insights of Genius: Imaginary and Creati- vity in Science and Art (Copernicus, Nova York, 1996). [23] A.I. Miller, Einstein, Picasso: Space, Time, and Be- auty that Causes Havoc (Basic Books, Nova York, 2001). [24] C. Geertz, A Interpretação das Culturas (Zahar Edito- res, Rio de Janeiro, 1978). [25] M. Braga, A. Guerra, J. Freitas, J.C. Reis, Newton e o Triunfo do Mecanicismo (Editora Atual, São Paulo, 1999). 
work_pstcw23cdjbcddzev4qk3x7jnu	----	© 2019 idil. Bu makale Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY-NC-ND) 4.0 lisansı ile yayımlanmaktadır. ATIK MALZEMELERİN ÇAĞDAŞ SANATTA YANSIMALARI Banu YÜCEL 1 1Arş. Gör. Ankara Hacı BayramVeli Üniversitesi, banu.yucel(at)hbvu.edu.tr, ORCID: 0000-0002-9859-7890 Yücel, Banu. “Atık Malzemelerin Çağdaş Sanatta Yansımaları” idil, 65 (2020 Ocak): s.31-40. doi: 10.7816/idil-09-65-04 Öz İnsan ve doğa arasındaki bağın zamanla kopmaya başlamasıyla beraber yaşanan çevresel sorunlar, 1960 sonrası sanatçıların dikkatini çekmiş ve farkındalık yaratmak adına çalışmalarında konu edinmelerine neden olmuştur. Galeri mekanının kamusal alana kaymasıyla beraber, sanatçı kendisini birebir doğanın içinde bularak, doğayı sanata katmaktan çekinmemiştir. İlkçağlarda insan, doğada hayatta kalmaya çalışmış ve onunla mücadelesinde sanattan da sezgisel olarak da olsa destek almıştır. Yerleşik hayata geçmesiyle birlikte doğa karşısında pasif durumu yavaş yavaş ortadan kalkmış ve doğaya karşı kendini üstün görmekten çekinmemiştir. Zamanla doğa karşısında elde ettiğini zannettiği bu üstünlük çevresel sorunlara sebep olmuş, özellikle üretimle beraber getirdiği tüketim olgusu, altından kalkamayacak durumlara yol açmıştır. Bu sorunların en önemlilerinden olan atık problemi günden güne tehlikelerini de artırmaktadır. 21. yüzyıl sanatçısı, bir çevre sorununa dönüşen atık maddelerin tehlikelerine karşı hem farkındalık yaratmak hem de geri dönüşüm durumuna dikkat çekmek adına yapıtlarında atık malzemeleri kullanmaktan çekinmemiştir. Bu çalışma, 1960 sonrası sanattan başlayarak günümüze kadar geçen süreçte atık malzemeler kullanarak yapıt üreten sanatçıların bazılarını incelemektedir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Çevre Sanatı, Atık Malzeme, Geri Dönüşüm Makale Bilgisi Geliş: 5 Ekim 2019 Düzeltme: 20 Ekim 2019 Kabul: 13 Kasım 2019 Yücel Banu. “Atık Malzemelerin Çağdaş Sanatta Yansımaları” idil, 65 (2020 Ocak): s. 31-40. doi: 10.7816/idil-09-65-04 32 Giriş Sanat ve doğa insan hayatında eşdeğer öneme sahip iki kavramdır. İnsan doğanın içinde var olma mücadelesiyle birlikte yerleşik hayata geçerek barınma, korunma ve beslenme gibi ilkel ihtiyaçlarını karşılamaya başlamıştır. Bu sebeple doğaya karşı güçlendiğini görmüş ve ona hükmettiğini düşünmüştür. Var olduğu anda doğa karşısında savunmasız kalarak sanatı sezgisel de olsa kullanmıştır. Yerleşik hayata geçtiğinde içgüdüsel olarak kendi ruhunu korumak amacıyla kullandığı sanat karşısında bilinçlenmiştir. Bilin çli olarak sanat yapmaya başlayan insan, doğa karşısında en üstün canlı olduğunu ilan etmiştir. Bu durum insanı zamanla, doğadaki diğer canlıların yaşam alanlarını kısıtlamaya götürmüştür. Yerleşik hayata geçmesiyle birlikte kent ve kasabaları oluşturmaya başlayan insan, teknolojinin de gelişmesiyle doğal yaşamdan git gide uzaklaşmış, kendini doğadan soyutlayan bir canlıya dönüşmüştür. Sanayileşen toplumla beraber tüketim olgusu hızla insan hayatının merkezine yerleşmiştir. Fransız İhtilali’nden sonra bireysel özgürlüklerini elde eden sanatçı, Romantizm akımı ile birlikte doğanın, insan hayatındaki önemine dikkat çekmeyi başarmıştır. Kendisini doğadan üstün gören insanın aksine, doğanın yüceliğine vurgu yapmışlardır. İzlenimciler Romantiklerden aldığı bayrakla, atölyesinden çıkıp doğanın kendisiyle iç içe olmuş ve gün ışığının renk üzerindeki etkisini keşfetmişlerdir. Şüphesiz bu iki akım kendisinden sonra ortaya çıkan akımların birçoğuna ilham olarak sanat tarihine yön vermişlerdir. Aynı zamanda teknoloj ik gelişmeler ve gerçekleşen keşifler, doğanın çözümlenmesinde farklı bir boyut kazanmasına neden olmuştur. Geçmişten beri doğayla iç içe yaşayan insanın doğa karşısında tutumu 20. yüzyılda tüketim gerçekliğiyle beraber değişmeye başlamıştır. Bugün tüm çevremizde nesnelerin, hizmetlerin, maddi malların çoğaltılmasıyla oluşturulmuş ve insan türünün ekolojisinde bir tür temel dönüşüm oluşturan akıl almaz bir tüketim ve bolluk gerçekliği var (Baudrillard, 2004: 15). Sadece tüket anlayışıyla şekillenen toplum daki değişimler, nesne bağımlılığıyla kendisini göstermektedir. Kendi ürettiğine bağımlı bir toplum meydana gelmiştir ve hatta bağımlılık yaratması için üretilen şeyin nesnenin kendisinden çok tüketim olgusu oluşmuştur. Baudrillard bu durumu şu şekilde açıklamaıştır: “Nesneler ne bir bitki örtüsü ne de bir hayvan türü oluşturur. Yine de hızla çoğalan bir bitki ve balta girmemiş bir orman izlenimi veriyorlar; modern zamanların yeni vahşi insanı bu ormanda uygarlık reflekslerini yakalamakta güçlük çekiyor. İnsanın ürettiği ve kötü bilimkurgu romanlarındaki gibi insanı çember içine almak ve kuşatmak için geri dönen bu hayvan türü ve bitki örtüsünü, gördüğümüz ve yaşadığımız halleriyle hızla betimlemek ve bunu yaparken onların, tüm görkem ve çoklukları içinde, insan etkinliğinin bir ürünü olduklarını ve doğal ürün yasalarının değil, değişim değeri yasasının hakimiyeti altında olduklarını asla unutmamak gerekiyor” (Baudrillard, 2004:15). 20. yüzyılın ikinci yarısı, birçok açıdan değişimin yaşandığı bir dönem ol muştur. İki büyük savaşın ardından sanatın merkezinin Avrupa’dan Amerika’ya kayması, kentleşmeyle beraber doğal kaynakların zarara uğramaya başlaması, kitle iletişim araçlarının gelişiminin ardından oluşan tüketim toplumu, insanın doğal yaşamdan uzaklaşmasına sebep olan faktörlerden bir kaçıdır. 1960 sonrasında birçok sanatçı, doğa ve insan arasındaki bağı güçlendirmek adına dikkat çekici işlere imza atmıştır. Doğadan bağımsız olarak kendine ait bir dünya yaratan insan, doğanın kendi döngüsüne ters düşecek şekilde yaşam şekli geliştirmeye başlamıştır. Doğada her oluşumun bir nedeni vardır. Ağaçtan düşen meyve dahi doğanın dönüşümüne ayak uydurur ve yepyeni bir oluşuma girer. İnsanın tüketerek ürettiği atıklar, geri dönüşüme maruz kalmayarak, yeryüzünü koca b ir çöplüğe çevirmeye başlamıştır. Bu tehlikeyi hisseden sanatçılar çevre kirliliğine karşı farkındalık yaratma amacıyla gerçekleştirilen işler üreterek 21. yüzyıl sanatında yer almışlardır. Atık Malzemenin Doğaya Girmesi Doğayla insan arasındaki mesafenin git gide artmasının büyük tehlikelere yol açacağını gören sanatçılar, buna dikkat çekmek adına çeşitli çalışmalara imza atmışlardır. Hazır nesnenin Marcel Duschamp’la sanata girmesinden önce, Kübistler ilk atık malzemelerin sanat nesnesine dönüşmesine, otobüs biletleri, gazete parçaları ve muşamba gibi malzemeleri tuvale yapıştırarak ön ayak olmuşlardır. Yücel Banu. “Atık Malzemelerin Çağdaş Sanatta Yansımaları” idil, 65 (2020 Ocak): s. 31-40. doi: 10.7816/idil-09-65-04 33 Resim 1. Pablo Picasso. 1913 Şişe, Cam, Gitar ve Gazete. Kübistler birçok sanatçıya ilham verdikleri gibi 1960 sonrası Postmodern sanatçıya da ilham vermişlerdir. Sanatın merkezinin Avrupa’dan Amerika’ya kaymasının ardından, ilham alanları genişlemiştir. Özellikle doğanın bir parçası olduğunu hatırlayan insan, sanat yoluyla bunu yeniden gündeme getirmeye çalışm ıştır. Doğa ve insanın bir bütün olduğunu savunan akımlardan biri Arte Povera’dır. İtalyan sanatçılardan oluşan topluluğun ilk olarak tepki gösterdiği durum sanat pazarıdır. Toplumdan bağımsız olarak sanatın ayrı bir tarafta tutulması ve alınıp satılıyor olması bu akımın sanatçılarını rahatsız etmiş ve yapıtlarında kullandıkları malzemelerle tepkilerini yansıtmışlardır. 1960’larda doğa ve yaşamın temellerini önemseyen bir grup İtalya’da ortaya çıktı (…) Celant, Arte Povera (Yoksul Sanat) adıyla kaleme aldığı tanıtım yazısında, bitki ve minerallerin yanı sıra sanat arenasında artık canlı hayvanların da yer aldığını belirtiyordu . Sanatçılar doğayı yansıtan imge yaratıcıları değil, doğanın birer parçası olmalıydılar. Sanatçı, gerek zihinsel gerekse ruhsa l varlığını yeniden keşfetmek için tıpkı bir simyacı ve büyücü gibi doğal varlıkların kökenlerine inmeli, yeni düzenlemeler yapmalıydı (Yılmaz, 2006: 249). Resim 2. Michelangelo Pistoletto. 1967 Paçavralar İçinde Venüs. Pistoletto’nun Paçavralar İçinde Venüs’ü, bir sanat yapıtının değersiz olanın içinde sergilenmesidir. Bu çalışma izleyiciye zıt olan bir çok şeyi bir arada sunar. Antmen bu durumu “değerli ile değersizi, tarihsel ile günceli bir araya getirerek ironik yaklaşımlar sergileyen Arte Povera san atının tipik bir örneğidir” (Antmen, 2008: 214) şeklinde açıklamıştır. Sanatın içine atık malzemeyi, sanat nesnesi olarak sunan Arte Povera üyeleri, 20. yüzyılın malzeme olanaklarını akıl almaz şekilde büyütmüştür. Sanatçı her türlü malzemeyi, özellikle atık malzemeyi sanat yapıtında kullanmaktan çekinmemiştir. Bunun başlıca amacı; sanatın metalaşması konusunda duydukları Yücel Banu. “Atık Malzemelerin Çağdaş Sanatta Yansımaları” idil, 65 (2020 Ocak): s. 31-40. doi: 10.7816/idil-09-65-04 34 rahatsızlıktır. Özellikle yok olan gelip geçici malzemelerle ortaya çıkardıkları eserler, kalıcı olmadıkları için alınıp satılması olanaklı olmayacaktır. Resim 3. Pier Paolo Calzolari, 1979. Resim 4. Giovanni Anselmo, İsimsiz (Sebze Yiyen Heykel). 1968. Anselmo “Sebze yiyen heykel” ile yine ironik bir düşünceyi yansıtmıştır. Betonla, doğal bir ürünü bir arada sunan sanatçı, sanat yapıtını sebze çürüyene kadar var edecektir. Bu yüzden, sanat, yaratmaya, kendisini malzemedeki (bitki, hayvan, mineral ve zihinsel) bir imkan olarak yerleştirerek başlar; onun kendisini bilgi ve algıyla özdeşleştiren kendi boyutu, “sanattaki canlı” olur, sanat inşasına karşı koyan günlük gerçeklikle sürekli ayrı duran o fantastik varoluş, sanatın yerinden kaynaklanan şey olur (Harrison, Wood, 2011: 946). Akımın gündeme gelmesinde etkisi olan en sansasyonel yapıtlardan biri de Kounellis’in 1969’da Roma’da bir galeride gerçekleştirdiği “12 At” başlıklı enstalasyonudur. Arte Povera sanatçılarının sanatın alınıp satılan bir meta olmasına yönelik tepkisinin uç noktada bir temsili olan bu eylem, sanatçının 12 adet atı galeriye bağlamasıyla gerçekleşmiştir (Antmen, 2008: 216). Arte Povera akımı içerisinde paçavralardan sebzelere, canlı hayvanlardan İtalya’nın geçmişten gelen ikonik sanat eserlerine kadar piyasa içinde yer alamayacak sanat yapıtları, sergilemede yarattıkları zıtlıklarla bir bütün oluşturmuştur. Kounellis’in galeriyi haraya çevirmesi, Anselmo’nun canlı bitkilerle heykelleri, Pistoletto’nun paçavralarla sanat tarihinde yer edinmiş bir heykeli sarması bu zıt duruma en iyi örneklerdir. Aynı zamanda “Luciano Fabro’nun (1936- ) Arte Povera’nın atık malzemeye yönelimine karşın altın ve kürk gibi pahalı malzemelerle yaptığı “İtalya” heykelleri, İtalya’nın zengin kültürel geçmişine göndermede bulunurken, bu heykelleri tavandan adeta bir hayvan gibi asmasıyla ironik bir ikilemi yansıtır” (Antmen, 2008: 216). Arte Povera’nın önemli sanatçılarından olan Mario Merz’de atık malzemelerle yarattığı heykelleriyle ön plana çıkmıştır. Bu heykellerin özelliği boru, tel gibi malzemelerin yanı sıra toprak gibi organik malzemelerden de yararlanmış olmasıdır. Yılmaz Merz’in İglu adını verdiği işleri şu Yücel Banu. “Atık Malzemelerin Çağdaş Sanatta Yansımaları” idil, 65 (2020 Ocak): s. 31-40. doi: 10.7816/idil-09-65-04 35 şekilde açıklamıştır: Merz, İglularını Ortaçağda yaşayan İtalyan matematikçisi Leonardo Fibonacci’den öğrendiği bir sa yı dizisi ve bundan türeyen sarmaldan yola çıkarak oluşturmuştur. Fibonacci’nin de Araplardan öğrendiği bu sayı dizisi, basit bir toplama işlemine dayanı r: 1,2,3,5,8,13,21,34,55,89… diye devam eden bir dizidir bu. Yapılan araştırmalara göre bir daldan çıkan yaprakların ya da daha başka canlıların gelişiminde de (bazen basit bazen de karmaşık olmak üzere) buna benzer matematik orantılar görülebilmektedir. Sarmal belli bir noktadan kıvrılarak çıkan ve sonsuza kadar büyümeye meyilli bir şekil olarak, hem sonsu zluğun hem de mekanın simgesidir. Etkilendiği sayı dizisi ve sarmal, asimetriktir. Bu ise doğanın kendi kendini üretmesinin, çoğaltmasının sırrıdır Merz’e göre (Yılmaz, 2006: 250). Resim 5. Mario Merz, 1968. Giap’ın İglosu Çağdaş Sanatta Atık Malzemenin Kullanımı Endüstriyel toplumun getirisi olarak her türlü tüketimin artması, çevre sorunlarını da beraberinde getirmiştir. Bu sorunların başlıca sebebi, tüketimin sonucu olarak, atık üretiminin de artmış olmasıdır. Dünya bu atıkların geri dönüşümüne yönelik bir çözüm arayışına girmezse, çevre kirliliği, atmosfer değişimi ve bununla beraber çeşitli hastalıkların artması gibi sorunlarla yüzleşmesi kaçınılmaz olacaktır. Resim 6. UMA. 2019. Yeni Dalga, Tulum Quintana Rio, Meksika. “Yeni Dalga” yı oluşturan; “UMA – (Ulf Mejergren Architects) UMA, İsveç'in Stockholm şehrinde bulunan maceracı bir mimari oluşumdur ve 2014 yılında Ulf Mejergren tarafından kurulmuştur. Ofis, her ölçekte seçkin ve yaratıcı işler yaratma hırsıyla t üm dünyada faaliyet göstermektedir. Mimarlığın hem heyecan verici hem de işlevsel olması gerektiğine inanırlar ve bunu tüm çalışmalarında uygulamaya çalışırlar (UMA, 2017). 2019 yılında Meksika’da meydana getirdikleri çalışmada, okyanustan çıkarılan plastik şişeleri boyayıp, belli bir mimari yapıya dönüştürmüşlerdir. Bu yapıtın bir dalga formuna dönüşm esinden dolayı “Yeni Dalga” adını vermişlerdir. Aynı zamanda bu çalışmanın tamamının okyanustan çıkarılmış olan binlerce atık malzemeden oluşması sebebiyle hem izleyiciye farkındalık yaratır hem de şatafatlı görüntüsüyle dikkat çekmektedir. Grubun atık malzemelerle ürettikleri devasa işlerine “Yeni Dalga” en iyi örnektir. Tamamı okyanustan çıkarılan plastik şişelerden oluşan malzemeyi, inşaat çubukları yardımıyla bir yapıya dönüştürmüşlerdir. Atık malzemelerle devasa bir form oluşturan diğer bir grup da liderliğini Woo Kwang Jin’in yaptığı GBO adındaki tasarım firmasıdır. Yücel Banu. “Atık Malzemelerin Çağdaş Sanatta Yansımaları” idil, 65 (2020 Ocak): s. 31-40. doi: 10.7816/idil-09-65-04 36 Resim 7. GBO. Woo Kwang Jin Plastik Yakalayıcı. Bir Kore Tasarım Firması olan GBO, kamusal bir alana yerleştirmek üzere geliştirdiği bir kurulum oldukça etkili bir çalışmaya dönüştürmüştür. Bu kurulum, denizlerde bulunan plastiğe karşı bir farkındalık yaratma amacındadır. İzleyici bu kurulumun içinde hem bir kuş aynı zamanda bir balık gözüyle yer alır. Aşağıdan bakıldığında GBO, izleyiciyi, suyu dolduran ve güneş ışığını kısmen engelleyen plastik denizi bir balığın hisleriyle yansıtmayı amaçlamış ve yukarıdan aşağıya bakarken de bir kuşun atık yığını üzerinde uçarken neler hissettiğine dikkat çekmek istemişlerdir. Bu alanda ziyaretçilerin plastik atıkların zararlı son uçlarından haberdar olmaları teşvik edilmektedir. GBO aynı zamanda izleyicilerin konuşulmayan “plastiğin güzelliğini” deneyimlemesini hayal etmeleri beklenmektedir. Kurulumun üzerine yerleştirilecek plastik atıklar, kurulumdan önce, sivil katılım ve gönüllülerle toplanır. Kampanya sergi süresince devam eder. Üste renkli plastik atıklar konur ve zemine sadece şeffaf pet şişeler yerleştirilir. Bunun altında plastik atıklardan muzdarip canlıları gösteren grafikler görüntülenir. Şeffaf pet şişelere basma eylemi plastik kırma sesleri yaratır ve ziyaretçilere bir hayvanın acı verici inleme sesini hatırlatır (Gomez, 2019). Atık malzemeyle çalışan bir diğer çağdaş sanatçı olan Subodh Gupta, farklı ortamlarda çalışarak, yemek kutuları, teneke kutular ve tencere gibi günlük metal nesnelerden oluşan anıtsal heykelleri ile tanınmıştır. 1964 yılında Bihar (Hindistan) Khagaul'da doğan sanatçı “sömürge şeklinde bir büyükelçinin arabası”, “kutsal inek gübresi” gibi zıtlık kavramların bir arada sunulduğu Hint simgeleri ya da tipik bir Güney Asya mutfağının paslanmaz çelik mutfak eşyaları gibi nesnelerle; geleneksel ve küreselleşme, yükselen servet ve yoksulluk ile eski kast politikaları ve dini inançlar arasında yakalanan bir toplumun belirsizliğini sorgular (Editör, 2013). Resim 8. Subodh Gupta. 2014. DaDa National Gallery of Modern. Subodh Gupta’nın dışında atık günümüzde atık malzemeyle çok daha farklı bir yöntemle çalışan iki sanatçı dikkat çeker. Tim Noble ve Sue Webster; tesadüfen ortaya çıkardıkları gölge heykeller ini, atık malzemelerden ilham alarak ortaya çıkarmaya başlamışlardır. İlk başta kendi çöpleriyle çalışmalarına başlayan sanatçılar daha sonra atık malzeme arayışına girmişlerdir. İzdüşüm sanatı olarak da nitelendirdikleri heykelleri bir geri dönüşüm simgesi olarak da tanımlanabilir. Atılan atıkları ışıktan da yararlanarak psikolojik hastalar için kullanılan bir yöntem olan “algısal psikoloji” yöntemini Yücel Banu. “Atık Malzemelerin Çağdaş Sanatta Yansımaları” idil, 65 (2020 Ocak): s. 31-40. doi: 10.7816/idil-09-65-04 37 geliştirirler. Noble ve Webster bu sürece ve insanların soyut formları nasıl değerlendirdiklerine aşinad ır. Kariyerleri boyunca insanların soyut imgeleri nasıl algıladıkları ve anlamlarıyla nasıl tanımladıkları fikrini incelediler. Sonuç olarak soyut formların nasıl figüratif formlara dönüşebileceğini yeniden tanımlamaları oldukça şaşırtıcıdır (Crazy Girl, 2011). Resim 9. Tim Noble ve Sue Webster. 2008-09. Kötü İş Parçaları. Guerra de la Paz (Gdlp) Miami’de, Küba doğumlu sanatçılar Alain Guerra ve Neraldo de la Paz arasında bir iş birliğidir. Geçtiğimiz yirmi yılda, Gdlp kıyafet atıklarını güçlü politik ve çevresel mesajlar veren şiirsel eserlere dönüştürdü. Etkileyici dinamik heykeller ve dokunsal kurulumlar üreten bir yolculuk olan, atılan tekstillerin etkileyici özelliklerini keşfediyorlar (Art Works For Change). Resim 10. Guerra de la Paz, 2009. Bulunan Garmetler, Metal şarap Kovası Standı Toplumun, özellikle tekstil sektöründe içinde düştüğü tüketim çılgınlığına dikkat çekmeye çalışan topluluk, bu sorunun önüne geçilmezse korkunç sonuçların ortaya çıkacağına vurgu yapmaktadır. Yücel Banu. “Atık Malzemelerin Çağdaş Sanatta Yansımaları” idil, 65 (2020 Ocak): s. 31-40. doi: 10.7816/idil-09-65-04 38 Resim 11. Guerra de la Paz, 2011. Lideri İzle Sonuç İnsan her ne kadar bunun farkında olmasa da doğanın bir parçasıdır. Tarihöncesi dönemden bu yana insanın her türlü yaşamsal olanaklarını karşılamaktadır. İnsanın kendisini doğadan üstün görmesi, onun kaynaklarını bu sebeple hoyratça kullanması, geri dönüşü olmayacak zararlara yol açmıştır. Bu zararların farkına varmaya başlayan insan, önlemlerini geç de olsa alma gayreti içine girmiştir. Tarihten bugüne sanatçının birincil esin kaynağı olan, doğanın kendisidir. Romantiklerden başlayan doğa ve onun yüceliğinin yansıması, 1960’lardan sonra; birebir sanat nesnesine dönüşmesi bir yerde insanın ona verdiği minnet borcudur. Bunun yanı sıra makalenin ana hattını oluşturan atık malzemelerle oluşturulan sanat yapıtları, ç evre kirliliğinin önlenmesinde hem farkındalık yaratmış hem de bu atık ürünlerin kullanılmasında, onları çöp kimliğinden arındırıp sanat nesnesine dönüşmesine olanak sağlamıştır. Sanatçılar, birçok disiplinden faydalanarak hem doğaya hem de topluma bir destek de sağlamışlardır. Genellikle kamusal alanlarda sergilenen bu yapıtlar, sergilendiği şehre estetik bir değer katmış ve halkın da dikkatini çekerek, kent imajını geliştirmiştir. Kaynaklar Antmen, Ahu. Sanatçılardan Yazılar ve Açıklamalarla 20. Yüzyıl Batı sanatında Akımlar. İstanbul: Sel Yayıncılık 2008 Baudrillard, Jean. Tüketim Toplumu, Çev: Hazal Deliceçaylı, Ferda Keskin, İstanbul: Ayrıntı Yayınları 2004. Harrison, Charles. Wood, Paul, Sanat ve Kuram 1900-2000, Değişen Fikirler Antolojisi, İstanbul: Küre Yayınları, 2011. Yılmaz, Mehmet. Modernizmden Postmodernizme SanatAnkara: Ütopya Yayınevi, 2006. Crazy Girl (2011) http://www.timnobleandsuewebster.com/home.html Erişim Tarihi 15.09.2019 Editörs. (2013) http://www.artnet.com/artists/subodh-gupta/ Erişim Tarihi 20.10.2019 Gomez, Cristina. (26.09.2019) https://www.designboom.com/design/gbo-plastic-catcher-pavilion-ocean-soup-09-25-2019/ Erişim Tarihi 22.10.2019. GBO. Plastik Yakalayıcı. UMA. Ulf Mejergren Architeckts İnfo (2017) ttps://www.u-m-a.se/filter/Stockholm/STOCKHOLM-INFINITY-POOL ErişimTarihi 20. 11. 2019 Görsel Kaynaklar Resim 1- Pablo Picasso Bottle of Vieux Marc, Glass, Guitar and Newspaper 1913 Tate https://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/c/cubism/all-about-cubism Erişim Tarihi 20.10.2019 Resim 2. Michelangelo Pistoletto Paçavralar İçinde Venüs, 1967 https://kavrakoglu.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/b.jpg Erişim Tarihi 21.10.2019 Resim 3. Pier Paolo Calzolari, 1979. https://kavrakoglu.com/cagdas-sanata-varis-189-arte-povera Erişim Tarihi 20.10.2019 https://kavrakoglu.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/b.jpg https://kavrakoglu.com/cagdas-sanata-varis-189-arte-povera Yücel Banu. “Atık Malzemelerin Çağdaş Sanatta Yansımaları” idil, 65 (2020 Ocak): s. 31-40. doi: 10.7816/idil-09-65-04 39 Resim 4. Giovanni Anselmo İsimsiz (Sebze Yiyen Heykel). 1968. https://www.wikiart.org/en/giovanni-anselmo/untitled- sculpture-that-eats-1968 Erişim Tarihi 19.12.2019 Resim 5. Mario Merz, 1968. Giap'ın İglusu. http://artjournal.collegeart.org/?p=7866 Erişim Tarihi 10.10.2019 Resim 6. UMA. 2019. Yeni Dalga,Tulum Quintana Rio, Meksika. https://archello.com/story/68692/attachments/renders Erişim Tarihi 15.10.2019 Resim 7. GBO. Woo Kwang Jin Plastik Yakalayıcı. https://www.designboom.com/design/gbo-plastic-catcher-pavilion-ocean-soup-09-25-2019/ Erişim Tarihi 15.10.2019 Resim 8. Subodh Gupta. 2014. DaDa National Gallery of Modern http://www.artatsite.com/Delhi/details/Gupta-Subodh- DaDa-banyan-tree-National-Gallery-statue-sculpture-art-at-site-New-Delhi.html Erişim Tarihi 22.10.2019 Resim 9. KÖTÜ İŞ PARÇALARI, 2008–09 http://www.timnobleandsuewebster.com/nasty_pieces_work_2008-09.html Erişim Tarihi 20.10.2019 Resim 10 Resim 10. Guerra de la Paz, 2009. Bulunan Garmetler, Metal şarap Kovası Standı. https://www.artworksforchange.org/portfolio/guerra-de-la-paz/ Erişim Tarihi 21.10.2019 Resim 11. Guerra de la Paz, 2011. Lideri İzle. https://www.artworksforchange.org/portfolio/guerra-de-la-paz/ Erişim Tarihi 21.10.2019 Yücel Banu. “Atık Malzemelerin Çağdaş Sanatta Yansımaları” idil, 65 (2020 Ocak): s. 31-40. doi: 10.7816/idil-09-65-04 40 REFLECTIONS OF WASTE MATERIALS IN CONTEMPORARY ART Banu Yücel Abstract Environmental problems, which started to break with the ties between human and nature, attracted the attention of artists after 1960 and caused them to become subjects in their works in order to raise awareness. With the shift of the gallery space to the public space, the artist did not hesitate to add nature to art by finding himself in the nature. In ancient times, man tried to survive in nature and in his struggle with it, he received support from art, albeit intuitively. With the introduction of settled life, the passive situation against nature gradually disappeared and he did not hesitate to consider himself superior to nature. In time, this superiority, which he assumed to have gained over nature, caused environmental problems, and especially the consumption phenomenon brought along with production led to situations that could not be overcome. The waste problem, one of the most important of these problems, increases its dangers day by day. The artist of the 21st century did not hesitate to use waste materials in his works in order to raise awareness about the dangers of waste materials that turned into an environmental problem and to draw attention to the recycling situation. This study examines some of the artists who produce works by using waste materials from the post-1960 to the present. Keywords: Environmental Art, Waste Materials, Recycling 
work_putqykgvy5betdmg7jwak52hj4	----	Études photographiques , Notes de lecture Études photographiques Notes de lecture Carlo Ginzburg, Peur, révérence, terreur. Quatre essais d’iconographie politique Dijon, Les Presses du réel, 2013, 189 p., ill. coul. et NB, 28 €. Dominique de Font-Réaulx Édition électronique URL : http://journals.openedition.org/etudesphotographiques/3524 ISSN : 1777-5302 Éditeur Société française de photographie Référence électronique Dominique de Font-Réaulx, « Carlo Ginzburg, Peur, révérence, terreur. Quatre essais d’iconographie politique », Études photographiques [En ligne], Notes de lecture, Avril 2015, mis en ligne le 07 mai 2015, consulté le 03 mai 2019. URL : http://journals.openedition.org/etudesphotographiques/3524 Ce document a été généré automatiquement le 3 mai 2019. Propriété intellectuelle http://journals.openedition.org http://journals.openedition.org http://journals.openedition.org/etudesphotographiques/3524 Carlo Ginzburg, Peur, révérence, terreur. Quatre essais d’iconographie politique Dijon, Les Presses du réel, 2013, 189 p., ill. coul. et NB, 28 €. Dominique de Font-Réaulx REFERENCES Carlo GINZBURG, PEUR, RÉVÉRENCE, TERREUR. QUATRE ESSAIS D’ICONOGRAPHIE POLITIQUE, Dijon, Les Presses du réel, 2013, 189 p., ill. coul. et NB, 28 €. 1 Les quatre essais réunis ici ont été publiés, séparément, entre 2000 et 2009, par Carlo Ginzburg. Leur rassemblement n’a pas été guidé par leur thème – fort différent, du Leviathan de Thomas Hobbes au Guernica de Pablo Picasso en passant par La Mort de Marat de Jacques-Louis David et au Your country needs you ! de lord Kitchener –, ni par la chronologie des événements. Le philosophe cherche à montrer ici la pertinence de sa méthode d’analyse des images. Il la place, de manière originale et séduisante pour les amateurs d’images que nous sommes, au cœur de sa réflexion, offrant au lecteur une grille de lecture. Celle-ci se nourrit du Pathosformeln – formules d’émotion –, proposé par Aby Warburg en 1905. Ce dernier souhaitait mettre en valeur un art antique loin de la seule « grandeur calme » chère à Johann Joachim Winckelmann. Liant analyse de la représentation avec celle du langage, l’accumulateur obsessionnel d’images que fut Warburg compara, en se fondant sur l’étude des matériaux visuels qu’il avait collectés, la figuration de certains gestes à des superlatifs verbaux, « aux paroles primordiales de la gestuelle passionnée ». Cette notion de Pathosformeln lui permit ainsi de révéler les racines antiques des images modernes, de percevoir comment ces racines avaient été reprises et reformulées. Carlo Ginzburg, Peur, révérence, terreur. Quatre essais d’iconographie politique Études photographiques , Notes de lecture | 2015 1 2 Ginzburg, fidèle à la notion de la trace laissée par les images antérieures qu’il a mise en évidence, essaie d’appliquer la formule de Warburg en la décalant et en cherchant à découvrir ce qui, dans les images les plus efficaces, tient de cette capacité de certaines représentations, et de leurs créateurs, à faire surgir des émotions fortes, impérieuses même, chez ceux qui les regardent. Il emprunte à Warburg cette idée de succession d’images antérieures, fondée sur des ressorts émotionnels, à même de susciter terreur et révérence. Pour autant, il ne laisse pas de côté les circonstances temporelles. Les conditions historiques permettent selon lui la récupération de ces images princeps et leur réutilisation. Ses analyses de Your country needs you ! et du Guernica, dans le contexte pour cette dernière œuvre de l’Exposition internationale de 1937 à Paris, sont particulièrement éclairantes. 3 Ces études lui offrent de montrer que les spectateurs que nous sommes nous laissons subjuguer par des figurations, fondées moins sur des réalités avérées que sur les distorsions de représentations antérieures, que nous connaissons, mais auxquelles nous abandonnons, de façon plus ou moins consciente, le pouvoir de nous séduire, de nous effrayer et de nous convaincre. Cet ouvrage inspirant, que le lecteur accepte ou non de suivre Ginzburg dans sa démarche, est servi par une présentation soignée, une maquette harmonieuse, une belle qualité de papier qui permet de rendre aux reproductions choisies la force initiale voulue par ceux qui les créèrent. Nous saluons Christian Joschke pour son beau travail éditorial. Le livre a été publié avec le soutien de Laurence Bertrand- Dorléac ; le visiteur de l’exposition « Désastres de la guerre » a pu percevoir, au Louvre- Lens au printemps 2014, la manière dont l’historienne a été sensible à l’interprétation de Ginzburg. Carlo Ginzburg, Peur, révérence, terreur. Quatre essais d’iconographie politique Études photographiques , Notes de lecture | 2015 2 Carlo Ginzburg, Peur, révérence, terreur. Quatre essais d’iconographie politique 
work_pzk4qcmwfjfq7muzhddjjgwqay	----	No Job Name World In a Jar: War & Trauma1johs_1351 292..312 ROBERT HIRSCH Following an aesthetic strategy of search and discovery, World In a Jar: War & Trauma utilizes the camera as a cultural tool to curate and re-imagine key components from historical and original images to explore the workings of our collective societal memory involving loss, popular culture, religion, tragedy, and the nature of evil over the past four centuries. World In a Jar evolved out of my immediate response to the events of 9/11 and has allowed me to use camera vision to personalize large themes by dislocating the specifics in favor of the general. It is shaped by my re-examination of visual sources of history, which allow me to rework and reinter- pret images to explore life’s Big issues and to ponder what history and images can and cannot teach us. World In a Jar is a free-form sculptural montage that rethinks the customary linear narrative by offering a supermarket of moveable images. The installation consists of over 1,000 individual image jars, stacked 4 high on a 50 ¥ 4 ¥ 2 foot serpentine display pedestal and surrounded by ten individually framed 40 ¥ 60 inch prints. Each glass jar contains the same picture, a twin printed twice on a black field (akin to a 19th century stereo card), which lets the image be seen from multiple points of view. Each jarred image serves as an interchangeable viewing block, allowing it to be a perpetual work in progress that recreates itself each time it is installed. This permits each photograph to not only present its own split-second historical reference, but also informs the context and interpretation of the surrounding images. There are no captions or text references to anchor the images to particular events, which allow the images to transcend their specific time-based circumstances. Rather, images freely float in an ambiguous and enigmatic space, encour- aging viewers to interact and expand meanings based on their own 1 The Editors of the Journal of Historical Sociology are grateful to Robert Hirsch for the contribution of his World In a Jar presentation and for his time in preparing a new version in accordance to publishing requirements. We also thank Rebecca Bailey, Roy See and Jacqueline Scott at Wiley for steering this paper through, and for their utmost patience in answering all copyright queries. We are extremely grateful to Molly Jarboe for her expert help in preparing the images for JHS format and to Sergio Fava for his technical knowledge on the matter. We are not in a habit of endorsing particular pieces but we urge readers who, if visiting Buffalo, NY, to go to The Burchfield Penney Art Center to view the World In a Jar installation by Robert Hirsch. Journal of Historical Sociology Vol. 22 No. 3 September 2009 ISSN 0952-1909 © 2009 The Author. Journal compilation © 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford OX4 2DQ, UK and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148, USA. experiences. This engagement is a reminder how photographs con- tinue to seduce us into believing that they are objective records, when in fact all images are not what they initially appear to be and require thoughtful interpretation. This open-ended production, emulating how the puzzles and paradoxes of our own memories are constructed, can convey an endless tale about the human condition that exists outside of chronological time. Where Does Art Come From? Through the process of making representations of representations, I contemplate issues of reality, originality, and reproduction. Pho- tography is an ideal medium for exploring such questions because it recycles the Real. A camera is not judgmental about what is in front of it, capturing anything touched by light. It is our human direction that can imaginatively guide the pictorial results to invest meanings into the outcome. Thus, originality is the capacity to think and act independently and in turn to express ideas differently from previously recognized views of a similar subject. Inventive ideas come from re-contextualizing the past. We constantly draw in memories of things we never directly experienced through the arts and the media. The more one knows about how art is made, the more derivative and evolutionary one realizes art is. For creative people in any field, everything is grist to be transformed into something else, thus nothing has to cease to exist but may endure in an alternative form. Our society’s cultural heritage is founded on a practice of trans- formative art – one of borrowing, sharing, re-borrowing, and amending – the full range of ways new art learns from, builds on, and emerges out of the old. In music one can hear how Scott Joplin borrows from W.C. Handy, George Gershwin borrows from Joplin, Igor Stravinsky and Miles Davis from Gershwin, Aaron Copland from Stravinsky and Davis, and now movie composer John Will- iams, who has scored all of Steven Spielberg’s blockbuster movies, from Copland. Consider one of America’s popular cultural icons: Steamboat Willie, the 1928 Walt Disney cartoon that introduced Mickey Mouse. Steamboat Willie is based on Buster Keaton’s 1928 silent film Steamboat Bill, Jr., which itself borrowed from a 1910 song, Steamboat Bill. Disney snatched creativity from the life around him, mixed that with his own talent, and then imprinted that mixture into the character of our society. Select an art form and you will find this 1-2-3 combination of snatch, mix, and imprint. As Pablo Picasso quipped, “Bad artists copy; Great artists steal.” World In a Jar: War & Trauma 293 © 2009 The Author. Journal compilation © 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd Journal of Historical Sociology Vol. 22 No. 3 September 2009 Thing in Itself My motivation is to evoke an interior state of consciousness and grapple with a subject beyond its external physical structure. This approach can be likened to the Japanese concept of shashin, which says something is only true when it integrates the outer appearance with the inner makeup of a subject. Ameri- can writer Herman Melville referred to the purely surface view of reality as “a pasteboard mask.” Such a multi-sheeted mask conceals the intuitive world of the “thing in itself ” – a deep structure of cultural, political, and psychological models that inform the realities “behind” or beyond what we can observe with our five physical senses – an idea dating back to Plato’s concept of delving into the complex, many-sided, interior panorama of the world. What do Pictures Mean? Most of the project’s images were made from other photographs, as well as from drawings, paintings, and prints for the purpose of questioning the nature of the photographic image. It is a Socratic process allowing me to engage in a philosophical and visual dia- logue with other times, places, and makers, springing from the principle there is no correct first version of how an image should look. I am not redefining an image as much as I am inquiring into the metaphysical contradictions and opposing social forces that swirl around each image. I am asking each picture a question while examining the origin of the image and how it’s significance has changed over time. In a conceptual sense, I am on a photographic etymological quest, examining how meanings have developed and changed over time. Plato understood the importance of this communication prac- tice when he observed, “those who tell the stories also rule.” Plato also believed most people were not exceptionally intelligent. He thought most people would follow a self-destructive path and therefore needed a Big Noble Lie to maintain social order and moral behavior. Under this paradigm, the falsehood is the means of achieving the principal objective of a well-ordered and ethical society. The power elite appreciates that images, as well as words, rule dreams and dreams rule actions. Such endeavors are not neces- sarily benevolent and can, in fact, be malicious. Evil can manifest itself as an obligatory fairy-tale in which one-group concocts a self-glorifying narrative that de-humanizes another group. Such myth formation converts Those people into powerful enemies whose 294 Robert Hirsch © 2009 The Author. Journal compilation © 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd Journal of Historical Sociology Vol. 22 No. 3 September 2009 existence is responsible for society’s ills and pose a terrible danger to the future of the group seeking power, thus justifying their elimination from the society to save it. The Nazis produced a culture of cruelty by fabricating giant lies, such as the 1940 film The Eternal Jew, which portrayed people of Jewish origins as wandering cultural parasites, who were referred to as cancer, excrement, and plague. In 1994 a similar campaign of dehumanization was carried out in Rwanda where the Hutus demonized the Tutsis as “cock- roaches” who had to be evicted or destroyed and then preceded to indiscriminately murder 800,000 of them in a 100-day genocidal campaign. Today Hezbollah, the radical Shiite terrorist organization in Lebanon, owns or controls at least two advertising companies (Ressalat and Media-Publi Management) who lionize slain terrorists while vilifying Zionists, a code word for Jews, by promoting noto- rious anti-Semitic conspiracy theory hoaxes and lies like The Pro- tocols of Zion (1905). In Chinese the word for propaganda and publicity is the same, making it linguist easier for the government to control the media content of issues from the 2008 Olympics to Tibetan autonomy. The more outrageous the lie; the more the perpetrators seem to be motivated by it. Eventually these lies become ubiquitous, con- taminating and bogging down the entire society with falsehoods. As the poet Edna St. Vincent Millay pointed out, “It’s not true that life is one damn thing after another. It’s one damned thing over and over.” Although Photoshop has become a verb people still want to trust their own eyes, even when they are aware they are only seeing pixels, thus validating Groucho Marx’s observational wisecrack, “Who you going believe – me – or your lyin’ eyes?” Yet people continue to expect photography to render reality transparent and understandable rather than acknowledging its inherently devious nature and ability to make falsehoods visible. Illness When I was five I became deathly ill with Rheumatic Fever for months. I recall lying in bed at night fearfully crying because I thought I was going to die. I realized my parents couldn’t help me and I was alone in the world. The disease left me physically weak- ened and acutely aware of my mortality, moving me into another world far from my cohorts. I lost my child-like sense of indestruc- tibility, which further disconnected me mentality and physically from my peers; making me to feel like a tiny vulnerable island in a large impervious sea. World In a Jar: War & Trauma 295 © 2009 The Author. Journal compilation © 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd Journal of Historical Sociology Vol. 22 No. 3 September 2009 Religious Training While recovering from Rheumatic Fever I wintered with my moth- er’s parents in Miami Beach, Florida. My grandfather was a reli- gious man and I went to Hebrew school three times a week including Saturdays, which was “Shabbat” or the “Sabbath.” Yet I didn’t feel like one of God’s Chosen children. My youthful challeng- ing of the stories in the Torah or Hebrew Bible (doctrine and teaching that is revered as the inspired word(s) of God) lead me to be placed in a class for disruptive boys that was ruled over by the lumbering and pockmarked Mr. Stein, who we referred to, rather uncharitably, as Frankenstein. Eventually, I did make my Bar Mitzvah, singing off-key a Hebrew passage from the Torah, and thus in the eyes of Judaism, officially becoming a man at the age of thirteen. Ironically, this empowered me to drop out of the Conser- vative Synagogue, which I did, leaving behind the religious trap- pings of Judaism. Nevertheless, I remain a member of the Tribe whether I want to or not, for it is imposed upon me from both within and by the outside world. Given the state of cultural identity politics, I am potentially pinned down to what my worst enemy says I am, simultaneously both an heir to the Auschwitz nightmare and to the kid on the street who wants to feel my horns. In the end, when push comes to shove, I will always be identified as a Jew. That said, I do not believe in an afterlife nor do I think that moral principles or the meaning of life are contingent on the policies and regulations of any organized religion. What matters are actions we take in this ONE life we have to live in the here and now. The Atomic Bomb Attending elementary school during the Atomic Age of the Cold War I was subjected to the “Duck and Cover” drill. A siren would sound through the school’s PA system. Without explanation, our teachers would led us to our hallway lockers where we were instructed to silently get down on our knees and put our hands over our heads as we heard the bomb doors being closed and locked behind us. I knew the United States had dropped two atomic bombs on Japan and had watched Godzilla (1954), a monster created by atomic testing who ravished Japan. Popular magazines printed photos of people building and stocking fallout shelters as well as arming themselves to fend off unwanted visitors. Soviet Premier 296 Robert Hirsch © 2009 The Author. Journal compilation © 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd Journal of Historical Sociology Vol. 22 No. 3 September 2009 Nikita Khrushchev pounded his shoe on a United Nations desk and shouted, “We will bury you (USA).” The 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis took the world to the brink of nuclear war. Global, above ground, atomic testing produced such high levels of strontium 90 that milk was no longer served in our school cafeteria. Living through such everyday threats of nuclear terror made me an existentialist before I even knew what one was. The Black-and-White Post Holocaust World In 1961, I watched, on a black-and- white television, the trial in Jerusa- lem of Nazi official Adolf Eichmann. He was accused of crimes against humanity for his role in admini- stering the mass deportation of “undesirable” people to ghettos and extermination camps. Watching with me was with my mother’s father whose family had vanished up the death camp’s chimneys. I was stunned. My family never talked about it. I knew my father had left college to enlist in the U.S. Army Air Corp before Pearl Harbor and spent 5 years in military service during World War II, but I had no perception of the enormity of the Nazi atrocities. I could not comprehend systematically murdering people, including one million children, based on no more than faith in a fictitious, racist viewpoint. I wondered how anyone, including my religious grand- father, could believe in an angry God that would allow such mon- strous things to happen. It seemed most people would rather believe in an invisible, all controlling but volatile God rather than face the unpredictability of human beings who thoughtlessly repeat the same learned behaviors over and over again. Russian writer Anton Chekhov wrote, “Man will become better when you show him what he is like,” emphasizing the connection between the necessity of honest commentary and a flourishing free society. Seeing the black-and-white photographs made after the Allies liberated the concentration camps, naked corpses of women and men with numbers tattooed on their arms, degradingly piled like so much kindling, made me feel as if my head had been split open and filled with monstrous fiends who pursued total annihilation. No images, before or since, have so profoundly affected me. They left an indelible streak of anxiety upon my psyche. Clearly, everything I had previously been taught to believe about the world was wrong. Suddenly, I found myself bound up with ancient hateful beliefs, a World In a Jar: War & Trauma 297 © 2009 The Author. Journal compilation © 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd Journal of Historical Sociology Vol. 22 No. 3 September 2009 rapidly spreading mental plague that resulted in the horrific deaths of millions of people whose crime was being different from the group in power. Their anguish, sorrow, and terror, like undeveloped film, were latently tattooed inside me. These appalling, grainy, black-and-white photographs of the Shoah subconsciously influenced my future direction to work in black-and-white photography, which seemed to me to be more authentic and essential than the glossy patina of color photo- graphs. I began making interpretive images about the Holocaust in my mid-twenties, but it took me 30 years of aesthetic and intellec- tual wresting with the enormity of these ghastly crimes before I was satisfied I was not trivializing the subject. Although I have taught and extensively written about color photography, it has only been since completing this project that I have begun to make color pictures. As a member of “the hinge-generation,” Jews living between the experience of the Holocaust and its memory, I believe that as last of the Holocaust survivors’ die it is essential for artists to find inno- vative ways of remembering what happened. Memory is mutable. It is only as real as the last time it is remembered and the failure to renew these memories is akin to a belated Nazi victory because what they did will quickly and deliberately be concealed and for- gotten. Therefore I think about the village (shetl) where my grand- mother’s family (the Auerbachs) lived in Lumja Poland, which was physically obliterated to erase any cultural memory of the Jewish life that once informed that culture. Yet even now Holocaust deniers, such as the President of Iran, cynically attempt to rewrite history and edit out the Shoah. Such fundamentalist fascists want to eradicate Jewishness, the core of all Abrahamic monotheistic faiths, from the region where it originated and to weaken and undermine the humanist values of the rule of law, tolerance, and respect for core rights, such as free expression and protection of minorities, that we have fought to expand over time. That said I reject the notion of myself as a victim of victims, damaged by calamities committed on someone else by unknown demons in another time. I don’t believe that actual trauma is transgenerational. I do think the complex web of cultural inherit- ance, involving mandates, prohibitions, and values do permit a wounded spirit to be passed on to the next generation. However, what is paramount is recognizing and confronting those who are responsible for humanitarian offenses and bringing them to justice. In a world that often displays its distain of the intellect, the key problem remains: Is it still possible to believe people will “do unto others as you would have them do unto you”? Ideally, laissez-faire societies do not appeal to a higher authority or legislate deep 298 Robert Hirsch © 2009 The Author. Journal compilation © 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd Journal of Historical Sociology Vol. 22 No. 3 September 2009 disagreements about what constitutes virtuous behavior. Instead they agree to leave each of us the personal social space to do as we please as long as it does not hinder other members of the society. When this open space to exchange and debate ideas is obstructed, and beliefs are mandated, social peace becomes unachievable. Kitty Genovese: The Bystander Effect My rude awakening to the Holocaust sensitized me to how people react to others in life or death situations. In 1964 a young woman named Kitty Genovese was chased and stabbed to death over a 30-minute time span in Kew Gardens, Queens, New York where I had lived as a child. Reportedly dozens of her neighbors did not respond to her screams for help. I was fascinated by this collective failure to act, a psychological phenomenon now called the bystander effect, in which someone is less likely to intervene in an emergency when other people are present and able to help than when a person is alone. Years later I aided a man who suffered a heart attack. After calling 911, my wife and me gave this stranger CRP while onlookers told us to leave him face down in the icy gutter or his family would sue us. Even when the ambulance did not come in a timely manner, none of these onlookers offered to help and the man died. Such a display of impassiveness prompts me not to count on the kindness of strangers and serves as a reminder to make the effort to overcome apathy and ennui when I have no apparent self-interest at stake. The Double Image and The Uncanny Photography is the act of seeing double. A photograph becomes a stand-in for the original. The photo- graphic process is part of our cultural quest for no-hassle experi- ences and affordable status items, from the simulacra of Las Vegas to art and fashion forgeries. In the project’s catalog essay (available at: www.lightresearch.net), Dr. Gary Nickard discusses Otto Rank’s The Double: A Psychoanalytic Study (1925), in which the uncanny – that is the seemingly intense sensation of the supernatural, strange, unfamiliar, weird, and unsettling – arises from the doubling of reality in the form of ghosts, reflections, shadows, and twins, and how this eerie notion can include photography. In one sense, a photograph is a shadow or reflection that is formed by a lens and captured onto World In a Jar: War & Trauma 299 © 2009 The Author. Journal compilation © 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd Journal of Historical Sociology Vol. 22 No. 3 September 2009 light-sensitive material. If a photograph can be identified as a category of Rank’s “double,” then it can also serve as an example of the “uncanny,” an “energetic denial of the power of death.” In Camera Lucida (1981) Roland Barthes concluded that the relationship of the photograph to the double, its confusion with reality and time, constitute an uncanny concern with death. Thus it is precisely the direct and real connection between the subject and its image – the certainty of a physical existence within the past – that death and photography became inextricably bound, provid- ing a human-made process for both circumventing the grim reaper and confronting the transience of life. I held my dog Koko as the vet “put her to sleep,” and heard her cry out as her life force vanished. I leaned into my father’s deathbed and photographed him moments after he died. We are motivated by death. Death can enrich and sharpen our focus by teaching us we only have a short time to figure out how to make a personally fulfilling and meaningful life. The Depiction of Suffering Since the 1980s, the sharp reproach about photographic representation by critics, such as Martha Rosler, Abigail Solomon-Godeau, and Allan Sekula, left little opportunity in the academy for documentary style work. One of their principal criti- cisms swirled around the depiction of suffering, a critique rarely applied to the other arts. These academics contend photographs, such as those by Sebastião Salgado and James Nachtwey, should not make their subjects artistically pleasing for this practice contaminates the so-called “real” with visual pleasure, thus beautifying pain for viewers. These academic critics label such images as being detri- mental to constructive social engagement rather than recognizing they might awaken one’s compassion, and that such an acknowl- edgment could be a first step toward social justice. Pictures can be exploited, but de facto censorship is worst. Yes, the act of picture making involves applying aesthetic principles to a subject, but more importantly it transforms a subject. A good photographer can capture and transmit a subject’s sensibility to viewers. Although there are limits on what photography can represent, and any emotional attachment to an image is unstable and subject to manipulation, it is necessary to feel and acknowledge the suffering of others before we can act to alleviate it. Often we humans seem to 300 Robert Hirsch © 2009 The Author. Journal compilation © 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd Journal of Historical Sociology Vol. 22 No. 3 September 2009 be hopelessly overwhelmed and powerless when confronted with the suffering of individuals other than ourselves. One way we can overcome this is by recognizing the anguish of others by seeing it in pictures. Such a multiplicity of images, as in World In a Jar, makes one conscious of the complexity of the process of representation in a more active and inquiring way. Thus suppressing such images curtails intellectual, emotional or social engagement. Since 9/11 some critics have revisited their previous positions. In her book, Regarding the Pain of Others (2003), Susan Sontag changed her stance about the power of photographs to represent deprivation, humiliation, and suffering in a positive manner. Why? Perhaps Sontag realized that pictures are more accessible and visceral than words. People do not seem intimidated by images they privately view at their own pace. This experience encourages an immediate, personal response in which individuals can examine and reflect what these photographs show them. Pictures can make us feel and even think, but only if we develop the creative power to imagine ourselves in situations besides our own. Using the mind’s eye we can identify with the suffering of the person being pictured and substitute our image for theirs. In spite of this, neither art nor artist is protection against cruelty and bestiality. Nonetheless I do think there is the prospect, if not for redemptive liberation, at least for some kind of solace in process of making and viewing pictures. In the United States the defining public image of the Iraq inva- sion has shifted from the official, orchestrated media moment of the toppling of a statue of Saddam Hussein to the sadistic amateur snapshots made in Abu Ghraib Prison to videos of road- side bombings posted by insurgents on the Internet. Now in 2008 there is a curious absence of significant new images. Could it be the war has been visually defined by the Abu Ghraib images or to the general malaise and collapse of support for the war? The circulation of such horrid pictures, or the lack there of, plays a crucial role in whether or not people bring into being a simulta- neous protective indifference and an inculcation of compassion. How come? An image’s authority is determined as much by imagi- nation and memory as by its indexical relationship to the real. Engaging images acknowledge the complexity of life through their capacity to sensitize and stimulate our latent exploratory senses that can generate empathy. Such photographs assert ideas and perceptions that we recognize as our own, but could not have given concrete form to without first having seen those images. These visualizations can bear witness, which may help us think about a situation and raise our consciousness about our own apathy, thus fostering constructive action. World In a Jar: War & Trauma 301 © 2009 The Author. Journal compilation © 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd Journal of Historical Sociology Vol. 22 No. 3 September 2009 The Nature of Evil For ages philosophers have wrestled to define the nature of Evil with little success. This is because evil threatens human reason by challenging our expectation that the world makes sense. The West largely failed to comprehend Nazi Germany’s extreme policies of elimination because rationalism is ingrained in our thinking. Ratio- nalism does not permit us to recognize such evilness because we think all problems can be solved through talk and comprise. In actually evil is often absurdly illogical and irrational. This failure to comprehend how differently others operate and manipulate allowed Hitler to make fools of those who earnestly tried to logically negotiate with him, unintentionally giving him more time to build his lethal war machine. Continuing to pursue such failed strategies brings to mind Albert Einstein’s definition of insanity, which is “doing the same thing over and over again and expecting different results.” In 1651 Thomas Hobbes wrote (Leviathan) people were naturally wicked and basically selfish creatures who would do anything they find pleasurable or that would increase their economic and/or social position. Left to their own devices people would act on their foul impulses. Individuals commit vile deeds that are within their reach, making the most of their opportunities, and doing what they think they can get away with. Evil can also be contagious with people taking their clues from their peers about what constitutes acceptable behavior. Thus Hobbes thought a strong government was essential to protect people from their own odious, self-centered deeds, which can be the result of anarchical chaos as well as a failure of imagination, that is the inability to see beyond one’s own circumstances and the reluctance to openly think for oneself. Without a legitimate and rational Authority there would be no security. According to Hobbes people would constantly be in a “state of nature” – that is – a “war of every man against every man,” making life “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short,” and leaving no place for art or culture. Human Evil In the past people believed in Natural Evil, such as earthquakes, floods, tsunamis, and tornadoes, which were brought on by a venge- ful God to punish the wicked. Although fundamentalists may still believe events such as 9/11 are the result of America’s wicked ways, 302 Robert Hirsch © 2009 The Author. Journal compilation © 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd Journal of Historical Sociology Vol. 22 No. 3 September 2009 most people acknowledge evil in terms of human cruelty with Auschwitz as an extreme manifestation. Whether expressed in secular or theological terms, history makes it clear that goodness and evil are human constructions and there is no intrinsic code of ethics. In her book Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil (1963) Hannah Arendt postulated that evil, regardless of where it takes place, could simply be a function of banality – the tendency of ordinary clerks and teachers to conform and carry out despicable acts without critically thinking about the results of their action or inaction. History tells us that the suffering of the innocent is not the result of individual power hungry, paranoid, sociopathic, mass- murderers like King Leopold II, Hitler, Stalin, Mao, or Pol Pot. Rather, the mass catalog of evil is made-up by average, street-level bureaucrats who actually implement the horrendous policies and the general populace – all who benefit in some way from these death-worshipping ideologies. This sort of self-deception, where people compartmentalize and rationalize their actions, allows ordi- nary people to carry out acts of extraordinary evil. In Eichmann’s case, he purposely ignored the “Golden Rule” and its principle of humane reciprocity. Rather, he claimed no responsibility because he was just “doing his job” – “He did his duty . . . ; he not only obeyed orders, he also obeyed the law,” demonstrating how decep- tion is evil’s servant. Immanuel Kant advocated that people are their own moral legis- lators; in Eichmann’s case, he knowingly forfeited being the “master of his own deeds” and made Adolf Hitler his personal legislator. By default, creatures like Eichman become functionaries of death due to their personal and societal prejudices plus their reluctance to openly question their so-called patriotic duties that could jeopardize their own self-interests. Arendt insisted that moral choice remains even under totalitarian conditions, and that this choice has political consequences even when the chooser is politically powerless stating: [U]nder condi- tions of terror most people will comply but some people will not, just as the lesson of the countries to which the Final Solution was proposed is that “it could happen” in most places, but it did not happen everywhere. Humanly speaking, no more is required, and no more can reasonably be asked, for this planet to remain a place fit for human habitation. Conclusions Just as most black-and-white photographs are shades of gray, people are rarely one thing or another. Rather we are a continuum World In a Jar: War & Trauma 303 © 2009 The Author. Journal compilation © 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd Journal of Historical Sociology Vol. 22 No. 3 September 2009 of numerous biological and cultural elements, which allows us to pigeonhole contradictory viewpoints. This is gives us the capacity to continually ignore, change and/or diminish the real-world affects of our actions and inactions. Evil is more encompassing than being a murderer or rapist. Evil also occurs in whose of us who are Sierra Club members and recycle our trash, but who on occasion realize that the idealism we have chosen to pursue is also selfish and such self-centeredness seems to be hardwired. In his book, The Selfish Gene (1976), evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins asserts a gene will operate in its own interest even if that means destroying the organism it inhabits, thereby making Selfishness the core of human existence. Dawkins’ position supports Hobbes’s case for a strong central authority to curb human self-interest and maintain societal order. As American President James Madison wrote in the Federalist Papers, “But what is government itself, but the greatest of all reflections on human nature? If men were angels, no government would be necessary. If angels were to govern men, neither external nor internal controls on government would be necessary.” The combination of biological pre-determinism and the random action of quantum physics makes Swiss cheese out of classical religious notions of predestination, heaven and hell, as well as such utopian political ideologies of communism and fascism. These belief systems have their roots in the authoritarian impulse of Faith, which criminalizes Thoughts as well as actions. Their common denominator of submission makes no distinction between public and private life and insists on arbitrating everything from diet to sex, always asking the same question: Are you one of US or are you one of THEM? Such imposed orthodoxy makes pluralism – the tolerance of difference – impossible to achieve. People ask me if working with such foul subject matter is depressing, but just as darkness is another shade of light, this state of mind can be a compelling motivator to commune with one’s own soul. Darkness can bring a silent calm that restores our mental, physical, and spiritual well-being. Often, compelling art is the result of angst and tears. Regardless, it is better to candidly examine the human character so as to be more prepared for what life might deliver to our door. Much of my contentment grows from being fully engaged in thinking, making pictures, and writing about the world. I reflect on what the ancient Israelites called hochma – the science of the heart – the capacity to see, to feel and then to act as if the future depended on you. This dovetails into what I call the “Possibility Scale,” which proclaims: “If I can imagine it, there could be a way to make it happen.” It is transcendent artistic thinking – one that seeks to 304 Robert Hirsch © 2009 The Author. Journal compilation © 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd Journal of Historical Sociology Vol. 22 No. 3 September 2009 reach beyond the range of known experiences – encouraging one to adventurously visit regions once deemed out of bounds or inhabited by demons to push the limits of our understanding. Consider Leonardo da Vinci, Mary Shelly, Jules Vern, H. G. Wells, Arthur C. Clarke, and now William Gibson, the father of the cyberpunk science fiction, all whose fantastic works, created outside the margins of their times, anticipated future inventions and societal transformations. Time is the key. Time calls all of us and measures change. If there is no time, there is no change. If there is no change, there is no action. If there is no action, life stagnates. And we need action to foster creation, for creation propels life and provides hope. Where there is no hope, people despair and evil takes hold. The real struggle is between hope and evil, for it is at this juncture in time that one’s imaginative pathways can offer up possibilities for new and innovative realities. Can artists and intellectuals play a role in this process? I think it is a possibility . . . This paper, a variation of a paper featuring a PowerPoint presen- tation of hundreds of project images, was delivered at Ethnographic Dreamworlds 2008, the 9th Annual Sociology Conference at Buffalo State College, Buffalo, NY USA on April 16, 2008. Installation and project images are available at: www.lightresearch.net My special thanks goes to Molly Jarboe and Anna Kuehl for their able assistance in realizing this project. World In a Jar: War & Trauma 305 © 2009 The Author. Journal compilation © 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd Journal of Historical Sociology Vol. 22 No. 3 September 2009 306 Robert Hirsch © 2009 The Author. Journal compilation © 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd Journal of Historical Sociology Vol. 22 No. 3 September 2009 World In a Jar: War & Trauma 307 © 2009 The Author. Journal compilation © 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd Journal of Historical Sociology Vol. 22 No. 3 September 2009 308 Robert Hirsch © 2009 The Author. Journal compilation © 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd Journal of Historical Sociology Vol. 22 No. 3 September 2009 World In a Jar: War & Trauma 309 © 2009 The Author. Journal compilation © 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd Journal of Historical Sociology Vol. 22 No. 3 September 2009 310 Robert Hirsch © 2009 The Author. Journal compilation © 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd Journal of Historical Sociology Vol. 22 No. 3 September 2009 World In a Jar: War & Trauma 311 © 2009 The Author. Journal compilation © 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd Journal of Historical Sociology Vol. 22 No. 3 September 2009 
work_q5i3igzm25hcbkfpunthck2xyy	----	Ana María Leyra Soriano MAKING IMAGES TALK: PICASSO’S MINOTAUROMACHY ABSTRACT We can say that Picasso’s images speak to us, and, as writing, speak to us from that space in which any text – far from being reduced to a single sense – “disseminates” its “truths”. Using the figure and the story of the Minotaur, Picasso devoted himself to one of the great themes of his pictorial work. The word “labyrinth” connotes, to the European mind, Greece, Knossos, Dedalus, Ariadne and the Minotaur. However, the Greek formula already represents a mythic and poetic outcome thoroughly developed from an imagery forged in the remotest eras of our evolution. The relationship between the image, the spiral, and the word, labyrinth is also linked to the perception of a drilled earth, excavated, with numberless tortuous tunnels which, in our imagination, provoke concern because they lead to the world of the inferi, the unknown depths of the realms of the dead. Juan Larrea, a little-known essayist in the sphere of philosophical studies, although, from the outset of international renown for Picasso’s work, he gives what is perhaps the best interpretation of Guernica and consequently also sheds much light on the engravings immediately preceding the execution of this painting, the Minotauromachy among them. The artist is not a prophet. He is not foreseeing what the future holds for humanity, but he does possess a heightened sensitivity that drives him to minutely scrutinise the conditions of the time that he has had to live, and he has a transforming eye for the symbols that constitute the deepest threads in the fabric of his culture. In Plato, the images and writing are silent. They do not answer our questions. But we now know that the images and writing can talk, and that an approach to them consists above all in “allowing for a reading”. This border area which, in Plato, makes artistic images and writing a phármakon, simultaneously a toxin and a cure, in these latter days enjoys its own ontological status: the image remains just an im- age and its effectiveness does not lie in representing something or somebody. As a result, the image has to be taken and assessed on its own basis. It is in this sense we can say that Picasso’s images speak to us, and, as writing speaks to us from that space in which any text – far from being reduced to a single sense – “disseminates” its “truths”, what is shown by means of images likewise gives rise to multiple pos- sibilities of sense and interpretation. Our purpose consequently consists of giving voice to one of the most interesting series of engravings in Picasso’s iconography, the Minotauromachy, and delving deeper into the meaning that the mythical image KEYWORDS Labyrinth, Archetypes, Spanish Civil War, Minotauromachy, Guernica, Aesthetics. UDK: 7.01:111.852 https://doi.org/10.2298/FID1901019L Original Scientific Article Received: 14.11.2018. Accepted: 15.01.2019. PHILOSOPHY AND SOCIETY VOL. 30, NO. 1, 001-196 Ana María Leyra Soriano: Professor, Faculty of Philosophy, Complutense University of Madrid; aleyra@filos.ucm.es. MAKING IMAGES TALK: PICASSO’S MINOTAUROMACHY20 │ ANA MARíA LEYRA SORIANO of the Minotaur held – not only for the painter, but also for his era, the first half of the century elapsed, as well as for European culture down to our days. When Picasso made his first engraving in Barcelona in 1899, he was nineteen years old. The engraving is a small print depicting the figure of a picador, the man charged with executing one of the lances in a bullfight. The image depicts his out- line carrying an implement, the pike held in his left hand, by which he is known as “El zurdo” (the left-handed one). This name is printed on the only proof of his figure known and has been said to have been placed there by Picasso himself. In some cases, it has been thought that the reason for the name related to the way the image appears, holding the pike in his left hand, but majority of art critics presume it more likely that the picador was indeed left-handed and that Picasso drew him as he was. Picasso began his career as an engraver at the onset of the twentieth centu- ry and would continue to produce engravings up to some months before his death, when he exhibited a series of a hundred and fifty-seven of them at the Leiris gallery. His interest in the figure of the Minotaur began in Picasso when Skira found- ed the magazine, Minotaure, in the circle of surrealists. In this context, and given these relationships, Picasso created a Minotaur for the first magazine cover, plus eleven engravings between 17 May and 18 June 1933. In all these drawings, the for- mal language is classical. After 1933 he continued to be interested in making works with mythological figures: centaurs, minotaurs, fauns. Spanish art critic and schol- ar Palau i Fabre defines them as products of his imagination because, as in Greece, they fulfilled a need to express intimate aspects of the human being, in this case the Picasso human being (Palau i Fabre 1968: 53). In 1933, Picasso was fifty-two, at a complicated time in his life. He met Marie Thérèse Walter, who gave him a daughter, Maya, in 1935. This was the period of the Sculptor and Model engravings and he had been doing works commissioned by Vollard, the collector with whom he worked. The entire set would come to be known as the Vollard Suite. The works chosen by Vollard number a hundred; a part of them revolves around the Sculptor and Model theme and another part around the theme of bulls and the Minotaur… blind, beaten, winged, dying, playing or raping. Using the figure and the story of the Minotaur, Picasso devoted himself to one of the great themes of his pictori- al work. A drawing from as early as 27 March 1928 represents a bull-man, and we have fifteen engravings of the Minotaur and the blind minotaur. One of the last aquatints included in the series by Vollard is the Faun Unveiling a Woman. In 1935, he executed an etching, the Minotauromachy, of which we know five proofs serv- ing to track the development of the creative process, throughout which the artist progressively introduces nuances. In studying the history of engraving, we find no artist as prolific in number, technical richness and theme as Picasso. Over two thousand prints of his have been catalogued and, in the opinion of experts, we can rate them as high as to degree of perfection as those of Dürer, Rembrandt, Piranesi or Goya. It may thus be concluded that Picasso is undeniably the artist of greatest importance in twentieth-century engraving. He also illustrated texts, but the value of his works and achievements are at the same level in text illustrations such as Ovid’s Metamorphosis or Balzac’s Unknown Masterpiece as in his stand-alone prints, the themes of which correspond to giv- en moments in his own personal interests and inspiration. He keeps investigating, REFLECTIONS ON AESTHETICS FROM THE EUROPEAN OCCIDENT │ 21 experimenting, although he may not have considered his works as results of exper- imentation because he always said, when the things I wanted to represent required another form of expression, I never hesitated to appropriate it. I have never rehearsed or experimented. Whenever I wanted to say something, I have done so in the manner I felt it should be said (Pablo Picasso 1974). Picasso was always open to new trials using new textures and new elements; the process of searching was of more inter- est to him than what he might find in the end. The engravings he made commissioned by Vollard represent a decisive step in his pictorial iconography. His interests progress from the image of the Painter and Model to that of the Sculptor and Model. Picasso learned with every step he took. Sometimes he worked with lines; at others, he used more pictorial techniques, such as black etching or the sugar-lift aquatint process he was taught by Roger Lacourière, one of the most outstanding French engravers at the time. Lacourrière went to both Picasso’s studio in Paris and to his home on the Côte d’Azure. While working on the Minotauromachy, Picasso practically stopped painting. This is a large etching with scrapings, the existence of which we know from five artist’s proofs, on the basis of which we are able to study the changes he introduced into the artwork. In the first proofs, the space is divided into two halves, and in the last proofs the fi- nal result is the unification of the space. The blacks heighten the night-time atmo- sphere of the work. The outcome of all the work on the Minotauromachy is that it practically enables us to follow the entire creative process step by step up to the final state. However, the evolution of his techniques is not the aspect that will en- gage our greatest interest in this work (Balada 1982). A point of maximum interest in the Vollard Suite is represented by four works executed from September to November 1934, in which the character of the Mi- notaur reappears in the form of the Blind Minotaur. The monster here is a pained creature, much less threatening, even deserving of compassion and support. The novel idea it poses is the relationship between the little girl and the Minotaur, the woman and the horse. As though Picasso’s preoccupation at the time lay in the re- lationship between rationality and irrationality, instinct and sexuality, or the hy- brid nature of the human being as beast and man at once. As did the painter Goya, who portrayed the family of Charles IV without a shred of pity as to the plainness of king and court, all the while respecting the beauty and candour of infancy in the children, Picasso, by including children’s figures in his series, seems to point at our aspiration to tame those facets where blind and brutal nature bows before innocence and beauty. Upon the outbreak of the Civil War, Picasso executes two etchings in which he sequentially describes the campaigns of a being, at once monstrous and ridiculous, producing a kind of comic about the Spanish tragedy that combines the grotesque features of a dictatorial figure, Francisco Franco, in his brutality. We perceive in this period that there is a strong influence of engraving on painting; to be specific, of these series in relation to the Guernica. From this time onward, Picasso commits himself politically, and after the Second World War, joins the Communist Party and collaborates with his work in international movements. In 1949, the poet Aragón chooses one of his works – the lithograph of a softly-plumed white dove executed in Paris – which becomes the poster announcing the first of several peace conferences. MAKING IMAGES TALK: PICASSO’S MINOTAUROMACHY22 │ ANA MARíA LEYRA SORIANO Interpreting, Dreaming and Creating: The Figure of the Minotaur in Picasso’s Engravings The name Minotaur was given to a monster with the head of a bull and the body of a man. His real name was Asterio or Asterion. He was the son of Pasiphaë, the wife of Minos, and a handsome bull that Poseidon, god of the sea, had sent as a gift to Minos, as king of Crete. The bull from Poseidon was so princely that Mi- nos did not send it to be sacrificed but kept it among his herds; but Pasiphaë fell in love with it, and from this unnatural union was born the Minotaur. So that the monster’s existence would not put him to shame, king Minos ordered a palace to be built, the intricate halls of which would hold the strange creature within. Daedalus, a great architect who lived in court, took charge of constructing a palace, which was called the Labyrinth. The word “labyrinth”, according to some interpretations, comes from the root labrys, the double-axe, and labyrinth meant “the palace of the double-axe”. It seems that the word and the utensil originate from the works in the mines, from among the instruments that drilled into the earth and filled it with underground galleries, through which it was authentically hard to find one’s way. This image of the Labyrinth is contained in the way that the labyrinthine form has been conceived throughout the ages. On another hand, the labrys – the two-sided axe – from the most remote ages of prehistory, has been a ritual symbol that my- thologies give different interpretations for, one of them being the unified repre- sentation of the male and the female as vital principles. As a result, images of the two-sided axe appear in very numerous representations. Every nine years, the city sent seven youths and seven maidens to the heart of the Labyrinth to be given over to the Minotaur. Theseus, one of the many heroes whose adventures are narrated in the myths, mingled with the youths and, helped by a ball of string that Ariadne had given him, was able to find his way out from the centre of the Labyrinth and return, after defeating and killing the Minotaur. According to the anthropologist André Leroi-Gourhan, we can find traces at- testing to the evolution of human imagery in man’s vestiges. From his point of view, the decisive factor characterising human action is the domestication of time and space. What, then, do we mean in speaking of domesticating time and space? First of all, that the world is perceived in two ways. One way is dynamic, and consists of exploring space while being aware of it, actively experiencing it through explo- ration and discovery – this dynamic exploration provides us with an image of the world based on an itinerary. Land animals share this with humans. It involves a route engaging muscular and olfactory capabilities. The other, static way, is what enables us, through immobility, to reconstruct a space of circles using ourselves as a starting point up to the limits of the unknown; to combine the images of two op- posing surfaces – heaven and earth, which meet at the horizon – and, moreover, to organise this by means of a vertical line or axis. This vision, produced by the second, static way, is radial, circular; we share it with birds and it is associated to a highly-developed vision (Leroi-Gourhan 1972: II, 157). These two modalities coexist and are interrelated in human beings. We find their vestiges wherever human evolutionary development has left its imprint. Commu- nities of hunters and food-gatherers created mythologies populated by itinerant routes. This is how the travelling paths of the stars have fed the images of myth, REFLECTIONS ON AESTHETICS FROM THE EUROPEAN OCCIDENT │ 23 from the mythography of the travelling sun in Val Camonica to the descriptions of the sun in its nocturnal journey to the realms of the dead. On another hand, the stories of civilising heroes – none other than the commanders and organisers of the world – also show that basic structure, mapping out a path where deeds hap- pen, one after the other. In analysing prehistoric myth – the oral context of which we have lost and thus cannot fully understand– in the images of Altamira or Lascaux, for instance, we find figures organised in a linear manner, appearing repeatedly. We are thus shown the model of a world-view representing an impression of itinerant space. At first, the images from prehistoric caverns were considered arbitrarily arranged, with- out logical order. We now know this is not the case, and that such arrangements accord with a path, an itinerary, a layout that establishes a kind of “journey” from the outside of the cave to the inside, through its twists and turns. It was therefore the impression of the nomad that configured all images of paths, wanderings and journeys since the dawn of humanity. In contrast, radial space yields the typical model originating from the seden- tary farmer who constructs a circular world around the walls of his granary. In the world of the origins, Paradise is thus shaped as a space situated at the foot of a mountain, between rivers, where grows a tree of knowledge – the world axis and the link between the two spheres, terrestrial and celestial. In it, things exist after having been named by man, after having been fixed and made stable, subject to space and time, situated between an eminently genesis before and after. This is the space that favours the shaping of the origins. The hunter-nomad has become a farmer, foresighted and sedentary; he has known the future apart from the past without a time and the immediate present. Both linear-erratic nomadic imagery on the one hand and circular-temporal sedentary imagery on the other express the stages of a human spatial and temporal appropriation in relation to the elements. Consequently, we can affirm today that what Jungian terminology would refer to as archetypes were formulated in this way, understanding an archetype to be, not a single image, but a series of images summing up the ancestral experience of human beings in the face of typical situations; i.e., in circumstances not specific to single individuals, but that may come to be imposed on each and every individual, wide- ly shared. It is from this perspective that we propose to remark on some aspects of the spiral form as an archetypal image of the labyrinthine path. Any catalogue of rock art will provide us with abundant illustrations of a wide- spread form, the spiral. Prodigally used as an element for ornamentation, the spiral form triggers the type of dynamic association that generally transmits the idea of movement, displacement, along with a sensation of what is tortuous, not straight, and therefore folded inwards or entangled. Karoly Kérenyi studied these kinds of representations seen in rock art and preserved at later times in European art, both Mediterranean and Nordic, relat- ing them to tablets from the Babylonian culture on which spiral representations appear. Some show inscriptions; others have none at all (Kérenyi 1984: 45). The inscriptions revealed that the spiral forms represented entrails – to be specific, in- testines of animals sacrificed for purposes of divination. Archives of entrails were thus discovered, the representation of which took the prototypal form of the spiral. Some of the inscriptions refer to a certain “palace of entrails” êkal tirani, alluding MAKING IMAGES TALK: PICASSO’S MINOTAUROMACHY24 │ ANA MARíA LEYRA SORIANO to a mythological realm of the dead, an underworld or world of inferi. We are thus confronted by the fact that a form that is, in principle, silent – the simple drawing of a spiral – provokes in the human beings contemplating it an empathic reaction, a projection of emotional contents conferring life to inert forms, and granting them the possibility of conveying several ideas: – In the first place, the idea of movement. The idea of an itinerary that is not linear, moving from one point to another, but a tortuous path with no exits, moving in spirals and, in principle – albeit not always – moving downwards. – The idea that this path, like the entrails of an animal or human being, may evoke the passage of food from the mouth up to its transformation into waste may also call up a similarity with life as a passage from birth to death, up to transformation into mortal remains. – The spiral thus acquires the sense of a schematic image of the labyrinth as a symbol for human existence. The path it represents is a closed map, from birth to death, with a set, implacable origin and destination. Certainly, the word “labyrinth” connotes, to the European mind, Greece, Knos- sos, Dedalus, Ariadne and the Minotaur. However, the Greek formula already rep- resents a mythic and poetic outcome thoroughly developed from an imagery forged in the remotest eras of our evolution. The relationship between the image, the spiral, and the word, labyrinth, is also linked to the perception of a drilled earth, excavated, with numberless tortuous tunnels which, in our imagination, provoke concern because they lead to the world of the inferi, the unknown depths of the realms of the dead. Thus, we see how the image of the labyrinth, in its most sche- matic form as a spiral, relates to a type of path associated to distant experiences of anxiety at loss, the feeling of “being lost”, and, finally, the sensation of life as an experience “with no exit” or “with no other exit” than that which death provides towards a “beyond”, “another world”, or however we want to call it, though it be certainly not experienced and therefore unknown. Theseus defeats the Minotaur thanks to a ball of string that Ariadne gives him, and through this stratagem manages to return and leave the island. From here on, we shall resort to a philosopher-ball-of-string, Gaston Bachelard, to serve as a guide through the twists and turns of Picasso’s labyrinth. There is no need to say we agree on the fact that the images Picasso devotes to the figure of the Minotaur, the way he presents it, the different scenarios in which he turns it into a protagonist or a companion, belong to the personal imagery of the painter. Were Picasso before us, we could certainly interrogate him, and perhaps he would answer or perhaps no, because not even he himself would know how to clearly respond to the question about his remotest concerns. The fact that an artist may not explain his work , does not justify that we do not want to question ourselves about it. To ask questions and to try to answer them is, in my opinion, the cornerstone of the communicative el- ement that is the artwork, because the artwork is, above all, communication, the means through which we leave our closed individual world and participate in the world of others, share something in common. This entails acknowledging in this manner the socialising value of art, its power to break the individual’s isolation and situate him in relation to others. REFLECTIONS ON AESTHETICS FROM THE EUROPEAN OCCIDENT │ 25 It is in this sense that the words of the philosopher Bachelard become reveal- ing. He tells us that he claims “the right to dream”, but what does exercising “the right to dream” mean to us? Bachelard explains this briefly and directly by describ- ing himself not as a busy philosopher but as a dreamer, or even better: as a thinker who grants himself the right to dream. Consequently, this entails acknowledging the exercise of thought, referring in this case to images more as a creative process, in which the creative imagination puts us in touch with an entire universe of col- lective archetypes, of originary certainties in which myth speaks to us about our- selves, than as a detective’s task in which investigations and, afterwards, incontro- vertible proof, can lead to the demonstration of truth. With Picasso’s images and his Minotaur, we venture into an interpretative game in which the artist himself imposes the rules enabling us to enter with him into his innumerable labyrinths in order to share them. Gaston Bachelard broadly analyses the image of the labyrinth based on what he called images of la terre et les reveries du repos. There he characterises the labyrin- thine path as a path on which sensations of angst and narrow spaces hard to find a way out from, along with an added and very palpable anxiety on feeling lost, are always provoked. This is not an anxiety about loss, but a reflex angst, an angst di- rectly befalling the trapped and disoriented subject: In our night-time dreams [he says] we unconsciously represent the life of our trav- elling ancestors. It has been said that, in man, “everything is a road”; if referring to the most distant of the archetypes, we must add: in man, everything is a lost road. Systematically applying the feeling of being lost to all unconscious wandering is re- discovering the labyrinth as an archetype. (Bachelard 1948: 213) Backtracking to the ancestral inception of our imagery, the images and meta- phors with which art peoples its most diverse manifestations find in the labyrin- thine the most straightforward model for expressing the emotional atmosphere of angst in the face of total disorientation. There is no road less known than the mys- terious path of our existence, and at the same time, no certainty more frightening than the known end of the path, death, and the unknown beyond that awaits us. Who is this character, half-human, half-beast, who evokes his lair, his house, his labyrinths in the images of Picasso? It is in that Minotaur, lubricious, pleasure-lov- ing, threatening at times and helpless at others, that the artist portrays himself, and us along with him. We are all, in moments of contemplation, at once weak beings and threatening beasts. We all feel lost and seek someone to guide us, who can lav- ish sweetness and consolation upon us when we are as lost along the way as Picas- so’s Minotaur. We are all alone and at the same time accompanied and observed from windows as in the Minotauromachy. And that sinuous, labyrinthine road on which the Minotaur, lost and blind, seeks guidance, assistance, is shown to us as a climb, an ascent, a human effort – here and there are men and women. Loss also leads us to a universal aspiration: towards ascent, the rising movement, the climb by means of the ladder. Night and the stars shape the background in which this aspiration appears. There are, in addition, a series of drawings in which Picasso shows us the figure of the blind Minotaur being led by a little girl. Sometimes his figure is silhouetted against a starry night sky to which he turns, as though trying to see them. A blind MAKING IMAGES TALK: PICASSO’S MINOTAUROMACHY26 │ ANA MARíA LEYRA SORIANO Minotaur seeing the stars? We could not be more concise; this could not be stated more directly. The Blind Minotaur dates from 1934. A few years later, in 1939, the great Spanish playwright and Cervantes Awardee, Buero Vallejo, wrote his play In the Burning Darkness, where he expresses a similar desire in words. The ac- tion takes place in an inpatient facility for the blind, where we find the quotation: And now the stars are shining, […] Those distant worlds […] within reach of our sight, if we had it. (Buero Vallejo 1994:126) For Buero Vallejo, the finite human being aspires for the impossible. For Picas- so, the Blind Minotaur series and the Minotauromachy itself also express a pain- ful reality: they show the limitations of the human being as well as an impossi- ble aspiration: to reach the light, despite blindness, and here the little girl carries a light, a guide for the weak and monstrous Minotaur. The times set the stage for both minds, since the war of Spain marked both artists: Picasso, exiled in France, and Buero Vallejo, sentenced to die in a Spanish prison. It is not a coincidence that a similar aspiration is couched in terms that are also similar; in Buero Vallejo, a playwright who wanted to be a painter, and in Picasso, a painter who was so and had always wanted to be so, as in both of them reappears the ancestral motif of the human tragedy that the myth of Oedipus Rex illustrates. Oedipus also wants to know, wants to see and be seen, desires the light of knowledge; he who sees that he is blind and that only on blinding himself can he come to see himself and per- ceive the human being. This Oedipus, a conqueror of monsters like the Sphinx, from the beginnings of our western culture, has been the embodiment of our in- timate conflicts as human beings. Violence, the light of knowledge, the desire to see and to know… And Picasso perceives this all too well: in that last engraving, the Minotaur is the Sphinx; it is the mystery, it is time, it is the threat of time that we delude ourselves into believing we have defeated. The Sphinx in Greece was a monster attributed the face of a woman, the body of a lion and the wings of a bird of prey. The Oedipus story recounts that it asked all wayfarers for the animal that walked on four feet first, then on two, and lastly on three. When the person asked did not know the answer, it cast him into a ravine. Only Oedipus on his way to Thebes knew the answer: man. The monster symbolically represented time. But on this occasion, in the image of that Minotaur-Sphinx recreated, what Picasso shows us is a mirror-image: the face of the Sphinx is now no longer a woman’s face, but has been substituted here by a humanised Minotaur turned into a new archetype, at once beast and human. The painter portrays himself and represents everybody. The mystery now continues to be time, but not just time; the mystery on this oc- casion is, in addition, man himself. The eyes of the Minotaur see through time. Juan Larrea: Guernica and Picasso’s Dove We have been establishing an entire series of relationships between the images that appear in the Minotauromachy and the constellations of symbols that, in some way, can help us understand the depth and projection of the work of this exception- al artist. Our attempt is, to a certain point, legitimised when we approach works about Picasso’s Guernica as fascinating as those done by his friend and compatriot, REFLECTIONS ON AESTHETICS FROM THE EUROPEAN OCCIDENT │ 27 Juan Larrea (Bilbao 1895 – Cordoba, Argentina 1980). A poet and essayist, Larrea was one of the many intellectuals forced into exile after the dramatic event of the Spanish Civil War and the long period of dictatorship that followed it. Very early in 1921 onward, he participated in cultural tasks as Secretary of the National His- torical Archive of Madrid, Secretary to a cultural relations delegation under the Spanish Embassy in Paris, and, in 1937, creator of the Indies Museum and Library in the University City of Madrid. Once he was established in Paris, the city to which he had travelled in 1926 to join the poets Vicente Huidobro and César Vallejo, in 1937 he began a close friendship with Pablo Picasso, to the point of publishing an album of etchings, The Dream and Lie of Franco, and accompanying Picasso from day to day as he painted Guernica. Juan Larrea is a little-known essayist in the sphere of philosophical studies, although, from the outset of international renown for Picasso’s work, he gives what is perhaps the best interpretation of Guernica and consequently also sheds much light on the engravings immediately preceding the execution of this painting, the Minotauromachy among them. Only in a restricted sense [Juan Larrea tells us] can the studies for Guernica be un- derstood to have begun on 1 May 1937. In a broader sense of the truth, it would be more fitting to sustain that Picasso’s entire oeuvre constitutes a succession of trials, diagrams and spectrographs, the general justification for which lies in this portentous enigma. […] Even in the event that one would wish to see in this painting a premo- nition of the contemporary cataclysm, it must be admitted that such cataclysm had been in gestation in the painter’s innermost self since his younger periods. […] On another hand, he is credited with works of calmer pathos, albeit extremely close to Guernica in their representation, above all that incomparable Minotauromachy, where more or less the same elements abound: the convulsive horse; the bull; the four women, one of them bare-breasted; the man; the light; the sword; the dove; and even the flower, here represented by a peaceful olive branch that has sprouted from the hand that wields the broken sword … The similarity is so profound that Guernica could never reasonably be understood as this same painting in black and white without that reference point. (Larrea 1977: 30) For Juan Larrea, the day on which the small town of Guernica in the Basque Coun- try was bombarded provoked astonishment and shock all over the civilised world, and the appearance of the painting by Picasso turned Guernica into the most Eu- ropean of all the paintings that were known. Because what occurred in the town of Guernica in Spain, caused by the Nazi Luftwaffe, was the prelude to the horror and devastation that was to take place very soon after in Europe, with the entire extent of the European continent a desert of ruins. Still, the painting does not only speak of Spain; it not only expresses feeling for the ruins and the pain of war, firstly in Spain and afterwards in Europe. According to Larrea’s interpretation, Guernica is a picture of crisis, a deep spiritual and social crisis, in the images of which the paint- er portrays the end of a cycle, the end of a time, and glimpses in its background an Apocalypse by which the European cultural universe – that which, since its origins, had laid the foundations for its symbols – disappears. If, at a remote moment in his- tory, Europe had stood up to Asia in sphere of influence and as a land of aspirations, the appearance of Guernica points to a new land and to the end of a bleeding Eu- rope, auguring the beginnings of a time when the west, open to an ocean leading to new lands and new continents, had already signalled the beginning of a new cycle. MAKING IMAGES TALK: PICASSO’S MINOTAUROMACHY28 │ ANA MARíA LEYRA SORIANO One last symbol remains for analysis. This is the dove, a symbol we find in many of Picasso’s works. When remarking on the frequent appearance of the dove in the works of the painter, Larrea provides us with an interpretation full of spirituality: the statement “I am the Alpha and the Omega” alludes mystically to the Spirit. […] The reason, doubtless taken from certain Gnostics, is that in the Greek numeration system, the letters alpha and omega add up to eight hundred and one, which is the same that the letters of the word peristerá, meaning “dove” in Greek. (Larrea 1977: 94) The dove, which is present in the Minotauromachy and in Guernica, the painting that the former precedes the closest according to Larrea, is not merely a symbol of peace in times of war, but also becomes a symbol in which a cycle ends, in which a crisis becomes explicit through the images that the painter’s sentiment selects to embody the effects that the events of an era of political, social and anthropo- logical transformation have provoked in him. The artist is not a prophet. He is not foreseeing what the future holds for humanity, but he does possess a heightened sensitivity that drives him to minutely scrutinise the conditions of the time that he has had to live, and he has a transforming eye for the symbols that constitute the deepest threads in the fabric of his culture. Let us once more relate the experience of the painter Picasso to that Sphinx-Minotaur we analysed previously, whereby the humanised face of the beast, the Minotaur, belongs to the body of a mythical animal, the Sphinx, a calendar symbol: an image of time in Mediterranean cultures, now expressing – due to the transformation that the artist performed – the image of a humanised time, of a view in which mythic past and artistic fantasy “talk” to the viewer about a future, which, although unknown, is intuited. References Bachelard, Gaston (1948), La terre et les rêveries du repos: essai sur les images de l’intimité, Paris: Librairie José Corti. Balada, María & Rosa Vives (1981–1982), Picasso y el grabado, Barcelona: Ayuntament de Barcelona. Buero Vallejo, Antonio (1994), Obras Completas, Madrid: Espasa Calpe. Kérenyi, Károly (1984), Nel Labirinto, Corrado Bologna (ed.), Torino: Paolo Boringhieri. Larrea, Juan (1977), Pablo Picasso, Guernica, Madrid: Cuadernos para el Diálogo en colaboración con Alejandro Finisterre. Leroi-Gourhan, André (1972), Le geste et la parole, Vol. II, La memoire et les rhythmes, Paris: Éditions Albin Michel. Pablo Picasso (1974), Das graphische Werk, Stuttgart: Verlag Gerd Hatje (ed. Castellana Gustavo Gili, 1982). Palau i Fabre, Josep (1968), Doble ensayo sobre Picasso, Barcelona: Editorial Gustavo Gili. REFLECTIONS ON AESTHETICS FROM THE EUROPEAN OCCIDENT │ 29 Ana Marija Lejra Sorijano Učiniti da slike govore: Pikasova Minotauromahija Apstrakt Možemo reći da nam Pikasove slike govore i, kao pismo, da nam govore iz prostora u kome bilo koji tekst – daleko od toga da bude sveden na jedan smisao – “diseminira” svoje “istine”. Koristeći figuru i priču o Minotauru, Pikaso se posvetio jednoj od velikih tema svog slikov- nog dela. Reč „lavirint“ konotira, evropskom duhu, Grčku, Knosos, Dedala, Arijadnu i Mino- taura. Međutim, ta grčka formula već predstavlja mitski i poetski ishod temeljno izveden iz imaginarijuma stvorenog u najdavnijem dobu našeg našeg razvoja. Odnos između slike, spi- rale i reči, lavirint je takođe povezan sa izbušenom zemljom, prokopanom, sa bezbrojnim vi- jugavim tunelima koji u našoj imaginaciji izazivaju nelagodnost, jer vode u svet koji čine inferi, nepoznate dubine carstva mrtvih. Huan Larea, malo poznati esejist u oblasti filozofskih stu- dija, iako, od samog početka, međunarodnog ugleda za Pikasovo delo, daje verovatno naj- bolje tumačenje Gernike i posledično u velikoj meri rasvetljava grafike koje neposredno pret- hode izradi ove slike, među njima i Minotauromahiju. Umetnik nije prorok. On ne predviđa šta budućnost donosi čovečanstvu, ali ipak poseduje pojačanu osetljivost da detaljno sagleda stanja vremena u kome mora da živi i ima preobražavalački pogled za simbole koji čine naj- dublje niti od kojih je satkana njegova kultura. Ključne reči: lavirint, arhetipovi, Španski građanski rat, Minotauromahija, Gernika, estetika 
work_qcqqdk6ctnge5mukldipq4ujpy	----	untitled UCLA UCLA Previously Published Works Title Art appreciation for veterans with severe mental illness in a VA Psychosocial Rehabilitation and Recovery Center Permalink https://escholarship.org/uc/item/9cp2281c Journal ARTS & HEALTH, 7(2) ISSN 1753-3015 Authors Ketch, Robert A Rubin, Robert T Baker, Matthew R et al. Publication Date 2015 DOI 10.1080/17533015.2015.1019700 Peer reviewed eScholarship.org Powered by the California Digital Library University of California https://escholarship.org/uc/item/9cp2281c https://escholarship.org/uc/item/9cp2281c#author https://escholarship.org http://www.cdlib.org/ This article was downloaded by: [VA Medical Center 673], [Robert Rubin] On: 18 March 2015, At: 12:00 Publisher: Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK Click for updates Arts & Health: An International Journal for Research, Policy and Practice Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rahe20 Art appreciation for veterans with severe mental illness in a VA Psychosocial Rehabilitation and Recovery Center Robert A. Ketcha, Robert T. Rubinb, Matthew R. Bakera, Alexander C. Sonesa & Donna Amesa a VA Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System – West L.A. Psychosocial Rehabilitation and Recovery Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA b Psychiatry Department, VA Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, and David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA – Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, Los Angeles, CA, USA Published online: 16 Mar 2015. To cite this article: Robert A. Ketch, Robert T. Rubin, Matthew R. Baker, Alexander C. Sones & Donna Ames (2015): Art appreciation for veterans with severe mental illness in a VA Psychosocial Rehabilitation and Recovery Center, Arts & Health: An International Journal for Research, Policy and Practice, DOI: 10.1080/17533015.2015.1019700 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17533015.2015.1019700 PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. 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Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms- and-conditions D ow nl oa de d by [ V A M ed ic al C en te r 67 3] , [ R ob er t R ub in ] at 1 2: 00 1 8 M ar ch 2 01 5 http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions Art appreciation for veterans with severe mental illness in a VA Psychosocial Rehabilitation and Recovery Center Robert A. Ketch a , Robert T. Rubin b *, Matthew R. Baker a , Alexander C. Sones a and Donna Ames a a VA Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System – West L.A. Psychosocial Rehabilitation and Recovery Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA; b Psychiatry Department, VA Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, and David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA – Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, Los Angeles, CA, USA (Received 27 June 2014; accepted 20 November 2014) Considerable research has shown the positive effects of art, music and drama therapy on mental health and well-being. In September 2012, a weekly Art Appreciation class was initiated at the Veterans Affairs (VA) West Los Angeles (WLA) Psychosocial Rehabilitation and Recovery Center (PRRC) for veterans with severe mental illness. There are 106 VA PRRCs throughout the USA, designed to be transitional learning centers with curriculum-based interventions to help veterans re-integrate into the community and develop meaningful activities independent of the hospital setting. The VA WLA PRRC Art Appreciation class includes classroom sessions and community outings to local museums and other institutions holding art works of interest. It is taught at a college level and designed to lack the stigma of being a therapy group. Preliminary evidence from self-report measures indicates positive effects on mood, self-esteem, socialization and community participation among the veteran participants and recognition among staff that the course aids the veterans’ recovery process. Appreciating art thus appears to promote both subjective and objective improvement in recovery and community re-integration for veterans who are experiencing chronic and disabling emotional distress. Keywords: veterans; mental health; art appreciation Introduction Art appreciation as a tool for enhancing mental health in the military California has the nation’s largest population of veterans (Blanton, 2013), and the Veterans Affairs (VA) Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System cares for about 20,000 veterans in its mental health programs. Many veterans recovering from severe mental illness are served by the VA West Los Angeles (WLA) Psychosocial Rehabilitation and Recovery Center (PRRC), whose mission is to stimulate hope and promote mental health recovery by offering support, education and opportunities so that individuals can successfully achieve their goals in the community. There currently are 106 VA PRRCs throughout the USA (Veterans Health Administration Handbook 1163.03, 2011), and all are seeking innovations in their programming. With its flourishing art scene, Los Angeles is considered a major art center supporting a vibrant gallery culture, world-class art education and some of the most This work was authored as part of the Contributor’s official duties as an Employee of the United States Government and is therefore a work of the United States Government. In accordance with 17 U.S.C. 105, no copyright protection is available for such works under U.S. Law *Corresponding author. Email: rtrubin@yahoo.com Arts and Health, 2015 http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17533015.2015.1019700 D ow nl oa de d by [ V A M ed ic al C en te r 67 3] , [ R ob er t R ub in ] at 1 2: 00 1 8 M ar ch 2 01 5 mailto:rtrubin@yahoo.com mailto:rtrubin@yahoo.com http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17533015.2015.1019700 respected art museums in the world. Consistent with the WLA PRRC mission, in September 2012 an Art Appreciation class was established with three goals: (a) appreciating art, (b) building positive relationships among class participants and (c) integrating participants into the community. The classes are led by the one of the authors, RAK, a licensed clinical social worker and experienced group facilitator with a long- standing interest in art appreciation. This report discusses the evidence on art appreciation as a vehicle for mental health recovery, how the art appreciation class fits into the recovery philosophy of the WLA PRRC, and the operation of the class, including examples of art discussed and preliminary evidence on effectiveness, based on individual veteran survey responses. The report, “Arts, Health and Well-Being across the Military Continuum: White Paper and Framing a National Plan for Action” (Americans for the Arts, 2013) identifies the positive effects of art on the mental health of veterans and advocates for advancing the policy, practice and quality use of arts and creativity as tools for health in the military. It further refers to the work of the National Endowment of the Arts that culminated in a theory of how art works as a system in America: “When people engage in art, they themselves may change and ‘grow,’ . . . Art contributes to and enriches the overall quality of life” (National Endowment for the Arts, 2012, p. 9). According to the 2009 Management of Major Depressive Disorders Working Group (cited in Americans for the Arts, 2013, p. 24), arts interventions can be a form of behavioral activation – the systematic scheduling and monitoring of pleasurable or reinforcing activities – which can have significant antidepressant effects. Expressive art therapies can help individuals have improved sleep and impulse control, greater concentration, and less depression and anxiety (Americans for the Arts, 2013). Visual art has been shown to alleviate stress and anxiety in patients in healthcare settings (Nanda, Eisen, & Baladandayuthapani, 2008; Ulrich, 2009; Ulrich & Gilpin, 2003; Wissing, 2009). When we look at things that we consider beautiful, the activity in the pleasure and reward centers of the brain is increased (Kawabata & Zeki, 2004). Chatterjee (2014) also contended that the pleasure we derive from viewing objects we find beautiful correlates with activation of our brain’s reward circuitry (i.e., different kinds of pleasures, including music, visual art and even architectural spaces, are accompanied by increased neuronal activity in the orbitofrontal cortex). Expressionist theories claim that the function of art is to communicate on the emotional level (Chatterjee, 2014); for veterans who are experiencing disabling emotional distress, appreciating art and learning about artists thus could have positive effects on mood, self-esteem, socialization and community participation and may be a protective factor in suicide prevention. Method Program rationale, goals and process In The Artist’s Way, Cameron (2002) identified elements of recovery to a healthy life, one of which is “The Artist Date . . . opening yourself to insight, inspiration, guidance” (p. 18). Cameron defined an Artist Date as “a block of time, perhaps two hours weekly, especially set aside and committed to nurturing the creative consciousness, [one’s] inner artist” (p. 18), leading to a sense of well-being. An Artist Date may be bowling, a walk on the beach, listening to music or a visit to an art gallery. It was this joyful experience that encouraged RAK, in September 2012, to share with veterans his appreciation of the artistic creations of others by beginning an Art Appreciation class for one hour each week at the WLA PRRC. 2 R.A. Ketch et al. D ow nl oa de d by [ V A M ed ic al C en te r 67 3] , [ R ob er t R ub in ] at 1 2: 00 1 8 M ar ch 2 01 5 Frederickson (2002) indicated that we should cultivate positive emotions in ourselves and in those around us, not just as end states in themselves, but also to achieve improved psychological and physical health. The WLA PRRC is a holistic program, centered on the recovery model (Warner 2010), that provides evidence-based treatments, wellness classes and creative arts experiences for veterans with severe mental illness. Therapeutic lifestyle changes (TLCs) are elements of the WLA PRRC’s holistic wellness programming. Walsh (2011) reviewed research on the effectiveness of eight TLCs for mental health: exercise; nutrition and diet; time in nature; relationships; recreation and enjoyable activities; relaxation and stress management; religious/spiritual involvement; and service and helping others. Class participants are encouraged to complete the Lifestyle Practices Diary: The eight Ways to Practice TLCs. For some veterans, the Art Appreciation class is part of the fifth practice, recreation and enjoyable activities. Veterans in the WLA PRRC are considered students who take classes, an orientation meant to be destigmatizing and which is part of the recovery model. Each veteran develops a personal recovery plan and engages in activities based upon his or her recovery goals. Community integration, as opposed to institutionalization, is the goal of recovery, and the Art Appreciation class includes both classroom sessions and community outings. The class is taught at the level of a college art history class. It is not designed as “therapy” and is meant to avoid the stigma associated with participation in a therapy group. Veterans participate as if they were in a college classroom and thus are transformed from patients to students. Dimming of the lights while appreciating art projected on the screen is conducive to a pervasive sense of peace and calm. Classes begin with participants sharing art experiences they have had during the previous week, which may include having viewed art or having read something about art. The leader (RAK) then shares his art experiences during the previous week, which may include projecting on a large screen photos from a laptop computer of art from a gallery, museum or sculpture garden visit. The veterans are encouraged to share their observations and perceptions of the projected art. This sharing not only provides information about a particular artist or artists, but it also informs members about art-experience opportunities in the community. When members express an interest in a particular artist or style of art, the leader researches the topic and brings information about the artist to the next class. For example, when a group member asked about Salvador Dali, the leader made a full presentation on the artist the next week. Every two months, the class leader and a VA recreation staff member accompany the class to a local museum to view art that has been discussed in class. This experience introduces veterans to museums to view original art first-hand and to consider the museums as community resources for further exploration on their own. The leader serves as the guide and may engage the museum to provide a docent to further explain the exhibits. Museums visited in the Los Angeles area include the Armand Hammer Museum, Getty Villa, Getty Center, Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Norton Simon Museum, California African American Museum, Autry Museum of Western Art, UCLA Franklin Murphy Sculpture Garden, UCLA Fowler Museum and the Huntington Library, Gardens, and Museums. The leader contacts the museums ahead of time to secure free passes, and the recreation staff member arranges packed lunches from the VA. Some veterans who have been unable to participate in the group outings have visited the museums with family members. Although the weekly meetings are conducted as art appreciation classes, as a Licensed Clinical Social Worker, the leader seeks to develop a positive group environment and relationships with members through expressions of concern, acceptance, genuineness and Arts and Health 3 D ow nl oa de d by [ V A M ed ic al C en te r 67 3] , [ R ob er t R ub in ] at 1 2: 00 1 8 M ar ch 2 01 5 empathy, as well as nonjudgmental acceptance and appreciation (Yalom, 1995). The leader seeks to engage members in the discussion of art, artistic styles and artists, to evoke positive and recovery-oriented thoughts and feelings. For example, a viewing and discussion of the paintings of cakes and pies by Wayne Thiebaud led to discussions of positive memories of family members’ gathering and baking. It has been important to follow the suggestions and interests of class participants, who often ask about a particular artist or type of art. Veterans have asked about Dali, Rembrandt, Picasso, Munch (painter of The Scream) and others, which has led to interesting reviews of their art and lives. Other veterans have asked about Aztec and Egyptian art, which has led to the discussion of historical aspects of artistic creations. The topics thus are often directed by the class members’ interests. The leader sometimes shares an overview of art seen on a recent museum or gallery visit, and members sometimes ask to learn about the life of an artist whose work has been shown. Prior to the museum field trips, the leader presents information on the museum and the art to be seen. For example, before visiting the Armand Hammer museum, the group viewed photos and a brochure of the museum collection, including works by Gustave Moreau and Vincent Van Gogh. This led to discussions of the artists and their subjects. Van Gogh’s painting, Trees in the Garden of the Hospital Saint-Paul (Figure 1; Van Gogh, 1889), led to a discussion of the mental health challenges in Van Gogh’s life, of which they were already aware. The recovery principle in this discussion was to learn that one is not alone in facing mental health challenges, and that some of the most famous and productive people throughout history have faced similar challenges. Figure 1. Trees in the Garden of the Hospital Saint-Paul (Van Gogh, 1889). The work of art depicted in this image and the reproduction thereof are in the public domain in the USA. 4 R.A. Ketch et al. D ow nl oa de d by [ V A M ed ic al C en te r 67 3] , [ R ob er t R ub in ] at 1 2: 00 1 8 M ar ch 2 01 5 The paintings of King David and Salome Dancing before Herod by Moreau led to class members’ discussing the history depicted by the paintings, as some of the class members were very knowledgeable about the bible stories. Supporting spiritual health also is part of a recovery-oriented approach to the treatment of mental illness. Prior to visiting the John Paul Getty Museum in Malibu (The Villa), the leader presented information on the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius and the burying of Pompeii and Herculaneum, because the museum is a replica of a villa in Herculaneum. The museum houses many sculptures and artifacts from ancient Greece, Rome and Egypt. The class was very interested in the history and artifacts from Pompeii. They viewed videos that dramatized the time of the eruption, and some already had watched television programs on the subject. Students were very keenly aware of how this tragedy helped preserve the details of everyday life 2,000 years ago. Certain artists have fascinated the class members. Caravaggio, the pioneer Baroque painter, painted real people in action, with dirty fingernails and all, to depict bible stories for Catholic churches. Some of his work was rejected by church leaders, because his subjects did not look saintly enough. Figure 2 illustrates the down-to-earth style of this early Baroque painter (Caravaggio, 1606). The veterans were interested in Caravaggio’s life struggles, stemming from the loss of most of his family to bubonic plague. Learning about how famous artists endured their life difficulties has been part of teaching the veterans about resilience and recovery – how to endure great troubles and still move forward with their lives. Figure 2. Death of the Virgin (Caravaggio, 1606). The work of art depicted in this image and the reproduction thereof are in the public domain worldwide. Arts and Health 5 D ow nl oa de d by [ V A M ed ic al C en te r 67 3] , [ R ob er t R ub in ] at 1 2: 00 1 8 M ar ch 2 01 5 The veterans also identified with artists who had other challenges. Although Norman Rockwell created idealistic views of America for over 40 years while illustrating for The Saturday Evening Post magazine, he left there to illustrate for Look magazine, so he could express his social concerns by portraying some of the problems afflicting American society. He painted The Problem We All Live With, which depicts a six-year-old African- American girl in the 1960’s being escorted to her class by federal marshals, a tomato- stained wall with degrading graffiti behind her (Figure 3; Rockwell, 1964). This illustrated the 1960 forced integration of New Orleans public schools. The class members compared Caravaggio and Rockwell in the ways they painted reality. Many individuals with severe mental illness face discrimination because of their illness, and this Rockwell painting conveyed the importance of being resilient under adverse societal circumstances. The sculptures of Auguste Rodin were introduced prior to visiting the Norton Simon Museum, where The Thinker and The Burghers of Calais were viewed. The class members were interested in the expressions of the statues and discussed interpretations of the faces and body language. This gave the opportunity to learn about Rodin’s life, which was not without tumult, and the class related to the challenges Rodin faced and appreciated the greatness of his work. They also learned about the bronze casting process Rodin used to create his sculptures. In this class, veterans have been exposed to a wide range of cultures in their exploration of art. One of the most important aspects of the recovery model is the support of cultural diversity and lifelong learning. Prior to a visit to the Autry Museum of Art, the class viewed and discussed the works of American artists, especially those who have portrayed the West, including N.C. Wyeth, Frederic Remington, and Allan Houser. The veterans were interested in learning about these artists’ lives. For example, Allan Houser, born in 1914, one of the most renowned Native American painters and Modernist sculptors, was the son of Sam Haozous, who was a translator for Geronimo, the leader of the Apache Nation. Houser was the first member of his family tribe born outside of captivity since Geronimo’s 1886 surrender and the tribe’s imprisonment by the US government. The class was quite moved by Houser’s sculptures of Native Americans. Figure 3. The Problem We All Live With (Rockwell, 1964). Copyright 1964 by Look Magazine. Reproduction of this image complies with fair use under US copyright law. The image is one of the subjects of this educational article and makes an irreplaceable contribution to the reader’s understanding of the article, where it is accompanied by background and commentary, and is of sufficiently low resolution to avoid competition for commercial purposes with the original image. 6 R.A. Ketch et al. D ow nl oa de d by [ V A M ed ic al C en te r 67 3] , [ R ob er t R ub in ] at 1 2: 00 1 8 M ar ch 2 01 5 While preparing for a trip to the California African American Museum, the works of African-American artists collected by the Golden State Mutual Life Insurance Company were studied, including the murals by Hale Woodruff and Charles Aston and works by Jacob Lawrence, Charles White and Romare Bearden. Also considered was the Harlem Renaissance, leading to the production of much fine African-American art. The class members were impressed by the important contributions of these and other African- American artists. The class learned about Henri Matisse and Pablo Picasso before visiting the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, which has many art objects from Picasso’s various periods (blue, rose, cubism and others), as well as several important works by Matisse. The impact of these painters on modern art was a topic for class discussion. Other artists featured in the class have included Richard Diebenkorn, Sam Francis, Mary Cassatt, Winslow Homer, Thomas Eakins, Frederic Edwin Church and the glass sculptures of Dale Chihuly, giving the class opportunities to discuss the artists’ talents and psychosocial challenges, how the artists dealt with them and how they expressed them in their art. One of the goals of a holistic approach to the treatment of mental illness is to help overcome the narrowing of world view that often comes with retreating into an internal world of isolation. The students taught themselves to see the world more fully through the artists’ creativity. For example, David Hockney’s works encourage the viewer to look more fully at a scene. He used photography with multiple cameras to record the English Yorkshire countryside, as well as painting on multiple large canvases in order to portray the details of landscapes. Through his art, he helps the viewer learn to see more and in greater detail. The class members have repeatedly recalled this lesson in viewing scenery. Andrew Wyeth taught us to appreciate the beauty around us. He mostly painted what he saw in and near his home. He wandered around his neighborhood, into people’s attics and cellars, and out in the fields, where he saw things that interested him. This led to a discussion of how the class members could look for and find beauty in their daily lives. The class learned that artists express their feelings and emotions through their art. Vincent Van Gogh saw his paintings as a way not to copy nature but to improve on it. He said that paintings come from the painter’s soul, and Picasso wrote that art washes away the dust of everyday life. While this lesson in creativity is helpful to everyone, it is especially useful to veterans confronting life’s major challenges. In addition to the Art Appreciation class, the advancement of art experiences by the WLA PRRC is achieved through creative arts classes (painting, ceramics, silk screening, mosaics), art shows created by veterans, and displays of art prints. Veterans are encouraged to enroll in outside adult education classes, and, as mentioned earlier, some veterans have returned to school in the community as part of their recovery goals. Results Program staff have emphasized the serenity the veterans experience as they view the images and absorb knowledge, and that their social skills have been enhanced by the gentle encouragement to participate provided by the discussion facilitator. It has been remarkable to the program staff just how fluent these veterans with severe mental illnesses have become in the language of art. Of particular importance, gaining confidence from this class and others in the WLA PRRC has aided veterans’ transition to the community and helped stimulate their lifelong learning. For example, some of our veterans in late middle age, following years of mental illness, have begun to pursue college educations. Arts and Health 7 D ow nl oa de d by [ V A M ed ic al C en te r 67 3] , [ R ob er t R ub in ] at 1 2: 00 1 8 M ar ch 2 01 5 Veterans in all WLA PRRC classes are asked to complete surveys to assess the classes for effectiveness and areas of improvement. For the Art Appreciation class, five veterans completed surveys after about eight months’ attendance (36 weekly sessions). (Other veterans, who attended less frequently, were not surveyed.) On a five-point Likert scale (1 ¼ extremely negative, 3 ¼ neutral, 5 ¼ very positive) asking, “How do you feel about attending this class?” all five participants indicated “very positive”. Comments about what they liked most included, “the slides,” “information concerning the artist,” and “talks about the impressionists.” To the question, “Do you feel this class has helped you develop in your own recovery?” all five participants answered “yes.” Responses to the question, “How has it helped you develop in your recovery?” included, “opens my mind,” “opens my mind to the beauty around me,” “by watching the artist” (slide presentations), and “go to museums to see art by the artist.” Responses to the question, “How could it better help you in your recovery?” included, “more videos,” “keep the class going,” and “by doing it.” Two veterans indicated the class was fine as it is. All the veterans answered “yes” to the questions, “Do you find the information and supplementary materials provided in the class helpful?” and “Do you feel that the information given in the class has helped in your recovery?” Responses to the request to “explain how course materials and information have helped in your recovery” included, “learning about the arts,” “I like art and going to the museum to see paintings,” and “helped me to think about art.” With regard to the question, “What additional suggestions or comments do you have that would assist in making this a better class?” two participants indicated, “nothing at this time,” and one indicated, “more movies about art.” Discussion The above-mentioned responses provide preliminary data on the effectiveness of the Art Appreciation class, and they point to its ability to support participants’ subjective beliefs about their progress toward recovery. The data also provide a rationale for continuation of the class, with more detailed evaluations of both its subjective impact, through measures of psychological functioning, and its objective impact, through measures of socialization, community participation and progress toward independent living. Continued assessment of the Art Appreciation class, with ongoing improvements as suggested by veterans and staff, will determine its ultimate place in the armamentarium of recovery-oriented mental health programs. We need to learn more about how identifying with an artist or being immersed in beauty impacts our brain’s reward circuitry. The Art Appreciation class offers the opportunity to further investigate art appreciation as a vehicle for psychological growth and improved mental health. Future plans include hypothesis-based collection of both structured self-report measures and narrative comments from class participants, and structured evaluations from WLA PRRC staff, to further elucidate the Art Appreciation class as a vehicle for psychological growth and improved mental health in veterans. Development of a manual, with links to images and video clips of suggested artists and recovery-themed discussion points, also will be undertaken, so that others can institute and evaluate similar classes in their own clinical settings. Conclusion The WLA PRRC Art Appreciation class embraces many aspects of the recovery model for the treatment of severe mental illness in veterans, providing a unique learning adventure 8 R.A. Ketch et al. D ow nl oa de d by [ V A M ed ic al C en te r 67 3] , [ R ob er t R ub in ] at 1 2: 00 1 8 M ar ch 2 01 5 for the participants. The class enhances their psychological resiliency by fostering their love for learning and their ability to rise above the stigma of mental illness. Participants learn that some of the greatest artists faced similar challenges. The class emphasizes cultural diversity and supports community integration, combining didactics with community outings to provide places to go to appreciate art, a deeper awareness of the lives of artists, and, in turn, deeper insight into the veterans’ own life stories. Of importance, the class format of didactic sessions and outings to local cultural institutions is easily adaptable to many mental health recovery-oriented programs. Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to the veterans and staff of the WLA PRRC who have contributed to the success of the Art Appreciation class. Disclosure statement None of the authors has any financial or other conflict of interest with respect to this work. 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(2011). Lifestyle and mental health. American Psychologist, 66, 579–592. doi:10:1037/ a0021769 Warner, R. (2010). Does the scientific evidence support the recovery model? Psychiatric Bulletin, 34, 3–5. doi:10.1192/pb.bp.109.025643 Wissing, K. (2009). Expressive arts and traumatic brain injury: Therapeutic arts for head trauma survivors. Retrieved from http://suite101.com/a/expressive-arts-and-traumatic-brain-injury- a120778 Yalom, I. (1995). The theory and practice of group psychotherapy. New York, NY: Basic Books. 10 R.A. Ketch et al. D ow nl oa de d by [ V A M ed ic al C en te r 67 3] , [ R ob er t R ub in ] at 1 2: 00 1 8 M ar ch 2 01 5 http://dx.doi.org/doi:10:1037/a0021769 http://dx.doi.org/doi:10:1037/a0021769 http://dx.doi.org/doi:10:1037/a0021769 http://dx.doi.org/doi:10:1037/a0021769 http://dx.doi.org/doi:10.1192/pb.bp.109.025643 http://dx.doi.org/doi:10.1192/pb.bp.109.025643 http://suite101.com/a/expressive-arts-and-traumatic-brain-injury-a120778 http://suite101.com/a/expressive-arts-and-traumatic-brain-injury-a120778 Abstract Introduction Art appreciation as a tool for enhancing mental health in the military Method Program rationale, goals and process Results Discussion Conclusion Acknowledgements Disclosure statement References 
work_qfc4fhuqe5crvpzjzrmkngq4na	----	- 93 - J Invest Cosmetol Vol. 12, No. 1, pp. 93-99 (2016) http://dx.doi.org/10.15810/jic.2016.12.1.012 pISSN: 1738-7574 Original Article 빈번하게 일어나고 있으며, 그중 큐비즘 (cubism)은 현대의 미술 과 건축, 패션 분야에서도 발견할 수 있다. 브라질 출신의 미술가인 로메로 브리토 (Romero Britto)는 큐 비즘에서 영감을 얻어 네오팝 큐비즘이라는 장르를 창시했고 디즈니, 벤틀리, 펩시 등 여러 회사들은 그의 작품으로 디자인 하여 제품을 출시하였다. 건축 분야에서 Kim (1999)은 큐비즘의 조형성이 러시아의 건축에 어떠한 형태로 영향을 주었는지에 관하여 연구한 바 있으며, 패션 분야의 Lee & Park (2001)은 큐 비즘의 조형적 특성인 기하학적 조형과, 동시성, 투명성, 콜라쥬 를 언급하여 현대패션의 독특하고 개성적인 창의적 근거를 미 술양식에서 찾을 수 있다고 하였다. 이처럼 건축, 패션 등 다양 한 분야에서 큐비즘의 특성이 다양하게 활용되었다. 메이크업 분야에서 큐비즘에 대한 연구를 살펴보면, Kang (2011)은 피카 소의 큐비즘 이미지가 표현된 아트메이크업에 대하여 연구하였 서 론 1. 연구목적 21세기의 사람들은 과거와 다른 삶을 살아가고 있다. 20세기 의 급격한 과학 분야의 발전과 더불어 문화, 예술 등 분야에서 도 그 전과는 다른 움직임을 보이며, 현대에 이르러서는 여러 분야와 장르, 문화가 혼합된 하이브리드 현상이 일어나게 되었 다. 이 현상은 다양한 변화를 표현하는 개념 중 하나이며, 21세 기 문명화 전략의 핵심으로 인식되고 있다 (Cho, 2013). 하이브 리드 현상은 다양한 분야 중에서 특히 미술과의 결합이 가장 큐비즘의 특징을 활용한 메이크업 작품 연구 이 종 애 1 , 문 윤 경 2,* 1 성신여자대학교 융합디자인대학원, 2성신여자대학교 의류학과 A Study on the Make-up Works Applying Feature of Cubism Jong-Ae Lee1 and Yun-Kyeong Mun2,* 1Graduate School of Convergence Design & Arts, Sungshin Women’s University, Seoul 01133, Korea 2Department of Clothing, Sungshin Women’s University, Seoul 01133, Korea (Received February 15, 2016; Revised March 11, 2016; Accepted March 11, 2016) This study aims to improve make-up artistry by combining elements of Cubism to suggest creative make-up designs. We investigated specialized books, thesis, and online materials about Cubism, and classified its painting features and expressional techniques. Then, we selected the most influential Cubists and created 8 make-up designs inspired by their works. Analytic Cubism contains various views on one screen, but, using transparency, it is possible to see multiple images despite them overlapping. Collages of comprehensive Cubism use various materials including different types of paper. Picasso and Braque - founders of Cubism - were selected, and four works from each artist were studied. Ambiguities between background and object were shown due to multiview expressions and de-construction/reconstruction of analytic Cubism. In comprehensive Cubism, colors that disappeared were introduced again along with letters to allow the visual- ization of simplified structures. Next, make-up works were created from these analyses. This study was based on Cubism’s expressional techniques and most influential artists. Future studies can be combined to offer additional concepts combining art and make-up. We expect that this would increase the artistry and originality of make-up. Keywords : Art make-up, Braque, Cubism, Make-up, Picasso Journal of Investigative Cosmetology Official Journal of Korean Society for Investigative Cosmetology Available Online at http://www.ekst2005.com * Correspondence to: Yun-Kyeong Mun, Department of Clothing, Sungshin Woman’s University, Seoul 01133, Korea. E-mail: munfish@hanmail.net J.-A. Lee & Y.-K. Mun94 고, Lee (2012)는 피카소의 큐비즘적 표현을 아트메이크업과 포 토샵을 이용하여 작품으로 표현하였다. 그러나 Kang (2011)의 연구는 고찰 논문이었으며, Lee (2012)의 연구는 작품 논문으로 큐비즘적인 요소는 명확하게 볼 수 있었지만, 큐비즘에 대한 표 현은 메이크업에서보다는 포토샵 작업에서 강하게 볼 수 있었 다. 이처럼 메이크업 분야에서 큐비즘에 대한 연구 중 피카소에 대한 논문은 쉽게 찾아볼 수 있지만 큐비즘에서 빠질 수 없는 브라크와 큐비즘의 특징을 활용하여 실질적인 메이크업으로 표 현한 작품 연구는 찾아보기 어렵다. 또한 메이크업 분야는 예술 과 매우 밀접한 관련이 있는 분야이다. 그러나 일반적으로 예술 성이 강조되기보다는 기술성만 부각되어 있는 것이 현실이다. 따라서 본 연구의 목적은 큐비즘이라는 미술 사조를 메이크 업에 직접 활용하여 메이크업 분야의 예술적 가치 창출과 큐비 즘을 통한 창의적이고 독특한 메이크업 디자인의 가능성을 제 시하고자 하였다. 본 연구의 방법은 큐비즘에 관련된 국내·외 단행본과 선행 논문 및 다양한 문헌을 활용하고 분석하여, 큐비 즘의 대표 작가 2인을 선정하고, 작가들의 큐비즘 이미지를 이 용하여 분석적 큐비즘과 종합적 큐비즘의 특징에 따른 작품 8 가지를 제작하고자 한다. 2. 이론적 배경 1) 큐비즘의 개념 수 세기 동안 서양회화의 방식인 원근법은 구스타브 쿠르베 (Gustave Courbet)의 사실주의 회화 이후 인상주의에 이르자 기 존 회화의 방식은 급속도로 붕괴되기 시작했고, 원근법에 의한 회화는 더 이상 의미가 없게 되었으며 (Janson, 1988), 사유하고 해석하여 개념화시킨 회화 공간 그대로를 인정하는 큐비즘이 등장하게 되었다. 큐비즘이란, 1907년부터 1914년 사이에 파블 로 피카소 (Pablo Picasso)와 조르주 브라크 (Georges Braque)를 주축으로 시작된 미술 운동으로 1908년 화가 앙리 마티스 (Hen- ri Matisse)가 살롱도톤 (Salon d’Automne)에 출품된 브라크의 작품 ‘레스타크의 집들’을 보고 ‘큐브 (cube, 입방체)’라는 단어 를 언급하여 비평하였다 (Cox, 2003). 그 이후 ‘큐비즘’이라고 불 리게 되었고, ‘입체파’ 혹은 ‘입체주의’라고도 불리며, 이러한 큐 비즘 양식을 사용한 작가들을 ‘큐비스트’ (Cubist)라 지칭한다. 큐비즘은 원근법적 시각으로 보이는 대상의 모습이 아니라, 여 러 시점에서 관찰된 대상의 여러 모습들을 한 화면에 모두 그 려내는 그림으로, 파편화된 대상의 모습들이 한 화면에 담기게 되는데 이 균질감이 큐비즘 미술의 특징이다 (Oh, 2007). 초기의 큐비즘은 세잔느 풍의 큐비즘이라고 할 만큼 세잔느의 영향을 많이 받았던 시기로 자연은 ‘원, 원통, 원추’라고 정의하였던 세 잔느의 이론을 심화시켜 기하학적 구체, 원통형, 삼각추, 입방체 등으로 응용하여 대상을 정리하였다 (Soh, 1995). 2) 큐비즘의 대표 작가 큐비즘의 화가들은 살롱앵데팡당 (Salon des Independants)전 에 참여한 로베르 들로네 (Robert Delaunay), 소피아 들로네 (So- pia Delaunay), 페르낭 레제 (Fernand Leger) 등 (IM, 2000) 센 강 변을 중심으로 모인 큐비스트들과 살롱 도톤과 몽마르트의 화 실을 주축으로 한 피카소와 브라크의 모임으로 나눌 수 있지만 본 연구는 큐비즘의 창시자이며, 큐비즘의 발전에 있어서 가장 큰 영향을 준 피카소와 브라크를 대표 작가로 선정하였다. (1) 파블로 피카소 피카소의 작품 변모 과정은 여러 학자들에 의해 많은 연구가 이뤄졌는데 그중에서도 영국의 작가이자 화가인 롤랜드 펜로즈 (Roland Penrose)가 11단계인 초기 시대 (1895~1901), 청색 시 대 (1901~1904), 장미 시대 (1904~1906), 니그로 시대 (1906~ 1909), 분석적 큐비즘 시대 (1909~1912), 종합적 큐비즘 시대 (1912~1917), 신고전주의 (1917~1924), 꿈의 분석 시대 (1925~ 1935), 분노의 시대 (1936~1945), 안티드 발로리스 시대 (1946~ 1954), 칸느 보브나르그와 무쟁 시대 (1955~1973)로 구분한 것 이 일반적으로 받아들여진다 (Park, 2010). 이에 본 연구는 큐비 즘의 발전이 이루어지게 되는 니그로 시대부터 큐비즘의 마지 막인 종합적 큐비즘 시대까지 피카소의 삶과 작품에 대하여 구 분한다. ① 니그로 시대 피카소가 파리의 인류학 박물관에서 아프리카 흑인 미술의 발견과 그들의 춤이나, 탈, 조각 속의 원색적이고 직선적인 표현 기법에 깊은 감명을 받아 (Lee, 2012) 그린 ‘아비뇽의 처녀들’은 매우 실험적인 작품으로 이 작품이 지닌 중요성은 예술적 완벽 성에 있는 것이 아니라 대담하고 충격적인 혁명적 성격에 있다 고 할 수 있다. ‘아비뇽의 처녀들’에서는 화면의 주제를 이루는 인물조차도 해체될 수 있으며 배경이나 다른 대상물과 동등하 게 처리될 수 있으므로 입체의 평면화가 가능해진다. ② 분석적 큐비즘 시대 분석적 큐비즘 시대의 그는 대상을 더 작고 얇게 해체하였으 며, 아직 흑인 미술의 영향을 받았던 때이다. 브라크가 정물과 풍경 작품을 주로 했다면, 피카소는 정물과 풍경뿐만 아니라 인 물 작품도 많이 다루었는데 자신의 첫 번째 연인 페르낭드를 모 델로 하여 그린 작품 ‘페르낭드의 초상’을 보면 얼굴을 가능한 모든 방향에서 관찰하여 수많은 파편으로 구성되어 있는 것을 볼 수 있다 (Yun, 2003). 또한 흑인 미술의 영향으로 ‘아비뇽의 처녀들’과 비슷한 얼굴 형태를 찾아볼 수 있다. 1937년 피카소 는 자신의 다섯 번째 연인 도라를 모델로 하여 ‘통곡하는 여인’ 을 그리는데 이 작품은 얼굴의 형태와 눈은 정면을 향하고 있 지만 코와 눈은 왼쪽과 오른쪽 측면으로 구성되는 형태까지 다 
work_qomcok57tna2zgwxrkorfku7ru	----	현대패션의 로맨틱 이미지에 관한 연구 Print ISSN 1229-6880 Journal of the Korean Society of Costume Online ISSN 2287-7827 Vol. 63, No. 6 (Sep. 2013) pp. 84-96 http://dx.doi.org/10.7233/jksc.2013.63.6.084 현대예술 확장에 의해 예술로 수용된 패션의 본질적 속성 서 승 희⁺․김 영 인 성균관대학교 의상학과 조교수⁺․연세대학교 생활디자인학과 교수 Inherent�Properties�of�Fashion�Accepted�as�Art� through�Expansion� of�Contemporary�Art Seung-Hee�Suh⁺․Young-In�Kim Assistant Professor, Dept. of Fashion Design, Sungkyunkwan University⁺ Professor, Dept. of Human Environment & Design, Yonsei University (투고일: 2013. 4. 26, 심사(수정)일: 2013. 5. 28, 게재확정일: 2013. 6. 30) ABSTRACT1) In researching the ontological status of fashion, a good grasp of fashion can decide the direc- tion of fashion study. Fashion is sometimes considered an area of industry far from art from a point of view of purity of art, in spite of its aesthetic value and expression. However, art proper- ties can be differentiated from the purity of art in modern aesthetics, and fashion properties which were the reason for that fashion to be considered as non-art can be affirmed as the same with properties of contemporary art properties. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to sug- gest the possibility that general properties of fashion can be accepted in the art arena through justifying art properties deviating from the purity of art. It can provide a boost to fashion’s cul- tural status. For the research method, a literature review and case analysis were carried out through specialty publications related to art history, aesthetics, and fashion, regular publications and websites specializing in fashion, and art museums. Through the research, art properties de- viated from the purity of art, which are; tactile sense, impermanence, dailiness, and commercial viability, were justified as being the same as fashion properties. These art properties were not general properties of fine art in modern aesthetics, but the ones occurring in contemporary arts. These properties, now present in contemporary art, can no longer disqualify fashion as a non-art. Key words: art(예술), commercial viability(상업성), dailiness(일상성), fashion(패션), impermanence(일시성), tactile synesthesia(촉각적 공감각성) Corresponding: Seung-Hee Suh, e-mail: shsuh@skku.edu 현대예술 확장에 의해 예술로 수용된 패션의 본질적 속성  - 85 - Ⅰ. 서론 패션의 존재론적 위치를 탐구함에 있어 패션의 영 역에 대한 이해는 패션 연구의 방향을 결정한다. 패 션과의 협업을 통해 예술적 가치를 얻고자 하는 다 양한 분야에서의 협업 작업에는 패션에 대한 경제적 가치는 물론 예술적 가치를 인정하는 인식이 깔려있 는데, 이는 패션이 예술적 가치와 표현을 가지고 있 으며 예술로서의 지위를 인정받고 있다고 볼 수 있 는 것이다. 그러나 예술의 순수성을 지향하는 관점에 서의 패션은 여전히 예술과는 거리가 있는 산업의 분야일 뿐이다. 이에 예술의 순수성에 대한 관점은 근대예술의 개념으로 예술을 바라보는 시각이며, 오 늘날의 예술을 근대예술 개념을 잣대로 논하는 것은 문제가 있다. 예술을 탐구하는 철학계의 입장은 패션을 예술로 서 받아들이는 데에 부정적인 편이다. 그 근간에는 근대철학의 핵심에 있는 임마누엘 칸트(Immanuel Kant, 1724-1804)의 미적 판단1)이 있으며 전통적인 철학적 원리에 따라 미학적 개념은 공예와는 구별되 는 순수예술에만 적용된다고 보는 관점이 지배적이 었다. 따라서 입혀진다는 기능성과 산업적인 구조 속 에 상업적인 목적으로 창작되는 패션은, 기능적 목적 성을 가지지 않은 미적 대상의 창작을 예술의 본질 로 본 근대미학의 견해에 따라, 철학적인 예술의 연 구대상으로 간주되지 못하였다. 그러나 1980년대 이 후로 미술관에서 이루어진 다양한 패션전시로 인해 예술적 실험과 접근이 패션에서 나타나고 또한 패션 과 예술에 대한 담론이 형성되면서, 예술로서의 패션 에 대한 논쟁 또한 과거와는 달리 점점 수용의 입장 으로 진행되고 있다. 이러한 관점에서 지금까지 이루어진 예술과 관련 된 패션에 관한 선행연구는 예술작품의 분석적 방법 론을 패션에 적용하여 패션의 조형적 특성을 예술사 조와 연결함으로써 예술로서의 패션을 입증하고자 하는 연구2), 예술사의 미학적 계보를 통한 패션의 예술계에서의 위치를 분석하는 연구3) 혹은 아방가르 드 패션디자이너들의 작품 분석을 통해 패션의 예술 성을 분석한 연구4)들이 있다. 이들 연구의 선행적 인식은 패션이 칸트주의자들이 말하는 예술 그 자체 의 목적으로 무관심적 관조의 대상이 될 수 있다는 관점이 깔려있으며 시각적 예술로서의 패션을 전제 로 함으로써, 패션의 예술적 표현에 있어 패션의 살 아있는 경험인 실용성, 일상성, 기능성의 측면은 배 제되어 있다. 이렇게 패션의 본질적인 속성을 배제하 면서까지 예술로서의 편입을 주장하는 것은 패션의 창조적 상상력을 통한 미적 추구를 패션의 최고의 가치로 보고 있기 때문이다.5) 이 연구에서는 근대적 미학의 개념으로 예술을 분 석하는 틀을 패션에 적용하는 관점의 한계를 극복하 고, 패션의 미적 경험을 전제로 한 패션의 주요 속성 을 중심으로 예술로서의 패션을 논하고자 하였다. 이 를 위해 먼저 현대예술의 사례를 통해 근대미학의 예술의 순수성에서 벗어난 예술의 속성들을 논함으 로써 패션의 예술적 지위에 제기된 예술의 순수성의 문제가 타당한 논리를 벗어났음을 제기하였다. 이때 분석된 현대예술의 속성은 모든 예술에 적용되는 보 편적인 속성이라기보다는 현대미학에서 새로이 대두 된 예술의 속성을 중심으로 하였다. 즉, 현대예술에 서도 확인되는 전통적인 예술의 속성은 배제하고 확 장된 현대예술의 속성을 중심으로 논하였다. 이러한 논의로 비예술로 인지되었던 패션의 속성 이 현대예술에서도 확인되는 동일한 속성임을 규명 함으로써 패션의 본질적인 속성이 예술의 영역으로 수용될 수 있음을 제시하는 데 연구의 목적이 있다. 이를 통해 패션의 예술로서의 문화적 위치와 사회적 가치 향상을 높이는데 연구의 의의가 있다. 연구방법으로는 예술사, 미학, 패션관련 전문서적 과 미술전문 정기 간행물인 월간미술을 통한 문헌연 구, 그리고 예술전문 웹사이트, 사치 갤러리(Saatchi gallery) 등의 공신력 있는 미술관 사이트의 사례조 사를 통한 내용분석으로 진행되었다. 월간미술은 국 내 미술관련 최고 부수와 인지도를 가지고 있는 미 술 전문지이며, 미술관 사이트는 미술관에 전시된 작 품 또는 아카이브를 다루기에 공인된 예술작품을 분 석하는 데 유용한 자료로 사용되었다. 服飾 第63卷 6號  - 86 - Ⅱ. 근대미학에서의 예술의 순수성 르네상스의 인본주의와 종교 개혁, 근대 자본주의 발달, 시민사회 형성을 통한 근대 유럽의 계몽주의 시대로의 도래는 예술 또한 합리적 사고로 분석하고 자 하는 시도를 하게 하였다. 예술의 개념이 고전적 예술의 기능성이라는 고대의 틀에서 벗어나 근대적 예술체계(Fine Art System)를 성립시킨 샤를르 바 퇴(Charles Batteux, 1713-1780)에 의해서 비로소 순 수 예술을 시, 음악, 회화, 조각, 무용, 건축6)으로구 분하고이들이미를추구한다는하나의원리로묶을수있다 는논리로예술을정의하였다. ‘beaux-arts’라는 용어로 예술에 대한 개념을 정립한 샤를르 바퇴는 예술이 예술가의 관찰을 통해 자연 속에서 가장 아름다운 특징들의 모방으로 이루어지며 정신과 자연의 협조 속에 이상화된 자연이 예술이라고 보았다. 아리스토 텔레스의 예술의 모방론과 관련된 그의 주장에는 시 각과 청각에 호소하는 문예를 예술 중 가장 우월한 위치에 두었으며 무용과 음악은 감정의 모방이라는 관점에서 예술로 취급하였다.7) 주관의 능동적 합리성에 대한 확신을 바탕으로 미 적 경험과 예술에도 시대의 합리성이 실현 가능하다 는 신뢰로 학문적 자립성을 획득하며8) 예술을 대상 으로 한 철학적 분과로서 서구인의 근대적 사고의 소산인 미학이 생겨났다. 근대 미학은 18 세기 중엽 본격적으로 미의 문제를 다루게 되면서 미적 경험과 예술을 인문적 철학적 연구 대상으로 삼아오고 있다. 독일 철학자 바움가르텐(Alexander Baumgarten, 1714- 1762)에 의해 처음 학문으로 등장하였는데, 미를 사 유의 대상에서 감정의 대상으로 옮겨 놓는 인식론적 전환과 순수한 이성적 관념에서 현실적 실존으로의 존 재론적 전환을 통해 예술에 대한 학문이 가능했다.9) 근대 계몽주의의 합리주의 정신은 진, 선, 미의 가 치를 분리하여 구별함으로써 미라는 가치를 추구하 는 예술이 철학이나 과학, 도덕적 행동과는 구별되는 특수한 활동으로서 미와 예술 양자가 하나의 자율적 경험영역을 이루게 되었다.10) 도덕과 분리된 예술이 외설의 논란을 일으키는 경우가 생기는 것도 이 때 문이다. 칸트의 정의에 따르면, 미적 판단은 감각적 쾌감 또는 도덕성과 관련된 외적인 욕망과 충동으로 부터 때 묻지 않은, 형태의 무관심적 관조를 포함하고 있다. ‘감각에 대한 판단’은 그것의 유용성(utility)의 관점에서 대상을 평가하고, ‘선에 대한 판단’은 완벽 에 대한 도덕적 이상과 부합되는지의 정도에 달려있 는 반면, ‘미적 판단’은 대상의 미를 그 자체의 목적 으로 평가하는 것이다.11) 미적 판단은 자극과 감동에 의존하지 않고 객관적 합목적성에 근거하는 대상의 유용성과 완전성에 의존하지 않으며 목적개념의 표 상을 떠나 지각되는 대상의 합목적성의 형식이다.12) 이때 정립된 예술은 오늘날 지칭되는 ‘순수 예술’의 개념으로서, 그리스시대의 예술과 기술의 통합적인 의미와는 확실히 분리되어, 예술의 대상이 실용적, 실제적, 도덕적, 종교적 효과와 구분된 고상하고 관 조적인 즐거움으로 한정한 예술의 개념으로 정착되 었다. 이러한 예술의 순수성은 낭만주의시대의 ‘예술을 위한 예술’로 최고의 지위를 확립하는데, 실제 세계 에서의 어떠한 용도나 도구로서의 역할을 거부하고 감상자로 하여금 초연한 순수한 지각으로만 관조할 것을 주장하며13) 예술의 신비로움과 예술가의 신성 화를 이끌었다. 인간의 사고의 불확실성에 절망하여 무의식적 움직임에서 아름다움을 찾는, 즉 예술의 무 의식적 순수성을 존중하는 경향으로 나타난 것이다. 예술의 순수성 개념은 예술과 일상의 분리를 비판 하며 나타난 20세기 아방가르드 예술에 의해 변화를 겪게 되는데, 아방가르드가 제시한 예술의 탈신비화 와 예술을 통한 창조적 삶으로의 모색은 오늘날 변 화한 현대예술의 개념과 영역의 확장을 낳았다.14) Ⅲ. 예술의 순수성을 벗어난 현대예술의 속성 근대예술의 순수성 개념은 20세기에 들어서면서 현대예술의 특성으로 변화를 가져왔는데, 현실과 분 리되었던 예술은 근대예술의 개념에서 찾을 수 없었 던 현실 속의 예술로 확장되면서 과거와는 다른 형 태의 예술로 나타났다. 또한 현대예술은 예술 작품 자체의 표현이나 미적 평가가 아닌, 비평가와 화랑이 현대예술 확장에 의해 예술로 수용된 패션의 본질적 속성  - 87 - 라는 작품 외적인 요소인 예술제도에 의해 인정되어 야 그 존재가 가능해졌으며, 오늘날 보편적인 현대예 술의 특성과 형식을 정의하는 것 또한 불가능해졌다. 따라서 이 연구에서는 새로운 형식과 의미로 대두된 예술 작품을 중심으로, 전통적인 예술의 개념에서 벗 어난 현대예술의 속성을 촉각적 감각성, 일시성, 일 상성, 상업성으로 분석하였다. 이들 속성은 근대미학 에서 예술과 구분된 실용적, 실제적, 도덕적, 종교적 속성 중 오늘날 현대예술에서 수용되어 나타난 실용 성과 실제성이 적용된 속성들이다. 본 연구에서는 각 각의 예술 작품이 가진 다중적 속성 중 우선적으로 표출되는 속성의 영역으로 구분하였는데, 예컨대 몸 예술은 촉각적 감각성과 일상성, 그리고 일시성이라 는 다중적인 속성을 표출하기도 하나 작품비평에 있 어 부각되는 속성을 중심으로 분류하였다. 1. 촉각적 공감각성 근대미학의 핵심에 자리한 칸트는 감각적인 쾌감 이 육체적인 요구에 대한 만족과 관계한다면, 미적 평가는 육체적 감각적 쾌락보다는 좀 더 거리가 있 는 쾌감의 형태를 포함하고 있는 것15) 이라고 보았 다. 특히 육체적 감각 중 시각과 청각은 예외적으로 특권을 부여 받은 반면 촉각, 미각, 그리고 후각은 육체적 욕망과 감각적 쾌감의 주요 기관으로 분류되 었다. 미학을 감각적 인식에 대한 새로운 철학적 학 문으로 만든 바움가르텐 역시 본질상 몸을 감각의 낮은 인식능력과 동일시하고 그러한 능력들의 인식 형태를 미학의 대상으로 보았다.16) 이러한 사고는 지 속적으로 수용되어, 19세기 후반에 조지 산타야나 (George Santayana) 역시 “미적 쾌락의 고귀함과 범 위”는 육체로부터의 분리에서 기인해야 한다고 주장 하며, 육체적 쾌감과 미에 대한 본질적인 쾌감은 대 립된다고 보았다.17) 철학적 미학의 전통에서 육체적 욕망과 쾌락이 숨 겨진 영역으로서의 미학을 구분하기 위한 관심은 되 풀이 되는 주제이다. 쇼펜하우어(Arthur Schopen- hauer, 1799-1860)에게 있어, 예술의 가치는 형이상 학적 실체에 대한 통찰을 통해 끊임없는 육체의 요 구를 초월하는 능력에 있다. 예술의 주목적은 그것의 특수성, 끊임없는 변화의 상태에서가 아니라 관념적인 감성에서의 이데아 세계의 현존에 있다고 보았다.18) 그러나 오늘날 변화된 예술의 개념과 표현매체의 변화는 예술에서의 관객과 작품의 관계에 대한 감각 적 영역 또한 변화를 가져왔는데, 프랑수아 플뤼샤르 는 1970년대에 선언문을 통해 신체예술은 고유한 예 술적 방법에 속하는 것으로 가정되는 과거의 미학적, 도덕적 가치 전체를 거부하고 뒤집는다고 하였다.19) 전통적으로 이차원적이고 시지각적인 감각 기관에 의지하던 예술의 감상은 테크놀로지의 발달과 이를 예술의 표현 매체로 적용한 테크놀로지 아트를 비롯 해 표현매체의 다변화는 인간의 몸 자체에까지 확장 되었으며, 이를 통해 시각, 청각, 촉각 등의 공감각적 체험이 가능해졌고 이는 복합지각이 예술현장에서 경험되고 있음을 알 수 있다.20) 더욱 직접적으로 빅토린 뮐러(Victorine Müller)의 Skinnings, 레베카 혼(Rebecca Horn, 1944- )의 유연 한 어깨 봉으로 감각의 보철 연장, 또는 바네사 비크 로포트(Vanessa Beecroft, 1969- )의 몸과 피부의 디 스플레이는 최근 사례의 퍼포먼스 아트이다.21) 특히 뮐러는 자신과 매체와의 관계를 탐구하는 퍼포먼스 와 부풀리는 조각적 설치미술로 확장해 나가고 있으 며,<그림 1>22) 혼은 인간의 몸에 오브제와 설치물을 부착하여 몸을 확장함으로써 인간과 환경 사이의 접 촉을 주제로 바디 조각물(body sculpture) 작업을23), <그림 2>24) 비크로포트는 개념적 이슈와 미적 관심 을 복합적으로 하여 주로 누드의 여성모델을 내세운 대규모의 퍼포먼스 아트를 선보이고 있다.25)<그림 3>26) 이들 작품은 몸을 매개로 표현하는 촉각적 감 각적인 예술이며 따라서 현대예술의 매체 변화가 가 져온 예술의 감각적 영역의 확대는 촉각적 감각이 예술의 영역에서 배제된 패션의 요소로 작용할 근거 를 없애 버렸다. 한편 테크놀로지 아트가 가지는 가상현실성은 공 간적으로 떨어져있는 장소나 가상의 장소를 신체적 으로 경험하는 것이 가능해졌으며 인간의 감각이 신 체의 한계를 넘어 확대되는 원격현전(telepresence)을 체험할 수 있다. 따라서 이미지 대상의 관조가 촉각 적 체험과 청각적 체험을 동반한 촉감각적 영역으로 服飾 第63卷 6號  - 88 - <그림 1> Victorine Müller, Lemomentvegetative, 2007 - http://highlike.org <그림 2> Rebecca Horn, The Feathered Prison Fan (as it appears in the film Der Eintänzer), 1978 - History of Modern Art, 2003, p. 598 <그림 3> Vanessa Beecroft, VB61, Still Death! Darfur Still Deaf? (at the 52nd Venice Biennale), 2007 - http://en.wikipedia.org <그림 4> Jannis Kounellis, Untitled, 1969 - http://trendland.com <그림 5> Christo Javacheff & Jeanne-Claude, Running Fence, 1976 - http://christojeanneclaude.net <그림 6> Joseph Beuys, I Like America and America Likes Me, 1974 - http://www.e-flux.com 확장된 새로운 예술의 개념을 정립하는데 기여하였 다고 볼 수 있다.27) 2. 일시성 벤야민은 <기술복제 시대의 예술작품>에서 기술적 혁신이 예술의 모든 기술을 변화시키고 이를 통해 예술 개념이 변화했다는 착상에서 전통예술과 현대 예술을 구분하였으며, 대중의 수용이 가능해진 현대 예술작품에서 일시성과 반복성을 읽어낼 수 있다고 하였다.28) 기술 복제로 만들어진 예술작품에서 더 이 상의 아우라(aura)를 찾을 수 없는 시대가 도래한 것이다. 전통적인 예술의 개념에서 예술 작품이 가지는 영 원성은 정신세계를 지향하는 예술의 가치를 의미하 며 예술사를 통해 예술작품은 영원히 존재하는 산물 로 인식되어 왔다. 그러나 현대예술에서 추구되는 아 방가르드의 시도를 통해 해프닝이나 퍼포먼스 아트, 프로세스 아트29), 대지예술(Earth Art)30), 설치미술, 아르떼 포베라, 플럭서스 등에서 설치와 행위에 따른 일시성을 확인할 수 있는데, 예술의 영구성에 대한 의미의 도전과 시간성을 가진 예술의 또 다른 개념 을 제시하고 있다. <그림 4>31)의 살아있는 말 열두 마리를 전시하기 도 한 아르떼 포베라 예술가 야니스 쿠넬리스(Jannis Kounellis), 캘리포니아 해변을 따라 친 5.5m 높이와 40km 길이의 거대한 철재 울타리에 나일론 천을 씌 워 바람에 날려가기 전까지 14일간 존재했던 <그림 5>32)의 작품 “달리는 울타리”의 대지 예술가 크리스 토(Christo Javacheff)와 잔느 클로드(Jeanne-Claude), 그리고 <그림 6>33)의 “나는 미국을 사랑하고 미국은 나를 사랑한다”라는 며칠간의 퍼포먼스를 보여준 플 현대예술 확장에 의해 예술로 수용된 패션의 본질적 속성  - 89 - <그림 7> Gilbert & George, Singing Sculpture, 1991 - http://www.walkerart.org <그림 8> Tracy Emin, My Bed, 1998 - http://www.saatchi-gallery.co.uk 럭서스 예술가 요셉 보이스(Joseph Beuys) 등 이들 예술가들에게 있어 예술의 영원성은 고려의 가치가 아니었다. 예술제도 속에 부여되는 영원한 예술의 가 치는 이제 도전하고 넘어서고자 하는 예술개념의 하 나이며 일시성을 가진 이들 예술의 형식은 현대예술 의 새로운 표현법이다. 전통예술이 가졌던 영구성의 붕괴는 이제 확장된 현대예술에서 일시성의 특성으 로 보여지고 있다. 3. 일상성 개체의 생활이 유지나 인류의 재생산에 향한 인간 생활의 지속적 반복적인 존재방식34)을 말하는 일상 성은 본질적인 인간의 존재조건이 되는데, 근대예술 의 신격화와 순수성의 개념에서 예술의 존재적 조건 과는 분리되어 인식되어왔다. 그러나 예술의 일상으 로의 분리는 윌리엄 모리스(William Morris, 1834- 1896), 칼 마르크스(Karl Heinrich Marx, 1818-1883), 랄프 왈도 에머슨(Ralph Waldo Emerson, 1803- 1882), 그리고 윌리엄 워즈워스(William Wordsworth, 1770-1850) 등에 의해서 비판 받게 되는데, 이들은 예술의 특권을 벗어나 일상과 예술의 통합을 주장하 였다. 에머슨은 예술이 사회적 기능을 담당하지 않고 눈을 즐겁게 하는 단순한 장식이 되었다고 비판하였 으며 모리스 역시 예술을 통한 이상적인 사회 구현 을 꿈꾸었다.35) 예술과 일상의 통합에 대한 이들의 주장은 현대에 들어와, 전통적으로 이해되는 예술의 개념인 형태에 대한 무관심적 관조로서의 ‘미’의 좁은 개념을 넘어 일상에서의 ‘미적 경험’과 연관된 즐거움을 포함하는 방향으로 나아간36) 존 듀이(John Dewey, 1859-1952) 의 관점이나, 예술의 역량을 새롭게 하고 전통을 넘 어 순수예술을 구분하는 현대적 범위를 찾기 위해서 는 미적 경험과 가치의 확장된 인식이 필요하다는37) 슈스터만(Richard Schusterman, 1949- )의 견해로 이어졌다. 일상경험의 영역을 예술에서 완전히 분리 한 칸트주의자들의 개념에 반하여, 예술의 일상성에 주목한 듀이는 ‘미적 반응은 일상생활에서 이미 존재 하는 감정을 강화하고 크게 통합하여 이어가는 것’이 며 이런 경험의 방식은 전통적으로 정의된 순수예술 의 영역 안에서만 나타나는 것이 아니라 조화로운 통일성이 인지될 수 있는 거의 모든 현상을 포함하 여 확장하는 것이라고 보았다.38) 슈스터만 역시 고급 예술이 지닌 고립된 난해성과 절대화된 주장들에 비 판적일 뿐만 아니라 고급예술의 산물들과 대중문화 의 산물들 사이에 놓인 어떠한 본질적인 구분도 의 심하며, 다양한 예술들이 수용되는 다양한 형식에 대 한 구체적인 분석을 시도하였다. 삶이 예술의 내용을 형성하고 나아가 “삶의 예술” 속에서 삶 자체를 예술 적으로 구성하며 따라서 대상이자 경험으로서의 예술 작품은 우리의 삶 속에서 기능한다고 주장하였다.39) 이들의 주장이 실천된 사례로는 현대예술의 아방 가르드한 방법론 중 대표적으로 콜라주를 비롯한 오 브제의 예술적 표현수단으로의 등장이 있다. 올덴버 그(Claes Oldenburg, 1929- )나 페르난데즈(Armand Fernandez, 1928-2005)의 오브제(objee), 라우센버그 (Robert Rauschenberg, 1925-2008)의 컴바인 페인팅 (combine painting), 슈비터스(Kurt Schwitters, 1887- 1948)나 피카소(Pablo Picasso, 1881-1973)의 아상블 라주(assemblage)와 콜라주(collage) 등 아방가르드 服飾 第63卷 6號  - 90 - 예술이 채택한 일상은 현대예술에서 예술과 삶의 동 일선상에서 다뤄짐으로써 삶과 괴리된 무목적성의 예술의 순수성을 위배하여 왔다. 또한 작가 자신이 조각이 되어버림으로써 일상과 예술, 작가와 작품 사 이의 구분을 없애버리는, 즉 작가의 분신을 작업화 한 <그림 7>40)의 길버트와 조지(Gilbert & Georg e)41)나 작가 자신의 사생활과 일상을 내면의 충동과 치유로써 여과 없이 작품의 소재로 사용한 <그림 8>42)의 트레이시 에민(Tracy Emin) 등 컨템포러리 예술에서 작가의 일상이나 사회현상의 결과물은 작 품의 주요 소재로 작품 안으로 들어와 있다. 4. 상업성 현대예술은 단지 예술가에 의해 정의되고 표현되 는 것이 아니라 제도예술 속에서의 예술적 가치 평 가는 물론 관객과의 소통을 통한 예술로서의 인정이 필요하다. 소통을 거부하는 예술은 자기만족적 나르 시시즘에 불과한 것이다. 따라서 예술과 관객의 소통 은 대중에 대한 경제적 상업성의 가능성을 가지고 있으며, 예술제작의 목표가 되지는 않더라도 최소한 관객과의 소통으로 인한 상업성을 간과할 수는 없 다.43) 도널드 저드(Donald Judd, 1928-1994)나 프란 시스 베이컨(Francis Bacon, 1909-1992)처럼 예술과 디자인의 경계를 명확히 구분함으로써 자신의 작품 영역을 예술로 선언하는 대다수 예술가들의 경우와 대조적으로 워홀(Andy Wahol, 1928-1987)은 대중문 화를 탐색함으로써 상업적 이미지를 물신화하고 예 술이 인식되는 방식을 변화시키는 급진적인 시도를 함으로서 디자인이라는 주제를 다른 지위로 규정하 고44) 현대예술의 성격을 재규명 하였다. 이미 산업적, 사회적인 예술 외적인 문제가 제작 의 기술적 접근 방법이나 관객의 수용, 예술 자체의 존재방식에 관계하여 새로운 아방가르드 예술의 형 식과 표현에 직접적인 영향을 미쳤으며, 이로서 등장 한 많은 예술 장르의 상업성이 새삼 논쟁의 대상이 되지는 못한다. 뉴욕의 거대 미술관들은 디자인 관련 작품 또는 상품전시를 열고, 팝아트 작가들은 올덴버 그와 같이 상점을 운영하거나 앤디 워홀처럼 상업적 회사를 차리고 혹은 키스 헤링(Keith Haring, 1958- 1990)처럼 자신의 작품을 이용한 대중적이고 디자인 적인 작품을 전시하기도 하였다. 이제 21세기에 들어 이런 예술의 상업적인 성격은 더욱 확대되어 쿠사마 야요이나 제프 쿤스, 리처드 프린스, 다카시 무라카 미, 요시모토 나라 등은 디자인 제품제작에 직접 참 여하거나 그들의 작품이 상품에 사용되고 있다.45) 일 례로 무라카미는 자신의 스튜디오로 Kaikai Kiki Co. Ltd.라는 회사를 설립하고 일본 애니메이션에서 영 향을 받은 각종 이미지와 일본 오타쿠(Otaku) 문 화를 이용하여 자신이 제작한 고가의 작품을 일반인 도 구입할 수 있는 가격으로 상품화해 자신이 저작 권을 소유하고 시장을 관리하는 미술계의 디즈니랜 드를 만들어가고 있다. 이러한 무라카미의 스튜디오 는 70여명의 작가와 애니메이션 제작자를 고용한 중 소기업의 수준이다. 또한 젊은 작가들이 상업 갤러리 에 전속되는가 하면 온라인을 통해 자신의 작품이나 판화 심지어 옷과 가방을 디자인해 웹을 통해 판매하 고 있다.46) 오늘날 파격적인 개념적 시도를 통해 현대 예술을 이끌어 나가고 있는 데미안 허스트(Damien Hirst)는 ‘다른 규범(Other Criteria)’이라는 온라인 매장을 운영하며 자신의 작품은 물론 다른 예술가들 의 작품과 함께 티셔츠, 포스터, 책 등의 아트상품을 판매하고 있다.<그림 9>47) 아비게일 레인(Abigale Lane)도 온라인 셀렉트숍 매치스 패션(Matches Fashion)을 통해 빅토리아시대 이후의 스커트를 주 제로 한 티셔츠, 쿠션, 탁자 등과 그녀의 작품들을 판 매하고 있는데, 2003 년도에는 직접 설립한 ‘Show- room Dummies’라는 디자인 회사를 통해 백화점 디 스플레이, 패션쇼 등의 작업뿐 아니라 <그림 10>48)의 웹사이트에서 티셔츠, 엽서 등의 소품을 직접 제작, 판매하고 있다.49) 상품성으로 포장된 미술품은 유일 성을 깨고, 고급과 저급 사이에서 새로운 상업예술의 팝아트를 형성하고 있다. “미학적인 것과 공리적인 것들이 상업적인 것으로 포섭되고 모든 것이 디자인의 대상으로 간주되는 오 늘, 미술이 디자인의 영향에서 자유로울 수 없다”는 할 포스터의 말처럼, 예술과 자본이 문화산업 안에서 하나로 뭉쳐지고, 자본주의가 세상의 모든 사물을 교 환가치의 소모품으로 바꾸고 있다. 미술이 산업적 흐 현대예술 확장에 의해 예술로 수용된 패션의 본질적 속성  - 91 - <그림 9> Damien Hirst, Other Criteria - http://www.othercriteria.com <그림 10> Abigale Lane, Showroom Dummies - http://www.abigaillane.co.uk 름 안에 자발적으로 섞이면서, 미술만의 독자성을 상 실하고 있는 것이다.50) 자본주의 사회로의 예술 외적 인 환경의 변화가 이끈 예술과 대중문화의 공존, 그 리고 아방가르드 예술이 보여준 또 다른 예술의 형 식을 통해 이제 예술의 상업성 또한 전통적인 예술 의 개념을 변화시켰다. 그럼에도 불구하고 변화를 직 시하지 않고 상업성과 적정 거리를 두고자 하는 예 술계의 제스츄어는 예술의 편협한 오만함이거나 혹 은 예술의 권위와 순수성을 내세운 전략적 가치창출 행위로 읽혀질 수 있다.51) Ⅳ. 예술로 수용된 패션의 본질적 속성 대중예술에 대한 부당한 비판은 인간의 미적 만족 을 보호한다는 기치 아래 실상은 금욕적 거부의 한 형태일 뿐이라는 슈스터만52)의 주장처럼, 패션에 대 한 예술과의 경계적 잣대에 대해서, 앞에서 언급한 현대예술의 확장된 속성을 공유하는 패션의 속성을 규명함으로써 예술로 수용된 패션에 대해 논하고자 하였다. 즉, 패션의 ‘미적 경험’적 속성인 촉각적 감 각성, 일시성, 일상성, 상업성은 확장된 현대예술의 속성으로 제시되었으며 이들 패션의 속성들이 예술 로 수용될 수 있음을 규명하였다. 1. 촉각적 공감각성 오랫동안 형이상학적이고 관념적인 예술에 대한 관점의 지속 속에 패션은 예술의 영역에서 계속 배 제될 수밖에 없었다. 영원성을 보장하지 못하는 육체 의 존재가치, 그리고 형이상학적인 정신과 분리된 육 체의 의미는 영원불변한 형이상학적인 예술의 위치 와는 구별될 수밖에 없는 것 이었다.53) 따라서 패션 표현의 매개가 되는 몸과의 긴밀한 관계 속에 있는 패션의 필연적인 촉각적 특성(Tactile nature)은 육 체적 감각적 쾌감을 배제하는 근대미학의 미적 평가 에 의해 예술과는 다른 차원의 영역으로 구분되었다. 즉, 착장에 의해 표현되는 패션의 표현수단인 몸이 가진 육체적 감각, 즉 패션의 촉각적 공감각성이 패 션을 예술의 영역에서 배제한 명확한 이유 중 하나 인 것이다. 이러한 인식은 패션에서도 여과 없이 받아들여진 듯, 패션을 예술적인 관점에서 접근하고자 하는 패션 계의 흐름은 패션을 몸의 형태와는 상대적으로 자유 롭게 디스플레이함으로서 몸과의 관련성을 무시하는 미술관에서의 패션전시로 강화되고 있고, 지극히 형 이상학적이고 미학적인 관점으로 패션을 바라보는 경향이 이어졌다. 근대미학의 형이상학적 우월성이 여전히 반영된 사고에 따른 결과라고 볼 수 있다. 호르크하이머와 아도르노는 <변증법적 계몽주의> 에서 몸은 내적으로 살아있는 정신에 대조하여 볼 때 단지 물리적인 사물을 재현적으로 표면화한 것에 불과하다고 하였다. 몸의 미학은 자본주의적인 광고 와 정치적인 억압의 도구일 뿐이며 적절하게 도구화 되고 매력적인 표준화된 몸의 치수와 모델에 순응하 도록 강제하는 비자율적인 것으로 보았다. 그러나 포 스트모더니즘의 다원주의적 사고의 미학에서의 확장 은 미적 자각과 경험에 있어서 몸의 역할에 보다 체 계적인 주의를 기울이게 하였다.54) 철학적 사고는 단 服飾 第63卷 6號  - 92 - 순히 개념적인 사고에 의해서는 불가능하며 살아있 는 경험의 장으로서의 몸을 통한 감각적 인지와 깨 달음으로 함께 도달할 수 있게 한다는 동양적인 사 고가 힘을 얻을 수 있는 오늘날의 유연한 시대가 된 것이다. 몸과 패션은 서로에게 영향을 주고 미치는, 즉 상 호 대화가 이루어지는 장이며, 개별적 의상에 있어 표현의 매개인 몸은 패션이 담고 있는 형이상학적 철학적 의미만큼이나 고려되어야 할 요소이다. 패션 에 내재된 몸의 의미는 감각적인 쾌락으로 예술의 영역에서 배제될 요소가 아니라 폭넓은 미적 경험의 하나인 육체적 감각을 포함하는 열린 개념으로 인식 되어야 한다. 따라서 패션에 내재된 감각적 의미는 물론 몸의 형태를 반영한 패션 전시를 통해 충분히 패션의 예술적 표현이 가능하다고 본다. 2. 일시성 패션이라는 개념에는 시대성과 유행성을 가진 시 간의 개념이 내포되어 있는데, 의복(clothing)이 행태 를 갖춘 생산물을 의미한다면 패션은 시간에 대한 관습이나 취향과 같은 사회적 성격을 가진 시간성의 의미가 있다. 패션에서는 경제적 관념에 의해 진행되 는 계절에 따른 리뉴얼과 새로운 이미지, 소비자에 의해 받아들여진 리뉴얼에 따른 변화, 즉 사회 안에 서의 소통을 통한 협상의 결과로 동반되는 변화가 있다. 끊임없는 패션의 변화는 사회 내에서의 재협상 과 창조에 대한 수용으로 지속되는 현상으로, 따라서 대중문화사회에서 패션이 유행을 통한 사회 내에서 의 소통을 근거로 사회적인 효력을 발휘할 때 패션 으로 정의된다. 또한 매스 미디어 시스템의 진화로 패션의 민주화가 가능해졌으며 사회적 규제와 정보 의 분배 속에 패션은 수용자의 존재를 우선시 하게 되었다. 즉 패션은 사회적인 수용에 따른 유행이라는 파급력을 얻을 때 가능하며 의복과 구분되는 패션의 개념이다. 그러나 오늘날 의상과 패션은 명확한 구분 없이 모호하게 사용되고 있으며 특히 포스트모더니즘시대 이후 유행의 정도에 상관없이 몸을 치장하는 액세서 리와 의복, 장신구들을 아울러 패션으로 정의하고 있 다. 사회적인 수용의 정도를 측정하기 불가능하며 다 양한 창작의 결과물을 유행이라는 요소 하나로 결정 짓기에는 복합적인 요소들이 패션을 가늠하는데 작 용하기 때문이다. 예를 들어 스키아빠렐리의 초현실 적인 작품은 시대의 대중성을 획득하기 힘든 아방가 르드한 실험을 보여주었으며 사회적 수용의 효력을 발휘하지는 못했지만 의미 있는 패션작품으로 패션 사에 기록되고 있다. 또한 컬렉션을 통한 패션작품 발표는 직접적인 대중의 수용으로 연결되기에는 매 스 패션으로의 적용에까지 시간이 필요하며 이런 시 스템 적용에 실패한 작품도 다수 존재한다. 시즌마다 새로운 패션은 마켓에서의 경쟁에서 받아들여지기도 외면 받기도 하는 시스템의 과정을 필연적으로 거치 며, 그렇다 하더라도 같은 창작과정과 시스템 속에 발표된 작품들이 소통의 결과로 패션과 의복으로 정 확히 이분화시킬 수 있는 명분도 확실하지 않다.55) 물론 유행의 요소가 패션의 변화를 이끄는 주요 요소로 작용하기에 패션의 유행성과, 변화라는 시간 성을 가진 패션의 일시성은 같은 맥락에서 이해할 수도 있다. 그러나 나아가 유행의 정도에 따라 패션 과 의복을 구분하는 것이 아닌 변화라는 의미가 우 선적으로 중요한 패션의 속성이라고 할 수 있다. 결 과적으로 패션은 사회적 효력에 따라 결정되기에 다 변적, 다층적이며 불연속적인 특성을 드러내며, 이러 한 패션의 사회적인 한계는 계속적인 재협상과 끊임 없는 변화를 이끌어 궁극적으로 혁신적인 창조와 패 션의 발전을 가져온다.56) 또한 계절과 기후의 변화에 따른 시간적 제한성은 패션을 필연적으로 변화를 이 끄는 요소이기도 하다. 때문에 예술비평가 부드로(Michael Boodro)는 예 술의 영원성에 반하는 패션의 일시성으로 인해 패션 은 예술과 유사한 관련성을 가지고 있음에도 불구하 고 예술과는 구분될 수밖에 없다고 보았다. 또한 지 금의 자본주의 산업사회에서 소장과 투자의 가치가 예술의 가치 척도라고 보는 관점에서 일시성을 가진 패션의 시간성은 사용하고 폐기되는 무가치한 것이 라는 의미로 해석되기도 한다.57) 이에 대한 반론으로, 패션이 시간성과 상업적 전 략을 반영한 트렌드라는 흐름 속에서 창작되는 속성 현대예술 확장에 의해 예술로 수용된 패션의 본질적 속성  - 93 - 을 가지고 있으며 그 속성은 영원성을 상실한 무가 치의 특성이라기보다는 오늘날 예술계가 지향하는 새로움과 혁신, 끊임없는 변화라는 신화를 이어가는 창조적 작업의 속성으로 이해할 수 있다. 따라서 현 대예술의 일시성과 마찬가지로 패션이 가진 변화라 는 속성으로 인한 일시성은 더 이상 예술로서의 가 치 논쟁의 주제가 되지는 못한다. 3. 일상성 패션은 인간의 의식주의 하나로 출발한 의상에 사 회적 수용과 트렌드라는 변화의 의미를 더하여 패션 의 영역을 확보하였기에 보편적으로 인간의 일상생 활의 필수적 도구로서 일상성의 속성을 가지고 있다. 브릴랜드(Diana Vreeland)58)는 패션이 일용성의 성 격을 가지고 있는 실용품이기에 패션은 예술일 수 없다고 보았다. 패션이 공예품과 같이 인간의 일상생활의 필요에 의해 만들어지는 결과물이 예술일 순 없다는 주장은 예술이 정신적 이상적 가치를 가진 현실 너머의 고 귀한 결과물로 보는 관점에서 비롯된다. 사회 전체의 변혁이나 예술의 존재론적 본질에 대해 의문을 두는 역사적 아방가르드59)를 일상에서의 유용성을 목적으 로 한 예술의 사례로 제시할 수 있으나 이 역시 아 방가르드 예술의 순수한 목적은 쓰임을 목적으로 하 는 일상물과는 구별된다는 반론을 제기할 수 있다. 이로서 패션이 가지는 유용성의 목표는 인간의 일상 생활이라는 공예적 효용성이 예술의 순수주의와는 거리가 있는 불손한 것으로 인식의 차이를 정리할 수도 있다. 그러나 예술이 경험하는 현실이 일상적 모습이며 이를 다루는 것이 예술의 한 주제가 될 수 있다는 점이나, 인간의 일상인 삶이 곧 아방가르드 예술에서 추구하는 예술의 사회성과 같은 연장선상에 있다는 견해를 제시할 수 있다. 그리고 일상을 살아가는 보 편적 인간과 그 삶에 내재된 아름다움을 보다 집중 적으로 탐구하는 ‘삶의 미학’을 전개하며 세계 내 존 재인 우리 모두는 실천적 행위자로서 ‘실행하는’ 예 술가로 본 슈스터만의 시각에서 본다면, 일상의 모습 을 표현하는 예술과 일상에서 미적 경험되는 패션을 구분하는 사유가 될 수는 없을 것이다. 패션의 일상 품으로서의 기능과 목적이 예술과 분리되는 속성 중 하나라는 주장에 반론을 제기할 수 있는 주장이라고 볼 수 있다. 패션이 가진 형태학적 조형미에 대한 해 석을 넘어 패션이 가진 일상에서의 미적 경험이 몸 과 유기적인 통합 속에 공존과 상생으로 정향되는 미적 경계에 이르러서 유기체적 실천(praxis)이 된다. ‘세계와의 사건 속에서 행하고 겪는, 일상 그 자체를 의미 있는 것으로 가꾸어나가는 과정이 바로 예술’이 라는 관념이60) 적용될 수 있는 것이다. 다시 말해 오 늘날의 확장된 미의 개념의 연장선상의 주장이며, 패 션을 비예술로 구별한 요소가 되었던 일상성의 패션 의 속성들이 확장된 현대예술의 개념에 의해 수용될 수 있다는 관점과 맥을 같이 한다. 예술이 디자인화 되고 디자인이 예술화되는 현대 예술의 불확정적 경계 속에 일상성이 패션을 어떤 한 영역으로 확정 짓는 요소가 되지는 못한다. 또한 패션이 가지는 일상성이 예술의 희소성과 대치되는 요소로 이해되어 왔으나 예술의 희소성은 유일무이 성의 전통적 예술에서 비롯된 개념이며 수집의 투자 가치적 관점에서인 것이지 이제 작품 본연의 예술적 가치와는 상관없는 개념이다. 또한 예술의 유일무이 성은 뒤샹의 레디메이드에 의해 도전을 받은 이후 팝아트에 의해 확고히 구축된 예술의 상업적 대중적 접근으로 더 이상 예술의 속성으로 정의할 수 없는 특성이 되었다. 예술을 통한 현실의 유토피아를 꿈꾸 었던 윌리엄 모리스의 바램이 오늘날 예술의 일상성 으로 이어질 수 있으며 그 중심에 자리한 패션을 확 인할 수 있다.61) 4. 상업성 전통적인 의상과 분리되는 패션은 태생 자체가 대 중적 산업을 기반으로 하기에 상업적 특성은 패션의 제작 목적이기도 하다. 따라서 패션의 상업성은 배제 할 수 없는 중요한 속성인 것이다. 이러한 맥락에서 패션의 미적 작업인 디자인은 상품과 소비를 전제로 한 상업적 예술 행위이며, 생산물, 생산체계, 생산자, 소모품, 소비에 관한 것으로 모든 사용자의 필요와 욕구를 기술과 사회적 제약 안에서 조화롭고 적절하 服飾 第63卷 6號  - 94 - 게 자리잡아내는 것이다. 디자인을 구성하는 것은 자 본과 소비이고, 그것은 사용자 위주의 상품 부가가치 를 높이는 경제적인 행위이다.62) 부드로는 예술가와 의상 디자이너의 작업에는 영 감과 동기라는 유사성을 가지고 있지만, 예술은 그 자체가 목적이며 사적인 창작물이라면 패션은 상업 적인 목적을 가진 하찮은 영역이기에 패션이 예술일 수는 없다고 보았다. 예술은 예술, 패션은 산업인 것 이다. 부드로는 예술과 패션에 대한 구별을 우선적으 로 패션의 ‘상업성’에 근간을 두고 있다.63) 칸트주의 의 예술의 순수성에 입각하여 예술은 전통적으로 상 업성과 거리를 두었으며 이러한 전통적 관점에 따라 패션의 상업성은 예술에서 패션을 배제하는 주요 요 소로 작용하였다.64) 그러나 현대예술에서 상업성은 더 이상 예술의 영 역에서 외면해야 할 성격의 것은 아니며 자본주의사 회에서 예술이 새롭게 직면한 현실을 대처해나가는 새로운 예술의 속성으로 나타나고 있음을 보았다. 또 한 패션의 상업적 속성에 대해 리차드 마틴(Richard Martin)65)은 패션의 장점은 미술과 달리 굳이 상업 성을 숨기지 않고 노골적이라는 점이며 패션은 시각 예술의 개념에 기초를 둔 것이기에 패션을 만들고 평하는 것은 미술적 과정과 유사하다고 보았다.66) 또 한 패션의 상업성이 오히려 순수예술에 비해 대중에 게 쉽게 접근되어 풍부한 지식과 관심을 갖게 하는 장점을 가지게 한 속성이라고 보았다. 즉 패션의 상 업성은 현대예술이 쟁취한 예술의 상업성보다 훨씬 태생적으로 친숙하기에 대중으로부터의 수용이 용이 하다는 이점을 가지고 있다는 것이다. 따라서 패션의 상업성은 예술로부터 터부시 될 성격이 아니라 대중 이 누리는 문화적 형식의 차이 속에 함께하는 예술 의 장르인 것이다. Ⅴ. 결론 근대미학에서 정립된 예술의 순수성은 보편적인 예술의 속성으로 인식되어왔으며, 오늘날까지도 예술 의 본질을 이해하는 잣대로 작용하기도 한다. 그러나 20세기에 나타난 일련의 현대미술을 통해 예술의 순 수성은 더 이상 예술의 필수적 속성으로 정의할 수 없으며 예술로서의 패션을 논함에 있어 선험적으로 현대사회의 변화된 다양한 예술의 속성을 분석함으 로써 예술영역의 정확한 논의가 필요하다. 이로써 예 술의 순수성에 위배되는 촉각적 공감각성, 일시성, 일상성, 상업성 이라는 현대예술에 대두된 새로운 예 술의 속성을 분석하였는데, 이들 속성은 패션의 주요 속성이자 지금까지 패션을 비예술로 인식하게 한 요 인이기도 하였다. 이 연구를 통해 현대예술과 공유하 는 패션의 미적 경험을 통한 이들 속성들이 예술과 패션을 경계 지우는 기준이 아니라 시각적 형식을 가진 예술의 장르로 패션을 평가해야 할 분야임을 규명하였다고 본다. 예술로 수용된 패션의 속성은 첫째, 예술의 형이 상학적이고 정신적인 속성과는 반대로 인체에 착장 됨으로써 완성되는 ‘촉각적 공감각성’, 둘째, 트렌드 라는 시간성과 계절적 리뉴얼, 사회적으로 결정되고 가변하는 사회적인 한계의 용인에 따라 영원성을 확 보하지 못하는 패션의 ‘일시성’, 셋째, 일상과는 분리 된 특별하고 고귀한 대상이라는 예술에 대한 시각에 반해 일상의 삶 속에서 기능하는 패션의 ‘일상성’, 넷 째, 사회적인 효력에 의해 정의되기에 대중과의 소통 을 위한 ‘상업성’으로 정리하였다. 미학은 미와 예술 등에 대한 철학적인 논변을 넘 어서서 미술, 음악, 연극, 영화, 디자인 등 구체적인 예술 장르에 대한 비평적 성찰로까지 그 영역을 확 장해나가고 있다.67) 예술의 순수성을 넘어 변화 확장 된 예술의 영역으로 인해 패션이 예술로 수용됨을 규명한 본 연구는 패션의 조형성과 미적 특성을 논 하여 패션과 예술의 관계를 이어왔던 기존의 연구에 서 보다 확장된 접근을 하였다는 점에 연구의 가치 를 둔다. 참고문헌 1) 칸트는 제3 비판서인 <판단력 비판>에서 아름다움에 대한 미적 판단은 주관의 쾌/불쾌의 감정과 관련되며 이때의 주관성은 자신의 판단이 다른 사람에게도 보편 적으로 타당함을 요구한다. 또한 미적 판단에서의 주관 의 감정은 무관심 속에 얻게 되는 만족감으로, 주관의 미적 경험 대상에 대한 독특한 거리두기(Distanzie- 현대예술 확장에 의해 예술로 수용된 패션의 본질적 속성  - 95 - rung)를 통해 얻게 되는 ‘무관심적 만족감에 대한 관 심’을 뜻한다. 2) 많은 예술관련 패션 디자인 논문들은 팝아트, 초현실주 의, 표현주의, 아르데코, 아르누보 등과 같은 예술사조 가 패션디자인에 표현수단으로 구현된 점에 중점을 두 고, 예술사조의 작품 분석 방법론을 패션작품의 분석법 에 적용하여 복식의 형태, 색채와 같은 미적 표현에 관 한 연구들이다. 3) Miller, S. (2007), Fashion as Art; is Fashion Art?, Fashion Theory, 11(1). 4) 대표적인 아방가르드 패션 디자이너인 후세인 샬라얀, 마틴 마르지엘라, 이세이 미야께, 레이 가와쿠보, 요지 야마모토 등의 작품 분석을 통해 이들의 작품세계의 예 술적 개념과 조형성을 분석하는 연구들이 진행되었다. 5) 서승희 (2013), Artification of Fashion through the Expansion of Contemporary Art, 연세대학교 대학원 박사학위논문, pp. 1-2. 6) 샤를르 바퇴는 근대적 예술체계에서 건축을 순수예술 의 범주에 넣는 데 있어 괄호를 넣어 건축을 위치시킴 으로써 그가 건축에 대한 인식이 다른 순수 예술과는 다른 주저함이 있었다고 보인다. 7) Takeuchi, T. (2003), 미학 예술학 사전, 안영길 외 역, 서울: 미진사, pp. 53-54. 8) 김진엽, 하선규 (2007), 미학, 서울: 책세상, p. 10. 9) 서승희, op. cit., pp. 14-15. 10) 오병남 (2003), 미학강의, 서울: 서울대학교출판부, 들 어가기 15. 11) Negrin, L. (2012), Aesthetics: Fashion and Aesthe- tics-A Fraught Relationship, Fashion and Art, Geczy, A & Karaminas, V. eds, London, New York: Berg, p. 44. 12) Takeuchi, T., op. cit., p. 67. 13) 박연숙 (2011), 예술의 탈신비화와 창조적 일상, 서강 대학교 생명문화연구원, p. 119. 14) 서승희, op. cit., p. 15. 15) Negrin, L., op. cit., p. 44. 16) Shusterman, R. (2010), 프라그마티즘 미학, 김광명, 김진엽 역, 서울: 북코리아, pp. 479-480. 17) Negrin, L., op. cit., p. 45. 18) Ibid. 19) Riout, D. (2006), 현대미술이란 무엇인가, 정진국 역, 서울: 눈빛, p. 396. 20) 서승희, op. cit., pp. 137-138. 21) Loschek, I. (2009), When clothes become fashion, New York: Berg, p. 169. 22) Victorine Muller, Retrieved 2012, September 22, fro m http://highlike.org/victorine-muller/ 23) “Rebecca Horn", Retrieved 2012, September 22, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebecca_Horn 24) Arnason, H. H. (2003), History of Modern Art: Painting, Sculpture, Architecture & Photography (5th ed.), NJ: Prentice Hall, p. 598. 25) “Vanessa Beecroft", Retrieved 2012, September 22, f rom http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanessa_Beecroft 26) Ibid. 27) 서승희, op. cit., p. 138. 28) Ibid., p. 154. 29) 시간 개념에 대한 탐구와 작품의 재료에 대한 확대를 통해 작품의 결과보다는 작업의 과정이나 방법을 중 요시한 예술로서, 1960년대 미국의 미니멀리즘의 형식 주의와 상업성, 획일성에 대한 반동으로 나타난 포스 트 미니멀리즘(post minimalism)이다. 시간의 경과에 따른 소멸이 기대되는 재료를 통해 일시성을 보여주 는 작품들은 가능한 한 오브제의 형태를 배제한다. 30) 회화, 데생에 속하지도 그렇다고 건축에 속하지도 않 지만 조각이라고 하기에도 애매한 미술을 개척하였는 데, 1968년 드완 화랑에서 열린 전시회 <대지미술(Ear- thworks)>에서 흙, 자갈 등의 자연재로 풍경 속에서 직접 행한 작업의 기록을 내놓았다(Riout, D. 267). 이 전시에서 이름을 부여 받은 대지미술은 작가마다 사용한 기법과 의도는 다르지만 전체적으로 조각의 개념을 허물고 화랑과 미술관이라는 전시 공간을 벗 어나 자연과 대지 어느 곳도 예술로 명명할 수 있는 작품이 되고 또 전시할 수 있는 공간이 되는 것이다. 31) Kounellis, J., “INSTALLATION: The Work of Jannis Kounellis", Retrieved 2013, April 2, from http://tren dland.com/the-work-of-jannis-kounellis/ 32) Javacheff, C. & Jeanne-Claude, “Running fence", R etrieved 2013, Apri l2, from http://christojeanneclau de.net/projects/running-fence 33) Jan Verwoert (2008), The Boss: On the Unresolved Question of Authority in Joseph Beuys’ Oeuvre and Public Image, E-flux. Retrieved 2013, April 2, from http://www.e-flux.com/journal/the-boss-on-the-unre solved-question-of-authority-in-joseph-beuys%E2%80 %99-oeuvre-and-public-image/ 34) 한국사전연구사 (1998. 8. 20), “일상성", 종교학대사 전, 자료검색일 2013. 4. 12, http://terms.naver.com/e ntry.nhn?cid=282&docId=630740&categoryId=282 35) 서승희, op. cit., p. 144. 36) Negrin, L, op. cit., p. 51. 37) Schusterman, R (2000), Performing Live, Ithaca, London: Cornell University Press, p. 4. 38) Negrin, L., op. cit., p. 52. 39) Shusterman, R., op. cit., p. 315, p. 358. 40) 100 Years of Sculpture: From the Pedestal to the P ixel. Walker Art Center, Retrieved 2013, April 12, fr om http://www.walkerart.org/archive/9/B5235948DB 5688CC616E.htm 41) 임근혜 (2010), 창조의 제국: 영국 현대미술의 센세이 션, 그리고 그 후, 서울: 지안출판사, p. 179. 42) Tracy Emin-Contemporary Artists, Saatchigallery, R etrieved 2013, April 12, from http://www.saatchi-ga llery.co.uk/artists/artpages/tracey_emin_my_bed.ht m 43) 서승희, op. cit., p. 149. 44) Sudjic, D. (2012), 사물의 언어, 정지인 역, 서울: 영 신사, pp. 285-292. 참조 服飾 第63卷 6號  - 96 - 45) 월간미술 (2008. 7), 미술 디자인의 믹스앤매치, 미술 상품의 부흥. 월간미술, 자료검색일 2012. 10. 2, http: //monthlyart.com/html/checkList/index.php?tp=spec ial&si=s05&search_m=0807 46) 정연심 (2008. 7), 고급과 저급의 경계를 허문 상업예 술의 천국, 월간미술, 자료검색일 2012. 10. 2, http:// monthlyart.com/html/checkList/index.php?tp=special &si=s02&search_m=0807 47) Other Criteria, Retrieved 2013, April 12, from https: //www.othercriteria.com/browse/hirst/ 48) Decorate, ShowroomDummies, Retrieved 2013, April 12, from http://www.abigaillane.co.uk/SHOWROOM DUMMIES-WEBSITE/sf_main.html 49) 조민규 (2008. 7), 런던에서 만난 yBa가 만든 상품과 쇼윈도, 월간미술, 자료검색일 2012. 10. 2, http://mo nthlyart.com/html/checkList/index.php?tp=special&s i=s03&search_m=0807 50) 월간미술 (2008. 7), Ibid. 51) 서승희, op. cit., p. 151. 52) Shusterman, R., op. cit., p. 316. 53) 서승희, op. cit., p. 137. 54) Shusterman, R., op. cit., pp. 493-511. 55) 서승희, op. cit., pp. 152-153. 56) Loschek, I., op. cit., p. 134. 57) 서승희, op. cit., p. 153. 58) 하퍼스 바자와 보그지의 전편집장이자 메트로폴리탄 미술관의 컨설턴터로 일한 패션계의 대표적 인물이다. 59) 20세기 초반 예술을 통한 사회의 변혁을 목적으로 나 타난 일련의 예술들로, 미래주의, 입체파, 다다이즘, 초현실주의, 표현주의가 이에 해당한다. 60) 정순복 (2007), 예술로서의 일상:경험론적 함의와 그 실체-존 듀이의 미학을 우리 일상에 접목시켜 행복하 게 살기 위하여, 미학, 김진엽, 하선규 편, 서울: 책세 상, p. 454. 61) 서승희, op. cit., p. 145. 62) 월간미술 (2008. 7), Ibid. 63) Boodro, M (1990. 9), Art & Fashion: A Fine Ro- mance, Art new, pp. 120-127. 64) 서승희, op. cit., pp. 178-179. 65) 미술사학가이자 FIT 갤러리 디렉터, 뉴욕 메트로폴리 탄 박물관의 의상박물관의 큐레이터, 패션이론가로서, 미술과 몸, 젠더의 이슈에 가장 적합한 분야가 패션이 기 때문에 자신이 미술에서 패션으로 전향하였으며 패션이 예술이라는 주장을 피력하였다 (강태희 2007). 66) 강태희 (2007. 2), “미술과 패션 그리고 패션사진”, 월 간미술, 자료검색일 2012. 10. 2, http://www.monthly art.com/html/05_article/0702/ac02.php 67) 김진엽, op. cit., p. 404. 
work_qqlqdxgsgbhepi3z6uhq33ra5y	----	h t t p : / / d i s e g n a r e c o n . u n i v a q . i t v o l u m e 1 3 / n . 2 4 - J u n e 2 0 2 0 I S S N 1 8 2 8 - 5 9 6 1 DISEGNARECON S T R E E T A RT. D R AW I N G O N T H E WA L L S M i ch e l e Va l e n t i n o G r a d u a t e d i n A r c h i t e c t u r e a t I U AV, h e o b t a i n e d h i s P h D i n “ A r c h i t e c t u r e a n d P l a n n i n g ” a t t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f A r c h i t e c t u - r e o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f S a s s a r i . S i n c e 2 0 0 8 h e i s a c o n t r a c t p r o f e s s o r o f D r a w i n g a n d R e - p r e s e n t a t i o n a t t h e s a m e D e - p a r t m e n t , h e w a s v i s i t i n g r e - s e a r c h i n 2 0 1 2 a t U n i v e r s i t y o f E d i n b u r g h . Shaping identities through Street Art. Iconography of social claims in Orgosolo’s Murales. Nowadays, street art is one of the most common public art manifestations in bigger cities. Howe- ver, there are case studies that show how this form of visual communication has a long history and can strengthen the capacity of the self-asser- tion also of small communities, far from the well- known urban phenomena of the large cities. This article discusses one of this case studies: the murals in Orgosolo (Sardinia, Italy), analysing the iconographic production according to which their creation would be linked to different forms of claims, starting from the rebellion of the lo- cal population against decisions of the national government concerning the municipal territory until today, passing through the manifestation of dissent towards the resurgence of neo-fascist phenomena in the mid-seventies of the last cen- tury. Furthermore, this article analyses the links between the need for self-representation and self-affirmation of the citizens and the use of vi- Keywords: street art; murales; visual communication; Orgo- solo; Sardinia E n r i c o C i c a l ò E n g i n e e r, A s s o c i a t e P r o f e s s o r o f G r a p h i c S c i e n c e s a t t h e D e - p a r t m e n t o f A r c h i t e c t u r e , D e - s i g n a n d U r b a n P l a n n i n g o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f S a s s a r i . sual languages in public space, connecting politi- cal events with artistic manifestations. This research is based on the diachronic analysis of the development of these murals, focusing on the evolution of their subjects and visual langua- ges, and highlighting their role in the building of the public opinion, on the collective imagery, and on the perception of the local identity. Throu- gh this analysis, the article presents how it has created one of the most iconic expressions of auto-representation of the Sardinian identity, re- vealing that these representations, known as an expression of the Sardinian tradition, are not au- tochthonous but a classic example of “invented tradition”, arising from external inputs. 25.2v o l u m e 1 3 / n . 2 4 - J u n e 2 0 2 0 I S S N 1 8 2 8 - 5 9 6 1 DISEGNARECON VA L E N T I N O - C I C A L Ò h t t p : / / d i s e g n a r e c o n . u n i v a q . i t S h a p i n g i d e n t i t i e s t h r o u g h S t r e e t A r t . I c o n o g r a p h y o f s o c i a l c l a i m s i n O r g o s o l o ’s M u r a l e s . S T R E E T A RT. D R AW I N G O N T H E WA L L S 1. INTRODUCTION As ancient as the primordial signs left by primi- tive men in their caves and, at the same time, as contemporary as in Street Art, graffiti reveals an archaic dimension of our present. The writer and traveller Bruce Chatwin took pic- tures of the rock paintings in Rio de las Pinturas in Patagonia. Hands that emerge from the stone, obtained by blowing pigment on the hand, to make a mark, a sign of recognition and identity. Indeed, non-verbal communication can be considered as the manifestation of identity, and it became more significant especially if it is a submitted or repres- sed identity; as the case of murals, but also ur- ban graffiti, that acquire a peculiar meaning in the context in which they are made (Serra, 2007). The need to be visible and to affirm opinions and interests are the roots of the social revolution. They can be considered an engine for the artistic movement’s birth, which develops intending to denounce the inequities and grows as a manife- station of the self-determination of a community. For instance, the muralist movement in Mexico cannot be conceived without the revolution. The wall artists, in this dimension, give visual form to an emerging historical self-awareness of a people (Anreus et al., 2012). The three major exponents of this movement - Diego Rivera, Josè Clemente Orozco and Alfaro David Siqueiros - trusted in a collective art that could produce benefits for so- ciety as a whole. Their works are placed in very visible and popular public places. The murals, as collective art, had a communicative and didactic function. It is a social art that wanted to participate in the development of a society and its culture, in close relation with its historical roots. In the same way, in Orgosolo, similarly to the Me- xican experience, the realisation of murals beco- mes an opportunity to visually manifest dissent and to establish a local identity. Indeed, the expe- rience of Murals in Orgosolo is closely linked to a conception of ‘socially engaged art’ and can be considered a form of ‘social achievement’. The en- gagement of this artistic expressions refers to the concept expressed in the Jean-Paul Sartre lecture held at the Club Maintenant in Paris on October 29, 1945, and published in the following year in the essay “Existentialism Is a Humanism” where he stated that there is no reality but in action. “Man is nothing else, but what he plans to be, he exists only to the measure in which puts himself into action, he is, therefore, nothing else but the sum of his ac- tions, nothing else but what his life is” (1999, p. 36). With these words, Sartre wishes to report the ac- tion as the only means capable of changing society. Against this background should be placed that form of art that developed after the Second World War that Renato De Fusco defined as “politically committed art”, as “a model of an art of political- social content, or that belonged to international communism, to the anti-fascist struggle, to the various popular movements, pacifists, anti-colo- nialists, etc., with works, however, stylistically lin- ked to the experiences of the avant-garde” (1989, Fig. 1 - Pinuccio Sciola, Untitled, 1985, San Sperate. Retrieved May 19, 2020, from https://www.continentecreativo.eu/paese/san-sperate/ p. 242), and that would encourage many cultural and artistic movements to the Communist Party. One of the best-known expressions of this type of art is undoubtedly that of the Mexican school born during the revolution of 1910. The works of the painters Diego Rivera, José Clemente Orozco and David Alfaro Siqueiros, the major exponents of Mexican Muralism, represent an explicit refe- rence in figurative languages and the practice of murals as a suitable medium to be understood by the people. The artistic languages that best inter- pret the need to involve and communicate with the popular classes are precisely those figurative, ca- pable of creating images connected to reality and easily understandable, such as those of Socialist Realism to which the Pictorial Neorealism refers, which sees in Renato Guttuso one of its most si- gnificant artists. In this context, we should read the Orgosolo mural, which is a demonstration of 25.3v o l u m e 1 3 / n . 2 4 - J u n e 2 0 2 0 I S S N 1 8 2 8 - 5 9 6 1 DISEGNARECON VA L E N T I N O - C I C A L Ò h t t p : / / d i s e g n a r e c o n . u n i v a q . i t S h a p i n g i d e n t i t i e s t h r o u g h S t r e e t A r t . I c o n o g r a p h y o f s o c i a l c l a i m s i n O r g o s o l o ’s M u r a l e s . S T R E E T A RT. D R AW I N G O N T H E WA L L S how murals can mobilise large parts of the popu- lation around relevant issues of society, as well as to promote a political and cultural debate on is- sues that are often little known or hidden. 2. VISUAL CULTURE AND PUBLIC SPACE To make a space effectively public, it must respect the collective right of groups to make themselves visible to the public (Goheen 1998). In this way, the public space contributes to the functioning of de- mocratic systems by promoting the visibility of the actions and political struggles of the citizens who gather and organise themselves in it. The public space becomes a privileged place of direct and non-mediated contact between indivi- duals, which can enhance the process of the for- mation of public opinion, the confrontation, the knowledge, the awareness of the reality. Howe- ver, the formation of public opinion needs spaces and media through which the phenomena of the world become visible (Cicalò 2009). It is the space of the relationship between individuals in which action is performed, and the public visibility of the discourse on which the organisation of democratic society is based is achieved (Arendt 2001). The concept of public space is closely linked to the idea of democracy (Zukin 1995), which is based on the declaration and affirmation of individual rights. Public space is, in this sense, a space of negotiation, an institutionalised space of conflict (Deutsche 1996). Accessibility to public space and visibility in public space becomes indicative of in- dividual freedoms and the possibility of disputes and protests. Despite urban policies oriented towards order and control, the public spaces of the city continue to be the theatre for the manifestation of the unpredic- table and uncontrollable action of individuals or- ganised and brought together in search of visibility and attention. The idea of the conquest of visibility in public space has been deepened by geographi- cal studies from which two different visions of the urban landscape emerge: the urban landscape as a stage (Cosgrove 1984, 1985) and the urban landscape as a theatre (Sennet 2006, Cosgrove 1997). In the first approach, the city constitutes the scene in which the dominant classes represent themselves through the possession of space and the control of social relations that take place in it. Therefore, the political role of space is expressed not only in demonstrations and protests that take place in it but also in the expression of power and domination that is exhibited in it. However, the city is also the theatre in which every citizen becomes an actor. According to this idea, the public sphere is represented through the me- taphor of the theatrum mundi (Sennett 2006) in which the play of everyday life takes place and in which what is visible immediately becomes public. Fig. 2 - Serramanna Artistic Group, Untitled, 1977, Villamar. Retrieved May 19, 2020, from < https://www.sabrinabarbante.com/sardegna-in-inverno-come-e-dove-andare-e-che-cosa-non-perdere/img_4298/> If in the idealisation of the agora the public space was constructed through action and discourse, in the theatrum mundi it is realised in seeing and being seen: interaction between people is characterised by primacy of visual over discourse (Cupers 2005). 3. MURALES AS MEDIA FOR SELF-REPRESENTATION In recent years, street art has increasingly beco- me mainstream. Through it, the artist intends to trigger public debate and to make controversial issues public for all to see - even in restrictive political environments and even for the illiterate. This form of increasing public awareness on 25.4v o l u m e 1 3 / n . 2 4 - J u n e 2 0 2 0 I S S N 1 8 2 8 - 5 9 6 1 DISEGNARECON VA L E N T I N O - C I C A L Ò h t t p : / / d i s e g n a r e c o n . u n i v a q . i t S h a p i n g i d e n t i t i e s t h r o u g h S t r e e t A r t . I c o n o g r a p h y o f s o c i a l c l a i m s i n O r g o s o l o ’s M u r a l e s . S T R E E T A RT. D R AW I N G O N T H E WA L L S social and political issues has a history that is roo- ted in the Mexican Muralist Movement of the early twentieth century, which was conceived as a form of art aimed at people. The foremost interpreters of this artistic current, Diego Rivera, Clemente Orozco and David Siqueiros, turn to the largely illi- terate rural population, taking inspiration from in- digenous and popular art and reflecting elements of Mexican culture that after centuries of colonial domination, on the walls regain a leading role in history (Charlot 1963). After spreading throughout Latin America, with the Great Depression after 1929, the Movement’s approach spread to the United States (Marling 1982). It was in the 1960s that left-wing student movements arrived in Euro- pe and spread throughout the world as a form of art of protest for the self-representation of local communities and weaker minority groups. The murals have maintained their connotation of public art capable of self-representing communi- ties, allowing them to express identities and opi- nions. They’re easily realised and visible as places on the streets where the daily life of the people takes place, makes wall paintings one of the most effective media to speak to the local communities and about the local communities. The possibility to realise them in an anonymous, uncontrolled and clandestine ways makes murals a free space of self- representation in which it is possible to say through images and words what in no other space can be said and seen with the same effectiveness and power. 4. THE SOCIAL PHENOMENON OF MURALS IN SARDINIA In Sardinia, the term Muralism refers to a multi- tude of experiences and actors ranging from the sixties and seventies of the last century to the present day (Cozzolino 2014, 2017). The first most significant experiences are found in San Spera- te –in the province of Cagliari–, in Orgosolo –in the historical Barbagia region– and Villamar –in Marmilla. Although they can be associated with the same phenomenon, spread across the whole region, the different territorial facts belong to dif- ferent modalities and conceptions of this practice. The experience in San Sperate is closely linked to the figure of the artist Pinuccio Sciola (1942-2016), who was among the first to use this technique in Sardinia and is considered one of the pioneers of Muralism in the island (Concu 2012; Olita & Pes 2007). In 1968 –a year of great political and cul- tural turmoil– Sciola –returned from his studies at the Internationale Sommerakademie für Bil- dende Kunst in Salzburg and from a series of trips to Spain and France– in conjunction with the reli- gious feast of Corpus Domini, began painting with lime the ancient walls of ladiri (adobe bricks) in the old town. The whitewashed walls will become later the basis for the first murals. This operation, which can itself be considered an artistic perfor- mance, kicked off and transformed into reality the initial idea - and which persists until now - of a Paese Museo [Town Museum] (Porcu 2012). This experience allowed Sciola to participate in the 37th International Art Exhibition of the 1976 Biennale di Venezia, directed by Vittorio Gregotti (1927-2020), hosted in the Italian section entitled Ambiente come sociale curated by Enrico Crispolti (1933- 2018). The subjects portrayed in the murals of San Spe- rate mainly rely on daily life or social and envi- ronmental reasons differing from those Orgosolo, that show scenes primarily political or ideologi- cal relating to social struggles. In the following decades, artists such as Angelo Pilloni –with his works linked to local history and traditions– and Raffaele Muscas –who with essential and ance- stral geometries investigating the shapes of the human body– continued this experience. They cre- ate other murals and helping to feed the artistic repertoire of the Paese Museo. The experience, a difference from others on the island, outlining an expansive vision and a different concept of the cul- tural commitment of art and the artist, who while not including a part in the linguistic specific of the author, connected an equal dialogue relationship and cooperation with citizenship. In Villamar - unlike the San Sperate experience and in a more similar way to that of Orgosolo - the murals show mostly political and ideological sce- nes related to Sardinian events. The murals in this town of Marmilla developed during the second half of the seventies of the last century. In 1976, the en- tertainers of the initiative were local painters, such as Antioco Cotza and Antonio Sanna, and two Chile- an artists and political exiles, Alan Joffrè and Uriel Parvex. The latter, members of the Chilean Murali- sm of the Brigadas Ramona Parra (Longoni, 1999) during the socialist government of Unidad Popular (1970-73) by Salvador Allende, were forced by the coup (1973) of General Augusto Pinochet to take refuge in Sardinia. This group of artists gave birth to a period, through the realisation of the murals, Fig. 3 - Andrea Casciu, Crocus, 2016, San Gavino Monreale. Retrieved May 19, 2020, from <http://ilgorgo.com/andrea-casciu-new- murals-san-gavino/> 25.5v o l u m e 1 3 / n . 2 4 - J u n e 2 0 2 0 I S S N 1 8 2 8 - 5 9 6 1 DISEGNARECON VA L E N T I N O - C I C A L Ò h t t p : / / d i s e g n a r e c o n . u n i v a q . i t S h a p i n g i d e n t i t i e s t h r o u g h S t r e e t A r t . I c o n o g r a p h y o f s o c i a l c l a i m s i n O r g o s o l o ’s M u r a l e s . S T R E E T A RT. D R AW I N G O N T H E WA L L S of more widespread social and cultural awake- ning. The subjects portrayed in Joffrè, Parvex and Cotza’s murals –characterised using bright and intense colours– are usually of social denuncia- tion and represent particular local and world- historical moments. While those made by Sanna often portray landscapes, habits and customs that have now disappeared from the town. Today, this phenomenon –albeit with different purposes– continues in two quite distinct direc- tions. On the one hand, it is inserting itself into the artistic vein of Street Art, with some local artists such as La Fille Bertha, Andrea Casciu, Manu In- visible and many others, that have more an autho- rial character. On the other, with Trompe-l’œil- like representations on many walls of different towns depicting pastoral and past life scenes, which are perceived especially by tourists as sce- nes of local “authenticity” (Zukin, 2013). It should remember, however, that only in the nineties did the first publications (Mannironi, 1994; Piredda, 1994; Rubanu & Fistrale, 1998) which returned a renewed interest in this form of public art. To the point of marking a trend also in the intention of the Regione Autonoma della Sardegna cultural policies, which led to the cataloguing and invento- ry of this art form within the Sistema Informativo Regionale del Patrimonio Culturale, edited by the art historian Silvia Ledda. At the same time, other more enlightening and informative initiatives are developing, they aim to publicise the centres con- cerned for tourism promotion. For example, the Urban Center in Cagliari has developed in 2020 the project Continente Creativo, which aims to en- hance the artistic expressions of Sardinia linked to the Muralism and creativity of contemporary Sardinian artists. 5. MURALES IN ORGOSOLO The Orgosolo case study assumes a connotation entirely own in the Sardinian context, it consti- tutes an iconographic transfiguration process of social claims, with an apparent reference to the Mexican Muralism of the pictorial movement born in Mexico after the 1910 revolution. Fig. 4, 5 - Dioniso, First murals created by the group, 1969, Orgosolo. (on the left) The original mural. Retrieved May 19, 2020, from <https://derev.com/fiores-in-su-granitu>, (on the right) The murals today. Retrieved May 09, 2020, from https://medium.com/italia/la-storia-non-violenta-di-pratobello-74d3749c33d6 The first mural made in Orgosolo dates to 1969. The initiative was born under the pressure of the anarchist theatre group Dionisio from Milan and its promoter Giancarlo Celli. Driven by the need to experiment through a ‘direct relationship’ of their ideas with different cultural backgrounds populations, they decided to test their theatre concept in other national contexts. The choice fell on Sardinia, which at the time represented the Ita- lian region with the highest emigration rate and where popular movements already existed, like the occupation of military firing ranges in Prato- bello areas. They moved to Sardinia in early July 1969, before arriving in Orgosolo, they stopped with their performances first in Santa Lucia and then in Mamoiada. The creation of this murals was part of those as mentioned earlier ‘direct relationship’ with the population which involved various activities such as: poetry sessions at homes; the assembly theatre; the most strictly political meetings and assemblies; the Dioniso-Test –a political game to question the concept of ideology; and finally, the Dioniso-Scuola –which provided for mural painting with popular participation. The aim of the latter activity made it possible to exploit the uniqueness of the action to highlight a dissec- tion of the problems that afflicted the population (Balbus, 1980). The activity undertaken by this mural painting (Figures 4 and 5), which can define as a ‘militant graphics’ practice based on local political events of those years, gave birth to the Circolo Giovanile di Orgosolo association which theorised the re- volutionary union between pastors, workers and students. The mural shows an allegorical perso- nification of Italy. She subjugated by the United States (Uncle Sam’s hat replaces the Turreted 25.6v o l u m e 1 3 / n . 2 4 - J u n e 2 0 2 0 I S S N 1 8 2 8 - 5 9 6 1 DISEGNARECON VA L E N T I N O - C I C A L Ò h t t p : / / d i s e g n a r e c o n . u n i v a q . i t S h a p i n g i d e n t i t i e s t h r o u g h S t r e e t A r t . I c o n o g r a p h y o f s o c i a l c l a i m s i n O r g o s o l o ’s M u r a l e s . S T R E E T A RT. D R AW I N G O N T H E WA L L S Crown) and forgets about Sardinia (represented by a question mark). Furthermore, murals show Sardinia occupied by military settlements (rifle against citizens) and exploited by the industrialists from north Italy (the scale that hangs on the side of a man with the car against the shepherd with his sheep). Another element detected is the disap- pearance of some features (Figure 2) present in the original mural, which shows little attention in the restoration and maintenance of the works. In this first experience, we can highlight how this practice refers to the concepts of “strategy” and “tactics” expressed by Michel De Certeau (1980) in his book L’Invention du Quotidien - Volume 1, Arts de Faire. The term “strategy” refers to the mani- pulation of power relationships - between state and local population choices - within a space of its own that becomes the basis for managing external threats –in this case, the walls of the city centre. While, with “tactics” we refer to a deliberate ac- tion – here through the political mural– to express dissent and manifest one’s positions. In the following years, right on the association’s premises, thanks to the collaboration of the mem- bers and the participation of Francesco Del Casino –a local middle school drawing teacher– saw the consolidation of this practice on the walls of the whole town. In the beginning, the murals had as subject the events related to the local struggles supported by the Circolo Giovanile. Still, very quic- kly, the themes developed and report the ideolo- gical positions of the inhabitants concerning local, national or world themes. Most of the murals in the town are after 1975. Just in that year was the thirtieth anniversary of the Liberazione d’Italia from the Nazi-fascist occupa- tion and the teacher Francesco Del Casino deci- ded to create more than ten murals on the walls of the town’s buildings (Figures 6 and 7) with the help of his students. The intent was not only to commemorate the in- cident but above all, to involve the students to make them participate and aware of the brutality of the war, breaking the boundary that divides the school from society. In those years, in fact, “the school wanted to use new communication techni- ques aimed and based on the community and the Fig. 6 - Francesco Del Casino, Untitled, 1975, Orgosolo. Retrieved May 09, 2020, from <https://www. continentecreativo.eu/ paese/orgosolo> 25.7v o l u m e 1 3 / n . 2 4 - J u n e 2 0 2 0 I S S N 1 8 2 8 - 5 9 6 1 DISEGNARECON VA L E N T I N O - C I C A L Ò h t t p : / / d i s e g n a r e c o n . u n i v a q . i t S h a p i n g i d e n t i t i e s t h r o u g h S t r e e t A r t . I c o n o g r a p h y o f s o c i a l c l a i m s i n O r g o s o l o ’s M u r a l e s . S T R E E T A RT. D R AW I N G O N T H E WA L L S Su Lizu (the lily) symbol of Orgosolo, that repre- sents the will of the town’s popular to take sides against any form of war violence. Currently, in the town, there are more than two hundred and fifty murals. They are dedicated to various political and social themes ranging from the Liberation of Italy to the local traditions and the defence of the environment, passing through the celebration of some historical political figures such as Karl Marx, Salvador Allende –President of the Chilean Republic– and Antonio Gramsci. 6. MURALES AND ORGOSOLO IDENTITY For many years in Orgosolo, the act of portraying lo- cal and world affairs through the practice of murals Fig. 7 - Francesco Del Casino, Untitled, 1975, Orgosolo. Retrieved May 09, 2020, from <https://www.continentecreativo.eu/paese/orgosolo> involvement of even the weakest social groups” (Serra, 2007, p. 29). The presence of Del Casino until 1985, the date of his return to Tuscany, left several testimonies on the walls of the town. On several occasions, he returned to Orgosolo to retake this practice and to commemorate some events or to dedicate some murals to characters with a strong political and ci- vil commitment. These include the one dedicated to Mahatma Gandhi of 1997 (Figure 8) or the one in memory of Pinuccio Sciola of 2016 (Figure 9). Linguistic references of his works –even if the mu- rals works should be considered more as collec- tive than authorial works– are manifold. Ranging from Pablo Picasso’s Synthetic Cubism to Antonio Ligabue’s False-Primitivism, even if the link with the Nuova Secessione Artistica Italiana - Fronte Nuovo delle Arti is powerful (Fagioli, 2005). Using the definition of Antonio Gramsci (2014), Del Ca- sino could define as an “organic intellectual” who emerges from the local situation and remains connected with it. Following the artist’s work, in 1978 the contri- bution of the local painter Pasquale Buesca was added. In the following years Vincenzo Floris and Diego Asproni from Bitti, who then continued their work in the town of origin, joined the operation. In 1994, the political denunciation reappeared on Orgosolo walls, with a mural showing the de- struction of Sarajevo and the conflicts that were devastating the former Yugoslavia. However, in 1996, a representative episode marked the citi- zens’ relationship with this artistic practice. The group of muralists Le Api painted a mural entitled Sweet dreams on mattresses of Pratobello, which depicted some shepherds cooking a pig on a spit, one of whom was talking on a cell phone. The fol- lowing day, following a discussion between the artists and some local shepherds, it was decided that it was inappropriate to portray a shepherd holding a cell phone, the next day the phone was cancelled and the face repainted (Satta, 2003). Irony associated among the myth of Pratobello was not appreciated and shortly after the murals were cancelled, breaking the now consolidated link between the community and this practice. Last in terms of appearance, as well as the lar- gest in the town, was the mural by the artist Manu Invisible, entitled Vuoto [Void] (Figure 10). In 2019, on the day of the fiftieth anniversary of the Pratobello revolt, after two days of work, the new mural was presented. The painting recalls several recent political events and seems to refer to the tradition of Pablo Picasso and Guernica. At the top, the presence of smugglers and the boy Alan Kurdi, found dead on a beach in Turkey, re- fer to the tragedy of migrants in the Mediterrane- an. The toponym ‘Yemen’ on the map of Sardinia refers to the Domusnovas bomb factory, while the other dots indicate the NATO bases on the island. Finally, in the centre, an arm with a bro- ken sword, the symbol of war conflicts, stoked by 25.8v o l u m e 1 3 / n . 2 4 - J u n e 2 0 2 0 I S S N 1 8 2 8 - 5 9 6 1 DISEGNARECON VA L E N T I N O - C I C A L Ò h t t p : / / d i s e g n a r e c o n . u n i v a q . i t S h a p i n g i d e n t i t i e s t h r o u g h S t r e e t A r t . I c o n o g r a p h y o f s o c i a l c l a i m s i n O r g o s o l o ’s M u r a l e s . S T R E E T A RT. D R AW I N G O N T H E WA L L S has constituted a process of cultural identification. Manuel Castells –although critical of the recogni- tion processes of the local communities’ territo- rial identities– argues that people resist to indivi- dualisation process and social atomisation only if united in community organisations that generate a belonging feeling and a “cultural identity”. Ho- wever, for this to happen, a social mobilisation process is needed in which people can discover common interests through engagement in an ur- ban movement. Its very existence produces mea- ning for participants and community in general, as well as a collective memory of the place (Castells, 2014). An active process in Orgosolo community until the nineties of the last century. Murals, to- day, constitute for the community a document akin to a “Postmemory” (Hirsch, 2014). Relationship between observers of facts and subsequent gene- rations or distant contemporary witnesses lead to a memory of things that happened in the past and are known only through the stories and evocative images on the walls. Pasquale Buesca himself, in an interview with Bill Rolston (2014), says that young people do not have the same spirit as when the murals were born, they are less interested in politics and, today, Orgosolo is like a great mu- seum. A ‘musealization’ process of urban spatial practice, born as an expression of dissent preci- sely through the transformation of the artefacts into objects of conservation and enhancement for tourism purposes. The growing political interest in the cataloguing of works and artefacts (Vanali, 2018) also testifies to this transformation. The latest experiences, as well as that of Manu Invisible, although maintaining the evocative and ethical code towards dissent towards some po- litical events, represent more an authorial than collaborative artistic practice, generating a loss of the feeling of belonging to “a cultural identity” community. An “artification” (Shapiro, Heinich, 2012) that manifests itself through a change pro- cess, both practical and symbolic, and of attribu- tion of meaning that leads to a radical transforma- tion of the sense of the murals. The murals over the years have allowed several times to change the identity of Orgosolo. First of 7. CONCLUSIONS Therefore, this research shows that the case stu- dy of Orgosolo’s murals is a classic example of in- vented tradition. “The traditions that appear to us, or claim to be ancient, often have a rather recent origin. Moreover, sometimes they are entirely in- vented” (Hosbawm, Ranger 2002). The invented traditions are a symbolic and ideological nature practice that is implicitly proposed as a form of continuity with the past. A tradition that was born with the 1968 protests and with relative new ge- nerations revolt’s communication of those years, which saw the pre-eminence of iconic language over textual language (Fatta, 2019). all, it allowed re-evaluating the bandits’ negative town identity, illustrated in Franco Cagnetta’s es- say Inchiesta su Orgosolo (1954) and the 1961 film Banditi a Orgosolo [Bandits in Orgosolo] by Vittorio De Seta, modelling his identity through the social claims of the murals. Over the past twenty years, the Orgosolo town, with ‘musealization’ process of the murals, and identifying with the image of pa- storal Sardinia (Satta, 2001), has turned into a tou- rist centre. This vision about town-museum is also projected externally through official institutional channels, like official Sardinia tourism portal. At the same time, International newspapers, like The Guardian, celebrates the myth of the mural and invites tourists to visit the town. Fig. 8 - Francesco Del Casino, Gandhi, 1997, Orgosolo. Retrieved May 09, 2020, from <https://www.continentecreativo.eu/paese/orgosolo> 25.9v o l u m e 1 3 / n . 2 4 - J u n e 2 0 2 0 I S S N 1 8 2 8 - 5 9 6 1 DISEGNARECON VA L E N T I N O - C I C A L Ò h t t p : / / d i s e g n a r e c o n . u n i v a q . i t S h a p i n g i d e n t i t i e s t h r o u g h S t r e e t A r t . I c o n o g r a p h y o f s o c i a l c l a i m s i n O r g o s o l o ’s M u r a l e s . S T R E E T A RT. D R AW I N G O N T H E WA L L S Fig. 9 - Francesco Del Casino, A Pinuccio Sciola, 2016, Orgosolo. Retrieved May 09, 2020, from <https://www.continentecreativo.eu/paese/orgosolo> The murals of the small towns of Sardinia have taken on a folkloric and touristic connotation over time to become an expression of a Sardinian iden- tity that sees in the collective imagination the local populations resistant to change, in constant conflict with the authorities and suspicious of influences and contamination with the outside world. This research shows that these murals are instead an expression of the ability of local populations to absorb external inputs productively and constructively. Their styli- stic and graphic characteristics are recalling im- portant international artistic movements, their use as an instrument of denunciation, protest and self- affirmation consistent with the history of political and ideological movements that transcends narrow regional boundaries, places the experience of Orgo- solo murals within a broader cultural context. The fact that it has become one of Sardinia’s most iconic and symbolic artistic manifestations demonstrates the strength of this media of communication. Which, coming from outside, has found in need for auto-af- firmation and identification of the Sardinian people a fertile ground in which it can take root and evolve to the present day, keeping the tradition alive and making irrelevant it is having been invented. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This article is the result of joint research under- taken by the two authors. Michele Valentino has written the 4, 5 and 6 paragraphs, Enrico Cicalò the 2 and 3 paragraphs, both authors the Introduc- tion and Conclusions. Fig. 10 - Manu Invisible, Vuoto, 2019, Orgosolo. Retrieved May 09, 2020, from < http://www.manuinvisible.com/it/muri/lettering/> 25.10v o l u m e 1 3 / n . 2 4 - J u n e 2 0 2 0 I S S N 1 8 2 8 - 5 9 6 1 DISEGNARECON VA L E N T I N O - C I C A L Ò h t t p : / / d i s e g n a r e c o n . u n i v a q . i t S h a p i n g i d e n t i t i e s t h r o u g h S t r e e t A r t . I c o n o g r a p h y o f s o c i a l c l a i m s i n O r g o s o l o ’s M u r a l e s . S T R E E T A RT. D R AW I N G O N T H E WA L L S REFERENCES Anreus, A., Folgarait, L., & Greeley, R. A. (Eds.). (2012). Mexican Mura- lism: a critical history. Univ of Cali- fornia Press. Arendt H. (2001), Vita activa. La condizione umana, Bompiani, Mi- lano. Balbus (1980), “Quelli del Dioniso”, in A/Rivista anarchica, n. 83. Castells M. (2014), Il potere delle identità, Università Bocconi Edi- tore. Charlot J. (1963), The Mexican Mural Renaissance, 1920 to 1925, New Haven: Yale University Press. Concu G. (2012), Murales. L’arte del muralismo in Sardegna, Imago Multimedia. Cosgrove D. (1984), Social Forma- tion and Symbolic Landscape, Cro- om Helm, London. Cosgrove D. (1985), “Prospect, Perspective and the Evolution of the Landscape Idea”, Transactions of the Institute of British Geo- graphers, Vol. 10. Cosgrove D. (1997), “Spectacle and Society: Landscape as Theater in Premodern and Postmodern Ci- ties”, in P. Groth, T. W. Bressi (Eds.), Understanding Ordinary Landsca- pes, Yale University Press, Yale. Cozzolino, F. (2014). L’histoire complexe du muralisme en Sardai- gne. L’invention d’une tradition de peinture murale et ses multiples influences. Nuevo Mundo Mundos Nuevos. Cozzolino, F. (2017). Peindre pour agir: Muralisme et politique en Sardaigne. KARTHALA Editions. Cupers K. (2005), Towards a Noma- dic Geography: Rethinking Space and Identity for the Potentials of Progressive Politics in the Contem- porary City, International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, Vol. 29, No. 4. de Certeau M. (1990), L’Invention du quotidien - Volume 1, Arts de faire, Gallimard. De Fusco, R. (1983). Storia dell’ar- te contemporanea. Laterza. Deutsche R. (1996), Evictions. Art and Spatial Politics, MIT Press, Cambridge. Fatta, F. (2019). “Le immagini della protesta urbana a cinquant’an- ni dal ’68”, in Paesaggio Urbano 3:11-19. Fagioli, M. (2005). Francesco del Casino: dipinti e sculture dal 1963 al 2004. Aión. Goheen P. G. (1998), “Public Space and the Geography of the Modern City”, Progress in Human Geo- graphy, Vol. 22, No. 4. Gramsci A. (2014), Quaderni del carcere, Einaudi. Hirsch M. (2014). Presidential Ad- dress 2014—Connective Histories in Vulnerable Times. PMLA, 129 (3), 330-348. Hosbawm J. Ranger T. (2002), L’in- venzione della tradizione. Torino: Einaudi. Longoni A. (1999), “Brigadas Mu- ralistas: La persistencia de una práctica de comunicación político- visual” in Revista de Crítica Cultu- ral, 19:26. Mannironi R. (1994), Arte murale in Sardegna, Cagliari, Incaspisano. Marling Karal A. (1982), Wall-to- Wall America: A Cultural History of Post-Office Murals in the Great De- pression. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Olita O., Pes N. (2006), San Spera- te, all’origine dei murales, Cagliari, AM&D édition. Piredda G. A. (1994), I murales di Orgosolo, Olbia, Balzano. Porcu C. (2012), Gli «anni della calce» e il paese museo, Domus de Janas. Rolston B. (2014), “Resistance and Pride: The Murals of Orgosolo, Sar- dinia.” State Crime journal 3 (1): 73- 101. Rubanu P., Fistrale G. (1998), Mura- les politici della Sardegna, Cagliari/ Bolsena, Massari/Dattena. Sartre J-P. (1999), L’esistenziali- smo è un umanismo, Milano, Co- lonna Edizioni. Satta, G. (2001). Turisti a Orgosolo. La Sardegna pastorale come attra- zione turistica, Liguori. Sennett R. (2006), Il declino dell’uomo pubblico, Bruno Monda- dori, Milano. Serra C. (2007), Murales e graffiti: il linguaggio del disagio e della di- versità, Giuffrè Editore, 2007. Shapiro, R., & Heinich, N. (2012). When is artification?. Contempora- ry Aesthetics, (4), 9. Vanali R, (2018), Catalogare i muri. Intervista alla storica dell’arte Sil- via Ledda, in Artribune Magazine, n. 45 Zukin S. (1995), The Cultures of Ci- ties, Blackwell, Oxford. Zukin, S. (2013). L’altra New York: alla ricerca della metropoli auten- tica. Il Mulino. WEBOGRAPHY Sardegna Turismo – Orgosolo <https://www.sardegnaturismo.it/ it/esplora/orgosolo> The Guardian, Street art Sardinia: the myth and magic of Orgosolo’s murals, <https://www.theguar- d i a n . c o m / t r a v e l / 2 0 1 6 / j u n / 0 1 / street-art-sardinia-myth-magic- murals-orgosolo> 
work_qstpugqrvzgaxdmw6pvyaqym6m	----	Espacio americano y teoría europea. Diálogos en literatura y pintura Cristina Elgue-Martini RESUMEN En un primer momento, el artículo se aproxima a la poética de Alejo Carpentier entendida como resultado de procesos de transculturación que consideran los contactos transoceánicos del escritor con las vanguardias europeas, en especial, con el movimiento surrealista francés, y con la antropología. En un segundo momento del análisis, se consideran las pinturas de Wilfredo Lam de los 1940’s desde los postulados de “lo real-maravilloso” de Carpetier y se las hace dialogar asimismo con la obra de Jackson Pollock producida en las décadas de 1930 y 1940. Tanto la obra de Lam como la de Pollock manifiestan procesos de transculturación en las que la psicología profunda de Carl Jung constituye un elemento insoslayable, lo mismo que el surrealismo y el cubismo. Palabras clave: ​Alejo Carpentier - Wilfredo Lam - Jackson Pollock - espacio americano - teoría europea ABSTRACT Primarily, the article approaches Alejo Carpentier’s poetics understood as the result of processes of transculturation that incorporate the author’s transoceanic contacts with the European avant garde movements, mainly French surrealism, and anthropology. Secondly, the analysis considers the paintings produced by Wilfredo Lam in the 1940’s following the principles of Carpentier’s magic realism and next compares them with Jackson Pollock’s production of the 1930’s and 1940’s. Both Lam’s and Pollock’s work shows processes of transculturation in which Carl Jung’s deep psychology, as well as surrealism and cubism, are essential constitutive elements. Keywords: ​Alejo Carpentier - Wilfredo Lam - Jackson Pollock – American space – European theory Introducción En esta presentación, aspiro, en un primer momento, a realizar una aproximación a la poética de Alejo Carpentier, entendida como resultado de procesos de transculturación que consideran los contactos transoceánicos del escritor con las vanguardias europeas, en especial con el movimiento surrealista francés, y con la antropología. En un segundo momento del análisis, me propongo considerar las pinturas de Lam de los años 40 desde los postulados de “lo real-maravilloso” de Carpentier y hacerlas dialogar, asimismo, con la obra de Jackson Pollock, producida en las décadas de 1930 y 1940. Tanto la obra de Lam como la de Pollock manifiestan procesos de transculturación en las que la psicología profunda de Carl Jung constituye un elemento insoslayable, igual que el surrealismo y el cubismo. 1-El campo literario Alejo Carpentier (1904-1980) Revista de Culturas y Literaturas Comparadas. Volumen 6 - Año 2016 Esta obra está bajo una Licencia Creative Commons Atribución – No Comercial – Sin Obra Derivada 4.0 Internacional. Aunque ​El reino de este mundo​ (1949)​ es uno de los primeros relatos mágico-realistas que adquirieron valor paradigmático, más que al relato mismo, quiero dedicarme al análisis del prólogo, debido a que, en él, Carpentier define la nueva estética. Comienza por caracterizar "lo real-maravilloso" en los siguientes términos: lo maravilloso comienza a serlo de manera inequívoca cuando surge de una inesperada alteración de la realidad (el milagro), de una revelación privilegiada de la realidad, de una iluminación inhabitual o singularmente favorecedora de las inadvertidas riquezas de la realidad, de una ampliación de las escalas y categorías de la realidad percibidas con particular intensidad en virtud de una exaltación del espíritu que lo conduce a un modo de "estado límite”. (11) Carpentier señala, en esta definición, dos fuentes en la gestación de "lo real-maravilloso": la realidad y la exaltación del espíritu, que remiten, respectivamente, al objeto y al sujeto. Consideremos primero el objeto. Según el autor, la realidad americana tiene carácter maravilloso tanto en su geografía y en su historia, como en la mentalidad de sus pueblos; pero ¿qué entiende Carpentier por una realidad maravillosa? Aplicado a la geografía, el epíteto alude a la "magia de la vegetación tropical, la desenfrenada Creación de formas de nuestra naturaleza -con todas sus metamorfosis y simbiosis" (10); con respecto a la historia, "lo real-maravilloso se encuentra a cada paso en las vidas de los hombres que inscribieron fechas en la historia del Continente" (12); referido finalmente a la mentalidad de los pueblos hispanoamericanos, lo maravilloso apunta a lo que los antropólogos, a falta de mejor denominación, llamaron por esa época "mentalidad primitiva" o "arcaica". En otras palabras, la realidad del escritor mágico-realista no es ya la realidad de cuño positivista. Se trata ahora de una realidad mágica, pero mágica no en el sentido con que el término había sido utilizado por los críticos europeos de la década del veinte -para aludir a una cualidad espiritual o ideal de la realidad-, sino específicamente con el significado que le atribuyen los antropólogos al describir la mentalidad primitiva. Brevemente, y basándome en Lucien Lévy-Bruhl , la magia surge del carácter 1 "místico" de este tipo de mentalidad, debiendo entenderse por "mística", "la croyance à des forces, à des influences, à des actions imperceptibles aux sens, et cependant réelles" (30) . Para el primitivo, toda realidad está penetrada de misticismo y en virtud de la ​ley 2 de participación​ , que rige los vínculos de sus representaciones colectivas, en estas representaciones colectivas de la mentalidad primitiva, "les objets, les êtres, les phénomènes peuvent être, d'une façon incompréhensible pour nous, à la foi eux-mêmes et autre chose qu'eux-mêmes" (77). Esta es la llamada participación vivida, a la que sucede la participación representada, estadio en el que, según Lévy-Bruhl, las fuerzas místicas se encarnan en seres más o menos divinos, surgiendo de esta manera los mitos y los símbolos. Este carácter "mágico" o "místico" de la mentalidad primitiva desde la que se aprehende la realidad es lo que permite dar cuenta de las principales características del "realismo mágico americano", donde el milagro en el desarrollo de las acciones, la presencia de una naturaleza mimética y orgánica donde se confunden orden y grado de 1 Aunque en sus ensayos Carpentier no hace referencia a Lévy-Bruhl, teniendo en cuenta el interés del escritor cubano por los temas antropológicos y que su estadía en París transcurre entre 1928 y 1939, no debe descartarse la posibilidad de que conociera la obra del sociólogo y antropólogo francés. 2 Resulta claro que el adjetivo no está utilizado con el contenido adjudicado al misticismo religioso de nuestras sociedades. 2 Cristina Elgue-Martini los objetos, plantas, animales y seres humanos se explica no en términos de una "desrealización", sino como consecuencia de la realidad antropológica del referente. En efecto, en lo que respecta a la concepción y valoración del mundo natural, la naturaleza distinta y antagonista del hombre de la novela realista-naturalista americana se transforma en un mundo animado, esencial y afectivamente unido al hombre. En lo que se refiere al desarrollo de las acciones, el milagro, que había sido eliminado por la novela naturalista, encuentra ahora un lugar privilegiado. Claro que empleo "milagro" desde la perspectiva racional occidental, ya que, considerado desde la mentalidad del hombre de esta narrativa, el milagro tiene una explicación antropológica. Como lo indica Carpentier en el Prólogo de ​El reino de este mundo​ "pisaba yo una tierra donde millares de hombres ansiosos de libertad creyeron en los poderes licantrópicos de Mackandal, a punto de que esa fe colectiva produjera un milagro el día de su ejecución" (12). También, la realidad antropológica del referente explica la presencia del mito y el símbolo -correspondientes al estadio de la participación representada, según Lévy-Bruhl-, que en la narrativa mágico-realista sustituyen a la alegoría del realismo-naturalismo. Dije que "lo real-maravilloso" tiene dos fuentes: el objeto, al que acabo de referirme, y el sujeto. Con respecto al segundo, según Carpentier, para percibir "las inadvertidas riquezas de la realidad" es necesaria "una exaltación del espíritu": "la sensación de lo maravilloso presupone una fe" (11). Ahora bien, la fe que les permitió captar esa "inesperada alteración de la realidad (el milagro)" no se manifestó espontáneamente en los escritores hispanoamericanos de la generación de Carpentier; fue, por el contrario, en gran medida, el fruto de medulosas investigaciones acerca de "las realidades sincréticas" de la América mestiza y, al mismo tiempo, de la experiencia 3 surrealista. A pesar de que el prólogo de ​El reino de este mundo​ es acerbamente crítico del movimiento de Bretón, Carpentier nunca dejó de reconocer la importancia que tuvo el surrealismo en su formación intelectual y artística. Recordemos que fue miembro del grupo surrealista desde su llegada a París en 1928 y que, aunque en 1930 se unió a los disidentes que firmaron el virulento manifiesto contra Bretón, la ruptura con la escuela no significó para Carpentier el rechazo de sus postulados. Los artículos sobre pintores vanguardistas -Francis Picabia, Alberto Martini, Per Krogh, Giorgio de Chirico- que escribió para la revista ​Social de La Habana durante su estada en París muestran ya un explícito reconocimiento al movimiento, ya influencias ideológicas o estéticas del mismo. Mucho más tarde, en una entrevista de Luis Harss, Carpentier expresa su deuda para con el surrealismo. Así registra Harss la evaluación que Carpentier realizaba en los 60 a propósito de la época de su estada en París: Lo carcomía el deseo de expresar el mundo de América, de hacer que sus riachuelos perdidos afluyeran a la mar. Agradece a los surrealistas su despertar del sueño milenario ; ellos le revelaron su verdadera imagen. Los que habían 4 viajado a América, a México en particular, habían vuelto con flamantes noticias de las viejas civilizaciones. Acaso el interés que sentían por lo primitivo no tardó en convertirse en una afectación, pero en él desencadenó un impulso atávico. (Harss, 55) 3 La expresión es de Carpentier, "Problemática de la actual novela latinoamericana" en ​Tientos y diferencias​ , Buenos Aires, Calicanto, 1976, p. 13. 4 El énfasis es mío. 3 Revista de Culturas y Literaturas Comparadas. Volumen 6 - Año 2016 Las teorías de Bretón, la convivencia con el grupo surrealista en París y, sobre todo, la vivencia del objeto surrealista dejaron profundas huellas en Carpentier. Al volver a América, no solo le permitió percibir "escalas y categorías de la realidad" que habían permanecido antes ocultas, sino que le brindó los medios expresivos para plasmarlas artísticamente y superar así el nativismo de su primera novela , erigiéndose 5 en "Cronista de Indias" de su continente, tal la función que el autor cubano asignaba al escritor hispanoamericano. En un trabajo publicado en 1995 analicé ​Los Manifiestos Surrealistas de Bretón con vistas a considerar su presencia en Carpentier y llegué a la conclusión de que lo maravilloso surrealista puede ser considerado como punto de partida de lo real-maravilloso porque: 1) el significado del término maravilloso en la estética de Carpentier es el mismo que en los Manifiestos de Bretón; 2) si bien en Carpentier hay una mayor ponderación de la realidad, el mejor surrealismo no rechazó la realidad empírica sino que intentó superarla, revelando sus aspectos mágicos, su misterio; 3) la revelación, tan importante para el escritor mágico-realista, era función esencial del poeta surrealista; 4) aunque Carpentier rechazó el método surrealista de acceso a la supra-realidad, descubrió las "inadvertidas riquezas de la realidad" americana a través de una percepción estética agudizada por la experiencia surrealista; 5) la fe que supone la sensación de lo maravilloso para Carpentier fue, también, un rasgo distintivo de la doctrina de Bretón; 6) la fe de Carpentier, lo mismo que la de Bretón, opera en un universo mágico donde las leyes de la lógica discursiva han perdido su vigencia (Elgue 167); 7) el humor negro que aparece, por ejemplo, como estrategia discursiva en la primera página de ​El reino de este mundo, poniendo en relación las cabezas de cera que adornan la tienda del peluquero y las cabezas de terneros de la tripería contigua, fue un recurso utilizado por los surrealistas para criticar el mecanismo mental convencional, otorgando al contexto un carácter grotesco y alucinante que contribuye a la desrealización momentánea del objeto. Para cerrar este primer apartado, quisiera citar a Roberto González Echeverría, cuya opinión resulta esclarecedora de mi posicionamiento. Escribe el crítico cubano-estadounidense: "Hay dos vertientes del realismo mágico, a veces distinguibles por (…) dos rúbricas (…). La primera, realismo mágico, que surge del libro de Roh, es la fenomenológica; la segunda, lo real maravilloso, de ascendencia surrealista, es la ontológica" (134). 2-El campo de la pintura Wilfredo Lam (1902-1982) Desde mi experiencia perceptiva, uno de los pintores cuya obra expresa con mayor cercanía la vivencia y la estética de lo real-maravilloso de Carpentier es la de Wilfredo Lam. En efecto, su estilo híbrido está caracterizado, como expresé al referirme a “lo real-maravilloso”, por “la presencia de una naturaleza mimética y orgánica donde se confunden orden y grado de los objetos, plantas, animales y seres humanos”. Lam nació en Sagua La Grande, una ciudad de provincia en el norte de la isla de Cuba. Su padre era un inmigrante chino y su madre era hija de un mulato cubano y de 5 Se trata de ​Ecué-Yamba-O​ , publicada en Madrid en 1932. A propósito de ella diría Carpentier "Al cabo de veinte años de investigaciones acerca de las realidades sincréticas de Cuba, me di cuenta de que todo lo hondo, lo verdadero, lo universal, del mundo que había pretendido pintar en mi novela había permanecido fuera del alcance de mi observación". "Problemática de la actual novela latinoamericana", p. 12 y 13. 4 Cristina Elgue-Martini una congolesa que había sido esclava. Su infancia se desarrolló, entonces, en un medio en el predominaba la etnia africana y la hibridación religiosa. A través de su madrina, que era una reconocida curadora y sacerdotisa de la Santería, conoció de niño los ritos Orishas africanos, que constituyeron un importante elemento en las primeras etapas de su construcción identitaria, que se expresaría, luego, fuertemente en su arte. Establecido en la Habana, Lam estudió en la Escuela de Bellas Artes y de allí pasó a Madrid en 1923, donde fue discípulo de Fernando Álvarez de Sotomayor, maestro de Salvador Dalí y, por entonces, Director del Museo del Prado. En la década del 30, era ya evidente la impronta surrealista en la pintura de Lam, pero también las huellas de Matisse y de Torres García, quien, a partir de 1917, había entrado en contacto con las vanguardias, sobre todo a través del Rafael Barradas, cuyo “vibracionismo” ha sido considerado como variante del futurismo (Battegazzore, 16). Por esa época, Torres García estaba nuevamente en Europa después de pasar casi dos años en Nueva York y, entre 1928 y 1931, ensayaría su “constructivismo temprano” (Battegazzore, 23), nuevo componente de esa conciencia en red de la Europa vanguardista. En 1936, una exposición itinerante de Picasso fue inspiradora para Lam, tanto estética como políticamente. Establecido en París ese mismo año, tuvo el apoyo de Picasso a través de quien revalorizó su temprana vivencia del arte y la cultura africana. Como en el caso de Carpentier, entonces, la experiencia europea confirmó su vocación americana. En el mismo año, Lam viajó a México donde estableció contactos con Frida Kahlo y Diego Rivera. Por ese entonces se convirtió en artista consagrado. Tuvo una exposición individual en la Galerie Pierre Loeb de Paris en 1939 y, el mismo año, su trabajo se expuso junto al de Picasso en las Paris Galleries de Nueva York. Por efecto de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, un importante diálogo estético-cultural tuvo como escenario al Caribe. Participaron de él Claude Levi-Strauss, André Masson y André Bretón, cuyo poema “Fata Morgana”, escrito en Marsella en 1940, ilustró Wilfredo Lam. Lam volvió a Cuba a comienzos de la década de 1940 y leyó las teorías de Carl Jung, que se integraron como nuevo componente de su identidad americana. Produjo, entonces, una de sus composiciones más destacadas, “La jungla” (1943), seguida de otras muy significativas como “La presencia eterna” y “Arpa cardinal”. Vemos en estas composiciones la "magia de la vegetación tropical, la desenfrenada Creación de formas de nuestra naturaleza—con todas sus metamorfosis y simbiosis". Estoy citando a Carpentier cuando en el Prólogo del ​Reino de este mundo​ , caracteriza la maravillosa geografía americana. En una entrevista realizada en 1976 por el crítico Max-Pol Fouchet, Lam se expresó en términos que también recuerdan la necesidad que experimentaba Carpentier por expresar su América. Decía Lam en esa oportunidad: "Quería de todo corazón pintar el drama de mí país y expresar en detalle el espíritu negro y la belleza del arte de los negros. De esta manera podía actuar como un caballo de Troya del cual saldrían figuras alucinantes, capaces de sorprender y perturbar los sueños de los explotadores" (Ctdo. en Vicente n/a). La exposición retrospectiva de su obra organizada por el Centro Pompidou y la Tate confirma que su arte es un componente ineludible del modernismo. Conforme 6 6 ​Más de 400 obras -pinturas, dibujos, fotografías, además de revistas y libros- integran la muestra que fue presentada entre septiembre de 2015 y febrero de 2016 en el Centro Pompidou de París, que actualmente se expone en el Reina Sofía de Madrid​ ​(12 de abril-15 de agosto de 2016) y será luego recibida por la Tate Modern de Londres ​ ​(14 de septiembre 2016 al 8 de enero de 2017) (“Retrospectiva de Lam en tres de los museos más importantes del mundo”). 5 Revista de Culturas y Literaturas Comparadas. Volumen 6 - Año 2016 explica Catherine David, la curadora de la retrospectiva, ​el aporte de Lam al modernismo “consistió en integrar a un espacio moderno que contribuyó a abrir -fue un formidable inventor de formas- una cantidad de elementos que nunca hubiesen entrado por sí solos: referencias a la cultura caribeña y figuras híbridas sumamente complejas” (“Retrospectiva de Lam en tres de los museos más importantes del mundo”). Jackson Pollock (1912-1956) Quiero, ahora, establecer un diálogo entre las imágenes míticas pintadas por Lam a su regreso a Cuba con las producidas por Jackson Pollock por la misma época. Pollock saltó a la fama con el famoso ​Mural de 1943-44 para Peggy Guggenheim. El mural revela las influencias más importantes de la formación del pintor hasta ese momento: los ritmos del pintor regionalista Thomas Hart Benton, el trabajo de los muralistas mexicanos, la pintura sobre arena de los indios navajos, el psicoanálisis de Jung -a quien Pollock frecuentó a través de su psiquiatra Joseph L. Henderson-, el automatismo surrealista, a través sobre todo de Joan Miró e, indudablemente, la abstracción de Pablo Picasso, nunca demasiado alejada de lo figurativo. Como en Carpentier y Lam, América es un componente fundamental del arte de Pollock. En 1943, expresaba en una entrevista: Siempre me ha impresionado la calidad plástica del arte de los indios americanos. Los indígenas lograron la verdadera aproximación pictórica con su capacidad de lograr las imágenes apropiadas, y con su entendimiento de lo que constituye la verdadera materia objeto de la pintura. Su color es esencialmente el Oeste, su visión tiene la universalidad básica del verdadero arte. (Emmerling 18) Me interesa detenerme en el concepto de “la universalidad básica del verdadero arte”. En los tres artistas objeto de mi análisis, el “universalismo” fue incorporado, sin duda, por la teoría y práctica de los surrealistas; pero en Lam y Pollock, este concepto se enriqueció a través de sus lecturas de Jung. En el campo de la psicología, el referente tanto de Lam como de Pollock no fue Freud, sino Jung y su teoría de los arquetipos. En este sentido, el juicio de Emmerling a propósito de Pollock que cito a continuación, podría aplicarse también a Lam: En el caso de Pollock, al interés por la psicología profunda de Jung se sumó su fascinación por cuadros que representan la unión anímica entre el ser humano y el animal. También en ese sentido, las características del arte de los indios del Norte y Centroamérica cobran una gran relevancia. Desde el principio, Pollock (…) se interesó por el papel del chamán, que sirve de mediador entre las esferas animal y humana. La grave, casi mortal enfermedad que debe padecer y de la que sale iluminado, lo capacita para tomar contacto con las dos esferas y transmitir una sabiduría más humana. La teoría de Jung, según la cual un chamán experimenta uno o varios ciclos de nacimiento, muerte y reencarnación, fue uno de los pocos aspectos que Pollock discutió con sus terapeutas ​. (23) 7 7 Cabría señalar, para una mejor comprensión de los conceptos desarrollados, que, conforme a Jung, los arquetipos universales son disposiciones preconscientes que permiten al ser humano reaccionar de una manera humana. Al entrar en el campo de la conciencia, los potenciales creativos se actualizan como 6 Cristina Elgue-Martini El ​Mural​ significó un cambio fundamental en la pintura estadounidense; para el crítico de arte Clement Greenberg “era lo más grande que los Estados Unidos habían producido hasta ese momento” (ctdo. en Adams n/a). Tanto la pintura de caballete como los conceptos de fondo y forma pertenecían definitivamente al pasado, según lo entenderían los miembros de la Escuela de Nueva York. De la misma época del ​Mural es ​Composition with Pouring II (1943), en la que Pollock introduce una técnica: el ​pouring​ , que, si bien ya había sido utilizada por otros pintores, Picabia por ejemplo, se volvería internacionalmente famosa, junto con el dripping​ , a través de sus composiciones. Al tiempo que introducía estas técnicas, Pollock ubicó sus lienzos en el suelo para poder derramar la pintura moviéndose alrededor de ellos. ​Gothic (1944) es otra muestra interesante del nuevo arte abstracto del pintor, al que Greenberg calificó como “aterrador, mórbido y extremo”, en referencia directa al título de esta obra (ctdo. en Emmerling 54). Siguió la serie de los ​Sonidos en el pasto y en 1947 un hito: ​Full Fathom Five​ , cuyo título, que proviene de la canción de Ariel de ​La Tempestad, le fue sugerido por un vecino de Long Island, Ralph Manheim, traductor de Carl Gustav Jung. Según Emmerling, “la creación del cuadro se suele relacionar a menudo con el libre fluir del inconsciente” (65). ​Cathedral y ​Comet (1947) siguen la misma línea. ​Ritmos de otoño (1950), en la que dominan los matices marrones, grises, negros y blancos, marca otro momento significativo. La década del 50 no fue propicia para Pollock. En la apreciación del público y de la crítica, su arte no habría superado los logros de la década anterior. El pintor murió en un accidente automovilístico en 1956. Conducía borracho. Debía realizar una exposición individual en el MOMA, lo que se había transformado en una presión intolerable, ya que la inspiración parecía agotada y el oficio anulado por el alcoholismo. La muestra se transformó finalmente en retrospectiva. A manera de conclusión Los diálogos transoceánicos planteados en el tratamiento de los textos de Carpentier, Lam y Pollock han develado complejos procesos de transculturación, en los que las vanguardias europeas -especialmente el surrealismo-, la antropología y la psicología profunda resultan elementos insoslayables como potenciadores del distintivo carácter americano de las obras. Obras Citadas Adams, Henry. “Decoding Jackson Pollock. Did the Abstract Expressionist Hide his Name amid the Swirls and Torrents of a Legendary 1943 Mural?” en Smithsonian Magazine​ . Nov. 2009.​ ​Digital. Battegazzore, Miguel, A. ​J. Torres-García. La Trama y los Signos​ . Montevideo: Impresora Gordon, 1999. Bretón, André. ​Manifiestos del surrealismo​ . Madrid: Guadarrama, 1969. Carpentier, Alejo. ​El reino de este mundo​ . Buenos Aires: Quetzal, 1980. imágenes. Se trata de “imágenes arquetípicas”. Si bien hay muy pocos arquetipos básicos a nivel inconsciente, las imágenes que se conectan con estos arquetipos son infinitas. Los arquetipos nos ligan con la especie, mientras que las imágenes arquetípicas a nivel consciente se relacionan con la cultura. 7 Revista de Culturas y Literaturas Comparadas. Volumen 6 - Año 2016 ______________. "Problemática de la actual novela latinoamericana" en ​Tientos y diferencias​ . Buenos Aires: Calicanto, 1976. 7-39. Elgue de Martini, Cristina. “André Bretón en dos narradores hispanoamericanos: Alejo Carpentier y Enrique Molina” en Trinidad Blanco de García ​et al. Modernidad y Literatura​ . Córdoba, Arg.: Escuela de Letras, Facultad de Filosofía y Humanidades, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, 1995. 149-180. Emmerling, Leonhard. ​Jackson Pollock. 1912-1956​ . Köln: Taschen, 2003. González Echeverría, Roberto. "Alejo Carpentier" en Roy, Joaquín (Comp). ​Narrativa y crítica de nuestra América​ . Madrid: Castalia, 1978. 127-160. Harss, Luis. ​Los nuestros​ . Buenos Aires: Sudamericana, 1966. Lévy-Bruhl​,​ Lucien. ​Les fonctions mentales dans les sociétés inférieures​ . Paris: Librairie Félix Alcan, 1928. Vicente, Álex. "Redescubrir a Wilfredo Lam". ​El País. ​ 16/10/2015. Digital “Retrospectiva de Lam en tres de los museos más importantes del mundo” en ​Martí. Arte y Cultura​ . Septiembre 29, 2015. Digital. 8 Cristina Elgue-Martini 
work_qv4pqnjnpzgcfgcytsrwllu46y	----	8_14_CIGOLA_GALLOZZI.indd D I S E G N O P E R I L R E S TA U R O : O LT R E I L R I L I E V O# 8 / 1 4 - g e n n a i o 2 0 1 5 I S S N 1 8 2 8 - 5 9 6 1 DISEGNARECON h t t p : / / d i s e g n a r e c o n . u n i v a q . i t M i ch e l a C i g o l a Professore Ordinario ICAR/17. DICeM Università degli Studi di Cassino e del Lazio Meridionale - cigola@unicas.it Laureata in Architettura e specializzata in “Studio e Restauro dei Monumenti” presso La Sapienza di Roma. Re- sponsabile scientifico del Laboratorio di Documentazione, Analisi, Rilievo dell’Architettura e del Territorio-DART. Componente del Consiglio Scientifico dell’Unione Italiana per il Disegno. Strategie robo zzate per operazioni di rilevamento e conservazione dei BBCC. HeritageBot è un proge o di sviluppo tecnologico fi nalizzato alla realizzazione di sistemi robo zza al servizio di beni culturali archite onici e arche- ologici. La sperimentazione si soff erma sull’applicazione di robot esapodi espressamente proge a per essere u lizza , in par colari casi, nelle operazio- ni di rilevamento. L’unità di ricerca, a va presso l’Università di Cas- sino, stru urata con competenze mul disciplina- ri in par colare nell’ambito della meccatronica e del rilevamento, ha proge ato e realizzato due proto pi di robot esapodi. Ques sono sta con- cepi per trasportare e movimentare strumenta- zione per il rilievo. A ualmente sono in corso test di validazione e verifi che di operabilità, dire e ad o mizzare procedure ed operazioni automa zzate per le fasi di rilevamento, da far svolgere al sistema ro- bo zzato. A r t u r o G a l l o z z i Ingegnere, ricercatore ICAR/17. DICeM Università degli Studi di Cassino e del Lazio Meridionale - gallozzi@unicas.it La sua attività di ricerca è rivolta pre- valentemente alle tematiche della rap- presentazione in ambito edilizio, urba- no e territoriale; si è occupato inoltre di cartografia ed interventi storici legati a bonifiche idrauliche e a trasformazioni territoriali, nonché di trattatistica e ma- nualista come fonti storiche e indicatori per la progettazione. HeritageBot is a project on technological and market development of robo c patents for cul- tural heritage (mainly archaeological and ar- chitectural) and the development of services for opera onal applica ons (industrial, cultural, educa onal, etc.) of the iden fi ed technological solu ons. The ar cle focuses on hexapods robot designed to be applied to the analysis of architecture. The robot must perform many of the opera ons nee- ded in Architectural survey through automated manoeuvres. These manoeuvres could improve procedures and results, both in terms of speed and accuracy of execu on. An interdisciplinary research group of the Univer- sity of Cassino has been working designing two robots. The group built two prototypes. Currently we are developing valida on test and solu ons tests for general background and specifi c cases. Robo c systems for architectural survey and conserva on of Cultural Heritage Parole chiave: Rilievo dell’archite ura, Robo ca, Nuove tecnologie per I BB.CC. Keywords: Architectural survey, Robo cs, New technologies for Cultural Heritage D I S E G N O P E R I L R E S TA U R O : O LT R E I L R I L I E V O# 8 / 1 4 - g e n n a i o 2 0 1 5 I S S N 1 8 2 8 - 5 9 6 1 DISEGNARECON C I G O L A - G A L L O Z Z I S i s t e m i r o b o t i z z a t i p e r o p e r a z i o n i d i r i l e v a m e n t o e c o n s e r v a z i o n e d e i B B C C h t t p : / / d i s e g n a r e c o n . u n i v a q . i t 18.2 IL PROGETTO HERITAGE-BOT HeritageBot è un proge o di valorizzazione tec- nologica nell’ambito della conoscenza, ges one ed a uazione di breve nel se ore della ro- bo ca. Esplica, principalmente, la sua funzione nella concre zzazione di soluzioni tecnologiche rivolte a molteplici applicazioni: industriali, cultu- rali, educa ve ecc. In questo contesto, uno degli indirizzi di maggior sviluppo a esi dal proge o HeritageBot interessa l’u lizzo di sistemi robo ci in archite ura e archeologia. Il se ore presenta infa un enorme potenziale di applicazioni e di mercato, che verrà aff rontato nell’ambito del pro- ge o sia dal punto di vista tecnico che da quello economico, rispe vamente a raverso la studio e la realizzazione di nuovi proto pi ed a raver- so l’iden fi cazione di una gamma diff erenziata di applicazioni [1]. La compagine di ricerca annovera, al suo interno, diverse competenze che spaziano dalla natura tecnica a quella economica e giuridica, fi nalizzate tu e alla migliore valorizzazione dei proge . Le competenze trasversali dell’unità di ricerca fanno riferimento ai seguen laboratori dell’Università degli Studi di Cassino e del Lazio Meridionale Uni- CLAM: il LARM (Laboratorio di Robo ca e Mec- catronica) nel se ore più stre amente ingegne- ris co, il DART (Laboratorio di Documentazione, Analisi, Rilievo dell’Archite ura e del Territorio) nell’ambito dei Beni Culturali e principalmente del patrimonio archite onico, l’IMPRENDILAB (Laboratorio per la promozione della cultura im- prenditoriale) e il FINLAB (Laboratorio di Finan- za Aziendale) nell’area economico-aziendale. Le operazioni del proge o sono generalmente ar - colate in fasi sequenziali, anche parzialmente so- vrapposte in termini temporali, con programma- zione di a vità ed azioni rivolte all’integrazione degli aspe tecnici con quelli economico-azien- dali in un’o ca tecnologico imprenditoriale. Il principale elemento base sul quale è organizzato il proge o riguarda una pia aforma robo ca che verrà testata, in un primo step, essenzialmente in a vità dimostra ve su campi di sperimentazione reali, non solo per validare i risulta tecnologici raggiun nell’applicazione ai BBCC, ma anche per veicolare il trasferimento tecnologico e i succes- sivi sviluppi dei risulta presso realtà imprendi- toriali e possibili u lizzatori. In breve sintesi, le a vità di ricerca prevedono studi sulle possibili applicazioni nei beni culturali, proge azione di specifi che soluzioni e loro opera vità, integrata da test di validazione, coinvolgimento di end- users e stakeholders, oltre alla sperimentazione dire a del sistema in par colari contes architet- tonici ed archeologici. OBIETTIVI DEL PROGETTO Il proge o HeritageBot persegue essenzialmen- te due obie vi di ricerca fortemente integra tra loro. Da un lato lo sviluppo e il perfeziona- mento di un proto po robo co applicato ai beni culturali, congiuntamente alla rela va a vità di supporto al trasferimento tecnologico e di diff u- sione delle conoscenze, dall’altro la realizzazione di un insieme di pacche integra di strumen e servizi, che grazie alle competenze sviluppate possano essere u lizzate in ambito culturale ed industriale. Pertanto, il primo obie vo traguarda lo sviluppo proto pale di un sistema robo co per i BBCC, integrato da un insieme di a vità volte alla diff usione del sapere tecnologico a vari livelli su scala territoriale. Da tempo il LARM – UniCLAM ha sviluppato due primi proto pi di robot HeritageBot (HB1 e HB2) in grado di a uare le fasi di analisi e di rilievo di elemen decora vi e di complessi archite onici e archeologici e quindi supportare le successive fasi di conservazione, restauro e valorizzazione del bene. L’a uale pianifi cazione delle a vità di proge o è volta principalmente al perfezioneran- no dei sistemi HeritageBot, per ada arli alle spe- cifi che esigenze del se ore culturale e industriale di riferimento. In par colare, la ricerca intende porre par colare a enzione al coinvolgimento e al trasferimento di conoscenze non solo con a ori specializza (es. aziende ed en locali o regionali operan nei set- tori dei BBCC), ma anche, come de o, con poten- ziali operatori e fruitori dei BBCC stessi. Tra le a vità previste per raggiungere il primo obie vo si prevede l’Iden fi cazione sele va de- gli a ori che possano avere un interesse specifi co al proge o -stakeholder- (es. Ministero dei Beni Culturali, Sovraintendenze, Poli Museali, aziende che operano nel se ore dell’analisi, valutazione e conservazione del patrimonio culturale ecc.). Mentre lo step successivo prevede un migliora- mento/adeguamento dei proto pi già realizza , in funzione delle precipue esigenze degli sta- keholder interessa al proge o, cara erizzando uno dei pun di forza dell’HeritageBot ripos nel- la modularità e fl essibilità d’uso, fa ori che ren- dono possibile diversifi cate soluzioni, ada abili ai variega scenari del contesto opera vo. La procedura di lavoro, ormai da tempo consoli- data, prevede la verifi ca delle soluzioni tecniche sviluppate, dapprima testate empiricamente, in modo da valutare potenzialità e limi , quindi, co- erentemente con la fi losofi a di sviluppo dell’inte- ro proge o, in fasi successive la “messa a punto” di nuove soluzioni e dei servizi ad esse collegate, seguendo metodologie di po partecipa vo, in modo da coinvolgere tu i sogge interessa , in un costante, con nuo e implementabile scambio di conoscenze. Il segmento del proge o HeritageBot sul quale il presente contributo intende soff ermarsi riguarda il ricorso a robot esapodi espressamente proget- ta per essere u lizza in procedure di analisi di episodi archite onici/archeologici di controllata estensione, tentando di far svolgere al sistema robo zzato le molteplici operazioni piche dell’a- zione del rilevare. Operazioni che, a raverso manovre automa zzate, possano migliorare, in par colari e diffi cili contes ambientali, i metodi ed i risulta , sia in termini di velocità che di accu- ratezza di esecuzione. SCENARIO ATTUALE NEL CAMPO DELLA ROBO- TICA APPLICATA AI BBCC Lo stato dell’arte del connubio tra Robo ca e BBCC è estremamente sinte co; le esperienze a ualmente più conosciute possono essere rag- gruppate in due principali pologie: robot per ispezioni e fruizioni in remoto di ambien diffi - cilmente accessibili e robot u lizza per la frui- zione ampliata dei musei. Alla prima categoria appar ene un disposi vo sviluppato dall’ Is tuto di Studi sui Sistemi Intelligen per l’Automazione CNR – ISSIA di Bari. Si tra a di un robot mobile D I S E G N O P E R I L R E S TA U R O : O LT R E I L R I L I E V O# 8 / 1 4 - g e n n a i o 2 0 1 5 I S S N 1 8 2 8 - 5 9 6 1 DISEGNARECON C I G O L A - G A L L O Z Z I S i s t e m i r o b o t i z z a t i p e r o p e r a z i o n i d i r i l e v a m e n t o e c o n s e r v a z i o n e d e i B B C C h t t p : / / d i s e g n a r e c o n . u n i v a q . i t 18.3 autonomo per la fruizione da remoto di una ca- verna paleoli ca ricca di pi ure e reper preisto- rici. Il robot è in grado di esplorare l’ambiente e di assumere determinate posizioni. Cos tuito da una pia aforma robo ca mobile, il sistema è equipaggiato con varia strumentazione quale: sensori laser ed a ultrasuoni, inclinometri, tele- camera, sistema di illuminazione, bussola ed an- tenna per la comunicazione wireless da remoto. Altre sperimentazioni sono state eff e uate per ispezioni entro cunicoli e piccoli spazi, non rag- giungibili dall’uomo per la loro dimensione o per condizioni ambientali par colarmente diffi cili. Qualcosa di simile è stato tentato con droni vo- lan a seguito del recente sisma in Abruzzo, per l’indagine sullo stato di ambien distru dal ter- remoto, in condizioni di pericolo per i soccorritori e per i tecnici, come nel caso della basilica di San- ta Maria di Collemaggio a l’Aquila. Alla categoria dei robot per la fruizione museale appar ene, invece, il proto po Cicerobot. Robot museale realizzato dal Dipar mento di Ingegne- ria informa ca e dall’Icar-CNR di Palermo, che perme e di programmare la visita a seconda del- le esigenze e riesce a guidare i turis nel museo evitando ostacoli e fi le. E’ dotato di una tas era, un monitor, una telecamera e alcuni sensori che lo collegano ad un nodo Internet, al quale puo' conne ersi anche chi si trova fuori dal museo per una visita virtuale. Sempre nell’ambito museale un’altra applicazio- ne, con interessan possibilità di sviluppo, riguar- da il proge o di ricerca “A er Dark” [2]. Questo sfru ando gli orari no urni di chiusura della Tate Gallery di Londra, grazie a disposi vi robo ci te- lecomanda , dota di telecamere e fare orien- tabili, consente la visita al museo, collegandosi ad un sito dove il pubblico potrà controllare -a tur- no- i robot, creando il proprio percorso di visita in tempo reale dal proprio computer. Fra le applicazioni, ancora allo stato di sperimen- tazione, si ricorda l’applicazione di un robot a movimento cartesiano che ha consen to di ela- borare una corposa indagine diagnos ca per il capolavoro di Pablo Picasso 'Guernica', so opo- nendolo, nel Museo Reina Sofi a a Madrid, ad una de agliata analisi a raverso circa 24mila fotogra- fi e ad al ssima risoluzione (eseguite a luce na- turale, con gli ultraviole e a raggi infrarossi) di ogni cen metro quadrato dell’opera [3] (Fig. 1). L’ATTIVITÀ DI RICERCA PRESSO L’UNICLAM Nell’ambito dell’Università di Cassino e del Lazio Meridionale, il gruppo di lavoro integrato del La- boratorio DART con il Laboratorio LARM da tempo persegue una forte interrelazione tra le discipline della robo ca con quelle del rilevamento archi- te onico, a raverso un proge o fi nalizzato all’at- tuazione di soluzioni tecniche rivolte all’analisi e conservazione del patrimonio archite onico. La ricerca in corso, parzialmente innova va nel campo della robo ca, prevede la messa a punto di una procedura opera va consistente nella defi - nizione delle specifi che manovre -cara eris che delle operazioni del rilevamento archite onico- da affi dare ai movimen automa zza di un ro- bot, costruito nel laboratorio LARM (Fig. 2). La prima fase del proge o ha interessato l’indi- viduazione dei parametri e delle apparecchiatu- re -proprie delle operazioni di rilevamento- che potessero essere adeguate ed eventualmente integrate con il sistema robo co a disposizione, Fig. 1. Robot per l’analisi del dipinto Guernica di Pablo Picasso - Museo Reina Sofi a a Madrid D I S E G N O P E R I L R E S TA U R O : O LT R E I L R I L I E V O# 8 / 1 4 - g e n n a i o 2 0 1 5 I S S N 1 8 2 8 - 5 9 6 1 DISEGNARECON C I G O L A - G A L L O Z Z I S i s t e m i r o b o t i z z a t i p e r o p e r a z i o n i d i r i l e v a m e n t o e c o n s e r v a z i o n e d e i B B C C h t t p : / / d i s e g n a r e c o n . u n i v a q . i t 18.4 e quindi la valutazione “se e come” il disposi vo stesso potesse soddisfare le specifi che esigenze [4]. A ualmente sono in corso le operazioni di o mizzazione del proto po costruito dal LARM (Fig. 2) in funzione della sua capacità di movi- mentazione e controllo da remoto delle apparec- chiature per il rilievo installate. A questo scopo, dopo una serie di test di labora- torio sono state programmate ed eseguite prove campione in si reali, scel in base a già piani- fi cate future campagne di rilevamento, assis te da disposi vi robo ci. La scelta è caduta sull’Area archeologica della Cassino romana (an ca Casi- num) [5] nel Lazio meridionale (Fig. 3), in par - colare si è ritenuto idoneo, per la prova, uno dei cunicoli dell’anfi teatro [6] (Fig. 4). Per eff e uare il test il proto po è stato dotato di una telecamera wireless ad alta defi nizione posta nella parte inferiore della plancia del sistema ro- bo zzato. Mentre nella parte superiore del corpo centrale il proto po aveva collocato il gruppo di controllo remoto, collegato in wireless per il suo governo, ges bile anche a raverso un comune smartphone, con il quale è possibile trasme ere semplici comandi di avanzamento, arretramento, di sosta, svolta oppure di stop (Fig. 5). La prova ha consen to l’ispezione della parte interna del cunicolo e la registrazione della movimentazione delle ruote e delle gambe del proto po nella sua prima esperienza in reale. L’esperienza ha eviden- ziato le cri cità dell’apparato, in par colar modo negli stadi di avanzamento del robot nel superare Fig. 2. La struttura base del prototipo “Robot esapodo” costruito dal LARM Fig. 3. Planimetria dell’Area Archeologica di Casinum e sua localizzazione nella Cassino attuale Fig. 4. L’anfi teatro di Casinum D I S E G N O P E R I L R E S TA U R O : O LT R E I L R I L I E V O# 8 / 1 4 - g e n n a i o 2 0 1 5 I S S N 1 8 2 8 - 5 9 6 1 DISEGNARECON C I G O L A - G A L L O Z Z I S i s t e m i r o b o t i z z a t i p e r o p e r a z i o n i d i r i l e v a m e n t o e c o n s e r v a z i o n e d e i B B C C h t t p : / / d i s e g n a r e c o n . u n i v a q . i t 18.5 i vari ostacoli presen , consentendo di o miz- zare la stru ura ed il so ware di ges one del disposi vo, sopra u o nella combinazione con le apparecchiature necessarie alle operazioni di rilevamento. Conforta dai risulta emersi dalle prove di campagna, si è proceduto nello sviluppo del proge o, integrando il team di ricerca con un nuovo partner: il Centro Rea no di ricerche di In- gegneria per la Tutela e la Valorizzazione dell’Am- biente e del Territorio della Sapienza, il cui Labo- ratorio di Rilievo dell’archite ura (LRA) è dire o dal prof. Leonardo Paris. Grazie alla dotazione di apparecchiature per il rilievo archite onico del LRA (Laser Scanner lineari e 3D, apparecchiature fotografi che ad alta defi nizione ecc.) e con l’inter- vento del laboratorio LARM, si stanno defi nendo le opportune modifi che proge uali al proto po, in modo da poter eff e uare -nell’immediato fu- turo- un primo test assis to da disposi vi robo - ci, in ambien di diffi cile accessibilità, con l’ada a strumentazione professionale per le operazioni di rilevamento. CONCLUSIONI Il sistema integrato di servizi, propos dal pro- ge o HeritageBot, rappresenta e sinte zza un modello innova vo applicato allo studio di beni culturali reperibili a vari livelli territoriali, fi na- lizzato essenzialmente alla loro conservazione e valorizzazione. La proposta proge uale è indirizzata, in questa fase di sviluppo, verso applicazioni rivolte al ricco patrimonio ar s co-culturale della regione Lazio, con la fi nalità di sollecitare l’incremento di alcuni aspe del sistema socio-economico al quale può essere accostata l’inizia va. Il proge o trova s - molo nella convinzione che le determinan della tecnologia da impiegare, in un’o ca di fl essibili- tà, facilità di u lizzo e basso costo, per perseguire gli obie vi del proge o HeritageBot, si riversino e si trasformino in benefi ci economici futuri ge- nera dal suo u lizzo. Per quanto invece riguarda l’impa o sui beni culturali della Regione, l’ambito di applicazione può spaziare sull’intero territorio del Lazio. Regione con un immenso patrimonio culturale, declinato in vari modi: musei di an - Fig. 5. Il prototipo robotizzato (HB1), accessoriato con una telecamera wireless per lo studio del percorso, nel suo primo test fuori dal laboratorio LARM, nelle operazioni di ispezione di un cunicolo non accessibile da operatore umano D I S E G N O P E R I L R E S TA U R O : O LT R E I L R I L I E V O# 8 / 1 4 - g e n n a i o 2 0 1 5 I S S N 1 8 2 8 - 5 9 6 1 DISEGNARECON C I G O L A - G A L L O Z Z I S i s t e m i r o b o t i z z a t i p e r o p e r a z i o n i d i r i l e v a m e n t o e c o n s e r v a z i o n e d e i B B C C h t t p : / / d i s e g n a r e c o n . u n i v a q . i t 18.6 NOTE [1] Cessione di brevetti o licenze, servizi di supporto all’uso, realiz- zazione di spin-off, facilitazione di start-up locali, valorizzazione delle conoscenze e competenze maturate dalla compagine progettuale. [2] After dark ha appena conquistato la prima edizione dell'IK Prize, il pre- mio istituito da quest'anno che ri- compensa le idee capaci di sfruttare la tecnica digitale e creare un ponte di collegamento tra la Tate Britain, la galleria d'arte di Londra e il grande pubblico (After Dark, 2013). [3] Il Robot, progettato e realizzato appositamente per Guernica dal Departamento de Conservación- Restauración del Museo- con il sup- porto di Telefónica - ha sviluppato un sistema di automazione robotica controllato da computer, che si muo- ve con una precisione di 25 micron. Le sue dimensioni sono spettacolari: quasi dieci metri per cinque (1.560 kg di peso). “Un viaje digital al in- terior del Guernica”, por M. Quijano. http://blogthinkbig.com/guernica- interior-viaje-digital/. [4] Tra le apparecchiature prese in esame sono ovviamente comprese tutte le strumentazioni di base ne- cessarie ad effettuare misure dirette ed indirette, nonché apparecchi di primo contatto con le opere da analizzare (fotocamere, telecamere e altri strumenti di ripresa), disposi- tivi per rilievo strumentale oltre vari modelli (per dimensioni e caratteri- stiche) di laser scanner lineari e 3D con i relativi software di gestione e di post-processo. [5] Il centro di Casinum nacque come centro sannita, fu prima occu- pato dagli Etruschi e poi verso il 272 a.C. dai Romani che ne fecero un castrum, ossia un luogo fortifi cato creando un insediamento di 4.000 veterani; da prefettura romana Ca- sinum diviene quindi municipium e nel III secolo ottiene il diritto di cit- tadinanza sine suffragio. Casinum è particolarmente fi orente verso la fi ne della repubblica e poi in epoca imperiale, di questo passato riman- gono i resti romani della via Appia, dell’Anfi teatro e la tomba di Ummi- dia Quadratilla, oltre alla villa dello scrittore romano Terenzio Varrone, vissuto tra il 116 e il 27 a.C. Cono- sciamo queste emergenze anche attraverso le testimonianze grafi che di rilievo lasciati da molti tra i più grandi maestri del Rinascimento e delle epoche successive che si recavano all’Abbazia per studiare quello che per secoli è stato uno dei monumenti più importanti dell'ar- chitettura europea. [6] Gli autori desiderano ringraziare per la sua disponibilità il Direttore dell’Area Archeologica di Casinum e del Museo archeologico di Cassino, l’arch. Silvano Tanzilli. [7] Il patrimonio del Fondo Edifi ci di Culto è costituito da beni di varia na- tura, principalmente da edifi ci sacri. Compito del Fondo è di conservare le Chiese aperte al culto, insieme al patrimonio in esse custodito, af- fi dandole in uso all'autorità religio- sa e di assicurarne il restauro e la conservazione. Tali edifi ci, circa 700, sono dislocati su tutto il territorio na- zionale e tra essi fi gurano Abbazie, Basiliche monumentali e Chiese. [8] La lista del patrimonio mondiale include 981 siti. Attualmente l'Italia è la nazione che detiene il maggior numero di siti (49) inclusi nella lista dei patrimoni dell'umanità. BIBLIOGRAFIA Carbone Giuseppe, et al, 2007. Ope- ration strategy for a low-cost easy- operation Cassino Hexapod. Applied Bionics and Biomechanics, N. 4, 4, pp. 149-156. Carbone Giuseppe, Suciu Marius, Ceccarelli Marco, Pisla Doina, 2009. Design and Simulation of Cassino Hexapode Walking Machine. Inter- national Journal of Mechanics and Control, N. 10 2009; pp. 27-34. Carbone Giuseppe, Tedeschi Franco, 2013. A low cost control architecture chità, arte moderna e contemporanea; musei archeologici, an quarium, aree e si archeologi- ci; musei diff usi sul territorio; monumen , abba- zie, ville e giardini storici, oltre al Fondo Edifi ci di Culto[7], i cui beni sono di varia natura, cos tui principalmente da edifi ci sacri. Inoltre, un altro ambito di riferimento riguarda il cospicuo patri- monio di archeologia industriale, organizzato in i nerari ancora -in parte- da valorizzare, come, ad esempio, il circuito della fi liera industriale storica della carta nella valle del Sacco e del Liri. Non ul- mo un possibile interessamento del proge o ai si della regione Lazio iscri nell'elenco del Pa- trimonio Mondiale dell'Umanità [8], oltre a possi- bili applicazioni connesse alle collaborazioni con le Soprintendenze del Lazio. Ricordando che il proge o, avendo come focus principale l’analisi, il rilievo e la conseguente va- lorizzazione di elemen decora vi, archite ure, complessi archite onici, può fru uosamente in- teragire con tu i Beni sopra elenca , risultan- do una risorsa che potrà contribuire, opportu- namente in casi specifi ci, alla conservazione del patrimonio culturale. Nello specifi co infi ne, in merito alla sperimenta- zione in corso sui primi proto pi di robot esapodi (HB1 e HB2), i risulta a esi riguardano le specifi - che cara eris che del sistema robot-strumenta- zione di rilevamento (fotocamere, appara laser scanner 2D, 3D ecc.) orientate all’analisi di am- bien non ispezionabili dall’uomo sia per ragioni di sicurezza che di accessibilità. In tale o ca la sezione del proge o in esame, in prima ba uta, non mira ad o enere miglio- ramen qualita vi o temporali rispe o alle tec- niche di rilevamento consolidate, ma è rivolta essenzialmente a defi nire fa bili procedure metodologiche per eseguire rilievi professionali in par colari ambi e con controllo da remoto di tu o il processo. Pertanto, di fa o, il sistema in sperimentazione, una volta o mizzato, dovrà essere in grado di risolvere alcune delle principali problema che legate al rilievo di si non dire a- mente accessibili da operatori umani. for Cassino Hexapod II. International Journal of Mechanics and Control, vol 14 n. 1, pp. 19-24. Carbone Giuseppe, Cigola Michela, Tedeschi Franco, 2014. The chal- lenge of architectonic survey and restoration of historical sites for servece robotics. In print in Preocee- ding of IARP. International Advanced robotics program International Wor- kshop. Frascati may 2014. Ceccarelli M., Cigola M., Service ro- bots for restoration of goods of cul- tural heritage in Service Robots and Robotics: Design and Application edited by di M. Ceccarelli, published by IGI Global, Hershey, Pennsylvania (USA), 2012; pp. 213-228. ISBN 978-1-4666-0291-5 (hardcover) - ISBN 978-1-4666-0292-2 (ebook); DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-0291-5. ch012 Chella Antonio, 2007. CiceRobot: a cognitive robot for interactive museum tours. Industrial Robot, 10/2007; 34(6):503-511. DOI: 10.1108/01439910710832101 Cigola M., Gallozzi A., Nuove tecno- logie per l’analisi e la conservazione del patrimonio architettonico In Ita- lian Survey & International Experien- ce. A cura di Paolo Giandebiaggi e Chiara Vernizzi; Roma Gangemi edi- tore 2014; pp. 795-802. ISBN:88- 492-2915-1(hardcover) - ISBN 978- 88-492-2915-8 (ebook) Ceccarelli Marco, Cigola Michela, et al 2002. A study of feasibility of using robots in architecture analisis and survey of a historical pavement. Proceedings of 11th International workshop on Robotics in Alpe-Adria- Danube Region. Budapest, Budapest Polytechnic Editor, pp. 113-118. Cigola Michela, Ceccarelli Mar- co, 2008. A Robot application for analysis, survey and conservation of historical architectures in Robotics and Automation in Construction, edi- ted by C. Balaguer & M Abderrahin, I-Tech Educational and Publishing KG Vienna, Cap. 20, pp. 328-354. Song S.M., Waldron K., Machines that walk: The adaptive suspension vehicle, MIT Press: Cambridge, 1989; pp.107-112 Zielinska T. 2010. Autonomous walking machine discussion of the prototyping problems. Bulletin of Po- lish academy of Sciences. Technical Sciences, vol. 58 n. 3, pp. 443-451 
work_qva4px3zbvfelc4ojp7euslttm	----	Multimodal Technologies and Interaction Article When Augmented Reality Met Art: Lessons Learned from Researcher–Artist Interdisciplinary Work Cristina Portalés ID Institute of Robotics and Information and Communication Technologies (IRTIC), Universitat de València, 46980 València, Spain; cristina.portales@uv.es; Tel.: +34-963-543-557 Received: 9 March 2018; Accepted: 20 April 2018; Published: 22 April 2018 ���������� ������� Abstract: Over the last few years, Augmented Reality (AR) technology has quickly evolved and today there is commercial software and hardware that allow the creation of AR experiences. However, it might still be cumbersome to create rich AR experiences without a deep knowledge of the technology. Artists have collaborated with IT experts during the last few years in order to enhance artistic pieces embedding AR technology, leading to the emergence of interesting collaborations between artists and engineers, computer scientists, architects, etc. The resulting works can be referred as AR Art. However, the interdisciplinary work behind these collaborations is usually not addressed. The aim of this paper is to review some of the reported AR Art work since the AR term was first coined in 1990, focusing on collaborations between different disciplines, especially during the early years, where art and technology became one. Additionally, the author reports her own experience in contributing to AR Art from an interdisciplinary perspective. Keywords: augmented reality; art; interdisciplinary; collaboration 1. Introduction The relationship between science and art has fluctuated over the course of the history, with moments of proximity and moments of distance. Although they are currently usually understood as two different cultures, interdisciplinary situations of collaboration and interchange occur, often via a nexus of digital culture and the use of computers. According to [1], since the appearance of computers, scientists and artists have found a common space of work and understanding. Therefore, within the use of new technologies, the distance that separates both disciplines is becoming shorter. Today, multiple examples can be found where artists make use of new technologies in their artistic pieces (e.g., interactive videos, virtual worlds, and robots), and the Augmented Reality (AR) technology is no exception. The term “Augmented Reality” was first coined by Caudell and Mizell in 1990 in order to describe a special kind of display used by electricians for aircraft repair and maintenance that was able to show virtual information on top of real images [2]. While early definitions of AR restricted the technology to systems that used Head Mounted Displays (HMDs), aiming at an exclusively visual space, later definitions extended the concept of AR to other devices and multimedia contents not necessarily visual. Today the definition given by Azuma [3] is widely accepted, who defines augmented reality as those systems that simultaneously contain the three characteristics: mixing of real and virtual, interactivity in real-time, and three-dimensional registration. The idea of showing synthetic data related to a real environment is not new, nor did it start with AR technology. For example, there are books in which images of the real world are mixed with drawings. This effect was also used in some films prior to the 1990s, where real characters and cartoons are mixed, such as in Mary Poppins (1964), Bedknobs & Broomsticks (1971), and Who Framed Roger Rabbit? (1988); In the exhibition A Reflected World (1966) by M. Pistoletto [4], the artist mixed Multimodal Technologies and Interact. 2018, 2, 17; doi:10.3390/mti2020017 www.mdpi.com/journal/mti http://www.mdpi.com/journal/mti http://www.mdpi.com https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4520-2250 http://www.mdpi.com/2414-4088/2/2/17?type=check_update&version=1 http://www.mdpi.com/journal/mti http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/mti2020017 Multimodal Technologies and Interact. 2018, 2, 17 2 of 11 photographs of people with real people by using mirrors. In this sense, it can be said that augmented reality is a discipline that, although technologically novel, conceptually it is not. However, AR requires interaction in real-time, a characteristic that is missing from the previous examples. Since the technology was invented, at the research level a lot of collaborations between artists and other experts have arisen. Thus, AR has been used as a means to create artistic pieces, which is referred as AR Art. Today, there are a variety of APIs at the consumer level that makes it possible to create AR experiences, most of them making use of mobile technologies such as smartphones or tablets. For instance, recently Apple has launched ARKit [5] that allows building AR environments with very little knowledge about the technology behind it. Another good example is the Vuforia developer library for Unity [6], which provides users with very good examples to build their own AR experiences. However, the poor maturity of this technology during the first few years since it was born made it inaccessible for the majority of prospective end-users, including artists, which looked for collaborations with engineers and computer scientists in order to materialize their artistic pieces. To date, there are many reported works focusing on research aspects, but little attention has been paid to the added value emerging from the interdisciplinary aspect behind these works. It is the aim of this paper to offer a new perspective on AR applications related to art, by pointing out the importance of the interdisciplinary work behind them. To that end, a review is done on some artistic-related AR applications, paying special attention to works completed during the first few years of the AR technology development, where the poor maturity of the technology itself required computer scientists and other IT experts to work in collaboration with artists, while also influencing the final result of the artistic pieces. In these papers, however, the interdisciplinary nature of the work is not properly addressed, with very few exceptions. Therefore, the author reports her own experience in order to further delve into the added value emerging from the interdisciplinary work, essential to achieve results not possible with the involved disciplines working in an isolated fashion. 2. Related Work It is said that until 1999 AR remained mainly in the hands of scientists and in their labs, as the technology needed to evolve before it could be ready to reach the consumer level. Still, for that period (1990–1999) some few works of AR Art can be found. This greatly changed in 2001, when the ARToolKit library by Hirokazu Kato was released to the open source community, making the technology available to wider audiences—though still in many cases at the research or experimental level (Figure 1). To get an idea, a search in Google Scholar of “augmented reality” & “artistic” between the years 1990–1999 produces 277 results. The same search for the period 2000–2009 produces 2440 results (an increase of almost 9-fold) and for the period 2010–2018 (today) produces 8990 results (an increase of more than 3 times that of the previous period). The important feature here is the rate of increase, as not all the found papers by Google Scholar actually refer to AR Art. Multimodal Technol. Interact. 2018, 2, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 11 reality is a discipline that, although technologically novel, conceptually it is not. However, AR requires interaction in real-time, a characteristic that is missing from the previous examples. Since the technology was invented, at the research level a lot of collaborations between artists and other experts have arisen. Thus, AR has been used as a means to create artistic pieces, which is referred as AR Art. Today, there are a variety of APIs at the consumer level that makes it possible to create AR experiences, most of them making use of mobile technologies such as smartphones or tablets. For instance, recently Apple has launched ARKit [5] that allows building AR environments with very little knowledge about the technology behind it. Another good example is the Vuforia developer library for Unity [6], which provides users with very good examples to build their own AR experiences. However, the poor maturity of this technology during the first few years since it was born made it inaccessible for the majority of prospective end-users, including artists, which looked for collaborations with engineers and computer scientists in order to materialize their artistic pieces. To date, there are many reported works focusing on research aspects, but little attention has been paid to the added value emerging from the interdisciplinary aspect behind these works. It is the aim of this paper to offer a new perspective on AR applications related to art, by pointing out the importance of the interdisciplinary work behind them. To that end, a review is done on some artistic-related AR applications, paying special attention to works completed during the first few years of the AR technology development, where the poor maturity of the technology itself required computer scientists and other IT experts to work in collaboration with artists, while also influencing the final result of the artistic pieces. In these papers, however, the interdisciplinary nature of the work is not properly addressed, with very few exceptions. Therefore, the author reports her own experience in order to further delve into the added value emerging from the interdisciplinary work, essential to achieve results not possible with the involved disciplines working in an isolated fashion. 2. Related Work It is said that until 1999 AR remained mainly in the hands of scientists and in their labs, as the technology needed to evolve before it could be ready to reach the consumer level. Still, for that period (1990–1999) some few works of AR Art can be found. This greatly changed in 2001, when the ARToolKit library by Hirokazu Kato was released to the open source community, making the technology available to wider audiences—though still in many cases at the research or experimental level (Figure 1). To get an idea, a search in Google Scholar of “augmented reality” & “artistic” between the years 1990–1999 produces 277 results. The same search for the period 2000–2009 produces 2440 results (an increase of almost 9-fold) and for the period 2010–2018 (today) produces 8990 results (an increase of more than 3 times that of the previous period). The important feature here is the rate of increase, as not all the found papers by Google Scholar actually refer to AR Art. Figure 1. AR markers, for their use in applications built with ARToolKit. Early works of AR Art can be found in [7–13]. Augmented Groove (2000) is a musical AR-based interface that explores physical and tangible interaction for conducting musical performances [11]. It was carried out by a team of engineers and computer scientists in collaboration with artists Rodney Figure 1. AR markers, for their use in applications built with ARToolKit. Multimodal Technologies and Interact. 2018, 2, 17 3 of 11 Early works of AR Art can be found in [7–13]. Augmented Groove (2000) is a musical AR-based interface that explores physical and tangible interaction for conducting musical performances [11]. It was carried out by a team of engineers and computer scientists in collaboration with artists Rodney Berry (music composer) and Jun Kurumisawa (3D modeling). Another early AR Art piece involving interdisciplinary collaborations is Can You See Me Now? (2001) [12,13], which arose from a collaboration of the group of artists Blast Theory and the Mixed Reality Laboratory of the University of Nottingham (UK). It consists of a game that takes place in the streets of a city in which different players are connected online and are pursued through a virtual model of the city by runners. Conceptually, the Blast Theory group sought to investigate the penetration of mobile technology, even in the poorest areas, rural environments, in adolescents and, more generally, in demographics that do not usually have access to new technologies. A few years later, LifeClipper (2004) was developed, a mobile AR Art piece that consists of an audiovisual experience enriched with virtual elements [14]. It was developed by a group of researchers and artists from the University of Applied Sciences Northwestern Switzerland and coordinated by artist Jan Torpus. Technically it is based on a laptop that the user carries around a specific area of cultural interest. Through an HMD, users see and listen to a series of images and sounds superimposed on the real environment, feeling as if they are watching a movie in which they participate as active observers and in which the various virtual characters are directed to them. During the same year, the artistic piece Red Libre Red Visible (2004) was developed by artists Diego Díaz and Clara Boj [15,16] with the collaboration of computer scientists at the Mixed Reality Lab (Singapore). In this piece the AR environment was built in the urban space through the use of the MXRToolKit library [17], creating new landscapes in the public space through the visualization of the data flowing through digital networks. New virtual, personal and subjective configurations were sought, and access and exchange of information was encouraged through a free and open network. Other AR Art works emerging from interdisciplinary collaborations reported in the following years can be found such as in [18–22]. For instance, in [19] the Debussy3.0 project is described. It is a ballet involving AR technology. The work was carried out by ESTIA research laboratory and the National Choreographic Centre Malandain Ballet Biarritz. In this case, the collaboration between artists and researchers is deeply described. Among others, the paper deals with the difficulty and the benefits of the collaboration, similarities between art and science, and the transfer from art to industry. In [18], a work is presented that allows people to digitally curate their own augmented reality art exhibitions in their own homes by augmenting the pictures they have on their walls with content from the Peter Scott Gallery in Lancaster. This research project involved a partnership between the gallery, design researchers, and a technology provider. In [20], industrial designers and artists collaborated in order to identify the methods and technologies for developing a prototype that determines the influence of spatial AR in the creativity of designers and artists. To have a wider scope of other artistic pieces or projects involving AR Art, the reader is referred for instance to [23], where a survey is presented on the current trends in AR artistic interventions, or to [24], where there is a great collection of artistic works dealing with AR technology, many of them developed in the last 10 years as the maturity of the technology has made it available to wider audiences. The work presented in [25] is also interesting, in which there is a discussion of sound art projects involving AR and public spaces. In the works described above, artistic and technical skills are intermingled, with interesting collaborations between artists and computer scientists, software designers, IT experts, engineers, multimedia scientists, etc. As can be seen, the relationship between AR and art arose very early. Here, I have focused my attention on a few early works—when the technology was still immature—reported by the research community involving collaborations between researchers and artists. I have also cited recent works have been cited, dealing with interesting collaborations and showing that, although the maturity of the technology makes it available to wider audiences, interesting collaborations are still sought. Multimodal Technologies and Interact. 2018, 2, 17 4 of 11 However, the added value from the interdisciplinary work emerging from these collaborations is usually not described in detail, with very few exceptions such as in [19], a recent work tackling this issue. The testimonies behind interdisciplinary work are apparently given little importance. However, they are relevant, as interdisciplinary work conditions the artistic piece for many reasons. For instance, both the maturity of the technology and the skills in dealing with it have direct impact on the artistic pieces in a meaningful way. This fact is even more evident during the first years of the technology, during the transition from the lab to the consumer level. Other issues emerging from different point of views and way of working between different disciplines are also of relevance. To tackle these issues more deeply, in the next sections I report on my own experiences. 3. Reporting Own AR Art-Related Works Most of the works here described were carried out during the period 2004–2008 as part of my PhD research at Laboratorio de Luz, Fine Arts School, Universitat Politècnica de València (UPV). To begin with, I should note that my background was in surveying and geo-information with specialization in photogrammetry, but I moved to Laboratorio de Luz to carry out my PhD as part of a project dealing with AR and art. In my doctoral thesis, I explored the capabilities of the AR technology for the artistic field, making use of different solutions for positioning in real-time, and the blending of real and virtual worlds, taking into account a variety of sensors, displays, types of data, interaction paradigms, and software solutions. The works are mainly experimental, although some have been exhibited. Back to the 70’s (2005) is an AR application designed to (conceptually) depict the Vera University campus in Valencia city center as it was 30 years ago. Within this application, the user was immersed in a hypothetical environment where the campus buildings were seen together with some historical ones. I built the application in collaboration with artist Francisco Sanmartín using the Max/MSP software in combination with Jitter [26]. This software, although not intended to build AR applications, is widely used by artists as it allows to build highly interactive solutions with a simplified programming environment. I implemented the AR solution in collaboration with F. Sanmartín, who had a deep knowledge of the software. We tackled the occlusion problem with the use of 3D phantom models of the University’s buildings, which I acquired with a topographic total station with the aid of artist Francisco Giner, who I gave indications on how to use the device. Detection of user pose in real time was achieved via a combination of a visual and an inertial tracker, which I integrated into the software solution. The ancient buildings and phantom objects were modeled by F. Giner, who dealt with the final aesthetics of the AR environment. The results were experimental and were disseminated at the ACE conference (2005) [27]. Magic Tunnel (2005) and Un∞ (2006) are two artistic installations built following the concept of the Augmented User (2004) [28]. Each installation was composed of three AR mirrors, each one proposing different user augmentations in such a way that they acquired as many appearances or identities as the number of mirrors observing them. Users carried a set of markers (in their head and hands) that were replaced by virtual models in the mirror by means of the ARToolKit library [29]. In Magic Tunnel, we proposed three different versions to transform the face of users: famous actors (Charles Chaplin, Stan Laurel, and Oliver Hardy), polyhedral figures, and Señoritas de Avignon (inspired in the famous artwork of Pablo Picasso). For each version, only one user could interact with the mirrors and only the faces were augmented. Differently, in Un∞ we proposed three different transformations, one for each mirror, and two users could interact simultaneously. Additionally, the hands were augmented with text related to the theme of the mirrors. The mirrors’ themes were: emotional mirror, stereotype mirror and multicultural mirror. A posterior version of Un∞ was based on the Lewis Carrol’s famous novel Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland. The virtual models where designed by F. Giner, who also dealt with the aesthetics of the installation. We both worked on the concept behind the mirrors and the design and construction of the wearable markers. The installations were possible thanks to the work of the team Laboratorio de Luz, led by artist María José Martínez de Pisón; they also collaborated in testing the proposed experience. Additionally, the first version of the mirrors (the Augmented User) Multimodal Technologies and Interact. 2018, 2, 17 5 of 11 was tested at the Fine Arts school of the UPV [30], so we collected the feedback of tens of students and professors. Based on that, we worked on improving the contents, so the message sent by the mirrors was meaningful. Un∞ was exhibited at the Centro Párraga Murcia (2006) (with the initial version of the thematic mirrors) and at the festival Observatori (2009) [31] (with the version of Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland), among others. In Figure 2, an installation of the Magic Tunnel is shown, with a user augmented with virtual characters inspired in Las Señoritas de Avignon, from Pablo Picasso. Results were also disseminated in journals and conferences [32,33]. Multimodal Technol. Interact. 2018, 2, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 11 Las Señoritas de Avignon, from Pablo Picasso. Results were also disseminated in journals and conferences [32,33]. Figure 2. Magic Tunnel (2005). Other artistic pieces built following the concept of the Augmented User (but with some variations—a kind of AR mirror with a third user point of view) are Live LEGO House (2006) and AR- Jazz (2007). The aim of Live LEGO House was to explore coexistence and multicultural factors through gaming. The system consisted of a real house built with the LEGO blocks enriched with synthetic content (sounds, videos and 3D animations) by means of the MXR ToolKit library. I built this application during my research fellowship at the Mixed Reality Lab (Singapore), led by Prof. Adrian David Cheok. I had the opportunity there to meet the programmers of the MXR ToolKit library, mainly computer scientists. I also had the opportunity to exchange ideas and learn from artists Clara Boj, Diego Díaz and Rodney Berry. Their work in AR and personal experiences in Singapore were an inspiration to me to develop the concept of the Live LEGO House. Additionally, I recevied direct feedback from composer Carlos David Perales, who contributed to the sound and to define the role of dolls in the house. The results were disseminated in journals and conferences [34,35]. On the other hand, in AR-Jazz I worked with musicians to build an AR experience where sounds and movements were visualized in an AR mirror during a live jazz performance at the SedaJazz festival 2007. I built the AR experience with Max/MSP combined with Jitter. The sensors were a microphone (to capture live sound) and an Xsens inertial sensor (to capture movements of an interpreter). During the lab testing, I received advice from C. D. Perales. At the stage, during the rehearsals, I worked on adjusting some parameters (distortion, colors, etc.) of the shape representing sound, so to achieve appealing visual effects. The feedback of the musicians—some belonging to SedaJazz collective—was relevant for the final result that, in a certain way, conditioned part of the live performance (Figure 3). I was certainly satisfied with the great engagement of musicians with the AR piece; for instance, at the rehearsals they were interested in interacting individually with their instrument, playing with notes to see the effect produced in the virtual representation. The experience was documented and disseminated at a conference [36]. Other works related to AR Art are CatedrAR (2008) and AR-Immersive Cinema (2008), pieces merging different artistic styles or historical moments. In CatedrAR, art and technology were essential to build an AR scene where past (now partially or totally lost) and present elements are displayed together. It recreated two features, a Baroque vault and a Renaissance reredos, formerly present Figure 2. Magic Tunnel (2005). Other artistic pieces built following the concept of the Augmented User (but with some variations—a kind of AR mirror with a third user point of view) are Live LEGO House (2006) and AR-Jazz (2007). The aim of Live LEGO House was to explore coexistence and multicultural factors through gaming. The system consisted of a real house built with the LEGO blocks enriched with synthetic content (sounds, videos and 3D animations) by means of the MXR ToolKit library. I built this application during my research fellowship at the Mixed Reality Lab (Singapore), led by Prof. Adrian David Cheok. I had the opportunity there to meet the programmers of the MXR ToolKit library, mainly computer scientists. I also had the opportunity to exchange ideas and learn from artists Clara Boj, Diego Díaz and Rodney Berry. Their work in AR and personal experiences in Singapore were an inspiration to me to develop the concept of the Live LEGO House. Additionally, I recevied direct feedback from composer Carlos David Perales, who contributed to the sound and to define the role of dolls in the house. The results were disseminated in journals and conferences [34,35]. On the other hand, in AR-Jazz I worked with musicians to build an AR experience where sounds and movements were visualized in an AR mirror during a live jazz performance at the SedaJazz festival 2007. I built the AR experience with Max/MSP combined with Jitter. The sensors were a microphone (to capture live sound) and an Xsens inertial sensor (to capture movements of an interpreter). During the lab testing, I received advice from C. D. Perales. At the stage, during the rehearsals, I worked on adjusting some parameters (distortion, colors, etc.) of the shape representing sound, so to achieve appealing visual effects. The feedback of the musicians—some belonging to SedaJazz collective—was relevant for the final result that, in a certain way, conditioned part of the live performance (Figure 3). I was certainly Multimodal Technologies and Interact. 2018, 2, 17 6 of 11 satisfied with the great engagement of musicians with the AR piece; for instance, at the rehearsals they were interested in interacting individually with their instrument, playing with notes to see the effect produced in the virtual representation. The experience was documented and disseminated at a conference [36]. Other works related to AR Art are CatedrAR (2008) and AR-Immersive Cinema (2008), pieces merging different artistic styles or historical moments. In CatedrAR, art and technology were essential to build an AR scene where past (now partially or totally lost) and present elements are displayed together. It recreated two features, a Baroque vault and a Renaissance reredos, formerly present above the high altar of Valencia Cathedral in Spain. The Baroque vault—which was dismantled, as it hide a Gothic vault that provided the physical support for unique early Renaissance frescos of musical angels—was scanned with a 3D topographical scanner, a work done by topographers and architects. This shape was afterwards simplified for the visualization of the vault in the AR scene, which I built using the BazAR library [37,38]. Registration in BazAR is based on feature point detection and matching, where homography between a target image and the input image is estimated from correspondences by RANSAC. The experience was visualized with a HMD with an attached webcam, and users carried a laptop in a backpack. The results were disseminated in a scientific journal [39]. On the other hand, in AR-Immersive Cinema, augmented users are inserted into lineal video sketches, where important historical moments were presented in a novel way – mixing video sketches and AR – to engage users. The application was achieved using two technologies: the first was a cinema filming with authors that interpret a sketch; the second part concerned the AR, and was managed using the ARToolKit library. Users see themselves virtually transformed into one of the actors, thanks to the paradigm of the augmented user. To increase engagement, actors in the video sketches talk to and look at the user. Both technologies were visually integrated within a combination of spatially aligned projections. The installation is part of the permanent exhibition at the Aula Natura of the Gandia Marshlands, which was designed and realized by experts in tourism and construction. Experts in Valencian history designed the contents of the AR experience, while the narratives were built by a screenwriter; some actors represented the historical characters, and multimedia experts recorded and edited the sketches. The piece was also documented and disseminated through a scientific journal [40]. During my years at Laboratorio de Luz, I also dealt with another piece: Hot Images (2005) [41], mainly while I was completing a research fellowship at the Mixed Reality Laboratory of the University of Nottingham. However, that work was rather experimental and quite individual, so it has little interest for this paper. Multimodal Technol. Interact. 2018, 2, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 11 above the high altar of Valencia Cathedral in Spain. The Baroque vault—which was dismantled, as it hide a Gothic vault that provided the physical support for unique early Renaissance frescos of musical angels—was scanned with a 3D topographical scanner, a work done by topographers and architects. This shape was afterwards simplified for the visualization of the vault in the AR scene, which I built using the BazAR library [37,38]. Registration in BazAR is based on feature point detection and matching, where homography between a target image and the input image is estimated from correspondences by RANSAC. The experience was visualized with a HMD with an attached webcam, and users carried a laptop in a backpack. The results were disseminated in a scientific journal [39]. On the other hand, in AR-Immersive Cinema, augmented users are inserted into lineal video sketches, where important historical moments were presented in a novel way – mixing video sketches and AR – to engage users. The application was achieved using two technologies: the first was a cinema filming with authors that interpret a sketch; the second part concerned the AR, and was managed using the ARToolKit library. Users see themselves virtually transformed into one of the actors, thanks to the paradigm of the augmented user. To increase engagement, actors in the video sketches talk to and look at the user. Both technologies were visually integrated within a combination of spatially aligned projections. The installation is part of the permanent exhibition at the Aula Natura of the Gandia Marshlands, which was designed and realized by experts in tourism and construction. Experts in Valencian history designed the contents of the AR experience, while the narratives were built by a screenwriter; some actors represented the historical characters, and multimedia experts recorded and edited the sketches. The piece was also documented and disseminated through a scientific journal [40]. During my years at Laboratorio de Luz, I also dealt with another piece: Hot Images (2005) [41], mainly while I was completing a research fellowship at the Mixed Reality Laboratory of the University of Nottingham. However, that work was rather experimental and quite individual, so it has little interest for this paper. Figure 3. AR-Jazz (2007). 4. Lessons Learned from Interdisciplinary Work and Discussion The interdisciplinary aspects behind AR Art are usually not given enough prominence. This was also true in my case, as I didn’t put enough emphasis on my own experiences during the writing of my doctoral thesis. Looking back and seeing things with another perspective, I have noticed the impact that my years at Laboratoio de Luz have had on my way of approaching things, my way of thinking and thus my research—during and afterwards. Here I describe some of these issues, with the aim of highlighting the benefits that interdisciplinary work brings and the need to find a common space of understanding to achieve it. I remember the first months at Laboratio de Luz, feeling as if artists and myself spoke different languages. For instance, talking about AR, I was very worried about the poor accuracies of the technology in the real-time positioning under certain setups. For a surveyor like myself, a Figure 3. AR-Jazz (2007). Multimodal Technologies and Interact. 2018, 2, 17 7 of 11 4. Lessons Learned from Interdisciplinary Work and Discussion The interdisciplinary aspects behind AR Art are usually not given enough prominence. This was also true in my case, as I didn’t put enough emphasis on my own experiences during the writing of my doctoral thesis. Looking back and seeing things with another perspective, I have noticed the impact that my years at Laboratoio de Luz have had on my way of approaching things, my way of thinking and thus my research—during and afterwards. Here I describe some of these issues, with the aim of highlighting the benefits that interdisciplinary work brings and the need to find a common space of understanding to achieve it. I remember the first months at Laboratio de Luz, feeling as if artists and myself spoke different languages. For instance, talking about AR, I was very worried about the poor accuracies of the technology in the real-time positioning under certain setups. For a surveyor like myself, a misalignment error—between the real and the virtual worlds—greater that 1 cm certainly hurt, an aspect that that is really trivial for an artist. What was important for artists was that the system was stable, so it didn’t crash during live performances or exhibitions, an aspect not that relevant to me, as I was mainly interested with a laboratory validation of the developed applications. In the end, I had to look for technical solutions that fulfilled both needs, in many cases building AR environments from scratch (with the only exceptions being those built with vision-based libraries such as the ARToolKit or the MXRToolkit), where I explored the integration of different sensors, display devices, and interaction paradigms in software environments to be used in live performances (e.g., Max/MSP Jitter). As an example, I used the paradigm of augmented virtuality instead of AR to hide the poor accuracies of a GPS positioning in Hot Images, while in Back to the 70’s I made use of different tracking techniques. Dissemination of the work of scientists and artists is usually done through different channels. While my interest was to present the results of our work through conferences and scientific journals, artists’ main aim was to show the work at museums or exhibitions. Therefore, while to me it was enough to validate the applications with non-sophisticated means, the aesthetics were quite important for my colleagues. Paradoxically, the relevance of end-user feedback was another issue of discordance. While I was interested in knowing if the technology was usable and if the message that we tried to transmit was well understood, less interest on these facts was shown by artists—to them the work finished with the realization and exhibition of the artistic piece. This puzzled me, as behind the artistic pieces there is a “message”, but they were not collecting feedback. In the end, I collaborated in the exhibitions, but additionally collected user feedback in some cases (e.g., in the Augmented User), which was relevant for building other versions of the artistic pieces. In parallel, the documentation of the pieces at the exhibitions was useful for papers, as I was able to collect nice pictures from outside the lab environment. On the other hand, some of my colleagues also participated in the papers I was interested in, and presented them together at conferences that, while focusing on computer science, had a panel related or close to the artistic field. Again, solutions were sought that fulfilled both needs. During those years, I also experienced interdisciplinary work in lecturing. During the third year of my Ph.D. studies, my colleague F. Giner and I were lecturing a subject on AR for students in Fine Arts; while he was mainly working on the creation of 3D models and artistic concepts, I dealt with AR technology. I remember the puzzled faces of the students when I showed a slide with a rotation matrix. I explained this and other mathematical concepts in a very intuitive way, so they could really understand what is behind the AR technology. To show the students how to build AR pieces I made use of AMIRE [42,43] (no longer supported), a software that allowed the authoring of Mixed Reality applications without programming, using a visual creation tool. By the end, they were able to create an AR piece, some of them being exhibited that year in a gallery at the center of Valencia. One of the students that I had that year, Manuel Ferrer, realized an outstanding doctoral thesis on AR Art [44]. Additionally, he, together with artist Alena Mesárošová, have greatly contributed to AR Art with pieces such as Timetravellers, DanzAR and AR_VR_Putney [45]. Collaborative work involves a learning process, if all those involved are open to it. In this way, not only the work is benefited from different expertise, but the experts themselves learn from Multimodal Technologies and Interact. 2018, 2, 17 8 of 11 other disciplines, from theory to practice. It is said that engineers solve problems while artists make problems evident. It means we have different points of view in addressing the same issue, but all are needed to reach a wider scope, a holistic view. From my experience, the gridded mind of an engineer can be broken into pieces, while the sometimes chaotic exploratory work of artists (without meaning to generalize) can be ordered in a certain way. The resulting work is more than the sum of the individual parts; interdisciplinarity does not consist on doing isolated work and then putting some glue between the results, but really finds a way of working together, mixing methodologies, expectations, dissemination channels, etc. of different disciplines. Since leaving Laboratorio de Luz, I have collaborated with experts from other areas, such as physicists, engineers in telecommunications, computer scientists, multimedia engineers, tourism planners, art historians, etc. Among others, I was part of the coordination team of FP7-SYDDARTA [46], a project related to the curation of cultural heritage, and with collaborations between social sciences and humanities (SSH), and ICT experts. Thanks to that experience and to my interdisciplinary background and interest, I have recently been able to lead the coordination of a proposal called SILKNOW [47], also involving SSH and ICT experts, which has been recently funded under H2020 in a highly competitive call. In [19] they point to a “proxy”, a person who has both artistic and technical abilities in order to overcome the difficulties of collaborating. This is a good definition of the role I’ve taken in these cases. To me, the key issues to successfully collaborating with experts in other disciplines are fluent communication, a common interest to evolve, and an open-minded predisposition. A dialogue (bi-directional) between researcher and artist is essential, making efforts in trying to understand each other and forgetting egocentric views, in order to break self-established artificial barriers. Therefore, forget things such as “this has to be done in this way because this was what I was taught”, “that is not interesting to me as I will not be rewarded for it in my field”, “I do this, you do that”, etc. A strong commonality between scientists and artists is perhaps that both need to be highly creative in order to innovate in their work. Therefore, creativity comes from everywhere (researcher/artist), and when that happens the process involves co-creation, a truly interdisciplinary work. I am a strong believer that interdisciplinary work is beneficial for research and for progress, generally speaking. Good examples of well-known interdisciplinary profiles come from Aristotle, Galileo Galilei, Leonardo da Vinci or Nikola Tesla. Today, it might be too cumbersome for a single person to embrace different disciplines with a deep understanding of all of them, but interdisciplinary work is still necessary, maybe led by the aforementioned “proxis”. A new figure like this is essential to build bridges between very specific experts, brining novel tools and methods to articulate the union between disciplines. However, this fact is yet not well understood and even rejected in many ways. In my case, the collaborations with other disciplines have opened my mind, given me a more holistic view, and brought great personal satisfaction. However, professionally speaking, I have found a lot of obstacles because of my interdisciplinary profile. At least in Spain, researchers are evaluated according to specific areas of knowledge, with profiles like mine strongly punished when applying for national grants, not mentioning lecturing. These facts hinder the conciliation between different areas, putting a barrier in front of a generation of new outcomes emerging from knowledge transfer. This is contrary to the logic that I have previously been exposed to; it leads to endogamic research, not aware and thus not taken benefit from other advancements. These and other aspects make me sometimes feel more a survivor than a surveyor in the current Spanish research realm. Even so, I will continue fostering interdisciplinary work as, in the end, research comes first for me. 5. Conclusions AR is a transversal technology, meaning that it can be applied in many areas, such as training, maintenance, entertainment, mental health, engineering, science, and many others. Art is not an exception. Since very early on, AR has been used as a means for artists to create. Maybe because of the complexity of the technology during the first years, there have been interesting works of AR Multimodal Technologies and Interact. 2018, 2, 17 9 of 11 Art emerging from the collaboration of diverse disciplines, disciplines that traditionally have been considered distant. In my case, it meant collaboration between artists and an engineer in surveying and geo-information, something very rarely seen. From my own experience, the works here presented wouldn’t have be the same without a co-creation process, where a mutual understanding between the researcher and the artist was the key. However, nowadays many artists are experts in multimedia technologies, including AR. Therefore, a question arises: are these interesting collaborations still needed? Today, it is the moment for artists and other audiences to really exploit AR, making profit of all the developments and advancements that the research community has made during the last almost 30 years. This does not mean that interdisciplinary work is not required any more, but it is expected that the final applications be not so much conditioned by the restrictions of the technology itself. In fact, due to the huge amount of (multimodal) sensors and displays, APIs, positioning strategies, realms (mixed reality), types of interaction (e.g., gestures) and many other factors, it is expected that experts in technology (e.g., multimedia engineers) will play an important role in developing applications involving AR, including for the artistic sector. Collaborations are not always easy, as different disciplines have different ways of working and different expectations, among other differences. 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Portalés Ricart, C. The private city through the Hot Images. In Proceedings of the ACM SIGCHI International Conference on Advances in Computer Entertainment Technology, Salzburg, Austria, 13–15 June 2007; pp. 254–255. 42. Grimm, P.; Haller, M.; Paelke, V.; Reinhold, S.; Reimann, C.; Zauner, R. AMIRE-authoring mixed reality. In Proceedings of the The First IEEE International Workshop Augmented Reality Toolkit, Darmstadt, Germany, 29 September 2002; p. 2. 43. Sourceforge. Amire. Available online: http://amire.sourceforge.net/ (accessed on 25 March 2018). 44. Ferrer Henández, M. Virtualidad Geolocalizada, Proyectos de Realidad Aumentada en el Espacio Público, Propuestas Experimentales. Ph.D. Thesis, Universitat Politècnica de València, Valencia, Spain, 2016. 45. Ferrer, M.; Mesárošová, A. ManusamoAndBzika. ARtGroup. Available online: http://manusamoandbzika. webs.com/ (accessed on 25 March 2018). 46. Syddarta. Taking Care of Art. Available online: http://www.syddarta.eu/ (accessed on 30 March 2018). 47. Silknow. Weaving Our Past into the Future. Available online: http://silknow.ue (accessed on 30 March 2018). © 2018 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). https://cvlab.epfl.ch/software/bazar https://cvlab.epfl.ch/software/bazar http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1477-9730.2009.00549.x http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/MMUL.2010.72 http://amire.sourceforge.net/ http://manusamoandbzika.webs.com/ http://manusamoandbzika.webs.com/ http://www.syddarta.eu/ http://silknow.ue http://creativecommons.org/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Introduction Related Work Reporting Own AR Art-Related Works Lessons Learned from Interdisciplinary Work and Discussion Conclusions References 
work_r4snsamedncdre4fldvz5bbb6i	----	C3AN00892D 6032..6043 Analyst PAPER O pe n A cc es s A rt ic le . P ub li sh ed o n 08 A ug us t 20 13 . D ow nl oa de d on 4 /6 /2 02 1 2: 41 :0 2 A M . T hi s ar ti cl e is l ic en se d un de r a C re at iv e C om m on s A tt ri bu ti on -N on C om m er ci al 3 .0 U np or te d L ic en ce . View Article Online View Journal | View Issue aWinterthur Museum, Conservation Departm E-mail: jmass@winterthur.org; Tel: +1-302- bSynchrotron Radiation Center, University 53589, USA cGetty Conservation Institute, 1200 Getty Ce dThe Barnes Foundation, Conservation Depa Philadelphia, USA eDepartment of Physics, University of Wiscon Milwaukee, USA † Electronic supplementary information carbonate inclusion location versus the 10.1039/c3an00892d Cite this: Analyst, 2013, 138, 6032 Received 1st May 2013 Accepted 6th August 2013 DOI: 10.1039/c3an00892d www.rsc.org/analyst 6032 | Analyst, 2013, 138, 6032–604 SR-FTIR imaging of the altered cadmium sulfide yellow paints in Henri Matisse's Le Bonheur de vivre (1905–6) – examination of visually distinct degradation regions† Jennifer Mass,*a Julia Sedlmair,b Catherine Schmidt Patterson,c David Carson,c Barbara Buckleyd and Carol Hirschmugle SR-FTIR imaging has been used to map the mid-IR active photo-degradation phases in two thin sections of cadmium yellow paint removed from Henri Matisse's Le Bonheur de vivre (1905–1906, The Barnes Foundation). These samples represent both the darkened cadmium yellow foliage in the upper left of the work and the lightened cadmium yellow field beneath the central reclining figures. The altered cadmium yellow paints from both regions were found to contain cadmium carbonate (CdCO3), cadmium sulphate (CdSO4), and cadmium oxalate (CdC2O4). Each of these phases was imaged to determine their positions as a function of depth, with the aim of better understanding the role of each phase in the degradation mechanism. This speciation mapping is critical because cadmium oxalate was used in this period as an additive in cadmium yellow light. In addition, cadmium carbonate and cadmium sulphate were synthesis starting materials for cadmium yellow, and so their distribution throughout the paint layer can provide an indication of their roles. It was established that cadmium oxalate is localized at the surface of the paint layer, cadmium carbonate is found deeper in the layer but still enriched at the surface, and cadmium sulphate is distributed throughout the layer. This distribution, along with the chloride content of the paint suggesting a cadmium chloride starting material, is consistent with an alteration mechanism in which the cadmium sulphide is oxidized to sulphate and this is then converted to carbonate and oxalate. The relative solubilities of the three photo-degradation products are also relevant to their locations in the paint film. Introduction The study of historic paint degradation mechanisms and alteration layers is challenging due to the fact that only micro- gram to milligram-sized samples can be removed from works of art in those cases where sampling is allowed. Typically these microsamples are studied by embedding them in a rapidly curing resin and polishing the resin so that the paint layers (the painting's stratigraphy) can be viewed in cross-section. Scien- tists may then carry out elemental and molecular microanalysis techniques in the museum laboratory such as scanning electron ent, 5100 Kennett Pike, Winterthur, USA. 888-4808 of Wisconsin-Madison, Stoughton, WI nter Drive, Suite 700, Los Angeles, USA rtment, 2025 Benjamin Franklin Parkway, sin-Milwaukee, 1900 East Kenwood Blvd, (ESI) available: Image of calcium cadmium carbonate phase. See DOI: 3 microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray microanalysis (SEM- EDS), microRaman spectroscopy, and attenuated total reec- tance Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR). While these tools are used routinely to identify the major phases present in paint layers, the minor and trace components of the alteration layers are commonly below the minimum detection limits of these techniques. As a consequence of these limita- tions, paint alteration layers are being increasingly studied using methodologies not commonly found in museum labora- tories such as synchrotron radiation (SR) based techniques involving the use of X-ray1–3 and infrared microbeams.1,4–7 SR-based techniques have been successfully applied to the study of numerous pigment alteration problems, including the alteration mechanisms of cadmium sulphide yellow,3 zinc yellow,8 smalt,9 copper resinate,10 and vivianite.11 These tech- niques have included spot analysis of the alteration layers using X-ray absorption near edge spectroscopy (XANES),12 SR-FTIR,5 SR-X-ray diffraction (SR-XRD),13 and SR-X-ray uorescence (SR-XRF).14 However, recent innovations in beam focusing optics have allowed mapping of entire paint layers and paint cross-sections using techniques such SR-mXRF mapping,1 mXANES mapping,1,14 and SR-FTIR mapping.15 SR-based FTIR This journal is ª The Royal Society of Chemistry 2013 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/ https://doi.org/10.1039/c3an00892d https://pubs.rsc.org/en/journals/journal/AN https://pubs.rsc.org/en/journals/journal/AN?issueid=AN138020 Paper Analyst O pe n A cc es s A rt ic le . P ub li sh ed o n 08 A ug us t 20 13 . D ow nl oa de d on 4 /6 /2 02 1 2: 41 :0 2 A M . T hi s ar ti cl e is l ic en se d un de r a C re at iv e C om m on s A tt ri bu ti on -N on C om m er ci al 3 .0 U np or te d L ic en ce . View Article Online techniques offer improved brightness over conventional benchtop ATR imaging techniques, allowing for increased sensitivity and therefore better minimum detection limits and phase localization. IRENI SR-based FTIR imaging is also carried out in a non-contact transmission mode, which avoids the sample damage that is common if not unavoidable with ATR measurements. The measured intensities are also dependent on the amount of contact between the ATR crystal and the sample, reducing the reproducibility across an extended sampling area when the crystal must be lied, then the sample shied, then the crystal reengaged for sequential measurement as is neces- sary when measuring more than one eld of view area. For advanced SR-FTIR imaging, the IRENI beamline at the Univer- sity of Wisconsin Synchrotron Radiation Center in Stoughton bundles twelve SR-generated IR beams to create a unique SR- FTIR source that homogeneously illuminates a multi-pixel, wide-eld detector,16,17 and affords sufficient spatial over- sampling to obtain diffraction-limited resolution at all wave- lengths from one measurement with high signal-to-noise ratios across the spectral bandwidth. The photo-oxidative degradation of yellow cadmium sulphide (CdS) paint dating from the 1880s to the 1920s has been observed in works by Pablo Picasso, Vincent van Gogh, Georges Seurat, Henri Matisse, Edvard Munch, James Ensor, and Ferdinand Leger.1,3,18,19 The physical manifestation of this degradation is paint chalking (drying out and crumbling), lightening, aking, spalling (breaking off in fragments), and, in its most advanced cases, the formation of a thick ivory to tan alteration crust over the originally warm-hued yellow paint. However, the photo-oxidation begins before a colour change can be observed – a phenomenon that can be thought of as incipient photo-degradation. The chemical manifestation of this alteration is the formation of cadmium oxides, sulphates, carbonates, hydroxides, and oxalates. Detailed studies of this system in works by James Ensor20 and Vincent van Gogh1 have been carried out, and the alteration mechanism is currently being examined in Edvard Munch's The Scream (1910, The Munch Museum).19 It is important to note that the identica- tion of oxidized cadmium phases in a cadmium yellow paint cannot, in itself, conrm that photo-degradation has taken place, since cadmium oxalate (CdC2O4) was used as a ller in the preparation of the paler shades of cadmium yellow paints in this time period and cadmium carbonate (CdCO3) was used in the same manner as a ller or precipitation substrate.3,21 In addition, both cadmium sulfate (CdSO4) and cadmium carbonate are used as starting reagents for the synthesis of cadmium sulphide yellow paints.19,21 These factors dictate that cadmium sulphate, cadmium oxalate, and cadmium carbonate can be denitively identied as photo-degradation products only if their position as a function of depth in the paint layer is determined. If they are concentrated at the surface of the paint layer or localized in a discoloured surface alteration crust this suggests that they are photo-oxidation products. Recent mXANES spot analysis and mapping of cadmium yellow paints used on Henri Matisse's Le Bonheur de vivre (1905–6, The Barnes Foundation, see Fig. 1), have demonstrated that cadmium carbonate is highly concentrated in the tan alteration crust of a This journal is ª The Royal Society of Chemistry 2013 cadmium sulphide yellow paint (from the fruit in the tree at the upper right), suggesting its presence as a photo-oxidation product rather than a starting reagent or paint ller, but has le the role of cadmium sulphate more ambiguous.3 The mXANES study of this material was combined with SR- mXRF mapping revealing that the discolored alteration crust and visually intact (yellow) regions of the paint layer contain high concentrations of chlorine, suggesting that cadmium chloride was the starting reagent for the synthesis of the cadmium yellow rather than either cadmium sulphate or cadmium carbonate. Previous studies have thus addressed important questions about the composition and degradation mechanisms of cadmium sulphide yellow in general and about the appearance of Le Bonheur de Vivre in particular, but they have le remaining questions about the degradation mechanisms of the darkened upper le corner of this painting (see Fig. 1), and about the presence and concentration of additional degradation products such as oxalates as a function of position. This work addresses these specic questions and related pigment degradation phenomena as examined by SR-FTIR imaging. Speciation as a function of position is critical to an understanding of the photo- degradation of artists' paints, and IRENI SR-FTIR imaging has a particularly important role to play in the cadmium sulphide system given the mid-IR activity of cadmium sulphate, cadmium oxalate, and cadmium carbonate. Its molecular imaging capabilities are particularly powerful when combined with the elemental mapping capabilities of SEM-EDS and SR- mXRF. IRENI FTIR imaging is used here to identify the locations of cadmium carbonate, cadmium oxalate, and cadmium sulphate in two of the most heavily altered regions of Le Bonheur de vivre, the darkened region of the work's upper le corner and the ivory-hued region below the central reclining gures (see Fig. 1). These regions would have originally been a bright, warm yellow, based upon the comparison of the Barnes Foundation's monumental version of this work to the oil sketches owned by The Barnes Foundation, The San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, and the Statens Museum for Kunst in Copenhagen, in which the yellow paints remain unaltered. In fact, only a small percentage of the cadmium yellow paints produced between the 1880s and the 1920s are undergoing this degradation phenomenon. This is likely due to both the synthesis method employed to prepare each paint (there were several different manufacturers of cadmium yellow during this period and shades of cadmium yellow available on the market at the same time, and these were prepared through different synthetic routes as well as subject to different post-synthesis processing such as calcination). The inconsistent observation of this phenomenon is also likely due to the different conditions in which the paintings have been stored and displayed, including the effects of RH cycling and light exposure. However, it is notable that painters at the turn of the 20th century such as W. H. Hunt observed that the alteration of pale cadmium yellow paints could be seen even aer only 20 years21 and so the degradation may not be a de facto result of a particular museum's environmental conditions. If this were the case, the Analyst, 2013, 138, 6032–6043 | 6033 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/ https://doi.org/10.1039/c3an00892d Fig. 1 Henri Matisse, French, 1869–1954 Le Bonheur de vivre, also called The Joy of Life, between October 1905 and March 1906, Oil on canvas, 69 1/2 � 94 3/4 in. (176.5 � 240.7 cm), The Barnes Foundation, BF719. Note the tan-brown alteration crusts on the yellow foliage at the upper left and the faded region below the central reclining figures. Analyst Paper O pe n A cc es s A rt ic le . P ub li sh ed o n 08 A ug us t 20 13 . D ow nl oa de d on 4 /6 /2 02 1 2: 41 :0 2 A M . T hi s ar ti cl e is l ic en se d un de r a C re at iv e C om m on s A tt ri bu ti on -N on C om m er ci al 3 .0 U np or te d L ic en ce . View Article Online alteration would be visible throughout certain early modernist collections, but this pattern is not observed. It is for this reason that the degradation mechanisms are of such high interest to museum scientists. Experimental Samples analyzed Photo-degraded cadmium yellow paint samples were removed with a size 11 steel scalpel blade from the darkened upper le corner of the painting (sample S113) and from the faded region below the central reclining gures (sample S117). These samples were then split in two, and half were embedded in Extec polyester resin (Extec Corporation�, Eneld, CT) cured with methyl ethyl ketone peroxide catalyst (24 hours at room temperature and under ambient light). The cubes were dry, hand-polished successively with 400- and 600-grit sandpaper and 1500- to 8000-grit MicroMesh polishing cloths to expose the cross-sections. The remaining sample portions were mounted in Bio-Plastic� Liquid Casting Plastic (Ward's Natural Science), and cured using �½ the recommended volume of catalyst. The resulting semi-hard resin block was cut to expose the stratig- raphy of the sample using an ultramicrotome (PowerTome XL, RMC Products) tted with a diamond knife. Several individual microtome slices containing the full stratigraphy, each �3 mm thick, were retained for transmission experiments on the IRENI beamline. The intrinsic friability of these two samples causes unacceptable levels of material loss at section thicknesses below 3 mm. 6034 | Analyst, 2013, 138, 6032–6043 Soened Bio-Plastic resin was used for the IRENI samples because it provides an appropriate combination of longevity and ease of transport of the thin sections, environmental stability, and appropriateness to the technique of microtoming small, irreplaceable samples. Although the resin itself may inltrate the sample and has a mid-IR signature, spectral interferences can be avoided by judiciously selecting the specic bands to image for the oxalates, carbonates, and sulphates being measured. While this mounting technique cannot overcome the inherent friability of the samples (the extent of which cannot easily be determined prior to mounting), it affords distinct advantages over other mounting techniques available. For example, although mounting in KBr eliminates interferences in the mid-IR spectral region, the hygroscopic and brittle nature of KBr does not allow the sample to be retained and re-examined over time with additional techniques, such as full eld XANES imaging. This type of re-use is oen necessary when the samples are precious as in the case of ne art materials. Chal- lenges encountered when using AgCl and BaF2 pellets include obtaining and retaining the proper mounting orientation due to the opacity of the salts, and potential for crushing the paint cross-section during pellet pressing (Pouyet et al. this volume),22 compromising stratigraphic data. Epoxy resins are far too hard for microtoming brittle paint cross-sections and result in extensive sample crumbling. Barrier methods that may help reduce or eliminate sample impregnation by the mounting resin are also challenging. Using gold or aluminium foils around the paint cross-section This journal is ª The Royal Society of Chemistry 2013 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/ https://doi.org/10.1039/c3an00892d Paper Analyst O pe n A cc es s A rt ic le . P ub li sh ed o n 08 A ug us t 20 13 . D ow nl oa de d on 4 /6 /2 02 1 2: 41 :0 2 A M . T hi s ar ti cl e is l ic en se d un de r a C re at iv e C om m on s A tt ri bu ti on -N on C om m er ci al 3 .0 U np or te d L ic en ce . View Article Online increases the risk of sample loss during microtoming because the sample is not visible. While the use of cyclododecane avoids this risk, the sublimation of the cylcododecane aer sectioning leaves a brittle and friable section that is too delicate to manipulate, and the procedure involves exposing the sample to a solvent and to a curing step at 58 �C that may induce chemical change in the sample. Pouyet et al.22 (this volume) have addressed the preparation of thin sections of historic paint cross-sections with minimal analytical interferences. These methods have included using a diamond micro-compression cell, which can provide high quality data, but can also distort or destroy the stratigraphy of the sample. Sample enclosing systems employed at ESRF involving polycarbonate lm encapsulation and AgCl resin embedding have shown promise, but are still being developed. Museum-laboratory analysis Cross-section samples prepared in Extec were used for photo- microscopy in visible and ultraviolet illumination followed by elemental mapping using SEM-EDS. Photomicroscopy was carried out using a Nikon 80i microscope with a 10� ocular and a 20� objective (200� total magnication), the X-cite� 120 uorescence illumination system, and ultraviolet lter cube BV- 2A which has a 400–440 nm excitation. Act-1 soware was used to collect the images, shown in Fig. 2 and 3. Photomicroscopy of IRENI transmission samples was carried out using a Leica DM4000 microscope with both visible and UV illumination. A 10� ocular, and 20–100� objectives (200–1000� total magni- cations), and ultraviolet lter cube A, which has a 340–380 nm excitation lter, were utilized. The Spot soware suite was used to collect images. Visible and ultraviolet photomicrographs of samples S113 and S117 are shown immediately following preparation in Fig. 2 and 3 respectively. The block-face samples mounted in Bio-Plastic� Liquid Casting Plastic were further examined using scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray microanalysis (SEM- EDS) to provide elemental information about each section. The SEM-EDS system used was a FEI-Philips XL30 ESEM-FEG with an Oxford Inca EDS system. All maps were run at 20 keV with Fig. 2 Visible, ultraviolet light, and SEM images of a sample S113 collected from th panel A shows the portion of the sample mounted as a cross-section with the painti used for IRENI FTIR imaging is shown in panel B, also in visible and ultraviolet light. No for the corresponding block face of this sample, including a BSE image along with Cd IRENI sample, only the altered CdS paint layer. Note the distribution of chlorine thro cadmium. This journal is ª The Royal Society of Chemistry 2013 spot size 3. Backscattered electron (BSE) images of the two sections are also shown in Fig. 2 and 3. SR-FTIR SR-FTIR imaging of the thin section samples was performed using the IRENI beamline. The IRENI beamline is unique in the eld of synchrotron-based FTIR imaging because it enables wide-eld, high resolution infrared (IR) imaging with the high throughput and signal-to-noise produced by a bright, stable synchrotron beam. It provides new capabilities that can address some of the challenges related to the analysis of small, multi- layered cross-section samples, as was demonstrated in previous work utilizing sample S117.23 Like other SR-FTIR methods, FTIR imaging at the IRENI beamline is typically conducted in transmission mode, elimi- nating the spectral artefacts observed in ATR-FTIR spectra that oen result in the need for additional data processing. Unlike other SR-FTIR mapping methods, the IRENI beamline allows for the collection of diffraction-limited resolution at all wave- lengths simultaneously, allowing for detailed analysis of the smallest samples, as well as high signal to noise across much of the mid-infrared region. Note that for IRENI SR-FTIR measurements diffraction-limited resolution arises from the limitation that far-eld resolution is limited by physical optics, and is wavelength dependent.17 This Rayleigh Criterion is typi- cally quoted as d ¼ .61l/NA, where d is the distance between two objects, l is the wavelength of the light, and NA is the numerical aperture of the objective. Since IR microscopes use Schwarzs- child objectives, the relationship is similar but not available in a simple closed form.24 ATR-FTIR mapping, specular reection FTIR mapping, and SR-FTIR mapping have been used by Boon et al. to study the formation of metal carboxylate aggregates in paint lms and to characterize the deterioration of bone black pigment in paint cross-sections.25–28 While these methods offer detailed chemical maps, the IRENI beamline offers pixel sizes of down to 0.54 � 0.54 mm2 which is sufficiently spatially oversampled to allow for higher resolution at all wavelengths, providing more detailed images representing true chemical imaging rather than raster e darkened upper left corner of the painting are shown. This sample was split, and ng's white ground layer visible. The 3 mm thin section (from the second fragment) te that the ground layer is not present in this sample. Panel C shows the SEM data , Cl, and S X-ray maps. These data demonstrate that there is no ground layer in the ughout this paint sample, and also the low concentration of sulphur compared to Analyst, 2013, 138, 6032–6043 | 6035 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/ https://doi.org/10.1039/c3an00892d Fig. 3 Visible, ultraviolet light, and SEM images of sample S117 collected from the lightened yellow field (now ivory-hued) below the central reclining figures are shown. This sample was split, and panel A shows the portion of the sample mounted as a cross-section with the painting's white ground layer visible. The 3 mm thin section (from the second fragment) used for IRENI FTIR imaging is shown in panel B, also in visible and ultraviolet light. Note that the ground layer is not present in this sample. Panel C shows the block face from this sample's BSE image with Cd, Cl, Zn and S X-ray maps. These data demonstrate that there is no ground layer in the IRENI sample, only the altered CdS paint layer. Note the presence of chlorine and zinc in this paint sample, and also the low level of sulphur compared to cadmium. Panel D shows the locations of Cd and Zn in this sample in red and blue respectively. Note that the Zn appears to be present as a separate phase, likely ZnO. Analyst Paper O pe n A cc es s A rt ic le . P ub li sh ed o n 08 A ug us t 20 13 . D ow nl oa de d on 4 /6 /2 02 1 2: 41 :0 2 A M . T hi s ar ti cl e is l ic en se d un de r a C re at iv e C om m on s A tt ri bu ti on -N on C om m er ci al 3 .0 U np or te d L ic en ce . View Article Online scanning, which relies upon setting an aperture that denes the spatial resolution of the nal images. Kazarian et al. have carried out diffraction-limited FTIR imaging using a laser-based tabletop IR imaging system that, while it offers diffraction- limited spatial resolution, has a spectral resolution substan- tially below the IRENI method (<20 cm�1).29 While specular reection geometry measurements are compatible with tradi- tional sample mounting techniques, they are totally dependent on the heterogeneous nature of the material that is being evaluated. The electric eld penetrates much smaller distances for higher absorbing regions than lower absorbing regions. By denition for a heterogeneous material the measurement at each pixel will be entirely dependent on what material is encountered in the top layers of the sample, and will penetrate varying depths of the sample, which would be challenging, if not impossible, to evaluate accurately. For the analysis using IRENI, prepared samples were sup- ported on a BaF2 window which was also used to collect back- ground measurements. The beamline was used as typically congured for transmission measurements: a 74�/0.6 NA Schwarzschild objective (Ealing) and 15�/0.58 NA Schwarzs- child condenser (NicPlan) on a commercial IR microscope (Bruker Vertex 70 FTIR/Hyperion 3000 microscope) equipped with a 128 � 128 pixel HgCdTe focal plane array detector (FPA, 6036 | Analyst, 2013, 138, 6032–6043 Santa Barbara Focalplane, range of 3950–950 cm�1). This experimental setup provides an effective geometrical pixel area at the sample plane of 0.54 � 0.54 mm2. A 64 � 64 pixel area of the detector was illuminated and recorded as a tile. Thus, each tile used to build images of the samples contains 4096 indi- vidual spectra and images an area of �34 � 34 mm2. Data were collected using the commercial OPUS soware suite (Bruker) using 256 sample scans and an integration time of 0.10475 ms, and analyzed using IRidys, a program for the commercial so- ware package IGOR Pro, which was generated in-house at SRC. Results and discussion Both historic mineral-based pigments and modern synthetic pigments used in painting are susceptible to alteration as a result of their reactions with light, atmospheric moisture, oxygen, sulphur dioxide, and other agents of degradation in their environment. Modern synthetic pigments that suffer degradation include the nineteenth-century yellow pigments chrome yellow30–33 and zinc yellow8,34 in addition to cadmium yellow.1,18–20 The degradation mechanisms behind these alter- ations are oen complex, involving traces of synthesis starting reagents or other impurities in the paint, requiring the presence of multiple degradation agents (e.g. light and high relative This journal is ª The Royal Society of Chemistry 2013 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/ https://doi.org/10.1039/c3an00892d Fig. 4 Reference and average FTIR spectra from the measured samples. The average spectra (extracted from multiple pixels of the hyperspectral data sets for each sample) show the resin (taken from the resin surrounding S113, black), and the results from S113 (purple) and S117 (violet). The reference spectra of cadmium sulphate (CdSO4$nH2O, Sigma-Aldrich, in green), cadmium carbonate (CdCO3, in blue) (Sigma-Aldrich), and cadmium oxalate (CdC2O4, in red) 36 are stacked in the lower half of the graph. The integration limits for the chemical images in Fig. 5–8 are also highlighted in the same colour code. Paper Analyst O pe n A cc es s A rt ic le . P ub li sh ed o n 08 A ug us t 20 13 . D ow nl oa de d on 4 /6 /2 02 1 2: 41 :0 2 A M . T hi s ar ti cl e is l ic en se d un de r a C re at iv e C om m on s A tt ri bu ti on -N on C om m er ci al 3 .0 U np or te d L ic en ce . View Article Online humidity) or triggered by the alteration of a neighbouring pigment. The study of these complex phenomena is hindered by the fact that they are oen occurring within only the uppermost layers of the paint lm that is itself only several micrometers thick (artists' paint layers can vary from as little as three micrometers thick to as large as hundreds of micrometers thick, with approximately twenty micrometers being the average for a single layer of brush-applied oil paint). Thus the alteration layer can be only 1–2 micrometers thick or, depending on the state of degradation, can extend throughout an entire paint layer. Fig. 2 and 3 reveal that the samples characterized using IRENI SR-FTIR imaging contain the altered cadmium-contain- ing paint lm only, and none of the painting's ground layer. This is critical since the ground is composed of clastic barium sulphate particles in a lead white (hydrocerussite) matrix, and thus would contribute to the carbonate and sulphate signals being studied. The lack of this ground layer in the studied samples means that the carbonate and sulphate signals can be reasonably assumed to stem from the degradation of the parent cadmium sulphide pigment. Fig. 2 shows the inhomogeneous distribution of sulphur in the paint layer of sample S113, with the surface of the sample being particularly depleted in this element. Chlorine is distributed throughout the paint layer, with its highest concentration at the surface of the paint layer. The presence of chlorine throughout this sample raises the possibility that CdCl2 was the starting material for the synthesis of the cadmium sulphide. It has been shown that CdS synthe- sized from CdCl2 has a lower band gap than CdS synthesized from other starting reagents, and absorbs light across a larger region of the visible spectrum. As a result, it has the potential for greater photo-induced reactivity than other sources of the same pigment.35 The thin lms for which these phenomena were measured have a CdS grain size range from 2.9 to 3.9 nanometres. Similarly, uncalcined precipitated CdS prepared in our laboratory was found to have an average particle size of 2.9 nanometres. Cadmium sulphide yellow pigments from the 1880s through the 1920s were oen uncalcined, and as a result nanocrystalline or amorphous, which can be observed by their lack of an XRD pattern.18 No zinc map was included for this sample as it was essentially zinc-free, in contrast to S117. Fig. 3 shows the depletion of sulphur relative to cadmium in sample S117, the sample removed from the lightened cadmium yellow paint below the central reclining gures. Chlorine is distributed throughout the paint layer here too, suggesting that CdCl2 may also have been the starting material for the cadmium yellow paint in this region. However, the high concentration of zinc throughout the paint layer suggests that a different tube of cadmium yellow may have been used for this region of the painting than was used for the region at the upper le. While cadmium is mined from zinc ores (and so cadmium yellow paints frequently contain trace or minor amounts of zinc), the concentration of zinc here is more suggestive of a zinc oxide added by the manufacturer or artist supplier. The addition of zinc oxide – a white pigment – to the cadmium yellow paint in this region appears to be consistent with Matisse's oil sketch now in the collection of the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art [Henri Matisse, Sketch for Le Bonheur de vivre (Joy of Life,), oil This journal is ª The Royal Society of Chemistry 2013 on canvas 16 � 21 ½ in. (40.64 � 54.61 cm), SFMOMA 91.160], in which Matisse also chose a lighter yellow under the central gures and a darker, more orange-hued yellow for the upper le tree foliage. In Fig. 4, reference spectra for cadmium carbonate, cadmium sulphate, cadmium oxalate, and the Bio-Plastic� mounting resin are shown along with an average spectrum for each sample. The sample spectra are calculated averages from all of the pixels acquired during imaging of each sample – >24 500 spectra in the case of sample 113, and 81 920 spectra in Analyst, 2013, 138, 6032–6043 | 6037 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/ https://doi.org/10.1039/c3an00892d Analyst Paper O pe n A cc es s A rt ic le . P ub li sh ed o n 08 A ug us t 20 13 . D ow nl oa de d on 4 /6 /2 02 1 2: 41 :0 2 A M . T hi s ar ti cl e is l ic en se d un de r a C re at iv e C om m on s A tt ri bu ti on -N on C om m er ci al 3 .0 U np or te d L ic en ce . View Article Online the case of sample 117. The mounting resin reference spectrum is taken from a separate area of sample S113, and so is also a calculated average from all of the pixels within the eld of view, >24 500 spectra. Fig. 4 demonstrates the potential overlaps and distinguishing spectral bands for this limited set of materials of interest. Note that the samples are complex mixtures, and likely contain many other materials [such as the paint binding medium (a drying oil) and possible restoration materials], which is why the average spectra also show more complex signatures. These average spectra also include regions con- taining resin only (see ESI†). To determine the presence/distribution of each constituent of interest in the samples, a peak whose area can be integrated must be identied, and these integration regions must be chosen with care to minimize spectral interferences during imaging. Fig. 4 also shows highlighted spectral ranges that indicate the integration regions chosen for each of the cadmium-containing species. We have chosen two absorption bands for cadmium carbonate that are clearly separated from the other spectral features in these reference materials (indi- cated in blue). These are weak absorbers, but since they are distinctive and separated from the ngerprint region (1650–900 cm�1) where there is substantial overlap with the mounting resin and the paint binder, they are more reliable than, for example, the substantially more intense asymmetric carbonate stretching band near 1427 cm�1. The two bands that have been chosen for cadmium sulphate (indicated in green) overlap somewhat with two absorption bands for cadmium oxalate (in red), which suggests that care is needed in interpreting these bands. In order to address this potential overlap, the spectral bandwidth and integration parameters for both absorption bands have been limited at the peak of the band, with a corre- sponding baseline. The band at 1314 cm�1 for the oxalate is very sharp, and distinctive, even though it is in the middle of the ngerprint region. The average spectra for both samples clearly show evidence that most of these compounds are present in the samples – noting the broad nature of the band at 3400 cm�1 for the sulphate with the clear shoulder at high frequency that aligns well with the oxalate band, and the sharp band at 1314 cm�1 for the oxalate. Interestingly, the weak bands for the carbonate at 1750 and 2450 cm�1 are only visible in the average spectrum for sample 117, even though they fall within a region of little absorption from other constituents. These bands are very clear in average spectra for specic regions of interest, as will be discussed below. This result suggests that if one were to collect only one average spectrum for the entire sample, one could miss important phases present. In Fig. 5 and 6, visible images (Panels A) of the thin sections for sample 113 and 117 that were measured with IRENI are shown, each with four integrated intensity IR images and the former with ve accompanying spectra. Note that the top surface of each paint fragment is always at the top of the SR-FTIR image (i.e., each sample is right-side up). The visible image of sample 113, shown in Fig. 5A, shows damage that occurred to the prepared sample in transit to the beamline – some of the inorganic pigment has fallen away from the centre of the sample, leaving a hole in the sample. The chemical 6038 | Analyst, 2013, 138, 6032–6043 images are generated from integrating the individual spectra at each pixel for a given spectral range, using the integration regions shown in Fig. 4. Panels B (with ROI1) and C (with ROI2) represent the strength of CO3 2� (carbonate) functional group absorption bands (2429–2510 cm�1, 1777–1816 cm�1) for cadmium carbonate. Panels D (with ROI3) and E (with ROI4) represent the strength of OH (from waters of crystallization) absorption bands (3333–3504 cm�1, and sulphate bending band 1624–1672 cm�1) for cadmium sulphate. The colour scales are rainbow colour scales (violet and magenta low, red high). For Fig. 5 only, average spectra from the combined pixels in each of the four circular or elliptical regions of interest (as labelled in the panels) are shown, with highlighted spectral ranges for clarity. The double highlight indicates which band was integrated for the corresponding image. The signicance and detailed analysis of these FTIR images is discussed sepa- rately for each sample below. Further inspection of the spectra for the regions of interest is warranted. In all of these spectra it is clear that multiple constituents are contributing to the spectra; however there is a minor contribution from the oxalate. Phase distributions and relationships to alteration mechanisms As noted above, the identication of photo-degraded cadmium sulphide is challenging because two of the most commonly observed photo-degradation products, cadmium carbonate and cadmium sulphate, are synthesis starting reagents that may be found as impurities in cadmium yellow paints. A third photo- degradation product, cadmium oxalate, is thought to have been used as an inert ller/extender in paler shades of cadmium yellow paints, as was cadmium carbonate (although in this case the synthesis conditions may have resulted in the co-precipi- tation of the white cadmium carbonate with the cadmium sulphide thus producing a paler shade).19 These challenges make it necessary not to immediately interpret the presence of cadmium carbonate, sulphate, and oxalate in cadmium yellow paints as photo-degradation products (even though they are commonly observed in photo-degraded cadmium yellow paints). To understand the origin and role of cadmium carbonates, sulphates, and oxalates in these altered paint layers, then, it is necessary to understand the concentration of these phases as a function of depth. Fig. 5 of sample S113 from the darkened upper le corner shows cadmium carbonate is concentrated at the surface of paint cross-section. This phenomenon has been observed previously using mXANES analysis in the degraded cadmium yellow fruits of the tree at Le Bonheur de vivre's upper right, which have a similar mottled tan alteration surface.14 Cadmium carbonate's location at the surface suggests that it is present in the sample, at least in part, as a photo-degradation product. The high concentrations of chloride in this paint layer (see Fig. 2), however; suggest that cadmium chloride rather than cadmium carbonate was the starting synthesis reagent for the cadmium yellow pigment observed here. Cadmium carbonate has also been observed in photo-degraded regions of Edvard Munch's This journal is ª The Royal Society of Chemistry 2013 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/ https://doi.org/10.1039/c3an00892d Fig. 5 Results from S113: visible light transmission image recorded at the IRENI beamline. Panels (B) and (C) show the chemical images (rainbow scale – purple/low – red/high) generated from integrating the hyperspectral cube over the two spectral regions identified from the reference spectrum for CdCO3, in more detail (B) 2429– 2510 cm�1 and (C) 1777–1816 cm�1. Panels (D) and (E) show the chemical images generated from integrating the hyperspectral cube over the two spectral regions identified from the reference spectrum for CdSO4, in more detail (D) 3333–3504 cm �1 and (E) 1624–1672 cm�1. The white scale bar equals 20 mm. In each chemical image a region of interest (ROI) was assigned to locations with the highest integrated absorbance. The spectra from those ROIs, numbered from 1–4 in panels (B) to (E), are stacked in the graph in panel (F), together with the average spectrum from S113. The influence of the resin and the dependence of the location within the sample are clearly visible. Paper Analyst O pe n A cc es s A rt ic le . P ub li sh ed o n 08 A ug us t 20 13 . D ow nl oa de d on 4 /6 /2 02 1 2: 41 :0 2 A M . T hi s ar ti cl e is l ic en se d un de r a C re at iv e C om m on s A tt ri bu ti on -N on C om m er ci al 3 .0 U np or te d L ic en ce . View Article Online The Scream (Munch Museum 1910),19 in Vincent van Gogh's Flowers in a Blue Vase (1887 Kröller-Müller Museum),1 as well as in works by Jessica Heath (The Daffodil Fields, 1920, Private Collection) and Pablo Picasso Flowers (1901, The Tate Modern).18 The location of the CdCO3 in the paint layer as a function of depth has only been studied in the case of Le Bon- heur de vivre (described above) and in Vincent van Gogh's Flowers in a Blue Vase. CdCO3 is present in altered yellow paint samples in Flowers in a Blue Vase in both the alteration zone (also containing oxalates) as well as throughout the yellow paint layer, suggesting that it may play a dual role as a residual starting reagent or ller as well as a photo-degradation product.1 Mechanisms for the formation of CdCO3 have been discussed by Mass et al.14 as well as Van der Snickt et al.,1 with possible cadmium sulphate and cadmium oxalate intermedi- ates. Further mechanistic research, likely involving articial aging of model systems, will be required to fully address this question, as noted by Van der Snickt et al. Interestingly, for ROI 2 in this sample (see Fig. 5C), where the 1387 cm�1 and 1700 cm�1 carbonate bands appears strongly, the 2500 cm�1 band is shied. This shi to a peak maximum of 2518 cm�1 suggests that CaCO3 (calcite or aragonite form) could be present in this region rather than CdCO3 (CaCO3 has a peak maximum at 2512 cm�1 while CdCO3 has one at 2470 cm �1). Elemental mapping on the corresponding block face to this thin This journal is ª The Royal Society of Chemistry 2013 section shows a calcium hotspot that provides conrmation of this nding, critical since CaCO3 has not been observed in the cadmium yellow paints of Le Bonheur de vivre previously. It is also notable that there is a smaller concentration of sulphates and oxalates in this region than elsewhere in the sample, sup- porting the possibility that this is a carbonate inclusion unre- lated to the CdS photo-degradation (see ESI†). The distribution of cadmium sulphate in sample S113 can also be observed in Fig. 5. Unlike cadmium carbonate, cadmium sulphate can be observed throughout the paint layer, suggesting either that it is present as a residual synthesis reagent or that it is a more mobile photo-oxidation product. As noted by Van der Snickt et al., cadmium sulphate is highly soluble (cadmium sulphate monohydrate has a Ksp 76.7 g/100 mL at 25 �C), in comparison to cadmium carbonate (a Ksp of 1.0 � 10�12). As cadmium sulphide itself is insoluble (Ksp of 1 � 10�27 in water at 25 �C), it is clear that any photo-oxidation to cadmium sulphate at the surface of the paint lm would not constrain the cadmium sulphate to a surface-based alteration layer in the same way that the formation of the less soluble CdCO3 and CdC2O4 compounds might (solubility product of CdC2O4 is 1.42 � 10�8).1,37 This would especially be the case in a high relative humidity environment, where moisture and soluble salts could move together through the paint structure. This same phenomenon of widespread sulphate distribution Analyst, 2013, 138, 6032–6043 | 6039 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/ https://doi.org/10.1039/c3an00892d Fig. 6 Results from S117: (A) visible light transmission image recorded at the IRENI beamline. Chemical images analogous to the results presented in Fig. 5 for S113 are shown. The chemical images (rainbow scale – purple/low – red/high) show the distribution of CdCO3 in (B) 2429–2510 cm �1 and (C) 1777–1816 cm�1 and the distribution of CdSO4 in (D) 3333–3504 cm �1 and (E) 1624–1672 cm�1. The white scale bar is 20 mm. Analyst Paper O pe n A cc es s A rt ic le . P ub li sh ed o n 08 A ug us t 20 13 . D ow nl oa de d on 4 /6 /2 02 1 2: 41 :0 2 A M . T hi s ar ti cl e is l ic en se d un de r a C re at iv e C om m on s A tt ri bu ti on -N on C om m er ci al 3 .0 U np or te d L ic en ce . View Article Online was previously observed using mXANES on a sample from one of the cadmium yellow fruits in the tree at the upper right.14 In this instance, regions of the tan alteration crust contained over 90% CdCO3. Due to the sample failure in the middle of the sample S113, exact comparisons of the concentration of cadmium sulphate in the bulk and at the surface are challenging. However, slight sulphate enrichment was previously detected on the very surface of sample S113 using mXANES mapping, a technique with higher spatial resolution, and this result is consistent with the locations of the red “hot spots” indicating highest sulphate concentration on the FTIR image.14 This surface enrichment of cadmium sulphate has also been observed in sample S5, below the central reclining gures, using mXANES mapping, suggesting that while CdSO4$nH2O has the potential solubility to migrate through the paint layer, that some surface accumulation resulting from photo-degradation can still be observed.14 Fig. 6 shows the distribution of cadmium carbonate and cadmium sulphate in sample S117, a sample removed from an island of yellow paint beneath the central reclining gures. Cadmium carbonate appears to be present in highest concen- trations at or near the top of the paint layer based on the 2429– 2510 cm�1 integration image (Panel B). While this trend is not as evident in the 1777–1816 cm�1 integration image (Panel C), all of the red “hot spots” of highest concentration occur toward to the top surface of the sample, suggesting cadmium carbo- nate's role as a photo-degradation product. This nding is consistent with the SEM-EDS data on this sample, which reveals 6040 | Analyst, 2013, 138, 6032–6043 depletion of sulphur toward the surface of the paint layer, with the exception of two crystals above the surface of the paint layer, which appear euhedral, and may represent a crystalline sulphur-containing degradation product (see Fig. 3). While these crystals did not survive transport to the IRENI facility, the increased translucency of these crystals, and the other sulphur- rich regions of the SEM-EDS map, is consistent with the formation of a hydrated sulphate salt. The cadmium carbonate integration images using the 2429–2510 cm�1 regions and the 1777–1816 cm�1 regions do show some carbonate intensity throughout the paint section (although again highest intensi- ties are observed at or near the painting's surface). This is consistent with mXANES data of sample S115 from the yellow fruit of the tree at the upper right, which reveal that in the bottom (and still yellow) portion of the paint sample as much as 46% CdCO3 can be observed. These ndings can be attributed to the increased solubility and thus mobility of CdCO3 over CdS as the CdCO3 photo-degradation product forms, or as being suggestive of the presence of a CdCO3 residual synthesis start- ing reagent or ller. Given that the high concentration of chloride in this sample suggests a CdCl2 synthesis starting reagent, however, the latter explanation seems less likely. Panels D and E show the distribution of cadmium sulphate throughout this sample. Similar to sample S113, the sulphate is widely distributed throughout the paint cross-section. This is consistent with the high solubility (and thus mobility) of this phase discussed above, and so it does not preclude its presence being a result of photo-oxidation. Similar to sample S113, while This journal is ª The Royal Society of Chemistry 2013 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/ https://doi.org/10.1039/c3an00892d Paper Analyst O pe n A cc es s A rt ic le . P ub li sh ed o n 08 A ug us t 20 13 . D ow nl oa de d on 4 /6 /2 02 1 2: 41 :0 2 A M . T hi s ar ti cl e is l ic en se d un de r a C re at iv e C om m on s A tt ri bu ti on -N on C om m er ci al 3 .0 U np or te d L ic en ce . View Article Online the distribution of CdSO4$nH2O does not eliminate its possible role as a synthesis starting reagent, the high chloride concen- tration of this sample suggests that CdCl2 is more likely to have functioned in this role. The zinc content of S117 in comparison to S113 is also notable (see Fig. 3). Cadmium is mined from zinc ores, and therefore zinc is commonly observed in cadmium yellow paints in at least trace amounts (with Zn substituted for Cd on the CdS crystal lattice). The distribution of zinc observed in S117, however, suggests that zinc white (ZnO) may have been added to this paint as a physical mixture to create a paler shade of cadmium yellow. The homogeneous distribution of zinc in the paint suggests that the addition was made by the manufacturer of the paint rather than by Matisse. Alternately, cadmium zinc sulphides were developed in the early 20th century to produce paler shades of cadmium yellow that were more stable with an overall formula Cd1�xZnxS, and were rst referred to in the paint chemistry literature in 1914.38 The use of a pale yellow in this area would be consistent with the lighter shade of yellow that can be observed in Matisse's oil sketch of the work [Henri Matisse. Sketch for Le Bonheur de vivre (Joy of Life) 1905–1906 San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, 91.160]. In Fig. 7 the IR intensity images for cadmium oxalate for samples S113 and S117 are shown. These images were gener- ated using the absorption band at 1314 cm�1 that corresponds to the C2O4 2� functional group with an integration region between 1296 and 1330 cm�1. Regions of interest are circled in red and blue/grey in each image, representing high and rela- tively low integrated signal intensity regions (so-called hot and cold spots) for this oxalate signature in each of the paint cross sections, respectively. The spectra for those regions are stacked in the accompanying graph. The 1314 cm�1 absorption band is clearly visible in the spectra from the two ‘hot spot’ regions of interest chosen, but in sample S117, even the ‘cold spot’ of the sample still contains some oxalate, as evidenced by the band in the average spectrum. Fig. 7 Chemical images (rainbow scale: purple/low – red/high concentration) gen oxalate in (A) S113 and (B) S117, the white scale bar is 20 mm. In both integration ima spectral region. The graph in panel (C) shows the spectra of these hot spots and cold that the cadmium oxalate has a higher distribution towards the surface of the pain This journal is ª The Royal Society of Chemistry 2013 The cadmium oxalates are concentrated at or near the surface of the paint layer for both S113 and S117, demonstrating that this is a photo-oxidation product rather than a paint ller in the cadmium yellow paints from both regions of the painting. This data also conrms that once cadmium oxalate has formed the low solubility of this photo-degradation product prevents it from becoming distributed throughout the paint lm. This distribution of oxalates at the surface is consistent with micro FTIR imaging of sample S5 from below the central reclining gures (see Pouyet et al. this volume). In fact, the micro FTIR imaging data shows a stratigraphy of photo-degradation prod- ucts where oxalates are located at the very surface, followed by carbonates, and then sulphates. Such a stratigraphy appears to be replicated here, which can be seen in particular when the three maps for sample S117 are viewed together. This stratig- raphy, alongside the high chloride levels of the paint samples, is suggestive of all three phases being related to photo-degrada- tion, and their distribution being related to their respective solubilities. This demonstrates the importance of under- standing the potential movement of soluble material (in particular degradation products) throughout oil paintings as has been pointed out by Keune et al.39 In Fig. 8, two stacks of spectra from single pixel line scans within the measurement area for samples S113 and S117 are shown (see Panels A and B). The black lines on the IR images of the cadmium carbonate distributions (similar to those shown in Panels B in Fig. 4 and 5) indicate the pixels that these spectra are extracted from. These lines have been chosen to display a series of spectra where there is substantial chemical variation visible, with varying contributions of the carbonate, sulphate and oxalate concentrations. The green, blue and red high- lighted windows on the spectra show the absorption bands that we have used to visualize the concentrations of these individual components. These spectra, compared side by side (and with the same scale), suggest that sample S117 has a higher contri- bution from oxalate than sample S113 based on the intensity of erated from integrating from 1296–1330 cm�1 show the distribution of cadmium ges two ROIs are marked, indicating a location of high and low absorbance in that spots of S113 (red and grey) and S117 (orange and darker grey). It is clearly visible t chips. Analyst, 2013, 138, 6032–6043 | 6041 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/ https://doi.org/10.1039/c3an00892d Fig. 8 Integration images of (A) S113 and (C) S117 between 3219 and 3612 cm�1, a region where only the sample absorbs as can be verified by looking at Fig. 4. The white scale bars are 20 mm. The black crosses along the lines starting at the surface of the paint layer and transiting to the interior layers, mark the spots at which single pixel spectra have been extracted. These spectra are plotted in the graphs in panel (C) for S113 and (D) for S117. The complexity of the spectra and the variation of the distribution of the components can be seen in detail. Analyst Paper O pe n A cc es s A rt ic le . P ub li sh ed o n 08 A ug us t 20 13 . D ow nl oa de d on 4 /6 /2 02 1 2: 41 :0 2 A M . T hi s ar ti cl e is l ic en se d un de r a C re at iv e C om m on s A tt ri bu ti on -N on C om m er ci al 3 .0 U np or te d L ic en ce . View Article Online the band at 1314 cm�1. Sample S113, on the other hand, appears to have a higher concentration of carbonate based on the intensity of the band at 1777–1816 cm�1. Conclusions IRENI SR-FTIR imaging has been used to map the mid-IR active photo-degradation phases in two thin sections of cadmium yellow paint removed from Henri Matisse's Le Bonheur de vivre (1905–1906, The Barnes Foundation). The altered cadmium yellow paints from the darkened yellow foliage at the upper le of the work and the lightened yellow eld beneath the central reclining gures both contain cadmium carbonate, cadmium sulphate, and cadmium oxalate. Each of these phases was imaged to probe its role in the cadmium yellow synthesis, formulation, and photo-degradation mechanisms. It was estab- lished that cadmium oxalate is localized at the surface of the paint layer, cadmium carbonate is also found deeper in the layer but still enriched at the surface, and cadmium sulphate is distributed throughout the paint layer. This distribution, along with the chloride content of the paint (which suggests a cadmium chloride starting material) is consistent with an alteration 6042 | Analyst, 2013, 138, 6032–6043 mechanism in which the cadmium sulphide is oxidized directly to form cadmium sulphate, which is then converted to cadmium carbonate and cadmium oxalate. A closely related stratigraphy of cadmium yellow photo-degradation products has recently been observed for Vincent van Gogh's Flowers in a Blue Vase (1887 (ref. 1)), in which the oxalate is thought to stem from degradation of the painting's varnish, and in a second sample from beneath the Le Bonheur de vivre's central reclining Fig. (S5)† discussed elsewhere in this volume (see Pouyet et al.). The relative solubilities of the three photo-degradation products are also relevant to their locations in the paint lm. It is expected that in a high relative humidity environment that even if cadmium sulphate were forming at the surface of the paint lm as a result of photo-oxidation, that this soluble salt could become distributed throughout the paint layer during years of relative humidity cycling. The lower solubilities of cadmium oxalate and cadmium carbonate would contribute to their remaining at the surface aer formation to create an alteration layer. Both of these phases are white (as is cadmium sulphate), and so could be expected to contribute to the formation of a lightened alteration crust such as the ivory crusts observed on Le Bonheur de vivre below the central reclining This journal is ª The Royal Society of Chemistry 2013 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/ https://doi.org/10.1039/c3an00892d Paper Analyst O pe n A cc es s A rt ic le . P ub li sh ed o n 08 A ug us t 20 13 . D ow nl oa de d on 4 /6 /2 02 1 2: 41 :0 2 A M . T hi s ar ti cl e is l ic en se d un de r a C re at iv e C om m on s A tt ri bu ti on -N on C om m er ci al 3 .0 U np or te d L ic en ce . View Article Online gures. The darker colour of the alteration layer at the upper le can be observed in cross-section as well as macroscopically, but it does not result from the distribution of the major mid-IR active photo-degradation phases observed here. Acknowledgements J. Mass is grateful to the Winterthur Museum, the University of Delaware, the Lenfest Foundation, and the Mellon Foundation for their support of this research. A portion of this work was also supported by the Getty Conservation Institute. IRENI was developed under the grant MRI-DMR-0619759. This work was supported by the NSF under grant CHE-1112433. The SRC is funded by UW-Madison and UW-Milwaukee. Notes and references 1 G. Van der Snickt, K. Janssens, J. Dik, W. De Nolf, F. Vanmeert, J. Jaroszewicz, M. Cotte, G. Falkenberg and L. Van der Loeff, Anal. Chem., 2012, 84, 10221–10228. 2 M. Cotte, J. Susini, J. Dik and K. Janssens, Acc. Chem. Res., 2010, 43, 705–714. 3 J. L. Mass, R. Opila, B. Buckley, M. Cotte, J. Church and A. Mehta, Appl. Phys. A: Mater. Sci. Process., 2013, 111, 59–68. 4 L. Bertrand, M. Cotte, M. Stampanoni, M. Thoury, F. Marone and S. Schoder, Phys. Rep., 2012, 519(2), 51–96. 5 M. Cotte, P. Dumas, Y. Taniguchi, E. Checroun, P. Walter and J. Susini, C. R. 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Pawar, Chalcogenide Lett., 2010, 7, 227– 231. 36 A. M. E. Raj, D. D. Jayanthi and V. B. Jothy, Solid State Sci., 2008, 10, 557–562. 37 K. Keune and J. J. Boon, ICOM-CC Lisbon Proceedings, Lisbon, 2011. 38 A. P. Laurie, The Pigments and Mediums of the Old Masters, Macmillan, London, 1914. 39 K. Keune and J. J. Boon, ICOM-CC 16th Triennial Conference, Lisbon, 2011. Analyst, 2013, 138, 6032–6043 | 6043 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/ https://doi.org/10.1039/c3an00892d SR-FTIR imaging of the altered cadmium sulfide yellow paints in Henri Matisse's Le Bonheur de vivre (1905tnqh_x20136) tnqh_x2013 examination of... SR-FTIR imaging of the altered cadmium sulfide yellow paints in Henri Matisse's Le Bonheur de vivre (1905tnqh_x20136) tnqh_x2013 examination of... SR-FTIR imaging of the altered cadmium sulfide yellow paints in Henri Matisse's Le Bonheur de vivre (1905tnqh_x20136) tnqh_x2013 examination of... SR-FTIR imaging of the altered cadmium sulfide yellow paints in Henri Matisse's Le Bonheur de vivre (1905tnqh_x20136) tnqh_x2013 examination of... SR-FTIR imaging of the altered cadmium sulfide yellow paints in Henri Matisse's Le Bonheur de vivre (1905tnqh_x20136) tnqh_x2013 examination of... SR-FTIR imaging of the altered cadmium sulfide yellow paints in Henri Matisse's Le Bonheur de vivre (1905tnqh_x20136) tnqh_x2013 examination of... SR-FTIR imaging of the altered cadmium sulfide yellow paints in Henri Matisse's Le Bonheur de vivre (1905tnqh_x20136) tnqh_x2013 examination of... SR-FTIR imaging of the altered cadmium sulfide yellow paints in Henri Matisse's Le Bonheur de vivre (1905tnqh_x20136) tnqh_x2013 examination of... SR-FTIR imaging of the altered cadmium sulfide yellow paints in Henri Matisse's Le Bonheur de vivre (1905tnqh_x20136) tnqh_x2013 examination of... SR-FTIR imaging of the altered cadmium sulfide yellow paints in Henri Matisse's Le Bonheur de vivre (1905tnqh_x20136) tnqh_x2013 examination of... 
work_raqr2dgvyfeb7hnp6pn6tkek7u	----	New insights into Pablo Picasso’s La Miséreuse accroupie (Barcelona, 1902) using X-ray fluorescence imaging and reflectance spectroscopies combined with micro-analyses of samples Vol.:(0123456789) SN Applied Sciences (2020) 2:1408 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-3130-4 Research Ar ticle New insights into Pablo Picasso’s La Miséreuse accroupie (Barcelona, 1902) using X‑ray fluorescence imaging and reflectance spectroscopies combined with micro‑analyses of samples Emeline Pouyet1  · Kenneth Brummel2 · Sandra Webster‑Cook2 · John Delaney3 · Catherine Dejoie4 · Gianluca Pastorelli1 · Marc Walton1 Received: 27 February 2019 / Accepted: 23 June 2020 / Published online: 22 July 2020 © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 Abstract The existence of underlying structures in an x-radiograph of La Miséreuse accroupie (1902), a Blue Period painting in the collection of the Art Gallery of Ontario (AGO), prompted a comprehensive technical study to unpack how Picasso actu- ally made this iconic work of art. A methodology was used in which 2D macroscopic data were collected in situ using fiber optics reflectance spectroscopy and macro-X-ray fluorescence mapping. It confirmed that Picasso painted over an earlier composition. It also revealed, between the former composition and the finished work, an earlier version of the crouching woman painted by Picasso. The preliminary pigments distribution obtained from both hidden and visible compositions guided the sampling of micro-fragments to perform supplementary micro-analyses. Analyses at the micro- scale allowed the identification of the different pigments present in the complex stratigraphy of the painting. Scanning Electron Microscopy, Fourier Transform spectroscopies and 2D micro X-Ray Powder diffraction provided further insights into Picasso’s early palette. Keywords Picasso · Pigment identification · Hidden composition · Macro X-ray fluorescence · Fiber optics reflectance spectroscopy · Micro spectroscopic analyses 1 Background La Miséreuse accroupie (1902, oil on canvas, 101.2 × 66 cm, Art Gallery of Ontario, Toronto, Canada, Z. I, 121) (Fig. 1a) is believed to have been painted in Barcelona after Picas- so’s return from Paris in January 1902. The painting was bequeathed to what was then called the Art Gallery of Toronto by an anonymous donor who escaped to Canada from Nazi Germany in 1936. Upon returning to Germany in 1963, she gave the painting to the gallery as an expression of gratitude for having provided a place of solace during her time in Toronto. Depicted in La Miséreuse accroupie is a fully enshrouded, crouching woman in three-quarter profile who bows her head and shuts her eyes, refusing to acknowledge the viewer. Enlarged to fill the entire canvas, this figure, although destitute, has a monumentality and presence that belies her low socioeconomic status. Careful examination of the painting surface using direct and raking light revealed distinct surface textures and craquelure patterns that do not match the visible composition. More precisely, in the background area and right shoulder of the crouching woman, thinly painted Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (https ://doi.org/10.1007/s4245 2-020-3130-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users. * Emeline Pouyet, emelinepouyet@gmail.com | 1Center for Scientific Studies in the Art, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Rd, Evanston, IL 60208, USA. 2Art Gallery of Ontario, Toronto, CA, Canada. 3Department of Scientific Research, National Gallery of Art, Washington, USA. 4European Synchrotron Radiation Facility, 71 avenue des Martyrs, 38043 Grenoble Cedex 9, France. http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1007/s42452-020-3130-4&domain=pdf http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5824-2940 https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-3130-4 Vol:.(1234567890) Research Article SN Applied Sciences (2020) 2:1408 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-3130-4 brushstrokes, paint losses and raised cracks exposed underlying colored and white paint layers. Picasso often made changes to his paintings, sometimes reusing can- vases onto which images were already painted. For the most part, when he reworked a painting, he did so directly over earlier images, choosing not to scrape away the previ- ous composition. Early in his career, financial constraints were certainly part of his motivation for reusing supports. However, for Picasso, the initial forms painted on a can- vas also served as sources of inspiration [1]. To quote the artist: “A picture is not thought out and settled before- hand. While it is being done, it changes as one’s thoughts change” [2]. Imaging using x-radiography and infrared reflectogra- phy revealed numerous examples of reused canvases in Picasso’s early works, offering conservators and art his- torians insights into the artist’s process [1, 3–8]. Within the last decade, the development of new portable in situ instruments [9–14] and access to state-of-the-art facilities [15] have increased possibilities to image and study both the surface and hidden compositions, providing further insight into Picasso’s method and materials. Inspired by these recent studies, X-ray fluorescence and fiber optics reflectance spectroscopies were selected as key non- invasive analytical techniques due to their respective abilities to yield chemical information at the elemental and molecular level.1 This enabled analyses and imaging to be performed directly at the Art Gallery of Ontario. In addition, a few cross-sections were sampled and analyzed using Scanning Electron Microscopy, Fourier Transform spectroscopies and synchrotron micro X-ray Powder dif- fraction to better understand the paint composition and layering structure. Details about the methodology are pro- vided in Supplementary Material. 2 Results 2.1 X‑radiography and photometric stereo imaging The existence of an underlying painting was determined in an x-radiography taken in 1992. The x-radiography revealed the existence of a landscape when the painting is rotated left 90 degrees. It depicts a central circular domed Fig. 1 a Visible image of La Miséreuse accroupie, 1902, Pablo Picasso, Oil on canvas (101.3 × 66  cm), Art Gallery of Ontario, Toronto © of the reproductions of works by Pablo Picasso: Pablo Picasso’s Estate. VEGAP. Madrid, 2020. Permission to reproduce courtesy of VEGAP; b X-radiography of the painting rotated 90° counter-clockwise, © Art Gallery of Ontario c X-gradient of the surface normal vector calculated for the three areas denoted in a (area 1 and 2 have been rotated 90° left in figure c as the elements imaged are part of the early landscape) 1 Hyperspectral infrared reflectance image cubes were collected by J. Delaney, NGA, with a modified whiskbroom line-scanning imaging spectrometer prior to this work; the results, however, are not presented in this paper. Vol.:(0123456789) SN Applied Sciences (2020) 2:1408 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-3130-4 Research Article temple structure with columns beside an open fore- ground with high hills and sky in the background (Fig. 1a, b). The stone post and finial in the lower right suggest a wall around the central space, which connects to another section on the middle left side. Scholars agree that this is likely a depiction of the Laberint d’Horta by an artist active in Barcelona at the turn of the century. Using photometric stereo measurement, the main ele- ments of this early composition were confirmed while pro- viding additional clues about an underlying composition. The 3-D shape of the domed structure and column clearly appears in Fig.  1c. Photometric stereo imaging allows better differentiation of the richly painted strokes of the underlying landscape, confirming that the final composi- tion was painted after the early composition had dried. The thick brushstrokes observed at the interface between the temple, hills and sky areas help further understand the complex relationship between La Miséreuse accroupie and the earlier composition. The contouring line representing the top of the hills briefly coincides with the woman’s proper left back edge, offering another example of Picasso responding to a previous painting and repurposing pas- sages as he created the new picture. In addition, other disruptions of the surface texture were confirmed. In the background area and proper right shoulder of the crouching woman, thinly painted brush- strokes that do not match the surface composition, and paint losses (Fig. 1c, area (3)) were respectively imaged. They confirm preliminary visual microscopic observations that point towards the presence of another underlying structure. 2.2 MA‑XRF, FORS and micro‑samples Hyperspectral imaging datasets from MA-XRF and FORS were used to uncover the different stages the painting underwent and to guide sampling in the four areas shown in Fig. 2a. The visible aspect of the painting correlates with the distribution of the elements presented in Fig. 2b. Iron is observed in high content in the blue areas of the paint- ing. A stronger absorption of the same areas in the 1500–1650  nm domain is observed when compared to 1300-1500 nm, suggesting that Prussian Blue is the pri- mary blue pigment used in the surface composition [15, 16]. The presence of Prussian Blue (PB) was confirmed in the different samples analyzed by µXRD [17] and µFTIR analyses, using the characteristic single dominant IR band of the C≡N stretch arising ca. 2095 cm−1 [18]. Examples of this strong absorption are shown in Fig. 2d for the top Fig. 2 a Visible picture (© of the reproductions of works by Pablo Picasso: Pablo Picasso’s Estate. VEGAP. Madrid, 2020 Permission to reproduce courtesy of VEGAP) overlapped with sample locations; b elemental maps obtained by MA-XRF (step size: 4 × 4  mm2, map size: 800 × 480  mm2) characteristic of Fe, Ca, Ba, Cr and Cd lines emission lines; c details visible picture of the sampling area for samples (1) and (2); d µFTIR results of top blue and green layers of samples (1) and (2) compared to reference spectra from Aldrich FTIR library; e visible and BSE image of the mounted cross-section number (3), presenting 3 distinct layers Vol:.(1234567890) Research Article SN Applied Sciences (2020) 2:1408 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-3130-4 layer of sample (1) and (2). PB is always found in combi- nation with hydrocerussite (2PbCO3.Pb(OH)2), exhibiting characteristic IR absorption bands at 3530, 1400, 1045, and 683 cm−1 [19] and characteristic XRD pattern [20]. The absence of cerussite was confirmed by µXRD in sample (3) layer 1. FORS confirmed the presence of Prussian blue with some lead white (hydrocerussite owing to the 1446 nm feature of the –OH group) in the background behind the woman and in her white-blue headscarf (Fig. 3a). The dark outline of the woman and her clothes were painted with concentrated Prussian blue (Fig. 3a) and present higher content in Ca element (Fig. 2b), pointing toward the use of ivory black mixed with PB pigment. No samples from black outlines have been taken, however FORS analyses confirm the presence of a black infrared absorbing pigment. Ivory black has been identified using SEM–EDX in all samples as dispersed particles rich in Ca and P, and its presence has been confirmed in the background area (sample 2) by µ-FTIR analyses using the sharp characteristic absorbance band at 2013 cm−1. Barium based pigment was also identified in high amounts in the visible composition, more particularly in the blue and white background area, in the woman’s flesh tones and in her shawl. In the samples coming from the background area (2) and in the woman’s shawl (1), bar- ium sulfate (BaSO4) was identified by the infrared bands at about 1185, 1120, 100, and 983 cm−1 and the doublet at 630-610 cm−1 (Fig. 2d). However, the element barium has not been detected using the MA-XRF in the woman’s garment, where lead and iron are the two main elements related solely to the surface composition (Fig. 2b). The green area of her shawl contains at the micro- (sam- ple (3) layer1) and macro- scale different ratios of Cd, Cr, Fe, Pb, Ca and Ba. FORS data combined with micro-analyses confirm that the shawl is painted with a mixture of Prus- sian blue with a yellow pigment (Fig. 3b) and lead white. All of the reflectance spectra from the shawl have a broad band from 800 to 1200  nm, which is indicative of Prus- sian blue (Fig. 3b). Yellow pigments, with the exception of ochres, are difficult to identify by FORS. The Cd and Cr elemental maps, obtained by MA-XRF, overlap in the robe (Fig. 2b) with the exception of the top of the robe where Cr dominates. Comparing the reflectance spectra of cad- mium yellow medium (reflectance transition at 527 nm) and chrome yellow (reflectance transition at 535  nm) suggests both pigments could explain the shifted peak to the green. A comparison of the reflectance spectrum of viridian looks less promising for this pigment to have been used in painting the shawl. Of note in many but not all of the green areas FORS spectral evidence for gypsum was observed from the vibrational features associated with its –OH groups (see inset in Fig. 3a), which might be from filler in the yellow paint. A mixture of lead white, PB, cadmium-sulfide (CdS), chrome yellow, barium white, gypsum and ivory black is proposed to create the different shades and tints of the shawl based on combined in situ and micro-analyses. Using MA-XRF, a pentimento has been imaged and char- acterized as illustrated in Fig. 4. It allowed the determina- tion of a link with other works the artist made during the same period, particularly a watercolor that was recently sold at auction (Fig. 4c). It also provided supplementary information about the palette composition of this under- lying area. The presence of a high amount of hydrocerussite (iden- tified using µXRD and µFTIR in sample (3) layer 2) used to Fig. 3 Diffuse reflectance spectra from the painting and reference samples: a Prussian blue from dark outline of figure (black), lead white and Prussian blue of the head scarf (red), typical spectrum of green paint of shawl (green) having the 1942  nm band shoul- der typical of gypsum. Inset the three absorption features of –OH attributable to some lead white and gypsum; b examples of the variation spectra from the green shawl (light, medium and dark green) and a site of Prussian blue with lead white (blue), plus refer- ence spectra of cadmium yellow (yellow) and chrome yellow (dark yellow) as well as viridian (dashed line) Vol.:(0123456789) SN Applied Sciences (2020) 2:1408 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-3130-4 Research Article paint this underlying area was key to allow the imaging of the former composition. MA-XRF Pb L emission map (Fig.  4a) confirms the presence of the woman’s former right arm and her hand, which holds a circular shape with her thumb underneath and the fingers on top. The flesh tones represented in this pentimento use a mixture of lead white and Hg-based pigments, similar to those observed in the surface composition. Sr and Ba- based paints were found together in the area of the edges of the fingers and the circular shape. Finally, Fe-based pigment, identified as PB by µXRD and µFTIR, was used to outline the contour of the fingers. Based on MA-XRF results rendering images presented in Fig. 4a, b and d, further information can be deduced about Picasso’s creative process on top of the preliminary infor- mation regarding his palette. By careful examination of the Pb-L and Hg-L maps, a low count area can be identified in the vicinity of the ring finger (the second finger from the left side of the Hg-L map in Fig. 4d). This decrease in the Pb and Hg is anti-correlated to the increase of Zn, although the former is clearly identified in the underlying landscape only. Thus, it is here proposed that Picasso scraped away part of the flesh tone of the hand, slightly modifying the original orientation of the fingers, prior to painting over it with thinly applied paint to render the shawl that now completely covers the torso of the figure. MA-XRF and micro-samples also revealed previously unknown details of the palette of the underlying land- scape, illustrated in Fig. 5. The open cracks affecting the blue background reveal pink tints from the original skyline. More particularly, mercury has been detected in high amount using MA- XRF within this area. Sample 4 from the top left corner of the painting confirms the presence of a vermilion-rich layer with a few cadmium sulfide particles underneath the actual blue layer. Cadmium, mercury and barium are all elements detected in high amount in the hills area (MA- XRF only, no sample was taken in this area). Zn with traces of cobalt is observed near the right corner of the column and wall as seen in the 1992 x-radiography. Zn -rich parti- cles have been identified as zinc white (ZnO) by µXRD in sample (3) layer 3. Fig. 4 a Detail Pb L map (step size 1 × 1  mm2–area 120 × 230  mm2) acquired in area highlighted in b; b Visible picture (© of the repro- ductions of works by Pablo Picasso: Pablo Picasso’s Estate. VEGAP. Madrid, 2020. Permission to reproduce courtesy of VEGAP) over- lapped with Pb L map; c privately owned watercolor from Picasso dated from the same period; d MA-XRF Pb L, Hg L, Zn K, Fe K, Sr K and Ba L maps (step size 1 × 1 mm2–area 150 × 100 mm2) Fig. 5 a X-radiography of the area analyzed by MA-XRF; b composite image using MA-XRF Hg L-, Cd L- and Zn K- maps (respectively red, green and blue); c from top to bottom: detail picture of the sampling area 4, mounted cross section sample 4 Vol:.(1234567890) Research Article SN Applied Sciences (2020) 2:1408 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-3130-4 Finally, the canvas has a uniform white ground consist- ing of hydrocerussite that was used to prime the linen can- vas, which was identified through microscopic analyses and twisting test (Restoration and Conservation depart- ment Museu Picasso de Barcelona and ART-LAB). 3 Conclusion A multi- technique approach, combined with art historical research has allowed reconstruction of the creative pro- cess used by Pablo Picasso to paint La Miséreuse accroupie, revealing new insights into the artist’s pentimenti and a previous underlying landscape. Imaging and pigment mapping have revealed the presence of the figure‘s proper right hand holding a circular object that correlates to a known watercolor. Additionally, the palette used to paint La Miséreuse accroupie has been determined, adding to the current body of knowledge of Picasso’s pigments of the Blue period [11, 15, 21]. In this work, PB is the main blue pigment identified, mixed with lead white, ivory black, barium sulfate, cadmium sulfide, gypsum and chrome yel- low to create the different tints and contours of the com- position. In the underlying composition, another palette based on the use zinc-based white pigment mixed with vermilion, iron earths, Cd, and Ba-based pigments was determined, depicting a landscape with cool white archi- tectural elements against a backdrop of warm orange–yel- low hills. While the site of this landscape has been located, further research must be conducted if the artist is to be positively identified. Acknowledgements The Advanced Light Source at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory is supported by the Office of Science, Office of Basic Energy Sciences, Scientific User Facilities Division of the U.S. Department of Energy under Contract No. DE-AC02- 05CH11231. Sponsorship from the Museu Picasso, Barcelona, to cover permission fees for the reproduction of works by Picasso is gratefully acknowledged. Compliance with ethical standards Conflict of interest On behalf of all authors, the corresponding au- thor states that there is no conflict of interest. References 1. Hoenigswald A (1997) Works in PROGRESS: Pablo Picasso’s hid- den images. In: McCully M (ed) Picasso: the early years, 1892– 1906. National gallery of art, Washington, pp 299–309 2. Ashton D (1972) Picasso on art: a selection of views, Da Capo 3. Belloli L (2005) Lost paintings beneath Picasso’s La Coiffure. Metrop Mus J 40:151–162 4. Gedo MM (1986) A youthful genius confronts His Destiny: Picas- so’s” Old Guitarist” in The Art Institute of Chicago. Art Inst Chic Mus Stud 12:153–165 5. Gual M, Jiménez R (2013) Journey through the blue: La Vie: Museu Picasso, Barcelona, 10 October 2013–19 January 2014, Ajuntament de Barcelona, Institut de Cultura 6. Nicolson B (1969) X-rays at Agnew’s. Burlingt Mag 111:165–171 7. Barcelona MPD (2019) Videos of the talks presented at the inter- national symposium « Around Picasso: an insight into the rela- tionship between material choices and failure mechanisms » , 2018—Case study 6. Shank Will: The revelation of what lies beneath: the link between Picasso’s Rue de Montmartre (1900) and Le Moulin de la Galette (1900) 8. Tinterow G, Stein SA (2010) Picasso in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Metropolitan Museum of Art, pp 57–59 9. Alfeld M, de Viguerie L (2017) Recent developments in spectro- scopic imaging techniques for historical paintings—a review. Spectrochim Acta Part B 136:81–105 10. Barten J, Delaney JK (2018) Pablo Picasso’s woman ironing and the portrait hidden beneath. In: Fontanella MM (ed) Than- nhauser Collection: French Modernism at the Guggenheim, pp 151–155 11. Defeyt C, Walter P, Rousselière H, Vandenabeele P, Vekemans B, Samain L, Strivay D (2018) New insights on Picasso’s Blue Period Painting La famille Soler. Stud Conserv 63:24–35 12. Delaney JK, Thoury M, Zeibel JG, Ricciardi P, Morales KM, Dooley KA (2016) Visible and infrared imaging spectroscopy of paint- ings and improved reflectography. Heritage Sci 4:6 13. Ford T, Van der Snickt G, Janssens K (2018) Macro-XRF scanning a Picasso’s Menage de pauvres: a case study. In: Publications A (ed) Picasso, Picabia, Ernst: new perspectives, pp 12–15 14. Sessa C, Jiménez de Garnica R, Rosi F, Fontana R, Garcia JF (2016) A Study of Picasso’s painting materials and techniques in six of his early portraits. J Am Inst Conserv 55:198–216 15. Favero PA, Mass J, Delaney JK, Woll AR, Hull AM, Dooley KA, Finnefrock AC (2017) Reflectance imaging spectroscopy and synchrotron radiation X-ray fluorescence mapping used in a technical study of The Blue Room by Pablo Picasso. Heritage Sci 5:13 16. Delaney JK, Walmsley E, Berrie BH, Fletcher CF (2005) Multispec- tral imaging of paintings in the infrared to detect and map blue pigments. In: Proceedings of the national academy of sciences, p 120 17. Buser H, Schwarzenbach D, Petter W, Ludi A (1977) The crystal structure of Prussian blue: Fe4 [Fe (CN) 6] 3. xH2O. Inorg Chem 16:2704–2710 18. Berry BH (1997) Artists’ pigments. A handbook of their history and characteristics, vol 3, pp 191–217 19. Rutherford JG, Künn H, Chase WT (1993) Artists’ pigments. A handbook of their history and characteristics, vol 2, pp 67–79 20. Martinetto P, Anne M, Dooryhee E, Walter P, Tsoucaris G (2002) Synthetic hydrocerussite, 2PbCO3· Pb (OH) 2, by X-ray powder diffraction. Acta Crystallogr C 58:i82–i84 21. Langley A, Muir K, Bezur A (2013) Looking below the surface of Picasso’s the old guitarist. In: Wallert A (ed) Painting techniques, history, materials and studio practice, 5th international sympo- sium, Amsterdam, pp 258–263 Publisher’s Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. New insights into Pablo Picasso’s La Miséreuse accroupie (Barcelona, 1902) using X-ray fluorescence imaging and reflectance spectroscopies combined with micro-analyses of samples Abstract 1 Background 2 Results 2.1 X-radiography and photometric stereo imaging 2.2 MA-XRF, FORS and micro-samples 3 Conclusion Acknowledgements References 
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work_rc6lhlcx45gzfmy267uc5kngsq	----	2019 3(59) DOI: 10. /arc190302 Introduction The Soviet avant-garde was the dominant trend in the art and architecture of Ukraine in the 1920s–1930s. As an independent Soviet republic at that time, which was part of the USSR since 1922, Ukraine was a gigantic experi- mental platform for implementing the most advanced and grandiose modernist ideas. It took one of the key positions in the process of industrialization of the USSR that began in the 2nd half of the 1920s. New cities and residential set- tlements began to be erected in accordance with modern principles here. Cultural life flourished in booming industrial centers. Kharkiv was the first capital of the Soviet Ukrainian Re- public then (1918–1934). There were 35 universities, 48 colleges, 80 research institutes, 13 museums, 62 clubs, 76 bookshops, two radio stations, 140 newspapers with circulation of 1.5 million copies, 125 periodicals in circu- lation of 1.5 million copies, etc. in Kharkiv at that time. A new high-rise administrative center with an adjacent multi-story residential area was built and dominated the whole city, forming its new silhouette. The theatrical, art, literary and architectural life reflected innovative direc- tions, coexistence and struggle of creative associations and groups which were advocating different views on modern art and architecture [1]. Svitlana Smolenska* Avant-garde architecture and art of the 1920s–1930s in Ukraine and European modernism: interpenetration methods Architektura i sztuka w latach 1920–1930 na Ukrainie a modernizm europejski: sposoby przenikania * ORCID: 0000-0002-4953-9563. Kharkiv School of Architecture, Ukraine. Modernism in Ukraine and Europe developed in paral- lel. Mutual enrichment with ideas, creative work methods, and technical innovations took place thanks to close cul- tural ties at various levels. The research conducted by the author in recent years has revealed several main methods of interaction between the European and Ukrainian avant-garde. The most im- portant of them are highlighted and represented in this article: 1. Wide coverage of European achievements in the fields of painting, graphics, sculpture, design, applied art, architecture and town-planning in the All-Union (USSR) and Ukrainian press. In turn, foreign publications reported the best examples of the Soviet avant-garde. 2. Free access of Ukrainian architects and artists to for- eign professional periodicals. 3. Participation of Ukrainian artists and architects in European contests and international exhibitions of differ- ent levels as well as the participation of foreigners in ex- hibitions and competitions in Ukraine. 4. Direct involvement of renowned foreign architects in the work on projects and their realizations on the terri- tory of Ukraine and the USSR. European art and architecture as represented in Ukrainian art press One of the most accessible ways to overcome state and political borders between Ukraine and European countries was the exchange of information in the press. An analy- sis of the professional editions of that time testifies to their 12 Svitlana Smolenska openness to everything new that has appeared in Europe and the world. Practically all the leading journals in the 1920s and 1930s in the USSR published on their pages reviews of foreign art and architectural exhibitions, articles prepared by Western masters, or materials about their works. Some of the foreigners were included in the editorial boards of domestic editions. Usually both the table of contents and illustration captions were published as bilingual: Ukrainian (or Russian) and foreign (often, German). The journal “Будівництво” (“Construction”, it began to be published since 1929) chronicled significant events in the field of architecture and construction abroad, published reviews of foreign professional literature, as well as arti- cles on the state of modern architecture in different coun- tries in each issue. A list and a brief informative descrip- tion of specialized foreign journals on construction and architecture were presented in the journal “Строительная промышленность” (“Construction Industry”) for 1926 in the Bibliography section. The description of each publica- tion was provided not only with useful information about its subject matter, the availability and quality of illustra- tions, but also about the cost of an annual subscription in roubles. Therefore, everyone could subscribe journals in any language: German, English, French, etc. The German “Wasmuth’s Monats Hefte” was the most popular journal among Soviet subscribers1 because it was picking up for its readers the latest news on advanced phenomena in architecture not only in Germany, but also in other countries, including Ukraine. The competition project for the House of the Ukrainian SSR Government2 in Kharkiv by architect Alexander Dmitriev was pre- sented in the January issue of the monthly for 1926 [3, p. 335]. “Нова Ґенерація” – an example of avant-garde Ukrainian art journal One of the “leftist art journals”, as publishers posi- tioned it, which actively promoted European avant-gar- de art, literature and architecture, was “Нова Ґенерація” (“New Generation”), published in the Ukrainian capital from 1927 to 1930. The editorial board attracted the par- ticipation in each issue of famous European avant-gar- de leaders from Berlin, Prague, Paris, among which were: Johannes Becher, László Moholy-Nagy, Herwarth Walden, Enrico Prampolini and others. On the covers of many issues there were vivid innovative examples of the modern foreign avant-garde, articles and reviews were devoted to them. The new modern Ukrainian art was demonstrated and promoted along with them. Readers had the opportunity to compare the work of foreign and domestic masters, and the authors themselves – to learn from each other, to compete in achieving the highest re- sults in their field. Pictures of the Ukrainian avant-garde artist Anatol Petritsky were shown alongside the latest artworks by Pablo Picasso (No. 3, 1927). Modern the- ater German School, represented by Oscar Schlemmer from Bauhaus (Dessau) was presented in No. 1, 1927 [4]. Schlemmer was well-known for his Triadic Ballet (“Triadisches Ballett”, 1922) where the performers were transformed into geometrical figurines. The costumes he designed were extraordinary and were based on cylinder, sphere, cone, and spiral shapes (Fig. 1). Examples of con- structivist experiments in scenography of Ukrainian artist Vadim Meller for the theater “Berezil” were shown in the following issues [5] (Fig. 2). To see how much attention was paid to European in- novations, it’s enough to familiarize yourself with the content of one of the numbers of the “New Generation” (No. 2, 1927), where, along with the Ukrainian avant-gar- de, you could find: – Poem by the Polish poet Julian Tuwim (translated into Ukrainian). – Article about the exhibition of housing in Stuttgart. 1 For us in the USSR, the German technical press has always been closer, both due to popularity of the language, and closer technical and industrial contact with this country. The current search for new paths also brings together some German architecture journals with ours, which are emerging [2, p. 739]. 2 Ukrainian Socialist Soviet Republic. Fig. 1. Modern Theater School in Germany. Oscar Schlemmer. Bauhaus. Dessau (source: [4]) Il. 1. Nowoczesna szkoła teatralna w Niemczech. Oscar Schlemmer. Bauhaus. Dessau (źródło: [4]) Avant-garde architecture and art of the 1920s–1930s in Ukraine /Architektura i sztuka w latach 1920–1930 na Ukrainie 13 – Review “Modern Psychological Germany”, where a critical analysis of trends in German philosophy and lite rature was given. – Opinion of German authors on contemporary paint- ing in the USSR. – A leftist action in modern Polish literature. “Stuttgart Residential Exhibition” was noted in the an- nouncement of the article as “the most interesting phe- nomenon of modern life abroad”, as the achievements presented at the exhibition […] introduce us to a circle of interests that are close to us in terms of new direc- tions in architecture and their interrelation with the con- struction of cities and villages, in which the work of Soviet left architects and advanced engineers is also progress- ing [6, p. 4]. Photos of architectural projects from the Art and Industrial Exhibition in Kharkiv, which was held at that time in the capital of Ukraine, were published in the same issue next to the illustrations from Stuttgart (Fig. 3). Ukrainian artists and architects at international fairs/exhibitions The participation of Ukrainian artists in international exhibitions of various levels held both in the USSR and abroad, played a significant role in the exchange of infor- mation and the demonstration of their own capabilities. Ukrainian architectural schools from the Kiev Art Insti- tute and the Odessa Polytechnic Institute were presented at the First Exhibition of “Contemporary Architecture” in Moscow in 1927 along with the German Bauhaus, Mos- cow and Leningrad architectural universities [7]. An im- pressive list of names of participants – famous architects from Brussels, Amsterdam, Berlin, Paris, Dessau, Prague, Brno, Warsaw, Utrecht, Rotterdam and other European cities can be found on the poster of the Exhibition, which was made by Russian constructivist Alexei Gan (Fig. 4). At the “Exposition Internationale des Arts Decoratifs” in Paris in 1925, the graphic artist, poster designer and sculptor Adolf Strakhov from Kharkiv gained internation- al fame and was awarded the gold medal for the poster “V. Uljanov (Lenin)/1924–1934” [8, p. 214]. Later, in 1927 he showed his constructivist posters in Vienna, Berlin and Hamburg. Vadim Meller was awarded the prize at the Paris exhibition in 1925 also for the design of the play in the theater “Berezil” [9]. In 1928, Meller participated in the International Press Exhibition in Cologne, together with other Ukrainian artists such as Vasil Yermilov. Yermilov was one of the leaders of the Ukrainian avant-garde. He worked in many genres: easel painting (portrait, landscape), book graph- ics, street furniture design (projects of news-stands, street propaganda advertising stands, etc.), industrial graphics, interior of public buildings, poster design. In the 1920s, in his “constructivist” period, he carried out sketches for the painting of agitation trains, invented his “Ermilov- ski” font, constantly experimented with various materials: Fig. 2. Theater “Berezil”, directed by Les Kurbas. Artist Vadim Meller. Dance of numbers, 1927 (source: [5]) Il. 2. Teatr “Berezil” kierowany przez Łesia Kurbasa. Artysta Vadim Meller. Taniec liczb, 1927 (źródło: [5]) Fig. 3. Project of the House of Government of the Ukrainian SSR. Anniversary exhibition in the House of State Industry. Department of architecture, 1927 (source: [6]) Il. 3. Projekt siedziby Ukraińskiej SSR. Rocznica wystawy w Domu Przemysłu Państwowego. Dział architektury, 1927 (źródło: [6]) 14 Svitlana Smolenska wood, metal, fabric, creating relief compositions. Vale- rian Polishchuk, a writer, founder of the modernist group “Avangard” in Kharkiv, wrote about his friend-artist in that time: Yermilov… lends his hand to those left-wing art- ists of Western Europe and Russia, who also managed to timely transfer to spatial art the laws of industrial beau- ty… This line of constructive art brilliantly embodied in European architecture and in the Soviet theatrical design (our “House of Industry” is also a work of this trend). In the meantime, it has captured all other branches of ar- tistic life. Entire art complexes like Bauhaus in Germa- ny, Rodchenko, Lissitzky, Gan in Russia (especially their work in the field of books) appeared. Manifestations of this trend are noticeable in Poland (“Dźwignia”), in the Czech Republic (Teige), in the Netherlands and in other industrialized or industrially developing countries of the world. Ukraine, represented by Yermilov, also gave a very bright artistic unit in this growth from the industrial life of constructive forms of spatial (visual) art [10, p. 62]. Par- ticipation in the international fair in Leipzig earned him (and a group of teachers and students from the Kharkiv Art Technical School) the Gold Medal “for graphic work” at the art stamp competition on the relief of the hungry, which was held during the exhibition [10, pp. 15, 529]. Designing the Ukrainian section of the Soviet pavilion for the Cologne exhibition in 1928, he completed the stands of the two factory wall newspapers, “Generator” and “Kanatka”, and prepared a series of 20 large albums “Ukraine” [11, p. 154]. He used different materials: fab- ric, leather, wood, metal for album covers (Fig. 5). Ukrainian constructivist architects also presented their best projects at international and world exhibitions in the 1920s and 1930s. Two colorful perspectives were found in the archive [12] and identified by the author of this article as a project of a sports complex for 80,000 spectators in Kharkiv. This architectural graphic was supposedly pre- pared for the World Exhibition in Paris (Exposition In- ternationale des Arts et Techniques dans la Vie Mo derne, 1937) and was entitled in French. Architect Nikolay Zvegilsky was the author of the project of the sports com- plex. However, two perspectives of the future grand struc- ture were made by the architect-artist Veniamin Kostenko, who perfectly mastered the architectural and graphic art. Therefore, he was tasked to prepare materials for the over- seas exhibition (Fig. 6) [13]. International competitions in Ukraine and abroad International contests played an important role in the interpenetration of advanced ideas. “Competition is the most perfect method of obtaining a project, because com- petition always and everywhere was a powerful incentive to creativity” as stated in the journal “Construction Industry” Fig. 4. Poster from the First Exhibition of “Contemporary Architecture” (author: A. Gan, 1927) (source: [7]) Il. 4. Plakat pierwszej wystawy „Współczesnej architektury” (autor: A. Gan, 1927) (źródło: [7]) Fig. 5. The cover of the album Ukraine. Collectivization. Fabric, leather, metal, paper (author: V. Yermilov, 1928) (from the Funds of the Kharkiv State Scientific Library of V.G. Korolenko) (photo by S. Smolenska, 2019) Il. 5. Okładka albumu Ukraina. Kolektywizacja. Tkanina, skóra, metal, papier (autor: V. Yermilov, 1928) (z funduszy Kharkiv State Scientific Library of V.G. Korolenko) (fot. S. Smolenska, 2019) Avant-garde architecture and art of the 1920s–1930s in Ukraine /Architektura i sztuka w latach 1920–1930 na Ukrainie 15 in 1926 [14, p. 140]. Such an understanding of the signifi- cance of the competitions was completely in line with the spirit of time. For many talented architects and artists, the competition was a chance to reveal their creative potential, to demonstrate their professional abilities. The competition for the project of the Kharkiv Theater of Mass Musical Action for 4000 seats (1930) was a bright event in the architectural life of Ukraine and aroused great interest all over the world. The competition program in 5 languages: Ukrainian, Russian, German, English and French was designed in an avant-garde manner by artist A. Strakhov. 144 projects were submitted under the mot- tos (without specifying the authors), 100 of them were sent from abroad: Germany, France, USA, Japan and oth- er countries. The jury awarded 12 best works with prizes. Among the authors, along with Ukrainian and Russian architects, were: American architects Alfred Kastner and Norman Bel Geddes, Japanese architect Renshichiro Kawakita, leader of European modernism Walter Gropius, and others (Fig. 7) [15]. In turn, Ukrainian architects took part in international foreign competitions, for example, architects A. Kasyanov and Afanasyev – in the competition for Columbus mon- ument in San Domingo in 1929, architects A. Einhorn, A. Kasyanov and V. Andreev – in the competition for the redevelopment project of the Stockholm Center in 1933 (Fig. 8) [16]. Foreign architects-modernists in Ukraine Foreign experts visited Ukraine in those years: they held lectures, consultations, became acquainted with our achievements. They were fascinated by the high rates of industrialization of the Ukrainian Soviet Repub- lic, the active construction of new cities, revolutionary transformations in art and architecture which started at that time. With the beginning of industrialization in the USSR, adopted in 1925, the issue of developing housing-type projects for standardized industrial housing construction became especially acute. Strategists of Soviet industri- alization were interested in attracting foreign experts to solve the housing problem. The European experience of social housing projects, in particular in the Weimar Repub- lic, was repeatedly studied by Soviet delegations during the 1920s [17, p. 161]. Many leading Western architects of the modern movement, for their part, inspired by large- scale transformations in the social, architectural and artistic spheres in the USSR, hoped to realize their boldest original ideas here. They took a direct part in the planning of new cities and the design of new housing estates and public buildings for the Soviet Union and including Ukraine. The importance of the presence of foreign – particularly Ger- man – architects and quite a large number of them in the USSR in the early 1930s is emphasized in some studies3. For example, Ernst May, who was known as one of the leaders in mass housing, a specialist in the develop- ment of low-cost housing for workers, was invited by the Soviet government for a lecture tour4 (on the subject of 3 […] the Section of Foreign Architects within the Union of So viet Architects [Obshchestvo sovetskikh arkhitektorov] between 1933 and 1936 comprised between 800 and 1000 members despite the fact that not every foreign architect was a member [of the Union]. It is characteristic that about half of them were Germans [18]. 4 Ernst May’s lecture tour in May 1930 included the main cities of the Soviet Union: Moscow, Leningrad (now St. Petersburg) and Kharkiv [19, p. 135]. Fig. 6. Project of a sports complex for 80,000 spectators in Kharkiv (arch. N. Zvegilsky, early 1930s). One of the colorful perspectives by the architect-artist V. Kostenko, 1937 [12] (photo by S. Smolenska, 2012) Il. 6. Projekt kompleksu sportowego dla 80 tysięcy widzów w Charkowie (arch. N. Zvegilsky, wczesne lata 30. XX w.). Jedna z perspektyw architekta- -artysty V. Kostenki, 1937 [12] (fot. S. Smolenska, 2012) 16 Svitlana Smolenska “The New City”, the “Status of Housing in Germany” and the “Rationalisation of Housing Construction” [17]). He visited Kharkiv in May 1930 during his tour. In addition to lectures, he advised projects of new “socialist cities” that were being built then in Ukraine: “Great Zaporizhzhe” and “New Kharkiv” [19, p. 135]. He and his so-called “May’s Brigade” were invited to work in the USSR. Many archi- tects from his Frankfurt team were recruited and arrived in Oktober 1930 (it amounted to a task force of 17 people then, some foreign experts joined “May’s Brigade” after Fig. 8. Project for the redevelopment of the Stockholm Center. Perspective (arch. A. Einhorn, A. Kasyanov and V. Andreev, 1933) (source: [16]) Il. 8. Projekt przebudowy centrum Sztokholmu. Perspektywa (arch. A. Einhorn, A. Kasyanov i V. Andreev, 1933) (źródło: [16]) Fig. 7. The project of the Kharkiv Theater of Mass Musical Action for 4000 seats. Section (arch. A. Kastner, USA, 1930) (source: [15]) Il. 7. Projekt Charkowskiego Teatru Masowej Akcji Muzycznej na 4000 miejsc. Przekrój (arch. A. Kastner, USA, 1930) (źródło: [15]) Avant-garde architecture and art of the 1920s–1930s in Ukraine /Architektura i sztuka w latach 1920–1930 na Ukrainie 17 1930). It was German, Austrian, Dutch and Swiss archi- tects and engineers (Dutch Mart Stam, Austrian Margarete Schütte-Lihotzky etc.; a list of their names was given in a study by T. Flierl [17, p. 191]). They were specialists in different areas of urban planning and architecture, which could solve the whole range of issues in planning new cit- ies and designing new types of buildings. The May’s Bri- gade developed the master plan of the “socialist city” Ma- keevka [20, p. 6, 7] for workers and miners in the Donbass region of Ukraine, where Mart Stam applied the principle of row housing and an expanded residential quarter with all types of social and consumer services (Fig. 9). Historical distance allows us, without prejudice inher- ent in previous periods, to discern many common features in the work of Western and domestic pioneers of contem- porary art. Despite geographic boundaries and ideological and political differences between states, “parallel” devel- opment of professional thinking was fuelled by interpen- etration of ideas, the availability of information about the most progressive trends and achievements in the field of architecture, art, design, which was based on the support of mutual contacts. Openness to the world and, in this sense, the democratic nature of the professional architec- tural and artistic community in the first decades after the revolution, the desire to absorb cutting-edge ideas and de- velopments, the thirst for knowledge of the best that was already created in theory and practice, contributed to the birth in the 1920–1930s of the new modern avant-garde art and architecture in the fertile Ukrainian ground. Translated by Svitlana Smolenska Fig. 9. The prospect of a quarter-complex in Makeevka (arch. M. Stam, early 1930s) (source: [20]) Il. 9. Widok kwartału kompleksu w Makiejewce (arch. M. Stam, wczesne lata 30. XX w.) (źródło: [20]) References /Bibliografia [1] Smolenska S., Problems of preservation of the Historical Image of Kharkiv, [in:] E. Przesmycka, E. Trocka-Leszczyńska (ed.), Culture of the city, Oficyna Wydawnicza PWr, Wrocław 2012, 331–340. [2] Dmitriev A.I., Inostrannye arkhitekturnye zhurnaly (Kratkaya kharakteristika), “Stroitelnaya Promyshlennost” 1926, No. 10, 738–739. [3] Dmitriev A., Zeitgenossische Bestrebungen in der russischen Bau- kunst, “Wasmuths Monatshefte für Baukunst und Städtebau” 1926, No. 10(10), 331–336. [4] “Nova Generatsiya” 1927, No. 1. [5] “Nova Generatsiya” 1927, No. 3. [6] “Nova Generatsiya” 1927, No. 2. [7] “Sovremennaya Arkhitektura” 1927, No. 4–5. [8] Istoriya ukrajinskogo mistectva: v 6 tomakh. Т. 5. Radianske mistetstvo 1917–1941 rokiv, Bazhan M.P., Kiyiv 1967. [9] Shkandriy M., Geniy Vadima Mellera: tanec ta dekoravne miste- c tvo v ukrainskomu avangardi, http://www.kurbas.org.ua/projects/ almanah7/11_shka.pdf [accessed: 3.04.2019]. [10] Vasilii Dmitriovich Ermilov. 1894–1968. Materialy k tvorcheskoy biografii: statiji, pisma, dnevniki, vospominaniya, katalog proizve- deniy, A. Parnis (ed.), Моskvа 2012. [11] Sonsvit V., Kkudozhnik industrialnykh rytmiv, “Avangard” 1929, No. 3, 145–155. [12] Funds of the National Sanctuary Complex “Sophia of Kiev”, КП- 708, МА-1001. [13] Smolenska S.А., Grandiozne proekty 1930-kh godov: stadion na 80 000 zriteley dla Ukrainy (rezultati issledovanii nerasshifrowa- nih materialiv iz arkhiva zapovednika “Sofia Kiyivska”), “Sofiysky Chitanniya” 2015, vyp. 7, 392–397. [14] Rozenberg A., Osnovnye polozheniya organizatsii konkursov v sov re mennykh uslowiyakh, “Stroitelnaya promyshlennost” 1926, No. 2, p. 139–143. [15] Proekty mizhnarodonogo konkursu derzhavnogo ukrainskogo te- atru masovogo muzychnogo diystva na 4000 cholovik v Kharkovi. Albom photografii dla golovy sektsii mistetstv tov. Petrenko O.I., Charkiv, Ukrainska SRR, Kharkivska Miska Rada, Uprava bu- divnictwa,1930, Funds of the Kharkiv State Scientific Library of V.G. Korolenko, No. 458672. [16] Kasyanov Alexander Mikhailovich (1906–1961), architect, Central State Archive of Literature and Arts of Ukraine, Fund No. 141, de- scription No. 1, folder No. 3. [17] Flierl T., “Possibly the greatest task an architect ever faced” – Ernst May in the Soviet Union (1930–1933), [in:] C. Quiring, W. Voigt, P.C. Schmal, E. Herrel (ed.), Ernst May 1886–1970, Mu- nich–London–New York 2012, 157–195. [18] Kopp A., Foreign architects in the Soviet Union during the first two five-year plans, https://thecharnelhouse.org/2013/07/30/foreign- architects-in-the-soviet-union-during-the-first-two-five-year-plans/ [accessed: 6.08.2019]. [19] Meerovich M.G., Ernst May: “racionalne” zhilio dla Rosii, “Ar- chitecton: izvestiya vuzov” 2011, No. 36, 119–144. [20] Blokhin P., Planirovka zhilykh kvartalov socgoroda, “Arkhitektura SSSR” 1933, No. 5, 4–8. Abstract The 1920s and 1930s were the period of unprecedented flowering of Ukrainian art and architecture. The Soviet avant-garde in Ukraine gained world recognition then. It developed in line with European modernism. In what ways did the intermingling of Western and Ukrainian culture take place in those years? The most important methods of interaction between the European and Ukrainian avant-garde are presented in the article: wide coverage of European achievements in the All-Union (USSR) and Ukrainian press; free access of Ukrainian architects and artists to foreign professional perio- dicals; participation of Ukrainian and European artists and architects in international exhibitions and competitions; direct involvement of renowned foreign architects in the work on projects on the territory of Ukraine. The main statements of the article are based on the analysis of publications in the avant-garde press of the 1920s–1930s, as well as on authentic materials from several Ukrainian archives. Key words: modernism, avant-garde, Ukraine, interpenetration of ideas 18 Svitlana Smolenska Streszczenie Lata 20. i 30. XX w. były okresem niezwykłego rozkwitu sztuki i architektury ukraińskiej. Sowiecka awangarda na Ukrainie zyskała światowe uznanie. Rozwijała się razem z europejskim modernizmem. W jaki sposób przeplatały się kultura zachodnia i ukraińska w owych latach? W artykule przedstawiono najważniejsze metody interakcji między awangardą europejską i ukraińską: szerokie ujęcie osiągnięć w ZSSR i prasie ukraińskiej, wolny dostęp architektów i artystów ukraińskich do profesjonalnych czasopism zagranicznych, udział ukraińskich i europejskich artystów i ar- chitektów w międzynarodowych wystawach i konkursach, bezpośrednie zaangażowanie znanych zagranicznych architektów w prace nad projektami na terytorium Ukrainy. Główne twierdzenia w artykule są oparte zarówno na analizie publikacji w prasie z lat 1920–1930, jak i na autentycznych materiałach z kilku ukraińskich archiwów. Słowa kluczowe: modernizm, awangarda, Ukraina, przenikanie się idei 
work_ro6wj5wx6rh2znf32yz74xyoqi	----	cetin_ayhan_sarikayhaersan - 194 - Uluslararası Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi The Journal of International Social Research Cilt: 10 Sayı: 49 Volume: 10 Issue: 49 Nisan 2017 April 2017 www.sosyalarastirmalar.com Issn: 1307-9581 MODERNIST SÜREÇTE TUVAL RESMINE MALZEMEYLE MÜDAHALE INTERVENTION TO THE CANVAS PAINTING IN THE MODERNIST PROCESS Ayhan ÇETIN• Ersan SARIKAHYA** Öz 20. Yüzyıl başında resim sanatının geleneksel yöntemleri terk ederek yeni bir yol haritası çizdiği görülür. Yeni çağ olarak adlandırılan çağ, endüstri çağıdır. Empresyonist süreçle başlayan doğanın birebir taklidinin terk edilmesi olgusu, ardından Kübizm’de nesnenin parçalanmasına kadar dayanır. Modern çağın yeni arayışları tuvali bir nesne olarak algılar ve tuvali malzeme ile birleştirir. Malzeme ile birleşen tuvalde yeni anlatım olanakları ortaya çıkar. Ardından üç boyutlu malzemenin tuvale olan müdahalesiyle resim sanatının mekana açılma fikri gündeme gelir. Kolaj ve asemblajın tuvalle olan ilişkisi sonucu tuval yüzeyinin asılı bulunduğu duvardan sıyrılarak mekana olan müdahalesine neden olur. Kübizmle başlayan bu süreç, günümüz enstalasyonlarına kadar dayanan etkilerini sürdürmeye devam eder. Araştırmanın ilk bölümünde tuval resminin kübizm döneminde nesneyi parçalaması ve malzemeyi tuvale taşıması sonucu, tuvalin başlıbaşına bir nesne olma durumu irdelenecek, ardından üç boyutlu nesnenin müdahalesiyle tuval resminin mekana açılma ile ilgili girişimleri araştırılacaktır. Tuval resminin sınırlarından kurtularak yeni anlatım olanaklarının önünü açması ile ilgili kısaca bilgi verilecektir. Tuvalin malzemeyle olan diyaloğunda giriştiği bu zorlu süreç, başlıca görsel örnekler sunularak incelenecektir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Kübizm, Dadaizm, mekan, malzeme Abstract It’s seen that the painting art at the beginning of the 20. Century left the traditional methods and began to draw anew road map. The age which is called new age is the industry age. The fact that abandonment about totally imitation of nature which begins with the Impressionist process, and then tends to the division of the object in Cubism. The new finds of the modern era sees canvases an object and combines them with material. The new possibilities emerge on canvas which was combined with material. Then with the intervention of the three-dimensional material to the canvas opens the idea of opening up the space of painting art. This process, which started with cubism, continues to carry on with the effects that are based on today's installations. In the first part of the study, as a result of the shredding images and carrying the objects on the canvas in Cubism period, it will be examined the autonomy of the canvas, and then the intervention of the three dimensional object will be investigated. Shortly, information will be given on how to get rid of canvas picture boundaries and open up new possibilities of expression. This tough process, which is being undertaken in the dialogue with the canvas material, will be reviewed by presenting the main visual examples. Shortly, information will be given on how to get rid of canvas picture boundaries and open up new possibilities of expression. This tough process, which is being undertaken in the dialogue with the canvas material, will be reviewed by presenting the main visual examples. Keywords: Cubism, Dadaism, Space, Material. GİRİŞ Sanatın 20. yüzyıl öncesi zaman dilimine bakıldığında toplumsal yapı ve gelişmelerin etkisiyle birlikte doğayı taklit etme yolunda sürekli bir gelişme içinde olduğu görülür. Ancak 19. Yüzyıl sonlarına doğru bu durumun bir tıkanma noktasına geldiği ve doğanın sanatla tam manasıyla temsil edilemeyeceği düşünülmeye başlar. Endüstri Devriminin de etkisiyle yenilik arayışlarına yönelmeye başlayan sanatçılar sanattaki geleneksel yöntemleri zorlamaya başlarlar. Bu uğurda verilen ilk mücadele Empresyonist dönemde ortaya çıkmıştır. Doğanın mükemmelliyetçi taklidi yolunda verilen mücadele son bulur. Ardından Kübizm, Dadaizm ve Sürrealizmle birlikte tuval resminin duvara asılan bir süslemeden ibaret olmadığının ayırdına varılır. Giotto’dan miras kalan tek bakış noktası Kübist resimlerde kırılmaya başlar. Bu doğrultuda Kübist resimde formun sınırları zorlanır, biçimler parçalanır ve tek bakışlı perspektif anlayışı reddedilir. Nesnenin paröalanması sonucu doğanın taklidi olarak bilinen geleneksel resim yöntemleri de yavaş yavaş terk edilmeye başlanır. I. KÜBİZM’DE MALZEME Kübizm bir nevi varlık karşısında yasasını beraber getirdiği bir devrimi ifade eder. Daha önce insan ile doğa arasındaki ilgiyi kuran izlenim şimdi yerini yeni bir ilgi biçimine bırakır. Nesnelerin özünü • Yrd. Doç., Trakya Üniversitesi Güzel Sanatlar Fakültesi. ** Yrd. Doç. Dr., Trakya Üniversitesi Güzel Sanatlar Fakültesi. - 195 - kavramak için kübist sanatçılar varlığı göründüğü gibi değil, düşündüğü gibi kavrar. (Tunalı, 2003: 167) Bunun doğal bir sonucu olarak da deforme olmuş ve parçalanmaya yüz tutmuş biçimler karşımıza çıkar. Malzemenin tuva yüzeyi üzerinde boya ile yapılan imitasyonundan, malzemenin kendisinin kullanımı Kübist süreçte ortaya çıkan bir tavırdır. Bu tavırla birlikte izleyiciyi resmi yalnızca insan elinden çıkma bir nesne, renklerle biçimlerin tuval üstünde dağılımı niteliğiyle görmeye itme yolundaki girişimlerin en köktencisi ve en tutarlısı gerçekleşmiş olur. (Gombrich, 1992: 274) Böylece geleneksel boyama yöntemleri ile elde edilen doğanın birebir ve mükemmelliyetçi taklidi de son bulur. Picasso’nun ilk kolajı olarak kabul edilen ‘Sandalye Hasırıyla Natürmort’ adlı eserinde hasır yanılsaması yerine döşeme bezi parçasını koyması, tuvale yanılsama yerine gerçek malzemenin girmiş olmasını sağlar. (Resim-1) Burada asıl amaç perspektif, malzeme yapısı ve gölgelemeye ilişkin bütün teknik becerileri harekete geçirmek değil, bunları çözüme bağlanması olanaksız bir çatışkı konumuna getirmektir. Bu bilinçli çelişkileri esere odaklandığımızda açıkça görürüz. Örneğin nesnelerde kullanılan ışık kaynağının belirsizliği ve basık hacim ile iletilmek istenen şey, yaratılmak istenenin bir yanılsama değil de bir tablo olduğunu bize açıkça göstermektir. Tuvaldeki nesnenin parçalanarak tuvale tamamen yabancı bir malzemenin monte edilmesiyle de tuval nesnesinin varlığı ortaya konmuştur. Resim-1 Pablo Picasso, ‘Sandalye Hasırıyla Natürmort’, 1912 Kübist resimle birlikte malzemenin resme girişi, tuvalin olanaklarını arttırmış ve tuval nesnesinin sadece bir yanılsamadan ibaret olmadığının fark edilmesini sağlamıştır. Malzemenin tuval ile buluşması sonucu bu döneme kadar olan tuvalin iki boyutlu formunun karşısında durma fikri kırılmış, tuval nesnesine olan bakışın önden yana kayması sağlanmıştır. Malzeme ile ortaya çıkan kabartma etkisi sonucu tuval yüzeyinin iki boyutluluğunun dışına çıkılması fikrini doğurmuştur. Bunların yanı sıra tuvale giren malzeme sonucu sanatın kusursuz yaratıcısı sayılan el yeteneğinin fonksiyonu da ortadan kaldırılmıştır. Böylece kübizm, tuval yüzeyine getirdiği yenilikçi ve öncü tavrıyla günümüz resim sanatının önünü açacak olan ilk adımları atmış olur. Kübist resimle birlikte mazlemenin tuvale bulaşması sonucu nesnenin parçalanarak anatomisinin ortaya çıkarılması ile kavram ressamlığı fikri ortaya çıkmıştır. Kübistler Empresyronistlerin kavramlardan yoksun olan duyumculuğunu yüzeysel olduğu için bir türlü körlük olarak görürler. Bunu Kant da destekler. ‘duyulardan yoksun kavramlar boş, kavramlardan yoksun duyular da kördür’. (İpşiroğlu, 2009: 31) Bu bağlamda Kübistlerin diğer büyük ustası Juan Gris de çivi kavramı olmadan bir çivi bile yapamam diyerek Kant’ın teorisini desteklemiştir. Bu olgu bizi Platonun mağara benzetmesine geri götürür. Mağara dışındaki dünyadan habersiz olan mağara insanlarının gördükleri, mağaranın kapısından içeri sızan ışıkla dışarıdaki nesnelerin mağaranın duvarına yansıyan görüntüleridir. Mağaradan dışarıya adım atabilen, dışarıdaki idealar dünyasıyla karşılaşır ve içeridekinin bir gölge olduğunun ayırdına varabilir. Juan Gris de naturalist sanatçıyı gölgelerin ressamı olarak görür ve kendisini bir kavram ressamı olarak ilan eder. Sanatçının tuvallerinde kullandığı malzemenin başında gazete ve yazılı broşür sayfaları gelir. Kolajlarında kullandığı yazılı kağıt parçalarının metinleri, anlamlarının dışında resimsel yüzeyde bir form olarak açığa çıkar. - 196 - Dolayısıyla seyirci metinlerdeki anlamdan ziyade metinlerin içeriklerinden sıyrılmış salt formuna odaklanır. (Resim-2) Resim-2 Juan Gris, Natürmort, 1916 II. ÜÇ BOYUTLU NESNE İLE MÜDAHALE 20. yüzyılın başında resim sanatının malzemeyle olan flörtü tuvalin gerçek nesnelerle buluşmasını ve tuvalin yüzeyinin dışına çıkılarak varolduğu mekanla ilişkiye girmesini sağlamıştır. Kübizmi izleyen süreçte malzeme kullanımının sınırlarını zorlayan Dada ile karşılaşırız. Geleneksel olana, düzene ve savaşı doğuran tüm olgulara karşı bir tutumla ortaya çıkan tavırda bir yıkım gerçekleştirilmek istenir. Varolana karşı duyulan nefret için sanat ve dolayısı ile kübist ressamların kazandırmış olduğu yüzey malzeme ilişkisine başvurulur. Bununla da yetinmeyip, iki boyutlu malzemenin yanına üç boyutlu malzemeyi alternativ olarak sunulur. Dada’nın kolaj sanatçısı olarak ünlenen ismi Kurt Schwitters, hurda montajları tuval yüzeyine yapıştırmakla yetinmeyip kolajı üç boyutlu malzemelere taşımıştır. 1918’de Hanover’de Merz adını verdiği bir seri oluşturan sanatçı, kırık tahta parçaları, biletler gibi atık malzemelerden kolajlar oluşturmuştur. Yine Hanover’de 1923 yılında yapımına başladığı ve 20 yıl boyunca süren Merzbau adlı eseri, kolajın düzlemden üçüncü boyuta geçişinin sıradışı örneğidir. (resim-3-4) Bu eserinde nesne bulunduğu mekanın içine sızıp nesnenin etrafında gezinme olanağı sunar. - 197 - Resim-3 Kurt Schwitters, Merz Serisi Resim-4 Kurt Schwitters Merz Sütunu, 1920-1943 Her şeyin bir sanat malzemesi olabileceği fikrini öne süren Schwitters, sanatın malzeme kullanımı ile birlikte en saf halini yakalayabileceğini iddia etmiştir. Schwitters’in atık malzemeyi kullanımı, savaşa yol açan herşeyden nefret eden Dadist tutumun yanında yer alarak, savaşın çöpleri ile oluşturulan kurgularla tekrar savaşa karşı olduğunun mesajını verir. Atık malzemenin kullanımı Kübistlerin de aşina olduğu bir şeydir. Ancak Schwitters’in çöpleri kolaja ve asemblaja dönüştürmesi, Kübist tavırdan farklı olarak tuvale üç boyutlu malzemelerin girişini sağlar. Böylece tuvale yapışan malzeme, varolduğu ortamdan soyutlanarak tuvalin yeni nesnesi haline gelir. Üç boyutlu malzemenin tuvalle buluşmasının bir diğer sıradışı örneğini de Schwitters’in etkisinde kalmış olan Robert Rauschenberg’in eserlerinde görürüz. Soyut Dışavurumculuk ile Pop sanatı arasında köprü vazifesi görmüş olan Rauschenberg, zaman zaman sanat ile hayat arasındaki aralıkta çalışmak istediğini ifade etmiş ve gündelik nesnelerle sanatsal nesnelerin ayırımını sorgulayacak eserler vermiştir. Rauschenberg, araba lastiği, tenis topu, doldurulmuş keçi gibi nesneleri bir değişikliğe uğratmadan, dışavurumcu bir üslupla boyamış ve tuvalle buluşturmuştur. Böylece nesnenin gerçeklik arayışı serüveninde Kübist kolajla nesnenin kendisine açılan süreç, üç boyutlu nesne müdahaleleriyle resmin üçüncü boyuta, daha doğrusu konumladığı mekana olan müdahalesi başlamıştır. Rauschenberg Kübistlerden devraldığı tuvali bir nesne gibi görme fikrini resmi bulunduğu mekana açarak geliştirir. İki boyutlu yüzey olarak bilinen geleneksel resim anlayışının sınırlarını iki ve üç boyutlu malzemeyle genişletir. Duchamp’dan miras - 198 - alınan hazır nesne Rauschenberg’de farklı bir yaklaşımla ele alınır. Sanat tarihinde devrim yaratan sanat nedir sorusuna Duchamp, herşeyin sanat olduğu yanıtını verirken, Rauschenberg ise sanatın herşeyde olduğu yanıtını vermiştir. Duchamp eserlerinde objenin gerçek formunu kullanırken, Rauschenberg obje ile yeni bir sentez yaratmıştır. ‘Rauschenberg, içsel bir konuşmanın merkezinde, saf ve organize olmuş bir resim düşüncesi yerine, dünyanın sürekli ilişkilerinin bir örneği olan sanat yapıtını öngörüyordu. Sanat yapıtının, nedensel olarak, bir parçasının diğeriyle ilişkisi olmayan bir yığın olarak anlaşılabileceği düşüncesi buradan çıkar. Rauschenberg’in combine resimleri, ipek baskıları, dağınıklığın ilişkiselliğini ortaya çıkarır, rastlantısal formların akışını gösterirler.’ (Alloway, 1974: 5) Rauschenberg’in sanatında rastgele gibi duran geröek nesneler, O’nun sanatının gizli disipilinini barındırmaktadır. Dağınık gibi görünen düzenlemenin ardında, dağınıklığın sistematiğini duyar gibiyiz. Bu anlamda sanatçının combine adını verdiği serilerilerine göz atmalıyız. Rauschenberg’in combine serilerinden bilinen en iyi örneği şüphesiz ‘Yatak’ isimi eseridir. Sanatçı bu yapıtında yatağının düzenlenmemiş dağınık halini bir tuval yüzeyi gibi algılamış ve yine tuval gibi duvara monte etmiştir. Böylece gündelik hayatta kullanılan bir nesnenin tuval gibi bir resim yüzeyi yada tuval nesnesinin yerini alabileceği fikri ortaya atılmıştır. Rauschenberg “Combines” (Bileşik Resimleri) serisinde (1954-1962) iki boyutlu kolaj denemelerini yeni bir bakış açısıyla geliştirerek üç boyutlu asemblajlara taşır. Buluntu objeleri boya, kalem ve kullandığı diğer objeler yardımıyla birleştirerek tuval yüzeyine yerleştirir. İki boyutlu resme üçüncü boyutu üç boyutlu nesnelerle yansıtarak sanat yapıtını gerçek hayatın formuna yaklaştırmıştır. Bu eserlerinde resim ve heykeli surreal etkilerle yaptığı denemelerle birleştirerek Braque ve Picasso’nun kolajlarını farklı bir aşamaya getirmiştir. (Cima, 1986: 67) Resim-6 Robert Rauschenberg, Monogram, 1955 Dada ve Pop Art sanatını takip eden süreçte tuval resmiyle malzemeyi buluşturan bir diğer önemli sanatçılar da Minimalistlerdir. Frank Stella, tuvallerini mekana taşımadan duvarda şekillendirir. İki buçuk boyutlu tuval olarak adlandırdığı resim ile yüksek rölyef arasında bir yerlerde duran bu eserlerinde daha çok boyalı metal parçalarını tuvale ek bir malzeme olarak kullanır. Stella’nın zaman zaman yüksek rölyeften de kurtulduğu ve eseri duvardan bağımsız hale soktuğu mekana müdahale eden işleri de olmuştur. Ancak Stella’ya gore yaptıklarının tamamı resimsel bir deneyim olarak kalır. Stella’nın eserleri her ne kadar heykel sanatına yaklaşsa da kendisi ısrarla bunları heykel olarak tanımlamadığını vurgular. Çünkü tuvalin malzemeyle olan ilişkisinde Stella’nın tüm derdi resimsel olanın tüm olanaklarını genişletmektir. Kübist tavrın tuvale monte ettiği malzeme ile başlangıcını bulan tablo nesne düşüncesi, Stella’nın eserlerinde en üst düzeye erişir ve böylece tuval resmi tek başına bir nesne olmanın ötesinde bir yere geçerek resmin boyutlarını aşar ve mekana yayılır. Stella’nın eserlerinin mekanla ilişkisi diğer sanatçılar için malzemenin deneysel yönünü keşfetmeleri yönünde yeni ufuklar açar. - 199 - Resim-7 Frank Stella, ‘Gobba Zoppa Collotorto’, 1985 SONUÇ Kübist tavırla birlikte nesnelerin görüntüsünün bütünlüğü terkedilip parçalandıkça, kendiliğinden br montaj gerekliliği gündeme gelmiştir.Kesip parçalama işleminin özellikle Dadaistlerle birlikte gündeme geldiğini biliriz. Tahta, ip, cam, gazete, metal gibi malzemelerle girişilen nesneyi paramparça ederek dağıtma fikri, tasvir sorununu ortadan kaldırmaya yönelik tavırlardır. Kübistleri görüntü gerçeğinden ilk uzaklaşanlar olarak sayarsak, Dadistleri de tasvir sanatını ilk inkar edenler olarak kabul edebiliriz. Tuvale giren malzeme ile birlikte nesnenin tasviri yerine bizzat kendisinin temsil edilmesi önerilmiştir.Nesnelerin optik görüntüleri ile değil, kendi varlıkları ile devreye sokulmuş olması, somut sanat adı verilen yeni olgunun oluşmasını sağlamıştır.İlk başta iki boyutlu montaj ile başlayan ve zamanla üç boyutlu nesnelerin montajıyla devam eden süreç, ister istemez tuval resmiyle heykelin kesişmesini sağlamıştır. Bu olgu da sergilenen nesnenin bulunduğu mekanla ilişkisini ortaya koyar. Tuval resminin boyut ve mekan kaygıları taşıması sonucu, tuvalin bir nesne olarak galeri mekanına açılma düşüncesi, resim sanatının diğer disiplinlerle, özellikle de heykel sanatıyla olan ilişkisini gündeme getirmiştir. Resim sanatının bilinen geleneksel tuval boyama yöntemlerinin sınırlarını aşması, günümüz sanatının geleneksel genel geçer doğruları yadsımasının başlıca etkeni olmuştur. Bu doğrultuda resim sanatının eski yöntemleri terk ederek yeni anlatım olanaklarını ortaya atması Kübizm’le başlamıştır. Araştırmanın başında da değinildiği gibi Kübizm bir değişimi ifade eden dönem olarak, 20. Yüzyıl sanatının devrimci ruhunun başlıca tetikleyicisi olmuştur. Sadece eski geleneksel yöntemleri terk etmekle kalmamış, aynı zamanda sanatın ulaşılamaz olarak algılanan üstün yaratısını da terketmiştir. Tuvalin kolajla ve asemblajla yeniden kurgulanması, yeni olanakların ve yeni malzemelerin gündeme gelmesine ve resim yüzeyinin sınırlarının bulanıklaşmaya başlamasına neden olmuştur. Tuvale bulaşan malzeme sonucu, artık geriye dönüşü olmayan bir yolculuk başlamıştır. Gerçek mekan dahil olmak üzere tuvale yabancı olan diğer tüm nesnelerin yaratıcı sürece dahil edilmesi mümkün kılınmıştır. Bu andan itibaren tuvale monte edilen, hatta tuvalden kopup mekana yayılan nesnelerle ortaya çıkarılan yaratıların hiçbir kurala ve sınıra bağlı kalması düşünülemez. KAYNAKÇA ALLOWAY, Lawrence (1974). American Pop Art, Newyork: Macmillan Pub. CIMA, G. (1986). Shifting Perpectives: Combining Shepard and Rauschenberg, Newyork: Theatre Journal. İPŞİROĞLU, Nazan, Mazhar (2009). Sanatta Devrim, İstanbul: Hayalbaz Kitap Sanat Kuramları. GOMBRICH, Ernst (1992). Sanat ve Yanısama. Çev. Ahmet Cemal, İstanbul: Remzi Kitabevi. GERMANER, S.emra (1997). 1960 Sonrası Sanat- Akımlar, Eğilimler, Gruplar, Sanatçılar, İstanbul: Kabalcı Yayınevi. LYNTON, Norbert (1991). Modern Sanatın Öyküsü, İstanbul: Remzi Kitabevi. TUNALI, İsmail (2003). Felsefenin Işığında Modern Resim, İstanbul: Maz Matbaacılık TURANİ, Adnan (1999). Çağdaş Sanat Felsefesi, İstanbul: Remzi Kitabevi. YILMAZ, Mehmet (2001). Sanatçıları Okumak ya da Hayali Söyleşiler, Ankara: Ütopya Yayınevi. 
work_ro7sjoel4bcqzglrjqoud66jnu	----	Microsoft Word - 19ca070079[6]  Abstract—In the 21st century, the disciplinary boundaries of past centuries that we often create through mainstream art historical classification, techniques and sources may have been eroded by visual culture, which seems to provide a more inclusive umbrella for the new ways artists go about the creative process and its resultant commodities. Over the past four decades, artists in Africa have resorted to new materials, techniques and themes which have affected our ways of research on these artists and their art. Frontline artists such as El Anatsui, Yinka Shonibare, Erasmus Onyishi are demonstrating that any material is just suitable for artistic expression. Most of times, these materials come with their own techniques/effects and visual syntax: a combination of materials compounds techniques, formal aesthetic indexes, halo effects, and iconography. This tends to challenge the categories and we lean on to view, think and talk about them. This renders our main stream art historical research methods inadequate, thus suggesting new discursive concepts, terms and theories. This paper proposed the Africanist eclectic methods derived from the dual framework of Masquerade Theory and What Comes Behind Six is More Than Seven. This paper shares thoughts/research on art historical methods, terminological re-alignments on classification/source data, presentational format and interpretation arising from the emergent trends in our subject. The outcome provides useful tools to mediate new thoughts and experiences in recent African art and visual culture. Keywords—Art Historical Methods, Classifications, Concepts ,Re- alignment. I. INTRODUCTION HE categories for the discussion of artworks, in any epoch, derive from the prevalent art of such an era in which the works emerged. For a long time painting, sculpture, and architecture were the predominant art-forms and invariably, all the other forms were seen through the prism of qualities found in the above. With the emergence of new typologies of art-forms, it is logical that their new qualities will provoke experiences requiring other categories of discursive vocabularies, terminologies and visual syntaxes. Added to the above phenomenon, is the somehow rigid classification that mainstream art history has imposed tenaciously on sub-disciplines of the visual arts, such as painting, drawing, sculpture, textile, ceramics, photography and craft. Perhaps, it becomes needful to explain the theoretical framework on which this study leans. This is needful in there capturing and reinterpretation of the right identity strategy, to Osa D. Egonwa is with the Department of Fine and Applied Arts, Delta State University, Nigeria (e-mail: osaegonwadynasty@gmail.com). jettison in appropriate images which are not expressing the social realities which birth the artistic events. The Masquerade theory is an indigenous evaluative framework which simply states that one does not fulfillingly view a masquerade performance from only one perspective. That is that multiple viewing points makes for a better spectacle. It is closely related to the popular Western concept of eclecticism. While the later seems to have been used in a derogatory sense, as it has a tint of lack of focus, the former is respected by African's as a mark of rigour in appraisal of issues, physical or ideological. What comes behind six is more than seven [1] is actually one of the Yoruba versions of the Masquerade theory. Drewal [2] cited another one which states that "there are many roads to the market". Egonwa [3] implies that its real importance in this work, is that an event which happened in a series, is better explained by a study of several in the series and not just the one of its immediate past. The need to use a combination of strategies to provide insight on African modern visual artist cogent as many frontline artists demonstrate through their works that any material is just suitable for artistic expression, especially when such material is available in the artists environment. Amongst these artists are Bruce Onobrakpeya (b.1931), El Anatsui (b. 1944), and Onyishi Erasmus (b. 1973) as shown in Figs. 1-3. Fig. 1 Bruce Onobrakpeya (2006) Gala Day under the River- Series 2 Panel 3 Plastograph Osa D Egonwa Masquerade and “What Comes Behind Six Is More Than Seven”: Thoughts on Art History and Visual Culture Research Methods T World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology International Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences Vol:13, No:6, 2019 880International Scholarly and Scientific Research & Innovation 13(6) 2019 ISNI:0000000091950263 O pe n S ci en ce I nd ex , H um an it ie s an d S oc ia l S ci en ce s V ol :1 3, N o: 6, 2 01 9 w as et .o rg /P ub li ca ti on /1 00 10 49 9 Fig. 2 El Anatsui, (1993) Mamoth Crowd. Series 1 Fig. 3 Erasmus Onyishi (2018) Celestial Realm, Synthatic Fibre, Glue, Nails, Acrylic and Mahogamy In the words of Konate [4], "Many of these artists show concern for keeping alive the link between the society and it is endogenous knowledge and knowhow". Thematically and technically, they are global in perception. However, they still keep alive the traditional spirit not by mindless copying but the application of an essential, purified and effervescent but smart expression. Ouattara Bakary (b. 1957), Abdullaye Konate (b. 1953), Wim Botha (b. 1974), and Andrew Tshabangu (b. 1966) add up to the list of those synthesizing low art and elitist art in the artistic confectionery of culturistic content. In the 21st century, looking at the interesting developments in the field of studio art, these classifications mentioned above are no longer adequate as labels for what one sees. This apparent inadequacy is very pronounced when one considers visual culture which tends to provide a more inclusive umbrella for the new ways artists go about the creative process and the resultant commodities. The expression of the culture via objects/art-forms takes wider angle lens than the conventional expression of aesthetic perception. Many of the latter day development in the fine arts are revivals of techniques and styles originating from societies whose traditions of painting and sculpture were alien to that of Greaco-Roman experience. For instance installations, site specific sculptures and accumulative painting or sculpture are aspects of African culture expressed as or in art (visual culture). The formal appreciation of an installation at an old groove will employ many unvoiced aesthetic expressions and include an aura of fear or cloud of awe, experienced as unvoiced invocations. The antique shrine furniture which has been formally altered by many layers of accumulated ritual substances like blood, mashed grain, yam or plantain is hard to describe effectively in extant-terminologies, this had been described elsewhere as accumulative aesthetics [5]. For instance, who is the author of such an art object? Is it the artist who produced the initial carving or moulding? How does Western methods account for the artists who kept adding pictorial elements? What will be the age of the work so reconfigured? This suggests that contemporary installation and performance art has a lot to learn from old African Art. Appropriate answers to these queries will lead to a difference, but better interpretation of meaning in such works. A painting by Pablo Picasso (1881- 1973) covered by any accumulated stuff will require a Western restoration artist to clean it up. When assorted media like leather, acrylic, binding wire are used in an art work that involves two or three dimensional forms, is it painting or sculpture? Is it relief painting? See Fig 5. This painting has all the features of relief sculpture yet it is not sculpture. Sometimes contemporary paintings have highly World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology International Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences Vol:13, No:6, 2019 881International Scholarly and Scientific Research & Innovation 13(6) 2019 ISNI:0000000091950263 O pe n S ci en ce I nd ex , H um an it ie s an d S oc ia l S ci en ce s V ol :1 3, N o: 6, 2 01 9 w as et .o rg /P ub li ca ti on /1 00 10 49 9 protruding forms achieved with new unconventional paint media as indicated in Fig. 5. Fig. 4 Outtara Bakary, Untitled Fig 5 Chuks Chukzmore, Black is Beautiful, Acrylic The traditional bullet proofs, e.g. the Benin or Idah Soldier with “Coat of Mail”, as shown in Fig. 7, is made entirely of metals or shells of resilient nuts. So either way, it could be metal or wood sculpture. This is not the case with El Anatsui logoligi logarithm or Society Woman's Cloth. The obvious facts is that the boundaries between painting, drawing, sculpture, textiles and ceramics have been blurred significantly and new descriptive terms or phrases like sculpted- textiles, ceramics- painting, sculpted-painting and 3di-painting seem to have become relevant. The tendency to deny the arts of Africa has led to several interpretive difficulties because value systems alien to the art of Africa has been imposed on it. In Africa, a broken pot is not completely useless, it is only deployed to other roles where it provides positive aesthetic satisfaction. Today, in Africa Western, defined ceramic floor tiles are not rejected when broken. They are simply re-used in a stylized way even to satisfy the same preservative and decorative desires of an unbroken one. Fig. 6 Bolaji Ogunwo, (2018) Spill, Acrylic, Polyhol Fig. 7 El Anatsui, Society Woman’s Cloth II. SOURCE MATERIALS FOR AFRICAN ART Hitherto, mainstream scholarship has emphasized literature by which is meant published written reports in journals, books, monographs, exhibition brochures, and reviews. Following the Masquerade theory cited by Drewal [2] and the Yoruba what comes behind six is more than seven [1] which emphasizes looking beyond the immediate events in a series when searching for courses and effects, the term Review of Related Literature or simply Literature Review will be found inadequate. This means that one must consider a term which will enable us to access knowledge from non- literature materials, such as orature and artistic techniques and practices not conventionally documented. For instance, an artist like Ben Osawe (1931-2007) uses air-conditioner compressor bottle to fabricate crucible for melting brass and practiced with World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology International Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences Vol:13, No:6, 2019 882International Scholarly and Scientific Research & Innovation 13(6) 2019 ISNI:0000000091950263 O pe n S ci en ce I nd ex , H um an it ie s an d S oc ia l S ci en ce s V ol :1 3, N o: 6, 2 01 9 w as et .o rg /P ub li ca ti on /1 00 10 49 9 it for many years before we discovered the practice in an interview with him in 2005. This same artist constructed bellows from water pump for improvement of local furnace firing and used it for many years of his studio practice without formal documentation Fig. 8 Nupe Warrior with Coat of Mail According to Egwali [7], such knowledge and practice which an art historian is able to access outside journals and books are good sources of data. They should therefore ab initio be included on our sub-section of our background knowledge. Hence it is instructive to use the heading, “Review of Related Literature, Knowledge and Practice” as stated by Egonwa [6]. At the Delta State University Abraka, Art department, this is what we have authorized our research students to do. The art historical paradigms provoked by the intense study of Africa's art and visual culture and the emergent constructs and terminologies being advocated by this paper are significant. Our research shows that these discoveries provide a better and more embracive platform for the study of post- modernist studio art. They close the gap of analytic language currently extant in the literature. These are additions to knowledge because they derive from the intellectualism inherent in the art of the ‘other’ especially African art according to Egonwa [8]. III. CONTRIBUTION TO KNOWLEDGE (1) This study has identified discursive terminologies which must be adopted in art history and visual culture mediation of knowledge. These include accumulative aesthetics, picture-spill and invoiced invocations. (2) It established that the new approaches adopted in the creative process by African artists which has blurred the boundaries between visual arts sub-disciplines derives from African cultural history. (3) The study presents two theoretical frameworks for effective analysis of contemporary African visual arts history and culture. (4) It suggests that extant sub-disciplinary classifications need to be re-aligned for more inclusive analytic rewards. One can talk about Sculpted-paintings, Sculpted-textiles, 3d-paintings, ceramic-paintings. REFERENCES [1] "What Comes Behind six is more than Seven " Yoruba conceptual frame Pa Adeyemi, Ile- Ife, 1995 [2] H. Drewal, Object and intellect: interpretation of meanings in African Art, Art Journal, vol.47. No.2 pp71-74.1988 [3] O. D. Egonwa. Linguistic pluralism, Cultural Divergences and the Nigeria Project, JOLAN, vol.12, pp.1-12. 2019 [4] Y. Konate, 7past 12, Africa Agreements, Allusions and Misunderstandings, DAK'ART 2006, pp. 32-36. 2006. [5] O. D. Egonwa, Writing About Art And Making Art in Nigeria: Many Legs, How Much Movement?, 14th Inaugural Lecture Series, Delta state University Abraka 19th September.2007a. [6] O. D. Egonwa, Research Methods in Visual Arts, Ibadan, Abraka. Ababa & Egosay Ltd. 2012. [7] F. C. Egwali, Stylistic Adaptation and Domestication in the Works of Benson Osawe, M.A. Dissertation, Delta State University Abraka, 2009. [8] O. D. Egonwa, Writing About Art And Making Art in Nigeria: Many Legs How Much Movement?, 14th Inaugural Lectures, Delta State University Abraka, 2007, pp78. World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology International Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences Vol:13, No:6, 2019 883International Scholarly and Scientific Research & Innovation 13(6) 2019 ISNI:0000000091950263 O pe n S ci en ce I nd ex , H um an it ie s an d S oc ia l S ci en ce s V ol :1 3, N o: 6, 2 01 9 w as et .o rg /P ub li ca ti on /1 00 10 49 9 
work_rqcn5dxc4jdmbj2wgqc7hrc2t4	----	Los libros de texto como fuente para la Historia de la Educación L O S LIBROS D E T E X T O C O M O F U E N T E P A R A LA H I S T O R I A D E LA E D U C A C I Ó N BUENAVENTURA D E L G A D O Universidad de Barcelona Los libros de texto pueden ser u n a magnífica fuente de información para la Historia de la Educación. Hasta ahora, apenas sí ha sido usada como tal en la investigación, por la dificultad quizás de su localización y por la complejidad de su uso. Probablemente la dificultad mayor radi- q u e en la elaboración de una técnica adecuada q u e permita con cierta agilidad obtener de este inmenso material todo el jugo que potencial- m e n t e encierra. A pesar de su efímera vida y del poco aprecio que se le ha tenido, el libro escolar p u e d e ser localizado con relativa facilidad, gracias a las nu- merosas tiradas que sucesivamente han ido haciéndose del mismo. Los historiadores ingleses están llamando la atención sobre esta importante fuente de información y están trabajando en fijar u n a guía, u n a ayuda esquemática, q u e sea de fácil manejo y que permita ser aplicada a distin- tos modelos. G. H . Harper se queja de los trabajos aparecidos en la dé- cada de los 60 en lengua inglesa, basados en el análisis de los libros de texto. Algunos de estos trabajos no debían haber sido publicados por su deficiente calidad. Las razones por las que este autor aconseja dirigir la mirada a los humildes y despreciados libros de texto son las siguientes: 1.° Permiten conocer las opiniones e ideas de sus autores, de los pro- fesores y de los alumnos. 2.° Ayudan a conocer los canales de comunicación de las ideas en la sociedad y la resistencia que hallan en determinados grupos so- ciales, así como el desgaste del modelo entero en un período de años. 3.° Permiten ver la simplificación y distorsión a que son sometidas las ideas al ser transmitidas y el tiempo transcurrido entre el lan- zamiento de una opinión, su recepción y el cambio en la estruc- tura social1. 1 Cfr. G. H. HARPER: «Textbooks: an under-used source», History of Education. Society Bulle- tin, 25 (1980), Oxford, 30-40. 354 BUENAVENTURA DELGADO Otros aspectos interesantes que transmite el libro de texto son las orientaciones metodológicas que, en su mayor parte, aparecen bien en los prólogos, bien en las notas a pie de página, bien en el Libro del Maestro, si existe, en que los autores o editores indican más extensamen- te las actividades y ejercicios a realizar por el profesor y por los alumnos, así como sus concepciones pedagógicas y autores a los que se remiten. El conjunto de estos aparentemente intrascendentes detalles, revelan, ade- más del contenido de la obra, unos valores, unas actitudes religiosas, so- ciales, económicas, políticas, etc., a la vez que toda una filosofía implíci- ta o explícita probablemente con mayor elocuencia que muchos otros do- cumentos histórico-pedagógicos. El libro de texto indica cómo ha sido llevada a la práctica la política educativa de un país, qué parte de los discursos políticos y declaraciones programáticas, qué proporción de la filosofía política recogida en las le- yes, qué parte de las explicitaciones teóricas de los pedagogos y qué tanto por ciento de las innovaciones metodológicas de los pedagogos han de- sembocado en el quehacer diario escolar. Por otra parte, el libro de texto indica como ningún otro medio la distancia en años y en lustros existente entre la aportación de la ciencia y las explicaciones en el aula. ¿Cuánto tardó en explicarse en las aulas uni- versitarias españolas el evolucionismo? ¿Cuánto tiempo ha tardado en llegar a la escuela primaria? En Barcelona, el primer profesor que comen- zó a hablar el darwinismo fue el catedrático Odón de Buen y del Cos, muy a finales del XIX; el revuelo que levantaron sus explicaciones provo- có la intervención del obispo de Barcelona, poniendo en el índice de Libros prohibidos algunos de los libros de texto de este gran profesor de Ciencias Naturales. Las autoridades ministeriales por su parte le despoja- ron de su cátedra, aunque las protestas de la propia Universidad de Bar- celona y las movilizaciones airadas estudiantiles y obreras hicieron volver al Ministerio a la sensatez. Los libros de texto indican también la cantidad de ciencia que fue ca- paz de envasar su autor para el consumo escolar, el nivel de los conoci- mientos científicos del propio profesor y la cantidad de pedagogía y ha- bilidad didáctica que su autor es capaz de poner en juego para uso de sus lectores. No acaba aquí el mensaje de un libro de texto. En todos o en casi to- dos los libros escolares existen aportaciones del propio usuario con notas en los márgenes o a pie de página, el nombre de sus distintos propieta- rios, versillos y exclamaciones, oraciones, dibujos, caricaturas, imprope- rios, anagramas... Contemplar los dibujos a lápiz o a carboncillo que Pablo Picasso hacía en sus libros de texto conservados hoy en día en el Museo Picasso de Barcelona, indica, entre otras cosas, lo mucho que se LOS LIBROS DE TEXTO FUENTE PARA LA HISTORIA DE LA EDUCACIÓN 3 5 5 aburría en clase su dueño, su capacidad de evasión del ambiente del aula y la firmeza del trazo del futuro genio de la pintura. La simple ojeada de algunos de los libros de texto puede ser más elo- cuente que el fatigoso estudio de numerosas fuentes históricas. Poseo un libro de aritmética empleado por los escolapios del XVIII en Cataluña. Mi sorpresa fue considerable al comprobar que estos beneméritos educa- dores empleaban ya la enseñanza individualizada; el libro presentaba impresos los ejercicios de cálculo en los que faltaban algunas cifras que el profesor debía añadir de su puño y letra en un sumando, en el multipli- cador o en el dividendo. Con semejante procedimiento el alumno no podía copiar el ejercicio del vecino y no tenía otra salida que hacer su tra- bajo personalmente, si quería cumplir con su obligación. El profesor por su parte se veía obligado a corregir individualmente los ejercicios de cada uno y comprobar personalmente y a diario el nivel de aprendizaje de ca- da cual2. Al margen del valor pedagógico del libro de texto, existen otros fac- tores nada desdeñables para la Historia de la Educación, como son los factores políticos, económicos y sociológicos en general. El profesor ha es- tado siempre sometido al control de las familias que les confían sus hijos, al de los grupos sociales y a su propio gremio profesional. A la hora de elegir el libro de texto por el que seguir sus enseñanzas, se ha visto obli- gado a elegir entre los oficialmente aprobados por la Iglesia, por el Esta- do o por sus representantes (obispo, cura-ecónomo, municipio, Junta Lo- cal de Instrucción Pública, asociación de padres, dirección del centro, etc.). Si este profesor era jesuíta, escolapio, marista, etc., su libertad de elección del libro de texto era prácticamente nula. En estos casos, las mismas enseñanzas, las mismas directrices pedagógicas, los mismos con- tenidos para todos los colegios de la congregación religiosa. Para el histo- riador esta uniformidad supone una ventaja puesto que, las diferencias entre un colegio de gramática regentado por los jesuítas en Valladolid y otro en Gandía pueden ser mínimas. En tales casos es válido el principio de ab uno disce omnes, puesto que el estilo jesuítico o escolapio debía prevalecer por encima de cualquier otra veleidad creadora del profesor. En esta uniformidad radicaba la fuerza —y la debilidad también— de una congregación dedicada a la enseñanza. En España, las funciones docentes e inspectoras tradicionalmente ejercidas por la Iglesia en todos los niveles fueron traspasadas a manos del Estado, no sin crear numerosos problemas, a partir del XVIII. Estos 2 Me refiero a la Aritmética especulativa y práctica para alivio de los maestros y aprovechamien- to de los discípulos de las Escuelas Pías de Cataluña por un sacerdote de la misma religión, Manresa, Ignacio Abadal, S. A. 356 BUENAVENTURA DELGADO traspasos o transferencias que suelen ser llamados «secularización», afec- taron obviamente a los libros usados en las escuelas. A partir de entonces en vez del tradicional imprimatur, nihil obstat o fórmula eclesiástica se- mejante, era preciso que el nombre del autor y el título fuera publicado en la Gaceta de Madrid, en el Boletín Oficial del Ministerio de Instruc- ción Pública, o en el moderno Boletín Oficial del Estado y en los Boleti- nes Oficiales provinciales, en cuyas páginas se han venido publicando las listas de los libros de texto autorizados para las escuelas. Este será el pri- mer paso en la investigación de esta fuente de información, antes de in- tentar localizarlos en las bibliotecas. En los niveles superiores de enseñanza el control de los libros de texto ha sido más complejo y ha presentado más resistencias. Lo más cómodo era refugiarse en las páginas del libro de texto elegido, aunque al cabo de unos cuantos años de leer el libro, el profesor acababa sabiéndolo de memoria y resistiéndose a cambiar de pauta y a modernizar sus conoci- mientos. Este inevitable y estéril conservadurismo explica que, en los di- versos intentos de reforma y en los planes de estudio del XVIII se sugiera cuáles eran los libros de texto que habría que usar en los distintos nive- les, por considerarlos el reformador como avanzados y modernos; no hay más que recordar los libros de texto que, para cada asignatura, aconsejan en sus respectivos planes Mayans i Sisear, Jovellanos y Olavide. Lo tradi- cional era que cada profesor leyese, es decir, explicase Filosofía, Medicina o Derecho, siguiendo siempre los mismos libros de texto de los mismos autores y con los mismos procedimientos didácticos. Durante siglos no hubo apenas dónde elegir y en todos los Estudios Generales se explicaron las mismas obras. El control religioso dependía de la Iglesia, mientras que el político teóricamente correspondía al Estado; la costumbre, la Iglesia y el Estado fijaron durante siglos las coordenadas en que habían de ser escritos y publicados los libros de uso escolar. Los estacionarios de los Estudios Generales eran los encargados en exclusiva de vender, pres- tar o alquilar a los estudiantes los «libros de texto e de glosa» aprobados oficialmente por el Rector del Estudio, el cual debía «fazer esaminar pri- meramente los libros de aquel que devia tener la estación para saber si son buenos, e legibles e verdaderos»3. De cuando en cuanto surgió el profesor innovador, inquieto e inca- paz de ceñirse a la rutina escolar. El efecto era inmediato: enseguida se removían las estancadas y tranquilas aguas escolares y surgían los conflic- tos, sobre todo, en épocas especialmente sensibles. Los ejemplos de Fray Luis de León, de Martín Martínez de Cantalapiedra, profesor de Hebreo en Salamanca, de Gaspar de Graja y de otros profesores detenidos por la 3 Partida 2 . a , Tít. XXXI, ley XI de Alfonso X el Sabio. LOS LIBROS DE TEXTO FUENTE PARA LA HISTORIA DE LA EDUCACIÓN 3 5 7 maledicencia del profesor de Gramática León de Castro, demuestran has- ta qué punto la sociedad es capaz de establecer sus propios controles ideológicos, cuando cree necesario activar mecanismos definidos. En esta época mencionada hay que recordar el problema de los neoconversos, de los moriscos, el miedo a las guerras religiosas que asolaban a Europa, etc., para comprender el sentido de estos encarcelamientos y procesos que, en circunstancias normales, no hubieran ocurrido. La misma expli- cación tiene la prohibición del 22 de noviembre de 1559 por la que se mandaba que los estudiantes españoles matriculados en universidades extranjeras volvieran a España, bajo pena de embargo de bienes y des- tierro perpetuo; en esta orden se exceptuaban las universidades y deter- minados colegios de Bolonia, Roma, Ñapóles y Coimbra, donde no exis- tía peligro de protestantismo con sus trascendentales secuelas políticas4. La prohibición de estudiar fuera de España ni era la primera ni sería la última. Otros ejemplos no menos conocidos son los de los profesores Sánchez de las Brozas5 y los erasmistas, tan magníficamente estudiados por el insigne hispanista Marcel Bataillon6. El tema Nos llevaría dema- siado lejos y no es este el lugar más indicado para ello7. Además de la censura real es importante también tener en cuenta la censura ambiental que pesa de forma decisiva en el autor de un libro de texto. No menos importante para el historiador es también tener en cuenta la vertiente económica del libro; convendría conocer el precio de cada ejemplar, el número de ejemplares vendidos, la difusión geográfica, el tiempo en agotarse una edición, los lugares de venta, las instituciones que lo adquirieron y lo usaron como texto en las aulas, así como los siste- mas de producción y distribución. El precio de un determinado libro de texto puede ser la causa de su rápida o lenta difusión. No siempre, por el contrario, el número de ejemplares vendidos avala la calidad y aceptación del mismo, sobre todo cuando es una entidad religiosa o de cualquier otro tipo quien lo impone como obligatorio. Otros muchos factores, de ser conocidos, explicarían la incidencia en 4 Para el caso de Fr. Luis de León es útil Henry Charles LEA: A history of the Inquisition. New York, 1906-8, vol. Ill, 149-62 y Miguel DE LA PINTA LLÓRENTE: Proceso criminal contra el hebraísta salmantina Martín Martínez de Cantalapiedra. Madrid, 1946. 5 Cfr. Α. Τον AR y M. DE LA PINTA LLÓRENTE: Procesos inquisitoriales contra Francisco Sánchez de las Brozas. Madrid, 1941. 6 Erasmo en España. 7 Además de los Índices de libros prohibidos son útiles las obras que estudian con cierta exten- sión el tema de la Inquisición y las de Antonio RüMEU DE ARMAS: Historia de la censura literaria gu- bernativa en España. Madrid, 1940 y Antonio SIERRA CORELLA: La censura de libros y papeles en Es- paña y los índices y catálogos españoles. Madrid, 1947. 358 BUENAVENTURA DELGADO el coste final del ejemplar de las técnicas de impresión, el tipo de papel, la publicidad en él incluida, el estilo y técnica de encuademación, las ilustraciones, derechos de autor, los descuentos especiales a los distri- buidores y a los maestros o escuelas que los usaban, las subvenciones de cualquier tipo, los puestos de venta, la aprobación necesaria anterior a la impresión, etc. El historiador ha de tener en cuenta que no basta con que las leyes se promulguen para que automáticamente se produzca un exacto cumpli- miento de las mismas, misión suya será rastrear el tanto por ciento de cumplimiento de semejantes leyes. Con alto índice de probabilidad se puede asegurar que el control estatal de la enseñanza durante los dos úl- timos siglos ha sido mucho menos eficaz y riguroso que el ejercido siglos atrás por la Iglesia; no ha faltado deseo ni interés político por ejercer tal control sino un organismo que pudiera llevarlo a cabo. Este descontrol ha afectado a los libros de texto sin duda alguna; quizás en las escuelas ofi- ciales públicas han venido utilizándose los libros aprobados, pero en las escuelas privadas ha existido de hecho una total libertad. En mi trabajo sobre La escuela moderna de Ferrer i Guardia* aparto el tipo de libros empleados por una cincuentena de escuelas anarquistas y recojo los aspa- vientos del ministro de Instrucción Pública, cuando se le pidió en el Congreso de Diputados estadísticas concretas de las escuelas libres exis- tentes en España y se le exigieron explicaciones acerca de sus ideologías, sus directores y responsables, sus libros de texto, etc. El mismo ministro se echaba las manos a la cabeza al comentar los miles de escuelas que surgieron de la encuesta realizada de emergencia, de las que nadie sabía absolutamente nada. Otras fuentes que permiten profundizar en este campo de los libros de texto pueden ser los libros de contabilidad de las casas editoriales, la publicidad de tales libros en los periódicos y revistas profesionales, los libros de visita de inspección a las escuelas y las listas de las bibliotecas escolares y públicas con sus fondos respectivos. En cualquier caso, la téc- nica de análisis y de estudio empleada ha de ser eminentemente compa- rativa9. 8 Barcelona, CE AC, 1980. 9 Los Libros de Visitas Pastorales de cada obispado están generalmente bien guardados y con- servados y son especialmente útiles para conocer las escuelas dependientes de las diferentes parro- quias. No se puede decir lo mismo de los archivos de la Inspección y de los archivos municipales, inexistentes, inaccesibles o impracticables. Es útil para época reciente la obra de Francisca MONTILLA: Selección de libros escolares de lectura. Madrid, C.S.I.C., 1954, en la que se hace una síntesis doctrinal y de contenido de 246 libros de uso escolar y se indican abundantes datos sobre el mundo editorial. También puede ser útil mi modesta aportación a las II Jornades d'Histona de l'educació en els Paisos Catalans. Mallorca, 1978, «Un cas de llibre escolar censurât». 
work_s366qv3rr5fyvptkbwuqob5fsq	----	12_5_cd.qxd This paper discusses the experience promoted by the Directorate General for Museums and Libraries under the Madrid Regional government's Department of the Arts when publishing the Works of Pablo Picasso included in the Arias Collection on exhibit in Buitrago del Lozoya's Picasso Museum1 on the World Wide Web. Both the collection and its web site are merely minor anec- dotes considering their respective contexts. The collection comprises few more than 60 objects bearing witness to the long, warm friendship between Picasso and his barber Eugenio Arias, born in the village where the museum stands. And it is precisely this anecdotal nature that makes the Picasso Museum more than just a small museum of modern art, but a veritable museum of the story of a friendship, an exile and a shared passion for bullfighting, MAKING SENSE OF A DIGITAL EXHIBIT DESIGN The making of the Museum Web site offered the opportunity to develop an alternative exhibit design which complements the way in which the pieces of the physical collection are presented. Like many other art museums, the Picasso Museum displays unique pieces of work. Far from compe- ting with Madrid's great galleries, the exhibition of Picasso's Works, often merely "minor", takes on its full meaning in the context of a small village in the mountains north of Madrid where it comprises one of the major tourist attractions. The Web site's "digital exhibit design" is just a few clicks away from the greatest centres of art around the globe, and this is why the anecdotal aspect of the collection's origins become a true point of interest when browsed from a global perspective. Driven by the desire to complement rather than to replicate the experience of the museum visit, we came to the conclu- sion that a virtual walk through the exhibition, elegantly set in a limited amount of space with artificial lighting in the basement of the Town Hall, was not appropriate. While the objects are exhibited in the museum rooms, it is on the Web site where we aim to document the context. MAKING THE COLLECTION A PART OF THE WHOLE The core section on the site serves to document each of the pieces in a reproduction of the catalogue put together and digitalized according to the standards drawn up at the begin- ning of the 1990s by the Spanish Ministry of Culture. This enabled its potential inclusion in wider general database. [ Enter the Past ] - Internet Applications ABSTRACT This paper discusses the experience promoted by the Directorate General for Museums and Libraries under the Madrid Regional government's Department of Arts when publishing the Works of Pablo Picasso included in the Arias Collection on exhibit in Buitrago del Lozoya's Picasso Museum. Both the collection and its publication on the Net are merely minor anecdotes considering their respective contexts. The collection comprises few more than 60 objects bearing testimony to the long, warm friendship between Picasso and his barber Eugenio Arias, born in the village where the museum stands. And it is precisely this anecdotal nature that makes the Picasso Museum a veritable museum of the story of a friendship, an exile and a shared passion for bullfighting, instead of just a modern art museum. This is precisely why the biggest effort in the creation of the Web site was geared towards documenting the two protago- nists' lifestyle, their friends in common and the sites in the south of France serving as the backdrop for this small story. While the objects are exhibited in the museum rooms, it is on the Web site where we aim to document the context. ALFREDO CALOSCI UNIVERSIDAD EUROPEA DE MADRID, SPAIN WHEN THE PEOPLE ARE THE CONTEXT PUTTING THE "MINOR" PICASSO- ARIAS COLLECTION AND ITS "MAJOR" CONTEXT ONTO THE WEB Figure 1 and 2 The digital library: a record Internet Applications In the layout of the catalogue cards, a particular accent was placed on the photographic reproductions of the works, doubtlessly one of the site's most enticing facet, while the rest of the graphic and navigational elements took a discrete back seat. ONE PLACE, SEVERAL ITINERARIES Cataloguing each object with its own card provides a useful tool for both researchers and demanding users. But it also tends to focus attention on each individual object rather than on readings of the collection as a whole. One of the digital exhibit's advantages is that it can offer several itineraries by "packing" the same collection into alter- native, thematic views. The museum's web site came about with the intention of offe- ring itself as a place where a host of different itineraries can be traced out by topics related to the collection's origin rather than by other criteria usually used by contemporary art museums or for Picasso's work. MAKING SENSE OF THE COLLECTION The invention, evocation and documentation on the Web site of the thematic threads was of the keys to provide meaning to the historic and geographical context of the events that gave rise to the collection. Most of the pieces in this collection come from or are related to Vallauris, a village in the south of France where Picasso and Arias met and lived for several years. Eugenio Arias had fought in the Spanish Civil War on the Republican side and, after the war was lost, he was able to flee to France where he fought in the resistance against the Nazi occupation. In 1946, he set up his barber shop in Vallauris where he remained an anti-Franco activitst in exile. Picasso's years in Vallauris were characterized by several ceramic works, comprising one the most interesting parts of the collection. Picasso learned various pottery techniques in George and Suzanne Ramié's Madoura pottery shop. The aspect that we feel is of most interest in documenting this context lies in the evocation of the closely knit personal rela- tionships and friendships that Picasso and Arias had over those years. We thus discover that the two friends met through a common friend of the Ramiés, who in turn were friends of Jacqueline Roque, later to become Picasso's wife, and that all of them were friendly with people in the French Communist Party, such as Louis Aragon and Jean Cocteau. We feel that the context of this collection is made up to a large extent by a closely knit web of friends and it is therefore easy to relate the works on display with one or several characters in Picasso and Arias's sur- roundings during those years. The production of the web site was therefore the occasion to recover and publish documents and ima- ges that are not part of the collection but that can play a crucial role in the understanding of the whole. KEEP IT SIMPLE In order to present the collection's context on the site, "low technology" based on the very roots of the WWW were used: hypertext links providing the chance to offer minimum refe- rences that the user can complement with information on other more specialized sites. Both the description of the works and the references to places and persons are systematically cross-linked with hypertexts. The brief bibliographical notes describing Picasso and E. Arias' circle of friends underscore the major traits of their relationship with the collection. Although the quality of the interaction offered on the site is much more modest than what can be found in most interacti- Figure 3 Relationships and friendships: Jacqueline Roque Figure 4 Itineraries: the exile Figure 5 Visiting Buitrago del Lozoya ve multimedia applications, we feel the overall result meets our initial goal, i.e. to present an interesting testimony of the history of a friendship between two men in exile and their shared passions. On a couple of sections of the site, a greater effort was made in using interactive resources offered by the multimedia publications. We used the shockwave multimedia format to make the biographies of the collection's two prota- gonists more dynamic and to create a collection browser, an application where users can organize and browse all of the pieces according to several different criteria. Further efforts could be made in order to more interactively represent the circle of friends that surrounds the collection. Some recent results in conceptual graphic representation such as Smart Money's Map of the Market2 or the Plumb Design's Visual Thesaurus3 may serve as a good starting point. THE WORLD WIDE WEB ON A SMALL SCALE Speaking of and using the WWW often leads us to make con- siderations of a global nature: large scale encyclopaedic data bases, a potential audience stretching out across the globe, international standards for information exchange, and other large scale projects. We hope that this project will be considered among many other examples of how a site with a local focus can be publis- hed without loosing sight of certain global considerations. CREDITS: THE WEB SITE' S TEAM Servicio Regional de Museos y Exposiciones, Dirección General de Archivos, Museos y Bibliotecas, Consejería de las Artes, Comunidad de Madrid Cristina Conde de Beroldingen, Maria Dolores Jiménez-Blanco, Julián H. Alonso, Marina Prieto, Andrés Mengs, Tomás Antelo, Ana González Mozo Arquimática S.L., Francisco Rodríguez de Partearroyo , José Carlos Greciano Merino 1 Museo Picasso - Colección Arias: http://www. madrid.org/museo_picasso/. 2 Smart Money' s Map of the Market: http://www.smartmoney.com/marketmap/. 3 Plumb Design's Visual Thesaurus: http://www. visualthesaurus.com/online/ index.html. [ Enter the Past ] - Internet Applications Figure 6 The collection browser REFERENCES CZERNIN, M. and MÜLLER, M., 2001. Picassos Friseur - Die Geschichte einer Freundschaft. 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work_s7d4uiswozdezpjj73ghuwdogm	----	9424 - Cuadernos de Historia 38.indd C U A D E R N O S D E H I S T O R I A 38 DEPARTAMENTO DE CIENCIAS HISTÓRICAS UNIVERSIDAD DE CHILE JUNIO 2013: 99 - 130 CULTURA COMUNISTA Y GUERRA FRÍA: LOS INTELECTUALES Y EL MOVIMIENTO POR LA PAZ EN LA ARGENTINA Adriana Petra* reSUmen: Este artículo se propone reconstruir los primeros años de actuación del Consejo Argentino por la Paz, sede local del Consejo Mundial por la Paz, la organización frentista más importante impulsada por el comunismo en el periodo de la Guerra Fría. A través de los itinerarios de los escritores María Rosa Oliver y Alfredo Varela, y del ensayista Ernesto Giudici, figuras clave del Movimiento por la Paz en la Argentina, el artículo analiza la relación entre los intelectuales y las iniciativas comunistas de la segunda posguerra en el contexto del Gobierno de Juan Domingo Perón. palabras clave: Movimiento por la Paz en la Argentina, Guerra Fría, intelectuales. COMMUNIST CULTURE AND COLD WAR: INTELLECTUALS AND THE PEACE MOVEMENT IN ARGENTINA AbstrAct: This paper aims to reconstruct the early action of the Argentine Council for Peace, local headquarters of the World Peace Council, the most important front organization supported by communism during the Cold War period. Through the itineraries of writers María Rosa Oliver * Investigadora del Centro de Documentación en Investigación de la Cultura de Izquierdas en la Argentina (CeDInCI), Universidad Nacional de San Martín. Correo electrónico. apetra@cedinci.org CUADERNOS DE HISTORIA 38 / 2013 Estudios 100 and Alfredo Varela and the essayist Ernesto Giudici, key figures in the Movement for Peace in Argentina, the article analyzes the relationship between intellectuals and communist efforts after World War II, in the context of Juan Domingo Peron’s government. Key words: Movement for Peace in Argentina, Cold War, Intellectuals. Recibido: diciembre 2012 Aceptado: abril 2013 Introducción Lo que el historiador Pascal Ory denominó la “Guerra Fría de los intelectuales comunistas” corresponde al periodo que se abre en 1947 y se cierra en 1956, cuando el cisma provocado por el XX Congreso del Partido Comunista de la Unión Soviética (PCUS) y la invasión a Hungría pongan fin al “ciclo antifascista” del compromiso de los intelectuales con el comunismo1. Aunque en la Argentina la periodización sugerida por Ory exige ser matizada debido a la sobrevida que el peronismo impuso al frente intelectual antifascista hasta 1955, durante este puñado de años el lugar que los intelectuales comunistas ocupaban en el espacio cultural más general así como en el interior del partido se modificó2. Si hasta entonces los comunistas habían logrado ocupar un puesto en el campo cultural debido a la fortaleza que los tópicos antifascistas imprimían a un discurso centrado en la defensa común de la cultura y las tradiciones liberales amenazadas por el carácter reaccionario, clerical e hispanista del gobierno nacido del golpe de 1943 y continuado, según se afirmaba, por su más hábil exponente luego de las elecciones de febrero de 1946, los vaivenes que el partido experimentó en la caracterización del fenómeno peronista a lo largo de toda la década resultaron letales para su permanencia en esa comunidad intelectual antiperonista3. Mientras los comunistas fueron capaces de sostener su vocación antiperonista, el clima de asedio que en todo el mundo soportaban no los alcanzó en todas sus consecuencias. Pero cuando en 1952 el Partido Comunista Argentino (PCA) se lance por breve tiempo a buscar la 1 Sirinelli, Jean-Francois y Pascal Ory, Los intelectuales en Francia. Del caso Dreyfus a nuestros días, Valencia, PUV, 2007, pp. 189 y ss. 2 Sobre los intelectuales argentinos durante el periodo peronista ver Fiorucci, Flavia, Intelectuales y peronismo, 1945-1955, Buenos Aires, Biblos, 2011. 3 Sobre las caracterizaciones del peronismo realizadas por el Partido Comunista Argentino y otras organizaciones de izquierdas ver Altamirano, Carlos, Peronismo y cultura de izquierdas, Buenos Aires, Siglo XXI, 2001, pp. 78 y ss. Adriana Petra Cultura Comunista y Guerra Fría: los inteleCtuales… 101 unidad con el peronismo y, atento a las necesidades impuestas por el escenario internacional y el mandato antiimperialista que organizaba el discurso soviético para América Latina, redefina violentamente tanto la política de alianzas como los términos que gobernaban las interpretaciones comunistas sobre el pasado y las tradiciones ideológicas locales, los intelectuales comunistas abandonarán –no sin desgarros personales– las instituciones culturales que hasta entonces integraban e incluso dirigían (como la Sociedad Argentina de Escritores y el Colegio Libre de Estudios Superiores), provocando el primer gran quiebre del “campo democrático” de la intelectualidad argentina. En este clima de permanente tensión entre el contexto nacional y las demandas externas, los comunistas argentinos se lanzaron a la constitución de la sede local del Movimiento por la Paz, la iniciativa frentista más importante que Moscú promovió una vez desatada la Guerra Fría y en la que los intelectuales jugaron un rol crucial. La escritora María Rosa Oliver (1898-1977), el ensayista Ernesto Giudici (1907-1992) y el periodista y escritor Alfredo Varela (1914- 1984) fueron las figuras más representativas del Movimiento por la Paz en la Argentina. A partir de su actuación este artículo se propone reconstruir el perfil de esta organización durante sus primeros y más intensos años de actividad. La batalla ideológica de posguerra En los dos bloques en que se dividió el mundo cuando se puso fin a la gran alianza creada para derrotar al nazismo, la “batalla ideológica” fue puesta en primer plano, pues en esa forma tan simbólica de la guerra se tenía la certeza de que las ideas constituían eficaces armas de combate. El clima que al finalizar la Segunda Guerra había permitido a los comunistas –sobre todo europeos pero también latinoamericanos– acumular un enorme prestigio y engrosar sus filas con numerosos intelectuales se enrareció hasta volver a arrojarlos a un aislamiento forzoso. A la feroz campaña de demonización y represión que creó la política exterior de Occidente, los comunistas respondieron con un endurecimiento del poder disciplinario a todos los niveles, que en las llamadas “democracias populares” alcanzó niveles patológicos de control y terror4. En algunos casos, como en Francia, el descrédito sostenido del comunismo ante la inteligencia en los años posteriores a 1945 constituye, en palabras de Michel Winock, uno de los “principales misterios de los últimos cuarenta años”. 4 Eley, Geoff, Un mundo que ganar: historia de la izquierda en Europa, 1850-2000, Barcelona, Crítica, 2003, p. 301. CUADERNOS DE HISTORIA 38 / 2013 Estudios 102 Gallina en corral ajeno –el occidente capitalista–, el PC extrema su monolitismo: el catecismo marxista-leninista, el centralismo democrático y el dogma de la infalibilidad staliniana son piezas esenciales en este juego (...) El ardor staliniano fascina a unos tanto como horroriza otros: representa el combate de la disciplina proletaria contra la guerra y el imperialismo. Se desencadena el antinorteamericanismo5. Durante este periodo, la mayor parte de los partidos comunistas en todo el mundo tendieron a reforzar su disciplina interna sobre la resignificación de viejos conceptos. El “internalismo proletario” pasó a designar la más absoluta fidelidad a la URSS, que como nunca antes simbolizó un modelo político y un prodigio económico, cultural, social y científico. El “espíritu de partido” se tradujo en la sumisión total a las direcciones, cuyos hombres adquirieron atributos cuasi sagrados. La “lucha de clases” se impuso a cualquier otro tipo de combate, particularmente en el terreno ideológico, aunque el mandato antiimperialista convirtió a los comunistas en adalidades de la defensa de las culturas nacionales amenazadas por el “cosmopolitismo” y la “degeneración” norteamericanas6. En el movimiento comunista internacional se acentuó la tendencia a considerar la política en términos policiales y de espionaje, al mismo tiempo que la intervención de la institución partidaria en todos los campos de la producción artística y científica adoptó rasgos de verdadera inquisición7. Las codificaciones soviéticas sobre el arte, la literatura, la filosofía y la ciencia que, por boca de Andrei Zdhanov, circularon en la prensa comunista de todo el mundo, tuvieron un efecto acumulativo para el desprestigio que los comunistas estaban padeciendo por efecto de las acusaciones contra Tito en Yugoslavia, los juicios a Rajk y Kostov en Hungría y la cada vez más acentuada certeza de que en la URSS existían campos de trabajos forzados. Con una repercusión internacional inmediata, en 1950 desde las páginas de Les Temps Modernes, Jean Paul Sartre y Maurice Merleau Ponty afirmaban estar convencidos de la existencia de tales campos, calculando que el número probable de detenidos era de unos diez a quince millones de personas8. Pero apenas dos años después, desatada la guerra de Corea, el apoyo de Sartre al Movimiento por la Paz 5 Winock, Michel, “El siglo de oro de los intelectuales”, Debats, Valencia, junio de 1986, n° 16, pp. 48-49. 6 Courtois, Stéphan y Marc Lazar, Histoire du Parti communiste français, Paris, PUF, 2000, p. 273. 7 Liebner, Gerardo, Camaradas y Compañeros. Una historia política y social de los comunistas del Uruguay, Montevideo, Trilce, 2011, p. 115. 8 Caute, David, El comunismo y los intelectuales franceses (1914-1966), Oikos-Tau, Barcelona, 1968, p. 217. Adriana Petra Cultura Comunista y Guerra Fría: los inteleCtuales… 103 promovido por los comunistas pondrá fin a aquel consenso, así como a una amistad de casi 20 años9. En una reunión secreta de los partidos comunistas de la URSS, Yugoslavia, Polonia, Hungría, Checoslovaquia, Rumania, Bulgaria, Francia e Italia, celebrada en setiembre de 1947 en Polonia, los soviéticos oficializaron al mundo, por la voz de su delegado Andréi Zhdánov, la ruptura de la gran alianza nacida de la guerra. El que luego será popularmente conocido como el “Informe Zhdánov” –documento fundamental de la ideología comunista para la Guerra Fría– explicaba que, en adelante, el mundo estaría divido en dos bloques: de un lado, el campo imperialista y antidemocrático, dominado por los Estados Unidos; del otro, el campo antiimperialista, democrático y defensor de la paz, hegemonizado por la URSS. Para los soviéticos, la doctrina Truman y la puesta en marcha del Plan Marshall demostraban que los Estados Unidos albergaban una voluntad expansionista, agresiva y belicista que amenazaba la existencia de la URSS, pero también, mediante la complicidad de las socialdemocracias locales, al movimiento obrero de todos los países, particularmente el de las viejas potencias europeas antes aliadas y ahora sometidas a la política norteamericana. La URSS, por el contrario, al encarnar un sistema social nuevo y superior reflejaba en su política exterior “las esperanzas de toda la humanidad progresista que aspira a una paz durable”10. El “campo democrático” quedará entonces constituido, ante todo, por la URSS y los países del Este Europeo, incluida Finlandia, además de algunos Estados “simpatizantes” en Asia y Oriente Medio (Indonesia, Vietnam, India, Egipto y Siria). Pero también se beneficiará, además de su componente estatal, del apoyo del “movimiento obrero y democrático en todos los países”, de los “movimientos de liberación nacional en los países coloniales” y de “todas las fuerzas democráticas y progresistas del mundo”. En este contexto, la tarea principal de los partidos comunistas será la lucha por la paz –que sustituye el combate por la revolución–, la resistencia a los planes de expansión y dominación imperialista en todos los terrenos y, particularmente en los grandes países occidentales, la defensa de la independencia nacional y la soberanía de cada país11. La principal consecuencia política de la Guerra Fría constitió, en efecto, en polarizar al mundo en dos campos. Europa se dividió en régimenes pro y 9 Sobre la ruptura entre Sartre y Marleau-Ponty consultar “Sartre y Merleau-Ponty. Las cartas de una ruptura”, Revista de Occidente, n° 160, Madrid, septiembre de 1994, pp. 5-36. 10 Courtois y Lazar, op. cit., p. 268. 11 Marcou, Lilly, El movimiento comunista internacional desde 1945, Madrid, Siglo XXI, 1981, pp. 10-11. CUADERNOS DE HISTORIA 38 / 2013 Estudios 104 anticomunistas homogénos. Los comunistas fueron expulsados de los gobiernos donde tenían alguna participación, como en Francia e Italia, para convertirse, en palabras de Hobsbawm, en “parias políticos permanentes”. Los régimenes comunistas hicieron lo propio expulsando a los no comunistas de las democracias populares y convirtiéndolas en Estados sometidos a la dictadura de los partidos comunistas. La Kominterm fue disuelta para ser reemplazada por la Oficina de Información de los Partidos Comunistas (Kominform), un organismo “limitado y eurocéntrico” encargado de hacer circular la información entre los partidos comunistas en el poder, el PCF y el PCI12. La Kominform estableció, sobre la más absoluta ortodoxia, las líneas maestras de la estrategia, la actividad, la reflexión y la propaganda del comunismo internacional hasta su disolución en abril de 1956. Su órgano de prensa Por una Paz duradera, por una democracia popular, cuya redacción permanente se asentó primero en Belgrado y luego en Bucarest, se editaba en varios idiomas, entre ellos el español, y se constituyó en la única tribuna internacional del movimiento comunista y la única plataforma de enlace de los partidos comunistas, razón por la cual su carácter fue esencialmente ideológico y político. A partir de su tercera reunión celebra en Matra, Hungría, en noviembre de 1949, la Kominform estableció que la “lucha por la paz” sería la estrategia política dominante del movimiento comunista internacional. Con este objetivo, prácticamente se transformó en el órgano directivo del Movimiento por la Paz, ampliando su esfera de influencia hacia grandes sectores de la opinión pública, en un doble esfuerzo por recuperar la influencia en las organizaciones de masas y salir de su aislamiento13. Los comunistas y la paz Cuando se celebre en la martirizada ciudad polaca de Wroclaw el Congreso Mundial de la Paz, Moscú habrá dado el primer paso en lo que fue su más exitosa iniciativa frentista y su única estructura internacionalista por las siguientes décadas. Apelando a un asunto ampliamente emocional, los comunistas volvieron a convocar a los intelectuales a cumplir un papel principal en la cruzada contra una nueva guerra, el peligro atómico y la defensa de la URSS, ahora amenazada, afirmaban, por la vocación expansionista del imperialismo norteamericano. Reavivando los tópicos del antifascismo, el movimiento pacifista se valió tanto 12 Hobsbawm, Eric, Historia del siglo XX, Buenos Aires, Crítica, 2011, p. 242. 13 Cfr. Marcou, op. cit., Marcou, La Kominform, Madrid, Villalar, 1978 y Claudín, Fernando, La crisis del movimiento comunista. De la Komintern al Kominform, Madrid, Ruedo Ibérico, 1970. Adriana Petra Cultura Comunista y Guerra Fría: los inteleCtuales… 105 de una sensibilidad preexistente como de sus estructuras de participación. Los encuentros, las conferencias, los petitorios se multiplicaron por todos los países y muchos intelectuales occidentales estuvieron dispuestos a olvidar las purgas y los campos de trabajo para poner su nombre y prestigio a disposición de la cruzada pacifista. En el verano de 1948, la ciudad polaca de Wroclaw, todavía en ruinas, recibía a cientos de intelectuales venidos de 45 países para celebrar el Congreso Mundial de Intelectuales por la Paz. En el mes de diciembre, Budapest será el escenario del segundo congreso de la Federación Democrática Internacional de Mujeres, que reunió a más de 80 millones de mujeres de 56 países bajo el lema “no enviaremos jamás a nuestros hijos a una guerra contra la Unión Soviética”. Tres meses antes, la capital húngara había recibido a otros tantos millones de jóvenes que se reunieron en el Congreso de la Federación Mundial de la Juventud Democrática. Estos encuentros, estratégicamente celebrados en las recién estrenadas democracias populares, fueron el primer eslabón de un amplio y vasto movimiento que aglutinó a miles de hombres y mujeres de todo el mundo tras las banderas de la defensa de la paz y la cultura contra las amenazas del “nuevo fascismo” norteamericano. Calificado desde un principio por la prensa liberal de ser una “fachada comunista” dispuesta para explotar las buenas intenciones de intelectuales incautos, lo cierto es que el Movimiento por la Paz despertó la adhesión de escritores, científicos y artistas de gran prestigio y fue la iniciativa cultural más exitosa impulsada por la URSS en los años de la Guerra Fría. Su repercusión obligó a los intelectuales no alineados con el bloque soviético a crear, casi siempre por reacción, una serie de instituciones y movimiento análogos que se propusieron defender los valores de la libertad y la democracia contra todos los “totalitarismos”, fueran de izquierda o de derecha14. El movimiento atlantista tuvo una suerte dispar y debió lidiar, al menos durante sus primeros años, con el estigma del anticomunismo en los medios intelectuales. En aquellos años, el comunismo ya gozaba de un largo camino transitado en relación con la organización de iniciativas frentistas en el terreno de la cultura. El movimiento antifascista fue, en todo el mundo, la puerta de entrada de cientos de intelectuales al comunismo y la base de una perdurable memoria sobre su deber en las horas críticas. La lucha por la paz reavivaba aquellos años al convocar su responsabilidad en la defensa de la cultura nuevamente amenazada por las 14 Sobre las mutaciones del término “totalitarismo” y su identificación, a partir de los años inmediatos de la segunda posguerra, con el anticomunismo ver Traverso, Enzo, El Totalitarismo, Buenos Aires, Eudeba, 2001. CUADERNOS DE HISTORIA 38 / 2013 Estudios 106 fuerzas oscuras de un “fascismo” resucitado bajo la forma de la degeneración y el guerrerismo imperialista. Pocos podrían dudar, ahora como entonces, de que la presencia en Wroclaw de un octogenario Julien Benda −impelido a aplaudir el nombre de Stalin cada vez que era mencionado, y esto ocurría cada pocos minutos− pueda reducirse a un simple engaño o desconocimiento de las razones tácticas que llevaban a los soviéticos a convocar nuevamente los servicios de apoyo de los intelectuales occidentales15. En realidad, aun bajo la virulencia exasperada del discurso comunista de Guerra Fría, fueron muchos los que estuvieron dispuestos a conceder que los Estados Unidos preparaba un ataque a la URSS y se alistaron a defenderla con su nombre y su prestigio. En abril de 1949, cuando se realizó el Primer Congreso Mundial de Partidarios de la Paz en las ciudades de Praga y París, acudieron a la cita más de 2.500 delegados de todo el mundo y los discursos oficiales afirmaron que se habían recogido más de 500 millones de firmas de adhesión. La paloma de la paz pintada por Pablo Picasso se reprodujo en miles de afiches y en el lapso de pocos meses se convirtió en un ícono de dimensiones planetarias. La efectividad de la apelación pacifista tuvo en Jean Paul Sartre su más preciado reconocimiento. Así, mientras en el congreso de 1948 los soviéticos se referían a él como un “chacal” servidor de Wall Street y el existencialismo era considerado el epítome filosófico de la decadencia y la degeneración burguesa; cuatro años después, Sartre se convertía en el más descollante orador del Congreso Mundial de los Pueblos por la Paz celebrado en Viena en 1952. Intelectuales comunistas de todo el mundo, incluido los soviéticos, olvidaron sus recientes insultos y colmaron de aplausos al flamante compañero de viaje. En efecto, bajo la advocación moralmente irreprochable de la defensa de la paz, el movimiento comunista internacional se propuso revitalizar el “compañerismo de viaje” entre los intelectuales occidentales. Para ello apeló a la capacidad movilizadora de organizaciones unitarias creadas en la inmediata posguerra, como la Federación Democrática Internacional de Mujeres, la Federación Mundial de Trabajadores Científicos y la Federación Mundial de la Juventud Democrática. De acuerdo a la nueva estrategia de organización corporativa de la actividad intelectual, promovió la participación de los comunistas en diversos grupos profesionales, o directamente los creó16. Todos ellos confluyeron en el Movimiento por la Paz, 15 Caute, David, Compañeros de viaje. Una posdata a la ilustración, México, Grijalbo, 1973. 16 Sobre la profesionalización del espacio intelectual comunista luego de la Segunda Guerra Mundial ver Sapiro, Gisèle, “Formes et structures de l’engagement des écrivains communistes en France. De la ‘drôle de guerre’ à la Guerre Froide”, Sociétés et Représentations, n° 15, París, 2003, pp. 155-176. Para el caso argentino ver Petra, Adriana, “Intelectuales y política en el Adriana Petra Cultura Comunista y Guerra Fría: los inteleCtuales… 107 que aunque contaba con la representación de sectores obreros, puso en primera fila a los intelectuales. La palabra autorizada y la capacidad legitimadora de las “personalidades” de la cultura fueron dotadas de un alto valor simbólico. Como afirmaba el incansable Ilya Ehrenburg a propósito de Wroclaw: “En la ciencia, en el arte, no decide únicamente la estadística. El quid no está en el número de delegados, sino en el peso de cada uno de ellos”17. La idea de que la cultura se hallaba “en peligro” articuló el lugar primordial que se le concedió en el discurso comunista, embarcado en la certeza de que en el “frente ideológico” se hallaba la madre de todas las batallas. El sentido de palabras hasta entonces estabilizado en la común batalla contra el nazismo se convirtió en objeto de una constante disputa: paz, democracia, libertad, cultura, pasaron a designar cuestiones distintas, y unos y otros se acusaban de pervertir un sentido juzgado verdadero. En la retórica comunista, los enemigos de la cultura se presentaban con nuevos y sutiles ropajes, aunque en esencia fueron los mismos que apenas ayer habían martirizado el mundo: el fascismo y la guerra. La idea de que los Estados Unidos representaban un nuevo tipo de fascismo fue central en el discurso comunista de los años fríos, pues facilitó operar sobre una sensibilidad preexistente. En la nueva situación, los intelectuales comunistas debían convertirse, para usar la fórmula de poeta Louis Aragon, en “médicos de las palabras”. El enemigo común de nuestras patrias, ha sido abatido, pero su patrimonio no se ha perdido para todo el mundo. Ya no tiene la traza despreciable de los ejércitos alemanes, no se presenta más con el franco rostro del racismo hitleriano, aun no tiene hornos crematorios. Hay que saber reconocerlo, sé que vosotros lo reconoceís. Pero, como en 1935, no faltarán personas que nos digan que exageramos, que inventamos peligros imaginarios, y que la cultura no está en peligro (...) La cultura está en peligro, porque si por el momento no son los nazis de ayer quienes la atacan, estos han encontrado un relevo entre aquellos que ayer los combatían, hombres que han convertido en realidad el sueño monstruoso de volver las armas de la libertad contra los combatientes de la libertad. Para esto, para esta inversión de los valores, para hacer aceptar a los pueblos esta negación injusta de la gran fraternidad antifascista, no bastan la bomba atómica y la opresión de clase, necesitan inventar nuevos pretextos, mitos renovados, y enmascarar su propaganda con grandes principios que desvían a los pueblos. Necesitan la confusión del lenguaje y la perversión de las palabras. Para ello, comunismo argentino. Estructuras de participación y ecos locales de la Guerra Fría (1945-1950), en Anuario IEHS, nº 27, Buenos Aires, Universidad Nacional del Centro (en prensa). 17 “Ehrenburg y el Congreso de Wroclaw”, Orientación, 6 de octubre de 1948. CUADERNOS DE HISTORIA 38 / 2013 Estudios 108 para hacer posible la guerra, deben librar un combate decisivo contra el plan de la cultura. Por ello ponen la cultura en peligro (...) Hemos aprendido en la hora de peligro a manejar las palabras para ser entendidos por todos, y para el bien y exaltación de la patria. Debemos vigilar que no lleguen a ser las armas de los charlatanes, cuyos juegos solo pueden facilitar la confusión del pensamiento y agravar el peligro que se cierne sobre la cultura, facilitando así el asesinato de la paz (...) Nuestros pueblos y los hombres que son sus representante en la cultura, tienen el deber de exaltar los valores nacionales de nuestros pueblos, de levantar la barrera al monstruo que renace, cuyas dos cabezas son el fascismo y la guerra, hoy como ayer18. El carácter internacionalista del Movimiento por la Paz se limitó solo a su estructura organizativa, dado que el discurso que lo contenía fue de un marcado tono nacional, de acuerdo con la nueva orientación que desde mediados de 1948 Stalin y la Kominform señalaron para los países dominados por el imperialismo norteamericano. La consigna –explica Gerardo Liebner– era apoderarse de las banderas de lo nacional y la democracia que las burguesías locales habían abandonado por su subordinación a los Estados Unidos. Para los soviéticos, era un mandato valedero tanto para los países “semicoloniales”, para las colonias que luchaban por independizarse, como para los países de Europa occidental que, aunque mantenían imperios coloniales propios, se encontraban igualmente sometidos a los instrumentos económicos, militares y culturales de la dominación imperialista norteamericana19. La vinculación de la lucha por la paz con la reivindicación de las “mejores tradiciones nacionales” tuvo efectos diferentes según se considere el espacio de la cultura o de la política. Si en este último aspecto les permitió a los intelectuales comunistas latinoamericanos organizar un discurso de reivindicación de la democracia y defensa de las libertades públicas que pretendía continuar con la herencia liberal y racionalista del siglo XIX (la defensa de la legalidad democrática contra el intervencionismo norteamericano y los dictadores o caudillos que lo favorecían), en el caso de la cultura dio lugar a una compleja tarea de revalorización y descubrimiento de una dimensión “nacional y popular” que era ajena a las direcciones culturales dominantes de esa misma tradición liberal. Las permanentes discusiones sobre la implementación de un modelo de “realismo socialista” adaptado a cada realidad nacional fue uno de los ecos inmediatos, en el terreno de la creación artística, del impulso nacionalista del discurso comunista de la Guerra Fría. Lo mismo puede decir de la reconsideración de la herencia liberal que, en el caso del 18 Louis Aragon “La cultura en peligro”, Orientación, 28 de julio de 1948. 19 Liebner, op. cit., p. 142. Adriana Petra Cultura Comunista y Guerra Fría: los inteleCtuales… 109 comunismo argentino, constituía un elemento central de su cultura política desde la década del 3020. Luego de la caída del gobierno de Perón en 1955, la cuestión nacional se convirtió en un elemento central de las discusiones intelectuales de la izquierda argentina, en paralelo con una impugnación generalizada de las elites liberales, incluyendo en estas a los socialistas y los comunistas. Los intelectuales y la paz: el caso de María Rosa Oliver El Movimiento por la Paz organizó las estructuras del compromiso de los intelectuales con el comunismo durante décadas, adoptando diversos contenidos de acuerdo a la coyuntura internacional y las necesidad de la política exterior soviética: la guerra de Corea, la intervención a Guatemala, el Canal de Suez, la cuestión colonial, el apoyo a los movimientos de liberación nacional, la intervención norteamericana en Cuba… En los países donde existían partidos comunistas fuertes, muchos intelectuales no comunistas decidieron prestarle su apoyo. El caso de Sartre no fue el único. Católicos como Martín Chauffier estuvieron dispuestos a olvidar las ejecuciones y los campos de trabajo que hasta la víspera denunciaron, en la absoluta seguridad de que el peligro de una nueva guerra era responsabilidad de las potencias occidentales. Particularmente en sus primeros años, cuando logró atraer con más éxito a personalidades fuera del mundo comunista, el Movimiento por la Paz fue una organización apoyada en “la amplitud, la fe vibrante y la rigidez de la ciudadela comunista”, exagerando por contraste la dispersión de los intelectuales no comunistas. El movimiento atlantista, afirma Pascal Ory refiriéndose a Francia, no será nunca una propuesta capaz de hacer frente simétricamente al marxismo-leninismo: “sólo se construye con retraso, y respondiendo a una lógica principalmente negativa, la del rechazo del modelo estalinista”21. En la Argentina el éxito del movimiento pacifista impulsado por los comunistas y, en contraste, el fracaso de las organizaciones del frente occidental, no fue tal. Aunque el Movimiento por la Paz en el país se organizó con una ventaja de seis años, no tuvo eco ni arraigo en el campo de la cultura, pues si, como afirmaba Ehrenburg, en este terreno contaba más el nombre que el número, los comunistas argentinos consiguieron miles de firmas pero casi ninguna 20 Sobre las discusiones sobre la tradición cultural entre los intelectuales comunistas argentinos en este periodo ver Petra, Adriana, “Cosmopolitismo y nación. Los intelectuales comunistas argentinos en tiempos de la Guerra Fría (1947-1956), Contemporánea. Historia y Problemas del siglo XX, n° 1, Montevideo, 2010, pp. 51-73. 21 Sirinelli y Ory, op. cit., p. 205. CUADERNOS DE HISTORIA 38 / 2013 Estudios 110 prestigiosa y su capacidad de convocatoria fue limitada a ciertas figuras o espacios profesionales, como fue el caso del relativo éxito conquistado entre los médicos a raíz de la campaña contra la guerra bacteriológica. Así las cosas, el movimiento quedó constreñido a la esfera de influencia del partido, con algunas pocas excepciones, como la del filósofo Carlos Astrada, quien en el marco del acercamiento al peronismo de 1952 prestó su apoyo al llamado pacifista de los comunistas y permaneció como un particular “compañero de ruta” hasta los primeros años de la década del 60. El recibimiento de Astrada a la familia del compañerismo comunista enterró las ataques furiosos que lo habían tenido como blanco en los años precedentes, en un movimiento que replicaba el caso Sartre y que los comunistas argentinos se encargaron de resaltar, buscando sumar prestigio por una doble acumulación de nombres. Creemos que en ese rumbo puede encontrarse, efectivamente, la única salvación, la única vitalización de la cultura argentina, y creemos también que dicho gesto del profesor Astrada no puede ser computado como una actitud exclusivamente personal. Por sobre los valores individuales de quien lo asume gravita un proceso de polarización mundial de la conciencia que la política prepotente del imperialismo yanqui está generando en todo el mundo. El caso Sartre ha dado a dicho proceso una calidad internacional. El caso Astrada le asigna una resonancia local que lo esclarece y lo estimula. En este rumbo político nos parece que puede –y debe– establecerse una acción común entre todos cuantos aspiran a preservar la paz del mundo y la soberanía de los pueblos22. La “intelectualidad democrática” argentina no acudió al llamado y, por el contrario, polarizó su conciencia del lado de las posiciones del frente cultural occidental, apoyando la constitución en el país del Congreso por la Libertad de la Cultura, una organización de intelectuales no comunistas y anticomunistas creada en Berlín en junio de 1950 bajo los auspicios de Arthur Koestler, Denis de Rougemont, Ignazio Silone, James Burnham, Germán Arciniegas, Guido Piovenne, Arthur Schlesinger, Upton Sinclair y Tennessee Williams, entre otros23. Bajo el paraguas aglutinador del antitotalitarismo, la sede argentina del Congreso, fundada en diciembre de 1955, acogió a los más prestigiosos intelectuales del 22 “El caso Astrada”, en Cuadernos de Cultura, n° 9/10, Buenos Aires, enero de 1953. Ver también el reportaje a Carlos Astrada publicado en Propósitos, Buenos Aires, 11 de diciembre de 1952. 23 Sobre el Congreso por la Libertad de la Cultura se puede consultar los trabajos de Coleman, Peter, The Liberal Conspiracy. The Congress for Cultural Freedom and the Struggle for the Mind of Postwar Europe. New York, The Free Press, 1989, y Stnor Saunders, Frances, La CIA y la Guerra Fría Cultural. Madrid, Debate, 2001. Adriana Petra Cultura Comunista y Guerra Fría: los inteleCtuales… 111 país, las figuras más importantes de la universidad postperonista, además de políticos provenientes de diferentes partidos “progresistas”, particularmente los socialistas, pero también los radicales, los demoprogresistas y los demócratas cristianos. Con el apoyo clave de Victoria Ocampo y la revista Sur, en torno a este espacio se creó un densa red de revistas, editoriales y encuentros a escala latinoamericana, que contaron con la participación de personalidades de enorme prestigio y convocatoria que en no pocas ocasiones “empequeñecían” a los raleados contingentes de intelectuales comunistas amantes de la paz24. Esta situación le otorgó una importancia estratégica a la figura de María Rosa Oliver, pieza clave del Movimiento por la Paz en la Argentina 25. Para los comunistas, Oliver representaba un doble logro: era una intelectual burguesa que, desertando de sus compromisos de clase, ponía su prestigio al servicio de una causa universal y humanitaria, y era, al mismo tiempo, una eficaz organizadora cultural capaz de disponer de su red de relaciones para la conformación de iniciativas frentistas a escala continental. El partido no dejó de cortejarla y explotar públicamente su adhesión en cuanto encuentro nacional o internacional se realizara, compensando el creciente malestar que estas compañías comunistas despertaban entre sus viejos amigos y colegas liberales. El punto culminante de este sistema de incorporación/exclusión se produjo cuando recibió el Premio Lenin de la Paz en 1958, distinción que bajo el nombre de Premio Stalin, habían recibo Pablo Picasso, Pablo Neruda, Jorge Amado, Pierre Cot, Paul Robenson, Howar Fast, entre muchos otros escritores y artistas26. Mientras los comunistas le organizaron un fastuoso homenaje en la 24 Sobre el Congreso por la Libertad de la Cultura en Argentina ver Janello, Karina, Intelectuales, revistas, redes editoriales y Guerra Fría. El Congreso por la Libertad de la Cultura en Argentina y América Latina, Buenos Aires, Tesis de Maestría inédita, 2011. 25 Los datos biográficos de María Rosa Oliver han sido reconstruidos en base a sus memorias publicadas con el título Mi fe es el hombre, edición acompañada de un cuidado estudio introductorio de Álvaro Fernández Bravo (Buenos Aires, Ediciones de la Biblioteca Nacional, 2008), Clementi, Hebe, María Rosa Oliver, Buenos Aires, Planeta, 1992, y la entrada “María Rosa Oliver” en Tarcus, Horacio (Dir.), Diccionario Biográfico de la Izquierda Argentina, Buenos Aires, Emecé, 2007, pp. 464-465. 26 El Premio Stalin “Por la consolidación de la Paz entre los pueblos” (luego premio Lenin) fue instituido por el Presidium del Soviet Supremo en diciembre de 1949 con motivo del 70º aniversario de Stalin. Anualmente se otorgaban premios en dos categorías: para ciudadanos de la URSS (técnicos, científicos y escritores y artistas) y para personalidades intelectuales de todo el mundo. El jurado de este premio estaba constituido por un Comité Internacional presidido por Dimitrij Skobelzin (Universidad de Moscú), acompañado en la vicepresidencia por el escritor chino Kuo Mo-jo y el poeta y escritor francés Louis Aragon. El resto de los integrantes eran: Martin Anderson Nexo (escritor danés), John Bernal (profesor de la Universidad de Londres), Jan Dembrowski (profesor de la Universidad de Lodz), Bernhard Kellerman (escritor RDA), CUADERNOS DE HISTORIA 38 / 2013 Estudios 112 Federación de Entidades Gallegas, desde las páginas de la revista Sur se hacía referencia, no sin ironía, al jugoso monto del premio (25.000 dólares), al mismo tiempo que se señalaba la incoherencia de los métodos soviéticos para lograr los fines pacifistas que afirmaban defender27. Poco tiempo después, luego de una agria polémica epistolar con Victoria Ocampo, Oliver abandonará la revista a la que había pertenecido por casi 30 años. María Rosa Oliver provenía de una familia tradicional de la alta burguesía porteña. A los 10 años, un ataque de polio la dejó postrada para siempre y desde entonces deberá moverse con la ayuda de una silla de ruedas. La imposibilidad física nunca fue un impedimento para la que con los años firmará, para el disgusto familiar, sus tarjetas navideñas como “Rosita, la roja”. Aún antes de la fundación de la revista Sur, de la que será integrante del comité de redacción desde su primer número y hasta 1958, había trabado amistad con tres hombres que serán determinantes en la formación de una “conciencia americanista” donde la cultura ocupa el lugar de sintetizadora de la heterogeneidad original de la región y sus múltiples tradiciones: el mexicano Alfonso Reyes, el dominicano Pedro Henríquez Ureña y el escritor norteamericano Waldo Frank. Como Pedro Henríquez Ureña, con quien trabó una gran amistad que se extenderá por todo el largo exilio del escritor caribeño en la Argentina, unirá el humanismo con el antiimperialismo y a estos con la simpatía hacia el socialismo y la Unión Soviética, tal vez porque como aquel conocía de primera mano los Estados Unidos y había vivido en carne propia los límites estrechos de la política de buena vecindad que preludió el enfrentamiento de la Guerra Fría. Con Ureña y uno de sus más reconocidos discípulos, Alfonso Reyes, compartirá también una enorme confianza en las capacidades de la inteligencia americana y, como ambos, se abocó febrilmente a la construcción de redes intelectuales, y asumió para sí el rol de mediadora entre espacios culturales y políticos diversos. El desprecio por los intelectuales que adoptaban una actitud contemplativa y prescindían de la responsabilidad cívica a la que su calidad de miembros de Luneheto Marguesti (profesor de la Universidad de Padua), Michael Savoveanu (escritor rumano), Alexander Fadeivev (escritor y secretario de la Unión de Escritores Soviéticos), Illya Ehrenburg y Pablo Neruda. También existía el Premio Internacional de la Paz, otorgado por el Consejo Mundial de la Paz a personalidades sobresalientes en la lucha por la paz, instituido en 1950. Este otorgaba dos millones de francos franceses (el equivalente al Premio Nobel) y los primeros en recibirlo fueron Pablo Neruda (por su poema “Que despierte el leñador), Pablo Piccaso (por su paloma de la paz) y el cantante estadounidense Paul Robenson. Cfr. Schidlowsky, David, Neruda y su tiempo. Las furias y las penas, vol. 2, Santiago de Chile, RIL, 2008, p. 808. 27 “Premios literarios argentinos, el Premio Lenin”, Sur, nº 250, Buenos Aires, enero y febrero de 1958, pp. 104. Adriana Petra Cultura Comunista y Guerra Fría: los inteleCtuales… 113 una elite espiritual les obligaba, la acompañará en diversos momentos de su itinerario, incluso cuando deba erigirlo en contra de los que, hasta ayer amigos y casi hermanos, no la secunden en su cruzada por la paz comunista y, más tarde, en su apuesta por el maoísmo y la Revolución cubana. Este conjunto de elementos políticos y culturales conformaron una visión sobre sí misma y sobre su función como escritora que el estrecho vínculo con Waldo Frank reforzó hacia un mayor compromiso con la causa soviética, aunque más tarde esta adhesión siga caminos inversos28. En efecto, mientras Frank toma distancia de la URSS y del Partido Comunista norteamericano luego de los procesos de Moscú, la escritora argentina se involucrará cada vez más en la causa soviética desde fines de la década siguiente. Como lo fue para casi toda una generación de intelectuales argentinos, el evento catalizador de su acercamiento a la vida política fue la Guerra Civil española. De su participación en las organizaciones antifascistas (Unión de Mujeres Argentinas, Comisión Argentina de Ayuda a los Intelectuales Españoles) y, luego de la invasión alemana a la URSS, ayudistas (Junta por la Victoria), extraerá una importante experiencia organizativa y, por supuesto, una red de vínculos perdurables, entre los que no faltarán comunistas célebres como Pablo Neruda y Jorge Amado. Para esa época, sin embargo, su relación con el comunismo era distante, sobre todo por el disgusto estético e intelectual que le producía la “aridez de espíritu” de los camaradas locales, a quienes, afirmaba, no podía escuchar sin experimentar la irremediable sensación de “estar mascando corcho”29. Entre 1942 y 1945, Oliver trabajó como asesora del departamento de Asuntos Culturales de la Oficina Coordinadora de Asuntos Interamericanos, creada en 1940 como parte de la política de “buena vecindad” de la administración del presidente Theodor Roosevelt. Este organismo estaba dirigido por Nelson Rockefeller y trabajaba bajo la órbita del vicepresidente de la nación, Henry Wallace. Nuevamente, sus dotes para la “public relations” ampliaron su campo de acción y le granjearon amistades perdurables, empezando por el propio Wallace, un granjero oriundo de Iowa que siendo vicepresidente de los Estados Unidos se convirtió en el más importante y visible compañero de viaje de la URSS30. Pero lo decisivo de esta experiencia fue que le puso en evidencia que la política 28 Sobre la relación de Waldo Frank con la Argentina ver Tarcus, Horacio, Mariátegui en la Argentina o las políticas culturales de Samuel Glusberg, Buenos Aires, El Cielo por Asalto, 2001. 29 Oliver, op. cit., p. 68. 30 Caute, 1973, op. cit., pp. 371-375. CUADERNOS DE HISTORIA 38 / 2013 Estudios 114 exterior norteamericana estaba lejos de los fines altruistas y desinteresados que imaginaba. Por primera vez toma conciencia de que las causas que defiende pueden no ser “químicamente puras”, descubrimiento que no le basta para sustraer su empeño en apoyarlas (...) sé también que en las causas más dignas de ser defendidas se infiltran elementos espurios y que en las guerras más que en las revoluciones gravitan factores innominables. Aceptar la existencia de esos elementos no significa ponerse a su servicio, siempre que admitamos el deber de combatirlos luego y estemos dispuestos a cumplir esa etapa después de la cual se iniciará otra. Y después otra y así sucesivamente e infinitamente. Porque cada etapa es un paso adelante que el hombre da en su lucha por sobrevivir y realizarse. Detener esa marcha es retroceder o sucumbir. Me es imprescindible recordar estos lugares comunes ante cada evidencia de que la causa que defiendo no es químicamente pura31. Pero además, el despliegue técnico y el “mercantilismo” exacerbado le producen incomodidad y temor. Y aunque su disgusto por la producción en serie y la inclinación por lo sintético del american way of life no dejaba de tener un tono de original aristocratismo, aún así: “Me rebelaba ante el hecho, cada vez más obvio, de que las cosas no eran fabricadas para servir al hombre sino para servirse de él32. Con esta convicción retornó a Buenos Aires. En 1948 participó de Nueva Gaceta33, integrando su consejo de redacción y un año después su firma apareció en Orientación, apoyando, mediante su participación en la Asociación de Amigas de la Paz, la constitución del Comité Argentino por la Paz, cuyo secretariado comenzará a reunirse en su casa de la calle Guido, en el barrio porteño de Recoleta34. En julio de 1951 integró la presidencia de la III Conferencia Nacional por la Paz realizada en Mendoza. Desde entonces asiste como delegada de los intelectuales argentinos a los sucesivos congresos pacifistas (Varsovia, 31 Oliver, op. cit., p. 156. 32 Ibídem, p. 323. 33 Revista que publicó cuatro números entre octubre y noviembre de 1949. Estaba dirigida por el intelectual comunista Héctor P. Agosti, Enrique Policastro y Roger Plá. Tomaba su nombre de la publicación de la Asociación de Intelectuales, Artistas, Periodistas y Escritores (AIAPE), la más importante iniciativa antifascista en el terreno de la cultura que actuó entre 1935 y 1943, cuando fue clausurada por el gobierno de facto luego del golpe de Estado de 1943. 34 Orientación fue un importante seminario comunista que apareció entre 1935 y 1943, cuando fue clausurado en el mismo contexto que Nueva Gaceta. Volvió a publicarse entre 1945 y 1950 bajo la dirección de Ernesto Giudici, cuando fue clausurado nuevamente, esta vez de forma definitiva. Adriana Petra Cultura Comunista y Guerra Fría: los inteleCtuales… 115 Viena, Roma, Helsinki, Moscú…) y ocupa un puesto clave en la organización del Congreso Continental de la Paz celebrado en Montevideo en 1952 y en el Congreso Continental de la Cultura que reunió en Santiago de Chile, en junio de 1953, a una constelación de grandes escritores y artistas latinoamericanos 35. Las impresiones de estos encuentros y viajes tomaban la forma de esperanzados artículos que publicaba en el semanario Propósitos, dirigido por el escritor y director del Teatro del Pueblo, Leónidas Barletta. Desde su creación en 1951, dirigió Por la Paz, órgano de la Consejo Argentino por la Paz, luego reemplazado por Vocero de la Paz. Durante su estadía en el Congreso de Viena, fue invitada por las autoridades soviéticas a recorrer el mundo comunista. María Rosa celebró la Navidad de 1952 en Moscú, para luego partir a China, su próxima escala. El impacto que le produce esta visita será determinante y de algún modo marcará su alejamiento del mundo comunista. La liaision pasionelle que la unió a la patria del socialismo durante más de 20 años tomó la forma del descubrimiento chino, como sucederá con muchos compañeros de ruta en todo el mundo36. La clave organizativa: el caso de Ernesto Guidici Si María Rosa Oliver se convirtió en el modelo del compromiso intelectual público que los comunistas deseaban transmitir (alguien capaz de sobreponerse a su origen de clase e incluso romper con sus viejas amistades en nombre de una causa superior), fue el trabajo de un viejo camarada formado en el espíritu antiimperialista de los 20 el que dotó al movimiento pacifista de una organización perdurable. En efecto, Ernesto Giudici era tal vez el intelectual comunista mejor preparado para articular la fuerza emocional de la convocatoria antibelicista con un discurso antiimperialista propiamente antinorteamericano. Figura destacada del ala antiimperialista del movimiento reformista, Giudici se formó bajo la tutela intelectual de José Carlos Mariátegui, José Vasconcelos y José Ingenieros, desarrollando desde su juventud una postura política latinoamericanista y una interpretación humanista del marxismo. Como muchos otros intelectuales comunistas argentinos, Giudici vio truncada su carrera universitaria debido a 35 Sobre algunos aspectos del Congreso Continental de la Cultura ver Germán Alburquerque, La trinchera letrada. Intelectuales latinoamericanos y guerra fría. Santiago de Chile, Ariadna, 2011. 36 María Rosa Oliver dejó escritas sus impresiones sobre China en el libro Los que sabemos hablamos... Testimonios sobre la China de hoy, escrito en coautoría con Norberto Frontini, Buenos Aires, Botella al Mar, 1955. CUADERNOS DE HISTORIA 38 / 2013 Estudios 116 su militancia política. En 1932, cuando faltaban pocos meses para que recibiera el título de médico, fue expulsado de la Universidad de Buenos Aires por sus denuncias contra la dictadura de Evaristo Félix Uriburu. A consecuencia de este cercenamiento, se abocó con mayor intensidad al periodismo y la militancia política. Luego de un paso de cuatro años por el Partido Socialista, se afilia al PCA en 1934. Un año después funda la Liga del Pensamiento Materialista y comienza una febril militancia en los medios antifascistas, lo que lo dotó de una gran pericia en la constitución de organizaciones frentistas37. Hasta 1973, cuando en el contexto del gobierno peronista de Héctor Cámpora, renuncia al partido, Giudici fue un militante convencido, aunque no necesariamente sumiso. Se desempeñó como jefe de redacción del diario partidario La Hora, fue director del periódico Orientación y más tarde dirigió El Popular. Fue apoderado del partido y responsable de frente universitario. Debido a su sólida formación marxista, que solo un puñado reducido de intelectuales del partido poseían, intervino en sonadas polémicas sobre diversos aspectos del materialismo dialéctico y en varias ocasiones defendió posturas “heterodoxas” respecto a la estrechez teórica y la rigidez conceptual de la institución partidaria. Para Giudici, el discurso que vinculaba la voluntad expansionista de los Estados Unidos con el renacimiento del fascismo no resultaba un giro novedoso. Ya en 1940, en Imperialismo inglés y liberación nacional, había argumentado que la solidaridad con la URSS no debía hacer olvidar que en la Argentina y en América Latina la lucha contra el imperialismo era prioritaria, afirmación que le valió los elogios del escritor nacionalista de origen radical Raúl Scalabrini Ortiz y de su camarada el historiador Rodolfo Puiggrós, expulsado del partido en 1946 por su simpatía con el peronismo38. Giudici convocó a los intelectuales a militar por la paz en el “campo específico de las ideas”, lo que en esos momentos iniciales significaba, por un lado, combatir y denunciar el “irracionalismo” bajo su forma de filosofía existencialista y arte “decadente”, por el otro, reflejar la realidad del atraso y la dependencia de los pueblos latinoamericanos en “el repudio a un modo de vida norteamericano que reedita el mito nazi de la superioridad racial y de la violencia, con una gran dosis de envilecimiento mercantil. Es la mecanización 37 Sobre Giudici se puede consultar la entrada “Ernesto Giudici”. En Tarcus, 2007, op. cit, pp. 253-265 y Kohan, Néstor, “Ernesto Giudici, herejes y heterodoxos en el comunismo argentino”, De Ingenieros al Che. Ensayos sobre el marxismo argentino y latinoamericano, Buenos Aires, Biblos, 2000, pp. 113-171. 38 Cfr. Kohan, op. cit., pp. 132-133. Adriana Petra Cultura Comunista y Guerra Fría: los inteleCtuales… 117 brutalizada unida al estancamiento feudal”39. Desde su puesto estratégico en la secretaría general del Movimiento por la Paz, la que ejerció hasta 1954, acompañó las gestiones de diversos presidentes, todos ellos simpatizantes y amigos que le otorgaban a la organización el carácter amplio que toda iniciativa frentista necesitaba. El Comité Argentino por la Paz comenzó sus tareas en marzo de 1949 mediante un manifiesto en apoyo a la convocatoria del Congreso Mundial de Partidarios de la Paz firmado por más de 120 “personalidades” encabezadas por el escritor Leónidas Barletta, esforzado compañero de viaje de los comunistas. El manifiesto fue publicado en la portada de Orientación, el 30 de marzo, el mismo día en que el presidente Juan Domingo Perón dejaba inaugurado en Mendoza el Primer Congreso Nacional de Filosofía, al que los comunistas calificaron como un acto concreto de la regresión a escala argentina de la decadencia imperialista mediante la imposición de una ideología “antimayo”40. Compartiendo los profundos anhelos de paz expresados en el llamado de los organizadores del Congreso Mundial de Partidarios de la Paz y considerando que la lucha contra los provocadores de la guerra se convierte hoy en la tarea central de todos los hombres y mujeres amantes del progreso, la democracia y la libertad e independencia de sus países, nosotros, en nombre propio, y haciéndonos intérpretes de los mejores sentimientos y tradiciones del pueblo argentino, hacemos llegar nuestra adhesión a los organizadores de ese congreso a celebrarse el próximo mes de abril, siendo también nuestro propósito constituir una comisión nacional que, además del envío de delegados a dicho congreso, trabaje en forma permanente a favor de un amplio movimiento de esa naturaleza en la Argentina41. Entre los cinco primeras firmas del Manifiesto por la Paz se encontraban la de Alejandro Ceballos, prestigioso médico y profesor universitario que pocos años después reemplazaría a José Luis Romero como rector de la Universidad de Buenos Aires; el juez y escritor Horacio Dobranich; el pintor Juan Carlos Castagnino y el Presidente de la Federación Universitaria Argentina, Wolfram 39 Ernesto Giudici, “Los intelectuales por la paz, el progreso y la cultura”, Orientación, 30 de abril de 1949. 40 Con ideología “antimayo” se hacía referencia a aquellas posturas que rechazaban la completa separación de la herencia hispánica y, por lo tanto, el movimiento independista iniciado en mayo de 1810. 41 “En defensa de la paz. Importantes personalidades y organizaciones de nuestro país apoyan el congreso de París”, Orientación, 30 de marzo de 1949. CUADERNOS DE HISTORIA 38 / 2013 Estudios 118 Luthy42. Aunque no se trataba estrictamente de un manifiesto de intelectuales, estos estaban claramente sobrerrepresentados en relación con los dirigentes estudiantiles, políticos y obreros, según la clasificación que precedía el listado de los firmantes. Apelando a un “efecto de título” utilizado por las izquierdas desde el Caso Dreyfus, el Movimiento por la Paz organizó su legitimidad acompañando cada vez que fue necesario el nombre de los adherentes o simpatizantes con la mención de su profesión o diploma. No por casualidad, los máximos referentes de los partidarios de la Paz eran científicos inminentes como Frédéric Joliot Curie y Aimé Cotton –dos “sabios”, como gustaban llamarlos los diarios comunistas–, y grandes artistas como Pablo Picasso y Paul Eluard. En tanto forma de movilización de los intelectuales en torno a un acontecimiento, y acontecimientos en sí mismos, los manifiestos y los petitorios son útiles herramientas para trazar un “retrato social” de las fracciones del campo intelectual en un momento dado (Charle 2009: 125). En el caso del “Manifiesto por la Paz”, publicado en marzo de 1949, convocando a la organización de una comisión argentina que retomara el llamamiento lanzado en París, la composición social y profesional de la lista de adhesiones puede indicar algo sobre la geografía del compromiso intelectual con el comunismo en aquellos años. Como ya mencionamos, la jerarquía otorgada a las profesiones intelectuales en el orden de presentación indica claramente el lugar que los organizadores le asignaban a este grupo social en la legitimación de su cruzada pacifista, aunque también podría indicar que fueron los intelectuales, y no los obreros, los que acudieron al llamado de los sabios y artistas parisinos. De los 120 firmantes que Orientación eligió para publicar en su portada, el 92, 2% pertenecían a categorías intelectuales en un sentido general y solo el 3,3 eran dirigentes obreros. Dentro de las categorías intelectuales sobresalían claramente las profesiones literarias y artísticas (escritores: 18 %, pintores y dibujantes: 13%) y los médicos y odontólogos (18 %), seguidos de los periodistas (11 %), los dirigentes estudiantiles (9 %), las profesiones jurídicas (7%) y las profesiones científicas (químicos, bioquímicos, farmacéuticos 6%). En último lugar se agrupaban los docentes, los ingenieros y los escribanos, que en conjunto no representaban más del 3% de los firmantes. Las agrupaciones profesionales estaban escasamente representadas, con la excepción de la Confederación Farmacéutica y Bioquímica Argentina y la Asociación Argentina de Actores. Ni la SADE, ni la Sociedad Argentina de Artistas Plásticos (SAAP), ni el Colegio Libre de Estudios Superiores, para nombrar organizaciones en las que 42 “En defensa de la Paz”, Orientación, 30 de abril de 1949. Adriana Petra Cultura Comunista y Guerra Fría: los inteleCtuales… 119 los comunistas tenían cierta participación, prestaron su apoyo a la iniciativa, y aunque muchos de sus socios colaboraron a título personal, la mayor parte de la elite intelectual del espacio liberal se negó a prestar su nombre al llamado pacifista, al que calificaban, a tono con la gran prensa, como la “paz soviética” o la “paz comunista”43. El Comité Argentino de Partidario de la Paz conformó provisoriamente su primera comisión directiva con una estructura que será clásica: legisladores y dirigentes radicales y profesionales y escritores, fueran comunistas o simpatizantes. Un extrapartidario ocupando la presidencia y un comunista ocupando la secretaría general, puesto este que será adjudicado a Ernesto Giudici a lo largo de las presidencias sucesivas de Carlos Fernández Ordoñez (abogado cordobés de extracción radical), Emilio García Iturraspe, Norberto Frontini (abogado y escritor), Eduardo Aleman y Alberto Casella (ingeniero)44. Los comunistas argentinos estuvieron representados en los diversos congresos que se multiplicaron alrededor del mundo en nombre de la paz. A Wroclaw asistió Alfredo Varela, en calidad de miembro de la dirección del diario La Hora y destacado escritor. Sobre esa experiencia publicó un extenso artículo en Orientación, donde detallaba su confraternización con Pudovkin, Picasso, Fadeivev, el Dean de Canterbury y Michel Prenant. Lo mismo hizo Fany Edelman refiriéndose al Segundo Congreso de la Federación Democrática Internacional de Mujeres y el músico Atahualpa Yupanqui, miembro de la delegación de 22 jóvenes que participaron en el Congreso de la Federación Mundial de la Juventud Democrática celebrado en Budapest en setiembre de 194945. Una vez conformado el movimiento en Argentina, las delegaciones se hicieron más nutridas. Al segundo congreso de los Partidarios de la Paz, celebrado en Praga y París en abril de 1949, asistieron 14 delegados en representación de distintos 43 La negativa de las autoridades del Colegio Libre de Estudios Superiores a firmar el manifiesto pacifista fue particularmente condenada por los comunistas, pues la presentaron con una traición al legado de Aníbal Ponce –uno de sus fundadores– y un síntoma de la decadencia en la que había caído la institución. Cfr. “Esto sucedió”, Orientación, 6 de abril de 1949. 44 La comisión directiva provisoria del Comité Argentino por la Paz, creado bajo los auspicios del manifiesto de adhesión al Congreso de París, estuvo integrado por: Romeo Bonazzola (diputado nacional), Manuel Armengol (abogado), Norberto Frontini (abogado), Ernesto Giudici (escritor), C. Rodríguez Otaño (escritor), Gregorio Bermann (profesor universitario), Wolfram Luthy (presidente de la FUBA), Jorge Thénon (médico) y Tomás Ide (diputado provincial de Buenos Aires). 45 Varela, Alfredo, “La fraternidad de los intelectuales”, Orientación, 17 de noviembre de 1948, Atahualpa Yupanqui, “Budapest, la ciudad donde se encontró la juventud”, Orientación, 14 de setiembre de 1949, y Fanny Edelman, “El Segundo Congreso Mundial de Mujeres”, Nueva Era, Buenos Aires, nº 1, abril de 1949. CUADERNOS DE HISTORIA 38 / 2013 Estudios 120 sectores y organizaciones sociales o profesionales, todos, con la excepción de Fernández Ordoñez, afiliados al partido, incluyendo miembros del Comité Central46. En una práctica que era usual en el régimen de compensaciones que organizaba la vida intelectual partidaria, ser designado como delegado para asistir a un congreso en el que era posible codearse, como sucedió en París, con una constelación brillante de artistas, escritores y científicos, a menudo se relacionaban con una recompensa a la observancia de la disciplina partidaria. Rara vez los díscolos eran merecedores de tales premios, como puede comprobarse en la ausencia de todos los escritores que habían sido amonestados en las purgas antivanguardistas de los meses previos47. En el congreso de París quedó conformado un Comité Permanente del Movimiento, cuyos objetivos eran esencialmente organizativos y propagandísticos. Entre sus integrantes destacaban los franceses, como Joliot Curie, que fue designado presidente, Pablo Picasso, Aimé Cotton y Pierre Cot, aunque había representación latinoamericana: Juan Marinello, de Cuba, Julia Arévalo, de 46 El congreso se realizó en Sala Pleyel, con la presencia de más de 2.000 delegados de 72 países. Según informó la prensa comunista los delegados se repartieron en las siguientes proporciones: 719 intelectuales, 665 obreros, 316 profesionales liberales, 49 profesionales industriales, 37 campesinos, 163 eclesiásticos, 152 escritores, 31 hombres de ciencias, 73 artistas, 34 médicos y 405 de profesiones diversas. Cfr. “Aspectos de la gran reunión”, Orientación, 11 de mayo de 1949. Aunque las categorías no sean del todo claras, lo que sí resulta evidente es el peso que las “profesiones intelectuales” tuvieron sobre la representación obrera y campesina. La delegación argentina estuvo conformada por Carlos Fernández Oroño, Irma Othar (dirigente obrera), Gerarda Scolamieri (maestra), Benitto Marianetti (abogado y miembro del CC), Alcira Pérez Peñalba (médica), Rubens Iscaro (dirigente obrero), Julio Peluffo (médico), Pedro Fontana (ingeniero), Sara Raier, Jorge Viaggio (médico), Mauricio Birgin (abogado) y Electra Luppi. Algunos delegados no pudieron salir del país por problemas de visado o por habérseles negado el pasaporte, entre ellos: Juan Carlos Castagnino, Eter Giolito, Rodolfo Aráoz Alfaro, Wolfran Luthy y Yuqueri Rojas. Cfr. “Delegados argentinos al congreso de París”, Orientación, 27 de abril de 1949. La prensa comunista afirmó que en aquella oportunidad la delegación argentina entregó 250.000 fichas de adhesión al Movimiento por la Paz. Cfr. Benito Marianetti, “Al luchar por la Paz continuamos las mejores tradiciones nacionales”, Orientación, 4 de mayo de 1949. 47 Raúl Larra contó en una entrevista que su nombre fue retirado del manifiesto por la Paz de 1949 al que nos hemos referido, por orden de Juan José Real, entonces Secretario de Organización del Partido. Según Larra, enterado de esta situación, fue a pedirle explicaciones a Real, quien le sugirió que si se ponía en línea respecto a las directivas del partido en cuestiones culturales podría viajar al congreso de París, lo que no sucedió (Entrevista a Raúl Larra, 1989. Gentileza de Alicia García Gilabert). Las llamadas “purgas antivanguardistas” fueron realizadas en el mes de agosto de 1948 en el contexto del intento del PCA por imponer los criterios estéticos y filosóficos codificados por Andrei Zdhánov en las resoluciones del PCUS de 1946-1948. En aquella ocasión fueron expulsados los artistas ligados el movimiento Arte Concreto Invención y el crítico de arte Cayetano Córdova Iturburu, y sufrieron serios cuestionamientos el ensayista Héctor P. Agosti y los escritores Raúl Larra y José Portogalo, entre otros. Adriana Petra Cultura Comunista y Guerra Fría: los inteleCtuales… 121 Uruguay, Pablo Neruda, de Chile, Jorge Amado, de Brasil, Lázaro Cárdenas y Vicente Lombardo Toledano, de México. Los representantes argentinos eran el psiquiatra Julio Luis Peluffo y la educadora Gerarda Scolamieri 48. Al mismo tiempo, por decisión de la Kominform, quedó establecida una Sección de Propaganda para América Latina, bajo la secretaría general de Jorge Amado, cuya primera tarea fue la inauguración de una “Asociación de la América Latina”, presidida por el escritor venezolano Roberto Ganzo. Según un informe del embajador chileno en París, el objetivo de este organismo era (…) incrementar la propaganda comunista en América Latina, aprovechando la influencia que la cultura francesa ejerce en esa parte de nuestro continente. Su acción deberá desarrollarse especialmente en los medios más cultos, utilizando a los intelectuales como fuerza de choque (…) El primer resultado de este plan fue la inauguración de la “Asociación de la América Latina” que tratará de agrupar numerosos estudiantes e intelectuales latinoamericanos residentes aquí. Esta institución, que tiene su sede en 5 rue de l’ Observatoire será presidida por el escritor venezolano Roberto Gango (sic) y actuará como secretario el brasileño Israel Pedraza. Inauguró sus labores el 28 de abril con una velada literaria en el que hicieron uso de la palabra Neruda, Amado, Guillén, Marinello. Este último anunció que un congreso latinoamericano de la Paz se celebrará en México el 1º de agosto49. El Movimiento por la Paz aglutinó el trabajo de varias organizaciones promovidas por los comunistas. La Unión Argentina de Mujeres y la Agrupación Cultural Femenina fueron artífices principales de la campaña de recolección de firmas y de la organización del Congreso Nacional mediante el trabajo de la Comisión Central Pro Congreso de la Paz. También participaron la Liga Argentina por los Derechos del Hombre y la Unión de Jóvenes Patriotas Argentinos, además de otras organizaciones creadas ad hoc, como el Movimiento Antiimperialista por la Paz y la Democracia, las Amigas de la Paz, la Comisión Nacional Obrera por la Paz, el Movimiento Juvenil por la Paz, Universitarios por la Paz... Durante los meses de julio y agosto, los escritores y los artistas plásticos emitieron sus propios manifiestos de apoyo al Congreso Nacional por la Paz que se había puesto en marcha. El de los artistas plásticos estaba encabezado por las firmas de Juan Bonome, presidente de la Sociedad Argentina de Artistas Plásticos, Antonio Berni, Abraham Vigo, Enrique Policastro, Luis Falcini, Carlos Giambiaggi y Medrano Pantoja. Al frente del manifiesto de los escritores se 48 “El congreso de París”, Orientación, 4 de mayo de 1949. 49 Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores de Chile. Archivo General Histórico de Chile, Vol. 2528, 1947: Comunismo en Europa, citado en Schidlowsky, op. cit., p. 786. CUADERNOS DE HISTORIA 38 / 2013 Estudios 122 contaban las adhesiones de José Barreiro, José Pedroni, Ernesto Castro, Elías Castelnuovo, Jacinto Grau, Carlos Ruiz Daudet, Ernesto Morales, Alvaro Yunque, Max Dickman, Lázaro Liacho, entre otros50. Al mismo tiempo, por iniciativa de la SAAP, la Asociación de Estímulo de Bellas Artes, la Agrupación Cultural Femenina, el Comité Argentino por la Paz y el Centro de Estudiantes de Bellas Artes, se organizó un concurso de afiches y viñetas cuyo primer premio era el grabado “Levantado Anclas”, donado por Benito Quinquela Martín. Un jurado integrado por Antonio Berni, Enrique Policastro, Demetrio Urrúchua, Carlos Giambiaggi, Bartolomé Mirabelli y Marina Bengoechea premió los trabajos de Luis Pellegrini (afiches) y Raúl Monsegur (viñetas), los que fueron expuestos en la sede del Comité Argentino por la Paz, ubicado en la calle Cerrito al 1147 51. Bajo la inspiración del encuentro de París, el I Congreso Nacional por la Paz se realizó en la ciudad de La Plata los días 18 y 19 de agosto de 1949, con la presencia de 1.200 delegados de distintos puntos del país, pero lejos del clima de camaradería que envolvió a los congresales parisinos por las calles del Quartier Latine. El acto fue prohibido, el teatro Coliseo clausurado y cerca de 200 delegados terminaron detenidos en las dependencias policiales platenses, inaugurando el Gobierno una práctica persecutoria que fue casi permanente y, aunque particularmente virulenta y sistemática en Argentina, habitual en el resto de los países occidentales52. En este marco, el congreso sesionó, conformó sus autoridades y emitió una declaración en la que se pronunciaba en contra del Pacto Atlántico y de los Pactos de Río de Janeiro y Bogotá, denunciaba los intentos de sabotear a la Organización de las Naciones Unidas, condenaba el colonialismo, el armamentismo, los golpes de Estado y los planes de ayuda económica promovidos por los Estados Unidos para la región. El Comité Permanente de Partidarios de la Paz quedó constituido bajo la presidencia de honor de Carlos Fernández Ordoñez (que en ese momento estaba preso en Córdoba), la presidencia de Carlos García Iturraspe y 31 vocales organizados en representación de las diversas organizaciones pacifistas, de profesiones u 50 “Manifiesto de los artistas plásticos”, Orientación, 10 de agosto de 1949 y “Manifiesto de los escritores argentinos por la Paz”, Orientación, 13 y el 27 de julio de 1949. 51 Sobre el concurso ver Orientación del 20 de julio de 1949 y del 16 de agosto de 1949. 52 Las denuncias sobre detenciones y vejámenes, particularmente a las mujeres, por parte de la policía y la Sección Especial eran habituales en la prensa comunista. En otros países, el acoso solía ser menos explícito y a menudo se traducía en trabas impuestas a los congresos y reuniones o prohibiciones del ingreso a los delegados extranjeros cuando se celebra un encuentro internacional. Esta fue la táctica del gobierno británico en 1950, cuando detuvo la entrada de la mayor parte de los delegados que llegaron para celebrar el tercer Congreso de Partidarios de la Paz que debía celebrarse en Sheffield, obligando a los organizadores a trasladarse a Varsovia. Adriana Petra Cultura Comunista y Guerra Fría: los inteleCtuales… 123 oficios y de las diversas provincias presentes. Juan Jacobo Bajarlía representó a los escritores, Antonio Berni a los pintores, Julio Peluffo a los médicos, Felipe Freyre a los ingenieros, Daniel Vila a los economistas, Manuel Armengol a los abogados, Francisco Petrone a los actores, Urbano Rodríguez a los maestros, Isidro Maiztegui a los músicos, Luis Falcini a los escultores y José P. Barreiro a los periodistas. La dirección efectiva del movimiento quedó a cargo de una Junta Consultiva integrada por los miembros del Comité que residían en la Capital Federal, por lo que la presidencia recayó en Norberto Frontini y la secretaría, en Ernesto Giudici53. Al mes siguiente, la ciudad de México recibió a 1.500 delegados provenientes de 19 países de América Latina, Estados Unidos y Canadá para celebrar el Congreso Continental por la Paz, patrocinado por una comité donde revistaban algunos de los más importantes intelectuales y artistas latinoamericanos: Arthur Ramos, Pablo Neruda, Oscar Niemeyer, Cándido Portinari, Jorge Amado, Caio Prado Jr., Graciliano Ramos, Edison Carneiro (Brasil); Pablo Neruda (Chile), Joaquín García Monje (Costa Rica); Fernando Ortiz, Juan Marinello, Emilio Roig de Leuchsenring, Nicolás Guillén (Cuba); Ismael Cosío Villegas, Alfonso Reyes, María Félix, Diego Rivera, Jesús Silva Herzog, David Alfaro Siqueiros, Luis Garrido (México), Rogelio Sinán (Panamá), Miguel Otero Silva (Venezuela), José Luis Massera (Uruguay), entre otros 54. En la Argentina, integraban el grupo promotor, según lo anunciaba Orientación: Alejandro Ceballos (profesor universitario), Antonio Berni (pintor), Francisco Petrone (actor de cine), Telma Reca (médica), Rodolfo Ghioldi (periodista), Ernesto Morales (escritor), Gerarda Scolamieri (educadora), Horacio Dobranich (magistrado), Rubens Iscaró (dirigente sindical), Ernesto Giudici (escritor), Carlos Fernández Ordóñez (abogado), Margarita del Ponce (educadora), Jorge Romero Brest (escritor), Alcira de la Peña (dirigente femenina) y Emilio Troise (médico)55. En la Arena de México, ante más de siete mil personas que coreaban los himnos nacionales al ingreso de cada delegación, entre las mujeres indígenas con su poncho rojo, Ernesto Giudici pudo recordar su participación en el congreso montevideano de 1933 para, con acentos arielistas, trazar un perfil de la cultura norteamericana: 53 “Declaración y llamamiento del Congreso Argentino de Partidarios de la Paz”, Orientación, 24 de agosto de 1949. 54 “Personalidades que auspician el congreso de México”, Orientación, 18 de agosto de 1949. 55 Cfr. “Patrocinantes del Congreso de México”, Orientación, 24 de agosto de 1949. CUADERNOS DE HISTORIA 38 / 2013 Estudios 124 Los que hasta en Francia lo “americanizan” todo no iban a disimular, en América, su mal gusto y grosería. Ausente el hombre de la concepción “americana” de la existencia, muerto el arte en medio de los hierros de una estructura metálica sin alma, destácase el yanqui en medio de los demás por su frialdad utilitaria y sus corbatas provocativas. Cree que basta el dinero para poseer una obra de arte. Se lleva las cosas hechas por los indígenas y por una artesanía que conserva todavía la unidad entre el trabajo y el arte, la utilidad y la belleza, pero en su concepto ambas cosas siguen disociadas. Lo útil es una barra cromada, o es material plástico, lo bello es mero adorno que está afuera de las cosas útiles. Y quiere el yanqui uniformar la vida con su industria, sus diarios y su cine matando todo germen autóctono, que nosotros defendemos no para mantenerlo en su primitivismo sino para desarrollarlo en sus rasgos propios en lo general. No vamos a oponer lo indígena estancado a lo industrial progresista, como es falso oponer lo gauchesco a las nuevas expresiones sociales del progreso, pero queremos que ese cambio se haga por el desarrollo mismo de las cosas sin matarlas desde afuera. No queremos desarrollo técnico en contra del hombre y la integridad de su pensamiento sino para servir al hombre en la plenitud de sus posibilidades56. Los avatares del Movimiento por la Paz fueron, en la Argentina como en el resto del mundo, un espejo de las necesidades políticas de la Guerra Fría. La lucha por la paz era, se afirmaba, la madre de todas las batallas y la vara con la cual medir los aliados y los enemigos. Para los comunistas argentinos, el punto álgido de este modo de concebir las políticas unitarias fue el viraje que experimentó la política exterior peronista hacia 1952, cuando las relaciones del gobierno con los Estados Unidos entren en una profunda crisis y las caracterizaciones partidarias sobre su carácter antiimperialista decidan un conflictivo apoyo. Así, si en 1950 la “tercera posición” era definida como una “cortina de humo” que pretendía ocultar al pueblo la capitulación del gobierno frente a los monopolios imperialistas, en 1952 el joven dirigente peronista John William Cooke explicaba en Viena la original postura tercerista de su gobierno57. Por su parte, el Consejo Mundial ya no invitaba a sus congresos al liberal Roberto Giusti, sino al ex sacerdote nacionalista católico Leonardo Castellani58. 56 Ernesto Giudici, “Realidades americanas en el Congreso de México”, Orientación, 2 de noviembre de 1949. 57 “J. Cooke, Frontini y Esquivel, delegados argentinos, proclamaron en Viena la pasión antiimperialista de nuestro pueblo y sus deseos de Paz”, Nuestra Palabra, 23 de diciembre de 1952. 58 Cfr. “Los pueblos esperan del Congreso de Viena un renovado impulso en defensa de la Paz, Nuestra Palabra, 9 de diciembre de 1952. Adriana Petra Cultura Comunista y Guerra Fría: los inteleCtuales… 125 Los años de la guerra de Corea (1950-1953) fueron los más activos del movimiento durante la década del 50, tanto en la Argentina como en el resto del mundo. Durante aquellos años, muchos escritores, científicos y artistas pensaron, junto a Sartre, que ya no era posible ser neutral. Por primera vez, el mundo asistió a la posibilidad de un conflicto sangriento y prologando que involucraba a naciones armadas con bombas atómicas, lo que suponía, como lo reconoció abiertamente Georgi Malenkov, “el fin de la civilización del mundo”59. A lo largo de los siguientes años, los contenidos pacifistas se irán organizando mediante una integración de las coyunturas domésticas y al derrotero de la política internacional. En 1954, será el momento de relacionar la cuestión de la paz a la condena a la política petrolera del gobierno peronista, en 1956 le tocará el turno a la cuestión del Canal de Suez y el Pacto del Atlántico de Sur, ya en los años 60, y sobre todo luego de la crisis de los misiles en 1962, el tema excluyente será la defensa de Cuba. Ese mismo año, en el marco del “giro a la izquierda” de los peronistas, el Movimiento por la Paz abandonará su estrategia de legitimación por vía de los intelectuales para adoptar un perfil más político-sindical. Las firmas que acompañarán la declaración de auspicio al “Congreso por el desarme y la paz” serán en su mayor parte de dirigentes políticos y sindicales, aunque no faltaron los apoyos de nombres prestigiosos, como el del escritor y ensayista santiagueño Bernardo Canal Feijoo, o de artistas populares como Horacio Guaraní60. De los 62 delegados que viajaron a Moscú para participar del Congreso solo nueve tenían profesiones intelectuales: había cuatro médicos, dos arquitectos, dos escritores y un periodista61. Epílogo cinematográfico: el caso de Alfredo Varela La persecución constante del que fue objeto el Movimiento por la Paz en el país fue la fuente de la cual los comunistas extrajeron sus héroes y lamentablemente también sus mártires. Las permanentes denuncias sobre encarcelamientos, abusos y vejámenes a los “combatientes por la paz” poblaron innumerables páginas de la prensa comunista, pero pocos hechos alcanzaron la repercusión que obtuvo la detención del novelista Alfredo Varela en junio de 1952. Demostrando los límites que la solidaridad entre pares impone a las brechas abiertas por las 59 Citado en Gaddis, John Williams, La Guerra Fría, Fondo de Cultura Económica, 2011, pp. 70, 87. 60 “Auspicio argentino al congreso mundial por el desarme y la paz”, Nuestra Palabra, 29 de mayo de 1962. 61 “Estos fueron los delegados argentinos”, Nuestra Palabra, 7 de agosto de 1962. CUADERNOS DE HISTORIA 38 / 2013 Estudios 126 diferencias políticas, las firmas que los comunistas no consiguieron estampar en las proclamas pacifistas las lograron para pedir la libertad de Varela. Nacido en el barrio porteño de Caballito en setiembre de 1914, Varela logró escribir el único libro que fue juzgado como representante del “realismo socialista” en la Argentina62. El Río Oscuro, publicado por Lautaro en 1943, fue un suceso tanto por su tema y su fuerza narrativa como por su innovadora estructura formal. A través de una línea narrativa fracturada en tres tiempos (clara influencia de los narradores norteamericanos como John Steinbeck, John Dos Passos y William Faulkner), Varela cuenta la historia de Ramón Moreira, un hombre que es reclutado para trabajar en los yerbatales vírgenes del Alta Paraná y sometido a un régimen inhumano de violencia y explotación para, paulatinamente, ir tomando conciencia de su situación y vislumbrar el camino de la política como único y digno modo de liberación de aquel infierno. Sobre la gloria de la infinita riqueza del Alto Paraná –escribe sobre el final de la novela– el material humano sigue arrastrándose pobre, enfermo, oprimido. Pero las nuevas condiciones, al aproximar físicamente a las grandes peonadas sometiéndolas a la misma explotación exhaustiva, favorecen su agrupamiento y organización (...) Sobre las cenizas del antiguo mensú, del arriero, comienza a levantarse el peón organizado, consciente, del porvenir. Su camino de espinas ha de tener en lo sucesivo una luz: la del farol de ese humilde rancho del sindicato obrero...63 La novela fue traducida a 15 idiomas y convirtió a su autor en una suerte de mito de la literatura social. Como muchos otros escritores de su generación, como Raúl Larra y Bernardo Kordon, Varela inició su militancia política en la Asociación de Intelectuales, Artistas y Periodistas (AIAPE), organización antifascista donde integraba la Asociación de Jóvenes Escritores, apadrinados por Aníbal Ponce. Fue en la revista de la AIAPE, Nueva Gaceta, donde también inició su carrera de escritor, publicando poemas y relatos. De origen familiar modesto, no pudo seguir estudios universitarios y, antes de transformarse en periodista y miembro destacado del partido, ejerció diversos oficios, como el de corredor de informes comerciales. En 1941 ingresó a trabajar en el recién creado diario La Hora, donde luego llegó a ser miembro del consejo de redacción. Su trabajo periodístico, como también sucedió con el poeta Raúl González Tuñón, lo acercó a las más diversas realidades a lo largo y ancho del país. El Río Oscuro 62 Cfr. Prieto, Adolfo, Diccionario Básico de la Literatura Argentina, Buenos Aires, CEAL, 1968, p. 154). 63 Varela, Alfredo, El Río Oscuro, Buenos Aires, Capital Intelectual, 2008, pp. 254-255. Adriana Petra Cultura Comunista y Guerra Fría: los inteleCtuales… 127 fue, antes de convertirse en libro, una extensa serie de notas que bajo el título “Así viven los esclavos blancos” publicó en la revista Ahora. En 1948, Varela fue enviado por el partido a los congresos de los partidos comunistas de Polonia y Hungría, flamantes democracias populares, y en calidad de delegado de los escritores comunistas argentinos participó en el Congreso de Intelectuales por la Paz, que fundó el movimiento. Desde entonces, Varela consumió “la mayor parte de sus energías creadoras”, al decir de Raúl Larra, en la causa de la paz64. Integrante del Consejo Argentino, donde llegó a ejercer la vicepresidencia, y representante permanente a todos los congresos y reuniones del Buró del Consejo Mundial, cuando fue detenido por la Sección Especial de Represión al Comunismo, había sido promovido a miembro suplente del comité central del PCA. La detención de Varela se produjo en julio de 1951, a casi un año de los asesinatos del dirigente estudiantil Jorge Calvo y el obrero metalúrgico Ángel Zelli a manos de un grupo de la “Sección Especial” que ingresó por la fuerza a una casa de la provincia de Buenos Aires donde se desarrollaba una reunión para movilizar voluntades contra el envío de tropas a Corea65. El brutal asesinato de Calvo y Zelli los convirtió inmediatamente en “héroes de la paz” y se le rindieron innumerables homenajes, incluyendo un libro del propio Varela titulado Jorge Calvo. Una juventud heroica (Voz Juvenil, 1952). En esa atmósfera represiva, Varela fue acusado de participar en la organización de la huelga ferroviaria declarada en enero de 1951. Sobre él ya pesaba una condena por desacato que estaba en suspenso, por publicar en La Hora una denuncia contra el jefe de policía por el asalto a un acto conmemorativo del 32 aniversario de la Revolución Rusa que terminó con centenares de presos y apaleados. Unos meses antes de ser nuevamente detenido, había pasado 20 días en la cárcel en compañía de Atahualpa Yupanqui, luego de que ambos fueron detenidos en la puerta de la embajada soviética. La prensa comunista presentó la detención Varela como una consecuencia de su trabajo como escritor comunista, resaltando tanto su compromiso político como el valor “documental” de su literatura. Ante la pregunta ¿por qué se encarcela a Varela”?, Nuestra Palabra respondía: Porque como escritor ha defendido desde el diario y desde el libro a los humildes. El estuvo con los trabajadores de la Alpargatera señalando en notas inolvidables la justicia de los 10000 obreros expoliados por patrones extranjeros, ingleses. 64 Larra, Raúl, Con pelos y señales, Buenos Aires, Futuro, 1986, p. 34. 65 Cfr. Gilbert, Isidoro, La FEDE. Alistándose para la Revolución. La Federación Juvenil Comunista, 1928-2005, Buenos Aires, Sudamericana, 2009. pp. 306-312. CUADERNOS DE HISTORIA 38 / 2013 Estudios 128 El estuvo con los hacheros y cosecheros del algodón del Chaco y Corrientes, él denunció la miseria impuesta por los terratenientes en el sur argentino. Él mostro, a través de ojos argentinos, la limpia, la hermosa verdad de un país maravilloso donde triunfa el socialismo: la Unión Soviética. El estuvo en el Paraguay, en lo más rudo de la lucha al lado de un pueblo tradicionalmente expoliado por el imperialismo, cantando sus esperanzas, nombrando su (sic) dolores, señalando su (sic) próximas y seguras victorias66. La campaña por la libertad de Varela recibió adhesiones de todo el mundo, incluyendo las ya habituales firmas de las autoridades del Consejo Mundial por la Paz, de Pablo Neruda, Jorge Amado, Claude Morgan, George Lukács, Arnold Zweig, Emilio Sereni... La nota enviada al juez de la causa, Miguel Vignola, solicitando la resolución urgente del caso y la inmediata libertad del “muy distinguido” colega estuvo encabezada por Ezequiel Martínez Estrada y Jorge Luis Borges67. Varela fue finalmente condenado a un año de prisión efectiva en la cárcel de Villa Devoto, lo que derivó en la constitución de un comité por su libertad cuyo presidente fue Leónidas Barletta, secundado por escritores comunistas68. Varela recuperó la libertad en mayo de 1952, en lo que fue presentado como un “triunfo de la movilización popular por la democracia y la paz”, tanto más significativo y aleccionador por haber sido obtenido en el marco de “una opresión política cada día más dura”. Ese mismo mes, el Secretario de Organización del Partido, Juan José Real, iniciaba un proceso de acercamiento al gobierno que culminó con el apoyo a la convocatoria de Perón a formar un frente popular unido para oponerse a la conspiración golpista que, según el presidente, era organizada por el imperialismo norteamericano y la oligarquía local. El Comité Ejecutivo del partido emitió entonces una declaración en que hacía pública su adhesión a la constitución de ese frente, a la vez que proponía una serie de medidas sobre las cuales sustentarlo. El documento convocaba a los comunistas a formar comités unitarios en cada fábrica, lugar de trabajo y casa de estudio o cultura con la finalidad de facilitar la unidad de acción con los sectores obreros y populares del peronismo69. Este viraje fue rápidamente desactivado una vez que el dirigente máximo del comunismo argentino, Victorio 66 “Libertad para A. Varela”, Nuestra Palabra, Buenos Aires, 3 de setiembre de 1951. 67 “La libertad de A. Varela solicitan destacados escritores”, Nuestra Palabra, Buenos Aires, 18 de setiembre de 1951. 68 “Se constituyó un comité por la libertad de Alfredo Varela”, Nuestra Palabra, Buenos Aires, 29 de enero de 1952. 69 “Declaración del PC a propósito del discurso del Gral. Perón invitando a los trabajadores a formar un ‘frente popular unido’ para desbaratar los planes de la conspiración oligárquico- imperialista”, Buenos Aires, 5 de mayo de 1952. Adriana Petra Cultura Comunista y Guerra Fría: los inteleCtuales… 129 Codovilla, regresó al país desde la URSS. En la reunión de Comité Central Ampliado de febrero de 1953, Juan José Real fue acusado de introducir en el partido concepciones “nacionalistas burguesas”, y expulsado. Aunque de breve duración, “el caso Real”, como luego se lo conocería, tuvo consecuencias de más largo aliento para el espacio cultural, pues obligó a los intelectuales comunistas a romper con viejas lealtades forjadas en la lucha antifascista que se habían fortalecido en la común oposición al peronismo. El caso de la detención de Varela es sintomático de estos vaivenes y de las dificultades que el Movimiento por la Paz encontró en la Argentina para desarrollarse, pues las apuestas realizadas en sede política difícilmente podían trasladarse al espacio intelectual al que el llamado pacifista pretendía convocar, pues era mucho menos propenso a la modificación abrupta de las caracterizaciones sobre un gobierno que se había ganado el repudio casi unánime del mundo letrado. Cuando Valera recuperó la libertad, agradeció desde las páginas de Nuestra Palabra la movilización nacional e internacional que se desplegó para reclamar por su libertad, aunque no hizo mención alguna de las razones por las cuales el gobierno peronista lo había encarcelado y ahora lo liberaba. Apenas cinco meses después, el 9 de octubre, se estrenaba en el teatro Gran Rex de la calle Corrientes la película “Las aguas bajan turbias”, adaptación cinematográfica de El Río Oscuro, dirigida y protagonizada por el director y cantante popular de simpatías peronistas Hugo del Carril. Aunque desde la cárcel Varela participó en la adaptación del guión, no figuraba en ningún crédito y su libro nunca se mencionó en ninguna crítica, pues esa –y la aclaración de que el infamante régimen de explotación de los yerbatales era parte de un remoto pasado– fue la condición para que el proyecto fuera autorizado por la Secretaría de Propaganda del Gobierno. Así lo hacía notar la prensa comunista en abril de 1952, al afirmar que mientras las compañías esclavistas denunciadas por Varela no solo subsistían, sino que bajo el régimen justicialista habían ganado muchos millones, aquel que les había recordado sus crímenes se encontraba preso. Sin embargo, una vez estrenada, la misma prensa aplaudió la película y acordó en que esa “época de horror” había sido en gran parte superada por el combate de la “clase obrera”. Como una muestra del paradójico lugar que los intelectuales comunistas ocupaban en un espacio cultural escindido por la adhesión o el rechazo al peronismo, mientras los comunistas, embarcados en el apoyo al gobierno, saludaban la película y olvidaban incómodamente la prisión de Varela por la que habían movilizado todos los resortes del Movimiento por la Paz, la oposición –y con ella buen parte de los intelectuales que habían reclamado por la libertad del autor de El Río Oscuro– juzgó la película como una muestra de propaganda peronista, pues durante su estreno, cuando al final el protagonista y CUADERNOS DE HISTORIA 38 / 2013 Estudios 130 su mujer escapan del obraje para coronar su historia de amor (y no para asumir el camino de política y la sindicalización) los espectadores aplaudieron al grito de ¡Viva Perón!70. 70 Cfr. España, Claudio, “Las aguas bajan turbias: una denuncia contra toda esclavitud”. En Borrás, Eduardo, Las aguas bajan turbias, Buenos Aires, Biblos/Argentores, 2006, p. 9. 
work_skej3jc4uzbyhc4wvptg4rayju	----	Journalism, Caricature and Satirical Drawings in Early Picasso (1891–1895): The Awakening of Pablo Ruiz’s Critical Consciousness arts Article Journalism, Caricature and Satirical Drawings in Early Picasso (1891–1895): The Awakening of Pablo Ruiz’s Critical Consciousness X. Antón Castro Fernández Lecturer in Art History in the Pontevedra Faculty of Fine Art, Universidad de Vigo, Calle de la Maestranza 2, 36002 Pontevedra, Spain; xacastro@uvigo.es; Tel.: +34-610530052 Academic Editor: Enrique Mallen Received: 29 August 2016; Accepted: 20 October 2016; Published: 14 March 2017 Abstract: In Pablo Picasso’s formative period in A Coruña (1891–1895), where he was born as an artist, the child and pre-adolescent who at that time signed himself as Pablo Ruiz, already knowing he was a genius, pursued an intense programme of creative activity while devoting himself to drawing and painting. Making use of his facility for reproducing the world around him in images, he also proved to be an incipient devotee of journalism as an instrument of communication and social awareness, a satirical draughtsman and caricaturist, seeking to give his version of events, in line with the magazines and newspapers of the period, and displaying a critical ability unusual in a child, a committed gaze, not devoid of humour and sarcasm, which prefigures the later Picasso with his progressive views, acute intelligence, meta-ironic approach and support for great causes. Keywords: early Picasso; A Coruña; newspapers; Azul y Blanco; La Coruña; Blanco y Negro; caricature; critical consciousness 1. Picasso’s Beginnings in the Written Press There is an increasingly deep-seated consensus among experts that in his formative period in A Coruña (Spain) from 1891 to 1895, between childhood and early adolescence, Pablo Picasso conceived practically all the iconography he would frequently employ over the course of his very lengthy eighty-year artistic career. His most reliable biographers, Josep Palau i Fabre and John Richardson, take it as established that he was born as an artist and developed his aesthetic foundations in A Coruña, in the decisive period of residence during the years mentioned, when his father, José Ruiz Blasco, taught at the Provincial School of Fine Art in that city ([1], p. 229; [2], p. 385). Palau argued that by the time Picasso left A Coruña he had become sentimentally and artistically mature and that his production at that time suffices to show us that we were dealing with an extraordinary case, because here we had seen the birth of an exceptional academic draftsman, a caricaturist and caustic chronicler, a portraitist and a landscape artist ([3], p. 68, p. 70). And Richardson places Picasso’s birth as a painter in the portraits from that period, which the artist himself often valued higher than the works from his Blue and Pink periods (“These Corunna portraits are the first Picassos that can be taken seriously as works of art as opposed to juvenilia”) ([4], p. 52). We ought to consider these works on canvas as his first adult creations, in which he focuses on the human figure to capture the vicissitudes of life and as Palau said, “éste ya es el Picasso de siempre; el que, en formas distintas, reaparecerá en todos los meandros de su carrera” [this is the eternal Picasso; the one which, in various forms, would reappear in all the meanders of his career] ([3], p. 60). It is a period that has been well documented in recent years by the A Coruña journalists and researchers Ángel Padín [5,6] and Rubén Ventureira and Elena Pardo [7], in historiographical terms, and from an aesthetic perspective by the exhibition El primer Picasso. A Coruña, 2015 [Picasso’s Early Arts 2017, 6, 2; doi:10.3390/arts6010002 www.mdpi.com/journal/arts http://www.mdpi.com/journal/arts http://www.mdpi.com http://www.mdpi.com/journal/arts Arts 2017, 6, 2 2 of 19 Period. A Coruña, 2015] [8] curated by the conservator of Museu Picasso in Barcelona, Malén Gual, and the essays of Antón Castro [9,10], as well as the extensive archival and visual work of Enrique Mallen [11]1, all of whom stress the decisive importance of A Coruña in the artist’s future. While living there, between 1893 and 1894, wanting to communicate with his family in Malaga through drawing, the medium in which he was most proficient ([13], p. 276),2 Picasso produced the illustrated newspapers or magazines Azul y Blanco and La Coruña, with the clear intention of documenting for his relatives what it was like living in the city and in Galicia, trying, through his still naive perceptions, to reflect the local customs, sociological particularities and changing weather conditions, and also including personal anecdotes and his viewpoints on the things closest to him, ranging from what happened in one of his classes to events in what was then a small city with just over 40,000 inhabitants: private and general information to let them know how his life was going in this provincial capital, so different from Malaga, and what it was like in the place that was now home to himself, his father, his mother and his sisters. Of these little newspapers, made by his childish hands and already shown repeatedly in exhibitions [14,15], we have some sheets preserved in museums in Barcelona and Paris, thanks to a donation from the artist in the first case and a settlement of death duties in the second. As is rightly pointed out by Anne Baldassari, former director of the Picasso Museum in Paris and the person who has most extensively studied his work in the field of journalism [16], the young Pablo, in his multiple perspective, brings a special shrewdness to the task of capturing reality in that dual dimension: through images that illustrate it with journalistic subtlety and through the simultaneous use of writing. In fact, this precocious experience of the little newspapers he published in the city of A Coruña, Azul y Blanco and La Coruña, offers us the first evidence of the extremely close attention Picasso paid to print media, an interest that was to remain active throughout his life, both as a reader and as a participant in publishing and illustrating newspapers and magazines ([16], p. 9). Indeed, he produced a continuation of Azul y Blanco in his first year in Barcelona, 1895, a copy of which is preserved in the Paris museum, but above all he did so on a more professional basis in Madrid when he created the magazine Arte Joven, in 1901, with the Catalan writer Francisco de Asís Soler, sharing in the radicalism of the 1898 Generation or an anarchist position and acting, as he had done in A Coruña, as editor, writer, illustrator and administrator all at the same time.3 Although his collaborations with newspapers from 1899 onwards ([17], p. 167), following A Coruña, took place in Barcelona with illustrations for the journals Joventut, Pèl & Ploma and Catalunya Artística, which, for Raymond Bachollet, an expert in Picasso’s relationship with the press [17], are his first true incursions in this field (“Los dos primeros dibujos de Picasso realmente concebidos para la prensa, aparecieron en Joventut (Juventud)...Había sido invitado a ilustrar dos poemas de Juan Oliva Bridgman...” [The first two drawings by Picasso really conceived for the press, appeared in Joventut...he had been invited to illustrate two poems by Juan Oliva Bridgman...]) [18] in detriment to his creations from A Coruña, as he explains in his abundant literature on the subject [19–21], on the contrary to the belief of Pierre Daix [22]. The latter, one of the major specialists on his work, defends that Picasso never abided strictly to the nature of commissioned works, whether this be his early beginnings in Azul y Blanco and La Coruña, as well as Arte Joven, and also the drawings he did for Lettres françaises, on the fourth centenary of the death of Shakespeare in 1964, when he was 84 years old, or for Patriote from Nice, in 1967, “Sus periódicos de infancia—dice—son ya su diario personal y así serán sus trabajos para la prensa durante toda su vida, una peculiar extensión o adaptación de la obra en curso” [His childhood newspapers are his 1 In his Online Picasso Project, Mallen gives the fullest diachronic account of the works from this crucial period in Picasso’s formation, extending Christian Zervos’s classic reference catalogue [12]. 2 Seoane maintained that Picasso produced these hand-made newspapers to send to his relatives in Andalusia, instead of letters. 3 Their printing works were at Calle Zurbano, 28. Arts 2017, 6, 2 3 of 19 own personal diary and that would also apply to his work for the press throughout his whole life, a particular extension or adaptation of his work in progress] [22]. Raymond Bachollet and Pierre Daix together with Jean Pierre Jouffroy, Georges Tabaraud and Georges Gosselin are responsible for one of the most interesting compendiums on Picasso’s work in the press throughout his life (Picasso et la presse. Un peintre dans l´histoire) [23], taking as the starting point, some of the best exhibitions dedicated to this theme, like for instance the show in 2000 at the Picasso Museum in Antibes (Picasso et la presse) [24]. In all cases, we know that Picasso’s interest in the illustrated press arose from his own curiosity about this type of graphic information and is documented, as recalled by Ventureira and Pardo [7] and Baldassari [15] by the presence in the archives of various issues of the magazines Monde Illustré, from 1880, La Ilustración, from 1890, further copies of the Barcelona magazine Un tros de paper, from 1865, and of course the one that most strongly influenced the examples we are concerned with here, from its modernist standpoint, the Madrid magazine Blanco y Negro, which began publication in 1890. It is quite clear, then, that in the A Coruña newspapers the impact of Blanco y Negro (Figure 1)—which his father read ([7], p. 91)—is the most obvious on the basis of its graphic codes and treatment of news, which the child cleverly tried to imitate ([16], p. 10).4 Arts 2017, 6, 2; doi: 10.3390/arts6010002 3 of 19 Raymond Bachollet and Pierre Daix together with Jean Pierre Jouffroy, Georges Tabaraud and Georges Gosselin are responsible for one of the most interesting compendiums on Picasso’s work in the press throughout his life (Picasso et la presse. Un peintre dans l´histoire) [23], taking as the starting point, some of the best exhibitions dedicated to this theme, like for instance the show in 2000 at the Picasso Museum in Antibes (Picasso et la presse) [24]. In all cases, we know that Picasso’s interest in the illustrated press arose from his own curiosity about this type of graphic information and is documented, as recalled by Ventureira and Pardo [7] and Baldassari [15] by the presence in the archives of various issues of the magazines Monde Illustré, from 1880, La Ilustración, from 1890, further copies of the Barcelona magazine Un tros de paper, from 1865, and of course the one that most strongly influenced the examples we are concerned with here, from its modernist standpoint, the Madrid magazine Blanco y Negro, which began publication in 1890. It is quite clear, then, that in the A Coruña newspapers the impact of Blanco y Negro (Figure 1)—which his father read ([7], p. 91)—is the most obvious on the basis of its graphic codes and treatment of news, which the child cleverly tried to imitate ([16], p. 10).4 Figure 1. Blanco y Negro, 48. Madrid, 3 April 1892. 2. Azul y Blanco, the Picassian Origin of Satire and Critical Humour The first issue of Azul y Blanco [25], with which he began his journalistic output, is dated 8 October 1893,5 a couple of weeks before his twelfth birthday and a few days after the start of the new school year. The title emulates that of Blanco y Negro, and Luis Seoane associates it with the colours of the flag of the port of A Coruña and that of Galicia, whose colours are blue and white ([13], p. 276). In this copy, produced with pen on paper, the manuscript title appears as “Asul y Blanco”, transcribing the Andalusian pronunciation, and there is a sketch of an urban scene, notably including the facade of a balconied house, the back of a travelling stagecoach, and a couple—a soldier and a young lady wearing a hat—with a little dog. On the right, where the date appears, beneath the title, which is repeated, some tubes of paint or bottles with labels centre the composition. Under them is written: Telegramas/Madrid [Telegrams/Madrid], the heading of a text which reads: “A 4 Baldassari says that Picasso’s attraction to these publications is similar to that he felt as a collector of old photographs: portraits, visiting cards, orientalist prints or ethnographic documents and reproductions of works by the old masters. 5 MPB (Museo Picasso Barcelona): 110.863 R. Figure 1. Blanco y Negro, 48. Madrid, 3 April 1892. 2. Azul y Blanco, the Picassian Origin of Satire and Critical Humour The first issue of Azul y Blanco [25], with which he began his journalistic output, is dated 8 October 1893,5 a couple of weeks before his twelfth birthday and a few days after the start of the new school year. The title emulates that of Blanco y Negro, and Luis Seoane associates it with the colours of the flag of the port of A Coruña and that of Galicia, whose colours are blue and white ([13], p. 276). In this copy, produced with pen on paper, the manuscript title appears as “Asul y Blanco”, transcribing the Andalusian pronunciation, and there is a sketch of an urban scene, notably including the facade of a balconied house, the back of a travelling stagecoach, and a couple—a soldier and a young lady wearing a hat—with a little dog. On the right, where the date appears, beneath the title, which is repeated, some tubes of paint or bottles with labels centre the composition. Under them is written: Telegramas/Madrid [Telegrams/Madrid], the heading of a text which reads: “A la hora de entrar en máquina este periódico 4 Baldassari says that Picasso’s attraction to these publications is similar to that he felt as a collector of old photographs: portraits, visiting cards, orientalist prints or ethnographic documents and reproductions of works by the old masters. 5 MPB (Museo Picasso Barcelona): 110.863 R. Arts 2017, 6, 2 4 of 19 no se recibió ningún telegrama” [At the time of going to press this newspaper has not received any telegrams.] This sketch, which is still very rudimentary, is followed in the same newspaper by others that are more complete, and also more eloquent, such as the one he dates 24 September 1894 (Septiembre 94-24) [26].6 The left-hand sheet is headed by a title: “La canícula de los perros” [The Dog Days of the Dogs], underneath which is a drawing with an unusual trainer and three dogs playing, accompanied by the corresponding text: “En un examen de aritmética El profesor. Si le dan a V.5 melones y se come 4 ¿Cuánto le quedaran? El alumno. Uno/P. Mirelo V. bien q le quedará/A. una indigestión” [In an arithmetic exam. Teacher: ‘If you are given 5 melons and you eat 4, how many will you be left with?’ Pupil: ‘One.’ T: ‘Think carefully. What will you be left with?’ P: ‘Indigestion’]. On the right-hand sheet, under the title, the text runs between the drawings: “Entre aguadores”/Non he vistu pueblu mais embustero que este Madrid/¿Por qué nus harán ir a todus los fuegos? Hombre para apagarlus/¿Entonces para q dice en todas casas “asegurada de incendios” [Between water carriers./‘I’ve never seen a more lying town than this Madrid./Why do they make us go to all the fires?’ ‘To put them out, of course.’/‘Then why does it say “insured against fire” on all the houses’]? Picasso’s irony and humour as a child transcend the substance of the message and go beyond the content, in that in the second text he imitates the pronunciation of a typical Galician speaking Castilian badly with a strong regional accent. And this fragment from his little newspaper would be enough to make one agree with Brigitte Léal’s view in referring to them, foreshadowing his later work as precursors of jokingly critical sketches, written in a feverish, turbulent, exuberant vein, always rich in poetic and humorous associations ([27], p. 10). It is a poetics of hints and ambivalent earthiness, often accentuated, which includes more refined and sociologically exquisite satirical elements, as on the page from the issue of Azul y Blanco dated Sunday 28 October 1894 [28], preserved in the Museu Picasso in Barcelona,7 signed by him in several places on the sheet, in which he reveals an early consciousness of style in the brushstrokes of the figures: agile and sketchy, with gestural and expressionist lines to build the iconography of those newspapers, a model of drawing that he would repeat in his Cuadernos from A Coruña from 18948 and 18959, with isolated compositions combined with the text and devoid of any thematic connection with each other. In the upper left part there is a section in capitals entitled Telegramas [Telegrams], with a little text underneath: “A la hora de entrar en máquina este periódico no se ha recibido ningún parte telegráfico...” [At the time of going to press this newspaper has not received any telegraphic communications...] Below this, illustrating what he calls Nota de actualidad [Latest News in Brief], between two caricatured drawings of women in profile arguing and a male face in the centre, there is a gentleman wearing a tie, and a text: “Pues Señores no tenemos nada de particular q decir a V.” [Well, ladies and gentlemen, we have nothing in particular to say to you], while the right-hand page, headed by the title and date, underlines the number 20 and continues with another text: “Se publica todos los domingos”. [Published every Sunday.] Underneath this is the following: “Sr. Dn. José Muñoz Estevez/Muy Señor mio y de todo mi respeto y consideración contando a V. en el numero de nuestros suscritores tengo el honor de participarle y desde el dia de hoy comienza otra vez a continuar sus funciones el periódico Azul y Blanco/P. Ruiz” [To Mr José Muñoz Estevez/Dear Sir, With every respect and consideration to you as one of our subscribers I have the honour to inform you that from today the newspaper Azul y Blanco is beginning once again to resume its functions./P. Ruiz.] On the right there is a drawing of a boy with a typical rural Galician beret and the title Un vendedor de periódicos [A Newspaper Seller], while the cartoon below depicts the face of a distinctly Galician countrywoman. 6 MPB: 110.863. 7 MPB: 110.863. 8 MPB: 111.489 to 111.512, 112.481 and 112. 482 (La Coruña, 1894–1895). 9 MPB: 111.396 to 111.425 R, 112.479 and 112.480 (La Coruña, 1894). Arts 2017, 6, 2 5 of 19 It is notable that on most of the pages in these little newspapers the young Ruiz Picasso, who had beautiful handwriting, makes spelling mistakes and generally does not use accents correctly, and at the same time is very free in his use of punctuation and abbreviations, omitting commas on numerous occasions. The other page from the 28 October 1894 issue of Azul y Blanco (Picasso Museum, Paris)10 concentrates on graphic features and is closer to the structure of Blanco y Negro, mentioned above, and to its modernist typology, whether in the way the text is associated with the images, as in the Letters Section of the Madrid magazine—some issues of this magazine, over the course of 1892 or 1893, seem to have inspired Pablo—or in the iconographic treatment, very much to the taste of illustrators of the period [29]. The information is presented in the form of short texts with little framed scenes that enable us to visualise the news story with a sparkling touch of irony: “Ya ha empezado a llover así continuará hasta el verano” [It has started raining and will continue until the summer] is the succinct phrase written under the image of a gentleman carrying an umbrella, like the comment on a sketch of a lady with her skirt blowing up: “También ha empezado el viento a caminar a...hasta que no halla Coruña” [The wind has also set off on its way to... until there’s no more Coruña]. And beside it there is an “ANUNCIO: Se compran palomas de casta/dirigirse a la calle de Payo Gomez número 14 piso 2º Coruña” [ADVERTISEMENT: pedigree pigeons bought/apply to 2nd floor number 14 Calle de Payo Gomez Coruña]. At the bottom he draws two women talking to each other and entitles it Dos barbianas [Two free-and-easy ladies], and on the right there are various scenes with drawings of male faces (REVUELTO [MIXED UP], it says in capitals) and others that refer to Una madre de familia [A Mother] (with female figures), Un padre de familia [A Father] (a gentleman with a hat and stick), the Desafío del “Guerra”, [“Guerra” Challenge], probably alluding to the famous bullfighter Guerrita ([7], p. 392, p. 439), talking to another matador, both of them wearing bullfighting costumes, and a conversation between two soldiers, in which one is asking the other how cannons are made. All the drawings are given a tone of caricature and are a synthesis of the facility for expressing feeling with which the young Picasso observed the city, in a patient analysis which explored the weather conditions that had such a decisive effect on the lives of the inhabitants of Galicia, whose austere temperament he managed to capture, as well as their sociological subtleties, perceived in tiny details, from family life to village gossip and the ever-present power of the military class and the clergy (there is a priest at the top of the page) and the habitual love of bullfighting. An issue of Azul y Blanco from Christmas 1895 has survived, mistakenly ascribed to A Coruña; presumably he produced it when he was already living in Barcelona,11 as a continuation of those he had done in Galicia, since by that time the family had settled in the Catalan capital. The same ironic tone is still present and the drawings cover both pages (“Azul y Blanco/Número de Navidad” [Christmas Issue] it says on what is presumably the front page), occupied by a scene with soldiers and a figure with a horse on the left and a turkey on the right with an inscription: El héroe de Navidad [The Hero of Christmas] and above it his signature, “P. Ruiz/95”. On the second page, there is another turkey and a religious scene, in which Christ is addressing a seated character. 3. La Coruña, Self-Representation through the World The second newspaper Pablo “published” in A Coruña was La Coruña. The first issue is dated 16 September 1894 and is preserved in the Picasso Museum in Paris [30].12 It is perhaps the more explicit in terms of the range of information, and together with the sketchiness of its drawings—in 10 MP (Picasso Museum Paris): 403R. 11 Z. XXI, 15 and Z. XXI, 16. It belongs to a private collection. It could indeed be from A Coruña if we assume that the date given on it, 1895, refers to the Christmas period in 1894–1895, in which case he could have produced it in the new year. Otherwise, and most probably, we are speaking of Christmas 1895, by which time he had settled in Barcelona. 12 MP: 402R. Arts 2017, 6, 2 6 of 19 ink with hardly any corrections and very brief texts—it again displays the satirical character of the earlier issues of Azul y Blanco. It concludes with the longest known manuscript text written by Picasso as a child and a page totally covered with caricatured drawings, presumably designed to illustrate the sociological information on the city’s fiestas. The first page, which functions as a front cover, with the number 1 inscribed on it, is headed by the title, dated (Se publica todos los domingos [Published every Sunday], it says) and dedicated to Sor Dn Salvador Ruiz Blasco, his uncle. Underneath there is a box with the indication Director/P. Ruiz [Editor/P. Ruiz] and the image of a Tipo gallego [Galician Type]—this title is written under the drawing—in profile. Next comes a lengthy text to which I shall refer later on. The left-hand page is one of the most expressive: a circle with a triangle inside it surrounding the business address: DIRECCIÓN PAYO GÓMEZ [ADDRESS PAYO GÓMEZ]. And the page contains a number of juxtaposed phrases clarifying the simple drawings: “pin-pan-pun”; the Tower of Hercules: Boceto para una torre de caramelo [Sketch for a Tower of Caramel]; two peasants: Bañistas acuden a vañarse13 (Los de Betanzos). [Bathers going for a bathe (the ones from Betanzos)]; a male figure and two peasant women: Como se bañan los de Betanzos [How people from Betanzos bathe]; what look like some firecrackers and a palette: Cartel de la fiesta [Festival Poster]; and beside a caricature of a rich, well-groomed young man smoking a cigarette: Y alguna q otra corrida cosa poco común aquí [And the occasional bullfight, which is unusual here]. Once again, the shadow of Blanco y Negro, the copiously illustrated modernist Madrid magazine that we know the boy must have seen or read, because his father read it, hovers over the typographic design and general structure: from “Pim, Pam, Pum”, which Blanco y Negro used for humorous purposes and in which Picasso changes the spelling, but not the intentions, just as he had done previously when drawing on quotations from telegrams or manuscript summer letters, everything is invested with that feeling of a synthesis between the humorous drawings and the fragmentary texts. According to Anne Baldassari [16], the young Picasso had discovered a way of making us understand reality using both visual means and writing, through an expert and at the same time detached knowledge of the semantic codes of the print media of his time. As in illustrated magazines, then in their heyday, the juxtaposition of text and image, titles, headings, articles, cartoons and captions was organised so as to create that specific object, the newspaper, composed of signs offering multiple readings. And through the familiar use of these pastiches, Picasso expressed the humour of his vision of the world and showed evidence of an iconoclastic use of the mass-circulation press, as an object of derision, and especially the urgent, sensationalist style of journalism ([16], p. 30), of which he had such an acute grasp, far removed from the prejudices of maturity and from the perspective of childish innocence. The boy Picasso’s tone remained ironic and critical, and we should ask ourselves whether this attitude arose by chance, which is very unlikely, or whether it was really because the atmosphere in which his life was unfolding and his upbringing were not characterised by the acquiescence that enables one to accept anything without first questioning it. The origin of this critical questioning and the high degree of sarcasm with which he filtered the news and perceived the life he conveys to us, through images and texts, was fuelled in the freethinking A Coruña atmosphere of Dr Ramón Pérez Costales, his protector and mentor, or even in that of Pérez Costales’s illegitimate son, Modesto Castilla, with whom Picasso seems to have been on good terms, as is evident from the fact that he dedicated some drawings and paintings to him, and whom he depicted in one of his best portraits from this period. But it was also fostered in the street and among the friends he spent time with, shaping a genuinely Galician character, permanently in doubt, constantly enquiring, though not immune from sarcastic humour and ambivalence, reinforced by discipline and obstinacy, during a period of years in which the moulding of his nature began to be definitively consolidated. All this was in 13 Note that he makes a spelling mistake, turning bañarse (“bathe”) into vañarse. He corrects it in the next phrase: Como se bañan los de Betanzos (“How people from Betanzos bathe”). Arts 2017, 6, 2 7 of 19 addition to the decisive influence of José, his father, an equally subtle freethinker, as Anne Baldassari argues ([16], p. 31), portraying him as someone who moved in bohemian artistic milieu and in liberal and progressive circles in his youth and was noted for his caustic wit, brilliant remarks and a certain number of picaresque adventures.14 And we might take the view that to this atmosphere of political tension, artistic debate and rebellious humour that she sees as the crux of the formative philosophy of early Picasso—which was always to remain with him—we should add his unquestionable critical genius and the sharp, lively disposition to which his fellow student Ramón María Tenreiro already referred, recalling his image and actions, sometimes out of place, at secondary school, the School of Fine Art and the streets and beaches of A Coruña ([31], p. 175). La Coruña concludes with the longest text that the young Picasso had written in his little newspapers published in the city, in which he gives an account, in the manner of a news article, of the programme for the fiestas in A Coruña, which, as we know, are in August [32]. Pablo, who was not yet thirteen and would not enrol for the following year of his baccalaureate, 1894–1895, which gives us some idea of how little value he attached to these studies that were supposed to regularise his school education, presents us here and there with spelling and phrasing that do not observe the rules. The title is expressive: Fiestas en la Coruña. And it reads as follows: “Agosto-Día 4. A las doce en punto de la mañana un repique general de campanas doce bombas de palenque y las gaitas del país tocando alegres vises populares anunciarán el comienzo de las fiestas. Bién q. Al amanecer de este día las bandas de guarnición recorrerán las calles principales tocando animadas Dianas militares al mismo tiempo que las gaitas dejan oir alegres Alvoradas.15 A las once se celebrará en la Iglesia de San Gorge explendidamente decorada la solemne Funcion religiosa con asistencia del Exmo. ayuntamiento y principales autoridades con cumplimiento del voto hecho por el pueblo de la Coruña en 19 de Mayo de 1589 al ser librada del asedio q. le tenía puesto la armada inglesa por el hecho heroico de de Maria Mayor Fernandez de la Cámara y Pita16 estando encargado del panegírico el ilustrado y elocuente orador sagrado Sr. Don Antolín Lopez Gomez Magistral de la catedral de Lugo y oficiando de pontifical con asistencia del cabildo, el Exmo. E Ilmo. Sr. Arzobispo de Santiago. A las 5 (?) de la tarde variadas y vistosas cucañas17 terrestres en la alameda del paseo de Mendez Nuñez frente al local de la sociedad del Sporting-Club.- A las 9 de la noche y en los intermedios de la velada musical en dicho paseo se elevaron Globos grotescos y de variadas formas. Al mismo tiempo q. iluminará infinidad de fuegos de aire de sorprendente y variada luceria (Se continuará)”. [August 4th. At twelve noon precisely a general peal of bells, twelve firecrackers and the local bagpipes playing merry popular tunes will announce the start of the fiestas, although the same day at dawn the garrison bands will march along the main streets playing stirring military reveilles while at the same time the bagpipes will sound lively alvoradas [sic]. At eleven o’clock the solemn religious service will be held in the splendidly decorated Church of St George in the presence of the City Council and the leading authorities, in fulfilment of the vow made by the people of La Coruña on 19 May 1589 on being liberated from the siege to which they had been subjected by the English navy though the heroic actions of María Mayor Fernández de la 14 The director of the Picasso Museum in Paris and expert on the artist goes so far as to say that the caustic irony he employs bears witness to the unconstrained tone that prevailed in the family circle, and urges us to qualify the description often made of his father, who is commonly reduced to the inoffensive figure of a minor academic painter. 15 The alborada (dawn song) is a classical and popular musical composition in a poetic and lyrical vein devoted to the early morning and closely linked to Galician fiestas and pilgrimages. Some of them became well known and were set to music with words by the late Romantic poetess Rosalía Castro, which the young Pablo must have known, since we know that he not only greatly admired her but read some of her works and even recited them, as Antonio Olano recalls. 16 Picasso was very familiar with the story of this heroine of the city of A Coruña, and is even accurate in the dates. María Mayor Fernández de Cámara y Pita (1565–1643), better known as María Pita, was indeed the heroine who defended the city in 1589 against the British navy, commanded by the pirate Francis Drake. The siege took place on 4 May, with the attack on the city, whose walls were breached by over 10,000 troops under the command of an ensign. With a cry of “If you have any honour, follow me!”, María Pita not only got rid of the ensign but also managed to encourage the local troops and get the civil population involved in the fight to repel the English. 17 The cucaña (greasy pole) is a game that was very successful in popular rural fiestas. Competitors tried to climb a pole using their hands and legs. Arts 2017, 6, 2 8 of 19 Cámara y Pita. The eloquent and illustrious holy orator Don Antolín López Gómez, chancellor of the cathedral of Lugo, will be entrusted with delivering the panegyric and His Excellency the Archbishop of Santiago will officiate pontifically in the presence of the chapter. At 5 [?] o’clock in the afternoon there will be a variety of spectacular cucañas set up in Méndez Núñez avenue opposite the premises of the Sporting Club society. At 9 o’clock in the evening and in the intervals of the musical soirée in this avenue grotesque balloons of diverse shapes will rise into the air, while at the same time countless rockets will light up the skies with amazing and varied colours. (To be continued).] The meticulous handwritten description of the festivities that took place on 4 August and that he recounted on 16 September 1894, that is, over a month after the events, was addressed to his family in Malaga to inform them how things were going for the Ruiz Picassos in the city, overcoming the gloomy portents of a long, hard winter, but he also makes it clear, at least, that they did not return to Malaga for the summer and remained in A Coruña, making it possible to provide a more pleasant, festive image of the latter, and this necessarily entailed breaking away from the much-cited unpleasant face of the weather and experiencing quite different conditions, which tend to be moderately warm and fresh in the summer months, reinforced by the joyful bustle of the new season. So journalistic activity, planned as a special kind of adolescent experience or game, turned out in the end to play a more important part in Picasso’s life than providing a mere documentary record of the child who wanted to tell his family in the south about his life in A Coruña: it was, albeit unconsciously, the starting point of an experience that was to grow in scale in subsequent years, from actual participation in the press, which he never abandoned and which was very prolific in certain periods, such as the 1950s with his contributions to communist newspapers ([16], p. 213)18, to the epic experimentation with journalistic collage in Synthetic Cubism, with newspaper as a medium or papier découpé, for inventing iconographies, among other procedures that constantly recurred until the end of his life. Adopting a more speculative approach, Michel Melot considers, regardless of the fact that no such association is attested historically, that the young Pablo’s handwritten newspapers could be related to the first truly popular comics (bandes dessinées), which, in many cases, delighted some people and outraged others ([33], p. 83). However, there was nothing definite in the practical significance of those newspapers beyond that perception of “first visions” recorded in the malleable thickness of the printing matrix—that of his conscious or unconscious mind, depending on how one wishes to see it—which “podrían encarnar la permanencia de un universo de imágenes, donde Picasso se autorrepresenta en y a través del periódico del mundo, el periódico de su vida, el periódico de su obra” [could embody the permanence of a world of images, where Picasso represented himself in and through the newspaper of the world, the newspaper of his life, the newspaper of his work], as Anne Baldassari put it ([16], p. 218). However, Picasso’s newspapers from A Coruña have more to do with these first visions and chronicles perceived by a child who interprets his concerns in picaresque terms and always with a biting sense of humour, which were to leave nobody indifferent thanks to the impact of the solitary, isolated and always expressionist image, than with the first bandes dessinées mentioned by Melot ([33] p. 83), in the tradition of Le Petit Français illustré, journal des écoliers et des écoliers.19 Those stories usually had a theme and the drawings were divided into sequences related to the script of the short text featured below them. As opposed to their realism, highly constructed and nuanced, the isolated drawings by Picasso reinforced a gestural and exclamatory dynamic that underscored the more ironic and critical aspects of the image in the setting of what we understand as the vignette, closer to the impact of the satirical and expressive drawing, always sketchy and laced with humour, which is what he was 18 “La décennie qui s´ouvre en 1950 est marquée par la participation de Picasso á la presse communiste”. 19 A popular French newspaper founded in 1889, which continued in circulation until the early 1900s. It was aimed at young people and was published in a format of sequences of highly realist drawings with a text below. Published by Armand Colin, Paris. Arts 2017, 6, 2 9 of 19 looking for, over and above telling any story. We believe that the historieta was understood at the time as a “cuento o fábula mezclada de alguna aventura o cosa de poca importancia” [a tale or fable mixed with the odd adventure or things of little importance], which, in the specificity of the Spanish illustrated press of the second half of the nineteenth century, translated as an insignificant story or fabulistic and even theatrical invention ([34], p. 32). This had nothing to do with the goals of Picasso’s vignettes or drawings as a child in his newspapers from A Coruña in which, whenever he wished to add emphasis to the story, he made use of text to make it more explicit. The Spanish term most closely corresponding to the French concept of bande dessinée20 is the then nascent and incidental historieta, which was subsequently expanded with greater precision in specialised journals in Spain in the final quarter of the nineteenth century in the form of caricatures or aleluya (auca), which earned a respectable status in the classic, ingenious humour of the draftsman Ramón Cilla, in Madrid society, especially in Mundo Cómico (1880) and La Caricatura (1884), counterparts of the French publications Le Monde Comique and La Caricature. Cilla, together with Apeles Mestres, Ramón Escaler and Mecáchis were the major players in this graphic field and its most critical satirical conscience during the closing decades of the century, making use of kinetic signs, the first crude speech bubbles, graphic metaphors and the expressive mobility of the figures, in now mythical publications like Los Madriles, La caricatura and particularly La Semana Cómica ([34], p. 34). But these illustrations, and also their more well-known authors, which began to make their way into modernist show business, fashion and current affairs journals like La Gran Vía, Nuevo Mundo, La Ilustración Española y Americana, La Ilustración de Madrid, El Museo Universal and La Esfera ([34], pp. 32–34), were unfamiliar to the young Picasso, who only knew Blanco y Negro, his true source of reference, which he had access to thanks to his father. We do know however that the daily newspapers of A Coruña (the most popular being La Voz de Galicia, El Diario de Galicia and El telegrama) barely used any illustrations at all, but there were some highly popular satirical publications in the city such as El Duende, Don Pepito (Figure 2) and El Petardo (Figure 3), which were founded between 1886 and 1892 and made profuse use of caricatures, and this would have been something José Ruiz Blasco and his son Pablo were well acquainted with ([17], p. 173). Arts 2017, 6, 2; doi: 10.3390/arts6010002 9 of 19 understood at the time as a “cuento o fábula mezclada de alguna aventura o cosa de poca importancia” [a tale or fable mixed with the odd adventure or things of little importance], which, in the specificity of the Spanish illustrated press of the second half of the nineteenth century, translated as an insignificant story or fabulistic and even theatrical invention ([34], p. 32). This had nothing to do with the goals of Picasso’s vignettes or drawings as a child in his newspapers from A Coruña in which, whenever he wished to add emphasis to the story, he made use of text to make it more explicit. The Spanish term most closely corresponding to the French concept of bande dessinée20 is the then nascent and incidental historieta, which was subsequently expanded with greater precision in specialised journals in Spain in the final quarter of the nineteenth century in the form of caricatures or aleluya (auca), which earned a respectable status in the classic, ingenious humour of the draftsman Ramón Cilla, in Madrid society, especially in Mundo Cómico (1880) and La Caricatura (1884), counterparts of the French publications Le Monde Comique and La Caricature. Cilla, together with Apeles Mestres, Ramón Escaler and Mecáchis were the major players in this graphic field and its most critical satirical conscience during the closing decades of the century, making use of kinetic signs, the first crude speech bubbles, graphic metaphors and the expressive mobility of the figures, in now mythical publications like Los Madriles, La caricatura and particularly La Semana Cómica ([34], p. 34). But these illustrations, and also their more well-known authors, which began to make their way into modernist show business, fashion and current affairs journals like La Gran Vía, Nuevo Mundo, La Ilustración Española y Americana, La Ilustración de Madrid, El Museo Universal and La Esfera ([34], pp. 32– 34), were unfamiliar to the young Picasso, who only knew Blanco y Negro, his true source of reference, which he had access to thanks to his father. We do know however that the daily newspapers of A Coruña (the most popular being La Voz de Galicia, El Diario de Galicia and El telegrama) barely used any illustrations at all, but there were some highly popular satirical publications in the city such as El Duende, Don Pepito (Figure 2) and El Petardo (Figure 3), which were founded between 1886 and 1892 and made profuse use of caricatures, and this would have been something José Ruiz Blasco and his son Pablo were well acquainted with ([17], p. 173). 20 This term did not arrive to Spain and replace the historieta until the early twentieth century. The term comic arrived even much later ([34], p. 32). Figure 2. Don Pepito, 27 July 1890. Printed magazine. Biblioteca de Galicia, Santiago de Compostela. 20 This term did not arrive to Spain and replace the historieta until the early twentieth century. The term comic arrived even much later ([34], p. 32). Arts 2017, 6, 2 10 of 19 Arts 2017, 6, 2; doi: 10.3390/arts6010002 10 of 19 Figure 2. Don Pepito, 27 July 1890. Printed magazine. Biblioteca de Galicia, Santiago de Compostela. More than the consolidation of a specific style, the previously mentioned characteristics tells us, through an analysis of his “little newspapers”, that the adolescent Ruiz Picasso engaged with the way of thinking of the city and into many of its customs and commonplaces, how he interprets it with humour, but above all how he reproduces a distinctive sociology of fin-de-siècle Galicia, between the weight of the rural and provincial and an urban desire to emerge, looking at the world from the fragmented metonymy of that Coruña which defended the Athenian slogan that no one was a foreigner in the city. Here we can find the seed and the graphic expression of the critical and social rather than political consciousness of the teenager, in line with what Jean-Pierre Jouffroy argues (“Debemos señalar, en primer lugar, que los dibujos de juventud publicados tanto en la prensa española como francesa se refieren más a la crítica social y no a las relaciones directas con la política” [we should point out, first of all, that the juvenile drawings published in the Spanish and French press refer more to social critique and are not directly related with politics]), which, with the odd exception, due to the nature of events and demands, persisted throughout his whole life [35]. Figure 3. El Petardo, 25 July 1892. Printed magazine. 40.5 × 30 cm, Real Academia Gallega, A Coruña. Figure 3. El Petardo, 25 July 1892. Printed magazine. 40.5 × 30 cm, Real Academia Gallega, A Coruña. More than the consolidation of a specific style, the previously mentioned characteristics tells us, through an analysis of his “little newspapers”, that the adolescent Ruiz Picasso engaged with the way of thinking of the city and into many of its customs and commonplaces, how he interprets it with humour, but above all how he reproduces a distinctive sociology of fin-de-siècle Galicia, between the weight of the rural and provincial and an urban desire to emerge, looking at the world from the fragmented metonymy of that Coruña which defended the Athenian slogan that no one was a foreigner in the city. Here we can find the seed and the graphic expression of the critical and social rather than political consciousness of the teenager, in line with what Jean-Pierre Jouffroy argues (“Debemos señalar, en primer lugar, que los dibujos de juventud publicados tanto en la prensa española como francesa se refieren más a la crítica social y no a las relaciones directas con la política” [we should point out, first of all, that the juvenile drawings published in the Spanish and French press refer more to social Arts 2017, 6, 2 11 of 19 critique and are not directly related with politics]), which, with the odd exception, due to the nature of events and demands, persisted throughout his whole life [35]. 4. Activism and Rebellion, Caricature, Sarcasm and Voyeurism As Ángel Padín reminds us ([5], p. 43), this precocious adolescent, in whom a rebellious child coexisted with an artistically mature young man, first became aware of politics and of commitment to the most deprived members of society through contact with what was then his adopted city, guided by his artistic patron, the politician and doctor Ramón Pérez Costales, but also of the profuse social and cultural activity being pursued there, especially in cultural circles, such as Circo coruñés, which his father, José Ruiz Blasco, frequently attended. And there is something else of fundamental significance in the life of the adolescent, who knew he was going to be an artist, that also emerges in the newspapers: a critical and ideological position, connected with the political awareness just mentioned, a position that was to mark his future and his life commitment for good, and this sprang, we must remember, not only from his family circle, defined by the caustic temperament of his father, José, but also, and above all, from the republicanism and freethinking of the above-mentioned Dr Ramón Pérez Costales, his great champion in A Coruña, but also his mentor and his greatest friend, who was the mirror of his moral formation in those years ([10], p. 217; [4], p. 38; [7], p. 268, p. 283).21 Therein lies the initiation or genesis of a more humane, political and activist Picasso, the one who painted Guernica in 1937, the one who committed himself as an active member of the French Communist Party in the autumn of 1944, and the one who drew the dove that symbolised the First World Congress of Advocates of Peace, held in Paris in 1949, so well revealed in the exhibition at Tate Liverpool, Picasso: Peace and Freedom.22 But beyond the documentary and critical consciousness we find in the childhood newspapers, the more remote beginnings of that adolescent who at that time signed himself as Pablo Ruiz can be traced in his first doodles in his school books, many of which fall into the category of meta-irony, an attitude that was reinforced by his experience of ambivalent Galician existential doubt and drew on humour and double-sided codes to define unprecedented situations. It was this that gave rise to his vocation as a caricaturist. In those now faraway books, on which he drew in class and, more particularly, in the calaboose, he incubated this vocation and this early reflexive and caustic outlook that would end up defining one of the most critical slants of his practice, especially through caricature, with its power to denounce, which he would inevitably take to such striking works as Sueño y mentira de Franco and Guernica, both made during the course of the Spanish Civil War (1937). Picasso himself spoke of the importance in his formation as a draftsman the many hours he spent in the school’s calaboose, as a result of the many punishments he received for his rebellious character and his opposition to regimented study, which would not only try his father’s patience—who absolved him from secondary school in the 1894–1895 school year, at the young age of thirteen—but also to make him understand that his true dedication was art. This rebelliousness and punishment which the adolescent was able to turn to his own advantage, is addressed in some of his biographies and an early one from 1923 by his fellow schoolmate, Ramón María Tenreiro, already alluded to the “perenne huésped de los calabozos en los que la autoridad disciplinaria del director encerraba a los escolares rebeldes” [perennial guest in the calaboose in which the director locked up rebellious students] ([31], p. 175), a peculiar accommodation recalled by Luís Seoane, the artist from Galicia, when he visited him at Sala Pleyel in Paris, in 1949, and to whom Pablo replied that in that place “aprendió más que en ningún otro sitio a dibujar, tal era la frecuencia con que le encerraban” [he learned more than in any other place to draw, so often was he locked up there] ([13], p. 276). Though, obviously, a consequence of being a bad student, in that bare cell unfurnished except for a bench to sit on, the young Ruiz Picasso liked to while away the hours 21 The portrait he did of Dr Pérez Costales in 1895 was one of the paintings from A Coruña that Picasso never wanted to be parted from and that normally hung on the walls of one of his homes. 22 The exhibition took place in 2010 (21 April–30 August) and clearly showed the artist’s political activism and combative character, though a selection of 150 works. Arts 2017, 6, 2 12 of 19 drawing non-stop in his sketch pad or on the pages of his school books ([4], p. 42). These were the books that the child artist carried around with him, illustrated during hours of frenetic activity, trying to make the most of his punishment. They were to remain with him until 1970, three years before his death, when he decided to donate them, together with many other works, to Museu Picasso in Barcelona. A good example of those doodled texts is La literatura preceptiva. Retórica y poética [36], by Emilio Álvarez23, whose cover was illustrated by Pablo with two figures of a man, one of them a priest with biretta, and a horse. He filled the pages with sketchy caricatured silhouettes of children, dolls, characters with guns—after all, he was still a child—sometimes depicting a duel, architecturally building his name, hands and flies, hammers, tools, rifles, scrawls, profiles of a woman, muskets and carbines, bears, more caricatures, bottles and geometrical figures, hands wielding machetes, caricatures of mandarins and Andalucian señoritos, repeated signatures of Pablo Ruiz on the same page, caricatures of Práxedes Mateo Sagasta24 and General Martínez Campos—on pages 64 and 65—and, once again, birds and branches, tree trunks and limbs, repeated heads, lit candles, mules with saddlebags, animals and banners, caravels and cannons, more geometric figures, triangles, cones, sailing boats, daggers, the Eiffel Tower, penguins, dancers, sables and carbines, children’s heads, machetes, women, bearded men ...And one donkey mounting another, on page 178 (Borriquillo y borriquilla25) [37], with some very expressive verses (Sin más, ni más, ni más/la burra levanta el rabo./Sin más, ni más, ni más/el burro le mete el nabo [Without further ado/one donkey lifted her tail./Without further ado/the other donkey gave her his turnip]), a drawing speaking of the young man’s irony and humour, which had already awakened to sex, sex he saw on the streets, filtered through humour and caricature, in the exaggerated ambivalent way he had of interpreting it. These doodles, sketches and drawings in his text books were at the very origin of his sense of caricature and his personal newspapers analysed above. The innocence and mischievousness he displayed in the newspapers enabled him to travel through the secret world of an aestheticised laughter which imagined fantastic little animals and characters also dying from laughter, bulls, doves, dogs or cats and donkeys or Cliper himself, his dog. If we bear in mind that caricature is a form of artistic expression whose language is based on formal exaggeration or actual distortion of the features of a character, to reinforce, in a humorous tone, the critical levels—political, social, religious, cultural—that one wishes to highlight, sometimes emphasising other facets, such as the grotesque, the ridiculous or the satirical, and whose ideal format would be cartoons, we will appreciate the amazing precocity of Picasso, who, from the age of eleven, began to attain unimaginable levels of critical acumen for a child of his age. And as we observe when we confront the little newspapers produced in A Coruña in 1893 and 1894, his references did not stray far from what he could see in the press of the period, especially in the magazine Blanco y Negro, which made very frequent use of caricature and with which Pablo must have been very familiar, from the composition of sections such as the Cartas de veraneo [Summer Letters]—interweaving the caricatured scene with the handwritten text, an option also employed in some issues from 1892—to others in an essentially comic vein, such as “PIM, PAM, PUM!”, also from 1892, already cited above. Its echoes were present in Azul y Blanco and La Coruña, which are reinterpretations of the situation that had attained a high degree of development in nineteenth-century British journalism and especially in France in the time of Napoleon III and Louis-Philippe, with particular attention to the political genre, which achieved mass circulation with the expansion of lithography. It was a procedure that reached Spain and was notably successful in the periodicals cited earlier, thanks to the contributions of specialists or artists—Goya had already made use of caricature in certain works, and this aspect of his poetics led to his expressionism in the Quinta del Sordo, which has a great deal of caricature in it—and it became 23 MPB: 110.927. Imprenta y Librería A. Landín. Pontevedra, 1889, 181 pages (each page: 20.7 × 13 cm). Bound in cardboard, leather spine and embossed in gilded letters. MPB: 11.927. 24 Sagasta (1827–1903) was an everyday figure during Pablo’s childhood, given that he was Prime Minister during the Regency of María Cristina, after the death of her husband King Alfonso XII. 25 MPB: 110.927. Arts 2017, 6, 2 13 of 19 firmly established in the second half of the nineteenth century, with the names of pioneering figures such as Tomás Pardo (1840–1877) and Francisco Ortego (1833–1881), famous for his contributions in El Fisgón, and especially in Gil Blas, where he consolidated his reputation as a caricaturist and satirical draftsman. Precursors to the names cited earlier. Having said that, caricature was rarely so strong and widespread as in the reign of Isabella II and the regency of María Cristina, the context of Picasso’s childhood, when the situation in Spain was reinterpreted from a critical standpoint, with significant figures such as the previously cited Ramón Cilla and ad hoc newspapers like Madrid cómico. They undoubtedly responded to the flood of French influences in Spain, which were even greater after the law on freedom of the press was passed in 1881 in France, paving the way for the proliferation of highly diverse and abundantly illustrated newspapers [38]. The fact is that the young Picasso, through the levels of critical acuity he had already shown in his drawings in A Coruña, based on a highly ironic reinterpretation of caricature, clearly displayed an ideology that was sarcastic and progressive, to say the least, and that was to characterise him throughout his life. Specialists, such as Michel Melot, already cited above, who analyses this facet in particular, identify these aims in the origin of his artistic revolution from 1907 onwards: “La abundancia y sobre todo la variedad de caricaturas—considerando esta palabra en el sentido más amplio—que se encuentran en los carnets y las hojas de croquis de los primeros años del pintor, entre 1894 y 1905, son ya el signo de que un revuelo se avecinaba...” [The abundance and above all the variety of caricatures—taking this word in the broadest sense—to be found in the notebooks and sheets of sketches from the painter’s earliest years, between 1894 and 1905, are already a sign that an upheaval was on the way...] ([33], p. 82)26. Although there is no attested historical relationship, he even goes so far as to relate these caricatures to the bande dessinée, the comic, of popular origin, and on that basis, stressing the chronology in A Coruña in 1895, he considers that Picasso creates a veritable inventory of ways of drawing, “por lo cual parece querer agotar todos los modelos posibles” [and therefore seems to want to exhaust all the possible models]. They are drawings defined by the elliptical style of press illustrators, with the schematic line that had been imposed by the new printing techniques used by newspapers, which young Pablo’s constantly alert eye had perceived as a different mode of interpretation. While the caricaturised world of the adolescent Picasso responded to the widely accepted definition of the caricature inasmuch as it embraces social satire and humorous drawing based on comic effect and expressive deformation, it also coincides with Werner Hoffmann’s view of it as a total negation of ideal beauty ([39], pp. 426–427). In fact, a large part of the young artist’s caricatures from his time in A Coruña, far from focusing on the forms, left them unfinished and reinforced the sketchiness and gesturalisation of the lines in benefit of the expressive impact of the first glance. In this regard, his references are more of a conceptual than a stylistic order, which is why it is difficult to establish a comparison with other models. In addition, his caricatures at that time had not been made to be published or in response to the current events in a newspaper or journal. And similarly, in this adolescent period of 1894 and 1895, linked to the world of caricature, there emerged, almost innocently, the theme of the voyeur, which was to be so important throughout his artistic life and was to reappear obsessively in the work of his old age ([33], pp. 86–87). Thus, we find, associated with a caricature, that of a blatant and naive female nude, betraying the subtle, primitive and equally precocious perversity of the apprentice artist manifested in his albums, his textbooks, his little newspapers and the hundreds of loose sheets that have come down to us and enable us to form a reading of Picasso which will only be complete and coherent if his origins in A Coruña are understood in this light. Now and then the humour comes close to explicitly adopting the philosophy of the cartoon, as we can see in examples such as Los Paraguas [The Umbrellas], a work dated to early 1892, when Picasso 26 This author makes a categorical assertion when he maintains that Picasso’s first drawings contain the seeds of the revolution he brought about in 1907, the Cubist revolution, which he was to make permanent: “regrouping his earliest drawings makes it possible to see how this evolution was already inevitable in his adolescence”. Arts 2017, 6, 2 14 of 19 was not yet eleven.27 He sardonically portrays a classic A Coruña street scene that could be taking place at any time of year but is probably in winter, on a rainy day—the recurrent weather conditions which obsessed Pablo and especially his family—in which the characters are walking along carrying umbrellas in front of some pigeons. Above the succinct multiple images, schematically rendered in their essential features, the artist has written a dialogue by hand: “D. Juan me alegro de encontrarme a V. porque me he salido de mi casa sin sombrilla y está lloviendo/Pues véngase V. conmigo y le acompañaré hasta su casa” [‘Don Juan, I am glad to see you because I have come out without a parasol and it is raining’/‘Well, come with me and I will walk you home’]: satirical, caricatured scenes that we have already seen in the newspapers, but that acquire a special autonomy when he isolates them in order to underline the most absurd or shocking effects, stressing the exaggeration of the facial features which reinforce the humour or the grotesque postures, as in Caricaturas28 (1894) [40]. The same effect is reproduced in the Caricatura de torero [Caricature of a Bullfighter],29 where he accentuates the distortion of a macrocephalic, almost monstrous face, not something he commonly tends to do in his drawings, which are always restrained, despite his young age. Exaggerating the peculiarity of a face in this way leads him, on other occasions, to intensify the grotesque, as in Torero y monje [Bullfighter and Monk]30 [41], where the characters are very schematically drawn but highly symbolic as representations of two social forces at that time: bullfighters and the Church. In its schematic approach, it reduces the bullfighter’s eyes to numbers. However, as in the albums, its sense of caricature is focused more on the complexity of a drawing elaborated in its visual aspects to express social situations or narrate events. What is curious is that at the top on the left-hand side the paper on which this caricature is executed bears the stamp his father, José Ruiz Blasco, used in his classes, and Pablo was his pupil in the 1892–93 academic year for Dibujo de adorno [Ornamental Drawing], being registered with enrolment number 88. It so happens that the bullfighter’s eyes are two 8s, which may be a cryptic allusion to his enrolment number, just as we can make out two 7s in the monk’s eyes, which would therefore make up the number 77, but we do not know what this could refer to. His caricatures of families going for a walk make it clear: they may seem humorous in their offhand, clichéd bourgeois representation, but the characters in them are highly elaborated. One case (Familia caricaturizada [Caricature of a Family], 1895)31 recalls the classic scenes by caricaturists in the magazines of the period, such as the previously mentioned Blanco y Negro, with a wealth of highly sculptural realism achieved through the contrasts of light and shade in his exquisite pen work, and in the other (Caricatura de una familia paseando y varios croquis [Caricature of a Family Going for a Walk and Various Sketches], 1895)32 the central composition is copied from the previous one, though he uses the rest of the paper the other way up to draw two deer, two men’s heads and five pigeons and includes two more children in the scene [42]. Both of them reflect the critical subtlety of Pablo’s thought, in that what is caricatured is the social convention itself, treated as a stereotype, an aim repeated in many of his representations of local life, and to a more marked degree in certain parodic dramatisations. This is true of El diálogo y otros croquis [The Dialogue and Other Sketches], in which the scene centres on two gentlemen in suits with hats and sticks, in profile, and of Parodia de un caballero [Parody of a 27 MPB: 110.860 R. This is the dating of the Museu Picasso de Barcelona, although personally I consider that the work is a little later, because the style of the drawings and the narrative procedure match the period of the newspapers, very much along the lines of the October 1894 Azul y Blanco or the albums. 28 Z. XXI: 20. Pencil on paper on paper, 20 × 15.5 cm. Private collection. 29 MPB: 111.491. Dated 1894–95. I shall refer to this caricature when discussing the subject of bulls and bullfighters. 30 Z.VI: 49. It is usually dated to 1895, but I disagree with this dating and consider that it is from late 1892, when he was attending classes in Ornamental Drawing with his father, during the 1892–1893 academic year, with enrolment number 88. In August that same year he had attended half a bullfight by El Toledano in the A Coruña bullring, an event of which he left a record in several drawings, to which I shall refer later. Ink and pencil on paper, 13.5 × 21 cm. It sometimes appears under the title Español y monje [Spaniard and Monk]. It currently belongs to the Fundación Caixa Galicia Collection in A Coruña. It was acquired from Galería Guillermo de Osma in Madrid and is the reverse of Escena popular gallega, which probably is from 1895. 31 Z.VI: 37. Indian ink on paper, 18 × 25.5 cm, Picasso Estate/Administration, Paris. 32 MPB: 110.375. Ink on paper, 19.7 × 27.9 cm, Museu Picasso Barcelona. Arts 2017, 6, 2 15 of 19 Gentleman]—dated 1894 and 1895 respectively33—where he carries forms or rituals to the point of explicit social absurdity. However, the young Picasso also makes use of the procedure of caricature to emphasise the playful or light-hearted sense of life, as is the case in various drawings preserved in the Museu Picasso de Barcelona: in Caricaturas diversas [Various Caricatures],34 from 1894, he recreates a succession of lively sword fights, superimposed on each other, and in Caricaturas,35 from the same year, the comic representation is staged by adult or child characters, grouped or isolated, almost in miniature, accompanied by a text. Pablo also applies caricature to other more restrained scenes, and in doing so he comes closer to types of image more in fashion in the newspapers of the period, avoiding exaggerated formal distortion and placing the emphasis exclusively on the precision of the drawing and the conceptual interpretation or on the content itself, which is not without humour and a certain sense of the ridiculous, as we see in El décimo de lotería [The Lottery Ticket]35 [43], where he exchanges the more expressionist and gestural deformation, almost always on the verge of grotesque, which he did for the newspapers and caricatures mentioned above, for a more classic and plastic realism, in consonance with the costumbrista legacy of much of the illustrated press, following the tradition in Spain that reinforced satirical artists, since the mid-nineteenth century, like Landaluze ([34], p. 22) and which he could very well have seen in the satirical journals from A Coruña already mentioned, such as Don Pepito or El Petardo, the only verifiable references that he could have had access to at that time, besides Blanco y Negro. What is more surprising is the late appearance of his more political or ideological caricatures, dated around 1892 and 1893, like Congreso de anarquistas37 (Figure 4), only reproduced many years later in art journals, taking advantage of Picasso’s prestige. The group portrait of the anarchists rebelling has all the ingredients of the satirical drawing, here reinforced by the expressionist lines and a psychological study of the faces of the characters in the foreground, which reveal the precocious maturity of the young artist, able to portray the inner strength of those trade unionists in political and aesthetic terms. Arts 2017, 6, 2; doi: 10.3390/arts6010002 16 of 19 Figure 4. Pablo Picasso, Congreso de anarquistas, ca. 1893. Reproduced with permission from the Real Academia Gallega, El primer Picasso. A Coruña 2015; A Coruña: Museo de Bellas Artes, 2015, p. 205. In any case, caricature as an exercise shows us the ability of the then young artist to perceive his ironic vision of the world through drawing, a precociously ideologized vision in terms of critical interpretation. However, the pre-adolescent Picasso was already aware of his magisterial command of this skill in the area of formal experience, which would enable him, years later, to master aesthetic revolutions that depended on having a good professional training in order to be able to express oneself freely. At that time, Pablo Picasso had not yet been born, but only his necessary precursor, who signed himself as Pablo Ruiz or simply P. Ruiz, and that crucially important figure began to define himself when his father decided to endorse his son’s decision to devote himself exclusively to Fine Art and give up the idea of continuing to study for his baccalaureate, in the academic year 1894–1895. That was when the future genius was born, and this is the consensus among experts on Picasso, particularly Josep Palau i Fabre ([3], p. 68, p. 70) and John Richardson ([4], p. 52). 5. A Coruña, the Birth of an Artistic Definition Not without good reason, John Berger, sensing that this adolescent artist already recognised his own genius as clearly as those around him, acutely comments on the fact that Picasso was a child prodigy, considering that it influenced his attitude to art throughout his entire life. It was therefore one of the reasons, Berger argues, why he was so fascinated by his own creativity and accorded it more value than what he created ([44], p. 52). It is why he saw art as though it were part of nature; by Figure 4. Pablo Picasso, Congreso de anarquistas, ca. 1893. Reproduced with permission from the Real Academia Gallega, El primer Picasso. A Coruña 2015; A Coruña: Museo de Bellas Artes, 2015, p. 205. 33 MPB: 110.870 and 110.905. 34 MPB: 110.870 R. 35 MPB: 110.648. 35 MPB: 110.648. 37 Could be dated between 1892 and 1893 and was published in Gaceta de Bellas Artes, Real Academia Gallega, A Coruña. Arts 2017, 6, 2 16 of 19 In any case, caricature as an exercise shows us the ability of the then young artist to perceive his ironic vision of the world through drawing, a precociously ideologized vision in terms of critical interpretation. However, the pre-adolescent Picasso was already aware of his magisterial command of this skill in the area of formal experience, which would enable him, years later, to master aesthetic revolutions that depended on having a good professional training in order to be able to express oneself freely. At that time, Pablo Picasso had not yet been born, but only his necessary precursor, who signed himself as Pablo Ruiz or simply P. Ruiz, and that crucially important figure began to define himself when his father decided to endorse his son’s decision to devote himself exclusively to Fine Art and give up the idea of continuing to study for his baccalaureate, in the academic year 1894–1895. That was when the future genius was born, and this is the consensus among experts on Picasso, particularly Josep Palau i Fabre ([3], p. 68, p. 70) and John Richardson ([4], p. 52). 5. A Coruña, the Birth of an Artistic Definition Not without good reason, John Berger, sensing that this adolescent artist already recognised his own genius as clearly as those around him, acutely comments on the fact that Picasso was a child prodigy, considering that it influenced his attitude to art throughout his entire life. It was therefore one of the reasons, Berger argues, why he was so fascinated by his own creativity and accorded it more value than what he created ([44], p. 52). It is why he saw art as though it were part of nature; by the same logic he saw the distinction between object and image as the natural starting point for all visual art which has emerged from magic and childhood ([44], p. 53).38 However, beyond alleged fascination with himself and magic, which Berger attributes to him, the Pablo Ruiz who lived at such a tender age in fin-de-siècle A Coruña had his feet on the ground and sought to discover the world without interference, at first hand, and so it was that he dared to interpret it with the unprejudiced consciousness of pre-adolescence, with so many critical subtleties. By doing so he managed to create a socio-political and cultural portrait of his world in the metonymy that reflected the city in which he was born as an artist in those decisive years from 1891 to 1895, before he moved to Barcelona and Paris. In the little newspapers, in the satirical and caricatured drawings of those years of youthful rebelliousness in A Coruña, lies the seed of his social and political ideology, as well as his inescapable commitment to the world in which he happened to be living, the first roots of the two extraordinary etchings and eighteen vignettes for Sueño y mentira de Franco and Guernica and all that this work represented in his interpretation of art as a life of activism. In the exhibition Viñetas en el frente, co-produced jointly in 2011 by Museu Picasso de Barcelona and Museo Picasso Málaga, curated by Salvador Haro, Inocente Soto and Clauste Rafart i Planas [45],39 we had a chance to see how Picasso returned, once again, to the popular vignette and to a highly dynamic and cryptic gestural iconography to denounce the horrors of the Civil War and its main instigator, General Franco. In fact, Sueño y mentira de Franco [46], made by the artist between January and June 1937, at the same time as he was working on Guernica, is the mature expression of those first vignettes he had made in A Coruña against the military insurrection, or its most critical chronicle. Picasso made use of a personal hermeneutics, whose caricaturised images, not exempt from black humour or the more caustic irony of satire and the gags proper to the comic, within the geometric and classical style, expressionist in the deformations, charge against the violence of war in a fragmented narrative that evokes the old aucas from the late nineteenth century. Each one of the vignettes or 38 Berger writes: “To exaggerate this distinction, as Picasso does here, until lie and truth are reversed [he defines Art as a lie that makes us realize truth, at least the truth that is given us to understand], suggests that part of him still believes in magic and has remained fixed in his childhood.” 39 The exhibition confronts the two etchings, each one consisting of nine vignettes, and some other works by Picasso, with those by other artists like Goya—including his Disasters of War—and also John Heartfield, George Grosz and Josep Renau, showing their commitment against war and the violence it leads to. Etching and aquatint on paper, 31 × 42 cm. Similarly to Guernica, they were made for the Spanish Pavilion at the Exposición Internacional de Paris de 1937. An edition of 1000 was produced to raise funds for the Republican side in the Civil War. Arts 2017, 6, 2 17 of 19 cartoon strips denounced the massacre of innocents, the barbarism of war and injustice, the destruction of art, violence in all its forms through various allegorical images of a grotesque Franco (with a sword and a flag; a gigantic phallus with a sword and a flag; attacking a classic bust with a pickaxe; dressed as a courtesan, with a flower and a fan; being gored by a bull; praying to a five-peseta coin; wearing a papal tiara and a Moroccan hat; fighting a bull; a woman crying looking to heaven). Some of these figures reappear in Guernica. We should not forget that the military theme is ever-present in the period of A Coruña, especially after the Rif War fought in Morocco in autumn 1893. His scenes from those battles can be inscribed more within the mentality of an adolescent who sees war from a playful perspective or the viewpoint of a chronicler who was perhaps inspired more by the reproductions of La Ilustración Española y Americana ([17], p. 174) than by a critical position towards the violence of war at the time. However, those numerous drawings, made between 1893 and 1894, are the first graphic depictions by the young Picasso of the violence of war, represented directly and highly expressively, without alluding to cryptic or symbolic and caricaturesque images as he did in that particular double comic strip in Sueño y mentira de Franco. Here he reinforces the schematic and expressionist angle of the narrative, characterised by dynamism and immediacy, but its visual reading, and we can see as much in several models, among so many we could mention from his time in A Coruña, such as La batalla (1894)40 or Escena de una batalla (ca. 1893–1894)41 would suggest that there is a legitimate connection of concepts and forms between what was born at that time and what would come much later, when he took on a strong commitment and critical position against the destruction of war [47]. In this regard, A Coruña would not only mark his future artistic definition, but also the concretion of a part of his character and conception of life inasmuch as it impinges on certain stereotypes that cannot be separated from the culture and customs of a place and its inhabitants, particularly as regards humour and irony, disbelief and ambivalence and even stubbornness. This is where his sense of freedom was developed and also his sense of political progressivism as well as the moral conscience associated with the dispossessed, which was not just nourished in his own home, but in the strong example of his mentor, the oft-cited Doctor Pérez Costales. The city where the child’s and adolescent’s astuteness was fascinated by the history of the English general Sir John Moore and where he perceived the migratory phenomenon and the departure of soldiers for Africa from the privileged and everyday watchtower that saw boats entering and leaving the harbour ([6], pp. 48–49). Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest. References 1. Rafael Inglada. “José Ruíz Blasco (1838–1913).” In José Ruíz Blasco (1838–1913). Málaga: Fundación Picasso Museo Casa Natal, 2004, pp. 225–237. 2. Rafael Inglada. “Picasso en A Coruña. La cronología (1891–1895).” In El primer Picasso. A Coruña 2015. A Coruña: Museo de Bellas Artes, 2015, pp. 385–399. 3. Josep Palau i Fabre. Picasso Vivo (1881–1907). Barcelona: Ediciones Polígrafa, 1980. 4. John Richardson. Picasso. Una Biografía. vol. I, 1881–1906. Madrid: Alianza Editorial, 1995. 5. Ángel Padín. Los Cinco Años Coruñeses de Pablo Ruiz Picasso (1891–1895). A Coruña: Servicio de Publicaciones, 1991. 6. Ángel Padín. O Picasso Coruñés (1891–1895). A Coruña: Amigos dos Museos de Galícia & Xunta de Galícia, 2008. 7. Rubén Ventureira, and Elena Pardo. Picasso Azul y blanco. A Coruña: el Nacimiento de un Pintor. A Coruña: Fundación Rodríguez Iglesias & Fundación Emalcsa, 2014. 40 Z. XXI, 8. Indian ink on paper, 13.5 × 17.5 cm. 41 MPB: 110.610. Ink on paper, 13.3 × 20.9 cm. Arts 2017, 6, 2 18 of 19 8. Ayuntamiento de A Coruña-Xunta de Galicia. Catalogue, 2015. El primer Picasso. A Coruña, 2015. A Coruña, Spain: Museo de Bellas Artes, 2015. 9. Antón Castro. “Cuando el niño Pablo Ruiz pintó en A Coruña (1891–1895). 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Hunstville: Sam Houston State University, 1997–2017, OPP.93:012. © 2017 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). http://creativecommons.org/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Picasso’s Beginnings in the Written Press Azul y Blanco, the Picassian Origin of Satire and Critical Humour La Coruña, Self-Representation through the World Activism and Rebellion, Caricature, Sarcasm and Voyeurism A Coruña, the Birth of an Artistic Definition 
work_sklmn5i3qvh3re3dgagmjmedfy	----	Kennedy, Russell 2015, Looking back to move forward: the Dymaxion revisited, Procedia technology, vol. 20, pp. 46-53. DOI: 10.1016/j.protcy.2015.07.009 This is the published version. ©2015, Russell Kennedy Reproduced by Deakin University under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial No-Derivatives Licence Available from Deakin Research Online: http://hdl.handle.net/10536/DRO/DU:30079655 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.protcy.2015.07.009 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ http://hdl.handle.net/10536/DRO/DU:30079655 Procedia Technology 20 ( 2015 ) 46 – 53 Available online at www.sciencedirect.com ScienceDirect 2212-0173 © 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). Peer-review under responsibility of School of Engineering, Faculty of Science Engineering & Built Environment, Deakin University doi: 10.1016/j.protcy.2015.07.009 The International Design Technology Conference, DesTech2015, 29th of June – 1st of July 2015, Geelong, Australia Looking back to move forward: the Dymaxion revisited Russell Kennedya* aDeakin University, 221 Burwood Highway, Burwood, 3125, Australia Abstract In 1933 and 1934 the visionary architect, designer, engineer and philosopher Robert Buckminster Fuller built three prototypes of a car he named the Dymaxion. Regarded as a ground breaking concept vehicle, the Dymaxion is arguably more relevant today than when it was conceived over eighty years ago. Although plans to manufacture were abandoned by Chrysler in 1933, the Dymaxion Car was considered the most fuel-efficient car of its time using less than half the amount of gasoline than any other car on the road. This was due to its meticulous design based on scientific first principles, power weight ratios and the laws of aerodynamics. The Dymaxion was spacious and easy to maneuver; it offered multi purpose use options with the passenger capacity of a modern people carrier and represented Buckminster Fuller’s social responsibility mantra to create more with less. The brand narrative of the Dymaxion tells a story of sustainability and practicality that resonates with today’s vehicle consumer market. The adage suggesting that there is reason why a car’s windshield is bigger than its rear view mirror and implies that what lies ahead is much more important than anything behind you. Although this life metaphor acknowledges the importance of an occasional glace back this paper emphasises the strategic value of a precognitive, retrospective approach to design. © 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. Peer-review under responsibility of School of Engineering, Faculty of Science Engineering & Built Environment, Deakin University. Keywords: design; innovation; precognitive; retrospective: narrative 1. Introduction This paper asserts that brand and product are inseparable and should be considered as one in design and development discourse. This proposition is presented within the context of a case study that asks, could Buckminster Fuller’s Dymaxion car (fig.1, 2). be a viable proposition now? Is it worth revisiting and would a project conceived * Corresponding author. Tel.: +61 3 9244 6834. E-mail address: russell.kennedy@deakin.edu.au © 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). Peer-review under responsibility of School of Engineering, Faculty of Science Engineering & Built Environment, Deakin University 47 Russell Kennedy / Procedia Technology 20 ( 2015 ) 46 – 53 over eighty years ago benefit from contemporary knowledge, advanced technologies and alternative creative strategies? This retrospective enquiry investigates a precognitive hypothetical in the context of a brand/story built on narrative of technology, innovation and futuristic ideals. This paper reviews the Dymaxion case study in the context of branding and communication and within the frames of innovation theories. It also highlights recent research by the General Motors Company, which could stimulate new thinking about the Dymaxion and its supposed viability if produced today, over eight decades after it was conceived. Alternative energy systems combined with advanced materials (nanoscale fibers, carbon composites) and technologies (engines, drive trains, stability, electronics) are considered within a framework of innovation and conceptual reincarnation. This paper identifies Buckminster Fuller’s Dymaxion as an overlooked case study worthy of reconsideration. It argues that designs including the Dymaxion may have been unfairly judged when introduced, questioning their perceived failure and presenting the argument that they may have simply been ahead of their time. This paper adopts a “design thinking” viewpoint to explore brand narrative (product and creator as brand) and diffusion of innovation theory to determine the value of resurrecting a concept that was conceived over eight decades ago; in effect, looking back to move forward. Nomenclature A Dymaxion: a term used by Buckminster Fuller to brand several of his inventions, a portmanteau of the words dynamic, maximum, and tension. B Nanoscale fibers: aslo known as nanofibers are strands of material less than two hundred nanometers in diameter. C Carbon composite/carbon fiber: Carbon and/or carbon fibers are combined with other materials to form a composite reinforced polymer. D Diffusion Of Innovation (DOI): Diffusion of Innovations is a theory that seeks to explain how, why, and at what rate new ideas and technology spread through cultures, E.M. Rogers (1962). Drive train: a group of components on a vehicle (excluding the engine) that deliver power to the driving wheels. E GM EN-V: General Motors Electric Networked -Vehicle F Brand: A brand is a name, term, design or other feature that distinguishes products and entities. A brand represents the values, history and the future focus of a business and/or product. Fig. 1. Dymaxion No1. at the Chrysler Pavilion, 1934 Chicago World’s Fair (source: Estate of R. Buckminster Fuller). Fig. 2. Buckminster Fuller’s Dymaxion cars (source: Estate of R. Buckminster Fuller) 48 Russell Kennedy / Procedia Technology 20 ( 2015 ) 46 – 53 2. Theoretical Context The Dymaxion car project is often referred to as an iconic example of innovative, experimental industrial design and engineering. It is rarely if ever discussed in the context of communication design and branding. There are many interpretations and definitions of ‘brand’. de Chernatony and Dall'Olmo Riley (1998) describe brand as a multidimensional construct matching a firm's functional and emotional values with the performance and psychosocial needs of consumes. Within his construct Diffusion Of Innovation (DOI) theory (est.1962), E.M. Rogers (1995) argues that communication is a process in which participants create and share information with one another to reach a mutual understanding. Innovation is defined as, an idea, practice, or object that is perceived to be new by an individual or other unit of adoption (Rogers, 1995). This paper proposes that innovation and communication run in parallel and that arguably all ‘design’ is communication design. Every design is created from a story however communicating narrative relies heavily on the knowledge, perceptions and the interpretation of receivers and stakeholders. DOI aims to explain how, over time, an idea or product gains momentum, diffuses or spreads through specific populations or social systems. The end result of this diffusion is that people, as part of a social system, adopt a new idea, behavior, or product. Adoption means that a person does something differently than what they had previously (i.e., purchase or use a new product, acquire and perform a new behavior, etc.). The key to adoption is that the person must perceive the idea, behavior, or product as new or innovative. It is through this process that diffusion is possible (Rogers, 1995). When framed within the context of DOI one could argue that although conceived in 1933, the Dymaxion car could actually be viewed as a new idea if applied with contemporary technologies. In other words, the period of time passed while being over-looked has created the diffusion. In the third millennium the Dymaxion car would speak to a new audience, a global network of design literate, environmentally concerned stakeholders who may be more likely to embrace what had previously been put to one side. DOI seeks to explain how, why and at what rate new ideas and technology spread through cultures. The Dymaxion remains relevant due to its unique brand story involving a legendary creator and universal, utilitarian, cross cultural themes. It projects an optimistic narrative supported by a claim to be the world’s first environmentally sustainable car, today it would be lauded as ‘green’ (Foster 2010). If ‘branding’ is the representation of the values, history and future focus of a business and/or product then the Dymaxion car can certainly be referred to as a brand. Even though the message from the creator(s) is firmly imbedded in the artifact, the story still has to be interpreted by the receiver. Rogers argues that compatibility influences adoption of an innovation; that is how consistent the innovation is with the values, experiences, and needs of the potential adopters (Rogers, 1995). Jerome Bruner also claims that the narrative mode of thought is based on the goals of understanding and the construction of meaning, "Narrative deals with the vicissitudes of human intention" (Bruner 1986, p.16). In this statement Bruner implies that consumers tend to use case studies in a self-relevant way, in a response to change or to reflect on experiences. Individuals interpret narratives to orient their future aspirations and past experiences in context of time and location. The distillation of the brand narrative reinforces values and aligns ideals but this will vary in individuals. Bruner suggests people use the narrative mode of thought to understand storied stimuli (1986). Information is indexed, stored, and retrieved in the form of stories and human memory is story-based (Schank1999). The Dymaxion is a story with many indices and touch points, potentially offering implicit and/or explicit awareness and emotional connections to users (consumers) and other stakeholders. Rogers argues that all projects reach a point of adoption or rejection however in some cases the rejection phase can have another step of “later adoption” (Rogers, 1995) as a result of discontinuance due to disenchantment with the first adaption decision (Fig 3). One could justifiably conclude from Rogers’s model (Fig.3) that “later adoption” might be a consideration given that the antecedents (receiver and social system variables) would have changed substantially since 1933. Diffusion of innovations theory suggests that innovation is not a sequential process. Adoption or rejection is a to-and-fro/trail-and-error process requiring the alignment of many factors. Dean Karman, inventor of the Segway PT makes the point that people take the longest possible paths, digress to numerous dead ends, and make all kinds of mistakes; then historians come along and write summaries of this messy, nonlinear process and make it appear like a simple, straight line (2005). 49 Russell Kennedy / Procedia Technology 20 ( 2015 ) 46 – 53 Fig. 3. Diffusion Of Innovation (DOI) model. (Source: Rogers 1995) 3. Innovation (Industrial design/engineering) to build Brand Equations When automobiles first replaced horse-drawn carriages they were called horseless carriages. In 1886 German inventor Karl Benz refined the concept and built the Benz Patent-Motorwagen, regarded as the first modern car. Over one hundred and thirty years later motor vehicles remain fixed to the concept of a horseless carriage. On the other hand the Dymaxion (1933) was inspired by flight, particularly airships of the 1930’s. The teardrop airship styling was unique and performed extremely well in wind tunnel testing. Although plans to manufacture were abandoned by Chrysler (fig.1) in 1934 the Dymaxion Car was considered the most efficient car of its time. British architect, Norman Foster in his book about the Dymaxion wrote that it had excellent power weight ratios and aerodynamics, was spacious, easy to manoeuvre and offered multi purpose use options with the passenger capacity of a modern people carrier (2011). The Dymaxion was unique because its inspiration came from a different source and a creator with a borderless, multidisciplinary, ‘science meets design’ mind set. Richard Buckminster Fuller (1895 –1983) was an American neo-futuristic architect, systems theorist, author, designer, and inventor. He was a lateral, design thinker, who influenced people’s view of the world. Inquisitive by nature, his aptitude for innovation challenged conventional thinking by exploring what others overlooked or considered irrelevant. Buckminster Fuller was highly critical of the automotive industry and car design at the time. He believed all cars were highly inefficient with poor aerodynamics and fuel economy. He correctly claimed that, apart from the Dymaxion all cars at the time were shaped to perform better in a wind tunnel facing backwards rather than forwards. This observation remains true of most cars today. Although maligned by its critics Buckminster Fuller remained committed to the Dymaxion, which is arguably more relevant now than when it was conceived over eighty years ago. Steve Jobs was someone who also had a unique vision with lofty aspirations. He championed an ambitious culture of innovation but importantly understood the value of connecting a product with its story. All Apple devices unite product and brand as one. Jobs, like Buckminster Fuller saw value in merging creation with creator within the brand. By objectifying the creator in this way expresses an abstract notion, feeling, or ideal of excellence and innovation. This approach packages the message in a form that has affinity and can be experienced and understood by others. Jobs used this approach when he featured Buckmister Fuller and other luminaries in a marketing campaign to help explain Apple’s vision and philosophy. He did so as a considered marketing statement that positioned Apple’s strategic mantra apart from the business practices of their competitors, which they implied were conservative and void of innovation. This was publically expressed in 1997 when Apple computers aired a one- minute television commercial called the Crazy Ones. It also used the TVC to announce its new marketing slogan, “Think Different” (Dormehl, 2012). The advertisement featured black-and-white footage of 17 iconic 20th century 50 Russell Kennedy / Procedia Technology 20 ( 2015 ) 46 – 53 personalities including Albert Einstein, Thomas Edison, Mahatma Gandhi, Frank Lloyd Wright, Pablo Picasso and Buckminster Fuller. Apple highlighted these people to support and reinforce the value of the “Think Different” mantra. They carefully selected individuals who had alternative viewpoints, which in their opinion enabled greatness for them but also for humanity. “Here’s to the crazy ones. The misfits. The rebels. The troublemakers. The round pegs in the square holes. The ones who see things differently. They’re not fond of rules. And they have no respect for the status quo. You can quote them, disagree with them, glorify or vilify them. About the only thing you can’t do is ignore them. Because they change things. They push the human race forward. And while some may see them as the crazy ones, we see genius. Because the people who are crazy enough to think they can change the world, are the ones who do” (Siltanen & Clow (TBWA\Chiat\Day) 1997). The underdog theme can be used to build brand equity. It offers an edgy appeal to those who are looking for alternative options. Avery (2010) introduced the concept of “brand biography” which provides theoretical and managerial insight for firms to author a dynamic narrative that can adjust to changing cultural and environmental conditions yet remain true to the legacy of the brand meaning that has already been established. “Using a particular type of brand biography, "the underdog," we empirically show how managers can strategically use brand biographies in brand positioning”(Avery et all 2010.p, 213). The underdog brand biography mitigates the curse of success and anticorporate sentiment from consumers (Avery et all 2010). Buckminster Fuller was certainly one who saw things differently. He had a strong belief, supported by abundant self-confidence that he could change the world, which he did. His legacy continues today with his methods and formulas being rediscovered and used by contemporary architects and engineers. This renewed interest in Buckminster Fuller begs the question, could the Dymaxion be a viable proposition now, eight decades after it conception? Quoted in the December 1961 issue of Popular Science Buckminster Fuller said, “I just invent, then wait until man comes around to needing what I've invented” (1961. p.184). These prophetic words are supported by actions. In 2009 when Australian architects, Cox and Partners used Buckminster Fuller’s geodesic dome (fig.4), theories and formulas (est.1948) in the design and construction of Melbourne’s rectangular football stadium (fig.4). The inspiration becomes clear when one compares the Melbourne stadium with the Montreal Biosphère, which was built as the United States pavilion for the 1967 World Fair (Expo 67) (fig.4). Cox Rayner Architects with Arup also acknowledge Buckminster Fuller when describing their design for Brisbane’s Kurilpa Bridge (fig.4). The state that its conceptualisation, based upon Buckminster Fuller’s principles of tensegrity, was to simultaneously resolve unusual physical challenges, such as navigational constraints and motorway spanning. The design also aimed to embrace the spirit of a city relaxed, subtropical city seeking to prioritise walking, cycling and healthy lifestyles (ArchDaily, 2015). These contemporary Australian examples of inspired architecture remain true to Buckminster Fuller’s liveability imperatives and social responsibility mantra and by doing so reinforce the value in revisiting the Dymaxion. This ‘create more with less’ narrative also extends to the Dymaxion car, a story that may resonate with sections of today’s vehicle consumers as labelled by Rodgers - Innovators and/or Early Adopters (Rogers, 1995). Fig. 4. (from left to right) The Montreal Biosphère, Montreal (source: Russell Kennedy). Melbourne Rectangular Stadium, Melbourne (source: Cox and Partners). Kurilpa Bridge, Brisbane (source: Christopher Frederick Jones). 51 Russell Kennedy / Procedia Technology 20 ( 2015 ) 46 – 53 4. Technology to build brand The EN-V or Electric Networked-Vehicle is a new two-seater concept vehicle that offers an autonomous mode that uses GPS and vehicle-to-vehicle communications as well as distance-sensors and cameras. This upright, two- wheeled electric vehicle has been developed by General Motors and its Chinese joint venture partner Shanghai Automotive Industry Corporation. The EN-V is 1.5 metres long, weighs 500kg and if recharged using 'green' energy is a zero-emissions vehicle. Three models of the EN-V have been produced; all reflect an assertive, design thinking development approach. GM’s Holden design team in Australia designed the Xiao model EN-V. The multi- disciplined team created the EN-V concept over a fifteen-month period. This work has really broken the mould of the projects we undertake within the Holden design studio. It has meant moving away from designing the traditional elements of a motor vehicle to develop new themes and technologies that might someday define the way we live our lives. Much of what we have learned during this project will help us in our ongoing efforts to meet the many transport challenges associated with a growing population (T, Stolfo 2010). Although there are clear synergies in regard to spirit, aesthetics and environmental impact, the key knowledge benefit to the Dymaxion from the GM, EN-V would be its fixed wheel drive train configuration. The General Motors, Electric Networked-Vehicle uses Segway’s gyroscopic drive train. This integrated engine, drive system positions the weight centrally and low to the ground under the driver, providing excellent stability and responsive turning. Although the Dymaxion did boast an extremely tight turning circle, stability and steering at high speed were seen as negatives in the original design. The Segway, GM EN-V drive train would potentially enhance the Dymaxion’s steering and stability. The Dymaxion was originally conceived as a multifunctional, high performance vehicle however this papers suggests that if revisited the expectations of passenger capacity and speed may need to be reviewed. The Dymaxion was a three-wheeled car with rear steering and front-wheel drive powered by an internal combustion engine. The car could transport up to 11 passengers, it ran 30 miles to the gallon and reached speeds of up to 90mph. The USA population demographic and society values have shifted greatly since the Dymaxion was conceived in 1933, with most people now living in the major cities of America. GM EN-V is very much an urban mobility vehicle so if this technology were to be applied the user profile of the Dymaxion would be reconsidered. Technologies and attitudes have changed substantially since the Dymaxion car was conceived in 1933. This paper identifies current advancements that would potentially compliment a revised iteration. Wire and wireless controls systems offer potential benefits, as do advances in drive train technology, stability, and steering and lightweight nanofiber materials. Revised thinking involving new technologies could make the Dymaxion relevant enough to attract serious consideration of further research. This paper highlights General Motor’s Electric Networked-Vehicle as a potential key to a revised the Dymaxion. The GM, EN-V could provide impetus required to resurrect a stalled idea. Fig. 5. Segway, GM EN-V drive train (source: General Motors Company). 52 Russell Kennedy / Procedia Technology 20 ( 2015 ) 46 – 53 5. Further Opportunities Ideally the research would be funded through a combination of institutional grants and private sector support. Key stakeholders would be invited to participate including General Motors Holden (EN-V initiative), Deakin University Carbon Nexus research facility and the Buckminster Fuller Institute. It will be open an, inclusive, highly collaborative, multidisciplinary project, which builds on new and establish technologies and associated active research. A five step “design thinking’ methodology will be used to; 1) articulate empathy, 2) define scope, 3) ideate themes, 4) prototype and build, 5) test and review (Stanford University, d-school 2013). The profile and demographic of consumers would also be identified using established DOI theory adopter categorization - Innovators, Early Adopters, Early Majority, Late Majority, Laggards (Rogers 1995). This proposed research offers potential to explore the intersection of industrial design and branding. The project will examine the Dymaxion’s viability, review its strength and weaknesses and propose conceptual strategies and designs. The key aim of the research will be to determine the value in resurrecting a concept that was conceived over eight decades ago but with consideration of contemporary attitudes and new technologies. Developments in gyroscopic drive train technology would be looked at closely. The development of the EN-V forecasts a dramatic change in automotive engineering and the revision of design thinking processes. The EN-V initiative certainly reflects Buckminster Fuller’s design philosophy of “doing more with less”. A technologically enhanced Dymaxion would also strengthen its brand and develop an inseparable bond between design, artifact and story. In feature-length documentary Objectified, Andrew Blauvelt, Design Curator Walker Art Center said, “There is a story embedded in every object. Every decision was made at some point about something…I’m reminded of a quote by Henry Ford who once said ‘Every object tells a story… if you know how to read it’” (as cited in Objectified 2009). It would insist on a seamless connection between product and consumer memory, experience and aspiration. To make this link, the research will need to confirm that society values and aesthetic sensibilities have shifted enough to embrace a revised Dymaxion car. Adopters and stakeholders need to be presented with a truthful narrative projecting a high level of intelligence, sincerity and principled aspirations. Fig. 6. GM, EN-V Xiao and other model variations (source: General Motors Company). 6. Conclusion This paper concludes that all design is communication design and that the broader construct of ‘brand’ extends to form. It also proposes a narrative driven, DOI focused research study to explore the benefits of a revised iteration of 53 Russell Kennedy / Procedia Technology 20 ( 2015 ) 46 – 53 the Dymaxion. Inspired by the Cox and Partners cased studies (above), this project would revisit the Dymaxion car concept to determine potential viability based on a new vehicle with enduring brand equity built on a rich and inspiring historical narrative. The research would employ design thinking methodologies and participatory methods to explore and create design and communication narratives for strategic, on going development. By looking back to move forward this research will challenge accounts and truths within a context of time and circumstance. Dean Kamen is philosophical about time and place in regard to innovation and the acceptance of new ideas including his personal transporter. He claims that some truths do change more slowly than others and that if history is any indication, all truths will eventually turn out to be false (2005). Truths of physics change every few hundred years where as societal or technological truths change on a daily basis (Kamen, 2005). Further investigation will explore this point in relation to the Dymaxion to determine if now is the right time for a project of reinvention incorporating sustainability considerations, new technologies, discerning styling and futurist inspired design thinking. Fig. 7. Comparing the aesthetic sensibilities of GM, EN-V Xiao (source: General Motors Company) with Dymaxion No1. (source: Estate of R. Buckminster Fuller) Acknowledgements Cox Architecture General Motors Company General Motors Holden Australia Norman Foster Segway Inc. The Buckminster Fuller Institute The Estate of R. Buckminster Fuller References [1) Rogers EM. Diffusion of innovations (4th edition). The Free Press. New York; 1995. [2] de Chernatony L, Dall'Olmo Riley F. Defining A "Brand": Beyond The Literature With Experts' Interpretations, Journal of Marketing Management, 14:5, 417-443, DOI: 10.1362/026725798784867798; 1998. [3] Glancey J, Chu H, Jenkins D. Buckminster Fuller: Dymaxion Car. Ivorypress; 2011. [4] Bruner J. Actual Minds, Possible Worlds, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; 1986. [5] Schank RC. Dynamic memory revisited. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press; 1999. [6] Adonai Y. Apple’s Think Different Campaign; 2013. Accessed 02 Feb 2015. http://www.academia.edu/5471103/Apples_Think_Different_campaign [7] Dormehl L. The Apple The Apple Revolution: Steve Jobs, the counterculture and how the crazy ones took over the world . Random House. United Kingdom; 2012. [8] Avery J, Neeru P, Anat K, Schor JB. The Strategic Use of Brand Biographies. Research in Consumer Behavior; 2010. p. 213–230. Accessed 02 Accessed 02 Feb 2015. https://books.google.com.au/books?id=TiEDAAAAMBAJ [9] Gilmore, C.P. Bucky Fuller’s Wonderful Dome. Popular Science;1961. p.75- 77. Accessed 28 Feb 2015. [10] Cox, Rayner, Arup. Kurilpa Bridge /Cox Rayner Architects with Arup, ArchDaily; 2011. Accessed 02 Feb 2015. http://www.archdaily.com/?p=186214 [11] Campbell, M. Aussie Car for Lazy Commuters. Drive com.au; 2010. Accessed 12 December 2014. http://www.drive.com.au/motor- news/aussie-car-for-lazy-commuters-20100325-qxt0.html [12] Blauvelt, A. Objectified. Accessed 27 May 2015. http://www.hustwit.com/category/objectified/ [13] Kamen, D. Dean Karmen interviewed by William Lidwell, Make 04. San Francisco; 2005. Accessed 08 Feb 2015. http://admin.makezine.com/extras/29.html coversheet kennedy-lookingback-2015 
work_sonjg3qvqrbxrb7gvt6d4b5c34	----	An Interdisciplinary Approach to Texts as a Model for a Truthful Approach to Reality Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 174 ( 2015 ) 2875 – 2881 Available online at www.sciencedirect.com ScienceDirect 1877-0428 © 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). Peer-review under responsibility of the Sakarya University doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.01.982 INTE 2014 An interdisciplinary approach to texts as a model for a truthful approach to reality Lucia Salvato* Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Largo Gemelli 1, 20123 Milano, Italy Abstract This paper proposes how academic teaching based on the use of texts can be fertile soil for educational processes in younger generations. For this purpose, the work recommends grounding university courses that make extensive use of texts in an interdisciplinary approach. This suggestion results from didactic experiences with paintings and pieces of music analyzed as ‘texts’ in terms of communicative semiotic events and the interpretation of their meaning as a process of inference. By means of the proposed approach, university courses may become opportunities to educate students to faithfully approach reality as it is, within the broader experience of knowledge. © 2014 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Peer-review under responsibility of the Sakarya University. Keywords: Education; Teaching; Interdisciplinary Approach; Texts as Communicative Semiotic Events. 1. Introduction Currently, education tends to be related to the intense effort that adults are required to make in order to allow younger generations to grow in their identity and to learn how to face life’s challenges. According to this view, adults are the ‘custodians’ of knowledge, and should simply fill (the Latin verb is instituo, imbuo) empty containers, i.e. the minds of younger students. As a consequence, teaching becomes for many simply a disinterested transmission of knowledge, while the serious challenge of education turns into an ‘educational emergency’. This paper reflects on education as something more than a disinterested effort. The reflection is based on the wider sense that the ancient Greeks gave to instruction, without separating it from its educational purposes, beginning from the three functions that are contained within all speeches (docēre, delectāre, movēre; cf. Cicero, * Lucia Salvato Tel.: +39.02.72342761; fax: +39.02.72343667. E-mail address: lucia.salvato@unicatt.it © 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). Peer-review under responsibility of the Sakarya University http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.01.982&domain=pdf http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.01.982&domain=pdf 2876 Lucia Salvato / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 174 ( 2015 ) 2875 – 2881 2001, II, 27; 28; 77). This viewpoint was highlighted last year in a questionnaire that a number of students of schools in Milan (Italy) were asked to complete. Their spontaneous comments were all related to the opportunities they look for in learning to be awakened as individuals and to become adults in facing life’s challenges. The originality of the proposed viewpoint and the method used emerge from the didactic experience in university courses on German as a foreign language based on the analysis of “intersemiotic translations” (Jakobson, 1987, 429- 430) of famous works of art (paintings, films or pieces of classical music). Both translations and works of art were considered as forms of ‘text’, i.e. as communicative semiotic events, whose meaning is understood through a process of inference. The paper proposes the consideration of the arts as a potentially powerful factor in student education. The use of the arts in a didactic project to enhance student learning has always created a positive reaction in them, giving them the opportunity to make a twofold reflection: on the foreign language (its structure and style) and on themselves, especially on their mode of thinking and judging reality in comparison with the standpoint expressed by the authors of the analyzed texts. Before an artist’s creation, people are implicitly invited to analyze it in order to infer its meaning through their identification with its content. This identification can be particularly fruitful when it succeeds in awakening the individual to his profound desires and requirements, by moving his free curiosity for life and his open attitude towards reality as a whole. The aim of this work is, therefore, to explore this identification in order to investigate the response of younger generations regarding works of art. This contribution is grounded in the theory of contemporary linguists and literary scholars such as Calabrese (1985; 2006), Cattrysse (2000), Eco (1977), Jakobson (1987), C.S. Peirce (1931-1958), Pieretti (1983), and it begins with the teachings of the ancient Greeks, especially with Aristotle’s idea of education as referred to Athens (Aristotle, 2013). 2. The teaching of the ancient Greeks A focus on the concept of education by the ancient Greeks permits an in-depth analysis of this wide-ranging and delicate process. Beginning from its etymological sense, the verb “to educate” (lt. e-duco, “bring out”) signifies something more than a disinterested effort. It signifies helping a human being disclose his peculiar talents through learning activities. This implies helping him to set out to discover his identity by gaining an awareness of his relationship to himself and his environment, i.e. to other things and human beings. Moreover, the main distinguishing feature that should be taken into account is the essence of man as a human being, which is the conception of his nature and identity both as an individual and as a member of a community. In addition, as man is the only living creature endowed with reason, he is also the only one able both to use language by formulating meaningful utterances as well as to understand them according to specific codes. Returning to its cultural roots, this concept corresponds, in Aristotle’s philosophy, to the term λόγoς, whose basic understanding has a threefold interpretation: “reason”, “word”, and “speech”. As a consequence, education had for the Ancients a broad sense, as it should have nowadays in all societies. In the eighth chapter of his work Politics, Aristotle indicates the character of youth education (παιδεία) and the way it should be imparted. The question was what should be taught and how, and the objective a man intended to pursue within this framework. As indicated by the Greek philosopher, any occupation, art or science should respect body, soul and mind, and it should make a free man (ἐλεύθερος) more fit for the practice and the exercise of virtue (gr. ’αρετή; lt. virtus). As a consequence, only such kinds of knowledge that were “useful” (χρησίμον) could be imparted to young children. At the same time, a man should do or learn anything for his own sake (or for the sake of his friends) with a view to excellence, otherwise any action would be thought menial and servile. 3. Education through academic teaching In line with these aspects, this contribution develops from a crucial question, which is how academic teaching (and particularly teaching foreign languages) can be fertile soil for contemporary educational processes of younger 2877 Lucia Salvato / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 174 ( 2015 ) 2875 – 2881 generations. Looking at the variety of technological opportunities that are in the hands of contemporary students, education has become a real challenge for teachers at all grades and levels of instruction. In many schools, new technological systems have been introduced alongside new experimental methods, according to which teachers have to make use of new hi-tech support in order to keep up with the times. The same is happening inside the university system where academic professors can develop their teaching methods in different ways. However, by teaching foreign languages through the arts, the challenge spreads even further afield, because the arts are not included in government programs and must therefore attract the attention of students by other means. Education has always had a key role in leading younger generations into the challenges of life’s difficulties. Yet, this process of building through the arts is something more than a general introduction or a preparatory phase in life. It is a primary way of living it, a way of taking possession of reality, because man learns how to confront situations only as soon as he starts to accept his own responsibilities (cf. Pieretti, 1983, 236). Moreover, as the first responsibility is honed during the learning years, the subjects taught at school and at university acquire even greater importance. According to the spontaneous and anonymous comments by students of university courses in foreign languages at the Catholic University of Milan, a very useful method of educating them in their approach to reality is the analysis and the practice of translations. As a matter of fact, every form of translation is a very productive activity and, at the same time, a worthwhile opportunity in improving the knowledge of the foreign language, as well as for personal development. More specifically, if each text demands that it be approached and comprehended with the respect that it is due (cf. Pieretti, 1983, 236-237), the practice of intersemiotic translations induces students to a much more conscientious effort. On one hand, as in all other translations, it compels the students towards a mature analysis of the original text by paying attention to all its details, including its cultural and historical background. This allows students to be educated in observing works of art and welcoming them as they are, being open and receptive in the encounter with them until the students reach their proper and profound meaning. On the other hand, this kind of translation encourages students to develop the meaning using another code, and if this code is a foreign language, the earnest effort of reviewing the meaning becomes an occasion to reinforce one’s own abilities in that foreign language. As a consequence, education in the arts implies not only an education in aesthetic values, i.e. an education in beauty, but also in important human values related to personal development (Beauty, Goodness, and Truth, which every person feels attracted to), and this can enrich students in the awareness of their own identity (cf. Bergoglio, 2013). As already stated, the didactic experience on which this contribution is based regards the practice on a Master’s degree course in German as a foreign language. The practice was achieved through a series of exercises on both concepts of translation and text that were considered as communicative semiotic events. Thanks to the autonomy of the outlines of university courses, it was possible to ground the course in an interdisciplinary approach. By joining different modes of thinking and methods from different subject areas, this approach is currently emerging as a precious resource in modern teaching methods. 4. The value of an interdisciplinary approach Since the very beginning of this didactic experience, it was clear that academic lessons on foreign languages should benefit from the same concept of comprehensive knowledge of the ancient Greeks. In this regard, interdisciplinary studies can lead in the right direction by extending, for example, both concepts of text and translation through closer collaboration with each other in the corresponding sciences. According to the traditional concept in linguistics, for example, each text is part of a verbal communication and can therefore be considered as a communicative event. Furthermore, from the viewpoint of semiotics, not only is verbal communication made up of texts, but also each meaningful phenomenon can be considered a text in terms of a sign (cf. Peirce, IV.447; II.148). Therefore, dialogues or writings, as well as footprints, knocks on doors, or paintings and musical pieces are ‘semiotic events’ (cf. Eco, 1977), and this propels the analysis of texts into a much 2878 Lucia Salvato / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 174 ( 2015 ) 2875 – 2881 larger domain than linguistics alone. As a matter of fact, the combining of different scientific disciplines into the same activity (in this case, an intersemiotic translation) allows the ‘creation’ of something new by crossing traditional boundaries while analyzing the same text. At the same time, the associated study experimented with certain specific theories in Translation Studies, such as the polysystem theories of translation. By describing translations/adaptations as phenomena that function as translations/adaptations in a specific time-space context, the polysystem approach has given rise to a considerable expansion of its object of study and consequently has also led to a re-definition of the concept of text. This has made possible the investigation of many phenomena inside a working field that covers all possible translational experiences (cf. Cattrysse, 2000, 253-254). In addition, the method proposed in this analysis also has its roots in the pedagogical approach called CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning), according to which teachers and professors make use of a foreign language as a vehicle, and not just as a learning tool, to teach their subject. This method is based on cooperative learning - students are asked to actively participate and cooperate with teacher and classmates through a series of oral questions, which they must argue during the lesson and through written exercises (cf. Coyle, Hood, & Marsh, 2010). 5. Education with the help of the arts In the didactic experience at the foundation of this analysis, attention was drawn to “intersemiotic translations” as these give students the opportunity to experiment with innovative methods of learning a foreign language by analyzing and ‘re-writing’ different types of text. A first example is the description of a painting in one’s own words. This means ‘decoding’ the original message of the text from its ‘iconic’ into a linguistic code. As a first step, students should be taught how to approach a text, i.e. how to be involved in a wide-ranging observation of it, by stating their personal interpretation only as a last resort in the entire analysis. Indeed, in their first reaction before a painting, people usually identify it with an image they already have in their minds, but this implies giving at once a personal interpretation, forgetting to observe the painting in the proper way. To let students persist with this sort of instinctive reaction means allowing them to be led astray towards an improper practice with each type of text and, consequently, with reality. The way of ‘meeting’ a text offered on a university course should instead be an example of a truthful encounter with ‘something else’ that must be embraced as it is. Reality is a rich and complex soil, which requires that it be known with respect regarding all its aspects. Not surprisingly, the German philosopher Husserl spoke of reality as a “Givenness” (Gegebenheit), as something that the knowing subject did not create and which therefore has priority in the process of knowledge. The term expresses the quality or the state of ‘being given’. It indicates that things are given (gegeben) as contents, as gifts to the human mind, which can transform their manifestation into meaning and concepts. The term should therefore focus on the encounter between man and reality as it is, by teaching a fundamental attitude in approaching the realm of “phenomena”, i.e. as they are, as a given reality (Husserl, 1966; cf. Marion, 2005). Consequently, reality challenges man to approach it considering all its features, i.e. as it actually is, and not in relation to the expectations man may have. One of the paintings proposed for the analysis was Guernica by Pablo Picasso (1937). This famous masterpiece permits students to come into contact with the process of “intersemiotic translation” from the dramatic facts that shook the Spanish painter into the vivid and metaphorical figures he realized. The painting was analyzed in the following way. As the concept of text as ‘communicative event’ was the starting point, students had to infer its meaning through a proper analysis. Firstly, this was solicited through questions on the details of the iconic text, which helped the students to approach the entire meaning. They were then given a paper with a number of photos and a short description of the historical background, which gave them the opportunity to gain appropriate insight into the dramatic facts that gave birth to the painting and thus to deepen what was only superficially known. As a second step, the students received a sheet of paper with the images of the main sections into which the painting can be divided. With each image, there was a short caption including technical terms to be learned and used for homework. The descriptions were read and analyzed by the students together with the teacher. 2879 Lucia Salvato / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 174 ( 2015 ) 2875 – 2881 This permitted focus on style and technical terms, consideration of the details that surround each dramatic figure, and the realization that the depicted world is a metaphorical translation of the real one. Only after these steps were carried out, students were ready to reflect on the content of Picasso’s painting by expressing their personal opinions. Thanks to a personal confrontation with the meaning of the painting and with the opinions of teacher and classmates, students could reflect on their own mode of thinking and judging. This important phase can lead to personal development, which has its origin in the interior change that the arts can ignite in the individual. A second example concerns music. In a course on the analysis and the use of expressive techniques in the German language, Beethoven’s 9th Symphony (1824) was analyzed in its final part, the “Ode to Joy” written by Friedrich Schiller and set to music by the German musician (the version offered to the students was taken from the concert on occasion of the 60th birthday of the Bundesrepublik Deutschland in front of the Brandenburger Tor). As for the painting by Picasso, the first step aimed at the observation of the work of art in its main details by leaving aside the personal interpretation as the final phase of the analysis. Although according to Combarieu it is impossible to understand the meaning of music fully, nevertheless it is possible to try to give it an explanation, which should not be restrictively committed to a single science (Combarieu, 1980, 11; cf. Bellini, 2009, 45). The interdisciplinary approach acquired its proper importance also in this case. Students had to analyze the Ode in a twofold way. On one hand, they were invited to study the key terms in the text which conveyed the ideals that Schiller had intended to express. On the other hand, they had to focus on the way Beethoven had translated Schiller’s ideals of humanity and brotherhood into his musical notes. As a second step, students were given two critical texts that expressed two different viewpoints on the hymn. Thanks to these texts, they could approach the content of the Symphony from different modes of thinking, thus becoming conscious also of the partiality of human judgments. Only as a final step could the students compare these viewpoints with their own opinions and personal interpretations of the analyzed text. This aspect emphasizes how the use of the arts within a didactic project (at school or at university) can be linked to instructional and educational purposes. Although the analysis was not made by experts, students acquired a method of approaching a work of art they knew only superficially. Moreover, according to the comments received at the end of the course, it is clear that there is a confirmation of an important aspect of education: demonstrating to students a learning method with which they can approach a single text can be useful in showing them how to approach almost everything they want to know. The majority of the comments regarded three main points. The first is the possibility that such a teaching method gives students the opportunity to both express their own attitude towards life and to compare their standpoint with those of authoritative commentators, especially those validated by a personal experience or based on a specific theoretico-historical background. At the same time, the interaction with teacher and classmates gave them the opportunity to extend their personal viewpoints and to develop their own interpretations in a thoughtful way. A second edifying aspect refers to the mistakes that students inevitably make in the written homework they must do. The question is how students look at their mistakes. Nevertheless, the way they do this depends on the way their teachers or educators correct them and on the attitude they show towards them. If mistakes are seen as a sort of dishonor and are corrected automatically, students will never be able to appreciate education. However, if mistakes are recognized as an opportunity through which everyone can learn something about himself and consequently improve, everyone will be able to see mistakes as a barrier that demands that it be simply encountered and crossed. This concept allows, for example, younger generations to reach the awareness of their identity as human beings and as limited creatures that need to be corrected, for example, in being able to express their ideas in the best way. In addition, students are appreciative when they are taught how to improve. The third aspect that education to the arts imposes on students is the link they are able to have with the past in terms of their cultural traditions. The course assisted them, for example, in becoming aware of part of the treasure that has developed throughout the centuries and which is now in their hands. However, as expressed by the German writer J.W. von Goethe in his masterpiece Faust, education should also teach how one’s cultural heritage can become part of an adult’s awareness. Goethe invites man to earn over again what he has inherited from his fathers, in order to own it outright. Yet, whatever is not used leaves man overburdened, because he cannot be aware of it or give a reason for it (Goethe 1986, vv. 682−684). It is also cultural enrichment that students are looking for, which 2880 Lucia Salvato / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 174 ( 2015 ) 2875 – 2881 can enable them to be integrated into the social community of which they are a part. 6. Concluding remarks This analysis has offered a way of teaching a foreign language at school or at university through which students can achieve the edification of their selves. Learners must be challenged. According to its etymological sense, this means that they must be “pro -voked” (lt. pro- vocāre), “called out” to answer to the stimulus of reality. Moreover, the first urgent stimuli of life usually emerge during the learning years. Only through the commitments they must fulfill, are students encouraged to a full responsibility, which is firstly experienced when they begin to answer the call of reality. The usefulness of education is therefore strictly connected to the interest it can stimulate in learners. As a consequence, education is firstly an adult problem, and then of the youth. In addition, as young boys and girls always develop a number of questions and requirements when they come into contact with everything, the question is whether adults have a path to offer them on which they can walk in search of the meaning of things, and hence of what they must study. What they actually need is valid educators who witness how life can be approached and who encourage them towards reality with the help of a method of approaching it correctly because, as soon as they find this opportunity, they begin their journey with enthusiasm and without the fear of further hard work. The additional care and effort required by homework assigned on the course and the way they interacted with it revealed, in fact, the thirst students have for new and interesting things that have something to communicate to them and with which they can come to terms with themselves. University or school teaching will be of interest only if learners can be edified by it. What is in question is ‘the calling’ of young men and women, who demand to become adults thanks to a long-lasting awareness of their identity. In this regard, every educational process should imply an education in the arts, whose immense contribution consists of its power to “move” (lt. movēre) and to change man’s soul, where he finds his longing for Beauty, Goodness, and Truth. Education in the arts is the best opportunity to develop a mature approach to life as it consists of a twofold phenomenon - social and personal. It is attention to life, because it is attention to the details of universal masterpieces, and this can facilitate the proper focus on reality as a whole. The analysis of a painting teaches, for example, how to turn one’s attention from the details to the whole. As stated by Benedict XVI, art is often “a proclamation of hope, an invitation to raise our gaze to the ultimate horizon”, and it fits to man’s thirst, because human history is “a continuing tension towards fullness” (Benedict XVI, 2009). It teaches the effort required to understand the meaning of things, by paying attention to different features under which the meaning is hidden. Moreover, the analysis of works of art encourages younger generations to meditate upon the values of past masterpieces by comparing them with their own values through fruitful discussions with educators and classmates. In this way students can become active actors in what they study, protagonists of their work and consequently of their lives. Indeed, the most profound effect of the arts on human beings has always been the stirring up of the feelings and the mode of thinking by producing an interior change. This is the reason why the arts themselves can be considered an art, the supreme “art of education” (John Paul II, 1999). All personal reflections on texts and consequently on reality, which students would otherwise leave anonymous, emerge as a consequence of an invitation. Therefore, in line with the ancient Greeks, teaching cannot be just the disinterested transmission of knowledge, but it may become a gift that students can hold and use for a comparison with each type of reality (gr. χτῆμα). Not surprisingly, youth has been called “a statue of grace” (Pieretti, 1983, 254), in which life stimulates curiosity and attracts the attention of youth. It is the first stage of life in which man begins the search for meaning and in which he can be educated in the investigation of the development of things as an analogue for the development of his life. It is obviously a compelling task, but it is truly fascinating, because younger generations need help in discovering the depth of life (cf. Pieretti 1983, 255). On this long path, they should first be exposed to these very educators. 2881 Lucia Salvato / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 174 ( 2015 ) 2875 – 2881 References Aristotle (2013). Politics. (Book 8). Translated and with an Introduction, Notes, and Glossary by C. Lord (second edition). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Bellini, P. P. (2009). La comunicazione artistica e i suoi attori. Sociologia della musica, della letteratura e dell’arte [A Sociological Study on Music, Literature and Arts]. Mondadori Università. Benedict XVI (2009). Meeting with Artists. Sistine Chapel, Saturday 21 November 2009 (http://www.vatican.va). Bergoglio, J. M. (2013). Educar: testimonio de la Verdad. Mensajes a los Educadores. Buenos Aires: Editorial Claretiana [engl. tr. Education for Choosing Life: Proposals for Difficult Times. Ignatius Press 2014]. Calabrese, O. (2006). Come si legge un’opera d’arte [On Interpreting Works of Art]. Mondadori Università. Calabrese, O. (1985). Il linguaggio dell’arte [On the Language of Arts]. Milano: Fabbri. Cattrysse, P. (2000). Media Translation. Plea for an Interdisciplinary Approach. Versus 85/86/87, 251 - 269. Cicero, M. T. (2001). Cicero on the Ideal Orator (De Oratore). Translated by J. M. May, & J. Wisse. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Combarieu, J. (1907). La musique, ses lois, son evolution. Paris: Flammarion [it. tr. Le radici sociali della musica nelle forme e negli stili. In A. Serravezza (Ed.) (1980), La sociologia della musica. Torino: EDT]. Coyle, D., Hood, P., & Marsh, D. (2010). CLIL. Content and Language Integrated Learning. Cambridge University Press. Eco, U. (1977). The Influence of Roman Jakobson on the Development of Semiotics. In D. Armstrong, & C. H. van Schooneveld (Eds.), Roman Jakobson: Echoes of His Scholarship (pp. 39-58). Lisse: Peter de Ridder. Frodeman, R., Thompson Klein, J., & Mitcham, C. (Eds.) (2010). The Oxford Handbook of Interdisciplinarity. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Goethe, J. W. von (1986). Faust eine Tragödie. In E. Trunz (Ed.), Goethes Werke. Vol. 3. Hamburger Ausgabe in 14 Bänden. Hamburg: C. H. Beck. Husserl, E. (1966). Analysen zur passiven Synthesis (1918-1926). In M. Fleischer (ed.), Gesammelte Werke. Vol. XI. Den Haag: Martinus Nijhoff. Jakobson, R. (1987). On Linguistic Aspects of Translation. In K. Pomorska, & S. Rudy (Eds.), Language in Literature (pp. 428-435). Cambridge/Massachussets: Harvard University Press. John Paul II (1999). Letter of His Holiness Pope John Paul II to Artists (http://www.vatican.va). Marion, J. L. (2005). Étant donné: essai d’une phénoménologie de la donation. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France (PUF). Peirce, Ch. S. (1931-1958). Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce. Ch. Hartshorne, & P. Weiss (Eds.). Vol. I–VI. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Pieretti, A. (1983). I giovani e l’educazione estetica [Youth and Aesthetic Education]. In N. Galli (Ed.), Esigenze educative dei giovani d’oggi (pp. 236-267). Milano: Vita&Pensiero. 
work_soqwedagm5hrtmlfcuhonaxdqe	----	Virtual Mentor Virtual Mentor American Medical Association Journal of Ethics December 2013, Volume 15, Number 12: 1088-1091. HISTORY OF MEDICINE When Medicine Is Powerless Thomas W. Laqueur, PhD An 1897 painting by the 16-year-old Pablo Picasso—Reason and Charity— illustrates the oft-perceived epistemological divide between comforting patients and treating them. In the corner stands a nun holding a child in one arm and offering the patient a drink; in the foreground sits a doctor taking the patient’s pulse and looking at his watch. Physiology is the domain of reason; care the domain of charity. Of course the contrast is overblown, but by then it had already been commonly felt for some time. Almost a century earlier, in 1798, John Ferriar (1761-1815), a learned, experienced and socially engaged physician in Manchester, England, added a chapter called “Of the treatment of the dying,” to the end of his three-volume magnum opus because, he said, there was no topic “less studied in its minute details” [1]. He wanted to make three points. First, that death is often not painful. By and large a dying person becomes weaker and weaker: “the approach of actual death produces a sensation similar to that of falling asleep” [2]. Some people, largely because of respiratory distress, are agitated as death approaches, but those “who resign themselves quietly to their feelings” seem to fare well and die “insensibly” [3]. Fear and apprehension, he suggested, are as much the cause of suffering as physiology. These can be quieted. Ferriar’s second point had to do with what we would call end-of-life care. The suffering of patients near death is often, he thought, “aggravated by the prejudices and indiscretions of their attendants” [4]. The precise timing of dissolution varies, i.e., prognosis is not easy, but “when the approach of death is ascertained, either from the symptoms of the disease, or by the patient’s own feelings” the good physician should offer what we would call palliative care, i.e., he ought to switch modes [5]. (I might add that Ferriar probably got this from Hippocrates, who was being translated into Latin at the time: “refuse to treat those who are overmastered by their disease,” argued the ancestral physicians, “realizing that in such cases medicine is powerless” [6].) It “belongs to his province, to determine when officiousness becomes torture” [7]. He will not, like ignorant practitioners, torment his patient, with unavailing attempts to stimulate the dissolving system, from the idle vanity of prolonging the flutter of the pulse for a few more vibrations: Virtual Mentor, December 2013—Vol 15 www.virtualmentor.org 1088 if he cannot alleviate his situation, he will protect him against every suffering, which has not been attached by nature [8]. (Ferriar’s toolkit for palliative care was more limited than that of today’s physician and he therefore held out little comfort for suffering “attached by nature” [9], i.e., the sorts of pain today’s physician might treat with opiates.) Finally, he suggested that the doctor’s work is not finished when there are no more clinical tasks to be done. When he makes the decision that “all hopes for revival are lost” [7], his job merely changes. It “remains the duty of the physician to soothe the last moments of existence” [9]. His “friendly offices” “are not less grateful to the sick, than satisfactory to surrounding relations” [9]. It becomes the doctor’s job to comfort. All of this seems as sensible today as it did more than 200 years ago. Why then do we still know so little about the experience of dying? Why is palliative care only now and still begrudgingly accepted as part of standard medical care? And, finally, why is a doctor’s role at the deathbed so profoundly circumscribed that few would expect her to offer comfort and support? “Soothing the last moments of existence” is not an intervention commensurate with anything on the list of diagnosis-related groups. Let me take these questions in order. Except for anecdotal evidence like that provided by Ferriar, there were no empirical studies of how we die before William Osler’s unpublished survey of some 500 patients in the Johns Hopkins teaching hospital between 1900 and 1904. Based on reports from nurses and colleagues, Osler reported that about a fifth of his subjects ended their lives in some measure of discomfort. For the rest, “their death was ‘a sleep and a forgetting,’” he concluded [10], quoting a commonplace that Ferriar would have known. In 1994 Sherwin Nuland published his bestselling How We Die, which concluded on anecdotal evidence that Ferriar and Osler were wrong. Death is nothing more than a physiological event that is “glutted with mental suffering and physical distress” [11]. Then in 1995, a century after Osler, came the massive SUPPORT study showing that Nuland might have had a point but not because suffering was an inevitable part of the natural history of death, as he had argued. Rather it revealed what his story had hidden: that dying was a process profoundly affected by what doctors did and by a multitude of mixups and failures in communication between everyone involved. A natural history of dying scarcely exists today. Sharon Kaufman’s A Time to Die makes this clear in exquisite ethnographic detail: in many cases, the way we die is as much a result of the institutional, legal, and cultural constraints of the hospital and the medical system in general as it is of what Ferriar would have recognized as “dissolution.” There is a reason for why we know so little about “dissolution:” a rupture that began in the eighteenth century between our understandings of death as a biological event and as a cultural one has, until very recently, kept the question of how we experience www.virtualmentor.org Virtual Mentor, December 2013—Vol 15 1089 http://www.virtualmentor.org/ dying off the research agenda of medicine. While the dead body and death as a biologically defined legal category became of greater interest to doctors, death as it was experienced by the dying was not considered their problem. This has been the case since at least around 1760, when an article in the great Enlightenment Encyclopédie defined death for its wide, educated readership. It asserted that, whether a human being is made of body and soul is a religious question that science cannot answer; life is “the continual movement of solids and fluids through the whole living body,” and death, as far as the doctor is concerned, is merely the opposite of that [12]. As far as medicine is concerned, the suffering human, the creature with a soul, belongs to others. The reluctance of the medical profession to shift from treatment to palliation has if anything increased since Ferriar’s day. Prognosis has never been easy, but is probably more difficult today, when the majority of people in the West die from chronic diseases whose courses are more difficult to foresee than those of the more predictable infectious diseases that felled the majority of people in Ferriar’s day. Furthermore, we now have more means by which to “maintain the flutter of the pulse” [9] for just a while longer than did physicians back then. Doctors also tend to wildly overestimate the time a patient has to live in part because, increasingly in the nineteenth century, it became a norm of medical practice that a physician’s job was to hold out hope even at the cost of lying [13, 14]. But Ferriar points to the most important reason: it is only “if he cannot alleviate his situation” [9] that the physician should ease the patient’s suffering. Palliation was already then a mark of defeat and is even more so today. Hospitals have for decades provided birthing rooms that can be advertised as happy places to deliver one’s children. But, as the head of a hospital told a medical colleague of mine, Sunnyvale cannot advertise that it is a good place to die. Hospitals in the popular imagination are triumphalist institutions, and only recently has medicine come to see that dying well may be a victory of sorts. Palliative care is beginning to get the recognition it deserves not as a specialty of surrender but as part of what medicine owes the sick. References 1. Ferriar J. Medical Histories and Reflections. Vol 3. London: Cadell and Davis; 1798:191. 2. Ferriar, 195. 3. Ferriar, 197. 4. Ferriar, 191-192. 5. Ferriar, 192-193. 6. Hippocrates. Decorum XVI. 7. Ferriar, 192. 8. Ferriar, 193-194. 9. Ferriar, 193. 10. I base this on the manuscript notes in the McGill University Library; the quotation is from William Osler, Science and Immortality. Boston, MA: Virtual Mentor, December 2013—Vol 15 www.virtualmentor.org 1090 Houghton, Mifflin; 1904:19; cf. Mueller PS. William Osler’s Study of the Act of Dying: an analysis of the original data. J Med Biogr. 2007;15(Suppl 1):55-63. 11. Nuland S. How We Die: Reflections on Life’s Final Chapter. New York: Knopf; 1994:142. 12. Mort: medicine [death]. Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire Raisonné des Sciences, des Arts et des Métiers. vol. 10. Paris; 1765:718. http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text- idx?c=did;cc=did;rgn=main;view=text;idno=did2222.0000.836. Accessed October 25, 2013. 13. Percival T. Medical Ethics: Or A Code of Institutes and Precepts. Manchester, UK: S. Russell; 1803:166. 14. Lavi SJ. The Modern Art of Dying. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press; 2005:48-56. Thomas W. Laqueur, PhD, is the Helen Fawcett Distinguished Professor of History at the University of California, Berkeley. He received his BA in philosophy from Swarthmore College in 1967 and his PhD in history from Princeton University in 1973. He regularly co-teaches a course on death and dying in historical and contemporary. He is finishing a book called The Work of the Dead that will be published by Princeton University Press in 2014. Related in VM Whole-Person, Whole-Community Care at the End of Life, December 2013 Medical Students and Dying Patients, December 2013 The viewpoints expressed on this site are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views and policies of the AMA. Copyright 2013 American Medical Association. All rights reserved. www.virtualmentor.org Virtual Mentor, December 2013—Vol 15 1091 http://www.virtualmentor.org/ http://virtualmentor.ama-assn.org/2013/12/msoc1-1312.html http://virtualmentor.ama-assn.org/2013/12/ecas3-1312.html 
work_srrxgknqoja6xf62kidcnkgmlq	----	DOI: 10.7816/sed-06-01-05 sed, 2018, Cilt 6, Sayı 1, Volume 6, Issue 1 67 www.sanategitimidergisi.com CHİRİCO VE METAFİZİK RESİM Rasim SOYLU1 ÖZ Dedesi Osmanlı sarayında bir tercüman ve babası Osmanlı demiryollarının yapımında mühendis olarak çalışan Giorgio de Chirico, sanat tarihinde gizemli rüya dünyasının ve doğaüstü mekânların sihirbazı veya büyücüsü olarak tanımlanır. Genellikle “Enigma” ile başlayan isimleri olan eserleri bilinmezlik ve muamma teması taşır. Chirico’nun Ateist olduğu iddia edilir ancak onun resimlerinde mistik eğilimler görülmektedir ve çalışmalarında Ateizm çağrıştıran imgeler nadiren görülür. Ruhsal gerçeklik ve metafizik keşifler Chirico’nun en büyük ilgi alanıdır. Kelimelerle ifade edilemeyecek iç dünya arayışlarını ve deneyimlerini resimlerinde boyamıştır. Filozofik bakış açısı, Nietche ve Schopenhauer felsefesinden etkilenmekle birlikte, Hindu ve Budist inançlarına da ilgi duymuştur. Chirico’nun Sürrealistleri ciddi bir şekilde etkilediği görülür. Bu çalışmanın amacı Chirico’nun mistik ve metafizik kavramları içeren düşünce ve sanat yapısını ve eserlerinde ortaya koyduğu metafizik resim anlayışını incelemektir. Yöntem olarak Chirico’nun düşünce ve sanat anlayışını konu alan literatür taranacak ve resimlerinde ortaya koyduğu metafizik biçim ve semboller incelenecektir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Enigma, Muamma, Mistisizm, Metafizik 1Dr. Öğrt.Üyesi, Aksaray Üniversitesi, Eğitim Fakültesi, Güzel Sanatlar Eğitimi Bölümü, rasimsoylu(at)hotmail.com Soylu,R. (2018). Chirico ve Metafizik Resim. sed, 6 (1), s.67 -82. www.sanategitimidergisi.com 68 CHIRICO AND METAPHISICAL ART ABSTRACT Chirico's grandfather was an interpreter in the Ottoman palace and his father worked as an engineer in the construction of the Ottoman railways. Giorgio de Chirico is defined as the magician or witch of the mysterious dream world and supernatural spaces in art history. Their works, which usually begin with "Enigma", are the subject of ambiguity and enigma. Chirico is claimed to be an atheist, but mystical tendencies are seen in his paintings, and the works that atheism is associated with are rarely seen. Spiritual reality and metaphysical discoveries are Chirico's greatest interests. He painted his inner world quests and experiences that could not be expressed in words. The philosophical point of view, while impressed by the philosophy of Nietche and Schopenhauer, was also interested in Hindu and Buddhist beliefs. Chirico appears to have seriously affected Surrealists. The purpose of this work is to examine the thought and artistic structure of Chirico, including the mystical and metaphysical concepts, and the metaphysical artwork that he reveals in his works. As a method, the literature on Chirico's concept of thought and art will be scanned and the metaphysical forms and symbols revealed in his paintings will be examined. Keywords: Enigma, Mystery, Mysticism, Metaphysics DOI: 10.7816/sed-06-01-05 sed, 2018, Cilt 6, Sayı 1, Volume 6, Issue 1 69 www.sanategitimidergisii.com GİRİŞ Giorgio de Chirico (d. 10 Temmuz 1888 - ö. 20 Kasım 1978), 1910’da geliştirdiği Metafizik sanat anlayışıyla Yirminci yüzyılın avangart sanatçıları arasında yer almıştır. Chirico özelikle biçimci ve soyut araştırmalardan uzak kalmış ve insanın rüya, gizem ve bilinçaltı gibi içselliğine yönelerek sürrealizme bir çıkış noktası olmuştur. Resimleri geçmişten ve antikiteden ilham alıyor görünse de o aslında modern ve yeni olanın peşindedir. Sadece biçimselliğin ötesinde bir içsellik arayışı onu diğer modernlik arayışında olan çağdaşlarından ayırır. Onun zamanla olan ilişkisi Nietzsche’nin ebedi dönüş felsefesinden esinlenen bir zamansızlık veya zaman dışılık olarak tanımlanabilir. Tablo:1 Görsel No: 1. İstanbul Katolik Mezarlığında Chirico Aile Mezarlığı (Ögel,1916:28). Soylu,R. (2018). Chirico ve Metafizik Resim. sed, 6 (1), s.67 -82. www.sanategitimidergisi.com 70 1. Chirico’nun Yaşamı Londra’da mühendislik okumuş olan babası Türkiye, Bulgaristan ve Yunanistan’da demiryolu inşaatlarında çalışmıştır. Babasının Yunanistan’da çalıştığı bir zamanda Volos şehrinde doğmuştur. Chirico’nun ataları İtalyan olmakla birlikte, aile kabristanı ve mezar şapeli İstanbul’da olan bir aileye mensuptur. Babası İstanbul’da annesi İzmir’de doğmuştur. Dedesi Bab-ı Ali’de Rus çarlığı adına tercümanlık ve Sardinya krallığının elçisi olarak çalışmıştır. Kardeşi Andrea (takma adı Alberto Savinio) İnfanzia di Nivasio Dolcemare (Nivasio Dolcemare’nin Çocukluğu) kitabında anayurdundan uzak yaşayan hem ekonomik hem de kültürel zenginlik içerisinde yaşayan garip bir aile olduklarını yazar. Ailede İtalyanca ve Yunanca yanı sıra Almanca ve Türkçe de konuşulmaktadır (Ögel,2016:19). Tablo:2 Görsel No: 2. Chirico, Hebdomeros, Roman, 1925 (Amazon,2017). DOI: 10.7816/sed-06-01-05 sed, 2018, Cilt 6, Sayı 1, Volume 6, Issue 1 71 www.sanategitimidergisii.com Haziran 1911'de Paris'e gitmeye karar verir ancak önce Torino’'da birkaç gün geçirir. Bu kentin kemerlerden ve meydanlardan oluşan yapısı, "fizikötesi" atmosferi, Chirico'yu çok etkiler. Paris'te düzenlediği sergiler Pablo Picasso ve Guillaume Apollinaire tarafından fark edilir. I. Dünya Savaşı'nda İtalya'ya döner. Savaştan sonra eserleri tüm Avrupa'da sergilenmeye başlanır. 1924'te ilk eşi Rus balerin Raysa Gurieviç ile evlenir. 1928'de New York ve Londra'da sergiler açar. 1930'da ömür boyu evli kalacağı ikinci eşi yine Rus olan Isabella Pakszwer Far ile evlenir ve birlikte İtalya'ya yerleşirler. 1936’da Amerika’ya giden sanatçı 1944’te Roma’ya yerleşir. 1978 yılında ölünceye kadar burada sanatsal çalışmalarına devam eder (Tükel,1997:343). Chirico, en çok 1909 - 1919 arasındaki "Metafizik" akımıyla ve bu dönem eserlerinde yarattığı duygu atmosferiyle tanınır. Ressam bu döneminde, ıssız sokak ve caddeleriyle, şehir manzaralarını konu almıştır, sonlara doğru ise terzi mankeni benzeri hibrid figürleri betimlemiştir. Chirico’nun 1925'te “Hebdomeros” adlı bir romanı yayımlanır (Passeron,1990:94:140). Tablo:3 Görsel No: 3. Chirico, Oto portre, Muammayı Değilse Neyi Seveyim? (Orijinal Adı, Et Quid Amabo Nisi Quod Enigma Est?), 70.5x54 cm. 1911, Özel Koleksiyon (Fondazionedechirico,2017). Soylu,R. (2018). Chirico ve Metafizik Resim. sed, 6 (1), s.67 -82. www.sanategitimidergisi.com 72 2.Metafizik Resim 1922 yılından itibaren İtalyan sanatında çığır açan Metafizik Resim, 1930'ların ortasına kadar devam etmiştir. Chirico 1930'larda daha gerçekçi resimler üzerine yoğunlaşmış fakat metafizik dönemindeki kadar başarılı olamamıştır. 1930'lardan sonra klasik üsluba yöneldiği ve eski üslubunu terk ettiği için eleştirilmiştir (Tükel, 1997:343). Chirico eserleri ve metafizik resim için, “benim tuvallerimde, yıkımları haber veren bir sessizlik ve silinip yok olan ışıklar içinde gerçekdışı, tasarlanmış sahneler görülür. Fizikötesi dönemimde benim için gerçeklik, tüm öteki şeylerdi; kimi kez bir özlem olgusu, kimi kez nedensiz bir can sıkıntısı” demiştir (Beksaç,1995:119). Eserleri kendinden sonraki Sürrealist ressamları da etkilemiş ve "öncü" olarak tanınmasını sağlamıştır. Metafizik, sanat ve felsefede fizikötesi anlamında kullanılmaktadır. Yunanca maddenin ötesi, varlığın son temelleri, özü ve anlamı üzerine öğretiler anlamına gelen bir kelimedir. (Akarsu,1998:81). Düş ve bilinçaltı izlenimleri yansıtan Metafizik Resim, savaşın getirdiği yalnızlık ve huzursuzluk ortamının etkilerini Sürrealist bir anlayışla yansıtır. Metafizik Resim genel anlamda mistik ve düşsel kavramlar üzerinde durmaktadır. 1917 yılında bir araya gelen Giorgio de Chirico ve Carlo Carra (1881-1966) gibi İtalyan ressamlarca başlatılan akım, İtalyanca‘da Pittura Metafisica ismiyle anılır. Metafizik resimlerde genellikle abartılmış bir perspektifle sonsuzluğun ifadesi görülür. Boş meydanlar ve kentler, bazen bir insan figürüyle resmedilirken, bazen de kuklayı andıran hareketsiz ve yüzsüz insan figürleriyle resmedilmiştir (Atan,2006:238). Metafizik resimlerde, solgun bir ışık, soğuk, gri ve kahverengi renkler melankolik bir görünüm verilirken, yalnızlık, sonsuzluk, sınırsızlık duyguları da uyandırılır. Metafizik akım, arkaik ve primitif öğeleri de resimlerde kullanarak düş dünyasını resimlerde yansıtır. 3.Chirico ve Metafizik Chirico, gizemli rüya dünyasının ve doğaüstü mekânların sihirbazı veya büyücüsü olarak tanımlanabilir. Chirico’nun ateist olduğu iddia edilir, ancak onun çalışmalarında çoğunlukla mistik eğilimler görülmektedir. Resimlerinde, kelimelerle ifade edilemeyecek iç dünya arayışlarını ve deneyimlerini yansıtmaya çalışmıştır. Filozofik bakış açısı, Schopenhauer felsefesinden etkilenmekle birlikte, Hindu ve Budist inançlarına da ilgi duyduğu iddia edilmektedir (Greeley,2016:95). Chirico’nun metafizik anlayışının kökenleri arasında en güçlü yeri Yunan miti alır. Aslında buna estetik bakış açısını etkileyen demek daha doğru olur. Onun resminde mit karmaşık bir örgü içerisinde değil, simge, metafor ve arketip olarak yer alır. DOI: 10.7816/sed-06-01-05 sed, 2018, Cilt 6, Sayı 1, Volume 6, Issue 1 73 www.sanategitimidergisii.com Chirico’da bilinçli olarak sadece metafizik görünümde düşünülebilecek imgelerin yaratıldığı görülür. Bu imgelerde, mantığın sınırları aşılarak hiçlerin kanıtları sunulmaya çalışılmıştır (Passeron,1990:88). Chirico, romantik dönemin müzisyen ve ressam olan ve sürekli ölüm ve ruh temaları çalışan Arnold Böcklin’in (1827-1901) etkisinde kaldığı görülür (Passeron,1990:94). Chirico’nun arzusu, anlaşılmaz ve beklenmedik bir şeyle karşılaşıldığında insanı saran o gariplik duygusunu yakalamaktır. Geleneksel betimleme becerilerini kullanarak dev büyüklükte bir klasik başı ve lastik eldiveni terk edilmiş bir şehirde bir araya getirmiş ve adını aşk şarkısı koymuştur. Gombrich’e göre, XX. yüzyıl sanatçılarının, dolaysız ve içten olan her şeye ilgi duymalarını sempati ile karşılamak mümkün olsa da bilinçli olarak saflaşmak için sarf ettikleri çabanın aslında onları bir noktada çelişkiye düşüreceği de düşünülebilir. İnsan sırf kendi isteği ile "ilkel" olamaz. Çocuksu olma özlemi bazı sanatçıları, bilinçli saçmalıklar yapmaktan öteye götürmemiştir (Gombrich, 1999:589-590). Rene Magritte’e göre, Chirico’nun geometrik düş resminin devamı sayılabilecek insansız kentleri, boş arazileri, devasa köprüleri ve ütopik bir geleceğe ait yıkım manzaraları, insan ruhunu dünyanın gizlerine açarlar. Aslında Chirico’nun düş evreni de tamamlanmamış ütopik bir şehre ait olduğu söylenebilir (Lynton,1991:151). Tablo:4 Görsel No: 4. Chirico, Bir Güz Öğleden Sonrasının Muamması, (Orijinal adı, L’Énigme d’un après-midi d’automne ) 45x60 cm. TÜYB, 1910, Özel Koleksiyon (Ögel,1916:28). Soylu,R. (2018). Chirico ve Metafizik Resim. sed, 6 (1), s.67 -82. www.sanategitimidergisi.com 74 Chirico, 1915 yılında İtalya’ya dönmeden önce yazdığı bir metinde iç dünyasında uyanan metafizik ve mistik duyguları şöyle ifade eder: “Gerçekten ölümsüz olması için bir sanat eserinin bütün insani sınırları geçmesi gerekir. Sanatçı varlığın en gizli kuytularından derin önermeler çıkarmalıdır. Gözlerimi kapadığım zaman hayalim daha çok güçleniyor. Versailes’te geçirdiğim bir kışı hatırlıyorum. Sessizlik ve dinginlik her yere hâkimdi. Her şey bana gizemli ve soru dolu gözlerle bakıyordu. Sonra sarayın her köşesinin, her sütununun, her penceresinin bir tini olduğunu, nüfuz edilmesi imkânsız bir tini olduğunu anladım. O anda insanları tuhaf biçimler yaratmaya sürükleyen gizemin farkına vardım. Tarih öncesinden beri insana gelen en hayranlık verici duygu önsezidir. Bu duygu hep devam edecek. Bunu evrenin akıldışılığının ebedi oluşuna delil sayabiliriz” (Chirico,2011:80). 4.Enigma-Muamma Enigma-Muamma, Chirico’nun bazı resimlerini isimlendirdiği, onun temel kavramlarından biridir. Chirico’nun kendi tarifiyle “dünyadaki her şeyi muammalar şeklinde temsil etmek, yalnızca ezelden beri kendimize sorduğumuz büyük soruları – dünyanın niçin yaratıldığı, niçin doğduğumuz, yaşadığımız ve öldüğümüz” gibi muammalar onun resimlerinde ana temalar olarak belirir (Ögel,2016:32). Tablo:5 Görsel No: 5. Chirico, Kehanet Muamması, (Orijinal adı, L’Énigme de l’oracle ) 42x61 cm. TÜYB, 1910, Özel Koleksiyon (Ögel,1916:28). DOI: 10.7816/sed-06-01-05 sed, 2018, Cilt 6, Sayı 1, Volume 6, Issue 1 75 www.sanategitimidergisii.com Chirico’nun Metafizik resminin kökenleri atalar çağı ile insanlığın başlangıcına dek gider. Tarihsel zamanın öncesine gittiği için aslında zaman dışıdır. Chirico, Nietzche’nin ebedi dönüş felsefesinden etkilenerek, dehasını zamanın dışındaymış gibi ortaya koyar. Chirico’nun Metafizik eğilimi daha 1910’lu yıllarda başlar. Güz mevsiminin şiirselliği, uzayan gölgeler ve hareli ışıklar onu etkilemektedir. Kendisi fiziksel ve manevi olarak bitkin olduğu bir döneminde ilk Metafizik deneyimlerini, “ruhumuzda kimi zaman hayret, sık sık tefekkür, her zaman yaratma sevinci uyandıran bir düş gücü” olarak anlatır (Chirico, Aktaran Ögel, 2016: 51). Kendi tabiriyle tabloları küçüktür (en büyüğü 50x70 cm) ama her biri bir muammadır. “Bir Güz Öğleden Sonrasının Muamması” adlı resminde, bizzat Nietzsche’den esinlenerek öğleden sonrasına özgü bir Stimmung (Chirico’nun tanımıyla, ruh hali ya da manevi atmosfer) ile nesneleri açıklanamaz bir gizemle yükler. Yine kendi açıklamasıyla bu, Nietzsche’nin “ebedi dönüş, lirik esin ve ebedilik temasıdır (Ögel, 1917: 37). “Şimdi ruhumu yeni bir ezgi kuşattı, yeni bir şarkı işittim ve bütün dünya bütünüyle değişmiş görünüyor gözüme, güz öğleden sonra geldi, uzayan gölgeler, berrak hava, dingin gök, kısaca Zerdüşt çıkageldi. Anladınız mı beni? Bu sözcüğün nasıl bir muamma içerdiğini anladınız mı? Büyük ozan geldi. Ebedi dönüşten söz eden ve ezgisinde ebediliğin sesi olan” (Age). Tablo:6 Görsel No: 6. Chirico, İtalya Meydanı,1913, 25x35.2 cm. TÜYB, Ontario Sanat Galerisi, Toronto, Kanada (Wikiart, 2017). Soylu,R. (2018). Chirico ve Metafizik Resim. sed, 6 (1), s.67 -82. www.sanategitimidergisi.com 76 Chirico 1912’de yazdığı “Geleceğin Resmi Nasıl Bir Şey Olabilir” başlıklı yazısında, resmin amacını “şiirin, müziğin ve felsefenin de amacı olan, daha önce yaşanmamış duyumları yaşatmak” olarak açıklar. Schpenhaur’dan esinlenerek, özgün, olağandışı ve ölümsüz düşüncelerin doğması için en sıradan şeylerin gözümüze yeni ve bilinmedik bir şekilde görünmesi için dünyadan ve her şeyden kısa bir süreliğine de olsa uzaklaşmak gerektiğini söyler (Chirico,2008:649-652). “Bir Güz Öğleden Sonrasının Muamması” resminin nasıl doğduğunu da bu yazısında anlatır. Sonbaharda aydınlık bir akşam üstü, Floransa’da Piazza Santa Croce meydanında bir bankta oturmaktadır. Aslında o meydanı ilk defa görmüyordur ancak ağrılı bir bağırsak hastalığının nekahet dönemi olduğu için üzerinde farklı bir duyarlılık vardır. Yapılar, meydandaki çeşme ve Dante heykeli sanki ilk defa görüyormuş gibi gözüne bir başka görünür. Sanki her şey nekahet yaşamaktadır. Bu kendisi için bütünüyle bir muammadır. Çünkü bu açıklanabilir bir duygu ve izlenim değildir. Bu yüzden resme muamma demeyi sevmektedir. İnsanın dili sustuğunda tüm gizemlerin konuşmaya başladığını düşünür (Age). Tablo:7 Görsel No: 7. Chirico, İtalya Meydanı ve Politikacı, TÜYB,1950, 30x40, Özel Koleksiyon (Ögel,1916:83). DOI: 10.7816/sed-06-01-05 sed, 2018, Cilt 6, Sayı 1, Volume 6, Issue 1 77 www.sanategitimidergisii.com Kehanet Muamması, Chirico’nun Metafizik olarak yaptığı bir başka eseridir. Sırtı dönük figürün Arnold Böcklin’in Odyseus ve Kalypso adlı eserinden ilham aldığı düşünülür. Bir perde ile gizlenmiş bir tanrıdan esinlenmiş gizli kehanet sahnesi. Çocukluğunda eğitim gördüğü Atina’ya gönderme yapar ve Yunan miti ile olan ilişkisini gözler önüne serer. Bu iki eser muamma temelli bir manifesto olarak yorumlanır. Resimdeki asılı olan perdeler, Yunan deneyimine gönderme yapar. Rum Ortodoks kiliselerinde perdeler tanrısal alan ile inançlılar alanını birbirinden ayırır ve tanrının varlığını gizli tutar (Age:38). Chirico, Kâhin ile ilgili şunları söyler: “Tarih öncesinin bize bıraktığı en garip duygulardan biri kehanet duygusudur. Bu duygu hep var olacaktır. Bu, evrenin muammasının ve anlamsızlığının ebedi kanıtı gibidir” (Chirico, 2016:40). Chirico, İtalya Meydanları resminde sembolik ya da anılara gönderme yapan yerleri çağrıştırır. Zengin, ince ve tedirgin edici bir perspektif ile çok doğal olmayan uzamlar geliştirir. Bu uzamlar dış göndermelerden uzak, ruhun iç dünyasına gönderme yapar. Chirico İtalya Meydanları resminin 1950 sonrası dönemlerde de benzerlerini yapar. Hatta Andy Warhol, bunun bir pop imge haline geldiğini varsayarak pop-art örneğini ortaya koyar. Tablo:4 Görsel No: 8. Andy Warhol, Chirico sonrası İtalya Meydanı, TÜAB, 106.7x127 cm. Özel Koleksiyon (Ögel,1916:83). Soylu,R. (2018). Chirico ve Metafizik Resim. sed, 6 (1), s.67 -82. www.sanategitimidergisi.com 78 Tablo:9 Görsel No: 9. Chirico, Saat Muamması,(Original Adı:L’Énigme de l’heure) 1910,TÜYB,54.5x70.5 cm, Özel Koleksiyon (Fondazionedechirico,2017). Chirico, “Bir Güz Öğleden Sonrasının Muamması”(Resim 4.) resmini yaptıktan iki yıl sonra muamma ile ilgili şunları söyler. “Ne zaman bu resme baksam, o anı bir kez daha yeniden yaşıyorum. Yine de o an bir muamma benim için. Çünkü açıklanması imkânsız. Bu deneyimin sonucu olan yapıtı da muamma olarak tanımlamak hoşuma gidiyor” (Age:96). Şehir meydanlarının ve kentsel mekânların metafizik tasvirleri olarak tanımlanan bu tür resimlerinde Chirico insanın ruhunu çevreleyen duvarlar ve onlardan açılan pencere ve kapılara işaret etmektedir. Resimlerinde saat bazen ömrün hızla elden çıkışını veya kıyameti anımsatır. Bu resim adından da anlaşılacağı gibi insanlığın sonunun yaklaştığı ve hem bireysel hem de bütün evren olarak yaklaşan kıyameti sembolize eder. Resimlerde görülen klasik mimari elemanlar insanlığın tarihsel süreçte kazandığı kazanımların sonunda bomboş kalarak insanlığı kendi yalnızlığı ile baş başa bıraktığının göstergesidir (Brooklynrail, 2017). “Melankoli ve Caddenin Gizemi” (Resim 10.) resminde, bir sonbahar günü öğleden sonra gölgeleri uzanmış bir caddede bir çocuk çember yuvarlıyor. İtalyan veya Roma mimarisi ile çevrili ıssızmış izlenimi veren bu cadde sonunda gizemli bir figürün gölgesi görünüyor. Aslında bu bir rüya görünümüdür. Çocuklukla başlayan yaşamın DOI: 10.7816/sed-06-01-05 sed, 2018, Cilt 6, Sayı 1, Volume 6, Issue 1 79 www.sanategitimidergisii.com ilerisinde belirsiz ve gizemli bir sonun habercisidir cadde sonundaki gölge. Karanlık mimari planların oluşturduğu sağdaki koyu değerlerle boyanmış bölge resmi ikiye bölüyor. Beyaz duvarlar ve sarı yol melankolik bir ruh hüznünü uzayan perspektif içerisinde tasvir ediyor. Metafizik anlayışın mistisizmi hayatın kendisini de melankolik bir rüya olarak görmektedir (Visual-arts-cork, 2017). Chirico’nun pek çok resminde görülen yüzü olmayan, kukla benzeri modeller (Resim 11.) aslında terzi mankenlerinden esinlenmiştir. Ancak Chirico onları çok daha zengin anlamlar yükleyerek tasvir eder. İnsan bedenini minimuma indirgemiş bu yüzü olmayan figürler, varoluşun aydınlık anlatımıdır. Başının eğimi ve vücudun duruşu, evrensel ve ebedi bir dramın sembolüdür. Bir birey olarak kişisel şartlardan ve ayrıntılardan soyutlanmıştır ve muamma devam etmektedir. Sanat eleştirmeni Calvesi’ye göre, Chirico’nun muammayı imgeye dönüştürmesi ve resme aktarılması, 20. yüzyılın en önemli sanatsal devrimlerinden biridir. Çünkü onun dönemi, resimde imgenin biçimsel yönleri ve resim dili üzerine yoğunlaşıldığı bir dönemdir. Chirico resmin sergilemesi beklenen açık ve ifadeci bir konu yerine soyut ve muammalı bir konuyu tasvir etmiştir. Onun konu olarak belirlediği muamma çözülmesi gereken bir sorun değil, kesin bir anlama indirgenemeyen bir muammadır. Aslında bu anlamsızlık anlatan bir muammadır (Calvesi,2008:25). Tablo:10 Görsel No: 10. Chirico, Melankoli ve Caddenin Gizemi, 85x69, 1914, Özel Koleksiyon (Visual- arts-cork,2017). Soylu,R. (2018). Chirico ve Metafizik Resim. sed, 6 (1), s.67 -82. www.sanategitimidergisi.com 80 Tablo:11 Görsel No: 11. Chirico, Kâhin, 1915,TÜYB, 89,6 x 70,1 cm. MOMA, New York (Ögel,1916:83). Sonuç Metafizik resmin kurucusu ve en önemli temsilcisi olan Chirico, gerek nesneleri ve gerekse şehir meydanlarını boş ve anlamsız tasvir ederken aslında insanın ruhunun derinliklerindeki muammayı yani bilinmeyenleri resimlerinde yansıtmaya çalışmaktadır. Aslında şehrin ve ıssız sokakların bir aurası vardır ve bu insanın içindeki bilinmezliğin bir yansımasıdır. Daha sonra Sürrealizme de öncülük eden bilinçaltı ve düşlerin resme aktarılması düşüncesi Freud’un psikanalizminden çok Nietzche ve Shopenhaur’a dayanır. Chirico’nun mistisizmi ve metafizik anlayışı ruhun boşluğu, yaşamın muamması ve sonunda her şeyin bir hiç oluşuna uzanır. Temeli herhangi bir dine ve inanç sistemine dayanmayan bu metafizik anlayış, aslında bütün düşünce ve inanç sistemlerinin de peşinde olduğu, insan nedir? Nereden gelmektedir ve nereye gitmektedir? Ve her şeyin anlamı nedir? Gibi sorulardan oluşur. Resmi gizemli bir aynaya dönüştüren Chirico Soyut sanatın konusuzluğu veya diğer modern sanatların önemsiz konulara yönelmeleri yerine sessiz yankılar ve ıssız gölgeleriyle muammayı resme metafizik anlamlar çağrıştırmak amacıyla taşımıştır. Chirico metafizik resim “Enigma” olarak isimlendirdiği muammalardan meydana gelir. Aslında kendisi de bir muammadır ve insanlığa birbiriyle alakasız şeylerin bir araya gelmesiyle sayısız fikir ve inanç sistemine kaynaklık eden evren tablosunun bilmecesine dikkat çeker. DOI: 10.7816/sed-06-01-05 sed, 2018, Cilt 6, Sayı 1, Volume 6, Issue 1 81 www.sanategitimidergisii.com KAYNAKLAR Akarsu, B. (1998). Felsefe Terimleri Sözlüğü, İstanbul: İnkılap Yayınları. Atan, A. (2006). Resimli Resim Sözlüğü, Ankara: Asil Yayınları. Beksaç, E. (1995). Avrupa Sanatına Giriş, İstanbul: Engin Yayıncılık. Calvesi, M. (2008) Metafisica Continua Sergi Katoloğu, Milano: Palermo Sanat Galerisi. Gombrich, E.H. ( 1999). Sanatın Öyküsü, Çev.Erol-Ömer Erduran, Honkong: Remzi Kitabevi. Lynton,N. (1991). Modern Sanatın Öyküsü, Çev.Sadi Çapan, İstanbul: Remzi Kitabevi. De Chirico,G.(2011). Sanat Ve Kuram, Ed. C. Harrison, Çev.Sabri Gürses, İstanbul:Küre Yay. De Chirico,G.(2008).“Que Pourrait étre la Peinture de L’avenir” Scritti/1 (1911-1945), Romanzi e scritti critici e teorici, Yay. Haz. A.Cortellesa, A.Bonito Oliva, Milano: Bompiani, De Chirico,G.(1985).Il meccanismo Del Pensiero, Yay. Haz. M. Fagiolo Dell Arco,Torino,1985, Aktaran Ögel, De Chirico Katoloğu İstanbul:pera Müzesi Yayınları, 2016. Ögel, Z. (2016). De Chirico Sergi Katoloğu, İstanbul: Pera Müzesi. Passeron,R. (1990). Sürrealizm Ansiklopedisi, Çev.Sezer Tansuğ, İstanbul: Remzi Kitabevi. Tükel, U. (1997). Eczacıbaşı Sanat Ansiklopedisi, c.1.s.343. İstanbul:Yem yayınları. Greeley,A.(2016) http://www.academia.edu/31510823/Abstract_DPhil_Thesis_University_of_Oxford _2016_Being_and_Theatricality_The_Staging_of_the_Metaphysical_in_Giorgio_de _Chiricos_Pittura_Metafisica_1910-1914 (26.04.2017) tarihinde alınmıştır. Soylu,R. (2018). Chirico ve Metafizik Resim. sed, 6 (1), s.67 -82. www.sanategitimidergisi.com 82 http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/paintings-analysis/mystery-and-melancholy- of-street.htm (07.05.2017) https://www.amazon.com/Hebdomeros-Monseiur-Adventure-Metaphysical- Writings/dp/1878972065 (07.05.2017) http://www.fondazionedechirico.org/opere/pittura-2/1910-20/?lang=en (07.05.2017) https://www.wikiart.org/en/giorgio-de-chirico/piazza-d-italia-1913 (17.05.2017) http://brooklynrail.org/2017/05/criticspage/Giorgio-de-Chirico-The-Enigma- of-the-Hour-1910-The-First-Conceptual-Work-of-Art (07.05.2017) 
work_sst6jdwyorg5dao6x6q35sfnt4	----	10.11648.j.cb.20150302.12 Cell Biology 2015; 3(2): 34-37 Published online May 15, 2015 (http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/j/cb) doi: 10.11648/j.cb.20150302.12 ISSN: 2330-0175 (Print); ISSN: 2330-0183 (Online) Most beautiful pigeons of Bangladesh M. Ashraful Kabir Lecturer in Zoology, Cantonment Public School and College, Saidpur Cantonment 5311, District- Nilphamari, Bangladesh Email address: ashraful_wb@yahoo.com To cite this article: M. Ashraful Kabir. Most Beautiful Pigeons of Bangladesh. Animal and Veterinary Sciences. Vol. 3, No. 2, 2015, pp. 34-37. doi: 10.11648/j.cb.20150302.12 Abstract: Pigeons are not aristocratic bird but its body shape, colorful feathers, ornamentation, care, mode of breeding; availability and cost seem to be aristocratic. From the very beginning of human welfare there existed a good relation between pigeon and human. At the dawn of human civilization pigeons are used as letter sending. Later on its tumbling is another great point for its peculiar life. These birds are more social, lovely and sophisticated and found most of the houses in rural and urban areas. Observed seven very nice pigeons are- western crowned pigeon, fantail, jacobin, frillback, pouter, trumpeter and swallow. Their breeding is not normal as local pigeon except fantail. Though the western crowned pigeon is wild but in captivity its breeding and maintenance is not bad. Though these pigeons are produced fewer squab but only 1-2 pair in a year is shown great economic value. Mentioned pigeons are chosen by peoples only on ornamental feathers except the enlarge crop of the pouter. Observed some pigeons are reared in aristocratic family of the famous people or for research affairs so that it can be easily considered as aristocratic ones. Jacobin pigeon was the best to queen Victoria. In America, trumpeter is one of the most popular breed to all. Moreover, emperor Akbar reared fantail and pouter pigeons with other pigeons and naturalist Charles Darwin established a pigeon farm in his yard for explain his book ‘variation of plants and animals under domestication’. From the history the frillback is called Darwin pigeon. Pablo Picasso and Gypsy Rose Lee like fantail pigeon and Johnny Otis is famous for swallow pigeon collection. Out of seven breeds only crown pigeon and frillback evolved by natural selection and others from artificial selection by judicious breeding. Except fantails other six pigeons need to foster pigeons for its squab rising. Keywords: Fancy pigeons, Beautiful pigeons, Crowned pigeons 1. Introduction In Bangladesh perspective some fancy pigeons especially crowned pigeon, jacobin, fantail, pouter, swallow, bokhara trumpeter and frillback are reared as expensive items and it have aristocratic lifestyles. A study of Kabir in 2013 showed that the most costly breed is frillback and the grading of this pigeons was A + in fantail and capuchine and pouter and frillback were A. Care of these pigeons is more sensitive than others and is accepted by everybody for nice feathers. But one great problem is that its breeding performance especially egg laying and from hatching to fledging is not good. For avoiding such situations some foster pigeons (tumblers) are used. For one pair beautiful pigeon minimum five pair fosters is needed. Though this is a problem to maintain those foster parents for rearing those fancy items but at present there is no way. Moreover, need to ensure the similar date for egg laying of foster pigeons. Otherwise, it not showed the regurgitational activity to the young. Above pigeons were reared at the time of mughal dynasty. Emperor Akbar had 500 selected pigeons with fantail, jacobin and pouter but in Ain-I-Akbari which translated by Blochmann in 1873 there distinct breeds were only nine and other descriptions were not clear. That time all breeds are bred in court and its feed were grains. Its care was more sophisticated so that rearers are got more benefit from those breeds’ squab. Lot of scientific and proper care is important than other breeds. In these pigeons for ornamental feathers which are the barriers for its normal breeding. So, trimming of the head-feather, leg and tail region is must in some cases. For the huge ornamentation of feathers those pigeons can’t fly properly. So, it is easily maintained in a balcony or narrow space of the residence. Later on in America and England is performed huge research on fancy pigeons and produced lot of varieties with its proper identifying points. Mr. Levi in 1992 who was army personnel described in his book ‘The Pigeon’ deals various corners of the pigeons with aristocratic one and he divided the fancy pigeons into four major groups- fancy, Animal and Veterinary Sciences 2015; 3(2): 34-37 35 utility, racing and flying. Charles Robert Darwin in 1868 in ‘The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication’ mentioned the four major evolutionary groups of pigeons. He noted pouter in group 1; fantail, Indian frillback and jacobin in group 3 and swallow, trumpeter and English frillback in group 4. 2. Materials and Methods Huge ornamentation of the feathers mainly in head-region some breeds can’t see well. This is the main barrier for breeding performance. Secondly, the muffed is adverse for its walking and the excess tail-feather and its expansion are the cause of non-fertile eggs. So, need to trim those feathers mainly in breeding season of that beautiful pigeons. Table 1. Following pigeons with their origin and selection English Name Origin Type of selection western crowned pigeon Australia Natural selection fantail India Artificial selection jacobin India Artificial selection Cropper/pouter India Artificial selection swallow Germany Artificial selection bokhara/trumpeter Turkey, mid Asia Artificial selection frillback Asia Minor Natural selection 3. Results and Discussion 3.1. Western Crowned Pigeon Types: Victorian, southern, western. Characteristics: This is large, blue-grey pigeon with blue crest and dark blue mask feathers around its eyes. This bird is very similar with Victoria and southern crowned pigeon. It is one of the largest and is considered most beautiful members of the pigeon family. Average length is 28 inches. Breeding: The female usually lays a single white egg (Plate 1). Plate 1. Western Crowned Pigeon 3.2. Fantail Types: Indian, English, American, Silky. Characteristics: Indian Fantail: It varies in size and tremulous of the neck. Mostly white and overall tail feather or rectrices are thirty plus. Muffed are medium in length or none. Generally Indian fantails are long and mostly crested. Some are black, tigered, spotted, patches and tip of the tail back with white bodied. Occasionally it appears small in size and wild type head. Tail feathers are overlapping and not well arranged. Non- tremulous varieties are common. English Fantail: This is small in size and non-muffed. Its head is wild type and always attach to the tail with huge tremulous. Tail feathers are few but well arranged. It always stands on feet and in Bangladesh this breed is not available. White bodied with coloured tail is common in this breed. Beak is medium and head is small. In Scotland the fantails are considered only on carriage but in English this is expanded-tailed breed (McNeillie, 1993). American Fantail: American fantail resembles Indian fantail. Head touch with the tail and tail feathers are 40 or above. Not muffed and crested. Tail feathers are semicircular and well arranged. In Bangladesh some Indian Fantails or its crossed variety is sold as American Fantail. Normally this is large in size and legs are short; body not elongated and stands on tiptoe. Silky fantail: Probably the first picture and description of a silky Fantail was by John Moore in his Columbarium (1735). Linnaeus also described and named the silky pigeon in the 10th edition of his Systema Naturea (1758). He called it Columba hispida (from the Latin word hispidus=rough, hairy). Charles Darwin (1868) was familiar with silky plumage in pigeons as well, and he knew it was a variety. The barbules of the feather do not lack hooks and elasticity is very poor. Silky pigeons can not fly because of their feather condition. Breeding: Sometimes this breed is called garden dovecote or peacock pigeon. In Bangladesh the production of fantail is not bad. Most of the cases rearer provides some vitamins for its proper breeding. Its squab producing is same as common pigeon. Its white colour and fan-like tail is attractive to the breeder so it gets more benefits for its caring. Maximum tail feathers are thirty plus and minimum were 28 and tail feathers are less expanded so that mating is as usual. Caudal and neck muscle shows contraction and expansion so that tremule of the neck and up-down of tail is happened. More expanded tailed birds need to cut 3-4 feathers from male and female. If male is large and tail feathers are not well arranged its mating is okay and eggs are being fertilized without cutting the tail feathers (Plate 2). Plate 2. Fantail 3.3. Jacobin Types: clean-legged, muffed. Characteristics: This is also called wig pigeon (McNeillie, 1993). Clean leg; slender and sleek; horizontal and ‘L’ shape between neck and tail; head is white until half to three-quarters of an inch; hood present; 36 M. Ashraful Kabir: Most Beautiful Pigeons of Bangladesh elongated wing and tail. Breeding: Jacobins will be mated up around the end of July. Breeders will cut the hood and surrounding vent feathers to allow more efficient mating. The hood is so large that it can interfere with mating. Jacobin has too short beak have trouble to feed its young. Foster parents such as homers are usually used to hatch and raise jacobin chicks. Head is covered with long manes so predator animals get a chance to attack easily (Plate 3). Plate 3. Jacobin 3.4. Cropper/Pouter Types: brunner, English, pygmy, ghent, Norwich, old German, dewlap. Characteristics: When it flies a clapping sound happens by shifting the tail and wing and its upper oesophagus is large (McNeillie, 1993). Balloon and enlarge crop is elongated; staying in two legs like a man; much elongated body, wings and legs. Breeding: Foster parents are required for its proper output. While feeding special attention must be taken and include enough grits in their diet for proper digestion (Plate 4). Plate 4. Cropper/Pouter 3.5. Swallow Types: Nuremburg, Saxon, fairy, spotted, tiger. Swallows are of two types- fairy swallow and swallow proper. Fairy swallow is performs fly (McNeillie, 1993). Characteristics: These are mainly muffed and crested- known as ‘color pigeons’; always similar to the white pigeon with colored wings; low standing pigeon; marking to the tern bird; edge of the mouth is red; leg is short; body shape is resemble wild rock pigeon. Breeding: In USA and Britain the muffed and crested varieties have gained the greatest popularity while in Germany clean-legged are more popular (Plate 5). Plate 5. Swallow 3.6. Bokhara Rose/Russian Trumpeter Types: English, Bokhara (Turkey), double crested, bernburg, Dresden, German, altenburg. Characteristics: Long and large-sized pigeon; nice rose-crest and muffs are fan-like measures 4-5 inches (McNeillie, 1993); coo voice; legs are vulture-hocked. Breeding: For proper breeding need to trim crest and leg feather (Plate 6). Plate 6. Bokhara/Trumpeter 3.7. Frillback Types: Indian and English (Darwin 1868). Characteristics: curled feather all over the flights and tail; the flights and tail are only slightly altered; eye gravelly-red; feather form conical hollow; light flight. Breeding: Its curly feathers are caused for autosomal dominant mutation. All the chicks from a cross of a double dominant frillback to another breed would produce slightly frilled offspring; recessive shell crest and feathered legs. A cross of a double dominant frillback to another breed would produce slightly frilled offspring (Plate 7). Plate 7. Frillback Animal and Veterinary Sciences 2015; 3(2): 34-37 37 4. Conclusion In Bangladesh among seven types of the most beautiful pigeons the fantails are the class one which is common in every rearers. Attractive body shape and feathers are easily snatched by people. Secondly the pouter is common. The demand on fantail pigeon is showed year-round and its breeding is as usual. All breeds have lower parental bondage so need to rear foster parents. If only 1-2 pair squab rises in a year that’s enough for the benefit. Need to trimming some feathers from tail, head, neck and leg regions for proper vision as well as breeding. Only adult pair is reared separately and the squab with aged 5-6 months for selling need not trimming. All beautiful pigeons have elongated body, large size, expanded tail, great mane, frilled feathers, swollen crop, muffs and double rose-crested. These breeds are more or less pure because they have no similar breeds in Bangladesh. For huge profit and commercial view these ornamental pigeons are really different than others. Fanciers reared these pigeons in totally intensive system. Only crowned pigeon is reared in aviary. In future we should maintain extra care and more scientific study on these beautiful pigeons. 5. Acknowledgements Author is giving cordial thanks to his favourite student ‘Onu’ who is one of the keen pigeon rearers in Dhaka, Bangladesh. He is also a great visitor in every fancy pigeon market in Dhaka. Author is informed huge fancy pigeon rearers in Dhaka as well as on crowned pigeons. He always contacts with other experienced pigeon rearers of the country for his knowledge on fancy pigeons. Writer of this paper is collected information from Saidpur (crossed fantail), Dinajpur (pouter, jacobin, swallow, bokhara) and Kushtia (frillback). During the time of this study huge pet shops in Dhaka, Kataban were helpful for observing the characteristics of these pigeons with daily-routine in those shops and the rearers’ residences. Plate 1 photograph is collected from google.com and 5, 6 and 7 from www.bikroy.com. References [1] Blochmann H. 1873. The Ain I Akbari by Abul Fazl Allami. The Asiatic Society of Bengal. Vol 2: amusements by pigeon flying. [2] Darwin CR. 1868. The variation of animals and plants under domestication. John Murray, London. [3] IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2013.2. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 26 November 2013. [4] Kabir MA. 2013. Productivity, management and marketing of pigeons in pet shop. J. Agric. Econ. Dev. 2(4): 147-153. [5] Kabir MA. 2014. Grading system of ten common fancy pigeons of Bangladesh. Integrated J of British 1(1): 19-26. [6] Levi WM. 1992. The Pigeon. Levi Publishing Co., Inc., Sumter, S C. [7] Linnaeus C. 1758. Systema naturae per regna tria naturae: secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis (in Latin) (10 th ed.). Stockholm: Laurentius Salvius. [8] McNeillie A. 1993. Pigeons of the world. A Magna Illustrated Guide, Leicester. [9] Moore J. 1735. Columbarium: or, the pigeon-house, being an introduction to a natural history of tame pigeons. London: printed for J. Wilford. (A reprinting of this book is given by J. M. Eaton in his ‘Treatise’ 1858.) 
work_swygyom6zzgazoovwyxhv5r7ri	----	ISSN 2533-2899 179 6 / 2020 Figures on Surfaces. Murals between Context and Narration Marta Magagnini, Nicolò Sardo Introduction A wall is a sign [De Fusco 2019], something which is well known by architects, who trace it, and semiologists, who investigate it. A wall is a sign that defines separations, limits, prohibitions. Walls, however, also often host other signs, figures that inhabit the entire surface, from one ex- treme to the other, from the base to the top, that mean something else beyond the limit. Those signs generate a recollection that attracts those who wander near the wall [Bar thes 1999, p. 66]. This is known well by graffiti ar t- ists and street ar tists, just as it has always been known by the great powers, who have charged ar tists in every era with decorating the long walls of churches and the high walls of the fronts of government buildings. This is known, though, once again, by architects who, in modern and then contemporary projects, have used the commu- nicational power of these large surfaces to give a voice to the walls they are tracing and transmit on them their own architectural and urban theories. The object of this study is therefore the signs that archi- tects have wanted to leave on the surfaces of walls, not as an aesthetic solution, but as a medium, taking advantage of the always new techniques and technologies of visual communication: elements present as “urban graphics”, especially on façades, and in interior arrangements and walls. The goal of this reflection is to reunify exterior and interior surfaces in a single history of technique in search of a common thread, delineating a single investigation of the strategies of wall-sized visual communication. Abstract Mural surfaces are situated in an experiential dimension with a high rate of technical and artistic experimentation. This essay in- vestigates wall-sized graphics and, in particular, images present from the birth of architecture itself, which stores them based on a two-dimensional narrative project that involves spatial experience. Interior and exterior walls have revealed their primary vocations with some important areas of interaction. On the one hand, interior walls act as windows that –instead of opening towards the real, present landscape– frame landscapes of thought and, particularly with photomontages, allow the observer to intuitively understand true urban theories. On the other hand, exterior façades are cha- racterized as communicational devices immersed in the city: from mosaics to typography, ‘wall-size’ graphics are transformed and express the sense of their own time. While extensive literature has analysed the histories of art and the technique of façades and interior walls separately, the objective of the present study is to combine these topics in search of common threads in virtue of both the common nature of the material –the predominance of the surface over other formal aspects– and, as a consequence, the common calling to act as screens for visual communication. Keywords: photomurals, façades, graphics and architecture, photomontage. https://doi.org/10.26375/disegno.6.2020.18 180 6 / 2020 be referenced in relation to large-scale painting. For ex- ample, still in 1937 and for the Paris Expo, Guernica by Pablo Picasso, in all its 3.49 x 7.77 meters, was exhibited for the first time on an outer wall of the area in front of the hear t of the exposition area of the Spanish Pavilion, nearly counterbalancing the didactic murals of the inter- nal arrangement [Arnheim 1964]. From these examples it is clear that interior murals had by then crossed over their traditional collocation and connotation and taken steps towards a true reinvention of the medium. From instrumentum regni, the static, cen- tralizing sign in institutional sites, they had become par t of a path that involves spatial experience in temporar y expositor y contexts. The ‘ephemeral’ potential is, in fact, the most innova- tive and distinctive character of interior murals. In these contexts, architects may appropriate the narrative ele- ment, contemplating it in the project itself, animating it in theoretical speculations. Up to the 1930s, interior walls were decorated almost exclusively with painted works, but the advent of tech- nical reproduction opened the way to an entire series of experiments, achieving results well beyond the pre- rogative of traditional decoration. Per taining to this key is the most varied avant-garde experimentation at the beginning of the 1900s, from the installations of the Russian Constructivists, the Proun Room by El Lissitzky (Berlin 1923), the sculpture-painting created within the Bauhaus by Oskar Schlemmer with Willi Baumeister (Weimar 1924), up to the extreme three-dimensionality of the Merzbau by Kur t Shwitters (Hanover 1923-1937) or Italian experimentation with plastica murale, an appli- cation of Futurist polymaterialism of wall décor explic- itly inspired by examples from beyond the Alps [Pirani 1992]. Plastica murale, as intended by Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, but especially by Enrico Prampolini, places par ticular emphasis on interior murals, which become the main object of their research. “Today, the modern architecture derived by Antonio Sant’Elia lacks its plas- tica murale, especially within, and is often troubled by the depressing anachronism of mismatched and out-of- place frescoes, paintings, or sculptures” [1] [Marinetti 1934, p. 3]. Avant-garde murals therefore oscillate between paint- ing and sculpture, between surface and model, mak- ing the catalogue of possible techniques and materials nearly infinite (fig. 1). Topics and relevant examples of buildings are consid- ered for both types, where the relationship between ar t/graphics and architecture is resolved in sharing a surface: the interior surface as a place for formal ex- perimentation and techniques that continuously cross time, and the exterior surface where signs configure communicational devices, thereby instilling a special relationship with the city space. Interior walls trans- por t us to mental and experiential landscapes even far from the building in which they are found, while exte- rior walls speak to us of the physical place they rep- resent. In this ar ticle, the authors aim to highlight the path through which both interior and exterior walls become the protagonists of an inexorable transforma- tion of architecture into representation. Ephemeral/Figurative Murals for interiors The Reinvention of a Medium In 1937, Adalber to Libera won the competition for the Palazzo dei Ricevimenti e dei Congressi for the 1942 World’s Fair in Rome (E42). The original idea of the project entailed covering the high par t of the walls of the central room with gold mosaic, thereby dissolving the perception of the corners of the quadrilateral plan and suggesting a “ring-shaped” space [Marcello 2010, p. 9]. Fascist rhetoric later imposed a figurative cycle dedicated to the glor y of Rome, from the myth of its origins to the new Mussolini Empire; this, however, was never realized, allowing us today to perceive that pure, undecorated space in all its modernity. In the same year, Giuseppe Pagano exhibited the mo- saic L’Italia corporativa (8 m x 12 m) by Mario Sironi at the Paris International Exhibition. Like a large frag- ment discovered in an archaeological excavation, it was not fixed, but suspended in the air, propped up on the wall by iron girders, which also allowed the public to see the irregular surface of the back [Golan 2018, p. 578]. By reading these episodes, it is clear that in 1937, prob- ably due to temporar y political reasons, the modern interior mural still had not achieved its independence and ar tistic peculiarity and was still not stamped with comparisons with the great ar t of the past. This is not true only of Italy and does not only entail a relationship with the tradition of mosaics: it may also 181 6 / 2020 Fig. 1. a) El Lissitzky, Prouneraum [Proun Room], 1919-1923, axonometric projection, © Collection Centre Canadien d’Architecture/Canadian Centre for Architecture (CCA), Montreal (left). b) Oskar Schlemmer, interiors of Rabe House, Zwenkau, 1930-31 (center). c) Kurt Schwitters, Merzbau, Hannover, 1933 (right). Fig. 2. a) El Lissitzky with Sergei Senkin et al., Photofrieze, Soviet Pavilion at the Pressa Exhibition in Cologne, 1928 (left). b) Giuseppe Terragni, Exhibition of the Fascist Revolution, Sala O, Palazzo delle Esposizioni, Rome, 1932 (right). 182 6 / 2020 But the search began to be circumscribed and be- came an operation of sense only when the mural returned to the figurative dimension, to historical narration inhabited by human figures. The reason lies in the fact that the human figures of representation act as guides to codify the stor y, allowing the ob- ser ver to become totally ‘immer sed’ in the specula- tive environment that, in modern projects, changes from two-dimensional to three-dimensional, even if it would be decommissioned or destroyed at the end of the exhibit. Photography, or rather the enlargement of photo- graphic prints to the large scale [Lugon 2015], would play a fundamental role in this direction. Photogra- phy as a technique would define the new model of modern murals, inhabited by narrative figures. Even before large-format photographs, which in the 1980s would favour “the ar tistic recognition of photography and be equated with a contemporar y form of the painting, or ‘tableau’ ” [Lugon 2010], from the environ- ments of agitprop the photomontage would reach the great international exhibitions at the end of the 1920s and go on to characterize the following dec- ade (fig. 2a). From Figurative to Photorealistic: Photomurals Photomurals represent a type of mural that since the 1930s has never abandoned the scene of expos, shows, and museums [2]. A mural photograph is both a document and a work of ar t. In 1933, Le Corbusier created a photomosaic to cover the cur ved wall of the librar y of the Swiss Pavilion in Paris: for ty-four 1 x 1 m “tiles”, enlarge- ments of black and white photographs and negatives of disparate images of the natural world and human constructions, microscopic and panoramic views (fig. 3a). In reality, the Swiss master would have left the wall in bare concrete, but the president of the Cité Internationale requested the creation of a decoration: large plates depicting rocks, snow, glaciers, etc., that re- called home for the students who came to lose them- selves in treacherous Paris. In satisfying his customer’s request, Corbusier said, “I have therefore decided to realize, in two, three days, the first photographic mural considered not as a document but as a work of ar t” [Naegele 2013, p. 151]. The result is a work, unfor tu- nately lost, that is strongly evocative and educational, a message to students residing in the Pavilion: “Inside to outside: serene perfection. Plants, animals, trees, sites, Fig. 3. a) Le Corbusier and Pierre Jeanneret, Photomosaic for the Swiss Pavilion, Paris (1929-1933) (Photo Marius Gravot. © Fondation Le Corbusier, Paris) (left). b) Photomural Habiter (Dwelling), installed in the Temps Nouveaux Pavilion at the Paris International Exposition, 1937 (Photo Albin Salaün. © Fondation Le Corbusier, Paris) (right). 183 6 / 2020 seas, plains or mountains. Even the perfect harmony of natural disasters, of geological cataclysms, etc. Open your eyes! … Architecture is an extraction of the spirit and not a trade” [Petit 1970, p. 82]. The strength of a photograph resides precisely in its highly communicational aspect, which is more or less explicit and becomes propaganda in photomontages, especially those on the architectural scale. This was abundantly clear in the 1930s, when the technique was even abused to suppor t both socialist and Fascist con- tent. Indeed, it is indisputable that the Soviet model was adopted by the Italians in the Exhibition of the Fascist Revolution in 1932 (fig. 2b), despite the effor t to mask the debt to agitprop with manipulations, swelling, and archaizing that deepened the ‘Roman’ nature of the photomurals [Golan 2010, p. 84]. Even Le Corbusier made a large installation of photo- montages within the Temps Nouveau Pavilion in 1937 to explain the four functions of modern urban design [Rüegg 2012, pp. 82-106] (fig. 3b). Despite the author- ity characterizing both their content and representation, the contribution made by Le Corbusier did not add any innovation to what had by then become common and which, in those years, would have tired the critics [3]. It is precisely this strong identification with this histori- cal period –and with the jumble of shouted, politicized proclamations– that has compromised the use of mural photomontage since the Second World War. The tech- nique of montage in itself was “recovered” by the so- called “radical” architects in the late 1960s, but it did not coincide with the recover y of murals. The case of Arata Isozaki is curious, however. Nearly 30 years after creating his collage Re-ruined Hiroshima (1968), he re- used it for a photomural at the Venice Biennale in 1996 [Lehmann 2017]. In fact, only at the end of the centur y did photomon- tage reappear in ar t and design, without fear of the large scale and even being integrated with the most advanced multimedia immersion products. This was done, however, without betraying the monitoring and “politicizing” component of the medium. In the field of design, examples of this include many museum instal- lations of memorials, while in the world of ar t, photo- montage characterizes the work of some “dedicated” ar tists who focus on the dynamics of the consumption society and therefore on the great crisis of architec- ture and the city (fig. 4). Fig. 4. Botto & Bruno, Society, you’re a crazy breed, Fondazione Merz, Turin, 2016 (photo R. Ghiazza). Fig. 5. Robert Venturi, Denise Scott Brown, and Steven Izenour, in collaboration with Stephen Shore, Signs of Life: Symbols in American cities, Renwick Gallery, Washington DC, 1976. 184 6 / 2020 Among the main characteristics of photomontage, from its avant-garde beginnings to contemporar y ex- amples, from collages to photomurals, the effective- ness of black and white is incontrover tible, an aspect that first reconciles a technical need (before colour printing) with a communicational strategy (the empha- sis of visual contrasts corresponds to emphasis on the message). The use of colour necessarily results in the tones of the messages being lowered, but also opens up to other media. From the 1950s to today, large-format colour pho- tographs have per vaded publicity in the public space, both indoors and out, and –once they became ex- tremely accessible– have even conquered the market of domestic decor, especially in the United States. In this context, photomurals became a media image without ar tistic legitimacy, but perhaps because of this, Rober t Venturi and Denise Scott Brown, to- gether with their collaborator Steven Izenour, chose a colour photomural to design the exhibit Signs of Life: Symbols in the American City, commissioned by the Smithsonian Institution to celebrate the Ameri- can bicentennial and inaugurated at the Renwick Galler y in Washington on 26 Febr uar y 1976 (fig. 5). With the collaboration of the photographer Stephen Shore, the show presented to the larger public in- vestigations of the American city, which also formed the basis for the publication Learning from Las Ve- gas [Venturi, Scott Brown, Izenour 1972], ver y care- ful research on urban planning that highlighted how architecture and the city, beyond the categories of space and function, is also a question of images, sym- bols, and communication. The architects’ intent was to make the sur vey as neutral as possible and the colour photographs were thus not manipulated; the show, however, was loaded with other signs: speech balloons focused attention on this or that element, which our eye was invited to recognize more than decipher. From rhetorical, the message became cari- cature: the main estrangement was the fact that what was ordinar y was allowed to inhabit the spaces of a museum. Venturi and Scott Brown’s idea was to cross the models of billboards (an image made for driver s’ distant, fleeting, distracted attention) with newspa- per s (high informational density) in a ready-made game inside out [Lugon 2015]. Today, now that photography has conquered the walls of museum space and the market of contemporar y ar t, both in the frame dimension and in the large light box, the presence of photomurals has decreased sig- nificantly and interior walls have reached the apex of their ephemeral dimension, nullifying any critical di- mension of the overlying image. Contemporar y mass communication has reached commercial space and expositor y space equally, and the same can be said for internal dividers that par tition shops, restaurants, and museums: ever less functional and increasingly the carrier of changing messages, palimpsests of in- terchangeable images or screens animated with pro- jections as needed (fig. 6). Thoughts and Words. Other Figures of City Walls Theories While Bar thes already clear ly showed the “city as writing”, in buildings’ surfaces, this “writing” surpasses any metaphor and is made real. “The city therefore constitutes a discour se and this discour se is a real word: the city speaks to its residents, we speak our city, the city where we are found, simply inhabiting it, passing through it, watching it” [Bar thes 1967, p. 11] [4]. Fig. 6. OMA and 2x4, Florification, wallpaper for the Prada Epicenter, New York, 2019. The wallpaper, 60 m long, was printed digitally based on a graphical project by the studio 2x4. It is replaced every 6 months and is often accompanied by video and interactive installations. 185 6 / 2020 Façades are configured as communicational devices: graphic design on the scale of the wall transforms it and the sense of time itself is expressed on the sur- face. As a suppor t for visual constructions, the surface, by changing, highlights not only aesthetic choices but is also capable of communicating theoretical explora- tions [5]. A game of superposition integrates the construction with a narration that par ticipates strongly in the spatial experience and the definition of the urban environ- ment. This is favoured once the wall has overcome its “mechanical” essence as a diaphragm between interior and exterior. “Once the skin of the building became independent of its structure, it could just as well hang like a cur tain or clothing. The relationship between structure and skin has preoccupied much architectural production since this period and remains contested today. The site of this contest is the architectural sur- face” [6]. The external surface, in its graphical characterization as an ar tefact of communication, thus lives within the “representation/conformation” binomial, albeit with various degrees in the significance of the two components [7]. The graphical signs used are not only a characterization of the surface, but can also reinforce the identity of the building and transmit information. The façade exists in an ambiguity given by its simultaneously being a “sign” tied not only to the building to which it belongs, but also to the city. “In fact, the façade, as a ‘figure’, is as a rule a two- dimensional surface that constitutes precisely a figure of the envelope-signifier of the building. At the same time, however, it is a ‘figure’ of the ‘meaning’ of the urban-planning mark, which is no longer an interior Fig. 7. Herbert Bayer, Kiosk (left) and Design for a Cinema (right), 1924. 186 6 / 2020 but rather an external space, a street or square” [De Fusco 2001, p. 159] [8]. In urban perception, the “cinematic walk” [9] pauses. The façade itself is transformed into a screen in place of the ‘show’, and expects the obser ver’s attention. “It is thus that architectural experiences –which im- ply the dynamics of space, movement, and narration– are tied to the cinematic effect and its wandering, even incorporating it” [10]. What is instituted is a “phenomenal transparency” [11] that transpor ts the obser ver to a vir tual space, a transparency that “im- plies more than an optical characteristic; it implies a broader spatial order. Transparency means a simulta- neous perception of different spatial locations. Space not only recedes but fluctuates in a continuous activ- ity” [Kepes 1990, p. 81]. The extreme case is when the architectural construc- tion in its totality is transformed into a graphical ar te- fact. Emblematic of this are the building-signs of Her- ber t Bayer [Cohen 1984], who, with forms, colours, and writings, declares their function (fig. 7). This at- titude manages to transform the nature of the build- ing, turning it into a sor t of oversized packaging as in different projects by Neutelings & Riedijk Architects [Neutelings Riedijk Architects 2018]. This behaviour is also highlighted in works by Rober t Venturi, where the American architect reiterates his desire to build an “architecture of communication” in many of his projects, refining it in different ways [Venturi, Izenour, Scott Brown 2018]. Techniques The mode of dealing with façades can be rather di- verse: sign, colour, text, and light define the building’s surface, often intersecting each other. By weaving them together, the graphical forms –in different de- grees of abstraction– become ingrained, oscillating between recognizable signs and their dissolution into patterns (fig. 10). Typography is refined as a message and specifies the building’s identity, but it can also be exhibited as “dec- oration”, textures in the deepest and primordial sense of the term (fig. 11). While the presence of writing also often contributed to characterizing façades in antiquity, it is especially with modern architecture that the use of “typogra- phy” became a true component of the composition. A key example is the façade of the Café De Unie in Rotterdam designed by J.J.P. Oud in 1925 (fig. 7b). The presence of typography –with modifiable texts and a clear adver tising function– also characterizes other de Stijl buildings such as the one for the De Volharding Cooperative designed by Jan Buijs in 1928 [12] (fig. 9a). Le Corbusier, always attentive to signs, characterized one of the external walls of the Esprit Nouveau Pa- vilion with what one could consider a true logotype (fig. 8b). In contemporar y architecture, the use of typography in façade design has become increasingly widespread [Heller, Ilić 2013]: words “decorate” building surfaces, but also communicate the activities that they perform (fig. 9). The use of typography may also be refined in par ticular procedures such as in the work of the In- dian ar tist Daku, who created an installation in Delhi in 2016 where letter outlines were fixed or thogonally to the surface of the wall, which was “decorated” by the continuously changing shadows projected there [Lynch 2016]. Colour, as a characteristic of structural or decorative components, ar ticulates the elements that configure the façade and become one of its ‘decorative’ ele- ments; colours made of pigments, but also of light. Light informs the façade both through ‘transparency’ –with translucent surfaces– and through ‘emission’ – becoming a generator of signs [13]. Light as a dynamic element also distinguishes some creations by Gyorgy Kepes after the Second World War. The most impor- Fig. 8. a) J. J. P. Oud, Café De Unie, Rotterdam, 1925, drawing of the façade project (left). b) Le Corbusier and Pierre Jeanneret, Esprit Nouveau Pavilion, Paris 1925 (right). 187 6 / 2020 Fig. 9. a) Jan Willem Eduard Buijs, Coöperatie De Volharding Building, The Hague, 1928 (left). b) György Kepes, Photo-electric mural banner for Radio Shack storefront, Boston, 1950 (right). Fig. 10. a) Jacques Herzog and Pierre de Meuron, Production and Storage Building Ricola, Mulhouse-Brunstatt, (France) 1993. The façade – made of polycarbonate panels – is silkscreened with a repetitive plant motif, the image of an Achillea Umbellata leaf by the German photographer Karl Blossfeldt (1865-1932). (Photo © Margherita Spiluttini) (left). b) Neutelings & Riedijk Architecten, Netherlands Institute for Sound and Vision, Hilversum, 2006 (Photo Scagliola/Brakkee) (right). tant include the neon light mural for the Radio Shack building in Boston (1950) [Poulin 2012, p. 135] (fig. 9b) and the KLM Office Building in New York (1959) [Bacsó s.d.]. Kepes’ work naturally grew out of the seminal work developed by László Moholy-Nagy [Mo- holy-Nagy 1936; 1947]. Another impor tant aspect is technology, wherein devices, often complex ones, characterize building façades [14]. The most emblematic of these include the unusual panels that Jean Nouvel installed for the Arab World Institute in Paris in 1990 and where the “design” –while evoking Oriental decorations– is composed of diaphragms whose opening is control- led by photosensitive cells. In recent years, experi- mentation has been increasingly tied to digitaliza- tion. Impor tant examples include creations such as the GreenPix [15] wall in Beijing and the Ziggo Dome [16] in Amsterdam, both of which are characterized by façades suspended between stability and mobility, composed of LED ‘pixels’ that make them shimmer- ing and functional, also ser ving as communicational devices [17] (fig. 12a). The surface may also create a profitable relationship with the mode of ar t. The most impor tant examples in recent years include works by Yayoi Kusama such as the decoration created for the Louis Vuitton flagship store in New York (fig. 12b). This also includes ‘limited’ approaches such as those by the French ar tist JR, where a strong planning of his works –which rely primarily on photographic im- ages applied to the surfaces of buildings– mark his photographic installations with the apparent closeness to typical street-ar t methods [Thompson, Remnant 2019]. Works such as those by Anish Kapoor are also capable of characterizing the urban space and at the same time –through “reflection”– absorbing and rep- resenting it, altering it [Codognato, D’Orazio 2015]. And yet photographs are the main character in the iconographic reper toire used by Botto & Bruno to ‘redress’ the surfaces of the Banchette industrial sys- tem [18]. A par ticular operation on the relationship between writing and wall surface situated midway between ar t and graphic design was promoted by Ruedi Baur [19] and other Swiss ar tists and developed in 2016 and 2017 with installations that also make use of calligra- phy [Ménine, Baur, Baur 2018]. 188 6 / 2020 Conclusions The goal of this research was to reflect on “images” over- laid on architecture, where they grow out of a dedicated graphical project –and not from the occasional stratification of signs, as mainly occurs in street art– especially in order to integrate the construction with a narration that partici- pates in the spatial experience. Interior and exterior walls often follow separate paths because they grow out of differ- ent purposes: interior walls are designed to take us outside the building –historical trompe l’œil comes to mind– both physically and with our thoughts. Exterior walls, on the other hand, speak about the “here and now”. They represent the building and the functions it houses –not infrequently com- mercial– or reflect some peculiarity of the urban area where they are found. In both cases, though, the meaning is expressed starting from research on ever current representation, which reach- es architecture from the worlds of art and technology in pure synergy. On the one hand, the relationship with art is a particularly effective circumstance because it represents the matrix that theoretical research is based on, the development of new themes, and new reflections on the urban space. However, art itself is increasingly occupied with architecture and real- izes this on the front line (associated art and architecture firms such as those by Olafur Eliasson or Vito Acconci come to mind). The temporary interventions themselves are also increasingly projects to ‘redesign’ and renovate urban spaces and not irregular or self-referential actions by artists reject- ing relationships with institutions. On the other hand, it is technological innovation, increasingly driven, that acts on the surface of the wall, redefines it, and extends its characteristics. Although with a diversity of solutions and constructions im- plemented between interior and exterior, the scope of the register of examples presented here is to recompose the events of the mural surfaces beyond their functional, tech- nological, and narrative distinctions. In addition, there is no lack of instances in which exterior and interior are placed in continuity through surfaces of limits and “filters”: from large mirrors to the architectural/urban scale, to true coordinated, reunifying projects. The aim is to reveal and highlight how, in the stratified, often occasional, environments of signs of the contemporary city, design continues to be revealed as a necessary tool for initi- ating different processes of effective narration. Fig. 11. a) Massimo Vignelli, 712 Fifth Avenue Barrier, New York, 1987 (left). b) Paula Scher (Pentagram), New Jersey Performing Arts Center, Newark, 2001 (right). Fig. 12. a) Simone Giostra and Partners Architects and Arup, GreenPix, Pechino, 2008 (left). b) Yayoi Kusama, Outdoor installation for the Louis Vuitton flagship store, New York, 2012 (right). 189 6 / 2020 Notes [1] Translated by the author. [2] In this text, photomural implies both the enlargement of a single image and an architectural-scale collage of photographic fragments. It is speci- fied in the text when this implies a photograph or photomontage. [3] In 1935 Ferdinando Reggiori wrote: “These shows now begin to be saturated: we should fight photomosaics” (In: La Mostra dello sport italia- no al Palazzo dell’Arte di Milano. Architettura, 14, 1935, pp. 447-495, cited in Golan 2010, p. 85). [4] Translated by the author. [5] See: Herdeg 1982; Belardi, Empler, Quici 1999; Poulin 2012; Em- pler 2012; Dawson 2013; Bruno 2016; Poulin 2017; Cooke 2018; Adams 2018. [6] Leatherbarrow, Mostafavi 2002, p. 8. [7] For a deeper look at this concept, see: De Fusco 2001, pp. 166-168. [8] Translated by the author. [9] This terminology makes reference to Bernard Tschumi; see: Bruno 2006, p. 53. [10] Ibid, pp. 53-54. Translated by the author. [11] Reference is naturally made to the concept developed by Colin Rowe; see Rowe 1990. [12] The façade of the building presents bands of opalescent glass with a structure that makes it possible to overlap writings composed of metal letters. Artificial lighting makes the visual impact of the communication even stronger. An important precedent in the use of the façade as a pu- blicity tool is what was created in 1924 by Aleksandr Rodchenko for the Mosselprom warehouses in Moscow. [13] On the relationship between artificial light and architecture, see Ackermann, Neumann 2006. [14] See Gasparini 2009; Haeusler 2009; Haeusler, Tomitsch, Gernot 2012; Lewis 2015; Hespanol, Haeusler, Tomitsch, Tscheerteu 2017. [15] The project, completed in 2008, is by Simone Giostra Architects and Arup. [16] The structure, completed in 2012, was designed by Benthem Crou- wel Architects. [17] On the use of “dynamic graphics” on building surfaces, see also: Kra- sner 2013, pp. 158-160. [18] The structure is a cogeneration centre for the district heating plant. It is located near Ivrea and the images used are ‘montages’ of photographs of Olivetti buildings. [19] Baur is the most important graphical designer interested in envi- ronmental graphics. With respect to the topic presented here, his visual project for the Cologne Bonn airport is of particular interest. 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work_t4al4kwsgnfthgjbtvrr7a3guq	----	American Journal of Educational Research, 2015, Vol. 3, No. 8, 1052-1056 Available online at http://pubs.sciepub.com/education/3/8/17 © Science and Education Publishing DOI:10.12691/education-3-8-17 A Study on Individuals’ Art Preferences according to Their Personality Traits via Computer-Aided Web Site Recep ÖZ1, Ahmet Ragıp ÖZPOLAT2, Orhan TAŞKESEN3,* 1Computer Teaching Education, Erzincan University, Erzincan, Turkey 2Psychological Counseling, Erzincan University, Erzincan, Turkey 3Art Teaching Education, Erzincan University, Erzincan, Turkey *Corresponding author: ahmetozpolat@hotmail.com Received July 14, 2015; Revised July 30, 2015; Accepted August 07, 2015 Abstract Aim of this study is to examine the relationship between individuals’ art preferences and personality traits. In this study where relational scanning model was used, 336 students of a university, which has total 28.000 students, make up the research group. Students in the research group are from different classes and demographic traits. Five-factor personality scale, a computer-aided art preferences survey that includes 24 visuals from the arts of Renaissance, Cubism, Abstract Art, Traditional Art, Impressionism and Surrealism and personal information form were used to obtain the research data. According to results it was found that people with the personality traits of extroversion and openness to experience mostly prefer surrealist works and those with personality traits of tender- mindedness usually prefer Impressionist work of art. Keywords: personality, art preferences, openness to experience, big five model Cite This Article: Recep ÖZ, Ahmet Ragıp ÖZPOLAT, and Orhan TAŞKESEN, “A Study on Individuals’ Art Preferences according to Their Personality Traits via Computer-Aided Web Site.” American Journal of Educational Research, vol. 3, no. 8 (2015): 1052-1056. doi: 10.12691/education-3-8-17. 1. Introduction Art is one of the many activities (playing sports, having picnic or going fishing etc) that we prefer to do so that we can move away from discipline-required daily works and relations. Many people are involved in arts to get rid of the tiredness in their life. Some people take painting, music, marbling, calligraphy and dance lessons from hobby courses while some others are more passive and only prefer to follow artistic activities as they are shy or could not find enough time. The importance and priority of art to a person can vary. While some people want to be informed from the artistic activities, they spend time and money for them, some others are only interested in an artistic activity when they come across and they do not spend money for it. However, some people regard going to galleries, learning about artists, following the hobby courses and the date of concerts or theatres are loss of time. Apart from those who does not let art be involved in their life, people who are slightly interested in art vary according to their art preferences. Whether the preferences, of which motto is “there is no accounting for tastes”, are related to art education, art history, parenting education and personality beside the art experience or not is one of the big questions for every field. For example, those who prefer square shapes are prim, hard-working and logical but sometimes they may make wrong decisions. On the other hand, those who like circle shapes are good communicators, agreeable and sympathetic personalities [1]. 2. Art preferences and Characteristics of Personality In this sense, it can be stated that individuals’ art preferences are related to their personality structure. However, psychologists usually ignore individuals’ interest in art [2]. In this sense, whether individuals’ tendencies to works, which are separated from each other according to style, function and sense of art, are related to individuals’ personality or not is an important question. In this field of study the researches which were done abroad are important. Conservatism, openness, schizotype, tolerance to uncertainty and especially a various type of personality factors that search for sense were studied [3]. Specific studies which would shed light on especially the relation between art and personality were carried out, too [3,4,5,6]. It was found in Wilison, Ausman and Mathews’s studies (1973) that liberals mostly prefer more complex and abstract paintings on the other hand, conservatives do not like mixed representative and mixed abstract paintings and they prefer simple representative ones. In Furnham and Avison’s studies (1997) the relation between the preference of surreal painting and personality was examined. According to findings of this study the relation between the preference of surreal painting and the dimension of five factors personality was not very strong. The findings supported other studies showing the relation between art preferences and personality, also they showed 1053 American Journal of Educational Research that some personality traits could be related to especially preference of surreal painting. In McManus and Furnham’s study (2006) it was concluded that aesthetic activities have strong relations specially with the personality functions of openness, adaptability and responsibility. In a study carried out by Premuzic et al. (2009) 91.692 individuals’ personal differences in their artistic preferences were examined and it was found that art preferences were consistent with personality and openness to experience -a personality trait- had the strongest relation. According to Premuzic et al. (2009) together with the wide acceptance of one of the personality theories named five factor -sometimes called “Big Five”- it would be easier to compare the findings of different studies for the determiners of personal differences in art preferences. According to theory of five factors personality, personal differences which are not clinical can be classified as five personality factors [2] Studies in which the relations between the five factors personality and art were examined were not too old. There are some studies [7], [8], [9], [10] which deal with the relations between artistic concepts and personality. However, in these studies the question about individuals’ art preferences and whether their personality structures affect these preferences or not is not dealt with sufficiently. In fact, the answer of the question “how is the relation between individuals’ personality structure, their art preference and artistic interests” is of great importance. In this study, answers for the following questions were searched in order to examine the individuals’ personality structure and their art preference; 1. Is there a relation between personality types of individuals and their art preferences? 2. Do individuals’ personality types differentiate according to their art preferences. 3. Method Relational scanning model was used in this study. Scanning is an approach that aims to describe a situation, an event, an individual, a society or an object in their own conditions which remain in the past or still exist [11]. 3.1. Sample and Procedure In this study, which deals with university students’ personality types and art preferences, research group consist of 336 students and 150 (44%) of them takes fine art education and 186 (66%) of them are from other departments. In the scope of study 205 (% 55.1 ) male and 131 (% 44.9) female total 400 students were reached with convenience sample method. Age of the participants is as such; 312 (%92.2) of them are between 18-25 age range and 24 (% 7.8) of them are older than 26. Students in the study group were announced to enter a ready-prepared web-based survey system. The students who voluntarily enter the web site were given feedback about their art preferences, types of personality and artistic interests when they fully completed the form. The server PC Sun Fire X2200 with quad-core and AMD Opteron processor was preferred and used as the infrastructure of the web- site in which the scales were applied. Also it has 16 gb Ram memory and 2 hard disks (Raid) that can record the date simultaneously. In addition, there are four 10/100 / 1000BASE-T Gigabit Network Connections (Ethernet port), 1 DVD burner (DVD-RW), a total of 4 USB 2.0 ports (2 on the front panel, 2 on the back panel), and on the main board are located a 2D / 3D graphic card, and a serial RS232 port. CentOS 6.5 operating system of RedHat Company, free for personal use, is used as a server operating system. Apache Server version 2.2.29 is used for web services on the server. MySqL 5.5 version is used as a database which is both easy and free for use. The coding of the survey is entirely done by us using the php (Php 5.5) programming language. 3.2. Data Collection Instrument In this study the data is collected through Adjective- based Personality Tests and 24 visual(Guernica/Pablo Picasso,Pêras, Camille Monet and a child the Artist’s garden in Argenteuil /Claude Monet,The Blind Leading /Pieter Bruegel, Court of mahmud of ghazni/ Hadi Tajvidi, Dessin Arithmétique IV./ Theo van Doesburg, Bottle and Wine Glass on a Table/Pablo Picasso, La Mod’ele Rouge/Rene Magritte, Onions/Pierre Auguste Renoir, Christ before Pontus Pilate/Hieronymus Bosch,Vav/Erol Akyavaş, Compossition/Wassily Kandinsky, Compossition/ Georges Braque, Geopolitius Child/ Salvador Dali, Mola/ Van Gogh, The Martyrdom of Saint Catherine/Lucas Cranach the Elder, Falcon/ from a Moraqqa Giclee, whispering Wall/ Burhan Doğançay, Violin and Playing Cards/Juan Gris, African Sonata/ Vlademir Kusch, Le Boulevard de Montmartre/ Camille Pissaro, Hunters in the Snow/ Pieter Bruegel, Ebru-Tulips /Alparslan Babaoğlu, Composition/ Ferruh Başağa) and individual information forms developed and classified by experts according to the art movements within the framework of literature. 3.3. Adjective-based Personality Test Adjective-based Personality Test was developed by Bacanlı, İlhan and Aslan (2007). Factor analysis and similar scale validity methods were utilized in order to test the validity of the developed scale. In the factor analysis which was conducted to test the validity of the scale, 40 adjective pairs which can evaluate the five different personality traits (Neurotic personality, Extraversion, Openness, Agreableness, Consciuostness.) were determined. The resulting data showed 52.6% of the five- factor personality variance. Sociotropy Scale, Conflict- Response Scale, Negative-Positive Emotion Scale, and constant Anxiety Inventory were used to test the external validity of the developed scale. Expected results were obtained through these comparisons. The obtained results proved the validity of the current scale. Also at the end of the reliability analysis of the scale, Cronbach alpha coefficient is found to be for sub scale of Neurotic Personality .73, Extraversion .89, Openness .80, Agreeableness .87, Conscientiousness .88 [12]. Individuals’ Art Preferences Scale: In the framework of literature, a computer-aided art preferences survey which covers 24 visual species of the art genres such as Renaissance, Cubism, Abstract Art, Traditional Art, Impressionism and Surrealism was applied. According to the survey, 4 paintings with high representing power were chosen from each of these 6 art movements. To give brief American Journal of Educational Research 1054 information about the chosen painting movements; Renaissance today is adopted as the period that started the classical European Art. Until the 15th century the symbolic world view of the Middle Age was dominant over Europe. There was an abstract and debate closed system of thought. This was naturally reflected in the art. Besides Painting and Architecture, "Perfect Form", "Balance", "Balanced Proportions" and "Elegance" were also valid in the 15th century Sculpture [13,14]. According to San [15] in response to the perfect and ideal image of the Renaissance, the contemporary art movements of the 20th century such as cubism, structuralism and constructivism are the movements that deal with a number of abstract forms and qualities which cannot be separated from substance and its form. In these types of art, intuition also has a big role as well as mind. With regard to the rates and links, there are no external goal orientations except the expression of artist’s own inner harmony and intuition except some substantial items such as mass, contour, color and tones. Dysfunctional abstract paintings deal with pure and absolute forms. Impressionism is an art movement that takes capturing the light and colour of the object as a goal and takes care of saving the light and colour of the nature rather than representing it. Emerged and observed first as a painting movement and later as a music movement in France in the last quarter of the nineteenth century, and aimed to enroll the world completely in light and colour effect terms, impressionism handled the reality using a rather different method from realism and naturalism. Taking the reality and epistemological process as an individual phenomenon rather than regarding them universal distinguishes them from other art movements influenced by scientific developments [16]. The basic category that determines the abstract art is geometry and it displays a specific order. Painting is a surface covered with form, texture and colour which are combined together in a specific order. Making the art of painting geometrical and fixing it on a geometric structure means a move away of the art from the interest of living [17]. Surrealism is an art vision based on the data of the science of mental illnesses particularly the psychoanalysis which began and developed with the Viennese psychiatrist Sigmund Freud. Until that time all the schools were established through seeking expression opportunities about the relations between objects. Surrealism was doing the same thing in another way: through self approach, through human spirit, through unconscious way of world. According to Surrealism, human being comprehends the outside world with his emotions but his perception of the outside world is not an expression of the concrete reality. People unconsciously re-establish that world inside themselves. The mission of the surrealist art is to express that inner world and clear up the subconscious. This can be achieved not through thinking logically, but on the contrary, through taking madness into consideration, dreaming, and observing the mental patients' ways of thinking [18]. “When the dynamic nature of modernity and modern social institutions are considered, security is literally the opposite of inertia here. On the other hand, in traditional cultures, the time that Levi-Strauss calls as 'reversible time' which corresponds to continuous renewal of the temporal uniformity and similarity is conducted through repetition method; namely the past is a way of organizing of the future.” [19] 24 paintings which relate to those 6 stylistically, spiritually and sensually different art movements are presented to students' liking. The paintings are graded between 1 and 5 depending on the appreciation of the students. Personal Information Form: Demographic Individual Info Forms are used. Table 1. Is there any relationship between the personality and art preferences? AP NP EX OP AG CO AP Pearson Correlation 1 ,083 -,096* -,111* ,047 -,033 Sig. (2-tailed) ,082 ,044 ,020 ,322 ,493 N 336 336 336 336 336 336 *. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). Table 2. Do individuals’ personality types differentiate according to their art preferences? Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Neurotic Personality Between Groups 2019,178 5 403,836 1,284 ,270 Within Groups 137176,505 331 314,625 Total 139195,683 336 Extraversion, Between Groups 4193,009 5 838,602 2,916 ,013* Within Groups 125376,204 331 287,560 Total 129569,213 336 Openness Between Groups 3726,377 5 745,275 3,293 ,006* Within Groups 98687,969 331 226,349 Total 102414,346 336 Agreeableness Between Groups 1261,347 5 252,269 1,025 ,402 Within Groups 107326,809 331 246,162 Total 108588,156 336 Conscientiousness Between Groups 2043,918 5 408,784 1,533 ,178 Within Groups 116266,308 331 266,666 Total 118310,226 336 *. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). 1055 American Journal of Educational Research 3.4. Data Analysis A pearson correlation analysis is applied to find an answer to the question that whether there was any relationship between the personality -the first sub-question of the research- and art preferences. The results are remarked in Table 1. When Table 1 is examined it is observed that there is a low level of correlation between subscales of Personality Type Scales and individual art preferences. It is inferred that there is a correlation of.-11 between individuals' art preferences and their openness to experience, and a .-9 correlation between their art preferences and outwardness. A one-way variance analysis is applied to find an answer to the question that whether the personality types differ according to individual art preferences -the second subquestion of the research-, and the results are remarked in Table 2. Table 2 shows us that the personality types differentiate depending on the individual art preferences. When the F value of the extroverted individuals has differentiated significantly at the rate of 2,91 ,p<.05, the F value of the individuals who are open to experience has differentiated significantly at the rate of 3,29 ,p<.05. LSD tests are performed to have a look at the source of this difference. The results are given in Table 3. Table 3. Findings concerning the differences of art preferences according to individual personality types Dependent Variable SignificantDifference (I-J) Standard error Significance 2,80855 ,076 3,00 6,44670* 2,04577 ,002 4,00 2,53877 3,48541 ,467 5,00 7,45063* 2,69238 ,006 6,00 4,62872 3,89757 ,236 Openness 2,00 1,00 3,24514 2,49176 ,193 3,00 5,85095* 1,81502 ,001 4,00 ,04514 3,09228 ,988 5,00 7,08292* 2,38870 ,003 6,00 4,91815 3,45795 ,156 *. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). 1 (Cubism) 2 (Surrealism) 3(Impressionism) 4(Northern Renaissance) 5(Traditional Art) 6(Abstract Art) When Table 3 is examined it is observed that the extroverted individuals have higher scores of surrealism than impressionism and traditional art. At the same time, the individuals who are open to experience also have higher scores of surrealism than impressionism and traditional art. 4. Discussion According to findings obtained from the study, there is a correlation –even if it is low- between individual’s art preference and personality. In Funham and Avison’s study [3], the relation between the preference of surreal painting and five factors personality was not so strong either. However, individuals’ personality structure affects their art preferences. When the literature is generally taken into consideration, it is seen that although the correlations between the personality and art preferences are not statistically very high, individuals make their preference according to this characteristic of their personality structure. In Dellinger’ study [1] it is stated that there is a relation between individuals’ personality types and their preference of shapes. A work of art can be regarded as a composition of shapes; therefore, this study matches up with Dellinger’s. It can be indicated that individuals who are open to experience and extroverted, like more liberal and different experiences and they make effort to gain different experience. In this sense, these individuals are liberalist. In their study Wilson, Ausman and Matthews [4] stated that liberals preferred more complex and abstract paintings. Premuzic et al. [19] found that younger and extroverted personalities mostly prefer cubism; however, agreeable and responsible personalities mostly make impressionist preferences. Also, in this study it was stressed that individuals, who are open to change, have higher imagination, need for cognition and divergent thinking, they prefer untraditionally, low authoritarian regime and liberal behaviours. Furthermore, these individuals are more compatible with the concepts of untraditional and modern abstract arts. In our study, it was also found that individuals who are extroverted and open to experience mostly prefer surrealist paintings and they are not very interested in impressionist and traditional paintings. According to Wilson, Ausman and Matthews [4] conservative people mostly prefer traditional art however, liberals mostly like more cubic and abstract paintings. Findings obtained from our study support the other studies done in this issue. Also, according to Per and Beyoglu [10] students of fine arts department usually have extroverted personality. The students who attend fine arts department in Turkey are more extroverted individuals given that they are selected with reference to interests and talents. As the 44% of the sample in this study is comprised of the students of fine arts department, it can be said that the interests and art preferences of the individuals who are extroverted and open to the experience show surrealist tendencies. In the study carried out by Furnham and Crump [20] in which the personality traits of the students of science and art department such as abstraction, openness to experience, geniality and conscientious responsibility were compared, it was deduced that scores of geniality, sensitivity, abstraction and openness to development of the art department students were higher than the scores of science department students while they got lower scores in conscientious responsibility and perfectionism. Moreover, according to Alkan et al. [7] extraversion and openness to experience influence the relationships of the individuals positively. It is believed that extroverted personality traits American Journal of Educational Research 1056 preclude the individuals from being egocentric and help them relate with the others. 5. Conclusion As a result, the relationship between personality types and art preferences of individuals is obvious. The one results of the study, open experienced and social persons show more interest in Sürrealizm emphasis on the subconscious and abstract works that emphasize ideas as shown in the literature. But unlike this, It is a consequence in research that the persons who are lower openness to experienced and social show orientation to the external world is reflected in pictures as impressionism and traditional arts.In addition, the extroverted personality types of abstract art known for its warmth and sensitivity in social relationships and showing interest in the surrealist work.The high levels of responsibility and perfectionism conscientious people prefer the traditional arts. So it shows that our country is an indication that similar results with studies in other countries about the relationship between personality types and art preferences. 6. Future Investigations The study may be lacking some qualitative data in the context of findings. The relationship between the preferred paintings and personality types of the individuals could only be evaluated in terms of quantitative data. This method does not allow us to comprehend to what the individuals pay more attention while choosing paintings and what they think or how they feel about painting. Mixed patterns which include a combination of quantitative and qualitative data can be suggested for the next studies to be done in literature. On the other hand, personality types and art trends of the students from various fields of art education can be compared. At the same time, the influence of the art education of the individuals on human relations and communication, and life satisfaction can be searched. Also, the relationship between the preferences of geometric shapes and personality types of the individuals can be investigated. References [1] Dellinger, S., 2009. Favorıte Shape Reveals Personalıty, http://weeklyworldnews.com/headlines/14008/favorite-shape- reveals-personality/ adresinden 30.05.2015 tarihinde ulaşılmıştır. [2] Premuzic, M., ve Beyoğlu, A. (2011). Personality Types of Students Who Study at the Departments of Numeric, Verbal and Fine Arts in Education Faculties. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 12, 242-247. [3] Furnham, A., Avison, M. (1997) Personality and preference for surreal paintings. Personality and Individual Differences. 23(6). 923-935. [4] Wilson, G. D., Ausman, J., Matthews, T. R. (1973). Conservatism and art preferences.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 25, 286-288. [5] McManus, I., Furnham, A. (2006). Aesthetic activities and aesthetic attitudes: Influences of education, background and personality on interest and involvement in the arts. British Journal of Psychoiogy, 97, SS5-587. [6] Furnham , A., Batey, M., Booth T.,W., Patel V., Lozinskaya, D., (2011), Individual difference predictors of creativity in Art and Science Students, Thinking Skills and Creativity 6, 114-121 [7] Alkan, S., Ordulu, M.Z., Sezer, Y., Soyer, E., Aslan, D., & Sayek, İ. (2007) Is there a correlation between extroversion personality characteristics of medical students and awareness of works of art? Turk, J. Med. Sci, 37(5), 311-317. [8] Erdal,B., (2009). Müzik Tercihi ve Kişilik İlişkisi. C.Ü. Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, Cilt: 35, Sayı: 2, 188-196. [9] Taşkesen, O.(2014). Developing interest in art scale and determining the relation between personality type of teacher candidates and their interest in art. Educational Research and Reviwers. 9(8). 216-226. [10] Per, M., & Beyoğlu, A. (2011). Personality types of students who study at the departments of numeric, verbal and fine arts in education faculties. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 12, 242-247. [11] Field, A. (2013). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statistics. Sage. [12] Bacanlı, H., İlhan, T., & Aslan, S. (2009). Beş faktör kuramına dayalı bir kişilik ölçeğinin geliştirilmesi: sıfatlara dayalı kişilik testi (SDKT). Türk Eğitim Bilimleri Dergisi, 7(2), 261-279. [13] Arda, Z., Şahin, H., Büyükkol, S. (2013). İlkçağdan Modernizme; Bilim, Sanat Ve Felsefe Buluşmaları, Eğitim ve Öğretim Araştırmaları Dergisi, Cilt:2 /3 [14] Rawlings, D., Barrantes i Vidal, N., & Furnham, A. (2000). Personality and aesthetic preference in Spain and England: Two studies relating sensation seeking and openness to experience to liking for paintings and music. European Journal of Personality, 14(6), 553-576. [15] San, İ. ( 1985 ), Sanat ve Eğitim, Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Yayınları, No: 151, Ankara, Türkiye. [16] Özkan, D. (2012) Empresyonizm, Sinema Ve Bergsoncu Zaman Kavramı: Zaman Ve Mekân Algılarının Dönüşümü. The Journal of Academic Social Science Studies International Journal of Social Science. 5 /5, 247-268 [17] Sezer, C.(2008) Soyut Resimde Yüzeyin Çizgisel Düzenlemesine Yönelik Analizler Eskişehir Osmangazi Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 9(1). [18] Güvemli, Zahir (2005). Sanat Tarihi. İstanbul: Varlık Yayınları. [19] Chamorro-Premuzic, T., Reimers, S., Hsu, A., & Ahmetoğlu, G. (2009). Who art thou? Personality predictorsof artistic preferencesin a large UK sample: The importance of openness. British Journal of psychology, 100, 501-516. 25. [20] Furnham, A., Crump, J. (2013) The Sensitive, İmaginative, Articulate art Student and Conservative, Cool, Numerate Science Student: İndividual Differences in Art and Sciences Students. Learning and İndividual Differences. 25. 150-155. 
work_t6x5u35c4zdtbeh3qba54nm57m	----	Pedro Flores en Praga, en 1946 P A V E L S T E P A N E K This p u p r r c.oncrrri.7 t h r presencr of t h e M u r c i a n p u i n t r r Pedro Flores i n Czecho-Slo- i,uXiu together icith t h e group ofSpanish p a i n t r r s of the School of Paris. u t thc eritl o f t h r Src-ond W o r l d W u r , in order t o h o l d i n 1946 u n exhibition. culled Al-t in Kepuhlican Spain. T h r c.rlebrution of this displuy ic3us possible b r c u u s r of the s.vmputhy t h u t country s h o w r d t h r r r p u b l i c u n c,uusc, w h i c h d r f i n i t e b guvc rise t u u lively c u l t u r a l interchungc. supported by tht, prospc.rou5 Spunish-Czrchoslovuk rclutionship. As u r r s u l t of this utrnospherr t h r r t ~ u p p r u r c d u u ~ h o l r urtistic l i t r r u t u r r buseti on Spunish t l z r i n e ~ . 7'he 1946 c.xhibition ( P e d r o Flores' work of n,hich is s t r r s s r d ) wus joyfully grcctcvl brcuust, i t serveti us u i n r r t i n g p o i n t f o r u n u m b r r íf u c t i v r urtists exiIt,t1 .fr(>rn their n a t i v ~ couritry, urid on uc.c.ount of the intc~rcjst the c,ollrc,tion of t h r i r u ~ o r k í<ffcrct1 OS U ~ I rxutnple of thc' urtistic vunguurd u n d t h r s p r c i u l capture of F r r n c h u t n i o s p h r r e urltl i n j l u r n c r . The busic n u c l e u ~ of this p u p r r f O c u s r s 011 t h e f i g u r c ctf thc M u r c i u n Pedro Flores u n d on the rcproduction of his paintings kept i n Prugue. T h c t l r s c r i p t i o n of his upprurunccJ u n d Spunish wuys. inude b ~ j the c r i t i c s , are f u n d n t ? l r n t u l dutu j b r understanding u n usprc-t, n'hich hu.7 b e m q u i t < ~ f o r g o t t r n , of his paintings. l . L O S KSPANOLES DK P A R l S KN P R A G A El pintor murciano d e f a m a universal Pedro Flores f o r m a b a pai-te. un largo tiempo. del gi-upo d e los españoles d e París. exiliados poi- varios y divei-sos motivos :ti-tísticos, políticos y personales o t o d o e n c o n j u n t o , e n la capital francesa. E s natural q u e siguiera d e s t i n o s y r u m b o s d e e s t e grupo. entre cuyos avatares más trascendentales puede considerarse la exposición y la visita .personal de varios representantes del mismo en Checoslovaquia en 1946, apenas terminada la Segunda Guerra Mundial, cuando se reinicia la vida artística de Checoslovaquia a nivel internacional. Resultó cui-ioso observar que la primera exposición de arte extran.iero traído directamente desde la metrópoli mundial de arte de entonces, París, fuera la de los españoles de París. Este contacto checo-español acompañado de numerosas muestras de amistad no encuentra analogías en ningún país europeo. Francia excluida. pues es de ahí de donde vinieron. La explicación habrá que buscarla fuera del campo del arte, en lo político: la Checoslovaquia prebélica-capitalista seguía, curiosamente, incluso a nivel oficial. con muchas simpatías la evolución republicana en España, y como único de los países de Centroeuropa, si no de todo el continente -URSS aparte-. respaldaba el bando republicano en la guerra civil no sólo por per- mitir la formación de miembros de las brigadas internacionales - é s t a s se forman en varios países y por decisión propia de los participantes-, sino también con envíos de armas y otros equipamientos. Esta fue, entre otras cosas, una reacción a la ayuda alemana al bando nacionalista, pues la mayor amenaza para Checoslovaquia era, entonces, Alemania. Otro móvil fue sin duda el recién establecido sistema republicano en el país. Los años treinta significaron, en general, un auge en las relaciones checo-españolas también en el campo cultural. Las simpatías pro-españolas encontraban refle.ios, aparte de actividades estrictamente políticas en varias publicaciones ', en las que unían sus esfuerzos autores de todos los matices ideológicos para demostrar su adhesión a la República española. Muchos pintores checos se inspiran en los trágicos acontecimientos '. 1 Así. por e.jemplo, un almanaque titulado «Spanélsku» (A España). publicado por el .<Co- mité d e ayuda a la España democrática., e n marzo de 1937. Entre los autores figuran por ejemplo los hermanos Karel y Josef ~ a p e k , el poeta Frantijek Halas, los historiadores de arte Antonin Matejtek, Vincenc K r a m á i , Jaromir P e t í r k a , e t c . Entre ensayos d e autores checos hay que mencionar a G U S T A V W I N T E R : Don Quijote nu rozcestí (Don Quijote en la encrucijuda). Praga, 1935; Kurt K O N R A D : Spant?lská revoluce (Las revoluciones españolas), Praga, 1938; J A R O S L A V K R A T O C H V I L : Barcelona-Valencia-Madrid. Praga. 1937. Entre 10s n«velisias. a Z D E N E K N É M E ~ E K : B a b e l mluvi j.punt?lsky (El diablo h a b l a español). Praga, 1939. 2 Entre los pintores, e s ante todo el parisienae Josef Síma quien en 10s años 30 se inspira en los acontecimientos españoles. L a más famosa obra suya e n este sentido e s . L a revolución en E s p a ñ a (llamada también nada), y otra titulada E s p a ñ a , ambas d e 1937. También Vladimir Sy- c h r a pinta en 1937 un rapto d e las Sabinas, y Almena, motivo d e la guerra civil española, más - L a Guerra. fechado e n 1936 y el telón del teatro (D-37), con los mismos motivos. El pintor Zdenek Pfibyl participa e n los combates d e las Brigadas Internacionales y más tarde, en 1960 publica un libro d e recuerdos titulado < < L a Corrida (recuerdos d e un pintor c h e c o en la guerra civil española).. N o sorprende entonces, que ~ í m a y Pfibyl figuren c o n los auténticos organizadores d e la exposición d e 1946, y que una fotografía colectiva d e la acogida de los españoles e n Praga fuera captada en el taller d e Sychra. A su vez, Vojtéch Tittelbach hizo todo un ciclo d e cuadros .(La Patria d e Goyan, publicado e n reproducciones. Recuerdos d e España y d e la guerra civil en España, d e 1937, FrantiSek JanouSek pintó ( < L o s muros españoles» en 1938 y <(España., e n 1936. Jindiich S t y r s k y <(In memoriam d e F. G . Larca)), 1937. Así podnamos continuar enumerando más y más pintores. Ladislav Ciuderna pinta un Guemica al mismo tiempo P E D R O F L O R E S EN P R A G A , EN 1946 135 Claro está que después de la guerra estas simpatías y relaciones no pudie- ron desaparecer de golpe, fomentados antes que nada por la gran expectación frente a la próxima evolución política d e la España postbélica. Así por ejem- plo, los periódicos checos de la época, están repletos d e titulares anunciando, claro que con demasiado voluntarismo o falso optimismo de su parte, la próxima retirada o caída del general Franco, lo cual refleja fielmente el estado de ánimo y el ambiente ávido de cambios en la Europa postbélica y en Che- coslovaquia en especial '. En este marco se inserta, entonces, la gran exposición d e artistas espano- les residentes en París que, bajo auspicios gubernamentales, comenzó otras exposiciones que tuvieron lugar más tarde. L a primera y decisiva para nues- tro caso se celebró del 30 d e enero al 23 d e febrero de 1946 con el título d e ((Arte en la España Republicana),, y el subtítulo que, con el tiempo, llegaría a ser una noción definidora: «Artistas españoles d e París,). En el catálogo, introducido por textos de Federic Delanglade, poemas de Paul Eduard, Jeún Cassou y Tristan Tzara, es decir, las primeras firmas de la época, figuran obras de los siguientes artistas: Francisco Bores, Oscar Domínguez. Antonio Clavé, Honorio García Condoy, Apeles Fenosa, Mateo Hernández, Luis Fer- nández, Pedro Flores. Balbino Giner, Roberto González. Julio González, Paltazar Lobo, Manuel Adsuara (seudónimo de Viola), Ciinés Parra, José Palmeiro. Joaquín Peinado, Pablo Picasso, Ismael González de la Serna y Hernando Viñes. En total se presentaron 244 obras, la gran parte d e las cuales ha quedado en Checoslovaquia4. Flores expuso 12 cuadros. Las razones de la exposición quedaron resumidas d e la mejor manera en el diario Rudé Právo, de 30 d e enero d e 1946:. .. *Para nosotros, la exposición, inaugurada en presencia de la mayoría d e los autores ..., constituye un aconte- cimiento importante. y por varias razones: primero, abogamos como el primer país europeo. en forma de una aproximación espiritual, por la España demo- crática ... , la segunda razón e s artística: observamos por nuestros propios que Picasso. Jaroslav Král pinta < < L a Madre E s p a ñ o l a » , Frantiiek Hude6ek <<El fantasma d e la Guerra Civil-. en 1937. Cyprian Majerník, *Motivo e s p a ñ o l » . en 1937. y finalmente. los caricatu- ribtas: Pela, .La señorita Franco.. d e 1939: Bidlo, .El Madrid destruido*, también d a t a d e 1939. Ján i e l i v s k i trabaja en el Comité d e Ayuda a la España democrática. c u y o presidente e r a el pintor J a k u b O b r o v i k y . 3 T r e s semanas antes d e inaugurarse la exposición, el diario Mladá Fronta 4 - 1 - 1 9 4 6 - publica un '-Mensaje d e la España libre>> en el cual .la Uiiion d e Intelectuales Libres d e España. exhorta a organizar un boicot del franquismon. Esta petición encuentra. en efecto, un e c o como vemos en el diario Svobodné slovo que informa el 2 d e marzo d e 1946, sobre un mitin celebrado bajo la consigna Za demokratické ~ ~ a n é l s k o -Por la España democrática-. e n el cual intervi- nieron el ministro c h e c o David. el embajador d e la República española en Praga, P. Azcárate y el poeta c h e c o Frantiiek Hulas. 4 L a mayor parte e s t á hoy e n tres galerías: la G a l e n a Nacional d e Praga, la Galería Provin- cial d e Ostrava y e n la Morava d e Brno, así c o m o e n colecciones privadas d e varias ciudades checas y Bratibluva. Además. han q u e d a d o aquí val-¡as obi-as regaladas poi. los artistas a sus amigos checos. ojos, por la primera vez desde comienzos de la guerra. cómo se desarrollaba el arte fuera del área aislada. Tendremos entre nosotros un arte de pintores y escultores españoles i-esidentes ya desde hace dos decenios fuera de su patria y adaptados al ambiente francés que sin duda alguna habrá ejercido una no pequeña influencia. Esta e s la tercera razón, por la cual apreciamos la exposi- ción: podemos averiguar qué original fuerza nacional puede mantener el ar- tista en un ambiente ajeno,> '. Siguieron después. en el espacio de ti-es años, las exposiciones colectivas e individuales de algunos artistas -Domínguez, Julio González, de la Serna, Condoy ...-. dos de los cuales viven unas temporadas en Checoslovaquia: Domínguez y Condoy. Como no hubo ninguna individual de Flores, habrá que contentai-se con resumir los juicios críticos que aparecieron en la crítica den- ti-o de I C ~ S resúmenes colectivos. Sólo hay que añadir que en 1965, veinte años después de la primera exposición, la Galería Nacional preparó una exposiciOn recordatoria, en la cual reunía cuadros tanto de su propiedad como de colec- ciones particulares '. Esto motivó nuevos ecos y nuevas reconsideraciones de la crítica. Habrá que recordar antes, que esta admiración artística hacia los españo- les data en Praga desde los primeros años del cubismo. A Picasso, Gris, Miró y Bores. por ejemplo, se les conocía a través de mayor o menor número de obras presentadas en diferentes exposiciones en esta capital, sin contar con numerosas reproducciones de sus obras que aparecían antes de la segunda guerra en revistas checas. Así, Picasso era conocido por medio de sus obras ya desde 1912 (exposición individual, en 1922), Miró y Gris desde los años veinte. Otros, aparecían integrados a grupos de artistas franceses hasta tal punto que pasan por tales y no se menciona su nacionalidad. 2. PEDRO FLORES VISTO POR LA CRITICA El mejor testimonio acerca de los españoles de París en general y de Floi-es en particular nos lo ha deslado el crítico Miloslav Mífko quien lo visitó aún en París y mandó una colaboración a Praga '. «En su taller 4 o m i e n z a su 5 Opiniones similar-es pueden verse e n los artículos d e Otla Mizera: Umení republikánského S p a n é l s k a ( A r t e d e la E s p a ñ a republicana), Svét u O b r a r e c h . 1946. número 4. Jan ~ k v á r a : K v i s t a v é span61ú paiízské Skoly (Comentario d e la E s c u e l a d e París. a la exposición d e los espanoles). Pr-úb0.j. 9-XII-1965; y L u b o j HlaváL-ek: Dédictvi Goyovi ( L o s hereder-os d e G o y a ) ; Kulturni t v o r b a , 111, 2 d e febrero d e 1965, n ú m e r o 6. p. 13. etcétera. 6 Exposición ~ ~ a n e l i t í mytíii paiízské Skoly -Pintores españoles d e la Escuela d e París-. Galería Nacional d e Praga. del 19 d e e n e r o al 19 d e m a r z o d e 1965, preparada por Marie Hovor- ková. 7 M. M í f k o , Dopis o p a i í i s k y c h ~ ~ a n é l e c h < a r t a sobre 10s españoles d e París-, en el libro titulado ~ l o v é k u um6lci (El hombre en el artista), Praga. 1962. pp. 207 y ss. Originalmente publicada en la revista Kytice d e Praga, 1, 1946. n ú m e r o 4. L a s referencias a Flores en la página 213. P E I ) K O F I . 0 K E S F N P K A G A . E N 1946 137 sugestivo informe- estoy rodeado de aquel desorden pintoresco que domina tuinbién la obi-a de Floi-es. e l tnás ~ s p a ñ o l d e los ~ s p a ñ o l e s r i ~ París - e l subi-ay¿ido es rnío-. Más bien de baja estatura. con una negra melena ei-i- zadn, tiene algo de rebelde y algo de inerme. de fiinfrii-iún en ropas menores. ¿iventurei-o en babuchus. En sus cuadros aparecen toreros engalanados. con sus guapas. y el citado doble sentido del énfasis heroico y tle la coqueterin resuena taml7ién de su naturaleza muerta: todo e s iin poco barroco. bastante agudo en el colorido. como algo erizado. pintado con una prisa impaciente. Preferii.ía yo su grabado ante> que sus cuadros. Me muestra una serie de aguafuertes con temas de la corrida -tema goyesco que supo captar a lo S L I ~ O - . Se sumeipe en recuerdos de los cuales está i-epleto, escenas animadas tle I¿i plaza de toros. los momentos de demora y de la tensión culminante de la lucha: una línea veloz esboza la silueta del toi-el-o. sombras tejadas de las tel~ii-arias mAs finus que se fusionan con coloi-es vivos de feria popular; tenéis Iii iinpi-esión de que el pintor se identifica con sus personajes y esgrime cori su buril como picadoi->> ... Es interesante comparar esta visión con la que nos da un cuarto de siglo más tal-de el crítico Caya Nuño '. quien expresa casi lo mismo con palabras diferentes, sin que, naturalmente. haya podido leer jamás el texto checo. También otros críticos checos de la época tuvieron a la vista el aspecto goyesco de la obi-a de Flores: entre ellos. Jiií Kotalík " dice: '(Los lienzos de Pedro Flores nacen del anhelo de parafrasear todo 10 que en su país de.jó la historia, así como el temperamento imputnble de sus habitantes. El caballero pintor. quien a través del velo del pasado está mirando también el paisaje o la vida callejera de París. se contenta a veces con ciar énfasis a la factura externa de bus imágenes>>. El último testimonio del ano 1946 nos lo ofrece el perio- dista y ci-ítico PechiCek "' que. 1-efiriéndose anteriormente a Bores. Palmeiro, Peinado. Pai-i-a y González de la Serna, que salen del primario cubismo picas- siunci. lo cal-acterizii de manera siguiente: -En bases similares construye tam- bién Pedro Flores. quien. sin embargo. utiliza solo la estilización exterioi- cubista para sus composiciones temáticamente abigarradas y agitadas. intei-e- santcs poi- su dibu.10 violentamente vibrante y a la vez duro, recordando xilogi-afía ,-. En opoi-tunidad de la exposición del año 1965 aparecieron otra vez intere- suntes opiniones: Así, según evidencia LuboS Hlaviiek " sigue persistiendo el problema de lo goyesco en su obra: < < A Flores le llamaron certer¿imente hi.jo naturul de Goya. o el más español de todo el grupo. E s por el cal-ácter X G A Y A N U N O . J . . A , : Pinturu r ~ p o n o l o del ~ i y l o X X . Madi-id. 1970. en el capitulo .,La I.cucl;i J c P;ii-i\s,. p p . 348-9. 9 ii0 l.AI.1 K . J.: . \ i ~ o h o < l o t ? ~ ~ . s l n i u t r ~ i . l c i Spor~c'l.rLci (Arrisrci~ c~poño1r.s ornontes d r libr~rr[r[/). Prlicc. (Praga). 5 J c Febi.ei-o Je 1946. 10 PC'HC: Urni.ni rc,puhlikcínskr;ho Spuni.l.\ka ( A r t e de la Espcrñcr republi(.onu ). Nlii.oclni o.\vohc~zcni ( P i - a g d . 9 J c fchi.ei.o de 1946. I I H I . A V A C ' ~ K : O p . ( . i r . . vc:;i\c ncitii numei-o 5 . peculiar de sus temas y su tratamiento, en el cual la habilidad de la improvisa- ción suma la nerviosidad del temperamento casi indisciplinado)). El critico anónimo del diario Veterní Praha '' se fija en su aspecto colonstico señalando que .Flores y Bores dan una idea de la pintura española expresándose con colores ardientes de la tierra española». A su vez, Josef Skvara '' señala que < < L a pintura d e Pedro Flores es, en comparación con Clavé. de distinta clase: febril. contrastante. Las naturalezas muertas que representan ob-jetos cotidia- nos se convierten en una visión dramática». Finalmente. la obra d e Flores: merece atención del cntico TR '' que comentando los aspectos técnicos y expresivos, subraya: «Sus lienzos - d e Floi-es- son. en sustancia, una pasta de color de pintura expresionista que subraya el dinamismo de la personali- d a d ~ . Y la personalidad e s lo que jamás podrá serle negado al murciano de fama universal, Pedro Flores. 3. OBRAS DE PEDRO FLORES EXPUESTAS EN CHECOSLOVAQUIA 1946 Curiosamente, el catálogo Uminí republikánského ~ ~ a n i l s k a , Spa- nélStí umilci. Paí-iiské Skoly /Arte d e la España republicana. Artistas españolas de la escuela de París-, Manes, Praga 1946. no reproduce ninguna obra de Flores. aunque figuran 12 obras suyas, pi-obablemente toda\ pinturas ''. 88. Banda. 116 x 81 89. Naturaleza muerta, 92 x 73 90. Naturaleza muerta con gato, 81 x 60 9 1 . Naturaleza muerta con lámpara, 81 x 54 92. Concierto, 81 x 65 93. Homenaje a Cervantes, 100 x 81 94. La calle Galande d e París, 55 x 46 95. Naturaleza muerta, 55 x 46 96. Arlequín, 35 x 24 97. Arlequín, 35 x 24 98. Españolas románticas, 92 x 73 99. Naturaleza muerta 1947 Catálogo Kresby ma1íí-u demokratického ~ ~ a n e l s k a (Dibujos de pinto- ]-es d e la España democrática), 01-ganizado por el Club de Amigos del Arte en Brno y Prostii~ov, octubre-diciembre 1947 1 6 . 12 -la-, Span1é v Níírodni galérii, Veterni Praha -Praga-, 18-11-65. 13 ~ k v á r ; i , o p . cit. -vease nota 5-. 14 T R : ~ ~ a n é l e pa?íiské Skoly Sobésluvi (Espuñoles de lu Escuelu de París en Sobésluv). J i h o t e s k á pravda x e s k é Budé,ovice-, 15-V-1966. 15 En este catálogo respeto en lo posible los respectivos títulos d e cada catálogo. así como sus indicaciones d e medidas, precios. etc., aunque aparezcan obras idénticas bajo otro nombre. L a s identificaciones las hago en caso d e tener comprobante (fotografias, dimensiones o técnicas). 16 Hago aparie esta lista por s e r numerosa e inédita en gran parte. PEDRO FLORES E N P R A G A , E N 1946 139 Figura l . Aguafuerte. Pedro Flores: 16. 36 x 45. Payaso, temple, precio: 4.300 coronas checoslovacas 17. 36 x 45. Naturaleza muerta con gato, dibujo y acuarela: 3.000. 18. 36 x 45. Mosqueteros, lápiz: 2.000. 19. 42 x 50. Torero, sanguina: 2.200. 20. 36 x 45. Dama en el palco. Pintura al temple: 2.800. 1948 Catálogo Spanélé paiíiské Skoly -Españoles de la escuela de París-, organizado por la Asociación de Artistas Grabadores checos, Hollar, Praga. Enero 1948, reproducida una obra (véase figura l), identificada como agur '1 f uerte. Pedro Flores: 50. Monotipo 51. Monotipo 5 1 (a). Aguafuerte de 52 a 61. Todos aguafuertes (figuras 1-3). 1963 Catálogo Francouzská Kresba 19 a 20, stol, z Cs, sbírek. Francouzi a PaPíiská Skola. Kresby, akvarely, kvage. Dibujo francés de los s. 19 y 20. De colecciones checoslovacas, france- sas y la Escuela de París. Dibujos. acuarelas, aguadas. Galena Nacional de Praga. junio-julio de 1963. Pedro Floi-es: 288. Naturaleza muerta. Dibu.jo con tiza negra colorada. 24'9 x 31'9 cms. Firrnado a la derecha .(Floi-es>t (en el i-evei-so), dibujo a pluma. Galería Nacional de Pi-aga. número K - 1 1.488. Conseguido en 1948 de la colección de Fr. Venera, de Brno 289. Pierrot y Colombina. Dibujo a lápiz. 29'5 x 21, fii-mado a la iz- quierda (arriba). <.Flores,). Colección privada en Praga (idéntico con el iiúinero 2 d e los dibu.jos ~ l c Ostrava. véase cap. 4) 290. Muchacha en traje popular. Aguada. 40'2 x 30'5, firmado en el centro ( a la izquierda), «Flores,,. Colección privada en Praga. 1965 Catálogo ~ ~ a n e l i t í inalíii paíiiské Skoly -Pintores españoles de la Escuela d e París-. Praga. Galei-ía Nacional. enero-febrero de 1965. Pedro Flores: 3 1 . Naturaleza muerta, óleo sobi-e madera. 22 x 16. Firmado abajo ( a la izquierda), <G Flores,). Colecciones particulares, Pniga. 37. Una española. Oleo sobre tela, 55 x 38, firmado a la izquiei-du (abajo). t. Flores,>. Colección particular. 33. Al-lequin (figura 5). Abajo: óleo sobi-e masonito. 33 x 24'2. firmado a la derecha (¿ib+jo), ..Flores)). Galería Nacional de Praga, DO-2660 -idéntico en el número 96 ó 97 de la exposición de 1946- Figuru 4 . Arlequín. P E D R O F L O R E S E N P R A G A . E N 1946 143 34. Naturaleza muerta. Oleo sobre masonito. 55 x 46. Firmado a la izquierda (abajo), <<Flores». Galería Nacional de Praga DO-2659, idén- tico al número 95 de la exposición de 1946. Apareció en la instalación d e la Galería Nacional d e Praga d e 1947 -sin catálogo-. 35. Ciudad (i,París8?). Oleo sobre madera, 49 x 58. A la derecha dedi- catoria y firma, <. Flores-48~. Colección privada 36. Muchacha en el traje popular folklórico. Aguada, papel 40'5 x 30'5. Arriba. ~Floi-es.. Expuesto en 1963, número 290. 1966167 Mistii 20. Století -Maestros del siglo XX-. Galena Nacional de Praga y la Unión d e Artistas Plásticos, Praga. Galena spéla, diciembre d e 1966 a enero de 1967. Pedro Flores: 18. Naturaleza muerta. Oleo sobre masonito, 55 x 46, firmado a la izquierda (abajo):Galería Nacional. número DO-2659 (véase el número 34 del catálogo de 1965). 19. Arlequín. Oleo sobre masonito, 33 x 24'1, firmado a la derecha (abajo), .Flores,,. Galena Nacional, número DO-2660 -idéntico con el número 33 de la exposición d e 1965. 1985 spanéliti umelci paiíiské Skoly -Artistas españoles de la Escuela de París-. BI-no, Galena Morava. noviembre-diciembre de 1985, fuera de catálogo: Pierrot. Esbozo, d e 30 x 25 -apareciendo-, colección particular. Firmado: << Flores 48,. . 4. CATALOGO (COMENTADO) DE DIBUJOS EXISTENTES EN LA GA- LERIA DE OSTRAVA l . La bailarina de Slovácko (figura 6). Aguada y temple, 450 x 365 mm. G-4475. Firmado abajo a la izquierda, *Flores». Se caracteriza por el fondo violeta, flores verdes con centros blancos y el traje bor- dado d e líneas amarillas y rojas 2. Colombina y Arlequín (figura 7). Lápiz. 295 x 210 mm, (3-2766, fir- mado arriba a la izquiei-da, .Flores,). El Arlequín, tocando el contra- bajo (véase el catálogo de 1963, número 289) 3. Dúo -Torero y bailarina- Sanguina, 270 x 208. G-3823. firmado ~ i b ~ i o . ,<A Petak, Flores),, (figura 8) dedicatoria a su amigo Peták 4. Arlequín con guitarra (figura 9). Lápiz, 298 x 217. (3-6054. firmado ari-iba. q. Flores>, 5. Arlequín con guitarra (figura 10). Lápiz. 297 x 217, (3-3823, firmado a la derecha (abajo), .<Flores,> - d e los dibujos más depurados del tema- 6. Busto del torero (figura 11). Lápiz. 290 x 217. (3-4964, firmado a la izquierda, <.Flores)). Un boceto rápido. de trazas superpuestas, direc- tas y rápidas Figuru 5 . Arlequín. P E r l R O F L O R E S E N PRAGA. E N 1946 Figura 6 . Bailarina de Slovácko. Figura 7 . Colombina y Arlequín. PEDRO FLORES E N PRAGA, E N 1946 Figura 8 . Dúo: Torero y bailarina. Figura 9 . Arlequín con guitarra. P E D R O FLORES E N P R A G A . E N 1946 Figuru 10. Arlcqultt con g u i t a r r a . Figura 1 1 . Busto de torero. PEDRO F L O R E S EN PR.4Cr.4, E N 1946 151 Figura 12. Dos gatos. 7. Dos gatos (figura 12). Pluma. tinta y acuarela. 120 x 143 (página cortada del catálogo del año 1946). G-4526. Arriba, el nombre impreso de FI-éderic Delanglade, quien firma la introducción. Firmado abajo (a la derecha), flores^. Típica muestra d e su dibu-jo en líneas barroqui- zantes. 5. U N R W R A T O DE PEDRO FLORES, POR AN'TONI CLAVE: (FIGURA 13) La Galería Morava de Brno, antigua capital de Moravia. posee iin cuadro de Antoni Clavé, titulado .Hombre con el gallo,, - ó l e o sobre tela. 65'4 x 54 cms, número A-1.141-, que fue publicado por primera vez en el boletín «Mo- ravská galerie v Brné)) (Galena Morava de Brno), en 1974, número 18. p. 63, y expuesto recientemente a finales del año 1985 (véase parte 3 de este tra- bajo), cuando fue reproducido también en la portada del catálogo y figura bajo el número 3. El director de la Galería Hiií HluSiCka lo califica como .la adquisición má\ feliz de la colección española de la Galería». Subraya que el cuadro a primera vista atraerá por su inmediatez expresiva que manifiesta la avidez del pintor de captar y resubstanciar la insistencia sensual de la exposi- ción y expresar asimismo su dinamismo global. Su soberbia expresión pictó- rica por cierto no niega la lección francesa -P. Bonnard-, pero por su propia sustancia, especialmente por el lenguaje pictórico, e s obra de un tem- peramento del todo español),. Estas líneas válidas, sólo dan a conocer la forma. L o último y lo más importante para nuestro caso hay que agregarlo: los rasgos del personaje son con toda evidencia los de Pedro Flores, con su ancha nariz, ojos grandes, ceñas fuertes y frente alta, coronada por su pelo largo, entre bohemio y rizado. Será fruto de uno de esos contactos amistosos entre los artistas españoles del grupo parisiense,, y de la apreciación que tuvo Clavé de Pedro Flores. 
work_tblc4nnchbhi7agg5qyj3klm6a	----	Reviews 689 withstanding, dated in the light of research in this area pursued so successfully by Hans Koch, Reinhard Wittram, Pierre Pascal, Rudolf Jagoditsch, Serge Zenkovsky, James Cracraft, and Robert Crummey. The somewhat cavalier fashion in which she dismisses the profound impact of the writings of Johann Arndt and other German spiritualists and pietists on the thought of Saint Tikhon is no longer tenable after the findings of such authorities as Vasily Zenkovsky and Dmitri j Tschizewskij. On the other hand, her description of Saint Tikhon's youth—one filled with hardship, privation, and bitterness—and of the laborious course of his later career corroborates the results of the meticulous research in the life and social situation of the Russian clergy of the eighteenth century recently undertaken so brilliantly by Gregory L. Freeze in his pioneering study, The Russian Levites (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1977). The lot of the much maligned, humble Russian parish priest and monk during the reigns of Anne, Elizabeth, and Catherine the Great was far from enviable or "privileged." Consequently, despite some flaws entailed by the times, the book can still be recommended as a knowledgeable and warm-hearted introduction to the inner, spiritual life of the Russian church during the period of its deepest humiliation, before the onset of all-out persecution in the wake of the Revolution of 1917. H E I N R I C H A. STAMMLER University of Kansas A BULGAKOV A N T H O L O G Y . By Sergius Bulgakov. Edited by James Pain and Nicolas Zernov. Introduction by James Pain. Memoir by Lev Zander. Philadel- phia: The Westminster Press, 1976. xxvi, 191 pp. $12.50. This anthology represents, as far as I can tell, the first substantial translated selection from Father Sergius Bulgakov's work. It is a useful book, in a limited way, but also a frustrating one in many respects. All of the selections are tantalizingly brief— in most cases, not because Bulgakov wrote them that way, but apparently by the will of the editors (although the principles for selection are nowhere made clear). The contents are divided into a number of categories: First, we are given several quite moving and interesting autobiographical fragments, dealing with Bulgakov's conversion (or perhaps reconversion) to Russian Orthodoxy in early middle life, his religious experiences before and after his conversion, his views on the constitution of the Russian Orthodox church, and, finally, his experience during surgery for cancer of the vocal chords. Next we have a number of excerpts from essays written during the first two decades of the century, including Bulgakov's contribution to the famous symposium Vekhi. The first of these represents what is usually called his "Marxist period," although, based on the evidence, this would seem to be a misnomer: the essay, "Economic Ideals," which predates his full conversion—according to his reports—by six or seven years, is written from an explicitly Christian (though not specifically Orthodox; perhaps rather Tolstoyan) perspective. Other essays in this series deal with Dostoevsky, Vladimir Solovyov [sic], Pablo Picasso, the character of Protes- tantism (as a "professorial religion"), and Karl Marx as a religious type (Bulgakov contends that militant atheism is the central element of Marx's doctrine). The second half of the collection consists of doctrinal and theological works written in the 1920s and 1930s, including a number of sermons—one in particular on the social doctrine of modern Russian Orthodoxy which was preached to an American audience in 1934. This final section is the least interesting, at least to someone who, like this reviewer, has no particular respect for the Russian Orthodox church as an institution and no particular interest in its theology. This is a pity, because Father Bulgakov is a figure of some human interest; his career represents the triumph of an 690 Slavic Review extremely strong religious temperament over external circumstances, social pressures, and even, to some extent, intellectual conviction. In his autobiographical fragments, he points out that for a long time he was held back from full conversion and then from taking holy orders by the fact that these things were simply "not done" in his circle, and by his abhorrence of tsarism, and that it was only the disestablishment of the Russian Orthodox church by the October Revolution which finally removed all obstacles. This situation has its ironic aspect, in view of the present partial reestab- lishment of the Orthodox church and also the unmistakable signs of an Orthodox revival among the Soviet intelligentsia. Perhaps it is unfair to fault the editors for not having put together a different book, but I think that it would have been better to include some of Bulgakov's detailed philosophical critique of Marxism, mentioned by Lev Zander in the memoir prefixed to the collection, rather than the heavily devotional material of the third section. Bulgakov's theological writings, as represented here, do not come to grips at all with the major social and political problems facing the Russian Orthodox church in the period in question, and, for this reason, are of no particular value to outsiders, although the sermon preached in the United States represents a partial exception. In brief, the verdict must be: "better than nothing, but not nearly as good as it could have been." S T E P H E N P. D U N N Highgate Road Social Science Research Station, Berkeley P U B L I C O P I N I O N I N E U R O P E A N S O C I A L I S T S Y S T E M S . By Walter D. Connor and Zvi Y. Gitelman, with Adaline Hussczo and Robert Blumstock. New York and London: Praeger Publishers, 1977. x, 197 pp. Tables. This work is an effort to broaden the study of Communist systems by analyzing the ways in which the existing social structures modify, constrain, and even affect the policies of the ruling regimes. While the authors recognize that Communist states attempt to direct the formation of public opinion, they are concerned in this work with the ways in which public opinion, once formed and legitimized, proceeds to limit to some degree the actions of the regime. Since the polling of public opinion is an essential step in the legitimation process of socialist states, most of the space in the book is devoted to the nature and content of socialist opinion polling in particular, and socialist survey research in general. Since for all practical purposes current socialist sociology is little else but survey research of one kind or another, it would have been possible to name the book "Sociology in European Socialist Systems." The book consists of six chapters. Gitelman and Connor provide the opening and closing chapters in which they discuss the data from all European socialist countries. The four intervening chapters examine in greater detail the state and impact of opinion polling in four countries: Huszczo's chapter on Poland, Gitelman's on Czechoslovakia, Connor's on the Soviet Union, and Blumstock's on Hungary. The omission of Rumania and Bulgaria was prompted by their relative underdevelopment, and the reason for excluding Yugoslavia was its tenuous connection with the Soviet bloc. The chapters dealing with individual countries contain a thorough discussion of the historical development of opinion polling in each country, an outline of repre- sentative samples of some of the most important polls and their results, a review of the major problems encountered by pollsters, and finally a description of the complex role played by the party in all of these activities. The major conclusion reached by all authors is that opinion polling still remains a relatively undeveloped aspect of socialist states and much of what is learned remains confidential, to be used only by the regime. In Connor's words, "while the regimes are more interested now in public opinion than in the past, they are no more ready now than before to 
work_ticexmmmjfff5pxtsxdgogthsi	----	Microsoft Word - Viner.docx Westcliff International Journal of Applied Research Vol. 3, No. 1. Fall 2019 Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License. 17 The Formal Deviant: The Innovative Features of E. E. Cummings’s ‘next to of course god america i’ C.B. Viner, Faculty christopher.viner@westcliff.edu ABSTRACT This article explores the modernist American poet, E. E. Cummings, and his experimentations with the traditional sonnet form in poetry. E. E. Cummings was an influenced by cubism and used the principles of this form to stylize his poetry. He changed the nature of the sonnet form, as seen in his political poem and satire, ‘Next of course god america i’, which this article will explore through close reading and literary analysis. _______________________________________________________________ Westcliff International Journal of Applied Research. Vol. 3, No. 1. Fall 2019 18 Perfectly beautiful is (Cummings, 1923, p.15) The poet must become more and more comprehensive, more allusive, more indirect, in order to force, to dislocate if necessary, language into his meaning. (Eliot, 1921, p.6) The immediately recognizable visual quality of E. E. Cummings’s poems is a result of his ingenious decision to transmute the stylistic principles of European modern art movements—predominantly cubism—into poetic practice. The most innovative and distinguishable poetic features—namely, the tendency for lower-case typography, the omission of punctuation, and the syntactical disturbance (by means of grammatical displacement)—have the effect of fracturing the surface of his subject, creating a multifaceted image, in which his reader, in Norman Friedman’s (1960) words, “grasps… all at once” (p.10). The scientific and industrial surge in the nineteenth century in America and Europe, and its further expansion in the early twentieth century, aided Cummings practically. There were now many avant-garde artistic movements available through more efficient methods of production and transportation links; although, paradoxically, the principles of such a surge, namely, the belief in homogeneity, and the loss of confidence in a ‘soul’ or ‘self’, were principles Cummings opposed. Ideologically, he is in a traditional lineage of visionary romantics and rebels who retained the importance of feeling at the dawn of the new mechanical age; William Blake, Charles Baudelaire, and John Ruskin all share the principles of Cummings’s rebellion. In the poem, ‘Next to of course god america i’, an almost machine-like monotone juxtaposes with the speaker’s human feeling of nervousness, exposing the unnatural tension at work between forcibly orchestrated propaganda—represented in the subject’s speech—and the human beneath the governmental product of a mechanical and increasingly sterile epoch. In opposition to rationality and homogeneity— and to realism—various avant-garde movements, such as cubism and futurism, flowered in Europe, and particularly, in Paris. Whilst a student at Harvard, Cummings befriended S. Foster Damon who introduced him to a number of contemporary European influences not cited on his university reading list, such as Achille-Claude Debussy, Igor Fyodorovich Stravinsky, and the first anthology of imagist poems, Ezra Pound’s Des Imagistes (1914). In 1913, Damon took Cummings to the Armory Show, which showcased the works of some of the most exciting modernist artists, including Pablo Picasso, Henri Matisse, and the ‘father’ of cubism, Paul Cézanne, with whom Cummings became obsessed. In 1918, Cummings became less enthusiastic about cubism, distrusting its “cold and frozen grammar” (Cohen, 1990, p. 60), and eventually yearned for fracturing and fusion, combined with “that precision which creates movement” (Cummings, 1926, p. 1). His vision of poetry from a painter’s perspective, the cubist influence, and a yearning for language to move—channelled through traditional form—resulted in a new style; a radical hybridity was forged by utilising an avant-garde mode (cubism) in an historically-established form (the sonnet). Cummings’s disturbance of syntax comprises a large portion of his method. The prism, with its complex spectrum of colours and multiple sides, which fuse together to form a centre of light, or ‘truth’, is a fair analogy to the principles of modernism and is the poet’s “symbol of all art” (Kennedy, 1994, p. 39). Cummings ruptures syntax and dislocates language, predominantly, by morphing adjectives, adverbs and verbs into nouns, rearranging words in a clause, and omitting punctuation. This innovation explodes language into a myriad of potential currents of meaning. For example, one could read the adjective ‘early’ as a noun, in, “say can you see by the dawn’s early” which would give some syntactical sense to the following (theoretical) clause, “my / country ’tis of centuries…” The lack of punctual markers provides a dissonance, causing a spectrum of potential meaning. The hauntingly idiosyncratic nuances that can be fathomed from this syntactical disturbance is one of Cummings’s most sophisticated successes; through it, the reader explores their individuality, _______________________________________________________________ Westcliff International Journal of Applied Research. Vol. 3, No. 1. Fall 2019 19 and thus, reaffirms it. By omitting punctuation, the readerly position is one of an interior vantage within our most idiosyncratic readerly faculties; we reclaim ‘i’ and press into the text our own intuitive cadence, idiosyncratic rhythms of being, of is. For example, the poem’s lack of punctual address in the first line gives licence for the reader to fathom multiple meanings (Friedman, 1996). The word ‘america’ in “god america i”, for instance, could be construed as a metonymic term, indicating the audience in front of the political speaker. Furthermore, the listing aspect of ‘god america i’ may be representative of the state’s ethically-unsound hierarchy of importance: ‘god’ first, ‘america’ second, and its citizens—the small ‘i’s’ that comprise the country—last. Alternatively, it could indicate state power, on an international political scale, but more so symbolically, representing the untouchable nature of the government itself by its citizens: the ‘god’ that is ‘america’, connoting totalitarianism, and anti- democratic values. Indeed, the ‘god america’ that through a system of propaganda after declaring war on Germany on 6th April 1917 sent its citizens to a mindless, “roaring slaughter”. Cummings’s message, later, is less ambiguously compacted into his subject’s speech, “they did not stop to think they died instead”. Conformity kills; not thinking for oneself, not growing into an individual, but instead, succumbing to homogeneity is the most dangerous way for one to live. Cummings’s fusion of individualism, Platonic dualism, the principle of growing, or rather, making, and the childhood vision informs his practice. Friedman (1972) states that Cummings possesses “anarchist beliefs”, and his poetics apply “anarchist techniques” to form (p. 2). Cummings views authority as a live predator, which vanquishes individualism and transforms human potential into homogeneity. In The Enormous Room (1922), he observes: “the police… swooped upon their helpless prey with the indescribable courage which is the prerogative of policemen the world over” (Cummings, 1922, p. 104). The enemy to Cummings’s principles of ‘feeling first’ and individualism are manmade socio-political tools that homogenise and institutionalise the government, the army, and social conformity—his objects of satire. The acceleration of the speaker’s speech is achieved through omission of punctuation and lower-case typography, portraying the subject’s nerves and hypocrisy. Punctuation is used sparingly to raise questions on the ambivalence of authority, national identity and statehood officialdom. The apostrophe at “land of the pilgrims’…”, for example, not articulated aloud, means Cummings is able to play on the ambiguity of this line, and its two meanings, i.e. ‘america’ is a land in which there are pilgrims and also a land belonging to pilgrims. Capitalised letters, which are used after a stream of jingoistic clichés (the reference to the American national anthem, to Macbeth, America’s patriotic song, ‘My Country, Tis of Thee’, etc.) at the end of the speech, combined with a countering of terse punctuation, reinforce the figure’s recital speed. Acceleration is also achieved through ‘telescoping’, seen at line 14: “in every language even deaf and dumb” (Ahearn, 1996, p. 17). Politicians, then, are seen as almost inhuman, antithetical to authenticity and individuality. However, in the poem, the ostensible politician’s nerves are what humanises him. Behind the mask of uniformity and propaganda is a human being in a compromising position, which is finally hopeful. The subject is not a tyrannical member of authority, with no faculty for compassion but a fumbling charlatan coerced into a propagandist tool by a dehumanizing system of government. The figure’s nervousness, therefore, innovatively portrayed by, for example, the cubist effect of syntactical fracturing and fusing is finally what makes Cummings’s satirical target, not the speaker, but the system by which even the speaker himself is controlled and exploited. The fact that the political figure is uneasy about what he is saying—nervously requiring a “glass of water” post jingoistic rant— exposes the hypocrisy of the government’s search for new military recruits. If Pound’s poem, ‘The Return,’ provided Cummings with, in his words, “[the rudiments] of my writing style,” then Dante Gabriel Rossetti’s House of Life (1881), provided him with his favourite form (Cummings, 2015, p. 40). The _______________________________________________________________ Westcliff International Journal of Applied Research. Vol. 3, No. 1. Fall 2019 20 sonnets in House of Life were the reason he’d been, “writing sonnets ever since” (Dickey, 1912, p. 214). Giacomo da Lentino invented the sonnet during the duocento. Cummings’s sonnet is also historically bound; he scores the ancient tradition of the sonnet by imposing his anarchist techniques within it. In one sense, Cummings’s defacement of such a noble tradition as the sonnet—of which William Shakespeare and William Wordsworth, for example, are major players—is analogous to his allegiance to the avant-garde, over his (lesser) adoration of historical form and even the canon itself, as a symbol of aristocracy, or conservative hierarchy. That the sonnet, as Oppenheimer states, “is the first lyric of self-consciousness, or of the self in conflict” is fitting— since the authenticity/ homogeneity power-struggle in the poem reflects Cummings’s anxieties of originality (Oppenheimer, 1989, p. 110). In his pressing of eccentric experimentation into traditional (sonnet) structure, Cummings’s paradoxes become transparent; his classical education and avant-garde influence, his want to please his conservative father, his tendency for radicalism, his belief in the infant’s vision, and the concept of growing, all work to inform a style that pivots on oppositional forces. Cummings’s aporia is seen in his title choice for the Harvard lectures in 1952 as i:six nonlectures. Cummings is also in some respects, unoriginal. For example, the meter of the poem, with some ambiguities in the first two lines and metrical inversions to a trochaic rhythm, is predominantly in regular ‘heartbeats’ of iambic pentameter. The rhyme scheme during the octave is Shakespearian: ababcdcd, and the rhymes themselves are relatively full, e.g. ‘i’ and ‘my’, ‘oh’ and ‘go’. Rhyming innovations become apparent during the sestet, however, unless Cummings uses an unusual scheme of efgfeg. Furthermore, some rhymes in the sestet are more innovative. The tmesis that occurs at line 9, for example, ‘beaut-’, sets up an inventive rhyme with ‘mute’ in the penultimate line. Typographically, this symbolises the government’s breaking of the ‘beautiful’ in half. The volta at the penultimate line and conclusive line of the narrator’s observation, is a unique feature. However, there is also a turn— which structurally subscribes to the sonnet’s origin and its observation/response dynamic—between the octave’s end, and line nine which begins the sestet and ends in a question, representing authoritarian dangers on personal liberty: “then shall the voice of liberty be mute?” This anxiety of authenticity is the cause, happily, of his most innovative features: the lower- case typography, the omission of punctuation, and the genuinely radical disturbance of syntax, which comprise Cummings’s “literary cubism” (Kennedy, 1923, p. i). His innovation was one of re- appropriation, taking a painterly movement and imposing it on traditional form. Cummings’s artistic energies were stylistic. It is through traditional form that he practices poetical stylistic deviance. Indeed, he possesses a strong respect for form, and particularly the sonnet, making Paul Muldoon’s comment in 1914, that Cummings is “less iconoclastic than has often been supposed— including by himself” very apt (Muldoon, 2015, p. 7). Technically, however, his ingenious exportation and transmutation of cubism into a literary one by means of stylistic innovation, is highly original. He took a stylistic leap of faith, crossing artistic modes and the Atlantic, and with it, he changed the ‘face’ of the sonnet. Cummings’s experimental risks are something from which a new generation of poets are still learning. The Black Mountain School, the Beat movement, and the L=A=N=G=U=A=G=E poets, have all taken stylistic elements from Cummings’s technical anarchism. Furthermore, his influence can be traced even today, in contemporary British poetry especially. Sam Riviere’s collection, 81 Austerities (2012), for example—winner of the Forward Prize for best first collection—uses hardly any punctuation, is printed in mostly lower-case lettering, and disturbs conventional syntax in similar ways to Cummings, and with similar results. Stylistically, Cummings is a strong contender for the most innovative poet in the canon—he remains an individual, an ‘i’. _______________________________________________________________ Westcliff International Journal of Applied Research. Vol. 3, No. 1. Fall 2019 21 REFERENCES Ahearn, B. (Ed.). (1996). The correspondence of Ezra Pound and E. E. Cummings. Michigan, US: University of Michigan Press. Beach, C. (2003). The Cambridge introduction to twentieth-century American poetry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Bergman, D. (1997) Marianne Moore and the problem of “marriage.” American Literature, 60(2), 241–254. Cheever, S. (2014). E. E. Cummings: A life. New York, US: Pantheon. Cohen, A. M. (1990). E. E. Cummings: Modernist painter and poet. Smithsonian Studies in American Art, 4(2), 54– 74. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/3108985. Cummings, E. E. (1994). Complete poems: 1904 – 1962. New York, USA: Norton. Cummings, E. E. (1926). Is 5. New York: Boni & Liveright. Cummings, E. E. (1997). Selected letters. London: Andre Deutsch. Cummings, E. E. (1953). I: Six nonlectures. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Cummings, E. E. (1922). The enormous room. New York, United States: Boni & Liveright, Inc. Cummings, E. E. (1923) Tulips and chimneys. New York: Liveright. Dickey, F. (1912). The modern portrait poem. London: University of Virginia Press. Dumas, B. K. (1974). E. E. Cummings: A remembrance of miracles. London: Vision Press Limited. Norman, F. (Ed.). (1972). E. E. Cummings: A collection of critical essays. London: Prentice-Hall. Friedman, N. (1996). (Re)valuing Cummings: Further essays on the poet, 1962 – 1993. Florida, US: The University Press of Florida. Friedman, N. (1960). E. E. Cummings: The art of his poetry. London: Oxford University Press. Friedman, N. (1965). Three views of poetic form. College English, 26(7), 493–50. Fuller, J. (1972). The sonnet. New York: Metheun. Kennedy, R. S. (1980). Dreams in the mirror. New York: Liveright Publishing Corporation. Kennedy, R. S. (1994). E. E. Cummings: Revisited. New York: Twayne Publishers. Kidder, R. M. (1979). Cummings and cubism: The influence of the visual arts on Cummings' early poetry. Modern Literature, 7(2), 255–291. Indiana, US: Indiana University Press. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/3831211. Kidder, R. M. (1979). E. E. Cummings: An introduction to the poetry. New York: Columbia University Press. Kirsch, A. (2005). The rebellion of E. E. Cummings: The poet’s artful reaction against his father—and his alma mater’. Harvard Magazine. Retrieved from http://harvardmagazine.com/2005/03/the-rebellion-of-ee-cumm.html%20 Kleinzahler, A. (2014). Little lame balloonman. London Review of Books, 36(19), 6-8. Retrieved from http://www.lrb.co.uk/v36/n19/august-kleinzahler/little-lame-balloonman Lever, J. M. (1956). The Elizabethan love sonnet. London: Methuen. MacGowan, C. (2004). Twentieth-century American poetry. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. Muldoon, P. (2014). Capital case: The poetry of E. E. Cummings. The New Yorker. Retrieved from http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2014/03/03/capital-case Nicholson, G. (1999). Plato’s Phaedrus: The philosophy of love. United States: Purdue University Press. Oppenheimer, P. (1989). The birth of the modern mind: Self, consciousness, and the invention of the sonnet. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Plath, S. (1983). The journals of Sylvia Plath. New York: Ballantine Books. Sawyer-Lauçanno, C. (2004). E. E. Cummings: A biography. MA, United States: Methuen. Sterritt, D. (2013). The beats: A very short introduction. United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. Tal-Mason, P. B. (1968). The whole E. E. Cummings. Twentieth Century Literature, 14(2), 90-97. New York, US: Hofstra University. The prince of Patchin Palace. (2014, March). In Vanity Fair. Retrieved from http://www.vanityfair.com/culture/2014/02/e-e-cummings-susan-cheever-biography. Villa, J. G. (1956). Selected poems and new. New York: Obolensky McDowell. Warley, C. (2005). Sonnet sequences and social distinction in renaissance England. Massachusetts, US: Cambridge University Press. 
work_tr5t72prb5bppfe2js55hbip6m	----	8787 ÇAĞDAŞLARI VE ÖZGÜN ÜSLUBU İLE AMEDEO MODIGLIANI1 THE CONTEMPRORIES AND THE UNIQUE STYLE OF AMEDEO MODIGLIANI Pelin AVŞAR KARABAŞ1, Muzaffer Çağatay UMAY2 1 Dumlupınar Üniversitesi Güzel Sanatlar Fakültesi Resim Bölümü, Kütahya / Türkiye 2 Dumlupınar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Birleşik Sanatlar Anasanat Dalı, Kütahya / Türkiye Öz: Bu araştırma; 1884-1920 yılları arasında yaşa- mış Yahudi sanatçı Amedeo Modigliani’nin; özgün üslubunu yaratma sürecinde etkilendiği sanatçıları, çağdaşlarını, sanat anlayışını ve eserlerini diğer sanatçılardan ayıran temel özellikleri ele alan tara- ma modelinde bir çalışmadır. Amedeo Modigliani; Lautrec, Brancusi, Picasso, Braque ve Cezanne gibi sanatçıların eserlerinden etkilenmiş, Afrika heykelleri, Fovizm ve Kübizm’den esinlenmiş, portreleri ve nü resimleri ile tanınmıştır. Paris sanat ortamında tanınan Pablo Picasso, Wilhelm Lehmbruck, Alexander Arc- hipenko, Maurice Utrillo, Max Jacob, Jules Pascin, Moise Kisling, Chaim Soutine, Juan Gris ve Diego Rivera’nın da bulunduğu sanatçılarla aynı dönemlerle yaşamıştır. Sanatçının resimlerini diğer ressamlardan ayıran en büyük özellikler; Antik Mısır resimlerini andıran portrelerindeki uzun boyunlar, hafifçe eğilmiş uzun başlar, düşük omuzlar, kimi zaman açık kimi zamansa kapalı badem gözler ve büzülü dudaklardır. Çarpıcı bir yalınlıkla vurgular yapılan figürlerinde uyguladığı deformasyonlar ve lirik, duygusal yoğunluk ile hayranlık uyandıran kendine özgü benzersiz bir anlayışın sahibidir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Amedeo Modigliani, Modigliani Resimleri, Paris Sanatçıları, Figüratif Resim, Nü Abstract:This study is a screenig model research that discusses the contemporaries and sense of art of Amedeo Modigliani the Jewish artist who lived between 1884-1920, the artists that he was influenced within the process of creating his own unique style and the key elements that distinguishes his artwors from other artists. Amedeo Modigliani is known by portraits and nudes influenced by artist as Lautrec, Brancusi, Picasso, Braque and Cezanne and his Af- rican sculptures inspired by Fauvism and Cubism. Amedeo Modigliani lived in the same period with artists as Pablo Picasso, Wilhelm Lehmbruck, Alex- ander Archipenko, Maurice Utrillo, Max Jacob, Jules Pascin, Moise Kisling, Chaim Soutine, Juan Gris and Diego Rivera. Biggest features that differentiates his artwork are slightly bent long heads, low shoulders, sometimes open sometimes closed almond eyes, curled lips and long necks in portraits that evokes Ancient Egyptian paintings. With the deformations with a stunning simplicity in his figures and with lyrical, emotional intensity Amedeo Modigliani has an admirable, inspiring and unique sense of art. Key Words: Amedeo Modigliani, Modigliani Painting, Paris Artists, Figurative Painting, Nude (1) Sorumlu Yazar: Pelin AVŞAR KARABAŞ, Dumlupınar Üniversitesi, Güzel Sanatlar Fakültesi, Resim Bölümü Kütahya / Türkiye, pelinavsar19@hotmail.com Geliş Tarihi / Received: 13.01.2016 Kabul Tarihi/ Accepted: 17.06.2016 Makalenin Türü: Type of article (Araştırma – Uygulama / Research -Application) Çıkar Çatışması / Conflict of Interest:Yok / None“Etik Kurul Raporu Yok – None of Ethics Committee” Doi: 10.17365/TMD.20163019759 T M D ULUSLARARASI HAKEMLİ TASARIM VE MİMARLIK DERGİSİINTERNATIONAL REFEREED JOURNAL OF DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURE MTD www.mtddergisi.com ULUSLARARASI HAKEMLİ TASARIM VE MİMARLIK DERGİSİ Mayıs / Haziran / Temmuz / Ağustos 2016 Sayı: 08 Yaz Dönemi INTERNATIONAL REFEREED JOURNAL OF DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURE May / June / July / August 2016 Issue 08 Summer ID:116 K:23 ISSN Print: 2148-8142 Online: 2148-4880 (ISO 9001-2008 Belge No / Document No: 12879 & ISO 14001-2004 Belge No / Document No: 12880) (Marka Patent No / Trademark) (2015/04018 – 2015/GE/17595) 88 UHBAB www.uhbabdergisi.com Uluslararası Hakemli BeĢeri ve Akademik Bilimler Dergisi Nisan / Mayıs / Haziran Ġlkbahar Yaz Dönemi Cilt: 4 Sayı: 12 Yıl: 2015 International Peer-Reviewed Journal of Humanities and Academic Science April / May / June Spring Summer Volume: 4 Issue: 12 Year: 2015 ID:230 K:509 Jel Kodu: K34 (ISO 9001-2008 Belge No: 12879 & ISO 14001-2004 Belge No: 12880) 1 GÜMRÜK VERGĠSĠ UYUġMAZLIKLARININ ĠDARĠ AġAMADA ÇÖZÜM YOLLARI1 ADMINISTRATIVE SOLUTIONS TO DISPUTES OVER CUSTOM DUTIES Selin KILINÇ2, Hatice YURTSEVER3 2 Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Ens. Mali Hukuk Programı Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi 3 Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Salihli MYO, DıĢ Ticaret Bölümü 1 Bu çalıĢma, Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Maliye Anabilim Dalı Mali Hukuk Programı Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi Selin KILINÇ tarafından hazırlanan Yüksek Lisans Tezinden türetilmiĢtir. Özet: Gümrük vergisi, gümrüğe tabi olan ticari eşyanın yer değiştirmesi nedeniyle, bu eşyanın miktarı veya değeri üzerinden alınan, ekonomik, sosyal ve mali fonksiyonlarının yanında önemli bir dış ticaret ve ekonomi politikası aracı olan bir vergi türüdür. Aynı zamanda harcamalar üzerinden alınan dolaylı bir vergi türü olan gümrük vergisi, gelir ve kurumlar vergisi gibi belirli aralıklarla alınan bir vergi türü olmadığından, dış ticarete konu olan eşyanın gümrüğe geldiği anda bir defaya mahsus olmak üzere alınmaktadır. Gümrük vergileri, Vergi Usul Kanunu (VUK)’nun ikinci maddesine göre bu kanun kapsamı dışında tutulmuştur. Bu nedenle, gümrük vergilerinin usul ve uygulama esasları 4458 sayılı Gümrük Kanunu’nda düzenlenmiştir. Bu kanun ile dış ticarete konu olan eşyanın Türkiye Gümrük Bölgesine girişinden başlayıp, eşyaya uygulanacak işlemlerin sırasına göre bir sistematik oluşturulmuştur. Diğer tüm vergilerde olduğu gibi gümrük vergisinde de zorunlu aşamalar olan tarh, tahakkuk ve tahsil aşamaları Gümrük ve Ticaret Bakanlığı’na bağlı ayrı bir kuruluş niteliği olan Gümrükler Genel Müdürlüğü tarafından, Gümrük Kanunu hükümlerine uygun olarak yürütülmektedir. Gümrük vergisinden doğan uyuşmazlıkların çözüm süreci, diğer vergilerde oluşan süreçten farklı bir yapıya sahiptir. Gümrük vergisi uyuşmazlıkları öncelikle idari aşamada çözümlenmek zorundadır. Ancak idari aşamada çözümlenemeyen uyuşmazlıklarda yargı yoluna başvurulabilmektedir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Gümrük, Gümrük Vergisi, Gümrük Uyuşmazlıkları Abstract: Custom duty is a kind of tariff arising from the movement of commercial commodities subject to customs which is based on those commodities’quantity and value. It is are a kind of tariff that is a foreign trade and economic policy instrument in addition to its economic, social and fiscal functions. Since they are not collected on regular basis like income tax and corporate tax, as an indirect tariff on expenditures, custom duties are collected only once when commodities subject to foreign trade arrive at the custom. According to the second item of tax procedural law, custom duties are excluded from this law. Therefore, procedures and practises of custom duties are regulated by customs law numbered 4458. Through this law, a systematization has been created beginning with commodities subject to international trade entering customs territories of Turkey and continuing with operation sequence. Like all other taxes, compalsive levels such as assessment, accrual and collecting are regulated by General Directorate of Customs as a part of Customs and Economy Ministry according to Customs Law. Resolution process of disputes over customs duties has a different form from the process of other taxes. Customs duty disputes have to be resolved administratively in the first place. However, in the case of disputes not being solved administratively, legal action can be taken. Key words: Custom, Custom Duties, Custom Disputes 1.GiRiŞ 1900’lü yılların başlarında sanayinin, insanı ol- duğundan başka bir noktaya taşıması, her alanda olduğu gibi sanat alanında da düşünsel bir hare- ketin doğmasına neden olmuştur. Yenilikleri al- gılamaya çalışan insan, gördüklerini henüz özümsemeye başlamışken, başka yeniliklere tanık olmak durumunda kalmış ve algıladığı dünyanın değişimi karşısında kendi duruşunu sorgulayan bir süreç içerisine girmiştir. 20.yüzyıl insanı; sosyolojik, politik, psikolojik, mekanik gibi bir- çok yönden geçirdiği evrimlerin yanı sıra, sanat algısının da değişmesine tanıklık eder hale gel- miştir. Modernizim tohumları, 20. yy. başlarında Av- rupa’da yaşanan kapsamlı kültürel ve siyasi dönüşümün, bir önceki yüzyılın değerlerini teh- dit etmesiyle atılmıştır (Farthing,2012:444). 18. Yüzyıl sonlarında sürekli arayışlar içindeki sanat ortamı uyumlu biçim bozmaların söz konusu olduğu ifade biçimleriyle, tümüyle sanatçılara özgü kişisel bir anlam gelişmiştir (Tükel,2008:1092). 19. Yüzyıl resminde yaygın olarak tarih, mitolo- ji, din, günlük yaşam ve manzara gibi konuların betimlenmesine yer verilirken; bu dönemlerde sanatın merkezi olarak kabul edilen Paris, sayı- ları artan salonları, sanat galerileri, sergileri ve gündeme oturan sanatsal yaklaşımları ile sanat- çıların kendilerini ifade edebilmelerine, tanınma- larına ve eserlerini ortaya koymalarına olanak sağlayan bir Avrupa şehri konumundadır. Makineleşme çağının beraberinde gelen bir takım sanat hareketleri, 20.yüzyılın başlarında Fütürizm gibi mekanik çağın argümanlarından beslenen akımların doğmasına neden olmuş, hareketi eserlerine taşımaya çalışan Fütürist’ler, dönem içerisinde sanat hareketleri devam etmekte olan Kübist’ler ve renk algısını çok da derinine inme- den saf halleriyle olduğu gibi kullanmayı tercih eden Fovist’ler, klasik sanat anlayışına karşı bir duruş sergilemişlerdir. 20. Yüzyılın ilk çeyreğin- deki batı sanatı gerek primitif sanattan, gerekse mekanik çağın getirdiklerinden oldukça beslenmiş ve oldukça doğurgan bir döneme girmiştir. Empresyonizm ile kübizm arasında bir köprü oluşturan Cezanne, portreler, natürmortlar ve manzara resimleri üzerine çalışmış ve özellikle doğayı taklit etmekten öteye gitmek istemiştir. Figüratif resimlerinde bu amaçtan uzaklaşmış gibi görünse de, aslında Cezanne’ın yapıtları, zihinsel bir görünüşün ürünü yani “saf resmi”dir. Bu bakımdan sanat, pek çok yönüyle, Cezanne sayesinde fikirlerin doğasına yaklaşmıştır (Borg- hesi,2000:78). 1900’lü yılların başlarında, Henri Matisse tara- fından geliştirilen, en önemli özelliği tüpten çıkmış gibi çiğ ve bağıran renklerin doğrudan kullanımı olan Fovist’ler, eserlerinde doğalcı olmayan renkleri vurgulamaları ve kaba sayıla- bilecek fırça darbelerini kullanmaları sebebiyle önceleri tepkilerle karşılanmış ancak zamanla çağdaş akımların öncüleri olarak nitelendirilmiş- lerdir. Fovist’ler, izlenimcilerin salt görsel algı- MTD www.mtddergisi.com ULUSLARARASI HAKEMLİ TASARIM VE MİMARLIK DERGİSİ Mayıs / Haziran / Temmuz / Ağustos 2016 Sayı: 08 Yaz Dönemi INTERNATIONAL REFEREED JOURNAL OF DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURE May / June / July / August 2016 Issue 08 Summer ID:116 K:23 ISSN Print: 2148-8142 Online: 2148-4880 (ISO 9001-2008 Belge No / Document No: 12879 & ISO 14001-2004 Belge No / Document No: 12880) (Marka Patent No / Trademark) (2015/04018 – 2015/GE/17595) 89 UHBAB www.uhbabdergisi.com Uluslararası Hakemli BeĢeri ve Akademik Bilimler Dergisi Nisan / Mayıs / Haziran Ġlkbahar Yaz Dönemi Cilt: 4 Sayı: 12 Yıl: 2015 International Peer-Reviewed Journal of Humanities and Academic Science April / May / June Spring Summer Volume: 4 Issue: 12 Year: 2015 ID:230 K:509 Jel Kodu: K34 (ISO 9001-2008 Belge No: 12879 & ISO 14001-2004 Belge No: 12880) 1 GÜMRÜK VERGĠSĠ UYUġMAZLIKLARININ ĠDARĠ AġAMADA ÇÖZÜM YOLLARI1 ADMINISTRATIVE SOLUTIONS TO DISPUTES OVER CUSTOM DUTIES Selin KILINÇ2, Hatice YURTSEVER3 2 Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Ens. Mali Hukuk Programı Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi 3 Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Salihli MYO, DıĢ Ticaret Bölümü 1 Bu çalıĢma, Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Maliye Anabilim Dalı Mali Hukuk Programı Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi Selin KILINÇ tarafından hazırlanan Yüksek Lisans Tezinden türetilmiĢtir. Özet: Gümrük vergisi, gümrüğe tabi olan ticari eşyanın yer değiştirmesi nedeniyle, bu eşyanın miktarı veya değeri üzerinden alınan, ekonomik, sosyal ve mali fonksiyonlarının yanında önemli bir dış ticaret ve ekonomi politikası aracı olan bir vergi türüdür. Aynı zamanda harcamalar üzerinden alınan dolaylı bir vergi türü olan gümrük vergisi, gelir ve kurumlar vergisi gibi belirli aralıklarla alınan bir vergi türü olmadığından, dış ticarete konu olan eşyanın gümrüğe geldiği anda bir defaya mahsus olmak üzere alınmaktadır. Gümrük vergileri, Vergi Usul Kanunu (VUK)’nun ikinci maddesine göre bu kanun kapsamı dışında tutulmuştur. Bu nedenle, gümrük vergilerinin usul ve uygulama esasları 4458 sayılı Gümrük Kanunu’nda düzenlenmiştir. Bu kanun ile dış ticarete konu olan eşyanın Türkiye Gümrük Bölgesine girişinden başlayıp, eşyaya uygulanacak işlemlerin sırasına göre bir sistematik oluşturulmuştur. Diğer tüm vergilerde olduğu gibi gümrük vergisinde de zorunlu aşamalar olan tarh, tahakkuk ve tahsil aşamaları Gümrük ve Ticaret Bakanlığı’na bağlı ayrı bir kuruluş niteliği olan Gümrükler Genel Müdürlüğü tarafından, Gümrük Kanunu hükümlerine uygun olarak yürütülmektedir. Gümrük vergisinden doğan uyuşmazlıkların çözüm süreci, diğer vergilerde oluşan süreçten farklı bir yapıya sahiptir. Gümrük vergisi uyuşmazlıkları öncelikle idari aşamada çözümlenmek zorundadır. Ancak idari aşamada çözümlenemeyen uyuşmazlıklarda yargı yoluna başvurulabilmektedir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Gümrük, Gümrük Vergisi, Gümrük Uyuşmazlıkları Abstract: Custom duty is a kind of tariff arising from the movement of commercial commodities subject to customs which is based on those commodities’quantity and value. It is are a kind of tariff that is a foreign trade and economic policy instrument in addition to its economic, social and fiscal functions. Since they are not collected on regular basis like income tax and corporate tax, as an indirect tariff on expenditures, custom duties are collected only once when commodities subject to foreign trade arrive at the custom. According to the second item of tax procedural law, custom duties are excluded from this law. Therefore, procedures and practises of custom duties are regulated by customs law numbered 4458. Through this law, a systematization has been created beginning with commodities subject to international trade entering customs territories of Turkey and continuing with operation sequence. Like all other taxes, compalsive levels such as assessment, accrual and collecting are regulated by General Directorate of Customs as a part of Customs and Economy Ministry according to Customs Law. Resolution process of disputes over customs duties has a different form from the process of other taxes. Customs duty disputes have to be resolved administratively in the first place. However, in the case of disputes not being solved administratively, legal action can be taken. Key words: Custom, Custom Duties, Custom Disputes lamalarını tuvale aktarmalarına karşı çıkarak, gözlenenin, kişinin görme duyusunun yanı sıra tüm duygularını da etkilediğini ve aslında tuva- le yansıması gerekenin de bu duygular olduğunu ileri sürmüşlerdir (Rona,2008:536). 20. Yüzyıl sanatının temel taşı olan Van Gogh, Fovizm’in il- ham kaynaklarından birisi olduğu gibi, Ekspres- yonizm’inde öncülerindendir. Sanatsal anlatımdaki bu değişimlerin devamında 19. yüzyıla damgasını vuran bir başka akım; duyguların ön plana çıkarıldığı, doğanın olduğu gibi temsilini reddeden Ekspresyonizm olarak dikkat çekmektedir. Ekspresyonizm, sanatçıları- nın iç dünyalarını çizgi, renk, biçim gibi betim- leyici öğelerle duyguları yansıtmayı temel felse- fe olarak edinmiş ve gerçeğin biçimini bozmaya yönelmiştir. 20.yüzyılın en önemli sanat akımlarından biri olarak bilinen, 1907-1914 yıllarında Pablo Pi- casso ve Georges Braque’ın resimleriyle ortaya çıkan Kübizm, Cezanne’ın ifadesi ile doğada var olan her şeyin küreye, koniye ve silindire göre biçimlenmesi fikri ile ortaya koyulmuştur (Gomb- rich,1997:544). Kompozisyonlarda yer alan öğelerin aynı anda birçok açıdan birden resme- dilmesi anlayışı ile bütünleşen bu akım, modern sanatın oluşumunda ayrıcalıklı bir yere sahiptir. Kübizm’den beslenerek ortaya çıkan Fütürizm akımı ise çağın hareket, hız, enerji ve dinamiz- mine gönderme yapmış ve doğaya çok farklı bir bakış açısı kazandırmıştır. Bütün modern akımlar, modern dünyanın geç- mişten bütünüyle farklı olduğunu ve sanatın kendi modernliğiyle yüzleşerek ve keşfederek kendini yenilemesi gerektiği duygusunu paylaş- mışlardır. Bazıları için bu, ilkel olanı (Primitivizm) endüstrinin yarattıklarına tercih etmek, bazıları için ise teknoloji ve makineleşmenin (Gelecek- çilik) yüceltilmesi anlamına gelmiştir. 19. Yüz- yılda ortaya genel olarak sanatçının kendi bakış açısını bulması çabalarıyla ilerleyen modern akımlar birbirleriyle sanatın duyguları ve zihin durumlarını (Dışavurumculuk), ruhsal düzeni (Yeni Plastikçilik), toplumsal işlevi (Yapısalcılık), bilinçaltını (Gerçeküstücülük), temsilin doğasını (Kübizm), burjuva toplum içerisindeki toplumsal rolünü (Dadacılık) araştırılması konusunda mü- cadeleye girmişlerdir. Bu gibi etkenler ile sanat giderek ister özel türde bir gerçeği (Gelecekcilik), isterse de evrensel gerçeği (Süprematizm) keş- fetmenin aracı durumuna gelmiştir (Little,2007,98) 2. AMEDEO MODİGLİANİ’NİN ETKİLEN- DİĞİ SANATÇILAR Sanat ortamlarında böylesine büyük gelişmelerin yaşandığı bir dönemlerde 1884 yılında İtalya’da dünyaya gelen Yahudi kökenli ressam Amedeo Modigliani; Roma, Fransa ve Venedik’te aldığı akademik eğitiminin ardından 1906 yılında Paris’e yerleşmiştir. Zamanının büyük çoğunluğunu sanat ortamının yoğun olduğu kahve ve gece kulüplerinde geçirmiş, dışavurumcu anlayıştaki sanatçılarla arkadaşlık etmiş ve 1910 yılında Bağımsızlar Salonu’nda (Salondes Indapendants) MTD www.mtddergisi.com ULUSLARARASI HAKEMLİ TASARIM VE MİMARLIK DERGİSİ Mayıs / Haziran / Temmuz / Ağustos 2016 Sayı: 08 Yaz Dönemi INTERNATIONAL REFEREED JOURNAL OF DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURE May / June / July / August 2016 Issue 08 Summer ID:116 K:23 ISSN Print: 2148-8142 Online: 2148-4880 (ISO 9001-2008 Belge No / Document No: 12879 & ISO 14001-2004 Belge No / Document No: 12880) (Marka Patent No / Trademark) (2015/04018 – 2015/GE/17595) 90 UHBAB www.uhbabdergisi.com Uluslararası Hakemli BeĢeri ve Akademik Bilimler Dergisi Nisan / Mayıs / Haziran Ġlkbahar Yaz Dönemi Cilt: 4 Sayı: 12 Yıl: 2015 International Peer-Reviewed Journal of Humanities and Academic Science April / May / June Spring Summer Volume: 4 Issue: 12 Year: 2015 ID:230 K:509 Jel Kodu: K34 (ISO 9001-2008 Belge No: 12879 & ISO 14001-2004 Belge No: 12880) 1 GÜMRÜK VERGĠSĠ UYUġMAZLIKLARININ ĠDARĠ AġAMADA ÇÖZÜM YOLLARI1 ADMINISTRATIVE SOLUTIONS TO DISPUTES OVER CUSTOM DUTIES Selin KILINÇ2, Hatice YURTSEVER3 2 Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Ens. Mali Hukuk Programı Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi 3 Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Salihli MYO, DıĢ Ticaret Bölümü 1 Bu çalıĢma, Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Maliye Anabilim Dalı Mali Hukuk Programı Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi Selin KILINÇ tarafından hazırlanan Yüksek Lisans Tezinden türetilmiĢtir. Özet: Gümrük vergisi, gümrüğe tabi olan ticari eşyanın yer değiştirmesi nedeniyle, bu eşyanın miktarı veya değeri üzerinden alınan, ekonomik, sosyal ve mali fonksiyonlarının yanında önemli bir dış ticaret ve ekonomi politikası aracı olan bir vergi türüdür. Aynı zamanda harcamalar üzerinden alınan dolaylı bir vergi türü olan gümrük vergisi, gelir ve kurumlar vergisi gibi belirli aralıklarla alınan bir vergi türü olmadığından, dış ticarete konu olan eşyanın gümrüğe geldiği anda bir defaya mahsus olmak üzere alınmaktadır. Gümrük vergileri, Vergi Usul Kanunu (VUK)’nun ikinci maddesine göre bu kanun kapsamı dışında tutulmuştur. Bu nedenle, gümrük vergilerinin usul ve uygulama esasları 4458 sayılı Gümrük Kanunu’nda düzenlenmiştir. Bu kanun ile dış ticarete konu olan eşyanın Türkiye Gümrük Bölgesine girişinden başlayıp, eşyaya uygulanacak işlemlerin sırasına göre bir sistematik oluşturulmuştur. Diğer tüm vergilerde olduğu gibi gümrük vergisinde de zorunlu aşamalar olan tarh, tahakkuk ve tahsil aşamaları Gümrük ve Ticaret Bakanlığı’na bağlı ayrı bir kuruluş niteliği olan Gümrükler Genel Müdürlüğü tarafından, Gümrük Kanunu hükümlerine uygun olarak yürütülmektedir. Gümrük vergisinden doğan uyuşmazlıkların çözüm süreci, diğer vergilerde oluşan süreçten farklı bir yapıya sahiptir. Gümrük vergisi uyuşmazlıkları öncelikle idari aşamada çözümlenmek zorundadır. Ancak idari aşamada çözümlenemeyen uyuşmazlıklarda yargı yoluna başvurulabilmektedir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Gümrük, Gümrük Vergisi, Gümrük Uyuşmazlıkları Abstract: Custom duty is a kind of tariff arising from the movement of commercial commodities subject to customs which is based on those commodities’quantity and value. It is are a kind of tariff that is a foreign trade and economic policy instrument in addition to its economic, social and fiscal functions. Since they are not collected on regular basis like income tax and corporate tax, as an indirect tariff on expenditures, custom duties are collected only once when commodities subject to foreign trade arrive at the custom. According to the second item of tax procedural law, custom duties are excluded from this law. Therefore, procedures and practises of custom duties are regulated by customs law numbered 4458. Through this law, a systematization has been created beginning with commodities subject to international trade entering customs territories of Turkey and continuing with operation sequence. Like all other taxes, compalsive levels such as assessment, accrual and collecting are regulated by General Directorate of Customs as a part of Customs and Economy Ministry according to Customs Law. Resolution process of disputes over customs duties has a different form from the process of other taxes. Customs duty disputes have to be resolved administratively in the first place. However, in the case of disputes not being solved administratively, legal action can be taken. Key words: Custom, Custom Duties, Custom Disputes sergilenen eserleriyle ismini duyurmaya başla- mıştır. (Tükel,2008:1092). Modigliani’nin ilk olarak heykellerine bakıldı- ğında, sanatçının Afrika İlkel Sanatı örneklerin- den etkilendiği görülür (Hollingsworth,2009:445). İleri dönemlerde resimlerine de taşıdığı ve son- rasında ürettiği tüm eserlere yansıttığı bu ilkel esinin kaynağı olan Klasik Afrika Sanatı’nın izleri; Afrika masklarında da olduğu gibi uzatma ile yapılan deformasyonlar, ince yüz hatları ve çukur gözler gibi detaylar ile ön plana çıkmış ve sanatçının karakteristik anlatım dili halini almış- tır. Resim 1. Afrika Mask Örnekleri Modigliani’nin ürettiği tüm heykellerin 1911-1912 yıllarına tarihlendiği bilinmekle birlikte, 1912 yılındaki İtalya gezisinde çalışmalarının bir kıs- mını yok ettiği de söylenmektedir. Sanatçının günümüze kadar sağlam kalan 23 tane taş büst ve 2 tane tam boy figür heykelleri bulunmakta- dır (Özükan,2007:20). Afrika mask örneklerinde görülen stilizasyonun biçim bozmalarını, kendi taş oyma heykellerinde yeniden canlandıran sanatçı; İlkel Afrika Sanatı’nı, Modern Avrupa Sanatı ile bütünleştirmekte büyük bir ustalık göstermiş ve bu yöndeki deformasyon eğilimini geliştirilerek eşsiz üslubunu yaratmayı başarmış- tır. Sanatçının daha sonraları sıklıkla üzerine durduğu portre çalışmalarında ise heykellerinde yakaladığı bu üslubun etkileri bariz şekilde gö- rülmektedir. MTD www.mtddergisi.com ULUSLARARASI HAKEMLİ TASARIM VE MİMARLIK DERGİSİ Mayıs / Haziran / Temmuz / Ağustos 2016 Sayı: 08 Yaz Dönemi INTERNATIONAL REFEREED JOURNAL OF DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURE May / June / July / August 2016 Issue 08 Summer ID:116 K:23 ISSN Print: 2148-8142 Online: 2148-4880 (ISO 9001-2008 Belge No / Document No: 12879 & ISO 14001-2004 Belge No / Document No: 12880) (Marka Patent No / Trademark) (2015/04018 – 2015/GE/17595) 91 UHBAB www.uhbabdergisi.com Uluslararası Hakemli BeĢeri ve Akademik Bilimler Dergisi Nisan / Mayıs / Haziran Ġlkbahar Yaz Dönemi Cilt: 4 Sayı: 12 Yıl: 2015 International Peer-Reviewed Journal of Humanities and Academic Science April / May / June Spring Summer Volume: 4 Issue: 12 Year: 2015 ID:230 K:509 Jel Kodu: K34 (ISO 9001-2008 Belge No: 12879 & ISO 14001-2004 Belge No: 12880) 1 GÜMRÜK VERGĠSĠ UYUġMAZLIKLARININ ĠDARĠ AġAMADA ÇÖZÜM YOLLARI1 ADMINISTRATIVE SOLUTIONS TO DISPUTES OVER CUSTOM DUTIES Selin KILINÇ2, Hatice YURTSEVER3 2 Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Ens. Mali Hukuk Programı Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi 3 Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Salihli MYO, DıĢ Ticaret Bölümü 1 Bu çalıĢma, Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Maliye Anabilim Dalı Mali Hukuk Programı Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi Selin KILINÇ tarafından hazırlanan Yüksek Lisans Tezinden türetilmiĢtir. Özet: Gümrük vergisi, gümrüğe tabi olan ticari eşyanın yer değiştirmesi nedeniyle, bu eşyanın miktarı veya değeri üzerinden alınan, ekonomik, sosyal ve mali fonksiyonlarının yanında önemli bir dış ticaret ve ekonomi politikası aracı olan bir vergi türüdür. Aynı zamanda harcamalar üzerinden alınan dolaylı bir vergi türü olan gümrük vergisi, gelir ve kurumlar vergisi gibi belirli aralıklarla alınan bir vergi türü olmadığından, dış ticarete konu olan eşyanın gümrüğe geldiği anda bir defaya mahsus olmak üzere alınmaktadır. Gümrük vergileri, Vergi Usul Kanunu (VUK)’nun ikinci maddesine göre bu kanun kapsamı dışında tutulmuştur. Bu nedenle, gümrük vergilerinin usul ve uygulama esasları 4458 sayılı Gümrük Kanunu’nda düzenlenmiştir. Bu kanun ile dış ticarete konu olan eşyanın Türkiye Gümrük Bölgesine girişinden başlayıp, eşyaya uygulanacak işlemlerin sırasına göre bir sistematik oluşturulmuştur. Diğer tüm vergilerde olduğu gibi gümrük vergisinde de zorunlu aşamalar olan tarh, tahakkuk ve tahsil aşamaları Gümrük ve Ticaret Bakanlığı’na bağlı ayrı bir kuruluş niteliği olan Gümrükler Genel Müdürlüğü tarafından, Gümrük Kanunu hükümlerine uygun olarak yürütülmektedir. Gümrük vergisinden doğan uyuşmazlıkların çözüm süreci, diğer vergilerde oluşan süreçten farklı bir yapıya sahiptir. Gümrük vergisi uyuşmazlıkları öncelikle idari aşamada çözümlenmek zorundadır. Ancak idari aşamada çözümlenemeyen uyuşmazlıklarda yargı yoluna başvurulabilmektedir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Gümrük, Gümrük Vergisi, Gümrük Uyuşmazlıkları Abstract: Custom duty is a kind of tariff arising from the movement of commercial commodities subject to customs which is based on those commodities’quantity and value. It is are a kind of tariff that is a foreign trade and economic policy instrument in addition to its economic, social and fiscal functions. Since they are not collected on regular basis like income tax and corporate tax, as an indirect tariff on expenditures, custom duties are collected only once when commodities subject to foreign trade arrive at the custom. According to the second item of tax procedural law, custom duties are excluded from this law. Therefore, procedures and practises of custom duties are regulated by customs law numbered 4458. Through this law, a systematization has been created beginning with commodities subject to international trade entering customs territories of Turkey and continuing with operation sequence. Like all other taxes, compalsive levels such as assessment, accrual and collecting are regulated by General Directorate of Customs as a part of Customs and Economy Ministry according to Customs Law. Resolution process of disputes over customs duties has a different form from the process of other taxes. Customs duty disputes have to be resolved administratively in the first place. However, in the case of disputes not being solved administratively, legal action can be taken. Key words: Custom, Custom Duties, Custom Disputes Resim 2. Amedeo Modigliani, Büst Önekleri, Kireçtaşı, 1911-12 Heykele duyduğu ilginin Constantin Brancuşi ile tanışması ile ortaya çıktığı bilinen sanatçı; hem satışların az olması, hem de taş tozunun ciğerlerini rahatsız etmesi sebebiyle bir süre sonra heykel yapmaktan uzaklaşmış ve kariye- rine resim çalışmalarında yoğunlaşarak devam etmeyi tercih etmiştir (McGinity,2012:375). Amedeo Modigliani’nin yontuya yönelmesinde büyük katkıları olan Brancuşi (1876-1957), do- ğalcı anlayışın egemen olduğu eserler üretmiş, soyuta yaklaşan heykellerinde bile bu anlayıştan uzaklaşmamıştır. Auguste Rodin’in atölyesine çalışmak üzere davet edilen Brancuşi; ‘’Gerçek olan nesnelerin dış görünüşü değil, özüdür.’’ felsefesiyle Rodin’in doğalcı etkisinde heykeller denemiş olmasına rağmen, nesnelerin özünü yakalamak adına ileri dönem eserlerinde soyut heykeller üretmeye yönelmiştir (İnankur,2008:260). Resim 3. Constantin Brancuşi, Uyku, 1909- 1910 MTD www.mtddergisi.com ULUSLARARASI HAKEMLİ TASARIM VE MİMARLIK DERGİSİ Mayıs / Haziran / Temmuz / Ağustos 2016 Sayı: 08 Yaz Dönemi INTERNATIONAL REFEREED JOURNAL OF DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURE May / June / July / August 2016 Issue 08 Summer ID:116 K:23 ISSN Print: 2148-8142 Online: 2148-4880 (ISO 9001-2008 Belge No / Document No: 12879 & ISO 14001-2004 Belge No / Document No: 12880) (Marka Patent No / Trademark) (2015/04018 – 2015/GE/17595) 92 UHBAB www.uhbabdergisi.com Uluslararası Hakemli BeĢeri ve Akademik Bilimler Dergisi Nisan / Mayıs / Haziran Ġlkbahar Yaz Dönemi Cilt: 4 Sayı: 12 Yıl: 2015 International Peer-Reviewed Journal of Humanities and Academic Science April / May / June Spring Summer Volume: 4 Issue: 12 Year: 2015 ID:230 K:509 Jel Kodu: K34 (ISO 9001-2008 Belge No: 12879 & ISO 14001-2004 Belge No: 12880) 1 GÜMRÜK VERGĠSĠ UYUġMAZLIKLARININ ĠDARĠ AġAMADA ÇÖZÜM YOLLARI1 ADMINISTRATIVE SOLUTIONS TO DISPUTES OVER CUSTOM DUTIES Selin KILINÇ2, Hatice YURTSEVER3 2 Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Ens. Mali Hukuk Programı Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi 3 Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Salihli MYO, DıĢ Ticaret Bölümü 1 Bu çalıĢma, Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Maliye Anabilim Dalı Mali Hukuk Programı Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi Selin KILINÇ tarafından hazırlanan Yüksek Lisans Tezinden türetilmiĢtir. Özet: Gümrük vergisi, gümrüğe tabi olan ticari eşyanın yer değiştirmesi nedeniyle, bu eşyanın miktarı veya değeri üzerinden alınan, ekonomik, sosyal ve mali fonksiyonlarının yanında önemli bir dış ticaret ve ekonomi politikası aracı olan bir vergi türüdür. Aynı zamanda harcamalar üzerinden alınan dolaylı bir vergi türü olan gümrük vergisi, gelir ve kurumlar vergisi gibi belirli aralıklarla alınan bir vergi türü olmadığından, dış ticarete konu olan eşyanın gümrüğe geldiği anda bir defaya mahsus olmak üzere alınmaktadır. Gümrük vergileri, Vergi Usul Kanunu (VUK)’nun ikinci maddesine göre bu kanun kapsamı dışında tutulmuştur. Bu nedenle, gümrük vergilerinin usul ve uygulama esasları 4458 sayılı Gümrük Kanunu’nda düzenlenmiştir. Bu kanun ile dış ticarete konu olan eşyanın Türkiye Gümrük Bölgesine girişinden başlayıp, eşyaya uygulanacak işlemlerin sırasına göre bir sistematik oluşturulmuştur. Diğer tüm vergilerde olduğu gibi gümrük vergisinde de zorunlu aşamalar olan tarh, tahakkuk ve tahsil aşamaları Gümrük ve Ticaret Bakanlığı’na bağlı ayrı bir kuruluş niteliği olan Gümrükler Genel Müdürlüğü tarafından, Gümrük Kanunu hükümlerine uygun olarak yürütülmektedir. Gümrük vergisinden doğan uyuşmazlıkların çözüm süreci, diğer vergilerde oluşan süreçten farklı bir yapıya sahiptir. Gümrük vergisi uyuşmazlıkları öncelikle idari aşamada çözümlenmek zorundadır. Ancak idari aşamada çözümlenemeyen uyuşmazlıklarda yargı yoluna başvurulabilmektedir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Gümrük, Gümrük Vergisi, Gümrük Uyuşmazlıkları Abstract: Custom duty is a kind of tariff arising from the movement of commercial commodities subject to customs which is based on those commodities’quantity and value. It is are a kind of tariff that is a foreign trade and economic policy instrument in addition to its economic, social and fiscal functions. Since they are not collected on regular basis like income tax and corporate tax, as an indirect tariff on expenditures, custom duties are collected only once when commodities subject to foreign trade arrive at the custom. According to the second item of tax procedural law, custom duties are excluded from this law. Therefore, procedures and practises of custom duties are regulated by customs law numbered 4458. Through this law, a systematization has been created beginning with commodities subject to international trade entering customs territories of Turkey and continuing with operation sequence. Like all other taxes, compalsive levels such as assessment, accrual and collecting are regulated by General Directorate of Customs as a part of Customs and Economy Ministry according to Customs Law. Resolution process of disputes over customs duties has a different form from the process of other taxes. Customs duty disputes have to be resolved administratively in the first place. However, in the case of disputes not being solved administratively, legal action can be taken. Key words: Custom, Custom Duties, Custom Disputes Resim 4. Constantin Brancuşi, Öpücük, 1916 Modigliani ile arkadaşlığı olduğu bilinen;1881-1919 yılları arasında yaşamış dışavurumculuk akımının heykel dalındaki en önemli temsilcilerinden olan Wilhelm Lehmbruck,1905’te kazandığı çeşitli heykel ödülleriyle İtalya’ya gitmiş, 1910-1914 yılları arasında İtalya’da yaşamış, klasik doğalcı heykellere hayran olmasına karşın dışavurumcu heykeller üretmiş dönemin ünlü sanatçılarından- dır (Kür,2008:944). Resim 5. Wilhelm Lehmbruck, Dansçı, 1913 Alexander Archipenko (1887-1964) Modigliani ile aynı yıllarda Paris ortamında yaşayan bir başka sanatçıdır. Pablo Picasso, Georges Braque ve Amedeo Modigliani gibi avangard sanatçılar ile aynı ortamlarda bulundukları bilinir. Kübizm’den etkilendiği düşünülen sanatçının figüratif anlatım biçimlerinin yoğun olduğu heykellerinin ileri dönem örneklerinde, Brancuşi gibi soyutlamaya yönelerek bir değişim gösterdiği, bunun yanı sıra eserlerinde dekoratif etkilere de yer verdiği göz- lenmektedir. MTD www.mtddergisi.com ULUSLARARASI HAKEMLİ TASARIM VE MİMARLIK DERGİSİ Mayıs / Haziran / Temmuz / Ağustos 2016 Sayı: 08 Yaz Dönemi INTERNATIONAL REFEREED JOURNAL OF DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURE May / June / July / August 2016 Issue 08 Summer ID:116 K:23 ISSN Print: 2148-8142 Online: 2148-4880 (ISO 9001-2008 Belge No / Document No: 12879 & ISO 14001-2004 Belge No / Document No: 12880) (Marka Patent No / Trademark) (2015/04018 – 2015/GE/17595) 93 UHBAB www.uhbabdergisi.com Uluslararası Hakemli BeĢeri ve Akademik Bilimler Dergisi Nisan / Mayıs / Haziran Ġlkbahar Yaz Dönemi Cilt: 4 Sayı: 12 Yıl: 2015 International Peer-Reviewed Journal of Humanities and Academic Science April / May / June Spring Summer Volume: 4 Issue: 12 Year: 2015 ID:230 K:509 Jel Kodu: K34 (ISO 9001-2008 Belge No: 12879 & ISO 14001-2004 Belge No: 12880) 1 GÜMRÜK VERGĠSĠ UYUġMAZLIKLARININ ĠDARĠ AġAMADA ÇÖZÜM YOLLARI1 ADMINISTRATIVE SOLUTIONS TO DISPUTES OVER CUSTOM DUTIES Selin KILINÇ2, Hatice YURTSEVER3 2 Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Ens. Mali Hukuk Programı Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi 3 Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Salihli MYO, DıĢ Ticaret Bölümü 1 Bu çalıĢma, Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Maliye Anabilim Dalı Mali Hukuk Programı Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi Selin KILINÇ tarafından hazırlanan Yüksek Lisans Tezinden türetilmiĢtir. Özet: Gümrük vergisi, gümrüğe tabi olan ticari eşyanın yer değiştirmesi nedeniyle, bu eşyanın miktarı veya değeri üzerinden alınan, ekonomik, sosyal ve mali fonksiyonlarının yanında önemli bir dış ticaret ve ekonomi politikası aracı olan bir vergi türüdür. Aynı zamanda harcamalar üzerinden alınan dolaylı bir vergi türü olan gümrük vergisi, gelir ve kurumlar vergisi gibi belirli aralıklarla alınan bir vergi türü olmadığından, dış ticarete konu olan eşyanın gümrüğe geldiği anda bir defaya mahsus olmak üzere alınmaktadır. Gümrük vergileri, Vergi Usul Kanunu (VUK)’nun ikinci maddesine göre bu kanun kapsamı dışında tutulmuştur. Bu nedenle, gümrük vergilerinin usul ve uygulama esasları 4458 sayılı Gümrük Kanunu’nda düzenlenmiştir. Bu kanun ile dış ticarete konu olan eşyanın Türkiye Gümrük Bölgesine girişinden başlayıp, eşyaya uygulanacak işlemlerin sırasına göre bir sistematik oluşturulmuştur. Diğer tüm vergilerde olduğu gibi gümrük vergisinde de zorunlu aşamalar olan tarh, tahakkuk ve tahsil aşamaları Gümrük ve Ticaret Bakanlığı’na bağlı ayrı bir kuruluş niteliği olan Gümrükler Genel Müdürlüğü tarafından, Gümrük Kanunu hükümlerine uygun olarak yürütülmektedir. Gümrük vergisinden doğan uyuşmazlıkların çözüm süreci, diğer vergilerde oluşan süreçten farklı bir yapıya sahiptir. Gümrük vergisi uyuşmazlıkları öncelikle idari aşamada çözümlenmek zorundadır. Ancak idari aşamada çözümlenemeyen uyuşmazlıklarda yargı yoluna başvurulabilmektedir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Gümrük, Gümrük Vergisi, Gümrük Uyuşmazlıkları Abstract: Custom duty is a kind of tariff arising from the movement of commercial commodities subject to customs which is based on those commodities’quantity and value. It is are a kind of tariff that is a foreign trade and economic policy instrument in addition to its economic, social and fiscal functions. Since they are not collected on regular basis like income tax and corporate tax, as an indirect tariff on expenditures, custom duties are collected only once when commodities subject to foreign trade arrive at the custom. According to the second item of tax procedural law, custom duties are excluded from this law. Therefore, procedures and practises of custom duties are regulated by customs law numbered 4458. Through this law, a systematization has been created beginning with commodities subject to international trade entering customs territories of Turkey and continuing with operation sequence. Like all other taxes, compalsive levels such as assessment, accrual and collecting are regulated by General Directorate of Customs as a part of Customs and Economy Ministry according to Customs Law. Resolution process of disputes over customs duties has a different form from the process of other taxes. Customs duty disputes have to be resolved administratively in the first place. However, in the case of disputes not being solved administratively, legal action can be taken. Key words: Custom, Custom Duties, Custom Disputes Resim 6. Alexander Archipenko, Oturan Siyah Tors, 1909 Modigliani’nin ilk artistik izlenimlerini Sandro Botticelli ve doğum yeri olan Livorno’ya yakın bir konumda bulunan Siena’daki sanatçılardan edindiği düşünülür (Turani,2010,40). “İlkbahar” (Resim 7.) ve “Venüs’ün Doğuşu” (Resim 8.) gibi başyapıtlarıyla tanınan Botticelli, Rönesans dönemi ressamlarındandır. Eserlerinde yer alan figürler, neredeyse parmak uçları ile zemine basar. Ortamda çalan hafif bir müziğin esintisi ile ince kıyafetleri uçuşmaktaymış hissi veren figürleri oldukça zarif ve narin olmakla birlikte tiyatral bir duruş ve kırılgan bir tavır sergilerler. Eller bayanların zarafetlerini yansıtacak şekiller- de hareketlendirilmiş, her iki resimde de başlar hafif bükülerek resmedilmiştir. Resim 8.’deki Venüs’ün uzun boynu, düşük omuzları, yüzün- deki belli belirsiz tebessüm ile Resim 7.’deki Flora’nın kolların hareketleri ve ¾ lük görüş yönü Modigliani’nin resimlerindeki figürlerin duruşlarındaki temel yapılarla benzeşmektedir. Resim 7. Sandro Botticelli, İlkbahar, 1477- 1482, 203 cm. x 314 cm., Tempera, Uffizi Müzesi, Floransa Resim 8. Sandro Botticelli, Venüs’ün Doğu- şu, 1482-1486, 172.5 x 278.5 cm., Tuval Üze- rine Tempera, Uffizi Müzesi, Floransa Modigliani’nin yaklaşık olarak 1910’dan önceki yıllara rastlayan erken dönem resimlerine bakıl- dığında, dışavurumcu etkiler görülmektedir. Sanatçının 1908 tarihli “Yahudi” isimli resmi (Resim 9.), ilk etapta kadının portresinde yoğun MTD www.mtddergisi.com ULUSLARARASI HAKEMLİ TASARIM VE MİMARLIK DERGİSİ Mayıs / Haziran / Temmuz / Ağustos 2016 Sayı: 08 Yaz Dönemi INTERNATIONAL REFEREED JOURNAL OF DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURE May / June / July / August 2016 Issue 08 Summer ID:116 K:23 ISSN Print: 2148-8142 Online: 2148-4880 (ISO 9001-2008 Belge No / Document No: 12879 & ISO 14001-2004 Belge No / Document No: 12880) (Marka Patent No / Trademark) (2015/04018 – 2015/GE/17595) 94 UHBAB www.uhbabdergisi.com Uluslararası Hakemli BeĢeri ve Akademik Bilimler Dergisi Nisan / Mayıs / Haziran Ġlkbahar Yaz Dönemi Cilt: 4 Sayı: 12 Yıl: 2015 International Peer-Reviewed Journal of Humanities and Academic Science April / May / June Spring Summer Volume: 4 Issue: 12 Year: 2015 ID:230 K:509 Jel Kodu: K34 (ISO 9001-2008 Belge No: 12879 & ISO 14001-2004 Belge No: 12880) 1 GÜMRÜK VERGĠSĠ UYUġMAZLIKLARININ ĠDARĠ AġAMADA ÇÖZÜM YOLLARI1 ADMINISTRATIVE SOLUTIONS TO DISPUTES OVER CUSTOM DUTIES Selin KILINÇ2, Hatice YURTSEVER3 2 Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Ens. Mali Hukuk Programı Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi 3 Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Salihli MYO, DıĢ Ticaret Bölümü 1 Bu çalıĢma, Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Maliye Anabilim Dalı Mali Hukuk Programı Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi Selin KILINÇ tarafından hazırlanan Yüksek Lisans Tezinden türetilmiĢtir. Özet: Gümrük vergisi, gümrüğe tabi olan ticari eşyanın yer değiştirmesi nedeniyle, bu eşyanın miktarı veya değeri üzerinden alınan, ekonomik, sosyal ve mali fonksiyonlarının yanında önemli bir dış ticaret ve ekonomi politikası aracı olan bir vergi türüdür. Aynı zamanda harcamalar üzerinden alınan dolaylı bir vergi türü olan gümrük vergisi, gelir ve kurumlar vergisi gibi belirli aralıklarla alınan bir vergi türü olmadığından, dış ticarete konu olan eşyanın gümrüğe geldiği anda bir defaya mahsus olmak üzere alınmaktadır. Gümrük vergileri, Vergi Usul Kanunu (VUK)’nun ikinci maddesine göre bu kanun kapsamı dışında tutulmuştur. Bu nedenle, gümrük vergilerinin usul ve uygulama esasları 4458 sayılı Gümrük Kanunu’nda düzenlenmiştir. Bu kanun ile dış ticarete konu olan eşyanın Türkiye Gümrük Bölgesine girişinden başlayıp, eşyaya uygulanacak işlemlerin sırasına göre bir sistematik oluşturulmuştur. Diğer tüm vergilerde olduğu gibi gümrük vergisinde de zorunlu aşamalar olan tarh, tahakkuk ve tahsil aşamaları Gümrük ve Ticaret Bakanlığı’na bağlı ayrı bir kuruluş niteliği olan Gümrükler Genel Müdürlüğü tarafından, Gümrük Kanunu hükümlerine uygun olarak yürütülmektedir. Gümrük vergisinden doğan uyuşmazlıkların çözüm süreci, diğer vergilerde oluşan süreçten farklı bir yapıya sahiptir. Gümrük vergisi uyuşmazlıkları öncelikle idari aşamada çözümlenmek zorundadır. Ancak idari aşamada çözümlenemeyen uyuşmazlıklarda yargı yoluna başvurulabilmektedir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Gümrük, Gümrük Vergisi, Gümrük Uyuşmazlıkları Abstract: Custom duty is a kind of tariff arising from the movement of commercial commodities subject to customs which is based on those commodities’quantity and value. It is are a kind of tariff that is a foreign trade and economic policy instrument in addition to its economic, social and fiscal functions. Since they are not collected on regular basis like income tax and corporate tax, as an indirect tariff on expenditures, custom duties are collected only once when commodities subject to foreign trade arrive at the custom. According to the second item of tax procedural law, custom duties are excluded from this law. Therefore, procedures and practises of custom duties are regulated by customs law numbered 4458. Through this law, a systematization has been created beginning with commodities subject to international trade entering customs territories of Turkey and continuing with operation sequence. Like all other taxes, compalsive levels such as assessment, accrual and collecting are regulated by General Directorate of Customs as a part of Customs and Economy Ministry according to Customs Law. Resolution process of disputes over customs duties has a different form from the process of other taxes. Customs duty disputes have to be resolved administratively in the first place. However, in the case of disputes not being solved administratively, legal action can be taken. Key words: Custom, Custom Duties, Custom Disputes olarak kullanılmış açık tonun etkisi ile izleyicinin dikkatini yüze yönlendirmektedir. Resmin arka planında kullanılan mor ve mavi tonları ile başın saç ve pekte net seçilmeyen şapka kısmındaki aynı tonlardaki renkler arka ve orta planda yü- zeysel olarak bütünlük oluşturmaktadır. Gergin- lik benzeri güçlü duygular hissedilen figürün eli ve kolu oldukça belirsizdir. Kolun yaslandığı kısımdaki turuncu tonları ile dudaktaki sıcak kırmızı renkler resme canlılık katmakla birlikte, göz çevresinde bulunan pembe ve bordonun açık tonları figür üzerinde ağlamaklı, düşündüren ve hüzünlü bir ifade oluşmasına sebep olmaktadır. Genel olarak melankolik bir hava yansıtan kadı- nın giysisi için seçilmiş koyu ton sert bir şekilde ifade edilmiş olsa da, aralara yerleştirilmiş açık lekeler ışık etkisi vermekte ve bedenin hacmini oluşturmada katkı sağlamaktadır. Yumuşak fırça vuruşları ve konturdan uzak, belirgin olmayan hatlarıyla resim; sanatçının ileri yılarda sahiplen- diği kendine özgü tavrının oluşumundan önceki anlatım dilini göstermektedir. Resim 9. Amedeo Modigliani, Yahudi, 1908, Cove Hakone Museum Kendine ait bir üslupla portreler yapmaya baş- layan sanatçı, tıpkı heykellerinde olduğu gibi resimlerinde de kendi çözümlemeleri doğrultu- sunda eserler üretmiştir. Zenci yontuculuğunun örnekleri ve Paul Cezanne’ın (1839-1906), duyguların çarpıtmalar aracılığıyla vurgulanaya- rak anlatılması dili sanat anlayışında farklı bir bakış açısı kazanmasına neden olmuştur. Katıl- dığı sergilerden birinde, Cezanne’ın çalışmala- rından etkilenen sanatçı, Cezanne’ın çarpıcı fırça darbelerini Afrika Primitif Sanatı’nın öğe- leriyle mükemmel biçimde harmanlayıp, “Modigliani’nin eserleri” dedirtecek tadı yaka- lamıştır (Richard,2011:88). Cezanne’ın aynı manzarayı portre çalışmalarında bile kullanması, doğaya ne kadar incelikle baktığını gözler önüne sermekle birlikte Modigliani’nin eserleri ile kı- yaslandığında, sanatçıda belirgin bir Cezanne etkisi bulunduğunu da düşündürmektedir (Tü- kel,2008,1092). MTD www.mtddergisi.com ULUSLARARASI HAKEMLİ TASARIM VE MİMARLIK DERGİSİ Mayıs / Haziran / Temmuz / Ağustos 2016 Sayı: 08 Yaz Dönemi INTERNATIONAL REFEREED JOURNAL OF DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURE May / June / July / August 2016 Issue 08 Summer ID:116 K:23 ISSN Print: 2148-8142 Online: 2148-4880 (ISO 9001-2008 Belge No / Document No: 12879 & ISO 14001-2004 Belge No / Document No: 12880) (Marka Patent No / Trademark) (2015/04018 – 2015/GE/17595) 95 UHBAB www.uhbabdergisi.com Uluslararası Hakemli BeĢeri ve Akademik Bilimler Dergisi Nisan / Mayıs / Haziran Ġlkbahar Yaz Dönemi Cilt: 4 Sayı: 12 Yıl: 2015 International Peer-Reviewed Journal of Humanities and Academic Science April / May / June Spring Summer Volume: 4 Issue: 12 Year: 2015 ID:230 K:509 Jel Kodu: K34 (ISO 9001-2008 Belge No: 12879 & ISO 14001-2004 Belge No: 12880) 1 GÜMRÜK VERGĠSĠ UYUġMAZLIKLARININ ĠDARĠ AġAMADA ÇÖZÜM YOLLARI1 ADMINISTRATIVE SOLUTIONS TO DISPUTES OVER CUSTOM DUTIES Selin KILINÇ2, Hatice YURTSEVER3 2 Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Ens. Mali Hukuk Programı Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi 3 Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Salihli MYO, DıĢ Ticaret Bölümü 1 Bu çalıĢma, Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Maliye Anabilim Dalı Mali Hukuk Programı Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi Selin KILINÇ tarafından hazırlanan Yüksek Lisans Tezinden türetilmiĢtir. Özet: Gümrük vergisi, gümrüğe tabi olan ticari eşyanın yer değiştirmesi nedeniyle, bu eşyanın miktarı veya değeri üzerinden alınan, ekonomik, sosyal ve mali fonksiyonlarının yanında önemli bir dış ticaret ve ekonomi politikası aracı olan bir vergi türüdür. Aynı zamanda harcamalar üzerinden alınan dolaylı bir vergi türü olan gümrük vergisi, gelir ve kurumlar vergisi gibi belirli aralıklarla alınan bir vergi türü olmadığından, dış ticarete konu olan eşyanın gümrüğe geldiği anda bir defaya mahsus olmak üzere alınmaktadır. Gümrük vergileri, Vergi Usul Kanunu (VUK)’nun ikinci maddesine göre bu kanun kapsamı dışında tutulmuştur. Bu nedenle, gümrük vergilerinin usul ve uygulama esasları 4458 sayılı Gümrük Kanunu’nda düzenlenmiştir. Bu kanun ile dış ticarete konu olan eşyanın Türkiye Gümrük Bölgesine girişinden başlayıp, eşyaya uygulanacak işlemlerin sırasına göre bir sistematik oluşturulmuştur. Diğer tüm vergilerde olduğu gibi gümrük vergisinde de zorunlu aşamalar olan tarh, tahakkuk ve tahsil aşamaları Gümrük ve Ticaret Bakanlığı’na bağlı ayrı bir kuruluş niteliği olan Gümrükler Genel Müdürlüğü tarafından, Gümrük Kanunu hükümlerine uygun olarak yürütülmektedir. Gümrük vergisinden doğan uyuşmazlıkların çözüm süreci, diğer vergilerde oluşan süreçten farklı bir yapıya sahiptir. Gümrük vergisi uyuşmazlıkları öncelikle idari aşamada çözümlenmek zorundadır. Ancak idari aşamada çözümlenemeyen uyuşmazlıklarda yargı yoluna başvurulabilmektedir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Gümrük, Gümrük Vergisi, Gümrük Uyuşmazlıkları Abstract: Custom duty is a kind of tariff arising from the movement of commercial commodities subject to customs which is based on those commodities’quantity and value. It is are a kind of tariff that is a foreign trade and economic policy instrument in addition to its economic, social and fiscal functions. Since they are not collected on regular basis like income tax and corporate tax, as an indirect tariff on expenditures, custom duties are collected only once when commodities subject to foreign trade arrive at the custom. According to the second item of tax procedural law, custom duties are excluded from this law. Therefore, procedures and practises of custom duties are regulated by customs law numbered 4458. Through this law, a systematization has been created beginning with commodities subject to international trade entering customs territories of Turkey and continuing with operation sequence. Like all other taxes, compalsive levels such as assessment, accrual and collecting are regulated by General Directorate of Customs as a part of Customs and Economy Ministry according to Customs Law. Resolution process of disputes over customs duties has a different form from the process of other taxes. Customs duty disputes have to be resolved administratively in the first place. However, in the case of disputes not being solved administratively, legal action can be taken. Key words: Custom, Custom Duties, Custom Disputes Resim 10. Paul Cezanne, Madam Cezanne, 1877, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston Resim 11. Paul Cezanne, Yıkanan Kadınlar, 1906, 208cm x 248cm, Philadelphia Muse- um of Arts Modigliani’nin Cezanne’ın üslubundan etkilen- mesinin temel sebebi, Cezanne’ın figüratif kom- pozisyonlarının biçimsel bakımdan farklılıkları olarak düşünülebilir. Öyle ki Cezanne’ın resim- lerinde kullandığı deformasyonlar, stilize anla- yışıyla oluşturduğu özgür fırça darbeleri, rahat tavırlı çizgileri, koyu tonlardaki ince konturları ve kompozisyonun bütününe yansıyan ritmik ve lirik yaklaşımı, Modigliani’nin resimlerindeki figür algısını değiştirmiş ve farklılaştırmıştır. Kimi zaman Cezanne’ın resimleri ile Pablo Picasso’nun resimleri arasında da benzerlikler olduğunu gözlemlemek mümkündür. 1906 yılında Paris’e geldiğinde Le Bateau – Lavoir’a yerleşen Modigliani’nin komşuluk yaptığı sanatçılardan birisi olan Picasso; Sembo- lizm, Kübizm ve Sürrealizm akımlarına yönelik eserler üretmiş İspanyol sanatçılardandır. 1907 yılında yaptığı “Avignon’lu Kızlar” (Resim 12.) isimli eseri, Modigliani ile yakın olduğu döneme ait bir resimdir. Modigliani’nin etkilendiği düşü- nülen “Mavi Dönem” resimleri ise yaklaşık olarak 1901 ile 1904 yılları arasına denk gelen; sirk palyaçolarının, akrobatların, sıradan insan- ların, yoksulluk ve yaşlılık gibi konuların ele alındığı, kasvetli ve melankolik ruh hallerinin yansıtıldığı resimler için tanımlanmıştır. MTD www.mtddergisi.com ULUSLARARASI HAKEMLİ TASARIM VE MİMARLIK DERGİSİ Mayıs / Haziran / Temmuz / Ağustos 2016 Sayı: 08 Yaz Dönemi INTERNATIONAL REFEREED JOURNAL OF DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURE May / June / July / August 2016 Issue 08 Summer ID:116 K:23 ISSN Print: 2148-8142 Online: 2148-4880 (ISO 9001-2008 Belge No / Document No: 12879 & ISO 14001-2004 Belge No / Document No: 12880) (Marka Patent No / Trademark) (2015/04018 – 2015/GE/17595) 96 UHBAB www.uhbabdergisi.com Uluslararası Hakemli BeĢeri ve Akademik Bilimler Dergisi Nisan / Mayıs / Haziran Ġlkbahar Yaz Dönemi Cilt: 4 Sayı: 12 Yıl: 2015 International Peer-Reviewed Journal of Humanities and Academic Science April / May / June Spring Summer Volume: 4 Issue: 12 Year: 2015 ID:230 K:509 Jel Kodu: K34 (ISO 9001-2008 Belge No: 12879 & ISO 14001-2004 Belge No: 12880) 1 GÜMRÜK VERGĠSĠ UYUġMAZLIKLARININ ĠDARĠ AġAMADA ÇÖZÜM YOLLARI1 ADMINISTRATIVE SOLUTIONS TO DISPUTES OVER CUSTOM DUTIES Selin KILINÇ2, Hatice YURTSEVER3 2 Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Ens. Mali Hukuk Programı Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi 3 Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Salihli MYO, DıĢ Ticaret Bölümü 1 Bu çalıĢma, Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Maliye Anabilim Dalı Mali Hukuk Programı Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi Selin KILINÇ tarafından hazırlanan Yüksek Lisans Tezinden türetilmiĢtir. Özet: Gümrük vergisi, gümrüğe tabi olan ticari eşyanın yer değiştirmesi nedeniyle, bu eşyanın miktarı veya değeri üzerinden alınan, ekonomik, sosyal ve mali fonksiyonlarının yanında önemli bir dış ticaret ve ekonomi politikası aracı olan bir vergi türüdür. Aynı zamanda harcamalar üzerinden alınan dolaylı bir vergi türü olan gümrük vergisi, gelir ve kurumlar vergisi gibi belirli aralıklarla alınan bir vergi türü olmadığından, dış ticarete konu olan eşyanın gümrüğe geldiği anda bir defaya mahsus olmak üzere alınmaktadır. Gümrük vergileri, Vergi Usul Kanunu (VUK)’nun ikinci maddesine göre bu kanun kapsamı dışında tutulmuştur. Bu nedenle, gümrük vergilerinin usul ve uygulama esasları 4458 sayılı Gümrük Kanunu’nda düzenlenmiştir. Bu kanun ile dış ticarete konu olan eşyanın Türkiye Gümrük Bölgesine girişinden başlayıp, eşyaya uygulanacak işlemlerin sırasına göre bir sistematik oluşturulmuştur. Diğer tüm vergilerde olduğu gibi gümrük vergisinde de zorunlu aşamalar olan tarh, tahakkuk ve tahsil aşamaları Gümrük ve Ticaret Bakanlığı’na bağlı ayrı bir kuruluş niteliği olan Gümrükler Genel Müdürlüğü tarafından, Gümrük Kanunu hükümlerine uygun olarak yürütülmektedir. Gümrük vergisinden doğan uyuşmazlıkların çözüm süreci, diğer vergilerde oluşan süreçten farklı bir yapıya sahiptir. Gümrük vergisi uyuşmazlıkları öncelikle idari aşamada çözümlenmek zorundadır. Ancak idari aşamada çözümlenemeyen uyuşmazlıklarda yargı yoluna başvurulabilmektedir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Gümrük, Gümrük Vergisi, Gümrük Uyuşmazlıkları Abstract: Custom duty is a kind of tariff arising from the movement of commercial commodities subject to customs which is based on those commodities’quantity and value. It is are a kind of tariff that is a foreign trade and economic policy instrument in addition to its economic, social and fiscal functions. Since they are not collected on regular basis like income tax and corporate tax, as an indirect tariff on expenditures, custom duties are collected only once when commodities subject to foreign trade arrive at the custom. According to the second item of tax procedural law, custom duties are excluded from this law. Therefore, procedures and practises of custom duties are regulated by customs law numbered 4458. Through this law, a systematization has been created beginning with commodities subject to international trade entering customs territories of Turkey and continuing with operation sequence. Like all other taxes, compalsive levels such as assessment, accrual and collecting are regulated by General Directorate of Customs as a part of Customs and Economy Ministry according to Customs Law. Resolution process of disputes over customs duties has a different form from the process of other taxes. Customs duty disputes have to be resolved administratively in the first place. However, in the case of disputes not being solved administratively, legal action can be taken. Key words: Custom, Custom Duties, Custom Disputes Resim 12. Pablo Picasso, Avignon’lu Kızlar, 1907, Tuval Üzerine Yağlıboya, Modern Sa- natlar Müzesi, New York Resim 13. Pablo Picasso,Yaşlı Gitarist, 1903 3. MODİGLİANİ ve ÇAĞDAŞLARI 1913’te Montparnasse’a yerleşen Amedeo Mo- digliani, günlük yaşamını sürdürebilmek için, eşsiz desenlerini Rotonde ve Dome kahvelerinin taraçalarında oturanlara satmıştır. Montparnasse 20.yüzyılın ilk yarısında, Paris’in sanatsal odak noktalarından biri olmuş ve giderek Montmartre’nin yerini almıştır. Sanat ve edebiyat alanında Pablo Picasso gibi aralarında Maurice Utrillo, Guilla- ume Apollinaire, Max Jacob, Jules Pascin, Mo- ise Kisling ve Chaim Soutine’in de bulunduğu isimler burada yaşamışlardır. Bunlardan Kisling, Modigliani’yi atölyesinde çalıştırmış, kendisi gibi Paris Okulu’ndan olan Pascin ve Soutine de onu MTD www.mtddergisi.com ULUSLARARASI HAKEMLİ TASARIM VE MİMARLIK DERGİSİ Mayıs / Haziran / Temmuz / Ağustos 2016 Sayı: 08 Yaz Dönemi INTERNATIONAL REFEREED JOURNAL OF DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURE May / June / July / August 2016 Issue 08 Summer ID:116 K:23 ISSN Print: 2148-8142 Online: 2148-4880 (ISO 9001-2008 Belge No / Document No: 12879 & ISO 14001-2004 Belge No / Document No: 12880) (Marka Patent No / Trademark) (2015/04018 – 2015/GE/17595) 97 UHBAB www.uhbabdergisi.com Uluslararası Hakemli BeĢeri ve Akademik Bilimler Dergisi Nisan / Mayıs / Haziran Ġlkbahar Yaz Dönemi Cilt: 4 Sayı: 12 Yıl: 2015 International Peer-Reviewed Journal of Humanities and Academic Science April / May / June Spring Summer Volume: 4 Issue: 12 Year: 2015 ID:230 K:509 Jel Kodu: K34 (ISO 9001-2008 Belge No: 12879 & ISO 14001-2004 Belge No: 12880) 1 GÜMRÜK VERGĠSĠ UYUġMAZLIKLARININ ĠDARĠ AġAMADA ÇÖZÜM YOLLARI1 ADMINISTRATIVE SOLUTIONS TO DISPUTES OVER CUSTOM DUTIES Selin KILINÇ2, Hatice YURTSEVER3 2 Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Ens. Mali Hukuk Programı Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi 3 Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Salihli MYO, DıĢ Ticaret Bölümü 1 Bu çalıĢma, Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Maliye Anabilim Dalı Mali Hukuk Programı Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi Selin KILINÇ tarafından hazırlanan Yüksek Lisans Tezinden türetilmiĢtir. Özet: Gümrük vergisi, gümrüğe tabi olan ticari eşyanın yer değiştirmesi nedeniyle, bu eşyanın miktarı veya değeri üzerinden alınan, ekonomik, sosyal ve mali fonksiyonlarının yanında önemli bir dış ticaret ve ekonomi politikası aracı olan bir vergi türüdür. Aynı zamanda harcamalar üzerinden alınan dolaylı bir vergi türü olan gümrük vergisi, gelir ve kurumlar vergisi gibi belirli aralıklarla alınan bir vergi türü olmadığından, dış ticarete konu olan eşyanın gümrüğe geldiği anda bir defaya mahsus olmak üzere alınmaktadır. Gümrük vergileri, Vergi Usul Kanunu (VUK)’nun ikinci maddesine göre bu kanun kapsamı dışında tutulmuştur. Bu nedenle, gümrük vergilerinin usul ve uygulama esasları 4458 sayılı Gümrük Kanunu’nda düzenlenmiştir. Bu kanun ile dış ticarete konu olan eşyanın Türkiye Gümrük Bölgesine girişinden başlayıp, eşyaya uygulanacak işlemlerin sırasına göre bir sistematik oluşturulmuştur. Diğer tüm vergilerde olduğu gibi gümrük vergisinde de zorunlu aşamalar olan tarh, tahakkuk ve tahsil aşamaları Gümrük ve Ticaret Bakanlığı’na bağlı ayrı bir kuruluş niteliği olan Gümrükler Genel Müdürlüğü tarafından, Gümrük Kanunu hükümlerine uygun olarak yürütülmektedir. Gümrük vergisinden doğan uyuşmazlıkların çözüm süreci, diğer vergilerde oluşan süreçten farklı bir yapıya sahiptir. Gümrük vergisi uyuşmazlıkları öncelikle idari aşamada çözümlenmek zorundadır. Ancak idari aşamada çözümlenemeyen uyuşmazlıklarda yargı yoluna başvurulabilmektedir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Gümrük, Gümrük Vergisi, Gümrük Uyuşmazlıkları Abstract: Custom duty is a kind of tariff arising from the movement of commercial commodities subject to customs which is based on those commodities’quantity and value. It is are a kind of tariff that is a foreign trade and economic policy instrument in addition to its economic, social and fiscal functions. Since they are not collected on regular basis like income tax and corporate tax, as an indirect tariff on expenditures, custom duties are collected only once when commodities subject to foreign trade arrive at the custom. According to the second item of tax procedural law, custom duties are excluded from this law. Therefore, procedures and practises of custom duties are regulated by customs law numbered 4458. Through this law, a systematization has been created beginning with commodities subject to international trade entering customs territories of Turkey and continuing with operation sequence. Like all other taxes, compalsive levels such as assessment, accrual and collecting are regulated by General Directorate of Customs as a part of Customs and Economy Ministry according to Customs Law. Resolution process of disputes over customs duties has a different form from the process of other taxes. Customs duty disputes have to be resolved administratively in the first place. However, in the case of disputes not being solved administratively, legal action can be taken. Key words: Custom, Custom Duties, Custom Disputes korumuşlardır. Ayrıca bu dönemlerde İngiliz kadın ozan Beatrice Hastings sanatçıyı desteklemiş, Leopold Zborowski ise yakın dostu olmakla bir- likte eserlerinin satılması konusunda sanatçıya yardım etmiştir (Gökçöl,1993:2793). Max Jacob, Juan Gris, Diego Rivera gibi sanatçılarda Modigliani’nin o dönemlerde yakınlık kurduğu arkadaşlarıdır. Maurice Utrillo, 1883-1955 yıları arasında ya- şamış şehir sahneleri ve manzara resimleri ile tanınan bir sanatçıdır. Genellikle canlı ve zengin renklerle çalışmış, 1909 ve 1914 yılları arasında ise bir dönem, beyaz renk ve tonlarını sıkça kul- lanmıştır. Sanatçının eserleri Post Empresyonizm örnekleri olarak görülmekte ve resimlediği ortamı doğal olarak yansıtan duygusal bir tavır ile de dikkat çekmektedir. Resim 14. Maurice Utrillo, Montmartre’de Evler Resim 15. Maurice Utrillo, Abbesses Sokağı Modigliani ile aynı sokakta oturmuş bir başka sanatçı olan Jules Pascin, 1885 – 1930 yılları arasında yaşamış ve genellikle çıplak ya da kısmen giyimli rahat pozlar sergileyen kadın tasvirleri ile tanınmıştır. Alaycı, hicivli tasvir anlayışı ve zaman zaman karikatüristik çizgileri ile resmettiği hayat kadınlarını; hacim etkisi veren şeffaf ve berrak renklerle ince katmanlar halinde boyamış ve belirgin fırça vuruşları ile renklendirmiştir. Eser- lerinde Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec’in resimlerini anımsatan etkiler sezilen sanatçı; şiirsel, acı ve ironik olarak tanımlanabilecek Ekspresyonist eserler ortaya koymuştur. MTD www.mtddergisi.com ULUSLARARASI HAKEMLİ TASARIM VE MİMARLIK DERGİSİ Mayıs / Haziran / Temmuz / Ağustos 2016 Sayı: 08 Yaz Dönemi INTERNATIONAL REFEREED JOURNAL OF DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURE May / June / July / August 2016 Issue 08 Summer ID:116 K:23 ISSN Print: 2148-8142 Online: 2148-4880 (ISO 9001-2008 Belge No / Document No: 12879 & ISO 14001-2004 Belge No / Document No: 12880) (Marka Patent No / Trademark) (2015/04018 – 2015/GE/17595) 98 UHBAB www.uhbabdergisi.com Uluslararası Hakemli BeĢeri ve Akademik Bilimler Dergisi Nisan / Mayıs / Haziran Ġlkbahar Yaz Dönemi Cilt: 4 Sayı: 12 Yıl: 2015 International Peer-Reviewed Journal of Humanities and Academic Science April / May / June Spring Summer Volume: 4 Issue: 12 Year: 2015 ID:230 K:509 Jel Kodu: K34 (ISO 9001-2008 Belge No: 12879 & ISO 14001-2004 Belge No: 12880) 1 GÜMRÜK VERGĠSĠ UYUġMAZLIKLARININ ĠDARĠ AġAMADA ÇÖZÜM YOLLARI1 ADMINISTRATIVE SOLUTIONS TO DISPUTES OVER CUSTOM DUTIES Selin KILINÇ2, Hatice YURTSEVER3 2 Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Ens. Mali Hukuk Programı Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi 3 Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Salihli MYO, DıĢ Ticaret Bölümü 1 Bu çalıĢma, Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Maliye Anabilim Dalı Mali Hukuk Programı Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi Selin KILINÇ tarafından hazırlanan Yüksek Lisans Tezinden türetilmiĢtir. Özet: Gümrük vergisi, gümrüğe tabi olan ticari eşyanın yer değiştirmesi nedeniyle, bu eşyanın miktarı veya değeri üzerinden alınan, ekonomik, sosyal ve mali fonksiyonlarının yanında önemli bir dış ticaret ve ekonomi politikası aracı olan bir vergi türüdür. Aynı zamanda harcamalar üzerinden alınan dolaylı bir vergi türü olan gümrük vergisi, gelir ve kurumlar vergisi gibi belirli aralıklarla alınan bir vergi türü olmadığından, dış ticarete konu olan eşyanın gümrüğe geldiği anda bir defaya mahsus olmak üzere alınmaktadır. Gümrük vergileri, Vergi Usul Kanunu (VUK)’nun ikinci maddesine göre bu kanun kapsamı dışında tutulmuştur. Bu nedenle, gümrük vergilerinin usul ve uygulama esasları 4458 sayılı Gümrük Kanunu’nda düzenlenmiştir. Bu kanun ile dış ticarete konu olan eşyanın Türkiye Gümrük Bölgesine girişinden başlayıp, eşyaya uygulanacak işlemlerin sırasına göre bir sistematik oluşturulmuştur. Diğer tüm vergilerde olduğu gibi gümrük vergisinde de zorunlu aşamalar olan tarh, tahakkuk ve tahsil aşamaları Gümrük ve Ticaret Bakanlığı’na bağlı ayrı bir kuruluş niteliği olan Gümrükler Genel Müdürlüğü tarafından, Gümrük Kanunu hükümlerine uygun olarak yürütülmektedir. Gümrük vergisinden doğan uyuşmazlıkların çözüm süreci, diğer vergilerde oluşan süreçten farklı bir yapıya sahiptir. Gümrük vergisi uyuşmazlıkları öncelikle idari aşamada çözümlenmek zorundadır. Ancak idari aşamada çözümlenemeyen uyuşmazlıklarda yargı yoluna başvurulabilmektedir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Gümrük, Gümrük Vergisi, Gümrük Uyuşmazlıkları Abstract: Custom duty is a kind of tariff arising from the movement of commercial commodities subject to customs which is based on those commodities’quantity and value. It is are a kind of tariff that is a foreign trade and economic policy instrument in addition to its economic, social and fiscal functions. Since they are not collected on regular basis like income tax and corporate tax, as an indirect tariff on expenditures, custom duties are collected only once when commodities subject to foreign trade arrive at the custom. According to the second item of tax procedural law, custom duties are excluded from this law. Therefore, procedures and practises of custom duties are regulated by customs law numbered 4458. Through this law, a systematization has been created beginning with commodities subject to international trade entering customs territories of Turkey and continuing with operation sequence. Like all other taxes, compalsive levels such as assessment, accrual and collecting are regulated by General Directorate of Customs as a part of Customs and Economy Ministry according to Customs Law. Resolution process of disputes over customs duties has a different form from the process of other taxes. Customs duty disputes have to be resolved administratively in the first place. However, in the case of disputes not being solved administratively, legal action can be taken. Key words: Custom, Custom Duties, Custom Disputes Resim 16. Jules Pascin, Moulin Rouge’da Dansçı, 1908 Moise Kisling (1891-1953) çoğunlukla resmet- tiği nü kadınlar ve portreleriyle tanınmaktadır. Sanatçının peyzaj çalışmaları da olmasına rağmen kendisi ile özdeşleşmiş portrelerindeki gözler, onun sanatsal kimliğini belirginleştiren en önem- li özelliklerden birisidir. Genel olarak göğüs kısmı hizasında tamamlanan eserlerdeki yüzlerde, sabit ve donuk bir ifade bulunur. Oranların dışına çıkan göz yapısı, geniş göz kapakları ve sabitlen- miş göz bebeklerinin büyüklüğü bazen rahatsız edici, bazen ise duygusal hüzünlü bir ruh halini yansıtmaktadır. Kimi eserlerde beyaza yakın, soluk ve neredeyse vücudundaki kanı çekilmiş gibi tonlanmış ten rengi soğuk bir etki bırakırken, çoğunlukla arka planda kullanılan düz ve tek renkli fonun zaman zaman bitki motifleriyle be- zendiği görülmektedir. Portrelerin birçoğu izleyi- ciyi ebedi sessizliğin olduğu bir ortama sürükler gibidir. Resim 17. Moise Kisling, Şarışın Kız Büstü, 55.5 x 46.5 cm., Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 1948 Modigliani’nin çağdaşlarından bir başkası olan Chaim Soutine, 1893 – 1943 yılları arasında yaşamış, ekspresyonist anlayışı benimsemiş, Modigliani gibi Yahudi olduğu bilinen, kendine özgü resimlerinde özellikle konu seçimi bakımın- dan farklılık yaratan ve Modigliani’ye çok yakın olan sanatçılardan birisidir. Soutine, portre ve manzaraların yanı sıra özellikle 16. ve 17. yüz- yıllarda etkili olan vanitas tarzı resimleri hatırlatan eserlerinde, asılı sığır etlerini konu almıştır. Rembrant’ın “Slaughtered Ox” isimli eseri ile ele alınan tema ve planlama bakımından benzerlikler görülen sanatçının resimlerinde; kalın boya taba- kası, koyu renkli katı bir boyama tarzı ve kaba fırça darbeleri görülmektedir. Sanatçının figürle- MTD www.mtddergisi.com ULUSLARARASI HAKEMLİ TASARIM VE MİMARLIK DERGİSİ Mayıs / Haziran / Temmuz / Ağustos 2016 Sayı: 08 Yaz Dönemi INTERNATIONAL REFEREED JOURNAL OF DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURE May / June / July / August 2016 Issue 08 Summer ID:116 K:23 ISSN Print: 2148-8142 Online: 2148-4880 (ISO 9001-2008 Belge No / Document No: 12879 & ISO 14001-2004 Belge No / Document No: 12880) (Marka Patent No / Trademark) (2015/04018 – 2015/GE/17595) 99 UHBAB www.uhbabdergisi.com Uluslararası Hakemli BeĢeri ve Akademik Bilimler Dergisi Nisan / Mayıs / Haziran Ġlkbahar Yaz Dönemi Cilt: 4 Sayı: 12 Yıl: 2015 International Peer-Reviewed Journal of Humanities and Academic Science April / May / June Spring Summer Volume: 4 Issue: 12 Year: 2015 ID:230 K:509 Jel Kodu: K34 (ISO 9001-2008 Belge No: 12879 & ISO 14001-2004 Belge No: 12880) 1 GÜMRÜK VERGĠSĠ UYUġMAZLIKLARININ ĠDARĠ AġAMADA ÇÖZÜM YOLLARI1 ADMINISTRATIVE SOLUTIONS TO DISPUTES OVER CUSTOM DUTIES Selin KILINÇ2, Hatice YURTSEVER3 2 Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Ens. Mali Hukuk Programı Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi 3 Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Salihli MYO, DıĢ Ticaret Bölümü 1 Bu çalıĢma, Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Maliye Anabilim Dalı Mali Hukuk Programı Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi Selin KILINÇ tarafından hazırlanan Yüksek Lisans Tezinden türetilmiĢtir. Özet: Gümrük vergisi, gümrüğe tabi olan ticari eşyanın yer değiştirmesi nedeniyle, bu eşyanın miktarı veya değeri üzerinden alınan, ekonomik, sosyal ve mali fonksiyonlarının yanında önemli bir dış ticaret ve ekonomi politikası aracı olan bir vergi türüdür. Aynı zamanda harcamalar üzerinden alınan dolaylı bir vergi türü olan gümrük vergisi, gelir ve kurumlar vergisi gibi belirli aralıklarla alınan bir vergi türü olmadığından, dış ticarete konu olan eşyanın gümrüğe geldiği anda bir defaya mahsus olmak üzere alınmaktadır. Gümrük vergileri, Vergi Usul Kanunu (VUK)’nun ikinci maddesine göre bu kanun kapsamı dışında tutulmuştur. Bu nedenle, gümrük vergilerinin usul ve uygulama esasları 4458 sayılı Gümrük Kanunu’nda düzenlenmiştir. Bu kanun ile dış ticarete konu olan eşyanın Türkiye Gümrük Bölgesine girişinden başlayıp, eşyaya uygulanacak işlemlerin sırasına göre bir sistematik oluşturulmuştur. Diğer tüm vergilerde olduğu gibi gümrük vergisinde de zorunlu aşamalar olan tarh, tahakkuk ve tahsil aşamaları Gümrük ve Ticaret Bakanlığı’na bağlı ayrı bir kuruluş niteliği olan Gümrükler Genel Müdürlüğü tarafından, Gümrük Kanunu hükümlerine uygun olarak yürütülmektedir. Gümrük vergisinden doğan uyuşmazlıkların çözüm süreci, diğer vergilerde oluşan süreçten farklı bir yapıya sahiptir. Gümrük vergisi uyuşmazlıkları öncelikle idari aşamada çözümlenmek zorundadır. Ancak idari aşamada çözümlenemeyen uyuşmazlıklarda yargı yoluna başvurulabilmektedir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Gümrük, Gümrük Vergisi, Gümrük Uyuşmazlıkları Abstract: Custom duty is a kind of tariff arising from the movement of commercial commodities subject to customs which is based on those commodities’quantity and value. It is are a kind of tariff that is a foreign trade and economic policy instrument in addition to its economic, social and fiscal functions. Since they are not collected on regular basis like income tax and corporate tax, as an indirect tariff on expenditures, custom duties are collected only once when commodities subject to foreign trade arrive at the custom. According to the second item of tax procedural law, custom duties are excluded from this law. Therefore, procedures and practises of custom duties are regulated by customs law numbered 4458. Through this law, a systematization has been created beginning with commodities subject to international trade entering customs territories of Turkey and continuing with operation sequence. Like all other taxes, compalsive levels such as assessment, accrual and collecting are regulated by General Directorate of Customs as a part of Customs and Economy Ministry according to Customs Law. Resolution process of disputes over customs duties has a different form from the process of other taxes. Customs duty disputes have to be resolved administratively in the first place. However, in the case of disputes not being solved administratively, legal action can be taken. Key words: Custom, Custom Duties, Custom Disputes ri belirgin bir şekilde deformelerle biçimlendiril- miş olmakla birlikte, figürlerin sınırlarındaki yuvarlak ve kayar görüntülü dalgalanmalar dikkat çekmektedir. Resim 18. Chaim Soutine, Genç Kadın, Tu- val Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 1915 Resim 19. Chaim Soutine, Sığır Eti, Tuval Üze- rine Yağlı Boya, 140.3 x 107.6 cm, 1924, Min- neapolis Institute of Arts, Minneapolis, USA Resim 20. Rembrandt Van Rijn, Slaughtered Ox, 94 cm x 69 cm., 1655, Louvre Müzesi Juan Gris (1887-1927), Kübizm akımını benim- semiş ve konu bakımından ağırlıklı olarak natürt- mortları tercih etmesinin yanı sıra figüratif çalış- maları da bulunan bir sanatçıdır. Seçtiği nesnele- rin geometrik yapılarını dikey, yatay ve diyagonal düzlemler oluşturacak şekilde kompozisyonlarına yerleştirmiş ve kullandığı monokrom renklerle boyamıştır. Resimler boyanın dokusal özellikle- rinden arındırılmış fakat nesnelerin kendi doku- ları titizlikle işlenerek zenginleştirilmiştir. MTD www.mtddergisi.com ULUSLARARASI HAKEMLİ TASARIM VE MİMARLIK DERGİSİ Mayıs / Haziran / Temmuz / Ağustos 2016 Sayı: 08 Yaz Dönemi INTERNATIONAL REFEREED JOURNAL OF DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURE May / June / July / August 2016 Issue 08 Summer ID:116 K:23 ISSN Print: 2148-8142 Online: 2148-4880 (ISO 9001-2008 Belge No / Document No: 12879 & ISO 14001-2004 Belge No / Document No: 12880) (Marka Patent No / Trademark) (2015/04018 – 2015/GE/17595) 100 UHBAB www.uhbabdergisi.com Uluslararası Hakemli BeĢeri ve Akademik Bilimler Dergisi Nisan / Mayıs / Haziran Ġlkbahar Yaz Dönemi Cilt: 4 Sayı: 12 Yıl: 2015 International Peer-Reviewed Journal of Humanities and Academic Science April / May / June Spring Summer Volume: 4 Issue: 12 Year: 2015 ID:230 K:509 Jel Kodu: K34 (ISO 9001-2008 Belge No: 12879 & ISO 14001-2004 Belge No: 12880) 1 GÜMRÜK VERGĠSĠ UYUġMAZLIKLARININ ĠDARĠ AġAMADA ÇÖZÜM YOLLARI1 ADMINISTRATIVE SOLUTIONS TO DISPUTES OVER CUSTOM DUTIES Selin KILINÇ2, Hatice YURTSEVER3 2 Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Ens. Mali Hukuk Programı Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi 3 Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Salihli MYO, DıĢ Ticaret Bölümü 1 Bu çalıĢma, Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Maliye Anabilim Dalı Mali Hukuk Programı Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi Selin KILINÇ tarafından hazırlanan Yüksek Lisans Tezinden türetilmiĢtir. Özet: Gümrük vergisi, gümrüğe tabi olan ticari eşyanın yer değiştirmesi nedeniyle, bu eşyanın miktarı veya değeri üzerinden alınan, ekonomik, sosyal ve mali fonksiyonlarının yanında önemli bir dış ticaret ve ekonomi politikası aracı olan bir vergi türüdür. Aynı zamanda harcamalar üzerinden alınan dolaylı bir vergi türü olan gümrük vergisi, gelir ve kurumlar vergisi gibi belirli aralıklarla alınan bir vergi türü olmadığından, dış ticarete konu olan eşyanın gümrüğe geldiği anda bir defaya mahsus olmak üzere alınmaktadır. Gümrük vergileri, Vergi Usul Kanunu (VUK)’nun ikinci maddesine göre bu kanun kapsamı dışında tutulmuştur. Bu nedenle, gümrük vergilerinin usul ve uygulama esasları 4458 sayılı Gümrük Kanunu’nda düzenlenmiştir. Bu kanun ile dış ticarete konu olan eşyanın Türkiye Gümrük Bölgesine girişinden başlayıp, eşyaya uygulanacak işlemlerin sırasına göre bir sistematik oluşturulmuştur. Diğer tüm vergilerde olduğu gibi gümrük vergisinde de zorunlu aşamalar olan tarh, tahakkuk ve tahsil aşamaları Gümrük ve Ticaret Bakanlığı’na bağlı ayrı bir kuruluş niteliği olan Gümrükler Genel Müdürlüğü tarafından, Gümrük Kanunu hükümlerine uygun olarak yürütülmektedir. Gümrük vergisinden doğan uyuşmazlıkların çözüm süreci, diğer vergilerde oluşan süreçten farklı bir yapıya sahiptir. Gümrük vergisi uyuşmazlıkları öncelikle idari aşamada çözümlenmek zorundadır. Ancak idari aşamada çözümlenemeyen uyuşmazlıklarda yargı yoluna başvurulabilmektedir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Gümrük, Gümrük Vergisi, Gümrük Uyuşmazlıkları Abstract: Custom duty is a kind of tariff arising from the movement of commercial commodities subject to customs which is based on those commodities’quantity and value. It is are a kind of tariff that is a foreign trade and economic policy instrument in addition to its economic, social and fiscal functions. Since they are not collected on regular basis like income tax and corporate tax, as an indirect tariff on expenditures, custom duties are collected only once when commodities subject to foreign trade arrive at the custom. According to the second item of tax procedural law, custom duties are excluded from this law. Therefore, procedures and practises of custom duties are regulated by customs law numbered 4458. Through this law, a systematization has been created beginning with commodities subject to international trade entering customs territories of Turkey and continuing with operation sequence. Like all other taxes, compalsive levels such as assessment, accrual and collecting are regulated by General Directorate of Customs as a part of Customs and Economy Ministry according to Customs Law. Resolution process of disputes over customs duties has a different form from the process of other taxes. Customs duty disputes have to be resolved administratively in the first place. However, in the case of disputes not being solved administratively, legal action can be taken. Key words: Custom, Custom Duties, Custom Disputes Resim 21. Juan Gris, Kitap, 1913, 41 x 33 cm, Musee d art Moderne de la Ville de Paris Resim 22. Juan Gris, Gitar, 1914 Diego Rivera (1886 – 1957), sanat hayatına duvar resimleri ile başlamış İspanyol kökenli sanatçı- lardandır. Daha çok Meksika Devrimi’ni niteleyen, siyasi ve toplumsal içerikli duvar resimleri ve ressam Frida Kahlo ile yaşadığı bilinen duygusal ilişkisi ile gündeme gelmiştir. Kübizm akımından ve Post Empresyonizm’den etkilenen Rivera, toplumsal gerçekçi anlayışla yaptığı resimlerinde canlı renkler kullanmış, çok sayıda kullandığı figürleri heykelsi cesur bir tavırla ele almış, kom- pozisyonlarında ise anıtsal üslubu benimsemiştir. Resim 23. Diego Rivera, İki Kadın, 197.5 x 161.3 cm., 1914 MTD www.mtddergisi.com ULUSLARARASI HAKEMLİ TASARIM VE MİMARLIK DERGİSİ Mayıs / Haziran / Temmuz / Ağustos 2016 Sayı: 08 Yaz Dönemi INTERNATIONAL REFEREED JOURNAL OF DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURE May / June / July / August 2016 Issue 08 Summer ID:116 K:23 ISSN Print: 2148-8142 Online: 2148-4880 (ISO 9001-2008 Belge No / Document No: 12879 & ISO 14001-2004 Belge No / Document No: 12880) (Marka Patent No / Trademark) (2015/04018 – 2015/GE/17595) 101 UHBAB www.uhbabdergisi.com Uluslararası Hakemli BeĢeri ve Akademik Bilimler Dergisi Nisan / Mayıs / Haziran Ġlkbahar Yaz Dönemi Cilt: 4 Sayı: 12 Yıl: 2015 International Peer-Reviewed Journal of Humanities and Academic Science April / May / June Spring Summer Volume: 4 Issue: 12 Year: 2015 ID:230 K:509 Jel Kodu: K34 (ISO 9001-2008 Belge No: 12879 & ISO 14001-2004 Belge No: 12880) 1 GÜMRÜK VERGĠSĠ UYUġMAZLIKLARININ ĠDARĠ AġAMADA ÇÖZÜM YOLLARI1 ADMINISTRATIVE SOLUTIONS TO DISPUTES OVER CUSTOM DUTIES Selin KILINÇ2, Hatice YURTSEVER3 2 Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Ens. Mali Hukuk Programı Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi 3 Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Salihli MYO, DıĢ Ticaret Bölümü 1 Bu çalıĢma, Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Maliye Anabilim Dalı Mali Hukuk Programı Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi Selin KILINÇ tarafından hazırlanan Yüksek Lisans Tezinden türetilmiĢtir. Özet: Gümrük vergisi, gümrüğe tabi olan ticari eşyanın yer değiştirmesi nedeniyle, bu eşyanın miktarı veya değeri üzerinden alınan, ekonomik, sosyal ve mali fonksiyonlarının yanında önemli bir dış ticaret ve ekonomi politikası aracı olan bir vergi türüdür. Aynı zamanda harcamalar üzerinden alınan dolaylı bir vergi türü olan gümrük vergisi, gelir ve kurumlar vergisi gibi belirli aralıklarla alınan bir vergi türü olmadığından, dış ticarete konu olan eşyanın gümrüğe geldiği anda bir defaya mahsus olmak üzere alınmaktadır. Gümrük vergileri, Vergi Usul Kanunu (VUK)’nun ikinci maddesine göre bu kanun kapsamı dışında tutulmuştur. Bu nedenle, gümrük vergilerinin usul ve uygulama esasları 4458 sayılı Gümrük Kanunu’nda düzenlenmiştir. Bu kanun ile dış ticarete konu olan eşyanın Türkiye Gümrük Bölgesine girişinden başlayıp, eşyaya uygulanacak işlemlerin sırasına göre bir sistematik oluşturulmuştur. Diğer tüm vergilerde olduğu gibi gümrük vergisinde de zorunlu aşamalar olan tarh, tahakkuk ve tahsil aşamaları Gümrük ve Ticaret Bakanlığı’na bağlı ayrı bir kuruluş niteliği olan Gümrükler Genel Müdürlüğü tarafından, Gümrük Kanunu hükümlerine uygun olarak yürütülmektedir. Gümrük vergisinden doğan uyuşmazlıkların çözüm süreci, diğer vergilerde oluşan süreçten farklı bir yapıya sahiptir. Gümrük vergisi uyuşmazlıkları öncelikle idari aşamada çözümlenmek zorundadır. Ancak idari aşamada çözümlenemeyen uyuşmazlıklarda yargı yoluna başvurulabilmektedir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Gümrük, Gümrük Vergisi, Gümrük Uyuşmazlıkları Abstract: Custom duty is a kind of tariff arising from the movement of commercial commodities subject to customs which is based on those commodities’quantity and value. It is are a kind of tariff that is a foreign trade and economic policy instrument in addition to its economic, social and fiscal functions. Since they are not collected on regular basis like income tax and corporate tax, as an indirect tariff on expenditures, custom duties are collected only once when commodities subject to foreign trade arrive at the custom. According to the second item of tax procedural law, custom duties are excluded from this law. Therefore, procedures and practises of custom duties are regulated by customs law numbered 4458. Through this law, a systematization has been created beginning with commodities subject to international trade entering customs territories of Turkey and continuing with operation sequence. Like all other taxes, compalsive levels such as assessment, accrual and collecting are regulated by General Directorate of Customs as a part of Customs and Economy Ministry according to Customs Law. Resolution process of disputes over customs duties has a different form from the process of other taxes. Customs duty disputes have to be resolved administratively in the first place. However, in the case of disputes not being solved administratively, legal action can be taken. Key words: Custom, Custom Duties, Custom Disputes Resim 24. Diego Rivera, Ppencere Önünde Bıçak ve Meyve, 91.8 × 92.4 cm., 1917, Mu- seo Dolores Olmedo Modigliani Montparnasse’de yaşarken o dönem- lerde arkadaşlık yaptığı kişilerin ve yukarıda bahsedilen yakın ilişkilerde bulunduğu çağdaş sanatçılarının portrelerini resimlemiştir. Bunlardan bazıları; Chaim Soutine, Moise Kisling, Pablo Picasso, Diego Rivera, Juan Gris, Max Jacob, Paul Guillaume, Jacques Lipchitz, Berthe Lipchitz, Jean Cocteau, Léopold Zborowski gibi isimler olarak sıralanabilir. Resim 25. Amedeo Modigliani, Juan Gris Portresi, 1915. Metropolitan Museum of Art Resim 26. Amedeo Modigliani, Chaim Sou- tin Portresi. 1916 MTD www.mtddergisi.com ULUSLARARASI HAKEMLİ TASARIM VE MİMARLIK DERGİSİ Mayıs / Haziran / Temmuz / Ağustos 2016 Sayı: 08 Yaz Dönemi INTERNATIONAL REFEREED JOURNAL OF DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURE May / June / July / August 2016 Issue 08 Summer ID:116 K:23 ISSN Print: 2148-8142 Online: 2148-4880 (ISO 9001-2008 Belge No / Document No: 12879 & ISO 14001-2004 Belge No / Document No: 12880) (Marka Patent No / Trademark) (2015/04018 – 2015/GE/17595) 102 UHBAB www.uhbabdergisi.com Uluslararası Hakemli BeĢeri ve Akademik Bilimler Dergisi Nisan / Mayıs / Haziran Ġlkbahar Yaz Dönemi Cilt: 4 Sayı: 12 Yıl: 2015 International Peer-Reviewed Journal of Humanities and Academic Science April / May / June Spring Summer Volume: 4 Issue: 12 Year: 2015 ID:230 K:509 Jel Kodu: K34 (ISO 9001-2008 Belge No: 12879 & ISO 14001-2004 Belge No: 12880) 1 GÜMRÜK VERGĠSĠ UYUġMAZLIKLARININ ĠDARĠ AġAMADA ÇÖZÜM YOLLARI1 ADMINISTRATIVE SOLUTIONS TO DISPUTES OVER CUSTOM DUTIES Selin KILINÇ2, Hatice YURTSEVER3 2 Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Ens. Mali Hukuk Programı Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi 3 Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Salihli MYO, DıĢ Ticaret Bölümü 1 Bu çalıĢma, Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Maliye Anabilim Dalı Mali Hukuk Programı Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi Selin KILINÇ tarafından hazırlanan Yüksek Lisans Tezinden türetilmiĢtir. Özet: Gümrük vergisi, gümrüğe tabi olan ticari eşyanın yer değiştirmesi nedeniyle, bu eşyanın miktarı veya değeri üzerinden alınan, ekonomik, sosyal ve mali fonksiyonlarının yanında önemli bir dış ticaret ve ekonomi politikası aracı olan bir vergi türüdür. Aynı zamanda harcamalar üzerinden alınan dolaylı bir vergi türü olan gümrük vergisi, gelir ve kurumlar vergisi gibi belirli aralıklarla alınan bir vergi türü olmadığından, dış ticarete konu olan eşyanın gümrüğe geldiği anda bir defaya mahsus olmak üzere alınmaktadır. Gümrük vergileri, Vergi Usul Kanunu (VUK)’nun ikinci maddesine göre bu kanun kapsamı dışında tutulmuştur. Bu nedenle, gümrük vergilerinin usul ve uygulama esasları 4458 sayılı Gümrük Kanunu’nda düzenlenmiştir. Bu kanun ile dış ticarete konu olan eşyanın Türkiye Gümrük Bölgesine girişinden başlayıp, eşyaya uygulanacak işlemlerin sırasına göre bir sistematik oluşturulmuştur. Diğer tüm vergilerde olduğu gibi gümrük vergisinde de zorunlu aşamalar olan tarh, tahakkuk ve tahsil aşamaları Gümrük ve Ticaret Bakanlığı’na bağlı ayrı bir kuruluş niteliği olan Gümrükler Genel Müdürlüğü tarafından, Gümrük Kanunu hükümlerine uygun olarak yürütülmektedir. Gümrük vergisinden doğan uyuşmazlıkların çözüm süreci, diğer vergilerde oluşan süreçten farklı bir yapıya sahiptir. Gümrük vergisi uyuşmazlıkları öncelikle idari aşamada çözümlenmek zorundadır. Ancak idari aşamada çözümlenemeyen uyuşmazlıklarda yargı yoluna başvurulabilmektedir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Gümrük, Gümrük Vergisi, Gümrük Uyuşmazlıkları Abstract: Custom duty is a kind of tariff arising from the movement of commercial commodities subject to customs which is based on those commodities’quantity and value. It is are a kind of tariff that is a foreign trade and economic policy instrument in addition to its economic, social and fiscal functions. Since they are not collected on regular basis like income tax and corporate tax, as an indirect tariff on expenditures, custom duties are collected only once when commodities subject to foreign trade arrive at the custom. According to the second item of tax procedural law, custom duties are excluded from this law. Therefore, procedures and practises of custom duties are regulated by customs law numbered 4458. Through this law, a systematization has been created beginning with commodities subject to international trade entering customs territories of Turkey and continuing with operation sequence. Like all other taxes, compalsive levels such as assessment, accrual and collecting are regulated by General Directorate of Customs as a part of Customs and Economy Ministry according to Customs Law. Resolution process of disputes over customs duties has a different form from the process of other taxes. Customs duty disputes have to be resolved administratively in the first place. However, in the case of disputes not being solved administratively, legal action can be taken. Key words: Custom, Custom Duties, Custom Disputes 4. AMEDEO MODİGLİANİ’Yİ ÇAĞDAŞ- LARINDAN AYIRAN SANATSAL TAVRI Bernard’a (2001:7) göre resim; Cezanne’ın ifa- desi ile bir meslek değil, yazgıdır. Her sanat ya- pıtı, biçim ile içerik arasındaki birlikle belirgin- leşir. Ne içerik somut bir sanatsal biçim olmadan, ne de biçim belirli bir içerik olmadan var olabilir” (Ziss,2009:128). Bu açıdan bakıldığında gördüğü nesnelerin, kendisinde uyandırdığı duyguları tu- vale aktarma düşüncesiyle eser üretme çabası, Amedeo Modigliani için vazgeçilmez bir anla- yıştır. Hiçbir zaman herhangi bir akımın gölge- sinde hareket etmemiş, her ne kadar Toulouse Lautrec, Brancusi, Picasso, Braque, Cezanne gibi sanatçıların eserlerinden etkilenip; Afrika heykel- leri, Fovizm ve Kübizm’den esinlenerek birçok denemeler yapmış olsa da deformasyon anlayışı, insan teninde kullandığı renklerin tonları ve leke- ci fırça darbeleriyle kendine özgü bir figüratif anlayış yakalayarak yüzyıllar boyunca adından söz ettirecek benzersiz tavrını ortaya koymuştur. Resim 27. Amedeo Modigliani, Kızıl Saçlı Kadın, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 92.1 × 60.6 cm., 1917. Courtesy National Gallery of Art, Washington Sanatçının resimlerini çağdaşlarından ve hatta diğer tüm ressamlardan ayıran en büyük özellik- ler; Antik Mısır resimlerini andıran portrelerinde- ki uzun boyunlar üzerinde hafifçe eğilmiş uzun başlar, düşük omuzlar, kimi zaman açık kimi zamansa kapalı badem gözler ve büzülü dudak- lardır. Resimler izleyiciyi lirik bir esintiyle şiirsel bir dünyaya götürmektedir; bu dünya ise hüznün ve bir o kadar da kalbin en derinine işleyen, ılık MTD www.mtddergisi.com ULUSLARARASI HAKEMLİ TASARIM VE MİMARLIK DERGİSİ Mayıs / Haziran / Temmuz / Ağustos 2016 Sayı: 08 Yaz Dönemi INTERNATIONAL REFEREED JOURNAL OF DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURE May / June / July / August 2016 Issue 08 Summer ID:116 K:23 ISSN Print: 2148-8142 Online: 2148-4880 (ISO 9001-2008 Belge No / Document No: 12879 & ISO 14001-2004 Belge No / Document No: 12880) (Marka Patent No / Trademark) (2015/04018 – 2015/GE/17595) 103 UHBAB www.uhbabdergisi.com Uluslararası Hakemli BeĢeri ve Akademik Bilimler Dergisi Nisan / Mayıs / Haziran Ġlkbahar Yaz Dönemi Cilt: 4 Sayı: 12 Yıl: 2015 International Peer-Reviewed Journal of Humanities and Academic Science April / May / June Spring Summer Volume: 4 Issue: 12 Year: 2015 ID:230 K:509 Jel Kodu: K34 (ISO 9001-2008 Belge No: 12879 & ISO 14001-2004 Belge No: 12880) 1 GÜMRÜK VERGĠSĠ UYUġMAZLIKLARININ ĠDARĠ AġAMADA ÇÖZÜM YOLLARI1 ADMINISTRATIVE SOLUTIONS TO DISPUTES OVER CUSTOM DUTIES Selin KILINÇ2, Hatice YURTSEVER3 2 Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Ens. Mali Hukuk Programı Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi 3 Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Salihli MYO, DıĢ Ticaret Bölümü 1 Bu çalıĢma, Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Maliye Anabilim Dalı Mali Hukuk Programı Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi Selin KILINÇ tarafından hazırlanan Yüksek Lisans Tezinden türetilmiĢtir. Özet: Gümrük vergisi, gümrüğe tabi olan ticari eşyanın yer değiştirmesi nedeniyle, bu eşyanın miktarı veya değeri üzerinden alınan, ekonomik, sosyal ve mali fonksiyonlarının yanında önemli bir dış ticaret ve ekonomi politikası aracı olan bir vergi türüdür. Aynı zamanda harcamalar üzerinden alınan dolaylı bir vergi türü olan gümrük vergisi, gelir ve kurumlar vergisi gibi belirli aralıklarla alınan bir vergi türü olmadığından, dış ticarete konu olan eşyanın gümrüğe geldiği anda bir defaya mahsus olmak üzere alınmaktadır. Gümrük vergileri, Vergi Usul Kanunu (VUK)’nun ikinci maddesine göre bu kanun kapsamı dışında tutulmuştur. Bu nedenle, gümrük vergilerinin usul ve uygulama esasları 4458 sayılı Gümrük Kanunu’nda düzenlenmiştir. Bu kanun ile dış ticarete konu olan eşyanın Türkiye Gümrük Bölgesine girişinden başlayıp, eşyaya uygulanacak işlemlerin sırasına göre bir sistematik oluşturulmuştur. Diğer tüm vergilerde olduğu gibi gümrük vergisinde de zorunlu aşamalar olan tarh, tahakkuk ve tahsil aşamaları Gümrük ve Ticaret Bakanlığı’na bağlı ayrı bir kuruluş niteliği olan Gümrükler Genel Müdürlüğü tarafından, Gümrük Kanunu hükümlerine uygun olarak yürütülmektedir. Gümrük vergisinden doğan uyuşmazlıkların çözüm süreci, diğer vergilerde oluşan süreçten farklı bir yapıya sahiptir. Gümrük vergisi uyuşmazlıkları öncelikle idari aşamada çözümlenmek zorundadır. Ancak idari aşamada çözümlenemeyen uyuşmazlıklarda yargı yoluna başvurulabilmektedir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Gümrük, Gümrük Vergisi, Gümrük Uyuşmazlıkları Abstract: Custom duty is a kind of tariff arising from the movement of commercial commodities subject to customs which is based on those commodities’quantity and value. It is are a kind of tariff that is a foreign trade and economic policy instrument in addition to its economic, social and fiscal functions. Since they are not collected on regular basis like income tax and corporate tax, as an indirect tariff on expenditures, custom duties are collected only once when commodities subject to foreign trade arrive at the custom. According to the second item of tax procedural law, custom duties are excluded from this law. Therefore, procedures and practises of custom duties are regulated by customs law numbered 4458. Through this law, a systematization has been created beginning with commodities subject to international trade entering customs territories of Turkey and continuing with operation sequence. Like all other taxes, compalsive levels such as assessment, accrual and collecting are regulated by General Directorate of Customs as a part of Customs and Economy Ministry according to Customs Law. Resolution process of disputes over customs duties has a different form from the process of other taxes. Customs duty disputes have to be resolved administratively in the first place. However, in the case of disputes not being solved administratively, legal action can be taken. Key words: Custom, Custom Duties, Custom Disputes bir dokunuşun dünyasıdır. Her bir resim, sanatçı- nın iç dünyasını yansıtan tarifsiz hislerin dışavu- rumu ile zenginleştirilmiş ve yalınlığı ön plana çıkaran yumuşak fırça darbeleriyle etkileyici bir duygu yoğunluğu ile bütünleşmiştir. Resim 28. Amedeo Modigliani, Çingene Ka- dın ve Bebek, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 115.9 x 73 cm., 1919, Courtesy National Gal- lery of Art, Washington Çarpıcı bir yalınlıkla vurgular yaptığı figürlerinde uyguladığı deformasyonları dengeli kompozis- yonlarla ortaya koyan sanatçı resimlerini; ritim, denge, uyum, ahenk, oran-orantı gibi temel tasa- rım unsurlarını içinde ustalıkla barındıran, özen- le planlanmış ve izleyicinin gözlerinin kendisinin işaret etmek istediği yerlerde gezinmesini sağla- yacak renk tonlamalarıyla düzenlemiştir. Tüm resimlerde fark edilen bu tavır, kişilerin esrarengiz karakterlerinin buğulu bir yansıması olarak algı- lanmakta ve resimlerdeki karakterler hakkında merak uyandırıcı duygulara sebep olarak, resim- lere farklı bir çekicilik kazandırmaktadır. Resim 29. Amedeo Modigliani, Odette Hay- den, 92x60 cm., Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 1918. Musée National d’Art Moderne, Cent- re Georges Pompidou, Paris MTD www.mtddergisi.com ULUSLARARASI HAKEMLİ TASARIM VE MİMARLIK DERGİSİ Mayıs / Haziran / Temmuz / Ağustos 2016 Sayı: 08 Yaz Dönemi INTERNATIONAL REFEREED JOURNAL OF DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURE May / June / July / August 2016 Issue 08 Summer ID:116 K:23 ISSN Print: 2148-8142 Online: 2148-4880 (ISO 9001-2008 Belge No / Document No: 12879 & ISO 14001-2004 Belge No / Document No: 12880) (Marka Patent No / Trademark) (2015/04018 – 2015/GE/17595) 104 UHBAB www.uhbabdergisi.com Uluslararası Hakemli BeĢeri ve Akademik Bilimler Dergisi Nisan / Mayıs / Haziran Ġlkbahar Yaz Dönemi Cilt: 4 Sayı: 12 Yıl: 2015 International Peer-Reviewed Journal of Humanities and Academic Science April / May / June Spring Summer Volume: 4 Issue: 12 Year: 2015 ID:230 K:509 Jel Kodu: K34 (ISO 9001-2008 Belge No: 12879 & ISO 14001-2004 Belge No: 12880) 1 GÜMRÜK VERGĠSĠ UYUġMAZLIKLARININ ĠDARĠ AġAMADA ÇÖZÜM YOLLARI1 ADMINISTRATIVE SOLUTIONS TO DISPUTES OVER CUSTOM DUTIES Selin KILINÇ2, Hatice YURTSEVER3 2 Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Ens. Mali Hukuk Programı Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi 3 Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Salihli MYO, DıĢ Ticaret Bölümü 1 Bu çalıĢma, Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Maliye Anabilim Dalı Mali Hukuk Programı Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi Selin KILINÇ tarafından hazırlanan Yüksek Lisans Tezinden türetilmiĢtir. Özet: Gümrük vergisi, gümrüğe tabi olan ticari eşyanın yer değiştirmesi nedeniyle, bu eşyanın miktarı veya değeri üzerinden alınan, ekonomik, sosyal ve mali fonksiyonlarının yanında önemli bir dış ticaret ve ekonomi politikası aracı olan bir vergi türüdür. Aynı zamanda harcamalar üzerinden alınan dolaylı bir vergi türü olan gümrük vergisi, gelir ve kurumlar vergisi gibi belirli aralıklarla alınan bir vergi türü olmadığından, dış ticarete konu olan eşyanın gümrüğe geldiği anda bir defaya mahsus olmak üzere alınmaktadır. Gümrük vergileri, Vergi Usul Kanunu (VUK)’nun ikinci maddesine göre bu kanun kapsamı dışında tutulmuştur. Bu nedenle, gümrük vergilerinin usul ve uygulama esasları 4458 sayılı Gümrük Kanunu’nda düzenlenmiştir. Bu kanun ile dış ticarete konu olan eşyanın Türkiye Gümrük Bölgesine girişinden başlayıp, eşyaya uygulanacak işlemlerin sırasına göre bir sistematik oluşturulmuştur. Diğer tüm vergilerde olduğu gibi gümrük vergisinde de zorunlu aşamalar olan tarh, tahakkuk ve tahsil aşamaları Gümrük ve Ticaret Bakanlığı’na bağlı ayrı bir kuruluş niteliği olan Gümrükler Genel Müdürlüğü tarafından, Gümrük Kanunu hükümlerine uygun olarak yürütülmektedir. Gümrük vergisinden doğan uyuşmazlıkların çözüm süreci, diğer vergilerde oluşan süreçten farklı bir yapıya sahiptir. Gümrük vergisi uyuşmazlıkları öncelikle idari aşamada çözümlenmek zorundadır. Ancak idari aşamada çözümlenemeyen uyuşmazlıklarda yargı yoluna başvurulabilmektedir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Gümrük, Gümrük Vergisi, Gümrük Uyuşmazlıkları Abstract: Custom duty is a kind of tariff arising from the movement of commercial commodities subject to customs which is based on those commodities’quantity and value. It is are a kind of tariff that is a foreign trade and economic policy instrument in addition to its economic, social and fiscal functions. Since they are not collected on regular basis like income tax and corporate tax, as an indirect tariff on expenditures, custom duties are collected only once when commodities subject to foreign trade arrive at the custom. According to the second item of tax procedural law, custom duties are excluded from this law. Therefore, procedures and practises of custom duties are regulated by customs law numbered 4458. Through this law, a systematization has been created beginning with commodities subject to international trade entering customs territories of Turkey and continuing with operation sequence. Like all other taxes, compalsive levels such as assessment, accrual and collecting are regulated by General Directorate of Customs as a part of Customs and Economy Ministry according to Customs Law. Resolution process of disputes over customs duties has a different form from the process of other taxes. Customs duty disputes have to be resolved administratively in the first place. However, in the case of disputes not being solved administratively, legal action can be taken. Key words: Custom, Custom Duties, Custom Disputes Resim 29’da, sanatçının ön plana yerleştirdiği olabildiğince koyu tonlarla boyanmış figürün narin ve zarif duruşunun yanı sıra kullanılan canlı ten rengi ve dudakta fark edilen parlak kır- mızı, figüre oranla daha açık tonlardaki arka fonun önünde oldukça durağan bir tavır görülmekte, izleyicinin gözleri ise tüm eser üzerinde gezin- mektedir. Sanatçının eserlerinde kullanmayı seçtiği açık-koyu renk değerleri ile zaman zaman karşılaşılan solgun tonlar, dalgın bakışlı melan- kolik karakterlerin hayatındaki izleri izleyiciye aktarmakta ve figürlerinin sadece algılanan görü- nüşleri değil, ruhları da resimlere hapsedilmekte- dir. Ziss’e (2009:68) göre; gerçek olayın bütün varlığını değil de, yalnızca onun “canlı ruhunu” yansıtmak isteyen sanatçı, ruhunu görmediğini iddia ettiği modellerinin göz oyuntulularını boş bırakarak çalışmıştır. Resim 30. Amedeo Modigliani, Siyah Kra- vatlı Kadın, 1917 Modigliani’nin sanat hayatı boyunca yaptığı portreleri kadar nü eserleri de oldukça dikkat çekicidir. Sanatçının Paris’te yaşadığı ilk yıllarda ele aldığı çalışmalarının bulunduğu, Paris Okulu ile birlikte açılmış olan ilk sergide, müstehcenlik gerekçesiyle resimleri Fransa Hükümeti tarafından toplatılmıştır (Turani,2004:627). Sanatçının 1917’de Paris’teki Galeri Berthe Weill’de açtığı serginin ise yaşamı boyunca gerçekleşen tek kişisel sergi- si olduğu bilinmektedir. Berger’e (2011:53) göre, çıplak olmak giysisiz olmaktır. Nü ise bir sanat biçimidir. Bu açıdan bakıldığında çıplak resimle- MTD www.mtddergisi.com ULUSLARARASI HAKEMLİ TASARIM VE MİMARLIK DERGİSİ Mayıs / Haziran / Temmuz / Ağustos 2016 Sayı: 08 Yaz Dönemi INTERNATIONAL REFEREED JOURNAL OF DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURE May / June / July / August 2016 Issue 08 Summer ID:116 K:23 ISSN Print: 2148-8142 Online: 2148-4880 (ISO 9001-2008 Belge No / Document No: 12879 & ISO 14001-2004 Belge No / Document No: 12880) (Marka Patent No / Trademark) (2015/04018 – 2015/GE/17595) 105 UHBAB www.uhbabdergisi.com Uluslararası Hakemli BeĢeri ve Akademik Bilimler Dergisi Nisan / Mayıs / Haziran Ġlkbahar Yaz Dönemi Cilt: 4 Sayı: 12 Yıl: 2015 International Peer-Reviewed Journal of Humanities and Academic Science April / May / June Spring Summer Volume: 4 Issue: 12 Year: 2015 ID:230 K:509 Jel Kodu: K34 (ISO 9001-2008 Belge No: 12879 & ISO 14001-2004 Belge No: 12880) 1 GÜMRÜK VERGĠSĠ UYUġMAZLIKLARININ ĠDARĠ AġAMADA ÇÖZÜM YOLLARI1 ADMINISTRATIVE SOLUTIONS TO DISPUTES OVER CUSTOM DUTIES Selin KILINÇ2, Hatice YURTSEVER3 2 Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Ens. Mali Hukuk Programı Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi 3 Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Salihli MYO, DıĢ Ticaret Bölümü 1 Bu çalıĢma, Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Maliye Anabilim Dalı Mali Hukuk Programı Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi Selin KILINÇ tarafından hazırlanan Yüksek Lisans Tezinden türetilmiĢtir. Özet: Gümrük vergisi, gümrüğe tabi olan ticari eşyanın yer değiştirmesi nedeniyle, bu eşyanın miktarı veya değeri üzerinden alınan, ekonomik, sosyal ve mali fonksiyonlarının yanında önemli bir dış ticaret ve ekonomi politikası aracı olan bir vergi türüdür. Aynı zamanda harcamalar üzerinden alınan dolaylı bir vergi türü olan gümrük vergisi, gelir ve kurumlar vergisi gibi belirli aralıklarla alınan bir vergi türü olmadığından, dış ticarete konu olan eşyanın gümrüğe geldiği anda bir defaya mahsus olmak üzere alınmaktadır. Gümrük vergileri, Vergi Usul Kanunu (VUK)’nun ikinci maddesine göre bu kanun kapsamı dışında tutulmuştur. Bu nedenle, gümrük vergilerinin usul ve uygulama esasları 4458 sayılı Gümrük Kanunu’nda düzenlenmiştir. Bu kanun ile dış ticarete konu olan eşyanın Türkiye Gümrük Bölgesine girişinden başlayıp, eşyaya uygulanacak işlemlerin sırasına göre bir sistematik oluşturulmuştur. Diğer tüm vergilerde olduğu gibi gümrük vergisinde de zorunlu aşamalar olan tarh, tahakkuk ve tahsil aşamaları Gümrük ve Ticaret Bakanlığı’na bağlı ayrı bir kuruluş niteliği olan Gümrükler Genel Müdürlüğü tarafından, Gümrük Kanunu hükümlerine uygun olarak yürütülmektedir. Gümrük vergisinden doğan uyuşmazlıkların çözüm süreci, diğer vergilerde oluşan süreçten farklı bir yapıya sahiptir. Gümrük vergisi uyuşmazlıkları öncelikle idari aşamada çözümlenmek zorundadır. Ancak idari aşamada çözümlenemeyen uyuşmazlıklarda yargı yoluna başvurulabilmektedir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Gümrük, Gümrük Vergisi, Gümrük Uyuşmazlıkları Abstract: Custom duty is a kind of tariff arising from the movement of commercial commodities subject to customs which is based on those commodities’quantity and value. It is are a kind of tariff that is a foreign trade and economic policy instrument in addition to its economic, social and fiscal functions. Since they are not collected on regular basis like income tax and corporate tax, as an indirect tariff on expenditures, custom duties are collected only once when commodities subject to foreign trade arrive at the custom. According to the second item of tax procedural law, custom duties are excluded from this law. Therefore, procedures and practises of custom duties are regulated by customs law numbered 4458. Through this law, a systematization has been created beginning with commodities subject to international trade entering customs territories of Turkey and continuing with operation sequence. Like all other taxes, compalsive levels such as assessment, accrual and collecting are regulated by General Directorate of Customs as a part of Customs and Economy Ministry according to Customs Law. Resolution process of disputes over customs duties has a different form from the process of other taxes. Customs duty disputes have to be resolved administratively in the first place. However, in the case of disputes not being solved administratively, legal action can be taken. Key words: Custom, Custom Duties, Custom Disputes rin sanatçı için, estetik açıdan mükemmel bir biçimde yaratılmış kadın bedeninin resimlerdeki kompozisyonlara özgürce yansıtılabilecek eşsiz bir tema olarak değerlendirildiği düşünülebilir. Modigliani’nin nüleri; diğer tüm resimlerinde olduğu gibi ekspresyonist, duygusal ve dramatik özelliktedir. Saf renkleri ve deforme edilmiş fi- gürleri ile bütünüyle modern olarak yansıtılmıştır. Eserler gerçekçi olmaktan çok, içgüdüsel bir gi- zemi barındır ve erotik olarak algılanmaz. Port- relerinde geliştirdiği uzatılmış biçimler ve yalın hatların yanı sıra, rahat bir tavır sergileyen figür- lerinde sanatçının açıkça fark edilen karakteristik stili, nü çalışmalarında da gözlenmekte ve kadın temasına yüklenen anlam hiçbir zaman cinsel dürtüleri tetikleyen bir obje olarak resmedilme- mektedir. Figürler tamamı ile çıplak olarak gö- rünmekte ve davetkar rahat tavırlar sergiliyor olsalar bile, bakıldığında herhangi bir insanı tahrik etmenin uzağında olmakla birlikte, sanat- çının benzersiz üslubunu ön plana çıkaran ve onun ustalığını açıkça belli eden özgün plastik unsur- ların göstergesi niteliğinde eserler olarak değer- lendirilmektedir. Resim 31. Amedeo Modigliani, Divanda Otu- ran Çıplak, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 100cm. x 60 cm.,1917, Özel Koleksiyon MTD www.mtddergisi.com ULUSLARARASI HAKEMLİ TASARIM VE MİMARLIK DERGİSİ Mayıs / Haziran / Temmuz / Ağustos 2016 Sayı: 08 Yaz Dönemi INTERNATIONAL REFEREED JOURNAL OF DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURE May / June / July / August 2016 Issue 08 Summer ID:116 K:23 ISSN Print: 2148-8142 Online: 2148-4880 (ISO 9001-2008 Belge No / Document No: 12879 & ISO 14001-2004 Belge No / Document No: 12880) (Marka Patent No / Trademark) (2015/04018 – 2015/GE/17595) 106 UHBAB www.uhbabdergisi.com Uluslararası Hakemli BeĢeri ve Akademik Bilimler Dergisi Nisan / Mayıs / Haziran Ġlkbahar Yaz Dönemi Cilt: 4 Sayı: 12 Yıl: 2015 International Peer-Reviewed Journal of Humanities and Academic Science April / May / June Spring Summer Volume: 4 Issue: 12 Year: 2015 ID:230 K:509 Jel Kodu: K34 (ISO 9001-2008 Belge No: 12879 & ISO 14001-2004 Belge No: 12880) 1 GÜMRÜK VERGĠSĠ UYUġMAZLIKLARININ ĠDARĠ AġAMADA ÇÖZÜM YOLLARI1 ADMINISTRATIVE SOLUTIONS TO DISPUTES OVER CUSTOM DUTIES Selin KILINÇ2, Hatice YURTSEVER3 2 Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Ens. Mali Hukuk Programı Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi 3 Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Salihli MYO, DıĢ Ticaret Bölümü 1 Bu çalıĢma, Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Maliye Anabilim Dalı Mali Hukuk Programı Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi Selin KILINÇ tarafından hazırlanan Yüksek Lisans Tezinden türetilmiĢtir. Özet: Gümrük vergisi, gümrüğe tabi olan ticari eşyanın yer değiştirmesi nedeniyle, bu eşyanın miktarı veya değeri üzerinden alınan, ekonomik, sosyal ve mali fonksiyonlarının yanında önemli bir dış ticaret ve ekonomi politikası aracı olan bir vergi türüdür. Aynı zamanda harcamalar üzerinden alınan dolaylı bir vergi türü olan gümrük vergisi, gelir ve kurumlar vergisi gibi belirli aralıklarla alınan bir vergi türü olmadığından, dış ticarete konu olan eşyanın gümrüğe geldiği anda bir defaya mahsus olmak üzere alınmaktadır. Gümrük vergileri, Vergi Usul Kanunu (VUK)’nun ikinci maddesine göre bu kanun kapsamı dışında tutulmuştur. Bu nedenle, gümrük vergilerinin usul ve uygulama esasları 4458 sayılı Gümrük Kanunu’nda düzenlenmiştir. Bu kanun ile dış ticarete konu olan eşyanın Türkiye Gümrük Bölgesine girişinden başlayıp, eşyaya uygulanacak işlemlerin sırasına göre bir sistematik oluşturulmuştur. Diğer tüm vergilerde olduğu gibi gümrük vergisinde de zorunlu aşamalar olan tarh, tahakkuk ve tahsil aşamaları Gümrük ve Ticaret Bakanlığı’na bağlı ayrı bir kuruluş niteliği olan Gümrükler Genel Müdürlüğü tarafından, Gümrük Kanunu hükümlerine uygun olarak yürütülmektedir. Gümrük vergisinden doğan uyuşmazlıkların çözüm süreci, diğer vergilerde oluşan süreçten farklı bir yapıya sahiptir. Gümrük vergisi uyuşmazlıkları öncelikle idari aşamada çözümlenmek zorundadır. Ancak idari aşamada çözümlenemeyen uyuşmazlıklarda yargı yoluna başvurulabilmektedir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Gümrük, Gümrük Vergisi, Gümrük Uyuşmazlıkları Abstract: Custom duty is a kind of tariff arising from the movement of commercial commodities subject to customs which is based on those commodities’quantity and value. It is are a kind of tariff that is a foreign trade and economic policy instrument in addition to its economic, social and fiscal functions. Since they are not collected on regular basis like income tax and corporate tax, as an indirect tariff on expenditures, custom duties are collected only once when commodities subject to foreign trade arrive at the custom. According to the second item of tax procedural law, custom duties are excluded from this law. Therefore, procedures and practises of custom duties are regulated by customs law numbered 4458. Through this law, a systematization has been created beginning with commodities subject to international trade entering customs territories of Turkey and continuing with operation sequence. Like all other taxes, compalsive levels such as assessment, accrual and collecting are regulated by General Directorate of Customs as a part of Customs and Economy Ministry according to Customs Law. Resolution process of disputes over customs duties has a different form from the process of other taxes. Customs duty disputes have to be resolved administratively in the first place. However, in the case of disputes not being solved administratively, legal action can be taken. Key words: Custom, Custom Duties, Custom Disputes Resim 32. Amedeo Modigliani, Uzanan Çıp- lak, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 60 x 92.2 cm., 1917, Osaka City Museum of Modern Art, Japonya Modigliani’nin resimlerine sık sık konu olmuş bir kadın olarak Jeanne Hebuterne, sanatçının trajik, bohem, yoksul ve kısa hayatına sığdırdığı en önemli kişilerden birisidir. Kötü yaşam koşulları, fazlaca alkol ve uyuşturucu kullanması sonucu rahatsızlanmasına sebep olan hastalıklarla baş ettiği yıllarda ve hayatını kaybettiği 1920 yılına kadar çalkantılı bir birliktelik yaşadığı hatta bir kız çocuğu sahibi olduğu Jeanne Hebuterne’in, sanatçının ölümüne dayanamayarak, ikinci çocu- ğuna hamile olarak intihar ettiği de bilinmektedir. Büyük bir sadelik ve zarafet içerisinde kendine özgü görsel dili ile ifade ettiği Jeanne resimleri, sanatçının tüm hassasiyeti ve içtenliğiyle ortaya koyduğu eserlerle dünyadaki başyapıtlar arasında yer almakta ve diğer tüm eserleri gibi benzersiz üslubuna yönelik yorumlamalarla ölümsüzleş- mektedir. Resim 33. Amedeo Modigliani, Oturan Çıp- lak, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, Oil on canvas. 73 x 116 cm., 1917, Koninklijk Museum voor Schone Kunsten, Antwerp, Belçika MTD www.mtddergisi.com ULUSLARARASI HAKEMLİ TASARIM VE MİMARLIK DERGİSİ Mayıs / Haziran / Temmuz / Ağustos 2016 Sayı: 08 Yaz Dönemi INTERNATIONAL REFEREED JOURNAL OF DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURE May / June / July / August 2016 Issue 08 Summer ID:116 K:23 ISSN Print: 2148-8142 Online: 2148-4880 (ISO 9001-2008 Belge No / Document No: 12879 & ISO 14001-2004 Belge No / Document No: 12880) (Marka Patent No / Trademark) (2015/04018 – 2015/GE/17595) 107 UHBAB www.uhbabdergisi.com Uluslararası Hakemli BeĢeri ve Akademik Bilimler Dergisi Nisan / Mayıs / Haziran Ġlkbahar Yaz Dönemi Cilt: 4 Sayı: 12 Yıl: 2015 International Peer-Reviewed Journal of Humanities and Academic Science April / May / June Spring Summer Volume: 4 Issue: 12 Year: 2015 ID:230 K:509 Jel Kodu: K34 (ISO 9001-2008 Belge No: 12879 & ISO 14001-2004 Belge No: 12880) 1 GÜMRÜK VERGĠSĠ UYUġMAZLIKLARININ ĠDARĠ AġAMADA ÇÖZÜM YOLLARI1 ADMINISTRATIVE SOLUTIONS TO DISPUTES OVER CUSTOM DUTIES Selin KILINÇ2, Hatice YURTSEVER3 2 Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Ens. Mali Hukuk Programı Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi 3 Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Salihli MYO, DıĢ Ticaret Bölümü 1 Bu çalıĢma, Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Maliye Anabilim Dalı Mali Hukuk Programı Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi Selin KILINÇ tarafından hazırlanan Yüksek Lisans Tezinden türetilmiĢtir. Özet: Gümrük vergisi, gümrüğe tabi olan ticari eşyanın yer değiştirmesi nedeniyle, bu eşyanın miktarı veya değeri üzerinden alınan, ekonomik, sosyal ve mali fonksiyonlarının yanında önemli bir dış ticaret ve ekonomi politikası aracı olan bir vergi türüdür. Aynı zamanda harcamalar üzerinden alınan dolaylı bir vergi türü olan gümrük vergisi, gelir ve kurumlar vergisi gibi belirli aralıklarla alınan bir vergi türü olmadığından, dış ticarete konu olan eşyanın gümrüğe geldiği anda bir defaya mahsus olmak üzere alınmaktadır. Gümrük vergileri, Vergi Usul Kanunu (VUK)’nun ikinci maddesine göre bu kanun kapsamı dışında tutulmuştur. Bu nedenle, gümrük vergilerinin usul ve uygulama esasları 4458 sayılı Gümrük Kanunu’nda düzenlenmiştir. Bu kanun ile dış ticarete konu olan eşyanın Türkiye Gümrük Bölgesine girişinden başlayıp, eşyaya uygulanacak işlemlerin sırasına göre bir sistematik oluşturulmuştur. Diğer tüm vergilerde olduğu gibi gümrük vergisinde de zorunlu aşamalar olan tarh, tahakkuk ve tahsil aşamaları Gümrük ve Ticaret Bakanlığı’na bağlı ayrı bir kuruluş niteliği olan Gümrükler Genel Müdürlüğü tarafından, Gümrük Kanunu hükümlerine uygun olarak yürütülmektedir. Gümrük vergisinden doğan uyuşmazlıkların çözüm süreci, diğer vergilerde oluşan süreçten farklı bir yapıya sahiptir. Gümrük vergisi uyuşmazlıkları öncelikle idari aşamada çözümlenmek zorundadır. Ancak idari aşamada çözümlenemeyen uyuşmazlıklarda yargı yoluna başvurulabilmektedir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Gümrük, Gümrük Vergisi, Gümrük Uyuşmazlıkları Abstract: Custom duty is a kind of tariff arising from the movement of commercial commodities subject to customs which is based on those commodities’quantity and value. It is are a kind of tariff that is a foreign trade and economic policy instrument in addition to its economic, social and fiscal functions. Since they are not collected on regular basis like income tax and corporate tax, as an indirect tariff on expenditures, custom duties are collected only once when commodities subject to foreign trade arrive at the custom. According to the second item of tax procedural law, custom duties are excluded from this law. Therefore, procedures and practises of custom duties are regulated by customs law numbered 4458. Through this law, a systematization has been created beginning with commodities subject to international trade entering customs territories of Turkey and continuing with operation sequence. Like all other taxes, compalsive levels such as assessment, accrual and collecting are regulated by General Directorate of Customs as a part of Customs and Economy Ministry according to Customs Law. Resolution process of disputes over customs duties has a different form from the process of other taxes. Customs duty disputes have to be resolved administratively in the first place. However, in the case of disputes not being solved administratively, legal action can be taken. Key words: Custom, Custom Duties, Custom Disputes Resim 34. Amedeo Modigliani, Jeanne He- buterne, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 46 x 29 cm., 1918 Resim 35. Amedeo Modigliani, Jeanne He- buterne, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 91.4 x 73 cm., 1918, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City Kendine özgü, içe dönük bir üslup geliştiren Amedeo Modigliani, 36 yaş gibi çok kısa bir yaşam süresi içerisinde ortaya koyduğu resimle- ri ile kendisine dünyanın en prestijli müzelerinin en değerli sanatçılarından birisi olarak kimlik kazandırmış; duygusal anlatımları, lirik ifadeleri ve benzersiz üslubu ile satış rekorlarına imza atmış, 1900’lü yılların Paris sanat ortamına kat- tığı eserlerle ölümsüzleşen özgün sanatçılarından birisi olarak kabul edilmektedir. MTD www.mtddergisi.com ULUSLARARASI HAKEMLİ TASARIM VE MİMARLIK DERGİSİ Mayıs / Haziran / Temmuz / Ağustos 2016 Sayı: 08 Yaz Dönemi INTERNATIONAL REFEREED JOURNAL OF DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURE May / June / July / August 2016 Issue 08 Summer ID:116 K:23 ISSN Print: 2148-8142 Online: 2148-4880 (ISO 9001-2008 Belge No / Document No: 12879 & ISO 14001-2004 Belge No / Document No: 12880) (Marka Patent No / Trademark) (2015/04018 – 2015/GE/17595) 108 UHBAB www.uhbabdergisi.com Uluslararası Hakemli BeĢeri ve Akademik Bilimler Dergisi Nisan / Mayıs / Haziran Ġlkbahar Yaz Dönemi Cilt: 4 Sayı: 12 Yıl: 2015 International Peer-Reviewed Journal of Humanities and Academic Science April / May / June Spring Summer Volume: 4 Issue: 12 Year: 2015 ID:230 K:509 Jel Kodu: K34 (ISO 9001-2008 Belge No: 12879 & ISO 14001-2004 Belge No: 12880) 1 GÜMRÜK VERGĠSĠ UYUġMAZLIKLARININ ĠDARĠ AġAMADA ÇÖZÜM YOLLARI1 ADMINISTRATIVE SOLUTIONS TO DISPUTES OVER CUSTOM DUTIES Selin KILINÇ2, Hatice YURTSEVER3 2 Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Ens. Mali Hukuk Programı Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi 3 Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Salihli MYO, DıĢ Ticaret Bölümü 1 Bu çalıĢma, Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Maliye Anabilim Dalı Mali Hukuk Programı Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi Selin KILINÇ tarafından hazırlanan Yüksek Lisans Tezinden türetilmiĢtir. Özet: Gümrük vergisi, gümrüğe tabi olan ticari eşyanın yer değiştirmesi nedeniyle, bu eşyanın miktarı veya değeri üzerinden alınan, ekonomik, sosyal ve mali fonksiyonlarının yanında önemli bir dış ticaret ve ekonomi politikası aracı olan bir vergi türüdür. Aynı zamanda harcamalar üzerinden alınan dolaylı bir vergi türü olan gümrük vergisi, gelir ve kurumlar vergisi gibi belirli aralıklarla alınan bir vergi türü olmadığından, dış ticarete konu olan eşyanın gümrüğe geldiği anda bir defaya mahsus olmak üzere alınmaktadır. Gümrük vergileri, Vergi Usul Kanunu (VUK)’nun ikinci maddesine göre bu kanun kapsamı dışında tutulmuştur. Bu nedenle, gümrük vergilerinin usul ve uygulama esasları 4458 sayılı Gümrük Kanunu’nda düzenlenmiştir. Bu kanun ile dış ticarete konu olan eşyanın Türkiye Gümrük Bölgesine girişinden başlayıp, eşyaya uygulanacak işlemlerin sırasına göre bir sistematik oluşturulmuştur. Diğer tüm vergilerde olduğu gibi gümrük vergisinde de zorunlu aşamalar olan tarh, tahakkuk ve tahsil aşamaları Gümrük ve Ticaret Bakanlığı’na bağlı ayrı bir kuruluş niteliği olan Gümrükler Genel Müdürlüğü tarafından, Gümrük Kanunu hükümlerine uygun olarak yürütülmektedir. Gümrük vergisinden doğan uyuşmazlıkların çözüm süreci, diğer vergilerde oluşan süreçten farklı bir yapıya sahiptir. Gümrük vergisi uyuşmazlıkları öncelikle idari aşamada çözümlenmek zorundadır. Ancak idari aşamada çözümlenemeyen uyuşmazlıklarda yargı yoluna başvurulabilmektedir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Gümrük, Gümrük Vergisi, Gümrük Uyuşmazlıkları Abstract: Custom duty is a kind of tariff arising from the movement of commercial commodities subject to customs which is based on those commodities’quantity and value. It is are a kind of tariff that is a foreign trade and economic policy instrument in addition to its economic, social and fiscal functions. Since they are not collected on regular basis like income tax and corporate tax, as an indirect tariff on expenditures, custom duties are collected only once when commodities subject to foreign trade arrive at the custom. According to the second item of tax procedural law, custom duties are excluded from this law. Therefore, procedures and practises of custom duties are regulated by customs law numbered 4458. Through this law, a systematization has been created beginning with commodities subject to international trade entering customs territories of Turkey and continuing with operation sequence. Like all other taxes, compalsive levels such as assessment, accrual and collecting are regulated by General Directorate of Customs as a part of Customs and Economy Ministry according to Customs Law. Resolution process of disputes over customs duties has a different form from the process of other taxes. Customs duty disputes have to be resolved administratively in the first place. However, in the case of disputes not being solved administratively, legal action can be taken. Key words: Custom, Custom Duties, Custom Disputes 5. SONUÇ 19. Yüzyıl resminde yaygın olarak tarih, mitolo- ji, din, günlük yaşam ve manzara gibi konuların betimlenmesine yer verilirken; makineleşme ça- ğının beraberinde getirdiği bir takım sanat hare- ketleri ile 20.yy.’ın başlarında sanatçıların özgün üsluplarını ortaya çıkarmalarına olanaklar sağlan- dığı yıllarda, önceleri dışavurumcu anlayışla re- simler üreten ressam Amedeo Modigliani; 1906 yılında sanatın merkezi kabul edilen Paris’e yerleşmesi ve ünlü heykeltıraş Constantin Bran- cuşi ile tanışmasının ardından heykele yönelmiş, Afrika Primitif Sanatı’nın izlerini taşıyan, uzatma temelindeki deformasyon anlayışı, ince yüz hat- ları ve çukur gözler gibi detaylar ile ön plana çıkan heykeller üretmeye başlamıştır. Bir takım sağlık problemleri sebebiyle heykelden uzaklaşa- rak resme yönelen sanatçının resimlerindeki tavrına bakıldığında; Toulouse Lautrec, Picasso, Braque ve Cezanne gibi sanatçılardan etkilenmiş, Afrika heykelleri, Fovizm ve Kübizm’den esin- lenmiş ve portrelerinin yanı sıra nü figürleri ile de tanınmıştır. Paris’e geldiğinde ilk olarak Le Bateau – Lavoir’a, 1913’te ise Montparnasse’a yerleşen sanatçı şeh- rin sanatsal odak noktalarından biri olmuş ve giderek Montmartre’nin yerini almış bu ortamda; günümüze izler bırakan dönemin birçok sanatçı- sı ile komşuluk yapmış, arkadaşlıklar kurmuş ve portrelerini çalışmıştır. Bunlar; Pablo Picasso, Wilhelm Lehmbruck, Alexander Archipenko, Maurice Utrillo, Max Jacob, Jules Pascin, Moise Kisling, Chaim Soutine, Juan Gris, Diego Rivera, Max Jacob, Beatrice Hastings, Guillaume Apol- linaire ve Leopold Zborowski olarak, sanat ve edebiyat alanında tanınmış kişiler olarak sırala- nabilir. Sanatçının yalınlıkla vurgulanmış eserlerindeki karakteristik özellikler; uzun boyunlar, eğik uzun başlar, düşük omuzlar, badem gözler ve büzülü dudaklara sahip figürler ile kompozisyonun bü- tününe yansıyan duygu dolu lirik, şiirsel, hüzün- lü ifadelerdir. Çoğunlukla tek bir figür barındıran eserler saf renkleri ve deforme edilmiş figürleri ile ekspresyonist anlayışla duygusal ve dramatik olarak yansıtılmış portrelerdeki gibi sanatçının nülerinde de modern olarak resimlenmiş ve çıplak olmasına rağmen erotizmden uzak, kadın bede- ninin estetik açıdan mükemmelliğini vurgulayacak nitelikte bir sezgi ve duygusallıkla resmedilmiştir. Uçlarda yaşadığı hayatı filmlere bile konu olan Amedeo Modigliani, sanatını da hayat tarzı gibi uçlarda yaşayarak şekillendirmiştir. Fırtınalı aşk- ları, alkole olan tutkusu ve gece hayatına düşkün- lüğü, kendisini Modigliani yapan gerçekleri ol- muştur. Gözleri görünmeyen uzun boyunlu kadın portrelerinde ortaya koyduğu dışa vurumcu imza gerektirmeyen üslubu Amedeo Modigliani’nin tartışılmaz sanatsal gerçekliğidir. Figürlerini ele alış tarzı ve tuvalden izleyiciye akan duygu yo- ğunluğu, tuvalin köşesine yazılan bir isimden çok daha fazlasıdır. Her fırça darbesinde, Paris sokak- larından beslediği hikayeler, hissettiği coşkulu duygu yoğunluğu ve hayatında iz bırakan ikona- MTD www.mtddergisi.com ULUSLARARASI HAKEMLİ TASARIM VE MİMARLIK DERGİSİ Mayıs / Haziran / Temmuz / Ağustos 2016 Sayı: 08 Yaz Dönemi INTERNATIONAL REFEREED JOURNAL OF DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURE May / June / July / August 2016 Issue 08 Summer ID:116 K:23 ISSN Print: 2148-8142 Online: 2148-4880 (ISO 9001-2008 Belge No / Document No: 12879 & ISO 14001-2004 Belge No / Document No: 12880) (Marka Patent No / Trademark) (2015/04018 – 2015/GE/17595) 109 UHBAB www.uhbabdergisi.com Uluslararası Hakemli BeĢeri ve Akademik Bilimler Dergisi Nisan / Mayıs / Haziran Ġlkbahar Yaz Dönemi Cilt: 4 Sayı: 12 Yıl: 2015 International Peer-Reviewed Journal of Humanities and Academic Science April / May / June Spring Summer Volume: 4 Issue: 12 Year: 2015 ID:230 K:509 Jel Kodu: K34 (ISO 9001-2008 Belge No: 12879 & ISO 14001-2004 Belge No: 12880) 1 GÜMRÜK VERGĠSĠ UYUġMAZLIKLARININ ĠDARĠ AġAMADA ÇÖZÜM YOLLARI1 ADMINISTRATIVE SOLUTIONS TO DISPUTES OVER CUSTOM DUTIES Selin KILINÇ2, Hatice YURTSEVER3 2 Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Ens. Mali Hukuk Programı Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi 3 Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Salihli MYO, DıĢ Ticaret Bölümü 1 Bu çalıĢma, Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Maliye Anabilim Dalı Mali Hukuk Programı Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi Selin KILINÇ tarafından hazırlanan Yüksek Lisans Tezinden türetilmiĢtir. Özet: Gümrük vergisi, gümrüğe tabi olan ticari eşyanın yer değiştirmesi nedeniyle, bu eşyanın miktarı veya değeri üzerinden alınan, ekonomik, sosyal ve mali fonksiyonlarının yanında önemli bir dış ticaret ve ekonomi politikası aracı olan bir vergi türüdür. Aynı zamanda harcamalar üzerinden alınan dolaylı bir vergi türü olan gümrük vergisi, gelir ve kurumlar vergisi gibi belirli aralıklarla alınan bir vergi türü olmadığından, dış ticarete konu olan eşyanın gümrüğe geldiği anda bir defaya mahsus olmak üzere alınmaktadır. Gümrük vergileri, Vergi Usul Kanunu (VUK)’nun ikinci maddesine göre bu kanun kapsamı dışında tutulmuştur. Bu nedenle, gümrük vergilerinin usul ve uygulama esasları 4458 sayılı Gümrük Kanunu’nda düzenlenmiştir. Bu kanun ile dış ticarete konu olan eşyanın Türkiye Gümrük Bölgesine girişinden başlayıp, eşyaya uygulanacak işlemlerin sırasına göre bir sistematik oluşturulmuştur. Diğer tüm vergilerde olduğu gibi gümrük vergisinde de zorunlu aşamalar olan tarh, tahakkuk ve tahsil aşamaları Gümrük ve Ticaret Bakanlığı’na bağlı ayrı bir kuruluş niteliği olan Gümrükler Genel Müdürlüğü tarafından, Gümrük Kanunu hükümlerine uygun olarak yürütülmektedir. Gümrük vergisinden doğan uyuşmazlıkların çözüm süreci, diğer vergilerde oluşan süreçten farklı bir yapıya sahiptir. Gümrük vergisi uyuşmazlıkları öncelikle idari aşamada çözümlenmek zorundadır. Ancak idari aşamada çözümlenemeyen uyuşmazlıklarda yargı yoluna başvurulabilmektedir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Gümrük, Gümrük Vergisi, Gümrük Uyuşmazlıkları Abstract: Custom duty is a kind of tariff arising from the movement of commercial commodities subject to customs which is based on those commodities’quantity and value. It is are a kind of tariff that is a foreign trade and economic policy instrument in addition to its economic, social and fiscal functions. Since they are not collected on regular basis like income tax and corporate tax, as an indirect tariff on expenditures, custom duties are collected only once when commodities subject to foreign trade arrive at the custom. According to the second item of tax procedural law, custom duties are excluded from this law. Therefore, procedures and practises of custom duties are regulated by customs law numbered 4458. Through this law, a systematization has been created beginning with commodities subject to international trade entering customs territories of Turkey and continuing with operation sequence. Like all other taxes, compalsive levels such as assessment, accrual and collecting are regulated by General Directorate of Customs as a part of Customs and Economy Ministry according to Customs Law. Resolution process of disputes over customs duties has a different form from the process of other taxes. Customs duty disputes have to be resolved administratively in the first place. However, in the case of disputes not being solved administratively, legal action can be taken. Key words: Custom, Custom Duties, Custom Disputes laşmış karakterler kendini belli etmektedir. 1920 yılında kötü yaşam koşulları sonucu yaşadığı hastalıklar sebebiyle hayatını kaybeden sanatçı, bilinen birçok ressam gibi hak ettiği değer ve üne ölümünden sonra kavuşmuş, günümüz sanat pi- yasasında satış rekorları kıran eserleriyle yücel- tilmiştir. KAYNAKÇA BORGHESİ, S., (2000). Art Book Cezanne, Dost Kitabevi,Venedik BERNARD, E., (2001). Cezanne Üzerine Anılar, K. Özsezgin (Çev.), İmge Kitabevi, 2. Baskı, Ankara BERGER, J., (2011). Görme Biçimleri, Metis Yayınları, İstanbul GOMBRICH, E.H., (1997). Sanatın Öyküsü, Remzi Kitabevi, İstanbul GÖKÇÖL, T., (1993). Gelişim Hachette Ansik- lopedisi, Sabah Gazetesi Interpres Basın ve Ya- yıncılık, No:8, İstanbul İNANKUR, Z., (2008). Eczacıbaşı Sanat Ansik- lopedisi, Yapı-Endüstri Merkezi Yayınları, 2. Basım, C.1., İstanbul HOLLINGSWORTH, M., (2009). Dünya Sanat Tarihi, İnkilap Kitabevi, İstanbul FARTHING, S., (Ed.). (2014). Sanatın Tüm Öyküsü, F. C. Çulcu ve G. Aldoğan (Çev.), Hayalperest Kitabevi, İstanbul KÜR, I., (2008). Eczacıbaşı Sanat Ansiklopedi- si, Yapı-Endüstri Merkezi Yayınları, 2. Basım, C.1., İstanbul LİTTLE, S., (2007). İzimler Sanatı Anlamak, Yem Yayın, 2.Baskı, İstanbul MCGINITY, L., (2012). Sanatın Tüm Öyküsü. M. Üstünipek (Ed.). Hayalperest Yayınevi, Çin ÖZÜKAN, B., (2007). Modigliani, Boyut Yayın- cılık, İstanbul RİCHARD, L., (1999). Ekpresyonizm Sanat Ansiklopedisi, B. Madra, S. Gürsoy ve İ. Usman- baş (Çev.), Remzi Kitabevi, İstanbul RONA, Z., (2008). Eczacıbaşı Sanat Ansiklope- disi, Yapı-Endüstri Merkezi Yayınları, 2. Basım, C.3., İstanbul TURANİ, A., (2010). Dünya Sanat Tarihi, Rem- zi Kitapevi, Genişletilmiş 14. Basım, İstanbul TÜKEL, U., (2008). Eczacıbaşı Sanat Ansiklo- pedisi, Yapı-Endüstri Merkezi Yayınları, 2. Basım, C.2., İstanbul ZİSS, A., (2009). Estetik-Gerçekliği Sanatsal Özümsemenin Bilimi, Hayalbaz Yayınevi, İstan- bul RESİMLER KAYNAKÇA Resim 1. https:// www. google.com.tr/ search?q= Klasik+Afrika+ Sanat%C4%B1+ heykel&espv =2&biw =1177&bih= 685&source= lnms&tbm= isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiKiaC8trbKAhVEd MTD www.mtddergisi.com ULUSLARARASI HAKEMLİ TASARIM VE MİMARLIK DERGİSİ Mayıs / Haziran / Temmuz / Ağustos 2016 Sayı: 08 Yaz Dönemi INTERNATIONAL REFEREED JOURNAL OF DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURE May / June / July / August 2016 Issue 08 Summer ID:116 K:23 ISSN Print: 2148-8142 Online: 2148-4880 (ISO 9001-2008 Belge No / Document No: 12879 & ISO 14001-2004 Belge No / Document No: 12880) (Marka Patent No / Trademark) (2015/04018 – 2015/GE/17595) 110 UHBAB www.uhbabdergisi.com Uluslararası Hakemli BeĢeri ve Akademik Bilimler Dergisi Nisan / Mayıs / Haziran Ġlkbahar Yaz Dönemi Cilt: 4 Sayı: 12 Yıl: 2015 International Peer-Reviewed Journal of Humanities and Academic Science April / May / June Spring Summer Volume: 4 Issue: 12 Year: 2015 ID:230 K:509 Jel Kodu: K34 (ISO 9001-2008 Belge No: 12879 & ISO 14001-2004 Belge No: 12880) 1 GÜMRÜK VERGĠSĠ UYUġMAZLIKLARININ ĠDARĠ AġAMADA ÇÖZÜM YOLLARI1 ADMINISTRATIVE SOLUTIONS TO DISPUTES OVER CUSTOM DUTIES Selin KILINÇ2, Hatice YURTSEVER3 2 Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Ens. Mali Hukuk Programı Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi 3 Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Salihli MYO, DıĢ Ticaret Bölümü 1 Bu çalıĢma, Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Maliye Anabilim Dalı Mali Hukuk Programı Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi Selin KILINÇ tarafından hazırlanan Yüksek Lisans Tezinden türetilmiĢtir. Özet: Gümrük vergisi, gümrüğe tabi olan ticari eşyanın yer değiştirmesi nedeniyle, bu eşyanın miktarı veya değeri üzerinden alınan, ekonomik, sosyal ve mali fonksiyonlarının yanında önemli bir dış ticaret ve ekonomi politikası aracı olan bir vergi türüdür. Aynı zamanda harcamalar üzerinden alınan dolaylı bir vergi türü olan gümrük vergisi, gelir ve kurumlar vergisi gibi belirli aralıklarla alınan bir vergi türü olmadığından, dış ticarete konu olan eşyanın gümrüğe geldiği anda bir defaya mahsus olmak üzere alınmaktadır. Gümrük vergileri, Vergi Usul Kanunu (VUK)’nun ikinci maddesine göre bu kanun kapsamı dışında tutulmuştur. Bu nedenle, gümrük vergilerinin usul ve uygulama esasları 4458 sayılı Gümrük Kanunu’nda düzenlenmiştir. Bu kanun ile dış ticarete konu olan eşyanın Türkiye Gümrük Bölgesine girişinden başlayıp, eşyaya uygulanacak işlemlerin sırasına göre bir sistematik oluşturulmuştur. Diğer tüm vergilerde olduğu gibi gümrük vergisinde de zorunlu aşamalar olan tarh, tahakkuk ve tahsil aşamaları Gümrük ve Ticaret Bakanlığı’na bağlı ayrı bir kuruluş niteliği olan Gümrükler Genel Müdürlüğü tarafından, Gümrük Kanunu hükümlerine uygun olarak yürütülmektedir. Gümrük vergisinden doğan uyuşmazlıkların çözüm süreci, diğer vergilerde oluşan süreçten farklı bir yapıya sahiptir. Gümrük vergisi uyuşmazlıkları öncelikle idari aşamada çözümlenmek zorundadır. Ancak idari aşamada çözümlenemeyen uyuşmazlıklarda yargı yoluna başvurulabilmektedir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Gümrük, Gümrük Vergisi, Gümrük Uyuşmazlıkları Abstract: Custom duty is a kind of tariff arising from the movement of commercial commodities subject to customs which is based on those commodities’quantity and value. It is are a kind of tariff that is a foreign trade and economic policy instrument in addition to its economic, social and fiscal functions. Since they are not collected on regular basis like income tax and corporate tax, as an indirect tariff on expenditures, custom duties are collected only once when commodities subject to foreign trade arrive at the custom. According to the second item of tax procedural law, custom duties are excluded from this law. Therefore, procedures and practises of custom duties are regulated by customs law numbered 4458. Through this law, a systematization has been created beginning with commodities subject to international trade entering customs territories of Turkey and continuing with operation sequence. Like all other taxes, compalsive levels such as assessment, accrual and collecting are regulated by General Directorate of Customs as a part of Customs and Economy Ministry according to Customs Law. Resolution process of disputes over customs duties has a different form from the process of other taxes. Customs duty disputes have to be resolved administratively in the first place. However, in the case of disputes not being solved administratively, legal action can be taken. Key words: Custom, Custom Duties, Custom Disputes 3IKHX1KB20Q_AUIBigB&dpr=0.9#tbm=isch &q=Afrika+Sanat%C4%B1+mask&imgrc=2Lr EQpYG9IV_eM%3A http://birgunbiryerde.blogspot.com.tr/2014/09/ afrika-sanat-geleneksel-maskeler.html http://www.afrikboutik.com/media/catalog/product/ a/f/african_mask__ki_4e5b96c36c7ac.jpg Resim 2. http:// www.tate.org.uk/ art/ artworks/ modigliani-head- t 03760 Resim 3. http:// www. theartstory. org/ artist-bran- cusi- constantin-artworks.htm#pnt_2 Resim 4. https: // www.google.com.tr/ search? newwindow= 1&tbm= isch&q= Constantin +Brancusi+ The+Kiss+(1916) &gws_rd= cr& ei = x6GeVt3vHcKtU-- DtJAJ#gws_rd= cr&imgrc= PNJnQ-abHI2ghM%3A Resim 5. http:// www. moma.org/collection_ge/ object.php?object_id=81919 Resim 6. http://www.duhamelart.com/alexander- archipenko-seated-black-torso Resim 7. https:// en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Prima- vera _ (painting) Resim 8. https:// tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Ven% C3%BCs%27% C3%BCn_ Do%C4%9Fu %C5%9Fu_ (Botticelli) Resim 9. http:// www. theartstory.org/ artist-mo- digliani-amedeo-artworks.htm#pnt_1 Resim 10. http:// www. metmuseum. org/ exhi- bitions/ listings/2014/ madame-cezanne Resim 11. https:// tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_ C%C3%A9zanne#/media/File:Paul_C%C3%A9zanne_047. jpg Resim 12. https:// www.google. com.tr/search? newwindow= 1&tbm=isch&q =Pablo+Picasso+ Les+Demoiselles+d%27Avignon+(1907)&g ws_rd=cr&ei=IvyfVsKLHIGsPrbojcgO#gws_ rd=cr&imgrc=4-VW4kayFa_nGM%3A Resim 13. http:// www.pablopicasso.org/ old- guitarist.jsp Resim 14. http:// www. wikiart. org /en/ maurice- utrillo/ houses-in-montmartre Resim 15. http:// www. wikiart.org/ en/maurice- utrillo/abbesses-street Resim 16. http://www. wikiart.org/ en/jules-pascin/ dancer-at-the-moulin-rouge-1908 Resim 17. http:// www.wikiart.org/ en/ moise- kisling/bust-of-blonde-girl-1948 Resim 18. http:// www.wikiart.org/ en/ chaim- soutine/young-woman Resim 19. http:// www.wikiart.org/ en/chaim- soutine/carcass-of-beef#close Resim 20. https:// en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Sla- ughtered_ Ox MTD www.mtddergisi.com ULUSLARARASI HAKEMLİ TASARIM VE MİMARLIK DERGİSİ Mayıs / Haziran / Temmuz / Ağustos 2016 Sayı: 08 Yaz Dönemi INTERNATIONAL REFEREED JOURNAL OF DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURE May / June / July / August 2016 Issue 08 Summer ID:116 K:23 ISSN Print: 2148-8142 Online: 2148-4880 (ISO 9001-2008 Belge No / Document No: 12879 & ISO 14001-2004 Belge No / Document No: 12880) (Marka Patent No / Trademark) (2015/04018 – 2015/GE/17595) 111 UHBAB www.uhbabdergisi.com Uluslararası Hakemli BeĢeri ve Akademik Bilimler Dergisi Nisan / Mayıs / Haziran Ġlkbahar Yaz Dönemi Cilt: 4 Sayı: 12 Yıl: 2015 International Peer-Reviewed Journal of Humanities and Academic Science April / May / June Spring Summer Volume: 4 Issue: 12 Year: 2015 ID:230 K:509 Jel Kodu: K34 (ISO 9001-2008 Belge No: 12879 & ISO 14001-2004 Belge No: 12880) 1 GÜMRÜK VERGĠSĠ UYUġMAZLIKLARININ ĠDARĠ AġAMADA ÇÖZÜM YOLLARI1 ADMINISTRATIVE SOLUTIONS TO DISPUTES OVER CUSTOM DUTIES Selin KILINÇ2, Hatice YURTSEVER3 2 Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Ens. Mali Hukuk Programı Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi 3 Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Salihli MYO, DıĢ Ticaret Bölümü 1 Bu çalıĢma, Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Maliye Anabilim Dalı Mali Hukuk Programı Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi Selin KILINÇ tarafından hazırlanan Yüksek Lisans Tezinden türetilmiĢtir. Özet: Gümrük vergisi, gümrüğe tabi olan ticari eşyanın yer değiştirmesi nedeniyle, bu eşyanın miktarı veya değeri üzerinden alınan, ekonomik, sosyal ve mali fonksiyonlarının yanında önemli bir dış ticaret ve ekonomi politikası aracı olan bir vergi türüdür. Aynı zamanda harcamalar üzerinden alınan dolaylı bir vergi türü olan gümrük vergisi, gelir ve kurumlar vergisi gibi belirli aralıklarla alınan bir vergi türü olmadığından, dış ticarete konu olan eşyanın gümrüğe geldiği anda bir defaya mahsus olmak üzere alınmaktadır. Gümrük vergileri, Vergi Usul Kanunu (VUK)’nun ikinci maddesine göre bu kanun kapsamı dışında tutulmuştur. Bu nedenle, gümrük vergilerinin usul ve uygulama esasları 4458 sayılı Gümrük Kanunu’nda düzenlenmiştir. Bu kanun ile dış ticarete konu olan eşyanın Türkiye Gümrük Bölgesine girişinden başlayıp, eşyaya uygulanacak işlemlerin sırasına göre bir sistematik oluşturulmuştur. Diğer tüm vergilerde olduğu gibi gümrük vergisinde de zorunlu aşamalar olan tarh, tahakkuk ve tahsil aşamaları Gümrük ve Ticaret Bakanlığı’na bağlı ayrı bir kuruluş niteliği olan Gümrükler Genel Müdürlüğü tarafından, Gümrük Kanunu hükümlerine uygun olarak yürütülmektedir. Gümrük vergisinden doğan uyuşmazlıkların çözüm süreci, diğer vergilerde oluşan süreçten farklı bir yapıya sahiptir. Gümrük vergisi uyuşmazlıkları öncelikle idari aşamada çözümlenmek zorundadır. Ancak idari aşamada çözümlenemeyen uyuşmazlıklarda yargı yoluna başvurulabilmektedir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Gümrük, Gümrük Vergisi, Gümrük Uyuşmazlıkları Abstract: Custom duty is a kind of tariff arising from the movement of commercial commodities subject to customs which is based on those commodities’quantity and value. It is are a kind of tariff that is a foreign trade and economic policy instrument in addition to its economic, social and fiscal functions. Since they are not collected on regular basis like income tax and corporate tax, as an indirect tariff on expenditures, custom duties are collected only once when commodities subject to foreign trade arrive at the custom. According to the second item of tax procedural law, custom duties are excluded from this law. Therefore, procedures and practises of custom duties are regulated by customs law numbered 4458. Through this law, a systematization has been created beginning with commodities subject to international trade entering customs territories of Turkey and continuing with operation sequence. Like all other taxes, compalsive levels such as assessment, accrual and collecting are regulated by General Directorate of Customs as a part of Customs and Economy Ministry according to Customs Law. Resolution process of disputes over customs duties has a different form from the process of other taxes. Customs duty disputes have to be resolved administratively in the first place. However, in the case of disputes not being solved administratively, legal action can be taken. Key words: Custom, Custom Duties, Custom Disputes Resim 21. http://www.wikiart.org/en/ juan-gris/ the-book-1913 Resim 22. http://www.wikiart.org/en/juan-gris/ the-guitar-1914 Resim 23. https:// upload. wikimedia. Org /wiki- pedia /en/ 7/74/ Diego_ Rivera%2C_ 1914 %2C_ Two_ Women_%28 Dos_Mujeres %2C_ portra- it_of_ Angelina_ Beloff_ and_ Maria_ Dolo- res_Bastian_ % 29 % 2C_oil_on_ canvas % 2C_ 197.5_x_161.3_cm %2C_ The_Arkansas_ Arts_ Center %2C_ Little_Rock %2C_Arkansas.jpg Resim 24. https:// upload. wikimedia. org/ wiki- pedia /en/8/8e/ Diego_ Rivera__Knife_and_ Fruit _in_Front_ of_the_Window_-_Google_Art_ Project.jpg Resim 25. https:// en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Ame- deo_ Modigliani#/ media/ File: Amedeo_ Modig- liani_-_Portrait_of_Juan_Gris.jpg Resim 26. https: // tr. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Cha- im_Soutine Resim 27. https://www.artsy.net/artwork/amedeo- modigliani-woman-with-red-hair Resim 28. https://www.artsy.net/artwork/amedeo- modigliani-gypsy-woman-with-baby Resim 29. https://www.pubhist.com/w7530 Resim 30. http:// www. oceansbridge. com/ oil- paintings/section.php?xSec=1770&page=5 Resim 31. https:// en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Nude_ Sitting_on_a_Divan Resim 32. http://www.wikiart.org/en/amedeo- modigliani/reclining-nude-1917-2 Resim 33. http:// www .artgalleryabc .com/ mo- digliani/blog Resim 34. http://www.wikiart.org/en/amedeo- modigliani/portrait-of-jeanne-hebuterne-1918-3 Resim 35. http://www.wikiart.org/en/amedeo- modigliani/portrait-of-jeanne-hebuterne-1918-1 MTD www.mtddergisi.com ULUSLARARASI HAKEMLİ TASARIM VE MİMARLIK DERGİSİ Mayıs / Haziran / Temmuz / Ağustos 2016 Sayı: 08 Yaz Dönemi INTERNATIONAL REFEREED JOURNAL OF DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURE May / June / July / August 2016 Issue 08 Summer ID:116 K:23 ISSN Print: 2148-8142 Online: 2148-4880 (ISO 9001-2008 Belge No / Document No: 12879 & ISO 14001-2004 Belge No / Document No: 12880) (Marka Patent No / Trademark) (2015/04018 – 2015/GE/17595) 112 UHBAB www.uhbabdergisi.com Uluslararası Hakemli BeĢeri ve Akademik Bilimler Dergisi Nisan / Mayıs / Haziran Ġlkbahar Yaz Dönemi Cilt: 4 Sayı: 12 Yıl: 2015 International Peer-Reviewed Journal of Humanities and Academic Science April / May / June Spring Summer Volume: 4 Issue: 12 Year: 2015 ID:230 K:509 Jel Kodu: K34 (ISO 9001-2008 Belge No: 12879 & ISO 14001-2004 Belge No: 12880) 1 GÜMRÜK VERGĠSĠ UYUġMAZLIKLARININ ĠDARĠ AġAMADA ÇÖZÜM YOLLARI1 ADMINISTRATIVE SOLUTIONS TO DISPUTES OVER CUSTOM DUTIES Selin KILINÇ2, Hatice YURTSEVER3 2 Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Ens. Mali Hukuk Programı Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi 3 Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Salihli MYO, DıĢ Ticaret Bölümü 1 Bu çalıĢma, Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Maliye Anabilim Dalı Mali Hukuk Programı Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi Selin KILINÇ tarafından hazırlanan Yüksek Lisans Tezinden türetilmiĢtir. Özet: Gümrük vergisi, gümrüğe tabi olan ticari eşyanın yer değiştirmesi nedeniyle, bu eşyanın miktarı veya değeri üzerinden alınan, ekonomik, sosyal ve mali fonksiyonlarının yanında önemli bir dış ticaret ve ekonomi politikası aracı olan bir vergi türüdür. Aynı zamanda harcamalar üzerinden alınan dolaylı bir vergi türü olan gümrük vergisi, gelir ve kurumlar vergisi gibi belirli aralıklarla alınan bir vergi türü olmadığından, dış ticarete konu olan eşyanın gümrüğe geldiği anda bir defaya mahsus olmak üzere alınmaktadır. Gümrük vergileri, Vergi Usul Kanunu (VUK)’nun ikinci maddesine göre bu kanun kapsamı dışında tutulmuştur. Bu nedenle, gümrük vergilerinin usul ve uygulama esasları 4458 sayılı Gümrük Kanunu’nda düzenlenmiştir. Bu kanun ile dış ticarete konu olan eşyanın Türkiye Gümrük Bölgesine girişinden başlayıp, eşyaya uygulanacak işlemlerin sırasına göre bir sistematik oluşturulmuştur. Diğer tüm vergilerde olduğu gibi gümrük vergisinde de zorunlu aşamalar olan tarh, tahakkuk ve tahsil aşamaları Gümrük ve Ticaret Bakanlığı’na bağlı ayrı bir kuruluş niteliği olan Gümrükler Genel Müdürlüğü tarafından, Gümrük Kanunu hükümlerine uygun olarak yürütülmektedir. Gümrük vergisinden doğan uyuşmazlıkların çözüm süreci, diğer vergilerde oluşan süreçten farklı bir yapıya sahiptir. Gümrük vergisi uyuşmazlıkları öncelikle idari aşamada çözümlenmek zorundadır. Ancak idari aşamada çözümlenemeyen uyuşmazlıklarda yargı yoluna başvurulabilmektedir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Gümrük, Gümrük Vergisi, Gümrük Uyuşmazlıkları Abstract: Custom duty is a kind of tariff arising from the movement of commercial commodities subject to customs which is based on those commodities’quantity and value. It is are a kind of tariff that is a foreign trade and economic policy instrument in addition to its economic, social and fiscal functions. Since they are not collected on regular basis like income tax and corporate tax, as an indirect tariff on expenditures, custom duties are collected only once when commodities subject to foreign trade arrive at the custom. According to the second item of tax procedural law, custom duties are excluded from this law. Therefore, procedures and practises of custom duties are regulated by customs law numbered 4458. Through this law, a systematization has been created beginning with commodities subject to international trade entering customs territories of Turkey and continuing with operation sequence. Like all other taxes, compalsive levels such as assessment, accrual and collecting are regulated by General Directorate of Customs as a part of Customs and Economy Ministry according to Customs Law. Resolution process of disputes over customs duties has a different form from the process of other taxes. Customs duty disputes have to be resolved administratively in the first place. However, in the case of disputes not being solved administratively, legal action can be taken. Key words: Custom, Custom Duties, Custom Disputes EXTENDED ABSTRACT This study is a screening model research that discusses the contemporaries and sense of art of Ame- deo Modigliani the Jewish artist who lived between 1884-1920 in the art environment of 20. century and also examines the artists that he was influenced within the process of creating his own unique style and the key elements that distinguish his artworks from other artists. The aim of this study is to emphasize the artist’s exclusive place and importance in the painting art and evaluate contributions he made with his artworks to art environment. In the early 1900s with the industrial revolution the mankind’s movement to a further point led an intellectual movement in the art field as in other fields. In early 20. century which is an important period for the formation of Modernism, artists has started to seek their own unique artistic attitude with the effect of comprehensive cultural and political transformation in Europe. In this period Paris -the capital of France-, regarded as the center of art with increasing number of halls, art galleries, exhibitions, artistic differences and allowed artists to express, recognize themselves and exhibit their artworks. After his academic training in Rome, Flo- rence and Venice, in 1906 Amedeo Modigliani moved to Paris and made friendships with expressi- onist artists and then he became famous with his exhibit in Salon des Independants in 1910 (Tu- kel,2008:1092). In the first years in Paris, meeting with Constantin Brancusi led him to reveal artworks as sculptures. First he revealed artworks that have effects from African Primitive Art, later he started to reflect the traces of Classic African Art which is the source of this primitive inspiration, with the details such as deformations made with extensions, fine facial lines and sunken eyes. Modigliani’s artworks are all dated between 1911-1912 and there are 23 stone busts and 2 full-length figure sculp- tures remained intact until today (Ozukan,2007:20). It is considered that Modigliani got his first artistic impressions from Sandro Botticelli and the artists from Sienna where is located close to his birthplace, Livorno. Expressionist influences are also observable in his early period paintings coin- cided before the 1910s. He was influenced by artists as Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, Pablo Picasso, George Braque, Paul Cezanne and inspired by Fauvism and Cubism. In Paris, he resided in Le Bateau – Lavoir, Montparnasse and Montmartre that were also chosen by many important artists and he established friendships with these artists, furthermore he painted their portraits time to time. He was friends with Pablo Picasso, Wilhelm Lehmbruck, Alexander Archipenko, Maurice Utrillo, Max Jacob, Jules Pascin, Moise Kisling, Chaim Soutine, Juan Gris, Diego Rivera, he was supported by British poet Beatrice Hastings and Italian-born French poet, writer, art critic Guillaume Apollinaire, his artworks are sold with the help of Polish poet, writer, art dealer Leopold Zborowsk and Dr. Paul MTD www.mtddergisi.com ULUSLARARASI HAKEMLİ TASARIM VE MİMARLIK DERGİSİ Mayıs / Haziran / Temmuz / Ağustos 2016 Sayı: 08 Yaz Dönemi INTERNATIONAL REFEREED JOURNAL OF DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURE May / June / July / August 2016 Issue 08 Summer ID:116 K:23 ISSN Print: 2148-8142 Online: 2148-4880 (ISO 9001-2008 Belge No / Document No: 12879 & ISO 14001-2004 Belge No / Document No: 12880) (Marka Patent No / Trademark) (2015/04018 – 2015/GE/17595) 113 UHBAB www.uhbabdergisi.com Uluslararası Hakemli BeĢeri ve Akademik Bilimler Dergisi Nisan / Mayıs / Haziran Ġlkbahar Yaz Dönemi Cilt: 4 Sayı: 12 Yıl: 2015 International Peer-Reviewed Journal of Humanities and Academic Science April / May / June Spring Summer Volume: 4 Issue: 12 Year: 2015 ID:230 K:509 Jel Kodu: K34 (ISO 9001-2008 Belge No: 12879 & ISO 14001-2004 Belge No: 12880) 1 GÜMRÜK VERGĠSĠ UYUġMAZLIKLARININ ĠDARĠ AġAMADA ÇÖZÜM YOLLARI1 ADMINISTRATIVE SOLUTIONS TO DISPUTES OVER CUSTOM DUTIES Selin KILINÇ2, Hatice YURTSEVER3 2 Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Ens. Mali Hukuk Programı Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi 3 Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Salihli MYO, DıĢ Ticaret Bölümü 1 Bu çalıĢma, Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Maliye Anabilim Dalı Mali Hukuk Programı Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi Selin KILINÇ tarafından hazırlanan Yüksek Lisans Tezinden türetilmiĢtir. Özet: Gümrük vergisi, gümrüğe tabi olan ticari eşyanın yer değiştirmesi nedeniyle, bu eşyanın miktarı veya değeri üzerinden alınan, ekonomik, sosyal ve mali fonksiyonlarının yanında önemli bir dış ticaret ve ekonomi politikası aracı olan bir vergi türüdür. Aynı zamanda harcamalar üzerinden alınan dolaylı bir vergi türü olan gümrük vergisi, gelir ve kurumlar vergisi gibi belirli aralıklarla alınan bir vergi türü olmadığından, dış ticarete konu olan eşyanın gümrüğe geldiği anda bir defaya mahsus olmak üzere alınmaktadır. Gümrük vergileri, Vergi Usul Kanunu (VUK)’nun ikinci maddesine göre bu kanun kapsamı dışında tutulmuştur. Bu nedenle, gümrük vergilerinin usul ve uygulama esasları 4458 sayılı Gümrük Kanunu’nda düzenlenmiştir. Bu kanun ile dış ticarete konu olan eşyanın Türkiye Gümrük Bölgesine girişinden başlayıp, eşyaya uygulanacak işlemlerin sırasına göre bir sistematik oluşturulmuştur. Diğer tüm vergilerde olduğu gibi gümrük vergisinde de zorunlu aşamalar olan tarh, tahakkuk ve tahsil aşamaları Gümrük ve Ticaret Bakanlığı’na bağlı ayrı bir kuruluş niteliği olan Gümrükler Genel Müdürlüğü tarafından, Gümrük Kanunu hükümlerine uygun olarak yürütülmektedir. Gümrük vergisinden doğan uyuşmazlıkların çözüm süreci, diğer vergilerde oluşan süreçten farklı bir yapıya sahiptir. Gümrük vergisi uyuşmazlıkları öncelikle idari aşamada çözümlenmek zorundadır. Ancak idari aşamada çözümlenemeyen uyuşmazlıklarda yargı yoluna başvurulabilmektedir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Gümrük, Gümrük Vergisi, Gümrük Uyuşmazlıkları Abstract: Custom duty is a kind of tariff arising from the movement of commercial commodities subject to customs which is based on those commodities’quantity and value. It is are a kind of tariff that is a foreign trade and economic policy instrument in addition to its economic, social and fiscal functions. Since they are not collected on regular basis like income tax and corporate tax, as an indirect tariff on expenditures, custom duties are collected only once when commodities subject to foreign trade arrive at the custom. According to the second item of tax procedural law, custom duties are excluded from this law. Therefore, procedures and practises of custom duties are regulated by customs law numbered 4458. Through this law, a systematization has been created beginning with commodities subject to international trade entering customs territories of Turkey and continuing with operation sequence. Like all other taxes, compalsive levels such as assessment, accrual and collecting are regulated by General Directorate of Customs as a part of Customs and Economy Ministry according to Customs Law. Resolution process of disputes over customs duties has a different form from the process of other taxes. Customs duty disputes have to be resolved administratively in the first place. However, in the case of disputes not being solved administratively, legal action can be taken. Key words: Custom, Custom Duties, Custom Disputes Alexandre bought his artworks. For Amedeo Modigliani revealing artworks with the thought of transferring the emotions aroused to canvas when he saw an object is an essential approach. Altho- ugh there were painters and sculptors he was influenced or visual images and insights he was inspi- red, he never acted in the shadow of any artist or movement. Biggest features that differentiate his artwork from his contemporaries and even from all other painters are slightly bent long heads, low shoulders, sometimes open sometimes closed almond eyes, curled lips and long necks in portraits that evoke Ancient Egyptian paintings. His paintings lead the audience into a lyrical, poetic world and this world has a sorrow and a deep warm touch to the heart. Each painting is enriched with an expression of indescribable feeling that reflects the inner world of the artist and integrated with soft brush strokes highlighting the simplicity and impressive emotional intensity. Deformations imposed on figures that highlighted a stunning simplicity are revealed with balanced compositions on his paintings and these paintings have basic design elements such as rhythm, balance, harmony, propor- tion and are arranged with carefully planned shades that allow to navigate the audience’s eye where he wanted to point. This attitude is noticeable in all pictures and perceived as a blurry reflection of the characters and arising intriguing feelings about the characters gives his paintings a different kind of charm. His nude paintings are as famous as his portraits and it is thought that the aesthetically perfect female body is a unique theme for the artist. As in his other paintings in his expressionist, emotional and dramatic featured nude paintings, pure colors and distorted figures are used and all the elements that make up the composition were totally applied in a modern manner. Along with the extended forms and weak lines, the artist’s characteristic style is noticeable in relaxed figures and it is also clearly recognizable in his nude paintings in which the meaning of the female is quite far from the theme of the sexual impulses, they are instinctively mystical and beyond perceived as erotic and featured by the authentic plastic elements. Amedeo Modigliani who has developed a uniquely introverted style, has had a short life of 36 years and with his artworks, he has given the title of one of the most valuable artist by the world’s most prestigious museums. His life on the edge has been the theme of many movies, as the way of his life, his art also has been shaped on the edge too. His stormy love life, his alcohol addiction and his obsession for nightlife are the facts that made Modigliani himself. The unseen eyes and the long-necked women in Amedeo Modigliani’s portraits reveal the unquestionable reality of his artistic style that does not require any signature. With the way he interpreted the figures and dramatic, the edgy structure in his paintings, the intensity of emotion flowing from the paintings to the viewer is more than a name that is written in the corner of the canvas. Every brush stroke is characterized by the stories from the streets of Paris, the inten- sity of his enthusiastic emotions and the iconic characters that left a mark in his life. Modigliani MTD www.mtddergisi.com ULUSLARARASI HAKEMLİ TASARIM VE MİMARLIK DERGİSİ Mayıs / Haziran / Temmuz / Ağustos 2016 Sayı: 08 Yaz Dönemi INTERNATIONAL REFEREED JOURNAL OF DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURE May / June / July / August 2016 Issue 08 Summer ID:116 K:23 ISSN Print: 2148-8142 Online: 2148-4880 (ISO 9001-2008 Belge No / Document No: 12879 & ISO 14001-2004 Belge No / Document No: 12880) (Marka Patent No / Trademark) (2015/04018 – 2015/GE/17595) 114 UHBAB www.uhbabdergisi.com Uluslararası Hakemli BeĢeri ve Akademik Bilimler Dergisi Nisan / Mayıs / Haziran Ġlkbahar Yaz Dönemi Cilt: 4 Sayı: 12 Yıl: 2015 International Peer-Reviewed Journal of Humanities and Academic Science April / May / June Spring Summer Volume: 4 Issue: 12 Year: 2015 ID:230 K:509 Jel Kodu: K34 (ISO 9001-2008 Belge No: 12879 & ISO 14001-2004 Belge No: 12880) 1 GÜMRÜK VERGĠSĠ UYUġMAZLIKLARININ ĠDARĠ AġAMADA ÇÖZÜM YOLLARI1 ADMINISTRATIVE SOLUTIONS TO DISPUTES OVER CUSTOM DUTIES Selin KILINÇ2, Hatice YURTSEVER3 2 Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Ens. Mali Hukuk Programı Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi 3 Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Salihli MYO, DıĢ Ticaret Bölümü 1 Bu çalıĢma, Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Maliye Anabilim Dalı Mali Hukuk Programı Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi Selin KILINÇ tarafından hazırlanan Yüksek Lisans Tezinden türetilmiĢtir. Özet: Gümrük vergisi, gümrüğe tabi olan ticari eşyanın yer değiştirmesi nedeniyle, bu eşyanın miktarı veya değeri üzerinden alınan, ekonomik, sosyal ve mali fonksiyonlarının yanında önemli bir dış ticaret ve ekonomi politikası aracı olan bir vergi türüdür. Aynı zamanda harcamalar üzerinden alınan dolaylı bir vergi türü olan gümrük vergisi, gelir ve kurumlar vergisi gibi belirli aralıklarla alınan bir vergi türü olmadığından, dış ticarete konu olan eşyanın gümrüğe geldiği anda bir defaya mahsus olmak üzere alınmaktadır. Gümrük vergileri, Vergi Usul Kanunu (VUK)’nun ikinci maddesine göre bu kanun kapsamı dışında tutulmuştur. Bu nedenle, gümrük vergilerinin usul ve uygulama esasları 4458 sayılı Gümrük Kanunu’nda düzenlenmiştir. Bu kanun ile dış ticarete konu olan eşyanın Türkiye Gümrük Bölgesine girişinden başlayıp, eşyaya uygulanacak işlemlerin sırasına göre bir sistematik oluşturulmuştur. Diğer tüm vergilerde olduğu gibi gümrük vergisinde de zorunlu aşamalar olan tarh, tahakkuk ve tahsil aşamaları Gümrük ve Ticaret Bakanlığı’na bağlı ayrı bir kuruluş niteliği olan Gümrükler Genel Müdürlüğü tarafından, Gümrük Kanunu hükümlerine uygun olarak yürütülmektedir. Gümrük vergisinden doğan uyuşmazlıkların çözüm süreci, diğer vergilerde oluşan süreçten farklı bir yapıya sahiptir. Gümrük vergisi uyuşmazlıkları öncelikle idari aşamada çözümlenmek zorundadır. Ancak idari aşamada çözümlenemeyen uyuşmazlıklarda yargı yoluna başvurulabilmektedir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Gümrük, Gümrük Vergisi, Gümrük Uyuşmazlıkları Abstract: Custom duty is a kind of tariff arising from the movement of commercial commodities subject to customs which is based on those commodities’quantity and value. It is are a kind of tariff that is a foreign trade and economic policy instrument in addition to its economic, social and fiscal functions. Since they are not collected on regular basis like income tax and corporate tax, as an indirect tariff on expenditures, custom duties are collected only once when commodities subject to foreign trade arrive at the custom. According to the second item of tax procedural law, custom duties are excluded from this law. Therefore, procedures and practises of custom duties are regulated by customs law numbered 4458. Through this law, a systematization has been created beginning with commodities subject to international trade entering customs territories of Turkey and continuing with operation sequence. Like all other taxes, compalsive levels such as assessment, accrual and collecting are regulated by General Directorate of Customs as a part of Customs and Economy Ministry according to Customs Law. Resolution process of disputes over customs duties has a different form from the process of other taxes. Customs duty disputes have to be resolved administratively in the first place. However, in the case of disputes not being solved administratively, legal action can be taken. Key words: Custom, Custom Duties, Custom Disputes gained the value and reputation he deserved after his death like many others and became immorta- lized with his unique style that will be talked about for centuries. His artworks break sales records in the auctions and without the need to read the signature still are recognizable and admired. 
work_tukiz4v4jva35j3rdly37alpnm	----	Nakladatelství Karolinum Univerzita Karlova - Karolinum Nakladatelství Karolinum menu Česky / English Knihy Novinky Témata Edice Časopisy O časopisech Open access Předplatné Kontakty Informace a služby O nás Informace a opatření Katalogy E-knihy Open access Pro média Distribuce Tiskárna a DTP Pro autory Informace pro autory Formuláře a návody ke stažení Kontakt English Historie Jaroslav Čechura Historik Jaroslav Čechura se v předkládané monografii zaměřuje na období třicetileté války. Turbulentní události z všednodennosti sedláků a selek na gruntech třeboňského panství popisuje autor díky práci s několikerým typem pramenů, pozemkovými a jiterními knihami, poddanskými soupisy, matrikami, populačními seznamy, výhosty, urbáři, egodokumenty či robotními seznamy. 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Mimořádně silná sestava autorů několika generací má široký záběr: od astronomie po animovaný film, od Prousta po Hraničáře.  Přečíst Knihy Novinky Témata Edice Světla a stíny husitství (Události – osobnosti – texty – tradice) Čornej, Petr Neklidné století Čechura, Jaroslav Mezi zdarem a zmarem Payne, Jan Mniši, dvořané, literáti Charvátová, Kateřina Příběh školní šikany Zvírotský, Michal Bendl, Stanislav Richterová, Magdalena Chlap kousl psa Koukolík, František O službě slova, víře a spasení Landová, Tabita Chci studovat němčinu na vysoké škole! Šemelík, Martin Přibík, Radek Proč je v noci tma? Zamarovský, Peter Vendulka Kundra, Ondřej Hermeneutika a metaforika čísel Kůrka, Petr Velický, Bedřich Lamentation for 77,297 Victims Weil, Jiří Fašismus Griffin, Roger Nástroj prospěšný, či vražedný? 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Přihlásit se k odběru Blog Fašismus podle Rogera Griffina 18.03.2021 V edici Politeia vychází již druhá kniha jednoho z největších odborníků na fašismus, britského profesora moderních dějin a politického teoretika na Oxford Brookes University Rog... Twitter Tweets by KarolinumPress Nakladatelství Karolinum Ovocný trh 560/5 116 36 Praha 1 cupress@cuni.cz + 420 224 491 276 Nakladatelství Katalog knih Ediční plán Pro média Blog Kalendář akcí Distribuce Knihkupectví Karolinum Kontakt a objednávky Pro obchodní partnery Tiskárna a dtp Kontakt a služby Vybavení tiskárny © Karolinum 2021 
work_tunrihlei5fexe5hczy6dyr7ki	----	CHASING SCIENCE CULTURE GIVE ME GESTALT! PREFERENCE FOR CUBIST ARTWORKS REVEALING HIGH DETECTABILITY OF OBJECTS Claudia Muth1, Robert Pepperell2, Claus- Christian Carbon1, 1Department of General Psychology and Methodology, University of Bamberg, 96047 Bamberg, Germany 2Cardiff School of Art & Design, Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff CF24 0SP, UK E-mail: <claudia.muth@uni- bamberg.de> Submitted: <leave for Editor to date> Abstract In cubist paintings by Picasso, Braque and Gris it is possible to detect everyday objects like guitars, bottles or jugs, although they are often difficult to decipher. In this art-science collaborative study we found that participants without expertise in cubism appreciated cubist artworks more if they were able to detect concealed objects in them. The finding of this strong correlation between detectability and preference offers wide implications for art history and human cognition as it points to a mechanism that allows us to derive pleasure from searching for and finding meaningful patterns. Keywords: Art perception, Gestalt, Ambiguity, Indeterminacy, Cubism Introduction The visual system continually constructs order out of highly ambiguous and insta- ble stimuli we receive from the world. Artworks often exploit, reveal, and play with the perceptual and cognitive mech- anisms involved by presenting viewers with prediction-errors [1], contradictions [2], indeterminacy [3,4], or ambiguity [3, 5] inducing elaboration of various inter- pretations at the same time. Cubist paint- ings are especially open to interpretation as they are full of everyday objects that are concealed because they are depicted in a fragmented way that makes immedi- ate recognition very difficult. In this paper we show that viewers’ apprecia- tion of cubist paintings is closely linked to their ability to identify an object, or a Gestalt, respectively, from partial clues. Many art theorists and perception re- searchers have proposed such a relation between appreciation and emerging or- der from disorder, ambiguity, or inde- terminacy. The philosopher of art George Dickie stresses the recognition of “uniformity in variety” or “simplicity in complexity” [6] while according to the psychologists Hekkert and Leder: “we like to look at patterns that allow us to see relationships or create order” [7]. Reber et al. claim that increased fluency in processing a complex topic enhances appreciation [8]. Meanwhile, Van de Cruys and Wagemans suggest that art- works often violate viewers’ perceptual predictions, and that they are then able to derive aesthetic pleasure from reducing the cognitive uncertainty induced by those violations [1]. The neurologists Ramachandran and Hirstein argue that perceptual grouping processes in general are linked with the neural structures known as the ‘reward system’ [9]. But despite the frequent claims that detecting Gestalt, or recognizable form, in challenging visual stimuli is inherent- ly pleasing, to date this has not been demonstrated empirically. In this study we chose as stimuli cubist artworks by Picasso, Braque and Gris because they offer a high degree of visual indetermi- nacy and ambiguity yet at the same time are full of recognizable depicted objects [3, 4]. Thus, they provide a perfect op- portunity to test whether the viewers’ ability to detect these objects is linked to their appreciation of the paintings. Participants Twenty participants (Mage= 23.8 yrs; range: 19-36 yrs; 13 females) volun- teered in the study. They had normal or corrected-to-normal vision ensured by a Standard Snellen’s eye chart test and by a short version of the Ishihara color vi- sion test. They had no expertise in cubist art. Apparatus and stimuli Stimuli consisted of photographs of 120 cubist artworks by Pablo Picasso (47), Georges Braque (33), and Juan Gris (40); all of them being adapted to 450 pixels width and 600 pixels height (if the proportion was not 4.5:6 we cropped the pictures accordingly). The participants sat with an approximate distance of 55 cm in front of a LG W2220P screen with 22-inch screen size at a resolution of 1680 × 1050 pixels yielding a visual angle of about 16.6° x 21.6° for the stimuli. Procedure and results The study was structured in two blocks, each showing the stimuli in a random- ized order. During the first block, sub- jects had to rate the pictures on liking. During the second block, participants rated how well they could detect objects within the artwork. All ratings were cho- sen from a 7-point-Likert-scale from 1 (‘not at all’) to 7 (‘very’). For both variables we aggregated data across participants revealing a strong relationship between the detectability of objects within cubist artworks and liking indicated by a Pearson correlation of R= .781, p<.0001 (see Fig. 1). Discussion The results show that Gestalt formation is closely linked to appreciation; viewers much preferred paintings in which they were able to decipher concealed objects. This finding is in line with previous pro- posals about the link between detecting Fig. 1. Data points represent detectability of objects and liking per stimulus revealing that the better the participants could detect objects within an artwork, the more they liked it. The amount of explained variance is 60.9% indicated by R2. The equation gives the rela- tionship of X (Detectability) and Y (Liking). pa pe r is "i n p re ss " ( Le on ar do ) order and appreciation [7], reward by uncertainty reduction [1] and the detec- tion of simplicity in complexity [6, 8]. We did not replicate previous findings showing that over-familiar [10] or insuf- ficiently ambiguous stimuli [5] had a negative effect on appreciation. The reason why Gestalt recognition is linked to positive appreciation in the case of cubist paintings, however, may not be due merely to the fact that hitherto objects invisible are recognized, or be- cause enjoyment is derived from in- creased fluency in coping with a complex perceptual process [8]. As the art historian Dario Gamboni demon- strates, cubist paintings of this period (1909-1914) never show explicit or complete objects but rather ‘potential’ objects, as he puts it, which cannot be fully resolved [3]. Ernst Gombrich points out that the experience of reading a cub- ist painting is unsettling because the paintings present us with “contrary clues which will resist all attempts to apply the test of consistency…We will always come across a contradiction somewhere which compels us to start afresh” [11]. Another art historian, Robert Hughes, writes of the paintings that “as a descrip- tion of a fixed form they are useless”; their value lies in the way they “report on multiple meanings, on process” [12]. Unlike images that offer effortless and determinate recognition cubist paintings present the viewer with ongoing percep- tual indeterminacy while offering clues to enable Gestalt recognition. Our find- ing of increased preference for paintings revealing high detectability of objects might then be attributable not just to the mere recognition of forms but also to the fact that recognition is occurring against a background of ongoing uncertainty. The principle of ‘uniformity in variety’ noted above highlights this point while holding provided that we can appreciate the qualities of uniformity and variety at the same time. As the critic and early supporter of cubism Guillaume Apolli- naire emphasized, this requires great involvement and effort of the viewer, which enhances aesthetic pleasure [13]. This link between elaboration and ap- preciation is supported by empirical studies showing that appreciation in- creases with the elaboration of innova- tive material but not with that of conventional and easy stimuli [14] – a result that is consistent across different types of measurement [15] and different age groups [16]. In line with Van de Cruys and Wagemans we thus propose that it is the presence of novelty, uncer- tainty or other challenges evoked by a stimulus that promotes dynamic aesthetic processes [1], not the fluency or imme- diacy of recognition per se. Further stud- ies might assess in which way Gestalt detection influences those dynamics: is there an immediate effect of the insight [17] during Gestalt recognition on aes- thetic appreciation and how does this relation unfold with time? Getting the balance right between un- recognizability and recognizability seems critical to maximizing aesthetic response. This can be illustrated by a key episode in the history of the development of cubism: In 1910 Picasso spent the summer in the Spanish town of Ca- daqués where he produced a large body of highly abstract paintings in which objects were barely discernible. Art his- torians now refer to this as the ‘hermetic’ phase of cubism. Picasso’s main dealer, Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler, declined to buy any of these works (with one excep- tion) – a sign that he had concerns about selling them on to collectors [18]. Prob- ably stung by this (the dealer had pur- chased nearly all of the artist’s cubist works up to that point) Picasso quickly embarked on a major portrait of Kahn- weiler (1910, Art institute of Chicago) which is notable for the reintroduction into the cubist language of much more identifiable cues about the objects being depicted [19]. Kahnweiler soon resumed purchasing Picasso's works, which there- after explicitly avoided indecipherable abstraction. Together with our empirical findings, this episode suggests that part of the reason we value perceptually challenging images, and cubist paintings in particu- lar, is that they offer us an opportunity to wrestle with our own perceptual pro- cesses and discover hidden patterns and order. When this process of discovery becomes too difficult appreciation is diminished; when the struggle is reward- ed then it is increased. The motivation for and success of the perceivers’ efforts are likely to be linked to the interplay between determinacy and ambiguity or order and disorder, which the cubist art- ists were highly successful at manifest- ing in their works. Our findings have relevance beyond aesthetic perception and art history as they might point to a general principle of cognition: we derive pleasure from stim- uli in which we can detect meaning and ambiguity at the same time. Understand- ing the appreciation of works of art thus offers insights into the way the human mind operates. References 1. S. Van de Cruys and J. Wagemans, “Putting reward in art: A tentative prediction error account of visual art,” i-Perception 2, No. 9 (2011) pp. 1035-1062. 2. Meinhardt (2009), <http://www.artnet.de/magazine/uber-den- gedachtnisverlust-der-gegenwartskunst>, accessed December 2010. 3. D. Gamboni, Potential images: Ambiguity and indeterminacy in modern art (London: Reaktion Books, 2004). 4. R. Pepperell, “Connecting art and the brain. An artist's perspective on visual indeterminacy,” Fron- tiers in Human Neuroscience 5 (2011) pp. 1-12. 5. M. Jakesch and H. Leder, “Finding meaning in art: Preferred levels of ambiguity in art apprecia- tion,” The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psy- chology 62, No. 11 (2009) pp. 2105-2112. 6. G. Dickie, Introduction to aesthetics: An analytic approach (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997). 7. P. Hekkert and H. Leder, “Product aesthetics”, H. N. J. Schifferstein and P. Hekkert, eds., Product Experience (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2007) p. 262. 8. R. Reber, N. Schwarz, and & P. Winkielman, “Processing fluency and aesthetic pleasure. Is beau- ty in the perceiver's processing experience?,” Per- sonality and Social Psychology Review 8, No. 4 (2004) pp. 364-382. 9. V. S. Ramachandran and W. Hirstein, “The science of art. A neurological theory of aesthetic experience,” Journal of Consciousness Studies 6, No. 6-7 (1999) pp. 15-51. 10. D. E. Berlyne, Studies in the new experimental aesthetics: Steps toward an objective psychology of aesthetic appreciation (Oxford, U.K.: Hemisphere, 1974). 11. E. Gombrich, Art & Illusion: A study in the psychology of pictorial representation (London: Phaidon, 1960). 12. R. Hughes, The shock of the new. Art and the century of change (London: Thames & Hudson, 1991) p. 32. 13. G. Apollinaire, Les peintres cubistes. Médita- tions Esthétiques (Paris: E. Figuière, 1913). 14. C. C. Carbon and H. Leder, “The Repeated Evaluation Technique (RET). A method to capture dynamic effects of innovativeness and attractive- ness,” Applied Cognitive Psychology 19, No. 5 (2005) pp. 587-601. 15. C. C. Carbon, L. Michael, and H. Leder, “De- sign evaluation by combination of repeated evalua- tion technique and measurement of electrodermal activity,” Research in Engineering Design 19, No. 2-3 (2008) pp. 143-149. 16. C. C. Carbon and J. P. L. Schoormans, “Rigidity rather than age as a limiting factor to appreciate innovative design,” Swiss Journal of Psychology 71, No. 2 (2012) pp. 51-58. 17. W. Köhler, Die Aufgabe der Gestaltpsychologie (Berlin, New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1971). 18. J. Richardson, J., A life of Picasso: 1907-1917: The painter of modern life (London: Jonathan Cape, 1996). 19. R. Penrose, “Picasso's Portrait of Kahnweiler,” The Burlington Magazine 116, No. 852 (1974) pp. 124-133. pa pe r is "i n p re ss " ( Le on ar do ) Give me Gestalt! Preference for cubist artworks revealing high detectability of objects 
work_twiu7rmrnbh75e7vgqg4fmfdua	----	SCIRES-IT, 9(1), paper5_Koch_Sharing Heritage SCIentific RE Search and Info rmatio n Techno lo gy R icerca Scientifica e Tecnologie dell'Inform azione Vol 9, Issue 1 (2019), 33-40 e-ISSN 2239-4303, DOI 10.2423/i22394303v9n1p33 © CASPUR -CIBER Publishing, http://caspur-ciberpublishing.it SHARING HERITAGE REFLECTIONS AFTER EYCH 2018 ABOUT THE PLACE OF CULTURAL HERITAGE FOR FUTURE COOPERATION IN EUROPE Uwe Koch* *German Cultural Heritage Committee (Head of the Board) – Berlin, Germany. Abstract During the European Year of Cultural Heritage 2018 we offered new ways for participation of the broader society. We used the motto SHARING HERITAGE to invite everybody to join in the opportunities and events all over the country during 2018. Especially we invited to discover the European dimension of our local and regional located cultural heritage. To stimulate new European experiences in known or unknown and divers cultural heritage that was one of our central aims. During and after EYCH 2018 w e got a lot of positive response and we can reflect some important messages for the future work in heritage communication, education and European cooperation. EYCH was a g reat success and much more than a y ear of events. It gave a us a lot of impulse to go on with SHARING HERITAGE. Keywords Cultural Heritage, Sharing Heritage, EYCH 1. Cultural Heritage - it’s like a textbook on exchange and European history Some statements that may seem commonplace. We know that - cultural areas are the result of a dense network of cultural links and relationships; - culture and cultural heritage are formed by and are part of the process of exchange and movement, they are shaped by cultural transfer, adoption and adaptation, then undergo their own process of further development and find expression in a w ide range of local and regional variants that, at the same time, are also the result of other stimuli - similar to glass beads of different shapes and shades on a string. For centuries, our continent has been crisscrossed by exchange routes, mostly for trade with goods followed by many other forms of exchange especially ideas. Just two examples to illustrate this: For a long time, Flanders was referred to as the marketplace of the whole Christian world. Genovese, Venetian, Florentine, Spanish and French merchants were present there, as were the cogs of the German merchants from the Baltic region or the English, Scots, Irish, Dutch and Frisians. And, indeed, merchandise from as far away as the Levant, the Baltic region and Russia bore witness to the enormous distance over which this exchange took place. Together with these goods, Flemish painting and architecture spread far into the Baltic region where this style was selectively adopted and adapted. The Flemish Renaissance was the source of inspiration for many of the splendid buildings throughout the Baltic region. And another example from the Baltic region: 12th-century baptismal fonts from the Isle of Gotland demonstrate the flowering of stonemasonry at that time. They were highly prized and made to order for many churches throughout the Baltic Sea region. Their iconographic diversity bears witness to cultural influences from Western Europe, on the one hand, and Russia and the Byzantine Empire on the other – an artistic exchange based on trade relations in the early years of the Hanseatic League. These examples show how Europe’s identity was shaped and enriched through cultural exchange generating an enormous diversity which today constitutes its wealth. The rise of nationalism in the 19th century marked a turning point. (2019), n. 1 U. Koch 34 The focus on national identity was accompanied by a process of dissociation from neighbours, which had always been culturally close and inspired each other. Dissociation became the principle for forming national cultural identities. Yet another example to illustrate this: During the process of German national unification in the 19th century – slow and difficult at first, then vigorously pushed by the Prussian leadership – Gothic art was overnight declared “the national style”. Finishing Gothic cathedrals became a national mission. Cologne Cathedral and the German Emperor’s personal commitment to its completion bear eloquent witness to this. The cathedral was completed at a t ime of strong national sentiment and renewal with the aim of unifying the German territories through “blood and iron”. To mobilize the masses, culturally dissociating Germany in particular from France came in very handy. This was by no means only a German phenomenon; countries all over Europe pursued this path. Portraying national identity and cultural greatness with much pathos in paintings, buildings and memorials was typical of the 19th and early 20th centuries and thus shaped the sense of national identity for generations. The results are all t oo familiar: wars and conflicts, millions of people killed, innumerable works of culture lost or destroyed. This was followed by difficult peace treaties and shifts of the borders – both in 1918 and in 1945 – and the creation of new states. Learning the lessons of the devastating destruction caused by two world wars, today’s Europe has turned into a continent of peaceful cooperation based on economic interaction. The European Union has become a large-scale peace project, unique in European history. That is the greatest victory of our era! This is also why in 2012 the EU was rightfully awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. This has been the crucial lesson that we have learnt from European history and that we consider an obligation and a mission for the future. For my feeling the end of the cold war period in 1989 was the greatest gift we got in our generation, because the reunifying of Europe started with the fall of the Berlin wall. Now we have to continue the great European project! Due to the many border shifts in the course of European history, a t erritory defined by national boundaries today often boasts cultural heritage of different historical, cultural and ethnic origins that cannot be clearly traced to just one nation. Certain cities are especially good examples of such a crossroads or melting pots of different cultural identities: To mention five of these cities: - Lviv, or Lwow in Polish and Lemberg in German - Trieste - Toledo - Wroclaw, or Breslau in German - Plovdiv - Visby These are culturally rich cities marked by different cultural influences and encounters. Their monuments, buildings and collections and the music, theatre and literature generated there bear witness to mutual influence, stimulation and fascination, and also to conflict. And, indeed, attempts that range from elevating and segregating one’s own culture to displaying hostility and humiliating the neighbours have also left their traces in these cities, as they are visible in many other places. These traces, too, belong there and are valuable to impart an understanding of the long and sometimes painful path to peaceful co-existence. Our cultural heritage is like a big textbook, an open-air museum of European history. You could also describe it as a tool box for cultural and historical education. Reading it and discovering it is of interest not only in order to look at our history in retrospect. No, its real importance lies in enabling us to live together and to shape Europe’s future together. This heritage will be even more valuable for us today if we are able to emphasize, against the backdrop of Europe’s cultural diversity, what unites us and make this our leitmotif. This is a major difference to previous approaches. Not what divides us, but what unites us must be the driving force behind discovering, unlocking and sharing our heritage as a foundation for living together and developing a s hared sense of identity. This is not about constructing a presumably uniform European cultural identity, but about discovering and living what unites us and what we have in common in Europe, despite our local, (2019), n. 1 Sharing Heritage 35 regional and even national diversity and differences. The Viennese historian Wolfgang Schmale once said that we have to think Europe differently, and stressed that diversity and unity are based on difference and acceptance. This means not only discovering and explaining cultural heritage or joint remembrance, but also sharing responsibility for preserving our cultural heritage and for teaching about it, for example in border areas or other areas of cultural encounter (for example Prince Hermann von Pückler-Muskau’s Park stretching along both sides of the German-Polish border on the river Neisse). Current debates about the culture of remembrance show that there can be very different ways to understand and practice remembrance. Making an effort at least to understand our neighbours’ perspective and to explain our perspective to them can also help bring us together. This was exactly the idea behind the proposal for a European Year of Cultural Heritage in 2018! And this was also the approach followed by Germany expressed in its motto “SHARING HERITAGE – take part and share”. This was and is meant as a friendly invitation to society at large to join in and come together as Europeans and neighbours. This motto refers not only to Europe and our neighbours, but also to the challenges within our own countries regarding social cohesion. Our cultural wealth is a good basis also for an intercultural dialogue. However, in order to use it for this purpose, we need better strategies and resources. This raises a number of questions that are not at all easy to answer. We have to discuss about it! What does common cultural identity mean in a society, what determines it and how does it change? Do we need it? How does it relate to other cultural identities? How do people develop a f eeling that the cultural heritage belongs to them and is theirs, and how do I f oster this? How can this be achieved together with others and thus create a sense of community? Can a Eu ropean sense of identity be reconciled with the yearning for a strong local or regional identity or feeling of belonging? Recently, the German word “Heimat”, which roughly translates as “homeland”, has experienced a somewhat questionable revival. We certainly have to be aware that, while many people on this continent have long found it natural to regard Europe as their home, many others do not think along these lines and instead define “home” in local or regional terms. Are these diverging consequences of global development mutually exclusive? What kind of bridges are conceivable? These are interesting and important questions that merit reflection and discussion even beyond 2018 to give this topic the attention and significance it deserves. To my mind, the main point here is consciously identifying with and preserving, as well as teaching and talking about cultural heritage. I would like to illustrate how we intend to foster this sense of ownership regarding the cultural heritage, how we intend to use SHARING HERITAGE in Germany to this end and what our expectations are. What are we doing in Germany to develop this sense of ownership and to foster this exchange on cultural heritage? The European Year of Cultural Heritage was not intended to be a random series of projects and events. Early on, the German Cultural Heritage Committee and the National Programmes Advisory Board outlined a thematic framework for SHARING HERITAGE. It will guide us through this year and, at the same time, leave enough room to account for the heterogeneity of our cultural heritage. European cultural heritage is exciting and enriching, but often also ambiguous, uncomfortable and controversial. Five themes illustrate this diversity and provide the framework for all official projects that will take place under the roof of SHARING HERITAGE: Theme 1, “Europe: Exchange and movement” understands Europe as a network of diverse relations and ties shaped by the exchange not only of goods, but also of cultural techniques, values and ideas. Theme 2, “Europe: Border and encounter regions” focuses on the connective aspects of borders and neighbouring regions. Theme 3 deals with the European city, evolved over centuries, always subject to change. As a cultural melting pot and home and workplace of many people, it is an essential part of our cultural heritage. In 2018, we also commemorate European wars and peace accords. With Theme 4, “Europe: Remembrance and new starts” we want to recall (2019), n. 1 U. Koch 36 that European history has been marked by a long sequence of conflicts followed by a century-long path to peaceful co-existence. Theme 5, “Europe: Heritage lived” asks how Europe sees itself and defines its own identity, and looks at how the tangible and the intangible cultural heritage interact. From an early stage, German museums, too, have played an important part in shaping the German contribution to the European Year of Cultural Heritage. The National Programmes Advisory Board counts among its members the German Association of Museums, the Prussian Cultural Heritage Foundation and the Association of Palaces and Gardens in Germany. After all, one thing was soon clear: In order to reach as wide an audience as possible for the European Year of Cultural Heritage, museums and exhibitions had to become an integral part of its implementation. 2. Projects with a high demand for participation and common view on heritage The European Year of Cultural Heritage has now been officially concluded and we can reflect the results. The year’s projects included several high-profile and innovative exhibitions. A very special exhibition project, “Peace. From Antiquity to the Present Day”, was be simultaneously launched in several museums in the city of Münster: at the LWL-Museum für Kunst und Kultur, the Kunstmuseum Pablo Picasso, the Stadtmuseum Münster and the Archäologisches Museum at Münster University. After all, 2018 marked the anniversary not only of the beginning of the Thirty Years War, but also of the Peace of Westphalia. But what does “peace” mean on a continent torn by so many conflicts and ruptures? Not only have the museums addressed this question in Münster, but there were two more special events being part of this overall project called “Peace. Europe”: At Munster’s town hall, an historic site of the signing of the Peace of Westphalia, the exhibition commemorating the event was being digitally overhauled, and the nearby city of Osnabrück, the other site of the signing of the Peace of Westphalia, held an international youth meeting (“Labor Europa”) on this topic. Young people from all over Europe came together on historic places of the Westphalia Treaty and find their own cultural expressions and creative reflections about the role of war and peace in Europe. A major exhibition “Bewegte Zeiten” was held very successfully in Berlin. More than 120.000 people visited that exhibition in the Gropius Bau. This phantastic large scale exhibition told European stories of cultural exchange and movement during the centuries by archaeological artefacts. Artefacts from the most important excavations of the last 15 years in Germany opened up European history of exchange processes and made apparent how decisive new perspectives on our heritage can be. These questions are of high social relevance for our present and the future. SHARING HERITAGE’s very diverse activities were meant to be beyond just a few large-scale events . Altogether we were able to count more than 400 projects all over the country. At the heart of every contribution there was always a piece of cultural heritage, a memorial, a historic site, an authentic place of remembrance or the people who were and have been linked to this heritage in the past and the present. In Germany exhibitions, school student competitions, workshops, music festivals – the formats were highly diverse, and the commitment behind the cultural heritage year was equally divers. The cultural heritage year was largely borne by a broad-based enthusiasm for the topic. Many of the activities have been initiated by small cultural institutions, by civil society and private bodies. Most of the events have were implemented without any extra public funds. The EU, the Federal Government, the federal states and the towns and cities, however, have made some funds available. The project “denkmal Europa”, a j oined initiative of the conservation and heritage protection boards, is marking a turning point in the work of these institutions. For the first time,16 different boards came together for an unprecedented history and heritage mediation and education project. It was a major success, which will receive a European Heritage Award in 2019! The initiators understood that the EYCH 2018 was a g reat opportunity, using the financial support of the federal government. It is a p rime example showing how to sustainably invest more - and more professionally - in the conveyance of cultural heritage. Raising awareness of the common narrative of our heritage in Europe, we started “Ringing the bells”. In and after the Thirty Years’ War, a l ot of bells were destroyed to make cannons. Bells (2019), n. 1 Sharing Heritage 37 remember us to safeguard peace and the heritage in Europe, as they are a f orm of heritage one can hear across the borders of cities and countries, sending vibrations and raising emotions. In 2019, let us again ring the bells together for peace and our heritage on the International Peace day on the 21 of September! In 2018, it got an enormous positive response and it worked very well. It was the first time that thousands of bells in churches, city halls, bell towers and memorial sites rang together for peace and the cultural heritage from Finland to Malta, from Ireland to Slovenia. Also, the collaboration of owners, bell ringers and other contributors all over Europe created a movement that manifested a positive experience, a movement which will continue to ring the bells and to discuss further future activities with a more common narrative on our heritage. It was very easy to join in: Projects that have had a clear European dimension and thematically fit under the five guiding themes can be registered on the sharingheritage.de website. After their approval they were added to the online platform and the events schedule and communicated via the online communication channels. In addition, the projects could then be advertised using the official SHARING HERITAGE label, confirming that they were a contribution to the 2018 European Year of Cultural Heritage. It worked and is doing so very well, still, while generating a high degree of identification. 3. Cultural Heritage and the heirs We made some significant experiences working on new formats for the younger generation; addressing a y ounger audience that initially has little or no interest in "cultural heritage". We've broken new ground with the “#Vollerbe” campaign and a broad social media offering, targeting 14 to 21 year olds asking: What is your heritage? Employing a strong visual approach, the campaign corresponded to the communication habits of "Generation Z" and brought cultural heritage to a young world. The campaign was primarily implemented through Instagram, the most used network by teenagers and young adults besides YouTube. #Vollerbe addressed the needs of social media with its offensive approach, but at the same time offers more advanced communications introducing the followers to commentary, facts or quotes on cultural issues and backgrounds. For this, images, videos and instastories with integrated voting were used. What memories and remembering do we need for Europe's future? That was the main challenge of some youth exchanges taking place during the Cultural Heritage Summit in Berlin. Young people from the Netherlands, Britain and Germany came to discuss in response to the impressions of cultural and historic places of memory. After the end of the year we seek to turn certain formats, most expressly for young people, into something more permanent. A new working group will further dive into developing educational formats for cultural heritage issues. Formats need to be evaluated about their success and the fulfilment of qualitative standards. In doing so, interdisciplinary cooperation of various experts and institutions will take place. We hope that we can share valuable experiences and results with our European counterparts. 4. Outlook for future work in Europe Aim of the European Year of Cultural Heritage is not to forge a uniform European culture, but to ask how society, culture and the European idea can be brought together again. I believe that only by m ore vigorously and consciously acknowledging the cultural and historical developments and experience of Europe can we breathe life into the European idea. This also requires more sharing in Europe, it requires new initiatives that build on existing formats and cooperation, and develop them further. We already have European formats intended to encourage greater interest in our European heritage and to strengthen those elements of our identities that unite us in Europe. This is also the way to understand the European Heritage Label and its aim to strengthen a sense of community among Europeans and to stimulate an intercultural dialogue by highlighting prominent sites that stand for European unification, our common values, history and culture and by h arnessing them for the purpose of cultural education and encounter. The Cultural Routes of the Council of Europe and the values and substance they stand for also lend themselves to promoting appreciation and education about our European cultural identity. As European Capital of Culture in 2016, Wroclaw highlighted its European character with (2019), n. 1 U. Koch 38 its cultural wealth brought about by the many and diverse historical and cultural influences that left their mark on the city. The recently inaugurated House of European History in Brussels pursues a brilliant and modern educational approach to foster understanding of our European history. We have to continue to think about how we can further develop these institutions, formats and projects so that they help to strengthen a sense of European identity on the part of Europe’s citizens. In Les lieux de memoire in the 1980s and 1990s, the French historian Pierre Nora developed a n ew approach to memory and remembrance. Instead of dealing with a historic site under general thematic or chronologically linear aspects, he advocated a m ore comprehensive appreciation of historic sites, in particular of those which, in his eyes, have special significance as memory spaces. In the French context such memory spaces are, for example, the royal tombs in Saint-Denis, the Eiffel Tower or even intangible cultural heritage such as La Marseillaise. In his view, it is these tangible and intangible memory spaces that, taken together, bring the collective memory of France to life. He even included certain more pronounced regional characteristics resulting from diverging cultural or religious traditions or regional or political conflicts into his memory spaces. Can we and should we define such marked historical and cultural learning and identity spaces also for Europe in order to better tell and share the story of Europe? Spaces connected to the Iron Curtain, spaces of peace, of enlightenment and humanism could, if merged into a network, make it possible for us to experience and share cultural heritage in its authentic places. Just as in 2018 young people from all over Europe will be invited to Osnabrück and Münster, the two towns of the Peace of Westphalia, which in 1648 marked the end of the first European war, and will talk about paths towards peace and develop a sense of shared ownership of European history, I can imagine this sense of shared ownership emerging in future even more strongly if we connect and enhance historical memory spaces in Europe. Why not link the history of the Peace of Westphalia as told in Münster and Osnabrück to Prague Castle and the story told there about the defenestration in 1618 and establish a c ollaboration between these historic sites? How can the European Year of Cultural Heritage contribute to this? How can it enhance the political power of culture and cultural heritage in Europe? These are the issues we started to discuss at the European Cultural Heritage Summit in Berlin. The Berlin Call to Action is an important political statement to use the EYCH 2018 for a much higher role of cultural heritage in EU policies and heritage work. Not only the fire of Notre Dame in Paris underlined the importance of European cooperation, especially the resurgent of nationalist ideologies made it clear that we need more cooperation in the field of cultural heritage. A relapse into nationalistic explanatory models is unacceptable. Europe needs the integration of broader social circles. We have to take advantage of an inclusive view on our culture and heritage. The new EU Forum for Cultural Heritage has given advice to the EU Commission specially to level the paths for more support and ideas for European cooperation and contributing to accelerate change in the cultural heritage sector and beyond. Heritage is not an end in itself. We need it to create a future in Europe! The European Year of Cultural Heritage helped to foster change and innovation in the heritage sector. The EYCH and SHARING HERITAGE marked a turning point for much more thanimpressive events. It started a important discussion for a modern and innovative cultural heritage communication. SHARING HERITAGE is going on now! (2019), n. 1 Sharing Heritage 39 (2019), n. 1 U. Koch 40 REFERENCES Schmale, W. (2013). Mein Europa. Reisetagebücher eines Historikers. Wien:BöhlauVerlag. Hirst, J. (2015). Die kürzeste Geschichte Europas, Hamburg: Hoffmann und Campe. Sharing Heritage Reflections after EYCH 2018 about the place of Cultural Heritage for future cooperation in Europe 
work_txnapspsjne5ffda4xohgvfeqi	----	Adjoined Conceptual Domains in the Bilingual Poetry of Pablo Picasso Method How to Cite: Mallen, Enrique, and Luis Meneses. 2019. “Adjoined Conceptual Domains in the Bilingual Poetry of Pablo Picasso.” Digital Studies/Le champ numérique 9(1): 20, pp. 1–23. DOI: https://doi. org/10.16995/dscn.320 Published: 18 December 2019 Peer Review: This is a peer-reviewed article in Digital Studies/Le champ numérique, a journal published by the Open Library of Humanities. Copyright: © 2019 The Author(s). This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC-BY 4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. See http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Open Access: Digital Studies/Le champ numérique is a peer-reviewed open access journal. Digital Preservation: The Open Library of Humanities and all its journals are digitally preserved in the CLOCKSS scholarly archive service. https://doi.org/10.16995/dscn.320 https://doi.org/10.16995/dscn.320 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Mallen, Enrique, and Luis Meneses. 2019. “Adjoined Conceptual Domains in the Bilingual Poetry of Pablo Picasso.” Digital Studies/Le champ numérique 9(1): 20, pp. 1–23. DOI: https://doi.org/10.16995/dscn.320 METHOD Adjoined Conceptual Domains in the Bilingual Poetry of Pablo Picasso Enrique Mallen1 and Luis Meneses2 1 Sam Houston State University, US 2 University of Victoria, CA Corresponding author: Luis Meneses (ldmm@uvic.ca) Picasso started writing poems in April, 1935 during a period of personal crisis. This shift to literature is predicated on an assumed irreducible conflict between new verbal expressions and his established visual composition. Picasso’s texts provide a window into the artist’s mind that is separate from his own artistic creations —which makes them extremely relevant. This paper investigates two aspects of Picasso’s poetry. First, how Picasso used subtle differences between the lexical realization of concepts in French and Spanish: the two languages he used to compose his poems. And Second, how he explored the potential overlap between semantic categories for concepts associated with co-occurring words. When these linguistic phenomena are examined carefully, it becomes clear that the lexical combinations that Picasso implemented in his poems were far from arbitrary. Keywords: Picasso; bilingual; poetry; conceptual domains; semantic categories Picasso a commencé à écrire des poèmes en avril 1935, pendant une période de crise personnelle. Ce passage vers la littérature se fonde sur le conflit irréductible supposé entre de nouvelles expressions verbales et sa composition visuelle établie. Les textes de Picasso nous donnent un aperçu de ce qui se passe dans la tête de l’artiste qui est séparé de ses propres créations artistiques – ce qui rend ces textes extrêmement pertinents. Cet article enquête sur deux aspects de la poésie de Picasso. Premièrement, la manière dont Picasso a employé des différences subtiles entre la réalisation lexicale de concepts en français et en espagnol, les deux langues dans lesquelles il a écrit ses poèmes. Deuxièmement, la manière dont il a exploré le chevauchement potentiel entre des catégories sémantiques pour des concepts associés aux mots coexistants. Après un examen approfondi de ces phénomènes linguistiques, il s’est avéré clair que les combinaisons lexicales avec lesquelles Picasso a composé ses poèmes étaient loin d’être arbitraires. https://doi.org/10.16995/dscn.320 mailto:ldmm@uvic.ca Mallen and Meneses: Adjoined Conceptual Domains in the Bilingual Poetry of Pablo Picasso Art. 20, page 2 of 23 Mots-clés: Picasso; bilingue; la poésie; domaines conceptuelsl; catégories sémantiques Introduction Even scholars quite familiar with the artist Pablo Picasso ignore that he embarked upon a successful writing career in 1935, writing poems in both Spanish and French, and that he published them in some of the most prestigious literary journals of the period. Our study of Picasso’s bilingual poetry proceeds from the argument that verbal expression and visual composition in the Spaniard are related, beginning with his cubist visual compositions which already contain verbal elements (words, titles, labels, and even fragments of newspapers), and continuing through his exploration of surrealism not only in his art but also in his poems, which employ strongly visual word arrangements, as well as graphic elements and techniques derived from the visual arts. By demonstrating how Picasso explored the relationship between verbal and visual components in two different media (visual art, poetry), this study will not only contribute to digital humanities scholarship, but also to discussions about the relation between verbal and visual media, intermediality, and ekphrasis, in studies of modernism and the avant-garde and more generally in literature, art history, and cultural studies. An additional goal of our investigation is to understand the semantics of Picasso’s poetry by analyzing the semantic domains that he operated with. This second aspect of our research is related to the first as we discover that his style was inspired by collage, in both his verbal and visual compositions. One reason for the predominance of collage in Picasso’s output might be linked to what Elza Adamowicz (1998) has suggested in reference to the various techniques of cutting, assembling, and pasting the parts involved in making up the kinds of collage, visual and verbal, constructed by the Surrealists. She proposes that one of the goals of collage was the undermining of “established narratives” and of organic wholes by employing “subversive processes of substitution and displacement.” With regards to the semantics of Picasso’s poetry, our analysis aims to show correlations between concrete concepts as identified by certain lexical terms and different languages, which becomes particularly interesting in the case of a Mallen and Meneses: Adjoined Conceptual Domains in the Bilingual Poetry of Pablo Picasso Art. 20, page 3 of 23 bilingual poet such as Picasso. On first inspection, we had noticed that psychological concepts (such as, MADNESS) are handled preferably in French; while more physical references to his immediate surroundings (such as, SCORCH) are circumscribed to Spanish terms. However, in cases where both languages (Spanish and French) are used to communicate a similar concept, Picasso chooses Spanish when he intends to apply a more folkloric tone (such as, MAGGOT). To carry out a more detailed analysis, we developed computational tools to examine how Picasso used subtle oppositions between words within specific concepts in both languages to build his poems. Using the extracted list of concepts, we were able to highlight and identify the interconnections between his poems in different languages. Another aspect of his poetry that we analyzed is whether those words Picasso placed together belonged to a restricted conceptual set, so that their interconnection, while not obvious to the viewer/reader, must have been somewhat determined in Picasso’s “view” of reality. It is that determined interconnection which Picasso saw that we propose to explore with this study. In other words, we want to get closer to Picasso’s “vision” of the world through his poems (understanding vision as something produced by the text, rather than a psychological state) in order to investigate how that “vision” may differ from what he depicted in his graphic works. Illustrative examples For purposes of illustration, we will use two poems from 1935, one in Spanish and one in French with brackets identifying inserted elements marked as such by Picasso. 7 decembre XXXV (Figure 1) poca vergüenza tiene el [ cristal ] el que hacen correr la voz mentirosa [ de la liebre ] si su capa no flota atada al palo roto de [ su ] barca — que [ ni el ] carajo [ de su cresta ] podrá ya [ nunca ] más reírse [ de la cuerda que cuelga ] del farol — si no fuera — — el azar el que manda — y la forma arbitraria de la Mallen and Meneses: Adjoined Conceptual Domains in the Bilingual Poetry of Pablo Picasso Art. 20, page 4 of 23 sombra afilada [ por ] la seda [ de su ] beso el estribo — y aún [ así ] y todo [ y a pesar ] [ de que ahora ] encerrado [ ya está ] entre los cuatro muros del grano de la uva — — sus ganas de cantarse al compás de la gota de luz de la cazuela [ que se está todo el día ] de rodillas y delante del trapo [ tan ] sucio que gotea — el amor sentado en un rincón de la cocina se entretiene cortándose las uñas (Bernadac and Piot 1989, 54–57) 14 Décembre XXXV (Figure 2) sur le dos de l’ immense tranche de melon ardent — arbre morceau de fleuve — table à rire — sous la menace de l’ aile qui serre pour le plaisir de voir expirer entre ses dents — distraite de son ennui — un [ brin ] d’ herbe — les deux petits boutons de prunus tombés si bas — s’ embrassent depuis deux ou trois jours énervés par les pleurs — de la petite fille — (Bernadac and Piot 1989, 65) Mallen and Meneses: Adjoined Conceptual Domains in the Bilingual Poetry of Pablo Picasso Art. 20, page 5 of 23 Poetry and collage As mentioned earlier, Picasso’s approach to poetry is directly linked to his innovations in the plastic arts. During synthetic cubism, Picasso started incorporating verbal language into his pictorial compositions. In these cases, the verbal elements were intended to play a visual role; but simultaneously they introduced a verbal dimension into a previously purely pictorial domain. As Kozloff (1973) has declared, with the arrival of collage, the main focus changed to the combinatorial process, transforming picture making into an analogical construction. Pictorial language, like poetic language, became multileveled, refusing to accept an absolute interpretation of reality. Krauss (1999) has identified this as the birth of the nonreferential plastic sign. The advent of collage introduced a free visual signifier within pictorial space, Figure 1: Poca vergüenza (1), December 7, 1935. Musée Picasso, Paris. OPP.35: 068. Mallen and Meneses: Adjoined Conceptual Domains in the Bilingual Poetry of Pablo Picasso Art. 20, page 6 of 23 independent of any fixed referent. As the reference of pictorial constituents is no longer understood in positive terms, being instead interpreted as relative within the system, their meaning becomes purely a function of that system. By bringing real objects into the picture, Picasso additionally managed to circumvent representation. As a result, different realities coexisted at multiple levels, fusing into a whole. In the late 1920s, with the arrival of surrealism, Picasso’s pasted elements which had by now almost fully integrated into the cubist composition, combining his prior Figure 2: Sur le dos (1), December 14, 1935. Musée Picasso, Paris. OPP.35: 076. Mallen and Meneses: Adjoined Conceptual Domains in the Bilingual Poetry of Pablo Picasso Art. 20, page 7 of 23 acknowledgment of their arbitrariness with a new recognition of their capacity for establishing a magical presence in his art. He suddenly started integrating in his paintings objects that were close to himself, such as a torn piece from his own shirt, a cloth that had been used as a household utensil, decorative feathers from his wife’s hat, etc. In his poetry, Picasso reverses the order he had established in cubism. If words had been integrated in paintings to highlight the linguistic value of pictorial expression, now words gain in physical presence and exert their magical power over the reader, much like real objects had incorporated into the surrealist compositions. Words and phrases are distributed on the page as if they were pictorial signs, entering into relations with other visual elements such as dashes, blotches, brackets, etc. Phrases link to each other in fluctuant, reversible attachments, intentionally left tentative and ambiguous, open to potential deletions and insertions as the poems undergo revisions, just as pieces of paper had been precariously pinned to the support in the cubist collage and were left opened to the possibility of being removed. Furthermore, as was the case with papier collés, lexical items do not lose their physical presence as they enter the realm of signification; they are equally valid as material elements, providing tonality and rhythm to the lines of the poem, as the color and texture of the pasted papers did in the cubist composition. To Louis Parrot he had declared: “Poems? … When I began to write them I wanted to prepare myself a palette of words, as if I were dealing with colors. All these words were weighed, filtered and appraised” Rothenberg and Joris (2004: xv). Very few of his poems remain in their pristine state. As in his plastic works, Picasso was constantly searching, attempting to uncover through the medium of language that which could not otherwise be revealed. Preliminary analysis One of the first things one notices as one skims over the lines of the poem is the persistence of connectors such as “que” and “de” which lose the subordinating effect they have in conventional grammatical constructions to be transformed by Picasso into adjunctive elements, allowing readers to connect one object to the next, in multiple ramifications. Mallen and Meneses: Adjoined Conceptual Domains in the Bilingual Poetry of Pablo Picasso Art. 20, page 8 of 23 The inserted constituents (identified in italics below) equally correspond for the most part to adjuncts. Furthermore, the phrases between dashes fall within the same category of adjunctive elements. In all these cases, the constituents contribute to the overall interpretation of the poem, but they do so in a non-hierarchical manner. Having superseded the domain of the nucleus by their reiterative adjunctive nature, they are free to alter the meaning of any element in the sentence by linking tentatively and simultaneously to any nucleus, complement or adjunct in the sentence. [ IP poca vergüenza tiene el [ NP cristal 2 ] [ NP2 el que hacen correr la voz mentirosa 3 [ PP3 de la liebre]]] — [ CP si su 2 capa no flota atada al palo roto de [ AP su 2 ] barca 4 ] — [ CP4 que [ DP ni el] carajo [ PP de su cresta] podrá ya [ AP nunca] más reírse [ PP de la cuerda que cuelga] del farol] — [ CP si no fuera el azar 1 el que manda 1 ] — y [ CP la forma arbitraria de la sombra afilada] [ PP por] [ NP la seda] [ PP de su] [ NP beso] [ NP el estribo] V 1 — y [ AP aun [ AP así] y todo [y] [ PP a pesar de que] [ AP ahora] encerrado 2 [ AP ya] [ VP está 2 ] entre los cuatro muros del grano de la uva] — [ NP sus 2 ganas de cantarse al compás de la gota de luz de la cazuela] — [ PP [que se está 2 todo el día] de rodillas y delante del trapo [ AP tan] sucio que gotea] — [ NP el amor sentado en un rincón de la cocina se entretiene cortándose las uñas] [ PP4 sur le dos de l’immense tranche de melon1 ardent] — [ NP1 arbre] [ NP1 morceau de fleuve] — [ NP1 table à rire] — [ PP1 sous la menace de l’aile 2 qui serre pour le plaisir de voir expirer entre ses dents] — [ AP2 distraite de son ennui] — [ NP3 un [ N brin] d’herbe] — [ NP les deux petits boutons de prunus 4 tombés si bas] — [ VP4 s’embrassent depuis deux ou trois jours énervés 4 par les pleurs 5 ] — [ PP5 de la petite fille]. (Bernadac and Piot 1989, 54–57) In current syntactic theory, adjuncts are modifiers which freely attach at a higher level in the sentence and provide circumstantial information pertaining to the nucleus of the phrase and its relation to both complement and specifier. In contrast to complements and specifiers, adjuncts are constituents which may be found in iteration, and their relation to the nucleus of the phrase is usually ambiguous. In Picasso’s case, we see that the different adjunct phrases interact Mallen and Meneses: Adjoined Conceptual Domains in the Bilingual Poetry of Pablo Picasso Art. 20, page 9 of 23 with other constituents in the poem in strings of metaphoric confrontations shown by coindexation. [CP Spec [C’ C [IP Spec [I’ I [VP [VP Spec [V’ V complement]] adjunct]]]]] [DP Spec [D’ D [NP [NP Spec [N’ N complement]] adjunct]]] The adjuncts are also purposely left differentiated by Picasso (often placed at a different level, or in the margins, etc.), as if they were footnoted “afterthoughts” to the already validated text. In fact, it is sometimes quite a task for the editor of these poems to decide exactly where the added text must be incorporated, as the writer intentionally leaves this detail ambiguous. The reader is free to choose whether to follow the suggested insertions or to continue with the original text, ignoring the later additions. One interesting thing about this poem is how Picasso has inserted dashes in multiple places to indicate some sort of segmentation of the text. When one analyzes the position of the bracketed syntactic constituents in the poem, one notices that they also, for the most part, correspond to adjunct phrases. The adjunct phrases build metaphoric concatenations, being interlinked through chains of coindexations with restricted semantic domains (shown above by coindexation). Thus, in the second poem we find: (1) nature setting: tranche de melon – arbre – fleuve – table – brin d’herbe – deux petits boutons; (2) positive emotion: ardent – rire – tombés – s’embrassent; (3) negative emotion: menace – aile – serre – plaisir de voir expirer – dents – ennui – énervés – pleurs de la petite fille. In spite of the adjunctive nature of Picasso’s poetry, it becomes clear that the words he employed were still intended to interact with each other in clearly delineated semantic domains. Readers are expected to rediscover these preexisting interconnections of coocurring words distributed on the page in non-verbal organization. Given these semantic interconnections, it is important to classify the concepts behind the words Picasso used and determine how these concepts may then group around specific semantic categories. In this respect, there are similarities between Picasso’s poetics and the writings of Gertrude Stein. Randa Dubnick discusses a progression from “syntax” to “lexicon” Mallen and Meneses: Adjoined Conceptual Domains in the Bilingual Poetry of Pablo Picasso Art. 20, page 10 of 23 in Stein’s literary career, which she divides into two kinds of linguistically consistent obscure styles. Stein herself called them “prose” and “poetry”, respectively. When Stein stated that the central unit in her “prose” is the sentence, and that functional verbs, prepositions, and conjunctions (which hold the functional structure of the sentence together) are important in this style, she was referring to Jakobson’s (1956) horizontal axis of language (or syntagm), where the units are related in praesentia vs. the vertical axis (or paradigm) which creates word associations that are founded on a commonality in conjunction with or in contrast with each other, and deals with word selection (cf. Dubnick 1984: 6). Aside from the syntagmatic plane, the elements which have a similarity are mentally conjoined and thus create associations within which one can see many relationships. The terms are thus united “in absentia”. In her early work, Stein underlines the metonymic aspect of the sentence (the value of functional syntax), while simultaneously minimizing the lexical vocabulary, not merely in quantity, but also in its degree of specificity. As it is primarily based in syntax, it stresses the use of verbs, adverbs, and conjunctions, while at the same time it reduces the vocabulary, discarding referential nouns in favor of pronouns and gerunds. The resulting style depends almost entirely on functional syntax, using mainly connective words, such as functional prepositions and conjunctions. This produces sentences containing words that rely on other words for their significance, thus reducing how it is affected when the operation of “selection” is hindered. Central words may then be deleted or replaced by abstract anaphoric substitutes, while concrete and specific nouns and verbs can then be substituted for more generic terms. Functional categories, like pronouns and pronominal adverbs, or words serving merely to establish the context—such as connectives and auxiliaries—tend to survive. From “prose”, with an enhanced syntax and a constrained lexicon, Stein progressed towards “poetry” with an emphasis on lexical vocabulary and a reduced functional syntax, shifting focus—in Jakobsonian terms—from the linguistic operation of “combination” (horizontal axis) to that of “selection” (vertical axis) where the lexicon dominates (see Dubnick 1984: 28). If in her early portraits, Stein had freed herself of narrative and presented perceptions one moment at a time, these perceptions had been edited, selected, and generalized so that the person could be “analyzed” Mallen and Meneses: Adjoined Conceptual Domains in the Bilingual Poetry of Pablo Picasso Art. 20, page 11 of 23 in his/her essential reality. The physical world is experienced as immediate in each present moment. What we find in her later style, by contrast, is a concentration upon “objects that existed in her mind”. She perceived that the object was immersed in a continuum of sound, color and association, which she intended to reconstitute in writing. Consequently, a book like Tender Buttons has a less abstract vocabulary in that it contains many more concrete nouns, sensual adjectives, and action verbs than does her earlier style. Dubnick notes that Stein’s writing gradually shifted from orderly analysis of reality to the immediate perception of the world, dealing increasingly with the lexicon itself; with mental images associated with words (signifieds), and with the qualities of words as things in themselves (signifiers) (see Dubnick 1984: 32). The new freedom in using words were manifested in a richer, more sensual vocabulary, which contrasts with the spare vocabulary of her earlier work. The evocative power of the word called for a more “decorative” approach. Freed from concerns with generalizing and classifying, Stein began using concrete nouns, sensual adjectives, and specific verbs. This more obscure style (as Picasso’s synthetic cubism) concentrates on the signifying element as a thing in itself and on the art object in its own right as an opaque surface—of paint and pasted paper or of words. Special attention is paid to the signifying element (the word) for its own sake. In Stein’s association of mental constructs (signifieds), she uses relations based on both contiguity—defined by James (1950) as association of objects habitually found together in time and space, and identified by Jakobson (1956) as metonymy— and on similarity—which he identifies as metaphor. The operation of association is stressed not only in images and concepts (semantics), but also in the qualities of the words as words (phonology). By forcing the reader to pay attention to the word, Stein revitalizes the lexicon. The poet doesn’t ignore the meanings of words, as so many critics alleged; but by presenting each word in an unusual context, she directs attention not only toward its phonology but also toward its semantics, and the interaction between both levels. This then forces the reader to grapple with each word one at a time. H/she must confront the lexicon and its connection with the rest of the grammar with a sense of bewilderment, wonder, and discovery. Thus, one could conclude that this poetry’s final goal is to rejuvenate language at its core. Mallen and Meneses: Adjoined Conceptual Domains in the Bilingual Poetry of Pablo Picasso Art. 20, page 12 of 23 Stein and Picasso’s concentration on the nature of vocabulary as an essential component of the grammar matches the linguist Ray Jackendoff’s (2002) interest in psychological and neurological questions about the lexicon, about what linguistic items are stored or memorized as units, and about what relationships can exist between one stored item and another, or between them and linguistic expressions that are constructed “on the fly” from their constituent words in working memory. Jackendoff’s Representational Modularity promotes the lexicon from the periphery of linguistic theory to its very center. It appears that both Stein’s second abstract style and Picasso’s synthetic cubism exploited a similar type of intuition for aesthetic purposes. Background and former analysis For some time now, we have taken different approaches to analyze Picasso’s artworks (Meneses, Furuta, and Mallen 2008), his poetry (Meneses et al. 2008) and its semantic content (Meneses and Mallen 2017) within the context of the Online Picasso Project (Mallen 2019). For the semantic content of the words in the poem, we analyzed the semantic concepts behind each word irrespective of the language used, linking concepts with English translations of relevant concepts. Given the acknowledged semantic interconnections between words Picasso explored in his poetry, we classified the uncovered concepts in order to determine how they could be grouped around specific semantic categories using Wordnet as reference (Miller 1993). Additionally, we created Web-based interfaces to view these semantic relationships, which in turn were also linked to a bilingual concordance of terms. The next thing we did is group the concepts we had identified into semantic categories. A semantic category (Taylor 2003) is a linguistic term that recognizes that languages tend to divide up the spectrum of concepts differently. Using the bilingual lexicon derived from Picasso’s poetry (Audenaert et al. 2007), we devised a mechanism to extricate the set of semantic domains in his literary creation using the English translations for the Spanish and French terms as our basis (Figure 3). Next, we tried to establish whether there was a predominance of certain semantic categories in one of the two languages Picasso used. We discovered that this was indeed the case. For instance, Picasso is more inclined to refer to food items Mallen and Meneses: Adjoined Conceptual Domains in the Bilingual Poetry of Pablo Picasso Art. 20, page 13 of 23 and everyday objects in his Spanish poems. On the other hand, given the influence French Surrealist writers exerted on him, his French poems concentrate on more abstract concepts involving politics, religion and sexuality. As a follow-up to our previous research, this paper investigates (1) how Picasso used subtle differences between the lexical realization of concepts in two languages as he composed his poems in French and Spanish; and (2) how he explored the potential overlap between semantic categories for concepts associated with co-occurring words. When these linguistic phenomena are examined carefully, it becomes clear that the lexical combinations that Picasso implemented in his poems were far from arbitrary. As preliminary examples of (1) and (2), we note that for the concept KILL, Picasso used four words (and their morphological derivatives) in French, but only one word in Spanish; and that for co-occurring concepts FAN and WING there is an intentional overlap under the semantic category NOUN.ARTIFACT. In the following section, we will describe our methods and expand on our analysis of these linguistic phenomena with further details. Figure 3: Screenshot of the user interface displaying words and their corresponding categories in French. Mallen and Meneses: Adjoined Conceptual Domains in the Bilingual Poetry of Pablo Picasso Art. 20, page 14 of 23 Analysis of concepts and semantic domains The repository of 604 poems and 3 plays and the semantic categories for the 6,600 Spanish words and 8,100 French words in the Online Picasso Project are stored in a MySQL database (“MySQL” 2018). This database has tables and relations that divide the writings into poems, pages, and lines. The poems are reconstructed using standard join operations—allowing the terms and lines to be retrieved along with additional metadata such as title, section, and line number. We exported the tables of the MySQL database into a SQLite database (“SQLite Home Page” 2018). We did this to be able to manipulate and access the individual records locally. Then we used Python (van Rossum 1995) to perform a series of transformations to the records and. We then used the lxml library (“Lxml – Processing XML and HTML with Python” 2018) to output the transformed poems into XML files —which freed us from the constraints of using a relational database. We then used Beautiful Soup (Richardson 2015) to parse the resulting XML files and Plotly (“Modern Visualization for the Data Era” 2018) to create graphs and visualizations from them. With the tools we have developed, we examined how Picasso used subtle oppositions between words within specific concepts in French and Spanish to build his poems. We analyze these contrasts further in order to determine how concepts are either demarcated or left open in his poems. The first question we asked deals with how Picasso used concepts depending on the language of the poem. We determined that concepts like BEAT, BREAK and CATCH, among others, tend to be expressed in Spanish; while concepts like BURN, CARRY or RAISE, among others, are verbalized in French. Figure 4 shows concepts grouped by language with a threshold of 15 combined occurrences. Second, we examined how different lexical categories are used depending on the language of the poem —which is shown in Figure 5. We noted that concepts like BREAK or CARRY are conveyed as verbs; as do BITE or JUMP, although less so. A concept like END is articulated merely as a noun. Next, and because of their prevalence in the concepts, we examined the verb morphologies by language. We observed that there is a large number of past Mallen and Meneses: Adjoined Conceptual Domains in the Bilingual Poetry of Pablo Picasso Art. 20, page 15 of 23 participles (347 French, 163 Spanish), as well as present participles, although in this case it is mostly in French with 120 instances. Other predominant morphologies are present tense of transitive verbs in the third person (144 French, 127 Spanish), present tense of intransitive verbs in the third person (36 French, 33 Spanish) and infinitives of transitive verbs (75 French, 54 Spanish). Transitive verbs are more dominant than intransitive verbs over all; and present tense is more dominant than past tense. Figure 6 shows a comparison of verb morphologies by language. Figure 4: Concepts in Picasso’s poetry grouped by language with a threshold of 15 combined occurrences. Figure 5: Concepts and lexical categories in Picasso’s poetry. The categories shown have a combined threshold of 15 or more occurrences. Mallen and Meneses: Adjoined Conceptual Domains in the Bilingual Poetry of Pablo Picasso Art. 20, page 16 of 23 Finally, we analyzed how the semantic categories are used depending on the language of the poem. The question we raised is whether there is a preference for certain semantic categories in Spanish over French. We linked each concept with its different semantic categories. Based on what languages are associated with specific concepts, we then determined if a correlation existed with certain semantic categories as well. We discovered that Spanish is predominant in the semantic category NOUN.EVENT. French, on the other hand, dominates throughout, but significantly in the semantic categories VERB.CHANGE, VERB.MOTION, VERB.STATIVE, VERB.SOCIAL, VERB.COMPETITION, VERB.POSSESSION, VERB.COMMUNICATION, VERB.COGNITION. Figure 7 shows a comparison of the semantic categories by language in Picasso’s poetry. By isolating the semantic categories Picasso worked with we may start to get a clearer picture of how words in his poems relate to each other. Of course, these results are only preliminary since we have not yet classified all the concepts into distinct semantic categories and even those we have completed will have to be further refined. And yet we already see that some of the existing semantic categories are linked to a higher number of concepts than others. For example, we find a high number of nominal artifacts in his poems. Some are related to art, such as engraving, fashion, festoon, illumination, image, impression, imprint, ornament, paint, paintbrush, painter, painting, palette; others related to war, such as armor, axe, blade, bomb, Figure 6: Verb morphologies by language in Picasso’s poetry. Mallen and Meneses: Adjoined Conceptual Domains in the Bilingual Poetry of Pablo Picasso Art. 20, page 17 of 23 bow, bugle, bullet, camouflage, fighter, gallows, gauntlet, knife, knight, rampart, rapier. These may appear antagonistic, but in Picasso’s world there is a close relation between destruction in war and creation in art. Not surprisingly for a painter and writer, nominal communication is another frequent semantic category, with such concepts as advance, advice, agreement, alert, allusion, alphabet, ambiguity, announcement, answer, argument, art, articulation, canticle, fable, language, news, nonsense, note, noun, outcry, parable. With the tools we have developed, we may examine how he used subtle oppositions between words within specific concepts in French and Spanish to build his poems. An example of his choice of words may be found in the concept KILL. Picasso used four words (and their morphological derivatives) in French for this concept: “abattent” (KNOCK), “égorge”, “égorgeant”, “égorgée”, “égorgées” (SLIT); “éteignant”, “éteindre”, “éteint”, “éteinte”, “éteints” (EXTINGUISH); and “tue”, “tuer”, “tuera”, “tuez-le” (SLAY). These words impose a clear lexical demarcation within that concept. For Spanish, however, Picasso chose one single word (and its morphological derivatives) for that same concept: “matar”, “mataran”, “mate”, “maten”, “mato”. That is, he left the concept more ambiguous. An opposite situation occurs with the concept ANGUISH, where three words (and their morphological derivatives) are used in Spanish: “angustia”, “angustias” Figure 7: Semantic categories by language in Picasso’s poetry. The categories shown have a combined threshold of 15 or more occurrences. Mallen and Meneses: Adjoined Conceptual Domains in the Bilingual Poetry of Pablo Picasso Art. 20, page 18 of 23 (“passive”); and “congoja”, “congojas”; or “acongoja” (“active”). Here Picasso chose words that further specified the patient’s role in the feeling, clearly demarcating the concept in its lexical implementation. In French, however, he used only one word: “angoisse(s)”. We analyzed these contrasts further in order to determine how concepts are either demarcated or left open in his poems. Where word-concept relations overlap in Spanish and French, common conceptual domains are established between the two languages. Where word-concept relations differ substantially, we would have differing conceptual domains in the two. This new approach may be able to answer the question of why Picasso chose to write in a specific language about some specific content. Figure 4 shows a screenshot of the user interface displaying the relationship between the NOUN.PERSON semantic category, the ACTOR concept and their related words in Picasso’s poetry. The above generalizations are based on a sample of the data so far explored. We see further confirmation of some of these semantic tendencies in the two illustrative poems we have included. In the first poem, Picasso chooses “vergüenza” for SHAME (another possible lexical realization of this concept would have been “lástima”, which he uses elsewhere. He also chooses “cristal” for GLASS, which has as alternative realization “vidrio”. The specific choice could be triggered by the semantic category NOUN.FEELING which both “vergüenza” and “cristal” share, but that “vidrio” lacks. In addition, both “vergüenza” and “cristal” have negative connotations of a painful emotion that responds to a sense of failure which needs to be covered up. These insinuations are missing from “lástima” and “vidrio”. The sense of cover up is extended with subsequent expressions in the line: “correr la voz” (GOSSIP) and “mentirosa” (LIAR). These two concepts in turn share the semantic category NOUN. COMMUNICATION with equally negative connotations. Many more such correlations can be identified in the poem between major cooccuring lexical categories, highlighted in bold. [ IP poca vergüenza tiene el [ NP cristal 2 ] [ NP2 el que hacen correr la voz mentirosa [ PP de la liebre]]] – [ CP si su capa no flota atada al palo roto de Mallen and Meneses: Adjoined Conceptual Domains in the Bilingual Poetry of Pablo Picasso Art. 20, page 19 of 23 [ AP su] barca] – [ CP que [ DP ni el] carajo [ PP de su cresta] podrá ya [ AP nunca] más reírse [ PP de la cuerda que cuelga] del farol] – [ CP si no fuera el azar el que manda 1 ] – y [ CP la forma arbitraria de la sombra afilada] [ PP por] [ NP la seda] [ PP de su] [ NP beso] [ NP el estribo] V 1 – y [ AP aun [ AP así] y todo [y] [ PP a pesar de que] [ AP ahora] encerrado 2 [ AP ya] [ VP está] entre los cuatro muros del grano de la uva] – [ NP sus ganas de cantarse al compás de la gota de luz de la cazuela] – [ PP [que se está 2 todo el día] de rodillas y delante del trapo [ AP tan] sucio que gotea] – [ NP el amor sentado en un rincón de la cocina se entretiene cortándose las uñas]. (Bernadac and Piot 1989, 54–57) In the second poem we observe similar correlations. The words “melon” (MELON) and “arbre” (TREE) share the same semantic category NOUN.PLANT. While “melon” and “fleuve” do not appear to link to similar semantic categories, their relation to “tranche” and “morceau” associates both lexical entries as the latter two partitives have quite a few of semantic categories in common: NOUN.POSSESSION, NOUN.OBJECT, NOUN.ARTIFACT, NOUN.FOOD, VERB.CONTACT. Of special relevance are the last two, as they allow “fleuve” (RIVER) to enter in a relation not only with “melon” (as food), but also with “sur le dos” through a “contact” connotation. The semantic category NOUN.FOOD also shared with the following “table” (TABLE) allows the latter to link to both “fleuve” and “melon”. The odd combination “table à rire” containing “rire” (LAUGH) comes from the expression “assise à table à rire” which is associated with the semantic category NOUN.COMMUNICATION and hence overlaps with the word “menace” (THREAT) immediately after which falls under the same semantic category. [ PP4 sur le dos de l’immense tranche de melon 1 ardent] – [ NP1 arbre] [ NP1 morceau de fleuve] – [ NP1 table à rire] – [ PP1 sous la menace de l’aile 2 qui serre pour le plaisir de voir expirer entre ses dents] – [ AP2 distraite de son ennui] – [ NP3 un [ N brin] d’herbe] – [ NP les deux petits boutons de prunus 4 tombés si bas] – [ VP4 s’embrassent depuis deux ou trois jours énervés 4 par les pleurs 5 ] – [ PP5 de la petite fille]. (Bernadac and Piot 1989, 65) Mallen and Meneses: Adjoined Conceptual Domains in the Bilingual Poetry of Pablo Picasso Art. 20, page 20 of 23 As in the Spanish poem, many more such semantic correlations can be identified in the poem between major cooccurring lexical categories, highlighted in bold. Conclusions Among the generalizations that we can make from this data is that Picasso prefers verbs that may be accompanied by complements. This confirms our thesis that one of the essential features of Picasso’s poetry is the interdependence of concepts, where meaning is not defined separately, but in the combinatory interplay between multiple words. The complements serve to expand and, at time, alter the expected content of the individual lexical items. We also notice that the action expressed in his poems tends to be in the present tense. This is again a confirmation of Picasso’s poetic style, where the involved action of the reader of the poem in the present is crucial in determining the meaning of the lines. Concerning the preference of certain concepts in one language or another, we have already identified some patterns; however, more data would need to be analyzed before coming to solid conclusions. The same applies to the correlation between certain semantic categories and the specific concepts associated with a certain language. When it comes to conceptualizing nominal events, Spanish is the predominant language. Conversely, for verbal concepts involving change or motion, as well as social relations, French was the dominant language. This is particularly noticeable when verbal concepts pertaining to communication are involved. Future research will serve to further confirm these preliminary observations. Our final goal is to group the uncovered semantic categories into adjoined conceptual domains: macro categories that would get us closer to main semantic domains that Picasso operated with. Again, we know that Picasso’s style, both in his visual and his verbal compositions, was very much inspired by collage. An interesting feature is that those elements he placed together belonged to a restricted set, so that their interconnection, while not obvious to the viewer/reader, must have been somewhat determined in Picasso’s “view” of reality. It is that determined interconnection that Picasso saw that we want to explore with our study of the semantic categories in Picasso’s poetry. In other words, the purpose of our work is to Mallen and Meneses: Adjoined Conceptual Domains in the Bilingual Poetry of Pablo Picasso Art. 20, page 21 of 23 get closer to Picasso’s “vision” of the world through his poems in order to investigate how that “vision” may differ from what he depicted in his graphic works. Competing interest The authors have no competing interests to declare. Author contributions Enrique Mallen: wrote the paper, proposed the analysis, collected and contributed data. Luis Meneses: wrote the paper, designed and performed the analysis. Editorial contributions Section/Copy editor: Nathir Haimoun Layout editor: Mahsa Miri Works cited Adamowicz, Elza. 1998. Surrealist Collage in Text and Image: Dissecting the Exquisite Corpse. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 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Accessed November 1, 2019. https://ir.cwi.nl/pub/5007/05007D.pdf. https://picasso.shsu.edu/ https://doi.org/10.1093/llc/fqy078 https://doi.org/10.1093/llc/fqy078 https://doi.org/10.3115/1075671.1075788 https://doi.org/10.3115/1075671.1075788 https://plot.ly https://www.mysql.com/ http://www.crummy.com/software/BeautifulSoup/ http://www.crummy.com/software/BeautifulSoup/ https://www.sqlite.org/index.html https://www.sqlite.org/index.html https://ir.cwi.nl/pub/5007/05007D.pdf Mallen and Meneses: Adjoined Conceptual Domains in the Bilingual Poetry of Pablo Picasso Art. 20, page 23 of 23 How to cite this article: Mallen, Enrique, and Luis Meneses. 2019. “Adjoined Conceptual Domains in the Bilingual Poetry of Pablo Picasso.” Digital Studies/Le champ numérique 9(1): 20, pp. 1–23. DOI: https://doi.org/10.16995/dscn.320 Submitted: 05 October 2018 Accepted: 11 October 2019 Published: 18 December 2019 Copyright: © 2019 The Author(s). This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC-BY 4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. See http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. OPEN ACCESS Digital Studies/Le champ numérique is a peer-reviewed open access journal published by Open Library of Humanities. https://doi.org/10.16995/dscn.320 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Introduction Illustrative examples Poetry and collage Preliminary analysis Background and former analysis Analysis of concepts and semantic domains Conclusions Competing interest Author contributions Editorial contributions Works cited Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 
work_tyj4mpmb4zbntikhl5eeffesii	----	No Job Name Zurich Open Repository and Archive University of Zurich Main Library Strickhofstrasse 39 CH-8057 Zurich www.zora.uzh.ch Year: 2011 Chronicles 2010 Siehr, Kurt Abstract: The Unidroit Convention of 24 June 1995 on Stolen or Illegally Exported Cultural Objects entered into force for Greece DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/s0940739111000294 Posted at the Zurich Open Repository and Archive, University of Zurich ZORA URL: https://doi.org/10.5167/uzh-154545 Journal Article Published Version Originally published at: Siehr, Kurt (2011). Chronicles 2010. International Journal of Cultural Property, 18(4):493-548. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/s0940739111000294 CHRONICLES 2010 January 1, 2010–December 31, 2010 Kurt Siehr* 1 JANUARY 2010 The Unidroit Convention of 24 June 1995 on Stolen or Illegally Exported Cul- tural Objects entered into force for Greece. 1 JANUARY 2010 Essen, Germany, Istanbul, Turkey, and Pécs, Hungary, were chosen Cultural Cap- itals of Europe in 2010. Le Journal des Arts, 7–20 January 2011, p. 6; The Art Newspaper, September 2010, p. 28, and December 2010, p. 31; Le Journal des Arts, 21 January–3 February 2011, p. 10; Il Giornale dell’Arte, December 2010, p. 9; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 9 January 2010, p. 33; Die Zeit, 19 August 2010, p. 61; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 14 November 2009, p. Z4, and 29 May 2010, p. Z3. 1 JANUARY 2010 The introduction of zero estate tax in the United States would have negative im- plications for donations to art museums and charities. The Art Newspaper, March 2010, p. 7. 4 JANUARY 2010 50 years ago the French poet Albert Camus (1913–1960) passed away. Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 31 December 2009, p. 27; Die Zeit, 30 December 2009, p. 72. *University of Zürich Faculty of Law, Max-Plank-Institute, Hamburg. Email: siehr@mpipriv.de International Journal of Cultural Property (2011) 18:493–548. Printed in the USA. Copyright © 2011 International Cultural Property Society doi:10.1017/S0940739111000294 493 https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at 4 JANUARY 2010 In Dubai the highest building (800 meters), built by SOM architects, was finished and inaugurated. Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 5 January 2010, p. 14; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 4 January 2010, p. 7. 5 JANUARY 2010 In 1875 the Paris Opera, called the Garnier-Opera, was inaugurated and at the occasion of this event and in memory of the architect Charles Garnier (1825– 1898) an exhibition was later opened in Paris. Süddeutsche Zeitung, 13 December 2010, p. 12; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 3 January 2011, p. 20. 6 JANUARY 2010 The U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York decided the case Grosz v. Museum of Modern Art. It granted the defendant’s motion to dismiss because of the bar by the statute of limitations and the museum still held the paintings Herrmann-Neisse with Cognac, Self-portrait with Model, and Republican Automations by George Grosz (1893–1959). Case 9 Civ. 3706 (CM)(THK); The Art Newspaper, November 2009, p. 13. 10 JANUARY 2010 The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York opened the exhibition The Draw- ing of Bronzino. Bronzino (1503–1572) was an excellent master of mannerism. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 4 February 2010, p. 34; ARTnews, February 2010, p. 92. 12 JANUARY 2010 An earthquake of 7.0 magnitude destroyed almost the whole city of Port-au- Prince, Haiti, and also damaged art centers and museums. The Art Newspaper, January 2011, p. 1, and March 2010, p. 1; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 15 Jan- uary 2010, p. 1. 13 JANUARY 2010 Denmark published the bill for ratification and implementation of the Unidroit Convention of 1995. Forslag til Lov om tilbagelevering og overførelse af stjålne eller ulovligt udførte kulturgenstande. 494 KURT SIEHR https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at 15 JANUARY 2010 Berlin and Paris exchanged their art galleries and were present for one week in the other capital. Le Journal des Arts, 8 January 2010, p. 1; The Art Newspaper, January 2010, p. 59; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 16 January 2010, p. 37; Süd- deutsche Zeitung, 16–17 January 2010, p. 20. 15 JANUARY 2010 In the Tribunale di Pesaro, Italy, the Getty Foundation was accused of having bought the bronze of an athlete (supposed to be of Lisippos, ca. 340 bce) in bad faith. The Art Newspaper, February 2010, p. 18, and March 2010, p. 13; Il Giornale dell’Arte, January 2010, p. 10; Süddeutsche Zeitung, 13–14 February 2010, p. 13. 19 JANUARY 2010 The Family Court in Tel Aviv decided that the safes in Tel Aviv containing writing by Max Brod (1884–1968) may be opened. Die Zeit, 21 January 2010, p. 42. The District Court, however, stopped the opening. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 21 January 2010, p. 31, and 29 January 2010, p. 31. 21 JANUARY 2010 The Minister of Science and Culture of the German state Hessen returned to the Ambassador of Iraq 22 antique pieces of art that had been attached in Germany as looted and imported in violation of the UN Resolution 1483/2003. http:// cms.Frankfurt-live.com/front_content.php?ideat-21&printldeat-7 (of 22 January 2010). 23 JANUARY 2010 300 years ago in Meissen, Germany, the first European porcelain was manufac- tured in Saxony and has since then been collected by lovers of porcelain. Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 23 November 2010, p. 14; Frankfurter All- gemeine Zeitung, 12 December 2010, p. 63; Süddeutsche Zeitung, 23–27 December 2009, p. 22. 23 JANUARY 2010 The Indian Ministry of Law and Justice, Legislative Department, issued “The An- cient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains (Amendment and Val- idation) Ordinance 2010.” 50 Indian Journal of International Law 119ff. (2010). CHRONICLES 495 https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at 26 JANUARY 2010 The painting The Art of Painting by Jan Vermeer (1632–1675) was once owned by Count Czernin, who sold this treasure to Adolf Hitler for 1.65 million German marks, a price said to be undervalued. The Kunsthistorische Museum, which re- fused to return it to the Czernin family, was now exhibiting this treasure. Il Gior- nale dell’Arte, April 2010, p. 51. 27 JANUARY 2010 In Istanbul the Hagia Sophia opened again after six years of restoration as a mu- seum. Once the biggest Christian church, it was changed into a mosque and later into a museum. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 8 February 2010, p. 25. 28 JANUARY 2010 At the auction Important Old Master Paintings of Sotheby’s in New York, the so- called American Leonardo of the Hahn family (see Hahn v. Duveen, 234 N.Y.Supp. 185 [Sup.Ct. 1929] ) was sold for $ 1.3 million to an unknown purchaser. The painting was sold as Follower of Leonardo Da Vinci, probably before 1750. Sotheby’s Auction Catalogue, 28 January 2010, pp. 102–105; Carol Vogel, International Her- ald Tribune, 13 January 2010, p. 9; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 30 January 2010, p. 36; Kurt Siehr, Bulletin Kunst und Recht, no. 1, June 2010, p. 13; Le Journal des Arts, 19 February–4 March 2010, p. 24. 28 JANUARY 2010 The Kammergericht (Court of Appeals of Berlin) decided that two posters of the Sack collection did not have to be returned to the son of the collector. Kunst und Recht, 2010, p. 17; Kunstrechtsspiegel, no. 01/2010, p. 12; Götz Schulze, Kunstrechts- spiegel, 01/2010, p. 9; Zeitschrift für offene Vermögensfragen, 2010, p. 87; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 19 February 2010, p. 35. 29 JANUARY 2010 The Ethnological Museum Zürich opened an exhibition, Fakes, about fake art mass- produced in China to be sold as copies and fakes. Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Interna- tionale Ausgabe, 4 February 2010, p. 23. 30 JANUARY 2010 The Folkwang Museum in Essen, Germany opened its new building designed by the architect David Chipperfield and sponsored by the Krupp Foundation. In 1932 496 KURT SIEHR https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at Paul J. Sachs of the Museum of Modern Art called it “the most beautiful museum of the world.” Kunstforum, 2000, p. 10 (January–February 2010); Neue Zürcher Zei- tung, Internationale Ausgabe, 8 February 2010, p. 19; Süddeutsche Zeitung, 4 De- cember 2009, p. 13; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 30 January 2010, p. Z6. JANUARY 2010 During excavations for the subway in Berlin 13 statues of so-called degenerate art were discovered and restored. It is still not certain how these statues were bur- ied and who did it. It is likely that the sculptures were in a hidden deposit of the former ministry of propaganda. They were exhibited in the Neue Museum (Mu- seum für Vor und Frühgeschichte) on Museum Island in Berlin MuseumsJournal, 2011, April–June, pp. 20–22; Der Berliner Skulpturenfund, 2nd. ed., Berlin, 2011; The Art Newspaper, December 2010, p. 9. JANUARY 2010 In Tunis the Center for Christian-Muslim Studies, including its library, was de- stroyed by fire. Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 19 March 2010, p. 18. 1 FEBRUARY 2010 Swiss Interior Minister Didier Burkhalter and the Columbian foreign minister signed a bilateral agreement on the mutual protection of cultural property nec- essary under the Swiss Cultural Property Transfer Act, implementing the 1970 UNESCO Convention. Nike Bulletin, 2010, no. 3, p. 25. 3 FEBRUARY 2010 The Stuttgart County Court (Landgericht Stuttgart) convicted three persons of having faked sculptures of Alberto Giacometti (1901–1966). ARTnews, December 2010, p. 101; Il Giornale dell’Arte, April 2010, p. 76. 3 FEBRUARY 2010 The French Cour de cassation decided that the lex rei sitae governs the transfer of title and title presumption with respect to wall paintings transferred from New York to Paris. Kunstrechtsspiegel, 02/2010, p. 96. 3 FEBRUARY 2010 Sotheby’s of London sold the sculpture L’homme qui marche I by Alberto Gia- cometti (1901–1966) at auction for Y74 million. The sculpture was owned by the Dresdner Bank, taken over by the Commerzbank, and was sold to a private col- CHRONICLES 497 https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at lector. Agenda News, 2010, p. 116; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 5 February 2010, p. 16; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 5 February 2010, p. 31; The Art Newspaper, March 2010, p. 59; Die Zeit, 11 February 2010, p. 41; International Herald Tribune, 5 February 2010, p. 10; Le Journal des Arts, 19 February–4 March 2020, p. 25. At the same auction the painting Kirche in Sassone by Gustav Klimt (1862–1918) was sold for £27 million. It was stolen during the Nazi period of Vienna and later bought in good faith by a private collector. The former owner, Amalie Redlich, and the present owner agreed to sell the painting at auction and to divide the proceeds equally. Marie-Therese Posawetz, Bulletin Kunst und Recht, no. 1, June 2010, p. 28. 4 FEBRUARY 2010 The Berlin County Court (Landgericht) decided that a victim of a terrorist at- tack in Berlin in 1983 (Maison de France, Berlin-Charlottenburg) has no right to have the property, exhibited in Stuttgart, seized to be sold for him in satisfaction for the terrorist attack committed by the state who owns the seized property. Kunst und Recht, vol. 12, 2010, p. 130. 10 FEBRUARY 2010 The painting Chouette sur un arbre, by an anonymous painter of the nineteenth century and with an estimated value of Y100, was sold at auction in Cannes (Azur Auctions) for Y350,000 and was later discovered as a painting by Caspar David Friedrich (1774–1840) worth Y3 million. Le Journal des Arts, 19 March–1 April 2010, p. 36. 12 FEBRUARY 2010 The Dresden State Art Collection and the von Lehndorff family settled their dis- pute concerning the return of art objects (i.e., seven paintings, library) that had been left with the estate of the family in Steinort, East Prussia, and found their way to the Dresden State Art Collection. Kunstrechtsspiegel, 1/2010, p. 48; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 16 February 2010, p. 33. 12 FEBRUARY 2010 The Collection Bührle in Zürich, which was the victim of theft in 2008, left the old gallery building and integrated into the Kunsthaus Zürich. The collection will be exhibited in a temporary form. The Art Newspaper, December 2009, p. 18; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 23 February 2010, p. 13, and 24 March 2010, p. 25. 498 KURT SIEHR https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at 15 FEBRUARY 2010 The Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam closed a show of winter landscapes of the Dutch painter Hendrick Avercamp (1585–1634) entitled Hendrick Avercamp—The Small Ice-Age. The exhibition was also shown later in the National Gallery of Art in Washington, DC. Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 16 January 2010, p. 17. 18 FEBRUARY 2010 The Oberster Gerichtshof (Supreme Court) of Austria decided that for a claim of damages because of loss of a loaned art work, it is sufficient that the certificate of loan be presented to a court, and the painting on loan cannot be given back. Kunst und Recht, vol. 12, 2010, p. 123, with a note by Leonhard Reis on p. 121. 18 FEBRUARY 2010 The Brandenburg Court of Appeal decided that the Foundation of State Castles and Gardens (Stiftung Staatliche Schlösser und Gärten) is not allowed to prohibit taking pictures of the premises to be commercialized by the defendant. Kunst- rechtsspiegel, 02/2010, p. 81; MultiMedia und Recht, 2010, p. 706. 20 FEBRUARY 2010 The Scuderie del Quirinale in Rome exhibited an almost complete selection of the work of Caravaggio (1571/72–1610) to celebrate the 400th anniversary of his death. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 23 February 2010, p. 33. 24 FEBRUARY 2010 The German Bundesgerichtshof (Federal Supreme Court for Civil and Criminal Cases) decided that a public auction (whereby also stolen goods may be acquired bona fide) need not be directed by an auctioneer admitted by public authority. Kunstrechtsspiegel 02/2010, p. 90. 24 FEBRUARY 2010 The bust of Brutus once taken by Napoleon from Rome to Paris left Rome for the first time since 1815 and was exhibited in Berlin. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 4 March 2010, p. 37. CHRONICLES 499 https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at 25 FEBRUARY 2010 The Second Protocol to the 1954 Hague Convention on the Protection of Cul- tural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict entered into force for Germany. Bundesgesetzblatt, 2011, part II, p. 486. 25 FEBRUARY 2010 The well-known art dealer of Basel, Ernst Beyeler (1921–2010), passed away in Riehen, Basel, where he had exhibited his art collection in a magnificent house. Il Giornale dell’Arte, April 2010, p. 73; Le Journal des Arts, 5–18 March 2010, pp. 2 and 36; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 27 February 2001, p. 20, and 2 March 2010, p. 24; Süddeutsche Zeitung, 27–28 February 2010, p. 16. FEBRUARY 2010 Matthias Dietel, son of the collector Heinz Dietel, tried in vain to recover the col- lection of his father from the Museum in Erfurt, Germany. The collection had been taken during the time of the DDR (Democratic Republic of Germany; East Germany) for fictitious tax debts. Die Welt, 10 February 2010, p. 25. 1 MARCH 2010 Two hundred years ago the Polish composer Frederic Chopin (1810–1849) was born. Concerts, exhibitions, and seminars were given and held at this occasion. During his lifetime Chopin was the object of many paintings and statues. Frankfurter Allge- meine Zeitung, 30 December 2010, p. 32; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Aus- gabe, 27 November 2010, p. 23. 2 MARCH 2010 Orkin, a relative of Margarete Mauthner, initiated a lawsuit against Switzerland in New York because Switzerland refused to return an allegedly Nazi-looted drawing Les Saintes-Maries de la Mer by Vincent van Gogh. Mauthner had to sell the paint- ing in 1933, and Oskar Reinhart bought it under value and added it to the Mu- seum Am Stadtgarten in Winterthur, which later passed to Switzerland. The Art Newspaper, June 2010, p. 26. 4 MARCH 2010 The Armory Show 2010 took place in New York and attracted many collectors. The show explored art restitution in Austria. Kunstrechtsspiegel 02/2010, p. 75. 500 KURT SIEHR https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at 5 MARCH 2010 Paolo Giorgio Ferri, the retired attorney general of Italy in the proceedings against Marion True, Giacomo Medici, Robert Emanuel Hecht, and others, gave an inter- view to The Art Newspaper about his experience as prosecutor. The Art Newspaper, June 2010, p. 58. 5 MARCH 2010 The Capitoline Museum in Rome showed the exhibition L’Eta della Conquista: Il fascino dell’arte greca a Roma (The Time of Conquering: The Charm of Greek Art in Rome). The show described the looting of Greece and the takeover of Greek art in Rome. Süddeutsche Zeitung, 13–14 March 2010, p. 15; Il Giornale dell’Arte, March 2010, p. 58. 6 MARCH 2010 In 1810 Queen Luise of Prussia (born 1776), wife of King Friedrich Wilhelm III, passed away. She was and still is very popular in Northern Germany. On the an- niversary of her death, an exhibition was opened in Schloss Charlottenburg in Berlin called Luise: Life and Myth of a Queen. MuseumsJournal 2010, no. 1, pp. 14– 17; no. 3, p. 37; The Art Newspaper, November 2010, p. 59; Die Zeit, 15 June 2010, p. 43; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 6 March 2010, p. 33; Die Welt, 19 July 2010, p. 22. 6 MARCH 2010 The Victoria and Albert Museum in London incorporated the legendary Straw- berry Hill Collection of Horace Walpole (1717–1797), a collection of frivolities and trivialities. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 6 June 2010, p. 31; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 7 June 2010, p. 18. 7 MARCH 2010 The Kunstsammlungen Dresden celebrated 450 years (the collection was founded in 1560). The first exhibition, the famous Turkish Chamber (Türkische Cam- mer), was opened and showed the important pieces of oriental art collected by the Kings of Saxony. art, April 2010, p. 4; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 6 March 2010, p. 31; Süddeutsche Zeitung, 6–7 March 2010, p. 13, and 17–18 April 2010, p. 15. CHRONICLES 501 https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at 9 MARCH 2010 The Commission of the European Union published a proposal for a decision of the European Parliament and of the Council establishing a European Union ac- tion for the European Heritage Label. Brussels SEC(2010) 197. 9 MARCH 2010 The Art-Loss-Register made accessible the register of about 40,000 stolen art works. Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 13 March 2010, p. 19. 11 MARCH 2010 The Neue Galerie in New York opened the exhibition on Otto Dix (1891–1969). The New York Review of Books, 19 August 2010, p. 39. 11 MARCH 2010 The Suermondt-Ludwig-Museum in Aachen, Aix-La-Chapelle, exhibited the work of Hans von Aachen (1552–1615), the European court artist (that of Emperor Rudolph II in Prague) of his time. The exhibition was scheduled to be shown later in Prague and Vienna. Arsprototo, 2010, no. 1, p. 64; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zei- tung, 29 March 2010, p. 28; The Art Newspaper, November 2010, p. 65; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 17 April 2010, p. 17; Die Zeit, 25 March 2010, p. 61. 12 MARCH 2010 The European Fine Art Fair (Tefaf) was held in Maastricht, Netherlands. Le Jour- nal des Arts, 2–15 April 2010, p. 24; Il Giornale dell’Arte, March 2010, p. 40; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 13 March 2010, pp. 13 and 37; Süddeutsche Zei- tung, 13–14 March 2010, p. 20; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 13 March 2010, p. 19. 15 MARCH 2010 IFAR (International Foundation for Art Research) Evening on “Twenty Years and Counting: The Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum Theft” told the story of the theft on 18 March 1990 and the attempts to catch the thieves and to recover the stolen paintings. IFAR Journal, 12, no. 1, 2010, pp. 33–45; Frankfurter Allgemeine Sonntagszeitung, 21 March 2010, p. 57. 502 KURT SIEHR https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at 16 MARCH 2010 The 250th anniversary of the birth of the Swiss painter Johann Heinrich Meyer (1760–1832), the “Kunschtmeyer” and Goethe’s friend and art expert, in Stäfa, Lake Zürich. Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 30 March 2010, p. 19; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 1 April 2010, p. 36. 17 MARCH 2010 The Islamic art collection of Aga Khan IV was exhibited in the Gropius Building in Berlin. This famous collection will be permanently exhibited in Toronto in 2013. MuseumsJournal, no. 2, 2010, pp. 66–67. 17 MARCH 2010 In Dubai the Art Fair Dubai began and caused incidents of censorship. Le Journal des Arts, 2–15 April 2010, p. 25. 18 MARCH 2010 The Germanische Nationalmuseum in Nürnberg, Germany, was completely ren- ovated and reopened with the exhibition Renaissance, Barock, Aufklärung (Renais- sance, Baroque, Enlightenment). Arsprototo, no. 1, 2010, p. 58; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 13 April 2010, p. 16. 18–19 MARCH 2010 A conference was held, entitled Cultural Patrimony in France and Italy: Defining— Protecting—Managing, in Florence organized by the University of Florence and the University of Paris South 11. Roccella, JUS 2010, p. 563. 20 MARCH 2010 The Museum Folkwang in Essen, Germany, launched its first major exhibition after having moved to a new building. It exhibited the art collection formerly owned by the museum, but was later sold as “degenerate art” under the Nazis. Agenda News, 2010, p. 21; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 25 March 2010, p. 29; Museums- Journal, no. 3, 2010, p. 4; Süddeutsche Zeitung, 10–11 April 2010, p. 14; Die Zeit, 18 March 2010, p. 88. 24 MARCH 2010 The Museum of Modern Art in Freiburg, Germany, made restitution and bought back the painting Portrait of Max John by Otto Dix (1891–1969) for Y370,000, CHRONICLES 503 https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at with financial support from the Siemens Foundation and others. MuseumsJour- nal, April–June 2011, pp. 34–35. 26 MARCH 2010 Jennifer Anglim Kreder moderated a discussion on a proposed U.S. State Depart- ment Committee on Nazi Looted Art. Cultural Heritage & Arts Review 1, 2010, pp. 6–7. 27 MARCH 2010 In Compiègne, France, the exposition 1810, La politique de l’amour: Napoléon 1er et Marie-Louise à Compiègne opened and reminded the visitor of the mar- riage between Napoléon (1769–1821) and Marie-Louise of Austria (1791–1847), a political marriage that ended factually in 1815 and was dissolved in 1821 (death of Napoléon) when Marie-Louse was already Duchess of Parma. Le Journal des Arts, 11–24 June 2010, p. 8; The Art Newspaper, March 2010, p. 68. 30 MARCH 2010 U.S. Federal District Judge Colleen McMahon in New York ordered that a lender could take possession immediately of all of Berry-Hill Galleries art, which had been used as collateral for a loan. The Art Newspaper, May 2010, p. 64. 30 MARCH 2010 The Surrogate’s Court of the State of New York, County of Nassau, decided that an ancient golden tablet, stolen during World War II from a deposit of a Berlin museum (Vorderasiatisches Museum) cannot be recovered because the museum was too late to ask for recovery. Because of laches the claim was dismissed. Kunst und Recht, vol. 12, 2010, p. 66. 31 MARCH 2010 The Board of the Society of German Art Historians wrote an open letter with respect of the destruction of Stuttgart Main Station. The Board emphasized that the Main Station was a monument designed by Paul Bonatz (1877–1956) and should be preserved and not destroyed for a new underground station and new tracks. Kunstchronik, 63, May 2010, p. 235. 504 KURT SIEHR https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at MARCH 2010 New York art dealer Larry Salander pleaded guilty in a trial held in New York charging him with conversion, theft, and fraud of his customers by using their art objects for his own gain. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 27 March 2010, p. 35. MARCH 2010 Miami collector Craig Robins sued the Chelsea dealer David Zwirner for breach of confidentiality with respect to paintings by the South African painter Marlene Dumas. The Art Newspaper, May 2010, pp. 1 and 33. 6 APRIL 2010 One year ago an earthquake destroyed L’Aquila in the Abruzzi mountains of Italy. Since then, not all monuments have been restored. Many of them are still in ruins. Il Giornale dell’Arte, April 2010, p. 14. 7 APRIL 2010 190 years ago, on 7 April 1820, the Editto Pacca was passed by the Vatican State in Italy as a reaction of the “art theft” by Napoleon in Italy. With this Editto, modern legislation against export without governmental decision began. Il Giornale dell’Arte, June 20120, p. 85. 9 APRIL 2010 The exhibition of the icon collection of Mikhail Elizavetin at the Pushkin Mu- seum in Moscow was cancelled because the heirs of Elizavetin claimed to be the owners of the icons. The Art Newspaper, June 2010, p. 24. 9 APRIL 2010 In Paris at the Drouot, the painting L’Incendie de l’Opéra vu d’une croisée de l’Académie de peinture, place du Louvre by Hubert Robert (1733–1808) was sold for Y1.5 million. Le Journal des Arts, 30 April–13 May 2010, p. 22. 13 APRIL 2010 The Patterson Collection, consisting of pre-Columbian art, was seized in Ger- many at the request of Guatemala in 2008. The collection came from Spain, where it had been exhibited in Santiago de Compostela since 1997. In 2009 Gua- temala asked for return of 369 art objects of the Patterson Collection. A return claim of Guatemala based on the German implementation act of the 1970 CHRONICLES 505 https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at UNESCO Convention failed because Guatemala was late in listing the objects as national treasures of Guatemala, according to a decision of the Bayerische Ver- waltungsgerichtshof (Bavarian Court for Administrative Matters). Kunst und Recht, 12, 2010, p. 125; confirmation on 16 July 2010, Bulletin Kunst und Recht, no. 02/ 2010, p. 52; Kunstrechtsspiegel 03/2010, p. 132; Süddeutsche Zeitung, 17–18 April 2010, p. 18. 15 APRIL 2010 The European Court of Justice decided that the French statute implementing the EEC (European Economic Community) Directive 2001/84/EC of 27 September 2001 on “droit de suite” is valid. The French statute provides that the droit de suite can only be exercised by statutory heirs and not by legacies as, for example, the Foundation Salvador Dali and its collecting society. Bulletin Kunst und Recht no. 1, June 2010, p. 37. 15 APRIL 2010 The Italian minister Bondi, opening the Italian Week of Culture, announced that Pompei should be run and administered by a privately organized Trust (Fondazi- one). Il Giornale dell’Arte, May 2010, p. 12. See also infra 6 November 2010. 17 APRIL 2010 The Kunsthaus Zürich, Switzerland, which exhibited the famous Collection Bührle until 16 May 2010, celebrated its 100th anniversary. Magazin des Kunsthauses Zürich, November 2009, p. 3; January 2010, p. 30; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Interna- tionale Ausgabe,31 March 2010, p. 35, and special edition of 17–18 April 2010. 17 APRIL 2010 Burglars stole porcelain from the porcelain room of Sutton Park, near York, En- gland, and continued a series of porcelain burglaries in English historic houses. The Art Newspaper, June 2010, p. 1. 18 APRIL 2010 The German Free State of Saxony and the City of Dresden celebrated 450 years of history of the State Collection of Dresden. Electorate Prince August I of Saxony started his collection and the establishment of a Wunderkammer in 1560, which ultimately became the State Collection of Dresden, including the Green Vault of Turkish treasures. Kunstforum, 203, July–September 2010, p. 8. 506 KURT SIEHR https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at 19 APRIL 2010 450 years ago Philipp Melanchton (1498–1560), the reformer, professor in Wit- tenberg, scholar of Greek language, and colleague of Martin Luther and Erasmus of Rotterdam, passed away in Wittenberg, and today this was celebrated in many places. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 20 April 2010, p. 4. 20 APRIL 2010 The U.S. Permanent Representative to the United Nations, Ambassador Susan E. Rice, announced at the United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues that the United States has decided to review the U.S. position on the Declaration, which the U.S. voted against in 2007. The American Journal of International Law, 104, 528, 2010. 20 APRIL 2010 An oil spill posed a threat to the environment in the Gulf of Mexico and to the states with shores to the Gulf of Mexico. The oil spill started at a drilling of BP in the Gulf and drove BP into financial difficulties. Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Interna- tionale Ausgabe, 10 September 2010, p. 3, and 17 December 2010, p. 3; Die Welt, 17 December 2010, p. 11; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 7 January 2011, pp. 1 and 20, National Geographic, 218, No. 4, October 2010, pp. 28ff; New York Review of Books, 29 September 2011, p. 38; Die Zeit, 17 June 2010, p. 24. 20 APRIL 2010 The Cour d’appel d’Aix-en-Provence decided that the Fondation Vincent van Gogh d’Arles had to return the painting Hommage à van Gogh, etude d’après van Gogh pour l’exposition van Gogh en Arles, 1985 by Francis Bacon (1909–1992) to the heirs of John Edwards, the executor of Francis Bacon. Le Journal des Arts, 30 April–13 May 2010, p. 2. 21 APRIL 2010 The research group, Entartete Kunst (Degenerate Art), of the Free University of Berlin opened the website http://entartetekunst.geschkult.fu-berlin.de in which art objects are collected that had been removed during the Nazi period as “degen- erate art.” Süddeutsche Zeitung, 21 April 2010, p. 1; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 21 April 2010, p. 34. CHRONICLES 507 https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at 21 APRIL 2010 At the Dorotheum in Vienna a painting of Frans Francken II (1581–1642) was auc- tioned and sold for Y7.02million, the highest amount on record at the Dorotheum. Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 24 April 2010, p. 20; Frankfurter Al- lgemeine Zeitung, 24 April 2010, p. 39. 23 APRIL 2010 Giuseppe Panza di Biumo (1923–2010), the great Italian collector of modern and contemporary American art, passed away. The Art Newspaper, June 2010, p. 38; Il Giornale dell’Arte, May 2010, p. 14; Le Journal des Arts, 14–27 May 2010, p. 3. 23 APRIL 2010 The Retrospective of Ernst Ludwig Kirchner (1880–1938) opened at the Städel Museum in Frankfurt am Main and gave a splendid overview of his work done in Dresden, Berlin, and Davos. His paintings were also prohibited during the Nazi period as “degenerate.” Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 23 April 2010, 35; art, April 2010, p. 76; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 24 April 2010, p. 23; Die Zeit, 29 April 2010, p. 58, and 1 July 2010, p. 57. 23 APRIL 2010 The Landesmuseum für Kunst und Kulturgeschichte in Münster, Westfalia, Ger- many, repurchased a painting of Carl Eduard Blechen (1798–1840) which was ear- lier restituted to the heirs of the Jewish collector Julius Freund. Süddeutsche Zeitung, 24–25 April 2010, p. 17. 23 APRIL 2010 The European Centre of Tourism (Centro Europeo per il Tourismo) opened in the Castel Sant’Angelo in Rome after 30 years of cultural activity the exhibition SOS: Arte dall’Abruzzo, una mostra per non dimenticare, which was designed to recall the earthquake of L’Aquila on 6 April 2009. Il Giornale dell’Arte, September 2010, p. 24. On the situation in L’Aquila 18 months after the earthquake, see Il Giornale dell’Arte, December 2010, p. 14. 24 APRIL 2010 The Armenians still deplore the persecution and extinction of more than a mil- lion Armenians by the Turkish army in 1915, which almost extinguished Arme- nian culture as well. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 23 April 2010, p. 38. 508 KURT SIEHR https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at 24 APRIL 2010 The Fondazione Cini in Venice (Isola di San Giorgio Maggiore) exhibited the art- ist Sebastiano Ricci (1659–1734), a long-forgotten artist of Venice. Frankfurter All- gemeine Zeitung, 19 June 2010, p. 38. 26 APRIL 2010 IFAR Evening with Robert M. Edsel on “The Invisible Heroes: The Monuments Men.” IFAR Journal, 12, no.1, pp. 16–28 (2010). 27 APRIL 2010 The European Commission published a Green Paper “Unlocking the Potential of Cultural and Creative Industries.” Brussels COM(2010)183 final. APRIL 2010 Zahi Hawass, the head of Egyptian Antiquities Authority, convened the Confer- ence on Stolen Antiquities in Cairo and Libya asked from the UK the return of a Roman statue of Apollo found in Cyrene, Libya. The Art Newspaper, May 2010, p. 13. 1 MAY 2010 The World Expo opened in Shanghai, China, touted as China’s largest event in history. The Art Newspaper, May 2010, p. 9. 2 MAY 2010 150 years ago Theodor Herzl (1860–1904) was born and is still remembered as the spiritual founder of Israel. His dream of a place for Jews in Palestine became true with the re-creation of the State of Israel in 1948. Süddeutsche Zeitung, 30 April, 1–2 May 2010, p. VI/6. 3 MAY 2010 The Swiss collector Jeanne Marchig filed a lawsuit against Christie’s for breach of warranty and breach of fiduciary duty regarding a drawing that she consigned to the auction house in 1997 and which, she says, Christie’s negligently misattrib- uted to an early nineteenth-century artist of the German School and sold for $21,850. It is now attributed to Leonardo da Vinci. Lisa Duffy-Zeballos and Shima Majidi, IFAR Journal, 12, no. 1, pp. 6–11; The Art Newspaper, June 2010, p. 77; ARTnews, October 2010, p. 52. CHRONICLES 509 https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at 4 MAY 2010 Pablo Picasso’s Nude. Green Leaves and Bust sold for Y84 million at Christie’s in New York. Il Giornale dell’Arte, February 2011, p. 17. Flag by Jasper Johns (born 1930) sold for $28.6 million. The Art Newspaper, May 2010, p. 61, and June 2010, p. 88; Le Journal des Arts, 14–27 May 2010, p. 27, and 21 January–3 February 2011, p. 19; Il Giornale dell’Arte, May 2010, p. 67, and June 2010, p. 1; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 6 May 2010, p. 18. 6 MAY 2010 In Prague, Czech Republic, the exhibition Neoclassicism and Biedermeier opened with art objects of the Prince of Liechtenstein collection. The exhibition could not take place last year because of controversies over property of the prince, but was possible now. The Art Newspaper, June 20120, p. 22; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 7 May 2010, p. 33. 6 MAY 2010 The U.S. Cultural Property Advisory Committee met for a State Department pub- lic hearing to review a proposal to extend the Memorandum of Understanding with Italy that imposes import restrictions of Italian antiquities to the United States. The proposal concerned extending loans with terms of 10 to 20 years, and loans to all museums and liberalizations with respect to coins. The Art Newspaper, June 2010, p. 4. 7 MAY 2010 The Kunstmuseum Berne exhibited the work of Albert Anker (1831–1910) on the 100th anniversary of the artist’s death. Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 31 May 2010, p. 17. 7 MAY 2010 The definitive exhibition Topography of Terror opened in Berlin. Die Welt, 7 May 2010, p. 23. 8 MAY 2010 With the exhibition Triumph of the Blue Swords: Meissen Porcelain for Aristocracy and Bourgeoisie 1710–1815, the Meissen porcelain manufactory celebrated its 300th anniversary at the Dresden Japanisches Palais. The Art Newspaper, The Year Ahead 2010, p. 55. 510 KURT SIEHR https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at 12 MAY 2010 In Rotterdam at the Museum Boijmans van Beuningen and in The Hague Mau- ritshuis, the exhibition Van Meegeren’s Fake Vermeers opened and attracted many visitors interested in the work of forger Han von Meegeren (1889–1947). ART- news, June 2010, p. 48; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 22 July 2010, pp. 1 and 19. 12 MAY 2010 French President Nicolas Sarkozy opened the Museum Centre Pompidou-Metz in Metz, France, as part of the Centre Pompidou in Paris. This is a kind of decen- tralization of French cultural politics. Y69 Million were spent for the new mu- seum. 203 Kunstforum, July–September 2010, p. 9; The Art Newspaper, June 2010, p. 18; Le Journal des Arts, 30 April–13 May 2010, pp. 15 and 19; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 14 May 2010, p. 17. 12 MAY 2010 The Bavarian State Galleries announced that four paintings had been returned to the heir of the Jewish art historian August Liebmann Mayer (1885–1944). The art objects were confiscated by the Nazis. Kunstrechtsspiegel 02/2010, p. 98. 16 MAY 2010 By decree, the Musée de l’Orangerie and the Musée d’Orsay were combined in Paris and the Musée de l’Orangerie became part of the Musée d’Orsay. Le Journal des Arts, 11–24 June 2010, p. 3. 18 MAY 2010 The French parliament passed Law no. 2010–501 authorizing the French Repub- lic to return the Maori heads to New Zealand. These heads were the subject of court proceedings previously. Journal official, 19 May 2010, p. 9210; Le Journal des Arts, 10 July–3 September 2010, p. 6. 19–20 MAY 2010 Theft of valuable paintings in the Musée d’art moderne in Paris. IFAR Journal, 11, no. 3/4, 2010, p. 12; IFAR Journal, 12, no. 1, 2010, p. 57; The Art Newspaper, July–August 2010, p. 16; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 21 May 2010, p. 8; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 21 May 2010, p. 16, and 22 May 2010, p. 18. CHRONICLES 511 https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at 22 MAY 2010 In Florence at the Galeria Palatina, Palazzo Pitti, and Galeria degli Uffizi, the ex- hibition Caravaggio e Caravaggeschi a Firenze celebrated 400th anniversary of Car- avaggio’s death (c. 1571/2–1610). The Art Newspaper, May 2010, p. 79. 22 MAY 2010 The De Young Museum in San Francisco opened the exhibition of 100 paintings on loan from the Musée d’Orsay in Paris under the title Birth of Impressionism: Masterpieces from the Musée d’Orsay. The Paris museum is undergoing a Y11.4 million refurbishment, and these paintings will never again be on loan as a group. The Art Newspaper, May 2010, p. 84. 27 MAY 2010 The MAXXI, the Italian National Museum of Art of the XXI Century, designed by the architect Zaha Hadid, was inaugurated in Rome and opened for the pub- lic. Il Giornale dell’Arte, May 2010, p. 49; Le Journal des Arts, 28 May–10 June 2010, p. 4; The Art Newspaper, May 2010, p. 13, and July–August 2010, p. 11; art, August 2010, p. 96; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 29 May 2010, p. 20. 28 MAY 2010 The Decreto-legge 85/2010 was passed in Italy, providing for the transfer of mon- uments to the provinces (federalismo demaniale). Will these monuments now better maintained? Il Giornale dell’Arte, December 2010, p. 6. MAY 2010 Germany returned about 500 books to Belorussia, acquired by the Library of the Botanical Garden, Berlin, in 1943–44. It was discovered that the books had been looted during World War II and were given back to the State Library of Minsk. MuseumsJournal 4/2011, p. 11. MAY 2010 In May 1990 the painting Dr. Gachet by Vincent van Gogh (1853–1890) was sold the Japanese industrialist Saito for $82.5 million. Since then, it must have been sold several times but nobody knows who the owner of the painting is or and where it is located. Die Zeit, 2 September 2010, p. 57. 512 KURT SIEHR https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at MAY 2010 The Whitney Museum in New York decided that a new building by Renzo Piano will replace the old building. Le Journal des Arts, 24 September–7 October 2010, p. 7. 1 JUNE 2010 Jeffrey Deitch took over as the director of the Los Angeles Museum of Contem- porary Art. Le Journal des Arts, 22 January–4 February 2010, p. 3. 2 JUNE 2010 The Administrative Court in Frankfurt am Main ruled that three bronze bowls seized by the police and allegedly looted in Turkey had to be given back to an art dealer because it could not be proven that the allegation was true. Frankfurter All- gemeine Zeitung, 28 July 2010, p. 3. 3 JUNE 2010 100 years ago Eduard Arnhold bought a piece of land in Rome and had a Swiss architect to build houses on this piece of land: This became the Villa Massimo, the cultural center of German artists and poets in Rome. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 4 June 2010, p. 36. 4 JUNE 2010 Italy and Germany concluded a treaty about the rebuilding and restoration of the church San Pietro Apostolo in Onna of the City of L’Aquila damaged by the earth- quake of 6 April 2009. This treaty is a sign of cross-border assistance in caring for cultural property in Europe. Bundesgesetzblatt, part II, 2010, p. 1398. 7 JUNE 2010 Christie’s sold in the Kunsthaus Zürich the painting “Genfer See mit Jura” by Ferdinand Hodler (1853–1918) for SFr. 2.6 million. Kunstforum, 203, 22, July– September 2010. 7 JUNE 2010 The German Federal Ministry of Finance announced that four paintings held by the Federal Republic of Germany have been returned to the heirs of Martin and Florence Flersheim. The paintings are by Hans Thoma, Wilhelm Trübner, Carl Spitzweg, and Fritz von Uhde. Kunstrechtsspiegel, 02/2010, p. 103. CHRONICLES 513 https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at 9 JUNE 2010 The Brussels Non-European Art Fair (Bruneaf ) opened in Brussels, celebrating the 50th anniversary of independence of the Congo Republic. Le Journal des Arts, 11–24 June 2010, p. 24. 10 JUNE 2010 The artist Sigmar Polke (1941–2010) passed away in Cologne. Neue Zürcher Zei- tung, Internationale Ausgabe, 17 June 2010, p. 12. 14 JUNE 2010 UNESCO at its Session in Brasilia chose 21 more important places and sites as World Heritage Sites. Vernissage 2010, p. 5. 14–16 JUNE 2010 The Moses Mendelssohn Centre for European-Jewish Studies, together with the College of Jewish Studies of Humboldt University Berlin, held a conference in Berlin on Collectors, Patrons and Art Dealers as Avant-Garde of Modern Art 1880– 1933. Kirchmaier, Kunst und Recht, 12, 2010, p. 134. 16 JUNE 2010 The Art Basel opened its 41st annual art fair in Basel for almost a week until 20 June 2010. Kunstforum, 203, July–September 2010, pp. 368–373; on the confer- ence Art and Law in Basel on 18 June 2010. See also Weller, Kunstrechtsspiegel, 02/2010, p. 77; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 19 June 2010, p. 39; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Sonderausgabe, 12 June 2010. 16 JUNE 2010 The London gallery Colnaghi (sold to Konrad Bernheimer and Katrin Bellinger) celebrated its 250th anniversary with the exhibition Colnaghi: 250 Years of Deal- ing in Art. The Art Newspaper, June 2010, p. 17; Jeremy Howard (ed.), Colnaghi. Established 1760: The History (London 2010). 18 JUNE 2010 The conference Protection of Monuments in Europe—The Past, Present and the Future was held in Vienna under the auspices of the Austrian Research Society Art and Law, presided by Professor Gerte Reichelt. Kunstrechtsspiegel 02/2010, p. 81. 514 KURT SIEHR https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at 20 JUNE 2010 The Albertinum Dresden (Gallery of New Masters and Sculptures of the State Collection of Dresden) reopened after the Gallery had to be closed in 2002 when the Elbe river, a few meters from the Albertinum flooded the City of Dresden and also damaged the building, but not the collection of the Gallery. 203 Kunstforum p. 8 (July–September 2010); The Art Newspaper, June 2010, p. 22; Il Giornale dell’Arte, June 2010, p. 16; art, August 2010, p. 107; Die Zeit, 24 June 2010, p. 57; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 18 June 2010, p. 20; Frankfurter Al- lgemeine Zeitung, 21 June 2010, p. 29; ARTnews, June 2010, p. 52. 22 JUNE 2010 Jennifer Anglim Kreder, on behalf of the American Jewish Congress, Commission for Art Recovery, and others, filed an Amicus Curiae Brief in the case of Grosz v. Museum of Modern Art with the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second District. Document No. No. 10–257-cv. 23 JUNE 2010 Christie’s in London sold the painting Portrait of Angel Fernandez de Soto by Pablo Picasso to an unidentified buyer for $42 million. The painting once was owned by Paul von Mendelssohn-Bartholdy of Berlin, was illegally confiscated by the Nazis, and was later the object of a settlement between the heirs of the former owner and Andrew Lloyd Webber, the present owner. Majidi and Flescher, IFAR Journal, 12, no. 1, 2010, pp. 12–13; The Art Newspaper, July/August 2010, p. 48, and June 2010, p. 10; Le Journal des Arts, 9 July–9 September 2010, p. 28; Il Giornale dell’Arte, April 2010, p. 67, and July/August 2010, p. 53; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internation- ale Ausgabe, 26 June 2010, p. 20; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 26 June 2010, p. 43. 23 JUNE 2010 The Museum Thyssen-Bornemisza in Madrid opened the exhibition Ghirland- aio [c. 1448–1494] and the Renaissance in Florence showing famous portraits of the renaissance period. Il Giornale dell’Arte, June 2010, p. 26. 24 JUNE 2010 Ten paintings, lost during World War II and recovered in recent times, were ex- hibited in Picture Gallery of Castle Sanssouci in Potsdam, Germany. Museum- sJournal, January–March 2011, pp. 34–37. CHRONICLES 515 https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at 24 JUNE 2010 The Maison Jean Cocteau (1889–1963) in Milly-la-Forêt opened after five years of restoration. Every room is filled with recordings about artists of all kinds. Il Giornale dell’Arte, June 2010, p. 22. 24 JUNE 2010 Christie’s of London sold at auction six statues of the former Krebs collection taken from the Krebs family, looted by the Russian Army, given back to East Ger- many, and returned to the former owners. Die Welt, 8 June 2010, p. 26. 25 JUNE 2010 Recovery of The Taking of Christ (The Kiss of Judas) after Caravaggio in Berlin. The painting was stolen on 29 July 2008 from the Odessa Museum of Western and Eastern Art in the Ukraine. IFAR Journal, 12, no.1, 2010, p. 63; Kunstrechtsspie- gel, 02/2010, p. 102. 29 JUNE 2010 The collector Rudolf Leopold (1925–2010), the former owner of a vast collection of modern Austrian paintings (Gustav Klimt, Egon Schiele, and others) passed away in Vienna. Il Giornale dell’Arte, September 2010, p. 6; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 30 June 2010, p. 33. 29 JUNE 2010 The Martin-Gropius-Bau in Berlin exhibited Teotihuacan—Mexico’s Mysterious City of Pyramids. Süddeutsche Zeitung, 2 July 2010, p. 12; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 5 July 2010, p. 29, Die Welt, 5 July 2010, p. 21. 30 JUNE 2010 With the exhibition Close Examination: Fakes, Mistakes and Discoveries, the cu- rators and conservation department of the National Gallery London united the investigate the physical nature of paintings supported by the Engineering and Phys- ical Science Research Council. The Art Newspaper, The Year Ahead 2010, p. 63; The Art Newspaper, June 2010, pp. 4 and 6; Süddeutsche Zeitung, 3–4 July 2010, p. 11. 30 JUNE 2010 The highest court of Austria, the Oberste Gerichtshof in Vienna, decided that a Chinese export prohibition concerning a small ceramic model Big Carriage with 516 KURT SIEHR https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at Horse” does not have to be taken into account when dealing with the validity of a contract of sale of this model to a buyer. Kunst und Recht, 2011, p. 119, with crit- ical comment by Leonhard Reis in Kunst und Recht, 2011, p. 112. JUNE 2010 The sculpture The Sowing Man by Constantin Meunier (1831–1905), given back to the heirs of Otto Krebs, was reacquired by the Foundation of the Prussian Cul- tural Heritage and placed in the Court of Colonnades close to the Old National Gallery in Berlin. MuseumsJournal, October–December 2010, p. 46. JUNE 2010 The OMC (Open Method of Coordination of the EU) Expert Working Group on the Mobility of Collections published its Final Draft and Recommendations to the Cultural Affairs Committee on improving the means of increasing the mobil- ity of collections. http://ec.europa.eu/culture/our-policy-development. The Art Newspaper, February 2011, p. 11. JUNE 2010 Max Warburg discussed the financial problems of the Warburg Institute, Lon- don, which may lose its essential nature by being incorporated into the University of London. The Art Newspaper, July/August 2010, p. 29. 1 JULY 2010 The Italian professor of urban planning Francesco Bandarin of Venice took over UNESCO’S entire cultural programme and is now assistant director-general for culture. The Art Newspaper, June 2010, p. 32. 2–4 JULY 2010 The 12th Seminar on Art and Law for European doctorate candidates was held in Munich. This seminar was organized by Kurt Siehr for young scholars who pre- pare a thesis on any subject concerning art and law. Kirchmaier, Kunst und Recht, 12, 2010, p. 136. 5 JULY 2010 The website www.kulturgutschutz-deutschland.de was launched in Magdeburg, Germany, to inform the public about German national treasures that many CHRONICLES 517 https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at not be legally exported with government permission. Kunst und Recht, 2010, p. 193. 6 JULY 2010 Werner Schmalenbach (1920–2010), the art historian and museum director (Kest- ner Gesellschaft, Hannover; State Collection Düsseldorf ), passed away. Süd- deutsche Zeitung, 7 July 2010, p. 11. 7 JULY 2010 Sotheby’s in London sold the drawing Modern Rome—Campo Vaccino by Joseph Mallord William Turner (1775–1851) for £29 million to the Getty Museum. It had previously estimated the sale to be £12–18 million. The Art Newspaper, June 2010, p. 48–49; Andrew Wilton, “Impressions of the Past,” Minerva, January/ February 2011, p. 22; Turner sale deferred: The Art Newspaper, July/August 2010, p. 1, 6, and December 2010, p. 7; Kunstforum, January/February 2011, p. 13; Il Giornale dell’Arte, June 2010, p. 14, and September 2010, p. 82; Frankfurter Allge- meine Zeitung, 10 July 2010, p. 36, Süddeutsche Zeitung, 7–8 August 2010, p. 17, International Herald Tribune, 5–6 June 2010, p. 12; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Interna- tionale Ausgabe. 17 July 2010, p. 19. 13 JULY 2010 Bonhams of London sold a lithograph of Edvard Munch Madonna for £ 1.1 mil- lion at auction. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 17 July 2010, p. 35. 14 JULY 2010 Christie’s in Paris sold at auction Tête by Amedeo Modigliani for Y38.5 Million (Y43.2 Million). Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 19 July 2010, p. 39. 15 JULY 2010 In Moscow the Grabar National Art and Science Restoration Center was ac- cidently set on fire and caused damage. The Art Newspaper, September 2010, p. 25. 15 JULY 2010 Werner Schmidt (1930–2010), the former director of the State Art Collections of Dresden, passed away in Dresden. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 17 July 2010, p. 34; Süddeutsche Zeitung, 17–18 July 2010, p. 15. 518 KURT SIEHR https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at 16 JULY 2010 Inside the Colosseum in Rome were exhibited 337 looted archaeological objects seized by the Italian Carabinieri del Nucleo Tutela Patrimonio Culturale, the Ital- ian branch of police protecting cultural objects. Il Giornale dell’Arte, September 2010, p. 75. 18 JULY 2010 The exhibition Matisse: Radical Invention 1913–1917 opened at the Museum of Modern Art in New York, focusing on the invention of cubism and its influence on his artist friends, such as Pablo Picasso. Il Giornale dell’Arte, July/August 2010, p. 11. 18 JULY 2010 Several exhibitions celebrated the 400th anniversary of the death of Caravaggio (1571/2–1610). Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 7 January 2010, p. 32; Süddeutsche Zeitung, 17/1 July 2010, p. 18; Le Journal des Arts, 11 December 2009–7 January 2010, p. 7. 19 JULY 2010 Settlement of the Portrait of Wally case between the heirs of Lea Bondi-Jaray and the Collection Leopold in Vienna. The Collection Leopold paid $19 million to the heirs, and the heirs recognized title of the collection and returned the painting to Vienna where it is now exhibited with information about the former owners and the recovery of the painting. Bulletin Kunst and Recht 2/2010, p. 15; Il Giornale dell’Arte, September 2010, p. 6; The Art Newspaper, September 2010, p. 4; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 22 July 2010, p. 29. 21 JULY 2010 The “Union des commissionaires de l’hôtel des ventes” (UCHV) were examined about the charge of having stolen or diverted art objects during their work at the Hôtel Drouot auction house in Paris. Le Journal des Arts, 4–17 February 2011, p. 25. 22 JULY 2010 Opening of the exhibition History of Reconstruction: Construction of History in the Museum of Architecture in Munich. The exhibit showed the modern trend to reconstruct destroyed monuments and buildings instead of designing new build- CHRONICLES 519 https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at ings in a newer style. Kunst Chronik 2011, p, 135; Kunstforum, no. 204 (2010), p. 10; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 16 September 2010, p. 31. 25 JULY 2010 Reopening of the Israel Museum in Jerusalem after three years of refurbishment. Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 31 December 2010, p. 20; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 2 August 2010, p. 29. 26–27 JULY 2010 Conference on Objects and Emotions: Loss and Acquisition of Jewish Property in the German Historical Institute London. Main speaker was the historian Atina Grossmann from the Cooper Union in New York. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 1 November 2010, p. 32. 27 JULY 2010 Holocaust victims of Budapest filed a lawsuit against the City of Budapest in the Federal District Court of the District of Columbia, Washington, DC, asking for the return of several paintings looted during World War II and still in the Art Museum of Budapest. Die Welt, 7 August 2010, p. W4. 28 JULY 2010 A bust of Heinrich Heine (1779–1856) was placed into the Walhalla (close to Regensburg, Donau), a structure built by order of King Ludwig I of Bavaria (1786– 1868) to immortalize famous Germans. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 28 July 2010, p. 9, and 29 July 2010, p. 29. 29 JULY 2010 The Deutsche Kunstarchiv digitalized and made public the archives of the an- cient gallery David Heinemann of Munich, which, between 1872 and 1939, sold many pictures of the Bavarian school and also of many French painters. Il Gior- nale dell’Arte, September 2010, p. 84. 30 JULY 2010 The Italian Law n. 122 as passed and converted the Law Decree no. 78 of 31 May 2010, providing that there will not be spent more than 20% of the amount spent in 2009 for cultural institutions and activities. Il Giornale dell’Arte, January 2011, 1 and 26. 520 KURT SIEHR https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at JULY 2010 Bank vaults in Zürich were opened containing manuscripts of Franz Kafka (1883– 1924) of the estate of Max Brod (1884–1968) and which are the objects of a law- suit in Israel between the National Library in Jerusalem (claiming that the papers belong to the national heritage) and the heirs of Eva Hoffe, who passed away in 2007. International Herald Tribune, 25–26 September 2010, p. 2; Neue Zürcher Zei- tung, Internationale Ausgabe, 28 May 2010, p. 20; 16 July 2010, p. 20; 30 July 2010, p. 19; 16 September 2010, p. 25; 17 October 2010, p. 26; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 14 January 2010, p. 29; 21 July 2010, p. 33; 7 August 2010, p. 31; 14 Sep- tember 2010, p. 31; 17 October 2010, p. 36. JULY 2010 The heirs of the art dealer Alfred Flechtheim (1878–1937), whose collection was seized by the Nazis and who fled from Germany to London, wanted to recover the paintings of the former dealer. Kunst und Recht, 2010, p, 102. JULY 2010 The Andy Warhol Art Authentication Board (AWAB) found that some 100 Brillo Boxes, supposed to be original boxes of Andy Warhol, were actually fakes and produced later by Pontus Hultén (1924–2006), the late director of the Centre Pom- pidou. Il Giornale dell’Arte, October 2010, p. 1; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internatio- nale Ausgabe, 27 November 2010, p. 20. 2 AUGUST 2010 In London the gallery Hue Williams in Battersea filed a lawsuit against the artist James Turrell for failing to supply what are known as “grey books,” documents that include instructions for Turrell’s works and establish their authenticity. The Art Newspaper, June 2010, p. 75. 6 AUGUST 2010 In Palermo, Sicily, a contract was signed between the Italian Province Sicilia and the Catholic Church for the improvement of protection of cultural objects of re- ligious interest. Il Giornale dell’Arte, October 2010, p. 4. 12 AUGUST 2010 The U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit in the case Cassirer v. Kingdom of Spain and Thyssen-Bornemisza Collection Foundation dismissed the appeal of CHRONICLES 521 https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at the defendants (concerning a Pissarro painting) and affirmed the judgment of the District Court, which denied motions to dismiss for lack of controversy, personal jurisdiction, proper venue, and sovereign immunity under the Foreign Sovereign Immunity Act. Case 06–56325. 20 AUGUST 2010 The U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit in Dunbar v. Seger-Thomschitz dismissed the appeal of the defendants and confirmed the District Court (638 F.Supp.2d 659, E.D. La. 2009), which declined to return the painting Portrait of Youth by Oskar Kokoschka (1886–1980) as time barred. http://www.lootedart.com/ OFCUIA999341. 23 AUGUST 2010 Egon Schiele’s Portrait of Wally was back in Vienna. IFAR Journal, 12, no. 1, 2010, p. 14. 28 AUGUST 2010 The Fondazione Cini on the Venetian island of San Giorgio opened the exhibi- tion Carceri d’invenzione about Giovanni Battista Piranesi (1720–1778) and his fantasies. The Art Newspaper, December 2010, p. 37; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zei- tung, 1 September 2010, p. 31; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 9 October 2010, p. 23. 29 AUGUST 2010 Three famous paintings of Giorgione (1477–1510) were exhibited in the Palazzo Grimani of Venice: La Vecchia, La Tempesta, and La Nuda. Il Giornale dell’Arte, September 2010, p. 28. 29 AUGUST 2010 In 1910, exactly 100 years ago, Japan conquered Korea and damaged Korea and Korean culture heavily. Japan begged pardon for the invasion. Frankfurter Allge- meine Zeitung, 11 August 2010, p. 5; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 28 August 2010, p. 23; Die Zeit, 19 August 2010, p. 18. AUGUST 2010 The so-called Collection Jaeger is discovered to consist of fakes of modern paint- ings by professional forgers, attributed to modern masters by famous experts and 522 KURT SIEHR https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at sold by auction houses of good standing. Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Aus- gabe, 13 November 2010, p. 22; 21 December 2010, p. 15; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 4 September 2010, p. 35; 11 September 2010, p. 41; 18 September 2010, p. 39; 18 December 2010, p. 17: The Art Newspaper, October 2010, p. 65; Le Jour- nal des Arts, 3–16 December 2010, pp. 1 and 5; Süddeutsche Zeitung, 16–17 Octo- ber 2010, p. 3; art, September 2010, p. 122; AUGUST 2010 The Mauritshuis Museum in The Hague decided to lend the painting Girl with a Pearl Earring by Jan Vermeer (1632–1675) to the Museum in Kobe, Japan, in 2012 in order to raise money for the expansion of the Mauritshuis. The transporting of the painting was considered quite problematic and the stay in Kobe rather dubi- ous because of the environmental conditions in the Japanese museum. The Art Newspaper, September 2010, p. 11. 4 SEPTEMBER 2010 At the National Gallery of Ireland in Dublin opening of the exhibition Gabriel Metsu: A Master Rediscovered in the Dutch Golden Age. The exhibition will be shown later in Amsterdam (Rijksmuseum) and in Washington, DC (National Gallery). Il Giornale dell’Arte, September 2010, p. 35; The Art Newspaper. September 2010, p. 63. 8 SEPTEMBER 2010 The Vatican loaned Raphael’s four finest tapestries, the Miraculous Draught of Fishes, to the Victoria and Albert Museum’s Sistine show entitled Raphael Car- toons and Tapestries for the Sistine Chapel. The Art Newspaper, June 2010, p. 16, and September 2010, p. 66; Il Giornale dell’Arte, September 2010, p. 30; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 17 September 2010, p. 6, and 25 September 2010, p. 35. 8 SEPTEMBER 2010 The Jewish Museum in Frankfurt showed an exhibition of the drawings of Else Lasker-Schüler. Die Welt, 20 September 2010, p. 26; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Inter- nationale Ausgabe,29 September 2010, p. 20. 9 SEPTEMBER 2010 The U.S. Ambassador in Germany gave back to the German city of Pirmasens 11 paintings that had been stolen by a U.S. soldier during World War II. The paint- ings had been inherited by the thief ’s niece, who agreed to return the stolen art pieces. Kunstrechtsspiegel, 03/2010, p. 139. CHRONICLES 523 https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at 9 SEPTEMBER 2010 Picasso’s electrician, Pierre Le Guennec, of Southern France revealed a cache of 271 unknown works of Pablo Picasso donated to him by the master or his wife. The works were confiscated by France’s art theft unit. IFAR Journal, 12, no. 2, 2011, p. 14; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 2 December 2010, p. 33; Die Welt, 1 Decem- ber 2010, p. 23; International Herald Tribune, 30 November 2010, pp. 1 and 4; Il Giornale dell’Arte, January 2011, p. 6; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Aus- gabe, 30 November 2010, p. 14. 11 SEPTEMBER 2010 The auction house Lempertz of Cologne organized an auction at Brussels selling pre-Columbian art of high quality. Il Giornale dell’Arte, September 2010, p. 91. 11 SEPTEMBER 2010 In Łód-z, Poland, the Polish biennale took place and was funded by the City of Łód-z. The Art Newspaper, October 2010, p. 10. 11 SEPTEMBER 2010 1100 years ago, circa 910, the French Cloisters of Cluny were founded and be- came very influential in medieval culture, religion, and life. Süddeutsche Zeitung, 11–12 September 2010, p. 11; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 29 September 2010, p. 22. 12 SEPTEMBER 2010 The restored altar piece of San Corbinian by Friedrich Pacher (1435–1508) was returned to the church of Assling in Tirol. The altar has quite a history. It was removed in 1850, sold to Jacques Goudstikker in 1936, taken by Hermann Göring in 1940, returned to the heirs of Goudstikker in 2006, and sold by Christie’s one year later. Il Giornale dell’Arte, September 2010, p. 78; The Art Newspaper, May 2010, p. 27. 12 SEPTEMBER 2010 In Teheran the Cyrus Cylinder, lent by the British Museum, was unveiled by Pres- ident Mahmoud Ahmadinejad. The Cyrus Cylinder will be in Teheran until 12 Jan- uary 2011. However, one fragment of the Cylinder owned by Yale University and on loan in London was missing because it is kept in London because of fears that it would fall afoul of U.S. sanctions against Iran. The Art Newspaper, March 2010, 524 KURT SIEHR https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at p. 5; July/August 2010, p. 7; October 2010, pp. 1 and 7; Il Giornale dell’Arte, April 2010, p. 50. 14 SEPTEMBER 2010 200 years of the Berlin Museum of Natural History (Museum für Naturkunde) with its 30 million objects is celebrated in Berlin. MuseumsJournal, 4/2010, p. 72; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 22 September 2010, p. 19. 14–17 SEPTEMBER 2010 During its Asia Week, Christie’s of London sold at auction a 12th–11th century bce Chinese wine vessel from the Shang Dynasty for $ 3.3 million. The Art News- paper, October 2010, p. 71; Il Giornale dell’Arte, October 2010, p. 2. 15 SEPTEMBER 2010 The French Biennale des Antiquaires opened in Paris. Hervé Aaron as president of the Syndicat National des Antiquaires expressed high expectations. The Art News- paper, September 2010, p. 59; Le Journal des Arts, 24 September–7 October 2010, p. 24; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 18 September 2010, p. 21. 17 SEPTEMBER 2010 The Oberlandesgericht (Court of Appeals) Celle, Germany, decided that the paint- ing Miracolo di Sant’Antonio by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo (1696–1770) had to be returned to its previous owner in Paris because it had been stolen in Paris in 1979 and not been acquired in good faith by the present holder, the Niedersächsische Landesmuseum in Hannover, Germany. The Art Newspaper, October 2010, p. 20; Il Giornale dell’Arte, December 2010, p. 55; Die Welt, 3 September 2010, p. 38. 17 SEPTEMBER 2010 The Louvre in Paris acquired a medieval tapestry of circa 1430 for the Louvre Collection of medieval art. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 18 September 2010, p. Z4. 20 SEPTEMBER 2010 The Vatican Library reopened after three years of restoration. Il Giornale dell’Arte, September 2010, p. 77; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 3 July 2010, p. Z3. CHRONICLES 525 https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at 21 SEPTEMBER 2010 150 years ago the German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860) passed away, and many recall his rather realistic and pessimistic philosophy. Christopher Janaway, Times Literary Supplement, 15 October 2010, p. 16; Die Welt, 20 Septem- ber 2010, p. 24. 21 SEPTEMBER 2010 The Cour d’appel de Paris declined to invalidate a sale of a Boulle furniture (of André Charles Boulle, 1642–1732) by the couple François Pinault because of mis- take. Le Journal des Arts, 22 October–4 November 2010, p. 23. 22 SEPTEMBER 2010 The French collector of French drawings Louis Antoine Prat exhibited 101 draw- ings of his collection in Sydney, Australia. The Art Newspaper, September 2010, p. 35. 22 SEPTEMBER 2010 The exhibition Peace and Freedom in the Albertina in Vienna showed works of art of Pablo Picasso and his devotion to peace, revolution, and communism. The show was designed with the Tate Gallery of London and will later move to the Danish Louisiana Museum of Modern Art close to Copenhagen. Die Welt, 22 Sep- tember 2010, p. 21. 22 SEPTEMBER 2010 The Musée d’art et histoire du Judaisme in Paris discovered the German-Jewish painter Felix Nussbaum (1904–1944) and devoted an exhibition to him. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 1 December 2010, p. 33. 23 SEPTEMBER 2010 The Egyptian President Mubarak and the Italian prime minister Berlusconi in- augurated the Museo della rinnovata Accademia Egiziana di Roma. Il Giornale dell’Arte, November 2010, p. 67. 23 SEPTEMBER 2010 In the Paris Musée d’Orsay and the Grand Palais two exhibitions of Claude Monet (1840–1926) were shown. ARTnews, December 2010, p. 52; International Herald Tribune, 25–26 September 2010, p. 20; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Aus- 526 KURT SIEHR https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at gabe, 21 October 2010, p. 17; Il Giornale dell’Arte, September 2010, p. 26; The Art Newspaper, November 2010, p. 1. 24 SEPTEMBER 2010 The U.S. dealer Richard Gray of Chicago and New York donated nine drawings of his collection of French and Italian drawings to the Art Institute of Chicago and opened the exhibition Gray Collection: Seven Centuries of Master Drawings. The Art Newspaper, June 2010, p. 26. 24 SEPTEMBER 2010 The Musée Jacquemart-André in Paris opened the exhibition Rubens, Poussin and the Painters of the XVIIth Century, where the influence of Rubens and Poussin on other painters was clearly shown. Il Giornale dell’Arte, September 2010, p. 32. 24 SEPTEMBER 2010 In the Palazzo Strozzi, Florence, Italy, opened the exhibition Bronzino [1503– 1572]: Artist and Poet at the Court of the Medici showing the artist’s works of early realism. Almost two-thirds of his masterpieces were shown. International Herald Tribune, 16 November 2010, p. 13; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 24 November 2010, p. 21; Die Welt, 17 December 2010, p. 23; art, September 2010, p. 34; The Art Newspaper, June 2010, p. 73, and September 2010, p. 63; Die Zeit, 7 October 2010, p. 58; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 2 October 2010, p. 36; Süd- deutsche Zeitung, 25–26 September 2010, p. 13. 25 SEPTEMBER 2010 Sotheby’s of New York sold at auction the art collection of Lehman Brothers after this bank went bankrupt on 15 September 2008. Die Welt, 25 September 2010, p. W5. 29 SEPTEMBER 2010 The Landgericht Düsseldorf decided that the Museum Schloss Moyland with the vast collection of works of Joseph Beuys (1921–1986) violated the copyright of the Beuys estate because the museum exhibited 19 photographs taken by the late Manfred Tischer of a Beuys happening in 1964. This decision was heavily criti- cized. The Art Newspaper, November 2010, p. 13. CHRONICLES 527 https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at 29 SEPTEMBER 2010 The auction house Chopin de Janvry & Associés in Paris sold at auction the painting Madame de Florian by Giovanni Boldini (1842–1931) for Y1.7 million. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 2 October 2010, p. 41. 30 SEPTEMBER 2010 The Tate Modern in London opened an exhibition of works of Paul Gauguin (1848–1903), focusing on his interpretations of the myths and legends of the South- ern areas where he lived for several years. Le Journal des Arts, 22 October–4 No- vember 2010, p. 8; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 6 November 2010, p. 19. 30 SEPTEMBER 2010 The National Gallery of Australia dedicated a new wing to indigenous artists. The Art Newspaper, November 2010, p. 26. SEPTEMBER 2010 Giuseppe Eskenazi (born 1939) celebrated the 50th anniversary of dealing with Chinese art and artefacts in London where his father established the art gallery. It had been founded in 1923 with headquarters in Milan. The Art Newspaper, Octo- ber 2010, p. 68. SEPTEMBER 2010 The privately owned Weserburg Museum in Bremen deaccessioned two paintings of Gerhard Richter and Franz Gertsch in order raise money for repairs and ren- ovation. The German Museum Association was concerned about it. The Art News- paper, November 2010, p. 22; Süddeutsche Zeitung, 19 November 2010, p. 13; Die Zeit, 23 September 2010, p. 59; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 23 September 2010, p. 33. SEPTEMBER 2010 A mysterious donor donated fakes to American museums for almost 20 years. This was discovered and the museums warned by e-mail on the Museum Security Network and the American Association of Museum Registrar’s Committee list serv- ers. The Art Newspaper, November 2010, pp. 1 and 4. 528 KURT SIEHR https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at SEPTEMBER 2010 The auction place Hôtel Drouot, Paris, terminated the contract with the Union des commissionaires de l’Hôtel Drouot, the union charged with theft and conver- sion. Il Giornale dell’Arte, October 2010, p. 88. SEPTEMBER 2010 Russian legislation prohibits that art works formerly in churches and now in pub- lic museums be given back to churches. However, this policy is not always re- spected. Famous icons are lent to local churches, especially in regions of well-to-do people. For example, in the colony of millionaires called Princes See, close to Moscow, the icon St. Mary of Toropez was lent by the Russian Museum to the Alexander-Newski-Church. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 1 July 2010, p. 38, and 28 September 2010, p. 31. 1 OCTOBER 2010 The Biennale Internazionale di Antiquariato al Palazzo Venezia in Rome opened and ran until 10 October. Il Giornale dell’Arte, September 2010, p. 86, and No- vember 2010, p. 79; Gazzetta Antiquaria, nuova serie, n. 58-II/2010, p. 14. 1–2 OCTOBER 2010 IVth Heidelberg Day of Art and Law. This year’s Art Day was concerned with the law of theatre and with traveling artworks. The papers given will be published in 2011. Kunst und Recht, 12, 2010, p. 137. 3 OCTOBER 2010 The Museum of Modern Art in New York opened the exhibition Abstract Expres- sionist New York: The Big Picture, exhibiting works of Mark Rothko, Jackson Pol- lock, Robert Motherwell, Barnett Newman Robert Rauschenberg, and others. Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 12 November 2010, p. 19. 4 OCTOBER 2010 The Russian curator Andrej Jerofejew was sentenced in Moscow, charged with exhibiting modern art. The verdict has been approved by the court of appeals. Die Zeit, 1 July 2010, p. 50. CHRONICLES 529 https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at 5 OCTOBER 2010 Opening of the exhibition Man, Myth and Sensual Pleasures, Jan Gossart’s Renais- sance in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. The Dutch painter Jan Gossart (c.1478–1532) was rediscovered as a master of the Northern renaissance. IFAR Journal, no. 3, 2011, pp. 26–31; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 24 December 2010, p. 35. 6 OCTOBER 2010 The famous Main Station of Stuttgart, Germany, was torn down, and more of it was scheduled to be destroyed to make room for a new station that was to be located underground. The architect Paul Bonatz (1877–1956) designed the Main Station, built in 1914–1928. The heir of Paul Bonatz brought a lawsuit in Stuttgart and applied for an order to stop tearing down the station and the reconstruction of those parts that had already been torn down. The county court dismissed the copyright claim and the court of appeal confirmed. Weighing the interests of the owner and the plaintiff, the court gave priority to the defendant owner. Ober- landesgericht Stuttgart, Kunst und Recht, 2010, p. 195, with note by Lucas Elmen- horst on pp. 180–183; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 25 September 2010, p. 37, and 24 January 2011, p. 27. 6 OCTOBER 2010 In the Galeries nationales du Grand Palais in Paris opened the exhibition France 1500 showing 200 works of art created around 1500 and brought together from the Musée de Cluny, the Louvre, and several foreign museums. Le Journal des Arts, 24 September–7 October 2010, p. 16. 6 OCTOBER 2010 The Madrid parliament declined a motion to have the Spanish bullfight be de- clared a national heritage. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 7 October 2010, p. 9. 8 OCTOBER 2010 Opening of the exhibition Michelangelo as a Draughtsman in the Albertina, Vi- enna, with more than 100 masterpieces from the largest graphic art collections in the world. The Art Newspaper, The Year Ahead 2010, p. 91; Die Zeit, 14 Octo- ber 2010, p. 63; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 12 November 2010, p. 33; Le Journal des Arts, 19 November–2 December 2010, p. 9; Il Giornale dell’Arte, Oc- tober 2010, p. 38; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 26 November 2010, p. 19. 530 KURT SIEHR https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at 8 OCTOBER 2010 The National Palace Museum in Taipei, Taiwan, opened the exhibition Dynastic Renaissance with loans from mainland China and started exchange relationships with China, The Art Newspaper, January 2011, p. 22. 9 OCTOBER 2010 The eighth edition of the roving European biennial Manifesta opened to the pub- lic in the neighboring Spanish cities of Murcia and Cartagena on the Costa Brava. The Manifesta is deliberately nomadic to avoid building “institutional structures similar to Venice or São Paolo.” It was, until now, shown in Rotterdam, Luxem- bourg, Ljubljana, Frankfurt, San Sebastian, Nicosia, and Trentino-South Tyrol. The Art Newspaper, October 2010, p. 81. 13 OCTOBER 2010 The National Gallery in London opened the exhibition Venice. Canaletto and his Rivals. Giovanni Antonio Canal, called Canaletto (1697–1768), painted the Venice of his time in order to sell his works of art to travelers on their Grand Tour. He had, of course, rivals such as Luca Carlevarijs (1663–1730), Gaspare Vanvitelli (1652/ 53–1736), and his nephew Bernardo Bellotto (1722–1780). Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 2 December 2010, p. 17; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 16 December 2010, p. 34; Le Journal des Arts, 22 October–4 November 2010, p. 9; Il Giornale dell’Arte, October 2010, p. 41; Süddeutsche Zeitung, 17–18 October 2010, p. 17. 13 OCTOBER 2010 Final judgment of acquittal of Marion True, former antiquities curator of the J. Paul Getty Museum, in Rome, after a trial that started on 16 November 2005. ARTnews, December 2010, p. 54; The Art Newspaper, November 2010, p. 7, and January 2011, pp. 8 and 9; Le Journal des Arts, 22 October–4 November 2010, p. 3; Il Giornale dell’Arte, November 2010, p. 6; Le Journal des Arts, 21 January–3 Feb- ruary 2011, p. 9. 13–14 OCTOBER 2010 Session of the committee Comitati Privati per la salvaguardia di Venezia. The president for 24 years, Alvise Zorzi, resigned because of age, and his successor was Umberto Marcello del Majno of an old Venetian aristocratic family. Il Giornale dell’Arte, November 2010, p. 74. CHRONICLES 531 https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at 14 OCTOBER 2010 The Frieze Art Fair took place in London, Regent’s Park until October 17. The Art Newspaper, October 2010, p. 92. 15 OCTOBER 2010 Opening of the exhibition Hitler and the Germans: The Community of People [Volksgemeinschaft] and Crime in the Berlin Historical Museum. This exhibition demonstrating the crimes of Nazi Germany was very well attended. MuseumsJour- nal 4/2010, p. 90. 15 OCTOBER 2010 The Kunsthaus Zürich reconstructed the exhibition of Pablo Picasso (1881– 1973) held in Zürich in 1932. Many paintings of that era were returned to Zürich. In 1932, 34,000 visitors attended the exhibition, but this did not cover the costs of the exhibition and the catalogue. Most of the paintings exhibited in 1932 were on sale and have been sold since that time. Zürich bought one of the paintings, Gui- tare sur un guéridon. Kunsthaus Zürich, Magazin, 3, August 2010, p. 10; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 15 October 2010, p. 19; 19 October 2010, p. 21; 27 December 2010, p. 19; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 21 December 2010, p. 29. 15 OCTOBER 2010 The Schirn Kunsthalle in Frankfurt am Main opened an exhibition on Gustave Courbet (1819–1877), the realistic French artist who despised academic painting and painted landscapes, simple people, and subjects that were indecent and rad- ical at the time. Courbet was famous for the marketing, networking, and publicity of his paintings, including scandals. The exhibition is sponsored by France (Nico- las Sarkozy as French president). Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 16 December 2010, p. 17; The Art Newspaper, October 2010, p. 89; Il Giornale dell’Arte, October 2010, p. 28; Die Zeit, 21 October 2010, p. 40; Frankfurter Allgemeine Sonntagszeitung, 10 October 2010, p. B1. 17 OCTOBER 2010 At the High Museum of Art in Atlanta two masterpieces by Titian (1480/5–1576), part of the exhibition Titian and the Golden Age of Venetian Painting, started a tour of various cities in the United States (Minnesota, Houston, etc.). The paintings were then with the National Galleries of Scotland and have been acquired (or will be ac- quired) from the Duke of Sutherland: Diana and Actaeon and Diana and Callisto. 532 KURT SIEHR https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at The New York Review of Books, December 2010, no. 20, p. 16; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 16 October 2010, p. 35. 17 OCTOBER 2010 The exhibition Chardin: Il pittore del silenzio (Chardin: The painter of the silence) opened in Ferrara, Italy, curated by Pierre Rosenberg, the former director of the Louvre. The Chardin (1699–1779) exhibition will later be shown in Madrid at the Prado. Il Giornale dell’Arte, October 2010, p. 25. 18 OCTOBER 2010 The website www.errproject.org/jeudepaume opened. The sited allows Holocaust survivors, their relatives, and others to search the records of more than 20,000 art objects stolen in Nazi-occupied France and Belgium between 1940 to 1944. In- ternational Herald Tribune, 19 October 2010, p. 2; Robin Cembalest, “Claims Con- flict,” ARTnews, October 2010, p. 50. 19 OCTOBER 2010 In Prague the tomb of Tycho Brahe (1546–1601) was opened in the Teyn-Church (Altstädter Ring) order to find out how much quicksilver could be found in his body and who might have been the murderer of Brahe, the Danish astronomer. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 18 November 2010, p. 35. 19 OCTOBER 2010 The Prado in Madrid opened an exhibition of the collection of Renoir paintings bought a several years ago by Robert Sterling Clark (1877–1956) in Paris. The collection is now located at the Sterling and Francine Clark Art Institute in Will- iamstown, MA. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 15 November 2010, p. 31. 19 OCTOBER 2010 Opening of the exhibition Jean-Léon Gérôme (1824–1904): L’Histoire en spectacle in the Musée d’Orsay in Paris. Gérôme was for a long time regarded as “salon painter.” This was the first comprehensive exhibition that revealed Gérôme’s in- terest in photography, in traveling (especially to Egypt), and his masterly knowl- edge of spectacular scenery favored by his clients, also in the United States. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 28 December 2010, p. 29; Frankfurter Allgemeine Sonntagszeitung, 12 December 2010, p. 31; Le Journal des Arts, 5–18 November 2010, p. 9; Il Giornale dell’Arte, October 2010, p. 28. CHRONICLES 533 https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at 20 OCTOBER 2010 In the Palais des Beaux-Arts in Brussels the exhibition Lucas Cranach and his Time opened with many paintings lent from everywhere. The show gave a good idea of the workshop of Cranach (1472–1553), who served everybody whether Catholic or Protestant and who left his workshop to his son. Le Journal des Arts, 3–16 November 2010, p. 9. 21 OCTOBER 2010 The Japanese painter and wood carver Katsushika Hokusai (1760–1849) was born 250 years ago. He was a great artist and strongly influenced French and Dutch impressionist painters. art, January 2010, p. 32; MuseumsJournal, 4/2011, p. 4. 21 OCTOBER 2010 UNESCO issued decision UN 185EX/Sr.9 and raised concern about Israel’s policy to restore monuments in the occupied West Bank territories, namely, the tomb of King Herod and Rachel’s tomb. The Art Newspaper, December 2010, p. 25; Feb- ruary 2011, p. 3; and May 2011, p. 47. 21–24 OCTOBER 2010 The Foire international d’art contemporain (FIAC) opened in Paris. Le Journal des Arts, 8–21 October 2010, p. 19. 22 OCTOBER 2010 In the Cathedral of Magdeburg, Germany, the bones of Queen Editha (910–946), wife of Emperor Otto I (936–973), were buried again after they had been discov- ered recently by an English-German research team. The remains were determined to be the bones of the daughter of the English King Edward (871–924). Süd- deutsche Zeitung, 23–24 October 2010, p. 12. 23–24 OCTOBER 2010 The auction house Hauswedell & Nolte in Hamburg sold at auction a correspon- dence of Theodor Fontane (1819–1898) an important person of Berlin and else- where. The correspondence was bought by the Kulturstiftung der Länder for the Fontane Archive in Potsdam. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 13 November 2010, p. 39; arsprototo, no. 3, 2011, p. 27. 534 KURT SIEHR https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at 24 OCTOBER 2010 The work of German and foreign expressionist artists (Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, Käte Kollwitz, Marianne von Werefkin, Wassilij Kandinsky, Else Lasker-Schüler, and others) are exhibited in various places in the Rhine-Main region. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 13 November 2010, p. 33; Der Tagesspiegel, 14 December 2010, p. 24. 26 OCTOBER 2010 In the Museo d’Arte Contemporanea in Rome, MACRO Fall 2010 opened, exhib- iting works of contemporary art. Il Giornale dell’Arte, Flyer October 2010, pp. 1–8. 26–27 OCTOBER 2010 Auction of the Rothschild Collection of Estimauville by Christie’s of Paris was very successful, estimated at Y2.5 million and resulting in Y4.7 million. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 20 November 2010, p. 38. 28 OCTOBER 2010 The book Das Amt und die Vergangenheit: Deutsche Diplomaten im Dritten Reich und in der Bundesrepublik (The Office and the Past, German Diplomats in the Third Reich and in the Federal Republic), by Eckart Conze, Norbert Frey, Peter Hayes, and Moshe Zimmermann, was officially presented to the German Foreign Office and got considerable attention in Germany. The German diplomats were not innocent during the Nazi period and not at all opposed to the Hitler regime. Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 17 December 2010, p. 20; Frankfurter Allgemeine Sonntagszeitung, 24 October 2010, p. 33, and 28 November 2010, p. 29; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 28 October 2010, p. 31, and 30 October 2010, p. 33. 31 OCTOBER 2010 The Collection Oskar Reinhart Am Römerholz in Winterthur, Switzerland, opened after a long period of renovation. Le Journal des Arts, 22 October–4 November 2010, p. 11. OCTOBER 2010 The Spanish culture minister announced that the newly discovered painting The Wine of Saint Martin’s Day by Pieter Bruegel the Elder (1524/30–1569) was ac- quired by the Prado for Y7 million and would remain in Spain. ARTnews, Decem- ber 2010, p. 48. CHRONICLES 535 https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at OCTOBER 2010 The National Gallery in Berlin revealed that the museum bought back two art- works restituted to their former owners: the statue Sowing Man by Constantin Meunier (1831–1905) and the painting Evening in Potsdam by Lotte Laserstein (1898–1987). Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 22 October 2010, p. 29. OCTOBER 2010 Italy was concerned about mass tourism in the Vatican where millions of visitors to the Sistine Chapel bring dust and moisture inside the Chapel. Venice is also complaining about the many posters and advertisements covering palaces and buildings all over the city. Le Journal des Arts. 22 October–4 November 2010, p. 5; The Art Newspaper, October 2010, p. 37, and November 2010, p. 7; Il Gior- nale dell’Arte, October 2010, p. 1. Venice will increase a tourist tax and have the 17.5 million tourists to pay an extra charge. The Art Newspaper, November 2010, p. 1. OCTOBER 2010 Germany returned to the City Museum in Gdansk, Poland, six paintings that had been stolen in Gdansk during World War II and had been discovered in Berlin. Germany was still waiting for the return of the Berlinka collection of the State Library in Berlin still kept by Poland in Krakow. Il Giornale dell’Arte, January 2011, p. 11. OCTOBER 2010 Opening of the expansion of the Los Angeles Museum of the Holocaust. The ex- pansion, costing $18 million, was made possible thanks to the generosity of Ran- dolph Schoenberg, who represented Maria Altmann in her case against Austria regarding Klimt’s painting Portrait of Adele Bloch-Bauer. The Art Newspaper, Sep- tember 2010, p. 14. OCTOBER 2010 Greece celebrated the 2500-year anniversary of the victory over the Persians at the battle of Marathon in 490 bce. Minerva, January/February 2011, p. 5. OCTOBER 2010 The Dutch advisory committee on restitution recommended that the Rijksmu- seum should return the painting Winter Landscape by Jan van de Velde II (1593– 536 KURT SIEHR https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at 1641) to the heirs of Curt Glaser because he had to sell it in order to finance his escape. The heirs think the same should be done in England with respect of a paining owned by the Courtauld Gallery. The Art Newspaper, January 2011, p. 7. OCTOBER 2010 The British Library returned to Italy the Benevento Missal, stolen during World War II, bought by British Army officer Douglas Ash in Naples in 1944, and sold to the British Library three years later. The return was recommended by the UK Spolia- tion Advisory Panel in March 2005. The Art Newspaper, October 2010, p. 7, and November 2010, p. 6; Il Giornale dell’Arte, November 2010, p. 14. 2 NOVEMBER 2010 Sotheby’s New York sold the painting Nude Seated on a Divan by Amedeo Modigliani (1884–1920) for $68.9 million. The sale was stipulated beforehand. Süddeutsche Zeitung, 30–31 October 2010, pp. 18, and 13–14 November 2010, p. 16; Le Journal des Arts, 19 November–2 December 2010, p. 25; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 6 November 2010, p. 21; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 30 October 2010, p. 37. 4 NOVEMBER 2010 The British Museum’s exhibition Journey Through the Afterlife: Ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead attracted many visitors who wanted to know more about faith and belief in ancient Egypt. Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 30 De- cember 2010, p. 15; Murray Eiland, “Preparing the Dead,” Minerva, January/ February 2011, p. 14. 4 NOVEMBER 2010 Sotheby’s of New York sold the painting Ritratto di Giovinetta Errazuriz by Gio- vanni Boldini (1842–1931) for Y4.6 million, the highest price ever paid for a Bol- dini. Il Giornale dell’Arte, December 2010, p. 80. 5 NOVEMBER 2010 The Ancient Art Fair in Basel, Switzerland, opened and tried to make good busi- ness. Süddeutsche Zeitung, 6–7 November 2010, p. 19; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 6 November 2010, p. 38. CHRONICLES 537 https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at 6 NOVEMBER 2010 In Pompeii, Italy, several walls of the ancient excavated ruins collapsed, showing the deplorable maintenance of ancient sites in Italy. International Herald Tribune, 15 December 2010, p. 2; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 8 Novem- ber 2010, p. 16, and 19 November 2010, p. 18; 3 December 2010, p. 33; and 4 December 2010, p. 11; Il Giornale dell’Arte, September 2010, p. 14; November 2010, p. 8; December 2010, pp. 1 and 12; January 2011, pp. 1, 6, and 34; February 2011, p. 12. Funding will be provided in 2011. The Art Newspaper, December 2010, p. 29; February 2011, p. 7; September 2011, p. 6; Le Journal des Arts, 7–20 January 2011, p. 8; Andrew Wallace-Hadrill, “The Collapse of Pompeii?” Minerva, March/April 2011, p. 26; Frankfurter Allgemeine Sonntagszeitung, 14 November 2010, p. 75; 28 November 2010, p. 47. 7 NOVEMBER 2010 An exhibition at the Château de Fontainebleau, France, on King Henri IV (1553– 1610) revealed one aspect of the famous King, his commission of arts. Le Journal des Arts, 7–20 January 2011, p. 9. 7 NOVEMBER 2010 Pope Benedict XVI consecrated the Basilica Sagrada Familia in Barcelona, built by Antoni Gaudi (1852–1926) and still unfinished, as a real place of worship. Süd- deutsche Zeitung, 6–7 November 2010, p. 11; Die Zeit, 4 November 2010, p. 71; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 8 November 2010, p. 9; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, In- ternationale Ausgabe, 8 November 2010, p. 3. 8 NOVEMBER 2010 Birthday party in the London National Gallery for Sir Denis Mahon (born 1910) to celebrate his 100th birthday. The Art Newspaper, December 2010, p. 7. 9 NOVEMBER 2010 The Geneva-based Foundation for Art Law organized a colloquium on Restitu- tion of Human Remains. News 21 of the Fondation pour le droit de l’art, February 2011, p. 4. 9 NOVEMBER 2010 Until today Pieter Brueghel the Younger’s The Procession to Calvary was on dis- play. The owner of the painting, Lord St. Oswald, wanted to sell it, and the Her- 538 KURT SIEHR https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at itage Memorial Fund tried to save the painting for the UK. The Art Newspaper, November 2010, p. 76. 10 NOVEMBER 2010 The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York devoted an exhibition to the photographers Alfred Stieglitz (1864–1940), Edward Steichen (1879–1973), and Paul Strand (1890–1976). Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 28 December 2010, p. 27. 10 NOVEMBER 2010 The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York announced that it will return to Egypt 19 small artefacts from the tomb of Tutankhamun. Minerva, January/ February 2011, p. 6. 10 NOVEMBER 2010 In London a vase of the time of the Chinese Qianlong Emperor (1735–1776) sold for £43 million to an anonymous buyer. Minerva, January/February 2011, p. 4; Le Journal des Arts, 21 January–3 February 2011, p. 19; Il Giornale dell’Arte, Decem- ber 2010, p. 80. 12–13 NOVEMBER 2010 Yearly conference of the Swiss Ethnological Society discussed the Swiss imple- mentation of the UNESCO Convention of the Protection of Intangible Cultural Heritage. Nike, 4/2010, p. 11. 12–20 NOVEMBER 2010 The Italian Biennale Internazionale dell’Antiquariato in Florence opened its fair and promised to protect cultural objects. Il Giornale dell’Arte, November 2010, p. 81. 15 NOVEMBER 2010 Joe Simon-Whelan withdrew his claim in New York against the Andy Warhol Foun- dation because of fraud, collusion, and manipulation. The Art Newspaper, Decem- ber 2010, p. 4. CHRONICLES 539 https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at 15 NOVEMBER 2010 The Palazzo Venezia in Rome opened the exhibition I due imperi: L’aquila e il drag- one (The two empires: The eagle and the dragon) for the festivities of 40 years of diplomatic relations between China and Italy. Il Giornale dell’Arte, November 2010, p. 69. 16 NOVEMBER 2010 Twenty years ago the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) was passed. Susan Benton Bruning, “NAGPRA’s 20th Anniversary: Re- flections on the Watershed Law Impacting the Collection of Native American Ob- jects,” IFAR Journal, no. 2, 2010, pp. 28–34. 16–19 NOVEMBER 2010 The High Court in London heard the case of the drawing Madonna and Child with St Anne and a Lamb by Leonardo (1452–1519). The Art Newspaper, January 2011, p. 57. 17 NOVEMBER 2010 UNESCO at its session in Nairobi accepted Repas gastronomique des Français to be put in the list of protected intangible cultural heritage. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 18 November 2010, p. 33. Also the Spanish Flamenco and other regional traditions were recognized as part of the list of protected traditions. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 18 November 2010, p. 9. 19 NOVEMBER 2010 The Duma of Moscow passed a statute allowing the return of about 11,000 ob- jects to religious institutions and organizations. Museums objected to this law and articulated concern with respect to the collections of public museums. Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 22 November 2010, p. 4. 19 NOVEMBER 2010 In the Prado, Madrid, the paintings Adam and Eve by Albrecht Dürer (1471– 1528) were returned from their restoration. The couple was a gift to King Philippe IV of Spain (1621–1665) by Christina of Sweden (1632–1654 abdicated, death 1689 in Rome). She did not like the paintings. Il Giornale dell’Arte, November 2010, p. 72. 540 KURT SIEHR https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at 20 NOVEMBER 2010 100 years ago Count Lev Nikolajewitch Tolstoi (1828–1910), author of War and Peace (1868–69) and Anna Karenina (1875–1877) passed away in Russia. He died as a simple man, pacifist, prophet, ecologist, and reformer and is buried on his farm of refuge Jasnaja Poljana, Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 20 November 2010, pp. Z3 and Z5; Süddeutsche Zeitung, 20–21 November 2010, p. 17; Die Zeit, 23 September 2010, p. 65, and 18 November 2010, pp. 63–65; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 28 September 2010, p. 19, and 20 November 2010, p. 23. 20 NOVEMBER 2010 In Völklingen, Germany, the exhibition The Celts: Druids, Princes and Warriors presented a show of Celtic art objects. It was said to be the biggest show devoted to these ancient peoples, dating from 500 bce. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 22 November 2010, p. 27. 21 NOVEMBER 2010 The Detroit Institute of Art showed the exhibition Fakes, Forgeries and Mysteries drawing on the public interest on forgeries of art objects. The Art Newspaper, “What’s On,” November 2010, p. 3. 21 NOVEMBER 2010 The Museum Oskar Reinhart am Stadtgarten in Winterthur, Switzerland, opened the exhibition of the Swiss painter Albert Anker (1831–1910), famous for his genre paintings of Swiss peasants and peasant life. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 15 January 2011, p. 34; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 27 November 2010, p. 27. 23 NOVEMBER 2010 Yale’s President Richard Levin signed an agreement with Peru’s President Alan Garcia, under which all the objects removed by Hiram Bingham (1875–1956) from Machu Picchu and other places of Peru will be returned to Peru. IFAR Journal, 12, no. 2, 2011, p. 2; Minerva, January/February 2011, p. 9. 26 NOVEMBER 2010 Opening of the exhibition devoted to sculptor Reinhold Begas (1831–1911) on the occasion of his 100th anniversary of his death in the German Historical Mu- CHRONICLES 541 https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at seum in Berlin. MuseumsJournal 4/2010, p. 68; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 13 December 2010, p. 27. 26 NOVEMBER 2010 At the auction by Villa Grisebach, Berlin, paintings of Lesser Ury (1861–1931) achieved tremendous prices as compared with prices in former times. Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 4 December 2010, p. 21. 27 NOVEMBER 2010 The attorney general of Stade, Germany, seized a painting that was about to be sold at auction in Buxtehude, Germany, because the painting Jewish Woman with Oranges by Alexander Gierymski (1849–1901) was supposed to have been looted in Poland during World War II. Kölner Stadt-Anzeiger, 30 December 2010, p. 22. 27 NOVEMBER 2010 The State Gallery in Stuttgart, Germany exhibited Grey Passion by Hans Holbein the Elder (1460/65–1533) after a its restoration after acquisition from the Prince of Fürstenberg in 2003. The Art Newspaper, November 2010, 2010, pp. 31 and 35; Frankfurter Allgemeine Sonntagszeitung, 28 November 2010, p. 26; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 13 January 2011, p. 17; art, November 2010, p. 58; Il Giornale dell’Arte, November 2010, p. 32; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 24 July 2010, p. Z4. 28 NOVEMBER 2010 Irene Ludwig (1927–2010), wife of the collector and patron Peter Ludwig (1925– 1996), and herself a collector and patron, passed away in Aachen, Germany. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 1 December 2010, p. 8. Before she died, she do- nated many works of art to museums on Cologne, Germany. Frankfurter Allge- meine Zeitung, 31 March 2011, p. 29. NOVEMBER 2010 A small notice in the paper Wiener Wirtschaftsblatt reads: “Insolvency Opened: Kadenza GmbH, Formerly Machold Rare Violins Trading Company mbH.” The famous violin trader Dietmar Machold of Vienna had financial problems. David Schoenbaum, Das Griechenland der Musikwelt, Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 22 December 2010, p. 33. 542 KURT SIEHR https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at NOVEMBER 2010 The New York auctions in autumn 2010 sold art objects for more than $ 500 Mil- lion. The art market had apparently recovered from the financial crises. Die Zeit, 18 November 2010, p. 73. NOVEMBER 2010 The Italian police caught a gang of 16 people who apparently have stolen and sold illegally excavated art objects and more than 4000 ancient coins. Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 20 November 2010, p. 18. 1 DECEMBER 2010 The Centre Pompidou in Paris opened the exhibition of works of the Dutch painter Piet Mondrian (1872–1944), an artist almost unknown in France who, in 1942, went into exile to New York. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 13 January 2011, p. 31. 2 DECEMBER 2010 At the Convention Center in Miami Beach the Art Basel Miami Beach 2010 opened, one of the most important art fairs for contemporary art. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 4 December 2010, p. 37; Süddeutsche Zeitung, 4–5 December 2010, p. 19. 3 DECEMBER 2010 Opening of an exhibition in Berlin on Carl Richard Lepsius (1810–1884), the archaeologist and specialist in Egyptian art. The exhibition is designed to com- memorate the 200th birthday of Lepsius. MuseumsJournal 4/2010, p. 62. 3 DECEMBER 2010 The Tribunal de grande instance de Paris decided that Pierre Coulibeuf violated the work of Marina Abramovic (born 1946) by using her work for his movie The Star and awarded damages of Y50.000. Le Journal des Arts, 21 January–3 February 2011, p. 36. 3 DECEMBER 2010 A trove of ancient silver stolen years ago from Morgantina ago was returned to Aidone, Sicily, after having been on view at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. http://www.nytimes.com, visited on 10 December 2010. CHRONICLES 543 https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at 3 DECEMBER 2010 For the first time Dutch group portraits of famous painters of the Dutch Golden Age were shown outside of The Netherlands and exhibited in the Alte Pinakothek in Munich. Süddeutsche Zeitung, 4–5 December 2010, p. 16. 3 DECEMBER 2010 Opening of an exhibition on the painter Philipp Otto Runge (1777–1810) in the Kunsthalle Hamburg. Runge was an artist of the Romantic School and was very diligent, but sold no paintings and was subsidized by his brother who was a mer- chant. Die Welt, 15 December 2010, p. 24; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 4 De- cember 2010, p. 35; Frankfurter Allgemeine Sonntagszeitung, 5 December 2010, p. 26; Die Zeit, 2 December 2010, p. 65; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 10 January 2011, p. 17; art, December 2010, p. 40; The Art Newspaper, December 2010, p. 75; Il Giornale dell’Arte, December 2010, p. 31. 6 DECEMBER 2010 At Sotheby’s of London the book Birds of America by John James Audubon was sold for £7.3 million. It is one of the most expensive printed books. Süddeutsche Zeitung, 9 December 2010, p. 14. 6 DECEMBER 2010 In Milan the Museo del Novecento opened with masterworks of the twentieth century, such as Bocconi, Morandi, Sironi, and DeChirico e Fontana. Il Giornale dell’Arte, December 2010, p. 12. 7–9 DECEMBER 2010 Auctions by Sotheby’s and Christie’s in New York fetched high prices for classical antiquities because the sale guaranteed that the items were removed from the coun- tries of origin before 1970, the crucial date for the 1970 UNESCO Convention. International Herald Tribune, 18 December 2010, p. 14; Jerome M. Eisenberg, in 22 Minerva no. 2, 2011, p. 50; Il Giornale dell’Arte, December 2010, p. 83, and January 2011, p. 59; The Art Newspaper, October 2010, p. 7, and December 2010, p. 79; Le Journal des Arts, 21 January–3 February 2011, p. 19. 9 DECEMBER 2010 A portrait of Philippe le Bon was returned to Schloss Friedenstein after it had been stolen or hidden after World War II, commissioned for auction by Christie’s, 544 KURT SIEHR https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at and finally bought back by the Siemens Foundation to loan to the Schloss Frieden- stein in Gotha, Germany. www.otz.de, visited on 10 December 2010. 9 DECEMBER 2010 The Frankfurt Archaeological Museum exhibited the fragment of a former horse statue of Emperor Trajan (98–117) and a treasure of coins and jewelry found nearby. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 10 December 2010, p. 36. 10 DECEMBER 2010 A selection of lost and recovered paintings, lost during World War II, were ex- hibited in the Old National Gallery in Berlin. MuseumsJournal, January–March 2011, p. 50–53; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 14 January 2011, p. 34. 13 DECEMBER 2010 A state trial court in Brooklyn denied summary judgment in the case of Gerard Malanga, Andy Warhol’s principal assistant, against John Chamberlain who is sus- pected to have sold a work of art as a work by Andy Warhol (1928–1987). IFAR Journal, 12, 2/2011, p. 5. 16 DECEMBER 2010 The Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam opened the exhibition Gabriel Metsu, who lived from 1626 to 1667, around the time as Jan Vermeer (1632–1675). At a certain time, works of Metsu sold better than those of Vermeer. The exhibition showed 35 of the Dutch master lent from several countries. Die Zeit, 20 January 2011, p. 52. 17 DECEMBER 2010 In the Exhibition Hall of the Federal Republic of Germany in Bonn the exhibition Napoleon and Europe: Dream and Trauma opened; it was scheduled to go to Paris next year. The Art Newspaper. The Year Ahead 2010, p. 105; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 21 December 2011, p. 32; Frankfurter Allgemeine Sonntagszeitung, 2 Jan- uary 2011, p. 24; Die Zeit, 22 December 2010, p. 21; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Inter- nationale Ausgabe, 15 January 2011, p. 17. 17 DECEMBER 2010 In the Palazzo Farnese in Rome (now the French Embassy to Italy) the exhibi- tion From the Collection of Renaissance to the French Embassy opened. Dalu Jones, Minerva, March/April 2011, p. 30; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 24 January 2011, p. 17; The Art Newspaper, December 2010, p. 74. CHRONICLES 545 https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at 17 DECEMBER 2010 The German Federal Supreme Court (Bundesgerichtshof ) decided that the owner of gardens and castles (e.g., Prussian Foundation Castles and Gardens in Berlin- Brandenburg) can prohibit taking and marketing photos of these gardens and build- ings. There is no public obligation to permit such photos. Juristenzeitung 10, p. 371. 21 DECEMBER 2010 The Dresden State Gallery of Art exhibited almost the entire work of Lucas Cra- nach the Elder (1472–1553) and the Younger (1515–1586) Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 24 December 2010, p. 38. 24 DECEMBER 2010 The painting Madonna with Child by Giovanni Francesco Barbieri, called Guer- cino (1591–1666) was donated to the Städel Museum in Frankfurt am Main. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 23 December 2010, p. 29. 27 DECEMBER 2010 An Italian court in Rome declared that the archive of Giorgio Vasari (1511–1574) could be sold by the owner Giovanni Festari (died on 17 October 2009) for Y150 million to a Russian investor. The sale to a Russian investment company ROSS seemed to be a fake sale in order to cause the Republic of Italy to exercise the right of redemption. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 11 January 2011, p. 4; Der Stan- dard, 27 January 2011, p. 27. 30 DECEMBER 2010 Opening of a new museum, Mathaf Arab Museum of Modern Art, in Qatar with 6000 paintings, drawings, and sculptures from mostly Islamic countries of Africa and Asia. ARTnews, December 2010, p. 56. 30 DECEMBER 2010 The thieves of the sign “Arbeit macht frei” at the entrance of the Auschwitz con- centration camp were sentenced to two and a half years in prison, decided a Pol- ish court. Süddeutsche Zeitung, 31 December 2010, p. 8. 31 DECEMBER 2010 The Venus of Morgantina, Sicily, left Los Angeles (formerly owned by the Getty Museum) and headed for Sicily where it would be expected to arrive in 2011 and 546 KURT SIEHR https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at be exhibited. Le Journal des Arts, 21 January–3 February 2011, p. 9; Il Giornale dell’Arte, December 2010, p. 20. DECEMBER 2010 The Brooklyn Museum was preparing to return about 4500 pre-Columbian arti- facts taken from Costa Rica a century ago. International Herald Tribune,4 January 2011, pp. 8–9. DECEMBER 2010 Vittorio Sgabri was appointed superintendent for the museums of Venice, includ- ing the Galleria dell’Accademia. The Art Newspaper, January 2011, p. 18. DECEMBER 2010 The financial crisis could be felt everywhere. France was afraid that there would be fewer patrons subsidizing art and culture. Le Journal des Arts, 22 October–4 November 2010, p. 16 and 17. Opposition against Sarkozy’s cultural reforms. The Art Newspaper, May 2010, p. 6. In Hamburg, Germany, museums got less money from the city government and were about to be closed. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zei- tung, 19 May 2010, p. 33; The Art Newspaper, May 2010, p. 20, and July/August 2010, p. 16, and September 2010, p, 16. Government grants no longer cover costs of Kunstvereine. The Art Newspaper, May 2010, p. 7. Less money for libraries. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 10 November 2010, p. N5. Greek cultural institu- tions, because of cuts and closures, were on strike. The Art Newspaper, June 2010, p. 15; Irish and Scottish museums would get less public money next year. The Art Newspaper, December 2010, p. 15. In Italy the conductor Daniel Barenboim, be- fore starting to conduct Rheingold in the Scala of Milan, read the Italian Consti- tution, which obliges the Republic to care for art, culture, and research. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 9 December 2010, p. 29. “The Horror Story of Venice’s Civic Museums,” The Art Newspaper, October 2010, p. 8. The exhibition La scultura a Roma nel Quattrocento had to be reduced from 90 to 35 objects. Il Giornale dell’Arte, May 2010, p. 21. Museums in Turin, Naples, and Bologna suffered steep drops in financial and political support. The Art Newspaper, November 2010, p. 20. In the Netherlands there were also shortfalls. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 8 July 2011, p. 33. In Switzerland less government money was scheduled for subsidizing his- torical monuments. Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 27 January 2011, p. 25. The United Kingdom announced 15% cuts for national museums. The Art Newspaper, November 2010, p. 9; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 21 September 2010, p. 13. In the United States the Asian Art Museum Foundation of San Fran- cisco was facing bankruptcy. The Art Newspaper, January 2011, p. 16. Cutbacks in the Chicago Art Institute. The Art Newspaper, May 2010, p. 22. But the art trade CHRONICLES 547 https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at seemed to recover. Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe, 30 December 2010, p. 11. DECEMBER 2010 Italy and China made an agreement providing China exhibition space in Rome (Palazzo Venezia) and providing space for Italy in the National Museum of China in Beijing. The Art Newspaper, December 2010, p. 13. DECEMBER 2010 Another German-Russian dialog on libraries took place in Moscow. However, there was no success concerning the restitution of German books to German libraries. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 22 December 2010, p. N4. DECEMBER 2010 Scientists of France and England identified the head of King Henry IV of France (reigned 1589–1610). Henry IV was murdered, and his corpse was buried in Saint- Denis in Paris. In 1793, at the time of the French Revolution, his grave was looted and his head disappeared. It was auctioned in 1919 to the antiquarian Joseph Bour- dais and in 1955 sold to Jacques Bellanger. Now scientists have identified the head of Henry IV by revealing personal distinguishing attributes of his head (pierced ear for an earring, wound of the upper jaw because of an injury; red and white hair), Die Welt, 17 December 2010, p. 22; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 17 De- cember 2010, p. 8. 548 KURT SIEHR https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739111000294 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 14:32:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at 
work_uq5nrtxyl5cp7a6waxicqn22tm	----	Microsoft Word - 1 Arturo Colorado. Cine y vanguardia.docx FOTOCINEMA, nº 13 (2016), E-ISSN: 2172-0150 179 REVISTA CIENTÍFICA DE CINE Y FOTOGRAFÍA E-ISSN 2172-0150 Nº 13 (2016) Recibido 06-05-2016 / Aceptado 20-06-2016 Publicado 20/07/2016 Preprint 22/02/2014 Publicado 22/01/2014 OJO MÓVIL, DINAMISMO Y MONTAJE. EL INFLUJO CINEMATOGRÁFICO EN LAS PRIMERAS VANGUARDIAS ARTÍSTICAS MOBILE EYE, DYNAMISM AND EDITING. THE INFLUENCE OF CINEMA ON THE FIRST ARTISTIC AVANT- GARDE MOVEMENTS Arturo Colorado Castellary Universidad Complutense de Madrid, España acolorad@ucm.es Resumen: La coincidencia cronológica entre el desarrollo del cine y el nacimiento y devenir de las primeras vanguardias es un hecho que debe conducir a analizar el peso que pudo tener el nuevo procedimiento de creación de imágenes en la creatividad artística plástica. La influencia de la pintura en el cine ha sido ya ampliamente estudiada, pero no en el sentido inverso. Sin embargo, entre las numerosas teselas que conforman las motivaciones del arte contemporáneo, la influencia de la imagen tecnológica se puede considerar determinante. El objetivo es analizar cómo el cine impactó sobre la mirada de los artistas de vanguardia y de alguna manera les impulsó a caminar por nuevos derroteros. Abstract: The chronological coincidence between the development of cinema and the birth and development of the first avant-garde movements is a fact that lead us to analyze the influence that new procedures for the creation of images had could have on plastic artistic creativity. The influence of painting on cinema has been widely studied, but the opposite has not happened. Nevertheless, among the first elements that motivate contemporary art, the influence of technological images is fundamental. My objective is to analyze how cinema changed the way avant-garde artist looked at objects, and somehow made them walk along new paths. Palabras clave: Vanguardia; cine; ojo móvil; collage; Ready made; fotomontaje. Keywords: Avant-garde Movements; Cinema; Mobile Eye; Collage; Ready Made; Photomontage. Arturo Colorado Castellary, Ojo móvil, dinamismo y montaje. El influjo cinematográfico en las primeras vanguardias artísticas FOTOCINEMA, nº 13 (2016), E-ISSN: 2172-0150 180 1. Introducción: fotografía, cine y plástica Ha sido ya ampliamente aceptado por la crítica artística, y así lo plantean varios estudios –como los clásicos de Otto Stelzer (1981) o Aaron Scharf (1994)–, que la fotografía influyó de manera decisiva en la evolución de la plástica durante la segunda mitad del siglo XIX. Partiendo de los paisajistas del Realismo (Corot, Barbizon), pasando por los realistas testimoniales (Courbet, Daumier) y por los prerrafaelistas, y alcanzando de manera decisiva a los impresionistas (Monet, Degas, Caillebotte…), la pintura decimonónica se vio impelida por la fotografía a adoptar encuadres y perspectivas, a destacar el protagonismo de la luz, del instante y de la fugacidad. De la misma manera, la fotografía, a la que se le negaba tercamente el carácter artístico, se vio influida por la pintura, en ese largo recorrido del llamado pictorialismo fotográfico (Sougez, 2009). Si es evidente el influjo fotográfico en la pintura del siglo XIX, tal como acabamos de ver, no ha ocurrido lo mismo con respecto al influjo del cine en el arte del siglo XX. Ha existido una especie de resistencia o de escepticismo en admitir que desde su nacimiento, y especialmente desde su popularización, el cine influyera en la evolución de las artes plásticas. La perspectiva en muchos casos de los autores que se han acercado a este binomio cine-pintura, sin negar el interés de muchas de estas aportaciones, se materializa descubriendo en fotogramas de cineastas célebres deudas importantes con obras de la pintura no menos famosas, citando las vidas de los artistas que han sido llevadas al celuloide, buscando la inspiración pictórica en encuadres, motivos o iluminación, o analizando la influencia de las vanguardias plásticas en la cinematografía. Parece que con ello se pretende reivindicar para el cine, tal como hace Jacques Aumont, “un lugar en el interior de la problemática de los pintores”, así como la necesidad de estimar “el lugar que el cine ocupa, al lado de la pintura y con ella, en una historia de la representación” (Aumont, 1996). En los últimos años, y en concreto desde la década de los ochenta del siglo pasado, ha habido importantes aportaciones en la confrontación cine-pintura Arturo Colorado Castellary, Ojo móvil, dinamismo y montaje. El influjo cinematográfico en las primeras vanguardias artísticas FOTOCINEMA, nº 13 (2016), E-ISSN: 2172-0150 181 de autores, entre otros, como Patrick de Haas (1985), Raymond Bellour (1990), Antonio Costa (1991), Áurea Ortiz y María Jesús Piqueras (1995), Jacques Aumont (1996), Pascal Bonitzer (2007), Luc Vancheri (2007), François Albera (2009) o Rafael Cerrato (2009), pero siendo la mayoría de ellos procedentes del campo de la cinematografía, el interés de estos estudios se ha centrado especialmente en cómo la pintura ha marcado al cine, prestándose escasa atención a cómo esta influencia se ha ejercido en sentido inverso1. 2. Marco teórico y metodología: cineastas-pintores, una pasión en un doble sentido Varios de los grandes realizadores encontraron en la pintura –así como en el teatro y en la literatura– una fuente incomparable de meditación y de inspiración, buscando su institucionalización como arte. Ya en 1911, en su Manifiesto de las Siete Artes, Ricciotto Canudo partía de las deudas que el cine tenía con respecto a las artes tradicionales, reclamando su inclusión en las mismas como “séptimo arte”. Serguéi Eisenstein realizó en sus escritos teóricos numerosas referencias al mundo de la pintura, marcando sus preferencias por pintores como el Greco, Goya, Daumier o Van Gogh, considerando que el cine heredaba de la plástica muchos de sus problemas y planteamientos visuales, aunque éste la superaba ampliamente por los capacidad de los recursos cinematográficos, la yuxtaposición de ángulos y la unidad del montaje. El caso de Friedrich Murnau es también paradigmático pues, estudiante de historia del arte en su juventud, sintió auténtica atracción por la pintura tomando directamente para sus encuadres modelos pictóricos. Nos dice Luciano Berriatúa que “lo 1 De esta perspectiva cinematográfica habría que excluir parcialmente la aportación más reciente de Bonitzer, pues dedica una parte de su estudio a analizar la influencia que ejercen el cine y la fotografía en el encuadre de la pintura contemporánea. Arturo Colorado Castellary, Ojo móvil, dinamismo y montaje. El influjo cinematográfico en las primeras vanguardias artísticas FOTOCINEMA, nº 13 (2016), E-ISSN: 2172-0150 182 que nos llama la atención en un film de Murnau es su belleza plástica. Cada fotograma parece una pintura” (Berriatua, 1990, p. 27)2. Después, han sido muchos los cineastas que se han inspirado para sus películas en la pintura de todos los tiempos (De Santi, 1987), como por ejemplo ocurrió con Fritz Lang, Luis Buñuel, Carl Theodor Dreyer, Akira Kurosawa, Luchino Visconti, Andréi Tarkovski, Pier Paolo Pasolini, Alfred Hitchcock, Claude Chabrol, Eric Rohmer, Francis Ford Coppola o Carlos Saura. Sin embargo, en el sentido inverso, en el del influjo de la cinematografía sobre la plástica, todavía hay mucho que aportar, no existiendo una sistematización que nos permita una visión global3. Sabemos que muchos artistas plásticos sintieron pasión por el cine. Pablo Picasso, por ejemplo, que acudía al cine con gran frecuencia, como tantos otros artistas de la época, fue conformando su percepción visual a través de este procedimiento. Cuenta Jean-Paul Crespelle, que ha estudiado las aficiones de Picasso durante su estancia en Montmartre, que: en la época de Les demoiselles d’Avignon y de las primeras experiencias cubistas, el cine fue otra de las pasiones de Picasso. (…) El viernes, día en que cambiaba el programa, toda la banda, a menudo acompañada por Apollinaire, iba al cine de la rue de Donai para ver los primeros noticiarios filmados, los espectáculos maravillosos de Méliès, las películas cómicas de Dranem o a Napierkoswka en La misteriosa” (Crespelle, 1983, p. 144). Después, cuando se cambió a Montparnasse, continuó acudiendo al cine, en este caso a la sala Mille Colonnes de la rue de la Gaîté, donde asistió a cada uno de los episodios de Fantomas. 2 L. Berriatúa ha realizado un interesante estudio en torno a las influencias pictóricas en la obra fílmica de Murnau y, según el autor, esta imitación de cuadros clásicos era práctica habitual entre los cineastas de la época (Berriatua, 1990, p. 33). 3 Resulta destacable que, sin embargo, la cinematografía ha atraído la atención de los grandes historiadores del arte, como Aby Warburg (Michaud, 1998), Erwin Panofsky, que escribió un famoso ensayo sobre “Estilo y material del séptimo arte”, o Rudolph Arnheim (1986). Arturo Colorado Castellary, Ojo móvil, dinamismo y montaje. El influjo cinematográfico en las primeras vanguardias artísticas FOTOCINEMA, nº 13 (2016), E-ISSN: 2172-0150 183 Destaca también el caso de Fernand Léger, al que le gustó tanto la experiencia cinematográfica que, según él mismo reconociera, estuvo a punto de dejar la pintura. Como vemos, muchos artistas de vanguardia se sintieron atraídos por el cine porque en él veían el medio idóneo para crear una obra de arte total, jugando con el celuloide como nuevo material pictórico (Tejeda, 2008). Y constatamos que varios de los grandes del arte contemporáneo (Duchamp, Léger, Magritte, Picasso, Le Corbusier, Kandinsky, Dalí, Malevich, Moholy-Nagy, Hans Richter, Man Ray, Andy Warhol, Julian Schnabel o Joseph Cornell) hicieron incursiones en el campo del cine, cuando no se dedicaron a él con ahínco, como fue el caso de Warhol que llegó a realizar más de sesenta películas entre 1963 y 1968. Sus experiencias en ambos lenguajes convierten a estos autores en mediadores entre los dos procedimientos de crear imágenes. Uno de los logros de las llamadas vanguardias consistió precisamente en situarse por encima de las barreras clásicas entre los diversos medios de expresividad artística; idénticos principios de creatividad se aplicaron al cine, a la música, a la poesía, como a la pintura y a la escultura. Se dio incluso una tendencia a expresarse en terrenos mixtos y a la estrecha colaboración entre artistas de diferentes ámbitos. Son numerosos, pues, los artistas plásticos que acercaron al cine y sintieron por sus capacidades una gran tentación. Así es como la vanguardia se volcó hacia el cine, produciendo experiencias de traslado de sus preocupaciones plásticas al campo del celuloide. Hasta el mismo Picasso, en 1912, se sintió tentado en realizar una película, sueño que finalmente realizaría en 19504. El momento más interesante de esta experimentación fue el del cine vanguardista de los años veinte. Así es como, en un intento de extrapolar la plástica al nuevo medio, y a pesar de que en muchos casos se produjo una importante distancia cronológica entre el movimiento plástico y su vertiente 4 Este film se denominaba La mort de Charlotte Corday, al que Picasso dedicó cuatro meses. Desgraciadamente no se conserva y tan sólo tenemos testimonios fotográficos o textuales del mismo. Arturo Colorado Castellary, Ojo móvil, dinamismo y montaje. El influjo cinematográfico en las primeras vanguardias artísticas FOTOCINEMA, nº 13 (2016), E-ISSN: 2172-0150 184 cinematográfica, se ha afirmado que existe un cine llamado abstracto (Viking Eggeling, Walter Ruttman, Hans Richter), un cine cubista (Fernand Léger), un cine futurista (Arnaldo Ginna, Giulio Bragaglia), un cine dadaista (René Clair, Hans Richter, las primeras obras de Man Ray), y el más conocido cine expresionista (Robert Wiene, las primeras obras de Fritz Lang y en cierto sentido Murnau) y surrealista (Luis Buñuel, Salvador Dalí, Man Ray), alcanzando esta experimentación cinematográfica a la vanguardia soviética (Serguéi Eisenstein, Dziga Vertov, Lev Kulechov, Kazimir Malevich, László Moholy-Nagy). Pero el objetivo no es tratar estas variantes del cine de vanguardia, sino, a través de la estética comparada, analizar cómo el cine impactó sobre la mirada de los artistas plásticos y de alguna manera les condujo por nuevos derroteros. El punto de partida es la constatación de que la integración del tiempo y del movimiento en el arte contemporáneo ha sido uno de los aportes esenciales del siglo XX, partiendo del Cubismo y pasando por el Futurismo –y llegando al Action painting y la corriente cinética–, y que este fenómeno se inicia precisamente en el momento de la irrupción de la cinematografía en la cultura visual de masas. Recientemente hemos visto aparecer estudios o exposiciones que afrontan aspectos de esta problemática cine-arte. Destacan entre las muestras que analizan estas influencias en períodos concretos, como la dedicada al Impresionismo y a los orígenes de la cinematografía (Impresionisme, 2005), la vinculación del cubismo de Picasso y Braque con los inicios del cine (Rose, 2007), al arte a partir de 1945 (Art and Film, 1996), e incluso a una panorámica más amplia (Peinture-cinéma-peinture, 1989), o a autores concretos como Dalí y el cine (Gale, 2008) o Malevich y el cine (Tupitsyn, 2002). Finalmente, habría que apuntar un curso dedicado a Picasso: cine y arte (Gómez, 2011), artículos concretos, como el dedicado a Juan Gris y el cine (Puyal, 2009) o algunas tesis doctorales que han sido defendidas en los últimos años con nuevas aportaciones en esta influencia de la cinematografía hacia la plástica5. La perspectiva es que estas muestras y estudios están 5 Podemos citar la tesis de Antonio García López, titulada Inversión de las relaciones cine y Arturo Colorado Castellary, Ojo móvil, dinamismo y montaje. El influjo cinematográfico en las primeras vanguardias artísticas FOTOCINEMA, nº 13 (2016), E-ISSN: 2172-0150 185 enriqueciendo el complejo panorama cine-pintura y que parece que marchamos hacia esa visión global del fenómeno, de igual manera que la ya existente con respecto a la fotografía y la pintura en el siglo XIX. Especialmente interesante es la contribución de José Luis Borau, también cineasta, que en el momento de ingresar como académico en la Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Luis pronunció la conferencia “La pintura en el cine”, que después tendría su correlato al ingresar en la Academia de San Fernando con una disertación sobre “El cine en la pintura”, encontrando así una doble dirección en este apasionante tema, que, como el mismo autor no dice, todavía tiene muchos aspectos por dilucidar (Borau, 2003). Podemos conjeturar que la aparición del cine y su desarrollo imparable tuvieron, como había ocurrido ya con la fotografía, gran repercusión sobre el campo del arte plástico, lanzándolo por nuevas vías de creatividad y de búsqueda. Tal como nos dice Borau: Tanto en el campo literario como en el plástico –y en éste habremos de comprender óleos, tablas, frescos acuarela, dibujos o cualquier otro medio de expresión gráfica–, el cine lleva un siglo estimulando el conocimiento, la imaginación y hasta el espíritu artístico de gran número de creadores desde sus años infantiles a los de la madurez y decadencia, pese a que alguno de ellos lo hayan negado, quizá por no ser conscientes del hecho (Borau, 2003, p. 88). 3. El cine, tiempo y dinamismo En opinión de Borau, tres han sido las experiencias cinematográficas trasvasadas al campo de la pintura: “el manejo artificial de la luz, el encuadre o ángulo desde el cual se nos ofrece la visión y la posibilidad de reflejar el movimiento” (Borau, 2003, p. 90). Sin embargo, la fotografía ya había pintura. Análisis desde los géneros cinematográficos, defendida en la Universidad Politécnica de Valencia en el año 2000, dirigida por el profesor Constancio Collado Jareño, en la que el autor, tras analizar los influjos cinematográficos en algunas de las vanguardias históricas, se centra en la segunda mitad del siglo XX desde la perspectiva de los géneros. Más recientemente, en 2010, Carlos Salas González ha defendido la tesis Del cine a las artes plásticas: relaciones e influencias en las vanguardias históricas en la Universidad de Murcia bajo la dirección del profesor Germán Ramallo Asensio. Arturo Colorado Castellary, Ojo móvil, dinamismo y montaje. El influjo cinematográfico en las primeras vanguardias artísticas FOTOCINEMA, nº 13 (2016), E-ISSN: 2172-0150 186 ofrecido a los pintores los dos primeros aspectos señalados, la importancia de la luz –recordemos el Impresionismo– o las perspectivas insólitas – pensemos especialmente en Degas. El tercero de estos elementos, la imagen en movimiento, sí que aparecía como una novedad técnica aportada por la cinematografía, aunque ya tuviera importantes precedentes en la linterna mágica y en la cronofotografía. Si la fotografía había influido en la pintura en la captación de un instante de lo fugaz, ahora el cine, que era la fugacidad en sí mismo, cambiaba el interés de los pintores por el tiempo, por el movimiento. En 1927, el cineasta francés Abel Gance confirmaba el impacto para las artes plásticas que suponía la nueva imagen en movimiento: Aunque el arte cinematográfico está todavía en pañales, es fácil predecir sus inmensas posibilidades, así como que provocará la transformación inevitable del resto de las artes; deberá explotar su característica específica más notable, el movimiento (y, por tanto, la aceleración, el ralentí, el ritmo, etc.) (Gance, 1927, p. 586). Con la invención del cine se daba vida a la imagen. Y esa “movilización de la mirada”, en expresión de Aumont, era consustancial al nacimiento de una nueva cultura visual. El cine incorporaba el tiempo a la imagen. Al comparar el lienzo de la pantalla cinematográfica con el lienzo de la pintura, nos dice Walter Benjamin que el segundo “invita a la contemplación”, mientras que con el primero no podremos hacerlo porque “apenas lo hemos registrado con los ojos y ya ha cambiado” (Benjamin, 1936). A pesar de su juventud, el cine estaba experimentando en estos años en la elaboración de su propio lenguaje (Ruiz, 2002; Ituarte y Letamendi, 2002), con importantes aportaciones por parte de los Lumière6, de la Edison Manufacturing Company7, del mago Georges Méliès8, de Ferdinand Zecca, que trabajaba para Pathé Frères, o de los 6 Se considera que el primer travelling panorámico de la historia del cine fue realizado por Alexandre Promio en su película Panorama sur le Gran Canal (1896), producida por los hermanos Lumière, al rodar subido en un vaporetto. 7 En The Kiss (1896), película dirigida por Edmond Kuhn para la productora Edison, se grababa el primer beso cinematográfico para el que hizo uso del primer plano. Años más tarde, en 1903, Edwin S. Porter, con destino a la misma productora, rodaba The great Train Robbery, película que tendría enorme repercusión por su ritmo trepidante, con sorprendentes movimientos de cámara y el montaje de acciones paralelas. 8 Ya en 1896 Méliès experimentó con el truco por parada de cámara o por sustitución en su Arturo Colorado Castellary, Ojo móvil, dinamismo y montaje. El influjo cinematográfico en las primeras vanguardias artísticas FOTOCINEMA, nº 13 (2016), E-ISSN: 2172-0150 187 británicos de la llamada escuela de Brighton9. Después de sus balbuceos, el cine creaba su propia gramática, renunciando al plano fijo e incorporando el encuadre y el montaje. Como vemos, la cinematografía aportaba a la cultura visual el predominio de la temporalidad, del ritmo de la imagen. El teórico y realizador Jean Epstein definía el cine como una “máquina para pensar el tiempo” (Epstein, 1960). La cámara cinematográfica diseccionaba la realidad, la fragmentaba desde distintos puntos de vista. Uno de los componentes fundamentales de la revolución del Cubismo, que nacía apenas diez años después de las primeras proyecciones de los Lumière, radicó en la incorporación del tiempo a la pintura: el llamado “ojo móvil”, la multiplicación de los planos, las distintas perspectivas del modelo, la agrupación o fusión de imágenes sucesivas en una sola imagen, procedimientos que parecen tener con el cine una importante deuda. F1. Picasso: Las señoritas de Aviñón, 1907, Museo de Arte Moderno de Nueva York. Lo cierto es que a través de la ruptura con la tercera dimensión y la incorporación de la cuarta dimensión, el Cubismo estaba apuntando por la representación de las imágenes desde una multiplicidad de puntos de vista, película Escamotage d’une dame chez Robert Houdin, a partir de un atasco accidental de la cámara, procedimiento que Edison estaba desarrollando paralelamente. 9 Los más destacados realizadores de esta escuela, cuyas aportaciones llevan a la unidad narrativa fílmica, son George Albert Smith, autor, entre otras, de The Kiss in the Tunnel (1899), As seen through a Telescope (1900) o Mary Jane’s Mishap (1903) o James Williamson, realizador de Attack on a Chinese Mission Station (1900). Estos autores desarrollan una serie de “trucos” como las sobreimpresiones a la vez que múltiples tipos de planos. Arturo Colorado Castellary, Ojo móvil, dinamismo y montaje. El influjo cinematográfico en las primeras vanguardias artísticas FOTOCINEMA, nº 13 (2016), E-ISSN: 2172-0150 188 como ya planteara Picasso en su obra inaugural del movimiento, Las señoritas de Aviñón, de 1907. En esta obra emblemática la tercera dimensión había sido sustituida por la misma bidimensionalidad del lienzo. Pero, a su vez, Picasso eliminaba por primera vez en su obra el punto de vista único para, en su lugar, establecer los diferentes ángulos visuales que permitían que la figura de la mujer de la derecha apareciera simultáneamente con el rostro de frente, la nariz de perfil y el cuerpo de espaldas. Al referirse a Las Señoritas de Aviñón, Arthur I. Miller la ve con la perspectiva de la cinematografía, considerando que “podemos ver el cuadro como una serie de cinco fotogramas que avanzan hacia una creciente geometrización, mientras que la señorita agachada sería una secuencia de instantáneas superpuestas” (Miller, 2007, p. 295). Este autor destaca, entre las motivaciones picassianas para la creación del Cubismo, que “el cinematógrafo proporcionó una serie de figuras consecutivas (o, como las películas de Méliès, cómicamente reordenadas) de las que Picasso tomó la idea de revelar una transformación de las formas” (Miller, 2007, pp. 148-150). La autora que quizás más ha incidido en relacionar el cine fantástico de Méliès con la creación del Cubismo ha sido Natasha Staller (Staller, 2001 y 2011), que considera que los espectáculos de cuerpos descompuestos y reconstruidos de los magos de la época, que el mago Méliès llevó magistralmente al cine con sus trucajes, fueron para Picasso un estímulo para subvertir el campo del arte: “lo mismo que ocurría con los espectáculos del Viviseccionador (famoso artista de la época que actuaba en Londres y París) y de Méliès, todas las fases del cubismo dependían fundamentalmente de la desmembración” (Staller, 2011, p. 131). El cinematógrafo desarrollaba su lenguaje mediante la técnica de la fragmentación, a partir de la cual la imagen se descomponía en diferentes perspectivas para mostrarnos, mediante el montaje, una totalidad. Esta perspectiva del juego de la parte y el todo parecen resonar en las palabras de Jean Metzinger al describir la pintura cubista como el “movimiento en torno a un objeto para captarlo desde diversas apariencias sucesivas, que, fundidas en Arturo Colorado Castellary, Ojo móvil, dinamismo y montaje. El influjo cinematográfico en las primeras vanguardias artísticas FOTOCINEMA, nº 13 (2016), E-ISSN: 2172-0150 189 una sola imagen, lo reconstituyen en el tiempo” (Metzinger, 1910)10. Vicente Sánchez Biosca, que es uno de los pocos autores del campo del audiovisual que se han acercado al impacto de la cinematografía en las vanguardias plásticas, afirma que el cine “consumaba la pluralidad de miradas sobre un espacio”. Este autor añade que el cinematógrafo: mezclaba indiscriminadamente y en más tiempo más elementos que ninguna otra forma artística anterior e introducía en un esquema visual perspectivista el tiempo, hasta el punto de distinguirse por dicha dimensión temporal (Sánchez, 1991, p. 65). A su vez, el dinamismo desenfrenado del cine de los primeros años parecía encontrar su correlato en la obsesión futurista por la representación del movimiento. Tal como afirmaba el Manifiesto de los pintores futuristas: todo cambia, todo corre, todo se transforma vertiginosamente. Un perfil no está nunca inmóvil delante de nosotros: aparece, desaparece sin cesar. Dada la persistencia de la imagen en la retina, los objetos en movimiento se multiplican, se deforman sucesivamente, como vibraciones precipitadas en el espacio que recorren (Marinetti, 1978, p. 196). Podemos deducir que el Futurismo tenía indudables débitos con la cinematografía, pues al cine se referiría Marinetti ya desde su Manifiesto técnico de la literatura futurista de 1912 –“el cinematógrafo nos ofrece la danza de un objeto que se divide y se recompone” (Marinetti, 1978, p. 162)– y en el seno del grupo, cuatro años más tarde, se generó el primer manifiesto de las vanguardias dedicadas al cine. Una de las grandes aportaciones de este movimiento radicó en eliminar la separación entre arte y vida y el cine formaba parte esencial de la vida del hombre contemporáneo. Se podría, pues, deducir que el cine se encontraba en la base de estas dos experiencias plásticas, con su antecedente de la cronofotografía, especialmente la de Étienne-Jules Marey con sus placas de varias imágenes sucesivas 10 En otro artículo (Metzinger, 1911), añadía que los cubistas “se han permitido la posibilidad de rodear un objeto, con el fin de proporcionar una representación concreta del mismo, hecha de diversos aspectos sucesivos”. Arturo Colorado Castellary, Ojo móvil, dinamismo y montaje. El influjo cinematográfico en las primeras vanguardias artísticas FOTOCINEMA, nº 13 (2016), E-ISSN: 2172-0150 190 (Zumalde, 2011)11. Tampoco podemos olvidar que en este período se estaban lanzando innovaciones tecnológicas como el aeroplano, el automóvil o la telegrafía sin hilos, que estaban alterando la concepción del espacio, del movimiento y del tiempo. Con estas aportaciones de las primeras vanguardias al campo de la pintura se cuestionaba definitivamente la famosa clasificación de Lessing entre las artes del espacio y las artes del tiempo, que situaba a la pintura entre las primeras. Y, a pesar de estas concordancias de preocupaciones entre plástica y cinematografía, comprobamos que tanto cubistas como futuristas no se refirieron a esta influencia y en todo caso hicieron declaraciones para rechazar que tuvieran deuda alguna con el nuevo lenguaje de la imagen en movimiento. Sorprende que en sus Meditations esthétiques, Apollinaire, al explicar el Cubismo en sus elementos –la anulación del tema, el espacio, la consecución de un arte puro–, no haga referencia alguna al campo del cine (Apollinaire, 1994). Destacan, a su vez, las reacciones airadas de los futuristas ante la suposición del influjo cinematográfico en su obra, como fue el caso de Gino Severini, que en 1913 afirmaba que “se creyó como cosa cierta que nuestros esfuerzos iban encaminados hacia algo que ya había sido realizado por la cinematografía. Pero tal interpretación no sólo es falsa, sino también absurda”, para añadir más adelante que “mientras el cinematográfico es un análisis del movimiento, nuestro arte, por el contrario, es una síntesis” (Citado por Stelzer, 1981, p. 113). Y es de temer que esta actitud de silencio o de rechazo, a veces irritado, respondiera a la misma reacción de los pintores de la segunda mitad del siglo XIX cuando se comparaba su obra con la fotografía, como fue el caso de los impresionistas, aunque la perspectiva en esta confrontación arte/tecnología de la imagen fuera muy distinta. Para los cubistas su referencia esencial era la ruptura con la perspectiva y el ojo único heredados del Renacimiento, el precedente inmediato era Cézanne y, en todo caso, aceptaban la influencia del arte africano. Al fin y al cabo se trataba siempre de arte, pero lo que no podían asumir era la influencia de los nuevos medios mecánicos de creación de 11 Zumalde considera que “las composiciones desmembradas del cubismo” más que a la cinematografía miran hacia la cronofotografía (Zumalde, 2011, p. 150). Arturo Colorado Castellary, Ojo móvil, dinamismo y montaje. El influjo cinematográfico en las primeras vanguardias artísticas FOTOCINEMA, nº 13 (2016), E-ISSN: 2172-0150 191 imágenes, no porque todavía se les negara el estatuto artístico –como había ocurrido con los impresionistas con respecto a la fotografía– sino especialmente porque era un tipo de mímesis, de reproducción de la realidad, tentación que ambos movimientos rechazaban de plano. En el caso del Cubismo, decía Apollinaire, en su libro ya citado, que “lo que diferencia al Cubismo de la pintura antigua es que no se trata ya de un arte de imitación”. En el caso de los futuristas, afirmaban en el punto primero del Manifiesto de los pintores futuristas, que “es necesario despreciar todas las formas de imitación” (Marinetti, 1978, p. 201). Su rechazo fundamental era a la pintura como mímesis, pero al mismo tiempo, ¿cómo iban a aceptar que estaban “imitando” procedimientos mecánicos en la creación de imágenes que partía precisamente de la captación de la realidad? En todo caso, resulta muy esclarecedora la diferencia que hace Natasha Staller entre el cine de los Lumière y el de Méliès y de cómo el influjo de este último, con su capacidad de quebrantar la realidad, sobre el Cubismo se emparentaba con la pasión antimimética del nuevo lenguaje plástico: Méliès socavó las bases de la concepción mimética de la cinematografía de los Lumière, del mismo modo que Picasso socavó las bases de una concepción académica y realista de la pintura. Tanto los pintores como el creador cinematográfico redefinieron el medio que habían elegido como algo conscientemente inventado. En sus obras, unos y otro se presentaron como magos o prestidigitadores, agentes de unos colosales poderes de transformación (Staller, 2011, p. 138). Se podría decir que, de alguna manera, el Cubismo marca el camino al ojo del espectador para seguir las diferentes perspectivas de la imagen, como si se tratara de una cámara que indaga con su movimiento cada uno de las facetas del modelo; sin embargo, el Futurismo impele al espectador a permanecer quieto porque ya la pintura le muestra todas las fases del movimiento y de un solo golpe de vista –como si fuera el espectador sentado ante la pantalla de proyección– abarca la totalidad de la imagen, la “síntesis” del movimiento al que se refería Severini. En última instancia, Cubismo y Futurismo son dos Arturo Colorado Castellary, Ojo móvil, dinamismo y montaje. El influjo cinematográfico en las primeras vanguardias artísticas FOTOCINEMA, nº 13 (2016), E-ISSN: 2172-0150 192 formas de analizar el tiempo de la imagen, pero ambos parecen estar marcados por una clara influencia cinematográfica, el primero siguiendo el movimiento de la cámara del cineasta y el segundo percibiendo la consecución de la imagen cinematográfica que acontece ante sus ojos, como se puede apreciar en la obra de Luigi Russolo titulada Dinamismo de un automóvil, de 1912-13. F2. Luigi Russolo: Dinamismo de un automóvil, 1912-13, Museo de Arte Moderno, París. Frente a la falta de referencias o a las negativas taxativas de las influencias de la imagen mecánica, el análisis de la estética cubista y futurista nos indican que el influjo en su obra de los procedimientos de la cinematografía parecen más que evidentes. Y es preciso reconocer que el mérito de estas dos vanguardias radicó en gran medida en abrir el arte plástico, anclado todavía en una representación tridimensional y estática, al ojo contemporáneo, marcado por el dinamismo de una sociedad en permanente cambio. En todo caso, de lo que podemos estar absolutamente seguros es que cinematografía y arte de vanguardia son estrictos coetáneos y parecen afrontar las mismas perspectivas de la imagen. Y serán los artistas que partan precisamente del Cubismo y del Futurismo, buscando nuevas alternativas, los que irán profundizando en el dinamismo como principio esencial de su arte. De esta manera, Cubismo y Futurismo –el llamado cubo-futurismo– confluyen en su influjo para dinamizar la mirada del artista de vanguardia. Por un lado, se encontraban los cubistas heréticos, como Francis Picabia y Marcel Duchamp, que partían del cubo-futurismo para indagar en la expresión del movimiento y caminar hacia dadá. Finalmente, Robert Delaunay, se declararía heresiarca del Cubismo para analizar la visión simultánea del movimiento cósmico de la luz, en lo que Apollinaire calificó de “orfirmo”. Arturo Colorado Castellary, Ojo móvil, dinamismo y montaje. El influjo cinematográfico en las primeras vanguardias artísticas FOTOCINEMA, nº 13 (2016), E-ISSN: 2172-0150 193 Y la lista de estos artistas que evolucionaron hacia la abstracción dinámica se hace especialmente significativa por su amplitud y carácter internacional: el Vorticismo británico, el Rayonismo ruso, el Suprematismo de Kazimir Malevich, el Constructivismo de Vladímir Tatlin… La deuda del Cubismo y del Futurismo con la cinematografía y la fotografía y su enorme influjo sobre el arte posterior produjeron que la impronta de la imagen tecnológica se extendiera con fuerza por todo el arte contemporáneo. Un buen ejemplo del influjo tecnológico es el de Duchamp, que en 1920 construyó, en colaboración con Man Ray, Placas de vidrio rotativas (Óptica de precisión), su primera “máquina” consistente en cinco placas rectangulares de vidrio pintadas, conectadas entre sí para que un motor las hiciera girar sobre su propio eje; el espectador, situado a una distancia de un metro, al accionarla, podía contemplar cómo estas pinturas se convertían en círculos concéntricos. Su interés por los problemas de la óptica y su pasión por el maquinismo le llevaron a realizar en 1926 la película experimental Anémic Cinéma, sorprendente composición de discos rotatorios. A su vez, su pasión por el cine le llevó a colaborar en películas de Hans Richter, Man Ray o Francis Picabia. F3. Marcel Duchamp: Placas de vidrio rotativas, 1920. Arturo Colorado Castellary, Ojo móvil, dinamismo y montaje. El influjo cinematográfico en las primeras vanguardias artísticas FOTOCINEMA, nº 13 (2016), E-ISSN: 2172-0150 194 4. Montaje, collage y fotomontaje El montaje es otro de los elementos esenciales aportados por la cinematografía: el ensamblaje de las partes de la narración a partir del principio de “cortar y pegar”. Y comprobamos que esta práctica en las artes plásticas se iniciaba precisamente en el mismo período en el que cine se popularizaba. Nos referimos a la innovación del collage y de los papier collé aportados por Picasso y Braque desde 1912 y que tan importantes implicaciones tendría en el arte contemporáneo. Desde ese momento, y en un transcurrir paralelo a la cinematografía, el arte contemporáneo encontrará en la fragmentación de las imágenes, en la superposición en un mismo espacio plástico de elementos de diferente procedencia, un procedimiento de gran desarrollo en los principales movimientos de vanguardia (Dadaísmo, Constructivismo, Surrealismo o Pop-Art), en el diseño gráfico, la cartelística y el fotomontaje. Pierre Francastel ya señaló en 1956 que “las nociones de montaje, de combinación de series son (…) fundamentales para la comprensión de la pintura, de la escultura y de la arquitectura actuales” (Francastel, 1960, p. 168). La idea del montaje de imágenes a partir de realidades distintas ya había sido utilizada por el trucaje fotográfico durante el siglo XIX. Con el nacimiento del cine este procedimiento sería utilizado por los nuevos realizadores, especialmente por el mago Méliès, cineasta por el que Picasso sentía auténtica pasión. En sus películas podemos observar la sobreimpresión de imágenes o la unión en el mismo fotograma de escenarios teatrales o fotografías con la actuación sobrepuesta de los actores, en el fondo materiales visuales fragmentados y de diversas procedencias unidos en un conjunto iconográfico (El hombre de la cabeza de caucho, 1902). Vicente Sánchez-Biosca, que reprocha al Cubismo y al Futurismo que “ignoren como aliado” al cinematógrafo, señala que “el collage, la idea de cortar y pegar” mostraba “la exhibición del montaje y su fragmentarismo sin ambages ni ocultaciones de ningún tipo” (Sánchez, 1991). Arturo Colorado Castellary, Ojo móvil, dinamismo y montaje. El influjo cinematográfico en las primeras vanguardias artísticas FOTOCINEMA, nº 13 (2016), E-ISSN: 2172-0150 195 F4. Georges Méliès: fotograma de El hombre de la cabeza de caucho, 1902 La práctica cubista del “cortar y pegar”, uniendo en un mismo lienzo la pintura con papeles y materiales preexistentes, respondía a la misma preocupación que inspiraba al montaje cinematográfico, concepción del collage que también parecía impregnar a la totalidad de la obra cubista. Esta sensación de montaje de la imagen alcanzaría su culminación con la fase sintética del Cubismo, en la que la obra se concibía como una construcción, como una especie de rompecabezas, tal como podemos ver en la obra de Picasso Mujer sentada en un sillón, de 1913. F5. Pablo Picasso: Mujer sentada en un sillón, 1913, Colección Ganz, Nueva York. El Futurismo mostró desde un principio un interés especial por la cinematografía y por la idea de la acumulación. En 1916, se lanzaba el Manifiesto del Cine Futurista, en el que planteaba la ecuación sintética, de suma de aportaciones, que suponía la cinematografía: “Pintura + escultura + dinamismo plástico + palabras en libertad + entonaruidos +arquitectura + teatro sintético = cinema futurista” (Marinetti, 1978, 180-184). De hecho, este carácter acumulativo trascendía también a las artes plásticas, a la pintura y a la Arturo Colorado Castellary, Ojo móvil, dinamismo y montaje. El influjo cinematográfico en las primeras vanguardias artísticas FOTOCINEMA, nº 13 (2016), E-ISSN: 2172-0150 196 escultura, que se apropiaban de las aportaciones de la cronofotografía y de la cinematografía, de la facetación sucesiva del movimiento, de la sensación dinámica, utilizando en repetidas ocasiones el collage para expresar el dinamismo y la implicación psicológica del espectador, como se aprecia de manera destacada en la obra de Carrà titulada Manifestación intervencionista, de 1914. Se podría pensar, dada la tendencia abstracta dominante, que durante el período de la I Guerra Mundial y de la revolución soviética las imágenes plásticas y las fotomecánicas caminaban por sendas diferentes, sin embargo todas ellas parecen tener un mismo origen. El método artístico fundamental de estos años, marcados por la guerra y la revolución, se centraba en el montaje, que vemos como idea rectora en los fotomontajes o fotocollages de dadaístas o constructivistas, en las construcciones objetuales o en los “assemblages” de los ready made, o en el aspecto de collage cromático de las obras neoplásticas. El montaje, la idea de cortar y de construir –principio que partía de la cultura fotográfica y cinematográfica y que incidía de manera evidente en el arte de vanguardia de estos años–, se convertiría en la herramienta más revolucionaria en manos de los artistas en todos los campos de la creatividad. Un capítulo de especial significación en este período bélico es el de la aparición del fotomontaje. En sus ansias destructivas del arte tradicional, dadá abandonaría los soportes ancestrales del arte y, en su lugar, propició otros procedimientos y lenguajes: los ready made y la práctica radical del collage cubista destinada a la creación del fotomontaje, el nuevo lenguaje que tendrá enorme desarrollo en estos años, especialmente entre los constructivistas rusos, y en el futuro general del arte (Bañuelos, 2008). Por un lado, el fotomontaje dadaísta era una derivación del collage cubista; y, por otro, era una aplicación del ready made de Duchamp al campo de la imagen fotográfica: utilizaba imágenes ya hechas y “encontradas” en revistas, recortadas, sacadas de su contexto y pegadas en una nueva relación insólita con otras fotografías de diferentes procedencias. En última instancia, el Arturo Colorado Castellary, Ojo móvil, dinamismo y montaje. El influjo cinematográfico en las primeras vanguardias artísticas FOTOCINEMA, nº 13 (2016), E-ISSN: 2172-0150 197 influjo del montaje cinematográfico en la práctica del fotomontaje se manifestaba en la práctica de cortar y pegar, de la reorganización de imágenes para buscar una nueva narración. Una especie de “film estático”, tal como lo calificara Raoul Hausmann, uno de los creadores del fotomontaje (Ades, 1977, p. 11). El carácter cinematográfico del fotomontaje se mostraba también a través de la visión múltiple que planteaba, pues las diferentes fotografías “encontradas” habían sido tomadas por sus creadores desde diferentes puntos de vista; al unirse todas ellas en una nueva composición manifestaban ese carácter de multiplicidad de la mirada que aportaba la cinematografía. 6. Conclusiones Y así podemos llegar a una serie de conclusiones sobre el impacto cinematográfico en las primeras vanguardias del siglo XX. En primer lugar, la aparición del cine conformó una nueva manera de ver la imagen, influjo que afectó a todos los ciudadanos que tuvieron acceso al nuevo medio; pero entre estos ciudadanos se encontraban los artistas plásticos, creadores de imágenes con todo un bagaje multisecular, que poseían una especial sensibilidad hacia las nuevas solicitaciones que planteaba la imagen mecánica en movimiento. Se puede decir que el cine, además de conformar una nueva mirada, impelía a la plástica vanguardista a cuestionar los principales postulados del arte académico. La búsqueda del movimiento en las artes plásticas había sido una vieja aspiración nunca cumplida, pero con numerosos intentos de reflejarlo – desde la columna trajana, pasando por la rueca de Velázquez y llegando hasta los caballos de Degas–. De hecho, la cuestión del movimiento había sido uno de los componentes esenciales del Impresionismo, pero a través de la captación de lo mudable. Esta vieja aspiración se agudizó en las primeras décadas del siglo XX, precisamente cuando se producía la irrupción de la cinematografía. Tal como lo expresara Pierre Francastel, “el cine empezaba a llamar la atención de todos los artistas sobre el problema de la animación” Arturo Colorado Castellary, Ojo móvil, dinamismo y montaje. El influjo cinematográfico en las primeras vanguardias artísticas FOTOCINEMA, nº 13 (2016), E-ISSN: 2172-0150 198 (Francastel, 1990, p. 168). Los cubistas experimentaron con la fragmentación de la imagen, a través de un ritmo de planos. Después vendría el Futurismo con su pasión por la velocidad. Y estas experiencias darían pie a la corriente cinética –que incluye desde los móviles de Alexander Calder hasta el parpadeo del Op-Art–, que ofrece un especial interés por conceder al movimiento en el arte un esencial protagonismo. Destaca, a su vez, el collage, que derivaba de la idea del montaje cinematográfico y que tendría consecuencias fundamentales en el arte a través del ready made y del fotomontaje. Los dadaístas siguieron utilizando el método de “cortar y pegar” iniciado por los cubistas y con procedimientos que ya había utilizado la fotografía a finales del siglo XIX, con el objetivo de buscar relaciones insólitas entre imágenes de diferentes procedencias y tamaños o asimilando experiencias que en ese momento estaba desarrollando el cine de los pioneros y especialmente de David Griffith. Algo parecido se estaba produciendo entre el cine ruso (Vertov, Pudovkin, Einstein) y los fotomontajes de los constructivistas. La capacidad narrativa y de ficción del nuevo sistema de creación de imágenes vendría a competir con la pintura tradicional en su propio terreno. Tal como dice Juan Antonio Ramírez, “la pintura de historia, que fue el género más admirado en el siglo XIX, decayó de un modo estrepitoso durante las primeras décadas del siglo XX” y añade que “el cine tomó el relevo en esta tarea de entretener y emocionar a las masas con los hechos del pasado” (Ramírez, 1994, p. 15). Para contar historias ya había un procedimiento mucho más eficaz que la pintura. Y Fernand Léger, el pintor que partiendo del Cubismo preconizaba una arte adaptado a la nueva sociedad, a través de un canto de la vida moderna y del dinamismo, consideraba que en esa sociedad la pintura tradicional encontraba importantes competidores. Léger se preguntaba en 1913 “qué pueden pretender todos esos cuadros más o menos históricos o dramáticos del Salón Francés ante la pantalla del cinematógrafo” (Léger, 1997, p. 37). Arturo Colorado Castellary, Ojo móvil, dinamismo y montaje. El influjo cinematográfico en las primeras vanguardias artísticas FOTOCINEMA, nº 13 (2016), E-ISSN: 2172-0150 199 El arte plástico, impulsado por la cinematografía, buscará su propia esencia a través de un lenguaje cada vez más despegado de lo representativo, despreciando su tradición figurativa y emprendiendo un camino que le llevaría hacia la pureza de la imagen abstracta. Apollinaire destacaría entre los logros del Cubismo la eliminación del tema para conseguir un arte puro. Tal como afirmara años más tarde László Moholy-Nagy, uno de los más destacados constructivistas, “el procedimiento exacto y mecánico de la fotografía y de la película nos ofrece un medio de expresión incomparablemente mejor adaptado a la representación que el procedimiento manual de la pintura figurativa tal como la hemos conocido hasta hoy”. Y añadía que “la pintura puede, a partir de ahora, ocuparse sólo de la pura puesta en forma de los colores” (Moholy-Nagy, 2005, p. 69). El cine se dedicaba a contar historias a través de la imagen en movimiento y la pintura se iría centrando poco a poco en el hecho pictórico. Tal como previera Guillaume Apollinaire, “el cine será para la pintura lo que la música es para la literatura, una purificación”. Conquistados por la imagen cinematográfica muchos campos que hasta ese momento había tratado las artes plásticas –como la historia, la religión, la literatura o la temática de género–, la imagen plástica se volcará a meditar sobre sí misma, sobre su propio lenguaje. En el arte contemporáneo la pintura tiende a pensar en pintura, y en esta tendencia la imagen cinematográfica parece tener mucho que ver. De hecho el cine no competía con la pintura, como había ocurrido con la fotografía en sus inicios, sino que le impulsaba a buscar nuevos caminos. Resulta al menos paradójico que mientras el cine heredaba muchos elementos de la cultura decimonónica, el arte de vanguardia rompía con todos los presupuestos del academicismo. Finalmente, existe otro ámbito de estas relaciones entre cine y arte de vanguardia, aquel que estaría integrado por los que podíamos designar como “pintores-cineastas”, por estar su obra plástica claramente marcada por la temática del cine y por sus procedimientos. Son ya conocidas las fuertes implicaciones cinematográficas en la obra de Salvador Dalí, de Edward Arturo Colorado Castellary, Ojo móvil, dinamismo y montaje. El influjo cinematográfico en las primeras vanguardias artísticas FOTOCINEMA, nº 13 (2016), E-ISSN: 2172-0150 200 Hopper y la menos destacada de Alfonso Ponce de León. Y comprobamos que el cine y la televisión parecen haber marcado la cultura visual de numerosos artistas de la segunda mitad del siglo XX, como Francis Bacon o Lucian Freud, poblando con sus procedimientos e imágenes el particular universo plástico de muchos de ellos. En última instancia, y aquí es donde radica la clave de este fenómeno, el influjo cinematográfico supuso un cambio en el sistema visual. Cuestionaba el sistema visual renacentista (monofocal, central y estático) y lo sustituía por el sistema visual moderno (móvil y multidimensional). No se trataba tan sólo de que los artistas plásticos recogieran en sus obras la temática cinematográfica –la Mae West de Dalí–, ni tan siquiera de que introdujeran referencias explícitas al cine –el programa del cine Tivoli insertado como collage por Braque o el homenaje de Magritte a Mack Sennet– sino lo que suponía de universo visual, del impacto del cine como lenguaje, de estímulo para la creatividad y de impulso para caminar por nuevos derroteros. Y es importante destacar que este fenómeno no era nuevo, pues se había ido produciendo, y seguiría ocurriendo en la historia del arte contemporáneo, cada vez que aparecía un nuevo sistema tecnológico de creación de imágenes, desde la fotografía, pasando por el cine, la televisión y el vídeo, hasta el impacto de la imagen digital (Colorado, 2013). Referencias bibliográficas AA.VV. (1996). Art and Film Since 1945. Hall of Mirrors, catálogo de exposición. Los Ángeles: The Museum of Contemporary Art. AA.VV. (2005). Impressionisme et naissance du cinématographe, catálogo de exposición. Lyon: Fage Editions. AA.VV. (1989). Peinture-cinéma-peinture, catálogo de exposición. Paris: Hazan. Ades, D. (1977). Fotomontaje. Barcelona: Bosch. Albera, F. (2009). La vanguardia en el cine. Buenos Aires: Manantial. Apollinaire, G. (1994). Meditaciones estéticas. Los pintores cubistas. Madrid: La balsa de la Medusa, ed. de V. Bozal. Arnheim, R. (1986). Film as art. London: Faber. Arturo Colorado Castellary, Ojo móvil, dinamismo y montaje. El influjo cinematográfico en las primeras vanguardias artísticas FOTOCINEMA, nº 13 (2016), E-ISSN: 2172-0150 201 Aumont, J. (1996). El ojo interminable. Cine y pintura. Barcelona: Paidós. Bañuelos Capistrán, J. (2008). Fotomontaje. Madrid: Cátedra. Bellour, R. (Dir.) (1990). Cinéma et peinture, approches. Paris: P.U.F. Benjamin, W. (1936). La obra de arte en la época de su reproductibilidad técnica. En ( 1973) Discurso interrumpidos I. Filosofía del arte y de la historia. Madrid: Taurus. Berriatúa, L. (1990). Los proverbios chinos de W. F. Murnau. Etapa alemana. Madrid: Filmoteca Española, Instituto de la Cinematografía y de las Artes Audiovisuales. Bonitzer, P. (2007). Desencuadres. Cine y pintura. Buenos Aires: Santiago Arcos Ed. Borau, J. L. (2003). La pintura en el cine. El cine en la pintura. Madrid: Ocho y medio. Cerrato, R. (2009). Cine y pintura. Madrid: Ed. JC. Colorado Castellary, A. (2013). Los impactos de la imagen tecnológica en el arte moderno. En Andrade Pereira, V. y Colorado Castellary, A. (Eds.), ArTecnologia. Arte, tecnologia e linguagens midiáticas (pp. 8-31). Porto Alegre (Brasil): Buqui. Costa, A. (1991). Cinema e pittura. Torino: Loescher. Crespelle, J.-P. (1993). La vida cotidiana en el Montmartre de Picasso. Barcelona: Argos Vergara. De Santi, P. M. (1987). Cinema e pittura. Firenze: Giunti. Epstein, J. (1960). La inteligencia de una máquina. Una filosofía del cine. Buenos Aires: Nueva Visión. Edición original de 1946. Francastel, P. (1990). Arte y técnica en los siglos XIX y XX. Madrid: Editorial Debate (Edición original (1956): Art et Technique aux XIXe et XXe siècles. Paris: Les Éditions de Minuit). Gale, M. (Ed.) (2008). Dalí y el cine, catálogo de exposición. Barcelona: Electa. Gance, A. (1927). ¡Ha llegado el tiempo de la imagen! En Romaguera i Ramió, J. y Alsina Thevenet, H. (Eds.) (1989), Textos y Manifiestos del Cine. Estética. Escuelas. Movimientos. Disciplinas. Innovaciones. Madrid: Cátedra. Gómez Gómez, A. (Ed.) (2011). Picasso: cine y arte. Málaga: Fundación Pablo Ruiz Picasso. Haas, P. de (1985). Cinéma integral. De la peinture au cinema dans les années vingt. Paris: Traséditions. Ituarte, L. y Letamendi, J. (2002). Los inicios del cine, desde los espectáculos cinematográficos hasta 1917. Barcelona: Ediciones del Serbal. Arturo Colorado Castellary, Ojo móvil, dinamismo y montaje. El influjo cinematográfico en las primeras vanguardias artísticas FOTOCINEMA, nº 13 (2016), E-ISSN: 2172-0150 202 Léger, F.. (1913). Les origines de la peinture contemporaine et sa valeur représentative, Montjoie!, Nº 8. En F. Léger (1997), Fonctions de la peinture. Paris: Gallimard. Marinetti, F.T. (1978). Manifiestos y textos futuristas. Barcelona: Ediciones del Cotal. Metzinger, J. (1910). Note sur la peinture. Paris: PAN. Metzinger, J. (1911). Cubisme et tradition. Paris-Journal. Michaud, Ph.-A. (1998). Aby Warburg et l'image en mouvement. Paris: Macula. Miller, A. I. (2007). Einstein y Picasso. El espacio, el tiempo y los estragos de la belleza. Barcelona: Tusquets. Moholy-Nagy, L. (2005). Pintura, fotografía, cine. Barcelona: Gustavo Gili. La primera edición es de 1925. Ortiz, Á. y Piqueras M. J. (1995). La pintura en el cine, Cuestiones de representación visual. Barcelona: Paidós. Puyal, A. (2009). Juan Gris y el cine. En Goya, Nº 328, 251-260. Ramírez, J. A. (1994). Ecosistema y explosión de las artes: Condiciones de la historia, segundo milenio. Barcelona: Anagrama. Rose B. B. (Dir.) (2007). Picasso, Braque and Early Film in Cubism, catálogo de exposición. New York: PaceWildenstein Gallery. Ruiz, L. E. (2002). Obras pioneras del cine mudo. Orígenes y primeros pasos (1895-1917). Bilbao: Mensajero. Sadoul, G. (1961). Georges Méliès. Paris: Éd. Seghers. Sánchez Biosca, V. (1991). El montaje cinematográfico. Teoría y análisis. Barcelona: Paidós. Scharf, A. (1994). Arte y fotografía. Madrid: Alianza. Sougez, M-L. (2009). Historia general de la fotografía. Madrid: Cátedra. Staller, N. (2001). A Sum of Destructions: Picasso’s Cultures & the Creation of Cubism. London & New Haven: Yale University Press. Staller, N. (2011). Actos mágicos: el cine ‘fantástico’ de Méliès y la invención del cubismo. En Gómez Gómez (Ed.), Picasso: cine y arte (pp. 117- 141). Málaga: Fundación Pablo Ruiz Picasso. Traducción del artículo de la autora (1989), Méliès ‘Fantastic’ Cinema and the Origins of Cubism. Art History, XII, nº 2, 1989, pp. 202-23. Stelzer, O. (1981). Arte y fotografía: contactos, influencias y efectos. Barcelona: Gustavo Gili. Tejeda C. (2008). Arte en fotogramas. Cine realizado por artistas. Madrid: Cátedra. Arturo Colorado Castellary, Ojo móvil, dinamismo y montaje. El influjo cinematográfico en las primeras vanguardias artísticas FOTOCINEMA, nº 13 (2016), E-ISSN: 2172-0150 203 Tupitsyn, M. (2002). Malevich y el cine, catálogo de exposición. Barcelona: Fundación La Caixa. Vancheri, L. (2007). Cinéma et peinture: passajes, partages, présences. Zumalde Arregi, I. (2011). Cine al Cub(ism)o. Picasso y la captura del movimiento. En A. Gómez Gómez (Ed.), Picasso: cine y arte (pp. 143- 166). Málaga: Fundación Pablo Ruiz Picasso. Cómo citar: Colorado Castellary, A. (2016). “Ojo móvil, dinamismo y montaje. El influjo cinematográfico en las primeras vanguardias artísticas”. Fotocinema. Revista científica de cine y fotografía, 13, pp. 179-203. Disponible: http://www.revistafotocinema.com/ 
work_uu3fx7eayze5zbqhmkflnbzpee	----	pp900197 1708..1708 CORRECTIONS Vol. 140: 30–48, 2006 Abdulrazzak N., Pollet B., Ehlting J., Larsen K., Asnaghi C., Ronseau S., Proux C., Erhardt M., Seltzer V., Renou J.-P., Ullman P., Pauly M., Lapierre C., and Werck-Reichhart D. A coumaroyl-ester-3-hydroxylase Insertion Mutant Reveals the Existence of Nonredundant meta-Hydroxylation Pathways and Essential Roles for Phenolic Precursors in Cell Expansion and Plant Growth. The authors regret that this article contains a description of immunofluorescence/confocal microscopy methodology that was not actually used for this work. In addition, this methodology was given without proper credit to Sugimoto et al. (K. Sugimoto, R.E. Williamson, G.O. Wasteneys [2000] Plant Physiol 124: 1493–1506), who developed the protocol. The correct immunofluorescence/confocal microscopy methodology used for this article is described below. The authors apologize for this error and any inconvenience it may have caused. Immunofluorescence Visualization of the Microtubules Roots of 2-week-old seedlings were fixed in 2% (v/v) paraformaldehyde and 0.5% (v/v) glutaraldehyde in PEMT buffer (100 mM PIPES, 4 mM EGTA, 4 mM MgSO4, 0.05% [v/v] Triton X-100, pH 7.2) for 40 min, and rinsed in PEMT buffer three times for 10 min. Roots were postfixed in cold methanol (220�C) for 10 min on ice, rehydrated for 10 min in 13 PBS (136 mM NaCl, 2.7 mM KCl, 10 mM Na2HPO4, 2 mM KH2PO4, pH 7.4), and treated for 20 min with NaBH4 (1 mg/mL) diluted in 13 PBS. Fixed roots were digested for 10 min with 0.2% (w/v) pectolyase, 1% (w/v) macerozyme, 3% (w/v) caylase diluted 10 times in digestion buffer (25 mM MES, 8 mM CaCl2, 600 mM mannitol, pH 5.5). After three washes in PBSG buffer (13 PBS, 50 mM Gly), roots were incubated for 20 min in 5% normal goat serum diluted in PBSG to saturate nonspecific sites, then incubated with primary anti- bodies directed against a-tubulin (Molecular Probes) in PBSG at 4�C overnight and washed three times for 5 min in PBSG buffer. Samples were incubated for 1 h at room temperature with secondary antibodies cou- pled to Alexa Fluor 488 (Molecular Probes) and washed three times in PBSG buffer. Roots were mounted in Mowiol containing DABCO (100 mg/mL). Observations were done using a Zeiss LSM510 con- focal laser scanning microscope equipped with argon and helium/neon lasers and with a C-APOCHROMAT (3 63, 1.2 numerical aperture water immersion lens). Excitation/emission wavelengths were 488/bandpass 505 to 550 nm for Alexa 488. Image processing was done using LSM510 version 2.8 (Zeiss), ImageJ (W.S. Rasband; National Institutes of Health), and Photo- shop 6.0 (Adobe Systems). Vol. 141: 803–804, 2006 Plant Physiology regrets that the credit line was not included with the image of Pablo Picasso’s Woman with a Cigarette in July’s On the Inside feature. The Estate of Pablo Picasso has graciously granted permission to ASPB for use of this image in the print and online journal. The credit line for this image is as follows: � 2006 Estate of Pablo Picasso/Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York. 1708 Plant Physiology, August 2006, Vol. 141, p. 1708, www.plantphysiol.org � 2006 American Society of Plant Biologists https://plantphysiol.orgDownloaded on April 5, 2021. - Published by Copyright (c) 2020 American Society of Plant Biologists. All rights reserved. https://plantphysiol.org 
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work_v5ohivjvkrfnzhbocbkpbb7ixy	----	Interfaces.indd The North American Intellectual Tradition Camille Paglia1 Recebido 07, jun. 2012 / Aprovado 17, jun. 2012 Resumo: O artigo foi originalmente apresentado em conferência na Fordham University, em 2000, tendo sido publicado dois anos mais tarde no volume de estreia do Journal of the Media Ecology Association, tendo, contudo, permanecido inédito na versão on-line. Contra- pondo-se à penetração do pós-estruturalismo francês nas universidades norte-americanas, o artigo propõe a existência de uma tradição intelectual norte-americana específica, focando- se em três autores-chave para os estudos culturais: Marshall McLuhan, Norman Brown e Leslie Fiedler. Defende-se, assim, um retorno às tradições intelectuais norte-americanas consolidadas nos anos 1950/60. Os três autores analisados são considerados mais úteis para as análises dos grandes fenômenos contemporâneos da mídia de massas e da Internet do que expoentes do pós-estruturalismo, condicionados a uma visão claustrofóbica da sociedade, cega às vastidões da natureza. A desconstrução pode ser necessária para a Europa, com sua longa tradição cultural e suas hierarquias sufocantes, mas não o é nas Américas. Palavras-chave: Marshall McLuhan; Norman Brown; Leslie Fiedler Abstract: This article was originally presented as a lecture at Fordham University in New York in 2000 and was published two years later in the first volume of the Journal of the Media Ecology Association. It has never been published before in an online version. Op- posing the penetration of French post-structuralism in American universities, the paper proposes that there is a distinct and unique American intellectual tradition, focusing on three important authors from cultural studies: Marshall McLuhan, Leslie Fiedler and Nor- man Brown. It is argued that there should be a return to American intellectual traditions as consolidated in the years 1950/60. The three authors are considered far more useful for the analysis of the major phenomena of the contemporary mass media and the Internet than are the exponents of post-structuralism, which has a claustrophobic vision of socie- ty, blind to the vastness of nature outside society. Deconstruction may be necessary in Europe, with its long cultural history and suffocating hierarchies, but not in the Americas. Keywords: Marshall McLuhan; Leslie Fiedler; Norman Brown 202 Résumé: Présenté d’abord sous la forme d’une conférence réalisée à la Fordham Uni- versity, en 2000, qui a été publiée deux ans plus tard dans le premier volume du Journal of the Media Ecology Association, ce texte est resté inédit jusqu’à aujourd’hui dans sa version en ligne. En s’opposant à la pénétration du post-structuralisme français dans les universités nord-américaines, le texte propose l’existence d’une tradition intellectuelle nord-américaine spécifique et privilégie trois auteurs représentatifs des études culturel- les: Marshall McLuhan, Norman Brown et Leslie Fiedler. Il s’agit de défendre un retour aux traditions intellectuelles nord-américaines consolidées au cours des années 1950/60. Plutôt que d’être envisagés comme des noms remarquables du post-structuralisme, con- ditionnés à une vision claustrophobique de la société, aveugle à la vastitude de la nature, les trois auteurs choisis sont considérés utiles pour l’analyse des grands phénomènes contemporains des medias et d’Internet. La déconstruction peut être nécessaire à l’Europe qui a une longue tradition culturelle et des hiérarchies suffocantes, mais elle ne l’est pas dans les Amériques. Mots-clés: Marshall McLuhan; Leslie Fiedler; Norman Brown A war still rages over the legacy of the 1960s. For many conservatives that decade, which began in the 1950s spirit and whose cycle of excess was triggered by the assassination of John F. Kennedy in 1963, is responsible for the worst aspects of contemporary culture, from sexual promiscuity and epidemic divorce to rampant drug use and debased educational standards. The immense variety of 1960s experience has been abbreviated into seve- ral stock formulas: leftist political activism, emerging from the civil rights mo- vement and sparking the women’s and the gay liberation movements; the nature- worshipping counterculture of drug-taking hippies, influenced by Asian religions which have thinned out into today’s New Age sensibility; and finally what might be called urban mod, the kaleidoscope of Pop Art, multimedia innovations in dance and film, and a technicolor explosion of theatrical fashion, originating in London’s Carnaby Street and Portobello Road. It’s this last category that I iden- tify with as a disciple of Andy Warhol and his gender-bending circle of poets, musicans, and filmmakers. What seems to have been forgotten is that there were major intellectual breakthroughs in the 1960s, thanks to North American writers of an older gene- Camille Paglia 203 ration. A schism or rupture in continuity occurred, since the young people most influenced by those breakthroughs did not on the whole enter the professional system and their insights were dissipated into the general society. A cultural va- cuum was created that would be filled in the 1970s by French poststructuralism and German critical theory of the Frankfurt School. Those approaches would do- minate American literature departments for the next quarter century, devastating the humanities and reducing their prestige and power in the world at large. It’s time for a recovery and systematic reassessment of the North Ameri- can thinkers whose work, I believe, will endure over time when the French and German schools have been discarded. Marshall McLuhan, Leslie Fiedler, and Norman O. Brown are the triad I would substitute for the big three of French theory – Jacques Lacan, Jacques Derrida, and Michel Foucault – whose work in my view is specific to postwar European culture and whose ideas do not, I main- tain, transfer successfully into the Anglo-American tradition. McLuhan, Fiedler, and Brown were steeped in literature, classical to mo- dern. They understood the way the creative imagination works, and they exten- ded those insights into speculation about history and society. They themselves creatively reshaped traditions and cross-fertilized disciplines, juxtaposing the old and new to make unexpected connections that remain fresh. Most importan- tly, their influence on others was positive and fruitful. McLuhan, Fiedler, and Brown did not impose their system on acolytes but liberated a whole generation of students to think freely and to discover their own voices. Their independence fostered independence in others. Lacan, Derrida, and Foucault, in contrast, hang so heavily on their admirers that only strong, already formed figures like the cultivated scholar Edward Said can use them without being strangled by them. French poststructuralism, like the Frankfurt School whose antiquated pre-World War Two assumptions dictate so much current media study, grinds up texts and subjects and makes them all sound drearily alike. And at this point, as we survey the scholarship of the last three decades, it should be tragically obvious that very few, if any, genuinely major books were produced by the British and American critics who fell under the spell of European theory. I feel fortunate indeed that Marshall McLuhan published his central work, Understanding Media, in the very year – 1964 – that I entered college at the State University of New York at Binghamton. McLuhan’s ideas were to pervade the The North American Intellectual Tradition 204 cultural atmosphere. Leslie Fiedler’s Love and Death in the American Novel, as well as Norman O. Brown’s Life Against Death: The Psychoanalytic Meaning of History (which McLuhan cites in his bibliography) had appeared just five years before. This was a time when “theory” meant Anatomy of Criticism, the magis- terial work published in 1957 by McLuhan’s rival at the University of Toronto, Northrop Frye. In chapters subtitled “Theory of Modes”, “Theory of Symbols”, “Theory of Myths”, and “Theory of Genres”, Frye demonstrated what vital the- ory should look like – hypotheses and conclusions based on hard evidence, on a wealth of scholarly detail presented in a lucid, accessible style. I will not include Frye here because, as a literary critic rather than an intellectual per se, he rarely addressed contemporary social or political issues outside of education – and he also disliked and rejected mass media. McLuhan’s pioneering examination of the ongoing revolution wrought by electronic media in Gutenberg’s print culture demonstrated how history could be reinterpreted with terms bridging high and popular culture. There was a bre- athtaking sweep to his vision and a charming aptitude for the startling example. McLuhan’s irreverent, aphoristic wit was perfectly attuned to the brash spirit of my generation, with its absurdist “happenings” and its taste for zinging one-liners – in both the acerbic satiric style of comedian Lenny Bruce and the gnomic, ora- cular manner of Zen sages and Hindu gurus. Understanding Media, which had a tremendous impact on me at a pivotal moment in my development, is a landmark of cultural analysis. In its invigorating interplay of high art and popular culture, technology, and commerce, we see an epic panorama of Western culture. Greek myth, Shakespeare, William Blake, James Joyce, Pablo Picasso, and Margaret Mead mingle with the Marx Brothers amid an Alice in Wonderland swirl of clocks, comic books, alphabets, telepho- nes, and typewriters. Architecture, Roman roads, automobiles, sports, dance, jazz, movies, radio, TV, paper currency, clothing--all the elements of culture meet, merge, and bounce away again. In its picaresque form and carnivalesque tone, Understanding Media resembles a work like Petronius Arbiter’s Satyricon, which gives a vivid picture of 1st century Neronian Rome in mutifarious language, from elite banter to working-class slang. McLuhan achieves here what semioticians only claim to do. He finds the interpretive key to our supercharged and overlo- Camille Paglia 205 aded cultural environment, and his swift rhythms, playful tone, and deft touch make academic semiotics look ponderous, pretentious, and pointlessly abstract. In The Mechanical Bride: Folk Lore of Industrial Man, published in 1951, McLuhan brought his training as a literary critic to bear on the iconography of modern advertisements, reproduced in a graphic style that seems amazingly con- temporary. The rest of the world has finally caught up to that book. But McLuhan never displays the condescending irony of postmodernist appropriation, with its fatiguingly arch self-consciousness. Like Andy Warhol, who began his career as a commercial illustrator, I have loved advertisements since childhood, when they conflated in my mind with the Catholic iconography of stained-glass win- dows and the mythological tableaux of paintings and sculptures in picture books. In 1960, I surprised my ninth-grade teacher with a term project consisting of clipped-out ads and running commentary – exactly the style, little did I know, of McLuhan’s Mechanical Bride. Hence my grateful appreciation of that book when I finally saw it – with its merry profusion of Betty Grable posters, pulp-fiction dust jackets, and magazine ads for light bulbs, diamonds, whiskey, mouthwash, girdles, soap flakes, cars, Coca Cola, and cod liver oil. Leslie Fiedler used his profound knowledge of literature to become the fo- refather of today’s academic multiculturalism. He presciently dwelled on the out- sider – the Native American, the black, the homosexual, and even the maturely sexual woman, whom 19th century American literature caricatured or excluded. Fiedler knew how to apply his liberal progressive ideals without deforming the texts under study. He did not indict literature, whatever its ethically disturbing content, nor did he define art as an oppressive tool of unjust power in the re- ductive way now so familiar. Fiedler’s opening of the literary canon to science fiction or to sentimental nineteenth – and twentieth-century novels, like Margaret Mitchell’s Gone with the Wind, raised hackles in the academic establishment. I was a graduate student at Yale University in 1970 when Fiedler came to speak on the topic, “Teaching Literature in the ‘70s.” Not a single member of the English department came to hear him. But I admired Fiedler’s combination of Jungian archetypes with dark Freudian insights into personality, and I would borrow from it for my own work. Norman O. Brown, with his background in classical studies, moved out of his field to daringly apply Freudian principles to a massive re-reading of Western The North American Intellectual Tradition 206 history. Life Against Death is one of the great non-fiction works of the twentieth century. It is what Michel Foucault longed to achieve but never did. The long, sinuous lines of argumentation--paragraph by paragraph and chapter by chapter-- make Life Against Death a tour de force of North American thought. Brown wea- ves material from Greek philosophy and Christian theology with modern psycho- logy and economic theory to show the conflicts and repressions in human life. He stunningly juxtaposes Jonathan Swift’s so-called “excremental vision” with Martin Luther’s devil-haunted Protestantism and the birth of modern capitalism. Brown shows the link between ideas and physiology, projection and body-ima- ge. Compared to Life Against Death, Herbert Marcuse’s Eros and Civilization (1955), one of the centerpieces of the Frankfurt School, seemed overschematic yet blobby and imprecise to me in college, and I continue to question the inflated reputation of Marcuse as well as his Frankfurt colleague, Theodor Adorno. My argument is that the North American intellectuals, typified by McLuhan, Fiedler, and Brown, achieved a new fusion of ideas – a sensory pragmatism or engagement with concrete experience, rooted in the body, and at the same time a visionary celebration of what might be called artistic meta-space – that is, the fictive realm of art, fantasy, and belief portrayed by William Blake in his halluci- natory epic poems that oddly prefigure our own cyberspace. North American philosophers from the late nineteenth century on turned away from the metaphysical preoccupations and increasingly dour world-view of European thinkers. The term “pragmatism” was first used by Charles Peirce in 1878 but was developed by William James, who significantly began his career as a lecturer in anatomy and physiology and only later entered psychology and philosophy. In other words, James’s foundation as a thinker was in the human body. In James’s later portrait of consciousness as an active agent and in his method of testing an idea by defining its “sensations” and asking about its “reac- tions” or practical effects, we see anticipated Marshall McLuhan’s identification of modern media as “extensions” of the human senses and, second, McLuhan’s practice of analyzing technology by focusing on its “effects” in the individual or group. In Understanding Media, for example, McLuhan says, “Environments are not passive wrappings but active processes”. John Dewey, whose critique of authority has had immense influence on modern education, also never lost sight of the biological element in human beha- Camille Paglia 207 vior. Dewey’s theories are grounded in the senses through consideration of “mo- tor-activity” or physical energy. In his philosophy of “instrumentalism”, related to pragmatism, change is a constant in life, but our response should not be doubt or despair, the radical subjectivity of European thought. Dewey is committed to social improvement and experiment, active strategies always subject to review and revision. This resembles McLuhan’s view of the whirlwind of modern socie- ty, where each invention or solution makes another obsolete. The entire cultural system is in a state of dynamic transformation. Dewey’s focus on educational reform also prefigures McLuhan’s atten- tiveness to how the young struggle to process information in a media-saturated age. The French poststructuralists, in contrast, deconstruct and expose the insti- tutions and organization of modern knowledge without thinking about how they would improve matters outside their already highly educated coterie. In fact, they would reject the idea of improvement or reform as bourgeois. Dewey’s faith in democracy is another departure from French and German theory, with its Marxist premises. McLuhan was implacably opposed to Marxism because he clearly saw how capitalism has enhanced modern individualism, un- leashed creativity, and promoted social mobility. Dewey’s democratic ideals also connect to Leslie Fiedler, who published in the Old Left Partisan Review but whose vision of a pluralist, populist America descends more directly from Walt Whitman’s dream of all-embracing inclusiveness in the wake of the Civil War. McLuhan’s interests overlapped with Marxism in the area of institutional analy- sis: he hated bureaucacy and was one of the first, for example, to condemn the centralization and overspecialization of the contemporary university. The final late nineteenth-century American thinker who prefigured our triad is the economist Thorstein Veblen, who is explicitly cited as an influence by Norman O. Brown in Life Against Death. In his 1899 classic, The Theory of the Leisure Class, Veblen speculated about the psychological forces at work in the formation and activity of social institutions in a way that, in Brown’s view, antici- pated Freud. This American line of thought, which extrapolates from observation of actual human behavior rather than, in the French way, the dissection of verbal formulas, can be seen passing from Veblen to the eminent sociologist Erving Goffman, whose 1956 work, The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (cited in a later book by Brown) examines the creation and daily operation of social roles. The North American Intellectual Tradition 208 Goffman’s book, a primary text for my 1960s generation, was extensively borro- wed from without due acknowledgment by Foucault, and it is Goffman’s theories that one often hears flowing from the mouths of credulous Foucaldians. The primacy of the body in the North American intellectual tradition is one of our great distinctions. McLuhan’s classification of different eras as “acoustic” or “visual” as well as his emphasis on the “haptic” – that is, the sense of touch – meshes beautifully with the actual practice of the arts. Exploration of the body as a vehicle of thought and emotion is everywhere in the American arts, from the late nineteenth century on. It’s in Isadora Duncan’s freeing of the body through flowing drapery and lyrical, improvisatory dance. It’s in Martha Graham’s cre- ation of the vocabulary of modern dance through study of muscle contractions and visceral spasms and in the orientation of her movement by gravity toward the earth. It’s in the ferociously concentrated rehearsal technique of Lee Strasberg’s interpretation of the Stanislavsky “Method” in the Actor’s Studio. It’s in the Bla- ck Mountain school of poetry’s search for a new kind of rhythm and declamation following the organic pulses and respirations of the body. And it’s in the percus- siveness of our glorious popular music, from ragtime and Dixieland jazz through rhythm and blues to rock ‘n’ roll--the master art form of the 1960s that united us all. It is a scandal that American humanities professors are still forcing un- prepared undergraduates to read turgid French and German theorists rather than the linked triad of McLuhan, Fiedler, and Brown as interpreters of postwar re- ality. The philosophic tradition behind the poststructuralists was bankrupt even before their books arrived on these shores. European philosophy collapsed after Kierkegaard and Nietzsche. In their pessimism about objective reality as well as in their nihilistic politics, Husserl and Heidegger, Foucault’s precursors, were responding to specifically European problems, which would end in the disaster of two world wars. From our distant view at the dawn of a new millennium, surely it should be apparent that the despairing introversion of European philososphy in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries happened precisely as mass media were rising to power in the wake of the industrial revolution. Mass communication, the gift of technology, was giving the people their voice and a public forum for their tastes, which always offend the educated elite. Marxist theory has never Camille Paglia 209 been able to adjust to the astounding success of the capitalist mass media, but snobbish, censorious, and now hackneyed Marxist formulations like “commodi- fication” are still being drilled into students by followers of the Frankfurt School. A fundamental problem with the poststructuralists is that they were narro- wly French thinkers who were struggling with the limitations of French discourse as, significantly, French political power was waning around the world. Ame- ricans who had absorbed McLuhan, Fiedler, and Brown had no need of posts- tructuralism, which is monotonously based on Saussurean linguistics, with its view of reality as mediated through language. Continental French speakers, with their rationalist Cartesian heritage, may have needed a Saussurean critique, but English speakers do not. That critique is already contained in English literature it- self, as it developed from the Middle English of Chaucer down to the avant-garde verbal experiments of James Joyce--whom both McLuhan and Brown studied and wrote about. The encyclopedic episodes of Joyce’s Ulysses (1922) contain the whole history of language and rhetoric, and make Saussure both unnecessary and irrelevant. English is one of the richest and most complex languages in the world. It is a living art form down to its tiniest parts, which McLuhan recognized in his lifelong devotion to word lists and etymology. There are multiple layers in English--the foundation of concrete Anglo-Saxon monosyllables with the Greco- Roman overlay of abstract polysyllables brought by the Norman invasion, with its own lingering bequest of aristocratic household terms. In his plays, written at the birth of modern English, Shakespeare was the first to exploit those levels for serious and comic effects. Immersion in English literature, as it cascaded down the centuries, gives one a philosophic range because of the profusion of English word choices. Two, three, or four words might be possible, emerging from diffe- rent roots and periods: diction is determined by context. Hence English speakers develop a sense of social context – a hyperawareness of the dramatic situation to which words must be fit. The North American intellectual tradition began in my view in the mid- nineteenth century with the encounter of Romanticism, coming from British po- etry, with the assertive, pragmatic English spoken by North Americans – the plain style, originally Protestant, in the United States as well as Canada, with its strong, no-nonsense Scottish immigrants. It’s Romanticism, incidentally, that The North American Intellectual Tradition 210 Michel Foucault somehow completely missed in his bizarrely incomplete picture of modern intellectual history after the Enlightenment, which he was by no means the first to critique. McLuhan from his schooldays was steeped in the history of English poetry, and it remained his first love. Moreover, he heard his mother, a professional performer, recite poetry at home, so that he had a keen sense of oratory and the folk-loric oral tradition. At Cambridge University, he studied with the founders of the New Criticism, I. A. Richards and William Empson, and he adapted the technique of textual explication for his media work: McLuhan modernized the New Criticism by showing how close reading transfers to fields other than literature. The writer who did most to unite Romanticism with the North American plain style was Ralph Waldo Emerson, a poet and public lecturer who drew on the sermon genre but altered its climactic structure for aphorism, which often dissol- ves his essays into fragments. It is partly to Emerson that I trace McLuhan’s in- tellectual lineage –McLuhan’s aphorisms, or as we now say “sound bites”, were his public signature and may have interfered, to his dismay, with his production of conventional books and essays. It is to Emerson that Norman O. Brown’s strange 1966 book, Love’s Body, should be traced. Brown’s thematic chapter titles (“Liberty”, “Trinity”, “Unity”, “Boundary”) sound like Emerson’s titles in Nature, and his disconnected passa- ges of packed, vatic utterances and quotations are like Emersonian prose-poems. There are precedents in Emerson to McLuhan’s concern with the “extension of consciousness”, with circuits, “integral patterns,” and the “total inclusive field” of experience and perception. For example, Emerson says in “Circles”, “The eye is the first circle; the horizon which it forms is the second. Or notoriously in Na- ture in 1836, “I become a transparent eyeball; I am nothing; I see all; the currents of the Universal Being circulate through me”. McLuhan’s two-way charting of technological advance and obsolescen- ce is anticipated in Emerson’s observation in “Self-Reliance” in 1840: “Socie- ty never advances. It recedes as fast on one side as it gains on the other... For everything that is given something is taken. Society acquires new arts and loses old instincts”. Emerson goes on to draw a Romantic analogy between nature and culture: “Society is a wave. The wave moves onward, but the water of which it is composed does not”. Camille Paglia 211 Indeed it is the respect accorded to nature that I define as a primary cha- racteristic of the North American intellectual tradition. The claustrophobic world of poststructuralism sees nothing but oppressive society operating on passive, helpless mankind. Nature at its wildest and most sublime rarely impinges on Pa- ris – and when it does, as in the once-a-millennium storm winds that swept over France in late December 1999, 10,000 trees fall and the Cathedral of Notre Dame itself begins to crumble. We in North America, with its powerful, ever-changing weather systems, its vast geography, and monumental landmarks like Niagara Falls and the Grand Canyon, know that nature is the ever-present ground of all human thought and action. Marshall McLuhan’s vastness of perception partly came, as his biographer Philip Marchand notes, from his origins in Alberta with its prairie landscape – exactly the kind of landscape, I would add, that inspired an American genius, the Wisconsin-born architect Frank Lloyd Wright, with his “prairie style” that has revolutionized residential design. Leslie Fiedler too, though born and toughened in urban Newark, New Jersey, became a big-sky Northerner whose work would bring American nature together with American history, ethnicity, and sexuality. Fiedler attended graduate school in the north country at the University of Wis- consin – where McLuhan had briefly taught in his first job in 1936. Fiedler began his career at Montana State University, where he taught from 1941 to 1964, after which he became an eminence for 35 years at the State University of New York at Buffalo, one of the snowiest cities in America. Norman O. Brown, interestin- gly enough, also attended graduate school at the University of Wisconsin at the same time, receiving his Ph.D. a year after Fiedler received his. I too, despite my immigrant Italian lineage, claim the feisty independence of the Northerner: I was born, grew up, and attended college in the snowbelt of upstate central New York. I was raised, I like to say, breathing cold, clear Canadian air. Marshall McLuhan, Leslie Fiedler, and Norman O. Brown, born within six years of each other (from 1911 to 1917), became models of the public intel- lectual for the baby boom generation born just after World War Two. Though an academic at a major university, McLuhan was always an outsider who became a citizen of the world, appearing on talk shows, advising business groups, and always trying to address a general audience. Fiedler too believed that a critic must speak the common language to the widest possible audience. Fiedler became a The North American Intellectual Tradition 212 culture hero to campus radicals everywhere when, because of his sponsorship of a student group advocating legalization of marijuana, he was arrested in 1967 and convicted, though he escaped a prison term when the charges were dropped for lack of evidence. The police raid on Fiedler’s Buffalo house was one of the most sensational events of my college years in Binghamton. In one stroke, Fiedler broke the genteel code of American academe. Norman O. Brown made memo- rable apparances to student groups (though I never saw him) and seemed to give his Dionysian imprimatur to the sexual revolution – for which he certainly lost credibility in the scholarly community. The North American synthesis of the pragmatic and the visionary in the works of McLuhan, Fiedler, and Brown is uniquely suited to analyze the swif- tly changing present of our age of technology. Mass media and communication, which have been developed and refined in the United States since the nineteenth- century rise of tabloid-style mass-market newspapers, cannot be fully understood with European models. Media domination, as we have known it since television captured the nation in the 1950s, is still unknown in Europe, where at-home In- ternet use too has barely begun. McLuhan himself was not the wholesale fan of pop culture that many think him; he called TV “a vile drug”, for example, and relegated it to lesser rooms of the house. McLuhan forecast what my generation lived, from transistor radios and stereo headphones to today’s 100 cable channels. But we baby boomers had the advantage of a traditional education in history and great books. I agree with social critic Neil Postman that we should be very concerned about the cultural quandary of American children raised on banal TV shows and violent movies. But the antidote, as I see it, is not to curb the rowdy pagan energies of pop but to reconstruct the counterbalancing citadel of primary education, which has so shockingly deteriorated over the past three decades. As for secondary education, it must be purged of desiccated European for- mulas, which burden and disable the student mind. We need to recover North American paradigms and metaphors, to restore the North American idiom to aca- demic discourse. Media and Internet communications are a Jamesian and Joycean “stream of consciousness,” fluid and mercurial, and our young people--from the brilliant Web entrepreneurs to the pirate hackers who harass institutions and dis- rupt e-commerce – occupy a radically different mental space than the valley of death of pre- and postwar Europe. Camille Paglia 213 As I know from my own work with the online magazine Salon, with its in- ternational readership, McLuhan’s “global village” has come to pass. The Web’s power of rapid response to breaking news events is making daily newspapers and even network TV seem slow and cumbersome. Every day, the Web is fulfilling the 1960s dreams of expanded perception or cosmic consciousness. In concluding this call for a reawakening of North American sensibility, let me cite Emerson’s exhortation in his 1837 lecture “The American Scholar”: “We have listened too long to the courtly muses of Europe,” he declares. Of Ameri- cans, Emerson vows, “We will walk on our own feet; we will work with our own hands; we will speak with our own minds”. Notas 1 Phd em Língua Inglesa pela Universidade de Yale e Professora da Universidade das Artes Philadelphia. Referências BROWN, Norman O. Life Against Death: The Psychoanalytic Meaning of His- tory. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan UP, 1959. BROWN, Norman O. Love’s Body. New York: Random House, 1966. EMERSON, Ralph Waldo. The Collected Works of Ralph Waldo Emerson. In- trod. Robert E. Spiller. Text estab. Alfred R. Ferguson. 5 vols. Cambridge, MA: Belknap-Harvard UP, 1971-1994. [Note to copyeditor: contributors’ info applies only to Vol. 1 – no MLA or Chicago style for acknowledging different editors for subsequent volumes in multi-volume, multi-year, single-author works. Library catalogs use Spiller & Ferguson to identify this edition of Emerson’s Works. We can delete Spiller & Ferguson if you find that preferable.] FIEDLER, Leslie A. The Inadvertent Eipc: From “Uncle Tom’s Cabin” to “Roots”. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1979. FIEDLER, Leslie A. Love and Death in the American Novel. New York: Crite- rion, 1960. FOUCAULT, Michel. The Archaeology of Knowledge. Trans. A. M. Sheridan Smith. New York: Pantheon, 1969. Trans. of L’archéologie du savoir. 1969. The North American Intellectual Tradition 214 FOUCAULT, Michel. The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sci- ences. London: Tavistock, 1970. New York: Pantheon, 1971. Trans. of Les mots et les choses: une archéologie des sciences humaines. 1966. [note to copyeditor: no translator listed on library records or title & copyright pages.] FRYE, Northrop. Anatomy of Criticism. Princeton: Princeton UP, 1957. Goffman, Erving. The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. Monograph no. 2. Edinburgh: U of Ediburgh Social Sciences Research Centre, 1956. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1959. JAMES, William. Pragmatism. Ed. Fredson Bowers. Assoc. ed. Ignas K. Skrup- skelis. The Works of William James. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 1975. MARCHAND, Philip. Marshall McLuhan: The Medium and the Messenger. New York: Ticknor & Fields, 1989. MARCUSE, Herbert. Eros and Civilization. Boston: Beacon, 1955. [note to copyeditor: English edition is apparently the first; German edition postdates English ed.] MCLUHAN, Marshall. The Mechanical Bride: Folklore of Industrial Man. New York: Vanguard, 1951. MCLUHAN, Marshall. Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964. New York: Signet-New American Library, 1964. MCLUHAN, Marshall. Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man. Introd. Lewis H. Lapham. Cambridge, MA: MIT P, 1994. “Pragmatism.” Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed. 1989. SAUSSURE, Ferdinand de. Course in General Linguistics. Ed. Charles Bally and Albert Sechehaye in collab. with Albert Reidlinger. Trans. Wade Baskin. New York: Philosophical Library, 1959. Trans of Cours de linguistique générale. 916. VEBLEN, Thorstein. The Theory of the Leisure Class: An Economic Study in the Evolution of Institutions. New York: Macmillan, 1899. Camille Paglia 
work_vb45xvux2fdd3haco5h2nwwxci	----	Durham Research Online Deposited in DRO: 21 October 2014 Version of attached �le: Accepted Version Peer-review status of attached �le: Peer-reviewed Citation for published item: Kempster, S. and Turner, A. and Heneberry, P. and Stead, V. and Elliott, C. (2015) 'The "�nger puppets": examining the use of artifacts to create liminal moments in management education.', Journal of management education., 39 (3). pp. 433-438. Further information on publisher's website: http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1052562914540904 Publisher's copyright statement: Kempster, S. and Turner, A. and Heneberry, P. and Stead, V. and Elliott, C. (2015) 'The "�nger puppets": examining the use of artifacts to create liminal moments in management education.', Journal of management education., 39 (3). pp. 433-438. Copyright c© Sage Publications. Reprinted by permission of SAGE Publications. 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Durham University Library, Stockton Road, Durham DH1 3LY, United Kingdom Tel : +44 (0)191 334 3042 | Fax : +44 (0)191 334 2971 https://dro.dur.ac.uk https://www.dur.ac.uk http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1052562914540904 http://dro.dur.ac.uk/13646/ https://dro.dur.ac.uk/policies/usepolicy.pdf https://dro.dur.ac.uk Resource Review The “Finger Puppets”: Examining the Use of Artifacts to Create Liminal Moments in Management Education Reviewed by: Steve Kempster, Lancaster University Management School, UK; Arthur Turner, The University of South Wales, Australia, and the Professional Development Centre, UK; Pam Heneberry, The Professional Development Centre, UK; Valerie Stead, Lancaster University Management School, UK; Carole Elliott, Durham University Business School, UK DOI: 10.1177/1052562914540904 Introduction The resource review we examine here is provided by the Unemployed Philosophers Guild (http://www.philosophersguild.com/Finger-Puppets/). On the company’s website they comment: “. . . we have discovered that people seem to really like the giants of our culture reduced to little finger puppets . . .” In particular, we consider the use of the “finger puppets” to generate a liminal moment (Hawkins & Edwards, 2013) in management education. Liminal moments have been described as “moments in and out of time” (Delanty, 2010, p. 31). A sense of “neither here nor there; they are betwixt and between the positions assigned and arrayed by law, custom, convention, and ceremony” . . . that allow for the “realm of pure possibility” (Turner, 1967, p. 95). We explore the use of this resource as a liminal tool and its value to management education. Resource Description The use of artifacts in management education is well understood (Page, Grisoni, & Turner, 2013). The range of artifacts used covers a range of visual methods including participant-produced drawings, photographs, and documentary film (Schyns, Tymon, Kiefer, & Kerschreiter, 2013; Ward & Shortt, 2013) and arts-based methods such as the use of a choir where participants play the role of conductor (Sutherland, 2013). Other well-known Journal of Management Education 1–6 © The Author(s) 2014 Reprints and permissions: sagepub.com/journalsPermissions. nav jme.sagepub.com http://www.philosophersguild.com/Finger-Puppets/ methods include the use of props such as barrels, ropes, and planks in outdoor management education (for a review, see Buller, McEvoy, & Cragun, 1995). The use of artifacts can enable management education to move toward an “aesthetic workspace” (Sutherland, 2013), in which participants can creatively reflect and use alternative media to frame and analyze management experiences (Ward & Shortt, 2013). The finger puppets are a small fabric toy. They represent a range of people, alive and dead from across the ages, who are well-known for a particular contribution (e.g., Charles Darwin, Louis Armstrong, Pablo Picasso, Marie Curie, Queen Elizabeth) and are recognized leaders or major contributors in their respective fields. The puppet characters are made of felt- like materials, richly decorated, and have recognizable sets of physical features such as Charles Darwin’s beard, Pablo Picasso’s blue and white hooped jumper, and defining artifacts such as a trumpet in the case of Louis Armstrong. Each puppet has an additional feature in the form of a small folded note that describes the key essence of the character represented by the puppet, putting it into an historical perspective with a date of birth and, where applicable, a date of death. In addition, each puppet carries a relevant and insightful quote. For example, Buddha’s character has a date of birth and time of death as c. 563 BCE–c. 483 BCE and his quote is, “Neither fire nor wind, birth nor death can erase our good deeds.” What this collection of puppets creates is a diverse set of resources for working with groups. The facilitator of the learning event has, at his or her finger-tips (so to speak!), a wide range of characters that can be called into the room. The less well-known, such as Nikola Tesla, “rub” shoulders with the mighty and powerful, such as Winston Churchill, in a way that stimulates discussion and reflection. The puppets generate a sense of liminality as they carry with them ideas and concepts and enable a participant to “absorb” ideas and thoughts around abstract or distant ideas. The puppets appear to act as a conjoined input–output device (Miller, 2014). The puppets can be used to stimulate delegates to reflect on the depth or detail of a topic in terms that resonated to their lived experience. Often management education sessions call on managers to think of leadership role models. Examples in programs can be restricted to routine examples of familiar people such as Hitler or Churchill or Nightingale or Merkel. Less prominent or well versed role models can promote the validity of drawing on everyday personally experienced significant others. Furthermore, the variety of different puppet figures and the variety of leadership narratives of the finger puppets can stimulate managers to connect with their own “heroes” within their lived experience that otherwise had not been brought to the fore (Kempster, 2006). Use in the Classroom Using the puppets allows a break from traditional PowerPoint slides, case studies, or perhaps outdoor physical problem solving projects. The power of imagination drawn into the simplicity of the finger puppets allows for a blend of fact and fiction, reflection, and curiosity. It both suspends reality and exaggerates possibility. The finger puppets allow for the creation of a liminal moment in which the exploration of possibilities and ideas can occur. We outline four approaches in which the puppets might assist management education. Approach 1: Exploring Themes The puppets can be used to explore thematic issues, such as power and authority. A bag of puppets is placed on a table, with the puppets hidden from view. Groups are asked to think about the relevance of power and authority to the topic of leadership and explore the bag. The puppets act as a prompt. We would expect other trainers to notice in this activity that groups will be very tactile with the puppets, placing them on their fingers, talking, if only for a few seconds, in the perceived voice or accent of the puppet. More often than not the puppets prove easy to sort out in many different ways with people seeking to categorize them into groups. Notwithstanding the ease of sorting of the puppets they also provide a great deal of debate and discussion—a “mental prod” to delegates to debate and discuss power and authority. Approach 2: Aide to Feedback Second, delegates can select puppets by passing around the bag. Once each group member has a puppet, they are asked to use the puppet to provide feedback to the group in relation to a specific piece of learning, to articulate a view of a day’s workshop, or, at the other end of the day, to help that person reintroduce themselves to the group or cohort assembled. The betwixt and between liminal moments (Hawkins & Edwards, 2013) of conversation generates intrigue, humor, and poignant insights. In this way, the puppet is useful for developing group cohesion. It also importantly enables quieter members of the group to find a voice—a liminal voice that is not necessarily their own! Approach 3: A “Critical” Friend A third use of the puppets is as a “critical friend.” For instance, puppets can be selected by delegates in a group from an open table of 30 to 40 puppets. This is usefully undertaken at the beginning of the day’s sessio n, and particularly over the course of a 2-day workshop as the delegates are asked to keep the puppets with them for both days (even taking them home!). Choosing and keeping a puppet during a workshop can have a deep effect on group members. For instance, it has been observed how many delegates are stimulated by their character to spend time in the evening to research the life of the character and return to the group the next day with information and reflections on that “person’s” contribution to leadership . Retaining a puppet also enables the facilitator to “call” the puppet into use, for example, in an action learning setting, to ask a question on behalf of the delegate. This can be effective in developing increased understanding of group members of questioning techniques and of highlighting issues from different perspectives. Approach 4: A Mouthpiece The puppets can be introduced (given or preselected) to the individual delegate who is asked to compare and contrast himself or herself with the puppet character. This can have the effect of making it easier for the delegate to speak with confidence. The puppet allows the person to reveal or moderate their thoughts through the puppet. We have seen groups work better together with the puppets by their side. The tactile nature of the puppets allows the individual to speak through the puppet. A sense of the individual speaking with an assertive tone by drawing from the status of the character of the puppet. Such assertion appears to allow confidence to opinions drawn from the puppet character; perhaps even liminal power drawn from the finger puppet as a mouthpiece. Constructive Analysis and Comparison In comparison to other popular resources and methods used in management and leadership development, such as outdoor management development activities, film, and texts, we have found that the puppets elicit a qualitatively different response from participants. With the puppets, participants can assume a different identity whereas artifacts —such as barrels and planks—used in outdoor management development activities remain objects. Unlike outdoor activities, the puppets are accessible to all participants, regardless of individuals’ physical capabilities and can be used with diverse groups. We outline further strengths and weaknesses in using puppets below. Strengths 1. Objectivity: The puppets allow “other voices” via the puppets, to encourage delegates to take a “third person” perspective (techniques used in coaching, action learning and neurolinguistic programming [NLP]) and to surface implicit ideas about leadership. The puppets help create a safe space or distance, an object held outside the self. 2. Creativity: The puppets readily stimulate ideas through the voice of the puppet and “allow” for ideas to emerge related to the topic. For example, participants may find it easier to express alternative views through the identity of the puppet. 3. Enjoyment, fun, and curiosity: The puppets readily stimulate conversation; they provide a dual playfulness and bring an element of intrigue to the process, blending the character and contribution of the puppet to thinking about leadership experience. 4. Promoting critical and in-depth dialogue: The puppets can be used as a means to build capacity to communicate complex and ephemeral ideas. For instance, the puppets can free people from their own identity to be more critically reflexive and open about complex and sensitive leadership concerns including power, politics, and emotion (Vince, 2001). In accessing a different identity through the puppets, participants may also find it easier to express alternative views and ideas. Weaknesses 1. The puppets are toys: This is both a weakness and strength. Using a toy with delegates can require a degree of confidence in facilitation and the ability to set up the process in a manner that causes delegates to be intrigued, open-minded, and willing to learn from such an artifact. The novelty aspect is also a strength if the exercise is set up correctly. 2. Cultural transference: Delegates in the United Kingdom have embraced the use of the puppets. Does the idea of the process we suggest transfer between cultures? Is it capable of a more universal use? This is as yet unknown. This review of “finger puppets” has intended to illustrate the use of this resource to generate liminal moments in management education, thereby enabling participants to occupy alternate identities that can help them express often implicit and complex ideas about leadership. Resources for use in management education can often be complex to learn how to use, and limited in application. The simplicity and flexibility afforded by the finger puppets opens up a variety of uses for educators to employ in a range of situations: for creativity, reflexivity, curiosity, and critical thought. They also have the great benefit of generating enjoyment and fun. Yet we must remember they are a toy. As such, careful utilization of the resource in a thoughtfully designed pedagogy where the “finger puppets” are complementary to the theme of learning, rather than extraordinary, is likely to be better received by participants. More information about finger puppets can be found at http://www. philosophersguild.com/. References Buller, P. F., McEvoy, G. M., & Cragun, J. R. (1995). A model for developing student skills and assessing MBA program outcomes through outdoor training. Journal of Management Education, 19, 35-53. Delanty, G. (2010). Community (2nd ed.). Abingdon, England: Routledge. Hawkins, B., & Edwards, G. (2013). Managing the monsters of doubt: Liminality, threshold concepts and leadership. Management Learning. Advance online publication. doi:10.1177/1350507613501736 Kempster, S. (2006). Leadership learning through lived experience: A process of apprenticeship? Journal of Management and Organization, 12(1), 4-22. Miller, G. (2014, March 29). The bare necessities. New Scientist, pp. 41-42. Page, M., Grisoni, L., & Turner, A. F. (2013). Dreaming fairness and re-imagining equality and diversity through participative aesthetic inquiry. Management Learning. Advance online publication. doi:10.1177/1350507613486425 Schyns, B., Tymon, A., Kiefer, T., & Kerschreiter, R. (2013). New ways to leadership development: A picture paints a thousand words. Management Learning, 44, 11- 24. Sutherland, I. (2013). Arts-based methods in leadership development: Affording aesthetic workspaces, reflexivity and memories with momentum. Management Learning, 44, 25-43. Turner, V. (1967). Betwixt and between: The liminal period in rites de passage. In V. Turner (Ed.), The forest of symbols (pp. 93-111). Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. Vince, R. (2001). Power and emotion in organizational learning. Human Relations, 54, 1325-1351. Ward, J., & Shortt, H. (2013). Evaluation in management education: A visual approach to drawing out emotion in student learning. Management Learning, 44, 435-452. 
work_vc4xr63hcrbzdmtaua4ein2g2q	----	Fun and play in invertebrates Current Biology Vol 25 No 1 R10 bouts irrespective of sex. This behavior seems to fit the play criteria and certainly warrants closer study. I have studied Vietnamese mossy frog tadpoles repeatedly ‘riding’ bubbles from an airstone at the bottom of a tall tank to the top. I have observed similar behavior in marine fish in a large very tall communal aquarium with such an air column. Here it is actually possible to be a bit anthropomorphic as the behavior does look as if it would be fun for us! What about play in reptiles? Convincing examples of play have been found in lizards, turtles, and crocodilians. Komodo dragons, the world’s largest lizards, engage in complex interactions with objects such as buckets, boxes, old shoes, and balls. In fact, sped up a little bit on video, their behavior is similar to that of dogs. They even play tug of war with their keepers over objects such as cans and handkerchiefs. Aquatic Nile soft-shelled turtles will bounce basketballs and floating bottles back and forth, manipulate hoops (Figure 1) and play tug of war with their keepers using hoses. North American Emydid pond turtles often engage in foreclaw titillation displays in social interactions with each other as hatchlings, behavior that otherwise is only found in sexual and sometimes agonistic encounters as adults. Crocodilians also engage in object play. A giant saltwater crocodile played with a basketball on a tether as part of enrichment. Although only a few papers have been published and cited in the references below, behavior patterns meeting the play criteria have been met. If play is so widespread in the animal kingdom, how and why did this happen? Play is often found in the most intelligent and adaptable species, but we now know that it is not restricted to them. The presence of play facilitates novel and creative behavior, but this does not tell us about its origins. Indeed, play is so diverse and heterogeneous that no single factor can explain when and where it appears in the lives of animals. We also know little about the function of play in these animals, but as we are just beginning to get a handle on the function of play in mammals, our relative ignorance about fish, frogs, and reptiles is not surprising. But invertebrates play also — in fact, some of the best evidence for the function of play comes from work on spiders, where play was never observed until recently. So, play, while very prominent in mammals and many birds, is relatively rare in other species. One proposal, termed Surplus Resource Theory, is that the origins of play are found in animals with sufficient metabolic resources for sustained activity and complex behavior that needs to be deployed in varying ways. They also need the time and safety to engage in behavior that may not be immediately advantageous, but through which animals learn or perfect behavioral skills, social acumen, physiological or perceptual abilities, and other means that enhance survival compared to non-playing conspecifics. On the other hand, in its ancient and more primitive incarnations, playing may not have had any specific advantage over non-playing, but eventually the benefits outweighed the often serious costs of play in energy and risks of injury and predation. A door has been opened, and exploring what lies beyond may be both fascinating and important. Where can I find out more about play? Bateson, P., and Martin, P. (2013). Play, playfulness, creativity, and innovation. (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.) Beach, F.A. (1945). Current concepts of play in animals. Am. Nat. 79, 523–541. Bekoff, M., and Byers, J.A. (Eds.). (1998). Animal Play: Evolutionary, Comparative, and Ecological Perspectives. (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.) Burghardt, G.M. (2005). The Genesis of Animal Play: Testing the Limits. (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.) Burghardt, G.M. (2011). Defining and recognizing play. In The Oxford Handbook of the Development of Play, A.D. Pellegrini (Ed.) (New York: Oxford University Press.) pp. 9–18. Burghardt, G.M. (2014). A brief glimpse at the long evolutionary history of play. Anim. Behav. Cogn. 1, 90–98. Burghardt, G.M., Dinets, V., and Murphy, J.B. (2014). Highly repetitive object play in a cichlid fish (Tropheus duboisi). Ethology 120, http:// dx.doi.org/10.1111/eth.12312. Graham, K.L., and Burghardt, G.M. (2010). Current perspectives on the biological study of play: Signs of progress. Q. Rev. Biol. 85, 393–418. Pellis, S.M., and Pellis, V.C. (2009). The Playful Brain, Venturing to the Limits of Neuroscience. (Oxford, UK: Oneworld Press.) Pruitt, J.N., Burghardt, G.M., and Riechert, S.E. (2012). Non-conceptive sexual behavior in spiders: a form of play associated with body condition, personality type, and male intrasexual selection. Ethology 118, 33–40. Departments of Psychology and Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996-0900, USA. E-mail: gburghar@utk.edu Fun and play in invertebrates Sarah Zylinski Where should we look for playful invertebrates? The notion that invertebrates might indulge in play, and especially that they might have fun doing it, is generally met with scepticism. But given that the same was true of play in ‘lower’ vertebrates such as reptiles and fish until relatively recently, perhaps we shouldn’t discount the possibility outright. So where should we look? Given that play is most frequently observed in large-brained vertebrate lineages, perhaps our first port of call should be the cephalopods. These large-brained molluscs are heralded as uniquely intelligent amongst the invertebrates, and their deep evolutionary split from the vertebrates provides us with a unique independent data point against which to investigate general trends in intelligence, cognition and, in this case, play. Shallow water coleoid cephalopods — octopuses, cuttlefish and squid — are well known for their capacity for complex learning and their flexible, complex behaviours. Their brains are comparable to vertebrates in relative size, with dedicated learning and memory centres analogous in many ways to the vertebrate cortex. On the flip side, cephalopods don’t afford parental care to their offspring, are typically short lived (often one or two years), and are often semelparous (that is, they die after their first attempt at reproduction). Furthermore, the species considered to have the highest cognitive intelligence are solitary and show little or no social behaviour. What evidence is there then that cephalopods play, and more importantly, do they have fun doing it? So do cephalopods play? When introducing my behavioural experiments with cephalopods in seminars, I often joke that there is nothing more demoralizing than being outsmarted by your experimental animal. Indeed, there are some individuals that seem to delight in being mischievous. For example, some cuttlefish use their siphons to squirt water at their keeper when impatient to be fed. However, there is currently mailto:gburghar@utk.edu http://crossmark.dyndns.org/dialog/?doi=10.1016/j.cub.2014.09.068&domain=pdf http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/eth.12312 http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/eth.12312 Special Issue R11 r, r Figure 1. Octopus bimaculoides explores and interacts with novel objects in its environment. (Photo: S. Zylinski.) no evidence for play in cuttlefish or squids as defined by Burghardt’s (2005) five criteria: briefly, a behaviour that is incompletely functional, voluntary, modified from its regular form, repeated but not stereotypic, and initiated under stress-free conditions. Among cephalopods, the strongest contenders for being animals that play are the octopuses, with their muscular arms which allow for more complex interactions with their surroundings (other SCUBA divers may have shared my unnerving experience of having a curious octopus attempt to wrestle the air-supplying regulator from their mouth!). Indeed, here we finally find published accounts of play in two species of Octopus from rather different habitats that do meet Burghardt’s five criteria. What are they playing at? To date, the only form of play demonstrated experimentally in octopuses is object play, which serves an obvious function in exercising muscle and nerve systems. For example, when encountering a novel non-food object, Octopus vulgaris shows a sequence of behaviours that moves from a “What is this object?” exploratory behaviour to playful “What can I do with this object?” interactions, involving manipulative behaviours such as pushing, pulling and towing. Octopus dofleini shows a similar sequence of behaviours, but uses its siphon, more typically used for jet-propulsion movement and removal of unwanted objects from its locale, to jet water at moving objects to engage in a playful activity not unlike repeatedly bouncing a ball. I have watched a captive Octopus bimaculoides (Figure 1), once sated, pounce on a fiddler crab and then release it unharmed, repeating this release and recapture many times ove as a cat might with a mouse, and othe people who have spent time observing octopuses have similar anecdotes of play-like behaviours. We might expect to see other forms of play in octopuses, but different types of play do not necessarily coevolve, so the presence of one type does not predict presence of another. Furthermore, octopuses are solitary so the absence of social play is unsurprising; perhaps future studies will uncover play-like behaviours in cephalopods such as Loligo or Sepioteuthis (squid and reef squid) that interact in loose shoals. OK, but are they having fun? This is the million dollar question. We feel confident when we watch social play in mammals, such as dogs, that they are having fun, yet we also know fun is a very personal experience even within our own species. Personally, feeling any level of empathy for the emotional state of an octopus is far beyond my capabilities as a (reasonably) self- aware human. What about fun and play in other invertebrates? There really aren’t many examples beyond anecdotes. A strong case for sex play comes from the social spider Anelosimus studisus, where males and immature females engage in non-conceptive sexual behaviour, with both sexes gaining future performance-enhancing benefits from these mock copulations. Another example of arthropod play- like behaviour is found in the paper wasp Polistes dominulus. While in non-nesting aggregations young adult foundresses perform precocious dominance interactions that serve no immediate function, as they occur up to six months before colonies are founded and dominance hierarchies formed. This behaviour perhaps allows the wasps to assess their future dominance potential in a similar way to play fighting in young mammals. Anyone looking to find more examples of play-like behaviour in arthropods Current Biology Vol 25 No 1 R12 could probably do worse than to look for them in social insects. Why don’t we see more invertebrates playing? Play may have arisen in vertebrate lineages as a by-product of traits associated with the complex behaviours and cognitive abilities, in turn associated with increased brain size. Although we know that invertebrates are far from the mindless machines they were once considered to be, it might be that the neural architecture available to add new levels of control required for play is lacking, or the local solutions employed by invertebrates don’t benefit from the adaptive advantages conveyed by play. Or perhaps it is simply that we are overlooking countless examples of play in invertebrates. For example, sex play may be more common in arthropods than we think: there are over 100 species of insect known to exhibit same sex courtship and/or copulation, often with no apparent immediate function. Moreover, a few years ago a study showing that sexually deprived male Drosophila melanogaster increased their ethanol intake led to headlines such as “Sexually deprived male fruit flies get drunk to ease the pain of rejection”. This study highlighted that invertebrates can indulge in behaviours that are not useful in themselves, but which act on neural reward centres to attain something akin to pleasure, so perhaps the concept of invertebrate fun isn’t so farfetched after all. Where can I find out more? Burghardt, G.M. (2005). The Genesis of Animal Play: Testing the Limits. (London: MIT Press). Dapporto, L., Turillazzi, S., and Palagi, E. (2006). Dominance interactions in young adult paper wasp (Polistes dominulus) foundresses: A playlike behavior? J. Comp. Psychol. 120, 394-400. Hanlon, R.T., and Messenger, J.B. (1996). Cephalopod Behaviour. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kuba, M.J., Gutnick, T., and Burghardt, G.M. (2014). Learning from play in octopus. In Cephalopod Cognition, A.-S. Darmaillacq, L. Dickel, & J. Mather, eds (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press) , pp. 57–67. Pruitt, J.N., Burghardt, G.M., and Riechert, S.E. (2012). Non-conceptive sexual behavior in spiders: a form of play associated with body condition, personality type, and male intrasexual selection. Ethology 118, 33–40. Shohat-Ophir, G., Kaun, K.R., Azanchi, R., Mohammed, H., and Heberlein, U. (2012). Sexual deprivation increases ethanol intake in Drosophila. Science 335, 1351–1355. School of Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK. E-mail: s.zylinski@leeds.ac.uk Playfulness and creativity Patrick Bateson Playful play is undoubtedly fun. Even so, many people think, incorrectly, that as they get older, they are no longer capable of such frivolous activity. They should heed George Bernard Shaw’s advice: “We don’t stop playing because we grow old, we grow old because we stop playing.” The motivation to be playful comes from within. No external bribes are needed. In fact attempting to encourage such activity with food or money is likely to be counterproductive. Having fun is a good reason to be playful. The pleasure it generates could be seen as its primary benefit. Even so, I want to explore what can be the longer-term benefits of playfulness. For the biologist, benefits are measured in terms of the particular ways in which an activity increases the chances of survival and enhances reproductive success. Most people would not worry too much if their playfulness affected their chances of survival and would probably not be at all concerned about its impact on their reproductive success. Many would, however, be interested in the particular long-term outcomes of their playfulness that eventually lead to those matters that concern biologists. I shall argue that one such outcome is their creativity. Many composers, artists and scientists, famous for their creativity, were also remarkably playful. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was well known, notorious even, for his playfulness. The high-spirited pranks and jokes were also reflected in his music. For example his three-voice canon (KV559) consists of a nonsensical Latin text which when sung sounds like bawdy German. Pablo Picasso was once filmed painting onto glass. The onlooker saw the picture emerge, but viewed from the other side of the glass. Picasso started by quickly sketching a goat and then rapidly embellishing it. Other shapes appeared and disappeared; colours were mixed and transformed. By the end of the film the goat had long since gone and it would have been hard to say what the picture was all about. Picasso had been Primers playing — probably showing off — but clearly enjoying himself hugely. M.C. Escher wrote about his challenging designs in the following way: “I can’t keep from fooling around with our irrefutable certainties. It is, for example, a pleasure knowingly to mix up two- and three-dimensionalities, flat and spatial, and to make fun of gravity.” Famous products of this approach were his impossible staircases. The cartoonist Peter Brookes extended the fun when he represented Greek politicians endlessly seeking financial help from richer countries on a continuously ascending staircase. The discoverer of the anti- bacterial properties of penicillin, Alexander Fleming, was famous for his playfulness. He was accused disapprovingly by his boss of treating research like a game, finding it all great fun. When asked what he did, he said that: “I play with microbes” and went on “… it is very pleasant to break the rules and to be able to find something that nobody had thought of.” Another famously playful scientist and Nobel prize-winner was Richard Feynman. When he was getting bored with physics at an early stage in his career, he wrote: “Physics disgusts me a little bit now, but I used to enjoy doing physics. Why did I enjoy it? I used to play with it. I used to do whatever I felt like doing — it didn’t have to do with whether it was important for the development of nuclear physics, but whether it was interesting and amusing for me to play with”. He decided that he would play with physics again irrespective of how important it might be. Then while playing at work, every thing flowed effortlessly and he made fundamental contributions to nuclear physics. Social play is marked by the cooperation between the partners. It is non-competitive and roles may be reversed. So individuals that are dominant in non-playful contexts may allow themselves to adopt a sub- ordinate role during play. Sometimes the playfulness is explicit. Jim Watson described the playful nature of scientific creativity when he and Francis Crick had set themselves the task of uncovering the structure of DNA. Their main working tool had been a set of coloured balls superficially resembling the toys of pre-school children. Watson wrote: “All we had to do was to construct a set of molecular models and begin to play — with luck, the structure mailto:s.zylinski@leeds.ac.ukplaying%C2%A0%E2%80%94 Fun and play in invertebrates Where should we look for playful invertebrates? So do cephalopods play What are they playing at? OK, but are they having fun? What about fun and play in other invertebrates? Why don’t we see more invertebrates playing? Where can I find out more? 
work_vdigdiq3bfh7ngrcjlwcluk7wm	----	dergipark.gov.tr Lütfen https://dergipark.org.tr kullanınız DergiPark bundan 3 yıl önce yeni adresi olan dergipark.org.tr 'ye taşındı. Bu yıl içinde dergipark.gov.tr adresini desteklemeyi bırakmayı planlıyoruz, bu nedenle bağlantılarınızı dergipark.org.tr içerecek şekilde güncellemenizi rica ediyoruz. Devam Et » Please use https://dergipark.org.tr DergiPark moved to its new home at dergipark.org.tr three years ago. We plan to drop support for URL's having dergipark.gov.tr this year, therefore please update your bookmarks with dergipark.org.tr as soon as possible. Proceed »   
work_vel3hk57vbc5xcaw76v6vw6ty4	----	www.e-neurospine.org 585 Basilar Invagination: Instability Is the Cause and Stabilization Is the Treatment Basilar invagination was for long considered to be a radiological curiosity rather than a surgically treatable clinical entity. Subsequently, for several years, including in our article dedicated to the subject in 1998, basilar invagination was associated with ‘fixed’ or ‘irreduc- ible’ atlantoaxial joint and decompression was considered to be the treatment.1 Depending on the direction of neural compression, anterior transoral odontoidectomy (group 1 basilar invagination) or posterior foramen magnum bone and/or dural decompression (group 2 basilar invagination) were the modalities of surgical treatment.1 In 2004, the possibility of reducing basilar invagination by atlantoaxial facetal distraction and achieving craniovertebral junction realignment revolutionized the treatment for basilar invagination.2 The concept was that basilar invagination (group A) is a result of ‘vertical’ spinal instability and the atlantoaxial facetal listhesis that eventually results in basilar invag- ination mimics lumbosacral listhesis.3 It was observed that in the entity of ‘fixed’ or ‘irreduc- ible’ atlantoaxial dislocation, atlantoaxial joint is actually not stable or fused but is an unsta- ble spinal segment and the joint in such cases is not only mobile but is pathologically hy- permobile and can be reduced by manual distraction of the facets. Since the introduction of this concept, a number of authors have resorted to attempts at reducing atlantoaxial in- stability and realigning craniovertebral junction and the authors recommending ‘decom- pression’ as a primary modality of surgical treatment is gradually but definitely reducing all over the world. Our studies identify muscle weakness related to disuse or injury as a nodal point of genesis of atlantoaxial instability and subsequent development of basilar invagina- tion. Ligamentous ‘stretch’ has not been identified to have a role in the pathogenesis of at- lantoaxial instability or of basilar invagination and anterior and/or posterior ‘release’ of ‘ten- sion bands’ ligaments or muscle groups by sectioning has not been identified to have a place in the surgical treatment. Since 1988, our technique of atlantoaxial fixation involves opening of the atlantoaxial joint, denuding the articular cartilage and introduction of bone graft within the articular cavity prior to lateral mass instrumentation.4,5 All these principle surgical steps are essential in achieving strong atlantoaxial arthrodesis. In 2004, we introduced intra-articular metal spacers to facilitate and sustain facetal distraction in cases with basilar invagination, rotato- ry dislocation, and irreducible and even reducible atlantoaxial dislocation.2,6-8 As the experi- ence has increased, it is now realized that distraction of the facets of atlas and axis and pack- ing of bone graft in the articular cavity can lay a ground for solid bone arthrodesis and the reliance on intra-articular facetal implant can be reduced if not entirely avoided. Whilst the metal implants provides for stability, bone graft provides for fusion of the facets and also sustains stability-immobility and distraction.9 As the experience in surgically managing Neurospine eISSN 2586-6591 pISSN 2586-6583 This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (https://creativecom- mons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Copyright © 2020 by the Korean Spinal Neurosurgery Society Editorial Corresponding Author Atul Goel https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5224-6414 Department of Neurosurgery, K.E.M. Hospital and Seth G.S. Medical College, Parel, Mumbai-400012, India E-mail: atulgoel62@hotmail.com See the article “Quantitative Reduction of Basilar Invagination With Atlantoaxial Dislocation by a Posterior Approach” via https://doi.org/10.14245/ns.2040496.248. Neurospine 2020;17(3):585-587. https://doi.org/10.14245/ns.2040522.261 Basilar InvaginationGoel A https://doi.org/10.14245/ns.2040522.261586 www.e-neurospine.org basilar invagination has increased, it now appears that more than ‘realignment’ of the craniovertebral junction, it is firm sta- bilization of the atlantoaxial segment that is necessary.10-12 Chronic or longstanding atlantoaxial instability is associated with a host of ‘secondary’ musculoskeletal and neural ‘altera- tions.’ Musculoskeletal alterations include a number of mor- phological changes that include platybasia, Klippel-Feil abnor- mality, assimilation of atlas, bifid arch of atlas and C2–3 fusion and neural alterations that include Chiari formation and syrin- gomyelia.13-15 The term ‘basilar invagination’ in general is an umbrella term that includes a range of alterations. Short neck, torticollis, short spine and dorsal kyphoscoliosis are external manifestations of basilar invagination. All the secondary mani- festations are natural protective maneuvers. More importantly, it was identified that all the secondary musculoskeletal and neural alterations when present in a consort or in isolation in- dicate the presence of atlantoaxial instability and are reversible following atlantoaxial fixation. The fact that there can be dislo- cation of the atlantoaxial joint even in the absence of any altera- tion in atlantodental interval or any dural or neural compres- sion by the odontoid process promises a fresh understanding of the entire subject.16 Such form of dislocation was labeled as ‘central’ or ‘axial’ atlantoaxial dislocation and was diagnosed on the basis of alignment of facets on sagittal imaging with the head in neutral position and was confirmed on direct bone ma- nipulation during the surgical procedure.17 Atlantoaxial stabili- zation forms the basis of treatment. Although our articles were amongst the first that suggested suitability of occipital screws, we have currently abandoned inclusion of occipital bone in the fixation construct and identify segmental atlantoaxial fixation- arthrodesis as optimum surgical treatment.3,18 REFERENCES 1. Goel A, Bhatjiwale M, Desai K. Basilar invagination: a study based on 190 surgically treated cases. J Neurosurg 1998;88: 962-8. 2. Goel A. Treatment of basilar invagination by atlantoaxial joint distraction and direct lateral mass fixation. J Neuro- surg Spine 2004;1:281-6. 3. Kothari M, Goel A. Transatlantic odonto-occipital Listhesis: the so-called basilar invagination. Neurol India 2007;55:6-7. 4. Goel A, Laheri VK. Plate and screw fixation for atlanto-axial dislocation. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 1994;129:47-53. 5. Goel A, Desai K, Muzumdar D. Atlantoaxial fixation using plate and screw method: a report of 160 treated patients. Neu- rosurgery 2002;51:1351-7. 6. Goel A. Atlantoaxial joint jamming as a treatment for atlan- toaxial dislocation: a preliminary report. Technical note. J Neurosurg Spine 2007;7:90-4. 7. Goel A, Kulkarni AG, Sharma P. Reduction of fixed atlanto- axial dislocation in 24 cases: technical note. J Neurosurg Spine 2005;2:505-9. 8. Goel A, Shah A. Atlantoaxial facet locking: treatment by facet manipulation and fixation. Experience in 14 cases. J Neurosurg Spine 2011;14:3-9. 9. Goel A, Jain S, Shah A. Radiological evaluation of 510 cases of basilar invagination with evidence of atlantoaxial instabil- ity (group a basilar invagination). World Neurosurg 2018; 110:533-43. 10. Goel A. Instability and basilar invagination. J Craniovertebr Junction Spine 2012;3:1-2. 11. Goel A, Nadkarni T, Shah A, et al. Radiologic evaluation of basilar invagination without obvious atlantoaxial instability (group b basilar invagination): analysis based on a study of 75 patients. World Neurosurg 2016;95:375-82. 12. Goel A, Sathe P, Shah A. Atlantoaxial fixation for basilar in- vaginationwithout obvious atlantoaxial instability (group b basilar invagination): outcome analysis of 63 surgically treat- ed cases. World Neurosurg 2017;99:164-70. 13. Goel A, Shah A. Reversal of longstanding musculoskeletal changes in basilar invagination after surgical decompression and stabilization. J Neurosurg Spine 2009;10:220-7. 14. Goel A. Is atlantoaxial instability the cause of Chiari malfor- mation? Outcome analysis of 65 patients treated by atlanto- axial fixation. J Neurosurg Spine 2015;22:116-27. 15. Shah A, Sathe P, Patil M, et al. Treatment of “idiopathic” syr- inx by atlantoaxial fixation: report of an experience with nine cases. J Craniovertebr Junction Spine 2017;8:15-21. 16. Goel A. Short neck, short head, short spine, and short body height - Hallmarks of basilar invagination. J Craniovertebr Junction Spine 2017;8:165-7. 17. Goel A. Goel’s classification of atlantoaxial ‘facetal’ disloca- tion. J Craniovertebr Junction Spine 2014;5:15-9. 18. Goel A. Occipitocervicalfixation: is it necessary? J Neuro- surg Spine 2010;13:1-2. Basilar InvaginationGoel A https://doi.org/10.14245/ns.2040522.261 www.e-neurospine.org 587 Title: Mother and Child Artist: Pablo Picasso Year: 1921 © 2020 - Succession Pablo Picasso - SACK (Korea) 
work_vf2d3tobpza27pvprrqa6cvzwy	----	Turkish Studies - International Periodical For The Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 7/3, Summer 2012, p. 1777-1789, ANKARA-TURKEY EDİP CANSEVER’İN ŞİİRLERİNDE GÖZ İMGESİ Ferhat KORKMAZ* ÖZET İkinci Dünya Savaşı’ndan sonra çağdaş Avrupa sanatında görülen parçalanmışlık ve anlamsızlık, Türk sanatına da yansır; çağdaş Türk şiirinde de gözle görülür bir değişme yaşanır. Edip Cansever, Türk şiirinin bu kırılma noktasında durur. İlk şiirlerini Garip’in etkisiyle kaleme alan Cansever, İkinci Yeni’nin 1950’li yılların ikinci yarısından sonra belirginleşmeye başladığı dönemden itibaren yeni tarz şiirler yazmaya başlar. Özellikle Yerçekimli Karanfil (1957) adlı şiir kitabıyla İkinci Yeni hareketinin poetikasına uygun eser veren Cansever, ilk şiirlerinin aksine kübizm, sürrealizm ve bilinçaltına meyleder; şiirlerinde sessel, yazımsal, sözdizimsel ve sözcüksel sapmalara, alışılmamış bağdaştırmalara yer verir. Yeni şiir tarzının yaygınlaştığı yıllarda, göz organı resme gerçekte olduğu gibi değil; ya ikiden fazla ya da nispetsiz bir biçimde yansıtılmıştır. Bu durum dönemin güncel sanat eğiliminin dikkat çeken bir hususu olmuştur. Edip Cansever’in şiirlerinde göz sözcüğünün kullanımı belli bir düzeyde artmıştır. Onun şiirlerinde göz, parçalanmışlığın önemli bir odak noktası, bilinçaltı derinliğinin dışavurumunun bir parçası olur. Makalenin amacı, resim ve sinema sanatının şiiri etkilemesi bakımından Edip Cansever’in İkinci Yeni dönemi olarak söz edilen yıllarda göz organını nasıl kullandığını saptamaktır. Çalışmamızda Cansever’in İkindi Üstü (1947), Dirlik Düzenlik (1954), Yerçekimli Karanfil (1957), Umutsuzlar Parkı (1958), Petrol (1959), Nerde Antigone (1961) ve Tragedyalar (1964) adlı şiir kitaplarında göz sözcüğünün anlamsal ve imgesel dönüşümü incelenmiştir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Edip Cansever, İkinci Yeni, Şiir, Sürrealizm, Göz. THE EYE IMAGINARY IN THE POEMS OF EDİP CANSEVER ABSTRACT After the second world war, fragmentation and inanity appeared in the modern European art also reverberated to the Turkish art. Therefore, a visible changing was experienced in modern Turkish poetry, too. Edip Cansever stands at this breaking point of Turkish * Yrd. Doç. Dr., Batman Üniversitesi, Fen-Edebiyat Fakültesi, Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı Anabilim Dalı BaĢkanlığı, korkmaz1871@hotmail.com 1778 Ferhat KORKMAZ Turkish Studies International Periodical For the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 7/3, Summer, 2012 poetry. Cansever who wrote his first poems with the effect of Garip started to write a new form of poems since after the second part of 1950s when İkinci Yeni started to come into appear. Cansever who started to give appropriate work to the poetics of İkinci Yeni movement, especially with his book of poetry called Yerçekimli Karanfil (1957), inclined to the surrealism, cubism and subconscious unlike his first poems. Vocal, literary, syntactic and lexical deviations and unfamiliar reconciles occupied an important place in his poems. When the new style of poetry spread, disproportions concerned to the eye called attention at painting. Eye is a significant focal point of the fragmentation. However, in the poems of Edip Cansever, eye is the first step of subconscious depth. The aim of the article is to establish how Edip Cansever used the word of eye at the years called İkinci Yeni period in terms of the affection of painting and movie arts to the poetry. In our study, semantic and imaginative transformation of the word of eye is examined in the poetry books of Cansever called İkindi Üstü (1947), Dirlik Düzenlik (1954), Yerçekimli Karanfil (1957), Umutsuzlar Parkı (1958), Petrol (1959), Nerde Antigone (1961) and Tragedyalar (1964). Key Words: Edip Cansever, İkinci Yeni, Poem, Surrealism, Eye. Giriş Göz sözcüğü, dünya edebiyatında olduğu kadar Türk edebiyatında da önemli ölçüde yer bulur. Geleneğimizde maddi varlığı gören gözün dıĢında bir de “kalp gözü” ya da “gönül gözü” kavramı vardır. Bu da metafizik âleme açılır, Tanrı fikrini kavrar. Mevlânâ‟dan Yunus Emre‟ye, Fuzûlî‟ye, ġeyh Gâlip‟e; bütün Ģairler eserlerinde göze önemli bir yer ayırırlar. Göz, Divan edebiyatının en sık kullanılan mazmunlarından biri haline getirilir. Farsçadan alınan “çeĢm” sözcüğüyle genelde karĢılanan göz sözcüğü, Divan edebiyatının en dikkate değer mazmunlarından olur. Nitekim Ġskender Pala (2004), gözün Divan edebiyatının en çok sözü edilen güzellik unsurlarından olduğunu ifade etmiĢtir (s.101). Göz sözcüğü, Divan edebiyatında elbette somut anlamıyla değil; birbirinden çok farklı ve yoğun imgeler dizgesi olarak kullanılır. Öte yandan Divan edebiyatında Ģaire ait bir “çeĢm-i giryân” hemen her zaman bulunur. Göze sevgilinin vefasızlığını ve acımasızlığını yansıtan anlamlar yüklenir. ÇeĢm mazmunu çoğunlukla “cadı, sâhir, sehhâr, büyücü, mest, bed-mest, mest-i harâb, bimâr, pür-humâr, kassâb, kan dökücü, katil, cellâd, zâlim, sayyâd, dinsiz, haramî, yol kesici, yağmacı, kavgacı, ayyâr, hîlebâz, fitne, fitneci, âfet, bekçi, nergis, badem, âhu, ok, baht, dükkân, MüĢteri” (Pala 2004: 101) vasfındadır. “HoĢça bak zâtına kim zübde-i âlemsin sen Merdüm-i dîde-i ekvân olan âdemsin sen” (KalkıĢım 1994: 179) ġeyh Galip‟in “Müseddes-i Mütekerrir”inde dile getirdiği bu beyit, Divan edebiyatında gözün bir imge olarak kullanıldığı önemli dizelerdir. “Dîde-i ekvân”, yani bütün “varlıkların gözbebeği”, insanı iĢaret etmektedir. Esasında göz sözcüğünün Divan edebiyatındaki anlamsal ve imgesel değeri baĢlı baĢına bir araĢtırma konusudur. ġiirin gelenekle sıkı bir münasebeti vardır. Tanzimat Ģiiri yenilik vaat etmesine rağmen dönemin Ģairleri, Divan edebiyatındaki göz mazmununu benzer biçim ve anlamlarda kullanmayı sürdürürler. Öte yandan “çeĢm” mazmunu halk edebiyatında da yer alır. Karacaoğlan‟ın, Edip Cansever’in Şiirlerinde Göz İmgesi 1779 Turkish Studies International Periodical For the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 7/3, Summer, 2012 Dadaloğlu‟nun, Bayburtlu Zihni‟nin Ģiirlerinde hep bu imgeye rastlamak mümkündür. Halk edebiyatının anlatmaya dayalı metinlerinde ise “tek gözlü dev” imgesi ortak bir niteliktir. İlyada ve Odysseia‟daki Scylla, altı baĢlı olmasına rağmen tek gözlü bir devdir. Odysseus, okuyla niĢan alıp Scylla‟yı gözünden vurur. Dolayısıyla burada gözün ikiden teke düĢürülmesi, onun bir korku unsuru olarak kullanılmasına neden olur. Tek gözlü olmak genel biçimin dıĢındaki yeni bir biçimdir. Her ne kadar Divan edebiyatında “göz” kelimesi yeri geldikçe kullanılsa bile Cumhuriyet sonrası Ģiirde “çeĢm” yerini tamamen “göz”e terk eder. Ama “çeĢm”in divan ve halk edebiyatlarındaki geleneğine bütünüyle sırt çevrilmez. BaĢta Yahya Kemal bunu Ģiirinde devam ettirir. Öte yandan sadeleĢen dil anlayıĢıyla birlikte Divan ve Halk edebiyatlarından “çeĢm”in mânâ yönü dikkat çeker. “Gözü yaĢlı olmak” ifadesi Ģiirimizde ve edebiyatımızda belirgin bir kliĢedir. Modern Ģiirimizde Asaf Halet Çelebi‟nin Ģu dizeleri eski geleneği yansıtmasına rağmen kliĢe söylemin dıĢındadır: “vurma kazmayı ferhaaad he‟nin iki gözü iki çeĢme âaah” (Çelebi 1993: 8) Garip hareketiyle göz organı, oyunun bir parçası haline gelir: Gözlerim, Gözlerim nerde? ġeytan aldı, götürdü; Satamadan getirdi. Gözlerim, Gözlerim nerde? (Kanık 2002: 43) Ġkinci Yeni Ģiirine gelindiğinde anlam, Garip‟in Ģiire getirdiği sıradanlığı aĢar mahiyet kazanır. Ġlhan Berk‟in Picasso‟nun Guernica‟sı üzerine yazdığı aynı adlı Ģiiri göz imgesini parçalanmıĢlık teması etrafında değerlendirir: “Arkasından yeĢil bir göz gelip durdu önümde YeĢil göz herkese denizi hatırlatıyordu Bana hiçbir Ģey hatırlatmadı YeĢil göz YeĢil bir gökyüzüne bakıyordu” (Berk 2001: 232) Sürrealizm, 1920‟lerde ortaya çıkan ve Andre Breton‟un “ruhsal otomatizm öğretisi” (Hançerlioğlu 1970: 106) olan bir sanat akımıdır. Sanatın içeriği, “cinsel dürtüler, ölüm korkusu ve hayat içgüdeleri” (Rosenthal ve Yudin 1980: 186) gibi konulardan oluĢur. SavaĢların etkisiyle dıĢ varlığından kopan insan, içine kapanır ve sadece düĢünce dünyasıyla baĢ baĢa kalarak görme yetisini tekleĢtirir. Pablo Picasso‟nun Girl with Red Beret tablosundaki kızın gözlerinden biri çok 1780 Ferhat KORKMAZ Turkish Studies International Periodical For the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 7/3, Summer, 2012 büyük olarak çizilmiĢken öteki küçük çizilir. Kızın yüzündeki orantı tahrip edilir. Bu resim, duygu ve düĢünce dünyasındaki nispetini kaybetmiĢ insanı anlatmaktadır. Duygu ve düĢünce dünyasındaki bütünlüğü kaybeden insanın fiziksel yapısında veya algılayıĢında nispetsizlikler ortaya çıkar. Salvador Dali‟nin The Eye of Time adlı tablosunda üzerinde akrep ve yelkovan bulunan bir göz çizilir. Gözün buradaki imge değeri elbette Picasso‟nunkinden farklıdır. Sürrealistler resim ve Ģiirlerinde göze organına daima ilgi duyarlar ve farklı imge değeri olan anlamlarda kullanırlar. Gözün veya görme duyusunun insandan bağımsızlaĢarak sinema sanatında hareketli bir nitelik kazanması 19. ve 20. yüzyılların en önemli hadiselerindendir. Dünya sinemasında göz organının baĢlı baĢına bir imge olarak kullanılması, Louis Buñuel‟in Salvador Dali ile birlikte çevirip oynadığı ve 1929 yapımı 16 dakikalık kısa metrajlı filmi olan Un Chien Andalou (Endülüs Köpeği)‟dir. Filmde bulut ayı ortadan keserken bir kadının gözleri usturayla ikiye bölünmektedir. Ġkinci Yeni Ģiiri, Avrupa‟da savaĢların etkisiyle ortaya çıkan sürrealizme epeyce meyletmiĢtir. Sürrealizm yerleĢik olana karĢı koyar (Boynukara 1997: 86). Ġkinci Yeni de yerleĢik Ģiir düzenine karĢı koyar. Özellikle kapalılık ve otomatizm Ġkinci Yeni Ģiiri üzerinde yapılan araĢtırmalarda üzerinde durulan en önemli hususlar olmuĢtur. Ġkinci Yeni Ģiirinin de sürrealizme meyilli olması nedeniyle Ģairler göz imgesini Ģiirlerinde farklı Ģekillerde kullanmıĢlardır. Cemal Süreya‟nın Ben nerde bir çift göz gördümse Tuttum onu güzelce sana tamamladım (Cemal Süreya 2004: 19) veya Marc Chagall‟ın “The House with the Green Eye” tablosuna gönderme yapan (Ergülen 2011) Ģu dizesi göz imgesi açısından değerlidir: “Gözleri göz değil gözistan” (Cemal Süreya 2004: 37) Ġsmet Özel‟in “Ils Sont Eux Lyrics” Ģiirinde gözle ilgili yepyeni bir imgelem vardır. “Ağır ceza reisi duruĢmaya girerken safir bir göz yapıĢıyor yakasına (…) Safir göz görünmüyor yargıca” (Özel 2011: 211) Buradaki göz imgesinin kesin bir anlama iĢaret ettiğini iddia etmek yanılgı olacaktır. ġüphesiz ki imgenin en büyük özelliği de budur. Ġmge, bir metni gerektirdiği gibi onu okuyanın algı durumuna da ihtiyaç duyar. Yine Cemal Süreya‟nın sinema sanatından eserlerine yansımıĢ bazı ifadeleri de bulunmaktadır. Fred Zimmermann‟ın A Hat Full of Rain (1957) adını taĢıyan filmin adıyla Cemal Süreya‟nın 1976‟da kitaplaĢtırdığı nesirlerinin adı olan Şapkam Dolu Çiçekle arasında analojik bir bağ vardır. Cemal Süreya‟nın “Beyit” adlı Ģiirinde Marc Chagall‟in “I and the Village” tablosundan esinlendiğini gösteren dizeler bulunur (Karaca 2010: 305). Edip Cansever, öteden beri resim ve sinemaya ilgi duyar (Dirlikyapan 2003: 90-91). Dolayısıyla Türkiye‟de ciddi bir Ģekilde yaygınlaĢmaya baĢlayan sinema sanatının Ģiir üzerindeki etkisi de kaçınılmazdır. Modern çağ, elbette insanın bütün duyularıyla ilgili teknik bir atılımı yansıtır. Ġkinci Yeni‟nin sinema sanatıyla kurduğu ilgi muhakkak ki baĢka bir külliyetli araĢtırmanın konusudur. Ġkinci Yeni Ģairleri arasında en çok tartıĢılan isimlerin baĢında gelir. ġüphesiz ki bunda etkili olan en önemli neden, Ģiirlerinin güçlü bir biçim ve içeriğe sahip olmasıdır. Bizi böyle bir çalıĢmaya yönlendiren neden ise Edip Cansever‟in Ġkinci Yeni dönemi Ģiirlerinde göz sözcüğüne Edip Cansever’in Şiirlerinde Göz İmgesi 1781 Turkish Studies International Periodical For the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 7/3, Summer, 2012 çokça yer vermesidir. Bunu yaparken Cansever‟in Ģiir sanatındaki değiĢim ve dönüĢümleri ortaya koymak için ilk dönem Ģiirlerini de ele alacağız. ÇalıĢmamızda Cansever‟in 1944‟ten 1964‟e kadar, yani Ģiirlerinin ilk döneminden baĢlayarak özellikle Ġkinci Yeni‟nin yoğun olarak gündemde olduğu döneme kadar bastırmıĢ olduğu Ģiir kitapları incelenecektir. İlk Şiirlerinde Göz İmgesi Edip Cansever, konuĢmayı sevmez. Poetikası üzerine yazdığı yazılar sınırlıdır. ġiir poetikası, yazdığı Ģiirlerinden yola çıkılarak rahatlıkla saptanabilir. Edip Cansever‟in poetik tutumunu göz biçimlendirir (Doğan 2006: 107). Yine aynı araĢtırmacı onun Ģiirleri için “göz bankası” der. Edip Cansever, Ġlk dönem Ģiirlerinde göz sözcüğünü çoğunlukla deyim içerisinde kullanır. Bu deyimler, halkın günlük konuĢma dilinde frekansı yüksek olanlarıdır. Ġlk Ģiirlerinde Garip hareketinin üslubu egemendir. Bunlar, genellikle İkindi Üstü‟nde yayımlanırlar. “AkĢamları parklar tenhalaĢır, Gözleri gülerdi kızların” (Sıcak Haziran Geceleri, İkindi Üstü, s.27) İkindi Üstü‟ndeki Ģiirlerde söz konusu olan göz sevgiliye aittir. Bunlar aĢk dolu olması, mutluluğu ve güzelliğiyle dikkati çeker. Sıradan insanların mutluluğu gözlerine yansımıĢtır. “AkĢama Doğru” Ģiirinde sıradan insanın anlatımı vardır. Gözler mutluluğu çağrıĢtırır: “Yüzünün bütün çizgileri aydınlıktı Gözlerinin içi, saçları da. (…) AkĢam demekti pastacının caddeden geçmesi, Gözleri de yıldızlar gibi ıĢıldardı.” (AkĢama Doğru, İkindi Üstü, s.29) “Ali‟nin Yüzü” , “Berbere Bak” ve “Dirlik Düzenlik” Ģiirlerinde göz deyim içerisinde yer alır. Bu Ģiirlerdeki göz, mecaz anlamla var olur. “Öyle ki yoluna çıkana âĢık Tanrıya âĢık insan gücüne âĢık San pestile at koĢumuna Gözünün tuttuğu her Ģeye âĢık” (Ali‟nin Yüzü, Dirlik Düzenlik, s.67) “Aç gözünü bak yüzüme Ben kimim bil bakalım” (Berbere Bak, Dirlik Düzenlik, s.78) “ĠĢte bu yüzden arayı bozdum Dünyalar gözükmedi gözüme Nelere dadandım o yüzden Mehtaba alıĢtım pisi pisine” (Dirlik Düzenlik, Dirlik Düzenlik, s.88) Edip Cansever‟in ilk Ģiirlerinde göz sözcüğü, gündelik dilin bir parçası olarak yansıtılır. Bunda etkili olan temel neden ise onun henüz Garip hareketinin etkisiyle eser vermesidir. 1782 Ferhat KORKMAZ Turkish Studies International Periodical For the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 7/3, Summer, 2012 İkinci Yeni Dönemi Şiirlerinde Göz İmgesi Edip Cansever‟in Ġkinci Yeni döneminde yazdığı Ģiirlerinde göz sözcüğü, ilk dönem Ģiirlerine göre bambaĢka anlamlar kazanmaya baĢlar. Cansever, baĢta Yerçekimli Karanfil (1957) adlı Ģiir kitabı olmak üzere göz imgesini, Louis Buñuel‟in filminde ve Salvador Dali ile Pablo Picasso gibi sürrealistlerin tablolarındaki anlamı anımsatacak bir biçimde kullanır. Edip Cansever, göz sözcüğünü insana acı veren bir organ durumuna sokar ve parçalanmıĢlığın en çok yansıdığı bir imge haline getirir. Bu tavrını Umutsuzlar Parkı (1958), Petrol (1959), Nerde Antigone (1961) ve Tragedyalar (1964)‟da sürdürür. 1 Bakmaktan ve görmekten kaynaklanan çok gözlülük, Edip Cansever‟in poetikasının temel kavramlarındandır (Dirlikyapan 2003: 98). Edip Cansever‟in göz imgesini bilinçaltı kuyusunun kapağı olarak kullanmaya baĢladığı ilk Ģiiri “Ey” (Cansever 2011: 93-94) adını taĢır. ġiirde altı defa göz sözcüğüne yer verilir. Bu kullanımlar her defasında yeni anlamlarla karĢımıza çıkar. “Bu sanki niye durduğumuz mu? açıkken seviĢme bölgeleri Ay, pencere, göz siz git ey” (Ey, Yerçekimli Karanfil, s.93) Nesneler dünyasında bir unsur olarak kullanılan göz, ay ve pencereyle birlikte anılmaktadır. “Kim bilir neyi saldığımız bu da; yalnızlığımız gel Yırtıcı kuĢları mı gözlerimizin? onlar mı bu sürüylen?” (Ey, Yerçekimli Karanfil, s.94) Gözlerin yırtıcı kuĢları, yine insanın bilinçaltı derinliğini yüklenir. ġair bu dizelerin devamında bu imgeye kısmen de olsa açıklık getirir. Sevda ve arzu biçiminde yansıtır: “Yoksa onlar mı iĢte seninle seviĢme biçiminde? Oysa sevgimiz yerde; kara sevda sen uç ey” Sen usul, ben yavaĢ, kime yaraĢır bu sessizlik? Kim biner bu gemiye insandan kıyılar yapılırken Yetmez mi dalgası vursundu azıcık gözlerimize Gözlerin gözlerime; siz bak ey!” (Ey, Yerçekimli Karanfil, s.93) “Ey” Ģiirinin son dörtlüğünde Edip Cansever, “çok gözlü deliĢmen” sıfat tamlamasını kullanır. Yukarıda da belirttiğimiz gibi, göz imgesi bilinçaltının bir sözcüsü haline getirir. Onu konuĢturur. Her yanı “görmeler” ya da “bakmalar” kaplamıĢtır. ġair gözlerinden ve dolayısıyla bakmaktan acı duyar: Bu parçalanmıĢlığın önemli bir göstergesidir. Elin ya da gözün çoğullanması veya insanın baĢka bir organ parçacığının gerçek sayısından fazla olması resmin Ģiire yansıyıĢı olarak değerlendirilebilir. “Benim, bu çok elli, bu çok gözlü deliĢmen Çok bildim sana yaraĢır olmayı günlerce ġunu sevdim, Ģuna özendim, Ģununla yetindim sonunda 1 Mehmet Can Doğan (2006), Edip Cansever‟in parçalanmıĢlık temasını sonraki dönem Ģiirlerinde de sürdürdüğünü ve parçalanmıĢ insanın kendisi olduğunu vurgular (104). Edip Cansever’in Şiirlerinde Göz İmgesi 1783 Turkish Studies International Periodical For the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 7/3, Summer, 2012 Ben miyim Ģimdi nerede? ben çok ey” (Ey, Yerçekimli Karanfil, s.94) Edip Cansever (2011), “Kesin” adlı Ģiirinde göz ve balık sözcüklerini aynı anda kullanır. Balık göz fotoğraf sanatında kullanılan bir çekim metodudur. Belli bir görüĢ perspektifini yansıtır. Bu görüĢ açısı daireseldir. Modern çekim araçlarında “fish-eye view” denilen bu bakıĢ açısının Cansever sıklıkla kullanır. ġiirlerinde dıĢ dünyaya dairesel bir bakıĢ vardır. Bir çekim tekniği olan “balık-göz”, dönemin yerli ve yabancı sinemasında sıklıkla kullanılan bir çekim metodu olur. “Gözlerim bir balığın onu tutma denizlerinde Gözlerim bir balığın. Bir balık ellerimde, Balıktan bir göz ellerimde; Kirpiksiz, tuzlu, kesin BakıĢları günlerce.” (Kesin, Yerçekimli Karanfil, s.95) Edip Cansever göz ve balık sözcüklerini birlikte kullanmaktan hoĢlanır. “Alüminyum Dükkân” adlı Ģiirinde de bunu yapar: “Bir göz atıyorum denize Çın çın ötüyor balıklar (Alüminyum Dükkân, Yerçekimli Karanfil, s.111) Cansever‟in Ģiirlerinde göz sözcüğünün acı çekmenin bir aracı haline getirildiğini yukarıda söylemiĢtik. AĢağıda vereceğimiz “Yangın” Ģiirinde de yine bu acı duyumu yansıtılmıĢtır. Gözlerin acı çekmesi Ģairin hoĢuna gider. Burada herhangi bir organını kesme Ģeklinde tezahür eden sadomazoĢist bir tavırla karĢı karĢıya kalıyoruz. Ahmet Oktay (2008), Cansever‟in bu tutumunun Tragedyalar‟da belirgin olduğunu vurgular: “Tragedya V‟te de, Ruhi Bey‟de de bastırılmıĢ ve sapkınlaĢmıĢ cinsiyet, kendini saldırganlık, acı çekme ve acı çektirme biçimlerinde ortaya koyar.” (s.459). “Sonra da boyadığı, ne demeli sonra da kestiği Korkum yok; ben güpegündüz rakılar boğazlıyorum Gözlerimi batırıyorum ıstakozlara Oh ne güzel! ġiĢenin de bir anlamı oluyor böylece Kim konuĢuyor? Ben konuĢmuyorum.” (Yangın, Yerçekimli Karanfil, s.99) Edip Cansever‟in “Bakmalar Denizi” Ģiiri görme duyusunun acı veren ve bilinçaltını yoklayan durumu ön plandadır. Esasında Edip Cansever bu Ģiirde, görme ve göz mefhumlarını ayrıntılı bir Ģekilde sunar: “Bakmalar görüyorum bütün gün türlü bakmalar Pencere bakması, sabahlar bakması, yeĢil otlar bakması Hepsi de beni buluyorlar, hepsi de bir yağmur uysallığında Gördüm suyun ki yumuĢak, gördüm ağacın ki katı Gördüm ama Ģey! gördüm ama nasıl! gördüm ama bu kadar Göz!.. 1784 Ferhat KORKMAZ Turkish Studies International Periodical For the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 7/3, Summer, 2012 Aynı bir gözler denizi, aynı bir o kadar canlı.. (Bakmalar Denizi, Bakmalar Denizi, s.123-124) Dirlikyapan (2003), bu Ģiirde Edip Cansever‟in 14 kez “göz”, 12 kez “bakma”, 8 kez de “görme” sözcüklerini” (92-93) kullandığını dile getirir. ġair bakmaktan yorulur, bilinçaltı bütün yönleriyle ortaya çıkar. Otomatizm nedeniyle Ģair hiçbir Ģeyi kontrol edememektedir. Bütün görüntüler, âdeta Ģaire saldırır. Burada Ģairin ruhu kaotik bir dünyayla karĢı karĢıya kalır. Ġçe eğilen insanın iç âleminin sonsuz geniĢlemesi durumu Cansever‟in birçok Ģiirinde söz konusudur. Nitekim Ahmet Oktay (2008) da Edip Cansever‟in “ikinci Yeni Dönemi” olarak adlandırdığımız kapsamda ele alınan Ģiirlerinin insanı sorunsallaĢtırdığını dile getirir (454). “Kaybola” Ģiirinde de bu içe bakıĢın anlatımı vardır: “ġimdi bir gizliyi kovuĢturuyor Gözlerinden içeriye üç kiĢi Deli ediyor onları mısralarımda Bir karanfil az Bir karanfil çoğala çoğala.” (Kaybola, Yerçekimli Karanfil, s.116) Cansever‟de göz zaman zaman çıkarılıp takılan, alınıp satılan, götürülüp getirilen bir nesne haline de gelir. “Sanki hiçbir Ģey uyaramaz Ġçimizdeki sessizliği Ne söz, ne kelime, ne hiçbir Ģey Gözleri getirin gözleri!..” (Gözleri, Bakmalar Denizi, s.122) “Borazan” adlı Ģiirde de Ģairin bu tutumuyla karĢılaĢılır. “Sizin bir çift göz olan o Ģeyleri taĢıdığınız gibi Bir borazan taĢırdı; ta-tarata, ti-tiriti (…) O çalsın gözlere Ģenlik, akınıp giderdi baĢka dünyalar” (Borazan, Bakmalar Denizi, s.127) ġair, gözlerini içe yöneltir. DıĢ dünyayla bağlantısı kesilir. Edip Cansever, yaĢama sevinciyle dolu ilk dönem Ģiirleri hariç, Ģiirlerinde yer alan kahramanlarını bir türlü mutlu kılamıyor. Kahramanlarının dünyası, “acının, korkunun, yalnızlığın, ölümün hep yeniden, yeniden algılanabileceği, yaĢanabileceği” (Oktay 2008: 469) bir dünya olup çıkmaktadır. Bu yüzden alkol ve oyuna sarılır. Bütünün bir parçası olan göz, huzursuz iç âleme tıpkı bir nesne gibi fırlatılır: KarıĢık olduk bir süre. Gözlerimizi Sallantılı bir denize bırakır gibi içimize bıraktık” (Tragedyalar- V, Tragedyalar, s.362) Edip Cansever, dördüncü Ģiir kitabı olan Umutsuzlar Parkı (1958)‟nda göz ve görme yine acı çekmenin ve parçalanmıĢlığın bir aracıdır. ġair göz ile içe baktığını zaten saklamaz. Göz, neĢenin ve zevkin adresi değildir. Ancak huzursuz iç âlemi dalgalandıran bir rüzgâr gibidir. Edip Cansever‟in Ġkinci Yeni döneminde yazdığı Ģiirlerde göz organı, halüsinatik yapısının bir yansıması olarak ortaya çıkar. Gerçeküstücü anlayıĢın kabul ettiği bir tarzda vardır onun Ģiirlerinde: “… Edip Cansever’in Şiirlerinde Göz İmgesi 1785 Turkish Studies International Periodical For the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 7/3, Summer, 2012 kabuslar, sanrılar (hallucinations), patolojik durumlar, umutsuz kötümserlikler” (Rosenthal ve Yudin 1980: 186) sürrealist sanatın önemli ayrım noktalarıdır. Yalnızlık, parçalanmıĢlık, yabancılaĢma, dıĢlanma gibi durumlarda söz konusu olur göz sözcüğü. Edip Cansever, “…öyleyse bu ikili „ben‟i daha doğrusu bölüne bölüne ayrıcalığını, kimliğini yitirmekte olan ben‟i Ģiire aktarmak” (Cansever 2009: 127) amacında olduğunu dile getirmiĢtir zaten. Neticede Ģair, gözünün kontrolünü yitirir: Kim ne derse desin en iyisi Gözleri durduramıyoruz ĠĢte bu kadar” (Çember, Umutsuzlar Parkı, s.151) Göz, sözün ulaĢamadığı her yere ulaĢır. Anlatılamayan ve anlatılmak istenmeyen pek çok Ģey göz vasıtasıyla ortaya çıkar. ġair, gözlerinden hareketle ruhsal durumunun anlaĢılmasını “Umutsuzlar Parkı” adlı Ģiirinde istemez. Daha önceki Ģiirlerinde ruhsal durumunu açıkça ortaya koyan Ģair, sonraki Ģiirlerinde bu tavrından uzaklaĢır. Gözleri onu ele verir ve bundan rahatsızdır: Evet bir de cins tuzaklar kurmuĢuz gözlerimize Tuzaklar, ve sanırım herkesin iĢi bizi anlamak” (Umutsuzlar Parkı, Umutsuzlar Parkı, s.172) Cansever, gözün saklanması gerektiğini düĢünür. Nitekim KapalıçarĢı‟daki antikacı dükkânını arkadaĢı iĢletir. O dükkânın ikinci katında, insanlardan uzak bir Ģekilde kendini sanatına verir (Cansever 2000: 30): “Bu gözler onunla az mı yaĢadınız gözleri Bu dudaklar onunla az mı seviĢtiniz Bana kalırsa gözleri saklamalı Eliniz yok mu, bastonla iĢ görmeli Ya da boĢluğa takılmıĢ bir eldiven Asılın, kurtarın hemen Az Ģey mi kurtarıp rahat etmek Ellerle gözleri.” (Amerikan Bilardosuyla Penguen, Umutsuzlar Parkı, s.139) ġair kendi gözlerini kaçırdığı gibi, kendini ustaca süzen ve ruhsal durumunu anlamaya çalıĢan gözlerin de farkındadır. Avcı benzetmesini kullanır bu durum için. O gün bugündür iĢte –ben meselâ Çok usta bir avcının gözleri karĢısında” (Umutsuzlar Parkı, Umutsuzlar Parkı, s.166) Edip Cansever, göz imgesini parçalanmıĢlık kavramı açısından kullanır. ġairini kiĢiliği yalnızlıktan ötürü gittikçe küçülürken göz organına ihtiyacı kalmaz. ġair onları tıpkı bir nesne gibi ormana asar. “ormana göz asmak” yepyeni bir imajdır: “Bir kiĢi bile değilim yalnızlıktan Gözlerim ormanlara asılı” (Ben bu kadar değilim, Petrol, s.213) Gözler neye sarılacağın bilmez. Rüzgârda savrulan yaprak gibidir. Bazen duvarlarda gezinir göz: 1786 Ferhat KORKMAZ Turkish Studies International Periodical For the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 7/3, Summer, 2012 Duvara alıĢtırıyorum gözlerimi – siz nesiniz duvarlar? Hiiiç! sadece duvarız biz” (Umutsuzlar Parkı, Umutsuzlar Parkı, s.183) Edip Cansever‟in Ģiirlerde göz ve boĢluk veya gözün bir noktaya sabitlenmesi sıklıkla karĢılaĢılan bir durumdur. ġair yeri geldiğinde gözü boĢluğu temsil eden bir enstrüman olarak kullanır: “Gözler mi tavana dikili; hayır; pencereye Yağmalar, sürgünler, yangınlar içinde Çünkü bu boĢluk; tüneller, çukurlar, kapkacak ağızları” (Çoğullama, Umutsuzlar Parkı, s.186) “Bedevi” Ģiirinde de boĢluk fikri vardır: “Gözlerimin ıssız, donuk, kahverengi kentinde” (Bedevi, Nerde Antigone, s.229) Ya da gözler bir noktaya takılıp kalmaktadır. Donuk göz, bozulan psikolojinin yansımasıdır. Öte yandan uzaklara bakmakla Ģair daralan iç âlemini geniĢletmek istemektedir: “Oysa bir sığıntıydım çok uzaktan bir gülmeye Yalvaran gözleriyle açılmıĢ açıldıkları kadar Ya da bir tilki avında kim bilir kimin inceliği. Gözleri, ufukta bir yerdi iĢte gözleri…” (Umutsuzlar Parkı, Umutsuzlar Parkı, s.171) Edip Cansever‟in Ģiirlerinde hayvan gözleri de kullanılan bir imge haline gelmiĢtir. Bunlardan bazıları sevinç kaynağı olarak yansıtılırken bazıları da zevk aracı olarak kullanılmıĢtır. Gözün “deli hayvan” olarak kullanılması dikkati çeker: “Çok gördüm bir kadındır atlanıp gözlerinden Göz, o benim en deli hayvanımdır Bir fiildir ne zaman, durakalmıĢ bir fiil Ucuza yaralanmıĢ, vurulmuĢ serserilikten Gözdür, kim ne derse desin, bütün aĢkların en serserisi Karasız, durgun ve küçülmüĢ bunca serüvenden AĢk En bitirim acılarda en dayanıklı büyüyen.” (Acı Bahriyeli, Petrol, s.210) Görme ve iĢitme duyuları hayvanlarda ortakmıĢ gibi yansıtılır. Ya da Ģiir ikisini birlikte görmek ister: “Bir kuĢ da gözlerine uygulanmıĢ sesiyle Öter durur kıyısız boĢ saatleri” (SeviĢen, Nerde Antigone, s.234) Göz, baĢka bir yerde yaĢamanın ve alıĢkanlığın önemli bir parçasıdır: Edip Cansever’in Şiirlerinde Göz İmgesi 1787 Turkish Studies International Periodical For the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 7/3, Summer, 2012 “Ve Siirtli iki göz dünyaya alıĢmak için yoruluyor Bu yüzden horozlarım dövüyor (…) SokulmuĢ geleceğe bile Fikirleri yüzünden Siirtli iki göz…” ġair, görme duyusunun yitiminden korkmaktadır. Çünkü görme duyusunun kaybı boĢluğa bütünüyle yuvarlanmak olacaktır: “Kaskatı bir intiharı, yok yerden bir cinayeti Bir seviĢmeyi… o benim yapayalnız gözlerime fırlatıyorlar Hıh!.. iĢte bunlar da kendi gözleri KızarmıĢ aĢklarıyla kendi gözleri Her gün bir o kadar görmeyle kayboluyorlar Ve dalgın bir bakıĢta yansıtıp yürekleri Kayboluyorlar bir bir Öyle ki –ben diyelim- yeniden bulmak için onları Yeniden bulmak için Çırpınıp duruyorum dört duvarında kendimin.” (Ne Gelir Elimizden Ġnsan Olmaktan BaĢka, Nerde Antigone, s.256) Edip Cansever, görmeyi bütün duyularının üstünde tutar, ayrı bir yere koyar. Ġnsan ne olursa olsun görebilmesinin yeterli olduğunu dile getirir: “Ne çıkar ustaymıĢ, erginmiĢ uzağı görmekte gözleri” (Salıncak, Nerde Antigone, s.243) Edip Cansever, Ģiirlerinde göz sözcüğünü genel olarak çoğul biçimiyle kullanır: “Edip Cansever‟in neredeyse bütün Ģiirlerinde “göz”e ya da “bakma”ya iliĢkin bir vurgu vardır. Bu, kimi zaman herhangi bir duyunun göze uygulanmasıyla, kimi zaman da görüntülerin yan yana geldiği izlenimini uyandıran ve “çok gözlülük” olarak nitelendirebileceğimiz bir “üç boyutluluk” Ģeklinde yapılır.” (Dirlikyapan 2003: 92). Çoğulluk ikiyi aĢacak hüviyettedir. Kastedilen göz ikiden fazladır. Her yanı göz istila etmiĢtir. Her yanda gözün olması, gözetlenmeyi iĢaret eder. Yine Dirlikyapan (2003), Cansever‟in “analitik kübizm”den yararlandığını ve nesneleri üç boyutlu olarak konumlandırdığını dile getirir (93). (Foucault (2007), gözetlemenin modern hapishane olgusunu ortaya çıkaran faktör olduğunu söyler (85-105). Edip Cansever‟in Ģiirlerinde, hapishanedeymiĢ gibi gözetlendiği izlenimi vardır. Ruhu kendisini gözetleyenlerin tutsağıdır âdeta: “Bu kimin duruĢu, bu sizin en gülmediğiniz saatlerde Her cümlede iki tek göz, bu kimin” (Umutsuzlar Parkı, Umutsuzlar Parkı, 160) Edip Cansever‟in Ģiirindeki gözlerin ikiden fazla olması direkt anlatımla değil; sezdirilerek yapılır. “Belki bir sevme olayında kayıp 1788 Ferhat KORKMAZ Turkish Studies International Periodical For the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 7/3, Summer, 2012 Bakınca anlaĢılır gözlerimin çokluğu ġarabıma gidiyorlar tek kelimeyle” (Ay Kırmızı Aylar Kırmızılar, Petrol, s.218) Edip Cansever‟in Ġkinci Yeni dönemi olarak adlandırdığımız ve 1957-1964 yılları arasında yayımlanmıĢ Ģiir kitaplarında, göz imgesi çoğunlukla parçalanmıĢlık ve yabancılaĢma anlamlarını yansıtır. Göz organı iki sayısını aĢkın çoğullukta kullanılmıĢtır. Sonuç ÇalıĢmamızda yaptığımız incelemeler sonucunda, Edip Cansever‟in ilk dönem Ģiirlerinde göz sözcüğü, genellikle deyim anlamıyla kullandığını saptadık. Sevgilinin gözleri, aĢkı tarif eder. Göz ile aĢk arasında bir paralellik kurulur. ġairin Ġkinci Yeni dönemi olarak adlandırılan 1957-1964 yılları arasında çıkan Ģiir kitaplarında, göz sözcüğünün parçalanmıĢlık, yalnızlık, bilinçaltı ve yabancılaĢma gibi temaları belirginleĢtirdiği saptandı. ġair, zaman zaman göz sözcüğü üzerinde oyunlar oynar, gözü bir insan organı olmaktan çok bireysel durumların ifade aracına dönüĢtürür, tıpkı bir nesne gibi çıkarıp bir yerlere asar veya yola fırlatır. ġair izlenmekten sıkılır, gözlerinin içsel atmosferini yansıtmasından korkar. BaĢkasının kendi gözleri üzerine iktidar kurmasından kaçınır. Göz imgesi, Cansever‟de zamanla bir mahremiyet halini alır. Cansever, Ġkinci Yeni hareketinin tavsamaya baĢlamasından sonra da göz imgesine yer vermeye devam eder. Çağrılmayan Yakup (1969), Kirli Ağustos (1970) ve Sonrası Kalır (1974) adlı eserlerinde Ģiirleri toplumsal bir nitelik kazansa da göz sözcüğünü yine parçalanmıĢlık, yabancılaĢma, yalnızlık gibi temaların etrafında kullanmayı sürdürür. KAYNAKÇA BERK (2001), Ġlhan, Eşik, YKY, Ġstanbul. BOYNUKARA (1997), Hasan, Modern EleĢtiri Terimleri, Boğaziçi Yayınları, Ġstanbul. BU ÑUEL(1929), Louis, Un Chien Andalou [Film], Paris: Duverger. CEMAL SÜREYA (2004), Sevda Sözleri, YKY, Ġstanbul. CANSEVER (2000), Edip, Gül Dönüyor Avucumda, Adam Yayınları, Ġstanbul. CANSEVER (2009), Edip, Şiiri Şiirle Ölçmek – Şiir Üzerine Yazılar, Söyleşiler, Soruşturmalar, Haz. Devrim Dirlikyapan, YKY, Ġstanbul. CANSEVER (2011), Edip, Sonrası Kalır I, YKY, Ġstanbul. CEMAL SÜREYA (2004), Sevda Sözleri, YKY, Ġstanbul. CHAGALL (1944), Marc, The House with the Green Eye, [Tablo]. ÇELEBĠ (1993), Asaf Halet, Om Mani Padme Hum, Adam Yay., Ġstanbul. ÇIKMAN (2006), Zeki, Folklorumuzda ve Edebiyatımızda Göz, Kaknüs Yayınları, Ġstanbul. DALI (1949), Salvador, The Eye of Time, [Tablo]. DĠRLĠKYAPAN (2003), Murat Devrim, “Ġkinci Yeni DıĢında Bir ġair: Edip Cansever”, YayımlanmamıĢ Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Bilkent Üniversitesi: Ankara DOĞAN (2006), Mehmet Can, Şair Sözü, (e-kitap), YKY, Ġstanbul. ERGÜLEN (2011), Haydar, “Gözistan Sultanı: Türkan ġoray”, Sabitfikir, Ġstanbul. Edip Cansever’in Şiirlerinde Göz İmgesi 1789 Turkish Studies International Periodical For the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 7/3, Summer, 2012 FOUCAULT (2007), Michel, İktidarın Gözü Seçme Yazılar -4, Çev. IĢık Ergüden, Ayrıntı Yayınları, Ġstanbul. HANÇERLĠOĞLU (1970), Orhan, Felsefe Sözlüğü, Remzi Kitabevi, Ġstabul. HOMEROS (2010), Odysseia, Can Yayınları, Ġstanbul. KALKIġIM (1994), Muhsin, Şeyh Galib Divanı, Akçağ Yayınları, Ankara. KANIK (2002), Orhan Veli, Adam Yayınları, Ġstanbul. KARACA(2005), Alaattin, İkinci Yeni Poetikası, Hece Yayınları, Ankara. KARACA (2010), Alaattin, “Ġkinci Yeni ġiiri ve Resim”, Turkish Studies, Vol: 5/2, ss.281-312 KORKMAZ (2010), Ferhat, İkinci Yeni Limanı Pazar Postası, Bizim Büro Yayınları, Ankara KORKMAZ (2011), Ferhat, “Edip Cansever‟in ġiir Hakkındaki GörüĢleri”, New World Science Academy, C:6, S.4, 2011, ss.857-868 OKTAY (2008), Ahmet, Ġmkânsız Poetika Bütün Yapıtlarına Doğru ġiir Yazıları, C:2, Ġthaki Yayınları, Ġstanbul ÖZEL (Ekim 2011), Ġsmet, Erbain, ġule Yayınları, Ġstanbul ÖZKIRIMLI (1982), Atilla, Türk Edebiyatı Ansiklopedisi, C.3, Cem Yayınları, Ġstanbul PALA (2004), Ġskender, Ansiklopedik Divan Şiiri Sözlüğü, Kapı Yayınları, Ġstanbul PICASSO (1938), Pablo, Girl with Red Beret, [Tablo] ROSENTHAL-YUDĠN(1980), M.,P., Materyalist Felsefe Sözlüğü, Sosyal Yayınları, Ankara TANPINAR (1988), Ahmet, 19. Asır Türk Edebiyatı Tarihi, Çağlayan Kitabevi, Ġstanbul TURANĠ (1997), Adnan, Dünya Sanat Tarihi, Remzi Kitabevi, Ġstanbul UÇ (2009), Himmet, Tevfik Fikret’in Psikobiyografisi, Bizim Büro Yayınları, Ġstanbul ZIMMERMANN (1957), Fred, A Hatful of Rain,[Film], 20th Century Fox, USA 
work_vgggzbjynzeppb5ziuxpcjgwwq	----	King’s Research Portal DOI: 10.1016/j.envsoft.2016.09.006 Document Version Peer reviewed version Link to publication record in King's Research Portal Citation for published version (APA): Sun, Z., Lorscheid, I., & Millington, J. D. A. (2016). Simple or complicated agent-based models? A complicated issue. ENVIRONMENTAL MODELLING AND SOFTWARE, 86, 56-67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2016.09.006 Citing this paper Please note that where the full-text provided on King's Research Portal is the Author Accepted Manuscript or Post-Print version this may differ from the final Published version. If citing, it is advised that you check and use the publisher's definitive version for pagination, volume/issue, and date of publication details. And where the final published version is provided on the Research Portal, if citing you are again advised to check the publisher's website for any subsequent corrections. 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Apr. 2021 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2016.09.006 https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/simple-or-complicated-agentbased-models(e703db07-b90b-4081-9091-e4dee6304a67).html https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2016.09.006 Published as: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2016.09.006 1 Simple or complicated agent-based models? A complicated issue Abstract Agent-based models (ABMs) are increasingly recognized as valuable tools in modelling human- environmental systems, but challenges and critics remain. One pressing challenge in the era of “Big Data” and given the flexibility of representation afforded by ABMs, is identifying the appropriate level of complicatedness in model structure for representing and investigating complex real-world systems. In this paper, we differentiate the concepts of complexity (model behaviour) and complicatedness (model structure), and illustrate the non-linear relationship between them. We then systematically evaluate the trade-offs between simple (often theoretical) models and complicated (often empirically-grounded) models. We propose using pattern-oriented modelling, stepwise approaches, and modular design to guide modellers in reaching an appropriate level of model complicatedness. While ABMs should be constructed as simple as possible but as complicated as necessary to address the predefined research questions, we also warn modellers of the pitfalls and risks of building “mid-level” models mixing stylized and empirical components. Keywords: empirically grounded models; pattern-oriented modelling; stepwise approach; complexity; model complicatedness http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2016.09.006 Published as: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2016.09.006 2 1 Introduction Agent-based models (ABMs) have become a well-established approach for studying complex human- environmental systems, such as land-use systems, by explicitly modelling decision-making and dynamic interactions of individuated actors (An, 2012; Filatova et al., 2013; Matthews et al., 2007; O’Sullivan et al., 2015; Parker et al., 2003). ABMs allow modellers to explicitly incorporate feedbacks between human and environmental systems and to investigate emergent patterns at the macro level in time and space due to interactions at lower levels of organization (Batty, 2007). As a result, ABMs continue to gain popularity among modellers. Part of the success of ABMs stems from their ability to produce emergent system dynamics from often surprisingly simple rules specified at the individual level. The most popular and highly-cited agent based models are rather simple, mainly because they aim at delivering important insights on possible explanations for general patterns (Parker et al., 2003). A famous example is the segregation model by Schelling (1969), based on a simple rule specifying where and under what condition individuals relocate. The model shows how highly segregated patterns of societal groups can result from surprisingly weak aversion of individuals (i.e., relatively high tolerance to another group). Most early ABMs were stylized models to represent general dynamics in, for example, economic systems (Albin and Foley, 1992; Marks, 1992), social systems (Epstein and Axtell, 1996; Schelling, 1969, 1971) and ecological systems (Grimm, 1999; Reynolds, 1987). Often simple theoretical assumptions were made to model agents, partially due to incomplete knowledge of individuals’ interactions or underlying decision mechanisms, but also because of limited data availability at the individual level. According to Parker et al. (2003), such simple models fall into the category of so-called “Picasso”- models—stylized models with a high level of abstraction used to test general principles and ideally yielding generalizable results. The simplicity of rules and a lack of empirical support mean simple ABMs are often labelled “toy” models, perceived to be suitable only for “proof-of-concept” purposes (Crooks et al., 2008; Janssen and Ostrom, 2006). In contrast, so-called ”photograph” models (Parker et al. 2003) depend on empirical data to provide high levels of detail (Balbi et al., 2013). Such models have gained great popularity with increasing numbers of ABMs of land use/land cover change designed and implemented for particular case studies (e.g., O’Sullivan et al. (2012); Piorr et al. (2009)). These empirical ABMs tend to be more complicated and usually demand large amounts of data, defining detailed functions rather than using heuristic rules. The success of empirical ABMs proves that ABMs are not only for “proof-of-concept”, but can also be useful in addressing real-world problems. The emergence of empirical ABMs is partially driven by an increasing demand of stakeholders and decision-makers to provide support for understanding the potential implications of decisions in http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2016.09.006 Published as: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2016.09.006 3 complex situations (Smajgl et al., 2011). Moreover, increasing availability of individual-level data (e.g. Poppy et al., 2014; Richards et al., 2014) and greater computing power has accommodated and fuelled the trend. As a result, we observe an ongoing trend of ABMs becoming more complicated (Janssen and Ostrom, 2006; Rounsevell et al., 2012). The development towards more complicated ABMs however comes with several challenges: complicated ABMs are more difficult to initialize and parametrize (Smajgl et al., 2011); they are constantly criticized for lack of transparency and difficulty in evaluation (Müller et al., 2014); and they lead to difficulties in analysing and making sense of multidimensional output data (Lee et al., 2015). In light of this situation modellers are scrambling to develop standards for description like ODD and ODD+D (Grimm et al., 2006; Grimm et al., 2010; Müller et al., 2013) and deploy various tools to analyse output data (Lee et al., 2015). Meanwhile, scientific researchers are increasingly pondering the fundamental questions (O’Sullivan et al., 2015), such as: Is the model under development too simple or too complicated? How to define and quantify the level of complicatedness? What are the criteria for choosing simple vs. complicated models? What are the trade-offs between the two? Is there an appropriate or optimal level of complicatedness? If so, how to build an ABM with an appropriate level of complicatedness? These questions, while relevant for any type of model, are particularly interesting and pressing for ABMs for several reasons. First, the agent-based modelling framework enables a considerable amount of flexibility (Bonabeau, 2002). Even simple ABMs are often more complicated compared to other well-established computational modelling approaches, such as system dynamics models. This is mainly due to the number and heterogeneity of entities represented the complexity of their individual behaviours and mutual interactions (Manson et al., 2012; O’Sullivan et al., 2012). In other words, developing ABMs entails a much larger number of model construction decisions than in other approaches, and modellers are thus more prone to building over-complicated models. Second, ABMs of complex coupled human-environmental systems need to represent various processes and data from both socio-economic and biophysical domains (Parker et al., 2008). Such models can easily reach a high level of complicatedness. Third, ABMs themselves are complex systems and the level of the complexity of a model can increase exponentially with the increasing details in model specifications. Ironically, ABMs are often criticized for simultaneously being too simple (regarding the rules and specifications) and too “complex” (mainly with respect to the model behaviours) (Conte and Paolucci, 2014). The acceptance of ABMs by a broader range of researchers and stakeholders has therefore been hindered, and some have cautioned that careful thought should be given to when ABM should be employed (O’Sullivan et al., 2012). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2016.09.006 Published as: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2016.09.006 4 Furthermore, with the rapid improvements in data availability and computing power, modellers are increasingly building more and more complicated ABMs despite a general preference for “simple and nice” models. Modellers however rarely justify the level of complicatedness when building their ABMs, partially because of the lack of practical guidelines. There is an urgent need to clarify and discuss these issues (O’Sullivan et al., 2015; Wilensky and Rand, 2015). This paper aims to systematically elaborate on the still unresolved and frequently discussed issues of the appropriate level of complicatedness in model structure, focussing on ABMs of human-environmental systems. After examining the definition and quantification of model complicatedness, we discuss the trade- offs, problems and risks of complicated and simple models, and instigate a discussion on the appropriate level of complicatedness in ABMs. Finally, we offer some recommendations on best modelling practices in this regard. 2 Definition and quantification of model complicatedness To avoid confusion and to form the basis for further discussion in the remainder of the paper, we first provide some clarification on terms and concepts and discuss the measurement of complicatedness. 2.1 Clarification of terminologies: complicatedness vs. complexity The terms “complicated” and “complex” and the terms “complicatedness” and “complexity” are frequently used interchangeably in common usage. However, they have different connotations and are not synonyms in scientific and management contexts (Tang and Salminen, 2001). Complexity has even different meanings in different scientific fields, such as information theory, network theory, and software engineering. In the context of complex systems theory, complexity means the emergence and unpredictable behaviours exhibited by complex systems featured by many locally and often non- linearly interacting components. Model complexity can be either interpreted as structural complexity (as in Kolmogorov complexity (Kolmogorov, 1998)) or behavioural complexity (Casti, 1994). This can be confusing. From the etymological perspective, “complicated” and “complex” share the same prefix “com”, which means together in its Proto-indo-european (PIE) root. But “complicated” comes from the Latin verb “plicare” which means fold (noun, as in ten folds) and implies many; “complex” has the Latin root, “plectere”, which means braiding, linking, weave, interlace, and intertwine. Thus, complex has the implication of interaction and intertwining besides the meaning of “many parts” shared with complicated. By describing a model as complicated, we mean the model structure contains large numbers of variables or agents and, more importantly, detailed representation of processes and interactions via http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2016.09.006 Published as: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2016.09.006 5 logical rules and/or quantitative relationships (i.e. equations). Complicatedness accordingly refers to model entities and structures from the model construction perspective and is unrelated to cognitive and model behaviour aspects (Chwif et al., 2000). When referring to model structure, we advocate the usage of “complicated model” instead of “complex model”, as we do in the remainder of the paper. In contrast, the terms complex and complexity largely refer to the model behaviour at the system level. Unlike complicatedness, complexity is not imposed by modellers but rather arises from interactions at the individual-level to produce simulated system-level behaviour that is emergent and possibly non-linear. Thus, the behaviour of an ABM is itself often complex and difficult to be described analytically. Thus, whereas the complicatedness of an ABM is a property of the model structure, the complexity of an ABM is a property of the model behaviour. Fig. 1. Model complicatedness vs. Model complexity: (a) complexity increases exponentially with model complicatedness; (b) complexity increases at a lower ratio with model complicatedness; (c) complexity may decrease after certain threshold of model complicatedness All ABMs should be complex in a sense that they should capture the key dynamics of real-world complex systems and therefore also show complex behaviour (Balbi and Giupponi, 2010). However, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2016.09.006 Published as: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2016.09.006 6 from the model structure perspective ABMs can be simple or complicated. Of course, although the concepts “complicated” and “complex” differ, they are related (as shown in Fig. 1). For ABMs, simple models can still produce enormous complex behaviours as demonstrated in the classic “Game of Life” model (Conway, 1970), Schelling’s segregation model (Schelling, 1971), and CybErosion landform-evolution model (Wainwright, 2008). But the complexity of model behaviour may decrease after model complicatedness crosses a certain threshold. Reasons for such a negative relationship are possibly that the effect of too many entities cancels each other out, or that complex behaviour is blurred by many additive effects. In such cases, model behaviours tend to be less dynamic or even converge to equilibriums or regular patterns. Another reason is that complicated model specification may lead to chaotic or largely stochastic model behaviours. Both the ordered and chaotic patterns correspond to low level of complexity according to the concept of “edge of chaos” in the theory of complexity (Lewin, 1999). This seems counterintuitive relationship was confirmed by Hua and Pelikan (2012). After exploring several variations of the classic “Game of Life” model, they found the classic model, despite being simpler, surprisingly exhibits more diverse structure and more dynamic behaviours than some more complicated model variations. More in-depth researches however are needed to further investigate the relationship between the model complicatedness and complexity. The conceptual relationship illustrated in Fig. 1 is merely a hypothesis to be debated and tested. 2.2 Quantification of complicatedness 2.2.1 Factors influencing model complicatedness The degree of complicatedness of an ABM depends on how detailed the model structure represents the modelled system and is determined by many factors. The sheer number and types of the entities (and their attributes), processes, and interactions all contribute to the complicatedness of an ABM. To summarize, we list the potential influencing factors based on the characterization of different model components specific to ABMs, largely following the ODD protocol (Grimm et al., 2010):  Agents’ representation: Agents are the major entities of any ABM. The complicatedness of ABMs largely hinges on how many types of agents are present and how many attributes agents have. Simple agent-based land-use models (Millington et al., 2008; Müller et al., 2011; Parker and Meretsky, 2004; Wainwright, 2008) may have one type of agent (i.e., the land users/managers) described by relatively few state variables. Complicated models may have various types of agents (such as small-holders, state farms, cooperatives, policy makers, etc.), and even agent-groups, with heterogeneous characteristics (e.g., (Parker and Filatova, 2008), (Liu et al., 2006)). The number of state variables, which describe the properties of agents, might also be an instructive factor contributing to the complicatedness of the ABM (e.g., the http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2016.09.006 Published as: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2016.09.006 7 detailed socioeconomic attributes of farms modelled in AgriPoliS (Happe et al., 2006) and MP-MAS (Schreinemachers and Berger, 2011)).  Interactions: Local and potentially complex interactions of agents with the environment is a defining feature of ABMs. The model may allow varying types of interactions among individuals (e.g., direct or indirect, unidirectional vs bidirectional, linear or non-linear, with or without feedback), which influences the overall complicatedness of ABMs.  Decision rules: Decision rules of agents can vary from simple heuristics to optimization methods or detailed psychological models. Simple decision-making and behavioural rules can be represented with, for example, “if-then” rules or some simple mathematic equations. Complicated rules, on the other hand, may use sophisticated approaches such as Linear Programming (AgriPoliS (Happe et al., 2006); MP-MAS (Berger and Schreinemachers, 2006)), Decision Trees (LUDAS (Deadman et al., 2004)), multivariate regression (Schwarz and Ernst, 2009; Villamor et al., 2014) and Bayesian networks (IAMO-LUC (Sun and Müller, 2013)).  Environment: The complicatedness of the environment is defined by its spatio-temporal resolution and the degree of detail at which the environment is characterized (e.g., land use types, structures, environmental processes). In many cases, a simple and artificial torus space is used as the spatial environment even in empirical studies without much justification. On the other hand, GIS layers are frequently used to provide a more realistic geographic settings for empirical ABMs (Crooks and Castle, 2012).  Scheduling: The scheduling of a model defines the order of processes (Grimm et al., 2006). In the context of ABMs, modellers need to consider two update modes: synchronous vs. asynchronous. In the synchronous mode, all agents update their states simultaneously—their state changes are not seen by other agents until the next clock tick. Therefore, the order in which agents take actions does not matter. In asynchronous mode, conversely, agents update their states one by one; their updated state are immediately seen by other agents and may influence actions of other agents (Wilensky and Rand, 2015). In this case, the order of agents taking actions matters a lot to the model behaviour; models can produce rather different emergent patterns due to the introduction of delay factors (Caron-Lormier et al., 2008); more importantly, in this mode modellers also need to further specify whether agents act sequentially or in parallel. While asynchronous update seems more realistic, it is more complicated to specify and debug. . It is worth noting that the above factor list is far from exhaustive—many more factors, such as the initialization process, agent behaviours besides decision-making, and formation of the sub-models, can all contribute to the complicatedness of ABMs. As ABMs are essentially one type of models or http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2016.09.006 Published as: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2016.09.006 8 modelling frameworks, it is difficult to consider all potential factors; the list above contains only the most prominent ones. 2.2.2 Measurements of model complicatedness Although various ways of characterising model complicatedness exist, to our knowledge there are no well-accepted approaches, metrics or indices to quantify the complicatedness of an ABM. In algorithmic information theory model complicatedness can be approximated with the descriptive complexity or Kolmogorov complexity (Kolmogorov, 1998), which is basically a measurement of the resources needed to specify the model. In the case of ABMs, we propose to approximate the model complicatedness roughly by the length (e.g., number of lines or characters) of model code. Despite being quite rudimentary, researchers often use this natural, intuitive, and heuristic method. For example, when exploring an ABM in NetLogo®, one of the most popular ABM software platforms, researchers can browse through the model code to quickly estimate how complicated the model could be. Of course, this measurement is influenced by other factors, such as software choice or programming languages and quality/style of the coding. It works best when comparing models in the same platform or programming language. A standardized pseudo code should then be used to allow comparison of models implemented in different languages. Another similar approach is to use model “size”, which accounts for model dimensionality, consecutiveness, and number of interacting processes, as an approximate measurement of the complicatedness of models (Boschetti, 2008). In the case of ABMs, the model size can be a function of the total number of agents, the number of agent types, the number of attributes of agents, the interactions among agents and between agents and environment, the number of sub-models describing agent behaviours, and so on. Even simpler, Nelles (2013) suggested that complicatedness of models is mainly related to number of parameters. Larger number of parameters implies a more complicated model. Clearly, if a model can be specifically formulated, for example, as a mathematic equation, the number of the parameters can be easily counted. As for ABMs, it is not that apparent given the heterogeneity and flexibility of ABMs. Here we propose the following general function: 𝑀𝐶 = 𝑓(𝑛𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠) = 𝑓(𝑔𝑣 + ∑ 𝑠𝑣𝑖 𝑛 𝑖=1 + ∑ 𝑒𝑣𝑗 𝑚 𝑗=1 ) (1) where MC is the degree of model complicatedness; n_parameters is the total number of parameters whose values are allowed to varying between model executions; gv is the number of model-level variables; svi is the number of state or attribute variables of an agent type i; n is the total number of all agent types; evj is the number of the parameters of a sub-model j; and m is the total number of sub-models, which includes all agent behaviour models and other sub-models. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2016.09.006 Published as: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2016.09.006 9 In this approach, parameters are considered equally: variable types and range of parameters are not accounted for; the formation of equations, linear or non-linear, is also ignored. Consequently, this approach, albeit more sophisticated than the above approach, also has limitations. There are many other approaches worth exploring. For example, a potential approach is to represent models with an ontology graph (i.e., a graph showing all model entities as nodes and their relationships as edges) as described in Zhang et al. (2010), and then use the connectivity density, measured by the ratio of edges and nodes, as a proxy for complicatedness. However, few ABMs have accompanying ontologies, which limits the usefulness of this approach. All these approaches have both advantages and limitations. The heterogeneity of ABMs makes the quantification of complicatedness and comparison of the degree of complicatedness among different ABMs extremely difficult. This is a great challenge as well as a pressing research area for the ABM modelling community. The proposed measurements here only scratch the surface of this topic, but it is beyond the scope of this paper to develop a consistent and comprehensive metric. 3 Systematic evaluation of simple and complicated ABMs Simple and complicated models have different merits and weaknesses; building models at various levels of model complicatedness invariably involve trade-offs between generality, precision, and realism (Almaraz, 2014). The comparison of simple versus complicated ABMs reflects the general debate about the appropriate level of model detail needed to describe a specific system adequately. This debate is on-going in the scientific community (Brooks and Tobias, 1996; Evans et al., 2013; Jakeman et al., 2006; Janssen and Ostrom, 2006). 3.1 General trade-offs between simple and complicated models Human-environmental systems, such as land-use systems, are intrinsically complex. An increasing number of empirically-oriented agent-based models have been developed to better understand such complex systems. However, representing social interactions and environmental processes in excessive detail runs counter to the aim of understanding common trends in land change. The essence of modelling is to produce a simple representation of the real world so that it aids understanding (Carpenter, 2003). When an ABM is too complicated, however, the complexity of the model may approach that of the real world and the model itself thus becomes too difficult to understand and explore. This limits the usefulness of the model for improving system understanding. As a result, we lose the meaning of modelling (Couclelis, 2002; Peck, 2004). Another potential risk for complicated ABMs is the problem of overfitting, which means that models are over specified and/or calibrated to a specific observation; models also explain random errors or http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2016.09.006 Published as: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2016.09.006 10 noises besides the actual underlying processes. As a result, models tend to perform extremely well on the training data, but fail miserably in other situations. Complicated ABMs, which have many parameters, tend to suffer from this problem and have therefore been criticized (Rand and Rust, 2011). Some complicated agent-based land-use change models, for example, may be able to reproduce historical land-use patterns in the study areas, but this alone cannot confirm the validity of the model. Simple models, in this regard, are less prone to the overfitting problem. There are many more potential problems associated with complicated models and many scientists and modellers are critical towards complicated models. On the other hand, simple models that follow the traditional principle of parsimony are not necessarily sufficient for understanding a complex system, as for instance in the case of land-use systems (Batty, 2007; O’Sullivan et al., 2015; O’Sullivan et al., 2012; Sohl and Claggett, 2013). Many detailed yet essential processes that influence land-use change processes, such as social networks (Manson et al., 2016) and land tenure rules, are difficult to represent in simulation models through simple structures. The social structures in which individuals are embedded vary widely across land use systems, are heavily context-dependent, and are not easily generalized (Rindfuss et al., 2004). Certainly, over-simplifying the context in which land-use decision-making is embedded can lead to incomplete and/or incorrect understanding of the forces that shape land-use choices (Magliocca et al., 2014). In addition, sticking to simple ABMs may also lead to a problem of under-exploiting the possibilities of ABMs (Conte and Paolucci, 2014). In summary, ABMs of complex land use systems must strike a balance between generality and realism, and it necessitates trade-offs in model design. 3.2 Point-by-point evaluation of simple and complicated models To facilitate discussion on the appropriate level of complicatedness of ABMs, we systematically compare simple and complicated ABMs from various perspectives summarized in three groups: (1) the purpose of the model; (2) the perspective of modellers, and (3) the perspective of model users. Some of these perspectives are independent from one another while others are closely related (e.g., prediction is, to a certain degree, a basis for decision making). First, the purpose of the model is central and therefore guides the decision about the development of a simple or a more complicated ABM. Like any model, there are many possible alternative purposes for ABMs. Prediction, for example, is often commonly expected from users of simulation research, but multiple other reasons to model exist (Epstein, 2008; McBurney, 2012). Here we selected the most relevant purposes as follows: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2016.09.006 Published as: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2016.09.006 11  Prediction: Prediction implies quantitative forecasting under case-specific scenarios. This, however, often requires a highly-detailed representation of systems and their critical processes. Leaving out influential factors may distort predictive accuracy. Thus, predictive models may need to be complicated to achieve the required level of certainty. On the other hand, simple models, representing key processes, can be also used for predictive purposes, but rather qualitatively and not case-specific (Boero and Squazzoni, 2005). For example, Schelling’s segregation model illustrates that highly segregated communities can result from relatively tolerant individual residents. But to predict the change of spatial patterns of a specific city will demand more detailed model specification.  Theory building: Theory building aims to explain observations with new hypothesises or existing theories and to create, confirm or challenge existing theories (Epstein, 2008). ABMs can support theory building by combing inductive and deductive approaches in a so-called “third way of doing science” (Axelrod, 2006). To facilitate theory building with regard to complex systems, modelling usually involves generalization and simplification. Simple models elaborate on general questions ((Pace, 2003) – for ecosystem models) and are therefore more suitable to enhance theories that should possess general validity.  Decision-making: ABMs may inform decision-makers by analysing policy scenarios and their consequences. Complicated models are suitable to support decision-making as they can be targeted at specific problems and developed for relevant stakeholders (Rounsevell et al., 2012). However, complicated models can be difficult to communicate, while simple models can be more favourable in cases where illustrative messages and narratives, as well as general rules about simple causal relationships, are more convincing to practitioners.  Case-specific analysis: This is understood as the development of case-specific models using empirical data for a particular site, usually with the aim of quantitative prediction and scenario analysis. Simple models have difficulties representing site-specific characteristics of land systems with empirical data; more complicated ABMs are necessary and more suitable for such case-specific analysis than simple models (Peck, 2004).  Illuminate core dynamics: To understand the dynamics of a system and reveal its critical underlying processes, simple models are often thought to be more suited. However, simple models may fail to deliver robust explanations under certain circumstances, at times raising the need for more complicated data-driven models to increase our understanding of system processes and the causalities between them.  Education: ABMs have been widely used for educational purposes such as teaching students and informing real-world practitioners. By running the model, consequences of decisions may be explored without any significant risks. At first sight, simple models appear more http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2016.09.006 Published as: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2016.09.006 12 appropriate for educational purposes, considering the advantage of quick and easy model communication and transparency of model behaviour. However, this may change with the target group. Experts in the respective field might want to learn about the complex interplay of policy options, environmental scenarios, or behavioural assumptions, raising the need for more complicated models. Second, another dimension in the discussion is the perspective of modellers, related to the specification, implementation, and analysis of a simulation model. More complicated simulation models are in general more challenging because they are difficult to comprehend and handle compared to simple models.  Conceptualization and implementation: This comprises the development of the conceptual model design, data collection, and implementation as a computer program. Simple models usually demand less data which may facilitate their fast implementation. However, the simplification of processes must be well thought through which can be time-consuming. High diversity of entities and processes of complicated models demands more development time and resources. Furthermore, many complicated ABM are data-driven (O'Sullivan, 2008) and the data collection and parameterization needed often slows model implementation.  Calibration, verification, and validation: After model implementation, model parameters may need to be adjusted to produce desirable patterns or values. This is the process of model calibration. Verification is the check for correctness of this implementation (that the model is built as intended), while validation checks the plausibility of model results (North and Macal, 2007). Simple models, with less parameters and simpler process representation, tend to be easier to calibrate and verify. In contrast, complicated models, with large parameter spaces and multiple interlinked sub-models and processes, can pose a daunting challenge for modellers to find sensible parameter values and ensure the model is implemented as designed. At the same time, complicated models are more prone to overfitting during the calibration process (as discussed above). With regard to validation, simple models are usually compared to existing theories or stylized patterns. The process is technically less challenging, but whether simple models really capture the key underlying processes is often difficult to tell. For complicated models, validation is a test of how a model reflects reality based on independently observed values and patterns. Considering the quantity of high-dimensional output data produced by complicated models, validation can be an arduous task.  Transferability: Transferability includes whether the model can be applied to and has valid results across comparable contexts. The advantage of simple models regarding transferability http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2016.09.006 Published as: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2016.09.006 13 of the representation and derived results has been discussed previously (Parker et al., 2003; Rounsevell et al., 2012). This advantage is due to the fact that the questions addressed with the model are rather general, and thus the resulting patterns can be observed in different systems more generally. Evans et al. (2013), however, argue that only structurally realistic models (Grimm et al., 2004) can be flexible enough to describe characteristics of different study systems. In contrast, a simple model that fits one situation might not be able to account for differences in another situation and is therefore not transferable. Finally, the perspective of model users is an important consideration for developing simple or complicated models. We identify two important constituents in simulation research: stakeholders and the scientific community. For successful simulation research, constituents need to trust the validity of the model and understand the results.  Transparency: Transparency fosters the understanding of underlying processes and enables the interpretation of model results. Simple ABMs with less parameters, simpler rules and structures tend to be more transparent than complicated models. As a result, the model behaviour can be easily understood by peers and stakeholders. In turn, complicated models are often criticized as being “black boxes” (Topping et al., 2003) of the internal mechanics of which are unseen and therefore unknown.  Communication: The communication of the model to other modellers and stakeholders is a major challenge of ABMs, because they may have diverse decision rules and methods that describe agents, and can be applied in a wide range of research domains (An, 2012; Bonabeau, 2002; Grimm et al., 2006; Müller et al., 2014). Complicated ABMs featuring various types of entities and processes tend to be more challenging to communicate and document than simple ABMs. Thus, assessment of complicated models is difficult, for example, during the peer-review publication process. Simple stylized (or “toy” models) are regarded as suitable to foster interdisciplinary communication, because joint model development forces participants from different disciplines to define concepts and make explicit their assumptions about relevant processes (Schlüter et al., 2013).  Trust/acceptance of stakeholders: In order for stakeholders to build confidence in a model and its results, understanding model structure is a precondition. Otherwise, a practical impact of model findings is unlikely. On the one hand, stakeholders need to understand the model sufficiently (e.g., through transparent model design; see above), which demands simple models (Sohl and Claggett, 2013; Voinov and Bousquet, 2010). On the other hand, more complicated models ironically result from the request of stakeholders with various background and interests, such as questions like “Have you considered …?”. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2016.09.006 Published as: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2016.09.006 14 4 The appropriate level of complicatedness and implications for modelling 4.1 The principles of model building As outlined above, ABMs can be structured to represent their target systems at a variety of levels of detail and complicatedness. What, then, is the “appropriate” level of complicatedness for ABMs? Minimal complicatedness of models is often advocated (as shown in Fig. 2 (A)). The principle of parsimony has been proposed in a variety of ways. These include Occam’s razor, where the simpler model is usually the preferred model if both simple and complicated models produce plausible explanations, and Einstein’s razor, which argues a model should be as simple as possible but not simpler (O’Sullivan et al., 2015). A vibrant example of this attitude is illustrated by the KISS principle (i.e., “keep it simple, stupid”) promoted by Axelrod (1997). On the other hand, Edmonds and Moss (2004) challenge the KISS principle with a “Keep it Descriptive Stupid” (KIDS) approach. They argue that the model should be constructed complicated and detailed enough to model the richness of target systems; they also concede that mixtures of the KISS and KIDS approaches will be likely more appropriate. Similarly, O’Sullivan et al. (2015) have argued for a mid- level of complicatedness as the optimal or appropriate level. Grimm et al. (2005) used the term “Medawar zone” (originally appeared in Loehle (1990)), the intermediate range of complicatedness, to illustrate that the optimal level of complicatedness for ABMs falls somewhere in the middle (as shown in Fig. 2 (B)). Fig. 2. Two classic modelling principles (figure (B) is modified from Grimm et al. (2005)). Shaded zones represent preferred complicatedness levels. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2016.09.006 Published as: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2016.09.006 15 Conceptually, both the minimal simplicity and mid-level approaches, albeit seemingly contradicting one another, make great sense. There is no consensus on the appropriate level of complicatedness in the ABMs community. Correspondingly, there is no observed trend in movement towards simple or medium complicatedness models. Instead, increasing numbers of complicated empirically-grounded models have emerged to examine, for example, land-use change and environmental management (Janssen and Ostrom, 2006; Smajgl and Barreteau, 2014). At the same time, most newly developed ABMs, in particular in computational social science as characterised by articles in the Journal of Artificial Societies and Social Simulation (JASSS), are still on the simple end of the model spectrum (Conte and Paolucci, 2014). We believe the conflicting view can be explained by the heterogeneity of ABMs—essentially, there are two types of ABMs, simple abstract models and empirically-grounded complicated models locating on both end of the model spectrum, with very different model purposes. To discuss the appropriate level of complicatedness, without clarifying the model types, and more precisely, model purposes, makes little sense and may result in false conclusions being drawn. Ultimately, the appropriate level of model complicatedness hinges on the model’s intended purpose and the inherent nature of the system to be modelled. Depending on the specific research questions and how the model will be used, modellers can decide on whether a more complicated realistic model or a simple “fast-and frugal” model should be used (Carpenter, 2003; Van Nes and Scheffer, 2005). Simple abstract models are generally intended for theory-building and explaining emergent patterns. They are often used to explore collective implications of individual-level decisions (e.g. Schelling (1969) for residential segregation; Brown and Robinson (2006) for urban land-use change)) to enrich our process-level understanding of a given system. In general, this type of model should follow the principle of parsimony and be constructed as simple as possible. Clear representation of important processes and interactions is a higher priority than the veracity of its outcomes. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2016.09.006 Published as: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2016.09.006 16 On the other hand, empirically-grounded ABMs are generally more oriented towards prediction and often need to address specific questions posed by policy-makers at particular sites. This type of ABM needs to represent the detailed geographical settings and the processes therein, and are often data- intensive and driven by the site-specific research questions (e.g., agent-based land use models in Yucatán, Mexico by Manson (2006), Queensland, Australia by Valbuena et al. (2010), and Northern Ecuadorian Amazon Mena et al. (2011)). Consequently, these models cannot be too simple and must be sufficiently detailed and calibrated to the target land systems. Yet, modellers also need to be cautious not to build overly-complicated models, otherwise undue time and effort may be expended in data collection, model construction, testing (including comprehensive robustness and sensitivity analysis), and validation. Rather, modellers should try to build models which are as complicated as necessary to answer the specific research question---models in the “medawar zone”. Fig. 3. The harmonization of principle of parsimony and “Medawar zone” in ABMs. The red line (left part of the curve) represents the utility for abstract models; the blue line (right part of the curve) represents the utility for empirical models. We hence believe the two principles of minimum complicatedness and the “medawar zone” can both be applied in searching for the appropriate level of complicatedness, since they are relevant for a specific model type respectively. While the mid-level principle is more relevant for empirical ABMs http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2016.09.006 Published as: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2016.09.006 17 which need to be complicated to some degree, the principle of parsimony – whichever flavour – should be always followed (as we illustrate in Fig. 3). Parsimony in model design and explanation of modelled phenomenon is desired for two reasons. First, land use systems are characterized by a multitude of interacting system components spanning multiple spatial and temporal scales, and thus our understanding of such systems is limited. The data required to parameterize the large number of free parameters associated with process-based models of complex systems is often unavailable or incomplete (Parker and Filatova, 2008). As Oreskes and Belitz (2001) argue, such a situation "opens the door to systematic error and bias" (p. 27). Thus, one objective of and justification for model parsimony is the minimization of the number of uncertain parameters and potential errors embedded in a model's design. Second, models must be constructed as parsimoniously as possible so that relationships between model inputs and outputs can be understood (Grimm et al., 2005; Parker and Filatova, 2008). After all, one of the main purposes of models is to elucidate important relationships and organizational structure of real systems that are often obscured by complexity (Greenberger et al., 1976). Simplifications must be made to represent real system process, or the model may be too complicated to interpret and useless for addressing the research question (Grimm et al., 2005; Parker et al., 2003). 4.2 Practical issues influencing levels of complicatedness The range of detail possible in ABMs means that all "levels of complicatedness" can seem a priori justifiable, and the question of whether any single level of representational detail for all models is “right” is ultimately moot. Agent-based modellers must use their prior knowledge of the system and their aims as a guide to the construction of their model, as there are no universal rules for defining the appropriate scope. While taking into account the general principles of model construction discussed above, there are practical considerations for establishing what the appropriate level of complicatedness is for any particular model:  Research questions: The required degree of agent heterogeneity and their interactions, and hence the level of complicatedness of an ABM, should be dictated by the purpose of the model and given research questions. Ultimately, the appropriate level of representational detail of agents and their interactions is important for revealing or reproducing patterns of interest in the real world target system. For example, Valbuena et al. (2010) were interested in understanding how variation between types of farmer decision-making in response to global or regional processes influenced patterns of landscape structure and land use. This model may be assigned to the complicated end of the spectrum. In contrast, Millington (2012) set out to investigate how patterns of farmer decision-making might change as a result of cultural change due to constraints on agents’ behaviour and their interactions. This http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2016.09.006 Published as: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2016.09.006 18 model, at the simple end of the model spectrum, represented different and fewer agent attributes and was less reliant on empirical data than that of Valbuena et al. (2010) . Both choices on the level of model complicatedness, however, are appropriate given the differing modelling objectives. Whereas the complicated model aimed to examine policy impacts of agents’ decision-making and consequences for land use change, the simple model was built to develop theory on how agent land use decision-making is related to behavioural change. Although both models represent similar real-world actors, the questions that motivated their use influenced their level of complicatedness.  Data availability and perspectives on theory vs. application: The example above also highlights the importance of considering data availability and perspectives on theory vs. application. Valbuena et al. (2010) were primarily interested in using available data to help understand land use decisions in an applied sense. Data availability in the study region played an important role in the setup of the model structure. Millington (2012), in contrast, started from a theoretical question and used little data to inform model development. It is a challenge to parameterise models of individual decision-making at the level of individuals’ internal psychological qualities, and ultimately it may not be possible to appropriately parameterise this level of representation with empirical data. However, the purpose of the model for exploring theory did not make such demands.  Computational constraints: Beyond issues of data availability, resource considerations for implementation and analysis may play a (practical) role in deciding how to structure the model. Among these resource consideration, computational demands can pose problems for ABM modellers due to, for example, the large individual population and detailed representation of their behaviours (Bradhurst et al., 2016). For example, with the aim of being able to simulate land-use change over large extents (e.g., the entire European Union) the CRAFTY ABM framework needed to make seems unrealistic assumptions on agent behaviours to ensure computational efficiency was adequate for the purpose (Murray-Rust et al., 2014). These examples demonstrate how the trade-off between objectives and resource availability may influence the appropriate level of detail for a given model to be established. Sometimes modellers may need to modify their desired level of complicatedness due to other non-scientific constraints and factors, such as the demands of stakeholders and the limitation of time, resources and funding. 4.3 Best modelling practices and strategies The principles discussed above provide a valuable theoretical basis for modellers to identify the appropriate level of complicatedness for constructing their models. But these principles alone do not http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2016.09.006 Published as: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2016.09.006 19 provide a practical guide for which processes and variables should or should not be included in a model. As stated above, the appropriate level of model complicatedness is influenced by many practical factors, such as data availability, computational limitations, time, and funding resources. However, model purposes and research questions should always dictate how much detail and how complicated the ABM should be constructed. Therefore, clear and specific research questions and/or model purposes should be defined and framed as the starting point in the model design phase. The research question however does not translate to a specific level of complicatedness. Prior knowledge and experiences of the modeller may guide the choice of some model specifics such as the spatial and temporal resolution, scale, and boundaries of the model. But modellers need systemic approaches when facing substantial numbers of options and decisions as in the case of agent-based land use models. Here we list some useful modelling practices and strategies to help modellers to reach the appropriate level of complicatedness.  Pattern Oriented Modelling (POM): The identification and reproduction of characteristic patterns of the modelled system, through structural validation techniques like Pattern-Oriented Modelling (POM) (Grimm et al., 2005), can help guide which processes and variables must be included in model design to answer the driving research question. These characteristic patterns, for example, can be the temporal S-Curve during in adoption process, or the “fish-bone” spatial pattern in Amazon deforestation, or spatial clustering patterns measured by Moran’s I. These patterns will also inform the modeller about appropriate temporal and spatial scales. Ideally, target patterns identified at multiple hierarchical spatial and temporal scales are pulled from the empirical literature, and used to optimize model structure, test different theories of agent behaviour, and reduce parameter uncertainty (Grimm et al., 2005; Topping et al., 2010). Grimm et al. (2005) argue that "the key to understanding complex systems often lies in understanding how processes on different scales and hierarchical levels are bound to each other" (p. 988). Not only does the reproduction of simultaneous spatial and temporal patterns "raise the empirical bar" over model outcome validation techniques based on aggregate statistics (Brown et al., 2005), it can also help mitigate the influence of our personal interests, biases, and specific scales of perception in model design (Grimm et al., 2005) – ultimately leading to more parsimonious and hopefully insightful models.  Stepwise approach: Agent-based land-use models often require socioeconomic and environmental components to depict complex human-environment interactions. Although these social, cognitive, and environmental processes may never be reliably generalized, simplified and encoded into a model, the effects of such processes can be tested indirectly http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2016.09.006 Published as: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2016.09.006 20 with an experimental approach. Starting with simple (prototype) models that capture processes that are simple and readily generalizable (e.g., environmental constraints on agriculture) can set a benchmark for the explanatory power of a relatively simple model. The simple prototype models can also allow for rapid hypothesis testing which can then be tested in more structurally rich models (cf. (Magliocca, 2015; Schlüter et al., 2013)). More detailed processes and model components can then be gradually added to the model structure such that the relative importance of each process can be quantified along the way. Eventually, a point is reached at which model performance fails to improve with additional processes and mechanisms (see also Buchmann et al. (2016) for the effect of various aspects being switched on or off on different patterns in a rather complicated ABM). Modellers can stop adding more details to the model. On the other hand, in contrast to the common wisdom of starting simple, there are situations where the modeller starts from a more complicated model and removes processes and modules towards a simpler model. This approach can be vividly demonstrated with the abstraction process in Pablo Picasso artist creation of “Bull” (Fig. 4), where the details of a bull are gradually removed while maintaining the key structure. Starting with a complicated model can ensure critical components are not left out of the model (Buchmann et al., 2016). Furthermore, constructing a complicated model can paradoxically be easier than constructing a well-contested simple one. Starting complicated might be easier, for example, if code for model modules already exists or if characteristics of the target system cannot initially be well reproduced by a highly simplified model. Fig. 4. The simplification of a “Bull” by Pablo Picasso, Museum of Modern Art, New York, US (8 out of 11 lithographs are selected to illustrate the simplification process; images are downloaded from artfactory.com with written permissions; copyright: succession Picasso / VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016) http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2016.09.006 Published as: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2016.09.006 21 During the stepwise process, statistical models and sensitivity analysis can be used to evaluate whether a factor, a process or module should be included or excluded. For example, Ligmann-Zielinska et al. (2014) demonstrated that simpler land-use models can be produced while retaining the performance of the model with the sensitivity analysis in their empirical research in Michigan, USA. Modellers should have in mind though that generic stepwise model selection based on statistical benchmarks might have some unintended results. For example, some well-known causal relations can be removed, which may cause a loss of generality and transferability of the model. The domain knowledge should be used to complement the rigid statistical process.  Parsimony during all stages of modelling cycle: ABM modellers need to ensure a habit of parsimony and carefully design and construct the models to avoid any unnecessary details throughout the planning, implementation, and testing phases. The control of complicatedness in the design and planning phases is in particular critical because resources and time can be saved for later stages, and the reduction of complicatedness in an implemented model is time-consuming and difficult. Therefore, an extensive planning phase is important to reduce the need for later adaptations. While it is easier said than done, there are useful tools to facilitate the simplification process in different phases. First, the modelling process is largely akin to software development: representing complicated target systems while trying to avoid unnecessary complicatedness, time- wasting, errors, and artefacts. Thus, software engineering methods and approaches, which are applied and approved in many ways, may serve as useful orientation to improve the efficiency and validity of ABMs with potentially high complicatedness. During model design, for example, the use of diagrams is especially helpful to identify most relevant and critical parts in the model. Modellers can then think about possible adaptations and simplifications of the model. We advocate using UML (Unified Model Language) diagrams, which provide a variety of standard schemes and visual illustrations for planning and communicating processes, and causal loop diagrams, which help to understand the causal relationships and identify the critical processes. A second useful approach from software engineering is a modular design approach that subdivides a complicated system, in our case, ABMs, into independent sub-modules. A modular program structure that was planned beforehand provides some useful features, i.e., the use of independent submodules which can be switched on and off. Also, existing tested and verified sub-routines and modules from other models or well-known model-libraries can http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2016.09.006 Published as: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2016.09.006 22 be reused in different ABMs (Bell et al., 2015; Boulaire et al., 2015). Such modular approaches can facilitate the aforementioned stepwise approach. This search for modularity might also affect the level of interoperability among different models and platforms, currently negligible in ABM research. For a successful modularization it is important to define interfaces between the submodules, so that they can be integrated easily. Possibly, it might be beneficial to use a framework such as Repast Symphony or NetLogo with abundant coding samples and a model library full of simple models. 5 Discussion and conclusions We have argued that complexity and complicatedness are different concepts in agent-based modelling. The model complicatedness refers to the detailedness of model structure; the model complexity is to describe the behaviours of an ABM. Although the capacity of capturing complex dynamics is a desirable attribute of all ABMs, complicatedness pertains to model construction and depends on the level of detail in the representation of the target system. Existing ABMs of human- environmental systems vary between simple and complicated models (Matthews et al., 2007; O’Sullivan et al., 2015; O’Sullivan et al., 2012). Despite the fact that the simple structure of ABMs and the complex behaviours they could reproduce drove their popularity in the first place, now there is a clear shift towards empirically-grounded ABMs enticed by the increasing availability of data, computational power, and various requests from stakeholders for policy and scenario analysis. This increasing complicatedness of ABMs comes with potential risks and entails trade-offs. We systematically assessed the merits and demerits of simple and complicated, empirically-grounded models from various perspectives. We suggest that simple models are preferred for theory-building and education purposes as they present advantages in terms of transparency and prevention of overfitting. Complicated models seem inevitable given the complexity of the targeted system (e.g., land-use systems) especially when used for case-specific analysis. They are also more likely to be useful in terms of prediction capacity, scenario analysis and decision making support. On the contrary, simple models tend to be more accessible in terms of implementation and testing, transferability, and communication. We firmly believe ABMs should be constructed as simple as possible, and as complicated as necessary to address clearly predefined and described research questions. The POM approach can help modellers to decide how much detail is enough by using patterns found in the real systems to frame the research questions. Thus, the POM approach can likely lead to an appropriate level of complicatedness. In addition, unnecessary complicatedness can be avoided by carefully planning http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2016.09.006 Published as: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2016.09.006 23 model development and communication (Jonker and Treur, 2013). Although it is still challenging to define and reach an appropriate level of complicatedness for ABMs, we nevertheless present modellers with some other useful strategies and approaches, such as stepwise and modular approaches. As for the future direction of agent-based modelling of human-environmental systems, we believe modellers should focus on both ends of the model complicatedness spectrum where the payoff and usefulness of the models are higher. The “mid-level” models, which try to compromise between simple and complicated models by, for example, combining empirical data with stylized behavioural rules, may also compromise the objective of ABMs. The empirical details in such models may be unnecessary and even hinder the theory building purpose; on the other hand, the stylized components may cripple the prediction capability and then limit their applications in policy support. Therefore, modellers need to develop simple theory-oriented models, still with rich dynamics in terms of model behaviours, for understanding the key processes of land systems. Surprisingly, we struggled to find such simple and elegant agent-based land-use models in the latest literature (Magliocca et al., 2013; Magliocca and Ellis, 2013). The key challenge might be to find the interesting research questions and the theories to test and explore. Meanwhile, modellers should not be intimidated by the risks involved in developing complicated models, and empirically-grounded ABMs can provide useful insights for stakeholders. The capacity of ABMs should not be wasted (Conte and Paolucci, 2014). The increasing development of more powerful tools such as statistical methods, meta modelling, POM, visualization, artificial intelligence, and strict protocols like ODD can help modellers in dealing with the complicatedness in the model construction and output analysis (Lee et al., 2015). However, if complicated models stay purely site-specific and data-driven, the scientific contribution of such models will be limited. Modellers should aim to ground their models on solid theories and, more importantly, endeavour to generalize new theories from complicated simulation models. Although previously recognised (Perry and Bond, 2004), this remains an ongoing challenge. A practical aim should be the development of a common metric to measure the complicatedness of ABMs quantitatively so that different models can be compared. Although our discussions are focused on agent-based land use models, many valuable lessons have been drawn from various modelling fields. We are confident that the insights and guidelines provided in this article, albeit open to ongoing debate, are also applicable and helpful to agent-based modelling of different research domains, and even other simulation approaches in general. Acknowledgement http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2016.09.006 Published as: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2016.09.006 24 We are grateful to the valuable comments and suggestions from five anonymous reviewers. We thank all participants (including Gary Polhill, Dawn Parker, Arika Ligmann-Zielinska, Evgeny Latynskiy, etc.) of our workshop during iEMSs 2014 for the insightful discussions and input. ZS was supported by the European Commission (Collaborative Project Impacts of Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation and Enhancing Carbon Stocks, I-REDD+, FP7-ENV-2010-265286). NM was supported by the National Socio-Environmental Synthesis Center (SESYNC) through a grant from the U.S. National Science Foundation (# DBI-1052875) to the University of Maryland. CB acknowledges financial support by the German Ministry for Education and Research (BMBF) for the project “Gemeinsam auf demWeg in die energieeffiziente urbane Moderne – Einrichtung eines akteursorientierten Energiemanagementsystems in Delitzsch” (ref. no. 03SF0408A). BM was supported by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF—01LN1315A) within the Junior Research Group POLISES. 6 References Albin, P., Foley, D.K., 1992. Decentralized, dispersed exchange without an auctioneer: A simulation study. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization 18(1) 27-51. Almaraz, P., 2014. Simple Models, Complex Models, Useful Models: Can We Tell Them from the Flap of a Butterfly’s Wings? Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution 2. An, L., 2012. Modeling human decisions in coupled human and natural systems: review of agent- based models. Ecological Modelling 229 25-36. Axelrod, R., 2006. Simulation in the social sciences. Balbi, S., Giupponi, C., 2010. 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work_vmwzwwe3pnhetddg7hlp7325ra	----	1760 Regional and local determinants of rodent assemblages in agroecosystems of the Argentine Pampas Carlos M. González FisCher,* reGino Cavia, Pablo PiCasso, and david bilenCa Grupo de Estudios sobre Biodiversidad en Agroecosistemas (GEBA) (CMGF, PP, DB) CONICET - Universidad de Buenos Aires, Instituto de Ecología, Genética y Evolución de Buenos Aires (IEGEBA) (CMGF, RC, DB) Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Departamento de Ecología, Genética y Evolución (RC) Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Departamento de Biodiversidad y Biología Experimental (DB) Intendente Guiraldes 2160, C1428EGA, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina (CMGF, RC, PP, DB) * Correspondent: cfischer@ege.fcen.uba.ar Here, we characterize and compare rodent assemblages from crop fields and rangelands of the 4 Pampa districts included in Buenos Aires province, Argentina, to analyze the role of regional context, land use, and vegetation structure in determining the structure of rodent assemblages at the plot scale. Habitat generalist species (Calomys laucha and Mus musculus) tended to be more abundant in crop fields, whereas habitat specialists (Akodon azarae and Oxymycterus rufus) tended to be more abundant in rangelands. However, the degree of spatial segregation between habitat generalists and specialists and the associations between particular rodent species and land use differed among districts. The abundance of the dominant species (C. laucha and A. azarae) was positively associated with vegetation height. We also found a positive association between the abundance of the dominant species in a certain land use and the representation of that land use in the Pampa district, which suggests an effect of the regional context on local assemblages. Our results show that the structure of the rodent assemblage in a certain plot is the result of the interaction between the district the plot is in and the land use (and management) it is under. Future studies could shed light to the mechanisms behind the district effect observed in this study. En este trabajo caracterizamos y comparamos los ensambles de roedores en campos agrícolas y ganaderos de las cuatro subregiones pampeanas incluidas en la provincia de Buenos Aires (Argentina), con el objetivo de analizar el papel que juegan el contexto regional, el uso de la tierra y la estructura de la vegetación en definir la estructura del ensamble de roedores a la escala de lote. Los resultados muestran que las especies generalistas (Calomys laucha y Mus musculus) suelen ser las más abundantes en los campos de cultivo, mientras que las especialistas (Akodon azarae y Oxymycterus rufus) tienen a serlo en los campos ganaderos. Sin embargo, el grado de segregación espacial entre especies generalistas y especialistas, y las asociaciones entre las especies de roedores y el uso de la tierra varían entre subregiones. La abundancia de la especie dominante (C. laucha y A. azarae) estuvo positivamente asociada con la altura de la vegetación. También encontramos una asociación positiva entre la abundancia de la especie dominante en un cierto uso de la tierra y la representación de dicho uso en la subregión. En resumen, nuestros resultados muestran que, en la región Pampeana, la estructura del ensamble de roedores en un determinado lote es el resultado de la interacción entre la subregión en la que se encuentra el lote y el uso (y manejo) al que está sujeto. Futuros estudios podrían echar luz sobre los mecanismos detrás de el “efecto subregión” observado en este estudio. Key words: Argentina, farmland biodiversity, land use, Pampas, seasonality, small mammals Journal of Mammalogy, 98(6):1760–1767, 2017 DOI:10.1093/jmammal/gyx121 Published online September 23, 2017 © 2017 American Society of Mammalogists, www.mammalogy.org Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jmammal/article-abstract/98/6/1760/4201799 by ASM Member Access user on 11 December 2017 mailto:cfischer@ege.fcen.uba.ar?subject= http://www.mammalogy.org GONZÁLEZ FISCHER ET AL.—RODENT ASSEMBLAGES IN AGROECOSYSTEMS 1761 In agroecosystems, many biophysical processes and patterns are altered—directly and indirectly—by agricultural practices and management decisions (e.g., which crop is grown in a particu- lar plot affects vegetation structure and its seasonal variations). In turn, those decisions are guided and constrained by the bio- physical characteristics of the plot (e.g., some crops are better suited for certain environments). Some species can benefit from these changes from natural to agricultural vegetation, whereas others are affected negatively by them. Thus, the changes that take place in agroecosystems can affect the distribution of spe- cies at different spatial scales (Gonthier et al. 2014; Newbold et al. 2015). In general, species with narrow habitat require- ments (specialists) tend to be more affected than those with wider requirements (generalists—Butler et al. 2007). However, the degree a species is affected by these changes would also depend on the differences between the original habitat and the one that replaced it (i.e., it is not the same if a wheat field replaces a grassland or a forest). Furthermore, different plots can present differences in management, land-use history, and their surrounding context, which also can affect the species found on the particular plot (Abba et al. 2006; Bilenca et al. 2007). The characteristics of the region a plot is in will determine the pool of species that could potentially occupy the plot, and the relative abundances of those species. These influences could be mediated by the distance to the closest habitat that harbors a particular species (metapopulation dynamics) and by the number of such sources that are close by (mass effect—Weiher and Keddy 2001). Several studies have shown the sensitivity of rodent assem- blages to land-use changes in temperate agroecosystems (Gorman and Reynolds 1993; Love et al. 2001; Millán de la Peña et al. 2003; Heroldová et al. 2007; Gentili et al. 2014) and that vegetation structure is one of the main determinants of rodent abundance at the habitat-patch scale (Jacob 2008). In particular, several studies have investigated the effects of land use and farming practices on rodent assemblages from the Pampas in central Argentina (Busch et al. 1984; Mills et al. 1991; Bilenca and Kravetz 1998; Cavia et al. 2005; Bilenca et al. 2007; Fraschina et al. 2012, 2014; González Fischer et al. 2012; Coda et al. 2015; Gomez et al. 2015). Rodent species present varying degrees of habitat specialization; for example, Calomys spp. and Mus musculus are more generalists, whereas Akodon azarae, Oligoryzomys flavescens, and Oxymycterus rufus are more specialists (Ellis et al. 1997; Martínez et al. 2014). These assemblages are hierarchically structured: grassland specialists (e.g., A. azarae) occupy more stable habitats and competitively displace more generalist species (e.g., C. laucha) to the interior of crop fields (Mills et al. 1991; Busch and Kravetz 1992). The Pampas included in Buenos Aires province (277,000 km2) are classified into 4 ecological units or districts that can be distinguished according to differences in geomorphology, soils, drainage, physiography, vegetation, and land use: the Rolling Pampa, the Southern Pampa, the Flooding Pampa, and the Inland Pampa (Soriano et al. 1992). Interest in the rodent assemblages from the Pampas was prompted by the discovery of their role as hosts of Argentine hemorrhagic fever (AHF, a disease that mainly affects rural workers—Busch et al. 1984). Thus, most of the studies were performed at the endemic area of AHF (i.e., the Rolling Pampa) and regional information for other Pampa districts is lacking (but see Dalby 1975; Busch et al. 2012; Hodara and Poggio 2016). Rodent assemblages can differ in species composition and relative abundances among Pampa districts (Galliari et al. 1991; Pardiñas et al. 2010; González Fischer et al. 2011), and it is not clear whether the associations of land use and rodent species vary among districts (Mills et al. 1991; Busch and Kravetz 1992; Busch et al. 1997). In this paper, we characterize and compare rodent assem- blages from crop fields and rangelands in the 4 Pampa districts included in Buenos Aires province (Rolling Pampa, Inland Pampa, Flooding Pampa, and Southern Pampa; Fig. 1a), to analyze the effects of district, land use, and vegetation struc- ture on the structure of rodent assemblages at the plot level. We propose that generalist species will be more abundant in crop fields, where habitat structure is less similar to the original grassland cover, and that specialist species will be more abun- dant in rangelands, where habitat structure is more similar to the original grasslands. In addition, we propose that generalist species will be more abundant in crop fields from those dis- tricts with higher proportions of crop fields in the landscape, compared to crop fields from districts with lower proportions of crop fields. Accordingly, we also expect that specialists will be more abundant in rangelands from districts with higher propor- tions of rangelands in the landscape. Finally, we briefly discuss how recent trends in land-use change and management prac- tices may influence the composition, abundance, and structure of rodent assemblages in the region. Materials and Methods Study area.—The Argentine Pampas are one of the most productive agricultural regions of the world, covering about 52 million hectares that were originally covered by grasslands (Soriano et al. 1992). It has transitioned since its origins as a livestock-raising area to one of the largest crop producers in the world (Paruelo et al. 2005). This process was accelerated after the introduction of glyphosate-resistant soybean varieties and the adoption of no-tillage practices at the end of the 1990s (Bilenca et al. 2009; Viglizzo et al. 2011). As other agroecosys- tems, the Pampas are continually changing as a result of land- use changes and new farming practices. For example, the use of cover-crop mulch is now an increasingly frequent practice in the region (Lorenzatti 2008). Typically, mean temperature in July (austral winter) ranges from 7.5°C to 9.5°C, mean temperature in January (austral summer) ranges from 21.5°C to 23.0°C, and annual precipita- tion ranges from 700 to 1,000 mm. In the Rolling Pampa, crops have replaced most of the native vegetation and cover about 75% of the land, whereas in the Flooding Pampa grasslands or pastures prevail (> 85%). The Southern and the Inland Pampa have a mixed production system with both crops and animal husbandry (Baldi and Paruelo 2008). Soybeans (Glycine max) and maize (Zea mays) are the main crops in the Rolling, Inland, Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jmammal/article-abstract/98/6/1760/4201799 by ASM Member Access user on 11 December 2017 1762 JOURNAL OF MAMMALOGY and Flooding Pampas, whereas in the Southern Pampa winter crops like wheat (Triticum aestivum) prevail (INDEC 2006). Rodent assemblages.—The rodent assemblage includes at least 11 species (Mills et al. 1991; González Fischer et al. 2012). The most abundant species (and the ones that are found in all 4 districts) are the sigmodontine rodents C. laucha, C. musculinus, A. azarae, O. flavescens, and Holochilus brasil- iensis, and the murine M. musculus. Other species present in the area include O. rufus (present in the Rolling, Flooding, and Southern Pampas), Necromys lasiurus (Rolling and Southern Pampas), N. obscurus (only present in the Southern Pampa), and the commensal rats Rattus rattus and R. norvegicus, which are mostly restricted to poultry and pig farms and peridomestic habitats (Lovera et al. 2015). Rodent sampling.—Rodent trapping was conducted at 12 localities, 3 in each of the 4 Pampa districts included in Buenos Aires province (Fig. 1a). In each of the 12 localities, 8 plots were selected in summer 2010 and 8 different plots were selected in the following winter: 4 maize or soybean crop plots (“crop fields”) and 4 paddocks devoted to grazing cattle (“rangelands,” including natural and seminatural grasslands, and old pastures colonized by native species; Fig. 1b). In this way, 96 crop fields (48 in summer and 48 in winter) and 96 rangelands (48 in summer and 48 in winter) distributed among 12 localities were sampled. In summer, crop plots were occu- pied by the standing crop, whereas in winter they were covered by the stubble of the previous crop. Different plots were used in each season to avoid potential effects of dependence among data and rodent removal (see below). In each plot, 2 parallel lines separated by 20 m were placed perpendicularly to the field border (Fig. 1b). Each line consisted of 15 Sherman-style traps (8 × 9 × 23 cm) spaced 10 m apart. Traps were baited with a mixture of peanut butter, rolled oats, and bovine fat, and checked daily for 3 consecutive nights. The species of each individual was identified by external morphol- ogy and, in some cases, confirmed by an analysis of the skull. All captured rodents were removed and tissues samples were collected for other studies. Handling of animals throughout the study followed the ASM guidelines (Sikes et al. 2016) and the Argentine Law for Animal Care (National Law 14346). Characterization of vegetation structure.—Simultaneously with rodent sampling, 3 to 5 1-m2 plots were randomly placed in each trapping plot to describe the vegetation and microhabi- tat structure. Vegetation was characterized by recording the height of the 1st stratum and visually estimating the proportion of total vegetation cover, herb cover, green (photosynthetically active) cover, bare ground, and mulch cover. All the measure- ments for 1 trapping plot were averaged to obtain 1 value for each variable. Since all these measures were highly correlated (Spearman r ≥ |0.5|, P ≤ 0.05, for all pairs of comparisons), and it has been previously reported to affect small mammals in agroecosystems (Jacob 2008), the height of the 1st stratum of vegetation was finally used as the sole descriptor of the vegeta- tion structure. Data analysis.—The abundance of each rodent species was estimated based on its trap success ([trapped individuals/trap- nights] × 100—Cavia et al. 2012). The relationships between the structure of the rodent assemblage and land use, season, and district were explored using a canonical correspondence analysis (CCA—Borcard et al. 2011). For this analysis, the response variables were the abundances of each rodent species and the explanatory variables were land-use type, season, and Pampa district. Since in some plots there were no rodents cap- tured, all captures from the same locality, land use, and season were pooled. The significance of the CCA and each canoni- cal component were evaluated by means of a permutation test Fig. 1.—a) Map of the study area, showing the distribution of the 12 localities sampled in summer and winter 2010 (black dots) among the 4 districts of the Pampas in Buenos Aires province, Argentina. b) Example of the spatial distribution of the 8 plots sampled in 1 season in 1 of the 12 localities. The 2 parallel lines in each plot represent the traplines (each with 15 Sherman traps). Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jmammal/article-abstract/98/6/1760/4201799 by ASM Member Access user on 11 December 2017 GONZÁLEZ FISCHER ET AL.—RODENT ASSEMBLAGES IN AGROECOSYSTEMS 1763 (Borcard et al. 2011). These analyses were done using the vegan package for R (Oksanen et al. 2016). In addition, we performed a Cochran–Mantel–Haenszel test to analyze differ- ences in rodent composition and relative abundance between crop fields and rangelands, considering the 4 Pampa districts as different strata (Quinn and Keough 2002; for this analysis, the number of individuals captured in both seasons were pooled). Rodent abundances were compared between crop fields and rangelands from the 4 districts in both seasons by means of general linear models with estimations of variances for each group (Di Rienzo et al. 2012). In addition, the effect of vegeta- tion height on the abundance of rodents was incorporated as a covariable in these models. These analyses were done using the nlme package for R (Pinheiro et al. 2011), running background in Infostat (Di Rienzo et al. 2012). results After a total trapping effort of 16,944 trap-nights, 156 rodents of 6 species were captured: Calomys laucha (representing 51.3% of total individuals), A. azarae (23.7%), C. musculinus (9.6%), M. musculus (7.1%), O. rufus (6.4%), and O. flavescens (1.9%). The first 2 axes of the CCA were significant (P < 0.01 for both axes) and explained 38.5% of the variation in rodent com- position according to land use, Pampa district, and season. The 1st axis (23.5%) separated rodent samples according to land use and season, and also was partially related to district (Fig. 2a). A. azarae was associated with rangelands, especially in win- ter at the Flooding Pampa, whereas at the opposite extreme of axis 1, C. laucha was associated with crop fields (C. laucha was the dominant species in crop fields of the Inland, Flooding, and Rolling Pampas) along with M. musculus (which was the dominant species in crop fields of the Southern Pampa). The 2nd axis (15.0%) revealed a district effect, separating the Southern Pampa from the other Pampa districts (Fig. 2a), accounting for the higher abundance of O. rufus and M. muscu- lus in that district. The Cochran–Mantel–Haenszel test revealed significant differences in the rodent assemblage structure between land uses (χ2 4 = 47.00, P < 0.001; Fig. 2b). These differences were observed in all Pampa districts, except the Inland Pampa, where C. laucha was the only species captured in either land use (Fig. 2b). Differences in the Southern Pampa (χ2 4 = 19.15, P < 0.001) were related to M. musculus being the most abun- dant species in crop fields and absent from rangelands, whereas O. rufus was exclusively captured in rangelands. Differences in the Flooding Pampa (χ2 4 = 30.73, P < 0.001) were related to the dominance of A. azarae in rangelands and its absence from crop fields, in contraposition to the dominance of C. laucha in crop fields and its absence from rangelands. Finally, differences in the Rolling Pampa (χ2 4 = 11.00, P = 0.027) were related to the dominance of C. laucha in crop fields, while it was codomi- nant with A. azarae in rangelands (Fig. 2b). Plot vegetation height was lower in the Inland Pampa (19.0 ± 2.2 cm) than in the other districts, where it ranged from 21.0 ± 4.8 cm in the Southern Pampa to 35.7 ± 5.8 cm in the Flooding Pampa (F 3,176 = 4.51, P = 0.005). Comparisons of abundance were only performed for A. azarae and C. laucha, since these 2 species were the only ones that were abundant enough to allow for statistical analy- sis. There was a significant interaction effect between land use, Pampa district, season, and vegetation height on abun- dance of A. azarae (F 3,156 = 5.22, P = 0.002). To further inter- pret this interaction, a posteriori correlation analyses revealed Fig. 2.—a) Diagram of the first 2 axes of the multiple correspondence analysis. Cl: Calomys laucha; Aa: Akodon azarae; Cm: Calomys musculi- nus; Mm: Mus musculus, Or: Oxymycterus rufus; Of: Oligoryzomys flavescens. b) Relative abundance of each rodent species (in %) in crop fields and rangelands in each of the Pampa districts of Buenos Aires province, Argentina, 2010. Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jmammal/article-abstract/98/6/1760/4201799 by ASM Member Access user on 11 December 2017 1764 JOURNAL OF MAMMALOGY that A. azarae increased its abundance with vegetation height in rangelands from the Flooding Pampa in winter (Pearson r = 0.79, P = 0.002) and in the Southern Pampa in summer (Pearson r = 0.92, P < 0.001). The highest abundance of A. azarae was observed in rangelands of the Flooding Pampa in winter (Fig. 3a). We also detected a significant interaction effect between land use, Pampa district, and vegetation height on the abundance of C. laucha (F 3,156 = 4.24, P = 0.007), as it increased with vegetation height in crop fields of the Rolling Pampa in both seasons (winter Pearson r = 0.55, P = 0.06; summer Pearson r = 0.56, P = 0.04). The highest abundance of C. laucha was observed in crops of the Rolling Pampa in summer (Fig. 3b). discussion Associations between rodent species and land use.—Habitat generalists (C. laucha and M. musculus) were more abundant in crop fields, whereas habitat specialists (A. azarae and O. rufus) were more abundant in rangelands. Furthermore, in the Rolling Pampa—where most previous knowledge about these assem- blages comes from—our results are in agreement with previous studies showing that C. laucha is the dominant species in crop fields, with a tendency to show higher abundances in summer than in winter, and A. azarae is dominant in habitats that are less disturbed by farming practices (like rangelands), being more abundant in winter than in summer (Mills et al. 1991; Busch and Kravetz 1992; Busch et al. 1997; Fraschina et al. 2012, 2014). However, when we look at the other districts, our results show some differences regarding the association between rodent species and land use. In the Southern Pampa, M. musculus and O. rufus replaced C. laucha and A. azarae as the dominant species in crop fields and rangelands, respectively. Furthermore, in the Flooding Pampa, C. laucha and A. azarae were absent from rangelands and crop fields, respectively, even though in the Rolling Pampa both species were common in both land uses. Moreover, C. laucha was the only species caught in either land use in the Inland Pampa. The latter is in agreement with previous studies remarking the paucity of rodent species richness in this district (Pardiñas et al. 2010). Considering that small mammals are sensitive to vegetation height in pampean agroecosystems (Ellis et al. 1997; Fraschina et al. 2009), it is possible that the overall lower abundance and species richness in the Inland Pampa are at least partially related to the signifi- cantly lower vegetation height recorded in plots of this district. In that regard, Busch et al. (2012) found that after many years of cattle exclusion, some grasslands of the Inland Pampa were dominated by A. azarae followed by O. flavescens, C. musculi- nus, and C. laucha. Relatively high abundances of M. musculus in the Southern Pampa had already been reported by studies based on barn owl pellets (Kittlein 1994; Leveau et al. 2006; González Fischer et al. 2012) and trapping (Dalby 1975). All the individuals trapped in this study were far away from any buildings, which reinforces the idea that there is an established wild population of M. musculus in the fields of the region. The effect of regional context.—Our results suggest a positive association between the abundance of the dominant species in a certain land use and the representation of that land use in the district. The highest abundance of C. laucha was found in crop fields of the Rolling Pampa (the district with the highest per- centage of land occupied by crops), whereas the highest abun- dance of A. azarae was found in the rangelands of the Flooding Pampa (the district with the highest percentage of rangelands— Baldi and Paruelo 2008). This result reinforces the hypothesis that the abundance of these species in a certain paddock or plot is influenced by both land use and regional context (González Fischer et al. 2012). The effect of this regional context on local Fig. 3.—Mean trap success (± SE) of a) Akodon azarae, and b) Calomys laucha classified by Pampa district, land use, and season in Buenos Aires province, Argentina, 2010. Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jmammal/article-abstract/98/6/1760/4201799 by ASM Member Access user on 11 December 2017 GONZÁLEZ FISCHER ET AL.—RODENT ASSEMBLAGES IN AGROECOSYSTEMS 1765 faunal assemblages has also been reported for birds in pam- pean agroecosystems (Filloy and Bellocq 2007; Codesido et al. 2011, 2013). Furthermore, the positive association between the abundances of C. laucha and crop fields observed in this study supports the hypothesis that the relatively recent and fast geographical expansion of Calomys spp. in the Pampas has been favored by the increase of the area dedicated to crops (de Villafañe et al. 1988; Mills et al. 1991; Busch and Kravetz 1992; Bilenca and Kravetz 1995a). The degree of spatial segregation between specialists and generalists also changed between districts. In less-modified districts (Flooding Pampa), habitat generalists were restricted to crop fields and habitat specialists were only found in range- lands, whereas in more-modified districts (Southern and Rolling Pampas), both generalists and specialists were found in both habitats. These differences could be explained by metapopula- tion dynamics or by mass effects (Weiher and Keddy 2001). When a few crop fields appear in a region dominated by grass- lands, they can be colonized by generalist species, while grass- land specialists remain in grasslands. However, the generalist species are still competitively excluded from grasslands. When the proportion of crop fields grows, the populations of general- ist species can grow in numbers and enough individuals may disperse into the surrounding grasslands to become established there (despite the competition with the dominant habitat spe- cialists). Conversely, as the more stable habitats (native grass- lands) become rarer, dispersing habitat specialists may have to settle for less optimal habitats and seek refuge in crop fields. In this scenario, the generalist species occur in grasslands as a result of mass effects, whereas the specialist species only occupy crop fields when dispersing individuals have difficulty locating available areas of their preferred habitat (native grass- land). The latter may be an example of source–sink dynamics if survival or reproduction of the grassland specialist is low in the crop fields, and these populations would not persist without continued immigration. Vegetation height.—In temperate ecosystems, the compo- sition and structure of vegetation show seasonal fluctuations, and these seasonal changes are usually enhanced by farming practices. Seasonal changes in vegetation height and vegeta- tive cover are, therefore, inherent to agricultural land use. The intensity of these changes depends on the cropping system and cultivation system (i.e., rotation and choice of crops). Seasonal reduction in vegetation height is drastic in grain-growing sys- tems (e.g., soybeans and maize), and much less pronounced in rangelands and other grasslands (Jacob and Halle 2001). In the Pampas, we observed differences in vegetation height among districts and between land uses and seasons. We also observed that rodent abundances increased with vegetation height, even though this response was not generalized among districts, land uses, or seasons. Previous studies have already described the association between vegetation height and rodent abundances in pampean agroecosystems (Ellis et al. 1997; Fraschina et al. 2009) and lowering vegetation height has been proposed as a method for controlling rodent pests (Gómez Villafañe et al. 2001; Jacob 2008). Furthermore, it has been suggested that the association between declining rodent abundances and cropping intensification has been mediated by the diminished vegetation cover provided by crops in contrast with natural vegetation and pastures (Fraschina et al. 2012; Hodara and Poggio 2016). Looking ahead.—Some studies of trends in land use in the Pampas suggest a further increase in the area dedicated to crops (Vega et al. 2009). This could mean an increase in the abun- dances of generalist species in detriment of habitat special- ists. Our previous understanding of the associations between land use and rodents, coming mostly from the Rolling Pampa, would have indicated that rodent assemblages from crop fields throughout Buenos Aires province will have higher abun- dances of C. laucha. However, the “district effect” observed in this study suggests otherwise. If the area dedicated to crops increases in the Southern Pampa, we might see an increase in the abundance of M. musculus (the dominant species in crop fields from that district) instead of C. laucha. Both scenarios could have negative consequences for crop production, as both species are known crop pests (Bilenca and Kravetz 1995b; Singleton et al. 2010). The use of cover-crop mulch is an increasingly frequent agri- cultural practice in the Pampas (Lorenzatti 2008), which may provide year-round vegetation cover in the fields. This improve- ment of vegetation structure provided by cover crops may favor higher abundances of rodents in crop fields, reversing the observed trend of diminishing rodent abundances (Fraschina et al. 2012; Hodara and Poggio 2016). In addition, making the habitat structure in crop fields more similar to that of the origi- nal grassland could turn the balance in favor of grassland spe- cialists (A. azarae and O. rufus). In summary, our results support the idea that in the Pampas of central Argentina, the composition of rodent assemblages and the abundance of rodent species in a certain plot are the result of the interaction between land use at that plot and the regional context. The regional effect could be related to differ- ences in the regional pool of species, related to regional land use (Alard and Poudevigne 2002). Furthermore, at least for some species, this response is modulated by seasonal effects and management practices. The high variability of our predictions regarding the future evolution of rodent populations highlights the need to moni- tor these populations across the different Pampa districts. Experimental assessment of the effect of cover crops and other management techniques on the structure rodent assemblages should be performed to better understand these assemblages and to anticipate possible negative consequences associated with their changes. acknowledgMents We thank A. Abba, C. Galliari, and M. E. González Márquez for helping with the field work, and all the people who let us work in their property and provided shelter, food, and stimu- lating conversations: A. Goodall, Magui and Guillermo, R. and T. Gardey, the Fernández Criado family, M. Peluffo, the Breuer Moreno family, G. Valle, and everyone in Miranda Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jmammal/article-abstract/98/6/1760/4201799 by ASM Member Access user on 11 December 2017 1766 JOURNAL OF MAMMALOGY and Diego Gaynor. This study was funded by the Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET, Argentina PIP 2010-2012 GI 11220090100231) and by the Universidad de Buenos Aires (grants UBACyT X282, X406, GC 20020090100070). literature cited abba, A. M., E. zuFiaurre, M. Codesido, and D. N. bilenCa. 2016. Habitat use by armadillos in agroecosystems of central Argentina: does plot identity matter? Journal of Mammalogy 97:1265–1271. alard, D., and I. PoudeviGne. 2002. 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work_vodcbm7gn5brlbi53xrlu6awja	----	Mots cachés: Autobiography in Cocteau's and Poulenc's La Voix humaine All Rights Reserved © Canadian University Music Society / Société de musique des universités canadiennes, 2002 Ce document est protégé par la loi sur le droit d’auteur. L’utilisation des services d’Érudit (y compris la reproduction) est assujettie à sa politique d’utilisation que vous pouvez consulter en ligne. https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ Cet article est diffusé et préservé par Érudit. Érudit est un consortium interuniversitaire sans but lucratif composé de l’Université de Montréal, l’Université Laval et l’Université du Québec à Montréal. Il a pour mission la promotion et la valorisation de la recherche. https://www.erudit.org/fr/ Document généré le 5 avr. 2021 21:40 Canadian University Music Review Revue de musique des universités canadiennes Mots cachés: Autobiography in Cocteau's and Poulenc's La Voix humaine Keith Clifton Jean Cocteau: Evangelist of the Avant-garde Jean Cocteau : évangéliste de l’avant-garde Volume 22, numéro 1, 2001 URI : https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/1014499ar DOI : https://doi.org/10.7202/1014499ar Aller au sommaire du numéro Éditeur(s) Canadian University Music Society / Société de musique des universités canadiennes ISSN 0710-0353 (imprimé) 2291-2436 (numérique) Découvrir la revue Citer cet article Clifton, K. (2001). Mots cachés: Autobiography in Cocteau's and Poulenc's La Voix humaine. Canadian University Music Review / Revue de musique des universités canadiennes, 22(1), 68–85. https://doi.org/10.7202/1014499ar Résumé de l'article L’opéra Dialogues des Carmélites de Poulenc a toujours été considéré comme le sommet de son œuvre opératique. Il est résulté d’une telle appréciation qu’on a négligé son dernier opéra, La Voix humaine, sur un livret de Cocteau, et que l’élan qui a présidé à sa composition a été mal cerné. Musicalement, La Voix humaine déploie un langage tonal complexe sans précédent dans l’arsenal de composition de Poulenc. Sans prétendre que Poulenc ait composé La Voix humaine par loyauté envers Cocteau, je soutiens plutôt que l’opéra représente la dernière tentative de Poulenc pour accepter son homosexualité. De nombreuses références mises en correspondance révèlent que l’opéra est un reflet de la vie émotive de Poulenc. L’emploi par Poulenc et Cocteau de manières efféminées propres aux gays renseigne sur l’œuvre et donne un aperçu de possibles significations sous-entendues. Un examen attentif de cette œuvre négligée jette un nouvel éclairage sur la personnalité tourmentée et insaisissable de Poulenc. https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/cumr/ https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/1014499ar https://doi.org/10.7202/1014499ar https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/cumr/2001-v22-n1-cumr0474/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/cumr/ MOTS CACHÉS: AUTOBIOGRAPHY IN COCTEAU'S AND POULENC'S LA VOIX HUMAINE Keith Clifton La Voix humaine occupies a curious and uncomfortable place in the collective œuvres of Francis Poulenc and Jean Cocteau. Representing Cocteau's "largest step toward popular success,"1 the monodrama is not easily situated within Poulenc's vocal music. To complicate matters further, the work is separated in time from Poulenc's brief period with Les Six by more than three decades. As I will argue below, La Voix humaine represents a challenging, but not alto- gether foreign, example of the typical Poulenc / Cocteau approach to the feminine, one presented via a series of associated motives, veils, and disguises. In fact, the predominant style of discourse evident in the work—homosexual camp—is a familiar trope for the two artists. A potent example of camp raised to the level of high art, Voix embodies paradigmatically the expressive possi- bilities of kitsch, a sensibility often greeted with disdain and scorn by the academic community. Scholarly discussions of Les Six, rare in the English language, have tended to focus on the novelty of the group and its connection to Cocteau. Typically, studies have focussed on the connection between the group as paradigm of the French avant-garde in the fin-de-siècle, and the cultural milieu of the music- hall and cabaret. By avoiding the obvious disparities between their individual temperaments, the members of the groupe de Cocteau are linked together in a chain of associations, tastes, and artistic principles, as if the relationship between these six highly disparate personalities was beyond question. Quite the opposite is true. The members of Les Six—Auric, Durey, Honegger, Milhaud, Poulenc, and Tailleferre—were united at the impetus of Cocteau's fetish for publicity, and formally for the 1921 premiere of the bizarre Les Mariés de la tour Eiffel, a proto-futurist work with avant-garde implications far beyond its original performance. In her seminal study of popular influences on the works of Cocteau and Les Six, Nancy Perloff notes that Cocteau, Milhaud, Poulenc, and Auric met each Saturday evening and roamed the Paris streets in search of fair, circus, music-hall, and film spectacles. Their descriptions both of early experiences and of the Saturday evening wanderings allude to aesthetic 1 Frederick Brown, An Impersonation of Angels: A Biography of Jean Cocteau (New York: The Viking Press, 1968), 286. 22/1 (2001) 69 principles of popular entertainment which they found appealing and useful as an inspiration for their artistic activity. The fascination of all four artists with the Parisian popular world and the interest in turning to popular spectacles as a model for their own work marked a disregard for traditional divisions separating popular and classical form of creative expression.2 As pertinent as Perloff s observations are, such statements concerning the influence of pop culture in fin-de-siècle France dominate the critical writing on the group, often to the exclusion of other equally potent forces. Certainly the desire for a new style of music as articulated by Erik Satie, "without sauerkraut," was a significant impetus for the fundamental shift taking place in French music following the ascendancy of Debussy and Ravel in the first two decades of the century. Cocteau, above all, intended to promulgate a new form of art, one free from Romantic and Impressionistic trappings. After their christen- ing by Henri Collet in the now familiar article for Comoedia titled "Un livre de Rimsky et un livre de Cocteau: Les Cinq Russes, les Six Français et Erik Satie," the group rarely performed together and certainly did not establish a recognizable collective identity in any way comparable to the Nouveaux Jeunes or the Second Viennese School.3 Cocteau's doctrine of simplicity was not shared equally by every member of the group, and by about 1918 the group was unraveling, leaving Poulenc to further the ideas of his mentor largely unaided. As Honegger proceeded to rework the compositions of his beloved J. S. Bach into his own image; as Milhaud traveled to South America to absorb the sunny profundity of the tango and zarzuela; and as Durey retired from composition to pursue his communist political interests, Poulenc remained loyal to Cocteau and to the aesthetic of simplicity that he inspired. Even Auric, often given short shrift in discussions of the group continued to write music exhibiting traits commonly associated with Les Six at least through the 1920s. The friendship between Cocteau and Poulenc remained intact for more than four decades although, curiously, Poulenc set only four Cocteau works to music (listed below), a small number compared to the prolificacy of the Eluard and Apollinaire settings:4 Toréador, chanson hispanienne (1918) Cocardes, three songs for voice and piano (1919) La Voix humaine, tragédie lyrique (1958) La Dame de Monte Carlo (1961) Although there is no evidence that Cocteau and Poulenc ever extended their relationship beyond the platonic, the warmth and affection that characterizes 2Nancy Perloff, Art and the Everyday: Popular Entertainment and the Circle of Erik Satie (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991), 86. 3Henri Collet, "Un livre de Rimsky et un livre de Cocteau," Comoedia (16 January 1920): 2. For a thorough discussion of the origins of Les Six, see Keith W. Daniel, Francis Poulenc: His Artistic Development and Musical Style (Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press, 1982), 18-22. 4Related projects would include Jongleurs (1919-21), later destroyed; incidental music for Renaud et Armide (1962); and a song setting of Raymond Radiguet's Paul et Virginie (1946). An opera based on Cocteau's La Machine infernale was also considered but not even sketched. 70 CUMR/RMUC their early correspondence was to remain largely intact throughout their pro- fessional careers.5 POULENC AND THE FEMININE Femininity was central to the career and emotional well-being of Poulenc, who frequently surrounded himself with beautiful young women. The homosexual man/straight woman bond has been a staple in gay culture for centuries, with close female associates occupying the position of surrogate sister, mother, or confidante for men often more comfortable in intimate, non-sexual rela- tionships with women than with members of their own gender.6 Poulenc was one of the first modern composers to view female writers as serious artists on par with Mallarmé, Verlaine, Eluard, or Jacob. One of his important muses in this regard was the charming Louise de Vilmorin (1902-1969), whose works are imbued with the very qualities that also characterize the music of the composer: charm, wit, grace, and melancholy. Poulenc adored her, both as an artist and a woman, and in a typically adulatory letter he extolled her virtues when writing that "Few people move me as much as Louise de Vilmorin.... because she writes innately immaculate French, because her name evokes flowers and vegetables ... Her beautiful face recalls the seventeenth century, as does the sound of her name."7 Poulenc's desire to write "truly feminine songs" using Vilmorin's texts resulted in a remarkable series of seventeen mélodies, including Trois Poèmes de Louise de Vilmorin (1937), Fiançailles pour rire (1939), Métamorphoses (1943) and "Mazurka" from Mouvements du cœur (1949).8 Vilmorin's poetry has been criticized, even berated, for its unabashed sentimentality—criticisms also leveled against the composer—but these are the very qualities that attrac- ted Poulenc and inspired him to produce some of his finest songs. They provided an ideal outlet for ambiguous, jazz-tinged harmonies, and lyrical vocal expression. Emotional, melancholy verses are typical of Vilmorin, and a certain textual trope, that of the "dame déjà morte," a woman on the brink of physical death but already expired emotionally, was to prove especially potent in La Voix humaine. The opening line of the central song in Fiançailles pour rire, "Mon cadavre est doux comme un gant," is typical of Vilmorin's poetry in both subject matter and octosyllabic construction: Mon cadavre est doux comme un gant Doux comme un gant de peau glacée Et mes prunelles effacées Font de mes yeux des cailloux blancs 5 Terms of endearment abound in the correspondence on both sides, with Cocteau, for example, referring to Poulenc as "ma cher Poupoule." See Benjamin Ivry, Francis Poulenc (London: Phaidon Press, Ltd, 1996) 49-50. 6In the modern gay world, such women have often been referred to as "fag hags," a term that the urbane and discreet Poulenc would likely have resisted. 7 For a complete discussion of the Vilmorin works, see my "Vilmorin Songs of Francis Poulenc," The Journal of Singing 55, no. 3 (January/February 1999): 7-13. 8Ibid., 7. 22/1 (2001) 71 (My body is limp as a glove Limp as a glove of glazed calfskin And my two hidden pupils Make two white pebbles of my eyes) Poulenc's interest in the feminine extends beyond isolated examples into the realm of an idée fixe that I have termed the Poulencian archetype of femininity. By this I mean Poulenc's systematic avoidance of formal clarity for its own sake, as well as a harmonic language that celebrates the beauty of sound often far removed from traditional tonal relationships, a gesture sometimes viewed as feminine and thus inferior (especially by German critics). Poulenc will often eschew convention for the sake of expression, and such gestures have colored the reception of the composer, as well as many of his predecessors, including Lully, Gounod, and Massenet. As Susan McClary and others have noted in recent feminist writing on music, the trope of the masculine taming the feminine informs several diverse genres of music. The most overt usage of these gendered dualities occurs in the symphony, where the "male" first theme, confident and assured, tames the "female" secondary theme, timid and lyrical. Such a critical apparatus has now been expanded to a wide range of composers, styles, and compositions. In short, "feminine endings" relate to chords that refuse the masculine domination of authentic cadence or clearly articulated harmony, "sonorities that extend beyond the barline."9 In Poulenc's œuvre, the "feminine ending" takes on a favored status, as works presumably clothed in a male, heterosexual guise are emasculated, often at the final cadence, a defining moment in common practice harmony as the weaker pre-tonic chord gives way to the final, masculine sonority. A typical example occurs in the song cycle Le Travail du peintre (1956), with texts by Eluard. Here, a pantheon of great (male) modern artists—Braque, Gris, and Picasso among them—are presented as each song provides a miniature sound portrait; Poulenc's songs can be considered no more than a vague impression of their styles. The opening mélodie is devoted to the great macho icon of modern art, Pablo Picasso, an artist whose very name conjures up images of virility and raw sexuality. Far from offering sympathetic views of women, his works often satirize them, whether the subject is his former lover Françoise Gillot or the prostitutes of Barcelona in Les Demoiselles d'Avignon (1907). The piano prelude to "Pablo Picasso" finds the composer in his masculine, Eluardian modus operandi—reminiscent of the opening of Tel jour, telle nuit—as stark parallel octaves exemplify Picasso's machismo. As opposed to the discursive and enigmatic text, with its opaque references to the disparate parts of some unknown Picasso still life, the music remains resolute throughout in its high dynamic level and motivic cohesion. In the final bar, however, something unusual happens, revealing a dichotomy between Poulenc's attempt to "play it straight", and his true nature. Almost as if he were ashamed of his own butchness, the final chord, which had settled firmly into a resolute C major, 9 Susan McClary, Feminine Endings: Music, Gender, and Sexuality (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1991), 11. 72 CUMR/RMUC is emasculated via an added jazz chord that completely catches us off guard. The effect is far more than aural, but visceral as well, as the new sonority impels the final cadence from the realm of the "masculine" authentic cadence to the realm of "feminine" frisson. The masculine closure expected in the final sonority is thus evaded and colored, even replaced, by a new harmony far removed from the tonic (example 1). Example 1. Le Travail du peintre, "Pablo Picasso," bars 45-50 Some seventeen years before, in his second Vilmorin cycle, the composer celebrated the feminine in Fiançailles pour rire, borrowing the title from a collection of Vilmorin poems. Presented from the point of view of a jilted lover, a young woman recalls le passé in poignant lines overflowing with sentiment. The opening song, "La Dame d'André," sets a text concerning the transitory nature of love shown through a random meeting between André (who may refer to Vilmorin's companion, André Malraux, or to her brother, who shared the same first name), and a nameless young woman whom he has just met. In the final couplet of the poem, Vilmorin asks: Pâlira-t-elle aux feuilles blanches De son album des temps meilleurs? (Will she fade on the white leaves Of his album of better days?) In fact, the question is never answered via poetry or music, and Poulenc concludes the song with an ambiguous chord that transforms the cadence in A major into a jazzy A13 harmony, mirroring the tentative quality of the poetry. The moment is pure Poulencian/râsow, a love of sonorité for its own sake (example 2). Given this strong penchant for the feminine in his personal and professional life, two important questions arise: How might this sensibility be rationalized, if indeed it needs to be, and how might the trope of femininity have affected the tepid critical reception that has greeted Poulenc's works in the academic community? In Poulenc's case, the answer extends beyond the composer's desire to avoid writing "the music of the future" or to "please an audience and himself."10 Rather, a partial explanation may lie in two disparate but related lOIvry, Francis Poulenc, 9. 22/1 (2001) 73 Example 2. Fiançailles pour rire, "La Dame d'André," bars 3 7 ^ 1 areas: a lifelong interest in the music of a composer often perceived as emasculated, Frédéric Chopin, and the cult of the diva, to which Poulenc subscribed throughout his career. The feminine, or at least effeminate, qualities of Chopin's music have been analyzed in detail by several scholars, with Jeffrey Kallberg chief among them. Kallberg has elucidated a significant trend in 19th century Chopin reception by focusing on the feminine and homoerotic images that performances of his works evoked, including fairies, nymphs, and sylves. No style of music ex- presses this ambiguity more succinctly than Chopin's nocturnes, a genre evoking "small fairy voices" and lacking a certain '"Manly vigor,' a quality ... located elsewhere in the composer's œuvre."11 It is not insignificant, then, that the works of Chopin occupy a position of central importance in Poulenc's career as a piano composer, as he turned to the works of the Polish master as models and played them on a frequent basis both in recital and for private study. A typical example of Poulenc's appropriation of Chopin may be found in the Quatrième Nocturne, subtitled "Bal fantôme." Here, the tempo rubato, frequent appoggiaturas, and lush harmony clearly evokes Chopin. Perhaps because of their nationalistic origins, clear meter, and heroic style, the polonaise and scherzo were rarely singled out as degeneratively feminine. Poulenc never wrote piano music in these genres.12 The aesthetic of the nocturne, mysterious and tentative, finds its way into the songs as well, especially in the second major Vilmorin cycle, Métamor- phoses. Here the connection to Chopin is unmistakable, as the opening piano prelude clearly mirrors a Chopinesque languor with its yearning appoggiaturas and slow tempo. The text is equally sensual, evoking a distant lover in visceral and even erotic terms, a visual souvenir portrait (example 3). 11 Jeffrey Kallberg, "The Harmony of the Tea Table: Gender and Ideology in the Piano Nocturne," in Chopin at the Boundaries (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1996), 42. See also Jeffrey Kallberg, "Small Fairy Voices: Sex, History, and Meaning in Chopin" in the same collection, 64-66. 12 Outside of the eight nocturnes and other assorted pieces with Chopinesque titles, including "intermezzo" and "impromptu," Poulenc employed the style of Chopin once more, for a vocal "Mazur- ka" intended to conclude the song cycle Mouvements du cœur, written for Doda Conrad in 1948. The style of this mélodie, evocative and languid, is typical of the Chopin-inspired works in his œuvre. 74 CUMR/RMUC Très calme, très à l'aise J = 60 très expressif, les appogiatures sans hâte Example 3. Métamorphoses, "C'est ainsi que tu es," bars 1-2 P O U L E N C , C O C T E A U , A N D T H E D I V A If a true opera queen belongs to the cult of the diva, then Poulenc was one of its high priests. From the early years of his career until the end of his life, the composer focused his energies on certain talented women who fired his creative imagination and provided inspiration for musical works. In Cocteau's case, the admiration for Edith Piaf or Berthe Bovy—the first Elle in La Voix hu- maine—was largely practical. He appreciated these women for their talent and insight but not necessarily in the same way that he regarded the handsome young men who were his companions and confidants. Poulenc and Cocteau, however, have been correctly described as "passionate observers of women."13 Although Poulenc's friendships with women included Yvonne Printemps—for whom he composed the music-hall Valse chantée "Les Chemins de l'amour"—and Marie Laurencin, who provided the décor for his early ballet Les Biches, his ideal muse was Denise Duval. No diva was more central to his energies than "the adorable one," whom he met in 1945 at a Parisian music-hall.14 Single-minded devotion to one diva is a central tenet of the opera queen, and as Wayne Koestenbaum has written in his important and campy diatribe on opera and the homosexual, The Queen's Throat, "The opera queen must choose one diva. The other divas may be admired, enjoyed, even loved. But only the diva can reign in the opera queen's heart; only one diva can have the power to describe a listener's life, as a compass describes a circle." Stripped of the cultish paraphanelia, Mitchell Morris expresses the same phenomenon in more lucid prose: "Central to the true opera queen's aesthetic is the cult of the singer."15 Poulenc's admiration for Duval was resolute, loyal, and effusive, Blvry, Francis Poulenc, 201. MDaniel, Francis Poulenc, 45. Duval (b. 1923), studied in Bordeaux before starting her career at the Folies-Bergères in Paris. After she was brought to Poulenc's attention by the producer Max de Rieux, he immediately cast her in Mamelles de Tirésias, which debuted at the Opéra-Comique on 3 June 1947. See Sidney Buckland, ed. and trans., Francis Poulenc: Selected Correspondence 1915-1963 (London: Victor GoIIancz, Ltd., 1991), 303. 15 Wayne Koestenbaum, The Queen's Throat: Opera, Homosexuality, and the Mystery of Desire (New York: Vintage Books, 1993), 19. See also Mitchell Morris, "Reading as an Opera Queen," in 22/1 (2001) 75 with terms of endearment ranging from "pure sunlight" to "my angel."16 Duval, in fact, owed much of her career success to the composer, who first cast her as the ambiguously gendered Thérèse/Tirésias in the Apollinaire farce Les Ma- melles de Tirésias ( 1947) and then in the coveted role of Blanche for the world premiere of Dialogues des Carmélites (1958), a work that occupied his atten- tion for more than two decades. When the pivotal role of Elle was to be decided for La Voix humaine, Poulenc once again called upon Duval, who performed and eventually recorded the role with Georges Prêtre conducting. Duval was a major source of personal and artistic inspiration for a composer inclined to writing miniatures while also struggling to find his own unique voice in the saturated and competitive world of opera.1? Duval served not only as an artistic inspiration, but as an extension of himself. As I shall argue below, when we see Duval as Elle, we are really seeing Francis Poulenc himself, emotionally naked in the very public forum of the opera house. CAMP IN THE MIRROR In her now (in)famous article on camp (dedicated, appropriately, to Oscar Wilde), Susan Sontag argues in favor of camp as an apolitical, ephemeral sensibility often lost on those without the taste to appreciate its subtleties. Gay men, according to her theory, possess the most acute sense of camp and can thus truly appreciate a "love of the exaggerated," whether in poetry, theater, or Strauss's Der Rosenkavalier, a work forming, in her words, part of the "canon of camp."18 The presence of camp and kitsch—terms not always clearly defined or distinguishable—in serious musical culture has been sharply criticized in some quarters. Certain scholars have even engaged in their own style of camping as they assault the degenerate and insidious nature of the camp aesthetic. In his influential essay on commodity music, Adorno argues that works such as Rachmaninov's Prelude in C-sharp minor, "one gigantic authen- tic cadence," are responsible for the erosion of serious art in favor of predict- able, banal kitsch.19 Musicology and Difference: Gender and Sexuality in Music Scholarship, ed. Ruth A. Solie (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), 184-200. Morris defines the opera queen as "any member of that particular segment of the American gay community that defines itself by the extremity and particularly of its obsession with opera." (184) In a related article, Paul Robinson refers succinctly to such men as "voice fetishists." See Paul Robinson, "The opera queen: A voice from the closet," Cambridge Opera Journal 6 (1994): 285. 16Koestenbaum, The Queen's Throat, 169,225. 17Duval's role as muse for Poulenc mirrors a similar pattern evident in Debussy's admiration for Mary Garden and Kurt Weill's for Lotte Leyna. 18 Susan Sontag, "Notes on Camp," in A Susan Sontag Reader (New York: Farrar, Strau and Giroux, 1982), 107-8. For an informed discussion of the camp style vis-à-vis Der Rosenkavalier, see Gary Le Tourneau, "Kitsch, Camp, and Opera: Der Rosenkavalier," Canadian University Music Review 14 (1994): 77-97. The camp aspects of Voix are further reinforced by Poulenc's designation of the opera as tragédie lyrique, a deliberate evocation of an operatic style associated with the apex of campiness, the court of Louis XIV. 19Theodor Adorno, "Commodity Music Analysed," in Quasi una fantasia: Essays on Modern Music, trans. Rodney Livingstone (London: Verso, 1992), 38-40. 76 CUMR/RMUC Very little French music is mentioned in Adorno's diatribe, and Poulenc is omitted entirely. But he is guilty by association. There is an unspoken rule that music exhibiting even the perception of camp is somehow substandard.20 Pou- lenc's music has yet to receive the acclaim and scholarly attention lavished on the titans of modern music, such as Debussy, Schoenberg, or Stravinsky. In Ivry's view, "One reason behind the underestimation of Poulenc during much of his lifetime was his open homosexuality at a time when only the most prestigious cultural figures, such as Jean Cocteau, could get away with such frankness."21 With a musical style hovering between modernity and classicism, Poulenc turned to a negotiated discourse with which he was familiar and comfortable: expanded tonality, formal clarity, and unapologetic lyricism. Poulenc's penchant for humor exhibited itself fairly early in his career, perhaps coincidentally, in a Cocteau-inspired mélodie. Written in 1918 as a "spoof on café-concert song" as popularized by Satie, Toréador is delightfully tongue and cheek, where the "eight-bar introduction, the alternation between verse and refrain, the waltz tempo, and the use of an accompaniment in which low notes fall on strong beats and higher-register chords on weak beats place Toréador within the tradition of popular song."22 But perhaps an even more potent influence is the campy text and music, exhibited in Cocteau's giddy refrain: Belle Espagnole Dans ta gondole Tu caracoles Carmencita Sous ta mantille Œil qui pétille Bouche qui brille C'est Pépitaa. (Lovely Spanish woman In your gondola You gambol Carmencita Under the mantilla Eye that sparkles Glittering mouth It's Pépitaa) Poulenc's setting emphasizes the absurdity of Cocteau's tale of "a poor Spanish Toreador who is killed during a bullfight in the unlikely location of the square of St. Mark's in Venice" by employing a lilting triple meter which simultaneously places the wrong stress on the wrong part of the beat and the 20 A study of the critical literature concerning acceptable versus substandard music is long overdue and beyond the scope of this paper. In my view, works influenced by a French popular aesthetic—which would include compositions of Chabrier, Satie, and Ravel in addition to Poulenc—have been consis- tently chastised in the press, and especially by Austro/German critics. 21 Ivry, Francis Poulenc, 9. With the Poulenc centenary in 1999, attention was finally paid to the composer in the critical literature, although much work still needs to be done. 22Perloff, Art and the Everyday, 154. 22/1 (2001) 77 word, as in "Espagnole" below (example 4). Toréador is a potent example of Sontag's division between "naive camp" and "deliberate camp."23 Because of its exaggerated style, the song would fall into the latter category. Works that become campy without trying to be are examples of the former, and La Voix humaine clearly fits that mold. Example 4. Toréador, bars 88-94 For Cocteau and Poulenc, the camp sensibility presents itself in more than their works, but permeates the very fabric of their daily lives. Poulenc, who was given to bouts of depression and sour moods, was quite capable of moments of wicked, wry humor, generally in the company of close friends, many of them gay. According to Cocteau, the composer was fond of enter- taining party guests with naughty pantomimes, often with an unexpected finale as the composer exposed himself at the conclusion.24 For the "emaciated Cocteau" who "whirled through life like an overgrown, opiated poodle, irri- tating as many people as he astonished," the discourse of camp is evident in numerous ways, from his dandian dress to his outrageous films that pre- and post-date the Dada movement.25 A typical camp moment would include a photograph given to Poulenc after his friend had returned from a trip to London. Dressed in gentlemanly finery and surrounded by seven hats and other assorted items, including two ties used to frame his gaunt visage, Cocteau is the very epitome of gay showmanship as he plays dress-up. To return briefly to Sontag, camp is "good because it's awful."26 Ample opportunities to view such entertainment may be seen in vaudevilles, music- 23 Sontag, "Notes on Camp," 110-11. She refers to "naive camp" as a mode of "failed seriousness," where works that try to be serious do not succeed. In a related article, Cocteau is included among other artists—including Warhol, Capote, and Dorothy Parker—as paradigms of camp style. See "Camp" in The Encyclopedia of Homosexuality (New York: Garland Publishing, 1990), 189-90. 24lvry, Francis Poulenc, 43. Cocteau recalls a certain party with "Poulenc completely naked. Valentine [Hugo] dying of fear that her maid would be scandalized. Poulenc as comfortable as if he were wearing a monk's cowl." 25Ibid., 36. 26 Sontag, "Notes on Camp," 115-19. For a broader interpretation of the origins of camp and its current political significance, see Moe Meyers, éd., The Politics and Poetics of Camp (London: Routledge, 1994). 78 CUMR/RMUC halls, cabarets and drag clubs. Such venues have been and continue to be important meeting places for the gay demi-monde, and Poulenc visited these places frequently, as did Cocteau. Here, singers such as Yvonne Printemps and Edith Piaf first presented themselves to the public as artists of all sexual persuasions looked on with admiration. After attending performances of Berthe Bovy, Cocteau immediately decided to engage her in his new monodrama for the Comédie Française in early 1930. Cocteau's fascination with the rejected lover was not unique to Voix, however, but may extend back to his own love affair with the young Raymond Radiguet ( 1903-23), who died suddenly at the age of twenty. The event was a crisis from which Cocteau never fully recovered, a tragedy he exorcised on the stage in works such as Le Bel Indifférent (The Handsome Indifferent One), written as a monodrama for Piaf. The camp aspect of Voix is immediately evident in Cocteau's exceedingly precise and melodramatic stage directions, which include such indications as a "lampe envoyant une lumière cruelle" and the general setting of "une chambre de meurtre" where Elle is "étendue, comme assassinée." Added to these directions are further stipulations for Elle herself, who must be played "par une femme jeune et élégante." Given Cocteau's penchant for younger men, this direction is hardly arbitrary. For Poulenc, the camp aspects are perhaps less overt, but no less present in the musical setting. While his strict Catholic upbringing precipitated enormous guilt regarding same-sex romantic liaisons, according to some reports, Poulenc was involved in frequent covert sexual activity, primarily with men of low social status. In his elevated role as a celebrated composer, Poulenc lived a double-life as dutiful Catholic on the one hand, and the wild gay party boy on the other. Reports of his exploits are generally excluded from biographies of the composer, perhaps as an attempt to preserve his status as a composer, but also because of an ingrained homo- phobia that is just beginning to be addressed in musicological discourse. Such events point to a fundamental dichotomy in the life of the composer: the division between piety and secularization. In an often-quoted statement, "My Music is My Portrait," Poulenc declared that his works present more than meets the eye.27 La Voix humaine blurs the boundaries between popular music and traditional classicism where sentimentality expressed in autobiographical terms is more important than prescribed musical structure. When we view Elle on stage we are actually observing Poulenc himself and, to a lesser extent, Cocteau. I shall return to this point later. For all the changes that took place in modern French music from the fin-de-siècle until 1960, Poulenc's style of composition remained remarkably consistent, anchored by a firm sense of tonality and certain allowable disso- nances à la Stravinsky. Moments of extreme lyricism alternate with acerbic writing to create a tapestry of styles that emerge in work after work. In La Voix humaine, however, Poulenc's customary lyricism is replaced with a conversa- tional style that rarely allows for lyrical expression, even in the vocal line. The small orchestra is used with great care to highlight and in some cases define 27 Francis Poulenc, "My Music is My Portrait," Opera News (5 February 1977): 30. 22/1 (2001) 79 the emotional landscape of the play. With the absence of a second character, Elle must shoulder the weight of the entire drama alone. Poulenc's typical approach to musical structure may be related to the style of block form used in numerous modern compositions, with Stravinsky as the paradigm. Alternating blocks of sound are the norm, sometimes with limited recourse to functional harmony. In composition after composition, Poulenc's musical modus operandi may be summarized as follows: lush, jazz-tinged harmonic sequences alternating with shorter, motivic ideas. Generally, the proportions of these ideas tend to favor moments of lyrical expression. Again, Voix is different in this regard. Here, Poulenc employs a small group of rhythmic motives that appear in numerous guises as the work continues. As Keith Daniel has noted in his study of the composer, such "cells" are used throughout the work as the threads that will hold the opera together.281 would argue, however, that these musical motives are in fact the only means of musical clarity in a work where the vocal line, in a constant state of flux and unrest, is focused on the expression of Cocteau's text. The autobiographical implications of Voix for Cocteau and especially Poulenc condition the structure of the music, presented in a jumbled haze of images, emotions, and feelings. In an important letter from Poulenc to Rose Dercourt-Plaut, the composer confirmed the significance of Voix for his emotional well-being: "My Voix humaine is opening in Paris on 6 February and in Milan on the 18th. Duval is superb in an astonishing production by Cocteau. I will send you the music to this atrocious tragedy (my own). It is a musical confession!!!"29 L I F E AS T H E A T R E "I have copied out La Voix. It is a monstrous work." Poulenc, August 1958 We know very little about this beautiful woman, Elle, at the opening of La Voix humaine. Cocteau has provided no details concerning here background, social status, financial security, temperament, or real name. We know even less about her former lover, "l'homme inconnu." Even though he is the cause of her anxiety, he never appears on the stage, never speaks, never interjects. As a result, Elle is thrust into the dramatic and emotional spotlight, where our sympathies are manipulated in her favor. We have been given no other choice. A lonely, isolated figure, with only the invisible audience for comfort, we assume the guise of voyeur, enchanted and confused by her often incoherent ramblings. Mysteries, vague recollections, and unspoken voices are in fact important aspects of Cocteau's text. Cocteau's experiences as a gay man necessarily informed his art. While not consumed by the erotic or homoerotic in his writings, at least in an overt manner, Cocteau used numerous opportunities to express coded messages that would have been clear to his colleagues and 28 For a thorough discussion of the cellular structure of Voix, see Daniel, Francis Poulenc, 306-12. Significantly, Daniel notes that "there is more sustained tonal ambiguity in this opera than in any other Poulenc work of comparable length." Ibid., 308-9. 29Letter dated 30 January 1959 in Buckland, Francis Poulenc: Selected Correspondence, 257. 80 CUMR/RMUC associates. In her important study of Cocteau, Lydia Crowson writes about Cocteau's diverse personal experiences, where "he managed to participate in a boulevard tradition as well as in homosexual, elite 6in-group' creations."30 The perception of Cocteau as one writing from personal experience, even if those experiences were not articulated per se in the works themselves, is a frequent topic of Crowson's study. In keeping with the image of a writer where "life is theater," Crowson also notes that "Cocteau utilized his art as a personal exorcism or protection against reality instead of as an affirmation of knowl- edge"31 and that his works form a "microcosm of his mental structures."32 In his quest for privacy amidst all of these coded personal references, Cocteau turned to the opaque language of innuendo and understatement. Crowson iterates a core of essential terms describing Cocteau's art that would include "cipher," "hieroglyph," "code," "game," and "trick."33 Cocteau's frenetic personal life, and the numerous romantic relationships he cultivated during his career, provided ample impetus for the neurotic hysteria that would form the basis of La Voix humaine.34 The subject matter of Voix, then, is not without precedent in Cocteau's œuvre, with the same general topic appearing in the 1940 Le Bel Indifférent. First performed as a curtain- raiser for the play Les Monstres sacrés at the Théâtre des Bouffes Parisiens, the work concerns a woman abandoned by a former romantic interest. On the surface, the piece appears to have much in common with La Voix humaine, but there are in fact several key differences, articulated by Crowson when she states that Le Bel Indifférent, "presented at the state-supported Comédie Française, is almost bourgeois with its commonplace framework of the mistress rejected by her lover who has decided to marry another woman." On the other hand, La Voix humaine "is much harsher, devoid of most romantic pretense: in the place of an impending marriage, only the man's indifference separates the two people in their hotel room, and nothing indicates that the woman's love was ever reciprocated."35 In addition, Elle is of a higher social class than the nameless woman in Le Bel Indifférent."36 Personal and private events were also a significant source of artistic inspira- tion for Francis Poulenc. While both Poulenc and Cocteau were influenced by their strict Catholic upbringing and wealthy social pedigrees, Poulenc was reluctant to embrace his homosexuality in the same manner as Cocteau, who openly flaunted his role as homosexual bon vivant. Such reticence led him into a series of failed and frustrated romantic encounters, often with men poorly 30 Lydia Crowson, The Esthetic of Jean Cocteau (Hanover, New Hampshire: The University Press of New Hampshire, 1978), 11. 31 Ibid. 32Ibid., 72. 33 Ibid., 27. Crowson confirms the importance of the stage works in understanding the writer when she says that "Cocteau's theater provides a much fuller, more complex insight into his mind than his films do." Ibid., 10. 34 A partial list of Cocteau's love interests would include Jean Marais, Maurice Sachs, Jean Desorbes and, of course, Raymond Radiguet. See ibid., 24-25. 35Ibid.,21. 36Brown, An Impersonation of Angels, 319. 22/1 (2001) 81 suited to his temperament or artistic status. Wilfrid Mellers has described Poulenc's unique situation: "When he was high he was very, very high, but when he was low he was horrid; and his moments of near-suicidal des- pair—'full of moss and melancholy'—were occasioned as much by failures of confidence in his creativity as by his love affairs, whether they were the agonizing traumas like the relationship with Lucien, or whether they were ephemeral like the usually low-class youths who fleetingly tickled his fancy."37 Poulenc's love-related traumas—ubiquitous subjects in his corre- spondence—sometimes threatened to unseat several important, non-sexual relationships in his life. None was more significant to the composer than Pierre Bernac, his recital collaborator and confidant for more than three decades. At times, even this relationship was on thin ice, and after a particularly lugubrious letter concerning a falling out with Roubert, Bernac fired back angrily that you have worn down the affection of this loyal but not very interesting boy. I am sorry for you if you really love him as much as you think you do, something of which I am not entirely sure ... Face the reality plainly and squarely, and put up with it. You are not the first nor the last to suffer from a broken heart... Francis Poulenc, even on the human plane, is surely greater than this.38 To an emotionally volatile composer, writing about his "consuming love for Lucien, which far from abating only seems to grow more intense," Bernac's words must have been difficult to take.39 For Cocteau and Poulenc, personal exorcism came on the stage, and we can well see the two artists exploiting a connection between life and art discussed by Ivan Martison: At the opera we hear our most extreme feelings take over individuals and work themselves out to justify the melodramatic catharsis we can but fantasize in real life, and liberate us, somewhat, from the miasma of reality. Next Don Giovanni you go to, identify yourself with Donna Elvira and picture a recent flame as the callous Don.40 A GHOST IN THE MACHINE For all its musical and textual finesse, La Voix humaine is a relentlessly cheerless work, a study in melancholy. Cocteau's text, vague and emotionally charged, is half silence, half sound, with large sections of the script filled with ellipses, creating wordless, unspoken moments. The unheard voice is that of 37 Wilfrid Mellers, Francis Poulenc (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), 181. Mellers is one of the few Poulenc biographers to deal openly with the sexual orientation of the composer. Poulenc's affair with the handsome Lucien Roubert was a tremendous source of anguish when that affection was not returned. Another significant love interest was Richard Chanlaire, "my big peasant." See Buckland, Francis Poulenc: Selected Correspondence, 250. In his extensive biographical sketches of Poulenc's correspondents, Chanlaire and Garband are curiously omitted. 38Mellers, Francis Poulenc, 180. In reference to Cocteau's general demeanor, Mellers correctly states that "everything is theatrical." 39ibid., 181. 40Ivan Martison, "How to Be an Opera Queen," Christopher Street 69 (October 1982): 18. 82 CUMR/RMUC the male lover, who remains mysterious and enigmatic, his significance to the plot entirely filtered through Elle. Certainly Cocteau was aware that such a work would present tremendous challenges for the performer, and so he employed another mute character, the telephone itself. Far from serving as a mere prop, the phone becomes at once the final palpable link between the two former lovers, a phallic symbol, and a possible agent of suicide. The importance of mechanical objects in Cocteau's works has been con- firmed by Crowson, who states that From Death's mechanized ritualin Orphée to the telephone in La Voix humaine and Œdipus' intricate destruction in La Machine infernale, machines and mechanical devices form one of the constants in Cocteau's art. Like his virtuosity, his use of machinery is far from gratuitous.41 Furthermore, Daniel says that since the telephone represents for Elle the "sole link to her lover, the receiver almost becomes a second on-stage character."42 Also significant to the plot is the unreliability of the French telephone system, constantly threatening to sever the only source of communication between the two. The telephone, "an oddly powerful trope through which to theorize mourning," has a long and lively history in psychoanalysis and gay studies. La Voix humaine is a work centered on nostalgia and grief: nostalgia for lost love, lost youth, for what might have been. The telephone is the conduit for the end of a relationship with "l'homme inconnu" and, metaphorically, for the end of her life, whether literally or figuratively.43 The telephone is also an appropriate conduit for drama because it is imme- diately recognizable. Everyone in an audience can relate to using this device for some negative purpose, whether to conclude a love affair, or for a more mundane purpose. The banality of the machine masks its potency. In the 1948 Italian film of the play, La Voce umana, Ellis Hanson describes Anna Mag- nani's portrayal of Elle as enlivened by her loss, even as it renders her suicidal. The telephone generates an absence acutely felt, and silence on the line makes her panic... Even when connection is made, she panics ... she is suspicious ... she hears music, and she is told it is coming from next door. She hears other voices on the line. I watch Anna Magnani string out her sentences, wearing the tether thin with conjunctions, ellipses, question marks, speaking in fragments, incantory, 41 Crowson, The Esthetic of Jean Cocteau, 34. The cult of the machine is also a significant trope in Le Coq et VArlequin, where Cocteau refers to the Eiffel Tower as the "queen of machines." 42 Daniel, Francis Poulenc, 307. 43Ellis Hanson, "The Telephone and Its Queerness," in Cruising the Performative: Interventions Into the Representation of Ethnicity, Nationality, and Sexuality, ed. Sue-Ellen Case, Philip Brett, and Susan Leigh Foster (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1995), 40. This important article discussed the role of the telephone and other types of technology in the lives of gay men, the insane, and within popular culture. At one point, Hanson states: "The telephone as an important mechanism of fantasy and pleasure in modernity is attested to by the burgeoning canon of psychological case studies on so-called telephone neuroses, compulsive telephoning, and perverse telephoning." Ibid., 37. At one point or another in Voix, Elle engages in all of these. 22/1 (2001) 83 summoning a lover, speaking from a fear of silence, deferring the inevitable click.44 Elle must maintain the connection at all costs and becomes certifiably hysterical when this connection is severed, even briefly. Cocteau's usage of language in Voix is ideally suited to the dramatic situation where complete, coherent sentences would be less effective in communicating the drama. Instead, we see an essential element in Cocteau's dramatic method, the tech- nique of fragmentation.45 Equally potent in Voix, is the power of repetition, where "language assumes the power of incantation";46 textual repetitions are reinforced as Poulenc repeats small musical cells throughout the opera. In the play, moments of disconnection take on the guise of campy tragedy, especially when Elle realizes that she may not reconnect with her lover, and asks God—or some unknown presence—to restore the connection. ("Mon Dieu, fait' qu'il redemande.") Desperate and near the breaking point, she will do anything to keep him on the line. Since the telephone connection remains the only point of contact between them, she must keep him there or risk losing him forever. Musically, Poulenc's score is a perfect complement to Cocteau's discursive and non-linear libretto. At 780 bars, almost 25 percent of which are sung a cappella, the crucial text is presented with great clarity. In keeping with the hysteria of the dramatic situation, where typical operatic lyricism is inappro- priate, the musical style remains tied to recitative practice, with only a few moments of typical Poulecian lyricism. These rare moments are reserved for nostalgic section of the text, especially when Elle recalls happier times in their relationship. More often, however, "Absolute silence ... accounts for the majority of the supposed conversation of the lover."47 The silences confirm and respect the quality of Cocteau's text, as textual ellipses are translated into musical silences. At other times, Poulenc's music can not help but fill in the gaps left by the absent second player. Here, the orchestral material—a series of brief repeated motives—holds the opera together and, more importantly, manipulates our sympathies in the direction of Elle, who is presented by Poulenc as a great tragic heroine. What we are seeing is diva campiness in excelsis as she rants and raves with no motivation other than to reclaim a love affair that had doubtless ended well before the play began. She is mentally and emotionally out of control. There is also a connection between La Voix humaine and traditional opera: the mad scene. Although generally associated with the Italian bel canto school, mad scenes involve women who temporarily (and sometimes permanently) escape reality for a fantasy world populated by images of their former lovers. The tonal ambiguity, frequent shifts of mood and texture, and repeated notes 44lbid., 43. 45Crowson, The Esthetic of Jean Cocteau, 62. In many ways, Voix transforms the elliptical, fragmented medium of the telegram-^one of Cocteau's most characteristic forms of expresssion—into spoken form. I would like to thank Tom Gordon for bringing this to my attention. 46Ibid., 68. 47Daniel, Francis Poulenc, 307. 84 CUMR/RMUC in Voix evoke an extended version of the mad scene from Lucia di Lammer- moor, long considered the archetypical example of madness in opera. In Voix, the telephone—and even the telephone cord—become agents of her eccentric, campy hysteria, as she walks around the small apartment holding the phone and caressing the phone cord as if it were "II." The device becomes a surrogate for the lover who, as in Lucia, is absent from the scene. Later, the cord becomes an agent of escape as she begins to wrap it around her neck, a final attempt to win his sympathies and to restore their bond. Even this ploy fails. In several parts of the score, the unstable vocal line shows her on the brink of madness and hysteria, especially when she declares that waiting for him had caused her to temporarily lose her sanity. Here, she ascends to a high C, the top note in the entire score, as one further attempt to attract his attention. The score as a whole is peppered with disjunct vocal fragments that personify her growing anxiety (example 5). Example 5. La Voix humaine, bars 388-90 To paraphrase a statement from the opening of this essay, La Voix humaine is a curious, uncomfortable work which does not fit securely within the traditional boundaries of opera or play. The work is truly sui generis, at least in the history of opera, which makes Poulenc's statement that the work was composed "in the state of a trance" that much more appropriate.48 It is a work revealing the inner thoughts, emotions, and private struggles of its creators, sentiments never intended to be completely evident to the audience. This is private music, for the in-crowd. For those able to appreciate its subtleties, it is a works of genius, revealing naked emotions rarely exhibited on the stage with such realism. And yet, it is also a difficult work to take seriously, to inhabit, because of the histrionics of Elle. Her discourse is broad, campy, and ex- aggerated. In a sense, Poulenc's music assists us in understanding Elle's voice as the voice of humanity, La Voix humaine. The opera affords no easy resolu- tion: happy endings or final celebratory duets are absent. What we are left with, 48Buckland, Francis Poulenc: Selected Correspondence, 254. 22/1 (2001) 85 then, is a moment in time, a snapshot of despair. In the words of Ellis Hanson, "The pleasures of paranoia are not to be underestimated."49 Neither are the pleasures of camp. La Voix humaine exhibits both qualities in abundance. Abstract Poulenc's Dialogues des Carmélites has been consistently identified as the summit of his operatic works. Such an assessment has assured that his final opera, La Voix humaine, based on Cocteau's monodrama, has been overlooked, the impetus for its composition inadequately defined. Musically, La Voix humaine employs a complex tonal language unprecedented in Poulenc's com- positional arsenal. Rather than advancing the interpretation that Poulenc com- posed Voix out of loyalty to Cocteau, I propose that the opera represents his final attempt to come to terms with his homosexuality. Numerous references in corre- spondence expose the opera as a mirror of Poulenc's emotional life. Poulenc and Cocteau's employment of gay camp also informs the work and provides a glimpse into possible hidden meanings. A closer examination of this neglected work reveals new insights into Poulenc's troubled and elusive personality. Résumé L'opéra Dialogues des Carmélites de Poulenc a toujours été considéré comme le sommet de son œuvre opératique. Il est résulté d'une telle appréciation qu'on a négligé son dernier opéra, La Voix humaine, sur un livret de Cocteau, et que l'élan qui a présidé à sa composition a été mal cerné. Musicalement, La Voix humaine déploie un langage tonal complexe sans précédent dans l'arsenal de composition de Poulenc. Sans prétendre que Poulenc ait composé La Voix humaine par loyauté envers Cocteau, je soutiens plutôt que l'opéra représente la dernière tentative de Poulenc pour accepter son homosexualité. De nom- breuses références mises en correspondance révèlent que l'opéra est un reflet de la vie émotive de Poulenc. L'emploi par Poulenc et Cocteau de manières efféminées propres aux gays renseigne sur l'œuvre et donne un aperçu de possibles significations sous-entendues. Un examen attentif de cette œuvre négligée jette un nouvel éclairage sur la personnalité tourmentée et insaisissable de Poulenc. 49Hanson, "The Telephone and Its Queerness," 45. 
work_vx2jxvfm5reghib3pydctzoqfq	----	[PDF] Kinds of Authenticity | Semantic Scholar Skip to search formSkip to main content> Semantic Scholar's Logo Search Sign InCreate Free Account You are currently offline. Some features of the site may not work correctly. DOI:10.1111/PHC3.12343 Corpus ID: 51829146Kinds of Authenticity @article{Newman2016KindsOA, title={Kinds of Authenticity}, author={George E. Newman and Rosanna K. Smith}, journal={Philosophy Compass}, year={2016}, volume={11}, pages={609-618} } George E. Newman, Rosanna K. Smith Published 2016 Sociology Philosophy Compass The concept of authenticity plays an important role in how people reason about objects, other people, and themselves. However, despite a great deal of academic interest in this concept, to date, the precise meaning of the term, authenticity, has remained somewhat elusive. This paper reviews the various definitions of authenticity that have been proposed in the literature and identifies areas of convergence. We then outline a novel framework that organizes the existing definitions of… Expand View via Publisher faculty.som.yale.edu Save to Library Create Alert Cite Launch Research Feed Share This Paper 33 CitationsBackground Citations 11 View All Tables from this paper table 1 33 Citations Citation Type Citation Type All Types Cites Results Cites Methods Cites Background Has PDF Publication Type Author More Filters More Filters Filters Sort by Relevance Sort by Most Influenced Papers Sort by Citation Count Sort by Recency The Psychology of Authenticity George E. Newman Psychology 2019 13 PDF Save Alert Research Feed Acting on Authenticity: Individual Interpretations and Behavioral Responses David W. Lehman, Kieran O'Connor, G. Carroll Psychology 2019 4 Save Alert Research Feed Authenticity and Institutional Context: Individual Preferences in China G. Carroll, M. Feng, Y. He, Kieran O'Connor, L. Wang Sociology 2019 1 View 1 excerpt, cites background Save Alert Research Feed The Perils of Proclaiming an Authentic Organizational Identity B. Kovács, G. Carroll, David W. Lehman Sociology 2017 17 PDF View 1 excerpt, cites background Save Alert Research Feed The Beholder’s Eyes: Audience Reactions to Organizational Self-claims of Authenticity David W. Lehman, B. Kovács, G. Carroll Psychology 2018 4 Save Alert Research Feed Donn, Vic and tiki bar authenticity G. Carroll, Dennis Ray Wheaton Sociology 2019 Save Alert Research Feed The need to belong motivates demand for authentic objects George E. Newman, Rosanna K. Smith Psychology, Medicine Cognition 2016 11 PDF Save Alert Research Feed The Vanity of Small Differences Shen-yi Liao, Aaron Meskin, J. Fletcher 2020 Save Alert Research Feed Pastoral Authenticity and the Duplex Cognitio Dei Christopher Thomas DiVietro Philosophy 2020 View 1 excerpt, cites background Save Alert Research Feed Inauthenticity aversion: Moral reactance toward tainted actors, actions, and objects Ike Silver, George E. Newman, D. Small Psychology 2020 PDF View 1 excerpt, cites background Save Alert Research Feed ... 1 2 3 4 ... References SHOWING 1-10 OF 30 REFERENCES SORT BYRelevance Most Influenced Papers Recency Authenticity: Attribution, Value, and Meaning G. Carroll Psychology 2015 26 PDF Save Alert Research Feed The Moral Virtue of Authenticity F. Gino, M. Kouchaki, A. Galinsky Psychology, Medicine Psychological science 2015 74 PDF Save Alert Research Feed Consumer Perceptions of Iconicity and Indexicality and Their Influence on Assessments of Authentic Market Offerings K. Grayson, R. Martinec Psychology 2004 710 Highly Influential View 6 excerpts, references background Save Alert Research Feed Reconceptualizing object authenticity. Y. Reisinger, C. Steiner Sociology 2006 473 View 1 excerpt, references background Save Alert Research Feed The Quest for Authenticity in Consumption: Consumers’ Purposive Choice of Authentic Cues to Shape Experienced Outcomes M. Beverland, F. Farrelly Psychology 2010 442 View 1 excerpt, references background Save Alert Research Feed Art and authenticity: the importance of originals in judgments of value. George E. Newman, P. Bloom Psychology, Medicine Journal of experimental psychology. General 2012 156 PDF View 2 excerpts, references background Save Alert Research Feed Projecting Authenticity Through Advertising: Consumer Judgments of Advertisers' Claims M. Beverland, A. Lindgreen, M. Vink Psychology 2008 267 PDF Save Alert Research Feed The organizational construction of authenticity: An examination of contemporary food and dining in the U.S. G. Carroll, Dennis Ray Wheaton Sociology 2008 134 PDF Save Alert Research Feed The Organizational Construction of Authenticity: An Examination of Contemporary Food and Dining in the U.S. G. Carroll, Dennis Ray Wheaton 2008 1 View 1 excerpt, references background Save Alert Research Feed Paradox and the Consumption of Authenticity through Reality Television R. L. Rose, S. Wood Sociology 2005 341 Save Alert Research Feed ... 1 2 3 ... Related Papers Abstract Tables 33 Citations 30 References Related Papers Stay Connected With Semantic Scholar Sign Up About Semantic Scholar Semantic Scholar is a free, AI-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the Allen Institute for AI. 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work_w6wgq25c2vdqvecc5ltnd2oy6y	----	Microsoft Word - 2217-7337_v08_n02_p145.doc Research in Pedagogy, Vol.8, No.2, Year 2018, pp. 145-161 ________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 145 Msc. Katja Kozjek Varl1 Original scientific paper Elementary School Malečnik UDC: 37.036 Dr. sc. Jerneja Herzog2 DOI: 10.17810/2015.80 University of Maribor, Faculty of Education Slovenia =============================================================================== KNOWLEDGE AND IDENTIFICATION OF DIFFERENT ARTISTIC PRACTICES Abstract: With its ambient, interesting and dynamic use of materials, alternative views of materials and objects, with its playfulness and affecting different senses contemporary fine art can be very interesting for art-educational work. Due to its complexity, however, it suffers from misunderstanding, retreat, and last but not least also fears both among teachers and learners. With the present article we wish to present a broader view of basic school pupils of fine art both historically and contemporarily. We wished to determine what views students have of contemporary artistic practices and to what extent they know fine art. The results obtained with guided interviews and worksheets indicate that students are not well informed about contemporary and historical artistic practices. They nevertheless demonstrate great openness, curiosity and relaxation, willingness to get to know these practices deeper under proper guidance of the teacher and also to become enthusiastic about them. Key words: contemporary artistic practices, fine art, teaching art, basic school. Introduction Through new findings from the point of view of fine art the child develops competences for life (Robinson, 2006; Kroflic, 2010). It is therefore important teachers are aware in art classes learners are not just instructed, but brought up through art, formed, and taught how to become human, how to understand the environment in which we all live, and how to get integrated into the society (Kroflic, 2010). Through fine art we learn the language of art, which is rich in emotional and also spiritual content. The awareness is therefore vital that through such a process learners are permanently expressing themselves and developing the ability of accepting and perceiving works of art (Duh, 2015). Experiencing and understanding a work of art is the process in which two types of knowledge are combined, experiential and theoretical (Lachapelle, Murray, & Neim, 2003). For this reason the role of school is extremely important in this context, as it trains the young human to be able to acquire the world and the environment in which he lives. Close to that it is very important to also accept and understand the cultural field, although at times it is inappropriate or even controversial. However, says Zupancic (2011), “controversial” works are an important component of contemporary art as well, and through it of contemporary society. He agrees with Efland (1990) and Hardy (2006), that such contemporary fine art exactly is an essential component of contemporary teaching 1 katja.k.varl@gmail.com 2 jerneja.herzog@um.si Research in Pedagogy, Vol.8, No.2, Year 2018, pp. 145-161 ________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 146 of fine art in schools. We see the role of teacher in art-educational practice as being able with her or his approach to eliminate the gaps in the understanding of modern times in contemporary artistic practices. “Teachers, precisely, are the ones who in schools are able also with the assistance of special exercises, creative tasks, and didactic approaches to purposefully develop artistic creativity and creative thinking of students” (Herzog, 2009: 20). This is why we see art teachers have a great responsibility, as they (alone) are the ones who can introduce learners into the world of understanding contemporary fine art. We must, however, act cautiously, introduce the contents of contemporary fine art gradually and systematically and under the condition that we know the pupils very well. We must guide them from established ways of practicing art via modernistic approaches to contemporary artistic practices explaining the key moments and concepts to them. Positive results of this kind of approach can be found in research, which shows that learners who get encountered and acquainted with contemporary art and who get to know it have positive experience with it (Vrlic & Cagran, 2003; Zupancic, 2006;Arriaga & Aguirre, 2013). We find important the awareness of the “broader background of the emergence of a work of art, of the interlacement of the work of art with the environment, the presentation of relations between the work of art and life, connection with conceptual contents; which we find especially sensible in the presentation of conceptual artistic practices that represent the main orientation of contemporary fine art” (Vrlic, 2002: 7). Authors (Vrlic & Cagran, 2003; Zupancic, 2006; 2011; Bracun Sova & Kemperl, 2012; Kemperl, 2013a; 2013b) have been warning about a lack of contents of contemporary fine arts in the teaching of art in Slovenian educational space for several years. It is important students understand the interpretation of a contemporary work of art, which consists of integrating analysis and evaluation of the work of art (Arriga & Aguirre, 2013). In the response of learners, in which definite abilities of forming one’s own opinion are developed, co-created, and shaped through reflection, interrogation and integration with the environment is extremely important (Charman, Rose& Wilson, 2006). Without explanation it is difficult or even impossible to understand the interpretation, this is why it is often subject to bad or even rejecting first impressions. These first impressions, exactly, are vital for further experiencing the artwork, regardless of what kind they are (Strnad, 2009). Appropriate level of experience and internalisation of the work of art is a good foundation for upgrading – the reaction. The latter can be verbal, descriptive, or artistic (Duh, 2015). For spectators getting to know, studying, experiencing and evaluating art works is important as in this way it is easier for them through their own experience to understand the functioning of artists and of art (Callaway & Kear, 2000). Research problem and objectives We were interested in what view eighth grade pupils of basic school have of contemporary art practices and to what extent they know fine art. Methodology Research method The qualitative method of educational research was applied, namely the causal non- experimental method. To obtain data, semi-structured guided interview and worksheets were applied. Research in Pedagogy, Vol.8, No.2, Year 2018, pp. 145-161 ________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 147 Research sample Eighth grade pupils of Malečnik Basic School participated in the research. In the class there were 15 (100 %) pupils, of these 7 (47 %) boys and 8 (53 %) girls. Research questions In the research we wished to determine what attitude the pupils have toward contemporary fine art, how the pupils understand the communication of artworks and how they connect them with everyday life. The research questions we asked are: • What attitude do the pupils have toward contemporary art? (RQ1) • How do the pupils understand the content and the communication of artworks or how they connect the latter with everyday life? (RQ2) • What interest and desire is there to get to know diverse artistic practices? (RQ3) Data gathering procedure A non-structured interview was carried out and recorded (audio taped) with the pupils. The data and information were transcribed and ranked. Results and interpretation Analysis of the views of contemporary fine art The results are presented in the way to unite the answers and thoughts of the pupils of all the three participating groups (A, B, and C) as it turned out a lot of statements were very similar to each other. Some of the statements were different, which was promptly recorded. Table 1: Ranking order of the categories of answers of all participating groups linked to the question about the attitude of pupils toward art and fine art. Category Rank The meaning of art and of fine art 1 Expressing thoughts, emotions, feeling through art 2 To paint, create, sculpture something 3 We encounter it in everyday life, it is connected with everything Man’s choice for art 1 This is the way to express thoughts and emotions 2 They like doing this, it makes them happy, they are good at it 3 They want to attract attention The purpose of art – who it is intended for 1 For all people 2 For those who like it 3 The artist does this for himself Research in Pedagogy, Vol.8, No.2, Year 2018, pp. 145-161 ________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 148 The meaning of art and of fine art To the question what art means to them and what fine art is (Table 1) the pupils of all the three groups answered the most frequently that art means expression of artist’s thoughts, emotions, and feelings. The answers of pupils followed who connected art with creation (painting, sculpturing) and finally of the students who linked art with everyday life (architecture, design). As mentioned above, the non-structured interview with the pupils was carried out in a relaxed conversation, where also any sub-questions were asked. At the mentioned question we also wished to know what pupils connect art to. In addition to museums and galleries the pupils also connected art to books, the street, school classes, the Internet, magazines, literature, dance, music, theatre (“the things that are set at the stage, singing, dance, play”). Man’ choice for art Thinking why one chooses to engage in art (Table 1) the pupils stated the most frequently this is the way the artist expresses his thoughts and emotions. We additionally underline this category with pupils’ statements: “If someone is silent, they can express themselves, tell their life story through art”, “for others to see what he thinks”. The answers follow that the artist enjoys being creative: “because he likes art”, “because they like what they are doing”, “because everyone is good at an area”. The last in rank were the answers of the pupils who thought the artist wants to attract attention: “because he wants to be famous, visible, wants to show off”, “he wants to attract the attention of other people and invent something new, so others can see what he is capable of”. The purpose of art - who it is intended for Most pupils agreed an artwork is intended for all people (Table 1). Although in the interpretation the answers of all groups were united we nevertheless find it important to highlight the answers of group 7A, as they differed the most from the answers of other two groups reflecting an important factor namely the lack of knowledge of the problem in comparison to the other two groups. Let us just mention a few of these statements: “to those who find it interesting to look at a work of art“, “Some people buy themselves a work of art and expose it in the flat because it reminds them of something”, “You can get new ideas”, “You get to know sights and explore otherness in the world“. The responses of the pupils followed who thought art is only intended for those who like it. The last in the rank of frequency are the responses of the pupils who thought the artist only creates artworks for himself. This category of responses is underlined with the following statements of pupils: “The artist works for himself and for people”, “For himself to express his emotions and for people to see what he thinks”, “Even if it has no onlookers, the work can be successful”. To conclude, we can see the given answers (Table 1) reflect the expected view of the pupils on the discuss topic, as it was the first time they were faced with this kind of questions. This is the reason why the answers were sincere in their spontaneity, which we also could witness in the pleasant discussion at the end of the set of questions. Research in Pedagogy, Vol.8, No.2, Year 2018, pp. 145-161 ________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 149 Table 2: Ranking order of the categories of answers connected with the question about fine art at school Category Rank Why do we meet fine art in school 1 Because it is general education 2 If someone wants to study fine art so they can learn something before 3 So we can express our thoughts and be relaxed Links to other subjects 1 Mathematics 2 History 3 Natural sciences What do you like doing the best in art classes 1 Drawing 2 Shaping in clay 3 Graphics Why do we meet fine art in school The most frequent answer of pupils to the question why we meet fine art in school (Table 2) was it is about general education. Let us underline this with “If someone goes to a museum to know how much effort was invested in this, why, what the artist thought”, “So we can value a work of art, a culture”, “To be able to identify pictures”, “So we are better generally knowledgeable”, “So we can distinguish between a drawing and a picture”, “Because we meet it in everyday life”. As the second in rank of the most frequent responses the fact was selected by the pupils that if someone wants to continue schooling they already learn something at school, underlined with “If someone wants to become a painter”, “So we can go to painting school”, “If someone among us is talented in the area of art, to be able to further develop the talent”. To the last place in rank the answers of the pupils have been put who stated with fine art emotions are expressed – underlined with “To relax our thoughts, what we have in mind, if we drew a product to tell what he thinks”. Links to other subjects At the question whether fine art can be connected with other school / learning subjects, initially the pupils were reserved. After some consideration they exposed (Table 2) mathematics the most frequently “Links to drawing shapes and lines, symmetry, graphical representation, Leonardo da Vinci assisted himself with the knowledge of mathematics”. The answers follow that referred to history “Egyptian pyramids, they drew and painted in history already, because also artists learn something, they created in history already” and natural sciences as the last in rank “Drawing cells, animals”. In addition to the mentioned ranks and categories we find it interesting to highlight the responses of the pupils who stated the technique “Drawing, precision, skill, blueprints of buildings, sketches of statues” and Slovenian “Illustration, pictures”. The pupils of group C thought further: “Probably art has this connection with ethics, because there everyone has their opinion, every opinion is correct, also here every drawing has something in a way, you can think freely”. At enumerating a student concluded: “You could find a connection with almost any subject, even with geography or sport”. Research in Pedagogy, Vol.8, No.2, Year 2018, pp. 145-161 ________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 150 What do you like doing the best in art classes The pupils of all the three groups exposed drawing the most frequently as what they like doing the best in art classes (Table 2). The answers followed that related to shaping in clay and as the last in rank were the responses that covered the area of graphics. In art classes artistic material is a strong motivational element. In the first part the provided responses are not really surprising. Only at the statement of a girl pupil in group C “When we are drawing (creating) our themes, motifs“ the pupils began thinking more broadly. At this the pupils were also prompted with the sub-question whether in artistic creation only artistic material is what really matters. Then some pupils answered it is not: “My ideas arise from inspiration“, “From everyday life”, “The idea is what matters”, “The technique or the way how we are going to approach the work”, “Skill and training”, “Imagination is important”. In the interview we wished to obtain the opinions of pupils about contemporary art and mainly about the knowledge of this area. Below the set of categories of responses to the questions relating to contemporary art is presented. Table 3: Ranking order of categories of some answers relating to questions about contemporary art. Category Rank Description of the concept of contemporary art 1 Something new, something that is topical at the time, modern 2 Unusual, different things 3 Everything can be art Where can we meet contemporary art 1 In museums and galleries 2 In the street 3 On the Internet What is the difference between contemporary and historical art 1 Artists help themselves with computers 2 They use different, more interesting materials 3 They do more interesting, crazy things Description of the concept of contemporary art At the concept of contemporary art the responses of the pupils are highlighted who stated the most frequently (Table 3) that it is something new, something that is topical at the time, and modern. The answers of the group of pupils follow who think contemporary art is unusual and different. At the third place of frequency the responses are found that today contemporary art can be anything. At the end we have to highlight the curiosity that the pupils of group A did not know the concept “contemporariness”, they did not know how to place it temporally in fine art. Where can we meet contemporary art The pupils stated the most frequently (Table 3) in galleries and museums and then that contemporary artists expose in the street. To underline: “Because today this is modern”, Research in Pedagogy, Vol.8, No.2, Year 2018, pp. 145-161 ________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 151 “Because this did not exist before”, “So everyone can see it”. Surprisingly, a group of pupils ranked the Internet as the last, relating it to recent technological achievements. What is the difference between contemporary and historical art At the question how contemporary art differs from historical art, the pupils most frequently stated work with computer. The pupils follow who highlighted different, more interesting materials “Artworks are more interesting because artists use imagination much more and they make crazy things”. As examples of different materials the pupils reported “Waste things”, “Earlier they didn’t know graffiti”. The last group of pupils thought artists have different, more original ideas “Artist think more broadly, there is no one who is right, everything is right” (Table 3). In spite of everything said, contemporary artistic materials with which contemporary artists create were unknown to the pupils. They named materials with which they had artistic experience at school (siporex, metal, arranger sponge, paper rolls, waste material). From the obtained results of the analysis of the interview we can conclude at the topic of contemporary art pupils express reserved positions and opinions, which reflects their lack of knowledge and uncertainty in discussions about unknown topics, contemporary art. We can recognise curiosity, inquisitiveness, and interest, however, to become more deeply acquainted with the topic. Also some statements of pupils prove this such as “We wish to be better acquainted with contemporary artists” and “We are more interested in contemporary art than in old artists”. With the presented results of the first part of the research we can answer the set research questions. What attitude do the pupils have toward contemporary art? (RQ1) and What interest and desire is there to get to know diverse artistic practices? (RQ3) Analysis of the knowledge of selected examples of fine art With the assistance of the worksheet we wished to obtain information from the pupils how they understand the content and the message of artworks or how they relate the latter with everyday life (RQ 2). The worksheet comprised six works of art from various historical periods. In the selection we followed the criterion that all the presented works of art have been confirmed by the art historical profession. Research in Pedagogy, Vol.8, No.2, Year 2018, pp. 145-161 ________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 152 Table 4: Ranking order of the categories of answers regarding the visibility of the content of the first example (Michelangelo: David, 1501-1504). Looking at the results (Table 4) we see that a majority of the pupils of group A interpreted the picture in the way it is a statue of a nude man. There were fewer pupils who stated merely it was a statue. The statement of a pupil was interesting that it was a man from Olympic games or an important person. More than half of the pupils of groups B and C stated it was the statue of David, while others merely wrote it was a statue, just a few mentioned nudity. Two pupils stated the author was Michelangelo, of these one pupil defined more precisely it was about a statue produced in the Renaissance and that emphasis is on the structure of the body. Based on the above we can conclude that the presented work of art is better known to pupils of higher grades, which was also expected. Table 5: Ranking order of the categories of answers regarding the understanding and interpretation of the message of the first example (Michelangelo: David, 1501-1504). Rank Category A B C f 1 Appearance, the structure of the nude body, the image of a human, the shape of the human 11 6 5 22 2 Pride, sign of power, hero 2 2 5 9 3 That we should not be ashamed of the nude body, that naked we are beautiful 5 2 1 8 4 Other 7 5 4 16 U n d e rs ta n d in g a n d in te rp re ta ti o n o f th e m e ss a g e Total number of pupils 25 15 15 55 Rank Category A B C f 1 Statue of a nude man, human body 18 2 3 23 2 David 0 10 8 18 3 Statue 5 3 2 10 4 Other 2 0 2 4 V is ib il it y o f co n te n t Total number of pupils 25 15 15 55 Research in Pedagogy, Vol.8, No.2, Year 2018, pp. 145-161 ________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 153 Looking at the frequency distribution of the responses of all the three groups (Table 5) we can notice that in all the three groups the interpretation prevails in the way that the statue provides information on what a nude human body looks like. Some pupils stated that people are also beautiful without clothes and that we need not be ashamed of our body. Also interesting is the interpretation of a pupil that the work communicates “some kind of struggle against the idea that homoerotic people should not socialise”. Only a few pupils of groups B and C stated we need not be ashamed of our body. A majority of the pupils understood the message of the work as a presentation of the exterior, the structure and the shape of the human body in the sense of research as well as that it conveys pride, sign of power, and a hero who will save us. The pupil thought more deeply who stated the work draws our attention to “what we people are like and how we sometimes get absorbed in thought“, while another pupil recognised the message of “loyalty” in the statue. Table 6: Ranking order of the categories of answers regarding the visibility of the content of the second example (Rembrandt van Rijn, The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp, 1632). Rank Category A B C f 1 Exploring the human body 7 12 7 26 2 Physician, surgeon, surgery 6 1 1 8 3 Autopsy 0 0 4 4 4 Sacrifice, worship 3 0 0 3 5 Other 9 2 3 14 V is ib il it y o f co n te n t Total number of pupils 25 15 15 55 Looking at the responses of the pupils (Table 6) of all the three groups, we can see that in all the three grups the pupils the most frequently defined the content as a presentation of the human body. The pupils explained the content of the work to themselves in quite diverse ways. They stated a “male companinship” observing a surgery, “a generation”, “eight men with another man”, etc. In contrast to group A the pupils in groups B and C stated the most frequently it was about exploring the human body “to see what organs a human has”. In addition to surgery the pupils of group C mentioned autopsy several times and empasised the man is dead. A majority mentioned autopsy for the purpose of researching the human body (organs), two pupils used the term “anatomy”. Similarly as in the previous work of art it proved also at this one that the pupils of higher grades know the content of the mentioned work of art better. Research in Pedagogy, Vol.8, No.2, Year 2018, pp. 145-161 ________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 154 Table 7: Ranking order of the categories of answers regarding the understanding and interpretation of the message of the second example (Rembrandt van Rijn, The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp, 1632). Rank Category A B C f 1 Exploring, autopsy of the human body in the past 6 8 3 17 2 Development, science, progress of medical science 5 6 6 17 3 Funeral of a human, someone has died 5 0 3 8 4 Other 9 1 3 9 U n d e rs ta n d in g a n d in te rp re ta ti o n o f th e m e ss a g e Total number of pupils 25 15 15 55 The pupils linked the interpretation of the message (Table 7) closely to the content, as very similar responses appeared. In group A a number of very different interpretations appeared: “that surgery was done on live, “that in medical profession there are a lot of people” and “that in the past there was no such assistance as today”. The pupils of group B interpreted the painting through the content of exploring the human body, surgery and autopsy were mentioned, a lot of pupils stated that the reproduction shows the development of science. The largest number of pupils of group C stated it was about research purpose and that means progress of medical science. Also interesting is the interpretation of a pupil who stated it was about “tranquillity”, another pupil wrote it was about “sadness and bewilderment”, and a third one, again, it was about “public autopsies”. We can conclude from the results that the students linked the content of the presented reproduction strongly with the recognised motif. Table 8: Ranking order of the categories of answers regarding the visibility of the content of the third example (Pablo Picasso, Girl before a Mirror, 1932). Rank Category A B C f 1 Two women (girls, friends) 13 3 6 22 2 A pregnant woman, mother and baby, woman and child 5 5 7 17 3 Love between two persons, friendship (between two women) 2 4 1 7 4 Other 5 3 1 9 V is ib il it y o f co n te n t Total number of pupils 25 15 15 55 It can be seen from Table 8 that the most often the pupils of all the three groups recognised two women in the reproduction and understood them as friends. The second in rank are the Research in Pedagogy, Vol.8, No.2, Year 2018, pp. 145-161 ________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 155 pupils who recognised a pregnant woman in the reproduction or a mother with baby. The fewest pupils stated love between two persons. The statement of a pupil is also interesting, that the painting represents “two faces composed of shapes”; two pupils mentioned “two multi-coloured humans who differ from each other”. Only one pupil from group B mentioned that the painting represents “a woman who is watching at herself in the mirror, at one side she is presented as she is, and on the other how she sees herself”. Table 9: Ranking order of the categories of answers regarding the understanding and interpretation of the message of the third example (Pablo Picasso, Pablo Picasso, Girl before a Mirror, 1932). Rank Category A B C f 1 That we are not all the same, diversity, otherness 5 6 2 13 2 Love 5 1 5 11 3 Friendship, love among friends 5 1 3 8 4 Motherly love 3 1 4 8 5 Other 7 6 1 14 U n d e rs ta n d in g a n d in te rp re ta ti o n o f th e m e ss a g e Total number of pupils 25 15 15 55 It can be read from the table (Table 9) that the answers of the pupils of the first group (A) are rather equally distributed according to categories. In group A the number of responses is the same in the first three ranks. In group B the pupils prevail who thought we are not all the same, diversity, otherness. In the last group (C) the pupils prevailed who interpreted the given reproduction with the concept of love. We quote some of the different interpretations recorded by pupils: “It communicates we must help each other”, “That in friendship religion, gender, race is not important …”, “church windows once”, “art, how we can make an image”, “embrace” … Some pupils mentioned “reflection in the mirror”. Table 10: Ranking order of categories of answers regarding the visibility of the content of the fourth example (Richard Serra: Snake, 1994-1997). Rank Category A B C f 1 Ma43ze 7 2 3 12 2 Forms, different shapes 6 1 4 11 3 Museum, gallery, exposition 3 5 3 11 4 Other 9 7 5 21 V is ib il it y o f co n te n t Total number of pupils 25 15 15 55 Research in Pedagogy, Vol.8, No.2, Year 2018, pp. 145-161 ________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 156 Identification of the content presented quite a problem for pupils. As can be read from Table 10, a few similar responses appeared, otherwise the pupils recognised different motifs or contents. Beside the categorised responses the pupils wrote that the work represents “a road with obstacles”, “curved walls”, “the universe”, “the feeling of the human”, “a modern building”, “a skiing slope” and similar. The answer of the pupil is interesting who argued it was about “a picture exposed in a gallery”. Table 11: Ranking order of categories of answers regarding understanding and interpretation of the fourth example (Richard Serra: Snake, 1994-1997). Rank Categories A B C f 1 Diversity of forms, materials 7 4 1 12 2 To find the way to exit, way out – maze, road, way 8 0 0 8 3 Curiosity, ingenuity, otherness 4 2 0 6 U n d e rs ta n d in g a n d in te rp re ta ti o n o f th e m e ss a g e 4 Other 6 9 14 29 Ranking the answers at the fourth reproduction was difficult, because the responses of groups B and C of ranks two and three were in minority or not existing at all. We see, however, the most frequently the pupils stated diversity of forms, materials. The pupils of group A related the work the most frequently to some kind of way, exit, a maze. The pupils stated also the work communicates “how a space can be made more lively”, “how we feel in curving rooms”, “opera”, “forlornness”, “that some things are bigger than we, people”, “what a museum of modern art looks like”, “wavy life”, “how complicated human kind is”, “tranquillity”, “being absorbed in our thoughts”, “that the world is modern”, “creativity” … Table 12: Ranking order of answers regarding understanding and interpretation of the fourth example (Figure 4) Rank Category A B C f 1 Plastic 4 2 8 14 2 Wood 8 4 2 14 3 Metal (iron, aluminium, copper) 7 3 3 13 4 Tempera - painting 2 3 1 6 5 Other 4 2 1 7 R e co g n is in g t h e m a te ri a l Total number of pupils 25 15 15 55 Also recognising the material the pupils had diverse opinions (Table 12). The same number of pupils gave the answer plastic and wood. The answers follow metal and tempera. From the analysis of answers about this work of fine art we can conclude the pupils found the work strange, perhaps incomprehensible. At the same time it stimulated them to deeper thinking, as every pupil saw something entirely unique in the work. Research in Pedagogy, Vol.8, No.2, Year 2018, pp. 145-161 ________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 157 Table 13: Ranking order of categories of answers regarding the visibility of content of the fifth example (Marcel Duchamp, Fountain, 1917) Rank Category A B C f 1 Urinal, men’s WC, toilet bowl 18 12 9 39 2 A potty, chamber pot 3 0 3 6 3 Other 4 3 3 10 V is ib il it y o f co n te n t Total number of pupils 25 15 15 55 In Marcel Duchamp’s artwork, Fountain, a majority of pupils recognised a urinal, because of its flipped form also a chamber pot (Table 13). Interesting statements are also “chair”, “a seat in the form of a pear”, “a fountain that could be fixed on a wall”, which indicates some pupils already thought about why the artist presented a urinal as a work of art. Table 14: Ranking order of categories of answers regarding understanding and interpretation of the message of the fifth example (Figure 5). Rank Category A B C f 1 So we can go pee 9 5 3 17 2 Otherness of a toilet, creativity, ingenuity, originality 6 3 5 14 3 Other 10 7 7 24 U n d e rs ta n d in g a n d in te rp re ta ti o n Total number of pupils 25 15 15 55 The pupils of groups A and B (Table 14) the most frequently interpreted the content of the given art reproduction as useful in purpose. The students of group C, however, the most frequently interpreted it with answers otherness of a toilet, creativity, ingenuity. There were many responses, which were categorized under other. Let us quote some interesting ones: “Drinkers can be of unusual shapes”, “So we can wash our hands”, “It represents a modern seat”, “The artwork speaks about the novelty of materials”, “That we people are all the same” etc. Research in Pedagogy, Vol.8, No.2, Year 2018, pp. 145-161 ________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 158 Table 15: Ranking order of categories of answers regarding the recognition of the content of the sixth example (Christo & Janne Cloude, Wrapped Reichstag, Berlin, 1971 – 1995). The pupils of groups A and C the most frequently recognised the content of the work of art (Figure 6) as a mansion, a palace, or a castle (Table 15). The pupils of group A also related the work with ice. There were, however, also some other answers. A pupil of group A stated the work represents “a tourist sight as a lot of people are looking at it”. In group B a pupils stated it was about “humankind after some time waiting what is going to happen”, some kind of presentation of future. Some pupils linked the work to rocks and stones, a pupil of group C wrote it was a “cathedral of stone, which cannot be entered”. Only one pupil (group C) described the motif more precisely, namely that “it is about a palace that is wrapped in or covered with cellophane or plastic representing human art”. Table 16: Ranking order of categories of answers regarding understanding and interpretation of the message of the sixth example (Christo & Janne Cloude, Wrapped Reichstag, Berlin, 1971 – 1995). Rank Category A B C f 1 Links with art, sight, idea, creativity 6 3 5 14 2 Castle 3 3 3 9 3 Message linked with ice, glacier 7 0 0 7 4 Life in the past, castle, how people lived 2 1 1 4 5 Other 7 8 6 21 U n d e rs ta n d in g a n d i n te rp re ta ti o n o f m e ss a g e Total number of pupils 25 15 15 55 From the table it can be seen (Table 16) that the pupils of all the three groups wrote answers the most frequently that are linked to art and the creativity of the artist. The second in the rank of frequency are answers that represented a castle. The third in the rank of frequency are only the answers of the pupils of group A, who linked the answers with a message relating to ice, a glacier. The last in rank – besides the answers in the category other – are the answers related to life in the past. Rank Category A B C f 1 Castle, mansion, palace 16 7 12 33 2 Glacier, ice age building, ice kingdom 6 1 1 8 3 Other 3 7 4 16 V is ib il it y o f co n te n t Total number of pupils 25 15 15 55 Research in Pedagogy, Vol.8, No.2, Year 2018, pp. 145-161 ________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 159 Also at this work diverse interpretations appeared among which we highlight the most interesting ones: “the beauty of nature”, “that something magnificent can also be created of seemingly useless things”, “shield and protection against something”, “how much work needs to be invested into something to last”, “power”, “safety”… Table 17: Ranking order of answers regarding the visibility of the content of the seventh case (Duane Hanson, Supermarket Lady, 1969). Rank Category A B C f 1 A woman who is buying (a buyer) 19 8 10 37 2 An obese woman who eats too much, has too much of everything, too many sweets 2 4 2 8 3 Other 4 3 3 10 V is ib il it y o f co n te n t Total number of pupils 25 15 15 55 In the work (Table 17) a majority of the pupils recognised a woman who is buying. They defined extremely critically it was about an obese woman who has too much of everything. They mentioned under other: “my mum”, “a peasant woman”, “a woman who helps the poor”... Table 18: Ranking order of answers regarding understanding and interpretation of the message of the seventh example (Duane Hanson, Supermarket Lady, 1969). Rank Category A B C f 1 Purchasing, buying 10 3 4 17 2 Obesity, overweight 3 6 3 12 3 That people buy too much, also things they do not need 3 3 4 10 4 Women’s errand, that women like buying 3 2 3 8 5 Other 6 1 1 8 U n d e rs ta n d in g a n d in te rp re ta ti o n o f th e m e ss a g e Total number of pupils 25 15 15 55 Pupils found that artwork tells something that is related to shopping (Table 18). Also in their interpretation of the message of the artwork the pupils criticized the woman “who is obese”; they stated that the work draws attention to the consequences of overweight. The third rank speaks of the excessive consumption of our society. With this, the pupils approached the correct interpretation of the work. Research in Pedagogy, Vol.8, No.2, Year 2018, pp. 145-161 ________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 160 Conclusion We can conclude at the topic of contemporary art pupils express reserved positions and opinions, which reflects their lack of knowledge and uncertainty in discussions about unknown topics, contemporary art. We can, however, recognise curiosity, inquisitiveness, and interest to be more deeply acquainted with the topic. Also some statements of pupils prove this, such as “We wish to be better acquainted with contemporary artists” or “We are more interested in contemporary art than in old artists”. Looking at the obtained results of the second part of the study we can say the pupils were better able to recognise the motifs of the presented artistic reproductions, when speaking about content, however, they were able to recognise it if they could relate it to their lives; this being an extremely relevant finding, which art teachers should take into account in their art educational practice. Learners internalise the content to be able through it to identify themselves, to relate with their own experience, knowledge, etc. It is therefore the task of every teacher to transmit the selected content to the pupil and to present it in a way understandable and known to the pupil. The pupils recognised the first three examples as works of art, while at the third example they thought loudly why an urinal was placed on the worksheet. The most different interpretations were written at the works of Richard Serra and of Crista & Janne Cloude. We can conclude it was the first time they saw the reproductions (photographs) of such works. A difference was also detected in the thinking of the students in group A compared to the pupils in group B and C. The pupils of group A more often derived from their own experience, their attitude to everyday life reflected in the recognition of content and in interpretation, also noticeable was the influence of the events at the time of solving the worksheets. The pupils of groups B and C recognised and interpreted the content more with reasoning and on the basis of previous knowledge about fine arts. After finishing the work, most of the students expressed their interest in finding out additional information about the artworks. The goal of teaching fine arts is not only that pupils develop motor skills and acquire artistic concepts, but also to develop a critical view of the environment in which they live. Especially because it is known that in the higher grades of basic school and in secondary school students’ desire for artistic creation decreases, it is extremely important that the teacher finds ways to motivate and make the students interested in artistic expression, which is not necessarily a classical drawing, a painting, or a statue. References: Arriaga, A. & Aguirre, I. (2013). Concepts of Art and Interpretation in Interviews with Educators from Tate Britain,The International Journal of Art & Design Education, 32 (1), 126-138. Bracun Sova, R., & Kemperl, M. (2012). Kurikularna prenova slovenske likovne vzgoje v osnovni soli z vidika nekaterih sestavin evropske kompetence kulturne zavesti in izrazanja, CEPS Journal, 2 (2), 71-91. Callaway, G. & Kear, M. (2000). The Arts in Primary Schools. In M. Kear in G. Callaway (Eds.). Improving Teaching and Learning in the Arts (13-32). London: Falmer Press. Charman, H., Ross, K. & Wilson, G. (2006). The Art Gallery Handbook: A Resource for Teachers. London: Tate Publishing. Duh, M. (2015). Muzejska pedagogika v funkciji razvijanja likovne apreciacije, Revija za elementarno izobrazevanje, 8 (4), 87-101. Efland, A. D. (1990). A History of Art Eduvation: Intellectual and Social Currents in Teaching the Visual Arts. New York. Teachers College Press. Research in Pedagogy, Vol.8, No.2, Year 2018, pp. 145-161 ________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 161 Hardy, T. (2206). Art Education in a Postmodern World: Collected Essays. Bristol, UK. Portland, USA: Intellect. Herzog, J. (2009). Dejavniki likovne ustvarjalnosti in likovno pedagosko delo. Revija za elementarno izobrazevanje, 2(2-3), 19-31. Kemperl, M. (2013a). Sodobna umetnost in drzavljanska vzgoja – vprasanje mogocih medpredmetnih povezav na vsebinski ravni. CEPS Journal, 3 (1), 114-118. Kemperl, M. (2013b). Sodobna umetnost in obvezne izbirne vsebine v gimnaziji. Arts & Humanitas, 7 (1), 131 – 147. Kroflic, R. (2010). Predsolski otrok in umetnisko dozivetje. In R. Kroflic idr. (Eds.), Kulturno zlahtnjenje najmljasih. Razvoj identitete otrok v prostoru in casu preko raznovrstnih umetniskih dejavnosti. (8-11). Ljubljana: Vrtec Vodmat. Lachapelle, R., Murray, D. & Neim, S. (2003). Aesthetic Understanding as Informed Experience, Journal of Aesthetic Education, 37 (3), 78-98. Robinson, K. (2006). Do schools kill creativity. Retrived from: https://www.ted.com/talks /ken_robinson_says_schools_kill_creativity Vrlic, T. (2002). Problemi sodobne likovne pedagogike. Sodobna pedagogika, 53 (2), 24-39. Vrlic, T., & Cagran, B. (2003). Empiricno uvajanje sodobnih vsebin v likovno vzgojo v osnovni soli, Sodobna pedagogika, 54 (4), 126-142. Zupancic, T. (2006). Metoda likovnopedagoškega koncepta. Prirocnik za ucitelje. Ljubljana: Zavod Republike Slovenije za solstvo. Zupancic, T. (2011). »Prepovedane teme« v sodobni umetnostni vzgoji? Revija za elementarno izobrazevanje, 4 (1-2), 47-60. Biographical notes: Mr. sc. Katja Kozjek, PhD students in University of Maribor Faculty of Education. She work in Elementary School as art education teacher. Her field of research is fine art education in contemporary curriculum in elementary education. Jerneja Herzog, PhD, Assistant Professor for fine art didactic in Department of Fine Art, Faculty of Education, University of Maribor. Her filed of research is pedagogical practice, mentoring, fine art education in elementary aschool and high school, creativity in fine art. In recent years she research in field of blind people in visual art, museum pedagogy for blind people. 
work_w7hcambwjrhhfoj7rphjtajpu4	----	ORAL PRESENTATION Open Access O002. Did Picasso and De Chirico really suffer from migraine auras? Carlo Lisotto1*, Federico Mainardi2, Ferdinando Maggioni1, Giorgio Zanchin1 From Abstracts from the 1st Joint ANIRCEF-SISC Congress Rome, Italy. 29-31 October 2015 Background Some authors have suggested that migraine aura may have represented an inspiration for unusual and recurrent fea- tures of paintings by Pablo Picasso and Giorgio De Chirico. A migraine hypothesis was formulated for Picasso’s art, based on aura-like patterns, such as illusory vertical split- ting and shifts of the eyes, even if the authors explicitly sta- ted that they did not find any supportive information in Picasso’s biographies [1]. As for De Chirico, the jagged effect of water, the spiky silhouette of a knight, a black sun motif intruding into an interior scene were interpreted to be evoked by aura. Other descriptions included sparkling, dazzling, dancing or flickering lights, fire rings, stars, and dancing lines [2]. We looked for further evidence to exam- ine in depth this hypothesis. Materials and methods We read Picasso’s biographies and De Chirico’s autobio- graphy, evaluating their extremely numerous pictorial works, in their different life artistic phases. Results In Picasso’s biographies there is no report of the artist suffering throughout his long life from any particular ill- ness, migraine included. Thus, the phenomenal similarity of his works with certain hallucinatory form constants, such as mosaic vision, illusory vertical splitting or meta- morphopsia, cannot permit to infer the presence of inspiring visual experiences of a specific aetiology such as migraine, if such diagnosis is not supported by additional evidence. The style characterizing the portraits of female models that could resemble migraine aura seems to be just an evolution from the previous Cubist period. As for De Chirico, he started painting the black sun motifs when he was over 80, an age when the occurrence of aura is extremely unusual. Conversely, other authors objected that the available evidence gathered from the artist’s autobiography suggests a diagnosis of epilepsy. De Chirico did not describe typical migraine headaches and several of his ictal symptoms are rare in migraine, but frequently encountered in temporal lobe epilepsy [3]. Conclusions To prevent an inflated use of the said diagnostic attribu- tion in pathographic studies of celebrated artists, a metho- dological standard should be fulfilled in studies of migraine aura as artistic inspiration. We do not wish to subscribe to neurological reductionism, but we believe that art criticism should ideally suggest neurobiological links between the cluster symptoms of a given artist and the key characteristic of the artist’s style. The diagnosis of migraine should be supported by semi-/autobiographical writings and/or the observations of contemporaries in addition to the evidence derived from the analysis of the artworks. Authors’ details 1Headache Centre, Department of Neurosciences, University of Padua, Padua, Italy. 2Headache Centre, Hospital of Venice, Venice, Italy. Published: 28 September 2015 References 1. Ferrari MD, Haan J: Migraine aura, illusory vertical splitting, and Picasso. Cephalalgia 2000, 20(8):686. 2. Fuller GN, Gale MV: Migraine aura as artistic inspiration. BMJ 1988, 297(6664):1670-1672. 3. Blanke O, Landis T: The metaphysical art of Giorgio de Chirico. Eur Neurol 2003, 50(4):191-194. doi:10.1186/1129-2377-16-S1-A192 Cite this article as: Lisotto et al.: O002. Did Picasso and De Chirico really suffer from migraine auras? The Journal of Headache and Pain 2015 16 (Suppl 1):A192. * Correspondence: carlo.lisotto@aas5.sanita.fvg.it 1Headache Centre, Department of Neurosciences, University of Padua, Padua, Italy Full list of author information is available at the end of the article Lisotto et al. The Journal of Headache and Pain 2015, 16(Suppl 1):A192 http://www.thejournalofheadacheandpain.com/content/16/S1/A192 © 2015 Lisotto et al. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/ zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated. mailto:carlo.lisotto@aas5.sanita.fvg.it http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0 http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/ http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/ Background Materials and methods Results Conclusions Authors’ details References 
work_wctnc7ot2bdu7hl3fux2wp7jw4	----	Untitled Zurich Open Repository and Archive University of Zurich Main Library Strickhofstrasse 39 CH-8057 Zurich www.zora.uzh.ch Year: 2019 Improving the patient-physician relationship in the digital era - transformation from subjective questionnaires Into objective real-time and patient-specific data reporting tools Maldaner, Nicolai ; Desai, Atman ; Gautschi, Oliver P ; Regli, Luca ; Ratliff, John K ; Park, Jon ; Stienen, Martin N DOI: https://doi.org/10.14245/ns.1938400.200 Posted at the Zurich Open Repository and Archive, University of Zurich ZORA URL: https://doi.org/10.5167/uzh-182429 Journal Article Published Version The following work is licensed under a Creative Commons: Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) License. Originally published at: Maldaner, Nicolai; Desai, Atman; Gautschi, Oliver P; Regli, Luca; Ratliff, John K; Park, Jon; Stienen, Martin N (2019). Improving the patient-physician relationship in the digital era - transformation from subjective questionnaires Into objective real-time and patient-specific data reporting tools. Neurospine, 16(4):712-714. DOI: https://doi.org/10.14245/ns.1938400.200 712 www.e-neurospine.org Improving the Patient-Physician Relationship in the Digital Era - Transformation From Subjective Questionnaires Into Objective Real- Time and Patient-Specific Data Reporting Tools Nicolai Maldaner1, Atman Desai2, Oliver P. Gautschi3, Luca Regli4, John K. Ratliff2, Jon Park2, Martin N. Stienen2,4 1Department of Neurosurgery, Kantonsspital St.Gallen, St. Gallen, Switzerland 2Department of Neurosurgery, Stanford University Hospital and Clinics, Stanford, CA, USA 3Neuro- and Spine Center, Hirslanden Clinic St. Anna, Lucerne, Switzerland 4Department of Neurosurgery, University Hospital Zurich & Clinical Neuroscience Center, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland To the editor The patient-physician relationship is the foundation of patient care and of paramount importance in order to gather information, establish diagnoses, and create treatment plans. Over the last century, we have seen continuous advances in neurosurgery, while the physi- cian-patient interaction has remained conservatively “untouched.” With upcoming digital technologies, however, the dynamic between patients and physicians might undergo a sim- ilarly profound transformation. Traditionally, encounters between patients and physicians are reduced to single events, where a patient’s physical and emotional conditions are reviewed. It is commonly perceived as progressive if standardized electronic health records (EHR) using patient-reported out- come measures (PROMs) are employed outside clinical studies.1 There are important limi- tations inherent to this practice. First, condensing key symptoms such as pain or disability to a PROM questionnaire does not account for daily or even hourly fluctuations, therefore representing a radical loss in data granularity. Second, filling out questionnaires means a lot of effort to patients who, in turn, are usually unaware of the results. This does not promote compliance in an era of patient-centered healthcare. Fortunately, the ongoing digitalization of the healthcare sector provides us with the fun- damental tools to collect and sophistically analyze “digital biomarkers” that can be used to construct longitudinal, accurate and intelligible medical profiles based on objective patient data. Examples for this endeavor include the continuous activity tracking before and after elective spine surgery with a low-cost consumer grade wearable accelerometer, or a spine- specific smartphone application that reports objective functional impairment by repeated GPS-based 6-minute walking tests (6WT) before and after conservative or operative treat- Neurospine 2019;16(4):712-714. https://doi.org/10.14245/ns.1938400.200 Neurospine eISSN 2586-6591 pISSN 2586-6583 This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecom- mons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Copyright © 2019 by the Korean Spinal Neurosurgery Society Letter to the editor Corresponding Author Nicolai Maldaner https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0284-1033 Department of Neurosurgery, Kantonsspital St. Gallen, Rohrschacher Strasse 95, 9001 St. Gallen, Switzerland Tel: +41-71-494-11-11 E-mail: nicolai.maldaner@kssg.ch Received: October 23, 2019 Accepted: December 3, 2019 Improving the patient-physician relationship in the digital eraMaldaner N, et al. https://doi.org/10.14245/ns.1938400.200 www.e-neurospine.org 713 ment for degenerative conditions of the lumbar spine (http:// clinicaltrials.gov: NCT03977961,NCT04062942).2,3 These tools allow our patients to self-determine their func- tional ability within an environment that matters most to them (e.g., home/work). By collecting relevant self-measured out- come data, patients are empowered to take a greater degree of responsibility as an equal partner in their care.4 The selection of objective outcome measures like daily step counts (accelerome- ter) or distance walked within a fixed time frame (6WT) are metrics that are relevant and understandable, a clear advantage over a constructed questionnaire score. As some of the tools provide analysis functions and immediate feedback (e.g., color coding, similar to traffic signals), patients are entitled to appre- ciate changes in their health condition over time, be it positive or negative. To improve the engagement of the patient with his/her physi- cian and with these functional assessments, we must rigorously validate the quality of new objective self-measurements and we must present them in fashion both useful and comprehensible to patients and physicians. Information collected by healthcare professionals (e.g., lab results/physiological parameters) could be send to a patient’s smartphone or tablet to be discussed dur- ing ward round or consultation.5 At the same time, we have to improve the way patients can communicate their collected health data (e.g., step count/pain) and integrate it into the EHR to ulti- mately be relevant for shared decision-making. As a precondi- tion, both patients and physicians need to be confident that the highly sensitive personal data is protected against theft and abuse. In conclusion, modern patients increasingly demand control over their healthcare, disease-management and outcome mea- sures. Involving patients more actively by means of digital tech- nology has the potential to improve both diagnostics and treat- ment, lower overall health expenditures, and further empower the patient into a true care partnership with his physician. While embracing the potentials of these new technologies, physicians have to communicate their expectations and rationales to suc- cessfully shape those new pathways of care. We would like to encourage physicians to appreciate the ongoing digital transfor- mation as a trend that has the potential to ultimately strengthen the patient-physician relationship. Opinion of the Editorial Board Editorial Board of Neurospine agrees to publish opinion from the readers of Neurospine. This piece of opinion expresses the view of its author(s), separate from those of editorial policy of Neurospine. CONFLICT OF INTEREST The authors have nothing to disclose. REFERENCES 1. Azad TD, Kalani M, Wolf T, et al. Building an electronic health record integrated quality of life outcomes registry for spine surgery. J Neurosurg Spine 2016;24:176-85. 2. Stienen MN, Gautschi OP, Staartjes VE, et al. Reliability of the 6-minute walking test smartphone application. J Neuro- surg Spine 2019 Sep 13:1-8. [Epub]. https://doi.org/10.3171/ 2019.6.SPINE19559. 3. Maldaner N, Tomkins-Lane C, Desai A, et al. Digital trans- formation in spine research and outcome assessment. Spine J 2019 Forthcoming. 4. Grob R, Darien G, Meyers D. Why physicians should trust in patients. JAMA 2019;321:1347-8. 5. Gautschi OP, Stienen MN, Hermann C, et al. Web-based audiovisual patient information system--a study of preoper- ative patient information in a neurosurgical department. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 2010;152:1337-41. Improving the patient-physician relationship in the digital eraMaldaner N, et al. https://doi.org/10.14245/ns.1938400.200714 www.e-neurospine.org Title: Musketeer with Pipe Artist: Pablo Picasso Year: 1968 Musketeers became a recurring theme in Picasso’s art as he was recuperating after surgery in late 1965 (he was 84 at the time). With nothing much to do, he was then rereading his favourite literary classics – which included Alexander Dumas. Apart from that, Bernard Borderie’s popular film “The Three Musketeers” was shown on TV at the time. These probably provided an inspiration for Picasso’s subsequent works. The newspaper headlines of the time are dominated by news of the war in Vietnam, of Soviet troops entering Czechoslovakia, of student riots in Paris; Picasso’s musketeers provide an odd contrast. He seems to be absorbed in the romantic images of “good old days” – more a quixotic figure beyond normal space and time than the man who had once created the immortal “Guernica”. But it’s not as simple as that: through his musketeers, Picasso manages, once again, to translate his staunch pacifism into his work. The musketeers, sarcastically shown as puffed up with immense, ludicrous pride, provide a perfect illustration for the idea. The choice of the subject is significant: rather than an efficient military force, the musketeers have always been regarded as romantic figures and cult objects. Their anachronistic attire, feathered hats and the swords they carried – aren’t these a fitting allusion to war itself being outdated and futile? More information: https://www.pablo-ruiz-picasso.net/theme-musketeer.php © 2019 - Succession Pablo Picasso - SACK (Korea) 
work_webh63j5gjeadjof62pcfg6syi	----	SOCIAL SCIENCES STUDIES JOURNAL SSSjournal (ISSN:2587-1587) Economics and Administration, Tourism and Tourism Management, History, Culture, Religion, Psychology, Sociology, Fine Arts, Engineering, Architecture, Language, Literature, Educational Sciences, Pedagogy & Other Disciplines in Social Sciences Vol:4, Issue:21 pp.3479-3490 2018 sssjournal.com ISSN:2587-1587 sssjournal.info@gmail.com Article Arrival Date (Makale Geliş Tarihi) 11/06/2018 The Published Rel. Date (Makale Yayın Kabul Tarihi) 26/08/2018 Published Date (Makale Yayın Tarihi) 27.08.2018 CUMHURİYET DÖNEMİ ŞEHİRCİLİK ÇALIŞMALARI, ALTYAPI VE KENTSEL YAPILAŞMA SORUNLARI INFRASTRUCTURE WORKS, CITY PLANNING AND URBANIZATION PRACTICES IN TURKEY Ahmet Ferda SEYMEN orcid:0000-0001-5708-1559 afseyemen@gmail.com ÖZ Araştırma, Cumhuriyet dönemi ile yeni bir başlangıç yapan Türkiye’nin Osmanlı döneminden şehircilik ve imar konusunda nasıl bir yapılanma devir aldığını. Yeni kurulan ülkenin, toplumunu oluşturan sınıfların savaş sonrası sosyal gelişimine uygun bir düzen içerisinde nasıl uygulandığının incelenmesini amaçlamaktadır. Mukayese olarak Sanayi devrimini gerçekleştirmiş, Rönesans ve aydınlanma dönemini yaşamış olan İngiltere ile karşılaştırılıp Kentleşme, Kentlileşme ve medeniyetleşme ilişkisi incelemeye alınmıştır. Diğer taraftan sanayi devrimi sonrası ve 1800’lü yılların ortasından sonra gerek Avrupa ve gerekse Amerika’da ortaya çıkan Kentleşme ekollerinin Osmanlı ve Yeni Cumhuriyeti nasıl etkilediği, Tanzimatla beraber yüzünü Batı’ya dönen imparatorlukta özellikle Avrupa ve Amerrika’da kentleşme konusununun öncüleri olan Weber, Comte, Durheim, Marks, Lefevbre’, Simmel ve Chicago Okulu öğrencileri Park, Wirth’in inceleme alanı olan Ekolojik ve Sosyopsikolojik ekolün görüşleri yeni Cumhuryet aydınlarını nasıl etkilediğini anlamak amaçlıdır. Anahtar Kelimeler: Köy, Şehircilik, Kentleşme, Kentlileşme, Toplumsal sınıflar, Belediyecilik. ABSTRACT The research will review relevant literature to understand the conditions of city planning and urbanization works during the late Ottoman era and its transformation to the newly formed Turkish Republic. The formation of relevant institutions within the new government and public authorities concerning city planning and design will also be studied. The research will continue to compare the development of urbanization in England for effectively manifesting the Industrial Revolution, the renaissance, economic and social independence by achieving one of the highest income per capita in the world. The study will further investigate western urbanization implementations and seek for correlations between the works of western societies and the Turkish deployments. Keywords: Urbanization. Social classes, City planning, Urban renewal. 1. KAYNAK İNCELEMELERİ A. Osmanlı ve Cumhuriyet döneminin sanayii devrimini gerçekleştiren İngiltere ile kısa mukayesesi a. Genel değerlendirme b. Yıllara göre nüsuf ve kişibaşı gelir mukayesesi c. Toplumsal sınıfların değerlendirilmesi B. Osmannlı döneminde şehircilik C. Cumhuriyet dönemi şehircilik çalışmaları mailto:sssjournal.info@gmail.com Social Sciences Studies Journal (SSSJournal) 2018 Vol:4 Issue:21 pp:3479-3490 sssjournal.com Social Sciences Studies Journal (SSSJournal) sssjournal.info@gmail.com 3480 A.a. KOŞULLAR OSMANLI İNGİLTERE Yıl 1820 Yönetim Padişah II. Mahmut Kral IV. George Nüfus 10 Milyon 74 bin 21 Milyon 239 bin K.B. Gelir 643 dolar. 1.706 dolar. Siyasi durum Serpuş niyetine fes giyileceği beyan ediliyor. Yeniçeri ocağı kapatılmış. Asakir-ı Mansurei Muhammediye ile modern ordunun temelleri atılmış. Tebaaya hbazı haklar tanıyan Sened-i İttifak akdedilmiş. İlk resmi Türkçe gazete Takvim-i Vekayi yayınlanmış. Mekteb-i Harbiye ile Mekteb-i Tıbbiye-i Şahane kurulmuş. Kâğıt para ilk defa Sultan Abdülmecid -1840 yılında basıldı. Türkiye'de ilk demiryolu 1855 yılında İzmirTurgutlu arasında yapıldı. Telgraf hattı da aynı yılda, yani 1855 yılında yapıldı. Fransız İnsan ve Yurttaş Hakları Bildirgesi gereği; İnsanlar hakları-özgürlük açıklanmış. İnsan hakları dokunulmazlık ve soyal (özgürlük hakkı, mülkiyet hakkı, güvenlik hakkı ve baskıya karşı direnme hakkıdır.)" 1800 öncesi Aydınlar Machiavelli, Thomas Hobbes, Thomas Paine, Diderot, David Hume, Immanuel Kant, August Comte, Adam Smith, Jeremy Bentham. Aydınlar Edmund Burke, Darwin, J.J Rousseau, Müzik Hamamızade İsmail Dede Efendi Dellâlzâde İsmail Efendi, Haşim Bey, Zekai Dede Efendi , Hacı Arif Bey , Ahmet Mithat, İbrahim Şinasi, Vivaldi, Salieri, Haydn, Hendel, Bach ve Mozart'ın besteleri müzikte yepyeni bir çağ açıyor. Resim Şeker Ahmed Paşa, Osman Hamdi Bey, Kazasker Mustafa İzzet Efendi Yesarizade Mustafa İzzet Efend, Agah Efendi, Ahmed Vefik Paşa, Ali Suavai, Eduard Monet, Claude Monet, Eugene Boudin, Camille Pissaro, Frederic Bazille, Pierre-August Renoir, Edgar Degas, Alfred Sisley, Berthe Morisot, Gustave Caillebotte. Edebiyat Halid Ziya Uşaklıgil, Abdülhak Hamit Tarhan, Mallil Naci, Nabizade Nazım, Goethe Alman edebiyatını ve modern batı edebiyatını tekrar biçimlendirirken, Schiller, Mirabeuo, Voltaire eserlerini yayınlıyor. Charles Dickens, Jane Austin Buluşlar Cristofori ilk piyanoyu, Benjamin Franklin paratoneri icat ediyor, Napolyon'un orduları Rosetta taşını buluyor. James Watt yeni çelik teknolojisini geliştiriyor. Pil, daktilo, elektrik motoru, morfin, buharlı gemi, Kibrit, fotoğraf makinası icad ediliyor. (Ansiklopedisi, 2006) KOŞULLAR OSMANLI İNGİLTERE Yıl 1870 Yönetim Padişah I. Abdüaziz Kraliçe Victoria Nüfus 11 Milyon 793 bin 31 Milyon 400 bin K.B. Gelir 825 dolar. 3.031 dolar. Siyasi durum İmparatorluk artık ihtişamlı değil. Islahat Fermanı ilan olunuyor. Din değiştirme hakkı tanınıyor. Müslüman olmayanlara askere gitme hakkı tanınıyor. Tüm vatandaşlara eşit hakların sağlanması kunusu gündemde Rönesans reformları, Aydınlama ve Sanayii Devrimi sonuçu artık Kraliyet ve ülke üstünde güneş batmayan imparatorluk olarak anılıyor. Kölelik yasaklanıyor. Sömürgecilik yayılıyor. (Hindistan) mailto:sssjournal.info@gmail.com Social Sciences Studies Journal (SSSJournal) 2018 Vol:4 Issue:21 pp:3479-3490 sssjournal.com Social Sciences Studies Journal (SSSJournal) sssjournal.info@gmail.com 3481 Aydınlar Ziya Gökalp, Salih Zeki, Rıza Tevfik, Prens Sebahattin, Abdullah Cevdet, M. Gökmen, Vecihi Hürkuş, Muhsin Ertuğrul, Namık Kemal, Charles Darwin, (Türlerin Kökeni) Resim Fikret Mualla, Aliye Berger, Gogh, Goya, Cezanne, Monet, Manet Edebiyat Tevfik Fikret, Yakup Kadri Karaosmanoğlu, Halide Edip Adıvar, Ahmet Hamdi Tampınar, Peyami Safa, Faruk Nafis Çamlıbel, Reaşt Nuri Güntekin, Celal Nuri, Ahmet Şuayb, Süleyman Nazif, Abdullah Suphi, Mehmet Rauf, Cenap Şehabettin, Recaizade Mahmud Ekrem, Hüseyin Rahmi Gürpınar, Ömer Seyfeddin, Ahmet Haşim, Ahmet Rasim, Refik Halit Karay, Ahmed Hikmet, Victor H,ugo, Tolstoy, Bernard Shaw, Müzik Şevki bey, Hafız Burhan, Tamburi Cemil Bey, Sadettin Kaynak, Rakım Erkutlu Chopin, Tchaikovsky, Wagner, Lizst, Beethoven, Schubert, Schumann, Paganini, Dvorak, Bizet ve Brahms. Buluşlar Telgraf bulundu, Mendel Kanunları yayınlandı, Edison fonografiyi icad etti, plastik, dinamit, telefon, elektrikle çalışan buz dolabı, tesla'nın ampul, elektrikli tren, elektrikli ütü, verem aşısı, kuduz aşısı, motorlu araba ( Karl Benz), gramofo, ilk araba satışının başlaması ( Karl Benz arabasını fabrikada seri üretime geçirdi), ilk video ( Saniyede 12 kare hızında ve 2 saniye uzunluğunda, yalaşık 24 kare'den oluşuyor), ses kaydı teknolojisi ile şarkı yapan ilk şarkıcının şarkısı, elektrikle çalışan bulaşık makinası, elektrikli fırın, kolera aşısı, dizel motor, sinema başlıyor, röntgen, tifo aşısı, ilkel radyo ( 1901 yılında daha gelişmişi yapıldı) KOŞULLAR OSMANLI İNGİLTERE Yıl 1913 Yönetim Padişah V. Mehmed Kral V. George Nüfus 15 Milyon 45 Milyon 649 bin K.B. Gelir 1.213 dolar. 4.921 dolar. Siyasi durum Savaş kapıda Hakimiyet İttihak ve Terakki Cemiyetinde. II. Meşrutiyet ilan edilmiş. Hürriyet, özgürlük, eşitlik ve kardeşlik yükselen beklentiler. Ülke tam bir monarşi ile idare ediliyor. Ülke Demokrasi ile yönetiliyor. Sömürge ülkelerin sayısı artıyor. Ulusal ve uluslararası şirketler yapılanıyor. Aydınlar Cahit Arf, Niyazi Berkes, Behiçe Borak, Korkut Boratav, Şerif Mardin Albert Einstein, Max Planck, Fancis Crick Edebiyat Yahya Kemal Bayatlı Yaşar Kemal, Kemal Tahir, Sait Faik Abasıyanık, Ziyaeddin Fahri Fındıkoğlu, Mübeccel Kıray, Hilmi Ziya Ülgen Jack London, William Faulkner, F. Scott Fitzgerald, William James, Upton Sinclair, John Steinbeck, Ernest Hemingway, Eugene O’Neill. Tennessee Williams. Resim Bedri Rahmi Eyüpoğlu, Füreyya Koral, Pablo Picasso, Piet Mondrain, Salvador Dali, Georgia O’Keeffe Müzik Münir Nurettin Selçıuk, Selahaddin Pınar, Yesari Asım Arsoy, Osman Nihat Akın Buluşlar Taşınabilir fotoğraf makinesi, Ataç, Jiletli tıraş makinesi, Gofretli dondurma, Kabartma tozu, Fort-T-Modeli, ilk seri üretilen araba Elektrikli ocak, Çamaşır makinesi, Işıklı reklam, Vitaminler, Fermuar, sütyen, Spor ayakkabı. mailto:sssjournal.info@gmail.com Social Sciences Studies Journal (SSSJournal) 2018 Vol:4 Issue:21 pp:3479-3490 sssjournal.com Social Sciences Studies Journal (SSSJournal) sssjournal.info@gmail.com 3482 (helmuth-von-moltke, 2014) KOŞULLAR TÜRKİYE CUMHURİYETİ İNGİLTERE Yıl 1923 Yönetim Cumhurbaşkanı M. Kemal Atatürk Kral V. George Nüfus 13 Milyon 877 45 Milyon 649 bin K.B.Gelir 712 dolar. 4.760 dolar. Siyasi durum Birinci Dünya Savaşı bitti Kurtuluş şavaşı kazanıldı. 3 Milyon kilometre Vatan toprağının savaşlar sonucu 2 Milyon metrekaresi kaybedildi. Halkın çoğu hasta, yaşlı, sakat, gazi ve yoksul. Türkiye genelinde batılılaşma yolunda devrimler uygulanmakta, Osmanlı alfabefsinden Latin Alfabeye geçilmekte. Kadın ve Çocuklara yönelik eğitim ve yetiştirme kurumları açılmakta. Temel gıda ürünlerinin işlenmesine yönelik fabrika ve tesisler açılmakta. Yurkt genelinde tren ve karayolu yapımı çalışmaları başlatıldı İngiltere birinci dünya savaşı öncesi ve sonrası dünyada yayılmacılık ve hakimiyet sağlamaya devam etti. Afrikada Cape Town’dan Suez kanalına kadar alanın yönetimini aldı. Orta Doğuda, İsralin kurulması, Irak, Filistin ülkelerinin oluşması ve yönetimini devam ettirdi. Böylece Amerika, Fransa ve BM ile beraber yaptırımlarını uygulayarak tüm dünya genelinde ittifakları (Kanada-Avusturalya- Yeni Zellanda-Karaip’de İngiliz adaları-Malta- Kıbrıs’a) yayılmaya devam etti. II. dünya savaşı sonrası Amerka müttefikliği ile, tüm kıtalar dahil Avrupa, Rusya’da idare ve yayılmacılığını geliştirmiştir. Aydınlar John Maynard Keynes Resim Abidin Dino, Fikret Otyam Sir Alfred Munnings, Meredith Frampton, John Bratby, Peter Lanyon, Leonora Carrington Edebiyat Sebahattin Ali, Orhan Kemal, Fakir Baykurt, Aziz Nesin, Cahit Sıtkı Tarancı, Behçet Necatigil, Atilla İlhan, Fazıl Hüsnü Dağlarca, Ahmed Arif, Ara Güler, Mary Norton, William Golding, E.B. White Müzik Adnan Saygun, Safiye Ayla, Alaeddin Yavaşça, Müzeyyen Senar, Arif Sami Toker Cliff Richard, Marty Wilde, Alma Cogan, Sherly Bassey, Adam Faith, The Beatles. Buluşlar Ekmek kızartma makinesi, Kâğıt mendil, Tost ekmeği, Yara bandı, Ensülin, Buzdolabı, Penisilin, Hazır bebek maması, Portatif tahta sandalye, Evler için klima, Sırtı ayarlanabilir koltuk, Televizyon, Seloteyp, Flaş, Alka Seltzer- Karbonatlı aspirin, Evde kullanılabilen saç boyası, Elektrikli tıraş makinesi, Stereo hoparlör, Makaralı teyp, Çamaşır deterjanı, Renkli fotoğraf filmi, Çöp öğütücü, Konserve et, Mikser, Neon lambası, Tükenmez kalem, Teflon kaplama, Jet motor, Naylon çorap, Elektrikli su ısıtıcısı, Ütü gerektirmeyen kumaşlar, Lastikli kumaş, Elektrikli çamaşır makinesi, Uzunçalar plak, Polaroid kamera, Elektro gitar, İlk PC, Renkli televizyon, Naylon streç folyo, Bulaşık makinesi, Derin dondurulmuş gıda maddeleri, Çocuk felci aşısı, Transistörlü radyo, Uzaktan kumanda cihazı, Firizbi, Lego, Hula Hoop, Barbie bebek, Kar motoru, Külotlu çorap, Tylenol-Yaygın bir ağrı kesici, Doğum kontrol hapı, Hazır bebek bezi, Yumuşak kontakt lens, Kaset teyp, Cola kutusu, Tuşlu telefon, Metal tenis raketi, Mikrodalga fırın, Quarz kol saati, Hesap makinesi, Mutfak robotu, Cep telefonu, Snowboard, Walkman, Daksil-Daktilo silgi solüsyonu, Pacman, ilk video oyunu, Post- it, yapışkanlı not kâğıdı, Rollerblade, CD, Su geçirmez, hava geçirir, ‘Goretex’ kumaş, Mini van, Macintosh, İnternet Navigator, Prozac depresyon ilacı bulunuyor. (TUİK, 2016) (World War One WWI 1914 - 1918 - The Aftermath) (World War II (1939-1945)) (Fox, 2011) (Marcus, 2011) (Türk Yazarları) mailto:sssjournal.info@gmail.com Social Sciences Studies Journal (SSSJournal) 2018 Vol:4 Issue:21 pp:3479-3490 sssjournal.com Social Sciences Studies Journal (SSSJournal) sssjournal.info@gmail.com 3483 b. Yıllara göre Birleşik Krallıklar ve Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Nüfus – Kişi başı Gelir Dağılımı Mukayesesi T.CUMHURİYETİ İNGİLTERE NÜFUS FARKI % GELİR FARKI % Yıl 1923 Nüfus 13,877,000 44,563,100 (30,686,100) -69% Kişi başı gelir $ 712.00 4,760.00 (4,048) -85.04% Yıl 1930 - Nüfus 14,445,000 45,888,900 (31,443,900) -69% Kişi başı gelir $ 1,249.00 6,939.00 (5,690) -82.00% Yıl 1940 Nüfus 17,821,000 45,649,000 (27,828,000) -61% Kişi başı gelir $ 1,625.00 6,856.00 (5,231) -76.30% Yıl 1950 - Nüfus 20,947,000 50,381,500 (29,434,500) -58% Kişi başı gelir $ 1,623.00 6,939.00 (5,316) -76.61% Yıl 1960 - Nüfus 27,755,000 52,372,500 (24,617,500) -47% Kişi başı gelir $ 2,247.00 8,645.00 (6,398) -74.01% Yıl 1970 - Nüfus 35,605,000 55,632,200 (20,027,200) -36% Kişi başı gelir $ 3,078.00 10,767.00 (7,689) -71.41% Yıl 1980 - Nüfus 44,737,000 56,329,700 (11,592,700) -21% Kişi başı gelir $ 4,022.00 12,931.00 (8,909) -68.90% Yıl 1990 - Nüfus 56,473,000 57,237,500 (764,500) -1% Kişi başı gelir $ 5,399.00 16,430.00 (11,031) -67.14% Yıl 2000 - Nüfus 67,804,000 58,858,100 8,945,900 15% Kişi başı gelir $ 6,610.00 20,353.00 (13,743) -67.52% Yıl 2008 - Nüfus 71,517,000 61,823,000 9,694,000 16% Kişi başı gelir $ 8,066.00 23,742.00 (15,676) -66.03% (Google.com) (Office of Nati, 2015) B. Osmanlı Devleti’nde modern anlamda bir yerel yönetim geleneği ve sisteminin olmadığını söylemek yanlış olmaz. Osmanlı Devlet’inde yerel yönetim yapılanması itibariyle belediyecilik anlayışını Geleneksel Dönem ve Tanzimat Sonrası Dönem olarak ele almak, sonrasında ise Cumhuriyetin kuruluşu ile bugüne kadar olan süreci değerlendirmek yerinde olacaktır. (YÖRÜKOĞLU, 2009) c. 19. yüz yıl İngilterenin Sosyal Hiyerarşisi 1. Aristokartlar 19. yüzyılda ülkenin en yüksek statüsüne sahip ve güçlü sınıfı Aristokratlar oluşturmaktaydı. Bu sınıfı oluşturan tabakalar: ✓ Kraliyet Ailesi ✓ Lord’lar ✓ Ülkenin yüksek rütbeli görevlileri - Baronlar - Şövalyeler - Ülke Beyefendileri 2. Orta Sınıf Ülke genelinin çoğunluğunu oluşturan bu grup üs-orta sınıfve Alt-orta sınıf şeklinde ikiye ayrılmıştır. Üst-Orta–Sınıf, bu sınıf mensupları idari işlerin sahipleri olup yüksek bir otorite ve üst düzey statü sakhibiydiler: - Fabrika Sahipleri mailto:sssjournal.info@gmail.com Social Sciences Studies Journal (SSSJournal) 2018 Vol:4 Issue:21 pp:3479-3490 sssjournal.com Social Sciences Studies Journal (SSSJournal) sssjournal.info@gmail.com 3484 - Büyük ölçekli iş adamları - Bankerler - Doktorlar - Avukatlar - Mühendisler - Din adamları 3. Alt-Orta-Sınıf, bu kişiler: These people were a step lower to the upper middle class people group. - Küçük ölçekli iş adamları - Dükkan sahipleri - Tüccarlar - Devlet memurları 4. Alt Sınıf Bu sınıfta kendi içinde ikiye ayrılmıştır: ✓ Çalışan Sınıf, alt sınıfın üst kısmını oluşturan bu gruplar ise: - İşçiler - Fabrika İşçileri - Dikim evlerinde çalışanlar - Madenciler - Temizlikçiler ✓ Fakirler, bu kişiler bağış ve hayırseverler yardımıyla yaşayan ve herhangi bir işte çalışmayanlardan oluşuyordu. (19th Century England Social Hierarchy, n.d.) 19. yüz yıl Osmanlısında Sosyal Hiyerarşisi Osmanlı Devleti genelde askeri bir merkezilşeme ile idare edilen imparatorluk olarak yapılanmış ve bu karakterini snonuna kadar sürdürmüştür. Devlet hakimiyeti mutlak olan farklı dil, din ve ırktan meydana gelen bir toplum şeklinde tezahur etmiştir. Temelinde yönetenler (askeri-vergi vermeyenler) ve yönetilenler (reaya-vergi mükellefleri) olmak üzere basitçe ikiye ayrıarak incelenebilir. 1. Yönetenler (Askerîler), bu kesimi oluşturanlar Padişahın idarî askeri, siyasi ve dinî yetki tanıdığı devlet görevlileridir: ✓ Saray halkı ✓ Seyfiye (Sadrazam, beylerbeyi, sancak beyleri, neferler, tımarlı sipahiler ve deniz askerlerinden oluşup, askerlik hüzmeti verenler olup aynı zamanda yöneticilikte yapmaktaydılar) ✓ İlmiye (İlimle meşgul olan topluluğu ifade eder. Öğretim işi yapan müderrisler, yargıçlık ve noterlik görevi olan Kadı’lar, imamlar, müezzinler, şerifler, tarikat şeyhleri ve şeyhülislam bu sınıftandır. - İlmiye sınıfının en kıdemlisi aynı zamanda divan üyesi olan şeyhülislam ve kazaskerdir. - İlmiye sınıfını oluşturan kişilere ilim adamı manasına gelen ulema adı verilmiştir. - İlmiye mensupları yaptıkları iş karşılığında almaları gereken ücreti eğitim için kurulan vakıflardan alıyorlardı. - Kadılar gördükleri davalardaki harçlardan, kazasker ve şeyhülislam ise hazineden maaş alırlardı. ✓ Kalemiye - Ehlikalem adı da verilmiştir. mailto:sssjournal.info@gmail.com Social Sciences Studies Journal (SSSJournal) 2018 Vol:4 Issue:21 pp:3479-3490 sssjournal.com Social Sciences Studies Journal (SSSJournal) sssjournal.info@gmail.com 3485 - Bugünkü karşılığı devletin bürokrat kesimidir. - Bu sınıf genellikle Türk kökenli kişilerden oluşuyordu. - Defter eminleri, Reisülküttap, Anadolu ve Rumeli defterdarı ile Nişancı, kalemiye sınıfındandır. - Nişancı ve Defterdar bu sınıfın divandaki temsilcileridir. 2. Yönetilenler (Reaya) Bu sınıf Osmanlı toplumunun büyük bir kısmını kapsamaktadır. Yönetenler sınıfının dışında kalan köylüler, şehirliler, göçebeler, Müslüman ve gayrimüslim tebayı içine almaktadır. Geçimlerini tarım ticaret ve sanayi alanında üretim yaparak sağlarlar. Aynı zamanda vergi vermekle mükellef olan sınıftır.(M., 2014) Osmanlı döneminin son zamanları ve Cumhuriyet döneminin özellikle başlangıç döneminin ekonomik ve sosyal yapısını İngiltere üzerinden değerlendirmek Türkiyenin I. ve II Dünya savaşları sonrası dünya üzerinde yeni yerini almış olan ülke ve medeniyetler arasında nerede olduğunun tespiti açısından önemlidir. Avrupada 15 ve 16. Yüzyılda özellikle İtalyada başlayan Aydınlanma dönemi yani Rönesans’ın başlangıcı diğer ülkelere başta Fransa, Almanya, İngiltere’ye sirayet etmiştir. Özellikle skolastik metod yerine deney ve gözleme dayalı yeni teknolojik gelişmeler, positivist düşünce alanında ki gelişmeler, edebiyat ve sanat alanında yenilikler, insan hakları, bağımsızlık, köleliğin kaldırılması, bireysel hürriyetlerin yaygınlaştırılması konularındaki gelişmeler Avrupada adeta sanayii devrimini doğurmuştur. Bu ülkelerin sanayilerinin gelişmesi ve ekonomilerinin kolonyalizm vasıtasıyla inanılmaz derecede büyümesine ve kuvvetlenmesine sebep olmuştur. Sanayi Devrimi 18. yüzyılın ikinci yarısında İngiltere’de başladı. Daha sonra Kuzey Avrupa ve Kuzey Amerika’ya yayıldı. Bu devrim tekstil ve demir-çelik sektörlerinde kendini gösterdi. İlk dönemlerde buhar gücüyle işleyen makine ve araçlar (tren, gemi, vs.) ortaya çıktı. Daha sonraki dönemlerde elektrikli ve benzinli makine ve araçlar kullanılmaya başlandı. İngiltere buhar makinesinin özellikle tekstil üretiminde makinalaşmaya imkan vermesi ile ekonomisini geliştirdi. Avrupa kaynaklı, protestan ahlakı çerçevesinde faydalcılık akımı, kapitalizmin İngiltereyi dünya üzerine hakimiyet kuracak bir imparatorluk haline gelmesini sağladı. Üretime kaynak teşkil edecek hammaddenin temini için sömürge ülkelerin bulunması, uzak olan yerlere gemi, tren gibi ulaştırma araçları vasıtası ile ulaşılması Büyük Britanya İmparatorluğunu sınırlarının ötesinde çok büyük bir emperyalist ülke haline getirdi. Osmanlı devletinin en sarsıcı ve sıkıntılı dönemi olan 1700’lü yıllarda Avrupa da başlayan ve uzunca bir süre devam eden, milliyetçilik akımları, bireysel hak ve hürriyetlerin kazanılması anlamında Osmanlı topraklarında yaşayan gayrimüslim uluslarda bağımsızlık kıpırdanmalarına sebep olmaktaydı. İmparator toprakları giderek tehdid altında ayaklanma ve savaşlara gebeydi. Sırplar, Yunanlılar, Mısırlılar özellikle Napolyonun Mısırı istilası ile bağımsızlıkları için Osmanlıya sorun olmaktaydılar. Osmanlı, Avrupa da yaşanan Rönensansın getirdiği aydınlanmanın dışında kalmakla düşünce, sanat, özgürlükler, teknolojik yenilikler, ulusal ve toplumsal hayatta meydana gelen tüm yeniliklerin gerisinde kalmıştır. Makinalaşmaya bağlı yeni üretim sistemlerinin toplumsal hayatta meydana getirdiği değişikliklerle Avrupa ve Amerikada farklı sınıflar oluşmuş ve bu sınıfların belli merkezlerde toplanmaları ile eskinin yerleşim ve yaşam şekilleride değişiklik göstermiştir. Kişiler yaptıkları işler ve çalışma ortamları doğrultusunda kentlerde yaşamlarını sürdürmeye başlamıştır. Öte yandan Osmanlı sınıf yapısına baktığımızda Yönetenler dışında kalan büyük çoğunluğun köylüler olduğu, ticaret ve sanayi işleri ile uğraşan kesimin, toplumun çok küçük bir kısmını oluşturduğu görülmektedir. Osmanlı nüfusunun çoğunluğunu oluşturan köylüler tarım ile uğraşlarından dolayı köylerde yaşamlarını sürdürmekteydiler. Sınıfsal anlamda kentleşmeyi tetikleyen unsurların Osmanlıda, Avrupaya kıyasla aynı şekil ve tarzda gelişmediğini görmekteyiz. Doğal olarak batıda değişimi körükleyen unsurlar, bu değişim karşısında gerekli olan mekanizmalarında ortaya çıkmasını hızlandırıp, beraberinde bizaat yaşanarak ve denenerek gerekli çözümlerin oluşmasını sağlamıştır. Frederick Engels’in konut sorunu üzerine yazmış olduğu eserinde hızlı sanayileşmenin getirdiği sorunları ifade ettiği gibi: “Eski kültüre sahip bir ülkenin manüfaktür ve küçük-ölçekli üretimden geniş-ölçekli sanayiye üstelik elverişli koşullarla çabuklaştırılmış böylesine hızla geçtiği bir dönem aynı zamanda ileri düzeyde bir "konut darlığı" dönemidir. Bir yandan kırsal işçi yığınlarını sınai merkezlere dönüşen büyük kentler hızla kendine çekmekte; öte yandan da bu eski kentlerin yapı düzenlemeleri yeni geniş-ölçekli sanayi mailto:sssjournal.info@gmail.com Social Sciences Studies Journal (SSSJournal) 2018 Vol:4 Issue:21 pp:3479-3490 sssjournal.com Social Sciences Studies Journal (SSSJournal) sssjournal.info@gmail.com 3486 koşullarına ve buna tekabül eden trafiğe uymamakta; sokaklar genişletilmekte yenileri açılmakta ve kentlerin ortasından demiryolları geçirilmektedir. Tam işçilerin yığınlar halinde kentlere aktığı sırada işçi meskenleri büyük ölçüde yıktırılmaktadır. İşçiler ve küçük tüccarlar ve müşterileri işçiden oluşan zanaatçılar için aniden ortaya çıkan konut darlığı burdan gelmiştir. En başından beri sanayi merkezleri olarak gelişen kentlerde bu konut darlığı yok gibidir; örneğin Manchester Leeds Bradford Barmen-Elberfeld. Öte yandan darlık o sıralarda Londra, Paris, Berlin, Viyana'da had safhaya varmış ve çoğunlukla süreğen bir biçimde varlığını sürdürmüştür.”(Engels, 1992) Yukarıda verilen tablolardan ve Nüsuf-Gelir dağılımmı karşılaştırmalarından da anlaşılacağı gibi Osmanlı bilim anlanında yeni buluş ve icatların keşfinde tamamen dışarıda kalmıştır. Her ne kadar değerli devlet adamları, edebiyatçı, ve müzisyenler yetişmiş olsada tıpta, mimarlıkta, makina endüstrisinde, ağır sanayiinde ve diğer önemli alanlarda patentli icat yapamamıştır. Giderek zayıflayan askeri düzeni ile tarıma dayalı ekonomisi gereken ekonomik kalkınmayı sağlayamamıştır. Nitekim 1820 de İngiltere ile Osmanlı arasındaki nüfus farkı -%69 iken kişibaşı gelirde -%85.04 gerisinde kalmış durumdaydı. Bir başka deyişle Osmanlı 13,877,000 nüfusa sahip olup kişi başı geliri 712 USD iken. İngiltere 44,563,100 nüfusla kişibaşı 4,760.00 USD gelire sahipti. 1990 yılında İngiltere ile Türkiye Cumhuriyetinin nüfusu ancak eşitlenirken kişi başı gelirdeki fark -%67.14 idi yani Türkiye kişi başı 5,399.00 USD gelire ulaşmışken İngilterenin kişibaşı geliri 16,430.00 USD idi. Türkiye Cumhuriyeti 2008 de nüfus olarak İngitereyi %16 geçmiş olsa dahi kişi başı gelirde %66.03 gerisinde kalmıştır. A. Osmanlı döneminde şehircilik Geleneksel Dönem: Batı dünyası ile mukayese edildiği zaman ekonomik ve sosyal statüler açısından sınıfsal farklar (Aristokrasi, Burjuvazi) oluşmasına izin vermeyen İslam toplumlarının kurup geliştirdikleri şehirlerde önemli farklar bulunmaktaydı. Batılı anlamda yerel yönetim geleneğinde şehirleşmek Osmanlı Devleti’nde ancak Tanzimat yılları ile başlamıştır. Osmanlı Devlet’inde belediyecilik anlayışını Geleneksel Dönem olarak adlandırabileceğimiz dönemde, ilgili teşkilatlanma mülki idare bakımından eyaletler ve onlarda sancaklara ayrılmıştı. Eyaletler vergi düzeni, askerlik, toprakların yönetimi ve güvenlik gibi ihtiyaçlara göre örgütlenmişlerdi. Eyaletlerin başında önce eyalet beyi, beylerbeyi ve sonrada vali denilen yöneticiler bulunmaktaydı. Osmanlı şehirlerinin kuruluş ve gelişiminde üretim ilişkileri ve ekonomiden çok, kültürel unsurlar belirleyici olmuştur. Bu anlamda üç temel kurum ortaya çıkmaktadır. 1. Vakıflar 2. Loncalar ve 3. Kadılık kurumu. Şehirlerin mekansal-yapısal gelişmesinde Vakıflar önemli bir rol oynamıştır. Şehir yaşamı için gerekli olan ibadethane, hastane, han, hamam, medrese, yol, mezarlık, çeşme ve köprüler Vakıflar tarfından inşaa edilirdi. Vakıflar bir ölçüde bugünün belediyesinin yaptığı çalışmaların bir kısmını yerine getirmekteydi. Loncalar ise; belirli bir şehirde oturan sanatkâr ve sanâyicilerin mensup oldukları meslekî teşkilardı. Loncaların iki ana gâyesi vardı; 1) Lonca mensubu sanatkâr, esnaf arasında sosyal eşitliği ve dayanışmayı sağlamak. 2) Meslekî faaliyetin uygulanışını düzenlemek ve denetlemek. Loncalar, bugünün Esnaf ve Sanatkârlar Derneğine benzetilebilir. Loncaların ekonomik, meslekî, kültürel ve sosyal faaliyetle ilgili vazifeleri vardı. Loncalar bulundukları mekanlarda üyeleri vasıtasıyla oranın, temizliği, düzenini sağlıyor, sokakların aydınlatılması, yolların tamiri, tadilatı, çarşı ve pazarların denetimi, fiyat kontrolleri gibi bugünkü belediye zabıtalarının işlerini yerine getiriyorlardı. Kadılık ise şehrin yönetiminden sorumlu kurum olarak öne çıkmaktaydı. Kadılar vakıf ve loncaların üzerinde bir makam olup asayişten sorumlu yerel kolluk kuvvetlerininde amiri durumdaydı. Merkez tarafından görevelndirilen Kadılar aynı zamanda mali yetkiye sahip olup yönettikleri köy ve nahiyelerin mülki idare amirleri ve yargıcıydılar.(Çiçek, Nisan 2014) B. Tanzimat ve sonraki dönem: Osmanlı imparatorluğunda batılı ülkeler ile artan ilişkiler neticesinde özellikle 1854-1856 Kırım Savaşı yıllarından başalamak üzere ilk belediye idaresinin kurulması çalışmaları başlamıştır. Söz konusu yıllarda İstanbul’da yüz binin üzerinde yabancı yaşamaktaydı ve Avrupalı devletler vatandaşlarının temiz ve bakımlı şehirlerde yaşamasını istemekteydiler. Belediyenin kuruluşu, İstanbul’da ilk kez 1855 yılında bu sebeple başlamıştır. Ancak mali yetersizlikler ve personel eksikliği gibi sorunlarla modern belediyecilik için iyi bir başlangıç olmamıştır. Osmanlı'nın taşra şehirlerinde, modernleşmeyle iligi çalışmalar Paris örnek alınarak 8 Ekim 1864 tarihli vilâyet nizamnâmesiyle başlandı. İlk hedef olarak il ve kaza merkezlerinde seçimli üyelerden kurulan bir 'Şehir Meclisi' oluşturulacaktı. Ancak uygulamadaki eksiklikler sistemli olarak mailto:sssjournal.info@gmail.com Social Sciences Studies Journal (SSSJournal) 2018 Vol:4 Issue:21 pp:3479-3490 sssjournal.com Social Sciences Studies Journal (SSSJournal) sssjournal.info@gmail.com 3487 işleyişin başlamasına mani oldu. Sonuçta Osmanlı Hükümeti özellikle ecnebilerin yaşadığı ve modern liman kentinin karşılaştığı sorunların yoğunlaştığı Galata ve Beyoğlu bölgesinde belediye hizmetlerinin görülmesi amacıyla Altıncı Daire-i Belediye‟yi Paris örneğini uygulayarak kurdu. Ayrıcalıklı bir bütçeye sahip olması sebebiyle Cumhuriyete kadar başarılı bir şekilde devam etti.(Çiçek, Nisan 2014) . Belediyelerin gelişimi aşağıdaki kronolojik sıra takip edilerek izah edilebilir; 1869‟da çıkarılan Dersaadet İdare-i Belediye Nizamnamesi ile belediye örgütü, Beyoğlu ve Galata dışında tüm İstanbul’a yaygınlaştırılmış ve İstanbul Şehreminliği örgütü kurulmuştur. (Keleş, 2012) 1870 Tarihli İdare-i Umumiye-i Vilayet Nizamnamesi ile Vilayet, Sancak ve Kaza merkezlerinde birer belediye teşkilatı kurulmasına karar verildi. 1876 da hazırlanan Vilayet Belediye Kanunu her vilayet ve kasabada birer belediye örgütü kurulmasını öngördü. 1877 tarihli Dersaadet Belediye Kanunu Vilayet Belediye Kanununa ek olarak İstanbul’daki büyük sorunlara çözüm bulabilmek amacıyla çıkarıldı. Belediye teşkilâtının temelleri hukukî olarak I. Meşrutiyet'te atıldı. Blediyeler hükmî şahsiyet kazanarak idarî bir varlık olmaktan da ötede bir noktya taşındı. 1912 yılında Dersaadet Teşkilat-ı Belediyesi Hakkında Kanunu Muvakkat ile belediye daireleri kaldırılarak yerine belediye şubeleri kurulmuştur (Ünal, 2011). Bu yapı 1930 yılına kadar varlığını sürdürdü. Osmanlı belediyeciliği genel anlamda bir yerel yönetim sistemini uygulamaktan çok şehrin hizmetlerinin yürütülmesinde kurumsallaşan bir yapı olarak faaliyet göstermiştir. Osmanlıda merkeziyetçi devlet felsefesi hâkim olduğu için bu kurumlar şehir hizmetlerinin yürütülmesinden öte, yerel komünal özelliklere sahip olamamışlardır (Görmez, 1997). C. Cumhuriyet dönemi şehircilik çalışmaları Osmanlı dönemindeki yerel yönetim anlayışı, Cumhuriyetin ilan edilmesiyle beraber hiçbir değişikliğe uğramadan aynı şekilde devam etmiştir. Yeni kurulan ülkede Merkeziyetçi bir politikanınn izlenmesi genel olarak ülke bütünlüğünün korunması amaçını taşımıştır. Cumhuriyet döneminde yerel yönetimler konusunda yapılan ilk düzenleme köylerle ilgili olmuştur. Köylerde belediyecilik anlayışı ilk kez 1930 yılında 1580 sayılı Belediye Kanunu ile nüfusu 2000‟i geçen yerlerde belediye kurulabilmesinden sonra gelişmeye başlamıştır. (Çiçek, Nisan 2014) . Tek Parti Dönemi Belediyeciliği 1580 sayılı yasa, belediyeleri merkezi hükümetin bir uzantısı olarak kabul etmektedir. Bu düşünce tarzı Cumhuriyete mahsus değildir. Bizans’tan Anadolu Selçuklulara ve Osmanlılara kadar benzerlikler taşımaktadır. Her şeyi merkezi yönetimin denetimi ve kontrolü altında tutma mantığının bir yansımasıdır. Belediyeler karar alma süreçlerinde, kaynak ve yetki kullanımlarında ve hatta haberleşmelerinde merkezi yönetimin sıkı bir kontrolü altındaydılar. 1930 tarihinde 1580 sayılı Belediyeler yasası çıkarıldı ve 12 Eylül dönemine kadar yürürlükte kaldı. Yasayla, belediyelerin dağınık olan işlevleri tek elde toplandı. Tek parti döneminin sanayileşme politikalarından biri de, sanayinin tüm ülke yüzeyine yaygınlaştırılması idi. Bunun sonucu da, yeni ve orta büyüklükteki kentlerin ortaya çıkışı ve buna paralel olarak daha düzenli yerel hizmetlerin sunulmasının zorunlu hale gelmesidir. Bu itibarla kalkınmanın aksamadan yürütülebilmesi için tüm yaşam birimleri içinde köylere varıncaya kadar bütün şehirlerin güvenlik ve bayındırlık işlerinin tamamlanmsı hedeflenmişti. Tek parti döneminin başarılı ve belediyecilik politikalarına, İzmir’de 1931-1941 yılları arasında sergilenmiştir. - Toplum sağlığını önde tutma ve ücretsiz sağlık hizmetleri (tifo, menenjit, difteri, çiçek aşıları) ✓ Bataklıkların kurutulması (Mersinli, Halkapınar, Güzelyalı, Bostanlı, Karşıyaka) ve sıtma ile mücadele ✓ Hayvanlara ilişkin sağlık önlemleri (kuduz, şarbon) ✓ Lağımlar ve kanalizasyon işleri; su işleri ve mevcut suların daha sağlıklı hale getirilmesi ✓ Kent ve çevre sağlığına yönelik genel önlemler (gürültünün önlenmesi, yerlere tükürenlere para cezası). ✓ Çağdaş bir kent görüntüsü ve altyapısına yönelik çalışmalar çerçevesinde merkez garaj ve halin kurulması mailto:sssjournal.info@gmail.com Social Sciences Studies Journal (SSSJournal) 2018 Vol:4 Issue:21 pp:3479-3490 sssjournal.com Social Sciences Studies Journal (SSSJournal) sssjournal.info@gmail.com 3488 ✓ Kent içi ulaşım ve toplu taşımaya yönelik düzenlemeler; yollar, bulvarlar, caddeler, meydanlar; sosyal yardım kurumları (Hastane/Behçet Uz, yaşlılar evi...) ✓ İtfaiye ve telefon idaresi; işçi evleri (Kahramanlar’da) ✓ Park, bahçe ve yolların ağaçlandırılması; Kültür Park’ın kurulması olarak adlandırılabilir. Tek parti dönemine genel olarak bakıldığında, 1923’de 421 olan belediye sayısı 1938’de 537’ye ulaşmıştı Çok partili yaşama geçiş sürecinin hemen öncesinde, 13 Temmuz 1945 tarihinde “Belediyecilik Derneği” kuruldu. 1948’de 5237 sayılı “Belediye Gelirleri Kanunu” çıkarıldı. 1948’de belediyelerin çarpık yapılaşmayı, gecekondulaşmayı önlemesi için 5218 sayılı yasa çıkarıldı. Yasa, belediyelerin kent içinde arsa üretmelerini amaçlıyordu. Menderes Dönemi Belediyeciliği 1950-60 arasında Demokrat Parti döneminde kentlere göç hız kazanmıştır. Bu dönemde, kentlerin etrafı gecekondularla kuşatılmaya başlamıştır. Bu konuda milli bir politika olmaması ve geçici çözüm şeklindeki uygulamalarla belediyeler hızlı kentleşmeye yenik düşmüş oldular. Bu dönemde, kentlerin imarı, yeni yollar ve binalar yapılması hız kazandı. Hızlı kentleşme bir taraftan İstanbul’da önce kat mülkiyetine izin vererek daha sonra da sanayiyi bu bölgede kurdurarak, kırsal nüfusu İstanbul’a doğru harekete geçmesini başlattı. Buna 1956’da başlatılan imar seferberliği eklenince, İstanbul ikiye katlanan nüfusunun altında ezilmeye başladı. Devrin ekonomik tercihi olarak karayolu ve otomobil benimsenip, dönemin tek toplu ulaşım aracı olan tramvaylar da otomobillere yer açmak amacıyla dışlanınca, çarpık kentleşmeye çarpık taşımacılık da eklendi. Şehirleşme anlayışında merkezden başlamak Kent merkezindeki tarihi dokuyu olumsuz etkiledi, oysa büyüme ve genişleme kenti çevreleyen alanlarda yani dış kısımlarada başlatılıp düzgün ve planlı olarak yürütülebilirdi. Netice olarak hükümetler yakın yıllara kadar kentleşme konusunda aynı tarz politikalar uygulamıştır. Dengesiz ve plansız büyüme özellikle 1950’li yıllarda başlayan ve 1970’li yıllarda hız kazanan kentleşmenin getirdiği ve biriktirdiği ağır sorunlar, kentleri ülke gündeminin merkezine taşımış bulunmaktadır. 1960-1980 Dönemi ve Sosyal Demokrat Belediyecilik 1973-1980 dönemi, Türkiye belediyeciliğinin tarihinde bir dönüm noktasıdır. 1950’lerde başlayan ve 1970’lerde hız kazanan kentlere yönelik yoğun göç ve buna paralel olarak ortaya çıkan gecekondulaşma kentlerin çehresini tamamıyla değiştirmiştir. Sosyal Demokrat Belediyecilik. Türkiye’de kırsal kesimden kentlere yönelik göçü iki döneme ayırmak mümkündür. Bunlardan birincisi 1980’e kadar olan dönemdir. Bu göçler isteğe bağlı/iradi göçlerdir. Büyük kentlere iş bulmak, sosyal ve ekonomik nedenler, daha iyi bir eğitim imkanı gibi nedenlere dayanır. 1980 sonrası göçler ise, iradi değil, zorunlu göçler grubuna girer. 1973 yerel seçimleri ile birlikte ilk kez İstanbul, Ankara ve İzmir gibi büyük şehirler sosyal demokratların eline geçti. Bu devirde İl belediye başkanları parti örgütlerinin desteği ile, kitlesel bir destek de sağlayarak başarılı belediyecilik uygulamaları yaptılar. 1978’de CHP hükümetinin Yerel Yönetimler Bakanlığı kurması da planlı kentleşme ve yapılanma sorunlarını çözmedi. (Çiçek, Nisan 2014) 19-20 y.y’da Batıda Şehircilik Marx&Engels ve Weber şehirleri, feodalizmden kapitalizme geçişin analiz nesnesi olarak görmüşlerdir. Durkheim için ise, toplum büyük ölçekte bir kenttir görüşündedir. A. Comte, ‘üç hal yasası’ ile sanayi ile belirlenen toplumu idealize eder. H. Spencer, basitten karmaşığa doğru evrimci bir modelle yine sanayi toplumunu olumlamaktadır. F. Tönnies (1855-1935); cemaat ve cemiyet ayırımı üzerinden toplumların geçirdikleri evrimi açıklar. Tüm bu evrimleşme insanları farklı sınıflar ve meslekler içerisinde belli merkezlerde yaşamaya, yani sanayi, fabrika, üretim ve ticaretin yoğun olduğu kentlerin içerisinde ikamet etmelerini adeta zorunlu hale getirmiştir. George Simmel ilk olarak Kent Sosyolojisi konusunda Almanya’da ve daha sonrada onun fikirleri ve öğretisini devam ettiren ABD’deki Chicago Okulunun kurulması ile onun talebeleri olan, Robert Park Ernest Burgess, Roderick McKenzie ve Louis Wirth, kentsel mekân ve sosyal süreçler arasındaki ilişkiyi araştırmışlardır. Kent mekânının sosyal yapı üzerindeki etkileri de yine Chicago Okulu üyelerinin araştırdığı konular arasındadır. mailto:sssjournal.info@gmail.com Social Sciences Studies Journal (SSSJournal) 2018 Vol:4 Issue:21 pp:3479-3490 sssjournal.com Social Sciences Studies Journal (SSSJournal) sssjournal.info@gmail.com 3489 Kent yazınında ilk kez mekân kavramı temelinde kentin toplumsal bir ürün olduğunu tespit eden Lefebvre, Castells ve Harvey’nin çalışmalarına giden yolu açmıştır. Her üç düşünür de, özellikle 20. yüzyılın ikinci yarısından sonra siyasi ekonomik ve toplumsal alanda ortaya çıkan farklılaşmaların kent alanındaki yansımalarını ve yeni toplumsal ve kentsel biçimleri üretim ilişkileri, sermaye, kapitalizmin krizleri ve toplumsal hareketler üzerinden okumuşlardır. Henri Lefebvre, kent mekânının sosyal manada üretiminin, toplumun -kapitalizmin-, yeniden üretilmesinin temeli olduğu düşüncesini savunmaktadır. Mekânın sosyal üretimi, egemenliğinin yeniden üretimi için egemen sınıf tarafından bir araç olarak kullanılır. Her toplum, dolayısıyla her üretim biçimi belli bir mekân, kendi mekânını üretir.(Okan, 2017) 2. SONUÇ Kentleşme ve Kentlileşme olgusunu belirgin olarak anlamak gerekmektedir. Yani kentleşme toplumun değişen yapısı gereği oluşan yeni yaşam alanı olarak tanımlanabilir. Kentlileşme ise bu mekanda oturan insanların beraber evrimleşerek, ortak kültür, değer yargıları, gelenk-görenek çerçevesinde sürdürdükleri yaşam şeklidir. Bu oluşumun hem Osmanlı hemde Cumhuriyet döneminde nasıl olduğunu tespit etmek önemlidir. Osmanlı devletinde kentlerde yaşayanların nüfusu köylerde dağınık olarak yaşayan ve tarımla uğraşanlara oranla daha fazladır. Dolayısıyla insanların ortak bir mekanda beraber yaşadıkları şehirlerin olduğu değerlendirmesini yapmak mümkündür. Ancak burada batıdan farklı olarak İmparatorluğu oluşturan nüfusun çeşitliliği ile ilgli önemli bir ayrıntı vardır. Özellikle sermaye sahibi zengin sınıf ve burjuva sınıfının olmayışı, ki batıda kentleşmeyi tetikleyen unsurların başını çekenlerdir. Yine İmparatorlukta merkezi bir yönetim anlayışının olması ve devletçilik politikasının uygulanması, bireysel kalkınma vasıtasıyla kaptitalist bir ekonomi ve sınıfın oluşumunu engellemiştir. Osmanlıda tüm üst sınıf, aydınlar, bürokratlar, din adamları yöneticiler ve askerler imparatorluk için, onun bünyesinde çalışmaktaydılar. Bunun dışında kalanlar ise, küçük ölçekli tüccar ve sanatkarlar ile büyük çoğunluğu oluşturan köylüler nüfusun diğer kısmını oluşturmaktaydı Osmanlı kendi içerisinde tarımda modernleşemediği gibi sanayii de reformu kaçırmış ve imparatorluk artık iç ve dış etkenlerin doğurduğu yozlaşma ve çöküş sonucunda, devlet ve toplum yapısını etkileyen değişiklikler gündeme gelmişti. Özellikle kıyı kentlerinde bazı ürünlerin ihracı, Batı ürünlerinin iç pazarda satımına dayalı bir ticaretin ortaya çıkışı ile birlikte, kıyı kentleri hem şekil, hem de işlev değiştirmeye başladılar. Ancak yukarıda görüldüğü gibi toplumu oluşturan sınıflar Kenleşme ve Kentlileşmeyi aynı anda- dönemde yaşayamamışlardır. Oysa batıda yaşanan değişim sonucu oluşan farklı sınıfların kentleşmeyi başlattığı ve bu sınıfların oluşturduğu toplum birlikte kentlileşmeyi yaşama geçirdikleri görülmektedir. Cumhuriyet döneminde ise ikinci dünya savaşı ve sonrasına kadar köylerden kentlere göçün çok yüksek olmadığı ve düşük nüfustan dolayı kentleşmenin doğal olarak hızlanmadığı bir gerçektir. Tek partili dönemden sonra Türkiye hala istenilen sanyii gelişmesini tamamlayamamış ancak büyük şehirlere göçün daha iyi bir yaşam ve eğitim olanağı doğurabileceği sebebiyle başlamıştır. Hükümetler bu göç oluşumunu şehirde kaçak gecekondulaşma’ya göz yumarak müsade etmiştir. Bu dönemde de Kentleşme ve Kentlileşmenin oluşumu aynı anda yaşanarak oluşmamıştır. Konuya sosyolojik açıdan bakıldığında Kentleşme ve Kentlileşme olgusu batı ile aynı koşul ve oluşumun dışında bir süreç olarak gözükmektedir. Batı gerek dini, toplumsal sınıfları, ekonomik yapıları ve modelleri, gerekse yaşadıkları devrim ve değişimler itibariyle Osmanlı ve Cumhuriyet Türkiyesin’den oldukça farklıdır. Bu itibarla batının geçirmiş olduğu süreçler bizlere oranın koşullarını anlatan bir öğreti olarak kullanılmalıdır. Gerçekte, Osmanlı ve sonrası Türkiye’nin gelişimini kendi toplumsal gerçeklerimiz ve yapılarımız çerçevesinde değerlendirip ileriye ışık tutabiliriz. Mukayesenin önemli etkisi; uygulamada kullanılacak yöntemlerin doğru olarak tespit edilme imkanının sağlamasıdır. Toplumların davranışları, kalkınmaları veya yok olmaları sosyoljik olarak incelenmeleri sayesinde anlam kazanacaktır. İnsanoğlu varoluşundan bu yana sürekli olarak gelişmekte ve tüm sınırları zorlamaktadır. Bu anlamda toplumların yaşayış ve beklentilerini tetikleyen unsurların neler oldukları doğru anlaşılmalıdır. Elde edilen veriler ancak ileriye dönük, değişim ve adaptasyona uygun biçimde kullanıldığı sürece toplumlar varlıklarını sürdürebilecekleridir. REFERENCES 19th Century England Social Hierarchy. (n.d.). Retrieved from www.hierarchystructure.com: https://www.hierarchystructure.com/19th-century-england-social-hierarchy/ mailto:sssjournal.info@gmail.com Social Sciences Studies Journal (SSSJournal) 2018 Vol:4 Issue:21 pp:3479-3490 sssjournal.com Social Sciences Studies Journal (SSSJournal) sssjournal.info@gmail.com 3490 Ansiklopedisi, O. E. (2006). 19. Yüzyılda Osmanlı'da Bilim. Kültür ve Sanat. gozlemci.net: http://www.gozlemci.net/5839-19-yuzyilda-osmanlilarda-bilim-kultur-sanat.html adresinden alındı Çiçek, Y. ( Nisan 2014). GEÇMİŞTEN GÜNÜMÜZE TÜRKİYE’DE YEREL YÖNETİMLER. KSÜ Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 53-64. Engels, F. (1992). Konut Sorunu. İstanbul: Sol Yayınları. Fox, J. (2011, July 18). Entertainment & Arts - Five great but forgotten British artists. Retrieved from https://www.bbc.com: https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-14068061 Google.com. (tarih yok). Türkiye ve Gelişmiş Ekonomilerde Kalkınma ve Kişi Başına Düşen Gelir. https://www.google.com: https://www.google.com/search?q=y%C4%B1llara+g%C3%B6re+milli+gelir+tablosu&safe=strict&sa=X&b iw=1280&bih=590&tbm=isch&source=iu&ictx=1&fir=DMR07P5qxA5DTM%253A%252CRVGAnOpAS U5nwM%252C_&usg=__Q3lpNvnNv6SVoWGRQCKturKAioQ%3D&ved=0ahUKEwialPLG7r7bAhUrJ8 AKHaprC adresinden alındı Görmez, K. (1997). Yerel Demokrasi ve Türkiye. İstanbul: Vadi Yayınları. helmuth-von-moltke. (2014, Ekim 20). 9 Maddede Osmanlı'dan Türkiye'ye Nüfus ve Kişi Başına Düşen Gelir. onedio.com: https://onedio.com/haber/osmanli-dan-turkiye-ye-nufus-ve-kisi-basina-dusen-gelir- 387690 adresinden alındı Keleş, R. (2012). Yerinden Yönetim ve Siyaset. İstanbul: Cem Yayınevi. M., R. (2014, Şubat 15). OSMANLI TOPLUMUNUN SOSYAL YAPISI. http://tarih.tumders.com: http://tarih.tumders.com/osmanli-devletinde-toplumsal-yapi.html adresinden alındı Marcus, L. (2011). REMNINISCETHIS. Retrieved from http://www.reminiscethis.co.uk: http://www.reminiscethis.co.uk/fifties_pop.htm Office of Nati, o. S. (2015, July 6). UK Population Estimates 1851 to 2014. Retrieved from https://www.ons.gov.uk: https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/populationandmigration/populationestimates/adhoc s/004356ukpopulationestimates1851to2014 Okan, D. D. (2017). Kent Sosyolojisi. İstanbul: İstanbul Universitesi. TUİK. (2016, Ekim 21). İSTATİSTİK GÖSTERGELER 1923-2009. 21 Ekim 2016. http://www.tuik.gov.tr/yillik/Ist_gostergeler.pdf: https://ipfs.io/ipfs/QmR1gzPYUwxEUWHbeRggZzfYy5Fxsd8Qc7hXUUnJQwxrZq/wiki/1960_T%C3%BC rkiye_n%C3%BCfus_say%C4%B1m%C4%B1.html adresinden alındı Türk Yazarları. (tarih yok). www.google.com: https://www.google.com/search?safe=strict&biw=1280&bih=590&tbm=isch&sa=1&ei=aOUbW4_yH8Tw6 AT4_5XIDw&q=t%C3%BCrk+yazarlar%C4%B1&oq=T%C3%BCrk+yazarlar%C4%B1&gs_l=img.1.1.0i1 9k1l3j0i30i19k1l5j0i5i30i19k1l2.10828.20550.0.22634.15.13.0.2.2.0.115.1164.1j10.11.0 adresinden alındı Ünal, F. (2011). TANZİMATTAN CUMHURİYETE TÜRKİYE'DE YEREL YÖNETİMLERİN YASAL VE YAPISAL DÖNÜŞÜMÜ. http://www.mulkiyedergi.org, 244. Uyar, H. (tarih yok). Yerel Yönetimler. kisi.deu.edu.tr. World War II (1939-1945). (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.historyofengland.net: https://www.historyofengland.net/world-war-ii World War One WWI 1914 - 1918 - The Aftermath. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.historyofengland.net: https://www.historyofengland.net/wwone/wwi-the-aftermath YÖRÜKOĞLU, F. (2009, Mart). TÜRK BELEDİYECİLİĞİNİN GELİŞİM SÜRECİ. https://www.mevzuatdergisi.com: https://www.mevzuatdergisi.com/2009/03a/02.htm adresinden alındı mailto:sssjournal.info@gmail.com 
work_whhvxrkap5hjfccw7lrjrwvmha	----	ARCHIV-VERSION Dokserver des Zentrums für Zeithistorische Forschung Potsdam e.V. http://zeitgeschichte-digital.de/Doks Zeina Elcheikh Remembering 10 June. Curating Memory in Lidice und Oradour https://doi.org/10.14765/zzf.dok-1776 Archiv-Version des ursprünglich auf dem Portal Visual-History am 09.06.2020 mit der URL: https://visual- history.de/2020/06/09/remembering-10-june/ erschienenen Textes Copyright © 2020 Clio-online – Historisches Fachinformationssystem e.V. und Autor/in, alle Rechte vorbehalten. Dieses Werk ist zum Download und zur Vervielfältigung für nicht-kommerzielle Zwecke freigegeben. Es darf jedoch nur erneut veröffentlicht werden, sofern die Einwilligung der o.g. Rechteinhaber vorliegt. Dies betrifft auch die Übersetzungsrechte. Bitte kontaktieren Sie: <redaktion@zeitgeschichte-digital.de> Für die Neuveröffentlichung von Bild-, Ton- und Filmmaterial, das in den Beiträgen enthalten ist, sind die dort jeweils genannten Lizenzbedingungen bzw. Rechteinhaber zu beachten. VISUALHISTORY Online-Nachschlagewerk fürdie historische Bildforschung REMEMBERING 10 JUNE Curating Memory in Lidice and Oradour The Nazi occupation of large parts of Europe destroyed cities, tow ns, villages and entire landscapes. Every year on 10 of June, the French village of Oradour-sur-Glane commemorates the massacre that transf ormed the village into a scenery of ruins. The day has a resonance of death and horror in the Czech village of Lidice alike. Lidice, 10 June 1942 A mong the atrocities committed by the Nazis during the Second World War Lidice remained an unusual case. The non-Jew ish Czech village, located 22 kilometers northw est of Prague, w as the target af ter Czech resistance f ighters seriously injured Reinhard Heydrich in an assassination attempt on May 27, 1942. “Operation A nthropoid” w as the code name f or the attack on the high-ranking German SS and police of f icial w ho served as deputy Reichsprotektor in Bohemia and Moravia. In retaliation f or the death of Heydrich on June 4, Lidice w as burnt dow n and razed to the ground on June 10. Only a f ew ruins remained scattered in the silent landscape: the f oundations of a f arm, the church of St. Martin and a f ormer local school. The men w ere immediately shot and the w omen sent to concentration camps. The children of the village, w ho w ere considered capable of being “Germanized”, w ere sent to German SS f amilies, and the others w ere murdered. Postcard showing Lidice before and after the massacre (Zeina Elcheikh). The massacre and destruction of Lidice w as one of the f irst Nazi atrocities the w hole w orld could know about. The devastation w as documented in details, as Jessica Rapson describes: “The Nazis f ilmed every step of this destruction as a training f ilm – Folgende Beiträge könnten Sie auch interessieren: 9. Juni 2020 Zeina Elcheikh Thema: Zweiter Weltkrieg Rubrik: Fotothek Zeitgeschichte 1 von 7 the shootings, the burning of bodies and homes, all evidences of a tow n burned into oblivion, plow ed under. A training f ilm to help others learn to leave no traces behind.”[1] The eradication of the village and most of its inhabitants w as a demonstration of the pow er, control, and supremacy of Nazi Germany. It w as a w arning. How ever, the echo of the bloodbath triggered (re)actions and solidarity. British poster commemorating the village of Lidice. Source: Wikimedia Commons public domain Immediately af ter the massacre, new s of the devastated village reached a group of miners in Stoke-on-Trent (UK). They sympathized and identif ied themselves w ith the people of Lidice: a group of miners like themselves, w ho lived in a rather modest rural area. The miners of Stoke-on-Trent organized the f undraising campaign “Lidice Shall Live” to f acilitate the rebuilding and resettlement of the survivors. A lmost immediately af ter the end of the w ar a new Lidice w as built overlooking the site of the old village. “The Silent V illage” (1943) is a British short f ilm directed by Humphrey Jennings and inspired by the Lidice massacre. The f ilm w as shot in a similar mining community as Lidice: the village of Cw mgiedd in Wales. In the same year, 1943, the Czech composer Bohuslav Martinů, w rote his musical w ork “Memorial to Lidice”. The f irst monument to Lidice w as erected in 1945. In the early 1950s the f irst museum w as opened. On the 20th anniversary of the massacre in 1962, a new museum w as built f ollow ing the design of the architect František Marek. The exhibition tells the f ate of the village and its residents. A rose garden w as created by the group of “Lidice Shall Live”, and w as established as a garden of peace and f riendship.[2] In the late 1960s, the Czech sculptor Marie Uchytilová, initiated the “Memorial to the Children of Lidice”. By depicting the 82 children of the village (42 girls and 40 boys), she w anted to pay tribute to the young victims of the w ar. Uchytilová died in 1989, leaving her w ork unf inished. In the 1990s, donations w ere organized to continue w hat she had started. The f irst statues w ere installed in Lidice in 1995, and the last one on 10 June 2000. 2 von 7 Memorial to the children of Lidice overlooking the site of the massacre. Photo: Dezidor, Čeština: Lidice 2011. Source: Wikimedia Commons, Licence: Dezidor CC BY 3.0 The Lidice massacre is remembered in several places and in various f orms. Tow ns, neighborhoods, buildings and streets w ere renamed “Lidice” in several countries. Memorials w ere built as w ell in Wisconsin (U.S.A ) and in the Wallanlagen Park in Bremen (Germany). In 2017, 75 years have passed since the tragedy. On this occasion the English composer V ic Carnall w rote his Opus 17 “In Memoriam: the V illage of Lidice”. Oradour-sur-Glane, 10 June 1944 Saturdays w ere of ten busy in Oradour, a small village in the department of Haute- V ienne in w est-central France. June 10, 1944 seemed to be no exception: shopping f or f ood and grocery, going to the barbershop, and chatting w ith the neighbors. A medical check w as even scheduled f or the af ternoon at the local school. How ever, by midday, the w ay lif e used to be in Oradour-sur-Glane w ould change f orever. The 2nd SS-Panzer Division “Das Reich” reached the village at noon, and 150 soldiers blocked the entrance to the village. The curtain of time w as draw n over Oradour, and an act of atrocity began. On the next morning, one could still see smoldering houses, f arms and shops. Oradour-sur-Glane w as reduced to blackened stones, charred remains and ashes. A mong the Nazi crimes, the massacre of 642 w omen, children and men of Oradour on 10 June 1944 w as one of the most notorious. 3 von 7 Postcard from August 1949 (Zeina Elcheikh). Among the stamps, one reads “Oradour S/GL, 10 Juin 1944, souviens-toi, Remember”. A commemorative sign with the inscription “souviens-toi, remember” is located at the entrance of Oradour. In 1945, there w as a need f or a symbol f or a resistant France, w hich had been partially destroyed by the barbarity of the Nazis. A f ter the visit of General Charles de Gaulle to the ruins in 1945, a special legislation w as passed in 1946 designating the village as a historic monument. The w ay the ruins have been preserved is a model f or “ultimate victimization”, as Sarah Farmer argues: “a peacef ul French tow n, uninvolved in any resistance activity, destroyed and murdered its inhabitants.”[3] Without involving the f ew survivors in the decision to turn the site into a memorial, Oradour-sur-Glane became the martyr village of France: a sacred place belonging to the French nation. 4 von 7 Postcard showing Oradour after the massacre (Zeina Elcheikh). In 1947 Pablo Picasso painted “L’enf ant d’Oradour”. It w as most likely the portrait of Roger Godf rin, the only child (almost 8 years old) w ho survived the massacre. In 1984, the English w riter David Hughes w rote his novel “The Pork Butcher”, based on the massacre of Oradour-sur-Glane. The novel w as f ilmed in 1989 under the title “Souvenir”, directed by Geof f rey Reeve. In 1999, the French President Jacques Chirac inaugurated the “Centre de la mémoire d’Oradour”: a memorial museum located near the entrance to the ruined village. The museum hosts personal items of the victims, w hich w ere recovered f rom the ruins. In September 2013, German President Joachim Gauck and French President François Hollande visited the ruins of Oradour-sur-Glane. It w as the f irst time that a German politician had been on the site of one of the inf amous massacres committed by the Nazis in France during the Second World War. Postal stamp from the GDR commemorating Oradour-sur-Glane, showing the monument to the 642 victims of the massacre. Concluding Thoughts June 10 is a day of commemoration in memory of the massacres of Lidice and Oradour-sur-Glane. The people in both villages suf f ered f rom the terrible atrocities committed by the Nazis. Whereas the perpetrators w ere determined to document and propagate the annihilation of Lidice, they tried to limit the public discussion about the massacre in the French village. In Lidice and Oradour, new villages w ere built to relocate the survivors. 5 von 7 Physical remains can evoke an understanding of the past and its history. A bsence and silence can do the same. The ruins in Oradour are an authentic part of the commemorative landscape. On the other hand, the lack of physical remains in Lidice – except f or a f ew visible f oundations – led to other alternatives of remembrance in the silent scenery. Betw een moving on and looking back, 10 June in Lidice and Oradour- sur-Glane w ill keep curating memory in absence and ruins. People walking through the landscape where Lidice once stood. Photo: PeterBraun74, Lidice Memorial, 23 June 2018. Source: Wikimedia Commons, Licence: CC BY-SA 4.0 Preserving the ruins of Oradour led to the freezing of time in the remains of the village. With the time passing, weathering washed away the blackened stones and vegetation spread through the ruins. Photo: Gvdbor, Oktober 2004. Source: Wikimedia Commons, Licence: CC BY-SA 3.0 [1] Jessica Raspon, Topographies of Suf f ering: Buchenw ald, Babi Yar, Lidice, New York 2015, 153-154. [2] Raspon, Topographies of Suf f ering, 143. [3] See Sarah Farmer, Martyred V illage: Commemorating the 1944 Massacre at Oradour-sur-Glane, Berkeley 1999. 6 von 7 Zitation Zeina Elcheikh, Remembering 10 June. Curating Memory in Lidice und Oradour, in: V isual History, 09.06.2020, https://visual-history.de/2020/06/09/remembering-10-june/ DOI: https://doi.org/10.14765/zzf .dok-1776 Link zur PDF-Datei Nutzungsbedingungen f ür diesen A rtikel Copyright (c) 2020 Clio-online e.V. und A utor*in, alle Rechte vorbehalten. Dieses Werk entstand im Rahmen des Clio-online Projekts „V isual-History“ und darf vervielf ältigt und veröf f entlicht w erden, sof ern die Einw illigung der Rechteinhaber*in vorliegt. Bitte kontaktieren Sie: <bartlitz@zzf -potsdam.de> 7 von 7 
work_wk6ezdjaefg47fgxly5556km4q	----	00_RAIntro.pmd Aproveitar a vida, juventude e gravidez1 Helen Gonçalves & Daniela Riva Knauth Universidade Federal de Pelotas – UFPel Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul – UFRGS RESUMO: Este artigo propõe demonstrar que a concepção de aproveitar a vida tem significados importantes no universo investigado. A expressão sur- giu no contexto de uma pesquisa de abordagem qualitativa, realizada em Pelotas, durante os anos de 2001-2002, com 23 jovens de 18-19 anos que já tinham filho(s) e com 10 de suas mães. O objetivo inicial do estudo era compreender o contexto da gravidez na adolescência em jovens das camadas popular e média, pertencentes a um estudo de coorte de nascimento/1982. Durante o trabalho de campo, o conceito de aproveitar a vida ganhou gran- de destaque nas narrativas, ajudou a qualificar, classificar e, principalmente, justificar os comportamentos afetivo-sexuais juvenis. As análises demons- tram que a juventude deve se posicionar na vida de uma forma proveitosa, endossando positivamente os seus valores sociais. A gravidez das jovens, para as mães, é vista como um dos efeitos da inconseqüência e da modernidade e, para as jovens da camada popular, como algo que estava previsto, favorecen- do o menor controle parental. Para as jovens da camada média, a gravidez interrompe temporariamente ou inverte planos de trabalho e estudo, e afeta menos a sociabilidade das jovens, pois estas contam com maior estrutura econômica e familiar para seguir curtindo a vida. PALAVRAS-CHAVE: adolescentes, juventude, etnografia, gravidez na ado- lescência, aproveitar a vida, estudo qualitativo. - 626 - HELEN GONÇALVES & DANIELA RIVA KNAUTH. APROVEITAR A VIDA... Leva-se muito tempo para ser jovem. (Pablo Picasso) Introdução A avaliação social sobre o comportamento de um indivíduo no seu gru- po faz parte das regras sociais que perpassam todas as idades. A idade da pessoa é um referencial sociocultural importante, reflete comportamen- tos comuns e significativos para a compreensão da sociedade. De um modo ou de outro, as apreciações sociais sobre o comportamento estão relacionadas com as conseqüências que ele possa provocar. No que se refere especificamente aos jovens, parte da bibliografia socioantro- pológica tem demonstrado que a juventude atual possui um valor sim- bólico, um estilo de vida identificado ao consumo do bem viver no Oci- dente moderno – logo, pode ser consumida por outras idades e fases de vida (Groppo, 2000; Heilborn et al., 2002). Essa valorização da juven- tude realça a descronologização das fases de vida, relacionada às mudan- ças de eventos demográficos (Debert, 1998), e pode enfatizar e desvincular, em certa medida, a juventude/adolescência de alguns con- teúdos rebeldes ou disfuncionais. Os jovens “têm a vida pela frente”, “devem aproveitá-la”, “são no- vos”, “há tempo para mudar e aprender a ter limites” são falas abran- gentes e significantes do contexto juvenil. A coexistência entre a idéia de juventude valorizada e aquela das atitudes criticáveis (pela imaturida- de e inconseqüência) ressalta como são alguns comportamentos absor- vidos e adequados a cada contexto e tempo. As imagens, as representa- ções, as percepções e os preconceitos do que é ser jovem ou adolescente, ou das expectativas da juventude, podem ser encontradas em expressões de uso popular com significados múltiplos e exemplares para várias dis- REVISTA DE ANTROPOLOGIA, SÃO PAULO, USP, 2006, V. 49 Nº 2. - 627 - cussões. No presente artigo, a idéia de aproveitar a vida serve-nos de ponto de referência para entender percepções e conceitos sobre a gravi- dez juvenil (antes dos 20 anos). Foram as jovens que engravidaram e suas mães que ressaltaram o valor dessa idéia a partir da juventude. Sabe-se que a gravidez na adolescência (10-20 anos incompletos) tem sido veiculada como um problema social e de saúde pública (WHO, 2001). As referências ao evento estão acompanhadas de adjetivos, do tipo “precoce” e “indesejada”, presentes nas visões biomédicas, ressal- tando o comportamento, as conseqüências sociais e biológicas negati- vas dos comportamentos afetivo-sexuais dos adolescentes e jovens. Os universos investigados Em 2001-2002, por meio do Sistema de Informações de Nascidos Vi- vos, foi possível identificar jovens pertencentes ao estudo de coorte de 1982, em Pelotas-RS (Victora et al., 2003), que já tiveram filhos até os 19 anos. Após a identificação de 446 jovens que engravidaram, teve iní- cio um estudo etnográfico, com um universo de 26 jovens com filho(s), selecionadas por serem moradoras de bairros populares (13 jovens) e de camada média (10 jovens), localizados em setores censitários onde ou- tros jovens sem filhos são também estudados. Os objetivos se propu- nham a entender se (e como) a gravidez afetaria, nessa etapa da vida, as trajetórias afetivo-sexuais, de trabalho e escolares das jovens. Do univer- so estudado, três jovens dificultaram os encontros no decorrer do tra- balho de campo, não sendo possível desenvolver com elas um trabalho mais aprofundado – o material de análise não levou em consideração seus depoimentos. Além das 23 jovens com filho(s) que compunham o universo final, foram entrevistadas 10 mães. Optou-se por incorporar o ponto de vista dos familiares nas análises para a compreensão dos con- - 628 - HELEN GONÇALVES & DANIELA RIVA KNAUTH. APROVEITAR A VIDA... flitos geracionais relativos à sexualidade e à vida juvenil. As entrevistas foram autorizadas pelas jovens e por suas mães, e foram gravadas e trans- critas respeitando o sigilo (nomes e informações). O projeto foi aprova- do pelo Comitê de Ética da Universidade. O que é ser jovem? Uma frase que, apesar das variações, surgia repetidas vezes nas conversas com as jovens e suas mães era “ser jovem é aproveitar a vida!”. Investigar o que era esse aproveitar tornou-se fundamental para abarcar parte dos objetivos do estudo e para entender o que era a juventude segundo o universo pesquisado. Explorar os significados da referida expressão trou- xe alguns esclarecimentos. Para as jovens, é a partir da juventude e em relação a essa fase que o verbo aproveitar toma de empréstimo certa co- notação sexual/sensual e temporal, embora outras formas de uso sejam aplicadas concomitantemente. Aproveitar a vida, em sua forma usual e corriqueira, significa inicialmente sair, namorar, ficar, divertir-se, pa- querar, dançar e curtir. Para as mães e as jovens, é ainda desfrutar a vita- lidade dos anos, a sensualidade dos corpos, dos olhares e a sedução – nem o corpo nem o trabalho de sedução precisam de muitos artifícios, pois faz parte da própria juventude/mocidade/adolescência ser atraente, sedutor em certa medida. Além dessas possibilidades, o verbo e a expressão aproveitar podem ser empregados com outros significados, tais como usar (consumir), in- vestir (em si ou em algo) e tirar vantagem de uma situação (emprego, ficar, beijo) ou de alguém (por exemplo, pela esperteza). São referências comuns ao aproveitar segundo o jeitinho brasileiro. Saber aproveitar a vida é reconhecer limites sociais e familiares, saber escolher até mesmo os parceiros, posicionar-se de modo mais aberto para o moderno e atual. REVISTA DE ANTROPOLOGIA, SÃO PAULO, USP, 2006, V. 49 Nº 2. - 629 - Sendo assim, a conotação sensual e temporal focalizada na juventude se destaca justamente por ser um tempo apropriado para aproveitar a vida com corpo (ativo, saudável) e/ou mente aberta. Portanto, ser ou estar jovem pressupõe inicialmente uma forma de se colocar diante das situa- ções e dos acontecimentos, diferente de outras etapas do ciclo da vida. Ser indica comportamento, aparência e idade. Estar pode ser mais do que ser, independe das idades: é estar com, ter espírito jovem – preser- vando a juventude, a leveza, o humor e a simplicidade com o avanço do tempo. Nesse sentido, o que está inscrito na idéia de aproveitar a vida é relevante para entender o processo de estar vivendo uma dada condição na juventude (ser nela) e de olhar para ela. Há marcadores sociais importantes que definem espaços de sociabili- dade e comportamentos. Em Pelotas, onde as jovens sempre moraram, a primeira quinzena de vida é um marco culturalmente importante para que o processo social de permissões para namorar e sair à noite se conso- lide – quando, na prática, o aproveitar ganha os sentidos apontados ante- riormente. Embora a idade etária possa ser questionada, é ao redor dos 15 anos que o reconhecimento familiar do aprendizado social, amadure- cimento emocional e desenvolvimento corporal se manifesta, mais forte- mente para as meninas, como a concordância dos pais com a ampliação dos locais, amigos e formas de lazer relacionados a elas. Esse processo dá continuidade e sentido a um ciclo mais amplo da vida e da sociedade, reproduzindo e reforçando mecanismos familiares de construção do indi- víduo, além de trazer consigo a preocupação parental de orientar e limi- tar as atuações dos filhos (Duarte, 1986; Parker, 1991; Heilborn, 1994). Entre jovens e mães, é comum o relato de uma sexualidade “à flor da pele” quando, em “plena juventude”, começam a sair à noite. Segundo as mães, é nesse momento que a família teme a ultrapassagem do limite entre o exercício sexual e a promiscuidade, haja vista a necessidade de impor limites e controles conforme as situações se apresentam. O poder - 630 - HELEN GONÇALVES & DANIELA RIVA KNAUTH. APROVEITAR A VIDA... coercitivo dos familiares tem forte relação com a necessidade de organi- zar e manter, estrutural e moralmente, às idades “adequadas”, trabalho, casamento, filhos, responsabilidade e prioridade em relações e partici- pações na sociedade. Portanto, no contexto mais amplo, o conteúdo do que se deve aproveitar na juventude também está inserido na própria discussão gerada nos meios público e científico sobre a precocidade da gravidez na adolescência, isto é, quando ela não deveria acontecer, quan- do os jovens precisariam ter “cuidados”, ter “evitado” – o que reforça a idéia de imaturos, impulsivos. Tudo é crítica e aponta para a noção de inconseqüência própria da juventude se não traz à discussão a educação sexual na família. Se aproveitar a juventude é também testar fronteiras valorativas e morais, que na atualidade estão mais fluidas, então, a gravidez adoles- cente enfatiza o lado oposto, de vinculação com compromissos: filho, companheiro, casa e cônjuge. Essa é uma forma com que se pode olhar para a gravidez diante de algumas concepções dissipadas de como ser nessa fase do ciclo da vida. O momento de rompimento criticado e moralizado está, em parte, aliado às qualidades positivas da vida juvenil. Um pano de fundo mais abrangente e que faz diferença nas concep- ções e nos modos de articular idéias sobre os jovens, a gravidez e a passa- gem para a vida adulta é o contexto sociocultural e valorativo onde vi- vem. Por exemplo, retomando a distinção por camadas sociais, nas classes populares, a gravidez na juventude/adolescência é mais visível e muitas vezes parece menos angustiante para a família do que para as de camada média/alta. Essa visão diferenciada, associada aos dados demo- gráficos (maiores índices de fecundidade), e a argumentação biomédica de que é um problema de saúde pública corroboram hoje para uma visão negativa da gravidez na adolescência – há décadas ela não era um pro- blema. Ambos os argumentos não consideram como os valores sobre a juventude podem estar relacionados à própria gravidez na adolescência. REVISTA DE ANTROPOLOGIA, SÃO PAULO, USP, 2006, V. 49 Nº 2. - 631 - Se a juventude deve ser aproveitada, então o jovem não deve assumir “compromissos” como gastos com filhos, aluguel, deveres com marido/ esposa, emprego, contas ou dívidas. Para a maioria das mães, idealmente, as filhas devem tentar perseguir outros objetivos – as aspirações incluem maior formação escolar e emprego fixo. Mas tal idéia não exclui os ensi- namentos domésticos (lavar, cozinhar, arrumar casa, cuidar de criança) como parte importante da formação feminina, vinculados a papéis mais tradicionais. Todavia, quando a jovem está, segundo a família, aprovei- tando mais do que “deveria” e a gravidez acontece nesse período, esta é avaliada como um evento que deu “um rumo” melhor à vida, pois a presença de um filho impõe a necessidade de uma nova conduta moral (“ela sossegou, se ajeitou”). Em geral, essas afirmativas são mais comuns depois que o pai do filho “assume” tanto a relação com a jovem como as despesas com o filho, ou quando a jovem realmente diminui o ritmo de suas saídas e namoros. Nesse sentido, por um lado, se a gravidez juvenil rompe com alguns projetos familiares, por outro, ela dá continuidade a eles, muitas vezes antes do desejado/previsto. Torná-la pública é fonte de preocupação moral, não implicando sempre tristeza ou decepção fa- miliar. Lidar, por meio da gravidez, com as críticas morais que unem idade e sexualidade traz outro ponto importante: a visão que se estabe- lece ou prevalece dos jovens diante da fase adulta. A vida adulta é vista como um período menos divertido, de compromissos com trabalho e família. É uma fase em que se dá início ao projeto constante de ascensão e independência (social, material e psicológica), por isso a sociabilidade seria, segundo elas, menos interessante que a juvenil – é um período menos individualizado. Como as normas de comportamento social e sexual são desiguais, as mulheres criam estratégias para superá-las e garantem sua atuação. Segundo as jovens, o discurso familiar sobre as diferenças entre o que homens e mulheres podem juntos ou separados prevalece como - 632 - HELEN GONÇALVES & DANIELA RIVA KNAUTH. APROVEITAR A VIDA... ensinamento mais enfático, principalmente no que poderá ocorrer a uma jovem caso ela engravide. Os comportamentos afetivo-sexuais e repro- dutivos são os mais visados pelos familiares, porque podem trazer con- seqüências posteriores ou criar laços de difícil dissolução. Ressalta-se que as expectativas associadas ao que as jovens podem ou devem fazer são distintas nas camadas médias e populares. Esses comportamentos tam- bém são focos de pesquisas em várias áreas da saúde, cujos resultados mostram um decréscimo na idade de iniciação sexual, um maior envol- vimento sexual nos namoros ou “ficares” e o uso irregular (ou não uso) de preservativos e/ou contraceptivos. Todavia, as expectativas, preocupações e idéias do que é ser jovem e de como usufruir a vida na juventude não descaracterizam um parado- xo: o da juventude como um período que se distingue pela curtição de sociabilidades e lazeres específicos e cujas regras sociais sinalizam que há um tempo finito, uma idade de se fazer, de ser de um jeito. Por um lado, exigem-se controle e sabedoria para experimentar/viver a juventu- de. Por outro, as cobranças se opõem diretamente a alguns mecanismos sociais que facilitam e estimulam as trocas, os erros e as experiências ju- venis. Essa ambigüidade tende a comprometer as concepções mais posi- tivas da juventude e a manter parte de sua conceituação negativa, como a de que a juventude/adolescência provoca instabilidades familiar, social e moral, que devem ser controladas para a continuidade dos valores fa- miliares. A sexualidade das jovens é um caminho proveitoso para as ava- liações juvenis e familiares. A mulher e o lar formam uma equação constantemente questionada e, muitas vezes, são apenas parte do discurso juvenil moderno. A pene- tração de valores igualitários nas camadas sociais não atinge todas as jo- vens na mesma proporção. A preleção de que “com estudo está difícil, sem estudo está pior ainda” destaca a desigualdade e dificuldade de ado- tar outra atitude, que, por sua vez, pode demandar esforços também da REVISTA DE ANTROPOLOGIA, SÃO PAULO, USP, 2006, V. 49 Nº 2. - 633 - família. Portanto, inicialmente nos discursos, um filho não é bem-vin- do durante a adolescência, mas a gravidez poderá representar uma tran- sição positiva de status para a família e a jovem, amenizando parte da obrigação da jovem com a família e da sua dependência familiar, potencializando novos rumos. Embora a gravidez na adolescência/juventude também possa levar à interrupção (temporária ou não) dos estudos e à reprodução de papéis mais tradicionais de mãe-mulher, a exigência de maior escolaridade diante da menor oferta de trabalho faz que as famílias contatadas refor- cem alguns de seus valores. Nas camadas médias, nas quais há uma vin- culação e permanência mais longa dos filhos na casa dos pais por de- pendência econômica e/ou afetiva (Galland, 1997), a dependência material e residencial, devido à entrada postergada no mercado de tra- balho, pressupõe que deva haver um adiamento da formação de uma nova família. Nesse sentido, a gravidez na adolescência/juventude passa a ser decorrente da liberdade atual e do modo como os jovens aprovei- tam a vida na modernidade. Para as jovens da camada popular, a gravi- dez vai de encontro das poucas chances históricas e socioculturais às quais estão subjugadas – faz parte de um conjunto de valores, cuja cons- tituição de uma nova família pode se dar mais precocemente do que nas classes médias. Estudos socioantropológicos demonstram que nas camadas popula- res há uma maior valorização da fase adulta, justamente por ela confor- mar um indivíduo menos dependente financeiramente dos pais (Heilborn et al., 2002; Groppo, 2000; Duarte, 1986). Trabalhando mais cedo, os filhos podem ajudar nos gastos diários e nas responsabilidades familiares, que os pais já não comportam sozinhos por várias razões. Se, no universo das jovens da camada popular, o aprendizado do tra- balho doméstico também as orienta sobre como proceder no lar quan- do formarem suas famílias e, conseqüentemente, como incorporar e - 634 - HELEN GONÇALVES & DANIELA RIVA KNAUTH. APROVEITAR A VIDA... reproduzir uma grande parte do papel feminino no âmbito doméstico, as tensões entre os projetos de vida profissional e as possibilidades reais de ascensão juvenil estão também permeadas pelas alianças afetivo-se- xuais, as quais se estabelecem geralmente durante a adolescência e/ou juventude. Ou seja, segundo suas visões, os conhecimentos adquiridos com a escolarização não garantem ascensão social e penetração no mer- cado de trabalho mais estável. Parte da descrença na escolarização, se- gundo elas, é explicada por greves, maus professores, péssima estrutura escolar e exemplos da comunidade. A assertiva de que “tá ruim pra todo mundo, até pra quem tem estudo” é mais corriqueira nesse universo, uma vez que justifica outras manobras de vida. Em muitos casos, não há tempo para que a conclusão do ensino fundamental e médio se efetue e, então, elas possam buscar um trabalho – a ajuda à família é cobrada no período anterior à conclusão do ensino, concomitantemente com as alianças afetivo-sexuais. Ao ponderar as repetências e/ou evasões, a “aju- da” por meio do trabalho fora do lar se faz ainda mais preeminente. Se visualizarmos que o prolongamento da juventude está atrelado somente aos estudos e à inserção procrastinada no mercado de trabalho, de fato, nesse universo não há condições do prolongamento de a fase juvenil ocorrer. A gravidez seria uma das formas de ingresso feminino no mundo adulto, de maior liberdade, de ruptura com a própria adoles- cência, dependente e controlada socialmente. Além dos afazeres domés- ticos (Almeida, 2002), a maternidade (ou paternidade) é assinalada como uma forma de passagem da fase adolescente à vida adulta não pela capacidade biológica de fecundar e gestar, mas pela incorporação de res- ponsabilidades e pelas implicações geradas por esse acontecimento na vida dos jovens (Arrilha, 1998; Cabral, 2002; Brandão, 2003). No en- tanto, na prática, há um grande espaço para que a tomada para si das responsabilidades e de outras características da vida adulta se dê de for- ma menos abrupta para as jovens: “Eu acho que falta mais um pouco de REVISTA DE ANTROPOLOGIA, SÃO PAULO, USP, 2006, V. 49 Nº 2. - 635 - seriedade, encarar mais um pouco. Encarar os assuntos. Eu ainda estou meio, ainda me sinto meio... meio saindo da adolescência ainda. Eu não me sinto ainda adulta” (casada, mãe de uma menina, 19 anos, da cama- da popular). Ao analisar as falas sobre a concepção de juventude, algumas especificidades do grupo entrevistado são percebidas. Em ambos uni- versos sociais, especialmente as jovens que mencionavam a necessidade de saírem da casa dos pais, antes de imaginarem ou “planejarem”/“dese- jarem” a gravidez, demandavam às famílias uma liberdade vinculada muito mais à vida afetiva do que à total independência e autonomia dos pais por conquistas escolares/profissionais. A idéia de aproveitar a vida, ligada à sexualidade/emoção das relações e à liberdade do lazer, explica parcialmente os comportamentos das jovens à família. Embora a gravidez seja um evento importante, para obter da família o reconhecimento de sua liberdade, são necessárias constantes confir- mações. Criam-se, então, um sentimento e um tempo dado pela família, bastante relativos e apropriados a cada caso, de adequação e de prolon- gamento de um aproveitar juvenil. Segundo Monteiro (1998, p. 146), “o que marca a passagem de uma fase para outra não é a celebração como rito, mas sim as experiências vividas no cotidiano, as exigências, os com- promissos, as responsabilidades”. Esse espaço faz que a família fique mais próxima, dando continuidade aos ensinamentos sobre os cuidados com a criança, com o companheiro (ou ex-companheiro) e com a vida social. Quando ainda não tinham filhos, a independência financeira estava mais atrelada à satisfação imediata de consumo de produtos da moda. O trabalho doméstico podia servir, caso necessário, como moeda na negociação com os pais para que no final de semana pudessem sair com as(os) amigas(os). A idéia de rebeldia (na defesa do lazer) e de inconse- qüência juvenil vem à tona e se confirma no momento em que os pais exemplificam que as filhas “acabaram” engravidando, logo, eles estavam - 636 - HELEN GONÇALVES & DANIELA RIVA KNAUTH. APROVEITAR A VIDA... certos ao aconselhá-las. Fica sempre a dúvida se a história não se repeti- rá. Isso também é válido quando as mães falam de suas vidas como exem- plo para que as filhas não repitam o que consideraram um erro: “Eles são fruto da liberdade demais que eu tive, da irresponsabilidade que eu tinha – aí nasceram eles [...]. Carmem, ela não é uma filha ruim, a gente dava muito conselho a ela, ela não ouviu, ficou grávida”. O sentimento de não surpresa da mãe para com a gravidez da filha vinha ao encontro das idéias modernas de juventude – isto é, natural que acontecesse com “os jovens de hoje”, visto que “está tudo mudado”. Não se constituiu em uma real surpresa, mesmo que ela tenha sido venti- lada nos primeiros contatos do trabalho de campo como algo inesperado. Manter ou prolongar a juventude Em relação ao período posterior à gravidez, houve alongamento do sen- timento de ser jovem nos casos em que a família, mais prontamente, pos- sibilitou que a jovem retomasse parte de seu lazer, ajudando-a a cuidar da criança. Tendo em mente que há exceções e que muitas jovens e suas famílias não fazem uma relação direta do fim da adolescência com a gra- videz, os pais corroboram para a manutenção de um sentimento e práti- ca juvenil (se possível resumir assim), permitindo uma continuação da adolescência na gravidez e na maternidade – fato que ocorreu mais visi- velmente com 10 jovens. Nesses casos, uma porção adolescente é mantida e uma mais adulta é cobrada quando a jovem dá sinais de certo retroces- so no processo de se tornar adulta. A passagem para a vida adulta em jovens adolescentes que engravidaram não é tão nítida, principalmente quando o filho é cuidado pela família e acaba por se tornar seu “meio- irmão” (Monteiro, 1999). Portanto, o alongamento pode ser relativizado de acordo com a idéia de juventude e com o comportamento das moças. REVISTA DE ANTROPOLOGIA, SÃO PAULO, USP, 2006, V. 49 Nº 2. - 637 - No entanto, aquelas jovens que tiveram mais de um filho até os 19 anos, todas da camada popular, têm menos regalias e apoio familiar, prin- cipalmente se a segunda gravidez ocorreu fora de uma união estável, com poucas condições econômicas e apesar dos avisos da família. Tal fato é avaliado como uma falta de cabeça, isto é, não se deve ter outras expec- tativas com essa jovem. No contexto social das camadas médias (com predominância de va- lores mais individualistas), a gravidez é pensada como muito precoce no sentido de deslocada da idade e do momento de vida certo. Ela ocor- re justamente em um período em que há mais o que fazer por si e me- nos o que se responsabilizar pelo(s) outro(s). Poder-se-ia pensar que, por ser assim, na concepção de curtir a vida, a gravidez adolescente é vista como uma forma de abreviar a juventude. Porém, em um nível, ela for- talece uma dada aliança afetiva e material familiar, que dá suporte à jo- vem – de acordo com as condições materiais e estruturais – para seguir com os projetos de estudo, trabalho e sociabilidade, embora pontuando sempre a necessidade de se responsabilizar pelo(a) filho(a). As jovens que não coabitam com o pai da criança encontram mais facilidades e apoio familiar para deixar seus filhos sob os cuidados de parentes enquanto saem com amigos para lazer. Por sua vez, elas demonstram que, além de se divertir, querem retornar ao mercado matrimonial e for- mar uma aliança afetivo-sexual com alguém “que (desta vez) dê certo”. Quando não encontram apoio familiar, geralmente em situações de conflito, acionam convenientemente seus direitos como adulta-mãe-mu- lher – ganhos com a maternidade, mas que procuram não ativar em outros momentos. Com as moças da camada média, o sentimento de que deveriam apro- veitar a vida se alonga por mais tempo do que para as jovens da camada popular, visto que as condições materiais já estão de algum modo ga- rantidas. Aquelas buscam também uma identificação feminina mais - 638 - HELEN GONÇALVES & DANIELA RIVA KNAUTH. APROVEITAR A VIDA... restrita ao casal e ao lar, tendem a se limitar menos ao papel de mães e esposas, mas não deixam de pensar e fazer algo por seus estudos e por um futuro profissional, embora com certa restrição. No universo popular, o sentimento de que a juventude deve ser des- frutada, ainda que semelhante ao das camadas médias, apresenta algu- mas diferenciações. Essas estão postas na forma como a família articula as responsabilidades da jovem advindas com a maternidade. Embora com exceções, as jovens desse universo tendem a ser mais cobradas pe- los pais e assumem os papéis femininos restritos ao lar e ao filho, sobre- tudo se coabitam com o pai do filho ou com um novo parceiro: “a gente queria aproveitar mas, como veio filho, a gente tem que assumir as conseqüências”. Elas se sentem mais presas à maternidade (às atividades respectivas) e ficam cada vez mais restritas ao âmbito do lar ou do bairro. O fato de 16 jovens (das 23 entrevistadas) de ambos universos sociais morarem atualmente com algum familiar do pai da criança ou dela não só as coloca em situação de dependência familiar, mas permite aos pais dela um convívio maior com o jovem e um aprendizado do que este é atualmente. Se na prática moderna a redução do poder das idades está coligada à crescente valorização da juventude, questiona-se se esse com- portamento também não estaria sendo influenciado pela permanên- cia cada vez mais alongada dos jovens na casa dos pais. O que permiti- ria, em caso afirmativo, o maior consumo do que a juventude representa, ou seja, como ela pode ser aproveitada em outras fases do ciclo da vida. Todavia, é importante ater-se que o aproveitar fala principalmente de uma representação sensual, sexual e valorizada, de experimentação de novas relações, que se coadunam com uma noção mais moderna da juventude. Também diz muito sobre as fronteiras valorativas e morais que um jovem deve ou pode transpor para se constituir como indivíduo, para se separar de sua família e construir suas particularidades. Ao unir as concepções de juventude e a forma de aproveitar a vida, percebe-se REVISTA DE ANTROPOLOGIA, SÃO PAULO, USP, 2006, V. 49 Nº 2. - 639 - muito sobre o modo como alguns familiares se colocam diante dos va- lores modernos atuais, também em relação à gravidez de uma filha jo- vem, cuja sexualidade foi publicada socialmente pela barriga. Considerações finais O espaço de experimentação e de valorização social que é dado de modo geral à juventude, percebido por meio de expressões como aproveitar a vida, ressalta as associações entre práticas e valores alocados no modo de vida jovem. Se existem representações e percepções sociais da juventude vinculadas às conceituações de um período difícil, conflituoso e preocupante, há ainda as que destacam a juventude como uma filosofia de vida para outras fases do ciclo da vida. Comportamentos juvenis que rompem uma trajetória e expectativa futura padrão são facilmente localizáveis nos programas de saúde e na literatura sobre adolescência e juventude como qualificações pouco valorizadas. Tais juízos corrobo- ram ainda para que o adjetivo de “epidemia” social, utilizado para a gra- videz na adolescência, seja usado amplamente por trabalhos que não relativizam as vivências da condição juvenil nos universos sociais e, por conseguinte, a pluralidade da idéia de juventude nesses meios. A gravidez na adolescência/juventude é um bom exemplo para exer- citar os modelos juvenis de vida valorizados na modernidade e as defini- ções presentes de saúde e futuro. As concepções do que é ser jovem es- tão baseadas na construção histórica e sociocultural, e no modo como os jovens/adolescentes devem aproveitar a vida. Ressalta-se a existência de um aproveitar amplamente idealizado – como a entrada no mercado de trabalho, a escolarização ascendente e a posterior união –, porém nem sempre os estilos e modos juvenis de viver podem concordar com tal padrão e valorizá-lo. A própria gravidez torna-se um contraponto e um - 640 - HELEN GONÇALVES & DANIELA RIVA KNAUTH. APROVEITAR A VIDA... reforço negativo às idéias vigentes de uma vida que deve ser aproveitada, curtida no sentido com que as jovens associam primeiramente. Ao se considerar que há uma tensão entre aproveitar a vida e se preocupar com o futuro, deve-se ater como esse conflito se expressa e está implícito em muitos dos comportamentos e valores juvenis e familiares. Nota 1 Este estudo é financiado pelas instituições Wellcome Trust (Inglaterra) e Programa Nacional de Núcleos de Excelência (PRONEX) e pelo Ministério da Saúde (Bra- sil). As fases iniciais do estudo de coorte foram financiadas por International Development Research Center, Organização Mundial da Saúde e Overseas Development Administration (Reino Unido). O estudo também contou com o programa de bolsas da Capes. Bibliografia ALMEIDA, M. 2002 Treze meninas e suas histórias... (um estudo sobre gravidez adolescente), XIII En- contro da Associação Brasileira de Estudos Populacionais, nov 4-8, Minas Ge- rais, Brasil. ALVIM, R. & PAIM, E. 2000 “Os jovens suburbanos e a mídia: conceitos e preconceitos”, in ALVIM, R. & GOUVEIA, P. (orgs.), Juventude anos 90: conceitos, imagens e contextos, Rio de Janeiro, Contra Capa Livraria, pp.13-33. ARRILHA, M. 1998 “Homens: entre a ‘zoeira’ e a ‘responsabilidade’”, in ARRILHA, M.; RIDENTI, S.; MEDRADO, B. (orgs.), Homens e masculinidades. Outras Palavras, São Pau- lo, ECOS/Editora 34, pp. 51-77. REVISTA DE ANTROPOLOGIA, SÃO PAULO, USP, 2006, V. 49 Nº 2. - 641 - BRANDÃO, E. 2003 Individuação e vínculo familiar em camadas médias: um olhar através da gravidez na adolescência, tese, IMS/RJ. CABRAL, C. 2002 Vicissitudes da gravidez na adolescência entre jovens das camadas populares do Rio de Janeiro, dissertação, IMS/RJ. CASTRO, M. G.; ABRAMOVAY, M.; RUA, M. G.; ANDRADE, E. 2001 Cultivando vida, desarmando violências: experiências em educação, cultura, lazer, esporte e cidadania com jovens em situação de pobreza, Brasília, Unesco. CRUZ NETO, O.; MOREIRA, M. R.; SUCENA, L. 2001 Nem soldados nem inocentes: juventude e tráfico de drogas no Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Fiocruz. DAYERELL, J. & CARRANO, P. 2003 Jovens no Brasil: difíceis travessias de fim de século e promessas de um outro mundo. (Disponível em http://www.uff.br/obsjovem/ – acessado em 2/3/2003).) DEBERT, G. 1998 “A antropologia e o estudo dos grupos e das categorias de idade”, in LINS DE BARROS, M. (org.), Velhice ou terceira idade?, Rio de Janeiro, Fundação Getú- lio Vargas, pp. 49-68. DUARTE, L. F. 1986 Da vida nervosa das classes trabalhadoras urbanas, Rio de Janeiro, Jorge Zahar. GALLAND, O. 1997 Sociologie de la jeunesse, Paris, Armand Colin. GREGORI, M. F. (org.) 2000 Desenhos familiares. Pesquisa sobre família de crianças e adolescentes em situação de rua, Brasília, Alegro/Unesco/Fundação BankBoston. - 642 - HELEN GONÇALVES & DANIELA RIVA KNAUTH. APROVEITAR A VIDA... GROPPO, L. 2000 Juventude. Ensaios sobre sociologia e história das juventudes modernas, Rio de Ja- neiro, Difel. HEILBORN, M. L. 1994 “De que gênero estamos falando?”, Sexualidade, Gênero e Sociedade, Rio de Ja- neiro, vol. 1(2): 1-8. HEILBORN, M. L.; SALEM, T.; BOZON, M.; AQUINO, E.; KANUTH, D. R. et al. 2002 “Aproximações sócio-antropológicas sobre gravidez na adolescência”, Horizon- tes Antropológicos, Porto Alegre, vol. 8: 13-45. MACHADO, E. 2000 “Retratos de juventude: imagens de juventude e violência no Rio de Janeiro”, in ALVIM, R. & GOUVEIA, P. (orgs.), Juventude anos 90: conceitos, imagens e contextos, Rio de Janeiro, Contra Capa Livraria, pp. 35-58. MINAYO, M. C.; ASSIS, S.; SOUZA, E.; NJAINE, K.; DESLANDES S. F.; SILVA, C. M. et al. 1999 Fala galera: juventude, violência e cidadania, Rio de Janeiro, Garamond. MONTEIRO, S. 1998 “Um estudo de rituais femininos em camadas de baixa renda”, in MONTEIRO, T., Brasil. Norte e Nordeste. Estudos em Ciências Sociais, ANPOCS, Inter- American Foundation, pp. 141-85. 1999 “Gênero, sexualidade e juventude numa favela carioca”, in HEILBORN, M. L. (org.), Sexualidade: o olhar das ciências sociais, Rio de Janeiro, Jorge Zahar, pp. 117-45. PARKER, R. 1991 Corpos, prazeres e paixões. A cultura sexual no Brasil contemporâneo, São Paulo, Best Seller. PERALVA, A. T. 1997 “O jovem como modelo cultural”, Revista Brasileira de Educação, São Paulo, ANPED, nº 5/6, pp. 15-24. REVISTA DE ANTROPOLOGIA, SÃO PAULO, USP, 2006, V. 49 Nº 2. - 643 - SPOSITO, M. (org.) 2000 Considerações em torno do conhecimento sobre juventude na área da educação. Ju- ventude e escolarização – estado do conhecimento, São Paulo, Ação Educativa. VICTORA, C. G.; BARROS, F. C.; LIMA, R. C.; BEHAGUE, D. P.; GONÇALVES, H.; HORTA, B. L. et al. 2003 “The Pelotas Birth Cohort Study, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, 1982-2001”, Caderno de Saúde Pública, vol. 19(5): 1.241-56. WHO (World Health Organization) 2001 Sexual Relations Among Young People in Developing Countries: Evidence from WHO Case Studies, Geneva. ABSTRACT: This manuscript demonstrates how important is the concept of enjoying life for the subjects studied. It was part of a qualitative study car- ried out in Pelotas during 2001-2002, including 23 adolescent mothers aged 18-19 years, and 10 of their mothers. The aim of the study was to under- stand the context of adolescent pregnancy among youngsters belonging to poor or medium socioeconomic level families, who are part of a birth co- hort study/1982. During the field work, the concept of enjoying life was high- lighted in the narratives. This concept helped qualifying, classifying, and justifying youth’s behavior. The analyses show that the youngsters should live in an enjoyable way of living, acting positively or negatively according to the context and to the social values. Pregnancy is seen as a consequence of this behavior, after transposing socio-cultural limits in adolescence. The- refore, enjoying life highlights how do they feel, and explains why some behaviors are more criticized in this period of life course. KEY-WORDS: qualitative study, enjoying life, ethnography, adolescent, adolescent pregnancy, young. Aceito em dezembro de 2006. 
work_wkrmox26ezflvcuurc7zx37l5q	----	2 Raimina rec Apple et ses fans: images et récits dans les réseaux sociaux Rossella Rega Abstract This research analyses the imaginaries of Italian Apple fans in social networks communities. Our goal was to understand how users perceive Apple through the images they associate with the brand and its technologies. We chose social networks communities’ activities as a research field because we believe that social networks offer fertile ground for the study of imagery. To query the imaginaries of the fans, we looked at the most shared thematic and stories as well as mental and social representations. We used a composite research methodology – mainly qualitative methods - like the approaches developed in digital ethnography (Kozinets 2010). We also interviewed ten fans. Key Words Imaginaries / Fan Communities / Social Networks /Apple fans / Facebook Author Rossella Rega, Afferenza, email Number 6 - Year IV / December 2015 pp. . DOI: xx.xxxx/xxxx.xxxxxxx ISSN: 2281-8133 imago.journal.it N. 8– VI / December 2016 www.imagojournal.it imagojournal.it 126 Sociology as an art form1 di Dariush Rahiminia “La sociologia […] si nutre dallo stesso tipo di immaginazione creativa che troviamo in discipline come la musica, la poesia, la pittura, la letteratura e il cinema.” Cosi Robert Nisbet apre il primo capitolo del testo “Sociology as an art form”, il quale offre indubbiamente un nuovo punto di vista a tutti gli studiosi. L’arte è il principale prodotto dell’immaginario e sappiamo benissimo come una immagine possa essere decisivamente efficace come mezzo di trasporto per un pensiero perché agisce su aspetti, su sfere della mente non razionali. L’arte arriva a toccare corde emozionali che riscontriamo nella nostra vita quotidiano, nelle relazioni, negli affetti nel piacere e nel dolore. Essendo noi “esseri immaginali” i modi in cui comprendiamo e come conosciamo il mondo si articolano attraverso passaggi non logici dei meandri della nostra mente. Usando le parole della sociologa Valentina Grassi, «per parlare all’emozione, bisogna adottare il suo linguaggio, per comprendere e nello stesso tempo farsi comprendere»2. Il linguaggio dell’immaginario diventa in questo modo un utilissimo strumento per comprendere al meglio i mutamenti continui della società e grazie a Robert Nisbet, la sociologia muta forma mostrando il suo lato romantico, divenendo una forma d’arte. Nisbet ci mostra come la sociologia sia effettivamente una forma d’arte con stretti legami con la tradizione di stampo romantico, in particolare la pittura, la letteratura e la filosofia tipiche dell’Ottocento. Ci viene illustrato come la sociologia attinge le sue fonti dagli stessi impulsi creativi e dai modelli rappresentativi tipici dell’arte come la intendiamo comunemente. Riesce nell’ambizioso intento di trasformare la antica disputa tra la scienza e l’arte in un affettuoso abbraccio. Come ci riesce? Aprendoci gli occhi e indicandoci un paradigma esistente ma che ci è sfuggito inspiegabilmente. Non 1 Nisbet R., Sociology as an art form, Oxford University Press, London-Oxford-New York, 1977. 2 Grassi V., Mitodologie. Analisi qualitativa e sociologia dell’immaginario, Liguori, Napoli, 2012 p. 75. Apple et ses fans: images et récits dans les réseaux sociaux Rossella Rega Abstract This research analyses the imaginaries of Italian Apple fans in social networks communities. Our goal was to understand how users perceive Apple through the images they associate with the brand and its technologies. We chose social networks communities’ activities as a research field because we believe that social networks offer fertile ground for the study of imagery. To query the imaginaries of the fans, we looked at the most shared thematic and stories as well as mental and social representations. We used a composite research methodology – mainly qualitative methods - like the approaches developed in digital ethnography (Kozinets 2010). We also interviewed ten fans. Key Words Imaginaries / Fan Communities / Social Networks /Apple fans / Facebook Author Rossella Rega, Afferenza, email Number 6 - Year IV / December 2015 pp. . DOI: xx.xxxx/xxxx.xxxxxxx ISSN: 2281-8133 imago.journal.it N. 8– VI / December 2016 www.imagojournal.it imagojournal.it 127 crea nulla di nuovo ma ci dimostra come tutto ciò è sempre stato riscontrabile nel lavoro di Max Weber, Georg Simmel, Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim e tutti gli altri studiosi a seguire. Tratti che difficilmente però sono stati notati di primo acchito e che saltano fuori quando vengono meglio analizzati i metodi con cui loro hanno creato i ritratti degli intellettuali, dei borghesi e dei lavoratori; senza tralasciare i panorami che comprendono i poveri, le masse e i sistemi industriali. Tutti panorami e ritratti riscontrabili pienamente nella letteratura e nei dipinti dell’epoca. Nisbet ci illumina su come l’immaginazione sia il motore che fa partire tanto il lavoro dell’arte quanto il lavoro della scienza. Sia l’artista che lo scienziato (nel nostro caso lo scienziato sociale) hanno come scopo ultimo la ricerca della verità e, dunque, della “realtà” poiché non è vero che solo il pensiero scientifico consente di scoprire ed analizzare i fenomeni che ci circondano. Uno scienziato non è un freddo calcolatore che porta a termine il suo lavoro in modo essenzialmente razionale senza alcuna presenza di una fantasia che lo indirizzi3. L’osservazione dei fenomeni sociali, come quelli naturali, implicano una particolare attenzione verso una realtà che in altri meandri della conoscenza umana che possono essere riscontrabili unicamente nel mondo della fantasia, ergo nel mondo dell’immaginario. La scrittura, la musica, la pittura e tutte le arti in generale, ci permettono di arrivare, ad una conoscenza di ciò che definiamo reale, attraverso la nostra immaginazione. Dunque, l’artista compie tale ricerca tentando di migliorarsi sempre più nella rappresentazione dei dettagli nella sua opera, nel medesimo modo fa lo scienziato sociale nelle sue ricerche che portano alla spiegazione dei fenomeni che viviamo. Entrambi i viaggi, dice Nisbet, ci catapultano in un mondo di forme che sono risultati di un processo di self-representation e dunque frutto di un processo guidato dalla nostra immaginazione. Avete mai sentito la frase “Variazioni nel tema…” tanto usata nelle opere di Beethoven, Mozart o Bach? Cosa intende? Un tema dato per certo che viene modificato aggiungendo qualcosa di inatteso. Cosa ha di diverso da un cambiamento di paradigma, sociologicamente parlando? La variazione non è altro che un dettaglio che ci fa cambiare punto di vista portandoci a modificare radicalmente la nostra base di partenze e ci porta ad ottenere un prodotto di qualità superiore e più consono alla “realtà” a cui tanto aneliamo. Ciò che Nisbet analizza nel secondo capitolo della sua opera, capitolo che riguarda, per l’appunto, i parallelismi dei temi e degli stili tra le due discipline. Nel terzo capitolo, riguardante i panorami già citati, ci mostra come il tema del potere della massa e della ricerca del potere individuale siano tematiche ricorrenti nelle arti e negli studi sociologici. Basti pensare alla minuziosa descrizione dei bassifondi di Londra nell’Oliver Twist per ricordarci della teoria delle finestre rotte. Dickens viene 3 Cerroni F., La fantasia come ricerca della realtà, http://www.assculturale-arte- scienza.it/Rivista%20ArteScienza/ArteScienza_N2/Fabio%20Cerroni/F_Cerroni_ArteScienzaN2_19- 32.pdf Apple et ses fans: images et récits dans les réseaux sociaux Rossella Rega Abstract This research analyses the imaginaries of Italian Apple fans in social networks communities. Our goal was to understand how users perceive Apple through the images they associate with the brand and its technologies. We chose social networks communities’ activities as a research field because we believe that social networks offer fertile ground for the study of imagery. To query the imaginaries of the fans, we looked at the most shared thematic and stories as well as mental and social representations. We used a composite research methodology – mainly qualitative methods - like the approaches developed in digital ethnography (Kozinets 2010). We also interviewed ten fans. Key Words Imaginaries / Fan Communities / Social Networks /Apple fans / Facebook Author Rossella Rega, Afferenza, email Number 6 - Year IV / December 2015 pp. . DOI: xx.xxxx/xxxx.xxxxxxx ISSN: 2281-8133 imago.journal.it N. 8– VI / December 2016 www.imagojournal.it imagojournal.it 128 citato nuovamente nel quarto capitolo riguardante i già citati ritratti: come si fa a dimenticare Ebenezer Scrooge, il capitalista dal cuore di pietra, o Charlie Chaplin in quel gran capolavoro che fu Tempi Moderni? Riguardandoli con il terzo occhio, quello sociologico apertoci da Nisbet, vi ritorna in mente per caso un certo Karl Marx? L’arte, e di conseguenza, l’esperienza artistica sono e sono stati e saranno sempre luoghi privilegiati per accomodarsi ed osservare i fenomeni sociali, in quanto perfetti mediatori per toccare il profondo dell’animo e della comprensione umana. Le opere d’arte sono tratti di esperienze e sono dirette a scopi per nulla diversi da quelli della scienza sociale. Arte e sociologia, da sempre, si occupano della soluzione di problemi che risultano dalle azioni e dalle necessità della vita e hanno a che fare con la lotta per la comprensione dell’esistenza che combattiamo ogni giorno. Tramite l’arte possiamo esprimere e facilitare l’altro nella comprensione del nostro stato d’animo; possiamo portare ad esempio la Guernica di Pablo Picasso, opera con cui il pittore ha voluto mostrare la violenza e la sofferenza causata dai bombardamenti nazisti. L’immaginario (in questo caso, visuale tramite la pittura) diventa, in questo modo, un mezzo di comprensione. Parafrasando le parole di Edgar Morin, nel gioco tra l’immaginario e il reale, l’immaginario ci aiuta a vedere meglio il reale, a viverlo meglio e ad avere “lucidità” sulla vita e sulle esperienze dell’essere umano4. Ogni attore sociale brama il riconoscimento del suo punto di vista e questo bisogno riesce a essere soddisfatto pienamente con facilità se l’arte viene utilizzata come mezzo di comunicazione. Possiamo comprendere la complessità di ogni persona solo tramite la visualizzazione delle varie sfaccettature dell’animo umano; basti pensare all’empatia che proviamo verso i protagonisti dei film che vediamo o dei libri che leggiamo. L’arte diventa, dunque, una fonte piena di conoscenza poiché completa l’opera della scienza e le sue scoperte, nel nostro caso della sociologia, ma ha il vantaggio di poter oltrepassare i limiti oltre i quali la scienza non riesce ad andare, subentrandole in quelle sfere non razionali dove si possono comprendere determinati fenomeno solamente percorrendo strade che attraversano il mondo dell’immaginario. Grazie all’arte, e grazie a Robert Nisbet che ce ne fa rendere conto, noi perveniamo a conoscenze che estendono il nostro sapere, esattamente come la sociologia ci permette di capire ciò che ci accade intorno in modo facilmente comprensibile. Arte e sociologia sono collegate in una forte stretta poiché entrambe rappresentano la riproduzione della realtà in cui viviamo, insieme sono un potente strumento di analisi della ciò che accade continuamente e quotidianamente intorno a noi e possiamo affermare che insieme costituiscono una unica unità salda e indissolubile. Insomma, Nisbet ci presenta una brillante ed elegante nuova facciata del contributo che sociologia, ormai legata per la vita all’arte, ha dato alla cultura odierna. Impossibile non restare affascinati ed incuriositi. 4 Morin E., Sette lezioni sul pensiero globale, Raffello Cortina Editore, Milano, 2016, p. 21. 
work_wpeiqwd7yfdsrlmube7ice6ub4	----	IF LIFE GIVES YOU LEMONS, MAKE LEMONADE. GIVING MEANING TO LIF B o o k r e v i e wPapeles del Psicólogo / Psychologist Papers, 2017. Vol. 38(1), pp. 79-80 http://www.papelesdelpsicologo.es http://www.psychologistpapers.com 79 n times of tension, publications, courses, therapies, drugs and commercial inventions abound (some with scientific basis and others without), inviting us to live without stress (without fear, overwhelm, sadness or “nerves”, etc.) or at least keep our stress levels under control, as something feasible and of course desirable, however Ernesto Lopez and Miguel Costa offer us the exact opposite: to learn to live with stress (with fears, overwhelm, etc.) Even more, the authors suggest that we contemplate stressful life situations, and the discomfort that they trigger, unavoidable as they are, as an opportunity, based on the acceptance of this suffering, to guide us to take practical action, despite the stress, towards the objectives that we consider valuable and that give meaning to our lives. This approach, which is found within contextual therapies or third generation therapies, and especially in acceptance and commitment therapy, inspired the book that I’m reviewing here. Stress, far from being defined here by activation, anxiety or distress (which are inherently linked to life), is defined as a type of situation that one experiences, a way of relating to the environment, a contingency system based on negative reinforcement (experiential avoidance), which alleviates in the short term but leads to an impoverishment of the life repertoire and a deepening in discomfort. The problem is not in the suffering, but in the counterproductive actions that are implemented in the vain attempt to alleviate it. This approach is not intended to merely eliminate or relieve distress, but rather as the book’s subtitle says, to give meaning to life when stress and anxiety complicate it. In my view, this change of objective has enormous depth. Firstly, because it considers that suffering is part of life and not something we should not have, despite the fact that the approach of psychopathology and its commercial derivations insist on useless and counterproductive efforts to suppress it, so the objective cannot be any other than acceptance. As the poet Ángel González (quoted in the book) says, you need to be very brave to live in fear. Secondly, this change of objective is important because it confronts those of us who experience stress with a question of great importance: what you want to do with your life? Or, if you like, what things are important to you? Or, in more operational terms, what are the goals that give meaning to your life and are worth starting despite the difficulties? In the therapeutic situation the question of personal values arises, perhaps in a different way –easier to answer–, but substantially it is this: it is like learning to live in a different way, guided by what really matters to one (and this is different for each individual) and not by the everyday and useless combat against discomfort. Wow! Based on this general approach, set out in the introduction to the book, in Chapter 1 (Como la vida misma [Like life itself]) a transactional concept of stress is developed, defined as the result of the imbalance between the sources of stress and the coping resources. According to this transactional vision, an overview is offered of the main sources of stress (stressful events, more and less predictable life changes, illness) and especially of the variables that make an event more or less stressful (imminence, duration, uncertainty, predictability, lack of control, ambiguity). A refreshing review is also included of the basic paradigms of learning (vicarious, classical, instrumental and in the relational framework), which are central to understanding this phenomenon but are often forgotten in other texts. With the transactional concept of stress established, Chapter 2 (Un torrente de energía que nos hace vivir y nos puede hacer sufrir [A torrent of energy that makes us live and can make us suffer]) is a concise, clear and attractive overview of the complex physiological processes involved in the stress response, their adaptive value, and at the same time, the potential health problems that can occur in the various systems of our body. If the problematic element of the experience is stress avoidance, as established at the beginning of the book, the strategy to follow in order to live with it and suppress its limiting effects is precisely exposure and active coping. The rest of the book is devoted to developing the particular aspects and the clinical implications of this strategy. Thus, Chapter 3 (Exponerse y afrontar: obras son amores [Exposure and coping: works are love]) is dedicated to exposure to the sources of stress. First of all, it is important to stress that this exposure to stressors and private events does not only seek the elimination of conditioned anxiety responses, as occurs in IF LIFE GIVES YOU LEMONS, MAKE LEMONADE. GIVING MEANING TO LIFE WHEN STRESS AND ANXIETY COMPLICATE IT López, E. y Costa, M. Madrid: Pirámide, 2016 José Javier Moreno Arnedillo Madrid Salud. Ayuntamiento de Madrid I Correspondence: José Javier Moreno Arnedillo. Subdirección General de Prevención y Promoción de la Salud. Madrid Salud. Ayuntamiento de Madrid. España. E-mail: morenoajj@madrid.es R e v i s i ó n d e l i b r o s 80 classical behavior therapy (a limited and negative objective because it seeks to remove something) but also to send the individual in the direction of what he or she considers valuable in life (a broad and positive objective because it seeks to build a direction, a course of action). Unlike the model of the cognitive behavioral approach (change the thoughts in order to change the act), the primordial role of action is insisted upon, which alters the system contingencies: behavioral change occurs precisely by changing the behavior. The chapter includes a welcome review and several practical guides to refresh the knowledge of the old techniques of “first generation” behavior therapy, such as systematic desensitization or flooding. Chapters 4 and 5 are oriented along the same lines. Chapter 4 (Si la vida nos da limones, hagamos limonada [If life gives you lemons, make lemonade]) discusses exposure and acceptance of the physiological and emotional aspects of the experience of stress. Chapter 5 (El poder de las palabras y sus verdades y mentiras [The power of words and their truths and lies]) covers the role of language, which due to its ability to replace the direct experience can be a help but also a trap. It can be a trap because it can be a source of stress, but above all, because it can have a paralyzing effect on action. Consequently, it is about questioning the literalness of certain verbal rules (the “shoulds”, the “needs” and the “ifs”, etc.) and, once again, exposing oneself to real contingencies. The chapter concludes with a guide for self-instructional training. The context is largely the social context, formed by the people with whom we live and with whom we communicate, with greater or less luck and skill. Learning to live with the sources of stress involves particularly learning to handle social situations. Interpersonal communication can be an intense and pervasive source of stress, but it can also be a buffer for stress, which leads us to consider the vital role of personal skills for interpersonal communication. Chapter 6 (Comunicarse para afrontar el estrés [Communicate to cope with stress]) is dedicated to developing this issue that is so crucial. Far from the orthopedic approaches, it is the biographical and contextual nature of behavior that allows us to understand the meaning of the core strategy of validation and the principle of interdependence. It includes an invaluable practical guide, of some length, to enhance basic communication skills such as listening, empathy, expressing agreement, knowing how to say no or managing criticism and expressing emotions. If stress is a transaction between the context and the individual, one of the pillars for coping with it is by making changes in the environment. The whole of Chapter 7 (Rediseñar el ambiente, rediseñar la vida [Redesigning the environment, redesigning one’s life]) is a practical guide on how to intervene in contexts in order to live better with stress: by reducing or eliminating the sources of stress, leaving the situation, seeking information on the source of stress, redesigning the home, redesigning organizations or workplaces, organizing the agenda, delegating etc. and, from a more general perspective linked to behavioral activation therapy, procuring a healthy lifestyle, full of lovers, that makes life richer and more satisfying. Finally, Chapter 8 (Respirar hondo, relajarse y dejarse estar [Taking a deep breath, relaxing and letting yourself just be]) is a very detailed practical guide on breathing and relaxation techniques, along with an invitation to mindfulness and enjoyment of the present moment, in line with the approach of mindfulness. It is, therefore, a concentrated self-help manual related to stress, in which each issue covered is linked to the model and the general strategy outlined in the first chapters. From there, it goes on to offer an abundance of practical guides, such as the ones already mentioned. Each of these guides is an invaluable effort of synthesis, sometimes one or two pages long, of the key practical issues to consider when performing a particular procedure. I would like to emphasize that the practicalities are “intertwined” throughout the theoretical development, going fluidly from theory to practice because both dimensions, far from being opposed, involve each other: the theory is the guide to action, and action builds theory. Nothing to do, therefore, with recipe books. On this matter, the restoration, almost the rescuing, of the techniques learned in the first manuals of the 1960s and 70s is notable. These techniques constitute what is now known as first generation behavior therapy (systematic desensitization, flooding, participant modelling, stress inoculation, assertiveness training, relaxation, environment enrichment, etc.) although they are now incorporated, with renewed shine and in a different context, but with the same conceptual coherence, into the third- generation therapies (Acceptance and Commitment Therapy, Behavioral Activation, Mindfulness, etc.) Finally, I cannot resist making a reference to the relationship between the book and the biography of the authors, who are still young but already in the age of jubilation, as they like to say. Apparently Pablo Picasso once said it had taken him a lifetime to learn to draw like a child. I believe this idea is applicable to this book. Throughout the whole book there is a flavor of a living thing, something practiced, ideas born out of action, and action in various fields of application of psychology. Somehow this book is the result of a process of “distillation” (I cannot think of a better metaphor), in which the knowledge accumulated about stress, the science of behavior, therapy and various other issues has passed through the alembic of the experience of the authors and they have produced this result. It requires a long and personal professional and productive journey to be able to communicate so simply, so accurately and in such an enjoyable way. I believe that without this biographical baggage it would not have been possible to write this book, at least not in this way. It is noteworthy, for example, that the book lacks a bibliography, and literary references (Kipling, Carroll, Cervantes, Salinas, Quevedo, Confucius, Machado, Borges, Kafka and many others) are more abundant than scientific ones (all solid and well chosen), and that both types are integrated effortlessly within the flow of the current text. 
work_ws6tnlupwfdfxlxpjpypsgpc5i	----	147 Revista Musical Chilena, Año LXXIII, julio-diciembre, 2019, Nº 232, pp. 147-172 RESEÑAS DE PUBLICACIONES Juan Allende-Blin, Christian Esch, Frank Schneider. Immer auch ein politischer Impuls (Siempre también un impulso político). Klaus Jürgen Kamprad, 2017, 216 pp. Esch y Schneider son destacados musicólogos, quienes consideraron de gran importancia dar a conocer por medio de este libro las opiniones de Juan Allende-Blin concernientes a música y política, sus encuentros con grandes personalidades musicales, y un comentario de sus obras. Para hacer esto trabajaron de una manera muy original: Frank Schneider escogió redactar en forma de preguntas y respuestas y Christian Esch escribió ensayos de las composiciones de Juan Allende-Blin. Adicionalmente, la editorial buscó y seleccionó una serie de fotos que ilustran la vida del compositor. En el primer capítulo, acerca de niñez y juventud en Chile, Juan habla de su familia, en cuya casa se recibía a músicos que pasaban por Chile y sobre todo a personas, la mayoría también músicos que llegaron a Chile huyendo del nazismo alemán. El contacto con estas personas contribuyó para que el joven Juan desarrollara un pensamiento pro- gresista, condenatorio de la dictadura nazi. También figura en este primer capítulo el comienzo del estudio musical con su tío, Pedro Humberto Allende y más tarde con Fré Focke, que fue alumno de Anton Webern. Durante este tiempo creció el deseo de Juan de conocer Alemania, el país que ya le era cercano a través de la música, la literatura, los conocidos de sus padres, pero faltaba el empujón final. Cuando el gran director Hermann Scherchen vino a Chile para dirigir a la Orquesta Sinfónica de Chile, escuchó cantar a una soprano algunas canciones de Juan y quiso conocerlo. La conversación, según Juan, fue corta. Scherchen le dijo “¿Qué hace usted aquí? ¡tiene que ir a Alemania!”. Un amigo de Juan, el también compositor Hans Helfritz, le aconsejó proseguir sus estudios en Alemania con Günter Bialas en Detmold. Otro amigo, el bailarín y coreógrafo Jean Cebron reforzó la decisión con argumentos semejantes. Dice Juan: “Seguí los consejos y llegué a una Alemania de la que claramente me había hecho un cuadro equivocado. Yo había pensado que los alemanes en gran mayoría habían sido víctimas de Hitler. Pero lo contrario era el caso. Y sin embargo al comienzo creí ingenuamente, que la gente se interesaba, al menos espiritual y culturalmente, por recuperar lo que habían perdido desde 1933, lo que fue destruido. Cuando llegué a Hamburgo en 1951 vi la obra El Diablo y Dios de Jean Paul Sartre y en la Opera del Estado, arreglada de manera precaria, The Rake’s Progress de Stravinsky. Después de ver estas obras fui a la Unión de Compositores y pregunté dónde se podía encontrar en Hamburgo o en otra ciudad alemana obras de Arnold Schönberg, Anton Webern, Alban Berg, Erich Itor Kahn, Paul Dessau o de Hanns Eisler. Pero me miraron como si hubiera venido de otro planeta y me contestaron “Esa música no nos interesa…”. Pregunta Frank Schneider: “¿Supongo que su decisión de irse a la joven República Federal obe- decía a razones que eran igualmente válidas para la también joven RDA, estoy pensando en la posición restrictiva frente a música avanzada de esos tiempos?” Juan: “Respecto de su pregunta acerca de la RDA, puede usted tener razón. Pero en mi pasaporte de aquel tiempo había un timbre que decía ‘Este pasaporte no es válido para los países del este’. Mal que mal estábamos en el medio de la Guerra Fría.” Christian Esch escribe: Cuando Juan Allende-Blin habla de su música, eso sucede de manera tranquila y reflexiva. Grandes palabras no son su característica. En vez de eso habla de observaciones, cuidadosamente da vuelta las páginas de la partitura, señala detalles, relaciones, se refiere a puentes, pero también a contrastes, a colores, a series, a construcción y a libertad. Entre las obras que Esch analiza, le da mucha importancia a las Transformaciones. A lo largo de su vida, Juan ha compuesto ocho Transformaciones para diferentes conjuntos de instrumentos. “¿Cómo llegó a este título musical y programático?”, le preguntó a Juan. Revista Musical Chilena / Reseñas de Publicaciones 148 Juan: “Cuando analicé las Variaciones para piano op. 27 de Webern, pensé: Aquí no hay tema sino hay permanentes variaciones. Entonces me pregunté, si no es posible encontrar otra palabra que exprese con más exactitud ese proceso. Y me llegó la idea de llamarlo Transformaciones. Es la idea de permanentes variaciones como principio”. Juan tenía 23 años cuando llegó a Alemania en 1951. Llegó primero a Hamburgo y luego a Detmold, para estudiar con Günter Bialas, siguiendo el consejo de Hans Helfritz. Cuando conoció a Bialas, este le presentó a sus alumnos, que iban a ser sus compañeros de estudio. Junto con otras personas a Gerd Zacher, que estudiaba composición con Bialas, órgano con Heinz Heintze y dirección con Kurt Thomas. Entre Juan y Gerd hubo una gran coincidencia de ideas, tanto en lo musical como en lo social y político, y Gerd fue el compañero de vida de Juan, quien en el año 1952 le compuso sus Transformaciones II para órgano. Al poco tiempo Bialas recibió una invitación para un pequeño festival en Barsbüttel, cerca de Hamburgo. Él no podía ir y envió en su representación a Juan y a Gerd. Ambos encontraron poco interesante la programación, y al comentarlo fueron invitados para el festival del año siguiente. Entonces Juan pudo hacer sugerencias para el programa, y puso entre otras obras los Cinco cánones sobre textos en latín, para soprano, clarinete y clarinete bajo op. 16 de Anton Webern, Les corps glorieux de Olivier Messiaen para órgano y los Tres movimientos de jazz de Juan Carlos Paz para piano. Estos dos últimos fueron interpretados por Gerd. La partitura la trajo Juan de Chile, adquirida en un anticuario de Santiago. La partitura no existía en Alemania. Cuenta Juan: “Después de que se tocó la obra de Webern hubo voces que rechazaron la obra en forma militante, encontraron espantosa la música, si es que se podía considerarla como tal. Y un señor, que como supe después había sido miembro de la juventud hitleriana, se permitió la pregunta, de qué tipo moralmente depravado debe ser la persona que compone tal pacotilla y mugre”. Frank Schneider dice que lo de Barsbüttel fue una experiencia que era necesaria para ajustar la mirada a las condiciones alemanas de aquel tiempo. Pudo darse cuenta de que el fin del nacionalsocia- lismo y la liberación por los aliados de ninguna manera significó el fin inmediato de la barbarización cultural y artística que la política nazi dejó y fijó en las cabezas de millones de alemanes. Más bien hay que pensar en la frase de Brecht: “El vientre es fructífero aún, del cual ‘eso’ (el nazismo) reptó”. Y es como un milagro que en esas circunstancias se haya podido desarrollar una alternativa estética como los cursos de Darmstadt para música nueva. Juan dice al respecto: “Es cierto, también para mí fueron acontecimientos que me marcaron, especialmente el encuentro con personalidades del exilio, como Eduard Steuermann, Rudolph Kolisch, Theodor W. Adorno, pero quisiera limitar un poco sus expresiones eufóricas. Se juntaron allí importantes personalidades jóvenes como Boulez, Nono o Stockhausen y muchos otros, pero también llegaban reaccionarios que en forma malévola querían ver qué se estaba haciendo allí. Por ejemplo, después de que Yvonne Loriod, que más tarde fue la esposa de Messiaen, tocó la 2ª Sonata para piano de Boulez. Yo la fui a felicitar, también se nos reunió Boulez y repentinamente en la salida se juntó un grupo y comenzaron a cantar ‘Deutschland, Deutschland über alles’. Yvonne Loriod temblaba de miedo, Boulez y yo callamos espantados… Lo importante de esos cursos era que una joven generación internacional quiso librarse de la ideología nazi buscando, de la tradición interrumpida violentamente, nuevos caminos de la composición e interpretación. Hacer posible eso, era el gran mérito de las reuniones de Darmstadt”. ¿Cómo se estructuraban los días en concreto? Juan: “Todo pasaba según un plan estructurado, manejado con elasticidad. Generalmente el día comenzaba con una conferencia, digamos, de Adorno o de un curso de análisis, puede ser de Messiaen. Durante tres semanas Messiaen estaba a disposición para hacer clases de 4 horas. Durante esas tres semanas Messiaen analizó en su curso –si me acuerdo bien– algunos aspectos de Don Giovanni, quizás fue la obertura o el final de la ópera. Pero lo que quedó muy presente en mi memoria es el análisis de Le sacre du printemps de Stravinsky”. El año 1954 marcó una cierta cesura en su vida; el regreso a Chile por algún tiempo. “La tensa situación política de esa época hizo que temiéramos que el joven Gerd Zacher tuviera que ser soldado. Eso nos llevó a la decisión de ir a Chile. Les escribí a mis padres y ellos espontáneamente nos invitaron y enviaron dos pasajes en barco”. Schneider: “Gerd Zacher contó una vez que junto con los emigrantes que tuvieron que huir del nazismo alemán, también se encontró con otros emigrantes, que eran nazis y que huyeron de Alemania para no ser juzgados por sus crímenes. Él vivió esto como un duro contraste, ¿me imagino que usted también?”. Reseñas de Publicaciones / Revista Musical Chilena 149 Juan: “Muchas veces. Quiero mencionar solo algunos ejemplos: Un día queríamos almorzar y fuimos en Santiago a un restaurante alemán. Estaba lleno, pero nos dieron un lugar en una pieza atrás. Allí estaba colgado, era en 1956, un gran retrato del Führer. Naturalmente abandonamos in- mediatamente el local. En la iglesia luterana alemana en la que Gerd daba sus conciertos de órgano, también había nazis y cuando, por ejemplo, el tenor Hanns Stein cantó el papel de Jesús en la Historia de resurrección de Schütz, protestaron o se quejaron en cartas malévolas, que el rol de Jesús fuera can- tado por un judío”. Schneider: “Para seguir, usted también en Santiago organizó conciertos de música nueva –un compromiso que en su vida iba a jugar un papel importante. Y allí conoció personas, digamos adqui- rió nuevos amigos, que también se mantendrán constantes en su biografía. Pienso especialmente en Hanns Stein y Mauricio Kagel”. Juan: “Hanns Stein pertenecía a los exiliados. Su familia judía viene de los Sudetes (Checoslovaquia), su padre era socialdemócrata. Cuando en 1938 fue la ocupación alemana, la familia huyó primero a Inglaterra y cuando comenzó la guerra siguieron a Chile, donde Hanns estudió canto. Cuando lo conocimos estaba en los comienzos de su carrera profesional y nosotros inmediatamente lo apreciamos mucho como tenor de bella voz y cabeza inteligente. Desde ese tiempo somos amigos. A él y a su esposa les dediqué más tarde mi pieza escénica Des Landes verwiesen (Expulsados de su país) a pesar de que describe destinos totalmente distintos de tres poetas perseguidos por el nazismo, Albert Ehrenstein, Carl Einstein y Erich Mühsam, pero a lo largo del tiempo, por el hecho del exilio, muestra experiencias y momentos parecidos. Su mujer viene de una familia judía-rusa que también emigró. En 1973, cuando Salvador Allende fue derrocado y el general Pinochet llegó al poder por medio de la violencia, ambos tuvieron que emigrar nuevamente. La RDA generosamente le ofreció a la familia Stein refugio en Berlín donde a Hanns le fue ofrecida una cátedra en la Academia Superior de Música Hanns Eisler. En esa época yo estaba componiendo mi obra escénica Des Landes verwiesen, sin saber que él y su familia estaban cerca. Mientras concebía la obra le pedí al poeta Jean-Pierre Faye que seleccionara los textos de estos poetas que yo había reunido. Jean-Pierre imaginó y compuso una dramaturgia coherente y efectiva utilizando los poemas y textos en prosa de los poetas que actúan en Des Landes verwiesen. Cuando supe de la salvación del matrimonio Stein les dediqué la obra. Hanns Stein cantó el papel de tenor en el estreno en octubre 1978 en la Academia de las Artes de Berlín occidental. Un verdadero amigo que cantó en cuatro de mis obras”. Schneider: “¿Y cómo era la cosa con Mauricio Kagel?”. Juan: “Eso naturalmente es otro cuento. Kagel era estudiante de composición de Juan Carlos Paz. Este me escribió en una de sus cartas, que tenía un alumno talentoso, el que por alguna razón iba a venir a Santiago y que con esa ocasión quería conocer a Gerd Zacher y a mí. Un domingo en el que, como siempre, mi amigo tocaba el órgano para la misa y yo estaba con él, se nos acercó un joven con una partitura bajo el brazo y se presentó. Kagel trajo la partitura de su sexteto de cuerdas para mostrárnosla. Fue el comienzo de nuestra amistad”. En el siguiente capítulo “En medio de la vanguardia”, Christian Esch habla con Juan acerca de su posición frente a la vanguardia y analiza varias importantes obras de Juan. Dice Juan: “Siempre fui un adversario de esa clasificación. Son como un herbario de plantas alguna vez vivas. Pero los com- positores tienen, para citar a Brecht, nombre y dirección. Obra y nombre están unidos, las etiquetas están de más. Yo me opuse firmar como vanguardista, para empezar, porque es una expresión militar. ¿Y qué dice esa expresión finalmente? Progresista mientras tanto es anticuado y anticuado mientras tanto muchas veces vale como progresista. Existe por tanto una lógica propia en la historia del arte y en su desarrollo”. Esch: “¿Cómo se relaciona esa posición con la insistencia de Theodor W. Adorno en la lógica histórica, cómo se expresa eventualmente en la formulación “Posición del Material”? Juan: “Allí quisiera acercar una vez más a Wyschnegradsky. Él abrió el camino para descubrir no solo los cuartos de tono sino el ultracromatismo y los sonidos inaudibles. También empleó las más finas divisiones del tiempo correspondientes al cromatismo sonoro. Así realizó la diferenciación del espacio sonoro. Eso es un cambio en la posición del material. ¿Qué influencia tuvo eso en el desarrollo? Solo pocos lo aprovecharon. Sin embargo, es correcto que de ese material, si se usa, resultan consecuencias artísticas, por ejemplo conmigo, cuando trabajo con la diferenciación del espacio sonoro y de los tonos. Pero eso son tendencias, ningún dogma…”. Revista Musical Chilena / Reseñas de Publicaciones 150 En el comentario concerniente a una de las grandes obras de Juan, Mein blaues Klavier, se cita a Heinz Klaus Metzger, quien en una carta al compositor, refiriéndose a esa obra, dice: “…en esa música sucede el derrumbe de la civilización europea y posiblemente –en forma dialéctica– su salvación…”. Juan cita a Hans Klaus Jungheinrich, quien escribe para una serie de CD Música en Alemania 1950- 2000, refiriéndose a Mein blaues Klavier, diciendo que es una obra de central importancia de la música contemporánea en general. En la obra es aplicada por primera vez una técnica desarrollada por el compañero de vida de Juan, Gerd Zacher. El motor del órgano, que según la tradición debe mantener implacablemente la presión del aire, puede ahora reducir controladamente la salida del aire y repar- tirla en los tubos correspondientes a los registros escogidos. Mientras más registros se emplean tanto más se reducen los sonidos así producidos. De esa manera se originan sonidos frágiles que terminan en una queja. El respirar, suspirar y aullar del órgano, en combinación con sus sonidos normales dan una sensación cercana al habla o al canto. En el siguiente capítulo, “Defensor de la música reprimida”, Frank Schneider habla de la labor más importante, junto con la composición, en la vida de Juan. Su trabajo dedicado al redescubrimiento y propagación de música reprimida u olvidada del siglo XX. Al preguntarle a Juan por su motivación, este contestó: “Fue para mí siempre una tarea urgente, dar a conocer lo que a mí mismo me interesaba e interesa. Siempre quise escuchar música que encontraba importante y significativa desde el punto de vista histórico, pero que justamente aquí, en un país impregnado musicalmente, durante mucho tiempo no se podía escuchar, salvo en ocasiones especiales. Por eso traté, con cierta tozudez pero con medios muy primitivos, llamar la atención de inventores de arte o intérpretes olvidados o reprimidos”. Schneider: “En el todavía hoy famoso libro de René Leibowitz, Introduction à la musique de douze sons, encontró usted ejemplos musicales de un músico hasta esa fecha desconocido. Juan: “Se trata de Erich Itor Kahn, cuya música me impresionó inmediatamente al ver fragmen- tos impresos. Lo cuento entre los importantes protagonistas de la música nueva, que como adepto al método de composición de doce tonos pertenece al amplio círculo de la Escuela Vienesa en torno a Schönberg –y sin embargo tiene un rostro musical muy propio–. No pude conocerlo personalmente, pero años más tarde conocí a su viuda, también pianista, y ella se preocupó de que llegaran a mi poder varias partituras de obras de su marido. Todas son testimonios de la generación después de Schönberg, Berg y Webern. Tienen sus raíces en la tradición de Bach hasta Brahms, mientras el pensamiento composicional de Beethoven juega un rol determinante”. En el capítulo “Música política”, Christian Esch menciona la gran cantidad de obras que tienen un claro contenido político. Gran parte de ellas se refieren a la problemática del nazismo y de las persecuciones, especialmente a artistas perseguidos. Pero Juan dice que también su música de cámara es política, así como dice el título del libro. También hay referencias a la problemática de nuestro tiempo, en su obra Des Landes verwiesen, junto con la historia de tres poetas judíos alemanes, también está presente el problema de la dictadura chilena mediante la poesía de Neruda y la dramatización del funeral del poeta. Juan dijo en 2003 que es “el mundo bastante triste” el que lo hace dedicarse artísti- camente a esos problemas. Al respecto dice Juan, especialmente en referencia a su obra escénica Des Landes verwiesen. “Como compositor quise resumir mis experiencias en una obra escénica. Coleccioné muchos documentos y poemas que marcaron esta época. Des Landes verwiesen trata del destino de los poetas Albert Ehrenstein, Carl Einstein, Erich Mühsam, Federico García Lorca y Pablo Neruda. Todos ellos eran sospechosos a los ojos de los dueños del poder por sus obras, y algunos por su origen judío. Pero todos ellos dejaron huellas que aún hoy son fructíferas. Mi lenguaje musical consiste de sonidos diferenciados que se desarrollan hasta el silencio. Pretenden invitar a descubrir la riqueza interior que cada tono puede tener. Los espacios sonoros producen constelaciones enigmáticas misteriosas, que abren trasfondos descifrables por oídos sensibles”. Frank Schneider comienza el tema de las piezas radiofónicas de Juan y el compositor explica: “Usted menciona la técnica del collage. Eso es un método que primero inventaron Pablo Picasso y George Braque para el arte visual y posteriormente fue usada por Kurt Schwitters. Partiendo de esa idea compuse piezas con texto, canto, sonidos instrumentales, ruidos, etc., los sonidos vocales e instru- mentales fueron dispuestos de la misma manera como lo hubiera hecho para una pieza de música de cámara. Lo grabé individualmente y después en el estudio se hizo el collage, por ejemplo, los textos con los respectivos intérpretes y ruidos seleccionados del archivo. Cada emisora tiene un archivo propio de ruidos y de allí busqué lo que necesitaba, ruidos de agua (mar, ríos, cascadas), pasos de soldados cuando es necesario, distintos ruidos, voces de pájaros que usé en mis composiciones…”. Reseñas de Publicaciones / Revista Musical Chilena 151 Schneider: “Usted organizó en 1989 un gran simposio relacionado con el exilio en Essen. Creo que fue muy notable, porque respondieron a su idea de invitar a compositores, músicos y musicólogos de todo el mundo”. Juan: “Hace ya un tiempo tenía la idea de juntar alguna vez personalidades que tuvieron que ir al exilio después de 1933. Me encontré con muchos de ellos y todos estaban de acuerdo en que sería muy correcto e instructivo que se sepa en Alemania qué han hecho en los países del exilio, cuáles fueron sus destinos”. Schneider: “Usted mismo dictó una conferencia una semana antes del comienzo del simposio acerca de música en el exilio, para preparar al público, y durante el evento dictó otra con el tema: “Pérdida de la tradición”. Cuando las ilustres visitas respondieron a su invitación, los anales indican a los compositores Leni Alexander, Gerhard Samuel, Pia Gilbert y Berthold Goldschmidt, los pianistas Konrad Wolff y Grete Sultan, el violinista Henry Meyer, el bailarín y coreógrafo Hans Züllig, los can- tantes Hanns Stein y Ursula Mayer-Reinach, los musicólogos Edith Gerson-Kiwi y Peter Gradenwitz”. Juan: “El discurso de Hans Züllig, ‘El ballet Jooss en el exilio inglés’, nos dejó consternados, porque dijo al final que el verdadero exilio para Kurt Jooss fue la vuelta a Alemania”. Schneider: “Al comienzo de este decenio (1980) figura otra vez una obra realmente única en su labor, un arreglo de canciones del yiddish, que fueron realizadas doblemente, una vez para voz y piano y después para conjunto. ¿Cuál fue la motivación?”. Juan: “La motivación fue mi amigo Hanns Stein. Era niño cuando tuvo que huir con su familia, primero a Inglaterra y después a Chile, porque su padre era socialdemócrata y además judío. Muchos parientes que no pudieron emigrar a tiempo fueron asesinados en Auschwitz. Cuando Gerd Zacher, durante su estadía en Chile, montó la Historia de Resurrección de Schütz y Hanns Stein cantó en forma notable el rol de Jesús, lo que enojó a algunos miembros nazis de la colectividad, nos conocimos. Hasta hoy somos muy buenos amigos. Durante mucho tiempo fue un tenor muy solicitado con un amplio repertorio, desde canciones isabelinas inglesas antiguas, hasta Eisler, especialmente valorado por él. Yo compuse para él varias obras que fueron estrenadas por él. Fue también Hanns Stein quien me dio el impulso para arreglar Cinco canciones del gueto. Él tenía varias canciones en yiddish con acompa- ñamientos muy banales en su repertorio y me preguntó si a mí me gustaría trabajarlas para hacerlas más exigentes. En 1979 compuse acompañamientos para canto y piano, que comentaban las melodías escogidas. Dos años más tarde escribí una versión para canto y siete instrumentos. Esa versión final fue estrenada en el Curio-Haus en Hamburgo ante exdetenidos del campo de concentración Neuengamme, por el Conjunto Hinz & Kunst. El cantante fue otra vez Hanns Stein, el que vino de Berlín oriental para esa actuación. Las cinco canciones que escogí reflejan el sufrimiento, pero también la ironía de los judíos en el gueto. En torno a las melodías que quedaron intactas, compuse mi comentario que en esta versión quedó más marcado que en la versión para piano”. Schneider: “¿Usted tomó conciencia de eso espontáneamente?”. Juan: “No, Para la versión con conjunto hubo otra vez una motivación. El deseo del jefe del Memorial-Neuengamme, de realizar en 1981 un acto memorial. Como testigo, más como amigo de personas que apenas escaparon de la muerte, y por eso tuvieron que ir al exilio, tomé una posición. El siglo XX era un siglo de pogromos, de torturas, de campos de concentración, de exterminios racistas y políticos, frente a ello nadie debería callar. Fue inteligente que el jefe del memorial Neuengamme haya decidido hacer el acto lejos de los lugares en los que se torturó. La música y la interpretación intensa transformaron la atmósfera –al comienzo angustiosa– en una invitación cordial y liberadora. Puede ser que justamente la palabra cantada traiga esperanza. Frank Schneider, al referirse a la reconstrucción realizada por Juan Allende-Blin de los fragmentos de la ópera La chute de la maison Usher de Debussy, acerca de un cuento de Edgar Allan Poe, dice que con esto intervino en las grandes ruedas de la historia musical europea. La pregunta es ¿Cuál fue la motivación para emprender ese difícil trabajo? Responde Juan: “En cuanto a la motivación, lo puedo decir en pocas palabras. Era la curiosidad para hacer oíble algo de Debussy que no se había podido oír. Describir el trabajo en pocas palabras es difícil, porque la historia del origen de la obra es larga. Comienza en la juventud de Debussy y recién después de una larga pausa toma una forma concreta. Pero uno de los hitos decisivos para mí es la confirmación de que un compositor de largo aliento tiene que tener la obra completa en su cabeza. Ese también era el caso de Claude Debussy. Cuando compuso la primera escena ya tenía definido el final de la obra. En el manuscrito escribe ‘pour la fin de la M.U.’. Esa hoja se encontraba cerca de la primera aria de Madeline. Revista Musical Chilena / Reseñas de Publicaciones 152 Baudelaire cita en uno de sus extensos escritos respecto de Poe un axioma preferido del poeta: ‘un buen autor, mientras escribe la primera línea, ya sabe cuál será la última’. Debussy conocía bien las geniales traducciones de Baudelaire de Poe, pero no tenía por qué conocer específicamente ese axioma, ya que ese conocimiento pertenece al fundamento de todo artista importante. Al fin de su vida aún se ocupaba del proyecto Usher, pero finalmente quedó como un fragmento”. No citaré lo largamente conversado acerca del tema, ya que los interesados pueden ver un artículo de Juan Allende-Blin de la creación de la ópera La chute de la maison Usher en la Revista Musical Chilena1. Esch habla de las composiciones tardías de Bach, Beethoven, Liszt y Richard Strauss. A diferencia del Thomaskantor, los compositores de los siglos XIX y XX mencionados como ejemplos tenían una conciencia de sí mismos como artistas libres en una sociedad burguesa marcada por convenciones. Esa imagen de artistas en verdad ha cambiado en la actualidad postburguesa. ¿Cómo se sitúa allí Allende- Blin, donde comienzan sus obras tardías, si es que existen? Juan: “Eso yo mismo realmente no lo tengo claro, ya que mucho se ha desprendido –en forma lógica– uno de lo otro. Comencé con Cesar Franck, ya hablamos de eso. Después se agregaron Schönberg y Webern, también Skriabin y naturalmente Wyschnegradsky. Desde mi punto de vista, esta fue una ruta bien consecuente. Allí no hubo cortes, tampoco hacia una obra tardía, cualquiera sea su forma. Lo que a mí me atañe, es más bien la selección de los temas. La muerte es, más o menos reconocible, el tema de mis obras tardías. Finalmente, esto comenzó recién con Salutatio abeuntis. Ya con la selección de textos de Pablo Neruda y Rainer Maria Rilke me acerqué a la discusión con la muerte. Distinto que en Requiem para un perro, en 1981, allí era la discusión con el lado irónico de la muerte. Creo que también en mis Tagebuchgesängen sobre textos de Lautréamont y de Kafka de 1987 aparecen tales reminiscencias. En Franz Kafka más que en Comte de Lautréamont aparece allí la cercanía de la muerte. Al comienzo se ocupa esa visión del diario de Kafka con su visita al médico. El absurdo viaje del que se habla en seguida, se puede leer en cierto modo como una enfermedad hacia la muerte. Pero también el ‘desespoir’, la desesperación en el texto de Lautréamont, con esa explosión de imágenes, contiene algo de la muerte. Y en verdad Lautréamont murió muy joven. La muerte no estaba en el centro de mi trabajo, pero posiblemente influyó. Mi ocupación indirecta con la muerte en esas piezas quizás fue más bien una casualidad. Posiblemente pertenece a esa relación también la mucho más tardía, collage sonora Wandlungen. En el que cito y comento musicalmente die Verwandlung (la Metamorfosis) de Kafka”. Hablando de Antiphonie, que lleva como subtítulo Dialogue imaginaire avec Gerd Zacher, Juan dice: “El trabajo solitario de componer es una tranquila preparación para la solitud de la muerte. Las preguntas del estilo tardío se transforman para mí inesperadamente en un problema existencial y tengo que aclarar para mí mismo mi posición. Trato de hacerlo y para ello tengo que ampliar mi pensamiento. Primero: si lo pienso, tengo que decir no a la pregunta si compongo de manera diferente mis obras tardías, eso ya lo dije. No es mi intención usar en mi edad avanzada algún estilo depurado. Puedo preguntarme de las fuentes de mi manera de componer. Puede ser que sea una excepción, porque desde mi niñez fui confrontado con problemas fuera de lo común. La epilepsia de mi hermano, ataques pesados, una vez en el bus. Veo la gente persignándose y dejándome solo. Allí tenía 12 años. Después las experiencias que tuvo que sufrir Gerd Zacher como adolescente en la sección psiquiátrica cerrada del establecimiento educacional de Bethel y que lo marcaron de por vida y en consecuencia también a mí. A lo mejor esas difíciles experiencias me obligaron a, si se quiere, una temprana obra tardía, como profundo tratamiento de los abismos de la vida y de la muerte. Muchas, en realidad la mayoría de mis obras contienen momentos de duelo y de reflexión. Mi así llamada obra tardía pertenece fielmente a esta reflexión sobre experiencias dolorosas”. Hanns Stein Facultad de Artes, Universidad de Chile, Chile hsteink@gmail.com 1 Juan Allende-Blin, “En busca del Debussy perdido”, Revista Musical Chilena XLIX/184 (julio- diciembre, 1995), pp. 11-38. 
work_wwsszpocyfgjbhggml6i67pt4y	----	Crobicas ; Exhibition reviews ARCHIVO ESPAÑOL DE ARTE, XCIII, 369 ENERO-MARZO 2020, pp. 91-96 ISSN: 0004-0428, eISSN: 1988-8511 Copyright: © 2020 CSIC. Este es un artículo de acceso abierto distribuido bajo los términos de una licencia de uso y distribución Creative Commons Reconocimiento 4.0 Internacional (CC BY 4.0) CRÓNICAS greCo París: Grand Palais, 16-X-2019 a 10-II-2020 El Grand Palais de París se interesa de nuevo por la pintura española del Siglo de Oro después de la magna exposición sobre Velázquez en 2015 y dedica una antológica a otra figura icónica del arte español, El Greco. Guillaume Kientz —Curator of European Art, Kimbell Art Museum, Forth Worth— es de nuevo el comisario científico. Sin embargo, en esta ocasión no estamos delante de una de estas enormes ‘máqui- nas’ con más de cien préstamos a las que acostumbra el Grand Palais en estos últimos años y a las que algunos artistas no han sobrevivido. La muestra titulada muy sobriamente Greco reúne una selección de 76 obras de las cuales 71 son de El Greco entre pinturas, dibujos y una escultura. Una muestra coherente, de gran calidad, cuya sobria escenografía resalta todavía más las obras. Las primeras salas están dedicadas a la juventud del pintor: De Creta a Italia (hacia 1560-1576). Espa- cios de pequeñas dimensiones adaptados al formato reducido de las pinturas. De las 18 obras seleccionadas en esta sección, se pueden ver algunos iconos pintados en Grecia, los primeros ensayos de El Greco como pintor occidental en Venecia y luego en Roma, como el famoso tríptico de Módena, y algunas novedades o rarezas. Por ejemplo, una Anunciación perteneciente al Fondo Cultural Villar-Mir de Madrid nunca ex- puesta (cat. 4) o el Cristo llevando la cruz (cat. 8), pintura que ha pasado varias veces por el mercado del arte con catalogaciones diversas (círculo del Tintoretto en 2008, de escuela veneciana del siglo XVI en 2014, o expuesta en 1975 atribuida al veneciano Rocco Marconi) aquí presentada como una obra de juven- tud de El Greco. El San Francisco recibiendo los estigmas (cat. 12), conocido solo por una reproducción de la fototeca del Instituto Amatller, es otra grata sorpresa. El resto de la exposición se desarrolla en un espacio casi diáfano, una galería rectilínea, larga, de techo alto, que ha determinado una escenografía muy depurada, blanca, donde lo fundamental es la contempla- ción de la pintura. Una selección de diez retratos evidencia como El Greco fue presentado al cardenal Farnese como re- tratista discípulo de Tiziano, género en el que alcanzó cierta fama entonces como Keith Christiansen expli- ca en su ensayo del catálogo (“Greco en Italie”). En este apartado hay que resaltar los préstamos del es- pléndido retrato del hermano Hortensio Félix Paravicino de Boston o el del cardenal Niño de Guevara del Metropolitan (cat. 26 y 27). La galería está presidida por una monumental obra maestra, la Asunción (403,2 x 211,8 cm) pertene- ciente al retablo mayor de la iglesia toledana de Santo Domingo el Antiguo y desde 1906 en el Art Institu- te de Chicago. Es la primera vez que se expone en Europa desde su venta en España. La gran exposición parisina se presentará durante la primavera de 2020 en Chicago, lo que explica la generosidad de muchas instituciones estadounidenses que brinda la ocasión para admirar algunas obras que han viajado muy poco como el San Francisco recibiendo los estigmas de Baltimore (cat. 64) que nunca ha sido expuesto en Europa desde su entrada en 1902 en el Walter Art Museum, o el San Pedro arrepentido (cat. 60) de The Phillips Collection de Washington, presentado en Martigny en 2004. Sin embargo, no se ha contado con ningún préstamo del Museo Nacional del Prado que tan generosamente colaboró en la antológica de Velázquez. Una idea fuerza de la exposición es lo que el comisario denomina las “variaciones sobre el motivo”. Kientz explora la costumbre de El Greco de repetir una misma composición, práctica que le permite traba- jar y perfeccionar sus obras, y experimentar texturas y colores algo diferentes de una versión a otra. Richard Kagan (“Toledé, Urbs Sacra. Le peintre et ses commanditaires”, reedición del publicado en 2014 con Archivo Espanol de Arte_369.indb 91 11/2/20 9:21 Archivo Español de Arte, vol. XCIII, n.º 369, pp. 91-96, enero-marzo 2020 ISSN: 0004-0428, eISSN: 1988-8511 92 CRÓNICAS motivo del IV centenario) y Leticia Ruiz Gómez (“Dans l’atelier de Greco”) explican en sus respectivos ensayos para el catálogo que, por falta de grandes pedidos, El Greco tendrá que multiplicar la ejecución de cuadros de devoción para intentar sacar adelante su negocio. La muestra parisina solo se interesa por las composiciones originales de un mismo tema como las cuatro versiones del Cristo expulsando a los merca- deres del templo (cat. 50-53) o las otras tres sobre San Pablo (cat. 69-71). Pero la necesaria economía del taller, tema introducido por Leticia Ruiz Gómez en su reciente exposición sobre Luis de Morales (Madrid, Bilbao, Barcelona, 2015-2016), da un enfoque algo diferente al llamado Siglo de Oro, como una necesaria vuelta a una realidad a la que estas dos exposiciones han contribuido. El catálogo de París se interesa también por la recepción del Greco en Francia y el papel del comercio del arte parisino en la difusión de la obra (Véronique Gerard Powell, “Greco et la France”) y su impacto en la pintura moderna (Javier Barón, “Greco et la naissance de la peinture moderne en France”) reconoci- ble, entre otros artistas, en Cézanne. FréDériC JiMeno Université Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne Falsos verDaDers. l’art De l’engany Girona: Museu d’Art de Girona, 22-XI-2019 a 29-IV-2020 No es moneda corriente que los pequeños museos, privados las más de las veces de recursos que les impiden llevar a cabo una programación expositiva coherente y organizada en el tiempo, tengan capacidad de reacción para aportar novedades sugerentes y de actualidad. Y no sólo en cuanto a la temática que abor- dar en esas llamadas de atención que son las muestras temporales, sino también en cuanto a la propia puesta en escena, de manera que resulten atractivas para un público heterogéneo cubriendo ámbitos diver- sos. Y eso es lo que sucede en el Museu d’Art de Girona, dirigido por Carme Clusellas, una institución que suma los fondos del antiguo Museo Provincial con el Museo Diocesano, en una fórmula que garantiza la profesionalización de su gestión y rentabiliza las aportaciones para obtener mejores resultados. Instalado en las dependencias del que fuera Palacio Episcopal, en un entorno urbano verdaderamente privilegiado y al lado de la imponente catedral, el Museo aborda una renovación de su instalación permanente con buen criterio y su visita no sólo no defrauda sino que abre interesantes vías de estudio. El motivo de esta breve crónica es poner el punto de mira en la exposición temporal que se inau- guraba el pasado día 22 de noviembre y que permanecerá abierta hasta el 29 de abril, titulada Falsos ver- daders. L’art de l’engany. La muestra, comisariada cuidadosamente por los profesores de la Universidad de Girona, Joan Bosch y Francesc Miralpeix, consigue aquello que se resume en “hacer de la necesidad virtud”. El pretexto viene dado por la celebrada adquisición en 2010 de unas tablas del siglo XVI identifi- cadas como obra de Pere Mates y pertenecientes a un perdido retablo de San Juan Bautista, de las que se conservaba memoria fotográfica de los años cincuenta. Transcurridos apenas unos años, en 2016, eran identificadas como una falsificación de las piezas originales en el instante en que eran éstas las que se ponían a la venta en el mercado del arte. El suceso tuvo su trascendencia mediática y generó ácidas críticas, porque siempre es muy sencillo ver lo evidente cuando no hay sombra de duda y porque cuesta entender que el sistema de control falle por carencia de plazos y de medios. Lo interesante del tema es que en esta ocasión esa debilidad ha estado en el origen de una lúcida reflexión que ha terminado por generar la mues- tra y se ha convertido en una causa que permite sacar muy sugerentes conclusiones. Las tablas originales se adquirieron, se solucionaron los problemas legales, se abordó su interven- ción y lo que ahora se hace es poner sobre la mesa el espinoso tema de las falsificaciones. Para ello se utiliza la razón de ser de la exposición ofreciendo al usuario la posibilidad de un ejercicio comparativo, no por lúdico menos efectivo, que actúa como hilo conductor en el pequeño pero sustancioso recorrido, capaz de dejar con ganas de más, así como de abrir nuevos intereses abordando con valentía un tema con el que no muchas instituciones museísticas se atreven. La museografía es limpia y accesible, utilizando sencillos recursos electrónicos para poner al al- cance del espectador célebres casos de falsificación, para hacerle pensar en las variadas motivaciones que impulsan el fenómeno y que no se reducen simplistamente a la codicia, como demuestra el famoso caso de las falsas cabezas livornesas de Modigliani. Todo ello acompañado de ejemplos muy parlantes, catalanes especialmente pero también de otros muchos lugares, y del recorrido por un esquemático laboratorio que Archivo Espanol de Arte_369.indb 92 11/2/20 9:21 Archivo Español de Arte, vol. XCIII, n.º 369, pp. 91-96, enero-marzo 2020 ISSN: 0004-0428, eISSN: 1988-8511 CRÓNICAS 93 ayuda a comprender de que modo el ojo del experto debe apoyarse en las evidencias técnicas para conseguir arribar a buen puerto. La exposición, realizada en colaboración con el Centre de Restauració de Béns Mobles de Cata- lunya i l’Institut Català de Recerca en Patrimoni Cultural, consta de un pequeño pero documentado catálo- go, una pieza bibliográfica que sin duda será buscada en un panorama en el que los intereses pero también los miedos, no han dado lugar a demasiadas publicaciones de rigor. Manuel arias Martínez Museo Nacional de Escultura exilio y nostalgia. DiBuJos inéDitos y liBros ilustraDos De PiCasso en la ColeCCión De la FaMilia arias Málaga: Fundación Picasso. Museo Casa Natal, 24-X-2019 a 10-II-2020 Málaga nos vuelve a sorprender presentando algo diferente sobre Picasso. Todo el mundo, tras el reco- nocimiento que alcanzó la actuación del pintor durante el tiempo de la ocupación alemana del país, preten- día ser su amiga o haber tenido algún tipo de acercamiento a él. Y ciertamente se ha hablado mucho de las amistades que mantuvo, especialmente en el mundo de la cultura, la intelectualidad y la creación. Sin embargo, Picasso también prestó una singular atención, con frecuencia incluyendo diferentes apoyos, hacia sus compatriotas españoles, en especial hacia los que compartían y conllevaban la situación de exiliados republicanos. Sobre ello, aparte de las dispersas referencias de quienes disfrutaron de su aprecio o ayuda, conocemos los singulares relatos que aportan valiosos ensayos como los de la activista Mercedes Guillén —esposa del escultor Baltasar Lobo— o los del polifacético escritor Josep Palau i Fabre. Algunos de estos compatriotas, que conocían bien el mundo artístico y cultural, se convirtieron en secretarios permanentes u ocasionales del pintor, como previamente ocurrió con Jaume Sabartés o luego puntualmente con la mis- ma Guillén. Pero la amistad que dispensó hacia sus paisanos también le llevó a convertir a algunos de ellos, en principio menos relacionados con el mundo artístico-cultural, en engarces y filtros respecto a quienes quisieran conocerlo. Este es el caso de Mariano Miguel Montañés, ex-oficial republicano de 31 años y miembro de la Resistencia, que estuvo entre los pioneros liberadores de París, con quienes entró con la Novena Compañía. Le fue presentado a Picasso e hicieron amistad, convirtiéndolo el pintor en su coordi- nador en París de sus ayudas a los exiliados españoles y en filtro de las visitas de estos a su estudio, inclu- so cuando el pintor se trasladó a la Costa Azul a finales de la década. A la muerte de Sabartés en 1968, Picasso le pidió que dejara su puesto parisino para tornarse su secretario desde la villa La Californie de Cannes. Y Mariano Miguel, incluso tras la muerte del pintor, continuó trabajando para Jacqueline varios años como secretario, todo lo cual le permitió ir escribiendo un diario, luego publicado por su hijo en Nueva York (Pablo Picasso: The Last Years, 2004). Otra amistad pareja y entrañable, en la que queremos centrarnos ahora, fue la que el malagueño man- tuvo con el también joven Eugenio Arias, más conocido como “el barbero de Picasso”, que desde su pelu- quería de Vallauris, el pueblo de los alfareros, le sirvió de enlace y filtro para todo el que quería visitarlo. A esa amistad, encauzada de otro modo a la de Mariano Miguel y muy mediada por aficiones comunes como la de las corridas de toros, está dedicada la exposición malagueña que comentamos, la cual nos pre- senta un inédito aspecto de la comunicación entre ambos, hasta ahora poco comentado o a penas insinuado en anteriores estudios. Eugenio Arias, a raíz de esta amistad, no solo fue el fundador en 1985 del Museo Picasso de Buitrago de Lozoya (el único dedicado al famoso malagueño en la Comunidad de Madrid), sino también un desta- cado amigo y guardián de la intimidad del pintor. Militante del Partido Comunista Español desde 1931, con la guerra se convirtió en capitán y comisario político del famoso 5º Regimiento de Milicias Populares, dirigido por El Campesino. A su término emprendió el camino del exilio y acabó en el campo de concen- tración de Argelès-sur-Mer, por el que también anduvieron los propios sobrinos de Picasso, los pintores Javier y Fin Vilató Ruiz. Arias pasó luego a la Resistencia y, tras el armisticio, acabó residiendo en Vallau- ris, donde desde 1947 entabló amistad con Picasso, quien le confió su relación con los españoles que, con diferentes propósitos, se acercaban a conocerlo o a contactar con él. La añoranza de España y las corridas sirvieron a esta amistad de poderoso aglutinante y ambos prestaron una especial atención a las crónicas taurinas del diario ABC, por lo general firmadas por Antonio Díaz-Cañabate y que Picasso solía hacer llegar al peluquero con un “para Arias” o un simple “Arias”, acompañadas —para indicar el lugar donde Archivo Espanol de Arte_369.indb 93 11/2/20 9:21 Archivo Español de Arte, vol. XCIII, n.º 369, pp. 91-96, enero-marzo 2020 ISSN: 0004-0428, eISSN: 1988-8511 94 CRÓNICAS fijar la atención— por llamadas, signos, trazos y dibujos de toros, toreros, picadores, banderillas, etc. El estrecho trato se complementó con otras muestras de amistad que Picasso le certificó al buitragueño me- diante dibujos, escritos y la ilustración de diferentes libros y folletos. Todo este legado, que guardaron con mimo Eugenio Arias y su hijo Pedro, ha permanecido inédito hasta el momento en el que la nuera y la nieta del peluquero, Madeleine y Pauline Arias, decidieron depositarlo para su estudio y exhibición en el Museo Casa Natal de Picasso en Málaga. La exposición que el Museo, con este material, ha dedicado a tal amistad en el marco del exilio, cui- dadosamente comisariada por Carlos Ferrer Barrera (también encargado de la edición del catálogo y de la catalogación —junto a Salvador Bonet— de la obra expuesta) y coordinada por Mario Virgilio Montañez, ha sido planteada en cuatro grandes bloques. Contiene el primero —y principal novedad— un conjunto de unos 63 dibujos sobre papel del periódico ABC (fechados entre 1962 y 1968), con los comentados dibujos, marcas y trazos señalizadores y decorativos. Le sigue un segundo bloque con un ejemplar personalizado y exclusivo del libro Picasso. Dibujos y escritos, que publicara Camilo José Cela en 1961 en Papeles de Son Armadans. El tercero lo integran cuatro libros ilustrados (Sueño y mentira de Franco, Carmen, La tauro- maquia y Sable mouvant), que en conjunto suman 77 estampas originales en aguafuerte, aguatinta, punta seca y buril, y, finalmente, se cierra la exposición con un último bloque dedicado a diverso material con dibujos y dedicatorias a Arias y su familia sobre papel, revistas, libros, sobres, etc. En general, por tanto, la muestra que se ha conformado con el citado depósito de la familia Arias que- da compuesta por unas 187 piezas picassianas, que contienen 103 dibujos, cuatro libros ilustrados y diver- so material dedicado. Es la primera vez que se exhibe y, por ello mismo, nos descubren con aire de singu- lar novedad otras importantes vías de análisis de los estrechos lazos comunicativos y los particulares contenidos que mantuvo Picasso con cercanos amigos exiliados ajenos al mundo cultural, como es este caso del barbero Eugenio Arias y su familia. Unos lazos impregnados de sentimientos de expatriado, de nostal- gia y de identidad española, que el malagueño quiso compartir con sus compatriotas. Miguel CaBañas Bravo Instituto de Historia, CSIC 1939. exilio rePuBliCano esPañol Madrid: La Arquería de Nuevos Ministerios, 4-XII-2019 a 31-I-2020 Viendo la exposición 1939. Exilio republicano español, en La Arquería de los Nuevos Ministerios de Madrid —un espacio difícil para una muestra de estas dimensiones, que en esta ocasión no funciona mal—, da la impresión de que el anhelo principal de los organizadores ha sido la propuesta de una historia integral para un fenómeno con múltiples caras y artistas, como es el del exilio. Se consigue en buena me- dida; más allá de la documentación de primera mano, libros, carteles, cuadros, parece importante llegar a entender el ambiente, la vida cotidiana, poder ver la mesa de trabajo de Manuel Azaña, oír la voz muy bien timbrada de Arturo Barea haciendo un programa más bien costumbrista en la BBC, o la de Diego Hidalgo de Cisneros entrevistado en Radio España Independiente, todo esto ayuda a hacerse una idea de la comple- jidad del asunto. Los objetivos de la exposición, así se dice en el catálogo, son los de materializar un ho- menaje de estado a los protagonistas del exilio, sensibilizar a la ciudadanía sobre su relevancia y agradecer la hospitalidad de los países receptores. Los apartados son muy numerosos, no pueden citarse todos; la partida, los campos franceses (con fotos espléndidas de Agustí Centellés e ilustraciones de Josep Bartolí) las enormes penalidades de los exiliados, el destino final de los campos de exterminio para no pocos de ellos (reflejado en las interesantes fotografías de Francisco Boix); es muy sugerente el apartado que ilustra la vida en los barcos que llevaron a los exi- liados a ultramar; no se olvida a quienes, desde la mítica nueve, contribuyeron a la liberación de París. Se narra bien la difícil adaptación a nuevos destinos laborales. El regreso es una cuestión importante, menos estudiada; fue haciéndose de manera progresiva, muchos de ellos nunca terminaron de reconocer el país al que volvieron; además, en el interior de España, al menos antes de la muerte del dictador, no se mostró ninguna generosidad, como muestra puede servir el famoso artículo publicado por J. L. L. Aranguren en Cuadernos Hispanoamericanos en 1953, que no es exactamente lo que parece. Algunas películas, como Los olvidados, de Luis Buñuel o Don Quijote, de Grigori Kozintsev, ayudan a establecer los diferentes contextos (cada destino fue, en realidad, un mundo). Ya que la exposición no se limita al inicio del exilio, sino que lo trata como una cuestión acabada, lo cual es un acierto, se echa de Archivo Espanol de Arte_369.indb 94 11/2/20 9:21 Archivo Español de Arte, vol. XCIII, n.º 369, pp. 91-96, enero-marzo 2020 ISSN: 0004-0428, eISSN: 1988-8511 CRÓNICAS 95 menos La guerre est finie, de Alain Resnais con guión, más o menos autobiográfico de Jorge Semprún, aunque sí puede verse Repérages, un libro de 1974 con fotografías del primero y texto del segundo). Los libros ocupan un importantísimo lugar en la muestra, es muy apreciable el potencial cultural que se manifiesta en esta sección; buena literatura, buen ensayo literario y científico; de España. Un enigma histórico, de Claudio Sánchez Albornoz, a Memoria de la melancolía, de María Teresa León, el visitante puede hacerse una idea de los amplísimos intereses intelectuales del colectivo, pero también puede apre- ciarse localidad y el cuidado esmerado de la edición. Revistas como la pionera España peregrina o la be- llísima Romance, entre otras muchas dan idea de una enorme inquietud cultural. En el ámbito de las artes plásticas, la exposición confirma tanto la pluralidad de tendencias del exilio como la necesidad de integrarlas en el maltrecho relato del arte español del siglo XX. Sólo podemos men- cionar algunas obras, los carteles exquisitos de Ramón Gaya para el Congreso de Intelectuales Antifascis- tas de Valencia, Chateau de Cardese y Espejo y flor, ambos de 1939, Sueño y mentira de Franco, de Pi- casso; tres retratos de Antonio Machado, uno de Miguel Prieto (algo fallido), el muy eficaz de Pablo Serrano y el del pintor malagueño que incluyó Camón Aznar en su monumental Picasso y el cubismo. No debe pasarse de largo la extraordinaria vitrina con esculturas de Apel-les Fenosa (espléndidos retratos de Dora Maar y Salvador Baccaris), Basltasar Lobo y Honorio García Condoy. La pesadilla de Argelés-sur- mer, un alucinante cuadro de Pierre Daura de 1939, un precioso dibujo de Juan Bonafé que representa una Vista de Montauban, último destino del presidente Azaña, obras de Alberto, de Maruja Mallo, de Remedios Varo, de Vela Zanetti (el boceto para el mural de la sede de la ONU), un elegantísimo bodegón de Mary Martín, entre otras muchas cosas. A modo de notas a margen, las exposiciones de Gonnord y Gaussot son buenos complementos. Merece la pena leer el catálogo, desde el texto oceánico de Juan Manuel Bonet, comisario de la mues- tra, hasta los otros cuarenta y nueve, que abordan asuntos muy concretos de forma minuciosa y proporcio- nan un buen estado de la cuestión. Ahora que acaban de cumplirse sesenta años de la desaparición prematura de Albert Camus, amigo de la mejor España (el término es de Max Aub, que tiene, naturalmente, un gran presencia en la exposición) puede que merezca la pena reproducir unas palabras suyas que constituyen un interesante marco para pen- sar nuestra historia reciente: “Fue en España donde mi generación aprendió que uno puede tener razón y ser derrotado, golpeado; que la fuerza puede destruir el alma y que, a veces, el coraje no tiene recompensa”1. JuliÁn Díaz sÁnCHez Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha goya. DiBuJos. “solo la voluntaD Me soBra” Madrid, Museo Nacional del Prado, 20-XI-2019 a 16-II-2020 El Museo del Prado ha elegido para la clausura de los actos conmemorativos del bicentenario de su fundación la organización de una gran exposición de los dibujos de Francisco de Goya debido a dos facto- res: la contemporaneidad de la obra del artista y la presencia de su pintura en el museo desde su inaugura- ción en 1819. Goya también ha sido protagonista durante la efeméride con la exposición temporal de La última comunión de San José de Calasanz (pintada en 1819), la presentación de la restauración del cartón para tapiz de La nevada y el homenaje de El Roto con la muestra No se puede mirar. José Manuel Matilla y Manuela Mena han comisariado la exposición “Solo la voluntad me sobra”, que se ha desarrollado en paralelo con el proyecto del catálogo razonado de dibujos de Goya, dirigido por ambos, y que el Prado con el patrocinio de la Fundación Botín lleva a cabo desde hace varios años. En 2018 se publicó el volumen II (1771-1792) de un total de cinco en curso de elaboración. La citada fundación in- auguró en junio de 2017 el Centro Botín de Santander, del arquitecto Renzo Piano, con la exposición Lige- reza y atrevimiento. Dibujos de Goya, que planteó una visión general del dibujo del aragonés a través de una selección de 81 dibujos del Prado. El catálogo firmado por su comisario, José Manuel Matilla (Mena, tam- bién comisaria, no escribió en el catálogo), adelantó parte de la investigación del catálogo razonado. 1 Félix Santos: “¿A veces el coraje no tiene recompensa?”, El País, 22 de febrero de 2019. Archivo Espanol de Arte_369.indb 95 11/2/20 9:21 Archivo Español de Arte, vol. XCIII, n.º 369, pp. 91-96, enero-marzo 2020 ISSN: 0004-0428, eISSN: 1988-8511 96 CRÓNICAS El sutil título, “Solo la voluntad me sobra”, es una cita tomada de una carta escrita por Goya, en 1825, dirigida a Joaquín María Ferrer. El pintor, casi octogenario, ha hecho durante (casi) toda su carrera su vo- luntad y deseo, al margen de las modas. Lo revelan sus dibujos que muestran una obra íntima (y libre), de extraordinaria calidad y complejo pensamiento. Dibujar le interesó a Goya durante toda su larga y prove- chosa vida. Así que los comisarios no han hallado mejor prólogo para esta exposición que el autorretrato dibujado (1796) del Metropolitan de Nueva York que muestra a Goya (cat. 1) en el papel del genio creador: el cabello despeinado, el ceño fruncido y una ‘condecoración’ imaginaria sobre el pecho con su apellido. El Prado ha reunido 337 obras (240 propias), lo que supone alrededor de un tercio de la producción total de dibujo conocida de Goya, un hito que será difícil se repita en mucho tiempo, dada la fragilidad de este tipo de obras. La estructura de esta muestra antológica y ejemplar del Prado es compleja, y se desarrolla por dos líneas argumentales solidarias que interactúan. La primera describe cronológicamente la producción de Goya, desde los dibujos más antiguos referidos a la preparación de sus primeras obras pictóricas importantes y el Cuaderno italiano hasta los Cuadernos de Burdeos, pasando por los Sueños, los Caprichos, etcétera. Tam- bién se recoge el valor de los dibujos que acompañan ciertas cartas de Goya dirigidas a Zapater y, en el caso de las series de grabados, se expone además una estampa característica de cada una. La segunda línea posee contenido temático y repasa asuntos elegidos por los comisarios y que estiman cardinales en la in- terpretación del artista: tres “tópicos goyescos” (majas, brujas y toros) y ciertas ideas presentes y recurren- tes en los dibujos acerca de la violencia (y especialmente contra la mujer), los peligros de la multitud o la vejez, que cierra la exposición. Un ámbito especial y único lo forma la presentación ordenada de los 120 dibujos propiedad del Prado (de un total de 126 conocidos) del Cuaderno C (1808-1814), que enseña no solo lo que a Goya interesa del mundo en el que vive sino la evolución técnica de su dibujo. En el centro, una vitrina contiene el álbum vacío, en cuyas hojas, Javier Goya pegó los dibujos que, restaurados, se pueden contemplar enmarcados en las paredes. El cambio de denominación de los álbumes por cuadernos es otra importante novedad de la exposición que trasciende lo meramente léxico: insiste en la apreciación crítica de los cuadernos de dibujo de los artistas españoles que el Prado inició con la adquisición del Cua- derno italiano de Goya en 1993. La museografía novedosa de esta exposición (del arquitecto Juan Alberto García de Cubas) facilita la doble lectura de su discurso. Las salas A y B del Edificio Jerónimos han vestido sus paredes de blanco (como en la exposición del Centro de Botín en 2017) que reflejan y difunden la luz y ofrecen la sensación de una diáfana luminosidad (como una metáfora de la Ilustración y del Siglo de las Luces que representa Goya) aun cuando cumplen con el protocolo de un nivel de iluminación inferior a 40º lux. Una gráfica clara y de grandes proporciones ayuda al visitante a no perderse en los numerosos ámbitos creados en el recorrido. Se aprovecha al máximo la capacidad de las salas para mostrar más de trescientos dibujos, una parte de ellos expuestos por ambas caras, y que se cierra con el Cuaderno C dispuesto en centro del lucer- nario de Jerónimos. La exposición posee un bien escrito y diseñado catálogo a cargo de Matilla y Mena. Como se dispondrá en el futuro del razonado completo, los autores han preferido producir una obra que aúna divulgación y rigor académico. riCarDo Centellas salaMero Diputación Provincial de Zaragoza Archivo Espanol de Arte_369.indb 96 11/2/20 9:21 
work_wyiy3rj7jjcv3jf2ttvyjkn7gm	----	ISSN 2533-2899 3 / 2018 165https://doi.org/10.26375/disegno.3.2018.16 Architecture: History and Representation. Designing an Interactive Athlas. Proceedings and Communication Alberto Grijalba Bengoetxea, Julio Grijalba Bengoetxea Abstract Nowadays a qualitative leap is found in graphic production, a graphic discourse which is encouraged by new technologies and re- production systems. There is a change in the visual grammars and we find a hyperinflation of the spreading of the new proposals in the new Information society. There is a need to construct a graphic and visual discourse on the History of Architecture. We finf thata while postmodernsociety does not believe in a big history discourse, especially in Architecture; contemporary media demand for it, as Lyotard pointed out, in this commoditized society. Time has arrived to reflect on the capabilities new technologies and communi- cation hold. We pretend to analyze thegraphic documentary as a language and as an effective mean to express and communicate Architecture History in the last half of the XX century, when different graphic production strategies were used. The documentary research, identification and cataloguing of the graphical material follow the production of Modern Architecture Atlas that consists of partial maps. This would be an interactive map suitable to be consulted from a different range of fields and categories; an Athlas capable to compare architects, art movements and architecture schools. Keywords: Athlas, Technology, Communication, Representation, Information. Introduction Once advanced XXI century, over the equator of the se- cond decade, the question around a metanarrative about the History of Modern Architecture as an essential vehi- cle to its understanding and communication is still pen- ding. Nowadays an outline of what could be considered as the state of the art is still incomplete, we find it broken and disperse, probably due to two simultaneous factors. The first one is related to the capability to put documen- tary in order, its analysis and read, attending to visual cul- ture and current graphic discourse. Parallelly, we have the new information technologies, the so known Big Data’s capability and its own roles for visual communication, as developed by the Architecture of information AI [Wur- man, Bradford 1996]. The second of the factors is the inexistence of a Visual Architecture History of the 20th century as a catalyst for data. This lack may be due to the impossibility of putting together a unitary story about drawing according to the great story of the rise of the Modern Movement, as poin- ted out by professor Carlos Montes [Montes Serrano 2010, pp. 44-51]. Great story understood as the polyhe- drically simplified interpretation of a complex reality, so- mehow idealised, but comprehensible by generality, as defined Lyotard. The complexity of treating the Information together with the disbelief of metanarratives in a postmodern world, are the star ting points of this investigationt. We assume the difficulty to create a global narrative in a hyper-communi- 3 / 2018 166 cated and over-informed society, in which the econmy of means and the economy of visual language in this regard are evident. Communicating turns into a challenge. We face a reality in which you can know the whole, but there is always the chance of a par tial discourse, so the narrative can be interrupted and altered. This star ting point is contradictory with the current need of studies about the old Great Narratives. In recent time research and publications on new Ar t and architecture standars thrive. Editorial compilations and gathering in re- search works and diffusion of its conclusions can be seen in publications such as: 100 Years of architectural drawing, 100 houses for 100 architects, 1001 paintings you must see…..1001 films…1001 books…1001… This contra- diction is, to a high degree, due to the incapability that theoretical criticism holds to communicate when facing the society need for a practical knowledge. Even if it is only to contribute to the big communication networks, knowledge is what we need, what we seek for. All this pro- ves the discourse’s commodity character [Lyotard 1987]. Everything is created to be consumed, and everything is communicated to be desired. Fig. 1. Arquitectura Española 1971-92 [Baldellou, Capitel 1995]. Fig. 2. Alejandro Zaera-Polo, Guillermo Fernández Abascal, Brújula política de la arquitectura global, 2016 [Zaera-Polo, Fernández Abascal 2016, p. 254]. 3 / 2018 167 Indeed, the contradiction is evident; we currently find a qualitative gap in graphic production. A graphic discourse that helped by new technologies and new reproduction systems finds itself in a constant development and evolu- tion. At the same time that this change in the grammatic visuals [Marchán 1990] occurs, we find a hyperinflation of the diffusion of new proposals. At the same time our ways of interpreting and knowing reality is changing. On one side, nowadays we have the possibility to find any information or knowledge due to its diffusion both in paper and vir tual publications. Never was this much knowledge within the reach of so many. But on the other, facing the reality of the vast aspect of knowledge, we need an analytic and ordering system that simplifies it. A document that allows us to quickly access information, place and locate it, attending to cer tain ca- tegories that allows us to create an essential map of its relations. Definitely, we need an Atlas. The same as at the beginning of the 20th Century, Arntz’s Isotypes and Pictograms, elaborated for Neurath, proved to be an effective mechanism to share knowledge. Jacques Ber- tin established inthe sixties the Graphic Semioligy in order to explain territory. It was not only about a graphic repre- sentation but, for him, it most of the times implied a strong responsability on what and how to perform. A visualization between the quantitative and qualitative [Bertin 1973]. After these first experiences, Richard S. Wurman was the one to code the Information presentation systems under the name of Information Architecture, IA. It is at this point were we stand; information is a group of images and texts categorised around the principle of: Location, Alphabet, Time, Category and Hyerarchy LATCH. Research and development Our approach to the research is to create an Athlas of Mo- dern Architecture of the 20th Century consisting of several par tial maps that follow the proposed categories: archi- tects, ar t movements, their relationships and chronology. To achieve our purpose we are analyzing the par tial maps created in the late years of the 20th Century toghetehr with the new technologies, the new graphic narrative and their application to the act of communicate and inform about History of Architecture. There were many attempts to generate a map of the evo- lution of Architecture in the 20th Century. Fig. 3. Italo Rota, Centrotrenta anni d´Architettura. Venti anni di altro, 1979 [Rota 1979, p. 95]. 3 / 2018 168 Some tend to be similar to the famous London Metro map by Beck in 1933, where the most impor tant are re- lations, crosses and colours. Others, like the ones from Charles Jenks, are multiform masses that relate architects, tendencies and data, placed in a strict temporal frame, but where only names and texts are referenced (1980). The diagram from Professor Capitel about Spanish Architectu- re on the last third of the 20th century [Capitel 1995] discards time and places the diverse architects depending on hierarchy and the proposed categories. So does Italo Rota in his Centrotrenta anni d´Architettura. Venti anni di altro [Rota 1979] where he draws the tree of Architecture that emerges poetically over history’s natural soil. From the branches, depending on its position and size, leaves with names of architects are born, which are shaded by small suspended decorations where the unclassified place their singularity. All of them are an attempt to explain the complex in a simple way, to understand, paraphrasing Alber t Einstein. Time frame The time frame in which we pursue to realize this analysis of the drawing as graphic language and effective means of expression distinctive of the History of Architecture, focalises in the second half of the 20th Century. This pe- riod is subsequent to the Modern Age of the first half of the century, where diverse graphic production strategies were used. The context in which this work and investigation are pla- ced has a very clear beggining with the CIAM that has place in Dubrovnik (1956), where the TEAM X is built and an also outstanding end with the 10th International Architecture Biennale in Venice (2006), where internatio- nal architects such as Norman Foster, Zaha Hadid, Richard Rogers etc. concur under the title Cities, Architecture and Society. This time frame has been chosen because it results intere- sting to observe the gap produced in the Architecture of the 50s; how the second half of 20th century star ted with a clear predominance of the Modern Movement but with the years, and especially from the 60s, its bases star ted to be questioned. It is like that the great diversity of propo- sals of all sor ts of styles appears, which makes of the cho- sen time one of great interest for analyzing the different movements. The architectural panorama referring to the Fig. 4. Charles Jencks, Arbol Genealogico, 1980. 3 / 2018 169 Fig. 5. Urtzi Grau, Daniel López-Pérez, Publications in Architectura of OMA/AMO, 2007. graphic discourse finds its way through the use of diverse formulas, the management of a more complex and sophi- sticated technology, getting to the use of informatics as the key tool, showing a special interest for the problems on the fields of urbanism, sociology and economy. In that sense, it is key to star t the period with Dubrovnik’s CIAM, where categories as mobility, cluster, growth and change, urbanism and habitat are proposed. The CIAM (Congres Internationaux d’Architecture Mo- derne) were a very impor tant piece on the development of 20th century Architecture (1928-1956) and on the theory and practice of urbanism. The Modern Movement appeared as a result of 19th century rationalism and the need of a social development, making architects’ worry about style move onto themes such as method, organisa- tion and technology. Unlike in the past, Modern Movement architects develo- ped, as a working tool, the need to create communication strategies to put their architecture in the map. Well known are the publications Domus, Stijl, L’Esprit Nouveau, Bau- meister, A.C. in Spain. All of them didactic, revolutionary and clearly propagandistic [Frampton 2000]. The dissolution of the CIAM was obvious when the high number of members, over three thousand, made the discussion about any topic complicated, generalist and diffuse. It was then that the TEAM X was left in charge [Giedion 2009]. Some movements make then their way whose characteristics and renewing ideas turn the com- parison among them the key to understand this assor ted epoque. From the new Brutalism to Ecologism we have selected the Team X, the Metabolists, Archigram, Archizo- om, Superstudio, High-tech, Postmodernity and Decon- structivism [Benevolo 1987]. Several architects have also been included, who despite not being considered inside any movement should be ta- ken into consideration for their impor tance in the deve- lopment of the Architecture of the second half of 20th century. Not only references to architecture are made, but to understand the Athlas in its complexity other ways of ar tistic expression must be included, together with some relevant exhibitions and competitions that give as a result a wider comparative spectrum [Grijalba Bengoe- txea, Ubeda Blanco 2012]. The end of the period coincides with the X International Architecture Venice Biennale (2006), Bienal that for the first time regards the problem of urban development and its planning, continuing with the worry for urbanism that, as mentioned before, occupied the architects of the 20th century. The topic cities, architecture and society focused the development of this Biennale in urban planning from the social dimension of the city, the relation between ar- chitecture and society. The comparison with the chosen date as a star ting point for creating the map: the CIAM from Dubrovnik and the architects of the TEAM X in inevitable to obtain a better communication efficiency. Like this, beginning and end of this time frame are cho- sen because of their 50 years difference (1956-2006) and because of their similarities on reflecting similar worries related to architecture and urbanism by the outstanding figures on those moments. 3 / 2018 170 Fig. 6. Leah Dickerman, Masha Chlenova, Exposición Inventing Abstraction: 1910-1925, MoMA, 2013. Interactive Virtual Map, general connections and example of particular links of Pablo Picasso: <www.moma.org> (accessed 2018, June 10). Maps / Athlas. From the diverse to the particular The development of the investigation comes from a do- cumental search, a Big Data that enters a process of ack- nowledging and cataloguing on a first phase. We chose a series of examples from that period with all their graphic material for an ulterior analysis, whose final objective is the making of an Atlas: an interactive map of space-time. It is impor tant to emphasize that the gathered documen- tation needs to be first filtered and evaluated because what interests us is to process it in order to turn it into a graphic representation that can be immediately visua- lized. Since there has never been a similar study to fol- low, we have selected the pieces of work according to several criteria: their inclusion in History of Architecture manuals, the number of referred times in bibliographical resources, and finally their presence in the indexes of ar- chitecture magazines published within the studied period, all these included in the bibliography [Cur tis 1986; Gösel, Leuthäuser 1991; Hitchcock 1981; Jenks 200; Rossi 1986]. The aim is to create a document that analyzes diversity using an accessible and userfriendly communication tool. A mixture of a written and visual communication [Berlin 1977]. In contrast to the nice only visual icon used by Otto Neurat and Nigel Holmes [Holmes 1991] and to Tufte’s complex combination of text and image [Tufte 1983], we have opted for a halfway conciliatory intermediate. In the last decades the graphic discourse has emerged even stronger, encouraged by new advances in repro- duction systems and new technologies that contribute to a new reading of information in this digital era, when the use of new gadgets influence our way of receiving data and of communicating in a very visual way. A previous approach to the topic consists in a search of examples of maps related to architecture and ar ts throu- gh time. Inside the frame of architecture we find various examples. Charles Jencksì’s paradigmatic genealogical tree, shown in the image, analyzes different architecture mo- vements during a tuenty-year period. He places different tags with names of architects and architectural pieces of work. It is interesting to observe the disposition of the information in relation to the time location, the category and the hierarchy: according to the impor tance of the pie- ce of work the tags are bigger and depending on the con- cepts they are related to, they appear closer to each other. This example uses, however, only keywords and names, it lack images that transmit the information in a more direct and visual way. This is a map that depends on the viewer to be understood, it depends on their knowledge. It is an initiatic diagram. The next example includes one of the aspects relative to the visualization by diagrams and images that focus on a very effective way on what they want to transmit. It is the case of the Production of the Architecture Publications by OMA/AMO. Along a chronologic axis, images of diverse magazines, media, etc. are placed. All these graphics are suppor ted by extra information at the bottom of each column. Oc- casionally comic balloons appear and the most impor tant events unfold as an explosion. Under the apparent chaos a magnificent order is hidden, where all the studio publi- 3 / 2018 171 cations are stacked in organized growing order through time. It is a complete map. In 2013 MoMA created a map towards which a fesher approach and reading are possible its interactive character. It lacks a physical format; you can only acces it online. It depends on new information technologies. The apparent cobweb set up is disturbing and at the same time inviting, it comprises a game and a change in shape, something necessary in new communication systems. Names of ar tists show up in different colors depending on their relevance, and once you zoom over them you can observe their relationship with other authors and at the same time a technical file opens with information about their lives and work.The map itself does not contain images, but the names of the ar tists. It is once you get deeper into a par ticular author that you can access more information on his work. This map adds a fundamental aspect towards the configuration of our own map, the interactive par t. The visual process that accompanies the acquisition of new knowledge has changed to be dynamic; an online connection system, accessible across the globe. It is a new way to code, order and communicate. An interactive Athlas.The outcome Through these examples we analyzed the ordering prin- ciples to consider when designing the new Atlas. It is im- por tant that the great amount of documentation we have at the begining becomes into quality information, which means that the Big Data is includeds and compressed in a graphic representation that incorporates not only tags but images and connections among the tags. At the same time, it must facilitate the display of more information zooming on some elements and allowing that different windows of information are included within the document. In this interactive space-time map, affinities and differen- ces along the timeand even more formal aspects, both plastic and graphic should be fit to be compared. The fields of study presented are connected by itineraries and categories depending on the established hierarchy: 100 architects, 10 architectonic movements, 50 pieces of ar t, 10 ar tistic movements, expositions, etc… As par t of the interactive process, its itineraries should be activated or turned off enabling us to meassure the impact and their relationships depending on the needs of our search or study. Each category is composed by files with information related to pieces of work, architects, exhibitions, etc, and its codification referring to the ideas of the movement in which it is included. An open Athlas The creation of our Atlas, understood as a compendium and as a complex addition of diverse maps, star ted by arranging the information in written and using. Then, once the images referring to the chosen graphical examples had been collected, we have designed a digital map and finally we introduced the playful- dynamic component to facilitate a better understanding of the existing relation- ship among the diverse items. To make the most of this interactivity, we need an open Athlas. An open working field suitable to be expanded ans filled in with new tags, images, connections, etc. It should not be considered as a unique graphic representation; on the contrary, and due to the itineraries and layers that can be activated or turned off, various maps are prone to be created depending on the characteristics to be compared or the interest of the study. Our Atlas seeks for a contemporary view of the graphic discourse; one that gives access to knowledge through an interactive tool that allows us to make a comparative and temporary study. It is a compilation of diverse par tial knowledge maps that, in their continuity, interpret a reality. The final objective is the creation of a tool that allows us to make a comparative study through the exemplification of architects and works. As an example of great communication, we musy have a look at the very interesting map created by the first director of MoMA, Affred H. Barr, Cubism and Abstract Art [Barr 1936]. In 2013 the museum decided to revise the leyendary exhibition under the title: Inventing Abstraction 1910-1925 [Dickerman, Chlenova 2013]. The well known poster, condensing knowledge and adver tising, was crea- ted a dynamic model and completed with personalized files of movemenets and ar tists. The final result is a clear, simultaneous, interactive model.This is a remainder and an information tool that brings together accuracy and play with strict information. It recreates the old proceedings using modern techniques, a good model. In our Athlas of Modern Architecture, when we compare the informative graphics to the text diagrams the result is surprisingly effective. The facts are orderly presented and 3 / 2018 172 Fig. 7. Alberto Grijalba, Julio Grijalba, Carolina Heising, Working holographic map, 2014. 3 / 2018 173 Fig. 8. Proposed map. 3 / 2018 174 the connexions are easy to understand. In the digital era links are increasingly used to communicate; blocks of text that combined with graphics, photographs and diagrams to create a story, give an explanation or explore our wor- ld [Rendgen, Wiedemann 2015]. Probably working on an Athlas about the graphic discour- se is a conclusion itself: the process of working on the proposals, the analysis, the choice of the documents and their transformation from the first holographic sketches to a digital application as a result. Despite the trial for aseptic objectivity with which the process has been taken there is always some subjetivity. From every choice a positioning on History of Architectureand its representation in the last five decades is taken [Cortés, Moneo 1976]. The treatment of visual information has become an objecti- ve in itself; clarifying and analyzing the contents; being awa- re of hierarchy, association and position of the elements in order to provide the most possible information at just a glimpse [Holmes 1991]. It is not, then, a document only seeking for compositional-graphical excellence, but an ef- fective as a narrative of the knowledge in a graphic di- scourse one too. It is an Athlas capable of communicating a comples subject in a clear way [Alcalde 2015]. Image, text and simultaneity. Epilogue The humongous work has been limited to 100 architects, 10 architectural movements, 50 pieces of ar t and 10 ar- tistic movements in pursuit of a clearer communication. But, despite the need for a limitation, obviously needed in any investigation work though efficient, it has proved to be in some cases par tial and exiguous, hence its open character. Information has been arranged following three criteria: time; relashionship and interrelationships within the different movements and cathegories and the critique impact. It is a map that can be completed and clarified, eventhoug not any change can be accepted in favour of an accurate and clear communication. More graphic docu- mentation does not necessarily mean a better transmition of knowledge or a better clarityas we have realized during the process. Efficient graphic communication implies choi- ces and hierarchization [Tufte 1997]. This ‘Athlas of Architecture’ does not pretend to reduce knowledge to an image on relation to its position in time. Our intention is not to trivialize its content, to achieve a simplistic communication. It is not a reductionistis sketch Fig. 9. Alfred H. Barr, Cubism and Abstract Art, exhibition MoMa, 1936, April-March [Barr 1936] 3 / 2018 175 that pretends to be a superficial analysis reducing know- ledge. On the contrary, wee tried to avoid the common disfunction of the Theory of Big Data Communication: fast read but little knowledge. With its interactive capaci- ty, which enables modification of the search mechanisms and amplification of information with emerging windows of complementary documentation, it is not only a map to orientate but an Athlas of knowledge, which also ma- kes the addition of as many maps as we will be able to elaborate possible. All this is achieved using technological mechanisms of communication accessible nowadays. Simultaneity is finally the last contribution. The new Athlas can interact in several windows at the same time, even use several registers making good use of the moder fe- atures new technologies offer ; the multi-window and multi-taks. It is possible to view the general map at the same time that we activate a par ticular line of affinities, from the general map we can open an emergingwindow about an author, a work or an architer tural movement. It is as flexible and as dense a tool of knowledge as the user needs. Acknowledgments This contribution is par t of the line of experimentatio if the Research Group’s Recognized by UVA GIRDAC. It was financed by the Ministry of Education, Culture and Spor t, through a grant of Collaboration, under our direction, by Carolina Heisig. Fig. 10. Proposed Map. Samples of emergingwindow. 3 / 2018 176 Authors Alberto Grijalba Bengoetxea, ETSAVA, University of Valladolid, agrijalb@arq.uva.es. Julio Grijalba Bengoetxea, ETSAVA, University of Valladolid, jgrijalb@arq.uva.es. References List Alcalde, I. (2015). Visualización de la Información. De los datos al conocimiento. Barcelona: UOC. Barr, A.H. (1936). Cubism and Abstract Art. New York: The Spiral Press. Bertin, J. (1973). Semiologie Graphique. Paris: Mourton. Bertin, J. (1967). La graphique et le traitement graphique de l’information. Paris: Mouton, Gauthiers-Villars. Benevolo, L. (1987). Historia de la arquitectura moderna. Barcelona: GG. Baldellou, M.A., Capitel, A. (1995). Arquitectura Española 1971-92. Summa Artis, vol. XL. Madrid: Espasa. Cortés, J.A., Moneo, J.R. (1976). Comentarios sobre dibujos de 20 arquitectos actuales. Barcelona: ETSAB. Curtis, W.J.R. (1986). La arquitectura moderna desde 1900. Madrid: Hermann Blume. Dickerman, L., Chlenova, M. (2013). Inventing Abstraction, 1910-1925. MoMA, December 23, 2012-April 15, 2013: <www.moma.org/calendar/ exhibitions/1273> (accessed 2018, June 10). Frampton, K. (2000). Historia crítica de la arquitectura moderna. Barcelona: GG. Giedion, S. (2009). Espacio, tiempo y arquitectura. Barcelona: Reverte. Gössel, P., Leuthäuser, G. (1991). Arquitectura del siglo XX. Colonia: Taschen. Grijalba Bengoetxea, A., Ubeda Blanco, M. (eds.). (2012). Los concursos de arquitectura. 14 Congreso Internacional de Expresión Gráfica Arquitectónica, Oporto 31 de mayo-2 de junio 2012. Valladolid: Universidad de Valladolid, Servicio de Publicaciones. Hitchcock, H. R. (1981). Arquitectura de los siglos XIX y XX. Madrid: Cátedra. Holmes, N. (1991). Designer’s Guide to Creating Charts and Diagrams. NY: Watson-Guptill Pubns. Jenks, C. (2002). The new paradigm in architecture: the language of Post- modernism. New Haven: Yale University Press. Jenks, C. (1980). El lenguaje de la arquitectura posmoderna. Barcelona: GG. Koolhaas, R. (2007). OMA-Rem Koolhaas: 1987-1993. In El Croquis 134-135. Lyotard, J-F. (1987). La condición posmoderna: informe sobre el saber. Madrid: Ediciones Cátedra. Marchán, S. (1990). Del arte objetual al arte del objeto. Madrid: Akal. Montes Serrano, C. (2010). Un posible Canon de los dibujos de arquitectura. In EGA Expresión Gráfica Arquitectónica, n. 16, pp. 44-51. Rendgen, S., Wiedemann, J. (2015). Information Graphics. Taschen: Colonia. Rota, I. (1979). Ma gli architetti dormono tutti… In Domus, n. 764, pp. 94-95. Rossi, A. (1986). La Arquitectura de la Ciudad. Barcelona: GG. Tufte, E.R. (1983). The Visual display of quantitative information. Cheshire: Graphics Press. Tufte, E.R. (1997). Visual Explanations: images and Quantities, Evidence and Narrative. Cheshire, CT: Graphics Press. Wurman, R.S. (1990). Information anxiety: what to do when information doesn’t tell you what you need to know. New York: Bantam. Wurman, R.S., Bradford, P. (1996). Information Architects. Zurich: Graphis Press. Zaera-Polo, A., Fernández-Abascal, G. (2016). Brújula política de la arquitectura global. In El Croquis, 187, pp. 252-287. 
work_wzdtbyuk75cnvaacbixfx5tb2y	----	Ambrosio – Cubism and the Fourth Dimension To appear in Interdisciplinary Science Reviews, vol. 41, no. 2-3 Please cite from the published version 1 Cubism and the Fourth Dimension Chiara Ambrosio Department of Science and Technology Studies UCL c.ambrosio@ucl.ac.uk Abstract: This article revisits the historiography of Cubism and mathematics, with a particular focus on Pablo Picasso’s uses of geometry at the end of the first decade of the twentieth century. In particular, I consider the artistic appropriation of the concept of the fourth dimension, and its pictorial uses as a conduit for a conceptual reformulation of pictorial space. I investigate Picasso’s distinctive adoption of this geometric framework in relation to one of his 1909 experiments across painting and photography, and advocate the possibility of drawing novel historiographical lessons from Picasso’s work - lessons that bring the historiography of Cubism in a closer dialogue with recent debates in the historiography of science. I conclude with an appeal to consider the continued relevance of this past experiment in art and science when assessing the contemporary drive toward art-science collaborations, and use the case of Cubism and the fourth dimension as a springboard for a critical reflection on the future directions of art-science collaborations. Keywords: Cubism, Fourth Dimension, Art and Science, Interdisciplinarity Introduction “The new painters do not claim to be geometricians any more than painters of the past did. But it is true that geometry is to the plastic arts what grammar is to the art of the writer. Nowadays scientists have gone beyond the three dimensions of Euclidean geometry. Painters have been led quite naturally, and one might say intuitively, to take an interest in the possibilities for measuring space which in the modern artist’s studio were simply and collectively referred to as the fourth dimension” (Apollinaire [1913] 2004, 15). It is with an appeal to the role of geometry in painting that the poet, playwright and art critic Guillaume Apollinaire opens the third chapter of his 1913 book, Les Peintres Cubistes [The Cubist Painters]. A central source in the history of art criticism, Apollinaire’s text contains an invitation to connect Cubism with mathematical ideas “which in the artist’s studio were simply and collectively referred to as the fourth dimension”. In pointing to the well-established trope of geometry as providing a visual language for the plastic arts, Apollinaire here evokes a newly discovered (at least by artists) mathematical concept that captivated the attention of painters especially in the first two decades of the twentieth century. The fact that, by 1913, Apollinaire could refer to the fourth dimension without delving into further qualifications suggests that he expected his audience to be mailto:c.ambrosio@ucl.ac.uk Ambrosio – Cubism and the Fourth Dimension To appear in Interdisciplinary Science Reviews, vol. 41, no. 2-3 Please cite from the published version 2 relatively familiar with it – and indeed, as I will show in the course of this article, the historical record suggests that this was very much the case. That a technical, mathematical notion was appropriated and used by artists at the beginning of the twentieth century is no longer an astonishing discovery, at least for art historians. The past decades have seen the emergence of a lively body of literature offering conjectures on how the concept of the fourth dimension, and the visual sources associated to it, participated in the reformulation of pictorial space that characterised Cubism in particular, as well as a range of subsequent avant-garde movements. 1 In this article I want to revisit the historiography of Cubism and mathematics and argue for the continuing relevance of the debates it generated. My aim is twofold. On one hand, I want to explore the historiographical lessons and tensions emerging from the scholarly study of the influence of concepts such as the fourth dimension on artistic practice at the beginning of the twentieth century. As will become evident in the course of my discussion, a primary concern for art historians has been to move away from celebratory accounts of Cubism in which the figure of Pablo Picasso occupies centre stage, at the expenses of the “most intellectual” strands of the movement such as the Puteaux Group. While I acknowledge this shift of emphasis as crucial for the development of a new historiography of Cubism, I propose that the role and influence on mathematical ideas on Picasso’s own artistic production can be seen as complementary to the study of how later Cubists such as Albert Gleizes and Jean Metzinger appropriated mathematical ideas and turned them into the very philosophy underpinning their pictorial reformulation of space. More specifically, I will propose that geometry, far from reinforcing the rhetoric surrounding Picasso as the unquestioned ‘master’ of twentieth century painting, should be interpreted as part of a process of re-contextualisation of the early stages of Cubism. I will suggest that this process of re- contextualisation can be framed in ways that share important points of contact with historiographical trends emerging in the history of science. On the other hand, and perhaps at a more theoretical level, my aim is to place the historical connection between Cubism and mathematics in dialogue with the present revival of interest in the relationship between art and science. Apollinaire here is my cue. The quote I used to open my discussion begins with a cautious disclaimer: “The new painters do not claim to be geometricians”. Why would Apollinaire deem it important to specify that the appropriation of geometric concepts by artists did not entail a conflation of painting and mathematics? Chapter three of Les Peintres Cubistes does give us a vague indication of what might have motivated Apollinaire’s disclaimer: “The new painters”, he states only a few lines earlier, “have been roundly criticised for their interest in geometry” (Ibid.). Here I am not particularly interested in an exegetic study of who might have advanced such criticisms. Instead, I want to show that Apollinaire’s concerns resonate with tensions and preoccupations that are still very much alive, especially in the rhetoric surrounding contemporary art-science collaborations: what kinds of expectations should be placed on the current demand to foster interdisciplinary interactions between artists and scientists? What is distinctive of the outputs of such interactions, and why should we consider those outputs desirable? 1 This line of inquiry was first explored by the art historian Linda Dalrymple Henderson, whose work I discuss extensively below. Ambrosio – Cubism and the Fourth Dimension To appear in Interdisciplinary Science Reviews, vol. 41, no. 2-3 Please cite from the published version 3 In revisiting the history and historiography of Cubism and mathematics, I want to suggest that the most productive way to tackle these current questions is with an eye to the past. The conceptual approach I pursue in this article owes a great deal to Andrew Barry and Georgina Born’s (2013) recent work on interdisciplinarity, and particularly their critical analysis of ‘art-science’ – an emergent interdisciplinary field spanning an array of practices at the interface between art, science and technology. Drawing on contemporary experiments, Barry and Born propose that this kind of interdisciplinary collaboration does not – and should not – serve only the instrumental purpose of providing new audiences for science, nor should it be merely construed as a simplified method to illustrate and celebrate scientific achievements. Instead, they propose that the relation between science and the arts is best conceived as a kind of public experiment, “a type of public knowledge…that is in principle unfinished, in process and dialogical, developing through the reflexive relations between participants who are both the subjects and objects of knowledge (ibid. 263, emphasis in the original). The idea of public experiment follows directly from Barry and Born’s broader view of interdisciplinarity as the manifestation of a logic of ontology, “an array of efforts to transform the practice of research and training, inside and outside the academy, leading to the generation of novel problems, objects and relations of research, as well as interdisciplinary subjectivities” (ibid., 18). Barry and Born’s claims about the transformative nature of art and science collaborations forms the conceptual background to my investigation of the relations between Cubism and mathematics, and underpins my arguments about the distinctive kind of knowledge emerging from this interaction. In focusing on contemporary case studies, however, Barry and Born run the risk of overplaying the distinctiveness of ‘art-science’ collaborations as an invention of our time. In what follows, my aim is to investigate whether it may be instead the case that artists and scientists have been involved in the kind of generative, transformative experimentation that Barry and Born identify with a logic of ontology all along. Thus, revisiting the relations between Cubism and mathematics as an episode in the much longer history of art and science can serve the purpose of contextualising current practices and place them in dialogue with a much longer tradition, a tradition where both disciplines have served as each other’s critical counterpart in a sustained and still enlightening way. The Historiography on the Fourth Dimension in Art The scholarly literature on the relations between Cubist art and science dates at least as far back as the 1980s. A key source is Stephen Kern’s monumental The Culture of Time and Space 1880- 1918 (1983), a sweeping account of how changes in culture (broadly construed, as comprising emerging technologies and the natural and human sciences, as well as literature, philosophy, architecture and the visual and performing arts) created new modes of experiencing and understanding the two fundamental phenomenological categories of space and time. In a central chapter on “The Nature of Space”, Kern tentatively suggests that the Cubists’ rendering of multiple points of view might have had deeper roots in popular debates around the concept of the ‘fourth dimension’: “There was a popular interest in the fourth dimension in France at the time”, Kern maintains, citing Apollinaire’s writings on the subject, “which might have inspired the Cubists” (Kern Ambrosio – Cubism and the Fourth Dimension To appear in Interdisciplinary Science Reviews, vol. 41, no. 2-3 Please cite from the published version 4 [1983] 2003, 145). In drawing this connection, Kern refers to a seminal article by Linda Dalrymple Henderson, “A New Facet of Cubism: ‘The Fourth Dimension’ and ‘Non Euclidean Geometry’ Reinterpreted”, published in 1971 in The Art Quarterly. The article’s main claims appeared in an expanded version in Henderson’s 1983 book The Fourth Dimension and Non-Euclidean Geometry in Modern Art, now a standard reference in studies of the relations between modern art and the popularisation of n-dimensional geometries in the twentieth century. 2 Henderson’s pioneering work paved the way for a revival of scholarly interest in the historiography of modernism and science, a revival that reached its height in the early 2000s. 3 The concept of the fourth dimension in painting features in central reference texts in art history, such as Christopher Green’s Art in France (2000). “For many of those who found modernity in Cubist art”, Green explains, “that modernity was tied up in a quasi-scientific, quasi-philosophical view of the world which…went beyond observation and logic, so that in fact a major attraction of the notion of fourth dimension was its very resistance to representation” (Green 2000, 147). 4 From the perspective of the history of science, Arthur I. Miller’s Einstein, Picasso (2001) singles out the figure of Henri Poincaré as the common source for Cubism (via the insurance actuary Maurice Princet, to whom we shall return later) and relativity (in conjunction with Herman Minkowski’s four- dimensional representations of space-time). Far from tracing a direct relationship between Cubism and relativity, and in response to the literature that in previous decades had simply assumed such a relationship, 5 Miller’s ‘parallel biographies’ approach identifies Poincaré as the conceptual common denominator between Einstein and Picasso, the two main protagonists of his story. In doing this, Miller acknowledges Henderson’s original efforts to clarify that relativity only had an effect on art at a later stage, and certainly not on Cubist artists in the 1910s. It is now fairly established that the 2 Henderson’s book has recently appeared in a new edition with a revised and expanded introduction (Henderson 2013). I refer to the latest edition throughout this article. 3 Here I only focus on the literature on the fourth dimension. However, a much larger and now well- established literature extended the scope of Henderson’s original project to broader aspects of the relation between modernism and science. See for example Clarke and Henderson (2002), a collection of essays that examines the shifts and changes in modes of artistic and literary representation between the nineteenth and twentieth century. Parkinson (2008) offers a thorough overview of how Surrealist artists responded to, and adopted, themes and concepts from relativity and quantum physics. Brain (2002, 2008 and 2015) traces the origins of modernism in late nineteenth-century physiological aesthetics and the emergence of recording and graphic technologies. Holton, Galison and Schweber (2008) explore the legacy of Einstein in art and culture. On the front of artistic practice and computer visualisation, Robbin (2006) dissects the legacy of concepts of hyperspace in contemporary computational techniques, while Steingart (2014) explores the legacy of higher dimensions in the contemporary work of Thomas Banchoff. 4 While the conflation of Cubism and modernism is by no means straightforward, here Green offers an example of how Cubism has been interpreted as the vehicle of a particular conception of modernity. In referring to modernism I will adopt Green’s relatively flexible use of the terminology, but I also aim to tone down its most extreme connotations. If Cubism stands out as conveying a particular conception of modernity, it is, in my account, precisely through its capacity to relate in new ways to the nineteenth century. This aspect of my discussion will become clearer in the next section. 5 Henderson (2008, 2013) offers a thorough overview of how the concept of the fourth dimension in painting has been misleadingly interpreted with relativity. She identifies Gideon (1941) and Laporte (1949) as primarily responsible for seeking in Einstein’s 1905 special relativity “a means to validate new forms of artistic expression and to argue for their grounding into culture at large” (Henderson 2008, 101). Laporte’s line of argumentation has been also questioned by Holton (1996, esp. p. 131) and Miller (2002, 321 note 79). Ambrosio – Cubism and the Fourth Dimension To appear in Interdisciplinary Science Reviews, vol. 41, no. 2-3 Please cite from the published version 5 reception of relativity on artistic practice should be understood in relation to the popularity and visibility that Einstein obtained after Arthur Eddington’s famous 1919 eclipse expedition, which confirmed the prediction of the curvature of light. 6 This clarification is important because of the far too common association between the concept of the fourth dimension and time, understood primarily as the four-dimensional space-time continuum formulated by Hermann Minkowski’s in 1908. Even well established experts on Cubism, Henderson shows, fell into the dangerous trap of implying a direct relationship between Cubism and relativity precisely by interpreting the fourth dimension often invoked by Cubist artists as time. An example of this is Alfred Barr’s (1943) influential discussion of Picasso’s Cubist paintings, cited by Henderson as typical of the attitude that still occasionally characterises some accounts of the relations between Cubism and relativity: “This introduction of a time element into an art usually considered in terms of two- or three-dimensional space”, Barr states, “suggests some relationship to Einstein’s theory of relativity in which time is thought of mathematically as a fourth dimension” (Barr 1943, 31; see also Henderson 2013, 13). What Henderson crucially points out is that the fourth dimension invoked by Cubist artists at the beginning of the twentieth century was a “forgotten spatial fourth dimension” (Henderson 2013, 13), the roots of which lay in the late nineteenth-century preoccupation with unobservable phenomena, a preoccupation that had a continued impact on at least the first decade of the twentieth century. The context for this concern was the range of discoveries that pointed toward alternative conceptions of matter and space from the late 1890s onward. Along with J.J. Thomson’s identification of the electron, Ernest Rutherford’s work on radioactivity, Pierre and Marie Curie’s isolation of radioactive elements, and more broadly the strong anchoring of physical research in conceptions of the ether, Henderson singles out the discovery of X-Rays by Wilhelm Röntgen as a particularly powerful visual influence on the conceptualisation of alternative spatial dimensions. “X- Rays”, she claims, “paved the way for the artistic investigation of higher spatial realms in the years before World War I” (Henderson 1988, 326). 7 It was thus the spatial fourth dimension advocated by Edwin Abbott in Flatland (1884), the elusive but representable fourth dimension that Charles Howard Hinton aspired to visualise and teach in his A new Era of Thought (1888), and especially the highly visual representations of projections of hypersolids that would culminate in Esprit Pascal Jouffret’s 1903 Traité Élémentaire de Géométrie á Quatre Dimensions (Elementary Treatise of Geometry in Four Dimensions) which offered artists a well established medium to translate, visually, their efforts to push representation beyond the boundaries of directly observable phenomena. Henderson’s account exposes an illuminating paradox in Cubism, and modernism more broadly: that the most subversive aspect of these emerging art movements lay precisely in their conceptual continuity with the very traditions they aimed to reject. Thus, emphasizing the spatial concept of the fourth dimension artists adopted in the early twentieth century is a move of historiographical significance, in that it repositions and re-contextualises figures and movements that have traditionally been the object of a rather uncritical celebration of modernity, especially in the second half of the twentieth century. I shall return to this important point later. 6 See Henderson 2013, appendix A, Henderson 2008, and Miller 2002, esp. p.291, note 154. See also Parkinson (2008). 7 This line of investigation has been now extended well beyond painting: see for example Beatriz Colomina’s work on X-Rays as the guiding metaphor and logic for architectural transparency (Colomina 2009). Ambrosio – Cubism and the Fourth Dimension To appear in Interdisciplinary Science Reviews, vol. 41, no. 2-3 Please cite from the published version 6 The Forgotten, ‘Spatial’ Fourth Dimension How exactly did this spatial concept of the fourth dimension enter the artistic imaginary? The literature on the fourth dimension began gaining public visibility in Paris in the first decade of the twentieth century. Intellectual debates on the subject populated the pages of specialised journals such as the Revue Philosophique and the Revue de Métaphysique et de Morale since at least the late 1880s, where the concept of the fourth dimension was often discussed within the broader context of philosophical and mathematical controversies around the status of geometrical axioms and the possibility of consistent non-Euclidean geometries. This broader aspect of the debate had a much longer history, and it came to an important turn in the 1820s, when Karl Friedrich Gauss advocated explicitly the possibility of geometries alternative to Euclid. The principles of a consistent non-Euclidean geometry were formalised in the late 1820s by Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky, and by Bernhard Riemann in the late 1850s. What Lobachevsky and Riemann’s approach to non-Euclidean geometry had in common was the hypothesis that space might be curved – that it might have constant negative curvature in Lobachevsky’s case, positive curvature in Riemann’s case. Lobachevsky and Riemann’s conceptions of space challenged Euclid’s famous fifth ‘parallels’ postulate, the self-evidence of which had been questioned even by Euclid’s early commentators. 8 Thus, in Lobachevsky’s hyperbolic space, straight lines are replaced with arcs of a hyperbole, so that through a point external to a given line there are at least two parallel lines to the given one. In Riemann’s spherical geometry, straight lines are replaced with great circles which will all intersect at the poles. Riemann’s spherical geometry contained the additional implication that there may be spaces or surfaces where curvature may vary, and this latter implication became particularly appealing to artists such as the Cubists, and later to Marcel Duchamp (Henderson 2013, 103). Variable curvature negated the principle of the indeformability of objects (a principle which was implicit in Euclidean geometry), so that figures moved on a surface with variable curvature would undergo changes in shape and properties. This aspect of non-Euclidean geometry would impact substantially on the rendering of pictorial objects in Cubism. The emergence of debates around the fourth dimension, and more generally n-dimensional geometry is more difficult to trace, as it received a far less systematic treatment. Mathematicians initially considered n-dimensional geometry as a particular case of analytical geometry, to which further spatial coordinates could be added. What these approaches offered was an important perceptual challenge: they required the need of visualising one or more dimensions coexisting with the three that govern perception under normal conditions. New terms were coined, such as ‘hyperspace’ – the space of four or more dimensions – and ‘hypersolids’, solid figures generated by the motion of polyhedra in a fourth direction, in analogy with the generation of three dimensional solids by plane figures moving perpendicularly to themselves. 8 Euclid’s fifth postulate states “That if a straight line falling on two straight lines makes the interior angles of the same side less than two right angles the two lines, if produced indefinitely, meet on that side on which are the angles less than two right angles”. I take this formulation from Heath’s (1908, vol 1, 155ff) translation of Euclid, whose lengthy critical apparatus on Euclid’s fifth postulate traces the history of how commentators questioned its supposed self-evident status since very early on. Ambrosio – Cubism and the Fourth Dimension To appear in Interdisciplinary Science Reviews, vol. 41, no. 2-3 Please cite from the published version 7 A particularly influential visualisation of hypersolids was in Charles Howard Hinton’s (1853- 1907) A New Era of Thought (1888). Trained in Oxford as a mathematician, Hinton had little luck in pursuing an academic career in England and moved first to Japan in 1887, and then to America. He left his manuscript for A New Era of Thought in the hands of Alicia Boole (daughter of the mathematician George Boole) and John Falk, who jointly wrote the book’s preface. Hinton conceived A New Era of Thought as an attempt at training his readers to visualise higher dimensions. It did so in a non-mathematical, non-technical language. His motivations were primarily philosophical, and were rooted in a somewhat unconventional reading of Kant. According to Kant, Hinton explains, the intuition of space (or the ‘space sense’, as Hinton calls it), is fundamental to structure our experience. Neither Kant nor the following philosophical traditions, however, produced a systematic elaboration of how this space sense can be trained and educated. This is puzzling, Hinton notices, as “according to Kant and according to common experience the trained thinker is one in whom the space sense has been well developed” (Hinton 1888, 3). The “true successors of Kant”, in this respect, “are the mathematicians Gauss and Lobachevsky”, Hinton maintains (ibid., 4), as their works extends the Kantian idea of spatial intuition beyond the limitations of absolute space. In Hinton’s own terms: “If our intuition of space is the means by which we apprehend, then it follows that there may be different kinds of intuition of space. Who can tell what the absolute space intuition is? This intuition of space must be coloured, so to speak, by the conditions of the being which uses it” (ibid.). A New Era of Thought sets out to investigate these philosophical claims empirically, through the progressive geometric construction of a system of cubes into a four-dimensional hypercube, or ‘tessaract’. 9 “Just as a cube has various plane boundaries”, Hinton explains in his chapter on four- dimensional solids, “a tessaract has various cube boundaries” (ibid., 160). A representation of the tessaract in colour would later appear on the frontispiece of his 1904 book, The Fourth Dimension. Hinton’s ideas reached Paris indirectly, via a number of popular sources on the fourth dimension. One of these sources was Esprit Pascal Jouffret’s (1837-1904) Traité Élémentaire de Géométrie á Quatre Dimensions (1903), an illustrated treatise that summarised the state of four- dimensional geometry and provided detailed illustrations of four-dimensional polyhedra projected onto a two-dimensional surface. Here Hinton’s writings, partly translated and partly cited in the original in English, appear alongside the works of another authoritative source on the subject: Henri Poincaré. In particular, Jouffret’s treatise contains references to an 1895 paper entitled “Space and Geometry”, originally published in the Revue de Métaphysique et de Morale, where Poincaré discusses an important distinction between geometric space and perceptual space. Geometric space is isotropic, homogeneous and three-dimensional, whereas perceptual space consists of three further components – visual, tactile and motor space – which render it neither continuous nor isotropic, nor reducible to three dimensions. Jouffret singles out the explanation Poincaré gives of the functioning of visual space. We claim that we perceive in three dimensions, but this is a result of the convergence of our eyes and of an effort to accommodate two initially distinct two-dimensional images formed on our retina, Jouffret explains via Poincaré (Jouffret 1903, vi; Poincaré[1895] 1946, 68). From an experimental point of view, this convergence is nothing but an observed regularity, however: nothing prevents us to conceive a state of affairs where these indications remain as 9 In A New Era of Thought Hinton uses the spelling ‘tessaract’ instead of the currently more common ‘tesseract’. Ambrosio – Cubism and the Fourth Dimension To appear in Interdisciplinary Science Reviews, vol. 41, no. 2-3 Please cite from the published version 8 independent variables rather than in a constant relation. In Poincaré’s own words: “A being who should achieve in such a world the education of his senses would no doubt attribute four dimensions to complete visual space” (ibid.). It was this less systematic, but more vividly illustrated literature on the spatial fourth dimension that captured the attention of artists in the early twentieth century. Both Henderson (2013) and Miller (2001) emphasize the role of Jouffret’s treatise as a conduit of fundamental ideas about the fourth dimension among Cubist artists. Yet, where Miller identifies Jouffret’s projections of four-dimensional solids as playing a key role in the completion of Picasso’s 1907 Les Demoiselles d’Avignon, Henderson places their reception later, and associates it primarily with the completion of Picasso’s 1910 Portrait of Ambroise Vollard. Both relate the visual input deriving from Jouffret’s treatise, as well as the broader circulation of Poincaré’s ideas, to the well documented presence in Cubist circles of the insurance actuary Maurice Princet (1875-1971). Princet joined the group gravitating around Picasso in Paris roughly at the same time as his actuary’s license examination, in 1906-1907 (Henderson 2013, 171). His presence is consistently recorded in accounts of the early days of Cubism, where he is clearly identified as the person who introduced mathematical concepts to artists – indeed this role earned him the title ‘le mathématicien du Cubisme’ (Salmon 1955, 187). Among the most notable documents attesting Princet’s presence among artists in Montmartre is a short piece by the writer André Salmon, then particularly close to Picasso. In his regular column “Courier Des Ateliers” (10 May 1910) for the Paris Journal, Salmon announces the imminent publication of a “curious work on aesthetics” by Maurice Princet, “a mathematician…who preoccupies himself especially with artists who disdain perspective. He praises them for no longer trusting the illusionary optics of not long ago and takes them for geometers” (Salmon 1910, 4). 10 The same year, Jean Metzinger’s “Note sur la peinture” published in the October-November issue of the journal Pan explicitly mentioned the names of Princet and Picasso: “Cézanne showed us forms of living in the reality of light, Picasso brings us a material account of their real life in the mind – he lays out a free, mobile perspective from which that ingenious mathematician Maurice Princet has deduced a whole geometry” (Metzinger 1910, 650; Fry 1966, 60). In the following years, Princet’s name would feature prominently in Metzinger’s writings and would form the basis of the separate identity that the members of the ‘Puteaux group’ 11 would craft for themselves partly in response to Picasso’s Cubism. In her account of the role of the fourth dimension in twentieth-century painting, Henderson privileges the influence of mathematical ideas introduced by Princet “on the more theoretically oriented Puteaux artists” (Henderson 2013, 171). In doing this, she explicitly plays down the role of Picasso in the appropriation and elaboration of visual sources from mathematics in the early years of Cubism. Her motivation is twofold. First, she observes that the most substantial accounts of Princet’s 10 This striking piece of evidence was first located by Lynn Gamwell. See Gamwell 1980, 163. Alas, Princet’s book was never published, but he did, eventually, have the opportunity to write some of his ideas in the preface of the catalogue of Robert Delaunay’s first solo exhibition at the Galerie Barbazanges in 1912. The full text of Princet’s preface is in Antliff and Leighten 2008, pp. 232-34. 11 The Puteaux group included Metzinger himself along with Albert Gleizes, Robert Delaunay, Juan Gris, and later Fernand Léger and Marcel Duchamp. Ambrosio – Cubism and the Fourth Dimension To appear in Interdisciplinary Science Reviews, vol. 41, no. 2-3 Please cite from the published version 9 presence amongst Cubist artists are reported by the very founders of the Puteaux group, particularly Albert Gleizes and Jean Metzinger. She shows, for example, that Gleizes and Metzinger drew on Princet’s lessons in geometry to combine their interest in the fourth dimension with a broader grounding in debates on non-Euclidean geometries. Their writings contain clear – albeit occasionally imprecise – references to the broader scientific literature on the subject (Henderson 2013, chapter 2). Thus, for example, along with extensive discussions of Poincaré’s ‘tactile space’ – which Gleizes and Metzinger considered far more fruitful for painting than his notion of ‘complete visual space’ – their 1912 essay Du Cubisme explicitly connects the space of Cubism to “certain of Rieman [sic] theorems” (Gleizes and Metzinger, [1912] in Fry 1966, 111; cf also Henderson 2013, 166 and 205- 211). Secondly, and perhaps more crucially, Henderson’s motivations are historiographical. In emphasizing the reception of mathematical ideas by the members of the Puteaux group, Henderson’s aim is to redirect the historiography of art and science in the twentieth century from a celebration of Picasso as the sole mind behind Cubism to a more nuanced understanding of less discussed, and yet more theoretically oriented strands of the movement. In this she is most successful, as evidenced by the literature that at present forms the legacy of her pioneering approach. However, discarding the influence of science on the early beginnings of Cubism might actually have the opposite effect of leaving the interpretation of works such as Les Demoiselles d’Avignon confined within the domain of art alone. Henderson herself partly falls into this trap, when she claims: “Picasso’s art was the product of his own artistic genius in its quest for alternatives to the classical figural tradition and to Renaissance perspective space. The sources of Cubism are to be found within art itself, primarily in African sculpture and the paintings of Cézanne” (Henderson 2013, 159; emphasis mine). While I partly agree with the justification she provides for this claim – that a straightforward causal relationship between higher-dimensional geometries and the early sources of Cubism is impossible to trace – the danger is that her conclusions might result in restricting even further the scholarship on Picasso, at the same time encouraging the perpetuation of the very rhetoric that her work purports to challenge. Rather than reopening the much debated controversy of the ‘sources’ of Les Demoiselles d’Avignon and the painting’s relation with Cubism, 12 in what follows I will adopt an alternative strategy. Elsewhere, Henderson herself calls for a re-contextualisation in art along the lines that historians of science have adopted for figures such as Einstein (Henderson 2008, 128). Yet, historians of science have not stopped talking about Einstein, nor have they left the sources of relativity confined within science itself: on the contrary, an achievement of the recent historiography of science has been precisely a reconfiguration of Einstein’s work within the broader material and social context surrounding it and constraining it. 13 I claim that similar methodological and historiographical considerations can be applied to key figures in art – Picasso here being a case in point. Showing that Picasso’s art was not just “the product of his own artistic genius” is thus a necessary step to challenge the celebratory tones that still accompany several accounts of his artistic 12 For two different – but not necessarily incompatible – accounts of this issue see Miller (2001) on the role of science on Picasso’s painting and Green (2001) on the artistic context and influences on the painting. 13 See, for example, Galison 2003 and Galison, Holton and Schewber 2008. Ambrosio – Cubism and the Fourth Dimension To appear in Interdisciplinary Science Reviews, vol. 41, no. 2-3 Please cite from the published version 10 production. 14 Along similar lines, assuming with Henderson that “the sources of Cubism are to be found within art itself” has the effect of rebuilding old fences around art and around the methodologies and domains of competence of history of art – fences that Henderson herself, and the legacy of her work, contributed to dismantle in the first place. It is in the spirit of reintegrating scientific ideas in the wider cultural context surrounding Cubism that I intend to look at one of Picasso’s less reproduced and less examined works, in a brief attempt at ‘re-contextualising’ some of his early Cubist experiments. A Photograph, a Portrait, and the Fourth Dimension The photograph in fig. 1 is part of a collection that is very much treasured by historians of art. It captures a group of paintings and sketches completed by Picasso while on a trip to Horta de Ebro during the summer 1909. The photograph was taken by Picasso himself. The summer of 1909 has been repeatedly singled out as a turning point in the consolidation of Cubism. John Golding, for example, states that this was the time in which Picasso “produce[d] the most important paintings of his early Cubist Period” (Golding 1956, 75). Edward Fry argues that at this point Picasso’s elaboration of the shifting perspectives of Cézanne converged into a coherent geometric faceting technique (Fry 1981, p. 93). Paul Hayes Tucker (1982) and Anne Baldassari (1997), on the other hand, have pointed out that photography might have played a crucial role in the synthesis of pictorial planes and perspectives that is characteristic of Picasso’s mature Cubist style. The summer trip to Horta de Ebro, on which Picasso embarked with his then companion Fernande Olivier, was planned especially to combine painting with photography (Baldassari 1997, 14). Both Tucker and Baldassari focus on Picasso’s use of the camera to record the Spanish landscape, and on the complementarity of such a recording with works such as Houses on the Hill and the Reservoir (1909). Baldassari, on the other hand, briefly considers a group of photographs of the interior of Picasso’s studio, including the image in fig. 1, to notice how they “provided a kind of spatio-temporal précis of the work in progress” (ibid. 74). Along similar lines, Miller associates the photographic recording at Horta to Picasso’s continued interest in the creative metamorphosis of his works, or “the conceptual transformations in the work itself and in relation to other works” (Miller 2001, 138). The primary focus of all the photographs of Picasso’s studio is ambiguous, and it is this ambiguity that renders them particularly interesting. It usually consists of two paintings captured photographically side by side, so as to create an intentional visual dissonance. This is usually accomplished by the juxtaposition of two paintings of roughly the same size. In one particular case, Picasso superimposes two different negatives to obtain the synthesis of four paintings into a single 14 A similar line of argumentation has of course been pursued by art historians, but with a special attention to the relations between art, culture and politics without necessarily bringing science in the picture. Green (2000) explicitly invokes the need of a closer investigation of the tensions between movements, individuals and the socio-political context of art in Paris at the turn of the century. In more explicitly polemic tones, T.J. Clark’s recent Picasso and Truth (2013) attacks specifically the scholarship on Picasso and denounces “the abominable character of most writings on the artist” (Clark 2013, 4). Clark proposes to separate the “wild swings between fawning adulation and false refusal-to-be impressed” (ibid.) that characterises a great deal of biographical works on Picasso from the artworks themselves, and their relationship with the broader cultural and political context surrounding them. Ambrosio – Cubism and the Fourth Dimension To appear in Interdisciplinary Science Reviews, vol. 41, no. 2-3 Please cite from the published version 11 photograph. 15 The image in fig. 1, in this respect, is unusual and distinctive in that it collates four completed portraits of different sizes, as well as several sketches pinned on the wall. I want to concentrate on the smaller portrait on the left side of the photograph, and the drawings just above it. Unlike other paintings captured in the photograph, this image has been very little discussed in the literature – so much so that there is no consistency over its exact title. 16 John Richardson briefly mentions it as an example of Picasso’s ‘creative’ use of the suffering of his partners for artistic purposes (Richardson 1997, 135). A kidney infection affected Fernande for most of her trip to Horta, and in several of her letters to Gertrude Stein she voices her frustration at Picasso not taking any notice of her condition (Olivier 2001, 241). Richardson qualifies the portrait as one of the most anguished representations of Fernande (Richardson 1997, 133), but in his (rather characteristic) fixation with the details of Picasso’s cruel treatment of his lovers, he misses a unique opportunity to look at this image a little more in detail. [NOTE: I would love you to see this image. It is a great image, and I am aware that the argument I pursue in this section of my article simply makes no sense in the absence of the figure. Unfortunately, Open Access publishing and copyright law do not seem to agree on this particular case: at present there is no license I can pay to reproduce online (and in perpetuity) a Picasso image protected by copyright. It is a clear case in which the very important cause of Open Access goes precisely against its purported aims, and I can only apologise for this. You can find a reproduction of the image in the catalogue Picasso and the Camera, curated by John Richardson, New York: Gagosian Gallery, p. 31] Fig. 1 Pablo Picasso, Femme assise dans l'atelier de Horta, summer 1909. Gelatin silver print. 4 1/4 x 3 1/4 inches / 10.8 x 8.3 cm. Private Collection Picasso’s 1909 portrait of Fernande has not been investigated, at least in the literature, in relation to geometry. And yet the composition is geometric through and through, even in a more accentuated form than the larger piece, Seated Woman, which occupies the larger portion of the photograph. Fernande’s head is composed of shaded folding planes; her nose is a slightly tilted wedge; her diamond-shaped eyes emerge from the equally geometric spaces of the eye sockets; the sharpness of her cheekbones geometrically separates her face into several distinguished picture planes. Even the mantilla that frames her face is reduced to its essential geometric details, so that all that remains of it is a mere suggestion of its presence marked by the pointed endings of its edge. It 15 A thorough examination of this particular photograph is in Baldassari (1994,192). Miller interprets this image as a visual attempt at “exploring how the fusion of two sets of Cubist images can give rise to a second-order cubist reality” (Miller 2001, 157). 16 Alfred Stieglitz’s publication in Camera Works (see note 16 below) leaves the image untitled. Richardson (1996, 135) labels it Fernande in a Mantilla; Baldassari (1997, 80) labels it Head of a Woman (Fernande); Miller (2001, 153) labels it Head of a Woman in Mantilla (Fernande). Ambrosio – Cubism and the Fourth Dimension To appear in Interdisciplinary Science Reviews, vol. 41, no. 2-3 Please cite from the published version 12 is hard to establish a direct connection between this particular portrait of Fernande and the preparatory drawings on the wall above it, but when examined closely they seem to suggest that Picasso worked on the geometric shape of individual compositional elements before merging them together in this or any of the other paintings surrounding Fernande’s portrait. It is less hard to see, however, how the conceptual reformulation of spatial relations that characterises this portrait stands out as a pictorial reformulation of geometric ideas that Picasso might have visually borrowed from Jouffret’s Traité (Fig. 2). Fig. 2 Esprit Pascal Jouffret, Perspective Cavaliere of sixteen fundamental octahedral, Traité Élémentaire de Géométrie á Quatre Dimensions (1903), p. 153. Surprisingly, Fernande’s portrait has been glaringly overlooked in the literature on Cubism and geometry. 17 One of the problems might be that the artworks produced at Horta have usually been investigated as central to Cubism, but somehow separately from the cultural (and scientific) context surrounding Picasso’s Parisian production. 18 Yet, even Henderson acknowledges that by 17 The only person who elected this particular work as representative of Picasso’s Cubist style was the photographer Alfred Stieglitz, who published a half-tone reproduction of Fernande’s portrait in the August 1912 special issue of his journal, Camera Works. See Philippi and Kyeyeser (1997, 644). A pioneer of avant- garde art and a crucial intermediary of modernism between Europe and America, Stieglitz had specifically planned the issue around the works of Picasso and Matisse, accompanied by Gertrude Stein’s ‘prose portraits’ of the two artists. 18 Golding (1959) and Rubin (1989, 1993), for example, focus on how the summer of 1909 consolidated the relationship between Picasso and Braque. The two artists had met just after the completion of Picasso’s Demoiselles d’Avignon, but it is in the summer 1909 that their styles begin to converge, especially in their Ambrosio – Cubism and the Fourth Dimension To appear in Interdisciplinary Science Reviews, vol. 41, no. 2-3 Please cite from the published version 13 1909 his relationship with Princet was fairly well consolidated, and his acquaintance with debates around n-dimensional geometry fairly established (Henderson 2013, 172). Even more striking is the fact that, at least visually, the geometric construction of this particular work presents just the kind of multiple viewpoints and intersecting picture planes that Henderson singles out in Picasso’s 1910 Portrait of Ambroise Vollard, explicitly linking this later image to Esprit Jouffret’s projections of four- dimensional solids. Her main argument is that, as far as Picasso’s case is concerned, the observation that there was a visual affinity between the multi-faceted geometry of Cubism and visual sources such as Jouffret’s Traité, came only later, and Cubist painters subsequently adapted to it. “If someone familiar with n-dimensional geometry, such as Maurice Princet” Henderson maintains, “had pointed out a visual similarity between Picasso’s latest painting and a geometrical diagram such as Jouffret’s, it would have seemed to confirm the direction Cubism had taken” (Henderson 2013, 162). But it is not entirely clear from Henderson’s discussion why the ‘official’ starting point of the reception of n-dimensional geometry in Cubism should be placed in 1910 rather than earlier on. In the absence of more specific documentation, ‘visual affinities’ between artistic and scientific imagery is all we have to form a judgment on this issue. The extreme faceting and multiple picture planes that characterise most of the 1909 works at Horta de Ebro, and particularly the portrait of Fernande shown in fig. 1, show that Cubism had taken a geometric direction, along the lines suggested by Princet and possibly inspired by Jouffret, well before the completion of the Portrait of Ambroise Vollard. Rather than focusing narrowly on issues of dating that might never be settled with absolute certainty, there are two important historiographical and methodological points that I hope my discussion will contribute to elucidate. One is the very place of Picasso within the broader rhetoric of modernism and modernity usually associated to Cubism. One of the reasons for including the photograph in fig.1 in a discussion on Cubism and science is that it exposes a most singular paradox right at the core of a movement traditionally considered at the forefront of modernism. In working simultaneously with an artistic reformulation of n-dimensional geometry and photography, Picasso is combining two quintessentially nineteenth-century pursuits. It is the very continuity with this tradition, rather than a sudden rupture with it, that renders Cubism one of the most interesting movements of the twentieth century. Indeed, this has been a concern that art historians have tried to address by distancing Cubism from the nineteenth century as much as possible. An example of this is the response produced by Edward Fry to Paul Hayes Tucker’s argument about the pivotal role of photography during the summer of 1909 at Horta de Ebro. Connecting Cubism and photography, Fry argued, would amount to reducing Picasso’s works to “a more sophisticated formal and visual development of nineteenth-century positivist attempts to apprehend the data of nature and appropriation and geometric reformulation of Cézanne’s concept of passage (the integration of objects and space and the merging of overlapping planes into one another). The debates around the summer of 1909 are also skewed towards the observation that it was indeed Braque, at least in Golding and Rubin’s accounts, the initiator of Cubism. Braque’s Cubist landscape paintings of 1909 were completed during his trip to La Roche- Guyon, approximately at the same time as Picasso’s journey to Horta. This naturally prompted a tendency to read Braque and Picasso’s landscapes together; however Braque himself had embraced the role of landscapist explicitly paying tribute to Cézanne at least a year earlier, as exemplified by his paintings of the landscape and houses at L’Estaque. An alternative account, based on emphasizing the differences, rather than the commonalities, in Braque and Picasso’s approaches to landscape is in Green (2005). Ambrosio – Cubism and the Fourth Dimension To appear in Interdisciplinary Science Reviews, vol. 41, no. 2-3 Please cite from the published version 14 experience” (Fry 1983, 146). The immediate association between photography and positivism, at least in the basic formulation that seemed to concern Fry in the 1980s, has been long dispelled by historians of science. In her 2005 Nature Exposed, for example, Jennifer Tucker shows that the crowd of ‘dissenters’ to the supposed objective status of scientific photography far outnumbered, even in the context of nineteenth-century positivism, those who claimed to adhere to it. Cubism is the legacy of this particular approach to photography and science more broadly – one in which judgment and conceptualisation are essential to analyse and synthesise data from experience. My second historiographical point concerns the debate around the ‘sources’ of Cubism. Following Henderson’s line and accepting that the source of Cubism is to be located within Picasso’s ‘genius’ and within art itself seems an easy way to perpetuate the old idea that paying attention to the cultural and socio-political context surrounding art should be construed explicitly in contrast with scientific ideas – as if science were itself separate from politics, social dynamics and the broader cultural context surrounding it. On the other hand, however, trying to draw a straightforward causal connection between Cubism and science will not be unproblematic either. While it would partly answer broader concerns about the lack of integration between disciplinary methodologies, it would do so in science’s own terms, somehow suggesting that Cubist art was made better, or at least ‘special’, by its engagement with mathematical ideas. If this is the case, one would then have to ascertain that Picasso, or the Cubists of the Puteaux group, had a correct understanding of the mathematical notions they adopted in painting, and this is very much open to question. My discussion has hopefully disclosed a different way of looking at this issue, where ‘correct understanding’ is beyond the point, and where the distinctiveness of Cubism consists precisely in a new type of pictorial knowledge which is not reducible to art or science alone. The assimilation of science (or the suggestion of a ‘visual affinity’ with it, if we want to follow Henderson’s argument) by Cubist artists, including Picasso, generated a transformation of science in Cubist terms, opening new possibilities to conceptualise and experience space. Art and Science, Then and Now In concluding my discussion I want to return briefly to Barry and Born’s (2013) work on interdisciplinarity, introduced at the beginning of this article. Specifically, I want to connect the story of Cubism and science to the kind of transformative experimentation described by Barry and Born as a logic of ontology, a set of interdisciplinary practices that lead to the generation of new problems, new objects of inquiry, and new interdisciplinary subjectivities. Far from asserting that Cubism provides us with the same kind of knowledge we would attribute to (or expect from) science, I hope my arguments provided a way of understanding Cubism as a conduit for genuinely novel possibilities to experience and represent space. In this, art served as a form of knowledge in its own right, knowledge that is not in competition with science, but complements it in important critical ways. It is this particular feature of Cubism, in my view, that offers a possible historical counterpart to Barry and Born’s account of interdisciplinarity as the manifestation of a logic of ontology. That artistic practice can play a distinctive critical role seems uncontroversial when it comes to evaluating and understanding the relations between art and politics. What I want to suggest is Ambrosio – Cubism and the Fourth Dimension To appear in Interdisciplinary Science Reviews, vol. 41, no. 2-3 Please cite from the published version 15 that the times are now ripe to transfer this fairly established idea to the relations between art and science. In the work Dissensus. On Politics and Aesthetics (2013), the philosopher Jacques Rancière argues that art is first and foremost a means of disclosing ways of “distributing the sensible” (Rancière 2013, 141). Artworks are concrete, historically contingent manifestations of what we are able to experience and conceptualise in a particular cultural and historical context. The critical aim of art, and of aesthetics construed in its broadest sense, is thus for Rancière to disturb the current distribution of the sensible, and propose new criteria for ordering and partitioning what we have access to. Art should make new configurations of experience possible, and it is in this sense that it acts as a way of producing knowledge in its own right. Rancière’s ideas about the critical role of art resonate with Barry and Born’s characterisation of interdisciplinarity as a logic of ontology, and I contend that his claims should be transferred from the relations between art and politics to the relations between art and science. They apply especially to the conceptual reformulation of space that Cubist artists developed and opened up, as a pictorial possibility, in response to ideas coming from the field of n-dimensional geometry. Far from constituting a threat to the scientific knowledge of the time, the Cubists’ appropriation of geometric concepts served to generate new pictorial problems, and with them new modes of conceptualising and experiencing space. Indeed, the distinctive use of geometry in Cubism left a lasting legacy in art and in science (Henderson 2013, pp. 35-90), and is still very much alive in experiments at the boundaries between artistic and scientific visualisation, such as the works of Tony Robbin and Thomas Banchoff. 19 In this respect, I see Cubism as fitting in what I have elsewhere defined as “artistic visualisation as critique” (Ambrosio 2014, 134ff), an interdisciplinary attitude that aims at carving a distinctive epistemic space and critical role for artistic practitioners in their past and present conversations and controversies with scientists. This particular approach to interdisciplinary research regards the role of art in its specific relation with science as being in many respects very close to the role usually attributed to philosophy of science: that of questioning and critically engaging with assumptions and modes of working that would otherwise be taken for granted by scientific practitioners. This particular critical mission for art adds an important historical dimension to Barry and Born’s idea of interdisciplinarity as a logic of ontology, and applies well to the aims and motivations that compelled the Cubists to look at the concept of the fourth dimension to extend their visual quest for an alternative, conceptual reformulation of space. The new artistic knowledge produced through the Cubists’ experimentation with science was not taken as the ultimate pronouncement on the subject of space – no artistic experiment would be animated by such an aspiration. It was instead knowledge of a distinctively dialogical and unfinished kind, with a transformative power that still has effects in the present: even the simple use of ‘Cubism’ as a metaphor continues to evoke powerful associations with a radical redefinition of pictorial space. In looking at Cubist art as an example of interdisciplinarity that presents the characteristics of a logic of ontology, my account of the relations between Cubism and mathematics has thus hopefully suggested the possibility, and desirability, of exploring the continued relevance of a past experiment in art and science that still offers important historiographical and epistemological lessons. In a time 19 See Robbin (2006). On Banchoff’s mathematical work see Steingart (2014). Ambrosio – Cubism and the Fourth Dimension To appear in Interdisciplinary Science Reviews, vol. 41, no. 2-3 Please cite from the published version 16 where ‘art-science’ is embraced unquestioningly , often more as a fashionable trend than as a mode of knowledge, the story of Cubism and mathematics compels us to think very seriously about the products of interdisciplinary collaborations in relation to the environments, subjectivities and interactions that makes these collaborations possible, fruitful, and sustainable. That an episode in the history of art and science from the past century might offer a template for our contemporary ways of thinking about interdisciplinary collaborations will certainly perplex contemporary scientists, and perhaps even contemporary artists. But if we are committed to interdisciplinarity and the knowledge we demand from interdisciplinary collaborations, perhaps the best way forward is to approach the problem with an eye on the past, and use it to disturb and re-distribute the assumptions we make about the present. Chiara Ambrosio is a Lecturer in History and Philosophy of Science at the Department of Science and Technology Studies (UCL). Her research focuses on representation across art and science, with a specific focus on nineteenth and twentieth century visual culture. Her published works combine philosophical accounts of representation with historical investigations into particular modes of image-making, such as painting, diagrams and photographs, and the debates around their epistemological status at the turn of the century. The conceptual framework underpinning her research draws substantially on American Pragmatism, especially the philosophy of Charles S. Peirce. Acknowledgments I am grateful to J.V. Field and Frank James for their encouraging and thought-provoking comments on an early draft of this paper. James McKee at the Gagosian Gallery and Pete Woronkowicz at DACS provided prompt help in locating Picasso’s photograph of Fernande’s portrait and invaluable advice on copyright permission. Niall Le Mage ventured with me on yet another journey through the fourth dimension, asking questions all along. The honesty and sharpness of his criticism added a great deal to the final shape of this piece. References Ambrosio, Chiara, 2014. “Objectivity and Representative Practices across Artistic and Scientific Representation”, in Carusi, A. Hoel, A.S., Webmoor, T. and Woolgar, S. Visualisation in the Age of Computerisation. London: Routledge, pp. 118-144. Antliff, Mark and Leighten, Patricia, 2008. A Cubism Reader, Documents and Criticism, 1906-1914, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Apollinaire, Guillaume, [1913] 2004. The Cubist Painters, transl. Peter Reid. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Baldassari, Anne, 1997. Picasso and Photography: The Dark Mirror. Paris: Flammarion. Baldassari, Anne, 1994. Picasso Photographie: 1901-1916. Paris: Éditions de la Réunion de Musées Nationaux. Ambrosio – Cubism and the Fourth Dimension To appear in Interdisciplinary Science Reviews, vol. 41, no. 2-3 Please cite from the published version 17 Barr, Alfred, 1943. What is Modern Painting? New York: Museum of Modern Art. Barry, Andrew and Georgina Born (eds.), 2013. Interdisciplinarity: Reconfigurations from the Natural and Social Sciences. London: Routledge. Brain, Robert M., 2015. The Pulse of Modernism: Physiological Aesthetics in Fin de Siécle Europe. Washington: University of Washington Press. Brain, Robert M., 2008. “The Pulse of Modernism: Experimental Physiology and Aesthetic Avant- garde circa 1900”. Studies in History and Philosophy of Science, vol. 39, pp. 393-417. Brain, Robert M., “Representation on the Line: The Graphic Method and the Instruments of Scientific Modernism”, in B. Clark and Henderson, L. D. (eds.), From Energy to Information: Representation in Science, Art, and Literature, Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2002, pp. 155-178. Clark, Bruce and Henderson, Linda D. (eds.), 2002. From Energy to Information: Representation in Science, Art, and Literature, Stanford: Stanford University Press. Colomina, Beatriz, 2009. “Unclear Vision: Architecture of Surveillance”, in M. Bell and J. Kim (eds). Engineering Transparency: the Technical, Visual and Spatial Effects of Glass. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, pp. 78-87. Fry, Edward F., 1983. “Picasso, Photography and Cubism”, Art Bulletin, vol. 65, pp. 145-6. Fry, Edward F., 1981. Review of Pierre Daix and Joan Rosselet, Picasso: The Cubist Years 1907-1916 (Boston: New York Graphic Society, 1979), in Art Journal , Spring issue, p. 93. Fry, Edward F. (ed.), 1966. Cubism, New York: McGraw-Hill. Galison, Peter L. 2003. Einstein’s Clocks and Poincaré’s Maps. New York: W.W. Norton &Co. Galison, P., Holton, G and Schweber S. (eds), 2008. Einstein for the 21 st Century. Princeton, Nj: Princeton University Press. Gamwell, Lynn, 1980. Cubist Criticism. Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press. Gideon, Sigfried, 1941. Space, Time and Architecture: the Growth of a New Tradition, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. Gleizes, Albert and Metzinger, Jean [1912] “Cubism”, In Edward Fry (ed), 1966. Cubism. New York: McGraw Hill, pp. 105-111. Green, Christopher, 2005. Picasso, Architecture and Vertigo. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. Green, Christopher, 2001. Picasso’s Les Demoiselles d’Avignon. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Green, Christopher, 2000. Art in France 1900-1940, New Haven: Yale University Press. Ambrosio – Cubism and the Fourth Dimension To appear in Interdisciplinary Science Reviews, vol. 41, no. 2-3 Please cite from the published version 18 Golding, John, 1956. Cubism: a History and Analysis. London: Faber and Faber. Heath, Thomas L. 1908. The Thirteen Books of Euclid’s Elements, translated from the text of Heidelberg with commentary. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Henderson, Linda D., 2013 Non-Euclidean Geometry and the Fourth Dimension in Modern Art. Cambridge, Mass: The MIT Press. Henderson, Linda D., 2008.”Einstein and 20 th -Century Art: A Romance in Many Dimensions”, in Galison, P., Holton, G and Schweber S. (eds), 2008. Einstein for the 21 st Century. Princeton, Nj: Princeton University Press, pp. 101-129. Henderson, Linda D., 1988. “X-Rays and the Quest for Invisible Reality in the Art of Kupka, Duchamp and the Cubists”, Art Journal vol. 47, pp. 323-340. Hinton, Charles H., 1888. A New Era of Thought. London: S. Sonnenschein & Co. Holton, Gerald, 1996. Einstein, History and Other Passions. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. Jouffret, Esprit P., 1903. Traité Élémentaire de Géométrie á Quatre Dimensions. Paris: Gauthier- Villars. Kern, Stephen [1983] 2003. The Culture of Time and Space 1880-1914. Cambridge, Mass.: Cambridge University Press. Laporte, Paul, 1949. “Cubism and Science”, in The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, vol. 7, pp. 243-256. Metzinger, Jean, 1910. “Note sur la Peinture”, Pan, Oct-Nov., 649-652. Translated in Edward F. Fry (ed.), Cubism, New York: MCGraw-Hill, 1966. Miller, Arthur I., 2001. Einstein, Picasso: Space, Time and the Beauty that Causes Havoc. New York: Basic Books. Olivier, Fernande, 2001. Loving Picasso: The Private Journal of Fernande Olivier, transl. by Christine Baker and Michael Raeburn, foreword and notes by Marilyn McCully; epilogue by John Richardson. New York: henry Abrahams Inc. Parkinson, Gavin, 2008. Surrealism, Art and Modern Science. New Haven: Yale University Press. Philippi, Simone, and Keyeser, Ute (eds.), 1997. Camera Works: The Complete Illustrations. London: Taschen. Poincaré, Henri, 1946. The Foundations of Science / Science and Hypothesis/ The Value of Science /Science and Method ; authorized translation by George Bruce Halsted. London: Lancaster Pa: Science Press. Ambrosio – Cubism and the Fourth Dimension To appear in Interdisciplinary Science Reviews, vol. 41, no. 2-3 Please cite from the published version 19 Ranciére, Jacques, 2013. Dissensus. On Politics and Aesthetics. London: Bloomsbury Academic Publishing. Richardson, John, 1996. A Life of Picasso, vol. II: 1907-1917. London: Random House. Robbin, Tony, 2006. Shadows of Reality: the Fourth Dimension in Relativity, Cubism and Modern Thought. New Haven: Yale University Press. Rubin, William, 1989. Picasso and Braque: Pioneering Cubism. Boston, Mass.: Museum of Modern Art. Bulfinch Press/Little Brown &Co. Salmon, André, 1955. Souvenirs Sans Fin, Première Époque (1903-1908). Paris: Gallimard. Salmon, André, 1910. “Courier Des Ateliers”, Paris Journal (10 May), 4. Steingart, Alma, 2014. “A Four-Dimensional Cinema: Computer Graphics, Higher Dimensions and the Geometrical Imagination”, in Carusi, A. Hoel, A.S., Webmoor, T. and Woolgar, S. Visualisation in the Age of Computerisation. London: Routledge, pp. 170-193. Tucker, Paul Hayes, 1982. “Picasso, Photography and the development of Cubism”, The Art Bulletin vol. 64 (2), 288-299. 
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work_x2i2r63z65gl5i2oqz5c2n2lc4	----	Collections care scenario appraisal for painting canvases at Museu Nacional d'Art de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain 9–13 June 2014 American University of Sharjah Sharjah, United Arab Emirates Studies in Conservation, Supplement 1, 2015 ISSN 0039-3630 Editors Abdelrazek Elnaggar Austin Nevin Marta Castillejo Matija Strlič S tudies in C onservation, S upplem ent 1, 2015 LA C O N A X Papers from the Tenth Conference on LASERS IN THE CONSERVATION OF ARTWORKS LACONA COVER.indd 3 28/07/2015 09:29 CORE Metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk Provided by Diposit Digital de la Universitat de Barcelona https://core.ac.uk/display/43551288?utm_source=pdf&utm_medium=banner&utm_campaign=pdf-decoration-v1 Studies in Conservation, Supplement 1, 2015 ISSN 0039-3630 You can sign up for selected content free of charge, and also sign up for table of contents alerts at www.maneyonline.com/sic S tudies in C onservation, S upplem ent 1, 2015 LA C O N A X LACONA COVER.indd 1 28/07/2015 09:29 http://www.maneyonline.com/action/showImage?doi=10.1179/0039363015Z.000000000224&iName=master.img-000.jpg&w=107&h=49 http://www.maneyonline.com/action/showImage?doi=10.1179/0039363015Z.000000000224&iName=master.img-001.jpg&w=108&h=61 http://www.maneyonline.com/action/showImage?doi=10.1179/0039363015Z.000000000224&iName=master.img-002.jpg&w=106&h=45 http://www.maneyonline.com/action/showImage?doi=10.1179/0039363015Z.000000000224&iName=master.img-003.jpg&w=106&h=55 http://www.maneyonline.com/action/showImage?doi=10.1179/0039363015Z.000000000224&iName=master.img-004.jpg&w=86&h=86 http://www.maneyonline.com/action/showImage?doi=10.1179/0039363015Z.000000000224&iName=master.img-006.jpg&w=105&h=68 http://www.maneyonline.com/action/showImage?doi=10.1179/0039363015Z.000000000224&iName=master.img-007.jpg&w=106&h=63 Original research paper Collections care scenario appraisal for painting canvases at Museu Nacional d’Art de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain Marta Oriola1, Gema Campo1, Cristina Ruiz-Recasens1, Núria Pedragosa2, Matija Strlič3 1Faculty of Fine Arts, Conservation Section, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain, 2Conservation Department, Museu Nacional d’Art de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain, 3Institute for Sustainable Heritage, University College London, London, UK We surveyed the canvas of 31 paintings from the collection of the Museu Nacional d’Art de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain, using non-destructive near infrared spectroscopy (NIR) in order to determine the pH and degree of polymerisation (DP) of the canvas supports. The data showed that the canvases, all from 1890 to 1910, are acidic (average pH 5.1 ± 0.4) and fairly degraded (DP 710 ± 260). Using the dose- response function for cellulosic materials with pH, DP, T, and relative humidity (RH) as inputs, the rate of degradation can be calculated, as well as the period of time until the point when the canvases become so fragile that their handling could lead to mechanical damage and thus risk the integrity of paint layers. On the basis of the survey data, we calculated isochrone plots as well as demographic curves for the collection. Using these, we explored a number of conservation management scenarios and compared them with the expected rate of degradation under current average environmental conditions (21 °C, 58% RH). At these conditions, it is predicted that the average canvas will become fragile and might require interventive treatment in ca. 140 years. However, if the storage temperature is decreased, or if the canvases are deacidified, the period of time until treatment becomes necessary can be considerably increased. As a separate case study we also present a survey of the canvas of The Woman in Hat and Fur Collar (Marie-Thérèse Walter) by Pablo Picasso. The pH and DP of this canvas was determined in 15 sampling points, the averages being pH 5.6 ± 0.2 and DP 1700 ± 320, which allowed us to calculate the isochrone plot for this canvas. Keywords: NIR spectrometry, pH, DP, Canvas degradation, Lifetime prediction, Paintings Introduction In a traditional easel painting, the canvas support is made of plant-derived cellulosic fibres. In a recent survey of a large sample set of ca. 200 historic can- vases, the majority was found to have pH of 4.5–6.0, i.e. less than neutral (Oriola et al., 2011). Acidity in the environment of a cellulose macromolecule is well known to catalyse its hydrolytic breakdown, thus decreasing its degree of polymerisation (DP, the number of monomers in a macromolecule) (Zou et al., 1996; Strlič & Kolar, 2005). Fibres with a lower DP are known to have lower mechanical resist- ance thus reducing the fitness of the textile to be used (Zou et al., 1996). Painting canvases with a DP of ca. 600 can be con- sidered to be at the upper boundary of the ‘very fragile’ condition category (Oriola et al., 2011). In the survey of 35 degraded canvas samples carried out by 17 inter- nationally renowned paintings conservators, it was established (with a remarkable level of agreement) that such canvases are fragile to the point where they ‘cannot be stretched without reinforcement’ and ‘excessive stress is not advisable’. Such canvases could be considered to be at high risk of tearing and similar mechanical damage during handling (reloca- tion of a painting, transportation to exhibitions, etc.), thus requiring resource-intensive interventive treatment. Correspondence to: Marta Oriola, Facultat de Belles Arts, C/ Pau Gargallo 4, 08028 Barcelona, Spain. Email: martaoriola@ub.edu; Matija Strlič, Institute for Sustainable Heritage, University College London, Central House, 14 Upper Woburn Place, London WC1H 0NN, UK. Email: m.strlic@ucl.ac.uk © The International Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works 2015 MORE OpenChoice articles are open access and distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 3.0 DOI 10.1179/0039363015Z.000000000224 Studies in Conservation 2015 VOL. 60 SUPPLEMENT 1 S193 mailto:martaoriola@ub.edu mailto:martaoriola@ub.edu mailto:m.strlic@ucl.ac.uk mailto:m.strlic@ucl.ac.uk mailto:m.strlic@ucl.ac.uk mailto:m.strlic@ucl.ac.uk The time until fitness for use is lost (useful lifetime) of a canvas can be managed either by controlling environmental conditions or by alteration of the chemi- cal properties of a canvas. The addition of a deacidifi- cation agent counteracts the acidity of a canvas and delays its chemical degradation (Poggi et al., 2013) and therefore its fragility (Seves et al., 2000). This is not a frequently used procedure, although a reassess- ment of its conservation cost–benefit might be timely. Environmental management of paintings collec- tions, on the other hand, is (understandably so) geared towards conservation of the paint layer. Here, particularly for mixed (canvas and panel) and framed collections, the concerns lie elsewhere: adhesion of paint, gilding, and gesso layers, as well as mechanical stability of wooden parts, are managed by suitably controlling fluctuations of rela- tive humidity (RH) (PAS198, 2012), whereas the chemical stability of canvases is seen as a secondary concern. However, both fluctuations and long-term averages of environmental parameters can be managed so that preservation is optimised. The time until the fitness of a canvas to support the paint layer is reduced to a state when the risk of mech- anical damage is unacceptable (Strlič et al., 2013), is determined by the rate of its degradation. There is ample evidence in the literature that the degradation rate of cellulosic materials is affected by temperature (T) and RH (Sebera, 1994). A recent Collections Demography project re-examined the available exper- imental evidence and quantitatively demonstrated how the rate of degradation of cellulosic materials is affected by material acidity (Strlič et al., 2015). A dose-response function describing this dependence was calculated and a new isoperm for cellulosic materials was presented. Ontheotherhand,itcan beassumedthatphotodegra- dation is negligible in the majority of cases, since in easel paintings the canvas is usually protected from light. Additionally, in post-industrial environments the degra- dative effects of outdoor pollutants (NO2 and SO2) and even of indoor pollutants (acetic acid) can be assumed to be of minor importance in comparison with T, RH, and inherent acidity (Menart et al., 2014). Using the knowledge of degradation of cellulosic materials available in the literature, it should therefore be possible to predict the distribution of rates of degra- dation of canvases in a collection, as long as we know the distribution of pH and DP. This data can be col- lected using near infrared spectroscopy (NIR), a non-destructive analytical tool that can easily be used in a non-laboratory environment as it requires no sample preparation and no sampling (Oriola et al., 2011). NIR spectroscopy was first used to survey a collec- tion of painting canvases non-destructively in the Teatre-Museu Dalí in Figueres, Spain (Oriola et al., 2014). The DP and acidity of 12 canvases were deter- mined using this technique, based on the same prin- ciple as previously used for historic paper (Trafela et al., 2007), historic textiles (Richardson et al., 2008), photographs (Fenech et al., 2013), and other types of collections. The principle is based on multivariate analysis of spectral data and method calibration based on a set of known and well- characterised physical samples. However, an important limitation of this method is that it can only be used for objects that are as similar to the calibration set as possible. In this work, the developed NIR method has been applied to a collection of canvas paintings from the Museu Nacional d’Art de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain. The obtained survey data (pH and DP values) was analysed using the Collections Demography dose-response function for cellulosic materials to provide evidence-based advice for conser- vation management of painting canvases. Methodology Collection survey Using the previously developed methodology based on NIR spectroscopy of painting canvases (Oriola et al., 2011, 2014), pH and DP were determined for 31 canvas paintings by Catalan painters, from 1890 to 1910, at the Museu Nacional d’Art de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain (MNAC) (Supplementary material 1). A painting by Pablo Picasso from 1937 was also analysed using this technique. From the material point of view, the canvases from this collection are contemporary with the ca. 200 canvas samples used for method calibration, the pH of which was deter- mined using a cold-extraction method, while DP was measured using viscometry (Oriola et al., 2011). The majority of these calibration samples were from the nineteenth to the twenty-first century and from Catalonia, therefore of a very similar provenance to the canvases used in the survey. Consequently, the NIR spectroscopic method is likely going to give reliable data. Since the surveyed paintings were selected on the basis of age, provenance, absence of any previous con- servation treatments, and availability, the survey cannot be considered to be random, and thus represen- tative of the larger collection. However, the selection restrictions were necessary in order to obtain collec- tion data to be used to develop conservation guidance: a diverse collection of differently degraded and untreated real historic canvases. NIR measurements The NIR method for determination of pH and DP of historic canvases as developed in previous research Oriola et al. Collections care scenario appraisal for painting canvases Studies in Conservation 2015 VOL. 60 SUPPLEMENT 1S194 (Oriola et al., 2014) was used in the survey (errors of prediction being ±0.4 for pH and ±270 for DP deter- mination). The spectra (100 averaged spectra per measurement spot) were taken at the back of a paint- ing using a LabSpec 5000 NIR spectrometer equipped with fibre optics and a custom-made attachment for spectral collection in the 45°/45° geometry. The diam- eter of the measured spot was ca. 2 mm. Multivariate analysis of data (partial least squares regression) and prediction of pH and DP was carried out using Grams software (Thermo Scientific). Values of pH were obtained for all canvases, while DP for three can- vases (Cat. nos. 004.660, 004.631, 011.382) was not, due to failed statistical tests (Mahalanobis distance >3) indicating low reliability of these predictions. Several measurements were made per canvas, typically up to 7, and the average is reported. Using the canvas identification algorithm based on linear discriminant analysis of NIR spectra (Oriola et al., 2014), bast, cotton, and jute fibres were ident- ified, however, out of the 31 surveyed paintings, only 3 were made of jute and 3 were made of cotton fibres, the rest were all made of bast fibres. Isoperm and isochrone calculations The Collections Demography dose-response function for degradation of cellulosic materials was used (Strlič et al., 2015) to calculate isoperms – lines con- necting pairs of T and RH values at which the rate of degradation or permanence of a material is equal (Sebera, 1994). However, since the Collections Demography function reflects not only T and water content (which depends on RH), but also pH of the material, isoperms based on this function need to reflect the pH of actual canvases. Namely, as is well known, a reference permanence is needed in the calculation of isoperms. In Sebera’s work, this was calculated for 20 °C and 50% RH, but we need to note that his data were developed for acidic paper though of course at the time, this was not considered as an input in the calculations, as a suit- able dose-response function did not exist at that point. In this work, however, we calculated isoperms for the actual MNAC collection, so it made sense to take the reference permanence as that of an average canvas, i.e. pH 5.1, 20 °C, and 50% RH. Using the threshold DP at which the risk of mechan- ical damage to canvas is considered to be substantial (loss of fitness for use), isochrones can be calculated. These combine pairs of T and RH with equal expected time until loss of fitness for use. In addition to depen- dence on pH, isochrones also depend on the starting DP, which is why two isochrone plots have been calcu- lated, for the average DP and pH as determined in the MNAC survey, and for the same DP and pH 8, repre- senting the stability of hypothetically deacidified canvas. All data analysis was carried out using Origin Pro 9.0. Results Museu Nacional d’Art de Catalunya survey The survey revealed that the paintings from MNAC, all of which were from 1890 to 1910 on canvas which has not undergone any interventive treatments as yet, are appreciably degraded, considering that the starting DP of new linen canvas was measured to be as high as 6600 (Oriola et al., 2012). In contrast, the average pH of the surveyed canvases was 5.1 ± 0.4 and the average DP was 710 ± 260 (Fig. 1). The fre- quency plots also show distributions of pH and DP peaking around average values tailing off towards lower pH and higher DP. It might be of interest to speculate why the values are so low: namely, if the value of DP of canvas at the point of production was a multiple of 1000, then the average DP of 710 must be a reflection of extensive degradation the canvases have already undergone. Similarly, given the low pH value and again consider- ing that fresh linen has a neutral pH, acidification Figure 1 Frequency plots for pH (n = 31) and DP (n = 28) distribution for the surveyed paintings from the MNAC collection. Oriola et al. Collections care scenario appraisal for painting canvases Studies in Conservation 2015 VOL. 60 SUPPLEMENT 1 S195 http://www.maneyonline.com/action/showImage?doi=10.1179/0039363015Z.000000000224&iName=master.img-009.jpg&w=467&h=177 must have taken place either by (i) absorption of acidic atmospheric pollutants, (ii) through penetration of oils or varnishes from the front of a painting into the canvas and their oxidation which yields acidic pro- ducts such as carboxylic acids, (iii) oxidative degra- dation of the cellulosic fibres themselves, or (iv) use of products such as acidified (hardened) animal glues or similar. In either case, the paintings have survived the period of Catalan industrialisation, whereas in post-industrial environments there is now a relatively much cleaner environment in comparison with the recent past (Brimblecombe & Grossi, 2009). It is there- fore safe to assume that environmental pollution is not going to represent a major source of acidification in the near future. Local staining and discolouration does not seem to result in significantly higher local acidity either (Oriola et al., 2014), which would mean that future acidification is likely going to be a consequence of natural degradation processes inherent to canvas. It is of interest to compare MNAC averages with the data obtained from the survey of 12 Dalí paintings from Teatre-Museu Dalí, Figueres, Spain (Oriola et al., 2014). The pH averages for the Dalí paintings were 5.6 ± 0.4, which indicates less acidification which translates into less degradation as well (DP 960 ± 350). The differences between the two survey data could result from different starting acidity of the materials used or different environmental histories of the collections. Additionally, the surveyed Dalí can- vases are all younger (1924–1968) than the surveyed MNAC canvases (1890–1910), which should result in more degradation of the latter. The survey data itself, while of significance, does not allow for any conclusions on what the optimal conser- vation management strategies could be. To do this, we need to predict how different environmental con- ditions or conservation treatments will affect canvas degradation in the future, and compare the outcomes. Isoperm The isoperm plot for the MNAC collection, calculated using the Collections Demography dose-response func- tion for cellulosic materials (Strlič et al., 2015), rep- resents a plot of lines connecting points of equal permanence, defined as the ratio of the rate of degra- dation at a given combination of T, RH, and canvas pH, vs. the rate of degradation at 20 °C, 50% RH, and pH 5.1. This value of pH represents the average pH of canvases in the collection, while the values of T and RH represent typical values for exhibition spaces, as adopted by Sebera (Sebera, 1994). The isoperm plot allows us to estimate environ- mental conditions at which the permanence of an average canvas will be higher or lower than at 20 °C, 50% RH, where the permanence is arbitrarily set as 1 (Fig. 2). Thus, the isoperm is useful to compare the suitability of various display or storage environ- ments in relation to canvas degradation, but does not allow us to assess the following: – The effect of environmental fluctuations, affecting material contraction/expansion and the associated crack formation/growth, or adhesion of layered structures – The expected time until the MNAC canvases will become ‘very fragile’ The former would need to be assessed using a dose-response function describing crack growth and delamination of paint layers as a function of RH or temperature fluctuations, which is not the purpose of this work. The latter, however, requires us to introduce the concept of threshold DP, i.e. DP at which canvases become unfit for manual handling, i.e. they become ‘very fragile’. Canvas isochrones In our previous work (Oriola et al., 2011), we have shown that the category of canvases classified as ‘very fragile’ represents canvases with DP < 600, which could thus be taken as a suitable threshold DP for this category. This is a conservative threshold value, as it represents the upper limit of the ‘very fragile’ category: if a canvas was assessed as a border- line ‘very fragile’ canvas, at least half of the assessors actually thought it did not belong to the most fragile category. A less conservative threshold would reflect a higher level of agreement between assessors. At DP 400, 80–100% of conservators-assessors agreed that the canvas should be categorised in the unfit category. Given that it has been shown that at DP 250 cellulosic fibres lose all mechanical properties (Shroff & Stannett, 1985), DP 400 represents the median DP of Figure 2 The isoperm plot for MNAC canvases, taking the average pH of the 31 surveyed canvases (and 20 °C/50% RH) as the reference permanence conditions. Oriola et al. Collections care scenario appraisal for painting canvases Studies in Conservation 2015 VOL. 60 SUPPLEMENT 1S196 http://www.maneyonline.com/action/showImage?doi=10.1179/0039363015Z.000000000224&iName=master.img-010.jpg&w=222&h=177 the ‘very fragile’ category, and thus a more suitable fitness threshold than its upper limit. We therefore propose DP 400 as the threshold DP in the calcu- lations of useful lifetime of painting canvases. With this threshold, and using the Collections Demography dose-response function, it is now poss- ible to calculate isochrones, i.e. contour diagrams linking points of equal expected remaining lifetime for painting canvases in the collection of MNAC (Fig. 3). We have taken the average pH (5.1) and average DP (710) of the 31 surveyed canvases as the starting point in these calculations, and DP 400 as the endpoint. The isochrone plot in Fig. 3 (left) shows that at Sebera’s reference environmental conditions of 20 °C and 50% RH, the average MNAC canvas will become ‘very fragile’ in ∼220 years. Given that the average environmental conditions in MNAC galleries are 21 °C and 58% RH, this period of time is reduced to ∼140 years. This is a reasonable prediction, if we take into account that the similar canvases at the Teatre-Museu Dalí were in average 40 years younger and had an average DP higher by ∼290 – here we need to note that the Dalí canvases are less acidic and that the ageing curve is an exponential one, i.e. it levels off at longer ageing times. Whether or not the average expected time until loss of fitness is a concern is a matter for discussion and needs to take into account the frequency of use of these canvases (e.g. travel to exhibitions) and their value other than utility, such as rarity, artistic, or his- torical value. In a recent assessment of a suitable long- term planning horizon for collections of objects of no ascribed exceptional value (Dillon et al., 2013), the horizon of 500 years for preventive conservation man- agement was considered suitable, on the basis of a questionnaire distributed among visitors to a number of large archives and libraries in the UK and the USA. Compared to this planning horizon, a lower storage temperature of ca. 15 °C would be suitable, while maintaining the same RH of 50%. (Interestingly, the mean annual temperature in Barcelona is 15 °C (Wikipedia, 2014) which indicates that a passive but humidity-controlled storage environ- ment would suffice.) On the other hand, cooling of a collection year- round is a very resource-intensive option. In Fig. 3 (right), the isochrone plot is shown for the same collec- tion, yet assuming that it has been deacidified, i.e. the pH of the canvas has been increased to 8. It is clear that by using this conservation intervention, it is poss- ible to increase the period of time until loss of fitness considerably, to ∼1100 years. From the resource point of view, the cost–benefit analysis clearly shows that deacidification is preferable to cooling. However, ethical considerations also need to be taken into account. Deacidification would lead to loss of material integrity of the canvas (i.e. change of its chemical composition due to deacidification) and this needs to be weighed against the delayed risk of loss of integrity of the painted layer. Demography of the Museu Nacional d’Art de Catalunya collection With the data for the surveyed paintings at hand, it is now also possible to calculate the time needed for each individual object in this collection to degrade until it becomes ‘very fragile’, since we have access to the average pH and DP data for each object. Currently, four canvases have already reached this stage, i.e. 15% of the collection. The resulting frequency plot, showing the predicted ‘survival’ rate binned into intervals of 50 years, shows a steadily decreasing curve, reflecting the spread of pH and DP values of canvases in the collection. The demographic plot is monotonic, which is a Figure 3 Isochrone plots for the average MNAC painting canvas (starting pH 5.1 and DP 710) at various environmental conditions (left), and assuming the pH of these canvases is increased to 8 by deacidification (right). Oriola et al. Collections care scenario appraisal for painting canvases Studies in Conservation 2015 VOL. 60 SUPPLEMENT 1 S197 http://www.maneyonline.com/action/showImage?doi=10.1179/0039363015Z.000000000224&iName=master.img-011.jpg&w=467&h=181 consequence of the narrow Gaussian distribution of pH values. This is in contrast with the demographic plot for library collections, which is usually double- bell shaped, reflecting the ageing of two populations of paper: acidic and alkaline. The demographic plots (Fig. 4) can be used to evaluate the effect of different conservation manage- ment scenarios. These show how storage at a lower temperature or deacidification would affect the degra- dation of canvases: by storage in a passive (yet humid- ity controlled) environment at an average annual temperature of 15 °C, about 40% would survive 500 years without reaching the ‘very fragile’ state. On the other hand, by deacidification (increase of pH to 8) and storage at current environmental conditions, this number would increase to 60%. The Woman in Hat and Fur Collar (Marie-Thérèse Walter) In 1937, Pablo Picasso painted the exceptional canvas The Woman in Hat and Fur Collar (Marie-Thérèse Walter), in the collection of MNAC (Doñate & Llorens, 2007). As a separate case study, we measured the pH and DP of this canvas at 15 points, with the averages being pH 5.6 ± 0.2 and DP 1700 ± 320. Picasso painted it on a commercially primed plain weave canvas, of which one of the threads is cotton and the other one is a bast fibre (possibly linen). The canvas of this painting is evidently in a good state, and would have been classified as ‘good con- dition’ in the survey referred to above (Oriola et al., 2011). As an example of a canvas in a ‘good condition’, it is of interest how quickly it will degrade in the future at various environmental conditions. In Fig. 5, we present the isochrone plot for the canvas, showing that at the current average annual environmental conditions in MNAC galleries of 21 °C and 58% RH, it will take approximately 330 years for the canvas to degrade to the ‘very fragile’ state, while at Sebera’s reference conditions (20 °C, 50% RH), this period would be ca. 500 years. Conclusions A survey of a limited number of canvases around the year 1900 (±10 years) was performed at the Museu Nacional d’Art de Catalunya. The selection of can- vases (31) was such that they were all of natural origin (bast, jute, or cotton) and showed no evidence of previous conservation treatments. Using a near infrared spectrometric method based on multivariate data analysis, the degree of polymerisation and pH of these canvases was determined non-destructively and the data were analysed in a way that enabled informed conservation decision making. As a particu- lar case study, we also surveyed Picasso’s The Woman in Hat and Fur Collar (Marie-Thérèse Walter), from 1937. The average pH of the surveyed canvases was deter- mined to be 5.1 ± 0.4 and the average DP was 710 ± 260. These are low compared with new canvas, however, the period of time before they become fragile to the point where their handling becomes a risk to their mechanical integrity (loss of fitness) can still be managed using different conservation strat- egies. At the actual environmental conditions at the museum, the average canvas will become ‘very fragile’ in ca. 140 years. On the basis of the survey data, we developed iso- chrones (plots linking points of equal time until loss of fitness) and demographic plots to explore the benefits, and costs, of different storage and display cli- mates, and of canvas deacidification. The paper examines the stability of canvas as the carrier of paint layers and therefore looks at long- term average environmental conditions. In order to computationally examine the stability of paint layers Figure 4 Demographic curve for the surveyed collection of MNAC paintings at the actual environmental conditions (21 °C, 58% RH) as well as three hypothetic scenarios. Figure 5 Isochrone plot calculated on the basis of the data measured for The Woman in Hat …. Oriola et al. Collections care scenario appraisal for painting canvases Studies in Conservation 2015 VOL. 60 SUPPLEMENT 1S198 http://www.maneyonline.com/action/showImage?doi=10.1179/0039363015Z.000000000224&iName=master.img-012.jpg&w=222&h=168 http://www.maneyonline.com/action/showImage?doi=10.1179/0039363015Z.000000000224&iName=master.img-013.jpg&w=222&h=169 themselves as well, a suitable dose-response function yet needs to be developed. Acknowledgements This work has been possible thanks to financial support from the University of Barcelona and from Cost Action D42 (EU). Access to the paintings was made possible thanks to Mireia Mestre, Head of the Conservation Department of the Museu Nacional d’Art de Catalunya (Barcelona). References Brimblecombe, P. & Grossi, C.M. 2009. Millennium-long damage to building materials in London. Science of the Total Environment, 407: 1354–61. 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Collections care scenario appraisal for painting canvases Studies in Conservation 2015 VOL. 60 SUPPLEMENT 1 S199 http://cool.conservation-us.org/byauth/sebera/isoperm/index.html http://cool.conservation-us.org/byauth/sebera/isoperm/index.html http://cool.conservation-us.org/byauth/sebera/isoperm/index.html http://cool.conservation-us.org/byauth/sebera/isoperm/index.html http://cool.conservation-us.org/byauth/sebera/isoperm/index.html http://cool.conservation-us.org/byauth/sebera/isoperm/index.html http://cool.conservation-us.org/byauth/sebera/isoperm/index.html http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_of_Barcelona http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_of_Barcelona http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_of_Barcelona http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_of_Barcelona http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_of_Barcelona http://www.maneyonline.com/action/showLinks?crossref=10.1007%2Fs00604-007-0885-x&isi=000258194900003 http://www.maneyonline.com/action/showLinks?crossref=10.1021%2Fac070392t&isi=000248993300034 http://www.maneyonline.com/action/showLinks?crossref=10.1016%2FS1296-2074%2800%2901078-5&isi=000208132100009 http://www.maneyonline.com/action/showLinks?crossref=10.1016%2FS1296-2074%2800%2901078-5&isi=000208132100009 http://www.maneyonline.com/action/showLinks?system=10.1179%2F2047058412Y.0000000081&isi=000318023400006 http://www.maneyonline.com/action/showLinks?crossref=10.1007%2Fs00339-013-8172-7&isi=000332418000006 http://www.maneyonline.com/action/showLinks?crossref=10.1007%2Fs00339-013-8172-7&isi=000332418000006 http://www.maneyonline.com/action/showLinks?crossref=10.1016%2Fj.scitotenv.2008.09.037&isi=000262573200012 http://www.maneyonline.com/action/showLinks?crossref=10.1039%2FC3AY41094C&isi=000329071500009 http://www.maneyonline.com/action/showLinks?crossref=10.1007%2Fs10570-014-0374-4&isi=000341489300048 http://www.maneyonline.com/action/showLinks?system=10.1179%2F2047058412Y.0000000073&isi=000318023400003 Supplementary material 1 List of the 31 painting canvases from Museu Nacional d’Art de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain (MNAC) used in the research. Cat. No. Author, Title, date 004.038 Ramon Casas, Estudi, circa 1899 004.040 Ramon Casas, Le Sacré Coeur, Montmartre, 1891 004.033 Ramon Casas, Pati de l'antiga presó de Barcelona, 1894 069.042 Ramon Casas, Dona en un interior, 1890 011.382 Ramon Casas, Estudi del natural per al retrat del rei Alfons XIII, 1904 010.901 Ramon Casas, Plen air, 1890-1891 069.023 Francesc Gimeno, Llegint el diari, 1886 113.503 Juli González, Dona rentant-se, 1912-1913 004.005 Joan Llimona, La novícia, 1898 004.006 Joan Llimona, Pasturant, 1901 004.630 Joaquim Mir, Paisatge (Maspujols. Camp de Tarragona), 1907-1910 004.631 Joaquim Mir, Paisatge, 1907-1910 042.090 Joaquim Mir, Hort amb casa de pagès 065.291 Mela Mutermilch, Retrat de J. Dalmau, 1911 010.921 Isidre Nonell, Gitana jove, 1903 065.620 Isidre Nonell, Gracieta, 1907 010.926 Isidre Nonell, La Pilar, 1907 004.660 Isidre Nonell, Júlia, 1908 065.623 Isidre Nonell, Lassitud, 1910 214.090 Pablo Picasso, Dona amb barret i coll de pell (Marie-Thérèse Walter), 1937 004.093 Marià Pidelaserra, Un dia d'hivern en el jardí del Luxemburg, 1900 043.719 Marià Pidelaserra, Vall de Querol, 1897 004.003 Santigo Rusiñol, La riallera, 1894 040.095 Santigo Rusiñol, Jardí de Montmartre, 1890-1891 045.267 Santigo Rusiñol, Entrada al parc del Moulin de la Galette, 1891 063.980 Santigo Rusiñol, Retrat de nen, 1893-1895 004.048 Santigo Rusiñol, "La Butte", 1892 039.143 Joaquim Sunyer, Gitanes, 1906 039.144 Joaquim Sunyer, Gitanes, 1907 010.588 Joaquim Vayreda, Nens jugant (estudi), 1889 010.593 Joaquim Vayreda, Camp de fajol (apunt), 1892 010.589 Joaquim Vayreda, La roureda, 1892 Final_Online_version sic_lacona24 supplementary material Final online version Cit p_11:1: Cit p_18:1: Cit p_13:1: Cit p_13:2: Cit p_4:1: Cit p_10:1: Cit p_10:2: Cit p_1:1: Cit p_8:1: Cit p_5:1: Cit p_16:1: 
work_x3ok32zpifb37gmefeafg53xai	----	To the Cloud! A Grassroots Proposal to Accelerate Brain Science Discovery Neuron NeuroView To the Cloud! A Grassroots Proposal to Accelerate Brain Science Discovery Neuro Cloud Consortium* *Correspondence: jovo@jhu.edu (Joshua T. Vogelstein) http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2016.10.033 The revolution in neuroscientific data acquisition is creating an analysis challenge. We propose leveraging cloud-computing technologies to enable large-scale neurodata storing, exploring, analyzing, and modeling. This utility will empower scientists globally to generate and test theories of brain function and dysfunction. Introduction Technological advances from all around the globe (Grillner et al., 2016) are allowing neuroscientists to collect more precise, complex, varied, and extensive data than ever before (Sejnowski et al., 2014). How can we maximally accelerate our collective ability to extract meaning from such data? To answer this question, the United States Congress commissioned the National Science Foundation (NSF) to ‘‘convene government representatives, neuroscience researchers, private entities, and non-profit institutions’’ (https://www. congress.gov/congressional-report/113th- congress/house-report/448). The NSF funded two events. The first was a work- shop of over 75 individuals from 12 coun- tries and 5 continents that was broadcast live over the internet. Each person was invited to bring a single big idea—one that could have maximal impact, while be- ing both feasible, given existing resources, and universally inclusive. Four ideas emerged as grand challenges for global brain science (Vogelstein et al., 2016). A second event was organized to discuss these ideas with a larger (425 participants) and more diverse community,which willbe the subject of another article. The goal of this NeuroView is to describe one of the four grand challenges and propose a strat- egy to overcome it, in order to gather feed- back from the larger community. The authors are participants in the first confer- ence who volunteered to hash out these ideas via emails, online documents, con- ference calls, and in-person visits. The kernel of the idea is based on a view ofthescientificprocessasan‘‘upwardspi- ral’’: a collective effort where each new experiment yields data, upon which anal- ysis is performed, leading to new or refined models, which suggest novel experiments 622 Neuron 92, November 2, 2016 ª 2016 El (see Figure 1). Historically, the process of data analysis has been kept relatively sim- ple by the small scale of data acquired. But recent advances in experimental technol- ogy, such as serial electron microscopy (Denk and Horstmann, 2004), light sheet microscopy (Weber et al., 2014), and models of the whole human brain at the microscopic level (Amunts et al., 2013), have made data analysis significantly more challenging. While experimental neuroscience is enabling the collection of ever larger and more varied datasets, information technology is undergoing a revolutionofitsown. Commercialdevelop- ment of artificial intelligence and cloud computing innovations are changing the computational landscape (The Economist, 2016). Computing is moving toward ‘‘clou- dification,’’ a ‘‘software as a service’’ model, in which locally installed software programs are replaced by web apps. These forces create a massive opportunity to develop new computational technolo- gies that complement advances in data collection in order to accelerate and democratize model building, hypothesis testing, and model refinement. What Would Change If We Capitalize on This Opportunity? Consider sending a letter, watching a movie at home, or obtaining reference in- formation. Ten to twenty years ago, to send a letter, we purchased paper, stamps, and envelopes; to watch a movie at home, we rented or purchased a VHS or DVD; to obtain reference information, we bought an encyclopedia and obtained yearly revisions. Today, each of those op- tions is still available and indeed preferred in certain circumstances. However, web options exist for each activity as well. In each case, we have privacy, bandwidth, sevier Inc. and financial concerns. Nonetheless, for many of our daily practices we use these cyber solutions, sometimes putting our most private information in the cloud. The everyday practice of brain science is just beginning to benefit from similar tech- nology development. Other scientific disciplines have already navigated similar waters with remarkable success. For example, the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) changed the daily practice of astronomers and cosmologists (Kent, 1994). They still have the option to wait 6 months for telescope time, analyze their data locally on machines they own and maintain, and publish a summary of the results (and many do). Yet there are moreaccountsinSDSSthan therearepro- fessional cosmologists. Astronomers can now log in to SDSS, find previously pub- lished data, run database queries (a skill they typically did not have prior to SDSS), and publish the queries and results. Simi- larly, molecular geneticists historically sequenced their own data (using ma- chines that they owned and maintained), analyzed it locally, and published the re- sults. Now, they can outsource the se- quencing to avoid owning and maintaining the machines, upload the sequences to a national or international database, quanti- tatively compare their sequences to previ- ously published sequences, and then pub- lish their findings. The success of these efforts is evident from the cultural shift of dailypracticesbymany,ifnotmost,partic- ipants in each field. Both fields resolved issues of data privacy, data ownership, governance, and financial concerns, providing aproofofprinciplethatothersci- entific disciplines can do the same. In neuroscience, many of our scien- tific practices remain based on pre- internet methods. A scientist designs an mailto:jovo@jhu.edu http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2016.10.033 https://www.congress.gov/congressional-report/113th-congress/house-report/448 https://www.congress.gov/congressional-report/113th-congress/house-report/448 https://www.congress.gov/congressional-report/113th-congress/house-report/448 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1016/j.neuron.2016.10.033&domain=pdf Figure 1. The Upward Spiral of Science Neuron NeuroView experiment, collects data, stores it locally, keeps meta- data in his head or in some customspreadsheet,analyzes it using software that he buys and installs on local com- puters that he updates regu- larly,andpublishesasummary of the results. We predict that another strategy will be supe- rior for many situations: as the scientist collects data, it gets stored privately or pub- licly in the cloud, and she then selects analyses to occur automatically, having the flexi- bility to pull from a variety of previouslypublishedanalyses, and finally publishes entire ‘‘digital experiments,’’ containing (some of) the data and the entire analysis pipeline. What Are the Primary Goals? We see two key goals that, if achieved, would leverage advances in computing to accelerate brain sciences. The first goal is to make reproducibility and exten- sibility of science as easy as possible, even for small amounts of data or simple data. The current practices of private data storage and siloed analyses make reproducing an analytic result tedious at best and impossible at worst. The steps can include requesting the data, identi- fying the formats and organization, re- questing the code, deciding which func- tions to run and how, getting all necessary dependencies installed, mak- ing sure to use the same software ver- sions, and accessing the same computa- tional hardware. Solutions now exist to mitigate each of these challenges, though they are relatively disparate and uncon- nected. Data can be uploaded to data re- positories (e.g., https://figshare.com/), data standards have been proposed for several domains of brain science (e.g., http://bids.neuroimaging.io/ and http:// www.nwb.org/), code can be stored in publicly accessible repositories (e.g., https://github.com/), interactive tutorials can be provided (e.g., using http:// jupyter.org/), and all necessary software dependencies can be easily packaged together (e.g., using https://www. docker.com/) and run ‘‘in the cloud’’ (e.g., using http://mybinder.org/) on com- mercial service providers (e.g., on https:// aws.amazon.com/ec2/ or https://cloud. google.com/). Nonetheless, given some new data, it is not obvious where to find reference algorithms or how to connect them to the data. Similarly, given a new model, it is not clear how to find reference data, figure out which standard it is using and then fit it, and determine if others have done the same to allow us to compare and assess the results. In either case, once the data are processed, it re- mains difficult to keep track of the result- ing data derivatives and which version of which code resulted in which outputs. So although many of the pieces are in place, there is still no unified ‘‘glue’’ that makes everything work together seam- lessly. Moreover, each of the above- mentioned tools can be used by some brain scientists, but most tools are de- signed for data scientists, so the learning curve can be incredibly steep. Ideally, there would be a place where brain scien- tists could find all relevant analyses and data, run each analysis on each dataset, and see a leaderboard comparing perfor- mances, without writing any lines of code. Cloud-based solutions simplify reproduc- ibility and extensibility by essentially elim- inating activation energy and extraneous sources of analytic variability. The second goal is to enable such a sys- tem to work with ‘‘big data’’ (i.e., data too large to fit on a workstation). Data are scaling in many domains in brain science, either because individual experiments are large (as in calcium imaging and whole- brain CLARITY imaging), there are thou- sands of subjects with gigabytes of data Neu each (as in large-scale human brain imaging projects), or there are millions of time points (as in wearable sensor data). Regardless of source and modality, if it is ‘‘medium data’’ (meaning too large to fit in memory, but small enough to fit on your com- puter), tasksas simple asvisu- alizing, rotating, and opening the data are challenging using standard tools such as MATLAB, Python, or ImageJ. For big data, the challenges are even larger because questions of how to store, compress, manage, and archive the data exceed the computational capabilities and resources of most experimental labs. Cloud-based solutions simplify big data analysis due to their inherently scalable nature. What’s the Big Idea? We are proposing to design, build, and deploy an instance of ‘‘cloud neurosci- ence,’’ meaning that the data, the code, and the analytic results all live in the cloud together. Cloud neuroscience can be thought of as an operating system, a set of programs that run on it, a file system that stores the data, and the data itself, all designed to run in a scalable fashion and to be accessible from anywhere. What Are the Design Criteria? First and foremost, the design and con- struction should be organic, grassroots, and open source, to ensure that it remains intimately connected to the needs of all scientific citizens. Over 100,000 people attend annual brain science conferences, including neuroscience, psychology, psy- chiatry, and neurology. This is a massive human capital resource, so the system should enable contributions from any of them, regardless of background or re- sources. Thus, the system needs to sup- port data and workflows of all kinds, regardless of modality, complexity, or scale—including raw data, derived data, and metadata. Doing so would also further democratize brain sciences, opening the door to the additional 3.5 billion people with mobile broadband access who could contribute if given the opportu- nity. Encouraging and supporting such ron 92, November 2, 2016 623 https://figshare.com/ http://bids.neuroimaging.io/ http://www.nwb.org/ http://www.nwb.org/ https://github.com/ http://jupyter.org/ http://jupyter.org/ https://www.docker.com/ https://www.docker.com/ http://mybinder.org/ https://aws.amazon.com/ec2/ https://aws.amazon.com/ec2/ https://cloud.google.com/ https://cloud.google.com/ Figure 2. Schematic of the Five Proposed Components An individual can adopt any or all of the five roles (color-coded dashed rectangles). For each component, the cloud content is generated by individuals in one of the five roles. Neuron NeuroView involvement motivates an emphasis on ethical standards and cultural sensitivities. Moreover, millions of hours and billions of dollars have been spent developing brain science resources, including vast quanti- ties of data, algorithms, and models. The system should build upon such work. Because different people have different preferences, access controls should be flexible enough to satisfy everyone’s needs. For resources that are open, repro- ducing andextending priorwork should be ‘‘turn-key,’’ allowing researchers to ‘‘swap in’’ different datasets or algorithms as desired. Industry is making tremendous headway in this regard, including digital notebooks to keep track of all analyses, software containers to ease the burden of installing and configuring software, and web servicesthat dynamically provide computational resources as needed. To the extent possible, we should leverage these resources and engage with non- profit, institutional, and corporate partners to express our domain-specific needs. The design should be highly adaptive, to capitalize on rapid advances from within and outside brain sciences, and, of course, open source with permissive li- censes. And the entire system should be able to run not just in a single commercial cloud, but also on other clouds, national resources, institutional clusters, local workstations, and laptops, to enable maximal portability and utility. Perhaps most importantly, the system should be universally useful, helping to answer the grand challenges of brain science while facilitating much greater participation in the scientific process. 624 Neuron 92, November 2, 2016 The motivation underlying this en- deavor is to accelerate the scientific pro- cess by improving the experience of doing brain science. Thus, the community can determine the worst pain points in our process and design solutions around them. For example, if looking at data is the largest bottleneck, then one could use a cloud-based visualization app (like Google Maps, CATMAID, or NeuroDataViz). On the other hand, if the largest bottleneck is getting data into a common format before running analyses, then one would benefit from having all the data stored in a format with a standard- ized application programming interface (API) so every dataset can be accessed in the same way. In other words, it is time for the scientific community to prior- itize the user experience to focus the sub- sequent software development. How Might We Achieve It? In this section, we propose a potential design of the constituent components that could comprise an instance of cloud neuroscience (see Figure 2). The required elements can be divided into five cate- gories: data, infrastructure, apps, algo- rithms, and education. The goal of breaking down the problem this way is to ensurethatallbrainscientists,professional and citizen alike, can contribute to and benefitfromthesystem.Crucialtosuccess will be tight integration across compo- nents, each of which is described in some detail below. Some brain scientists are able to span the full range from design to analysis, including running experiments, analyzing data, making discoveries, and even writing articles. Such polymaths can seamlessly alternate between different roles. Others might be highly skilled in soft- ware engineering, but not data collection. To ensure that all brain scientists can contribute to this effort, we have organized typesofactivities according tothe‘‘role’’ of the individual performing those activities. These roles are not meant to be prescrip- tive; rather, they serve to help guide scien- tists to the different kinds of contributions they could make (see Box 1 for detailed description of the roles). Data The data component is intended to miti- gate difficulties with storing and accessing data, regardless of the modality, scale, or complexity of the data. Anybody would be able to upload raw data, derived data, and metadata as they flow off the sensors and dynamically control access. Func- tionality would build on and incorporate existing brain science data repositories (Ascoli et al., 2007; Burns et al., 2013; Crawford et al., 2016; Poldrack et al., 2013; Teeters et al., 2008), as well as more general services (e.g., FigShare). Therefore, the technical challenges for small and large data storage and access, for the most part, already have reasonable solutions for many data types. The re- maining challenges are to further lower the barrier to entry, making data upload and access easier, especially for multi- terabyte datasets. Data contributions will be able to come from anyone and could be stored in a variety of accessible places to minimize transfer cost and time. Access controls would enable scalable sharing Box 1. Roles We enumerate six different roles for participants. Note that these are not characterizing individuals but roles that any individual can play. Roles differ in their degree of interest and expertise in various aspects of the scientific process, all of which are important. d Experimentalist: A person in this role is acquiring data. This includes activities such as recruiting subjects and specifying in- clusion guidelines (for human studies), experimental setup, subject care, and data acquisition, as well as some aspects of data management and quality control. In this role, a person has extensive knowledge of the experiment details, though computational acumen can be quite modest. d Architect: A person in this role is developing the infrastructure component. In this role, professional software engineer skills are required. Architects work collaboratively on open-source repositories, possibly co-localized. d App Engineer: A person in this role is writing apps. These apps might wrap algorithms written by the engineer or others. In this role, best practices of software development for science, including proper scientific documentation, are crucial. d Data Scientist: A person in this role is writing and running algorithms. These algorithms might serve any step of the scientific process. Data scientists have a wide variety of computational backgrounds, including engineering, physics, mathematics, statistics, and computer science. d Scientific User: A person in this role is using tools to analyze and understand the data. This can take many forms, ranging from looking at images and figures generated directly from the data acquisition system to fitting statistical models and combining multiple disparate datasets. In this role, computational acumen is not required. Familiarity with the data, experimental details, etc. can vary widely. d Educator: A person in this role is either creating or presenting educational content, including documentation, tutorials, and massive online open courses, as well as running workshops, hackathons, and summer courses. Neuron NeuroView with minimal effort. Storage costs would be the responsibility of the data provider if the data are private; if public, others could financially contribute. In either case, economies of scale would reduce storage costs, and we would work with commercial clouds and national infra- structures to offset costs to the extent possible. The data storage formats would allow visualization and analysis at scale. Data contribution would be desirable and possible from any lab, regardless of its financial resources or location. For example, some methods are relatively inexpensive, such as EEG, fNIRS, and wearable technologies. Moreover, certain important subpopulations are better rep- resented in less wealthy countries, enabling unique contributions from those places. If the same measures are included in more expensive projects, analysis bridges could be established between the datasets. This would enhance transla- tional research at a global scale. These factors would lead to important collabora- tions in which less wealthy countries could influence the content and useful- ness of this effort (Neuroinformatics Col- laboratory, 2016). Data types would include raw, derived, and metadata (see Box 2 for additional de- tails). Raw data include data from any kind of experiment, including functional, struc- tural, omics (e.g., genetic and epigenetic), behavioral,andmedicaldata.Everyexper- iment will be given a unique data identifier. Medicaldata will be given special attention to ensure compliance with national guide- lines for patient privacy. Each data type will yield a wide diversity of derived data, including summary statistics, matrices, networks, shapes, and more. Associated with each entry is a collection of metadata, including a community-driven controlled vocabulary, as well as custom ad hoc fields. Metadata on the derived data will include detailed provenance history. The system would be seeded with existing reference datasets spanning spatial, tem- poral, and phylogenetic scales, including data from the Human Brain Project, the Human Connectome Project, the Allen Institute for Brain Science’s data portal, IARPA’s MICrONs program, and more. Infrastructure The infrastructure component is intended to mitigate difficulties in finding data or tools, linking them together, installing soft- ware, managing computers, and repro- ducing and extending results. When the infrastructure is operational, much of the scientific process can be conducted from a tablet or smartphone, replacing the needtobuyandmaintainhigh-powercom- puters or keep software up to date. The infrastructure is essentially the operating system upon which all the services would run, akin to NeuroDebian (Halchenko and Hanke, 2012), but designed specifically for the cloud. This virtual operating system will run in the commercial cloud, on institu- tional resources, national centers, or local workstations, regardless of hardware configuration (e.g., Mac, Windows, Linux, etc.). The software could be designed and written by a small and distributed team of architects to facilitate design deci- sions considering diverse use cases. The infrastructure could be composed of two core sub-components. First, a data management system would store and organize all the data. This could include managing access, assigning digital object identifiers (DOIs), and supporting common data formats, and would be easily exten- sible to new or custom formats. Data could also be compressed with or without loss, as desired by the contributor. Technically, data would be stored in a set of databases optimized for different brain science use cases. Second, a workflow management system would store and organize analyses, leveraging existing web services such as Github and continuous integration to the extent possible. This would enable ‘‘digital experiments,’’ including all stages of data processing. Crucially, such experiments could be done on different hardware platforms, applied to different data (by merely swapping the DOI), or use different algorithms (a similarly simple modification). All infrastructure services would have easy-to-use APIs to maximize utility and extensibility. Neuron 92, November 2, 2016 625 Box 2. Types of Brain Science Data d Functional data are fundamentally temporal and dynamic. Whether univariate or multivariate, the standard operations to apply include zooming in time, subsampling, smoothing, and converting to other domains such as Fourier. Functional data also have a spatial domain, which links them to structural data. The subdivision between functional and structural data may be, for some data, ambiguous. d Structural data are fundamentally spatial in nature, include 2D images, 3D volumes, and 4D and 5D hypervolumes for multispectral and/or time-varying data (spatiotemporal data, such as fMRI and calcium imaging, are both structural and functional). This can include structural images, as well as sparse fluorescent images, gene expression maps, etc. Standard operations for these data include compression, downloads of volumes of arbitrary sizes and shapes, maximum projections, averages, and more. d Omics data are sequential and categorical, including the genome, epigenome, metabolome, and microbiome. Standard queries for genetic data include sequence compression, alignment, and comparisons. Omics data may also have a spatial domain (e.g., gene expression data). d Behavioral data can be of several different types. For example, behavior can be captured via video capture (e.g., behavioral observation of children during play), time series of task events during physiological measurements, questionnaires (e.g., symptom checklists), performance testing instruments (e.g., the NIH Toolbox), and other devices (e.g., actigraphy and voice recorders). Each datum has unique qualities and, therefore, functionality. d Medical data include all electronic health data, including semi-structured text. They are among the most challenging of data types to aggregate, for until recently, the vast majority of the field has relied on paper charts or poorly structured electronic health record (EHR) systems. Fortunately, regulatory and funding agencies are incentivizing the widespread use of EHRs, as well as common data elements that are more amenable to data aggregation for the purposes of discovery science (e.g., the eMerge Network). Additionally, informatics frameworks are being developed to safely link disparate EHR data (e.g., https:// www.i2b2.org/), and calls for the creation of open APIs are gaining attention. Neuron NeuroView Apps The apps component is intended to miti- gate difficulties in maintaining software versions, paying for software, and finding tools appropriate to run on data. Apps are the programs that run on the system, akin to tools like Dropbox (to upload/down- load), Google Maps (to visualize), PubMed Central (to search for informa- tion), BLAST (to compare your data with other data), and pipelines (to process your data). Apps can be developed by anybody with minimal programming skills, due to the careful design of the APIs in the infrastructure. A specification would be formalized and quality standards agreed upon by the community of users to pub- lish apps in the open app marketplace. Different apps would be designed for users with different backgrounds, roles, and goals. For example, apps targeted at people in the experimentalist role could include features to enable uploading, downloading, and managing access without having to learn the APIs. On the other hand, apps targeted at people in the data analysis role could include pre- processing data, fitting models, testing hypotheses, plotting results, and running digital experiments. General purpose apps would include tools to visualize, manipulate, and manually annotate data. 626 Neuron 92, November 2, 2016 These general purpose apps enable a much broader community of users to participate in the scientific process, including those without extensive tech- nical training or financial resources. Algorithms The algorithms component is intended to mitigate difficulties in analyzing data with increasing scale or complexity. Recent advances in artificial intelligence, including distributed machine learning libraries and deep learning, could be lever- aged here. Algorithms operate on simu- lated, measured, or derived data to pro- duce transformed representations or summary statistics of the data. Algorithms can be written by anybody with minimal data-science skills, including many cur- rent brain scientists, without knowledge of this proposed system (unlike apps). Al- gorithms are essentially ‘‘wrapped’’ in apps to run and therefore inherit many of the conveniences of the system. We parti- tion algorithms into three different types. Scalable data-processing algorithms can be applied to a wide variety of data types. These will be easily daisy-chained together to obtain pipelines, which can similarly be adapted to apply different al- gorithms or data. Because algorithms will be applied more generally to less familiar data, or less familiar algorithms will be applied to familiar data, quality assess- ment will be particularly important. This wouldincludebothqualitativedashboards providing figures and quantitative metrics to evaluate and compare performances along different metrics. Finally, to optimize resources and avoid duplicating efforts across labs, experiments will need to be useful for a large number of people. Exper- imental design will therefore be a key algo- rithmic component as well. Education Just like there is a learning curve when switching from Windows to Mac, so too switching from current practices to this system will involve a learning curve. There- fore, the success of this endeavor will depend on extensive educational material, including documentation, tutorials, online courses, hackathons, workshops, and summer courses. All the content will be designed to complement existing educa- tional resources, such as Coursera courses. The variety of educational resources would reflect the backgrounds and skills of the user and contributor communities, with the goal of universal ac- cess. Because of this variety, community- driven cultural sensitivity guidelines would be posted for all contribution types. https://www.i2b2.org/ https://www.i2b2.org/ Neuron NeuroView Discussion Here we describe an immediately action- able grassroots proposal to marry recent advances in neurodata acquisition with scalable cloud computing to accelerate the process of discovery by scientists independently of how well resourced they are (we have developed a proof-of- concept example using multimodal MRI data; see http://neurodata.io for details). There are several mechanisms by which Cloud Neuroscience may yield benefits. Global collaborations may become much simpler and therefore more preva- lent. Open science may be facilitated, and the barriers and benefits to con- ducting open science may become more transparent by virtue of the design. Many models can be tested on the same data- set, and individual models can be sub- jected to greater diversity of data-based reality checks. In the near term, any effort that generates reference data of interest to a large segment of the community can benefit from Cloud Neuroscience. One example is the upcoming �10 petabytes from the IARPA MICrONS program. Several potential criticisms are worth addressing, and many details need to be fleshed out. Privacy concerns for human data will require careful additional thinking so that best practices of anonymization and security can be implemented—prece- dent is provided by ongoing large research initiatives (e.g., Jack et al., 2008; Murphy et al., 2010; Sarwate et al., 2014). A viable financial model will be required. Potential partners include national laboratories that could contribute computing and storage resources, or companies interested in providing cloud-based web services for specific scientific subdomains. Return on investment must be considered. Cosmol- ogy, molecular genetics, and plant biology (see http://www.cyverse.org/) are existing proofs that when designed well, such re- sources can a yield dramatic and positive impact on the field. Other cloud- computing neuroscience efforts that focus on the human brain are already underway, such as CBRAIN (Das et al., 2016) and the Human Brain Project. Such efforts are important; the proposed project has been designed to leverage the develop- ments from those projects and extend them to address a greater diversity of brain science questions, species, data modal- ities, and functionalities. The above plans and challenges sug- gest immediately actionable next steps. A field engineer has been appointed to develop asurveyto determinewhichexist- ing resources are most useful (pooling in- formation from places like https://github. com/ and https://www.nitrc.org/) and what new resources would be most useful. A software engineer has agreed to contribute significant effort toward build- ing a ‘‘Neuroscience as a Service’’ frame- work (the virtual operating system and apps described above) based upon exist- ing related services. They will begin formalizing minimal specifications for all resources. We have also obtained private seed funding to hire an additional senior software engineer. To gather community feedback, we will be monitoring https:// neurostars.org/ for any posts that contain the tag ‘‘neurostorm.’’ Next, sustainable governance, funding, and advisory models will be devised. Pablo Picasso famously quipped, ‘‘Every child is an artist. The problem is how to remain an artist once we grow up.’’ As the next generation of brain scien- tists grows up, we have an opportunity to provide them with a canvas on which they can craft ever more creative portraits of our minds. Cloud neuroscience is one step we can take in that direction. SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION Supplemental Information includes a complete author list with affiliations and can be found with this article online at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. neuron.2016.10.033. ABOUT THE AUTHORS Joshua T. Vogelstein is a neurostatistician; an Assistant Professor of Biomedical Engineering at Johns Hopkins University (JHU); and a member of the Institute for Computational Medicine, Center for Imaging Science, and Kavli Neuroscience Dis- covery Institute (KNDI). Brett Mensh founded Opti- mize Science, a science consulting agency, and is Scientific Advisor at Janelia Research Campus. Drs. Vogelstein and Mensh co-organized the Global Brain Workshop, an event in April 2016 with Richard Huganir, Professor and Director of the Department of Neuroscience and Director of KNDI, JHU, and Michael I. Miller, Herschel and Ruth Seder Professor and University Gilman Scholar, Director of the Center for Imaging Sci- ence, and Co-director of KNDI, JHU. 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A Grassroots Proposal to Accelerate Brain Science Discovery Neuro Cloud Consortium Joshua T. Vogelstein,1,33,34,35,36,* Brett Mensh,2,3,5 Michael Häusser,4 Nelson Spruston,5 Alan C. Evans,6 Konrad Kording,7 Katrin Amunts,8,9,10 Christoph Ebell,10 Jeff Muller,10 Martin Telefont,10 Sean Hill,11 Sandhya P. Koushika,12 Corrado Calì,13 Pedro Antonio Valdés-Sosa,14,15 Peter B. Littlewood,16 Christof Koch,17 Stephan Saalfeld,5 Adam Kepecs,18 Hanchuan Peng,17 Yaroslav O. Halchenko,19 Gregory Kiar,1,33 Mu-Ming Poo,20 Jean-Baptiste Poline,21 Michael P. Milham,22,23 Alyssa Picchini Schaffer,24 Rafi Gidron,25 Hideyuki Okano,26,27 Vince D. Calhoun,28,29 Miyoung Chun,30 Dean M. Kleissas,31 R. Jacob Vogelstein,32 Eric Perlman,33 Randal Burns,34,35 Richard Huganir,36,37 and Michael I. Miller1,33,37 1Department of Biomedical Engineering, Institute for Computational Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA 2Optimize Science, Mill Valley, CA 94941, USA 3UCSF Kavli Institute for Fundamental Neuroscience, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA 4Wolfson Institute for Biomedical Research and Department of Neuroscience, Physiology, and Pharmacology, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK 5Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, 19700 Helix Drive, Ashburn, VA 20147, USA 6Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, 3801 University Street, Montreal, QC H3A 2B4, Canada 7Departments of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Physiology, Applied Mathematics, and Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, 345 East Superior Street, Chicago, IL 60611, USA 8Institute for Neuroscience and Medicine, INM-1, Forschungszentrum Jülich, 52428 Jülich, Germany 9Cécile and Oskar Vogt Institute of Brain Research, University Hospital Duesseldorf, University Duesseldorf, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany 10Human Brain Project, EPFL, 1202 Geneva, Switzerland 11Blue Brain Project, EPFL, Campus Biotech, 1202 Geneva, Switzerland 12Department of Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Homi Bhabha Road, Navy Nagar, Colaba, Mumbai 400005, India 13Biological and Environmental Science and Engineering, KAUST, Thuwal 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia 14University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Shahe Campus, Chengdu, Sichuan 610054, PRC 15Cuban Neurosciences Center, Cubanacan, Playa, Havana CP 11600, Cuba 16Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 South Cass Avenue, Argonne, IL 60439, USA 17Allen Institute for Brain Science, 615 Westlake Avenue North, Seattle, WA 98109, USA 18Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Marks Building, 1 Bungtown Road, Cold Spring Harbor, NY 11724, USA 19Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH 03755, USA 20Institute of Neuroscience, Chinese Academy of Sciences Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, 320 Yue Yang Road, Shanghai 200031, China 21Henry H. Wheeler Jr. Brain Imaging Center, Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA 22Center for the Developing Brain, Child Mind Institute, 445 Park Avenue, New York, NY 10022, USA 23Nathan S. Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, 140 Old Orangeburg Road, Orangeburg, NY 10962, USA 24Simons Collaboration on the Global Brain, Simons Foundation, 160 Fifth Avenue, 7th Floor, New York, NY 10010, USA 25Israel Brain Technologies, Precede Building, Hakfar Hayarok, Ramat Hasharon 47800, Israel 26Department of Physiology, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582, Japan 27Laboratory for Marmoset Neural Architecture, RIKEN Brain Science Institute, 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako, Saitama 351- 0198, Japan 28The Mind Research Network, Albuquerque, NM 87106, USA 29Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA 30The Kavli Foundation, 1801 Solar Drive, Suite #250, Oxnard, CA 93030, USA 31Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, 11100 Johns Hopkins Road, Laurel, MD 20723, USA 32Intelligence Advanced Research Projects Activity (IARPA), Maryland Square Research Park, 5850 University Research Court, Riverdale Park, MD 20737, USA 33Center for Imaging Science 34Department of Computer Science 35Institute for Data Intensive Engineering and Science Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA 36Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA 37Kavli Neuroscience Discovery Institute, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA *Correspondence: jovo@jhu.edu To the Cloud! A Grassroots Proposal to Accelerate Brain Science Discovery Introduction What Would Change If We Capitalize on This Opportunity? What Are the Primary Goals? What’s the Big Idea? What Are the Design Criteria? How Might We Achieve It? Data Infrastructure Apps Algorithms Education Discussion Supplemental Information show $^ABAUTH References 
work_x6ggkoqzjjftblnouzsmsfx6ki	----	Scientific investigation into the water sensitivity of twentieth century oil paints UvA-DARE is a service provided by the library of the University of Amsterdam (https://dare.uva.nl) UvA-DARE (Digital Academic Repository) Scientific investigation into the water sensitivity of twentieth century oil paints Lee, J.; Bonaduce, I.; Modugno, F.; La Nasa, J.; Ormsby, B.; van den Berg, K.J. DOI 10.1016/j.microc.2018.01.017 Publication date 2018 Document Version Final published version Published in Microchemical Journal License CC BY Link to publication Citation for published version (APA): Lee, J., Bonaduce, I., Modugno, F., La Nasa, J., Ormsby, B., & van den Berg, K. J. (2018). Scientific investigation into the water sensitivity of twentieth century oil paints. Microchemical Journal, 138, 282-295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.microc.2018.01.017 General rights It is not permitted to download or to forward/distribute the text or part of it without the consent of the author(s) and/or copyright holder(s), other than for strictly personal, individual use, unless the work is under an open content license (like Creative Commons). Disclaimer/Complaints regulations If you believe that digital publication of certain material infringes any of your rights or (privacy) interests, please let the Library know, stating your reasons. In case of a legitimate complaint, the Library will make the material inaccessible and/or remove it from the website. Please Ask the Library: https://uba.uva.nl/en/contact, or a letter to: Library of the University of Amsterdam, Secretariat, Singel 425, 1012 WP Amsterdam, The Netherlands. You will be contacted as soon as possible. Download date:06 Apr 2021 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.microc.2018.01.017 https://dare.uva.nl/personal/pure/en/publications/scientific-investigation-into-the-water-sensitivity-of-twentieth-century-oil-paints(e12f3fb8-e988-41db-8858-1ef70707c079).html https://doi.org/10.1016/j.microc.2018.01.017 Microchemical Journal 138 (2018) 282–295 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Microchemical Journal journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/microc Scientific investigation into the water sensitivity of twentieth century oil paints Judith Lee a,⁎, Ilaria Bonaduce b, Francesca Modugno b, Jacopo La Nasa b, Bronwyn Ormsby a, Klaas Jan van den Berg c a Conservation Department, Tate, Millbank, London SW1P 4RG, United Kingdom b Department of Chemistry and Industrial Chemistry, University of Pisa, via Moruzzi 13-56124, Pisa, Italy c Cultural Heritage Agency of the Netherlands (RCE), Hobbemastraat 22, 1071, ZC, Amsterdam ⁎ Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: judith.lee@tate.org.uk (J. Lee), ilaria.b francesca.modugno@unipi.it (F. Modugno), jacopo.lanasa@ bronwyn.ormsby@tate.org.uk (B. Ormsby), K.van.den.Berg@ (K.J. van den Berg). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.microc.2018.01.017 0026-265X/© 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V a b s t r a c t a r t i c l e i n f o Article history: Received 31 August 2017 Received in revised form 19 December 2017 Accepted 12 January 2018 Available online 2 February 2018 In order to develop a better understanding at the molecular level of water sensitivity in twentieth century oil paintings, water sensitive Winsor & Newton oil paint swatches and twentieth century oil paintings were characterised using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) and direct injection electrospray ionisation mass spectrometry (ESI-MS), and the data were analysed using principal component analysis. Liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry based on quadrupole and time of flight mass detectors and electrospray interface (HPLC-ESI-Q-ToF) was also used to obtain a better insight into the molecular composi- tion of a selection of samples. The study highlights a strong relationship between the molecular composition of the binding medium and the type of pigment present in the paint, which relates to water sensitivity. Consistently non- water sensitive lead white, titanium white, and zinc white paints [all containing zinc oxide] contained a relatively low proportion of extractable diacids, and a relatively high proportion of extractable short chain monoacids. These paints also contained a relatively low level of unsaturated and hydroxylated glycerides. Water sensitive iron oxide and ultramarine paints are associated with both a relatively high degree of oxidation and a high proportion of ex- tractable diacids, as well as a relatively high content of unsaturated and hydroxylated glycerides. Water sensitive cadmium red, yellow and orange paints were generally not highly oxidised, but they also contained a relatively high content of unsaturated and hydroxylated glycerides. It is hypothesised that water sensitivity relates to a low degree of saponification and crosslinking and possibly, on the relative content of dicarboxylic acids. © 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Keywords: Water sensitivity Modern oil paintings Electrospray ionisation mass spectrometry Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry Principal component analysis 1. Introduction The phenomena of the water sensitivity of twentieth century oil paintings is of concern to conservators since it can complicate or pre- vent surface cleaning treatment and consolidation [1]. There are many examples of water sensitive unvarnished twentieth century oil paint- ings reported in the literature including works by Karel Appel, Jasper Johns, Robyn Denny, Wassily Kandinksy, Kazimir Malevich, Piet Mon- drian, Clyfford Still, Paula Rego, Patrick Heron, Francis Bacon and Per Kerkeby [1–5]. There is currently a need to develop an understanding at the molecular level of the characteristics and causes of water sensitiv- ity in twentieth century oil paintings in order to inform the develop- ment of suitable materials and methodologies for surface cleaning [6] onaduce@unipi.it (I. Bonaduce), for.unipi.it (J. La Nasa), cultureelerfgoed.nl . This is an open access article under as well as potentially limiting the development of water sensitivity in paints. This is critical in order to ensure that water sensitive modern oil paintings will be in a condition fit for display in the medium to long term. There are many causal factors that are believed to be implicated in the development of water sensitivity in twentieth and twenty first cen- tury oil paintings [7]: • modern oil paint formulation including the choice of pigment, binder, extender and additives such as metal soaps and driers • environmental conditions such as relative humidity, UV light and at- mospheric pollutants • artists' use and modification of commercially prepared materials The conversion of magnesium carbonate [an extender used by Win- sor & Newton (W&N)] to form water soluble magnesium sulphate heptahydrate upon exposure to environmental SO2 is one known cause of water sensitivity in modern oil paintings [8]. In addition, a the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1016/j.microc.2018.01.017&domain=pdf http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://doi.org/10.1016/j.microc.2018.01.017 mailto:jacopo.lanasa@for.unipi.it mailto:K.van.den.Berg@cultureelerfgoed.nl https://doi.org/10.1016/j.microc.2018.01.017 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/0026265X www.elsevier.com/locate/microc 283J. Lee et al. / Microchemical Journal 138 (2018) 282–295 high dicarboxylic acid content has been observed in some water sensi- tive oil paint samples [9] suggesting that the composition of the binding medium may relate to water sensitivity. Artists' oil paints are typically made using drying oils and semi-dry- ing oils such as linseed, poppy and safflower oil [9]. Drying oils - which are initially comprised of triglycerides containing saturated and polyun- saturated fatty acids - cure via a complex process based on autoxidative radical chain reactions [10]. The first step of curing is the abstraction of a hydrogen free radical, followed by oxygen addition, leading to the for- mation of a peroxide. A peroxide can evolve through two main path- ways, in competition with one another, one leading to polymerisation, and one leading to oxidative scission [7] which results in the formation of α,ω-dicarboxylic acids as final products [11]. Nonanedioic (azelaic) acid along with octanedioic (suberic) and decanedioic (sebacic) acids are the major diacids produced as a result of oxidative scission. The hy- drolysis of ester bonds that occurs upon ageing results in the formation of diglycerides, monoglycerides, free fatty acids and diacids, as well as glycerol [12]. Certain cations contained in pigments and extenders, in- cluding lead, zinc, copper, cobalt, etc., are able to form metal soaps with carboxylic moieties produced by oxidation and hydrolysis [13,14]. In this study the relationship between the molecular composition of the binding medium and water sensitivity was further investigated. Samples taken from W&N artists' oil paint swatches (samples painted out by the manufacturer during production to monitor drying behav- iour) dating from 1945 to 2003 and naturally aged since then and sam- ples from a wide series of case study twentieth century oil paintings were analysed using a combination of Fourier transform infrared spec- troscopy (FTIR), gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS), di- rect injection electrospray ionisation mass spectrometry (ESI-MS), and liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry based on quadrupole and time of flight mass detectors and electrospray interface (HPLC ESI-Q-ToF). These techniques have been successfully used for the analysis of lipid binding media [15–19]. Sample preparation for GC–MS typically involves extraction of lipids, hydrolysis of glycer- ides and metal soaps, and derivatisation to increase the volatility of ex- tracted compounds [20]. In this case (m-trifluoromethylphenyl) trimethylammonium hydroxide (TMTFTH) in methanol was used as a one-step derivatisation (transesterification/methylation) agent (Meth Prep II) [21,22] that does not require complex sample pre-treatments or extraction steps and therefore minimises loss of sample, and the risk of contamination [23]. When applied to oil paint samples, TMTFTH converts non-crosslinked fatty acids and diacids originally present as glycerides, as metal soaps or as free fatty acids into the corresponding methyl esters [21], giving information on the whole organic content, with the exception of the crosslinked polymeric network. Direct injec- tion electrospray ionisation mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) was used to analyse the ethanol extracts of the paint samples. This, in combination with the fact that data used were acquired in the negative mode, allowed the gathering of information on the most polar and soluble con- stituents of the paints, including free fatty acids and dicarboxylic acids, as well as non-crosslinked glycerides containing at least a dicarboxylic acid. Liquid chromatography coupled with ESI-Q-ToF mass spectrome- try (HPLC ESI-Q-ToF), was used to evaluate the glyceride profile from a qualitative and semi-quantitative point of view [19]. Finally, multivar- iate analysis was used to support data interpretation, allowing the iden- tification of trends in the large data set as well as differences between water sensitive and non-water sensitive samples. 2. Materials and methods 2.1. Samples Winsor and Newton (W&N) produced paint swatches to monitor the drying behaviour of each batch of manufactured paint. Samples of paint were applied to primed canvas or a paper support (using a palette knife or draw-down bar). A group of 27 water sensitive and non-water sensitive naturally aged W&N Artists' Oil Colour swatches dating from 1945 to 2003 (see Table 1) were selected. Their water sensitivity was evaluated with an established swab rolling method [3] and the basic paint composition of the investigated W&N swatches is published in de- tail elsewhere [24]. In addition to the paint swatches, a total of 86 non- water sensitive and water sensitive samples were taken from selected case study paintings as listed in Table 2. The composition of the samples (i.e., pigment, binding media and extender) removed from case study paintings is shown in Supplementary data, Table A.1. 2.2. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) Transmission FTIR spectroscopic analysis was carried out on a Thermo scientific Nicolet iN10 MX microscope using a single diamond cell. 64 scans were collected at a resolution of 4 cm−1 across a wave- number range of 4000 to 600 cm−1. Data was processed using Omnic 8 software. 2.3. Electrospray ionisation mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) Direct injection ESI-MS analyses were carried out on paint samples of 0.1–0.5 mg after solvent extraction using ethanol [25]. The extract was mixed 1:1 with 20 mM ammonium acetate (NH4Ac) in ethanol. Samples were delivered to the MS system with a Micromass CapLC sys- tem: MS analysis was carried out with a Micromass Q-tof-2, equipped with a nano probe and ESI source. MS data were collected and interpreted using MassLynx 4.0 software (Waters). All spectra were col- lected in high mass resolution mode. Since the molecular formula of the ions is unambiguous for all ions in this study, only nominal masses are presented. 2.4. Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) Two surface scrapings (of b1 mg) and two bulk samples (of around 1 mg) were taken from each W&N swatch. Surface samples only were taken from case study paintings. Samples were derivatised using Meth Prep II (Grace™ Alltech™). Details on the analytical procedure are re- ported elsewhere [22]. GC was carried out on a Varian CP-3900 GC coupled with a 1200L MS detector. Oven program: 80 °C ramped to 320 °C at 10 °C/min then held for 5 min at 320 °C. Total run time was 29 min. Split (20:1) injection volume was 1 μL, and the helium flow was 1.0 mL/min. MS conditions: source temperature: 220 °C; transfer line temperature: 270 °C, injection port set at 300 °C. Column: Phenomenex Zebron ZB-5 column (30 m length; 0.25 mm i.d.; 0.25 μm film thickness). EI mode (70 eV); scan group 1: 45–300 amu; Group 2: 45–700 amu at 16 mins, every 1 s. Chromatographic peak areas were used to calculate ratios between the abundances of signifi- cant analytes. 2.5. HPLC-ESI-Q-Tof For the HPLC–ESI-Q-ToF analyses samples (2–3 were subjected to extraction assisted by microwaves in a microwave oven Ethos One (Milestone, U.S.A.) (power 600 W), with 300 μL of a chloroform-hexane (3:2) mixture at 80 °C for 25 min. The extracts were dried under a nitro- gen stream, diluted with 600 μL of elution mixture, and filtered on a 0.45 μm PTFE filter (Grace Davison Discovery Sciences, U.S.A.) just be- fore injection. HPLC-ESI-Q-ToF analyses were carried out using a 1200 Infinity HPLC, coupled with a Quadrupole-Time of Flight tandem mass spec- trometer 6530 Infinity Q-ToF detector by a Jet Stream ESI interface (Agilent Technologies). The chromatographic separation was carried out using a Poroshell 120 EC-C18 column (3.0 mm × 5.0 mm, 2.7 μm particle size) with a Zorbax eclipse plus C-18 guard column (4.6 mm × 12.5 mm, 5 μm particle size) at a flow rate of 0.3 mL·min−1 and at 45 °C. Aliquots of 10 μL were injected and the elution gradient was Table 1 List of W&N swatches selected for study. Swatch (Pigment) Year Swatch (shorthand) Water sensitive Extenders/additivesa Ratio of the FTIR peak areas of amorphous metal soaps vs. carbonyl absorptionb Crystalline zinc soaps detected Epsomite detectedc Average ratio Standard deviation Burnt Umber (iron oxide) 1949 BU49 Y None detected 1.8 0.5 N N 2003 BU03 Y Magnesium carbonate 0.5 0.1 N N Cadmium Lemon (cadmium sulphide) 1963 CdL63 Y Magnesium carbonate, barium sulphate, alumina white (hydrated aluminium oxide) 1.5 1.0 N Y 1993 CdL93 N 1.7 0.6 N N 2003 CdL03 Y 2.3 0.4 N N Cobalt Blue Deep (cobalt zinc silicate) 1965 CoBD65 Y Magnesium carbonate 1.6 1.6 N N 2003 CoBD03 Y 0.5 0.5 N N Cobalt Green (cobalt zinc oxide) 1962 CoG62 N Magnesium carbonate, alumina white (hydrated aluminium oxide) 1.8 1.4 N N 1993 CoG93 N 2.8 1.6 N Y Cobalt Green (cobalt titanate green spinel) 2003 CoG03 Y 0.8 0.3 N N Flake White (lead white + zinc oxide) 1957 FlW57 N Cobalt + zirconium driers 9.4 3.9 Y N 2003 FlW03 N None detected 2.5 0.8 Y N French Ultramarine (sodium alumino silicate) 1949 FrU49 Y None detected 2.0 0.5 N N 2003 FrU03 Y Magnesium carbonate 0.6 0.2 N N Oxide of Chromium (chromium oxide) 1945 OxCr45 Y Magnesium carbonate 1.9 0.3 N N 1948 OxCr48 N 1.2 0.2 N N 2003 OxCr03 Y 0.5 0.1 N N Rose Doré (madder) 1945 RD45 N Alumina white (hydrated aluminium oxide), aluminium stearate 1.9 0.4 N N 2003 RD03 N 1.0 0.1 N N Titanium White (titanium oxide and zinc oxide) 1966 TiW66 N Barium sulphate 11.5 2.6 Y N 2003 TiW03 N Magnesium carbonate, barium sulphate 1.6 0.3 Y N Winsor Green (phthalocyanine green) 1949 WG49 N Barium sulphate 0.8 0.2 Y N 1964 WG64 Y 0.3 0.2 Y N 1993 WG93 N Barium sulphate, magnesium carbonate 0.4 0.1 Y Y 2003 WG03 Y 0.2 0.1 Y N Zinc White (zinc oxide) 1973 ZnW73 N None detected 9.5 1.1 Y N 2003 ZnW03 N 3.4 0.8 N N a Samples were previously characterised using scanning electron microscopy–energy dispersive X–ray spectroscopy (SEM–EDX) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and data are published and discussed elsewhere [24]. b Amorphous metal soaps were detected in the W&N swatches using FTIR on the basis of a broad absorption band present in the region ~1650–1550 cm−1, the carbonyl absorption band appears at ~1740 cm−1. The corrected peak areas of these bands were determined using Omnic 8 software for x6 FTIR spectra that were acquired for two bulk samples taken from each W&N swatch. Ratios of the FTIR peak areas of amorphous metal soap:carbonyl absorption bands were calculated for each spectra, the results averaged, and standard deviation calculated, based on triplicate measurements. c Epsomite was identified on the basis of SEM imaging in conjunction of SEM-EDX elemental mapping of surface samples taken from swatches [24]. 284 J. Lee et al. / Microchemical Journal 138 (2018) 282–295 programmed using methanol/water 85:15 (eluent A) and iso-propanol (eluent B) as follows: 90% A for 5 min, followed by a linear gradient to 90% B in 30 min (held for 10 min). Re-equilibration time for each anal- ysis run was 10 min. ESI operating conditions: drying gas (N2, purity N 98%): 350 °C and 10 L·min−1; capillary voltage 4.5 KV; nebuliser gas 35 psig; sheath gas (N2, purity N 98%): 375 °C and 11 L·min −1. High resolution MS and MS/MS spectra were acquired in positive mode in the range 100– 1700 m/z. The fragmentor was kept at 200 V, nozzle voltage 1000 V, skimmer 65 V, octapole RF 750 V. The MS/MS spectra presented in the text were obtained at 50 V. The collision gas was nitrogen (purity 99.999%). The data were collected by auto MS/MS acquisition with an MS scan rate of 1.03 spectra·sec−1 and an MS/MS scan rate of 1.05 spectra·sec−1; only one precursor was acquired per cycle (relative threshold 0.010%). The mass axis was calibrated daily using the Agilent tuning mix HP0321 diluted in water and acetonitrile (Agilent Technolo- gies). MassHunter® Workstation Software (B.04.00) was used to carry out mass spectrometer control, data acquisition, and data analysis. The structures of the triglycerides (TAGs) were identified by the evaluation of their exact mass, the interpretation of their tandem mass spectra and by comparison with previously published mass spectra data [19,26]. 2.6. Multivariate analysis Principal Component Analysis (PCA) on the covariance matrix of se- lected mass spectral data was carried out using XLSTAT 2015.3.01 (Addinsoft). 3. Results and discussion 3.1. Comparison of the data sets The key differences between the analytical techniques used as de- scribed in this study are summarised in Table 3. None of the techniques used are a direct measure of the cross-linked fraction nor the degree of crosslinking. Similarly none of the techniques used are a direct measure of the metal soap content of the paint samples (including added metal soaps or those formed in situ). As a measure of the degree of oxidation, azelaic acid/palmitic acid (A/P) ratios derived from GC–MS data are con- sidered more representative of the overall degree of oxidation of the paint film than equivalent ratios derived from the ESI-MS data set (which only relates to the polar extractable organic components of the paint). 3.2. W&N swatches Negative mode ESI-MS mass spectra (e.g. Fig. 1) yielded the most in- teresting information about the extractable polar glycerides and fatty acids. The attribution of the most significant fragment ions observed in the ESI-MS mass spectra are listed in Table 4. This set of 28 ions was the most abundant in the mass spectra for all samples, and were therefore selected for PCA analysis as the most significant. The 28 ions were identified on the basis of their nominal mass and information available in the literature [15,25] and were analysed using an Table 2 List of case study paintings selected for study. The colour of non-water sensitive and water sensitive passages are noted. For further details of paint composition including pigment type see Supplementary data(Table A.1). Painting Colour of water sensitive passage(s) Colour of non-water sensitive passage(s) 1 Frank Auerbach Oxford Street Building Site I 1959–60 (Tate, T00418) Brown, ochre, yellow, mars red n/a 2 Derek Boshier Shy Cowboy 1980 (Tate, T07475) Bright orange, bright red, dark green, brown, dark brown Pink, grey, white 3 The Hon. Dorothy Brett Massacre in the Canyon of Death: Vision of the sun God 1958 (Tate, T00285) Brown, ochre, orange, yellow Light green, white 4 Avinash Chandra Hills of Gold 1965 (Tate, T00724) Red, orange, yellow, dark green, black Light blue, white 5 Prunella Clough Bypass 1 1960 (The Courtauld Institute of Art, P.1984.AH.66) n/a White, brown, blue, green, orange, yellow 6 Prunella Clough Wire Tangle II 1978 (The Courtauld Institute of Art, P.1984. AH.67) n/a White, yellow, grey 7 Alan Davie, Image of the Fish God, 1956 (Tate, T01748) Dark blue, yellow, maroon, white priming White 8 Adrian Heath Painting in Brown and Black 1960 (Tate, T00396) Orange, light brown Black, white 9 Ferdinand Kulmer Brown Picture 1960 (Tate, T00429) Brown, dark blue, maroon n/a 10 Joan Mitchell Chord II 1986 (Tate, T12429) Blue, bright green, dark green Bright red, white 11 Emile Nolde Sea B 1930 (Tate, T00865) Dark blue, orange Yellow, white, purple, light blue 12 Ray Parker Untitled 1959 (Tate, T00441) Bright red, dark red Bright red, white, pink 13 Pablo Picasso Nude Woman in a Red Armchair 1959 (Tate, N06205) Bright red, dark green White, lilac, light yellow, light green, brown, black, grey 14 Pablo Picasso The Three Dancers 1925 (Tate, T00729) Dark green Dark brown 15 Jean-Paul Riopelle Perspectives 1956 (Tate, T00123) Dark blue, light blue, bright red, green, ochre, yellow Black, white 16 Wilhelm Sasnal Gaddafi I 2011 (Tate, T14241) n/a Black, yellow, blue, bright red, bright green, brown, white 17 William Scott Reclining Nude (Red Nude) 1956 (Tate, T00811) Dark orange, light orange Red 18 Richard Smith Painting 1958 (Tate, T01588) Yellow, red White 19 Sir Matthew Smith The Young Actress 1943 (Tate, N05440) Blue, red Pink, red, brown, blue 20 Ethel Walker The Zone of Love: Decoration 1930-2 (Tate, N05668) Dark blue, bright yellow (localised areas only) White, maroon, red, blues, brown 285J. Lee et al. / Microchemical Journal 138 (2018) 282–295 unsupervised multivariate pattern analysis method: Principal Compo- nent Analysis (PCA). Having normalised the intensity of the 28 m/z to their sum, the in- tensities of related species were summed according to the following groups: short chain monocarboxylic acids (C6-C10); dicarboxylic acids (diC7-diC10); monoglycerides of dicarboxylic acids (MAG(diC8);MAG (diC9)); hydroxy derivatives of C18 fatty acids, diglycerides containing only suberic and/or azelaic acids; diglycerides containing palmitic acid and diacids; diglycerides containing stearic acid and diacids; triglycer- ides containing three azelaic acid moieties. Free palmitic, stearic, and oleic acid were also included in the data matrix of 11 × 27 variables [shown in Supplementary data, Table A.2] analysed via PCA of the co- variance matrix. The scatter plot of the first two principal components (PCs) (Fig. 2) shows that the composition of the extracts relates primarily to the pig- ment type [particularly the presence or absence of zinc oxide] rather than to the age of the samples, even where the age difference is up to 58 years. Non-water sensitive white (Flake White, Zinc White and Tita- nium White) and green paints (Cobalt Green), all of which contain zinc Table 3 Species detected by the different adopted analytical techniques. Technique used Species detected Free fatty acids Free fatty acids including those originating from hydrolysed glycerides and hydrolysed metal soaps (excluding dicarboxylic acids) GC–MS (Meth Prep II) ✓ ESI-MS (negative mode, direct injection, ethanol extracts) ✓ HPLC ESI-Q-ToF (positive mode, chloroform/hexane extracts) ✓ a Unpolymerised carboxylic acids and dicarboxylic acids bound as glycerides, or present as a m dicarboxylic acids in the GC chromatogram. b Intact glycerides are not detected, rather they are hydrolysed prior to analysis such that th chromatogram. oxide, cluster at positive values of PC1, which relates to the monocar- boxylic acid content (see loading plot in Fig. 2). The extracts of coloured paints that do not contain zinc oxide (Burnt Umber, Cobalt Blue Deep, Cadmium Lemon, French Ultramarine, Oxide of Chromium, Rose Doré, Winsor Green) appear more closely related, and cluster toward more negative values of PC1, which is associated with a higher relative abun- dance of diacids. The ESI-MS mass spectra shown in Fig. 1 exemplify these trends; the extract of the non-water sensitive Zinc White (1973) paint has a relatively higher proportion of free short chain monoacids and a relatively lower proportion of diacids when compared with the Burnt Umber (1949) paint, which shows a relatively lower proportion of free short chain monoacids and a relatively high proportion of diacids. The relationship with extenders is less clear, as seen in Table 1 mag- nesium carbonate, alumina white (hydrated aluminium oxide) and bar- ium sulphate are commonly used by W&N, however, all of these extenders are found in paints that are associated with positive and neg- ative values of PC1. For example, Titanium White paints contain barium sulphate and magnesium carbonate extenders, yet the chemical compo- sition of their extracts and the values of the PCA scores are very similar Bound fatty acids Dicarboxylic acids Fatty acids present in sample bound as metal soaps Crosslinked fraction Glycerides containing dicarboxylic acids Full glyceride profile ✓ ✓ ✓/−a ✓/–b ✓/–b ✓ – – ✓ – – – – ✓ ✓ etal carboxylates are released after hydrolysis and are detected as free carboxylic acids and e carboxylic acids and diacids formerly bound as glycerides are present in the GC Fig. 1. ESI-MS mass spectra of the extracts of non-water sensitive Zinc White 1973 (top) and water sensitive Burnt Umber 1949 (bottom) W&N swatches. See Table 4 for attributions of the main ions. 286 J. Lee et al. / Microchemical Journal 138 (2018) 282–295 to those of Flake White and Zinc White paints that do not contain any extenders. The Cobalt Green samples of all years were made with the same combination of extenders, yet only the samples containing zinc oxide, cluster toward positive values of PC1. Furthermore if Winsor Green is considered up until 1964 the paints only contained barium sulphate, afterwards magnesium carbonate is also used. Yet the Win- sor Green paints are not clustering according to the extender type, indeed it is the two oldest samples which cluster closest together (1949, 1964). This suggests that these extenders do not exert a sig- nificant influence on the degree of hydrolysis and oxidation of the paints. Examination of the loadings plot in Fig. 2 shows all of the water sen- sitive samples scoring at more negative values of PC1, which relates to a relatively higher content of diacid containing species. White paints, which are consistently non-water sensitive, and the non-water sensi- tive Cobalt Green paints, are associated with more positive values of PC1, which relates to relatively lower contents of diacid containing spe- cies. In fact all of these samples contained zinc oxide pigment as one of the main pigments in the paint formulation. As a general trend it is clear Table 4 The significant [M\\H]\\ions present in ESI-MS negative mode mass spectra were identified. Cn acid with n carbon atoms; TAG, DAG, MAG = triglyceride, diglyceride, and monoglyceride res atoms in alkyl chain. m/z Attribution Originating species 1 115.53 [C6H12O2-H] − Hexanoic acid 2 129.51 [C7H14O2-H] − Heptanoic acid 3 143.57 [C8H16O2-H] − Octanoic acid 4 157.59 [C9H18O2-H] − Nonanoic acid 5 159.56 [C7H12O4-H] − Heptanedioic acid (pimelic acid) 6 171.57 [C10H20O2-H] − Decanoic acid 7 173.58 [C8H14O4-H] − Octanedioic acid (suberic acid) 8 187.57 [C9H16O4-H] − Nonanedioic acid (azelaic acid) 9 201.57 [C10H18O4-H] − Decanedioic acid (sebacic acid) 10 247.55 [C11H20O6-H] − Diacid-MAG 11 255.66 [C16H32O2-H] − Hexadecanoic acid (palmitic acid 12 261.67 [C12H22O6-H] − MAG of azelaic acid 13 281.67 [C18H34O2-H] − Octadecenoic acid (oleic acid) 14 283.68 [C18H36O2-H] − Octadecanoic acid (stearic acid) 15 295.63 [C18H32O3-H] − Epoxy octadecenoic acid and/or h 16 297.65 [C18H34O3-H] − Epoxy octadecanoic acid and/or h 17 315.65 [C18H38O4-H] − Dihydroxy octadecanoic acid 18 329.61 [C18H38O5-H] − Trihydroxy octadecenoic acid and 19 403.58 [C19H32O9-H] − DAG of x2 octanedioic acid 20 417.54 [C20H34O8-H] − DAG of octanedioic acid and nona 21 431.51 [C21H36O9-H] − DAG of x2 nonanedioic acid 22 471.57 [C26H48O7-H] − DAG of hexadecanoic acid and he 23 485.56 [C28H52O8-H] − DAG of hexadecanoic acid and oc 24 499.56 [C29H54O8-H] − DAG of hexadecanoic acid and no 25 527.56 [C31H58O8-H] − DAG of octadecanoic acid and non 26 559.32 [C31H58O10-H] − DAG of oxidised octadecanoic aci 27 574.41 [C31H56O11-H] − DAG of oxidised octadecanoic aci 28 601.38 [C30H50O13-H] − TAG of x3 nonanedioic acid that the pigment type is related to both the chemical profile of the paint and the incidence of water sensitivity (see Fig. 3). Dicarboxylic acids and short chain monocarboxylic acids are both products of oxidation. Unsaturated fatty acids oxidise to form hydroper- oxides, which may break down as a result of homolytic fission to form a peroxy radical. Beta scission of the peroxy radical, results in the forma- tion a vinyl radical and an aldehyde species [27]. Subsequent oxidation of the vinyl radical or aldehyde species can yield either a diacid, a short chain monoacid, or a variety of other oxygenated compounds [27]. PCA analysis of the relative abundances of fragment ions ascribable to di- acids containing species (m/z 159, 171, 173, 187, 201, 247, 261, 403, 417, 431, 471, 485, 499) and short chain monoacids (m/z 115, 129, 143, 157 and 159) highlights that the two groups are negatively corre- lated, showing that the two types of oxidation products are in competi- tion (see loadings plot, Fig. 2). Short chain monocarboxylic acids have been detected in previous studies of aged lead soaps of unsaturated fatty acids [28]. Although their formation can be the result of beta scis- sion reactions following from the oxidation of unsaturated acids, their anticorrelation in the PCA loading plot with dicarboxylic acids suggests :x = monocarboxylic acid, with n carbon atoms, and x double bonds; diCn = dicarboxylic pectively nDB = n number of double bonds in the alkyl chain, nO = n number of oxygen Species abbreviation C6 C7 C8 C9 diC7 C10 diC8 diC9 diC10 MAG(diC8) ) C16 MAG(diC9) C18:1 C18:0 ydroxy octadecadienoic acid Epoxy-C18:1 and/or hydroxy C18:2 ydroxy octadecenoic acid Epoxy C18 or hydroxy-C18:1 Dihydroxy-C18 /or dihydroxy epoxy octadecanoic acid Trihydroxy-C18:1 DAG (2diC8) nedioic acid DAG (diC8 + diC9) DAG (2diC9) ptanedioic acid DAG (C16 + diC7) tanedioic acid DAG (C16 + diC8) nanedioic acid DAG (C16 + diC9) anedioic acid DAG (C18 + diC9) d and nonanedioic acid DAG (C18 + diC9 + 2O) d and nonanedioic acid) DAG (C18 + diC9 + 1 DB + 3O) TAG(3diC9) Fig. 2. Scatter plot W&N Samples (PC1 and PC2: 78.04% of total variance) and corresponding loadings plot (labelled with the ions of m/z assigned in Table 4) based on ESI-MS data is shown below (see Supplementary data, Table A.2 for the related ESI-MS data matrix used for the PCA analysis). 287J. Lee et al. / Microchemical Journal 138 (2018) 282–295 that their origin and mechanisms of formation warrants further investigation. All the white W&N swatches (non-water sensitive) and non-water sensitive Cobalt Green paints contained either lead carbonate and/or zinc oxide (see Table 1) which are pigments that readily form metal soaps in oil [29]. These paints are characterised by a relatively low pro- portion of extractable diacids. Furthermore as the white paints contain a comparatively high proportion of extractable short chain monoacids (which, like diacids, are products of oxidative scission) this could Fig. 3. Scatter plot W&N Samples (PC1 and PC2: 78.04% of total variance) based on ESI-MS data is shown below (see Supplementary data, Table A.2 for the related ESI-MS data matrix used for the PCA analysis). The scatter plot is the same as that shown in Fig. 2, but re- colourised to show water sensitive and non-water sensitive samples, labels indicate the colour and year of each sample e.g. FW57 = Flake White, 1957. suggest preferential saponification of diacids over monoacids. Since di- acids contain two carboxylic acid groups they are more likely to un- dergo saponification on at least one metal carboxylate group than an equivalent monoacid. Given that metal soaps are not soluble in ethanol, diacids are less likely to have been extracted than corresponding mono- acids. Thus in the paints that are prone to the formation of metal soaps (i.e. lead carbonate and zinc oxide containing paints), the ethanol ex- tract result would be likely to contain a higher proportion of monoacid species relative to diacid species. In paints that do not contain these re- active pigments it is therefore less likely that diacids species become under-represented in the ESI-MS mass spectra. The metal soaps present in the non-water sensitive white paints are detected using FTIR as broad absorptions in the region ~1650–1550 cm−1 [spectra not shown] which is characteristic of amorphous metal soaps present as an ionomeric network [30]. Although amorphous metal soaps were identified in all of the W&N samples using FTIR anal- ysis (see Table 1) their relative abundance is significantly more intense in the non-water sensitive white paints [Flake White (1957), Titanium White (1966, 2003) and Zinc White (1973, 2003)]. The FTIR peak area ratio of the amorphous metal soap absorption band vs. carbonyl absorp- tion band was calculated as a measure of the relative content of amor- phous metal soaps (see Table 1) and was compared to the clustering observed in the PCA analysis (see Fig. 4). The non-water sensitive white paints containing lead and/or zinc white that are associated with more positive values of PC1 tended to contain the most intense amorphous metal soap absorption band indicating that these paints are likely to contain the most developed ionomeric network, which would presumably incorporate diacids and could account for their low extractability in these paints. This suggests that for lead and zinc white containing paints, the presence of ionomeric lead and zinc soaps (that are not soluble in water) may be contributing toward the stability and non-water sensitivity of these paints. However it was also apparent that for many water sensitive [Burnt Umber (1949), Cadmium Lemon (1963, 2003), Cobalt Blue Deep (1965), French Ultramarine (1949), Oxide of Chromium (1945)] and non-water sensitive samples [i.e. Cad- mium Lemon (1993) Cobalt Green (1962, 1993), Oxide of Chromium (1948), Rose Doré (1945, 2003), Flake White (2003)] there was little ap- parent difference in the relative intensity of the amorphous metal soap absorption band (see Fig. 4). Further research is needed to explore pos- sible quantitative relationships between the metal soap content of non- water sensitive and water sensitive paint samples, but these prelimi- nary results tend to suggest that an extensive ionomeric network con- tributes toward the stability of the paint, but other factors, such as the degree of crosslinking, may influence the water sensitivity of a paint film. However it is also possible that paints containing metal ions that promote cross-linking, contain polymerised dicarboxylic acids, which would also reduce the relative amount of dicarboxylic acids detected. As lead and zinc promote crosslinking [31], the enrichment of short chain monoacids in the white paints may also be due to these paints having a more highly crosslinked network which prevents or slows down evaporation of the short chain monoacids. Given that monoacids are more capable of migrating through a paint film than diacids owing to their comparatively lower molecular weight, they are also more likely to evaporate from the paint surface than diacids. Therefore in paints with a comparatively low degree of crosslinking, monoacids are more likely to have exited the paint film through a process of evaporation. Highly crosslinked paints may prevent this process by physically trap- ping short chain monoacids and preventing their evaporation. This could result in the more crosslinked paints appearing to contain a higher proportion of short chain monoacids and vice-versa. It has to be stressed, though, that the ESI-MS spectra of non-water sensitive samples present lower signal-to-noise ratios (Fig. 1), indicat- ing that water sensitive paints produce more highly concentrated etha- nol extracts of the species listed in Table 4. This indicates that the major part of the non-cross-linked fractions of the non-water sensitive paints FW57 TW66 TW03 ZW73 ZW03 *Bu03 *CBD03 *CG03 *FU03 *OC03 WG49 *WG64 WG93 *WG03 *BU49 *CL63 CL93 *CL03 *CBD65 CG62 CG93 FW03 *FU49 *OC45 OC48 RD45 RD03 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 PC 2 (1 9. 63 % ) PC1 (58.41%) Scatter plot (PC2 vs PC1 78.04%) high low medium Fig. 4. Scatter plot of W&N Samples (PC2 and PC1: 78.04% of total variance) based on ESI-MS data. * indicates a water sensitive sample. The scatter plot is the same as that shown in Fig. 2, but is here re-colourised on the basis of the FTIR peak area ratio of amorphous metal soap absorption bands vs. carbonyl absorption bands [shown in Table 1]: red, high ratio (N3); yellow, medium ratio (1–3); green, low ratio (b1). 288 J. Lee et al. / Microchemical Journal 138 (2018) 282–295 is saponified, and thus not extractable, which might account for the non-water sensitivity of these paints. Water sensitive samples are generally associated with the diacid content and anti-correlated to the monoacid content (see loadings plot, Fig. 2) i.e. water sensitive samples contain relatively more extract- able diacids1 than non-water sensitive samples. Monocarboxylic and di- carboxylic acids all show similar pKa values, but have different aqueous solubilities (Table 5). Diacids are more soluble in water than equivalent monoacids, given the presence of two polar carboxylic acid groups, rather than one polar carboxylic acid group, which confers additional polarity and solubility. For this reason paints that contain a high relative content of free diacids (i.e. generally the water sensitive samples) may be expected to be more vulnerable to water-induced swelling and solubilisation leading to the observed water sensitivity. However it is important to note that the scatter plot shown in Fig. 3 also shows that some non-water sensitive samples do not follow this trend [Rose Doré (1949,2003), Winsor Green (1949, 1993), Oxide of Chromium (1948), Cadmium lemon (1993), all of which do not contain zinc white or lead white] are also associated with more negative values of PC1 i.e. a relatively higher content of diacids. This suggests that other factors such as degree of crosslinking, could be conferring extra stability to these paints. This merits further investigation. The ratio of azelaic acid to palmitic acid (A/P) as determined using GCMS is widely used as a measure of the degree of oxidation in an oil paint film [17]. This is because diacids derive from the oxidation of un- saturated fatty acids. The azelaic acid: stearic acid ratio (A/S) may also be used as an indication of the degree of oxidation, but this ratio is also influenced by other factors, e.g. the addition of metal stearates. 1 Ions of m/z 159, 171, 173, 187, 201, 247, 261, 403, 417, 431, 471, 485, 499. Factors such as UV light exposure and the pigment content are known to influence A/P and A/S ratios [17]. For each W&N swatch the A/P, and A/S ratio of two samples taken from the surface of the paint and two samples taken from the paint below the surface (bulk) was deter- mined. The results are shown in Table 6. As seen in Table 6, surface sam- ples generally have a higher A/P and A/S GCMS ratios than bulk samples. However water-sensitive and non-water sensitive samples often had similar A/P and A/S ratios. This indicates that water sensitive paints are not necessarily more oxidised than non-water sensitive samples. The relationship between the diacid content and water sensitivity in W&N swatches was further investigated using GC–MS. The chromato- graphic peak areas of palmitic, stearic and oleic acid, as well as C6-C10 diacids were obtained for each surface and bulk sample relating to each swatch and normalised to their sum. The data matrix of 8 × 108 variables (shown in Supplementary data, Table A.3) was analysed by PCA of the correlation matrix. The results are shown in Fig. 5. PCA anal- ysis of GCMS data confirms clearly the previous observation, that sur- face samples tend to have a higher diacid content than bulk samples. This might be due to greater availability of oxygen at the paint surface - that is common to all samples - and that favours oxidation reactions. Another possible explanation is that diacids are more mobile [33] and tend to move to the paint surface. The scatter plot also highlights that Burnt Umber and Cobalt Blue samples which were water sensitive (both surface and bulk samples, of all years available) have the highest A/P ratios of all the samples. This suggests that these paints are the most highly oxidised and it is possible that this relates to the catalytic proper- ties of the pigments, containing Co and Mn, respectively. It should however be noted that the GCMS analysis did not identify a general tendency for water sensitive samples to have the highest A/P (and A/S) ratios (see Supplementary data, Fig. A.1). These data indicate that the overall degree of oxidation [with the exception of Burnt Umber and Cobalt Blue paints] does not appear higher in water sensitive paints. Table 5 pKa of the main acids and diacids detected in the samples studied, and their related aqueous solubility values. Category Species pKa (at 25 °C) Aqueous solubility at 20 °C (mg/L) [32] Aqueous solubility at 20 °C (mols/L) [32] Short chain monocarboxylic acids Hexanoic acid 4.85 9607.0 0.08270000 Heptanoic acid 4.89 243.0 0.01870000 Octanoic acid 4.89 679.5 0.00471200 Nonanoic acid 4.96 259.9 0.00164300 Decanoic acid 4.90 150.0 0.00087060 Dicarboxylic acids Heptanedioic acid 4.71 (pKa1), 5.58 (pKa 2) 50,000.0 0.31220000 Octanedioic acid 4.52 (pKa 1), 5.50 (pKa 2) 1565.0 0.00898600 Nonanedioic acid 4.53 (pKa 1), 5.33 (pKa 2) 2400.0 0.01272000 Decanedioic acid 4.59 (pKa 1), 5.59 (pKa 2) 1000.0 0.00494400 Saturated long chain fatty acids Palmitic acid 4.75 7.2 0.00002808 Stearic Acid 4.95 3.0 0.00001055 Table 6 GC–MS azelaic acid/palmitic acid (A/P) and azelaic acid/stearic acid (A/S) ratios for surface and bulk samples taken from W&N Swatches. W&N swatch Date Water sensitive Surface Bulk A/P A/S A/P A/S Burnt Umber 1949 Y 5.5 10.1 1.0 1.2 3.0 4.1 1.7 2.4 2003 Y 4.5 10.0 1.9 3.7 7.2 16.6 2.3 4.2 Cadmium Lemon 1963 Y 2.7 11.2 1.2 3.0 2.2 9.2 0.4 0.9 1993 N 8.1 14.2 1.1 1.9 1.9 4.5 1.0 2.3 2003 Y 1.6 2.6 1.4 2.1 2.1 4.2 1.7 2.4 Cobalt Blue Deep 1965 Y 1.1 2.0 1.0 3.7 1.4 5.9 1.0 2.4 2003 Y 2.5 8.7 2.1 5.6 2.1 6.8 2.6 5.9 Cobalt Green 1962 N 1.3 5.2 0.9 2.9 1.6 7.7 1.0 1.9 1993 N 2.0 3.3 1.2 1.7 1.9 2.7 1.0 1.2 2003 Y 2.1 4.2 0.9 1.2 1.3 2.7 1.4 1.7 Flake White 1957 N 1.1 3.2 0.8 1.8 0.7 2.3 0.7 1.6 2003 N 2.1 4.5 1.2 2.1 1.9 4.0 1.1 2.1 French Ultramarine 1949 Y 1.9 7.3 0.6 1.6 2.1 6.8 1.3 2.7 2003 Y 2.1 4.3 1.4 1.8 1.9 4.6 0.8 1.1 Oxide of Chromium 1945 Y 2.8 4.2 2.0 3.8 2.0 3.8 2.8 4.2 1948 N 2.2 4.5 0.9 1.6 1.3 2.4 0.9 1.5 2003 Y 1.2 3.5 1.4 2.8 1.4 3.5 1.4 3.3 Rose Doré 1945 N 2.3 3.3 1.3 1.8 4.1 5.2 1.3 1.5 2003 N 2.2 5.3 1.9 3.2 2.3 5.6 0.0 0.0 Titanium White 1966 N 1.2 4.8 0.8 3.0 0.9 3.5 1.0 2.9 2003 N 1.7 3.9 1.2 2.3 1.9 5.0 0.0 0.0 Winsor Green 1949 N 3.2 4.4 1.5 2.2 3.6 5.5 1.1 1.4 1964 Y 2.5 4.4 1.7 3.8 2.3 4.5 1.6 2.5 1993 N 1.4 2.7 1.2 2.3 1.5 2.5 1.4 2.5 2003 Y 1.3 1.8 1.3 2.4 1.4 3.1 1.0 1.3 Zinc White 1973 N 1.7 2.1 0.8 1.1 0.0 0.0 0.7 11.5 2003 N 2.1 5.7 1.6 2.7 1.6 4.0 1.0 2.2 289J. Lee et al. / Microchemical Journal 138 (2018) 282–295 It has to be taken into consideration, though, that the curing of the paints is not completely finished, as it was demonstrated by HPLC-ESI- Q-Tof analyses of the glycerides still present in the paint, discussed in the following paragraph. 3.3. HPLC-ESI-Q-Tof In order to obtain a comprehensive picture of the lipid profiles of the paint layers, HPLC-ESI-Q-ToF analysis were performed. The triglyceride profiles of all the samples were characterised by the presence of PPO (m/z 855.7, [M + Na]+), OOP (m/z 881.7, [M + Na]+), OLS (m/z 907.7, [M + Na]+), PPS (m/z 857.7, [M + Na]+), OSP (m/z 883.7, [M + Na]+), OOO (m/z 907.7, [M + Na]+), PSS (m/z 885.7, [M + Na]+), OOS (m/z 909.7, [M + Na]+), OSS (m/z 911.8, [M + Na]+), SSS (m/z 913.8, Fig. 5. Scatter plot (axes PC1 and PC2: 57.35% of total variance) and associated loadings plot of W&N surface and bulk samples based on GC–MS data (see Supplementary data, Table A.3 for the related data matrix used for the PCA analysis). Fig. 6. Extract ion chromatograms obtained in the HPLC-ESI-Q-ToF analysis of W&N samples from 2003. Red line: TAGs; green line: oxidised DAGs and TAGs. Intensities have been rescaled to a fixed intensities of the peak of tristearin (black line). 290 J. Lee et al. / Microchemical Journal 138 (2018) 282–295 [M + Na]+), ArSO (m/z 939.8, [M + Na]+), and ArOO (m/z 937.8, [M + Na]+), as main surviving triglycerides.2 As far as oxidised species are concerned, the lipid profiles were characterised by the presence of di- glycerides and triglycerides containing hydroxylated fatty acids as acyl substituents (OxDAGs and OxTAGs). In detail the main OxDAGs were OC18:1(OH), (m/z 659.5, [M + Na] +), SC18:1(OH) (m/z 661.5, [M + Na] +), SC18(OH) (m/z 663.5, [M + Na] +), SC18:1(2OH) (m/z 677.5, [M + Na] +), and SC18(2OH) (m/z 679.5, ([M + Na]+). The main OxTAGs were POC18:2(OH) (m/z 895.7, [M + Na] +), POC18:1(OH) (m/z 897.7, [M + Na] +), PC18:2(OH)C18:2(OH) (m/z 909.7, [M + Na]+), PC18:1(OH)C18:2(OH) (m/z 911.7, [M + Na] +), PC18:1(OH) C18:1(OH) (m/z 913.7, [M + Na] +), PC18:1(OH)C18(OH) (m/z 915.8, [M + Na]+), PC18 (OH)C18(OH) (m/z 917.7, [M + Na] +), OOC18:2(OH) (m/z 921.8, [M + Na]+), OOC18:1(OH) (m/z 923.8, [M + Na] +), and OOC18 (OH) (m/z 925.8, [M + Na] +). Among these, the OxTAGs with m/z 895.7, 909.7, 911.8, and 913.8 together with OOP, POP and OSP can be related to the presence of linseed oil, while the oxidised species with m/z 915.8, 921.8, 923.8, 925.8, and the TAGS OOO, OOS, ArSO, AOO were characteristic of safflower oil. This indicates that all samples contained a mixture of linseed oil and safflower oil. This suggests that water sensitivity does not appear to be dependant to the nature of the paint binder. The hydroxyl moieties in TAGs and DAGS are generated during autooxidative radical chain reactions taking place during curing, and in particular hydroxylated fatty acids are relatively stable intermediate reaction products, which may, with time, lead to both cross-linking (via formation of C\\O\\C bonds) or to further oxidation (via formation of an aldehyde moiety, which further oxidises to an acidic moiety). As the molecular composition of a mature paint is dependent on sev- eral factors, among which time plays a fundamental role, we decided to perform a semiquantitative comparison of the chromatograms of all the paints that were prepared in 2003. Assuming that the rate of hydrolysis of hydroxyl triglycerides is the same as triglycerides containing satu- rated and unsaturated acyl substituents, all the chromatograms were 2 Triglycerides are named according to the following fatty acid abbreviations: P: palmityl (C16:0); O: oleyl (C18:1); S: stearyl (C18:0); Ar: arachidyl (C20:0). Cn:m (aOH): fatty acid with n carbons, m unsaturations and a hydroxyl moieties. normalised to the peak of tristearin (SSS) in order to perform a semi- quantitative comparisons of the various chromatographic profiles. Chromatograms (Fig. 6) clearly show that water sensitive paints ex- hibit a relatively high content of unsaturated and hydroxylated contain- ing TAGs and DAGs.3 This seem to indicates that water sensitive paints are less cured than non-water sensitive paints, suggesting that water sensitivity might be related to the fact that the paint has not sufficiently cross-linked. Samples Flake White 2003, Titanium White 2003, Zinc White 2003, and Winsor Green 2003 all contained castor wax, as could be inferred by the presence of 2,3-di(12-hydroxy-octadecanoyloxy)propyl 12-hy- droxy octadecanoate in the chromatograms (data not shown) [34]. Clearly there is no relationship between the presence of such paint ad- ditive (castor wax is a rheology modifier), and water sensitivity, as all white samples were non-water sensitive, while Winsor Green 2003 was water sensitive, despite these all containing castor wax. 4. Case study paintings ESI-MS negative mode data relating to the samples taken from the case study paintings was explored using PCA. The intensity of all m/z listed in Table 4 were normalised to their sum and the data matrix of 29 × 84 variables (shown in Supplementary dataTable A.4) was analysed by PCA of the correlation matrix. The resulting scatter and loadings plots are shown in Fig. 7. Whilst there is not a complete separation between water sensitive and non-water sensitive samples based on the ESI-MS data only, there is a cluster of predominantly water sensitive samples associated with positive values of PC1 (Fig. 7). The wider distribution of the remaining samples largely relates to differences associated with PC2. The more positive values of PC1 correlate to the diacids/diacid containing species. In order to determine if the clustering observed related to pigment type and/or the painting that each sample was from, the scatter plot shown in Fig. 7 was colourised to show the painting that each sample was taken from (Fig. 8) and the main pigment in each sample (Fig. 9). 3 The only exception is represented by cobalt blue paint. Fig. 7. PCA scatter and loadings plot of ESI-MS negative mode data of samples taken from paintings. Labels on the loadings plot are the m/z listed in Table 3. 291J. Lee et al. / Microchemical Journal 138 (2018) 282–295 With reference to Fig. 8 it can be seen that whilst there is some de- gree of clustering of the samples taken from the Auerbach painting (no. 1 in legend, see Table 2), samples taken from the other paintings seemed reasonably dispersed i.e. the samples do not cluster according to the painting they were taken from. Of the case study paintings examined, the following paints were often water sensitive: iron oxide (Fe2O3), Prussian blue (Fe4[Fe(CN)6] 3.xH2O), ultramarine (Na8–10Al6Si6O24S2–4), cadmium yellow (CdS), chrome yellow (PbCrO4) and cadmium orange (CdS + CdSe). The be- haviour of cadmium red (CdS + CdSe) paints was more inconsistent, as in some cases it was water sensitive, in other cases it was non- water sensitive. This could not be explained through consideration of Fig. 8. PCA scatter plot of ESI-MS negative mode data of samples taken from paintings. The scatt that each sample was taken from; the numbered legend corresponds to the paintings numbe Supplementary data for composition of each sample), with water sensitive (Y) and non-water other components of the cadmium red paints. Only two of the non- water sensitive cadmium red paints contained admixtures of lead white [Ethel Walker, sample 4], and titanium white with zinc oxide [Ray Parker, sample 4] that could have prevented water sensitivity. As was seen with the W&N swatches, lead white (2PbCO3·Pb(OH) 2), and zinc white (ZnO) containing paints of the case study paintings were always non-water sensitive. This trend confirmed that the main influence in determining the water sensitivity of the paint layer is exerted by the type of pigment, as was observed in the paint swatches. Of course the samples taken from case study paintings fea- ture a wider range of variability given the greater variation in param- eters such as sample age, painting technique, artists' choice of er plot is the same presented in Fig. 7 but colourised to allow identification of the painting red in Table 2. The labels adjacent to each data point are the given sample numbers (see sensitive samples identified (N). Fig. 9. This figure shows the same scatter plot as in Fig. 7 but colourised to show the main pigment present in each sample taken from the case study paintings. The labels indicate whether each sample was water sensitive (Y) or non-water sensitive (N). 292 J. Lee et al. / Microchemical Journal 138 (2018) 282–295 materials and environmental conditions. Therefore it may be ex- pected that the effect of pigment is relatively less evident than in the W&N swatches. Fig. 9 and the related loadings plot presented in Fig. 7 show that although there is no distinctive clustering accord- ing to pigment type, as was seen with the Winsor & Newton samples, there were some identifiable trends. Fig. 10. This figure shows the same scatter plot as in Fig. 7 but colourised to show the metal s indicate whether each sample was water sensitive (Y) or non-water sensitive (N). Iron oxide, burnt umber, and ultramarine paints tend to cluster to- ward more positive values of PC1, where mainly water sensitive sam- ples are located (Fig. 7). This suggests these paints, contain a higher proportion of diacids/diacid containing species in the extractable frac- tion (refer to loadings plot, Fig. 7). Cadmium red and cadmium yellow pigments tend to cluster toward negative values of PC1, suggesting oaps identified using FTIR in each sample taken from the case study paintings. The labels 293J. Lee et al. / Microchemical Journal 138 (2018) 282–295 that for water sensitive paints made with these pigments the cause of water sensitivity isn't related to the content of extractable diacids. As with the W&N samples non-water sensitive lead white, titanium white and zinc white paints (all containing reactive lead white and/or zinc white pigments) also tend to cluster toward negative values of PC1, which is again anticorrelated with most diacid species. As previously stated the non-water sensitivity, and low extractabil- ity of diacids in the case of zinc and lead containing white paints can be related at least in part, to metal soap formation. Amorphous metal soaps (where the metal cation was not specifically identified) indicating an ionomeric network [30] were frequently observed as a broad band between ~1650–1550 cm−1 in the FTIR spectrum of samples taken from paintings. As was observed in the W&N swatches amorphous metal soaps were found in both non-water sensitive and water sensitive paints, including in those samples that did not contain lead or zinc ions according to SEM-EDX analysis (refer to Supplementary data, Table A1). Amorphous zinc soaps have been shown to exhibit a broad infrared ab- sorption band with a maxima at 1590 cm−1 [35], but further research is Fig. 11. PCA scatter plot of GC–MS data of samples from paintings (axes PC2 and PC1: 65.33%) w number: FA = Frank Auerbach, DB = Derek Boshier, HDB = Dorothy Brett, AD = Alan Davie, A Ray Parker, PP = Pablo Picasso, JPR = Jean-Paul Riopelle, WSa = Wilhelm Sasnal, WS = Willia required to identify the presence of amorphous metal soaps likely based on other metal cations in samples from paintings that contain complex inorganic mixtures. Crystalline zinc soaps with a sharp absorption at 1540 cm−1 were frequently identified in non-water sensitive and water sensitive samples from paintings; these may be present as paint additives, or may have formed in situ. Aluminium stearate and manga- nese stearate (which are both insoluble in water) were each identified in one sample only. No other crystalline metal soaps were identified using FTIR although it is possible that these may be present below the detection limit: metal soap additives are typically used at levels b5% w/w by commercial artists' oil paint manufacturers [36]. As with the W&N swatches, water soluble metal soaps based on an alkali metal cat- ions were not identified using FTIR in any of the samples taken from paintings. There appears to be no correlation between the type of metal soaps identified using FTIR and the incidence of water sensitivity, or the clustering observed in the paint samples (see Fig. 10). However as was seen in the W&N paint samples, it was clear that for non-water sen- sitive lead and zinc white paints, the amorphous metal soap band was ith corresponding loadings plot. Samples have been labelled with artist name and sample H = Adrian Heath, FK = Ferdinand Kulmer, JM = Joan Mitchell, EN = Emile Nolde, RP = m Scott, MS = Matthew Smith, RS = Richard Smith, EW = Ethel Walker. 294 J. Lee et al. / Microchemical Journal 138 (2018) 282–295 typically far more prominent than in amorphous metal soap band in other colours, confirming the hypothesis discussed above. This suggests that there could be a quantitative relationship between amorphous metal soap formation that is largely the result of pigment-medium in- teractions and water sensitivity i.e. paints that have a more developed ionomeric network would be expected to be less vulnerable toward sol- vents such as water. GC–MS results which provide a measure of the total lipid content were investigated to determine how the ESI-MS observations may re- late to the degree of oxidation. The peak areas of palmitic, stearic and oleic acid, as well as diacids (diC6–diC10) present in GC–MS chromato- grams were used to investigate the samples from paintings using PCA. The peak areas were normalised to their sum and the data matrix of 8 × 75 variables (shown in Supplementary data, Table A.5) was analysed by PCA of the correlation matrix. The resulting scatter plot and loadings plot are shown in Fig. 11. As with the W&N swatches GCMS A/P ratios for samples taken from paintings (GCMS ratios for case study paintings are shown in Supple- mentary data, Table A.6) were often similar for water sensitive and non-water sensitive paint samples and indeed Fig. 11 shows that for many water sensitive and non-water sensitive samples there is no sep- aration according to the content of diacids. Although most non-water sensitive paints present negative values of PC1. Again, among those samples presenting a positive value of PC1, the large majority were water sensitive. Positive values of PC1 are associated with a relatively higher content of dicarboxylic acids. Interestingly of these 23 water sen- sitive samples with a positive value of PC1, 14 were paints that contained either iron oxide pigments or ultramarine paints, or blends of the two, indicating that these paints are more oxidised [contain more diacids] than other samples. This is entirely consistent with the behaviour of iron oxide and ultramarine samples taken from the W&N swatch samples, and suggests a consistent pattern of behaviour that is dictated largely by the pigments. This might be explained by suggesting that ultramarine and iron oxide pigments promote oxidative scission. Since both earth and ultramarine pigments have a long history of use in oil paintings, and only a recent association with water sensitivity, it might also be hypothesised that the significantly reduced particle size of modern pigments that are often nanosized [37], may result in en- hanced catalytic properties of these pigments, thus enhancing their ox- idative action. Given that oxidative scission is in competition with crosslinking [7], it is likely that ultramarine and iron oxide paints are poorly crosslinked. Indeed iron oxide paints are associated with poor mechanical strength and a vulnerability toward leaching of mobile com- ponents [31] which is consistent with a low degree of crosslinking. A high content diacids makes for a polar paint film that may be particu- larly susceptible to swelling and extraction in response to water, espe- cially when associated with a poor degree of crosslinking. 5. Conclusions Water sensitivity may be caused in some cases by epsomite forma- tion [8], or by the presence of physically underbound paints [7]. There- fore it is possible that these factors, which were not taken into consideration, are contributing toward the water sensitivity in some of the paints. Despite this, the present study has demonstrated the pres- ence of strong relationship between water sensitivity and pigment type: paints formulated with zinc oxide and/or lead white: Lead White, Titanium White, Zinc White, and Cobalt Green were consistently non-water sensitive. Zinc oxide and lead white are pigments that read- ily form metal soaps in oil [29] and catalyse polymerisation [31]. Indeed these paints were characterised by a strong amorphous metal soap absoprtion indicative of a well developed ionomeric network which suggests that metal soap formation and degree of polymerisation must play a fundamental role in determining the non-water sensitivity of paints containing these pigments. Through the chemical characterisation of a wide number of paint samples it has been possible to demonstrate that there are likely to be two different causes of water sensitivity that relate to the composition of the binding medium: in some paints, as in the case of iron oxide and ultramarine paints, water sensitivity may relate to enhanced oxida- tion [oxidative scission], which is likely to be related to a low degree of crosslinking (as the two phenomena are competitive). In these cases, we can hypothesise that a low degree of crosslinking coupled with heightened polarity (owing to the heightened oxidation) and a possible lack of metal soap formation, results in a paint film that is physically vul- nerable and prone to water-induced swelling. In other cases water sen- sitivity appears to relate to the proportion of extractable diacids (i.e. a lack of saponification and/or a high degree of hydrolysis and low degree of polymerisation) but not the general degree of oxidation of the paint. Water sensitivity could then be due to several factors. Short chain di- acids are slightly water soluble. As a consequence, a sample rich in rel- atively high amounts of free [unbound and non-saponified] dicarboxylic acids (that are more water soluble than monocarboxylic acids), may be water sensitive via a swelling mechanism. In the same way, if the degree of hydrolysis is low, or dicarboxylic acids are saponi- fied, and the paint is well polymerised, then the paint is less likely to be water sensitive. The processes involved in paint curing (oxidation and polymerisa- tion), including their dependence on the pigment and the possible par- ticle size, as well as hydrolysis and saponification, all appear to play a fundamental role (alone, or in combination) in determining the water sensitivity of modern oil paints, and further research is necessary to shed more light on these aspects. Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank Art Néss Proaño Gaibor for invalu- able technical support on RCE's QTOF instrument. The authors would also like to thank Professor Aviva Burnstock, William Luckhurst, and the Tate research and conservation departments. Funding The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of the Heritage Plus, a Joint Programming initiative of the European Commission, as part of the work was undertaken in the context of the project "CMOP - Cleaning Modern Oil Paints” (2015–2018). The Gold Open Access publication of this article has been funded by the National Heritage Science Forum, UK. Supplementary data Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi. org/10.1016/j.microc.2018.01.017. References [1] A. Burnstock, K.J. van den Berg, S. de Groot, L. Wijnberg, An investigation into water sensitive oil paints in twentieth-century paintings, in: T. Learner, J.W. Smithen, M.R. Schilling (Eds.), Modern Paints Uncovered: Proceedings From the Modern Paints Uncovered Symposium, Getty Conservation Institute, Los Angeles 2006, pp. 177–188. [2] S. Gaylor, A. Burnstock, A. 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Introduction 2. Materials and methods 2.1. Samples 2.2. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) 2.3. Electrospray ionisation mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) 2.4. Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) 2.5. HPLC-ESI-Q-Tof 2.6. Multivariate analysis 3. Results and discussion 3.1. Comparison of the data sets 3.2. W&N swatches 3.3. HPLC-ESI-Q-Tof 4. Case study paintings 5. Conclusions section15 Acknowledgements Funding Supplementary data References 
work_xhobwczzlfgq3eark3cmszdjja	----	AMA Journal of Ethics, September 2019 813 AMA Journal of Ethics® September 2019, Volume 21, Number 9: E813-814 ART OF MEDICINE Anatomy of a Medical Student Fatimah Hafeez Choudhary Abstract A reductive linocut is created in progressive stages from a single block. Each color is printed on top of a previous layer, such that each cut is irremediable. This reductive linocut print is of a young woman’s face with one side exposing what lies below her skin. The finality imposed by this medium offers an apt analogy to a medical student’s first human cadaver anatomy dissection. Figure. Anatomy of a Medical Student Media Reductive linocut print. www.amajournalofethics.org 814 A reductive linocut is created in progressive stages from a single block. Each layer is carved and color is printed on top of the previous layer. The medium was invented by Pablo Picasso,1 and it is aptly referred to as the “suicide print,” as it is virtually impossible to go back and recover from a mistake. Each cut is decisive, irremediable. When I first held scalpel to skin, I was doing dissection with fellow students, and there was tremendous pressure not to make a mistake. A broader ethical challenge for us medical students would be to pursue dissection while expressing respect for our cadaver’s humanity. References 1. Haney A. History and Techniques of Printmaking [master’s thesis]. Prescott, AZ: Prescott College; 2015. https://pqdtopen.proquest.com/doc/1694750725.html?FMT=AI. Accessed May 2, 2019. Fatimah Hafeez Choudhary is a Brooklyn-based artist and medical student at the SUNY Downstate College of Medicine in Brooklyn, New York. She earned a BA in studio art at CUNY Brooklyn College. She merges her experiences in art and clinical training to explore themes in the medical humanities. Editor's Note This is the co-winning artwork of the 2018 John Conley Art of Medicine Contest. Citation AMA J Ethics. 2019;21(9):E813-814. DOI 10.1001/amajethics.2019.813. Conflict of Interest Disclosure The author(s) had no conflicts of interest to disclose. The viewpoints expressed in this article are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views and policies of the AMA. Copyright 2019 American Medical Association. All rights reserved. ISSN 2376-6980 https://pqdtopen.proquest.com/doc/1694750725.html?FMT=AI 
work_xi3fiq7w6rbnnhr7znkzuslw7u	----	SCIENCE CHINA Life Sciences © The Author(s) 2016. This article is published with open access at link.springer.com life.scichina.com link.springer.com †Contributed equally to this work *Corresponding authors (email: herq@sun5.ibp.ac.cn) • LETTER TO THE EDITOR • June 2016 Vol.59 No.6: 640–642 doi: 10.1007/s11427-016-5031-8 To perceive a perfect Dora Maar in peripheral vision Rong-Ding He1†, Tao Su2†, Yang Yang1, Ying Liu2, Yan Wei2 & Rong-Qiao He2* 1Fine Art College, Chengdu University, Chengdu 610106, China; 2State Key Laboratory of Brain and Cognitive Science, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China; Received November 30, 2015; accepted February 16, 2016; published online April 6, 2016 Citation: He, R.D., Su, T., Yang, Y., Liu, Y., Wei, Y., and He, R.Q. (2016). To perceive a perfect Dora Maar in peripheral vision. Sci China Life Sci 59, 640–642. doi: 10.1007/s11427-016-5031-8 Dear Editor, The Portrait of Dora Maar (92 cm×65 cm) painted by Pablo Picasso (1937) is an aesthetic masterpiece in the world (Brigitte, 1996). Picasso paints Dora seating on a chair in frontal view with an off-set profile and disjunctive facial features (André, 1976): that is, Dora’s nose becomes an extension of her face on which the “far” eye is seen looking straight at us. Why did Picasso paint his lover Dora in such a tortured style? As we know, peripheral vision, as opposed to central vi- sion, occurs outside the center of gaze (He and He, 2014). Identifying objects from the corner of one’s eye is possible in isolation but difficult in a cluttered environment (Yeo- tikar et al., 2011). An inability to recognize objects resulted from clutter in peripheral vision is a phenomenon known as “crowding” (Bi et al., 2009). Here, we uncover how the inner-outer asymmetry (Whitney and Levi, 2011) of crowding effect on our perception of the disjunctive human appearance results in a perfect illusion in peripheral vision. To understand the disjunction of Dora, we considered the portrait in different ways. Firstly, looking directly at Dora’s face, one sees her tortured appearance in frontal view. But, when the sight line is shifted away from her face and to the fixation point as indicated in Figure S1, a miracle seems to occur. The disjointed face is transformed in the illusion of a normal and beautiful face in the peripheral visual field. Do- ra’s cheek appears vivid and round, forming a 3D-like im- age in our visual background. Picasso painted Dora on a 2D canvas, and was apparently able to perceive her 3D-like appearance in peripheral vision. Peripheral vision is the work of the rods, nerve cells lo- cated largely outside the macula (the center) of the retina. The rods are also responsible for night vision and low-light vision but they are insensitive to color (Curcio et al., 1990). We decolorized the portrait of Dora (black and white) to prevent the oil colors from interfering with observation (Figure S2 in Supporting Information). To demonstrate the effect of peripheral vision, we recruited 30 participants (15 male; 15 female). First, each participant looked at Dora on screen from the frontal view for 5 s (Figure S2a in Support- ing Information). A group of three portraits was then shown to participants (Figure S3, i, ii, iii, iv, v and vi, randomly assigned in Supporting Information) and they were asked to select the portrait that best matched what they had seen in their foveal vision. Each of them picked the tortured Dora out (Figure 1A, T). This, as a control task, confirmed that all the participants had normal vision and visual processing to recognize Dora’s tortured appearance. Participants were then asked to move their foveal vision onto the fixation point as shown in Figure S2b, and stare at the point for 5 s, to perceive Dora in the peripheral field. Participants were then asked to select from a random group of three portraits what they had seen in peripheral vision (Figure S3 in Supporting Information). Twenty-seven par- ticipants picked the “normal” Dora out (Figure 1A, N). Three participants hesitated in their selection (Figure 1A, H). However, after they were explained how to perceive the portrait with their peripheral vision again, these three par- He, R.D., et al. Sci China Life Sci June (2016) Vol.59 No.6 641 Figure 1 From tortured to normal appearance with peripheral vision. Different Dora portraits in tortured (T), normal (N) and dished (D) appearances were respectively used in the peripheral visual tasks as described in Supplementary Information. A, Participants were asked to look directly at Dora in Figure S2, and choose the matching image from one of the three portraits in Figure S3. All participants picked the tortured portrait out (T). Then, they were asked to move their foveal sight onto the fixation point to perceive Dora in their peripheral vision. 28 of them picked normal portrait out (N) and two of them hesitat- ed (H) to give their answer in the task. B, When the normal Dora was presented in frontal view, all participants correctly identified the image (N). 27 partic- ipants perceived a dished Dora (D) on peripheral view when the normal Dora was used in frontal view. Three of them hesitated to pick the portrait out (H). Participants (n=30) were divided into three groups and asked to look a perfect circle at the fixation point for 5 s (Figure S5B). The three groups were re- quested to identify the objects from questionnaires in Figures S6, S7 or S8. They were asked to choose the object most similar to what they had perceived in peripheral vision. Objects identified by three groups (C), all participants (D), female and male participants (E) are depicted as indicated, respectively. ticipants also chose the normal Dora. No participants chose the dished portrait (Figure 1A, D). Note that any attempting the subjects to choose the option is not allowed. These results point to the 3D-like illusion that results from percep- tion in peripheral vision of the disjointed Dora. In order to investigate why peripheral vision results in the disjointed Dora being perceived as having a normal fa- cial structure, we used a portrait of the normal Dora as an examinational object (Figure S4a in Supporting Infor- mation). As a control task, all participants confirmed that the Dora perceived in their foveal vision was the normal Dora, and not the tortured one (Figure 1B, N). However, when perceived in the peripheral visual field using the fixa- tion point (Figure S4b in Supporting Information), 28 par- ticipants selected the dished portrait of Dora as the image that best matched the one they had perceived (Figure 1B, D), a portrait in which Dora’s left cheek has a concave ap- pearance. Two of them hesitated to select an image (Figure 1B, H). They, however, also chose the dished portrait after having the task re-explained. No participants selected the tortured portrait at this time (Figure 1B, T). The concave illusion of an object perceived in peripheral vision may be resulted from the inner-outer asymmetry of crowding ef- fect (Whitney and Levi, 2011). Picasso’s precise rendering of Dora Maar in a tortured structure compensates the eccen- tricity (asymmetry) of human peripheral vision (Levi and Carney, 2009; Strasburger et al., 2015). To clarify whether the asymmetry effect is related with the perception as described by Whitney and Levi (Whitney and Levi, 2011), participants were asked to look at a circle on the screen in the peripheral field (Figure S5a in Support- ing Information). The object observed in foveal visual re- sulted in all participants correctly identifying a perfect cir- cle. After looking at the circle, different shapes were shown to participants on a questionnaire and they were asked to choose which one was most similar to what they had per- ceived in peripheral vision (Figure S5b in Supporting In- formation). To exclude interference by the recognition of object positions, we divided the participants into three groups (10 people in each). Three separate questionnaires (Figures S6, S7 and S8 in Supporting Information) were used for the first, second and third group, respectively. When asked to select what they had seen in peripheral vi- sion (Figure 1C), 23, five and two of the participants identi- fied object h, object f and object b (Figure 1D), respective- 642 He, R.D., et al. Sci China Life Sci June (2016) Vol.59 No.6 ly. Object h was most selected by participants in all groups (horizontal axis was suppressed to 85% compared with the perfect circle). No participants picked the other objects (a, c, d, e, g, and i) under the trial conditions. No significant dif- ference was observed between male and female in their pe- ripheral visual perceptions (P＞0.05) (Figure 1E). The three objects (h, f, and b) were concaved at the nasal side of the circle but not the temporal side. This demonstrated that the eccentricity occurs in the nasal peripheral field, which is the same side as Dora’s disjointed nose and left eye. Picasso painted the tortured Dora with a wider face at our nasal side, which counteracts the asymmetry perception with peripheral vision. Picasso painted the Portrait of Dora Maar with thick lines, clear-cut structure, and in bright color, which lets us perceive a vivid Dora (Shen et al., 2015). He gives Dora an extended nose and cheek to compensate for the asymmetry crowding effect of peripheral vision as described by Whit- ney and Levi (Whitney and Levi, 2011). However, as we think, the mechanism should be more complicated. The poor spatial resolution in peripheral vision and surround suppression may be also involved in the perception of the disjunctive Dora. The detailed mechanism needs to be fur- ther investigated. With a master’s talent, on a 2D Picasso has painted a portrait that appears vivid, illusively full and 3D-like appearance in peripheral vision. In short, whether peripheral vision results in the illusory perception of a nor- mal object depends upon the structure of the visual object. Compliance and ethics The author(s) declare that they have no conflict of interest. Acknowledgements We thank all the participants from the Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences and Chengdu University for their collaboration in this work. Ms. Donna Lu (Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia) edited the language of this paper. This work was supported by the External Cooperation Program of BIC, Chinese Academy of Sciences (GJHZ201302): Collaboration between Institute of Biophysics CAS and Queensland Brain Institute, University of Queensland, Australia. Brigitte, L. (1996). Portraits of Dora Maar. Picasso and Portraiture. (New York: Harry N Abrams Inc), pp. 395–396. He, R.D., and He, R.Q. (2014). What did the bronze eye-like prism tell us? Sci Chin Life Sci 57, 445–447. Yeotikar, N.S., Khuu, S.K., Asper, L.J., and Suttle, C.M. (2011). Configu- ration specificity of crowding in peripheral vision. Vision Res 51, 1239–1248. Bi, T.Y., Cai, P., Zhou, T.G., and Fang, F. (2009). The effect of crowding on orientation-selective adaptation in human early visual cortex. J Vis 9, 1–10. Whitney, D., and Levi, D.M. (2011). Visual crowding: a fundamental limit on conscious perception and object recognition. Trend Cogn Sci 15, 160–168. Curcio, C.A., Sloan, K.R., Kalina, R.E., and Hendrickson, A.E. (1990). Human photoreceptor topography. J Comp Neurol 292, 497–523. Levi, D.M., and Carney, T. (2009). Crowding in peripheral vision: why bigger is better. Cur Biol 19, 1988–1993. Strasburger, H., Rentschler, I., and Juttner, M. (2015). Peripheral vision and pattern recognition: a review. J Vis 11, 13. Shen, J., Peli, E., and Bowers, A.R. (2015). Peripheral prism glasses: ef- fects of moving and stationary backgrounds. Optom Vis Sci 92, 412–420. André, M. (1976). Picasso’s Mask (Eng., March 22, 1995). Reissue edition. (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston), pp. 138–143. Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License which permits any use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited. SUPPORTING INFORMATION Figure S1 A perfect Dora imaging in the peripheral vision. Figure S2 Tortured Dora in black and white. Figure S3 Dora with different structural faces in different groups. Figure S4 Normal Dora in black and white. Figure S5 A circle designed for peripheral vision. Figure S6 Objects for participants to recognize what they saw in their peripheral vision. Figure S7 Objects for participants to recognize what saw in their peripheral vision. Figure S8 Objects for participants to recognize what they saw in their peripheral vision. The supporting information is available online at life.scichina.com and link.springer.com. The supporting materials are published as submitted, without typesetting or editing. The responsibility for scientific accuracy and content remains entirely with the authors. 
work_xjfmzh5jnreatf5x53lnzl6s2m	----	Харків 2018 2розділ UDC 7.04.71:27-312.8 ID ORCID 0000-0001-8477-9522 Beregovska Kh. Lviv National Academy of Arts ICONOGRAPHY AND STYLISTICS IN THE SERIES OF ARTWORKS OF “PASSIONS OF THE CHRIST” BY VASYL KURELEK Beregovska Kh. Iconography and stylistics in the series of artworks of “Passions of the Christ” by Vasyl Kurelek. Aim. Art Criticism is a young fi eld in Ukraine, and is just begin- ning to grow into maturity. Many topics have been adequately studied and scores of names have been recognized, but hundreds of worthy artists are waiting to be registered and feted in the national discourse. The history of the 20th century was such that artists of Ukrainian heritage often found themselves creating outside the borders of their native land. However, regardless of the geographic locale in which the art was created, it always had at its nucleus the traditions of the artist’s native land. One such artist, well known and respected in Canada, but very poorly known in Ukraine, was William Kurelek (1927–1977). In Canada, he is known as “The Bruegel of Manitoba”, in Lon- don – “The Canadian Bosch” or “Van Goh of the Prairies”. It is diffi cult to disagree with these assessments, so let us familiarize ourselves with him. The theses discuss one of the fundamental themes in the works of the famous Ukrainian Canadian artist William Kurelek – “The Passion of Christ”. Attention is paid to the meaningful role played by the only verse-by-verse illustration of the Gospel According to Matthew in the world. Described are the mechanics of illustrative portraiture and the thematic structure of sacred subjects. Obviously, the story of Christ’s suffering had been retold many times in various formats by various voices earlier, but new artists were always attempting to retell it in their own way, each focus- sing on what was important to them. William Kurelek was aware of these works by earlier artists. However, his version of “The Passion” is to a large extent a mirror if his own life and calling. William Kurelek fi rst had the idea of creating a series of paintings about “The Passion of Christ” in 1956. Of the four Gospels, he chose the one according to St. Matthew, saying that it had the most easily understandable details and provided the best dramatic quali- ties. Kurelek created 160 paintings, illustrating verse for verse, building from sketch to completed painting. His very long-term plan was to illustrate the entire Gospel according to St. Matthew – a series of 800 paintings. However, he only managed to complete 30 works. His plan was cut short by his untimely death. In order to be able to create a more perfect reproduction the events of the fi nal three days of Christ, Kurelek travelled to the Holy Land in 1959, where he made hundreds of, sketches, took hundreds of photos, and collected historical and geographical information about the places where Christ lived. This precious knowledge laid the foundation for Kurelek’s series, which he began at the start of 1960 and completed in 1963. In the 160 paintings, we see the various styles and approaches used by Kurelek – some are created in a natural/primitivistic method, while others are exemplars of the highest form of de- tailed precision. Kurelek spent three weeks in the Holy Land, walked from Jeru- salem to Bethlehem, and took hundreds of photos – on which he would base his depictions of location and landscape. The formal language of the series “The Passion” discloses an on- going attempt to unite traditional and personal thought. The artist had his own take on religious painting. His iconography became a form of synthesis of eastern (Byzantine), northern-renaissance, and Mexican styles. Kurelek was interested in the use of light, colour, and techniques of depiction of the static form, its deconstruction and composi- tion in freeform, and the relationships between line, form, and shade in general. In the series we fi nd many works of various scope – mass or individual. Therefore, the series can be separated into two groups: those which multiple fi gures, and those with only one or two – again dictated by what the artist wanted to emphasise. Kurelek paid great attention to detail, investing in serious study of history, tradition, and architecture of the land of Israel in the time of Jesus. An analysis of the stylistic character of the works will show a synthesis of the infl uences on Kurelek. We know that he often drew on the works of his favourite painters, emulating the greatest achievements in the world of art. The series “The Passion of Christ” is not the result of detached artistic calculation, but rather an honest, moving declaration of faith. It is a proof that even today religion continues to be an inspiration for cultural expression. This series was an explicit act of conversion of a practicing atheist to devout Catholic – an ascent from depths of personal suffering and torment, to a fulfi lled spiritual life. In the words of the artist, in his work he positioned point vs counterpoint – love vs hate, creation vs destruction, faith vs superstition [5, p. 30]. Kurelek believed that he was given his artistic ability in order to serve God. He considered himself His servant, and his art was a tool of God’s will – not his. Results. The phenomenon of William Kurelek fi rst absorbed the best from the classics of the old world, then matured in the ashes of personal psychological traumas, suffered, proceeded to be was washed in faith, and fi nally became whole. The result was the creation of a thousands strong army of masterpieces, armed with deep meaning and symbolism. The artist created monuments on canvas to multiple ethnic groups of immigrants to Canada and illustrated “The Passion of Christ” from the Gospel according to St. Matthew verse by verse, yet he continued to strive for more. Having exchanged outlook from clinically depressed to theologically-metaphysical, he created a rich, enduring legacy of prophetic, mysterious, and religious art. Novelty. “The Passion of Christ” is one of the most signifi cant works in the history of religious art. This series is a symbolic thanks to God from the artist for his spiritual salvation. His creativ- ity continues to remain an open fi eld in the search for the Eternal. Keywords: Series, phenomenon, subject, creativity, The Passion of Christ, Canadian, William Kurelek. Береговська Х. О. Іконографія та художньо-стилістичні особливості серії творів «Страсті Христові» Василя Курилика. У статті висвітлено сакральну живописну серію «Страсті Христові» канадського художника українського походження Василя Курилика. Ця серія — єдиний аналог у світі повіршового живописного ілюстрування вангелія від Матея — цикл про Страждання, Смерті і Воскресіння Ісуса Христа. Зокрема у статті досліджена іконографія образів та різносюжетних композицій творів, детально проаналізовано художньо-стилістичні особливості сакральних творів. Формальна мова творів серії «Страсті Христові» виявляє постійний пошук автором гармонії традиційних і нова- торських ідей. Художник володів своєрідним трактуванням релігійних образів. Його іконографія тяжіє до синтезу східної (візантійської), північно-ренесансної та мексиканської стилістики, де автор торкається проблем світла, кольору, середовища. Проаналізувавши стилістичний характер творів, можна збагнути про синтез різноманітних творчих впливів. Відомо, що Курилик чимало черпав із творчості улюбле- них мистців (П. Брейгеля, Ван Гога, Рівери), наслідуючи найвдаліші світові мистецькі досягнення. Ключові слова: іконографія, «Страсті Христові», впливи, художні особливості, Василь Курилик. Береговская К. А. Иконография и художественно-сти- листические особенности серии произведений «Страсти Христовы» Василия Курилика. В статье исследована са- кральная живописная серия «Страсти Христовы» канадского художника украинского происхождения Василия Курилика. Эта серия — единственный в мире аналог стихотворного живописного иллюстрирования Евангелия от Матфея — © Beregovska Kh., 2018 цикл про Страдание, Смерте и Воскресение Иисуса Христа. В частности, в статье исследована иконография образов и разносюжетных композиций произведений, подробно про- анализированы художественно-стилистические особенности сакральных произведений. Формальный язык произведений серии «Страсти Христовы» проявляет постоянный поиск автором гармонии традици- онных и новаторских идей. Художник владел своеобразной трактовкой религиозных образов. Его иконография тяготеет к синтезу восточной (византийской), северо-ренессансной и мексиканской стилистики, где автор касается проблем света, цвета, среды. Проанализировав стилистический характер произведений, можно понять о синтезе различных творческих воздействий. Известно, что Курилик немало заимствовал из творчества любимых художников (П. Брейгеля, Ван Гога, Риверы), наследуя удачные мировые художественные до- стижения. Ключевые слова: иконография, «Страсти Христовы», влия- ния, художественные особенности, Василий Курилик. The pantheon of 20th century artists century is rich with unquestionable talent. Some of these artists have hundreds of books and documentaries dedicated to them and their work, others are known only in certain regions, still others are popular only in their home countries – the rest however, are familiar only to scholars. If the mid-20th century is examined through a prism of art, a map of the planet will show a constant pulse of genius – from self-taught artists to professionals: Pablo Picasso was continuing his experimentation in Paris, Salvador Dali was creating surrealism in Spain, Jackson Pollock was mastering abstract expressionism in the US, Nikifor Dovnyak (Lemko) was creating primitive landscapes in Po- land. At the same time, in Canada William Kurelek was creating a hierarchical “cannon” of portraits of the fi rst settlers of the Canadian prairies. Formulation of the problem. One such art- ist, well known and respected in Canada, but very poorly known in Ukraine, was William Kurelek (1927–1977). In Canada, he is known as “The Bruegel of Manitoba”, in London – “The Canadian Bosch” or “Van Goh of the Prairies”. It is diffi cult to disagree with these assessments, so let us familiarize ourselves with him. Today it is very important to comprehensively explore the “multiserial” legacy of Vasyl Kurylyk, and in particular his series “Passion ...”, analyzing iconography and artistic and stylistic peculiarities of his works. Analysis of recent research and publications. About the legacy of Vasyl Kurylyk hundreds of ar- ticles are written, dozens of them are devoted to the theme of his sacred series “Passion for the Christ”. This is mostly the publication of periodical Canadian editions, as well as Ukrainian diaspora periodicals. The fundamental book on The Passion of the Christ by Vasyl Kurylyk, is a catalog of 1975, published by Kolyanskivsky in Nianar Falls, Canada [6]. After a detailed study of the collected sources it follows that the legacy of V. Kurylyk is well-known in Canadian society, however, today we have not met any scientifi c research that would comprehensively cover the fundamental heritage of V. Kurylyk. Aim. The phenomenon of William Kurelek fi rst absorbed the best from the classics of the old world, then matured in the ashes of personal psychological traumas, suffered, proceeded to be was washed in faith, and fi nally became whole. The result was the creation of a thousands strong army of masterpieces, armed with deep meaning and symbolism. The art- ist created monuments on canvas to multiple ethnic groups of immigrants to Canada and illustrated “The Passion of Christ” from the Gospel according to St. Matthew verse by verse, yet he continued to strive for more. Having exchanged outlook from clinically depressed to theologically-metaphysical, he created a rich, enduring legacy of prophetic, mysterious, and religious art. Therefore, the purpose of the article is to ana- lyze in detail the iconography and the artistic and stylistic features of this series, which will enable to clear the deep meanings laid by the artist in the his art works. Basic theses. The story of “The Passion of Christ” has often been depicted by artists throughout the last two millennia. The French painter Jan Tissot (1836–1902) created a benchmark illustration of the life of Christ with 700 watercolours and sketches. His aim was to visually describe the complete life of Christ – from Birth to Resurrection. Part of his work portrayed the facts as laid out in the Gospel according to Matthew. However, this artist did not attempt to recreate the gospel verse by verse chronologically, nor did he “tie” himself to the Gospel. He was greatly infl uenced by the work of the renown French Biblical illustrator of the Romantic period, Gustave Dore (1832–1883). Obviously, the story of Christ’s suffering had been retold many times in various formats by various voices earlier, but new artists were always attempting to retell it in their own way, each focussing on what was important to them [1, p. 21]. William Kurelek was aware of these works by earlier artists. However, his version of “The Passion” is to a large extent a mirror if his own life and calling. William Kurelek fi rst had the idea of creating a series of paintings about “The Passion of Christ” in 1956. Of the four Gospels, he chose the one ac- cording to St. Matthew, saying that it had the most easily understandable details and provided the best dramatic qualities. Kurelek created 160 paintings, illustrating verse for verse, building from sketch to completed painting. His very long-term plan was to illustrate the entire Gospel according to St. Mat- thew – a series of 800 paintings. However, he only managed to complete 30 works. His plan was cut short by his untimely death. In order to be able to create a more perfect reproduction the events of the fi nal three days of Christ, Kurelek travelled to the Holy Land in 1959, where he made hundreds of, sketches, took hundreds of photos, and collected historical and geographical information about the places where Christ lived. This precious knowledge laid the foundation for Kurelek’s series, which he began at the start of 1960 and completed in 1963. In the 160 paintings, we see the various styles and approaches used by Kurelek – some are created in a natural/primitivistic method, while others are exemplars of the highest form of detailed precision. Харків 2018 2розділ Kurelek spent three weeks in the Holy Land, walked from Jerusalem to Bethlehem, and took hundreds of photos – on which he would base his depictions of location and landscape. The formal language of the series “The Pas- sion” discloses an ongoing attempt to unite traditional and personal thought. The artist had his own take on religious painting. His iconography became a form of synthesis of eastern (Byzantine), northern- renaissance, and Mexican styles. Kurelek was interested in the use of light, co- lour, and techniques of depiction of the static form, its deconstruction and composition in freeform, and the relationships between line, form, and shade in general. For Kurelek, the setting of the painting was a metaphysical space where two worlds intersected: the realistic, measured landscapes, and historical- biblical stories – as interpreted by the newly born again Christian artist. The space was painted in a linear way, depicting ancient structures of Hebrew cities as well as landscapes fi lled with cliffs and sand. The artist often crops the Biblical image, zooming in in order to focus on certain details or facts. Each crop is carefully carried out to convey a specifi c lesson or meaning. Kurelek is not interested in a complete depiction of each scene, often cutting the composi- tion in a most unexpected place, or leaving a detail from a previous composition. In this way, Kurelek forges and weaves an invisible chronological chain of events into the series of “The Passion”. Interior scenes are set tightly enclosed in monumental stone walls, as if literally facing an inevitable prophesy. The artist went to great lengths to recreate the interiors exactly as they would have looked: antique orders, capitals, and semi-circular vaults; the characteristic draperies, and semi-reclined dining poses at semi-circular tables. Kurelek paid great attention to detail. He was very familiar with the architectural styles of the time of Christ, as well as middle eastern cabinetmaking, clothing, carpet weaving, ceramics, decoration, and even the assort- ment of foods served. (fi g. 1) Kurelek clearly divided the canvas into two horizontal planes – heaven and earth. The visual char- acteristics of heaven, or the heat-soaked air, served to reinforce the emotions created by the events unfold- ing in the painting: gentle or threatening, baby blue or leaden. The artist depicted air using half-tones of light, raising or lowering the temperature. The sky is not “connected” to the time of day or night, but rather to the tragedy of inevitable events that unfolded, page by page, in the Holy Gospel. Tint in each work acts like a generator of evocative emotion, and buttress of the dominant accents. It is used to create or balance the plane. The colour scale Kurelek used is very wide. Black is the colour of contours and shading. Red is present in each painting and represents the suffering and inescapable fate of the Son of God. Red is often used in contrast with the complementary green, an ef- fect works to activate visual receptors and strengthen the already powerful emotional messages. It is impor- tant to note that colour schemes used in some paintings border on the psychedelic, which refl ects the personal experiences and perturbation of the painter. He often uses a gradation of light and semi-contrasting shades, especially when depicting evening or darkest night – the events of the Garden of Gethsemane, the betrayal by Peter, and the fl ight of the disciples. (fi g. 2) The use of these achromatic techniques allows Kurelek to create a profound and mystical stage on which he, using a fi ne stroke, sets the scene. Line and tint are the tools which Kurelek juggles, painting dynamic fi gures, or creating a statue-like web of veins on the backs of the hands of Christ. In the series we fi nd many works of various scope – mass or individual. Therefore, the series can be separated into two groups: those which multiple fi gures, and those with only one or two – again dictated by what the artist wanted to emphasise. Kurelek paid great attention to detail, investing in serious study of history, tradition, and architecture of the land of Israel in the time of Jesus. Each main persona has a unique speed of understood physical and spiritual movement. The contrast of static vs dynamic was a key technique in differentiating the heroes. The image of Christ, for example, remains immovable and monumental amid the confused, teeming masses. Each slight movement or exaggerated pose was intentional, collectively enhancing the depiction of the three-day ordeal of Suffering, Death, and Resurrection of Christ. An analysis of the stylistic character of the works will show a synthesis of the infl uences on Kurelek. We know that he often drew on the works of his favourite painters, emulating the greatest achievements in the world of art. Kurelek’s paintings can be compared to Giotto’s “Judas Kiss”, in that both masters strive to dramatize the events as a developed means of ex- pression. Kurelek took from Giotto the most refi ned perspectives, and transformed them to fi t his own personal artistic expression and scale of depiction, in which he arranged the scenes relative to the next. Kurelek synthesized Giotto’s two dimensional depiction of spatial areas with Bruegel’s lush subject matter and emotional hyperbole. It is this Bruege- lesque plurality of mutually dependent emotions that creates a unity on the canvas. Kurelek also learned from Bruegel to modernize faces, using just one line to depict both the features and emotion. Kurelek also studied Hieronymus Bosch a great deal, especially during the period of his emotional crisis. The phan- tasmagorical personages who inhabited the works of Bosch heavily infl uenced the development of artistic creativity in William Kurelek. He associated those images with the apocalypse and worldly sin, and they made their way into the works “The Tempta- tion and Fall of Judas” or “The Rise of the Dead”. Let us not forget that Kurelek spent time studying art in Mexico, where he came under the direct infl u- ence of the work of Diego Rivera – especially his massive and monumental way of depicting trifl ing detail. (fi g. 3) Kurelek depicted women in the style of Rivera: majestic and composed, holding the fates of loved ones – or even of all humanity – in their hands. The characters in the series “The Passion” are witnesses, the chosen, who had the honour of Fig. 3. William / Vasyl Kurelek. The Passion of Christ (Mark well, you have heard…). Fragment. 1960–1963. Gouache on paper. 51,1 × 48 cm. Niagara Falls Art Gallery. Canada. Photo by K. Beregovska. 12.2017 Fig. 1. William / Vasyl Kurelek. The Passion of Christ (And while they were at the table, He said…). Fragment. 1960– 1963. Gouache on paper. 51,1 × 48 cm. Niagara Falls Art Gallery. Canada. Photo by K. Beregovska. 12.2017 Fig. 2. William / Vasyl Kurelek. The Passion of Christ (And began to pray “Father…”). Fragment. 1960–1963. Gouache on paper. 51,1 × 48 cm. Photo from the book: [6, p. 48] participating in the historic events of the last days of Christ. Each person has portrait traits which, when examined together, give a feel for the mood of each painting. There are no “extras” in these paintings – each person has a specifi c role to play in the drama, as laid out in the Scripture. In the works Kurelek cropped to focus on people, the viewer can see ev- ery slight trace of fi lth and depth of treachery on the sinner; the perfectly natural drops of sweat, tears, or saliva, and blood-red eyes of the lynch mob; the scarred body of Christ. The faces are striking – the emaciated Christ with his heavily Semitic features, like an image from an El Greco painting; the fat Judas with his asymmetrical face; the mask-like face of Pilate, where we can read spiritual trepidation and confl icting emotions. Kurelek pours light into the souls of the char- acters and uses that to arrange his paintings. He is also not afraid to show the abhorrent face of pain and suffering. Each painting is inspired by events from Kurelek’s life – where a calm exterior hides a charged emotional interior. All of the characters in Kurelek’s works appear to be sculpted. We know that sculpture was dear to Kurelek – he created the unique, two-meter tall plastic sculpture of Joseph entitled “The Worker” (1966) for the Jesuit college in Guelph, Canada. We see shades of this statue in the depiction of Joseph in the series “The Passion” [3, p. 55]. According to Yuri Shevelov, “Kurelek was a particular type of surrealist. In one way, he did not ‘photograph’ reality, but rather stylized and simpli- fi ed it; in another way he rarely resorted to random combinations of things as did Rene Magritte; and in still another way he boldly introduced into his works elements of ethnography, religious tradition, or even symbolic and allegorical elements. It is impossible to fully comprehend the refi ned formal face of Kurelek Харків 2018 2розділ without examining his proclivity towards primitive, naïve art – although he was never a primitivist in the style of Henri Rousseau or Nikifor” [5, p. 51]. The series “The Passion of Christ” is not the result of detached artistic calculation, but rather an honest, moving declaration of faith. It is a proof that even today religion continues to be an inspiration for cultural expression. This series was an explicit act of conversion of a practicing atheist to devout Catholic – an ascent from depths of personal suf- fering and torment, to a fulfi lled spiritual life. In the words of the artist, in his work he positioned point vs counterpoint – love vs hate, creation vs destruction, faith vs superstition [2, p. 30]. Kurelek believed that he was given his artistic ability in order to serve God. He considered himself His servant, and his art was a tool of God’s will – not his. His main aim was the salvation of his soul, and to help others fi nd salvation also. This was much more important to him than painting for painting’s sake. We fi nd clear proof of this in his autobiography, where he wrote: “If I had to choose one to save – my soul or my art, I wouldn’t hesitate to destroy my paintings” [7, p. 501]. It is important to note that the series “The Pas- sion of Christ” and the later book of the same name, which was published in 1975 and included the entire set of 160 paintings with descriptions written by the artist himself, garnered quite a bit of attention in the press. It is also important that Kurelek wrote the text for the book himself and personally explained the depth of meaning of each piece [6, p. 7–16]. For Kurelek himself, the highest praise for his series “The Passion of Christ” a letter from Pope Paul VI which he received in 1975, full of praise and admiration, which read: “I am enchanted by the deep artistic and spiritual content which is evident in the scenes of suffering, especially in the depiction of the fl agellation and crucifi xion; the epic torment, insults, human injustice and the greatness of God” [4, p. 8]. Conclusions. Studying the artistic heritage of Vasyl Kurilyk, conducting an art-study analysis of his numerous different-thematic series, we dwelt in detail on the series “Passion for Christ”. Expanding the subject of the study, it was possible to comprehensively analyze the artistic and stylistic features and iconography of 160 gouache and watercolor works. We have shown many infl uences of creative manner of Bruegel, Van Gogh, Rivera’s, which Kurylyk transformed through the prism of his own artistic conception, in the author’s manner. And also to show the series “Passions of the Christ” by Vasyl Kurylyk as a powerful phenomenon not only in Canadian but also in the world context, fi rst introducing him into Ukrainian art studies. Prospects for further research. It is very important for Ukrainian art studies to study the phenomenon of Vasyl Kurylyk’s art works. Particularly is important is analyze and holistic highlight his various thematic paintings series, which constitute a single “conceptual canvas” of his art. Література: 1. Джекман Е. Курилик : Страсті Християнського Апо- столяту [Text] Едвард Джекман // Ми і світ (Торонто, Канада). — 1977. — Ч. 197. — С. 21. 2. Курилик В. Чому мої картини бувають сумні [Text] / В. Курилик // Ми і світ (Торонто, Канада). — 1983. — Ч. 235. — С. 30. 3. Мистецтво [Text] // Ми і світ (Торонто, Канада). — 1983. — Ч. 235. — С. 55. 4. Найвищі признання для «Страстей Христових» В. Ку- рилика [Text] // Ми і світ (Торонто, Канада). — 1975. — Ч. 187. — С. 8. 5. Шевельов Ю. З нагоди виставки картин Василя Ку- рилика в Вінніпезі [Text] / Юрій Шевельов // Сучас- ність. — 1981. — Ч. 1. — С. 51. 6. Kurelek W. The passion of Christ according to st. Matthew [Text] / William Kurelek. — Toronto : Niagara falls art gallery and museum, 1975. — 192 p. 7. Someone with me : The Autobiography of William Kurelek / James Maas (Foreword). — Ithaca, New York : Cornell University, 1973. — 523 p. References: 1. Jackman, E. (1977). Kurylyk : Strasti Khrystyianskoho Apostoliatu [Kurelek : The Suffering of the Christian Apostles]. My i Svit, 197, 21. (In Ukrainian). 2. Kurelek, W. (1983). Chomu moi kartyny buvaiut sumni [Why My Paintings are Sad]. My i Svit, 235, 30. (In Ukrainian). 3. Mystetstvo [Art]. (1983). My i Svit, 235, 55. (In Ukrainian). 4. Naivyshchi pryznannia dlia «Strastei Khrystovykh» V. Kurylyka [The Highest Praise for William Kurelek’s “The Passion of Christ”]. (1975). My i Svit, 187, 8. (In Ukrainian). 5. Shevelov, Yu. (1981). Z nahody vystavky kartyn Vasylia Kurylyka v Vinnipezi [On the Occasion of the Exhibition of Paintings by William Kurelek in Winnipeg]. Suchasnist, 1, 51. (In Ukrainian). 6. Kurelek, W. (1975). The passion of Christ according to st. Matthew. Ontario, Canada : Niagara falls art gallery and museum. (In English). 7. Maas, J. (Foreword). (1973). Someone with me : The Auto- biography of William Kurelek. Ithaca, New York : Cornell University. (In English). Рецензент статті: Стельмащук Г. Г., доктор мистецтвознавства, академік, професор, Львівська національна академія мистецтв Стаття надійшла до редакції 06.09.2018 
work_xlgfcpsefbewzmqdu7wazxennq	----	DOI: 10.7816/sed-04-01-03 sed, 2016, Cilt 4, Sayı 1, Volume 4, Issue 1 37 www.sanategitimidergisi.com YÜKSELİŞİ VE ÖNCÜ SANATÇILARIYLA SOYUT DIŞAVURUMCULUK Pelin AVŞAR KARABAŞ1, Ahmet POLAT 2 ÖZET 19.Yüzyılın son çeyreğindeki Endüstri Çağı, toplumsal yaşamda büyük değişikliklere yol açmıştır. Bu değişiklikler nedeniyle bireylerde meydana gelen ruhsal birikimlerin sonucu olarak insanların iç dünyalarında oluşan içe dönük etkilerin sanata yansımaları, 20.yüzyılda yeni sanat akımları ve anlayışlar ortaya koyulmasına sebep olmuştur. Tarama modelindeki bu araştırmada; “Soyut Dışavurumculuk” akımını oluşturan sosyal, ekonomik ve toplumsal ortam incelenmiş, akımın ortaya çıkışı, gelişimi, sanat eserlerine yansımaları ve bu anlayışı benimseyerek eserler üreten sanatçılar hakkında bilgiler verilmiştir. Soyut Dışavurumcu resim anlayışı, “Aksiyon Resmi”-“Eylem Resmi” ve “Geç Resimsel Soyutlama”-“Renk Alanı Resmi” gibi başlıklar altında gruplandırılır. Bu akımda objelerin veya nesnel biçimlerin reddi söz konusudur. Özellikle içe dönük duyguların ifadesi önemsenmiş ve saf bir resimleme anlayışı esas alınmıştır. 1940-1950 yılları arasında New York’ta şekillenen akım; uluslararası sanat ortamına getirdiği çarpıcı ve etkili yeni ifade biçimi ile tartışmalara konu olmuştur. Siyasi ve toplumsal değişimlerden beslenen Amerika’da “New York Okulu” olarak da bilinen bu yaklaşımın başlıca sanatçıları arasında Jackson Pollock, Willem de Kooning, Franz Kline, Robert Motherwell, Mark Rothko, Clyfford Still ve Barnett Newman gibi isimler yer almaktadır. Anahtar Kelimeler: Soyut Dışavurumculuk, Aksiyon Resmi, Geç Resimsel Soyutlama, Renk Alanı Resmi, New York Okulu. 1Doç. Dr., Dumlupınar Üniversitesi Güzel Sanatlar Fakültesi Resim Bölümü, pelin.avsar(at)dpu.edu.tr 2Dumlupınar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Birleşik Sanatlar Anasanat Dalı, ahmet.polat0(at)ogr.dpu.edu.tr Avşar Karabaş, P. ve Polat, A. Yükselişi Ve Öncü Sanatçılarıyla Soyut Dışavurumculuk. sed, 4 (1), s.37-52 www.sanategitimidergisi.com 38 THE RISE AND THE LEADING ARTISTS OF ABSTRACT EXPRESSIONISM ABSTRACT In the last quarter of 19. century, the Industrial Era has led to major changes in the social life. These changes cause introverted effects that occur in individuals inner world as a result of mental activities, and the reflection of these effects on art caused new art trends and insights to be revealed in 20. century. The social, economic, environmental elements that constitute “Abstract Expressionism”, the movement’s emergence, development, reflect on art and the artists are examined within this screening model research. Abstract Expressionism is consist of “Action Painting”, “Post-Painterly Abstraction” and “Color Field Painting”. This movement is all about rejection of objects or objective forms. Especially expression of introverted emotions are considered important and a pure concept illustration is taken as a basis. The movement, formed in New York between years 1940-1950, has been the subject of many discussions with the new impressive and striking explanation it brought to the international art environment. Jackson Pollock, Willem de Kooning, Franz Kline, Robert of Dundee, Mark Rothko, Clyfford Still and Barnett Newman are the major artists of this movement which is also known as “New York School” in America nurtured by political and social change. Keywords: Abstract Expressionsm, Action Painting, Post-Painterly Abstraction, Color Field Painting, New York School. DOI: 10.7816/sed-04-01-03 sed, 2016, Cilt 4, Sayı 1, Volume 4, Issue 1 39 www.sanategitimidergisi.com GİRİŞ Modern çağın yeni sanat görüşünün belirlenmesinde bazı olaylar önemli rol oynamış ve eserlerin oluşumuna yön veren görüşler bu olaylara bağlı bir takım süreçler sonucunda ortaya çıkmıştır. Bunların en önemlilerinden birisi olarak endüstri çağı görülür ve bu çağın toplumsal çevreyi, insan hayatını ve dünya politikasını etkileyen büyük değişimlere sebebiyet verdiği düşünülür. Toplumun en duyarlı kesimlerinden biri olarak görülen sanatçılar açısından bakıldığında ise bu tür gelişim ve değişimlerin sanat olaylarına yansıması kaçınılmazdır. Bu nedenle farklı dönemlerde yaşanan sanat olaylarını ve sanatçıları anlamak ve eserlerini değerlendirebilmek için, yaşanılan dönemin yanı sıra yakın geçmiş hakkında da bilgi sahibi olmak gerekir. 19. Yüzyıl sonlarına doğru Almanya’da ortaya çıkan Dışavurumculuk akımı, Soyut Dışavurumculuğun alt yapısını oluşturan ve tarihsel açıdan hem Avrupa hem de Amerika’dan beslenen ilk sanat akımı özelliğindedir. İkinci Dünya savaşı sonrasında ABD, halkı savaş ortamından uzaklaştırmak ve soyutlamak için her alanda çaba harcamış, bu politik yaklaşımın sanat alanında uygulanması sonucunda ise Soyut Dışavurumculuk Akımı’nın temelleri atılmıştır. Savaş, Amerikan ekonomisinin canlanmasına sebep olmuş, böylece bankalarda para birikmiş, yeni iş imkanları ortaya çıkmış ve orta sınıf rahatlamıştır. Kasalarda biriken fazla sermaye, lüks tüketim ortamını yaratmış ve bu tür olumlu ekonomik koşullar sanat ortamına da yansımıştır (Yılmaz,2006:157). 1930’larda Nazizm ve savaşın etkileriyle özgür sanat ortamları bulamayan sanatçılar, Alman baskısının olmadığı yerlere kaçmak istemiş ve beraberlerinde sanatın merkezini de gittikleri yerlere doğru kaydırmışlardır. Böyle bir talep ortamında sanatçılara kapılarını açan Amerika ise, göç eden sanatçıları destekleme politikası izlemiştir (Ahmetoğlu,2011:6). O yıllarda yaşanan büyük ekonomik bunalım sonrasında ekonomisini hızla düzelten Amerika’da, İkinci Dünya Savaşı sırasında zenginleşme söz konusu olurken, yaşanan lüks konut patlaması sayesinde Soyut Ekspresyonist sanat büyük rağbet görmüş ve alışveriş merkezlerinde dahi bu tarz eserler sergilenmeye başlanmıştır (Artun,2011:45). Yeni sanat ortamının oluşmasını sağlayan galerilerin ve okulların açılması, sanatı destekleyen projeler yapılması, çeşitli dergi ve gazetelerin sanatsal konulara ağırlık vermesi gibi faaliyetler ise bu durumun beraberinde getirdiği olumlu gelişmeler olarak değerlendirilebilir. 1940-1970 yılları arasında gerçekleşen olumlu gelişmeler ışığında Amerika, hemen her konuda olduğu gibi sanatsal etkinlikleriyle de ön plana çıkmış ve İkinci Dünya Savaşı’ndan sonra Avrupa, dünya lideri olma konumunu kaybetmiştir. Savaş aynı zamanda Paris’in sanattaki liderliğini de olumsuz yönde etkilemiş, Avrupa’nın Avşar Karabaş, P. ve Polat, A. Yükselişi Ve Öncü Sanatçılarıyla Soyut Dışavurumculuk. sed, 4 (1), s.37-52 www.sanategitimidergisi.com 40 Mondrian, Leger, Ernst, Dali, Chagall ve Moholy-Nagy gibi önemli sanatçılarının savaş boyunca Amerika’da kalmalarına ve sanatsal üretimleriyle kendilerinden önce yapılanlara katkıda bulunmalarına sebep olmuştur (Lynton, 2009:226). 19. Yüzyılda bunalan insanoğlu, sanatsal ifade gücünü ortaya koyma çabaları içerisinde iken, kendi iç dünyasına kapanarak huzuru aramış, düş kırıklıkları yaşamış ve bu dönemde gerçeküstücülükle kendisini ifade etme yoluna gitmiştir. Ancak insanın iç dünyasındaki umutsuzluğu açığa çıkarmasının ekspresyonistler sayesinde olduğu söylenebilir. Belirli bir yer ve zamanla sınırlandırılamayacak kadar genel bir eğilim olan dışavurumculuğun gelişimi ve ilerlemesinde köprü görevi gören Die Brücke ve Der Blaue Reiter gruplarının etkinliğinin oldukça önemli görüldüğü de bilinmektedir. (Antmen,2008:38). Öte yandan soyut dışavurumcu sanatçılar, kübizmin biçimsel sonuçlarından ve sürrealistlerin ilkel temalarından yararlanmışlardır. 20. Yüzyıl dışavurumculuğun kendisini yaygın bir şekilde hissettiren bir eğilim olmasında Van Gogh’un doğaya yönelik ifade biçimleri ve ham renkleri ile Edward Munch’un kişisel imgeleri de fazlasıyla etkilidir. İkinci Dünya Savaşı sonrasında eski ve yeni birçok eğilim ve anlayışın çeşitli yönlerden birleşmesiyle meydana gelen Soyut Dışavurumculuk anlayışında; Sürrealizm ve Fovizim’den de beslenildiği ve bu süreçte akımların kullandığı gereçlere ve uyguladıkları tekniklere yeni anlayışlar getirildiği dikkat çekmektedir. ABD’deki yoğun sanatsal gelişim süreci 1920’lerde ve 1930’larda üretilen sanattan biçimsel ve üslupsal olarak farklıdır. İkinci Dünya Savaşı’ndan önce Amerikan sanatı daha çok yerli temalardan ve figüratif eserlerden oluşmaktayken, İkinci Dünya Savaşı yıllarında ve sonrasında gelişme gösteren Amerikan sanatının temel özelliği soyut ve dışavurumcu olmasıdır. Amerikan sanatının 1940’lı ve 1950’li yıllarda atılıma geçtiği söylenebilir. Soyutlama 1940-1950 yılları arasında ileri modernizm döneminde “Soyut Dışavurumcular” olarak adlandırılan “New York Okulu” sanatçıları kadar, erken modernizmin avangard sanatçıları tarafından da çekici bulunmuştur (Danto,2014:25). Amerika’daki bu değişimin arkasındaki sanatsal nedenlerin yanında; ideoloji ve politika alanlarında yaşananların da göz önünde bulunması gerekir. Amerikan soyut dışavurumculuk akımının önde gelen temsilcileri, savaş öncesi ve sonrasındaki gelişmeleri hükümetin bilinçli uyguladığı bir politika olarak benimsemişlerdir. 1940’ların sonları ve 1950’lerde New York Modern Sanat Müzesi tarafından tüm dünyaya ithal edilmesini sağlayan uluslararası birçok sergi düzenlenmiş ve bu DOI: 10.7816/sed-04-01-03 sed, 2016, Cilt 4, Sayı 1, Volume 4, Issue 1 41 www.sanategitimidergisi.com sergiler, küratörlerin Amerikan resim sanatındaki “özgürlük damgası” ile insanları denetim altına alan Sovyet komünizminin “kitsch” sanatını karşılaştırdığı, milliyetçi bir söylemle bir arada yürütülmüştür (Clark,2004:13-14). Amerikan hükümetinin 1935-1941 yılları arasındaki dönemde Marksizim’den uzaklaşan sanatçıları desteklemek ve sanatçıları o dönemde yaşanan ekonomik bulanımdan kurtarmak için maddi manevi yoğun destek verdiği bilinmektedir. Buna bağlı olarak Amerikan Soyut Dışavurumcu anlayışın nihayetinde, tuval üzerindeki bir resim olmaktan çok, bir olayın kendisi haline geldiğini ve bunun da sanatın özgür bir eylem olarak sürdürülmesine imkan verdiğini düşünmek kaçınılmazdır. Soyut ekspresyonizmin temeline bakıldığında; eserleriyle katkıda bulunan sanatçılardan 1880 ile 1966 yılları arasında yaşamış olan Alman ressam Hans Hofmann, New York’a geldiğinde 50 yaşının üzerindedir. Kübizm’den, Fovizm’den ve Gerçeküstücülük’ten etkilenmiştir. Sanat anlayışında en çok Matisse’den esinlenmiş ve resimde en çok renk-biçim-mekan birliği esasları üzerinde durmuştur. Hem Matisse’in tekniği, hem de Kübizm’in tanınıp anlaşılması konusunda oldukça etkin olmuştur (Keküllüoğlu,2010:45). Sanatçının “Rüzgar” isimli eseri Aksiyon Resmi’nin izlerini taşımaktadır. Resim 1. Hans Hofman, Rüzgar, Tahta Üzerine Guaj-Hint Mürekkebi-Yağ, 1942-1944. Soyut ekspresyonizme hem katkıda bulunan hem de öncülerinden olan bir diğer sanatçı Marc Tobey’dir. Bir süre Avrupa’da yaşadıktan sonra Çin’e ve Avşar Karabaş, P. ve Polat, A. Yükselişi Ve Öncü Sanatçılarıyla Soyut Dışavurumculuk. sed, 4 (1), s.37-52 www.sanategitimidergisi.com 42 Japonya’ya giderek Uzak Doğu Zen manastırlarında kalmıştır. Bu sebeple sanatçının eserlerinde mistik özellikler görülmektedir. Uzak Doğu sanatından esinlenen Tobey’in, doğu kaligrafisinden etkilenerek yaptığı resimleri, koyu bir yüzey üzerinde beyaz çizgilerden oluşmaktadır. Bu yüzden sanatçı üslubu ‟beyaz yazı‟ diye de adlandırılır (Lynton, 2009:229-231). Amerika’nın batı kıyılarında yaşamış ve kozmopolit bir sanatçı olarak tanınan Tobey; ilgilendiği kaligrafi, oryantal ve Uzak Doğu hat, lavi ve minyatür sanatlarından edindiği izlenimleri biçimsel olarak da eserlerinde kullanmıştır. Resim 2. Mark Tobey, Fantazi Coğrafyası, 1948. Arshile Gorky resimlerinde Paris ekolünün etkilerini fazlasıyla ortaya koyan sanatçılardan birisidir. Duygulu dokunuşlar, sıkıcı olmayan son derece özümsenmiş bir Fransız sanatı temsili ve modern resimde ender bulunan iki kültürün bir arada kullanılması yönleri ile dikkat çekicidir. Eserlerindeki tavrı sebebiyle oldukça fazla eleştiri konusu olan sanatçının, Fransız kültürü ile Amerikan Resmi’nin ihtiyaçlarını bir arada eserlerine yansıttığı düşünülür (Guilbaut, 2009:219). DOI: 10.7816/sed-04-01-03 sed, 2016, Cilt 4, Sayı 1, Volume 4, Issue 1 43 www.sanategitimidergisi.com Resim 3. Arshile Gorky, Şelale, 1943. Soyut Dışavurumcu eserlerin ortak noktası, Gerçeküstücü sanatın temel ilkelerinden olan çağrışımlar ve özdevinimden yola çıkmalarıdır. Çağrışımlarla bilinçaltı özgür kılınmış yapıt, bir ön düşünce ya da tasarım olmadan, çağrışımların getirdiği anlık düşüncelerle biçim bulmuştur. Bu biçimler genelde güzel lekeler gibidir, insancıl ve duygusal değerler vurgulanmıştır. Resim parçalara ayrılmayan, önceden tasarlanmayan, sınırları bulunmayan tek ve bütüncül bir imge olarak ortaya çıkmaktadır. Tuvalin sınırları aşılarak, özellikle devasa panolar üzerine çalışılmıştır (Eczacıbaşı Sanat Ansiklopedisi,1997:1688). Amerikan Soyut Dışavurumculuğu, Amerika’lı sanatçı Ad Reinhardt’ın deyimi ile “gündelik yaşamın gerçekliğiyle resim sanatının kendi gerçekliği arasındaki sınırların birbirinden kesin olarak ayrıldığı” bir zeminde ifadesini bulan sanatsal bir yaklaşımdır. 1940’lı ve 1950’li yıllarda uluslararası sanat ortamına damgasına vuran bu yaklaşımı şekillendiren isimler, her biri kendi özgün soyut temelli üslubunu geliştirmiş orta yaşlarındaki sanatçılardır. “New York Okulu” olarak da bilinen bu yaklaşımlar bütününün başlıca sanatçıları arasında; Jackson Pollock (1912-56), Willem de Kooning (1904-97), Clyfford Still (1904-80),Barnett Newman (1905-70),Mark Rothko (1903-70), Robert Motherwell (1915-91) ve Franz Kline (1910-62) gibi isimler yer alır (Antmen,2008:146-147). Avşar Karabaş, P. ve Polat, A. Yükselişi Ve Öncü Sanatçılarıyla Soyut Dışavurumculuk. sed, 4 (1), s.37-52 www.sanategitimidergisi.com 44 Birinci kuşak soyut dışavurumcular gibi de görülen Jackson Pollock ve William De Kooning‟in açtıkları sergilerle New York sanat çevresini etkilemeyi başardıkları 1948 yılı, soyut dışavurumun çıkış yaptığı yıl olarak kabul edilmiştir. O tarihte Robert Motherwell 33, Ad Reinhardt 35, Pollock 36, Franz Kline 38, David Smith 42, Barnett Newman 43, de Kooning ve Clifford Still 44, Mark Rothko 45 yaşındadır. Bu sanatçıların hepsi New York ve yakın çevresinde oturmuşlar ve sık sık bir araya gelmişler, çeşitli sanat konularında alış verişlerde bulunmuşlardır. Hepsi de, Gorky, Hofmann ve Tobey‟le tanışmışlardır. (Keküllüoğlu, 2010:48-49). Jackson Pollock, Willem de Kooning, Franz Kline ve Robert Motherwell Soyut Ekspresyonizm’in “Action Painting” olarak ta bilinen (eylem, aksiyon, hareket resmi) kanadının öncüleri olarak kabul edilmişlerdir. Soyut dışavurumculuk akımının en önemli temsilcilerinden olan Amerikalı ressam Jackson Pollock, NewYork Art Students League Okulu’nda Thomas Hart Benton’un öğrencisiyken, hocasının ve yerel ressamların etkisini taşıyan ilk dönem resimlerini yapmıştır. Pollock 1940’lı yılların sonlarında yere gerdiği tuvaller üzerine el, kol ve vücudunu kullanarak baletvari devinimlerle yapmaya başladığı damlatma resimler sonucunda izlerle tuval yüzeyinde mekan arayışlarını sergilemiştir (Bolla, 2006:80). Aksiyon Resmi’nin kurucusu olarak görülen Pollock, resimlerinde insanların yeni sanatı anlamasına olanak tanımaktadır. Yere serdiği geniş tuvaller üzerine delikler açtığı teneke kutulardan boyalar damlatarak boyayı yüzeye saçmış, kendisi ile anılıp bütünleşen ve kendisini temsil eden bir üslup yaratmıştır. Eserleri rasgele olmaktan çok ritmik olarak tanımlanmaktadır. https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jackson_Pollock https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willem_de_Kooning https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz_Kline DOI: 10.7816/sed-04-01-03 sed, 2016, Cilt 4, Sayı 1, Volume 4, Issue 1 45 www.sanategitimidergisi.com Resim 4. Jackson Pollock, No:8, Eserden Detay, 1949. Pollock’un damla stili, teknik olarak ilk defa uygulanan bir buluş değildir. 1920’li yılların ortalarında Sürrealist’ler de boyayı akıtarak veya sıçratarak deneysel bir şekilde yüzeye uygulamışlardır. Ancak Pollock’un resimlerinin diğerlerinden ayrılma sebebi, tekniği kullanma şekli ve resimde devrim olarak sayılan bu yaklaşımı biçimlendiren düşünceleridir (Fineberg,2014:97). Ayrıca sanatçının resimlerinin birçoğuna isim verirken numaraları tercih ettiği de bilinmektedir. Soyut ve figüratif sanatı aynı anda kullanan bir diğer soyut dışavurumcu Hollandalı sanatçı Willem De Kooning de Pollock gibi soyut ekspresyonizmin Aksiyon Resmi alanının öncülerinden kabul edilir. Pollock’tan farklı olarak De Kooning resimsel eylemini fırça darbeleriyle gerçekleştirir (Lynton, 2009:238). De Kooning’in stilinin gelişmesinde, Pablo Picasso ve Aschile Gorky gibi iki önemli sanatçı etkili olduğu düşünülür. Avrupa resim geleneğinin etkileri fark edilen eserleri soyut görünüme sahip ve kışkırtıcıdır. Avşar Karabaş, P. ve Polat, A. Yükselişi Ve Öncü Sanatçılarıyla Soyut Dışavurumculuk. sed, 4 (1), s.37-52 www.sanategitimidergisi.com 46 Resim 5. Willem De Kooning, Cumartesi Gecesi, 1956. Franz Kline, 1950’ li yıllarda geliştirdiği Doğu kaligrafisini anımsatan, beyaz bırakılmış zemin üzerine siyah fırça vuruşlarıyla, beyaz ve siyah rengi hacim ve biçim yaratmada ustalıkla kullanmıştır. Hareketli-soyut eserlerindeki siyah-beyaz hakimiyetinin yanı sıra farklı renklerde kullanmasına rağmen yaşamı boyunca siyah- beyaz üslubunu sürdürdüğü görülmektedir. Son dönem yapıtlarında ise fazlasıyla yalınlaştırılmış, dengeli kütlelerin sunulduğu eserlerle karşılaşılır (Eczacıbaşı Sanat Ansiklopedisi, 1997:1027). Bu üslubu uygularken büyük boyda ve kalınlıkta fırçalar kullanmış ve büyük tuvaller üzerinde çalışmıştır. Zaman zaman eserlerine, kaligrafileri çağrıştıran sıçratmalar eklediği de görülmektedir. DOI: 10.7816/sed-04-01-03 sed, 2016, Cilt 4, Sayı 1, Volume 4, Issue 1 47 www.sanategitimidergisi.com Resim 6. Franz Kline, New York, 1953 Robert Motherwell ise sanat tarihi, felsefe ve estetik konularında oldukça bilgili; dergi ve kitaplar yayımlamış bir sanatçıdır. Amerikan sanatçılarının entelektüellik karşıtı tavırlarını ve modern sanatçıların yıldızlaştırılıp, ayrıcalıklı bir yere konulmasını eleştirmiştir. Modern sanatçıların bir çeşit “ruhsal yer altı”nda yaşadığını düşünen sanatçının bu ifadesinin nedeni, modern çağın getirdikleri ile birlikte dinin etkisinin zayıflaması olarak görülmektedir (Yılmaz,2006:168). Sanatçının Fransız kültürüne ve özellikle Sürrealizm’e ilgi duyduğu, resimlerinde ise tam olarak hüzün olmasa da, ciddi bir karşı çıkma ifadesi sezildiği düşünülmektedir. Resim 7. Robert Motherwell, İspanya Cumhuriyeti No:1 Ağıt, 1948. Soyut Dışavurumculuk Akımı’nın ikinci kanadı “Renk Alanı Resmi” ya da “Geç Resimsel Soyutlama” olarak bilinir. Tek düze geniş alanların resmedildiği bu eserlerde, derinlik izlenimi dışlanarak resim geniş bir alanın parçası gibi gösterilir Avşar Karabaş, P. ve Polat, A. Yükselişi Ve Öncü Sanatçılarıyla Soyut Dışavurumculuk. sed, 4 (1), s.37-52 www.sanategitimidergisi.com 48 (Aydın,2002:202). Oldukça özgün bir ifade biçimi özelliği gösteren Renk Alanı Resmi, sanatçının büyükçe bir imzası gibidir. 1950'li yıllarda Mark Rothko, Clyfford Still ve Barnett Newman gibi soyut dışavurumcu ressamları tanımlamak için kullanılmış bu sanat anlayışında resim; duygu, mitoloji ve inanç gibi etmenlerden arındırılmak istenmiştir. 1960'lı yıllarda ise Helen Frankenthaler, Morris Louis, Kenneth Noland gibi sanatçılar ürettikleri eserlerle Geç Resimsel Soyutlama anlayışıyla çalışan ressamlar arasında anılmaya başlanmışlardır. Kariyerinin ilk yıllarında Mark Rothko, Ekspresyonizm ve Sürrealizm de dahil olmak üzere çeşitli üsluplarda çalışmış fakat 1950’li yıllarda “karmaşık düşüncelerin basit dışavurumu” fikrini keşfederek, kendi üslubunu yaratmıştır. Genellikle, tek renkli bir zemin üzerine canlı renklerle boyanmış iki veya üç adet yuvarlak köşeli dikdörtgenlerden oluşan büyük boyutlu resimler yapmıştır. Resminin “insan olma halinin verdiği öfke ve dini özlemlerin tüm ağırlığı”nı ifade ettiğini açıklayan Rothko; renk, form veya başka herhangi bir şeyin ilişkisiyle ilgilenmediğini ve resimlerinde trajedi, çoşku, kader v.b. gibi yalnızca temel insani duyguları ifade etmek istediğini belirtmiştir (Hodge,2013:80). Sanatçının eserlerinde biçimsel olarak yumuşak hatlarla birbirinden ayrılan renk alanlarının orta kısımlarına yaklaşıldıkça kullanılan boyanın daha net ve kalın olduğu, boya alanının kenarlarına yöneldikçe ise inceldiği söylenebilir. Bazı yüzeylerin boya katmanları ağırlaşmasına rağmen, bazı kısımlarda ise hafifletilircesine inceltilmiş tabakalar fark edilir. Zaman zaman zıt, zaman zaman ise uyumlu renklerin tercih edildiği tonlar dikkat çekicidir. Ayrıca resimler izleyiciyi içine çekercesine bir sonsuzluk hissi vermektedir. Resim 8. Mark Rothko, Beyaz Merkez, 1950. https://tr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mark_Rothko&action=edit&redlink=1 https://tr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mark_Rothko&action=edit&redlink=1 https://tr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Clyfford_Still&action=edit&redlink=1 https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barnett_Newman https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyut_d%C4%B1%C5%9Favurumculuk https://tr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Helen_Frankenthaler&action=edit&redlink=1 https://tr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Helen_Frankenthaler&action=edit&redlink=1 https://tr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Morris_Louis&action=edit&redlink=1 https://tr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kenneth_Noland&action=edit&redlink=1 DOI: 10.7816/sed-04-01-03 sed, 2016, Cilt 4, Sayı 1, Volume 4, Issue 1 49 www.sanategitimidergisi.com Clifford Still, kendine özgü tavrını oldukça keskin ifade biçimleri sunan Geç Resimsel Soyutlama anlayışına hakim sanatçılardan bir diğeridir. Sanatçının resimlerindeki kırık çizgilerle sınırlandırılmış renkli alanlar, etrafındaki diğer alanlardan belirgin bir şekilde ayrılır. Çoğunlukla dikey olarak yönlendirilmiş tuvallerin yanı sıra yatay düzenlenmiş kompozisyonlarda bile resimlerdeki lekelerin yönlerinde yukarıdan aşağıya doğru bir kayma hareketi hissedilir. Temel olarak bir eskimişlik ve derinlemesine çatlamışlık etkisi veren kompozisyonların, kullanılan renklerle olan ilişkisine bakıldığında canlı ve taze renklerin seçilmiş olmasındaki tezatlık dikkat çeker. Sanatçının resimlerini düşsel temalar üzerine yapılandırdığı bilinmektedir. Resim 9. Clifford Still, Başlıksız, 1957. New York sanat camiasının içinde yer alan ve Renk Alanı Resmi’nin liderlerinden biri sayılan Barnett Newman’ın ise, kuş ve bitki türlerinden, felsefe ve siyasete kadar geniş bir ilgi alanına sahip olan entelektüel bir sanatçı olduğu bilinmektedir (Gompertz, 2015:239). Güzelden çok, esrarlı yüceliği akla getirecek bir sanat olarak adlandırılan olgunun üstesinden gelmek için çabalayan sanatçı; eserlerini izleyenlerin, resimlerinin karşısında kendi varlığını hissedebilmelerini önemsemiştir. (Lynton, 2009: 238). Az sayıda dikey çizgilerin yüzeyleri birbirinden ayırması ile oluşturduğu kompozisyonlarında oldukça sınırlı sayıda renkle ifade edilmiş anlatımlar söz konusudur. Sanatçının kendisi ile özdeşleştiği bilinen dikey çizgileri “fermuarlar” ya da “zip” olarak ifade ettiği bilinmekle birlikte az sayıda da olsa yatay çizgilerin yer aldığı kompozisyonları da bulunmaktadır. Avşar Karabaş, P. ve Polat, A. Yükselişi Ve Öncü Sanatçılarıyla Soyut Dışavurumculuk. sed, 4 (1), s.37-52 www.sanategitimidergisi.com 50 Resim 10. Barnet Newman, Vir Heroicus Sublimus, 1950-51. SONUÇ Sanat, toplumla birlikte şekil alan devingen bir olgudur. İnsanın sanat içindeki varlığı, kendi dünyası için yarattığı çerçeveyi biçimlendirmesiyle oluşur. Özellikle 19. yüzyılın çalkantılı ortamından etkilenen sanatçı ve sanat görüşleri, ileri dönemleri oldukça etkileyecek büyük gelişim ve değişimlere sebep olmuştur. Modern sanatın izlenmeye başladığı 20. yüzyıl, özellikle toplumsal yaşamı değiştiren önemli gelişmelerin yaşandığı bir yüzyıldır. Kapitalizmin yükselişi, savaşlar ve baskıcı yönetimlerin bağnaz yaklaşımları, sanatçıların içinde yaşadıkları toplumun özelliklerine göre farklı ifade biçimleri arayışlarının ve özgürce yapabilecekleri uygulamalara yönelmelerinin nedenidir. Bu akımların gelişimine katkısı olan sanatçıların ortak noktası ise içinde yaşadıkları düzene tepkili olmalarıdır. Tepkilerini farklı sanatsal yöntemlerle dile getiren dönem sanatçıları; düşünceleri, kullandıkları plastik dilin özellikleri ve ifade biçimlerindeki özgünlükleriyle sonraki sanat açılımlarına öncülük rolünü üstlenmişlerdir. Dışavurumcu sanat akımının ortaya çıktığı Almanya sonrasında 1940- 1950 yılları arasında New York’ta şekillenen Soyut Dışavurumculuk; uluslararası sanat ortamına oldukça çarpıcı ve etkili yeni bir ifade biçimi getirmiştir. Siyasi ve toplumsal değişimlerden beslenen Amerika’da “New York Okulu” olarak da bilinen bu yaklaşımın başlıca sanatçıları arasında Jackson Pollock, Willem de Kooning Franz Kline, Robert Motherwell, Mark Rothko, Clyfford Still ve Barnett Newman gibi isimler yer almaktadır. Bu sanatçıların her biri kendi özgün üsluplarıyla, “saf’ bir resimsel dile yönelmiş ve kendilerini özgürce ifade etmişlerdir. Genel olarak bakıldığında ise sanatçıların, biçim ve renk kaygıları taşımadıkları ve özgür bir şekilde duygularını resimlerine aktarma düşüncesi ile eserler ürettikleri dikkat çekmektedir. DOI: 10.7816/sed-04-01-03 sed, 2016, Cilt 4, Sayı 1, Volume 4, Issue 1 51 www.sanategitimidergisi.com KAYNAKÇA AHMETOĞLU, Ülkü. (2011). Soyut dışavurumculukta anlam ve renk zenginliği, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Erzurum: Atatürk Üniversitesi. ANTMEN, Ahu. (2008). 20. Yüzyıl batı sanatında akımlar, İstanbul: Sel, 3. Baskı. ARTUN, Ali. (2011). Çağdaş sanatın örgütlenmesi, İstanbul: İletişim. AYDIN ÇAKIR, Mukadder. (2002). Sanatta eleştirellik, İstanbul: Beta. BOLLA, De Peter. (2006). Sanat ve estetik, İstanbul: Ayrıntı. CLARK, Toby. (2004). Sanat ve propaganda, İstanbul: Ayrıntı. DANTO, C, Arthur. (2014). Sanat nedir, İstanbul: Sel. Eczacıbaşı Sanat Ansiklopedisi. (1997), İstanbul: Yapı-Endüstri Merkezi, C. 2. Eczacıbaşı Sanat Ansiklopedisi. (1997), İstanbul: Yapı-Endüstri Merkezi, C. 3. FINEBERG, Jonathan. (2014). 1940’tan günümüze sanat, İzmir: Karakalem Kitabevi. GOMPERTZ, Will. (2015). Pardon neye bakmıştınız, İstanbul: Yapı Kredi. GUILBAUT, Serge. (2009). New York modern sanat düşüncesini nasıl çaldı, İstanbul: Sel. HODGE, Susie. (2013). Beş yaşındaki çocuk bunu neden yapamaz, İstanbul: Hayalperest. KEKÜLLÜOĞLU, Koray. (2010). Resim sanatında dışavurum anlayışına tarihsel bir bakış, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Eskişehir: Anadolu Üniversitesi. LYNTON, Norbert. (2009). Modern sanatın öyküsü, İstanbul: Remzi, 4. Basım. YILMAZ, Mehmet. (2006). Modernizmden postmodernizme sanat, Ankara: Ütopya. Avşar Karabaş, P. ve Polat, A. Yükselişi Ve Öncü Sanatçılarıyla Soyut Dışavurumculuk. sed, 4 (1), s.37-52 www.sanategitimidergisi.com 52 RESİMLER KAYNAKÇA Resim 1. http://www.wikiart.org/en/hans-hofmann/the-wind-1942#close Resim 2. http://www.wikiart.org/en/mark-tobey/geography-of-phantasy-1948 Resim 3. http://www.wikiart.org/en/search/Arshile%20Gorky/2 Resim 4. http://www.wikiart.org/en/search/Jackson%20Pollock#close Resim5.http://www.wikiart.org/en/search/Willem%20de%20Kooning#supersizedsear ch23401 Resim 6. http://www.wikiart.org/en/search/Franz%20Kline#close Resim 7. http://www.moma.org/collection/works/37683?locale=en Resim 8. http://pancakesforrecess.com/2011/03/16/like-rothko/ Resim 9. https://www.sfmoma.org/artwork/75.35 Resim10.http://www.wikiart.org/en/barnett-newman#supersized-color-field-painting- 265196 http://www.wikiart.org/en/mark-tobey/geography-of-phantasy-1948 http://www.wikiart.org/en/search/Franz%20Kline#close 
work_xpybsq6fgfg7vp2cnypcan2zw4	----	heritage Article Aesthetical Issues of Leonardo Da Vinci’s and Pablo Picasso’s Paintings with Stochastic Evaluation G.-Fivos Sargentis * , Panayiotis Dimitriadis and Demetris Koutsoyiannis Laboratory of Hydrology and Water Resources Development, School of Civil Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, Heroon Polytechneiou 9, 157 80 Zographou, Greece; pandim@itia.ntua.gr (P.D.); dk@itia.ntua.gr (D.K.) * Correspondence: fivos@itia.ntua.gr Received: 7 April 2020; Accepted: 21 April 2020; Published: 25 April 2020 ���������� ������� Abstract: A physical process is characterized as complex when it is difficult to analyze or explain in a simple way. The complexity within an art painting is expected to be high, possibly comparable to that of nature. Therefore, constructions of artists (e.g., paintings, music, literature, etc.) are expected to be also of high complexity since they are produced by numerous human (e.g., logic, instinct, emotions, etc.) and non-human (e.g., quality of paints, paper, tools, etc.) processes interacting with each other in a complex manner. The result of the interaction among various processes is not a white-noise behavior, but one where clusters of high or low values of quantified attributes appear in a non-predictive manner, thus highly increasing the uncertainty and the variability. In this work, we analyze stochastic patterns in terms of the dependence structure of art paintings of Da Vinci and Picasso with a stochastic 2D tool and investigate the similarities or differences among the artworks. Keywords: aesthetic of art paintings; stochastic analysis of images; Leonardo Da Vinci; Pablo Picasso 1. Introduction The meaning of beauty is linked to the evolution of human civilization, and the analysis of the connection between the observer and the beauty in art and nature has always been of high interest in both philosophy and science. Even though this analysis has mostly been regarded as part of social studies and humanities, other scientists have also been involved mostly through the philosophy of science [1]. Analyses through mathematics are generally focused on applying mathematical tools in trying to describe aesthetics. In most of these analyses, the question at hand is whether what is pleasing to the eye can be explained through analogies. The word canon, or set of proportions, comes from Greek (κανών) and means a straight rod (measuring line) and, metaphorically, a rule or standard. Canons have changed through history according to artistic needs, taste, and sense of beauty. Pythagoras and Euclid were the first philosophers known to have searched for a common rule (canon) existing in shapes that are perceived as beautiful. Euclid’s Elements (c. 300 BC), notably, includes the first known definition of the golden ratio. There is an eternal discussion of mathematical canons of proportion as models of beauty for the human body: ancient Egyptian civilization; ancient Greece (Lysippos, Polykleitos); ancient Rome (Vitruvius); Renaissance (Leonardo Da Vinci, Albrecht Dürer); modern times (Adolf Zeising, David Hay, John Pennethorne, Mathieu Lauweriks, Jay Hambidge, Matila Ghyka and Le Corbusier) (Figure 1) [2–7]. Heritage 2020, 3, 283–305; doi:10.3390/heritage3020017 www.mdpi.com/journal/heritage http://www.mdpi.com/journal/heritage http://www.mdpi.com https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0555-4021 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4956-8820 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6226-0241 http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/heritage3020017 http://www.mdpi.com/journal/heritage https://www.mdpi.com/2571-9408/3/2/17?type=check_update&version=2 Heritage 2020, 3 284 Heritage 2020, 3 FOR PEER REVIEW 2 supports that instead of regarding the aesthetic quality as an inherent property of a physical object, the distinction of mind and nature has allowed humans to incorporate their own subjective emotional, social and cognitive background in determining their aesthetic preferences. Overall, it is evident that many artists knew and applied math and geometry in their artwork (Figure 2) and many philosophers tried to connect math and arts. [9–11] Figure 1. Comparison of canons of proportion: Egyptian Canon; Ancient Greece Canon; Leonardo da Vinci’s Canon; Le Corbusier’s Canon (Modulor). Figure 2. Golden ratio in Da Vinci’s artworks. New researchers are trying to create art using computational intelligence technologies. In particular, evolutionary computation has been able to generate visual art and music [12–15]. Evaluation of the items generated by evolutionary algorithms is a key issue in computational creativity. Experimental results show that artificial intelligence technologies can generate satisfactory paintings by using some kind of aesthetic evaluation [6–17]. Mathematics has been part of the art, but can it be used in evaluating the art? The evaluation of art paintings [18–26] is a difficult and subjective process and in order to create an objective process, image evaluation and classification of art paintings with mathematical algorithms is the subject of a plethora of related publications [27–62]. The mathematical field of Stochastics has been introduced as an alternative to deterministic approaches, to model the so-called random (i.e., complex, unexplained or unpredictable) fluctuations observed in non-linear geophysical processes [63,64]. Stochastics helps develop a unified perception for natural phenomena and expel dichotomies like random vs. deterministic. Particularly, there is no such thing as a ‘virus of randomness’ that infects some phenomena to make Figure 1. Comparison of canons of proportion: Egyptian Canon; Ancient Greece Canon; Leonardo da Vinci’s Canon; Le Corbusier’s Canon (Modulor). The opinions of later philosophers on this pursuit of mathematicians for the analysis of aesthetics were more varied. Leibniz, for example, believed that there is a norm behind every aesthetic feeling which we simply do not know how to measure [8]. On the contrary, Descartes supports that instead of regarding the aesthetic quality as an inherent property of a physical object, the distinction of mind and nature has allowed humans to incorporate their own subjective emotional, social and cognitive background in determining their aesthetic preferences. Overall, it is evident that many artists knew and applied math and geometry in their artwork (Figure 2) and many philosophers tried to connect math and arts. [9–11] Heritage 2020, 3 FOR PEER REVIEW 2 supports that instead of regarding the aesthetic quality as an inherent property of a physical object, the distinction of mind and nature has allowed humans to incorporate their own subjective emotional, social and cognitive background in determining their aesthetic preferences. Overall, it is evident that many artists knew and applied math and geometry in their artwork (Figure 2) and many philosophers tried to connect math and arts. [9–11] Figure 1. Comparison of canons of proportion: Egyptian Canon; Ancient Greece Canon; Leonardo da Vinci’s Canon; Le Corbusier’s Canon (Modulor). Figure 2. Golden ratio in Da Vinci’s artworks. New researchers are trying to create art using computational intelligence technologies. In particular, evolutionary computation has been able to generate visual art and music [12–15]. Evaluation of the items generated by evolutionary algorithms is a key issue in computational creativity. Experimental results show that artificial intelligence technologies can generate satisfactory paintings by using some kind of aesthetic evaluation [6–17]. Mathematics has been part of the art, but can it be used in evaluating the art? The evaluation of art paintings [18–26] is a difficult and subjective process and in order to create an objective process, image evaluation and classification of art paintings with mathematical algorithms is the subject of a plethora of related publications [27–62]. The mathematical field of Stochastics has been introduced as an alternative to deterministic approaches, to model the so-called random (i.e., complex, unexplained or unpredictable) fluctuations observed in non-linear geophysical processes [63,64]. Stochastics helps develop a unified perception for natural phenomena and expel dichotomies like random vs. deterministic. Particularly, there is no such thing as a ‘virus of randomness’ that infects some phenomena to make Figure 2. Golden ratio in Da Vinci’s artworks. New researchers are trying to create art using computational intelligence technologies. In particular, evolutionary computation has been able to generate visual art and music [12–15]. Evaluation of the items generated by evolutionary algorithms is a key issue in computational creativity. Experimental results show that artificial intelligence technologies can generate satisfactory paintings by using some kind of aesthetic evaluation [6–17]. Mathematics has been part of the art, but can it be used in evaluating the art? The evaluation of art paintings [18–26] is a difficult and subjective process and in order to create an objective process, image evaluation and classification of art paintings with mathematical algorithms is the subject of a plethora of related publications [27–62]. Heritage 2020, 3 285 The mathematical field of Stochastics has been introduced as an alternative to deterministic approaches, to model the so-called random (i.e., complex, unexplained or unpredictable) fluctuations observed in non-linear geophysical processes [63,64]. Stochastics helps develop a unified perception for natural phenomena and expel dichotomies like random vs. deterministic. Particularly, there is no such thing as a ‘virus of randomness’ that infects some phenomena to make them random, leaving other phenomena uninfected. It seems, rather, that both randomness and predictability coexist and are intrinsic to natural systems which can be deterministic and random at the same time, depending on the prediction horizon and the time scale [65]. On this basis, the uncertainty in art, as in other processes of nature, can be both aleatory (alea = dice) and epistemic (as, in principle, we could know perfectly the underlying mechanisms). Therefore, dichotomies such as ‘deterministic vs. random’ and ‘aleatory vs. epistemic’ may be false ones and may lead to paradoxes. By applying the concept of stochastic analysis, we can identify the observed unpredictable fluctuations of systems under investigation with the variability of a devised stochastic process. 2. Methodology 2.1. Stochastic Analysis in 2D In this research paper, a stochastic computational tool called 2D-C [66] is used to analyze art paintings in order to: (a) examine stochastic similarities and differences among artworks; (b) introduce a methodology for evaluating restoration aspects with stochastic tools; (c) identify the stochastic meaning of specific areas of the artworks; and (d) examine the originality of art paintings (or parts of art paintings) with stochastic tools. 2D-C measures the degree of variability (change in variability vs. scale) in images using stochastic analysis. Apparently, beauty is not easy to quantify with stochastic measures, but nevertheless the examination of artworks through a stochastic analysis offers interesting insights into aspects of the art paintings. The stochastic analyses of the examined artworks are presented using climacograms based on the 2D-C analysis of image pixels. Image processing typically involves filtering or enhancing an image using various types of functions, in addition to other techniques, to extract information from the images [67]. Image segmentation is one of the basic problems in image analysis. The importance and utility of image segmentation has resulted in extensive research and numerous proposed approaches based on intensity, color, texture, etc., and both automatic and interactive [68]. A variety of techniques have been proposed for the quantitative evaluation of segmentation methods [69–76]. This analysis for image processing is based on a stochastic tool called a climacogram. The term climacogram [77,78] comes from the Greek word climax (meaning scale). It is defined as the (plot of) variance of the averaged process (assuming it is stationary) versus averaging time scale k, and is denoted as γ(k). The climacogram is useful for detecting the long-term change (or else dependence, persistence or clustering) of a process, which emerges particularly in complex systems, as opposed to white-noise (absence of dependence) of even Markov (i.e., short-term persistence) behavior [79]. In order to obtain data for the evaluation of art paintings, each image of art painting is digitized in 2D based on a grayscale color intensity (thus this climacogram studies the brightness of an image), and the climacogram is calculated based on the geometric scales of adjacent pixels. Assuming that our sample is an area n∆ × n∆, where n is the number of intervals (e.g., pixels) along each spatial direction, and ∆ is the discretization unit (determined by the image resolution, e.g., pixel length), the empirical classical estimator of the climacogram for a 2D process can be expressed as: γ̂(κ) = 1 n2/κ2 − 1 n/κ∑ i=1 n/κ∑ j=1 ( x(κ)i, j − x )2 (1) Heritage 2020, 3 286 where the ‘ˆ’ over γ denotes estimate, κ is the the dimensionless spatial scale, x(κ)i, j = 1 κ2 κj∑ ψ=κ(j−1)+1 κi∑ ξ=κ(i−1)+1 xξ,ψ is the sample average of the space-averaged process at scale κ, and x = n∑ i, j=1 xi, j/n 2 is the sample average. Note that the maximum available scale for this estimator is n/2. The difference between the value in each element and the field mean is raised to the power of 2, since we are mostly interested in the magnitude of the difference rather than its sign. Thus, the climacogram expresses in each scale the diversity in the brightness among the different elements. In this manner, we may quantify the uncertainty of the brightness intensities at each scale by measuring their variability. In order to characterize stochastic analysis of the data, an important property is the Hurst–Kolmogorov (HK) behavior (usually known in hydrometeorological processes as Long Term Persistence, or LTP), which can be summarized by the Hurst parameter as follows. The isotropic HK process with an arbitrary marginal distribution (e.g., for the Gaussian one, this results in the well-known fractional-Gaussian-noise, described by Mandelbrot and van Ness [80]), i.e., the power-law decay of variance as a function of scale, is defined for a 1D or 2D process as: γ(k) = λ (k/∆)2d(1−H) (2) where λ is the variance at scale k = κ∆, d is the dimension of the process/field (i.e., for a 1D process d = 1, for a 2D field d = 2, etc.), and H is the Hurst parameter (0 < H < 1). For 0 < H < 0.5 the HK process exhibits an anti-persistent behavior, H = 0.5 corresponds to the white noise process, and for 0.5 < H < 1 the process exhibits LTP (clustering). In the case of clustering behavior due to the non-uniform heterogeneity of the brightness of the painting, the high variability of the brightness persists even in large scales. This clustering effect may greatly increase the diversity between the brightness in each pixel of the image, a phenomenon also observed in hydrometeorological processes (such as temperature, precipitation, wind, etc.), natural landscapes [66] and music [81]. Therefore, it is interesting to observe the degrees of uncertainty and variability in arts. The algorithm that generates the climacogram in 2D was developed in MATLAB for rectangular images [82]. In particular, for the current analysis, the images are cropped to 400 × 400 pixels, 14.11 cm × 14.11 cm, in 72 dpi (dots per inch). 2.2. Illustration of Stochastic Analysis in 2D The pixels analyzed are actually represented by numbers based on their grayscale color intensity (white = 1, black = 0). Figure 3 presents three images for benchmark image analysis: (a) white noise; (b) image with clustering; and (c) art painting. Figure 4 presents the steps of analysis and shows grouped pixels at scales k = 2, 4, 8, 16, 20, 25, 40, 50, 80, 100 and 200 used to calculate the climacogram. Figure 5 presents an example of how the data sets of Figure 3 translate into climacograms and standardized climacograms. The latter is defined as the ratio γ(k)/γ(1) as a function of scale k, and is the basic tool of the 2D-C evaluation process. The presence of clustering is reflected in the climacogram, which shows a marked difference for the random white noise (Figure 5). Specifically, the variance of the clustered images is notably higher than that of the white noise at all scales, indicating a greater degree of variability of the process. Likewise, comparing the clustered image and the art painting, the latter has the most pronounced clustering behavior and a greater degree of variability. Section 3 presents stochastic analysis (Figures 6–18) and Section 4 the discussion of the results. Heritage 2020, 3 287 Heritage 2020, 3 FOR PEER REVIEW 4 this manner, we may quantify the uncertainty of the brightness intensities at each scale by measuring their variability. In order to characterize stochastic analysis of the data, an important property is the Hurst–Kolmogorov (HK) behavior (usually known in hydrometeorological processes as Long Term Persistence, or LTP), which can be summarized by the Hurst parameter as follows. The isotropic HK process with an arbitrary marginal distribution (e.g., for the Gaussian one, this results in the well-known fractional-Gaussian-noise, described by Mandelbrot and van Ness [80]), i.e., the power-law decay of variance as a function of scale, is defined for a 1D or 2D process as: 𝛾(𝑘) = 𝜆 (𝑘/Δ)2𝑑(1−𝐻) (2) where 𝜆 is the variance at scale k = κΔ, d is the dimension of the process/field (i.e., for a 1D process d = 1, for a 2D field d = 2, etc.), and H is the Hurst parameter (0 < H < 1). For 0 < H < 0.5 the HK process exhibits an anti-persistent behavior, H = 0.5 corresponds to the white noise process, and for 0.5 < H < 1 the process exhibits LTP (clustering). In the case of clustering behavior due to the non-uniform heterogeneity of the brightness of the painting, the high variability of the brightness persists even in large scales. This clustering effect may greatly increase the diversity between the brightness in each pixel of the image, a phenomenon also observed in hydrometeorological processes (such as temperature, precipitation, wind, etc.), natural landscapes [66] and music [81]. Therefore, it is interesting to observe the degrees of uncertainty and variability in arts. The algorithm that generates the climacogram in 2D was developed in MATLAB for rectangular images [82]. In particular, for the current analysis, the images are cropped to 400 × 400 pixels, 14.11 cm × 14.11 cm, in 72 dpi (dots per inch). 2.2. Illustration of Stochastic Analysis in 2D The pixels analyzed are actually represented by numbers based on their grayscale color intensity (white = 1, black = 0). Figure 3 presents three images for benchmark image analysis: (a) white noise; (b) image with clustering; and (c) art painting. Figure 4 presents the steps of analysis and shows grouped pixels at scales k = 2, 4, 8, 16, 20, 25, 40, 50, 80, 100 and 200 used to calculate the climacogram. Figure 5 presents an example of how the data sets of Figure 3 translate into climacograms and standardized climacograms. The latter is defined as the ratio 𝛾(𝑘)/𝛾(1) as a function of scale k, and is the basic tool of the 2D-C evaluation process. The presence of clustering is reflected in the climacogram, which shows a marked difference for the random white noise (Figure 5). Specifically, the variance of the clustered images is notably higher than that of the white noise at all scales, indicating a greater degree of variability of the process. Likewise, comparing the clustered image and the art painting, the latter has the most pronounced clustering behavior and a greater degree of variability. Figure 3. Benchmark of image analysis: (a) White noise; (b) Image with clustering; (c) Art painting. The lower row depicts the average brightness in the upper one. Figure 3. Benchmark of image analysis: (a) White noise; (b) Image with clustering; (c) Art painting. The lower row depicts the average brightness in the upper one.Heritage 2020, 3 FOR PEER REVIEW 5 Figure 4. Example of stochastic analysis of 2D picture, in escalating spatial scales. Grouped pixels at different scales are used to calculate the climacogram: (a) White noise; (b) Image with clustering; (c) Art painting. (a) (b) Figure 5. (a) Climacograms of the benchmark images; (b) Standardized climacograms of the benchmark images. 0.001 0.010 0.100 1 10 100 γ( k ) k Art painting Clustering 0.1 1 1 10 100 γ( k ) k White noise Clustering Art painting Figure 4. Example of stochastic analysis of 2D picture, in escalating spatial scales. Grouped pixels at different scales are used to calculate the climacogram: (a) White noise; (b) Image with clustering; (c) Art painting. Heritage 2020, 3 FOR PEER REVIEW 5 Figure 4. Example of stochastic analysis of 2D picture, in escalating spatial scales. Grouped pixels at different scales are used to calculate the climacogram: (a) White noise; (b) Image with clustering; (c) Art painting. (a) (b) Figure 5. (a) Climacograms of the benchmark images; (b) Standardized climacograms of the benchmark images. 0.001 0.010 0.100 1 10 100 γ( k ) k Art painting Clustering 0.1 1 1 10 100 γ( k ) k White noise Clustering Art painting Figure 5. (a) Climacograms of the benchmark images; (b) Standardized climacograms of the benchmark images. Heritage 2020, 3 288 3. Stochastic Analysis of the Art Paintings 3.1. Stochastic Analysis of the Art Paintings of Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) and Pablo Picasso (1881–1973) Heritage 2020, 3 FOR PEER REVIEW 6 Section 3 presents stochastic analysis (Figures 6–18) and Section 4 the discussion of the results. 3. Stochastic Analysis of the Art Paintings 3.1. Stochastic Analysis of the Art Paintings of Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) and Pablo Picasso (1881–1973) (a) (b) 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 γ( k ) k Average of climacograms 0.1 1 1 10 100 γ( k ) k White noise Average of standardized climacograms Figure 6. (a) Paintings of Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519); (b) Climacograms and standardized climacograms of the paintings; averages thereof are also plotted. Heritage 2020, 3 289 Heritage 2020, 3 FOR PEER REVIEW 7 Figure 6. (a) Paintings of Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519); (b) Climacograms and standardized climacograms of the paintings; averages thereof are also plotted. (a) (b) Figure 7. (a) Paintings of Pablo Picasso in the blue period (1901–1904); (b) Climacograms and standardized climacograms of the paintings. 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 γ( k ) k 0.1 1 1 10 100 γ( k ) k White noise Figure 7. (a) Paintings of Pablo Picasso in the blue period (1901–1904); (b) Climacograms and standardized climacograms of the paintings. Heritage 2020, 3 290 Heritage 2020, 3 FOR PEER REVIEW 8 (a) (b) Figure 8. (a) Paintings of Pablo Picasso in the red period (1904–1906); (b) Climacograms and standardized climacograms of the paintings. 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 γ( k ) k 0.1 1 1 10 100 γ( k ) k White noise Figure 8. (a) Paintings of Pablo Picasso in the red period (1904–1906); (b) Climacograms and standardized climacograms of the paintings. Heritage 2020, 3 291 Heritage 2020, 3 FOR PEER REVIEW 9 (a) (b) Figure 9. (a) Paintings of Pablo Picasso after 1910; (b) Climacograms and standardized climacograms of the paintings. 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 γ( k ) k 0.1 1 1 10 100 γ( k ) k White noise Figure 9. (a) Paintings of Pablo Picasso after 1910; (b) Climacograms and standardized climacograms of the paintings. Heritage 2020, 3 292 3.2. Stochastic Analysis of of Da Vinci’s Last Supper (1495) Heritage 2020, 3 FOR PEER REVIEW 10 3.2. Stochastic Analysis of of Da Vinci’s Last Supper (1495) (a) (b) (c) (d) Figure 10. (a) Leonardo da Vinci’s The Last Supper before restoration [83]; (b) Areas of analysis before restoration; (c) Climacograms; (d) Standardized climacograms and averages thereof. Notice that curve of (a) area (center) is between the curves of (b) and (c) areas. 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 γ( k ) k (a) (b) (c) Average of climacograms 0.1 1 1 10 100 γ( k ) k (a) (b) (c) White noise Average of standardized climacograms Figure 10. (a) Leonardo da Vinci’s The Last Supper before restoration [83]; (b) Areas of analysis before restoration; (c) Climacograms; (d) Standardized climacograms and averages thereof. Notice that curve of (a) area (center) is between the curves of (b) and (c) areas. Heritage 2020, 3 293 Heritage 2020, 3 FOR PEER REVIEW 11 (a) (b) (c) (d) Figure 11. (a) Leonardo da Vinci’s The Last Supper after restoration [83]; (b) Areas of analysis after restoration; (c) Climacograms; (d) Standardized climacograms and averages thereof. Notice that curve of (d) area (center) is on top of the curves of (e) and (f) areas. 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 γ( k ) k (d) (e) (f) Average of climacograms 0.1 1 1 10 100 γ( k ) k (d) (e) (f) White noise Average of standardized climacograms Figure 11. (a) Leonardo da Vinci’s The Last Supper after restoration [83]; (b) Areas of analysis after restoration; (c) Climacograms; (d) Standardized climacograms and averages thereof. Notice that curve of (d) area (center) is on top of the curves of (e) and (f) areas. Heritage 2020, 3 294 3.3. Stochastic Analysis of Da Vinci’s Annunciation (1472–1475) Heritage 2020, 3 FOR PEER REVIEW 12 3.3. Stochastic Analysis of Da Vinci’s Annunciation (1472–1475) (a) (b) (a) (b) Figure 12. (a) Leonardo da Vinci’s Annunciation; (b) Areas of analysis; (c) Climacograms; (d) standardized climacograms and averages thereof. Notice that curve of (b) area is higher than the curve of (a) area. 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 γ( k ) k (a) (b) Average of climacograms 0 1 1 10 100 γ( k ) k (a) (b) White noise Average of standardized climacograms Figure 12. (a) Leonardo da Vinci’s Annunciation; (b) Areas of analysis; (c) Climacograms; (d) standardized climacograms and averages thereof. Notice that curve of (b) area is higher than the curve of (a) area. Heritage 2020, 3 295 3.4. Stochastic Analysis of Da Vinci’s Virgin of the Rocks (1483–1486 and before 1508) Heritage 2020, 3 FOR PEER REVIEW 13 3.4. Stochastic Analysis of Da Vinci’s Virgin of the Rocks (1483–1486 and before 1508) (a) (b) Figure 13. Leonardo da Vinci’s Virgin of the Rocks. Areas of analysis: (a) Louvre version, 1483–1486; (b) National Gallery, London, before 1508. (a) (b) Figure 14. (a) Climacograms; (b) standardized climacograms of Leonardo da Vinci’s Virgin of the Rocks and averages thereof. Notice that curve of the Louvre version is closer to the average of standardized climacograms of the National Gallery of London version. 0.001 0.010 0.100 1 10 100 γ( k ) k Luvre National Gallery, London Average of climacograms The lowest curve of Da Vinci's artworks 0.1 1 1 10 100 γ( k ) k White noise Luvre National Gallery, London Average of standardized climacograms The lowest curve of Da Vinci's artworks Figure 13. Leonardo da Vinci’s Virgin of the Rocks. Areas of analysis: (a) Louvre version, 1483–1486; (b) National Gallery, London, before 1508. Heritage 2020, 3 FOR PEER REVIEW 13 3.4. Stochastic Analysis of Da Vinci’s Virgin of the Rocks (1483–1486 and before 1508) (a) (b) Figure 13. Leonardo da Vinci’s Virgin of the Rocks. Areas of analysis: (a) Louvre version, 1483–1486; (b) National Gallery, London, before 1508. (a) (b) Figure 14. (a) Climacograms; (b) standardized climacograms of Leonardo da Vinci’s Virgin of the Rocks and averages thereof. Notice that curve of the Louvre version is closer to the average of standardized climacograms of the National Gallery of London version. 0.001 0.010 0.100 1 10 100 γ( k ) k Luvre National Gallery, London Average of climacograms The lowest curve of Da Vinci's artworks 0.1 1 1 10 100 γ( k ) k White noise Luvre National Gallery, London Average of standardized climacograms The lowest curve of Da Vinci's artworks Figure 14. (a) Climacograms; (b) standardized climacograms of Leonardo da Vinci’s Virgin of the Rocks and averages thereof. Notice that curve of the Louvre version is closer to the average of standardized climacograms of the National Gallery of London version. Heritage 2020, 3 296 Heritage 2020, 3 FOR PEER REVIEW 14 (a) (b) (c) Figure 15. Leonardo da Vinci’s Virgin of the Rocks, Madonna. Areas of analysis: (a) Louvre version, 1483–1486; (b) National Gallery of London, before 1508; (c) Preparation of analyzing (one image over the other). (a) (b) Figure 16. (a) Climacograms; (b) standardized climacograms of Leonardo da Vinci’s Virgin of the Rocks (Madonna), and averages thereof. Notice that curve of Louvre version is closer to the average of standardized climacograms of Da Vinci’s artworks than the curve of National Gallery of London. 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 γ( k ) k Luvre National Gallery, London Average of climacograms The lowest curve of Da Vinci's artworks 0.1 1 1 10 100 γ( k ) k White noise Luvre National Gallery, London Average of standardized climacograms The lowest curve of Da Vinci's artworks Figure 15. Leonardo da Vinci’s Virgin of the Rocks, Madonna. Areas of analysis: (a) Louvre version, 1483–1486; (b) National Gallery of London, before 1508; (c) Preparation of analyzing (one image over the other). Heritage 2020, 3 FOR PEER REVIEW 14 (a) (b) (c) Figure 15. Leonardo da Vinci’s Virgin of the Rocks, Madonna. Areas of analysis: (a) Louvre version, 1483–1486; (b) National Gallery of London, before 1508; (c) Preparation of analyzing (one image over the other). (a) (b) Figure 16. (a) Climacograms; (b) standardized climacograms of Leonardo da Vinci’s Virgin of the Rocks (Madonna), and averages thereof. Notice that curve of Louvre version is closer to the average of standardized climacograms of Da Vinci’s artworks than the curve of National Gallery of London. 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 γ( k ) k Luvre National Gallery, London Average of climacograms The lowest curve of Da Vinci's artworks 0.1 1 1 10 100 γ( k ) k White noise Luvre National Gallery, London Average of standardized climacograms The lowest curve of Da Vinci's artworks Figure 16. (a) Climacograms; (b) standardized climacograms of Leonardo da Vinci’s Virgin of the Rocks (Madonna), and averages thereof. Notice that curve of Louvre version is closer to the average of standardized climacograms of Da Vinci’s artworks than the curve of National Gallery of London. Heritage 2020, 3 297 Heritage 2020, 3 FOR PEER REVIEW 15 (a) (b) (c) Figure 17. Leonardo da Vinci’s Virgin of the Rocks, Angel. Areas of analysis: (a) Louvre version, 1483–1486; (b) National Gallery of London, before 1508; (c) Preparation of analyzing (one image over the other). (a) (b) Figure 18. (a) Climacograms; (b) standardized climacograms of Leonardo da Vinci’s Virgin of the Rocks (Angel), and averages thereof. Notice that curve of Louvre version is closer to the average of standardized climacograms of Da Vinci’s artworks than the curve of National Gallery of London. 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 γ( k ) k Luvre National Gallery, London Average of climacograms The lowest curve of Da Vinci's artworks 0.1 1 1 10 100 γ( k ) k White noise Luvre National Gallery, London Average of standardized climacograms The lowest curve of Da Vinci's artworks Figure 17. Leonardo da Vinci’s Virgin of the Rocks, Angel. Areas of analysis: (a) Louvre version, 1483–1486; (b) National Gallery of London, before 1508; (c) Preparation of analyzing (one image over the other). Heritage 2020, 3 FOR PEER REVIEW 15 (a) (b) (c) Figure 17. Leonardo da Vinci’s Virgin of the Rocks, Angel. Areas of analysis: (a) Louvre version, 1483–1486; (b) National Gallery of London, before 1508; (c) Preparation of analyzing (one image over the other). (a) (b) Figure 18. (a) Climacograms; (b) standardized climacograms of Leonardo da Vinci’s Virgin of the Rocks (Angel), and averages thereof. Notice that curve of Louvre version is closer to the average of standardized climacograms of Da Vinci’s artworks than the curve of National Gallery of London. 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 γ( k ) k Luvre National Gallery, London Average of climacograms The lowest curve of Da Vinci's artworks 0.1 1 1 10 100 γ( k ) k White noise Luvre National Gallery, London Average of standardized climacograms The lowest curve of Da Vinci's artworks Figure 18. (a) Climacograms; (b) standardized climacograms of Leonardo da Vinci’s Virgin of the Rocks (Angel), and averages thereof. Notice that curve of Louvre version is closer to the average of standardized climacograms of Da Vinci’s artworks than the curve of National Gallery of London. 4. Discussion of Stochastic Evaluation 4.1. Stochastic Evaluation of Da Vinci’s and Picasso’s Art Paintings Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) and Pablo Picasso (1881–1973) were two great artists who lived in different periods and had different artworks styles. Both have greatly influenced arts [84–86], and therefore, here, we have selected these two to quantify the variability of their works, searching for stochastic similarities among their paintings. For each painting, we calculated the coefficient of variation of the original image at scale 1, which, by definition, is the standard deviation of brightness divided by the average. We then calculated the average of all the paintings of each artist. A high value of the coefficient of variation shows that an Heritage 2020, 3 298 artist uses a broad range of brightness in his paintings for the same average brightness. The average coefficient of variation of Da Vinci’s artworks is equal to 0.7 and that of Picasso’s artworks is equal to 0.45. In order to see the range of fluctuations of climacograms, for each scale k we calculated the coefficient of variation of all standardized climacograms, g(k). As we have seen in Figure 6, the art paintings of Leonardo da Vinci exhibit stochastic similarity, and he has his own steady stochastic canon of expression, which is represented by a stochastic Golden Climacogram. In contrast, Picasso’s artworks (in stochastic view) display a wide range of fluctuations (Figures 7–9). Figure 19 shows the graphs of g(k) vs. k for all examined cases. This range of fluctuations is larger as the artist growing older. Heritage 2020, 3 FOR PEER REVIEW 16 4. Discussion of Stochastic Evaluation 4.1. Stochastic Evaluation of Da Vinci’s and Picasso’s Art Paintings Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) and Pablo Picasso (1881–1973) were two great artists who lived in different periods and had different artworks styles. Both have greatly influenced arts [84–86], and therefore, here, we have selected these two to quantify the variability of their works, searching for stochastic similarities among their paintings. For each painting, we calculated the coefficient of variation of the original image at scale 1, which, by definition, is the standard deviation of brightness divided by the average. We then calculated the average of all the paintings of each artist. A high value of the coefficient of variation shows that an artist uses a broad range of brightness in his paintings for the same average brightness. The average coefficient of variation of Da Vinci’s artworks is equal to 0.7 and that of Picasso’s artworks is equal to 0.45. In order to see the range of fluctuations of climacograms, for each scale k we calculated the coefficient of variation of all standardized climacograms, g(k). As we have seen in Figure 6, the art paintings of Leonardo da Vinci exhibit stochastic similarity, and he has his own steady stochastic canon of expression, which is represented by a stochastic Golden Climacogram. In contrast, Picasso’s artworks (in stochastic view) display a wide range of fluctuations (Figures 7–9). Figure 19 shows the graphs of g(k) vs. k for all examined cases. This range of fluctuations is larger as the artist growing older. Figure 19. Coefficient of variation of standard deviation over the average of Picasso’s and Da Vinci’s artworks’ climacograms. Analyzing Figure 19, we could say that Da Vinci’s art paintings are more stable and Picasso’s have more fluctuation. Picasso’s artworks were more fuzzy as the artist was growing older, with bigger and bigger variance. 4.2. Stochastic Evaluation of the Restoration of Da Vinci’s Last Supper In 1495, Leonardo da Vinci began what would become one of history’s most influential works of art—The Last Supper (Italian: Ultima Cena) [87]. The Last Supper is regarded as one of Leonardo da Vinci’s masterpieces, [88] but twenty years after its completion, the painting began to chip and fade. Unlike traditional frescoes, which Renaissance masters painted on wet plaster walls, da Vinci experimented with tempura paint on a dry, sealed plaster. The experiment proved unsuccessful, however, because the paint did not adhere 0.005 0.05 0.5 2 20 g (k ) k Picasso (1910-1940) Picasso (red period 1904-1906) Picasso (blue period 1901-1904) Leonardo da Vinci Figure 19. Coefficient of variation of standard deviation over the average of Picasso’s and Da Vinci’s artworks’ climacograms. Analyzing Figure 19, we could say that Da Vinci’s art paintings are more stable and Picasso’s have more fluctuation. Picasso’s artworks were more fuzzy as the artist was growing older, with bigger and bigger variance. 4.2. Stochastic Evaluation of the Restoration of Da Vinci’s Last Supper In 1495, Leonardo da Vinci began what would become one of history’s most influential works of art—The Last Supper (Italian: Ultima Cena) [87]. The Last Supper is regarded as one of Leonardo da Vinci’s masterpieces, [88] but twenty years after its completion, the painting began to chip and fade. Unlike traditional frescoes, which Renaissance masters painted on wet plaster walls, da Vinci experimented with tempura paint on a dry, sealed plaster. The experiment proved unsuccessful, however, because the paint did not adhere properly and began to flake away only a few decades after the work was finished. Da Vinci’s masterpiece has been subject to numerous restoration attempts. Some of these took place in 1726, 1770, 1853, 1903, 1924, 1928 and 1978. [89]. Critics maintain that only a fraction of the painting that exists today is the work of Leonardo da Vinci. [90–92]. Stochastic analysis of Da Vinci’s Last Supper shows that the curve of the center area (curve (a), Figure 10d) before restoration is between the others, but after restoration is above the others (curve (d), Figure 11d). The coefficient of variation before restoration was 2.3 and after restoration became 2.6, while the average of Da Vinci’s artwork is 3.4. We could thus say that after restoration Last Supper’s Coefficient of Variation came closer to Da Vinci’s artworks. All the curves are very close to Da Vinci’s Heritage 2020, 3 299 stochastic Golden Climacogram. Thus, it seems that Last Supper after restoration is, from the stochastic view, more intense in the center, which makes sense as obviously the artist would like to give emphasis to the center of the painting. So, the answer to the question “was the restoration of Last Supper successful?” seems to be positive. 4.3. Stochastic Evaluation of Da Vinci’s Annunciation Leonardo Da Vinci’s Annunciation (Figure 12a) is dated circa 1472–1475. It is housed in the Uffizi gallery of Florence, Italy [93,94]. Stochastic analysis in specific areas of Da Vinci’s Annunciation (Figure 12b) (1472–1475) shows that the area of the angel (curve (a), Figure 12c,d) is clearly different than the area of Madonna (curve (b), Figure 12c,d). We could say that the artist might want to show a move from divine (angel) to humanity (Madonna). 4.4. Stochastic Evaluation of Da Vinci’s Virgin of the Rocks The Virgin of the Rocks (Italian: Vergine delle rocce; sometimes the Madonna of the Rocks) is the name of two paintings by Leonardo da Vinci, of the same subject, and of a composition which is identical except for several significant details. The version generally regarded as the prime version, the earlier of the two, is in the Louvre in Paris and is not restored (Figure 20a). The other is in the National Gallery in London, and it was restored between 2008 and 2010 (Figure 20b) [95].Heritage 2020, 3 FOR PEER REVIEW 18 (a) (b) Figure 20. Leonardo da Vinci, Virgin of the Rocks. (a) Louvre version, 1483–1486; (b) National Gallery of London, before 1508. 5. Conclusions Modern mathematical tools and artificial intelligence provide many computational methods for evaluation and classification. Some of them use scale-variant methods similar to 2D-C, but with very complex processes and algorithms which could not be understood by a non-expert. 2D-C presents a clear and simple quantification tool based on the climacogram, a simple means of mathematic evaluation of art paintings, the results of which could be understood by a non-expert, and could provide insights into the aesthetical study of an art painting, as seen in the examples of this study. With 2D-C, stochastic patterns can be observed in terms of the dependence structure among the different artists as well, with Da Vinci’s (average H ≈ 0.84) and Picasso’s (average H ≈ 0.85) artworks having a strong persistence structure. Interestingly, similar Hurst parameters, between the range of 0.8 and 0.9, are estimated by Hurst in his pioneering work on the stage of the river Nile [98–100] and, additionally, in global-scale analyses of the long annual records of key hydrometeorological processes (such as temperature and wind speed) as well as of small-scale processes recorded in the laboratory (such as grid-turbulence and turbulent jets) [63]. Thus, a philosophical issue arises from the above analysis: does the inherent uncertainty in arts suggest some similarity with physical phenomena? From the analysis above we found that, in contrast to Picasso, Da Vinci had a stochastically steady way of expression (Golden Climacogram). An interesting study for further analysis would be to find out if other artists have stochastic similarities among their artwork, and to research if there are correlations among them. Author Contributions: Conceptualization, G.F.S.; methodology, G.F.S., P.D. and D.K.; software, P.D.; validation, G.F.S.; formal analysis, G.F.S., P.D.; investigation, G.F.S.; data processing, G.F.S.; writing—original draft preparation, G.F.S.; writing—review and editing, D.K.; visualization, G.F.S.; supervision, D.K.; project administration, D.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Funding: This research received no external funding. Acknowledgments: We are grateful to the editor and two anonymous reviewers for their positive critique and their constructive comments. As this paper was prepared, submitted and accepted during lock-down from Figure 20. Leonardo da Vinci, Virgin of the Rocks. (a) Louvre version, 1483–1486; (b) National Gallery of London, before 1508. Both paintings are ascribed to Leonardo da Vinci. Originally, they were thought to have been partially painted by Leonardo’s assistants. A close look at the painting during the recent restoration has led the conservators from the National Gallery to conclude that the greater part of the work is by the hand of Leonardo, but debate continues [96,97]. Parts of the painting, the flowers in particular, indicate the collaboration, and have led to speculation that the work is entirely by other hands, possibly Leonardo’s assistant Giovanni Ambrogio de Predis, and perhaps Evangelista [95]. A general view, with stochastic analysis, of Da Vinci’s Virgin of the Rocks (Figure 13) shows that, even though both of the art paintings are far enough from Da Vinci’s stochastic forms, the Louvre Heritage 2020, 3 300 version is closer to Da Vinci’s stochastic Golden Climacogram (Figure 14). A closer view in the frames of Madonna (Figure 15) and Angel (Figure 17) shows that, in stochastic terms, both of them are very close to Da Vinci’s stochastic Golden Climacogram, and the Louvre version is closer to Da Vinci’s stochastic Golden Climacogram (Figures 16 and 18). Thus, we could make the conjecture that the wider drawing of the painting has been done by someone else, and these details by Da Vinci. 5. Conclusions Modern mathematical tools and artificial intelligence provide many computational methods for evaluation and classification. Some of them use scale-variant methods similar to 2D-C, but with very complex processes and algorithms which could not be understood by a non-expert. 2D-C presents a clear and simple quantification tool based on the climacogram, a simple means of mathematic evaluation of art paintings, the results of which could be understood by a non-expert, and could provide insights into the aesthetical study of an art painting, as seen in the examples of this study. With 2D-C, stochastic patterns can be observed in terms of the dependence structure among the different artists as well, with Da Vinci’s (average H ≈ 0.84) and Picasso’s (average H ≈ 0.85) artworks having a strong persistence structure. Interestingly, similar Hurst parameters, between the range of 0.8 and 0.9, are estimated by Hurst in his pioneering work on the stage of the river Nile [98–100] and, additionally, in global-scale analyses of the long annual records of key hydrometeorological processes (such as temperature and wind speed) as well as of small-scale processes recorded in the laboratory (such as grid-turbulence and turbulent jets) [63]. Thus, a philosophical issue arises from the above analysis: does the inherent uncertainty in arts suggest some similarity with physical phenomena? From the analysis above we found that, in contrast to Picasso, Da Vinci had a stochastically steady way of expression (Golden Climacogram). An interesting study for further analysis would be to find out if other artists have stochastic similarities among their artwork, and to research if there are correlations among them. Author Contributions: Conceptualization, G.-F.S.; methodology, G.-F.S., P.D. and D.K.; software, P.D.; validation, G.-F.S.; formal analysis, G.-F.S., P.D.; investigation, G.-F.S.; data processing, G.-F.S.; writing—original draft preparation, G.-F.S.; writing—review and editing, D.K.; visualization, G.-F.S.; supervision, D.K.; project administration, D.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Funding: This research received no external funding. Acknowledgments: We are grateful to the editor and two anonymous reviewers for their positive critique and their constructive comments. As this paper was prepared, submitted and accepted during lock-down from COVID-19 (March–April 2020), G.F.S would like to thank his daughters Maria-Artemis and Eleni-Angelina for their patience. Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. References 1. Bullot, N.J.; Seeley, W.P.; Davies, S. 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Introduction Methodology Stochastic Analysis in 2D Illustration of Stochastic Analysis in 2D Stochastic Analysis of the Art Paintings Stochastic Analysis of the Art Paintings of Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) and Pablo Picasso (1881–1973) Stochastic Analysis of of Da Vinci’s Last Supper (1495) Stochastic Analysis of Da Vinci’s Annunciation (1472–1475) Stochastic Analysis of Da Vinci’s Virgin of the Rocks (1483–1486 and before 1508) Discussion of Stochastic Evaluation Stochastic Evaluation of Da Vinci’s and Picasso’s Art Paintings Stochastic Evaluation of the Restoration of Da Vinci’s Last Supper Stochastic Evaluation of Da Vinci’s Annunciation Stochastic Evaluation of Da Vinci’s Virgin of the Rocks Conclusions References 
work_xqbf4ec6gzgxjperxfth4zz7gi	----	44 © 2019 by the authors; licensee Asian Online Journal Publishing Group Asian Journal of Education and Training Vol. 5, No. 1, 44-49, 2019 ISSN(E) 2519-5387 DOI: 10.20448/journal.522.2019.51.44.49 © 2019 by the authors; licensee Asian Online Journal Publishing Group Examining the Effects of Aesthetic Education Program on Aesthetic Judgment Development of Five-Year-Old Children Esra ÜNLÜER1  Rengin ZEMBAT2 ( Corresponding Author) 1Department of Preschool Education, Kocaeli University, Kocaeli, Turkey 2Department of Preschool Education, Maltepe University, İstanbul, Turkey Abstract This study aims to identify the effectiveness of the Aesthetic Education Program on aesthetic judgment development of the five year old children. The pre-test and post-test control group experimental design was applied throughout the study. The group matching technique was employed in constitution of the study groups. Participants of the study consist of 36 five-year-old children attending at the Kocaeli University Application Kindergarden at the 2016-2017 academic year. Participants were assigned to experimental and control groups equally. Experimental group was taught through Aesthetic Education Program in twice a week for 10 weeks together with their curriculum. Participants in the control group thought through national early childhood curriculum. In the study THPC Aesthetic Judgment Scale which was developed by Taylor and Helmstadter (1971) adapted Turkish culture and validated by Acer (2006) validity and reliability. The validity and reliability of THPC Aesthetic Judgment Scale for five years olds children were by researcher. In statistical data analysis, Mann Whitney U-Test and Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test were used. The results indicated that Aesthetic Education Program effects positively five-years old children’s aesthetic judgment development. Keywords: Aesthetic, Aesthetic judgment, Aesthetic education program, Aesthetic experience, Preschool education, Art Citation | Esra ÜNLÜER; Rengin ZEMBAT (2019). Examining the Effects of Aesthetic Education Program on Aesthetic Judgment Development of Five-Year-Old Children. Asian Journal of Education and Training, 5(1): 44-49. History: Received: 28 September 2018 Revised: 26 October 2018 Accepted: 30 November 2018 Published: 21 December 2018 Licensed: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License Publisher: Asian Online Journal Publishing Group Contribution/Acknowledgement: This paper was written from the first author’s complete doctoral dissertation under supervision of Professor Rengin Zembat at Marmara University, Turkey Funding: This study received no specific financial support. Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. Transparency: The authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. Ethical: This study follows all ethical practices during writing. Contents 1. Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 45 2. Method ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 45 3. Findings/Results .............................................................................................................................................................................. 47 4. Discussion and Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................................. 47 5. Recommendations ............................................................................................................................................................................ 48 References .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 48 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.522.2019.51.44.49&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/EDU/article/view/377 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4964-095X https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2377-8910 http://asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/EDU/article/view/377 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4964-095X https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2377-8910 http://asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/EDU/article/view/377 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4964-095X https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2377-8910 http://asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/EDU/article/view/377 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4964-095X https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2377-8910 Asian Journal of Education and Training, 2019, 5(1): 44-49 45 © 2018 by the authors; licensee Asian Online Journal Publishing Group 1. Introduction The term aesthetics was first used by German philosopher Alexander Baumgarten in 1744, in the sense of beauty science. The word aesthetics comes from the word aesthetikos, which is associated with the Greek perception of sense (Crawford, 1991). Although there is no definition to fully meet the concept of aesthetics, it is basic form of a person's reaction such as the art, movement, music and trying to find the best in life and love, being aware of the natural beauty in the nature and around us, and knowing the value of them, to see and enjoy the beauty, affective and cognitive sensation and feeling. Aesthetics is at the center of our daily life, because the colours, flavours and sensations in our environment contribute to the development of our aesthetic awareness (Fox and Schirrmacher, 2014). The aesthetic experience begins with birth and is gradually shaped by culture. The early stages of aesthetic development are universal (Parsons, 1987). Cottrell (1987) states that the artistic sense in children is composed of five developmental stages. First stage (from kindergarten to 3rd grade): Children perceive and discover aesthetic features. Perceptual discovery of aesthetic features involves the development of children's perceptual skills and they become aware of cultural traditions with the help of the world of art. Second stage (4th-6th grade): Includes the development of perceptual skills. Third stage (7th-9th grade): The sense of art history develops. Fourth stage (10th-11th grade): Child develops sample evaluation criteria. Final stage (Grade 12): Child Performs critical analysis (Wee, 2009). Education of aesthetics, such as art, music, cannot be considered as a discipline in itself, but in fact, education of aesthetics covers all fields of art. Education of aesthetics involves all aesthetic phenomena. This phenomenon includes aesthetic experiences, the production process of aesthetic products (object and situation) and the historical and cultural traditions created (Madeja, 1976). An educational program should support the development of aesthetics with all its aspects. In order to provide this support, it is important that the training program consists of integrated activities. When it comes to supporting the development of aesthetics in children, only art-related activities such as painting or music in the education program come to mind. In fact, it should be known that aesthetic elements can be included in the training process in all activities. Arrangement of the learning environment in such a way as to improve the aesthetic sense of children shall also contribute to the integration of aesthetic education (Feeney and Moravcik, 1986). The pre- school education program, which was put into practice in Turkey in 2013, has two achievements and six indicators related to aesthetic development. All activities can be used to promote the development of aesthetics in pre-school education program (Turkish Ministry of Education, 2013). Through education of aesthetics, the child tends to see the details, to pay attention to the views that he has not noticed before. Education of Aesthetics is generally seen as the descriptor of art if it is taken into the art branch. It allows the children to indulge in through their characteristics such as the colors, lines, shapes, formations, proportion, harmony and symmetry in the work of art, and it reveals the spiritual forces inherent in children (Gültekin, 2011). Some art experts think that young children do not have the maturity to perform aesthetic reactions. Therefore, they think that aesthetics is not a suitable subject at an early age. However, early childhood educators know that children love the beautiful, the nature, and they like to create, look and talk about art (Feeney and Moravcik, 1986). Taking all these into consideration, it is emphasized that any activity daily planned in 2013 the Turkey preschool education program should be of the quality to promote the creativity and aesthetic skills. However, it is thought that the activities supporting the aesthetic skills are insufficient in both the examples of the activities of the teachers and the resource books that the teachers benefit from. As a result of the literature review, it has been observed that the studies related to this subject are insufficient. 1.1. Purpose The aim of this study is to reveal the effects of Aesthetic Education Program applied on five-year-old children on the development of their aesthetic judgement. In accordance with this main objective, it is aimed to make a difference with an application to be carried out without disrupting the current program flow the Aesthetic Education Program to be prepared by the researcher. Based on this purpose, this research study aims to find out answer the questions below; 1. In terms of the effect of the Aesthetic Education Program on the Aesthetic Judgement scores of the experimental and control groups; 1.1. Is there a significant difference between the experimental group aesthetic judgement pre-test and post-test scores? 1.2. Is there a significant difference between the control group aesthetic judgement pre-test and post-test scores? 1.3. Is there a significant difference between the post-test scores of the experimental and control groups? 2. Method 2.1. Study model In the research, experimental patterns with pretest-posttest control group was used. The experimental pattern is the model in which the data to be observed are produced and certainly compared with the aim of trying to determine cause-effect relationships (Karasar, 2003). The pretest-posttest control group pattern requires the measurement of the participants in relation to the dependent variable before and after the experimental procedure (Büyüköztürk, 2010). In the pretest-posttest control group model, there are two groups formed by random method. One of these is called experimental and the other one is called control group. Measurements are performed on both groups before and after the experiment (Karasar, 2003). Asian Journal of Education and Training, 2019, 5(1): 44-49 46 © 2018 by the authors; licensee Asian Online Journal Publishing Group Table-1. Experimental Research Design Pretest Program Posttest Experimental Group Taylor-Helmstadter Pair Comparison Scale of Aesthetic Judgment Aesthetic Education Program Taylor-Helmstadter Pair Comparison Scale of Aesthetic Judgment Control Group Instruction based on current curriculum Experimental group was taught through Aesthetic Education Program in twice a week for 10 weeks together with their curriculum. The control group continued to study their preschool curriculum. Aesthetic Education Program was presented below. Tablo-2. Aesthetic Education Program Weeks Activities 1. “Children's Games” Pieter Bruegel Shared book reading 2. “Shoes” review Shared book reading 3. “Happy Children” photo taken by Ara Güler Museum visit 4. Light table activities “Forest trip” Nature review 5. “The Weeping Woman” Pablo Picasso Museum visit 6. “The Starry Night” Vincent van Gogh Shadow puppet 7. “Cups” review “Clouds” Nature review 8. Museum visit Shadows 9. Optical illusion Painting exhibition visit 10. Installation Art Virtual museum visit Aesthetic Education Program developed by authors and other tables have statistical data 2.2. Sampling The study group of this study consisted of five-year-old children attending Kocaeli University Kocaeli University Application Kindergarden in 2016-2017 school year. In this study, group matching technique method was used to create study groups The reason why Kocaeli University Application Kindergarden was chosen for the study is that the variables of children (physical conditions of the school, socio-cultural level of the family) are similar, and there are two classes in five-age group and maximum 20 children in each class, and it was permitted to carry out the study, which would take 1-3 hours on two days of the week, a vehicle could be provided for planned trips, and the school administration and teachers have a positive approach and willingness for the study. Tablo-3. The results of the pre-test scores of THPC Aesthetic Judgment Scale for experimental and control group Scale Group N Mean rank Sum of ranks U Z P Aesthetic Judgement Scale Experimental 18 321.50 17.86 150.50 -3.73 .709 Control 18 344.50 19.14 36 As shown in Table 3, results of the Mann Whitney-U test reveals that there is not any significant difference between the THPC Aesthetic Judgment Scale pretest scores of experimental and control groups. According to this result, it can be said that the aesthetic judgement levels of the two groups are equal before the application. 2.3. Data Collection Tools 2.3.1. Taylor-Helmstadter Pair Comparison Scale of Aesthetic Judgment (THPC) The THPC Aesthetic Judgement Scale is an assessment tool developed by Taylor and Helmstadter (1971) in order to measure aesthetic judgement in children aged four and over based on the Gestalt Theory. The scale consists of 38 pairs of images among which various images with or without artistic value like furniture design; sculpture, painting and home appliances are contained. The applied instrument one-to-one takes 15-20 minutes. It was adapted by Acer (2006) to Turkish Culture for 6-year-old children. As a result of the validity studies conducted by Acer (2006) pairs of images were reduced to 16 pairs. The reliability and validity study was conducted for 5 years old children by the researcher. According to the results of this study, the scale was found to be valid (CVI of 0.86 and CVI ≥CVO) and reliable (Cronbah’s alpha of 0.66) (Unluer and Zembat, 2017). 2.4. Analyzing of Data In order to determine the tests to be used in the analysis of the data, it has been tested whether the data is normally distributed or not. As a result of hypothesis testing, it was found that the data did not meet the normality hypothesis. Therefore, nonparametic tests were performed. Asian Journal of Education and Training, 2019, 5(1): 44-49 47 © 2018 by the authors; licensee Asian Online Journal Publishing Group Table-4. The Results of the Hypothesis Test Showing that THPC Aesthetic Judgement Data is not Distributed Normally Aesthetic Judgement Scale Kolmogorov-Smirnov Shapiro Wilk W Statistic df P Statistic df P .173 36 .008 .935 36 .037 The data obtained from the study were evaluated by using "SPSS 18.0" statistical package program. In this context, the following statistical techniques were implemented. The frequency and percentage values of the demographic characteristics of the study group were determined. Mann Whitney U-Test (MWU) was used to compare the pretest-posttest scores of the experimental and control groups. The Wilcoxon Signed Ranks test was used to compare the pre and post-tests of the experimental and control groups. 3. Findings/Results Findings of this study were presented below. Table-5. The results of the pre-test and post-test scores of THPC Aesthetic Judgment Scale for experimental group Scale Group N Mean rank Sum of ranks Z P Aesthetic Judgement Scale Negative ranks 0 .00 .00 -3.65* .00 ** Pozitif ranks 17 9.0 153.00 Ties 1 Total 18 *Based on negative rank ** p<.01 As shown in Table 5, results of the Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test reveals that there is significant difference between the THPC Aesthetic Judgment Scale pretest and posttest scores of experimental group (z=3.65; p<.01).Taking mean rank and sums of the difference scores into consideration, it is given that the observed difference is in favour of the positive ranks, in other words, the post-tests. These findings, it can be concluded that the Aesthetic Education Program effected positively the development of aesthetic judgement of the five-year old children. Table-6. The results of the pre-test and post-test scores of THPC Aesthetic Judgment Scale for control group Scale Group N Mean rank Sum of ranks Z P Aesthetic Judgement Scale Negative ranks 0 .00 .00 -1.732 * .08** Pozitif ranks 3 2.00 6.00 Ties 15 Total 18 *Based on negative rank ** p<.05 As shown in Table 6, results of the Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test reveals that there is not any significant difference between the THPC Aesthetic Judgment Scale pretest and posttest scores of control group (z=1.732; p>.05). According to this result, it can be said that MEB 2013 pre-school education program did not contribute to the development of aesthetic judgement skills of children. Table-7. The results of the post-test scores of THPC Aesthetic Judgment Scale for experimental and control group Scale Group N Mean rank Sum of ranks U Z P Aesthetic Judgement Scale Experimental 18 453.50 25.19 41.50 -3.89 .00* Control 18 212.50 11.81 36 *p<.01 As shown in Table 7., as a result of the Mann Whitney- U test reveals that there is statistically significant difference between the scores (U=41.50; p<.01) of THPC Aesthetic Judgment Scale in terms of the experimental and control group post-tests. Considering their mean ranks, it can be seen that the difference is in favour of the experimental group. According to the results, the aesthetic judgement skills of the children in the experimental group participating in the Aesthetic Education Program are higher than that of the children in the control group who did not participate in the training. This findings show that the program has a positive effect on children's aesthetic judgement skills. 4. Discussion and Conclusion When the THPC Aesthetic Judgment Scale post-test scores of the experimental and control groups were compared, there was a significant difference in favour of the experimental group. This result shows that the children in the experimental group have higher aesthetic judgement level than the children in the control group and that the applied Aesthetic Education Program effects significantly the development of the aesthetic judgement levels of children. Accordingly, the aesthetic judgement levels of the children in the experimental group participating in the Aesthetic Education Program were higher than the children in the control group who did not participate in the training. The fact that the aesthetic judgement levels of the children attending the Aesthetic Education Program are higher than the ones attending the preschool education program of TME (2013) and not participating in this program is considered to stem from the fundamental principles which constitute the Aesthetic Education Program. The reason why the program has shown the expected development is related with the fundamental principles of the program such as drawing attention of the children by means of activities, organising Asian Journal of Education and Training, 2019, 5(1): 44-49 48 © 2018 by the authors; licensee Asian Online Journal Publishing Group the class atmosphere within the framework of aesthetic principles, giving feedbacks to children and suggesting different educational atmosphere. When the results of the study related to the aesthetic judgement level are examined, it can be seen that similar results have been reached with various studies conducted in Turkey and abroad (Taylor, 1971; Eckhoff, 2006; Davun, 2009; Özalp, 2012; Kocamanoğlu and Acer, 2015). In the study conducted by Taylor (1971) one of the researchers who developed the scale, the effect of the aesthetic education given with artistic products on the perception development and aesthetic judgement levels of the 4-5-year-old children who were attending pre-school education were examined. THPC Aesthetic Judgment Scale, which he developed with Helmstadler, was applied and it was determined whether the environment and education had an effect on aesthetic preference and aesthetic development. According to the results of the study, it was determined that the aesthetic preferences of the students in the experimental group were higher than the other group. The findings of this study coincide with the findings of our study. Eckhoff (2006) studied the effect of museum education on the aesthetic appreciation of children. In his study, he worked with 63 children between the ages of four and eleven, and he found that the children who were actively experienced art could assess the artworks. This result is consistent with the results of our study. In both programs, there are stages such as examination, interpretation and recreation of artworks by children, which enables them to actively participate in the aesthetic process from the very first stage and develop their aesthetic judgment skills. Results of this study show similarities in terms of developing children’s aesthetic skills since museum visits were included in the both aesthetic education program. Results of both studies imply the importance and contribution of museums on aesthetic skills of children. According to the definition of postmodern art, story book covers, which are part of a visual and popular culture, are accepted as an artwork (Freedman, 2003). Illustrated books offer excellent opportunities for aesthetic experiences (Nodelman, 1988). The aesthetic experiences of children were tried to be increased with the illustrated story books included in the prepared Aesthetic Education Program. (Chou and Cheng, 2015) showed that reading aesthetic books by sharing with their families improved their aesthetic skills. In addition, Justice et al. (2009) found that books read in the classroom increased the aesthetic experience of children. These studies are in parallel with the findings of our research. Acer and Ömeroðlu (2008) conducted a similar experimental study with 6 year old children by implementing a different aesthetic education program. However, the aforementioned study found out that aesthetic education program did not show any important effect on the development of children’s aesthetic judgment. The reason for the discrepancy between the results of this study and their might be age of the participants and the difference of the applied programs. 5. Recommendations The Aesthetic Education Program can be compared with the findings obtained by applying it in different economic, social and cultural environments. • A larger-scale study including children of different ages can be achieved, and the results can be broadened to a wider audience. • The assessment of the impacts of the Aesthetic Education Program can be strengthened to a certain extent through feedback from children, as well as feedback from families and teachers and from an independent observer. At the same time, the effectiveness of the program can be measured using different measurement tools. • The study group is limited to 36 children. In the future, research may be repeated with larger study groups and the ones which vary in terms of socio-economic levels. References Acer, D., 2006. Examining the effect of aesthetic education on aesthetic judgment development of 6 year old children attending Kindergarten. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation. Gazi University, Institute of Educational Sciences, Department of Child Development and Education. Acer, D. and E. Ömeroðlu, 2008. A study on the effect of aesthetic education on the development of aesthetic judgment of six-year-old children. Early Childhood Education Journal, 35(4): 335-342. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-007-0193-4. Büyüköztürk, Ş., 2010. Manual of data analysis for social sciences. Ankara: Pegem Academy. Chou, M.-J. and J.-C. Cheng, 2015. Parent-child aesthetic shared reading with young children. Universal Journal of Educational Research, 3(11): 871-876. Available at: https://doi.org/10.13189/ujer.2015.031113. Cottrell, J., 1987. Creative drama in the classroom, grades 4-6: Teacher's resource book for theatre arts. Lincolnwood, IL: National Textbook Company. Crawford, D.W., 1991. The questions of aesthetics (s, 18-30). R.A.Smith ve A. Simpson (Ed.), Aesthetic and art education Urbana ve Chicago. USA: University of Illinois Press. pp: 18-31. Davun, B., 2009. The effect of arts education supported by activities in pre-school period on the aesthetic taste levels of children (social services child protection agency example). Unpublished PhD Thesis. Gazi University Institute of Educational Sciences, Ankara. Eckhoff, A., 2006. Influences on children's aesthetic responses: The role of prior knowledge, contexts, and social experience s during interactions with the visual arts. Doctoral Dissertation. University of Colorado, Boulder. Feeney, S. and E. Moravcik, 1986. A thing of beauty: Aesthetic development in young children. Young Children, 42(6): 6 -15. Fox, J.E. and R. Schirrmacher, 2014. Aesthetic. Translated by M. Can Yasar N, Aral and Gokhan Duman (Transl ated Ed.) Development of art and creativity in children. Ankara: Nobel Publishing. Freedman, K., 2003. Teaching visual culture: Curriculum, aesthetics, and the social life of art. New York and London: Teacher s College Press, Columbia University. Gültekin, T., 2011. Children and communication in the process of development of aesthetic values in art education. Academic Review Journal(24): 32-39. Justice, L.M., J.N. Kaderavek, X. Fan, A. Sofka and A. Hunt, 2009. Accelerating preschoolers' early literacy deve lopment through classroom- based teacher–child storybook reading and explicit print referencing. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 40(1): 67-85. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1044/0161-1461(2008/07-0098. Karasar, N., 2003. Scientific research method: Concepts, principles, methods. Ankara: Nobel Publication Distribution. Kocamanoğlu, D.Ö. and D. Acer, 2015. Examining children’s art products and determining their aesthetic judgment in a preschool classro om where learning centers were used. Journal of Education(7): 1-16. Madeja, S.S., 1976. The CEMREL aesthetic education program: A Report. Urbana Chicago: University of Illinois Press. National Association for Young Children, September. Asian Journal of Education and Training, 2019, 5(1): 44-49 49 © 2018 by the authors; licensee Asian Online Journal Publishing Group Nodelman, P., 1988. Words about pictures: The narrative art of children’s picture books. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press. Özalp, H.K., 2012. Case study based on the application of the art in the 5-6 year old art activities. Idil Magazine, 1(5): 132-147. Parsons, M.J., 1987. How we understand art. New York: Cambridge University. Taylor, A.B. and G.C. Helmstadter, 1971. A preliminary pair comparison test for measuring aesthetic judgment in young childre n. Paper Presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New York, NY. p p: 4–7. Taylor, A.P., 1971. The effects of selected stimuli on the art products, concept formation and aesthetic judgmental decisions of four and five year old children. Doctoral Dissertation, Arizona State University, USA. Turkish Ministry of Education, 2013. Pre-school education program (for 36-72 Months Old Children). Ankara: Turkish Ministry of Education. Unluer, E. and R. Zembat, 2017. Taylor-helmstadter double comparative aesthetics scale (THPC) validity and reliability study. Electronic Turkish Studies, 12(18): 687-696. Wee, S.J., 2009. Drama education curriculum by drama specialist in early childhood education. Doctoral Dissertation, Urbana: Illinois University. Asian Online Journal Publishing Group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. Any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. 
work_xtjrvfjxvrbwdhzfn2d7r5txgm	----	Student feedback on the use of paintings in Sparshanam, the Medical Humanities module at KIST Medical College, Nepal | Semantic Scholar Skip to search formSkip to main content> Semantic Scholar's Logo Search Sign InCreate Free Account You are currently offline. Some features of the site may not work correctly. DOI:10.1186/1472-6920-11-9 Corpus ID: 11654854Student feedback on the use of paintings in Sparshanam, the Medical Humanities module at KIST Medical College, Nepal @article{Shankar2011StudentFO, title={Student feedback on the use of paintings in Sparshanam, the Medical Humanities module at KIST Medical College, Nepal}, author={P. Shankar and R. Piryani and K. Upadhyay-Dhungel}, journal={BMC Medical Education}, year={2011}, volume={11}, pages={9 - 9} } P. Shankar, R. Piryani, K. Upadhyay-Dhungel Published 2011 Medicine BMC Medical Education BackgroundPaintings have been used in Medical Humanities modules in Nepal at Manipal College of Medical Sciences and KIST Medical College. Detailed participant feedback about the paintings used, the activities carried out, problems with using paintings and the role of paintings in future modules has not been previously done. Hence the present study was carried out.MethodsThe present module for first year medical students was conducted from February to August 2010 at KIST Medical College, Nepal… Expand View on Springer bmcmededuc.biomedcentral.com Save to Library Create Alert Cite Launch Research Feed Share This Paper 18 CitationsHighly Influential Citations 1 Background Citations 3 Methods Citations 1 Results Citations 1 View All Tables and Topics from this paper table 1 table 2 table 3 table 4 table 5 View All 5 Figures & Tables Happiness 18 Citations Citation Type Citation Type All Types Cites Results Cites Methods Cites Background Has PDF Publication Type Author More Filters More Filters Filters Sort by Relevance Sort by Most Influenced Papers Sort by Citation Count Sort by Recency Student feedback about the use of role plays in Sparshanam, a medical humanities module P. Shankar, R. Piryani, Kundan K. Singh, B. S. Karki Medicine F1000Research 2012 11 PDF Save Alert Research Feed Student feedback about the use of literature excerpts in Sparshanam, a Medical Humanities module P. Shankar, Kundan K. Singh, A. Dhakal, A. Shakya, R. Piryani Medicine F1000Research 2012 1 PDF Save Alert Research Feed Participants’ Feedback about and Knowledge before and after a Two-Day Medical Humanities Workshop at Mysuru, India P. Shankar, P. Kulkarni Psychology 2020 View 1 excerpt, cites background Save Alert Research Feed Student feedback on an inaugural medical humanities module at XUSOM, Aruba P. Shankar Psychology 2013 3 PDF View 1 excerpt, cites results Save Alert Research Feed Student feedback about the inaugural American International Medical University health humanities module P. Shankar, Christopher Rose Psychology 2018 Save Alert Research Feed A study of acceptability & feasibility of integrating humanities based study modules in undergraduate curriculum A. Gurtoo, P. Ranjan, R. Sud, A. Kumari Medicine The Indian journal of medical research 2013 7 PDF Save Alert Research Feed My Heart, My Art: A novel Nepali medical student art project and the link to learning C. A. Courneya, Bibana Cujec, M. Joshi, R. Dhital Medicine 2017 3 Save Alert Research Feed Artwork and music: Innovative approaches to physical assessment L. Pellico, K. Fennie, S. Tillman, T. C. Duffy, L. Friedlaender, Gillian Graham Psychology 2014 3 Save Alert Research Feed Students' perceived levels of 'human skills' and effectiveness of various modules in skill development P. Shankar, T. Thapa, B. S. Karki Medicine 2013 Save Alert Research Feed Conducting correlation seminars in basic sciences at KIST Medical College, Nepal P. Shankar Psychology, Medicine Journal of educational evaluation for health professions 2011 6 Highly Influenced PDF View 3 excerpts, cites methods Save Alert Research Feed ... 1 2 ... References SHOWING 1-10 OF 26 REFERENCES SORT BYRelevance Most Influenced Papers Recency Using paintings to explore the medical humanities in a Nepalese medical school P. Shankar, R. Piryani Psychology, Medicine Medical Humanities 2009 7 View 1 excerpt, references methods Save Alert Research Feed The art of observation: impact of a family medicine and art museum partnership on student education. N. Elder, Barbara Tobias, Amber Lucero-Criswell, L. Goldenhar Psychology, Medicine Family medicine 2006 66 PDF View 1 excerpt, references methods Save Alert Research Feed Deepening compassion through the mirror of painting K. Karkabi, Orit Cohen Castel Medicine Medical education 2006 16 View 1 excerpt Save Alert Research Feed A Voluntary Medical Humanities Module in a Medical College in Western Nepal: Participant Feedback P. R. Shankar Medicine Teaching and learning in medicine 2009 16 View 2 excerpts, references methods Save Alert Research Feed Seeing patients and life contexts: the visual arts in medical education. E. Boisaubin, M. Winkler Medicine The American journal of the medical sciences 2000 39 View 1 excerpt, references background Save Alert Research Feed [Art in undergraduate medical education]. Kenneth Fjellstad, Tor Olav Isaksen, J. Frich Medicine Tidsskrift for den Norske laegeforening : tidsskrift for praktisk medicin, ny raekke 2003 3 Save Alert Research Feed Visual thinking strategies: a new role for art in medical education. J. Reilly, J. Ring, L. Duke Psychology, Medicine Family medicine 2005 70 PDF View 1 excerpt, references background Save Alert Research Feed Arts-Related Activities Across U.S. Medical Schools: A Follow-Up Study P. Rodenhauser, M. A. Strickland, C. Gambala Medicine Teaching and learning in medicine 2004 48 Save Alert Research Feed The Program in Medical Humanities at the University of Missouri-Kansas City School of Medicine M. Sirridge, K. Welch Medicine Academic medicine : journal of the Association of American Medical Colleges 2003 13 View 1 excerpt, references background Save Alert Research Feed Ways of seeing: using the visual arts in nursing education. Judith Frei, S. Álvarez, M. Alexander Medicine The Journal of nursing education 2010 56 PDF View 1 excerpt Save Alert Research Feed ... 1 2 3 ... Related Papers Abstract Tables and Topics 18 Citations 26 References Related Papers Stay Connected With Semantic Scholar Sign Up About Semantic Scholar Semantic Scholar is a free, AI-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the Allen Institute for AI. 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work_xzjcutuotnerdklf4h3cmbhrau	----	Redalyc.La política y la democracia como creaciones imaginarias: de los griegos a nosotros Atenea ISSN: 0716-1840 lgaravil@udec.cl Universidad de Concepción Chile Valencia López, Harold La política y la democracia como creaciones imaginarias: de los griegos a nosotros Atenea, núm. 513, enero-junio, 2016, pp. 125-135 Universidad de Concepción Concepción, Chile Disponible en: http://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=32846563008 Cómo citar el artículo Número completo Más información del artículo Página de la revista en redalyc.org Sistema de Información Científica Red de Revistas Científicas de América Latina, el Caribe, España y Portugal Proyecto académico sin fines de lucro, desarrollado bajo la iniciativa de acceso abierto http://www.redalyc.org/revista.oa?id=328 http://www.redalyc.org/revista.oa?id=328 http://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=32846563008 http://www.redalyc.org/comocitar.oa?id=32846563008 http://www.redalyc.org/fasciculo.oa?id=328&numero=46563 http://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=32846563008 http://www.redalyc.org/revista.oa?id=328 http://www.redalyc.org Atenea 513 I Sem. 2016125 ISSn 0716-1840 La política y la democracia como creaciones imaginarias: de los griegos a nosotros Politics and democracy as imaginary creations: of the greeks to us Harold Valencia López* RESumEn nuestro trabajo está articulado en tres partes: En la primera, empleando el marco ca- tegorial de la teoría de la imaginación de Cornelius Castoriadis, dilucidamos en qué sentido la política y la democracia son creaciones imaginarias, cómo entender la ima- ginación y el elemento imaginario que hay en la creación humana, qué son las signi- ficaciones imaginarias sociales y qué función cumplen para la cohesión social. En la segunda parte tematizamos los aspectos que nos permiten diferenciar el imaginario político griego respecto del imaginario político moderno, mostrando en qué sentido el régimen democrático es la realización política del proyecto de autonomía. En la parte final, mostramos cómo los aspectos sustantivos de la democracia están escamoteados en las concepciones procedimentalistas e instrumentalistas de la misma. Concluimos proponiendo nuestra idea de una educación para la democracia como teoría crítica. Palabras clave: Política, democracia, significaciones imaginarias, instrumentalismo. AbStRACt this article is developed in three parts. In the first, using the categorial framework of the theory of the imagination by Cornelius Castoriadis, we elucidate the sense in which politics and democracy are imaginary creations, how to understand the imagination and the imaginary element that there is in human creation, what the social imaginary * Filósofo, magíster y Doctor en Filosofía. Especialista en Arbitraje, conciliación y resolución de conflictos de la universidad de Cartagena. Profesor titular del Programa de filosofía de la universidad de Cartagena. Ex decano de la Facultad de Ciencias Humanas de la universidad de Cartagena, Colombia. Director del grupo de investigación en filosofía política y social “Civitas”. Correo electrónico: hvalencial@unicartagena.edu.co Atenea 513 I Sem. 2016125 pp. 125-135 126Atenea 513I Sem. 2016 meanings are and what function they fulfill for social cohesion. In the second part, we focus on the aspects that allow us to differentiate the Greek political imaginary with re- spect to the modern political imaginary, showing in what sense the democratic regime is the political realization of the project of autonomy. In the final part, we show how the substantial aspects of democracy are concealed in its very proceduralist and instru- mentalist conceptions. We conclude by proposing our idea of education for democracy as critical theory. Keywords: Policy, democracy, imaginary significations, instrumentalism. Recibido: 11.06.14. Aceptado: 02.10.14. I l a polítiCa y la dEmoCraCia son creaciones imaginarias del pueblo griego antiguo (siglos VI a IV a.C.), porque son actividades radical- mente nuevas que ningún pueblo antes de ellos había producido y que no son abstraídas de la experiencia, ni sacadas de la naturaleza, ni mu- cho menos deducidas de un sistema lógico, ni tampoco se pueden simpli- ficar a unas causas últimas sociales, históricas, económicas o funcionales. Son como la Quinta sinfonía de beethoven, como el Guernica de Pablo Pi- casso, como Cien años de soledad de García márquez, una creación. Antes de ellas no existía nada similar. En este sentido compartimos la tesis de Cornelius Castoriadis1 que sostiene que la historia humana, y por tanto las diversas formas de sociedad, son esencialmente el resultado de la creación imaginaria de los pueblos, esto es, cada sociedad crea un mundo (griego, egipcio, feudal, moderno, burgués, musulmán, Caribe, etc.) a partir de un elemento que posee el ser humano en singular y los colectivos en general: el elemento imaginario. Pero, ¿qué entender por imaginación, por imaginario?, ¿en qué aspectos podríamos distinguir el imaginario político griego del moderno? 1 Cornelius Castoriadis (Constantinopla, 1922 - París, 1997): filósofo, psicoanalista, militante político, pensador social, economista. Fue cofundador del grupo-revista Socialismo o Barbarie (que se publicó entre 1948 y 1967), desde el que inició una crítica radical de la uRSS en particular, y del marxismo en general, defendiendo el autogobierno de los trabajadores y el proyecto de un sujeto reflexivo y deliberante y de una sociedad autónoma. Esto –entre otras cosas– desembocó en un nuevo modo de pensamiento, que halló expresión en buena medida en el movimiento estudiantil del mayo Francés de 1968, y se expandió a otros lugares del globo. El pensamiento de Castoriadis ha sido uno de los aportes más importantes a la elucidación ilimitada sobre el ser humano, la sociedad, lo instituido, en la última década del siglo XX, abarcando de modo profun- damente interrelacionado campos como el de la política, el psicoanálisis, la filosofía, la economía, etc., según su método de encrucijadas del laberinto. Su libro más significativo es La institución imaginaria de la sociedad. Véase: Valencia López (2012, pp. 253-260). Atenea 513 I Sem. 2016127 Imaginación creadora, imaginario social instituyente, e imaginación ra- dical, son conceptos íntimamente asociados, pero que presentan algunas diferencias entre sí. En la base está la idea de imaginación que propone Castoriadis (1989), quien, cuando habla de imaginación, la está conside- rando como creadora. Y que postula como nombre de la misma, para su corpus teórico, el de imaginario radical. Este imaginario radical tiene un componente individual y un componente social. Por una parte, se presenta en la psique singular como imaginación radical creadora de un magma2 de representaciones, afectos, deseos (RADS), pues en la psique existe una capacidad de producir un flujo ilimitado de representaciones indominable, desfuncionalizado. La imaginación tiene capacidad constituyente tanto a nivel del psiquismo individual como a nivel de la sociedad. Es radical en tanto es fuente de creación. Esta noción se diferencia de toda idea de la imaginación como señuelo, reflejo, engaño, lo especular3. La imaginación radical en el colectivo toma el nombre y la forma de imaginario social ins- tituyente. El imaginario social instituyente crea un mundo de sentido, que a su vez crea a los sujetos que lo habitan. Sujetos en tanto que judíos, incas, ciudadanos de la Pólis, colombianos, etc. La imaginación en la sociedad es creación de un mundo de significaciones imaginarias sociales (SIS) (Casto- riadis, 1989, pp. 283 y ss.; 2002, pp. 187 y ss.). Las significaciones imaginarias sociales son creaciones libres de la colec- tividad anónima; aunque existen sobre ellas constricciones internas, exter- nas, históricas e intrínsecas, son sociales, porque las comparten los miem- bros de una colectividad. Son también imaginarias, porque no se pueden reducir, ni se pueden deducir de referentes “reales” o “racionales”; la “rea- 2 Magma: Concepto fundamental del pensamiento de Castoriadis, mediante el cual propone una nueva forma de pensar el ser de lo psíquico, de lo histórico-social, que rebase las categorías de la lógica del principio de identidad y de no contradicción, pues como el magma de un volcán, lo psíquico es un flujo permanente de representaciones, deseos, intenciones, afectos (RADS). El ser de lo histórico social es un magma de significaciones imaginarias sociales (SIS). El modo de ser de la psique como el de lo histórico-social es a la manera de un magma. La teoría de la relatividad, la física cuántica, el modo de ser del inconsciente, son tesis que apoyan la idea castoridiana del Ser como indeterminado, que permiten pensar en la creación, que remiten al caos. Esto permite, en la dilucidación castoridiana de la sociedad y la historia, sustentar –que lejos de haber leyes, como la del desarrollo de las fuerzas productivas como motor de la historia (marxismo), o entender a la misma como estadios o despliegues del ser, o del Espíritu (Hegel)– que la historia es la creación y destrucción de Magmas de significaciones imaginarias sociales. Véase: Castoriadis (1989, pp. 288 y ss.), Castoriadis (1993), Franco (2003). 3 Castoriadis rastrea cómo en el pensamiento de Occidente existen pensadores como Aristó- teles primero, y Kant luego, que, muy cerca de considerar la imaginación como creación radical, terminan no explicitando esta forma de pensar. Véase: Castoriadis, “El descubrimiento de la ima- ginación”. En: Los dominios del hombre: Las encrucijadas del laberinto (2005a, pp. 149-176). 128Atenea 513I Sem. 2016 lidad” y la “racionalidad” son sus productos, instituidos de modo diferente en cada época. no son “racionales”, no son lógicos, no dependen de una deducción, ni son “reales”. no son sacadas, “abstraídas” del mundo físico, sino que son creaciones de la imaginación colectiva y anónima que man- tiene cohesionada y unida la sociedad al crear un sentido y un significado para la misma. Y son significaciones, esto es, no exactamente “conceptos” o “representaciones”, sino el cemento de la vida social que mantiene unidas las ideas, las representaciones, los actos, etc. Ejemplos de significaciones imaginarias sociales son: los dioses, los espíritus, los mitos, los tótem, los tabúes, la familia, la soberanía, la ley, el ciudadano, la justicia, el Estado, la mercancía, el capital, el interés, la realidad, etc. Las significaciones imaginarias sociales cumplen una triple función dentro de una sociedad: 1. Constituyen el conjunto de representaciones mediante las cuales un grupo constituye un mundo, se sitúa en él, se auto- rrepresenta. 2. Definen las funciones de los miembros de un grupo, el qué hacer: adorar a dios, incrementar el desarrollo de las fuerzas productivas, buscar la fama, etc. 3. Determinan el tipo de afectos predominantes en una sociedad. Por ejemplo, la fe cristiana en la sociedad católica; el ansia de con- sumir, la novedad por lo nuevo en el capitalismo contemporáneo. Estas significaciones en cada contexto socio-histórico son introyectadas en los individuos a través de agentes socializadores como la familia, la es- cuela, las instituciones políticas, económicas, religiosas, etc. Ahora bien, toda sociedad crea un poder instituyente que en la mayoría de los casos permanece velado para los individuos. Este poder instituyente adopta una doble forma: lo político y la política. Lo político significa la dimensión del poder, es decir, la instancia o las instancias instituidas, que pueden emitir mandatos con autoridad, que toman decisiones, que dirimen conflictos, y que, al menos, deben incluir siempre, de forma explícita, lo que denominamos un poder judicial y un poder de gobierno (Castoriadis, 1998c, p. 219). Lo político “preserva” la sociedad y no reposa fundamentalmente en la coerción, sino en la interio- rización que hacen los individuos de las significaciones imaginarias sociales que les introyectan los agentes sociales. En ese sentido, todas las sociedades han tenido lo político (egipcios, aztecas, colombianos, etc.), pero no nece- sariamente la política, pues la política, como la creó el imaginario griego, es la actividad lucida, reflexiva, explícita, que cuestiona lo instituido bus- cando su transformación. La política rompe una falsa unidad, quiebra un orden que se supone natural, “normal”. La política se da cuando irrumpe la diferencia que ha estado oculta y lo público se “ensancha” y se hace verda- Atenea 513 I Sem. 2016129 deramente público. La política en el sentido propuesto es proyecto de au- tonomía: actividad colectiva reflexionada y lúcida que busca la institución global de la sociedad como tal. Lo propio de la política estaría constituido por las nuevas formas de subjetivación que irrumpen. La política no se da sino en ocasiones especiales, pues la política no es la práctica de todos los días, sino una irrupción frente a un orden dado para ponerlo en cuestión, y, en el mismo momento en que lo cuestiona, es porque considera que pue- de instituirse otro; por lo tanto que no hay una determinación fatal de lo instituido. Lo instituido, lo político, puede estancar a la política en la medida en que cierra la posibilidad de irrupción de nuevas formas de subjetivación políticas, en la medida en que clausura y no permite el cuestionamiento. En la autoconservación de lo político y en la mayoría de las sociedades históricamente dadas se le ha enseñado a los hombres que el poder insti- tuyente proviene de fuerzas extrasociales: Dios, reyes, hijos de los dioses, linaje, fuerzas sobrenaturales. En esa institución heterónoma está prohibi- do preguntar, hay que obedecer y someterse a los poderes de facto. Gene- ralmente los individuos en las sociedades heterónomas piensan y actúan de acuerdo al conjunto social; psíquica y lingüísticamente no están preparados para cuestionar. Son sociedades cerradas, clausuradas. En el mundo hebreo del Antiguo testamento no cabe la pregunta sobre qué es el ser, si Dios mismo es el ser, o qué es verdad, qué es justicia, si Dios mismo es todo. La interrogación está cerrada. Se impone el discurso del otro y el “discurso del Otro” generalmente se concreta como heteronomía social. La grandeza del imaginario griego, entre otras, está en que rompe con la institución heterónoma y crea el proyecto de autonomía, es decir, la activi- dad consciente y explicita que lucha para que las instituciones, las leyes, los reguladores sociales, sean el resultado de la actividad consciente y lúcida del poder instituyente de los ciudadanos. Pero, ¿qué significa autonomía en la esfera política? una sociedad au- tónoma es, como primera aproximación, la que niega la existencia de un fundamento extrasocial a la ley y extrae consecuencias de ello. La origina- lidad e improbabilidad de la autonomía consiste en la aparición de un ser histórico que cuestiona su propia ley de existencia y de una sociedad que cuestiona su propia institución, su representación del mundo, sus signifi- caciones imaginarias sociales y que es capaz de dotarse de sus propias leyes, entendiendo que es eso lo que está haciendo. una sociedad autónoma exige individuos autónomos, es decir, individuos reflexivos, críticos, capaces de ser conscientes de sus propias significaciones imaginarias. En el proyecto 130Atenea 513I Sem. 2016 de sociedad autónoma el poder de crear significación no le pertenece a una instancia sobrenatural sino a los ciudadanos. Lo que hace incompatible esta concepción con el liberalismo y la democracia representativa es su anula- ción de cualquier dispositivo trascendental que imponga un contenido o un límite a la labor de autoinstitución política. Dios, los antepasados, la superstición, pero también la Razón del sistema hegeliano, la hipóstasis del mercado o la figuración de una idea sustantiva de la humanidad, no pue- den dar cuenta u orientar el proceso instituyente del colectivo anónimo que es la sociedad. Ahora bien, la forma política que adquiere el proyecto de autonomía es el régimen democrático. La creación democrática suprime toda fuente trascendente de la significación. La democracia es el régimen político de autoinstitución y autolimitación resultado de la acción de los ciudadanos y en el que siempre están abiertas las preguntas por la libertad, la igualdad, la justicia, etc. II Pero, ¿cuáles son los rasgos más relevantes del imaginario político griego que nos permiten contrastarlo y diferenciarlo del imaginario político mo- derno4? Destacamos, entre otros, los siguientes: 1. Relación de la colectividad con el poder. El poder para los griegos tiene su génesis en el poder directo constituyente e instituyente de los ciudadanos y no, como para los modernos, en la idea de representación política. Si se considera en la práctica, la participación política de los antiguos es limitada (no todos están incluidos en la categoría de ciudadanos). En los modernos, aunque en teoría hay mayor universalización de la ciudadanía, la partici- pación es restringida. Hay un conflicto entre la dimensión universalista del imaginario político y otra dimensión del imaginario político moderno: el Estado-nación, en cuanto el Estado-nación reconoce ciertos derechos sólo a sus nacionales. 4 Estamos empleando el concepto “moderno” en el sentido del proyecto de introducir en todos los ámbitos de la actividad humana la razón (Descartes), esto es, todo tipo de problemas debería ser resuelto apelando no a la tradición, a la autoridad, sino a una instancia autónoma del individuo, al tiempo supuestamente universal, como lo es la razón. La humanidad, al obrar según leyes de la razón, progresaría hacia la libertad, la prosperidad y la felicidad. Atenea 513 I Sem. 2016131 2. En el imaginario político griego la esfera de lo público es asunto de ciu- dadanos, de opinión, de deliberación, distinto a la tendencia en la moder- nidad de dejar los asuntos públicos a expertos, técnicos, “comisiones de sabios”. En el mundo antiguo hay expertos, pero su ámbito de competencia es la técne. 3. En el imaginario político griego no hay una separación tajante, como en la modernidad, entre la sociedad y el Estado, sino el poder político lo ejerce la sociedad. En la modernidad el Estado es un aparato separado de la colec- tividad y tiende a ser centralizado. 4. En el mundo antiguo no existe la ilusión constitucional en el sentido que la limitación del poder no está dada por un “documento”, sino que la limi- tación es autolimitación dada en la paideía que forma al ciudadano. 5. En el imaginario moderno se considera que la división de poderes es garantía del equilibrio y control de los poderes públicos, pero prima y ab- sorbe en muchas ocasiones el poder gubernativo a los otros poderes. 6. En el mundo antiguo hay una relación entre democracia, mortalidad, limitación. En el origen griego de la democracia, como enfatiza Castoriadis (2005a; 1998b, pp. 157-180), lo fundamental es la contingencia, la morta- lidad de toda actividad humana (hombre y mortal son sinónimos). Sobre estas cuestiones, precisamente, trabaja la tragedia y este es su mensaje: no olvides que eres mortal. mortalidad habitada por la hybris, que no es el pecado, sino la desmesura. El pecado supone fronteras bien demarcadas, mientras que lo propio de la hybris es que no hay frontera bien trazada, por lo cual en cualquier momento se puede caer en ella, y los dioses o los hombres o las propias circunstancias intervendrán para producir el casti- go correspondiente. Cuando Castoriadis (1998b) describe la cultura actual, señala que ésta es una época donde predomina el rechazo de toda noción de mortalidad. Sucede que se ha perdido el sentido trágico que en su mo- mento señalaran los griegos, el límite que debe ponerse a la desmesura, a la hybris. La democracia, como pensamiento de los límites, implica un régimen basado en la libertad, y por lo tanto, en el riesgo. En ella el pueblo puede hacer cualquier cosa, pero debe saber que no debe hacer cualquier cosa. La democracia como pensamiento político es inevitablemente atea. Sus límites, “garantías”, no hacen recurrencia a la existencia de un dios, de un ser trascendente y superior. Para la democracia no hay más que una “ga- 132Atenea 513I Sem. 2016 rantía” relativa. La menos contingente de todas se encuentra en la paideía, la educación de los ciudadanos, en la formación de individuos que han interiorizado al tiempo la necesidad de la ley y la posibilidad de ponerla en tela de juicio. 7. Precisamente, se constituye en un punto arquimédico del imaginario griego de la democracia lo que llamaron la paideia, la educación del indivi- duo humano. Los griegos comprendieron que el ser humano, el ciudadano, no nace, sino que se forma en el proceso de humanización, de socialización; que el individuo sin la comunidad no puede ser, de ahí la importancia de qué tipo de educación se le dé a ese nuevo ser que viene al mundo. En la modernidad hay un énfasis en el individuo desprendido de la comunidad; en la autarquía de la mónada individual, hay un refugio en los goces parti- culares, en el ámbito privado. 8. El Ethos político dominante entre los atenienses es su sinceridad: “La ley que se impone es la del más fuerte” (Castoriadis, 1998b, p. 169). El derecho sólo existe entre iguales. En la modernidad se dice una cosa y se hace otra, herencia de la Iglesia medieval: “todos somos iguales”, tal vez ante los ojos de Dios, pero no en la terrenalidad. 9. En los antiguos subyace la ontología de caos/cosmos, fhysis/nómos. En la ontología moderna subyace la idea de progreso, vamos ascendiendo a una “tierra prometida”, vamos hacia mayores grados de felicidad y poder. De- sarrollo en los griegos es la llegada de una substancia a su plenitud siempre existiendo un límite. Desarrollo en los modernos es expansión ilimitada del supuesto dominio racional, más producción, más crecimiento económico, más dominio sobre la naturaleza. Ahora bien, con el decaimiento de la democracia griega, con los hechos históricos que marcaron la antigüedad romana y la edad media en Occi- dente, el proyecto de autonomía, de autoinstitución lúcida y explícita de la sociedad sufre un eclipse del siglo III a.C. al siglo XII. En la modernidad con la génesis de las ciudades, el ascenso de la burguesía, las Revoluciones burguesas (Americana, Francesa), la Revolución Rusa, los movimientos emancipatorios latinoamericanos, vuelve a haber un nuevo impulso al pro- yecto de autonomía. Las teorías del contrato social con el cuestionamiento de los principios tradicionales de legitimación del poder político forman parte de dicho proyecto de autonomía. también forman parte de dicho Atenea 513 I Sem. 2016133 proyecto emancipatorio, las luchas obreras, la lucha de las mujeres en el si- glo XX, de los jóvenes, mayo del 68, la lucha de los negros, los movimientos de África y Latinoamérica contra el racismo, contra los neocolonialismos, los movimientos ecologistas, los movimientos que luchan por el reconoci- miento de la diversidad sexual. Sin embargo, con el ascenso del neoliberalismo en los años 80 del siglo pasado y la noción de desarrollo generada desde ahí, centrada en el imagi- nario de la ilimitación y en crecimiento económico, el proyecto de autono- mía entró en un nuevo eclipse y el proyecto de “racionalización capitalista”, de la “sociedad como mercado”, se ha erigido como proyecto hegemónico, produciendo despolitización creciente de la sociedad, competencia voraz, privatización de lo público, fragmentación social. Fragmentación que no permite tejer comunidad sino que genera “ciudadanos sin brújula y socie- dades a la deriva”. En este contexto y luego de la caída del muro de berlín (9 de noviembre de 1989), las denominadas “democracias occidentales” con los Estados uni- dos a la cabeza salieron a cantar victoria como el mejor de los mundos po- sibles, pues desde tal perspectiva quedaba la disyunción entre los regímenes occidentales o el totalitarismo izquierdista encarnado en la extinta unión Soviética. Las preguntas a plantear, entre otras, son: ¿cuál democracia que- dó?, ¿puede ser democrático un régimen en donde el poder económico y político se concentra en unos pocos y no se distribuye?, ¿ en qué país ejerce el poder el pueblo?, ¿quiénes toman las decisiones fundamentales que afec- tan las vidas de los ciudadanos? La democracia en un sentido sustantivo supone la igualdad en el reparto del poder y en las posibilidades de participación en el proceso de toma de decisión política. Esto es imposible cuando, como está sucediendo en las sociedades del capitalismo globalizado, los grupos financieros o burocra- cias empresariales controlan los centros de un enorme poder económico que se traduce inmediatamente en poder político. La igualdad sustanti- va que requiere una democracia y las formas de ciudadanía son más que una igualdad ante la ley. Esa igualdad se resume, no en el hecho de otorgar “derechos” iguales pasivos, sino en la participación general activa en los asuntos públicos. Para que las voces de los distintos grupos de la sociedad puedan ser escuchadas democráticamente, se requiere no sólo “suspen- der” formalmente las desigualdades reales, sino igualdad social sustantiva, pues la deliberación de los interlocutores en espacios discursivos asignados como si fueran iguales socialmente, cuando dichos espacios están situados en realidad dentro de un contexto social penetrado por relaciones estruc- 134Atenea 513I Sem. 2016 turales de dominación, subordinación y marcada desigualdad, se convierte posible en teoría, pero una quimera en la práctica. Como lo consideraba Rousseau (1988), la democracia es el régimen político que requiere una sociedad donde no haya gente tan pobre que se tenga que vender y gente tan rica que pueda comprar a los otros. A mAnERA DE COnCLuSIón Entendemos democracia no en su sentido instrumental de movilizar perió- dicamente y convocar a los ciudadanos a unas elecciones, hechas casi siem- pre en condiciones de una marcada desigualdad, para elegir gobernantes y representantes, sino en su sentido sustantivo: participación, distribución de poder, distribución económica, alternación en el poder. Sin participación ciudadana en la constitución de lo público no es posible la democracia y sin democracia la posibilidad de resolver pacíficamente los conflictos que se presentan en la convivencia humana se ve seriamente comprometida, pues precisamente la democracia, en uno de sus aspectos, es la búsqueda por regular las relaciones sociales de forma comunicativa, a través de la confrontación de opiniones, argumentos, puntos de vista, constituyendo instituciones que sean el resultado de la libre y autónoma participación de los ciudadanos y no de poderes autoritarios amparados en la fuerza, la tradición, lo sobrenatural o la exclusión económica, educativa, de género o de cualquier otra índole. Pero, la democracia y el ciudadano, como se ex- plicita en el proyecto de paideía griego, no nacen sino que se hacen, no sur- gen por generación espontánea, no se nace siendo democrático, sino que es necesario forjar ciudadanos(as), educarlos en las significaciones y en las prácticas democráticas, de tal manera que es necesaria una educación para la democracia, pero dicha educación no se puede reducir a unos manuales y cartillas de instrucción cívica, sino que educar para la democracia debe significar hacer teoría crítica de la sociedad, entendida ésta no en el sentido de la crítica idealista de la razón pura, sino como una crítica materialista a través de la cual se hagan conscientes los antagonismos sobre los cuales se erige la sociedad actual, desmontando ideologías, criticando condicio- nes reales de vida, desenmascarando los refinamientos de la “racionalidad instrumental” y de la historia oficial. La autonomía que debe promover no debe ser la abstracta de la mónada liberal, ajena a la sociedad, a la comuni- dad, sino vinculada a ella a través de la formación de ciudadanos(as) que tienen como principio y actitud, más que legitimar un saber, una verdad, Atenea 513 I Sem. 2016135 un poder, hacer uso de la capacidad de pensar por cuenta propia, criticar lo evidente, resistir lo que irracionalmente se ampara bajo el autoritarismo, dinamizar el pensamiento para permitirle permanecer abierto al cambio, concebir el conocimiento y la verdad no como lo dado, sino como en cons- tante proceso de construcción. De ahí que una educación para la democracia deba enseñar a cuestionar las condiciones sociales, tanto intelectuales como materiales que producen y mantienen la heteronomía; cuestionamiento que debe poner en entre- dicho el poder concentrado en unas cuantas manos, las jerarquías auto- ritarias, la ideología mistificante de la guerra, y donde la democracia no quede reducida a movilizar periódicamente y convocar a los ciudadanos a unas elecciones en las que se materializan intereses muy contrarios a los de las grandes mayorías, sino que signifique, en su sentido sustantivo: partici- pación, distribución de poder, distribución económica, reconocimiento y respeto por diversas opciones de vida, así como elucidación imaginativa de nuevas posibilidades de convivencia humana. REFEREnCIAS Castoriadis, C. (1989). La institución imaginaria de la sociedad. Vol II. El imagi- nario social y la sociedad. barcelona: tusquets Editores. Castoriadis, C. (1993). El mundo fragmentado. (Encrucijadas del laberinto III). buenos Aires: Editorial Altamira. Castoriadis, C. (1998a). El ascenso de la insignificancia. madrid: Editorial Cá- tedra. Castoriadis, C. (1998b). “Imaginario político griego y moderno”. En: El ascenso de la insignificancia. madrid: Editorial Cátedra, pp. 157-180. Castoriadis, C. (1998c). “La democracia como procedimiento y como régimen”. En: El ascenso de la insignificancia. madrid: Editorial Cátedra, pp. 218-238. Castoriadis, C. (2002). Figuras de lo pensable (Las encrucijadas del laberinto VI). méxico: Fondo de Cultura Económica. Castoriadis, C. (2005a). “La pólis griega y la creación de la democracia”. En: Los dominios del hombre: las encrucijadas del laberinto. barcelona: Editorial Gedisa. Castoriadis, C. (2005b). Los dominios del hombre: las encrucijadas del laberinto (cuarta reimpresión). barcelona: Editorial Gedisa. Franco, Y. (2003). Magma. Cornelius Castoriadis: psicoanálisis, filosofía, política. buenos Aires: Editorial biblos. Rousseau, J. J. (1988). El contrato social. madrid: tecnos. Valencia López, H. (2012). Teoría crítica y acción política: De Sigmund Freud a Cornelius Castoriadis. bogotá: Grupo Editorial Ibáñez. 
work_y3rblzqbj5cpxnolqt3tklrtsa	----	Extracting Art Style Periods from the Web Viktor de Boer, Maarten van Someren, and Bob J. Wielinga Human-Computer Studies Laboratory, Informatics Institute, Universiteit van Amsterdam, email: {vdeboer,maarten,wielinga}@science.uva.nl Abstract. A subtask of Ontology Enrichment is the extraction of time periods for temporal concepts. In this paper we describe a method for this period extraction. We show the working of the method in the cul- tural heritage domain, extracting periods for art styles. We also discuss a number of possible ways to transform the uncertain knowledge that this method provides into a semantic representation in an ontology. 1 Introduction The Semantic Web needs automatic methods that extract ontology constructs. Ontology Learning attempts to extract classes and relations in an ontology, whereas Ontology Population is the task of extracting instances of both relations and classes. If the extraction of the constructs is done for an already existing ontology, we use the term Ontology Enrichment. Ontology Learning, Population and Enrichment all use Information Extraction (IE) methods to learn the target knowledge from a corpus. These IE methods usually output the information with a degree of (un)certainty. In most ontologies, knowledge is represented in discrete form and that any state- ment can be determined as either true or false. In this paper we examine a specific example of this discrepancy and show a way of providing an interface between the uncertain output of an IE technique and the discrete representations in an ontology. As our domain we chose the Cultural Heritage domain, where a number of relatively large taxonomies are in actual use by experts. This research takes place in a context where the aim is to integrate these taxonomies and enrich them in such a way that expert users are able to browse art repositories in a semantically rich system. The core taxonomy we use as an ontology is the Art and Architecture The- saurus[1] (AAT), an taxonomy containing over 133.000 concepts from the Cul- tural Heritage domain. A part of the AAT describes different art styles such as ’Baroque’, ’Impressionism’ etcetera. In previous experiments[2], we extracted relations between these art styles and periods and artists. In this paper, we will describe a method to extract periods for the individual art styles. This informa- tion is currently not present in the AAT. This Ontology Enrichment allows for temporal reasoning about art styles and related concepts. We have split up our method into an Information Extraction phase and a Semantic Representation phase. In Section 3, we describe the first phase, where we extract art style periods from the World Wide Web. In Section 4, we describe the different ways of converting this uncertain information into ontological con- structs. In the next section, we define both tasks more extensively. 2 Problem Definition We first give a general problem definition for the extraction of periods for an arbitrary domain and will then focus on the Cultural Heritage domain. We have a partly populated ontology with a concept C that has a relation to a time interval (a period). This period is represented in some way in the ontology. We have a number of instances of C: i1, i2, ... with one or more description labels l1,1, l1,2, ..., l2,1, .... For each of these instances, the task is to extract from the web the correct period related to it. We make two assumptions. – In the ontology, there is only one period related to each instance. – For each period it is possible to extract moments within this interval (e.g. years, days or minutes) from the Web. We assume that C is characterized by a number of events that are associated with these moments. In the case of art styles, these events might be creation dates of paintings, for which usually a single year is noted in the text. We split the problem up into two phases: 1. In this first Information Extraction phase, we extract the distribution of individual moments (e.g. years) that characterize an instance i. 2. In the Semantic Representation phase, The distribution is then used to for- malize the period in the form in which it is to be represented in the ontology. In the rest of this paper, we use a RDF version of the AAT as our partly populated ontology. The concept C is aat:Styles and Periods and the in- stances are the individual art styles (aat:Baroque, aat:Rococo, etc). For our purposes, we expanded the AAT with a relation has period with aat:Styles and Periods as the domain and a time interval as the range. Instances of this relation are used to denote the historical periods of the different art styles. 3 The Information Extraction Phase For the extraction of the periods, we do not use domain- or structure-specific In- formation Extraction techniques such as the use of patterns or Natural Language processing techniques. The effectiveness of these methods are often dependent on the specific domain and the structure of the documents in the corpus used. Instead, we use a very simple domain- and structure-independent method that extracts occurrences of moments (eg. years) from documents on the Web about the temporal concept. We assume that the distribution of moments in these doc- uments is different from the distribution of moments in the whole of the Web and that we can find the target period by comparing the two. To further clarify this, we present an outline of the method in the next section. 3.1 The Information Extraction method In Figure 1, we present the method used to extract the distribution of years. In Section 3.3, we describe the steps for the specific art style example discussed . wwwwww Distribution parameters Document retrieval Extraction of Years Normalization Function Fitting Web documents Raw data Normalized data Fig. 1. Outline of the Information Extraction phase In the first step, we use the full description of the art style instance to retrieve a working corpus of documents from the Web. For the retrieval step the search engine Google1 is used. We construct a search string by taking all labels of the instance and connecting them with Google’s binary search operator ”OR”. In the case of the instance aat:Dada this results in the search string ’”Dada” OR ”Dadaism” OR ”Dadaist”’. This string is used to query Google. From the web pages retrieved by Google, we use the first 1000 pages. In the next step of the algorithm, we extract all strings denoting years from the documents. For this, we use a single simple regular expression (four consec- utive integers, followed by a punctuation mark or a whitespace). Note that more elaborate methods could be used to extract occurrences of strings denoting mo- ments in time. However, we assume that the use of a simple method and a large number of documents leads to the same results and is less domain-, language- and structure-specific. For our purposes, we only gather year strings denoting years between 1250 and 2100 A.D. For each of these extracted years, we denote the frequency of the occurrences in all documents of the working corpus. This makes up our raw data. Of course, a lot of year strings extracted from the working corpus will not be related to the concept but rather are used to denote things such as copyright dates. However, we assume that these dates occur in the working corpus and the other documents on the Web with the same frequency. To eliminate these years, we normalize the raw data. We divide the frequency of each year by the Google hit count for that year. In Figure 2, we show the effect normalization has on the data. This normalized data is used to estimate a distribution in the next step. 1 http://www.google.com/ 0 100 200 300 400 1250 1350 1450 1550 1650 1750 1850 1950 2050 2150 0 0, 0001 0, 0002 0, 0003 0, 0004 1250 1350 1450 1550 1650 1750 1850 1950 2050 2150 0 5000000 10000000 15000000 20000000 25000000 30000000 35000000 40000000 1250 1350 1450 1550 1650 1750 1850 1950 2050 Google hitcounts Raw frequencies For each year: fnormalized = fraw / hitcount Normalized frequencies Fig. 2. The normalization of the raw frequency data In the function fitting step, we fit a function to the data using a numeri- cal fitting procedure. We minimize the sum of square root errors between the data points and the function value. We tested our method with four different functions. We describe these tests in the next section. 3.2 Choosing the Fitting Function We considered four different function as our distribution function in the fitting step. All four functions originate from a intuitive notion of how moments are related to the periods. Examples of these functions are shown in Figure 3 – A block function, with three parameters (µb, σb, fb). gb(x) = { fb if µb − σb ≤ x ≤ µb + σb 0 otherwise – A normal distribution, with three parameters (µn, σn, fn). gn(x) = fn · norm(µn, σn) – A triangular ‘fuzzy’ function, with four parameters (µf 1, σl,f 1, σr,f 1, ff 1), where σl,f 1 and σr,f 1 denote the left and right base of the triangle (see Figure 3(c)). – A trapezoid ‘fuzzy’ function, with five parameters (µf 2, σl,f 2, σr,f 2, σc,f 2, ff 2), where σc,f 2 is the length of the ‘plateau’ of the trapezoid and σl,f 1 and σr,f 1 denote the length of the left and right base sides (see Figure 3(d)). To find out which of these functions produced the best result, we fitted the functions to nine art styles2. The fitting procedure was done using the numerical gradient descent method from MS Excel, minimizing the sum of the Squared Errors between the function value and the normalized frequency data. In Figure 3, we show the best fitting functions applied to the data of a single instance, the art style ‘Baroque’. 0 0.00002 0.00004 0.00006 0.00008 0.0001 0.00012 0.00014 1250 1350 1450 1550 1650 1750 1850 1950 2050 2150 0 0.00002 0.00004 0.00006 0.00008 0.0001 0.00012 0.00014 1250 1350 1450 1550 1650 1750 1850 1950 2050 2150 0 0.00002 0.00004 0.00006 0.00008 0.0001 0.00012 0.00014 1250 1350 1450 1550 1650 1750 1850 1950 2050 2150 0 0.00002 0.00004 0.00006 0.00008 0.0001 0.00012 0.00014 1250 1350 1450 1550 1650 1750 1850 1950 2050 2150 µn = 1661.8, σn = 66.9, fb = 1.2 10 -2 SSE= xxx µf1 = 1656.0, σl,f1 = 128.5, σr,f1 = 157.8, ff1 = 8.1 10 -5 , SSE= xxx µb = 1659.4, σb = 93.5, fb = 5.4 10 -5 , SSE= xxx µf2 = 1663.5, σl,f2 = 141.5, σr,f2 = 138.5, σc,f2 = 30.0, ff2 = 57.7 10 -5 , SSE= xxx (a) (b) (d)(c) Fig. 3. The best fits for the Block (a), Normal distribution (b), Triangular Fuzzy (c) and Trapezoid Fuzzy (d) functions on the frequency data for the instance ‘Baroque’ (which approximately lasted during the 17th Century). For each function, the optimal parameter values are shown. In Table 1, we list the averages of the Sum of Squared Error for the nine art styles that were considered. As can be seen, the Block function performs significantly worse than the other three functions. Of these three the Normal distribution has the best average errors. Because of this and considering the fact that the Normal distribution has only three parameters, as opposed to the five parameters of the Trapezoid Fuzzy function, we decided to use the Normal distribution as the function we use in the fitting step used in the Information 2 Art Deco, Art Nouveau, Baroque, Cubist, Dada, Expressionism, Impressionism, Neo- Impressionism, Neue Sachlichkeit, Surrealism Extraction phase. The output of the Information Extraction phase consists of the values of two of the three parameters resulting from the best fit: µ and σ. The value for the third parameter, the factor f is discarded, since it only indicates the amount of years found and not the distribution across the time line. Table 1. Averages of the Sum of Squared Errors for the four tested functions. Block Function 4.18 Normal Distribution 2.70 Triangular Fuzzy 2.99 Trapezoid Fuzzy 2.77 3.3 Experiments Setup To test how well our IE method is able to extract the distributions of the periods, we applied our method to extract periods on a set of manually selected art styles from the AAT. We selected the art styles on a number of different criteria. The first criterium was that the target period of the art style occurred within the limits of our algorithm (between 1250 and 2100). A more important selection criterium was that one or more labels of the art style should be unambiguous. For example, we discarded the art style aat:Symbolist, since its labels ‘Symbolism’ and ‘Symbolist’ do not produce an unambiguous corpus that is about the art style referred when presented to Google. This problem could be solved with simple query expansion techniques using either concepts higher up in the taxonomic structure of the ontology or by consulting other sources such as WordNet. Selection along these criteria left us with 17 art styles3. For each of these art styles, we retrieved a corpus, extracted the year occurrences and fitted the normal distribution to the data. The AAT styles are found in the first column of Table 2. The distributions found for each art style are listed in terms of µ and σ in the second and third column of that table. Evaluation and Results For the evaluation of the distribution we constructed a gold standard. For this, we consulted the art style pages of six different en- cyclopedic web sites4. From these pages, we manually extracted the period of the art style. However, for most art styles, the web sites do not provide clear start and end dates. Usually only vague indications are given. As an exam- ple: The period of Baroque was noted as ‘The style started around 1600,...’ (www.wikipedia.org) and ‘... originated in Rome at the beginning of the 17th 3 These include the nine art styles from Section 3.2 4 www.wikipedia.org, www.artcyclopedia.com, www.artlex.com, www.artchive.com, www.encyclopedia.com and www.britannica.com century...’ (www.artchive.org). To evaluate our method we need clear start and end dates. We therefore used a fixed set of rules for rewriting these vague notions to clear start and end dates. For instance the phrase ‘started at the beginning of the 17th century’ was interpreted as ‘has start date 1600’ etc. If a page did not list any duration for an art style, we did not consider that page for the art style. For each art style, we took the average of the start and end dates collected in this way as our ’gold standard’. We then compared our distribution to this gold standard in two ways: First of all, we compared for each art style the found mean, µ, to the mean of the start and end date of the gold standard. In Table 3, we list this gold standard mean and the error. We also list the error relative to the total length of the period (according to our gold standard). Intuitively, it is less severe to make an error of one year for longer periods than it is for shorter ones. Averaged over all art styles, the error between the mean found with our method and the mean from our gold standard is 17% of the total period length. Table 2. The 17 Art Styles, with the values for µ and σ that produced the best fit and evaluation of µ to the gold standard means AAT style µ σ GS: Mean Error Rel. Error Abstract Exp. 1951.0 14.5 1955.0 4.00 0.22 Art Deco 1928.1 9.3 1929.6 1.44 0.08 Art Nouveau 1893.0 22.9 1894.1 1.15 0.05 Baroque 1662.2 63.0 1663.1 0.90 0.01 Bauhaus 1923.4 12.1 1926.0 2.60 0.19 Counter-Reformation 1569.6 58.1 1576.4 6.74 0.07 Cubist 1910.7 5.0 1914.3 3.58 0.26 Dada 1917.5 3.5 1919.7 2.13 0.29 Expressionist 1912.1 31.3 1921.8 9.64 0.32 Impressionist 1875.4 26.2 1877.2 1.86 0.07 Mannerist 1552.6 53.2 1559.6 6.96 0.10 Neo-Impressionist 1886.0 4.7 1885.5 -0.46 0.07 Post-Impressionism 1881.2 31.5 1888.2 6.95 0.30 Pre-Raphaelites 1857.9 31.9 1867.2 9.28 0.25 Reformation 1541.4 33.9 1547.6 6.22 0.08 Rococo 1738.7 41.0 1750.1 11.31 0.14 Surrealist 1928.3 18.2 1937.0 8.72 0.34 average: 0.17 To evaluate the values of σ (the spread of the years associated with the art styles), we also needed to construct a strict start and end date from this value and compare it to the start and end dates of the gold standard. For this purpose, we introduce a factor τ that we use to provide a single start and end date for each art style: respectively µ − (τ · σ) and µ + (τ · σ). To find the optimal value for τ , we again used a numeric optimization procedure to minimize the error between start and end dates constructed using this factor and those from the gold standard. This optimal value of τ found for each art style was relatively constant with an average of 0.81. In Table 3, we show the start and end dates we obtained with τ = 0.81. These were compared to the start and end dates from the gold standard. For each art style, we calculated the average of the absolute errors for both dates. As with the means, we also calculated how big this error is relative to the total length of the art style according to our gold standard. These values are also shown in Table 3. Averaged over all art styles the relative error is 0.23, indicating that on average, the start and end dates differ by 23% of the total length from the gold standard. Table 3. Start and end dates for the 17 Art Styles (τ = 0.81) compared to gold standard AAT style Start End GS: Start GS: End Error Rel. Error Abstract Exp. 1939.3 1962.7 1946.0 1964.0 4.00 0.22 Art Deco 1920.6 1935.7 1920.2 1939.0 1.90 0.10 Art Nouveau 1874.4 1911.6 1882.0 1906.3 6.45 0.27 Baroque 1611.1 1713.3 1593.0 1717.0 10.90 0.09 Bauhaus 1913.6 1933.2 1919.0 1933.0 2.80 0.20 Counter-Reformation 1522.5 1616.8 1528.8 1624.0 6.74 0.07 Cubist 1906.6 1914.7 1907.3 1921.2 3.58 0.26 Dada 1914.7 1920.4 1916.0 1923.3 2.13 0.29 Expressionist 1886.8 1937.5 1906.5 1937.0 10.11 0.33 Impressionist 1854.1 1896.6 1864.2 1890.3 8.21 0.32 Mannerist 1509.5 1595.7 1526.2 1593.0 9.70 0.15 Neo-Impressionist 1882.1 1889.8 1882.0 1889.0 0.46 0.07 Post-Impressionism 1855.7 1906.7 1876.7 1899.7 14.00 0.61 Pre-Raphaelites 1832.0 1883.7 1848.3 1886.0 9.28 0.25 Reformation 1513.9 1568.8 1508.4 1586.8 11.73 0.15 Rococo 1705.5 1772.0 1709.3 1790.8 11.31 0.14 Surrealist 1913.5 1943.1 1924.0 1950.0 8.72 0.34 average: 0.23 To test how concept- and domain-independent the method and the value for τ is, we tested the method on extracting periods on a different domain (wars) and on a different concept in the same domain: artists. We tested the method with four different wars (World War I, World War II, the Hundred Year War and the Eighty Year War). As the labels we used to construct the corpus for the wars we used the aliases listed on their Wikipedia web pages. Also, a gold standard was constructed using these pages. The average relative error of µ was 0.16, comparable to the art style example. The optimal value for τ turned out to exactly be 0.81 also. With this value the average relative error for the start and end dates was 0.47. For the artists, we selected eight well-known artists5 and their labels from the Unified List of Artist Names (ULAN)[3] from different time periods. We constructed the gold standard (years of birth and death of the artist) from the Wikipedia pages. We found an average relative error for µ of 0.20. Here the optimal value of τ is different from the art styles and wars examples: 1.12. This however produced a lower average relative error of 0.27. Discussion In the experiments for the art styles, the errors found are relatively low and especially if we consider the artificial nature of the gold standards (a discretization of very vague notions) we can say that the results are encouraging. The fact that the optimal value for τ and the relative average errors vary very little between the art style and wars experiments show that the method can be used to extract periods for comparable concepts in different domains. The differing optimal value for τ in the artists example can be explained by considering the type of years that appear in the extracted corpora for the artists. Most probably the years found will co-occur with the active period of an artist. Using the same value for τ as in the other two examples will not indicate the entire lifespan of the artists but rather his or her active period. The higher value of τ that we found indicates that for the method to find the entire lifespan, the start and end years must be found further away from the value of µ. 4 The Semantic Representation Phase We have acquired a distribution for the periods associated with the art styles from the Information Extraction phase. We now would like to represent this knowledge in an ontology. This can be done in a number of different ways, but this choice is ultimately a modeling decision to be made by the ontology engineer. Different modeling decisions can be made according to the purpose of the ontology or the available and desired reasoning capabilities. In this section, we describe four different possible ways of representing periods in an ontology. For each of these possibilities, we determine the transformation that is to be used to rewrite the distributions found in the first phase to the ontological constructs. As an example we show the results of each of the four modeling choices for the art style ’Baroque’ in Figure 4. Discrete Start and End Dates An intuitive possible representation of a period is a start and end date. In this case, the periods associated with an art style have two relations defined: (eg. hasStartYear and hasEndYear). These two dates have to be determined from the Normal Distribution found in the IE phase. The most straightforward method has been introduced in the previous section, through the use of the factor τ . If we assume that the optimal value for τ is 0.81, we can determine the start and end dates for each of the art styles (these can be found in Table 3). 5 Hieronymus Bosch, Vincent van Gogh, Francisco Goya, Gustav Klimt, Edouard Manet, Edvard Munch, Pablo Picasso and Leonardo da Vinci Baroque period_01 “1611” “1713” Baroque distr_per_01 “1662.2” “63.03” Baroque “17th Century” Baroque period_01 “1626” “1680” period_02 “1596” “1728” hasPeriod hasLinguisticPeriod hasDistrPeriod hasCorePeriod hasOuterPeriod hasStartYear hasEndYear hasStartYear hasStartYear hasEndYear hasEndYear hasMu hasSigma (a) (d)(c) (b) Fig. 4. The Baroque example for the four possible modeling choices discussed: discrete start and end dates (a), the distribution (b), multi-concept definition (c) and linguistic variables (c) Distribution The representation that is most true to the data from the Infor- mation Extraction phase would be using the parameters of the normal distrib- ution itself. In this case, every period linked to an art style has a mean and a standard deviation, which can be directly copied from the optimal distribution discovered in the Information Extraction phase (these can be found in Table 2). Multi-concept definition An ontology engineer can also choose a hybrid so- lution, that on the one hand uses discrete values, but also takes into account the vagueness of the domain. An example could be to define two periods for each art style, a ‘core’ period and an ‘outer’ period, which both have discrete start and end dates. In this case, an extra step is needed as these four values need to be determined from the values of µ and σ. To do this, two factors are needed τc and τo, where the core start and end dates are defined as µ + (τc · σ) and µ − (τc · σ) and the outer start and end dates are defined as µ + (τo ·σ) and µ−(τo ·σ). The optimal values of τc and τo could be determined using a gold standard that uses the notion of core and outer periods or they could be based on the value for τ we found in our experiments plus and minus a percentage. In Figure 4, we show the result for ‘Baroque’ with τc = 0.57 and τo = 1.05 (plus and minus 30%). Linguistic Variables The fourth possibility we consider is the use of linguistic values for the periods, such as ’first half of the 18th Century’ or ’1960s’. This would be closest to the way experts talk about periods in general and more specifically of art style periods. An ontology then allows for defining semantics of these individual values in such a way that there can be reasoned with it. We do not extensively list all possible rewriting rules from the distribution parameter values to such linguistic values. Instead we give three examples of such possible rules below: – if µ ≈ 1650 and σ ≈ 50 then use ‘the 17th Century’ – if µ ≈ 1725 and σ ≈ 25 then use ‘first/second half of the 18th Century’ – if µ > 1900 and σ ≈ 5 then use ‘around µ’ Note that these four representations do not contradict each other and could easily co-exist within a single ontology. It is a task for the designer of the rea- soning engine to enable valid temporal reasoning, such as suggested in [4] using the different representations. 5 Related Work A subtask of Information Extraction and Question Answering (QA) is the iden- tification and extraction of temporal data from textual corpora. Examples are [5] and [6]. The methods used look for patterns in the corpora and extract the periods accordingly. However, in our research we found that in our domain, these types of patterns (such as ’...A lasted from X to Y ...’) often do not occur. Our method is not dependent on these language- and domain-specific phrases as it considers individual moments linked to the concept. A lot of research has been done on representing time and time intervals. Allen[4] introduced the notion of discrete time intervals and presented a set of fixed relations between these intervals. Since Allen, different representations of these intervals have been studied. A very popular way of representing time intervals uses of fuzzy intervals (such as in [7]). However, since the broader context of this research is the Semantic Web, we chose ontology constructs to represent the periods. In the context of the Semantic Web, work on constructing ontologies of time is also being undertaken [8] which we might use in the future. 6 Conclusions and Further Research We have presented a method for the extraction of periods for temporal concepts and shown that this worked reasonably well. In this paper, we have shown that the method works for a number of instances of one concept. The method itself is domain-independent and we indeed have shown that for two other concepts, preliminary results are also promising. We have also shown a way to convert the found distributions of the periods to ontological constructs. The choice for which constructs to use is a modeling choice to be made by an ontology engineer. Currently, the knowledge extracted by our method is used in the MultimediaN e-culture browser[9] to facilitate richer browsing of Cultural Heritage repositories. There are some obvious issues to be solved for further research to test the limitations of the method. We would like to know how well the Information Ex- traction Phase works with other concepts in other domains. The method can also be expanded with different patterns to test for moments, so that not only years will be extracted, but also the more vague notions such as ’end of the 1960s’. The range of years that can be extracted (currently 1250-2100) can also be expanded. To further improve the IE phase, we would also like to further investigate the fitting procedure. The dominance of positive errors in Table 2 indicates that the method consequently places a period too early and more insight in the reasons for this could lead to further improvements for the method. Also, in the future, we plan to propose a framework for the integration of different modules that extract knowledge for a single ontology. For instance, in [2], we describe a system that can extract the instances of artist-art style relations. We assume that this knowledge can aid the extraction of periods for the same art styles and vice versa. For example, if we know that an artist linked to an art style produced a painting in a certain year, this might suggest that the art style was still active in that year. Acknowledgements This research was supported by the MultimediaN project (www.multimedian.nl) funded through the BSIK programme of the Dutch Government. References 1. The Getty Foundation: Aat: Art and architecture thesaurus. http://www.getty.edu/research/tools/vocabulary/aat/ (2000) 2. de Boer, V., van Someren, M., Wielinga, B.J.: Extracting instances of relations from web documents using redundancy. submitted (2001) 3. The Getty Foundation: Ulan: Union list of artist names. http://www.getty.edu/research/tools/vocabulary/ulan/ (2000) 4. Allen, J.: Maintaining knowledge about temporal intervals. Communications of the ACM 26(11) (1983) 832–843 5. Llido, D., Llavori, R.B., Cabo, M.J.A.: Extracting temporal references to assign document event-time periods. In: Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Database and Expert Systems Applications. (2001) 62–71 6. Ahn, D., Schockaert, S., de Rijke, M., De Cock, M., Kerre, E.E.: Extracting, repre- senting, and grounding events for temporal question answering. In: 6th Meeting of Computational Linguistics in the Netherlands (CLIN 2005). (2005) 7. Ohlbach, H.: Relations between fuzzy time intervals. In: Proceedings 11th. Inter- national Symposium on Temporal Representation and Reasoning. (2004) 44–51 8. Hobbs, J.R., Pan, F.: An ontology of time for the semantic web. CM Transactions on Asian Language Information Processing 3(1) (2004) 9. Multimedian E-Culture Browser : (online demo). http://e- culture.multimedian.nl/demo/search (2006) 
work_ybexhetugnf7rixjgb6z3dqmpq	----	_____________________________________________________________________________________ Akademik Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi, Yıl: 6, Sayı: 81, Kasım 2018, s. 283-299 Yayın Geliş Tarihi / Article Arrival Date Yayınlanma Tarihi / The Publication Date 14.10.2018 18.11.2018 Dr. Öğretim Üyesi. Fahrettin GEÇEN İnönü Üniversitesi, Güzel Sanatlar Fakültesi, Resim Bölümü fahrettin.gecen@inonu.edu.tr GÜZEL SANATLAR LİSESİ ÖĞRENCİLERİ İLE ANADOLU LİSESİ SON SINIF ÖĞRENCİLERİNİN ÇAĞDAŞ SANAT’A VE KİTSCH ÇALIŞMALARA BAKIŞ AÇILARINDAKİ FARK1 Öz Lise düzeyindeki bireylerin aldıkları sanat eğitiminin, kültürel çevrenin ve sanal medyanın etkisinin sanatsal eserlere bakış açılarında bir değişime yol açıp açmadı- ğı araştırma konusu edilmiştir. Araştırmada sanatın tanımı, estetiğin tanımı ve este- tiğe bakış açıları, çağdaş sanat akımlarına ve Kitsch resimlere bakış açılarını ve farklarını ortaya çıkarmak amacıyla çağdaş sanat akımlarından birer örnek eserin yer aldığı görsellerden sırayla her iki okuldan 10 son sınıf öğrencisine, 1 den 5 ‘e görsellerden 5 resmi seçin sorusu sorularak Çoktan Seçmeli Test tekniği ile sorul- muştur. Güzel Sanatlar Lisesi ve Anadolu Lisesi öğrencilerinin seçimi Amaçlı ör- nekleme gidilmesini sağlamıştır. Anadolu Lisesi öğrencilerinin sanat ve estetik ta- nımlamasında bireysel ifade yolunu seçmiş, Güzel Sanatlar Lisesi öğrencileri ise estetik ve sanat sorularına teorik tanım yapmıştır. Çağdaş sanat akımlarının seçi- minde ise ait resimlerin seçimlerinde bireysel tercihler ön plana çıkmıştır Araştırma sonucunda güzel sanatlar lisesi öğrencileri ile Anadolu lisesi öğrencilerinin sanata bakışları arasında önemli anlamlı bir fark olmadığı görülmüştür. Anahtar kelimeler: Güzel Sanatlar, Çağdaş Sanat, Kitsch, Realizm, Emp- resyonizm 1 Bu makale 18-20 Ekim 2018 tarihinde düzenlenen Uluslararası Kültür ve Sanat ve Toplum Sempozyumu’nda özet metin bildiri olarak yayımlanmıştır. Güzel Sanatlar Lisesi Öğrencileri İle Anadolu Lisesi Son Sınıf Öğrencilerinin Çağdaş Sanat’a ve Kitsch Çalışmalara Bakış Açılarındaki Fark The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl:6, Sayı: 81, Kasım 2018, s. 283-299 284 STUDENTS OF FINE ARTS HIGH SCHOOL AND ANATOLIAN HIGH SCHOOL SENIOR STUDENTS ' PERSPECTIVES ON CONTEMPORARY ART AND KITSCH STUDIES Abstract Whether the art education, cultural environment and the impact of virtual media on the artistic works of high school level have led to a change in their viewpoints. In the research, the definition of art, the definition of aesthetics and aesthetic perspec- tives, contemporary art trends and Kitsch paintings perspectives and differences to reveal a sample of contemporary art trends in each of the visual sequence from two schools to 10 senior students, 1 to 5 Select 5 pictures from the visuals were asked with multiple choice test technique. Fine Arts High School and Anatolian High School Students for the selection of sampling has provided. Anatolian High School students have chosen the way of individual expression in the definition of art and aesthetics, and Fine Arts High School students have made theoretical definitions for aesthetic and artistic questions. As a result of the research, there was no signifi- cant difference between Fine Arts High School students and Anatolian High School students ' views on art. Keywords: Fine Arts, Contemporary Art, Kitsch, realism, Impressionism Giriş Eğitimde bireylerin aileleri, çevreleri ve aldıkları eğitim-öğretim süreci büyük önem taşır. Bi- reylerin aileleri, çocuklarına ev ortamında ve yaşam sürecinde edinimlerini yaşayarak öğretirler. Ailenin kültür ve eğitim düzeyi ne kadar artarsa o aile bireyi de o kadar çok beslenir. Çocuğun içinde bulunduğu toplum yani çevresi ne sunarsa birey onla donanır. Eğitim- öğretim sürecinde birey ne öğrenirse o bilgi kişinin bilgi dağarcığında yerini alır. Eğitim-öğretimi alınan derslerin dışında o dersi veren öğretmenlerin yeterlilikleri, öğrencilerin yaşadıkları ortamın ve yaş özelliklerinin çocuklar üzerinde yarattığı eğilimlerin onların öğrenim sürecini doğrudan etkilediği düşünülmektedir. Bununla birlikte aynı dönem yaş düzeyindeki farklı okullarda yer alan öğrencilerin sanata ait bilgi ve birikimlerinin ne kadar değişkenlik gös- tereceği sorunsalıyla yola çıktığımızda alınan dönütler bize yol göstermektedir. Milli Eğitime bağlı Anadolu Lisesi ile Güzel Sanatlar Lisesi öğrencilerinin aldıkları eğitimin sanatsal bilgi birikimlerinde bir farklılık yaratıp yaratmadığını görmek istediğimizde farklı etkenlerden de gençlerin etkilediğini görmekteyiz. Günümüz teknolojisinin sundukları, bireylerin olumlu yâda olumsuz gelişiminde hızlı ve etkin rol oynamaktadır. Televizyon programlarının, sinemaların, dergilerin, kitapların, telefon ve en önemlisi dünyayı içinde barındıran internetin erişiminin kolaylığı kişilerde bilgi edinimini doğrudan etkilemektedir. Gerek sinemaya konu olan sanatçı- lar, akımlar, gerek dergilere giren sanat yazı ve bölümleri gerekse televizyonlarda yer alan sanat programları ve internetin sanatla ilgili doğrudan sundukları bunlara örneklerdir. Çağdaş sanatın ve Kitsch resmin seçiminin nedeni ise gençlerin en çok bu türden çalışmalar ve akımlarla yüz yüze gelmesinden kaynaklanmaktadır. Güzel Sanatlar Lisesi’nde öğrenim gören öğrencilerin uygulama derslerinde edindikleri pratikliği ve gelişimi genel olarak diğer liselerde okuyan öğ- rencilerde beklenemeyeceği bir gerçektir. Diğer taraftan birçok etkenin yanında bilgi kaynakla- Güzel Sanatlar Lisesi Öğrencileri İle Anadolu Lisesi Son Sınıf Öğrencilerinin Çağdaş Sanat’a ve Kitsch Çalışmalara Bakış Açılarındaki Fark The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl:6, Sayı: 81, Kasım 2018, s. 283-299 285 rına erişimin mümkün ve hızlı olması öğrencilerde yakın bir bilgi donanımına neden olduğu varsayılmaktadır. 1. Araştırmanın amacı Son sınıf lise öğrencilerinin aldıkları sanat eğitiminin, kültürel çevrenin, kolaylıkla erişilen ki- tap, dergilerin, internetin ve sanal medyanın etkisinin, sanatsal eserlere bakış açılarında bir deği- şime yol açıp açmadığını ortaya çıkarmak amaç edinilmiştir. 2. Sanat ve Estetik 2.1. Sanat nedir? Sanat bilimsel terimlerin ötesinde kendine has yapısıyla içine kattığı öznellik, düşünsel ve duy- gusal boyutunun farklılığı açısından kendi anlamsal yapısında farklılık göstermektedir. Sanat toplumlar ve çağlara göre kendini şekillendirmiş bazen zorunluluk bazen ise istendik bir yapıya bürünmüştür. Sanatı çeşitli filozoflar, yazarlar, ressamlar farklı boyutlarıyla ele alıp tanımlamış- lardır. Tolstoy’a göre sanat insanın bir zamanlar yaşamış olduğu duyguyu, kendinde canlandırdıktan sonra, aynı duyguyu başkalarının da hissedebilmesi için hareket, ses, çizgi, renk veya sözcükler- le belirlenen biçimlerle ifade etme ihtiyacından doğar (Ersoy, 1995:5). Yine başka bir tanımda sanat bir duygunun, bir tasarının veya bir güzelliğin ifadesinde kullanılan metodların tümü, bu metodların sonunda ulaşılan üstün yaratıcılıktır (Erinç, 1995:20) denmektedir. Picasso’ya ise sanat nedir diye sorulduğunda “bilseydim onu kendime saklardım” (Erinç, 1995:29) diyor. Sa- nat tanımları çok sayıda benzer ve değişkenken, kimine göre sanat bir akıl işi, kimine göre sa- natçının yaptığı iş, kimine göre ise sanat aşk, duyuların işidir yani sanat tanımları değişkenlik gösteren ve öznelleşen bir formdadır. Sanat duygu, düşünce, iş, haz ve birçok şeyi anlamsal açıdan içinde kapsamaktadır. Sanatın tanımını yapan öğrencilerin verdikleri yanıtlara bakıldığında öznel yaklaşımlar görül- mektedir. Araştırmada yapılan değerlendirmeler ise bu durum göz önünde bulundurularak ya- pılmıştır. 2.2. Estetik nedir? Estetik günümüzde birçok ifade biçiminde ve durumda kullanılan bir sözcüktür. Estetik kulla- nım biçimiyle güzel ifadesiyle kaynaşıp benzerlik gösteren bir yapıya bürünmüştür. Güzel bir bina ve çevresi görüldüğünde ne estetik bir bina denilebiliniyor. Dizaynı güzel olan bir araba görüldüğünde estetik bir araba denilebilmektedir. Görüntüsü güzel görünen bir kadına ya da duruşu artistik olan bir kişiye estetik kadın ya da duruşu estetik denile bilinir. Estetik Yunanca Aisthesis (Duygu, duyum), Aisthanesthai (duymak, algılamak) sözcüklerinden kaynaklanmıştır. Baumgarten yazdığı “Aesthetica” adlı kitabında günümüzde yaygın olarak kullanılan estetik “duyulardan elde edilen bilgilerle, güzel üzerine düşünme bilimi” olarak tanımlanmıştır (Balcı, 2016:3). Estetik genel kapsamıyla güzel ile özdeşleşmektedir. Lise öğrencilerine yöneltilen estetik kap- samındaki sorulara genel ifadelerle güzel ifadesine benzer yanıt vermeleri elbette öğrencileri tanıma doğru yaklaştırmaktadır. 3. Yöntem: 3.1 Araştırma Yöntemi Araştırma Nitel Araştırma Deseni olup, araştırma verilerine ulaşmak için sahaya inilmiştir. Araştırmayı bir çözüme kavuşturma amacıyla; kitap, makale, tez, internet ortamında veri tarama ve toplama yöntemi ile Güzel Sanatlar ve Anadolu Lisesi son sınıf öğrencilerinden oluşan, her Güzel Sanatlar Lisesi Öğrencileri İle Anadolu Lisesi Son Sınıf Öğrencilerinin Çağdaş Sanat’a ve Kitsch Çalışmalara Bakış Açılarındaki Fark The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl:6, Sayı: 81, Kasım 2018, s. 283-299 286 okuldan 10 kişiden toplam 20 öğrenciye oluşturulan 2 tür anket sorulmuştur. Anketlerden elde edilen veriler aracılığı ile ulaşılan sonuçlara dayalı bir araştırma yapılmıştır. Öğrencilerin seçi- minde sınıfta yapılan kura ile random metodu uygulanmıştır. Kız ve erkeklerin cinsiyet açısın- dan sayılarında eşitliğin sağlanabilmesi için eşitlik sağlanana kadar kura çekimi devam ettiril- miştir. Malatya’ da yer alan Abdülkadir Eriş Güzel Sanatlar Lisesi ve Malatya merkezde yer alan sosyoekonomik ve kültürel açıdan orta düzey öğrencilerin yer aldığı Fatih Anadolu Lisesi örneklem okullar olarak seçilmiştir. Araştırma anket uygulamaları lise son sınıf öğrencileri üze- rinde uygulanmıştır. Son sınıf öğrencilerinin örneklem olarak seçiminin nedeni ise alt sınıftaki öğrencilere göre son sınıf öğrencilerinin daha fazla bilgi ve kültürel birikime sahip oldukları düşüncesinden kaynaklanmaktadır. Öğrencilere iki tür anket uygulanmıştır; Birinci ankette sanatın tanımı, estetiğin tanımı, öğrencilerin estetiğe bakış açıları, çağdaş sanat akımlarına ve Kitsch resimlere bakış açılarını ve farklarını ortaya çıkarmak amaçlanmıştır. Kullanılan görsel sorularında çağdaş sanat akımlarından, Realizm’den ve Kitsch’den birer örnek eser öğrencilere gösterilmiş, görsellerden 1 den 5 ‘e beğendiğiniz 5 resmi seçin sorusu sorularak, Çoktan Seçme- li Test tekniği uygulanmıştır. Sorularda yer alan tanım soruları ile kavram analizi metodu uygu- lanmıştır. İkinci ankette ise öğrencilerin kitap okuma, internete girme, televizyon izleme, gazete okuma alışkanlıklarını soran sorular yer almaktadır. Ankette yer alan soruların bazıları 5 şıklı olup Çoktan Seçmeli Test tekniği ile bazı sorular ise ucu açık sorular şeklinde öğrencilere yö- neltilmiştir. Anketlerde sorulan sorular hem okul bazında ele alınmış hem de okulların karşılaş- tırmaları ile analizler yapılmıştır. Anketlerden elde edilen verilerden yola çıkılarak sonuçlara ulaşılmıştır. Uygulanan her iki anket için birer saat süre verilmiş, toplamda anketler için iki saat süre ayrıl- mıştır. Yanıtlama esnasında öğrencilerin bireysel yanıt vermeleri sağlanmış, hiçbir müdahale ve yardımlaşmaya müsaade edilmemiştir. Etik değerler açısından öğrencilerden cinsiyetleri dışında hiçbir kişisel bilgi alınmamıştır. 3.2. Evren ve Örneklem Bu araştırmanın evrenini, Malatya ilinde yer alan Abdülkadir Eriş Güzel Sanatlar Lisesi ve Fatih Anadolu Lisesi son sınıf öğrencileri oluşturmaktadır. Araştırmanın örneklemini ise Güzel Sanatlar Lisesi son sınıf resim öğrencileri ile Anadolu Lise- si son sınıf sosyal bölümü öğrencileri oluşturmaktadır. Öğrencilerin seçiminde kura ile random metodu uygulanmış, cinsiyetler arasında denge sağlanması amacıyla kurada fazla çıkan aynı cinsiyette öğrenciler yerine yine kura ile diğer cinsiyetten öğrenciler seçilip cinsiyetler arası eşitliğe gidilmiştir. 3.3. Veri Toplama Yöntemi Bu araştırmada öğrencilere hedeflenen konuyla ilgili iki tip anket uygulanmıştır. Birinci ankette; sanat nedir?, sanatın kendilerinde ne hissettirdiği, estetik nedir?, estetiğin kendilerinde ne hisset- tirdiği, sanatını beğendiğiniz 3 ünlü ressam yazınız, 1’den 5’e en beğendiğinizden en aza doğru görselleri sırayla seçiniz, sorularını içermektedir? Bu sorularda öğrencilerin sanat ve estetik hakkındaki tanımsal bilgileri analiz edilmeye çalışılmıştır. Diğer sorularda yer alan sorularla sanatın içerisinde yer alan sanatçılar ve sanat akımları hakkında ve Kistch’ e bakışları anlaşıl- maya çalışılmıştır. İkinci ankette ise kitap okuma, internete girme, tv izleme gibi basın ve digital ortamın öğrencileri nasıl etkilediği çözümlenmeye çalışılmıştır. Anketlere verilen cevapların tamamı öğrencilerin yazdığı şekilde bulgulara eklenmiştir. Bulgulara eklenen cevaplarda yer Güzel Sanatlar Lisesi Öğrencileri İle Anadolu Lisesi Son Sınıf Öğrencilerinin Çağdaş Sanat’a ve Kitsch Çalışmalara Bakış Açılarındaki Fark The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl:6, Sayı: 81, Kasım 2018, s. 283-299 287 alan ifade düşüklükleri, anlatım bozuklukları değiştirilmemiştir. Her iki okul öğrencilerin ver- diği cevaplar karşılaştırılarak anlamlı bir farklılık olup olmadığı ortaya konulmaya çalışılmıştır. 3.4. Veri Toplama Araçları 3.4.1. Anketler Araştırmada kullanılan her anket alan ile ilgili üç uzman tarafından incelenip uygun görülmüş- tür. Birinci anket Eğitim Fakültesi ve Güzel Sanatlar Fakültesi resim bölümü birer öğretim üyesi ve eğitim bilimlerinden bir öğretim üyesi tarafından incelenmiştir. İkinci anket ise bir İletişim Fakültesi, bir Güzel Sanatlar Fakültesi resim bölümü, birde Eğitim Fakültesi eğitim bilimlerin- den bir öğretim üyesi tarafından incelenip uygun görülmüştür. 3.4.1.1. Uygulama Gözlem Formunda Sanat Akımlarıyla İlgili Bilgiyi Ölçen Görsel Resimler Resimlerin büyük çoğunluğu sanat akımlarını anlatan bir internet sitesinden alınmıştır. Rea- lizm ve Kitsch resimler ise farklı internet sitelerinden alınmıştır. 4. Bulgular 4.1. Birinci Anket Bulguları 4.1.1. Fatih Anadolu Lisesi anket bulguları 4.1.1.1. Öğrencilerin sanat nedir sorusuna verdikleri yanıtlar A öğrencisi: sanatçının o an içinde bulunduğu duygu ve düşüncelerin etkisiyle ortaya koyduğu eserdir. B öğrencisi: Sanat insanın kendi içindekilerini fiziksel olarak dışa vurmasıdır. C öğrencisi: herşeyde sanat var oyunlarda, doğada D öğrencisi: sanat insanlara zevk ve haz vermek amacıyla yapılan faaliyetlerdir. E öğrencisi: “ Sanat Allah’ı anlatmaktır.” Ek olarak, sanat bence insanı anlatmaktır. F öğrencisi: Sanat resimdir, müziktir, tiyatrodur. Sanat güzel olan her şeydir. G öğrencisi: Sanat insana güzel gelen ve gözün aşinalığı olan şeylerdir. H öğrencisi: Sanat aşktır. Çünkü içinde milyonlarca insana ait duyguları barındırır. Sanatı seviyorum. Dante gibi Stefon gibi ------------------- sanat ihtiyaçtır. Namık gibi Dan Brown gibi I öğrencisi: Sanat, bir insanın ruhunu besleyen her şeydir. Tıpkı bir bitkiye yaşam veren su gibi, sanatta ruhu büyütür ve yeşil tutar. İ öğrencisi: Sanat insanın kendi duygu ve düşüncelerini yansıtmak için, hissettiklerini karşı tara- fada hissettirebilmek için yaptığı eserler olarak görüyorum. Şöyle ki şarkı söyleyen biri ruh haline göre şarkı söyler ve dinler. Güzel Sanatlar Lisesi Öğrencileri İle Anadolu Lisesi Son Sınıf Öğrencilerinin Çağdaş Sanat’a ve Kitsch Çalışmalara Bakış Açılarındaki Fark The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl:6, Sayı: 81, Kasım 2018, s. 283-299 288 4.1.1.2. Sanat sizde ne tür duygu ve düşünce oluşturmakta ve sanat denilince sizde ne tür bir algı olmaktadır? Sorusuna verilen yanıtlar A öğrencisi: Estetik bir haz uyandırmaktadır. Bu duygu düşünceler esere göre de şekillenmekte- dir. B öğrencisi: Duygularımı anında dışa vurabileceğim bir olay. C öğrencisi: Her tür duygu düşünce oluştiriyor D öğrencisi: Sanat bende güzellik duygusu uyandırıyor. Ama sürekli bir gereklilik olarak göre- miyorum, Anlık bir haz verme aracı. Duygu ve düşünce açısından rahatlama ve heyecan oluşa- biliyor. E öğrencisi: Gerçek sanat beni hem düşündürüyor ,hem öğretir hem de estetik bir haz uyandırır. F öğrencisi: Bir fikrim yok. G öğrencisi: İnsana rahatlatıcı bir his verir. İnsana estetik zevk vermeye çalışır . H öğrencisi: Sanat ne algı oluşturuyor? Özgürlük, sırdaş, dışavuruş(duyguları) I öğrencisi: Bana göre sanat huzurdur. Huzur, insanı mutlu eder. ve insanı mutlu eden şeylerde benliğini oluşturur. İ öğrencisi: Sanat bence bir rahatlama tekniğidir. İnsanların kendi kendilerini tedavi etme yön- temidir. 4.1.1.3. Öğrencilerin “estetik nedir?” sorusuna verdikleri yanıtlar; A öğrencisi: Bir eserin göze en iyi şekilde hitap etmesi durumunda hissettiğimizdir. B öğrencisi: İnsan gözünde “Altın oran”a en yakın gelen şeydir. C öğrencisi: Estetik güzel ve çirkin olan D öğrencisi: Estetik hammaddeye insanların güzel ve çekici bulması için yapılan değişiklikler. E öğrencisi: Estetik bence beğenidir ,beğeni duygusudur. F öğrencisi: Güzeli araştıran bilim dalı sanatın alt dalı. G öğrencisi: Güzel olan herşey .estetik sayılabilir bence. H öğrencisi: Göze, ruha, Kulağa güzel gelen herşey olmazsa olmaz diyemem I öğrencisi: Estetik bana göre yapmacılıktır. Yani nasıl desem doğadan olan şeyleri kopya et- mektir. Bu yüzden de sanat açısından estetik o kadar da zevk vermez. Bilmiyorum estetik o kadar da doğal gelmiyor. İ öğrencisi: Estetik insan elinden çıkma her şeydir. 4.1.1.4. Öğrencilerin “estetik sizde ne algı oluşturmaktadır?” sorusuna verdikleri yanıtlar; A öğrencisi: Yanıt vermemiştir. B öğrencisi: Göze cazip gelen, insanı kendine çeken, duygu ve düşüncelerini canlandıran şey. C öğrencisi: Her tür algı oluşturur. D öğrencisi: Estetik bende bir düzen algısı oluşturmaktadır. Bir şeyde estetik olmazsa bence güzellik duygusu oluşturmaz. Güzel Sanatlar Lisesi Öğrencileri İle Anadolu Lisesi Son Sınıf Öğrencilerinin Çağdaş Sanat’a ve Kitsch Çalışmalara Bakış Açılarındaki Fark The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl:6, Sayı: 81, Kasım 2018, s. 283-299 289 E öğrencisi: Estetik bende beğenme algısı oluşturur. Olaylara olan bakış açılarımızı çeşitlendi- rir. F öğrencisi: Bir fikrim yok. G öğrencisi: İnsan için zevk uyandıran tanıdık bir şeyden ziyade daha önce görmediği bilmediği şeyin beğenmesi ona hayranlık duyması H öğrencisi: Evrende pi vardır ( altın oran ) her şey’de bulunur bu sihir estetiği de içine bulun- durur bu fi (1.618 ) serçe parmağında bile estetik pi , göz, nizan hepsi bana özgürlük olarak gelir. I öğrencisi: Bana göre estetik , cansız bir kavramı oluşturuyor. Olmayan bir şey gibi. Mesela sanat ne kadar gerçekse estetikte bir o kadar da yoktur. İ öğrencisi: Estetik bir insanın ister kendi karakterini , düşüncelerini yansıtmak için eserlerdir. Şöyle ki bu bir resim olurken aynı zamanda heykel de olabilir. 4.1.1.5. Öğrencilerin “Sanatını beğendiğiniz 3 ünlü ressam yazınız” sorusuna verdikleri yanıt- lar; A öğrencisi: Van Gogh, Williom Adolphe , Salvador Dali B öğrencisi: Yanıt vermemiştir. C öğrencisi: Leonardo Da Vinci D öğrencisi: Mustafa Baharoğlu, Salvador Dali E öğrencisi: Van Gogh, Picasso, Bellini F öğrencisi: Van Gogh, Pablo Picasso G öğrencisi: Pablo Picasso, H öğrencisi: Botielli, Davinci, Mikelenjelo I öğrencisi: Pablo Picasso, Migel Enjo, Da Vinci İ öğrencisi: Leonardo Da Vinci, Picasso, Ben 4.1.1.6. Öğrencilerin “1’den 5’e en beğendiğinizden en aza doğru görselleri sırayla seçiniz” sorusuna verdikleri yanıtlar doğrultusunda seçtikleri sanat akımları; A öğrencisi: 1. Kavramsal sanat 2. Realizm 3. Soyut resim 4. Fütürizm 5. Empresyonizm B öğrencisi: 1. Kavramsal sanat 2. Dadaizm 3. Konstrüktivizm 4. Soyut Resim Güzel Sanatlar Lisesi Öğrencileri İle Anadolu Lisesi Son Sınıf Öğrencilerinin Çağdaş Sanat’a ve Kitsch Çalışmalara Bakış Açılarındaki Fark The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl:6, Sayı: 81, Kasım 2018, s. 283-299 290 5. Pop Art C öğrencisi: 1. Empresyonizm 2. Kitsch 3. Fovizim 4. Fütürizm 5. Realizm D öğrencisi: 1. Op Art 2. Kavramsal sanat 3. Sürrealizm 4. Fovizim 5. Kübizm E öğrencisi: 1. Sürrealizm 2. Kitsch 3. Realizm 4. Hiperrealizm 5. Kavramsal sanat F öğrencisi: 1. Hiperrealizm 2. Kavramsal Sanat 3. Ekspresyonizm 4. Empresyonizm 5. Kitsch G öğrencisi: 1. Empresyonizm 2. Kavramsal Sanat 3. Kübizm 4. Ekspresyonizm 5. Kitsch H öğrencisi: 1. Kavramsal sanat 2. Realizm 3. Konstrüktivizm 4. Fovizm 5. Sürrealizm I öğrencisi: 1. Fütürizm 2. Empresyonizm 3. Sürrealizm 4. Konstrüktivizm 5. Kavramsal Sanat Güzel Sanatlar Lisesi Öğrencileri İle Anadolu Lisesi Son Sınıf Öğrencilerinin Çağdaş Sanat’a ve Kitsch Çalışmalara Bakış Açılarındaki Fark The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl:6, Sayı: 81, Kasım 2018, s. 283-299 291 İ öğrencisi: 1. Fütürizm 2. Realizm 3. Kitsch 4. Empresyonizm 5. Soyut Dışavurumculuk 4.1.2. Abdülkadir Eriş Güzel Sanatlar Lisesi anket bulguları 4.1.2.1. Öğrencilerin sanat nedir sorusuna verdikleri yanıtlar A öğrencisi: Duygu ve düşüncelerin yansıtılması ve karşıdakinin duygularına hitap et- mek. B öğrencisi: Bir duygunun tasarımın , güzelliğin vb. dışavurumunda , anlatımından kullanılan yöntemlerin tümü C öğrencisi: Doğal olan önceden varolan bir şeyi kendince uyarlamasıdır sanat. Sanat özgürlük- tür. D öğrencisi: Bir tasarımın dışavurumunda kullanılan yöntemlerdir. E öğrencisi: İnsanda güzel duygular uyandıran ,göze hoş gelen Şeylerdir. F öğrencisi: Bir duygunun dışavurumunda kullanılan yöntemlerin tümü. G öğrencisi: Sanat toplumu ileri yöne taşıyan sanatçıların kendi tarzlarında yaptığı çalışmalar- dır. H öğrencisi: Duygu ve düşünceleri estetiğe dökerek anlatıma denir. I öğrencisi: Sanat ,iki boyutlu ve üç boyutlu bir şekilde yapılan ve bakıldığında insanın gözüne görünen iç açıcı ve güzel diye tabir edebileceğimiz şeye sanat diyebiliriz. İ öğrencisi: Sanat insanın iç dünyasını işitsel ,görsel vb. duyular ile bir yüzeye veya hareketler ile anlatması. 4.1.2.2. Sanat sizde ne tür duygu ve düşünce oluşturmakta ve sanat denilince sizde ne tür bir algı olmaktadır? Sorusuna verilen yanıtlar A öğrencisi: Duyguları mızın yansıtmak yaratıcılık ve yapılmayanı yapma ihtiyacı B öğrencisi: Sanat bende mutluluk ve rahatlama hissi oluşturyo C öğrencisi: Sanat = Özgürlük D öğrencisi: Sanat bana duygu geçişlerimin dışarı vurulmasına yardımcı olan en büyük faktör- lerden birisidir. Dinlendiren ve iyi hissettiren bir duygu veriyor insana. E öğrencisi: Mutluluk, heyecan, sevinç F öğrencisi: Sanat bende duygularıma ve düşüncelerimon en iyi huzuru veren şeydir . sanatın bende oluşturduğu duygu huzurdur, mutluluk ve sakinliktir. G öğrencisi: Toplumu ön planda tutar, bireye estetik bir haz verir. H öğrencisi: Yanıt vermemiştir. Güzel Sanatlar Lisesi Öğrencileri İle Anadolu Lisesi Son Sınıf Öğrencilerinin Çağdaş Sanat’a ve Kitsch Çalışmalara Bakış Açılarındaki Fark The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl:6, Sayı: 81, Kasım 2018, s. 283-299 292 I öğrencisi: Sanat bende bakıldığı zaman göze iç açıcı ve güzel diye ifade edebileceğim duygu ve düşünce oluşturmaktır. İ öğrencisi: Sanat bende; Özgürlüğü çağrıştırıyor. Resim yaparken özgürüm, özgür olduğum için sanatı seviyorum. 4.1.2.3. Öğrencilerin “estetik nedir?” sorusuna verdikleri yanıtlar; A öğrencisi: Yapay Güzellik B öğrencisi: Sanatsal yaratıcılığın sanatta ve yaşamda güzel ve güzellik denen kavramın bilimi güzeli araştıran bilim dalı C öğrencisi: Göze hitap eden sıralı dizayn D öğrencisi: Sanatsal yaratıcılığın sanata ve yaşamda güzel denilen kavramın birimi güzeli araş- tırmaktır. E öğrencisi: Göze , kulağa hitap eden herşey F öğrencisi: bana güzel olanı en iyi şekilde anlatan şey. G öğrencisi: Estetik güzel temel alan her türlü ifade bir algı oluşturmaktadır. H öğrencisi: Yanıt vermemiştir. I öğrencisi: Estetik güzeli temel alan her türlü malzeme ve maddedir. İ öğrencisi: Dış görünüş olarak görsel zevki okşayan olguların tümü. 4.1.2.4. Öğrencilerin “estetik sizde ne algı oluşturmaktadır?” sorusuna verdikleri yanıtlar; A öğrencisi: Güzelliğin göreceli oluşu B öğrencisi: Yanıt vermemiştir. C öğrencisi: Düzen-uyum D öğrencisi: Estetik yaratıcılığımızı geliştiren bir algı oluşturuyor. E öğrencisi: Düzen, güzellik, uyum F öğrencisi: estetiyin göze en iyi şekilde hitap etmesi , bana güzel olanı en iyi şekilde anlamamı sağlar. G öğrencisi: Estetik güzel demek H öğrencisi: Yanıt vermemiştir. I öğrencisi: Estetik bende sanatta güzeli ifade eden bir algı oluşturmaktadır. İ öğrencisi: güzellik , farklılık. Alışagelmişin dışı 4.1.2.5. Öğrencilerin “Sanatını beğendiğiniz 3 ünlü ressam yazınız” sorusuna verdikleri yanıt- lar; A öğrencisi: Leonardo da Vinci, Picasso B öğrencisi: Picasso, Vango C öğrencisi: Picasso-Van gogh-Rapheel D öğrencisi: Van Gogh, Frida kahlo Güzel Sanatlar Lisesi Öğrencileri İle Anadolu Lisesi Son Sınıf Öğrencilerinin Çağdaş Sanat’a ve Kitsch Çalışmalara Bakış Açılarındaki Fark The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl:6, Sayı: 81, Kasım 2018, s. 283-299 293 E öğrencisi: Van Gogh, Picasso, Leonardo Da Vinci F öğrencisi: Van Gogh, Frida kahlo G öğrencisi: Pablo Picasso, Van Gogh, Leonardo Da Vinci H öğrencisi: Pablo Picasso, Van gagh, Leonardo Do Vinci I öğrencisi: paclo picasse, Van gogh, Leonardo davinci İ öğrencisi: caravaggio, Bouggeragu, Cabanel 4.1.2.6. Öğrencilerin “1’den 5’e en beğendiğinizden en aza doğru görselleri sırayla seçiniz” sorusuna verdikleri yanıtlar doğrultusunda seçtikleri sanat akımları; A öğrencisi: 1. Soyut Resim 2. Realizm 3. Konstrüktivizm 4. Hiperrealizm 5. Empresyonizm B öğrencisi: 1. Kavramsal sanat 2. Empresyonizm 3. Sürrealizm 4. Soyut Resim 5. Exspresyonizm C öğrencisi: 1. Realizm 2. Sürrealizm 3. Kübizm 4. Kitsch 5. Empresyonizm D öğrencisi: 1. Empresyonizm 2. Realizm 3. Hiperrealizm 4. Kitsch 5. Barok E öğrencisi: 1. Fütürizm 2. Realizm 3. Kübizm 4. Sürrealizm 5. Kitsch F öğrencisi: 1. Realizm 2. Exspresyonizm Güzel Sanatlar Lisesi Öğrencileri İle Anadolu Lisesi Son Sınıf Öğrencilerinin Çağdaş Sanat’a ve Kitsch Çalışmalara Bakış Açılarındaki Fark The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl:6, Sayı: 81, Kasım 2018, s. 283-299 294 3. Empresyonizm 4. Konstrüktivizm 5. Fütürizm G öğrencisi: 1. Sürrealizm 2. Realizm 3. Fütürizm 4. Konstrüktivizm 5. Minimalizm H öğrencisi: 1. Sürrealizm 2. Realizm 3. Exspresyonizm 4. Fütürizm 5. Kavramsal Sanat I öğrencisi: 1. Sürrealizm 2. Exspresyonizm 3. Fütürizm 4. Konstrüktivizm 5. Kavramsal Sanat İ öğrencisi: 1. Sembolizm 2. Realizm 3. Exspresyonizm 4. Kavramsal Sanat 5. Sürrealizm 4.2. İkinci Anket (Kitap okuma, gazete okuma, internet alışkanlıkları, televizyon izleme ile ilgili alışkanlıkları) bulguları 4.2.1. Fatih Anadolu Lisesi anket bulguları 4.2.1.1. Ne sıklıkta kitap okursunuz sorusuna 10 öğrenciden 6 öğrenci günlük, 2 öğrenci hafta- lık, 1 öğrenci aylık, 1 öğrenci ise yıllık şıkkını işaretlemiştir. 4.2.1.2. Ayda kaç kitap okursunuz sorusuna 10 öğrenciden 2 öğrenci 1 tane, 4 öğrenci 2 tane, 2 öğrenci 3 tane, 2 öğrenci ise 4 ve fazlası şıkkını işaretlemiştir. 4.2.1.3. Gazete okuma alışkanlığınız nedir? Sorusuna 10 öğrenciden 6 öğrenci arada, 2 öğrenci hemen hemen hiç, 2 öğrenci ise hiç okumam şıkkını işaretlemiştir. 4.2.1.4. İnternete ne sıklıkla girersiniz? Sorusuna 10 öğrenciden 9 öğrenci günlük, 1 öğrenci birkaç günde bir şıkkını işaretlemiştir. 4.2.1.5. Yaklaşık kaç saat günlük internete giriyorsunuz? Sorusuna 10 öğrenciden 1 öğrenci 1 saat, 3 öğrenci 2 saat, 6 öğrenci ise 3 saat ve üstü şıkkını işaretlemiştir. 4.2.1.6. İnternette genelde hangi tür sitelere giriyorsunuz? Sorusuna öğrenciler birden fazla ya- nıt vermekle birlikte 3 sosyal medya, 3 you tube, 2 film, 2 sanat, 1 tartışma, 3 tartışma, Güzel Sanatlar Lisesi Öğrencileri İle Anadolu Lisesi Son Sınıf Öğrencilerinin Çağdaş Sanat’a ve Kitsch Çalışmalara Bakış Açılarındaki Fark The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl:6, Sayı: 81, Kasım 2018, s. 283-299 295 1 ingilizce eğitim, 1 bilim kurgu, 1 vikipedi yanıtları alınmış 1 öğrencide hiç yanıt ver- memiştir. 4.2.1.7. Günlük kaç saat televizyon izliyorsunuz? Sorusuna 10 öğrenciden 2 tanesi bir saatten daha az, 1 kişi 1 saat, 1 kişi yanıt vermemiş, 5 kişi ise hiç izlemiyorum yanıtını vermiş- tir. 4.2.1.8. Televizyonda genelde hangi programları izliyorsunuz? Sorusuna öğrenciler birden fazla yanıt vermekle birlikte 2 öğrenci belgesel, 3 kişi hiç izlemiyorum, 2 kişi arada, 3 kişi ise soruya yanıt vermemiştir. 4.2.2. Abdülkadir Eriş Güzel Sanatlar Lisesi anket bulguları 4.2.2.1. Ne sıklıkta kitap okursunuz sorusuna 10 öğrenciden 2 öğrenci günlük, 2 öğrenci aylık, 5 öğrenci karışık, 1 öğrenci ise yıllık şıkkını işaretlemiştir. 4.2.2.2. Ayda kaç kitap okursunuz sorusuna 10 öğrenciden 4 öğrenci 1 tane, 2 öğrenci 3 tane, 2 öğrenci 3 tane, 1 öğrenci hiç okumam, 2 öğrenci ise 4 ve fazlası şıkkını işaretlemiş- tir. 4.2.2.3. Gazete okuma alışkanlığınız nedir? Sorusuna 10 öğrenciden 1 öğrenci günlük, 2 öğ- renci haftalık, 5 öğrenci arada, 1 öğrenci hemen hemen hiç, 1 öğrenci ise hiç okumam şıkkını işaretlemiştir. 4.2.2.4. İnternete ne sıklıkla girersiniz? Sorusuna 10 öğrenciden 6 öğrenci günlük, 4 öğrenci ise az giriyorum şıkkını işaretlemiştir. 4.2.2.5. Yaklaşık kaç saat günlük internete giriyorsunuz? Sorusuna 10 öğrenciden 2 öğrenci bir saatten az, 1 öğrenci 1 saat, 2 öğrenci 2 saat, 1 öğrenci hiç girmiyorum, 4 öğrenci ise 3 saat ve üstü şıkkını işaretlemiştir. 4.2.2.6. İnternette genelde hangi tür sitelere giriyorsunuz? Sorusuna öğrenciler birden fazla yanıt vermekle birlikte 2 sosyal medya, 1 you tube, 1 film, 2 sanat, 1 araştırma, 1 canlı yayın ve video siteleri, 2 instigram, 2 müzik indirme, 2 gazete ve haber, 3 facebook, 1 whatsap, 1 google yanıtları alınmış 1 öğrencide girmiyorum şeklinde yanıt vermiştir. 4.2.2.7. Günlük kaç saat televizyon izliyorsunuz? Sorusuna 10 öğrenciden 3 tanesi bir saatten daha az, 1 kişi 1 saat, 1 kişi 2 saat, 4 kişi ise hiç izlemiyorum yanıtını vermiştir. 4.2.2.8. Televizyonda genelde hangi programları izliyorsunuz? Sorusuna öğrenciler birden fazla yanıt vermekle birlikte 2 öğrenci belgesel, 2 kişi hiç izlemiyorum, 1 kişi tarihi diziler, 1 kişi haber, 1 kişi müzik, 3 kişi film, 1 kişi bilgi yarışmaları, 1 kişi açık otu- rum yanıtını vermiştir. SONUÇLAR VE YORUMLAR Birinci anket sonuçları; 1- Fatih Anadolu Lisesi öğrencilerinin “sanat nedir” sorusuna verdikleri yanıtlarda sa- natı duygu düşüncelerin aktarımı, her şey de sanat görme, zevk ve haz veren şey, Allah’ı ve insanı anlamak, ihtiyaç ve aşk, ruhu besleyen şey, gibi bireysel ve genel ifadeler kullanılmıştır. Anadolu Lisesi öğrencileri sanat eğitimi almamalarından ötürü tanımsal ifadeyi veremedikleri fakat farklı dış etmenlerin kazanımı ile tanım- sal ifadeyi tam karşılamasa da yaklaşık tanımlar verebildikleri görülmüştür. Abdülkadir Eriş Güzel Sanatlar Lisesi öğrencileri ise; Duygu ve düşüncelerin, güzelliğin yansı- tılması, özgürlük, göze hoş gelen şeyler, toplumu ileri taşıyan sanatçıların kendi tarzıyla yansıt- tığı, insanın iç dünyasını işitsel, görsel vb. duyular ile bir yüzeye veya hareketler ile anlatması Güzel Sanatlar Lisesi Öğrencileri İle Anadolu Lisesi Son Sınıf Öğrencilerinin Çağdaş Sanat’a ve Kitsch Çalışmalara Bakış Açılarındaki Fark The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl:6, Sayı: 81, Kasım 2018, s. 283-299 296 gibi ifadelerle tanımlamışlardır. Güzel sanatlar lisesi öğrencileri sanatın tanımını çoğunlukla terimsel verememişler yakın bir ifade biçimiyle verebilmişlerdir. İki okulun sanat tanımına verdikleri yanıtlar karşılaştırıldığında Güzel Sanatlar Lisesi öğrencile- rinin Anadolu Lisesi öğrencilerine göre terimsel tanımı biraz daha iyi yaptıkları fakat iki okul arasında tanımlamalarda anlamlı bir farklılıktan söz edilemeyeceği görülmüştür. 2- Sanat sizde ne tür duygu ve düşünce oluşturmakta ve sanat denilince sizde ne tür bir algı olmaktadır? Sorusuna Fatih Anadolu Lisesi öğrencilerinin verdiği yanıtlarda es- tetik haz oluşturma, her türlü duyguyu hissettirme, güzellik, haz, rahatlama, heye- can, düşünme, öğretme, özgürlük, sırdaş, dışa vuruş, huzur, mutluluk, tedavi aracı olarak görmüşlerdir. Verilen yanıtlara bakıldığında genelde öğrenciler olumlu duy- gu ve ifadelerle içsel durumların anlatmışlardır. Abdülkadir Eriş Güzel Sanatlar Lisesi öğrencileri ise; duygularımızı yansıtma, yaratıcılık, öz- gürlük, mutluluk, heyecan, sevinç, rahatlama, dinlenme, güzel gibi ifadelerle soruyu yanıtla- mışlardır. Güzel sanatlar öğrencileri de genelde olumlu duygular ifade ettiği görülmüştür. Sanata dair her eser bireyler üzerinde farklı etki bırakabilir. Her sanat eseri temasıyla ve for- muyla da bireylere benzer ya da farklı mesaj verebilir. Kısacası duygular kişiden kişiye yâda eserden esere değişebilir. Her iki okulun öğrencilerinde de sanatın kendilerinde kendilerini ifade etme ve görme biçimi olarak olumlu duygular ifade ettiği verileri elde edilip sonuca erişilmiştir. 3- Fatih Anadolu Lisesi öğrencilerinin “estetik nedir?” sorusuna; göze iyi hitap eden şey, güzel ve çirkin, altın oran, beğeni, güzeli araştıran bilim, güzel, yapmacılık, kopya, insan elinden çıkan her şey yanıtları verilmiştir. Öğrencilerin verdikleri ya- nıtlara bakıldığında estetiğin temelini oluşturan güzel tanımını yanıtların büyük ço- ğunluğunun karşıladığı görülmektedir. Abdülkadir Eriş Güzel Sanatlar Lisesi öğrencileri ise; yapay güzellik, güzeli araştıran bilim, göze ve kulağa hitap eden şey, gözü okşayan gibi cevaplar vermişlerdir. Alınan cevaplara bakıl- dığında estetiğin güzellik bilimi olduğu öğrencilerin yanıtlarının genelinde verildiği görülmüş- tür. İki okulun öğrencilerinin cevapları karşılaştırıldığında Güzel Sanatlar Lisesi öğrencilerinin Anadolu Lisesi öğrencilerine göre daha kuramsal tanımlar yaptığı görülmüştür. Genel itibariyle estetiğin tanımında yaklaşık bir ifade formu görülse de kuramsal ifadede güzel sanatlar lisesi öğrencilerinin daha iyi yanıt verdikleri görülmüştür. 4- Fatih Anadolu Lisesi öğrencilerinin “estetik sizde ne algı oluşturmaktadır?” sorusu- na verdikleri yanıtlarda; göze cazip gelen, duygu ve düşünceleri canlandıran şey, cansız bir şey olamayan bir şey, altın oran, pi (bir düzen olarak algılaması), görme- diği şeye hayranlık, beğenme, düzen, her türlü algı gibi yanıtlar vermişlerdir. Ya- nıtlara baktığımızda farklı bakış açıları olsa dahi güzel, hoş, düzen gibi estetiği ifa- de eden filozof tanımlarına uygun yanıtlar verilmiştir. Abdülkadir Eriş Güzel Sanatlar Lisesi öğrencileri ise; “estetik sizde ne algı oluşturmaktadır?” sorusuna verdikleri yanıtlar; güzelliğin göreceliği, düzen-uyum, estetik yaratıcılığın gelişimi, güzellik, göze hitap etmesi, farklılık gibi ifadelerde bulunmuşlardır. Güzel Sanatlar Lisesi öğ- rencilerinin çoğunlukla tanımsal ifadelere yakın cevap verildikleri görülmektedir. İki okulun öğrencilerinin yanıtları karşılaştırıldığında Güzel Sanatlar Lisesi öğrencilerinin daha çok teorik bilgilere yakın yanıtlar verirken Anadolu Lisesi öğrencilerinin duygusal ve edinimsel öğrendikleri bilgilere göre yaklaşım gösterip yanıtladıkları düşünülmektedir. Her iki okulun Güzel Sanatlar Lisesi Öğrencileri İle Anadolu Lisesi Son Sınıf Öğrencilerinin Çağdaş Sanat’a ve Kitsch Çalışmalara Bakış Açılarındaki Fark The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl:6, Sayı: 81, Kasım 2018, s. 283-299 297 öğrencilerinin verdikleri yanıtlara bakıldığında, estetiği algılamaya yönelik ifadelerinde benzer- lik görülmektedir. İki okul arasında tanımsal yaklaşım dışında anlamlı bir farklılık görülmemiş- tir. 5- Fatih Anadolu Lisesi öğrencilerinin “Sanatını beğendiğiniz 3 ünlü ressam yazınız” sorusuna verdikleri yanıtlarda; kimi yanıt vermemiş kimi 1 yâda 2 sanatçı ismi vermiş, bir kısmı da 3 sanatçı ismi vermiştir. Verilen yanıtlarda 3 tane Van Gogh, 1 tane Williom Adolphe, 2 tane Salvador Dali, 4 tane Leonardo Da Vinci, 1 tane Mustafa Baharoğlu, 4 tane Pablo Picasso, 1 tane Bellini, 1 tane Botielli, 2 tane Mi- kelenjelo, 1 tane ben yanıtları alınmıştır. Daha çok güncel olan, duyulan kişilerin isimlerinin öğrenciler tarafından yazıldığı görülmüştür. Ulaşılan verilere bakıldı- ğında öğrencilerin resim sanatçılarını tanımada daha çok alınan eğitimin, basının ve digitalin etkili olduğunu göstermektedir. Abdülkadir Eriş Güzel Sanatlar Lisesi öğrencileri ise; verilen yanıtlarda kimi öğrenciler 2 resim sanatçısı ismi yazmış kimi öğrenciler ise 3 resim sanatçısı ismi yazmıştır. Öğrenciler 5 tane Leonardo da Vinci, 7 tane Picasso, 7 tane Van Gogh, 1 tane Rapheel, 1 tane Frida Kahlo 1 tane Caravaggio, 1 tane Bouggeragu, 1 tane Cabanel resim sanatçısı ismi vermişlerdir. Güzel Sanatlar Lisesi öğrencilerin daha çok güncel olan resim sanatçılarını seçtikleri görülmüştür. İki okulun öğrencilerinin yanıtları karşılaştırıldığında güzel sanatlar lisesi öğrencilerinin yanıtla- rında resim sanatçısı isimlerinin daha fazla olduğu görülmüştür. İki okulun öğrencilerinin ver- dikleri yanıtlara bakıldığında güncel bilindik resim sanatçılarını daha çok yazdıkları görülmüş- tür. Ulaşılan bu veriye bakıldığında basın, internet gibi etkenlerin gençlerin eğilimlerini ve bil- gilerini benzer yönde etkilediği sonucuna ulaştırmaktadır. 6. Fatih Anadolu Lisesi öğrencilerinin “1’den 5’e en beğendiğinizden en aza doğru görsel- leri sırayla seçiniz” sorusuna verdikleri yanıtlarda; 4 öğrencinin Kitsch resmi, hemen hemen tüm öğrencilerin kavramsal sanata yönelik resimler, 5 öğrencinin realist resim, 4 öğrencinin fütürist resim, 6 öğrencinin empresyonist resim, 1 öğrencinin dadaist resim, 3 öğrencinin Konst- rüktivist resim, 3 öğrencinin soyut resim, 1 öğrencinin pop art resim, 3 öğrencinin fovist resim, 1 öğrencinin op art resim, 4 öğrencinin sürrealist resim, 2 öğrencinin hiperrealist resim, 2 öğ- rencinin Ekspresyonist resim, 1 öğrencinin de kübist resim seçtiği görülmüştür. Anadolu Lisesi öğrencilerinin sanat akımlarına yönelik eğilimlerinin dada çok empresyonist, realist, sürrealist, kavramsal resimler olduğu görülmüştür. Öğrencilerden 4’ünün Kitsch’i seçmesi, öğrencilerin sanatsal eğilimlerinde azda olsa geri kaldıkları düşüncesini de oluşturmaktadır. Seçim eğilimle- rin fazla olduğu realist resimler öğrencilerin olağan gerçeği beğenme durumlarını göstermekte- dir. Empresyonist resmin seçimi ise Van Gogh’un basın yayında güncel olmasından kaynaklan- dığı düşünülmektedir. Alınan bütün verilere rağmen öğrenciler farklı sanat akımlarını içeren resimleri de tercih etmişlerdir. Abdülkadir Eriş Güzel Sanatlar Lisesi öğrencileri ise; 3 öğrencinin Kitsch resmi, 4 öğrencinin kavramsal resmi, 8 öğrencinin realist resmi, 5 öğrencinin fütürist resmi, 5 öğrencinin empresyo- nist resmi, 1 öğrencinin minimalist resmi, 1 öğrencinin sembolist resmi, 4 öğrencinin Konstrük- tivist resmi, 2 öğrencinin soyut resmi, 6 öğrencinin sürrealist resmi, 3 öğrencinin hiperrealist resmi, 5 öğrencinin Ekspresyonist resmi, 3 öğrencinin kübist resmi seçtikleri görülmüştür. Gü- zel Sanatlar Lisesi öğrencilerinin sanat akımlarına yönelik eğilimlerinin daha çok realist, sürrea- list, empresyonist, fütürüst, kavramsal resimler olduğu görülmüştür. 3 öğrencinin Kitsch’i seç- mesi öğrencilerin sanatsal eğilimlerinde çok az geri kaldıkları verisini oluşturmaktadır. Diğer Güzel Sanatlar Lisesi Öğrencileri İle Anadolu Lisesi Son Sınıf Öğrencilerinin Çağdaş Sanat’a ve Kitsch Çalışmalara Bakış Açılarındaki Fark The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl:6, Sayı: 81, Kasım 2018, s. 283-299 298 sanatsal akımlara ait resimlerin seçimi hem güncel medya ve internetin hem de aldıkları eğiti- min etkisiyle verildiği düşünülmektedir. Realist resimlere eğilimin fazla olması olağan gerçeğe yönelik eğilimi göstermektedir. İki okulun karşılaştırılması yapıldığında Güzel Sanatlar Lisesi öğrencilerinin sanat akımlarına daha eğilimli oldukları, Anadolu Lisesi öğrencilerinin güzel sanatlara göre Kitsch’e eğilimleri- nin biraz fazla olduğu görülmektedir. Fakat Güzel Sanatlar Lisesi öğrencileriyle Anadolu Lisesi öğrencilerinin arasında ciddi anlamlı bir fark olmadığı sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. İkinci Anket (Kitap okuma, gazete okuma, internet alışkanlıkları, televizyon izleme ile ilgili alışkanlıkları) sonuçları; 1- Ne sıklıkta kitap okursunuz sorusuna Fatih Anadolu Lisesi öğrencileri çoğunlukla gün- lük, Abdülkadir Eriş Güzel Sanatlar Lisesi öğrencilerinin yarısı karışık diğerleri ise ço- ğunlukla günlük ve haftalık demiştir. Öğrencilerin genel okuma durumlarına bakıldı- ğında yanıtlarda yaklaşık olarak benzer oranlar görülmüştür. Öğrencilerin genel itibariy- le okuma alışkanlıkları olduğu sonucuna erişe bilinir. 2- Ayda kaç kitap okursunuz sorusuna Fatih Anadolu Lisesi öğrencileri ortalama 3 kitap yanıtını vermişlerdir. Abdülkadir Eriş Güzel Sanatlar Lisesi öğrencileri ise ortalama 2 yanıtını vermişlerdir. Anadolu Lisesi öğrencileri Güzel Sanatlar Lisesi öğrencilerine gö- re aylık ortalama 1 kitap daha fazla okumaktadır. Her iki okulunda kitap okuma alışkan- lıkları orta düzeyde olduğu düşünülmektedir. 3- Gazete okuma alışkanlığınız nedir? Sorusuna Fatih Anadolu Lisesi öğrencilerinin ver- diği yanıtlarda öğrencilerin gazete okuma alışkanlıklarının pek olmadığı görülmüştür. Abdülkadir Eriş Güzel Sanatlar Lisesi öğrencilerinin ise arada gazete okudukları görül- mektedir. Öğrencilerin genelinin gazeteyi okumadıkları sonucuna erişilmiştir. 4- İnternete ne sıklıkla girersiniz? Sorusuna Fatih Anadolu Lisesi öğrencilerinin hemen hemen tamamı günlük yanıtını vermiştir. Abdülkadir Eriş Güzel Sanatlar Lisesi öğren- cilerinin ise çoğunun internete girdiği söylenebilir. Anadolu Lisesi öğrencilerinin inter- nete daha çok girdikleri fakat genel itibariyle her iki okulun öğrencilerinin günlük inter- nete girdiği sonucu ortaya çıkmıştır. Ayrıca hızlı bilgi akışının olduğu interneti öğrenci- lerin büyük çoğunlukla kullandığı elde edilen bulgularla sonuca ulaştırılmıştır. Öğrenci- lerin sanatla ile ilgili bilgi edinmelerinde internetin önemli bir etkisi olduğu düşünül- mektedir. 5- Yaklaşık kaç saat günlük internete giriyorsunuz? Sorusuna Fatih Anadolu Lisesi öğren- cileri ortalama günlük 3 saate yakın yanıtını vermiştir. Abdülkadir Eriş Güzel Sanatlar Lisesi öğrencileri ise günlük ortalama 2 saat internete girdiği söylenebilir. Anadolu Li- sesi öğrencilerinin ortalama 1 saat daha fazla internete girdiği tespit edilmiştir. Her iki okuldan da elde edilen sonuçlara bakıldığında öğrencilerin günlük ortalama internete girme saatlerinin fazla olduğu görülmüştür. 6- İnternette genelde hangi tür sitelere giriyorsunuz? Sorusuna iki okulun öğrencileri de karışık yanıtlar vermişlerdir. 7- Günlük kaç saat televizyon izliyorsunuz? Sorusuna her iki okulun öğrencilerinin de te- levizyonu çok az izledikleri sonucuna erişilmiştir. 8- Televizyonda genelde hangi programları izliyorsunuz? Sorusuna Fatih Anadolu Lisesi öğrencileri belgesel Abdülkadir Eriş Güzel Sanatlar Lisesi öğrencileri ise belgesel, tari- hi diziler, haber, müzik, film, tarihi diziler, haber, müzik yanıtlarını vermişlerdir. Güzel Sanatlar Lisesi Öğrencileri İle Anadolu Lisesi Son Sınıf Öğrencilerinin Çağdaş Sanat’a ve Kitsch Çalışmalara Bakış Açılarındaki Fark The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl:6, Sayı: 81, Kasım 2018, s. 283-299 299 İnternet ve sosyal medya ortamlarıyla sarmalanan bir dünyayla karşı karşıyayız. Geleneksel medyanın kuşatmasına internet ve sosyal medyanın da kuşatması eklenince, her taraftan bilgi bombardımanına maruz hale geldik (Kırık ve Yılmaz, 2018:124). İkinci ankette elde edilen sonuçlara bakıldığında genel itibariyle kitap okuma alışkanlığının, internet, TV ve basın yayının gençlerin öğrenme ve algılama gelişiminde olumlu ya da olumsuz önemli etkisi olduğu düşünülmektedir. Öğrencilerin sanatsal bilgi edinmesinde bu araçların önemli etkisi olduğu ve sanatsal eğitim alan öğrenciler ile almayan öğrenciler arasındaki bilgi edinme farkını azaltabileceği düşüncesine yol açmaktadır sonucu oluşmuştur. KAYNAKLAR Bayrak, Özcan, (2013), Tevfik Fikret’in Şiirlerinde Mekân ve Algı, Kesit Yayınları, İstanbul. Balcı, Yusuf Baytekin, (2016), Kuramsal Estetik, A Pegem Akademi, Ankara. Erinç, Sıtkı M., (1995), Resmin Eleştirisi Üzerine, Hil Yayın, İstanbul. Ersoy, Ayla, (1995), Sanat Kavramlarına Giriş, Yorum Sanat Yayıncılık, İstanbul. Kırık, Ali Murat; Yılmaz, Başak T, (2018), “Türkiye’de Sosyal Medya Okuryazarlığı’nın Ge- rekliliği Üzerine Bir Araştırma”, ASOSJOURNAL (The Journal of Academic Social Science) Dergisi, Y. 6, S.79. s. 118-142 Görsel kaynakları 10.09. 2018 tarihinde https://www.arthipo.com/artblog/sanat-tarihi/realizm-sanat-akimi.html sayfasında alınmıştır. https://www.arthipo.com/artblog/sanat-tarihi/realizm-sanat-akimi.html 
work_ycz7lhy3jrd5bjb7y4sb6suuem	----	Un recorrido por el imaginario vasco: representaciones culturales ligadas a lo identitario A journey through the Basque imaginary: cultural representations linked to the identity Reseña de: de Pablo, Santiago (coord.), 100 símbolos vascos. Identidad, cultura, nacionalismo, Madrid, Tecnos, 2016, 292 pp. JUAN JOSÉ ECHEVARRÍA PÉREZ-AGUA Universidad Complutense de Madrid juanjoseechevarria@hotmail.com Entre los abundantes frutos del giro culturalista historiográfico cabe destacar la aparición de 100 símbolos vascos. Identidad, cultura, nacionalismo, obra coordinada por Santiago de Pablo, en la que también intervienen otros quince reconocidos historiadores, que han hecho de la temática vasca la prioridad de su investigación. Una aportación inserta, pues, en esta corriente de estudio de todas las Ciencias Sociales que en las últimas décadas ha ofrecido interesantes trabajos como el aquí analizado. La obra objeto de recensión presenta a lo largo de cien entradas un recorrido por el imaginario vasco, en la senda que abrió hace cuatro años el Diccionario ilustrado de símbolos del nacionalismo vasco, obra colectiva en la que repiten el propio de Pablo así como nueve historiadores más. Se trata, pues, de una obra de continuidad con respecto a la anterior, pionera en la historiografía vasca por centrar su estudio en los signos, símbolos, rituales y en general en todas las representaciones culturales del nacionalismo vasco y dejar de priorizar los aspectos materiales del proceso histórico. El motivo de la nueva publicación, según afirma en la presentación su coordinador, incide en el hecho de que aquella obra se limitó a la simbología del nacionalismo, no a la de los vascos en general. Por ello, la finalidad de esta nueva aportación pasa, pues, por Recibido: 29 de noviembre de 2017; aceptado: 10 de enero de 2018; publicado: 27 de marzo de 2018. Revista Historia Autónoma, 12 (2018), pp. 313-317. e-ISSN: 2254-8726; DOI: https://doi.org/10.15366/rha2018.12. 314Revista Historia Autónoma, 12 (2018), e-ISSN: 2254-8726 ampliar el espectro a iconos representativos de otras culturas políticas como la de la derecha española y la de la izquierda no nacionalista, cuya aceptación como parte constitutiva de lo vasco ya no provoca rechazo. Pero, conviene precisar que el equilibrio perseguido no ha quedado plenamente reflejado en las páginas de la obra. Sin duda ello es debido a algo advertido por Santiago de Pablo: ni de lejos tales sensibilidades son capaces de emular al nacionalismo, que desde su origen ha acreditado una gran capacidad para crear símbolos exitosos, entre los que cabe destacar, como máxima expresión de lo dicho, la ikurriña, que como señala la entrada de la misma, obra de Jesús Casquete, goza hoy en día de gran consenso popular, cuestión que la historiografía ya confirma como irrefutable, gracias a aportaciones de otros historiadores, entre los que cabe destacar a Félix Luengo, pionero en estas investigaciones. No obstante, el análisis de tales símbolos efectuado por el equipo de historiadores responsable de la obra no se limita a constatar tales hechos, sino que ahonda en las diversas interpretaciones de los sentimientos identitarios, al calor de los estudios culturales que reclaman una atención de lo subjetivo y del sentimiento, en la medida en que las naciones no solo se piensan sino también se sienten. Así, los autores valoran la pluralidad vasca, recordando que la propia bicrucífera todavía esté sujeta a diversas interpretaciones sobre la identidad que quiere expresar, según sea descifrada tal ambigüedad por vascos de la derecha y de la izquierda no nacionalista, o por nacionalistas. Inciden así, además de en la diversidad interpretativa del símbolo y su mutación temporal, en la relevancia de la dimensión cultural a la hora de configurar la autocomprensión de los sujetos, de su acción y, por tanto, de su identidad. Entradas sobre el bertsolarismo, el caserío, la txapela, el Olentzero, la pelota o el ciclismo vasco redundan en ello, así como la amplia atención a los aspectos musicales que acertadamente ofrece esta obra: danzas, txistu, txalaparta, Txoria Txori y rock radical vasco, entre otras. El debate identitario ocupa, pues, el aspecto central de 100 símbolos vascos, obra en la que también participan expertos en el carlismo y en el nacionalismo radical durante el tardofranquismo y la transición democrática, así como en el exilio del gobierno vasco, en la particularidad navarra y en aspectos eminentemente culturales, como la aportación del cine al proceso identitario, lo que sin duda ha revertido en mayor riqueza y amplitud de miras en el trabajo analizado. El mencionado desequilibrio a favor de una determinada simbología en la obra reseñada no solo es imputable a los méritos constructivos de la narrativa nacionalista. También se echan en falta, entre el elenco elegido por los autores, algunos de los símbolos no nacionalistas que tuvieron una repercusión indudable, como el lazo azul, icono de la libertad, creado en las manifestaciones contra el secuestro de Julio Iglesias Zamora y que prendido en las solapas evidenció la rebelión ciudadana contra el nacionalismo armado. 315 En la presentación de la obra, el coordinador del equipo de historiadores que seleccionó los cien símbolos incluidos (tras muchos debates, como señala) admite el carácter discutible de los que finalmente aparecen, cuestión irremediable cuando entre los objetivos de la obra se encuentra su carácter divulgativo, aspecto que no desmerece en ningún caso su propósito. Es más, tal intención es sumamente loable, en la medida en que nos encontramos con una temática donde no solo abundan las narrativas ahistóricas, sino que son propagadas sin recato alguno amparadas en procesos de ideologización determinados, asociados a evoluciones identitarias. Argumento que redunda en la oportunidad de la aparición de 100 símbolos vascos, no solo para un público especializado, sino en general de todo tipo, en la medida en que puede contrarrestar memorias colectivas que, propiciadas por una literatura histórica de carácter militante, condicionan el debate popular. El carácter divulgativo de la obra ha eximido a los autores de consignar las fuentes empleadas, cuestión reseñable pero ciertamente menor a la luz de la amplia y contrastada bibliografía que cada uno de ellos atesora. Además, parte de dicha bibliografía es citada en cada una de las entradas y al final del libro. El coordinador de la obra remite además al Diccionario ilustrado de símbolos del nacionalismo vasco, donde quedaron reflejadas las referencias documentales; cuestión que evidencia aún más la continuidad de 100 símbolos vascos respecto a la obra anterior. Los autores ahondan también en el giro espacial que la historiografía vasca empieza, tímidamente, a desbrozar, atendiendo a un equilibrio en los símbolos escogidos entre los territorios históricos que componen la hoy unidad vasca, reconociendo en esa medida la diversidad provincial preexistente y que tantas veces ha quedado obviada, circunstancia también propiciada por determinadas historiografías. Entradas como las dedicadas a San Miguel de Aralar o a otros santuarios como Arantzazu, Begoña, Estíbaliz y Leyre permiten vislumbrar la complejidad que bajo el topónimo vasco se esconde, ahondando en la constitutiva multiplicidad territorial, ya sea alavesa, guipuzcoana, navarra o vizcaína (por no entrar en las del otro lado de la frontera). Tal empeño no ha alcanzado, en cambio, símbolos ineludibles como son por ejemplo los Sanfermines para el universo identitario navarro, tal como el propio coordinador reconoce. Cuestión, la territorial, que también pende a la hora de establecer los límites de tal conjunto y que los autores han circunscrito a la Comunidad Autónoma Vasca, a la Comunidad Foral de Navarra y a Iparralde, dejando libertad a cada uno de ellos a la denominación resultante de la suma de ellos, decantándose generalmente por dos topónimos: el latino Vasconia y el euskaldún Euskal Herria, no sin advertir que este último ha sumado en el último cuarto de siglo un matiz ideológico que no tenía anteriormente, limitado hasta entonces a un significado Juan José Echevarría Pérez-Agua, “Un recorrido por el imaginario vasco...” 316Revista Historia Autónoma, 12 (2018), e-ISSN: 2254-8726 cultural y lingüístico, tal como recoge la entrada ad hoc. La cuestión identitaria, referida a un aspecto crucial como es la nomenclatura, vuelve a incidir sobre la obra recensionada. En este sentido, se echan en falta otras denominaciones que no solo no gozan de entrada propia, sino que ni siquiera se recogen a lo largo de sus páginas como la de Euskaria (o sus variantes Euskeria y Eusqueria) del Renacimiento de las letras vascas, que en la segunda mitad del siglo xix competía con Euskalerria. Tampoco figuran en el Diccionario ilustrado de símbolos del nacionalismo vasco, salvo para hacer mención a colectivos que hoy en día reivindican su legado. El éxito indudable del término Euskal Herria ha oscurecido también el de Euskadi, que hace solo unas décadas parecía ser el llamado a triunfar. Cuestión polémica hoy en día y que recoge la entrada sobre el Equipo Euzkadi, que aunque referida a la selección futbolística que tras la guerra propagó por el mundo la idea de la existencia de una entidad unitaria vasca, Santiago de Pablo amplía hasta 2007 cuando desde el nacionalismo radical se impulsó el cambio de denominación a selección de Euskal Herria, contando con el beneplácito de un buen número de jugadores, algunos de los cuales compartían presencia en la selección española. La denominación unitaria resultante, cuestión no resuelta entre los vascos, pende sobre 100 símbolos vascos, así como sobre toda la historiografía al respecto, circunstancia de extrema relevancia a nivel identitario. La presente obra dedica una entrada a Euskadi/Euskal Herria, obra de Ludger Mees, donde se evidencia las profundas dimensiones sobre la disputa de la denominación y se recuentan, aun sin agotarlas, hasta una docena de ellas. Tal pleito revela, indudablemente, el trasfondo político e ideológico que subyace en esta crucial e irresuelta cuestión. Otro aspecto difícil de afrontar para esta obra y en general sobre todas aquellas de la historiografía vasca es conciliar la coherencia y la inexistencia de anacronismos a la hora de las denominaciones geográficas, en concreto de la toponimia; cuestión polémica que tampoco oculta el coordinador de la obra. El equipo de autores ha optado, como criterio general, por las grafías actuales oficiales en euskara, lo que pese a las prevenciones no deja de ser convencional y presenta dificultades con el objetivo de no incurrir en anacronismos. Los diversos autores han gozado aquí igualmente de libertad, lo que repercute irremediablemente en la coherencia pretendida. La entrada Estella/Lizarra salva esos difíciles escollos, aunque se echa en falta en otros tal prevención de utilizar también las denominaciones en castellano o en vasco con la escritura más tradicional y cercana a la primera lengua, aunque solo fuera por atestiguar una mayor antigüedad; por ejemplo, Maya en la entrada de Amaiur, o incluso en la de Gernika, recuperar la grafía de Guernica, como ya solo uno de los mayores iconos del siglo xx acredita, el célebre cuadro de Pablo Picasso. En ese sentido y en aras de la coherencia temporal, cabría criticar 317 que el himno más popular entre los vascos, el Gernikako arbola, no haya tenido en la obra recensionada una mención a como fue más conocido en las décadas siguientes a su composición: el Guernicaco arbola, circunstancia acreditada aunque tal vez no suficientemente divulgada. Dificultades que en ningún caso son imputables a la obra aquí reseñada, sino de las que adolecen todas aquellas que pretenden desbrozar una temática tradicionalmente objeto de utilización política, no más que otras, pero sí más supeditada a ella. La hidra de mil cabezas que condiciona la historiografía vasca desde hace más de dos siglos y que una obra cultural como la presente refleja a lo largo de sus cien entradas de símbolos, con relevantes aportaciones que ayudarán, si no a extirparla, sí a desenmascararla, encomiable objetivo de la Historia. Juan José Echevarría Pérez-Agua, “Un recorrido por el imaginario vasco...” 
work_yf7rhvygurgdnl7dqj64375qze	----	8_1__2012_.indd Psychology in Russia: State of the Art • 2012 METAPHOR AS A BASIC MECHANISM OF ART (PAINTING) Viktor F. Petrenko, Lomonosov Moscow State University Moscow, Russia Evgeniya A. Korotchenko Psychological Institute of Russian Academy of Education Moscow, Russia This article describes research on visual semantics, diff erent forms of metaphor used in rhetoric and philology (tropes: metonymy, hyperbole, litotes, oxymoron, and others), and images, which are metaphorical also. The research was carried out using paintings. The authors state that the function of metaphor is to transform the sense of the image from a psychological point of view. Keywords: visual semantics, sense, tropes, metaphor, metonymy, hyperbole, lito- tes, oxymoron, image, mental energy. Despite the fact that literature (the muse of epic poetry, Calliope) and painting art (the god Apollo) are traditionally considered two diff erent types of art, distinctions among an image, a concept, and a word are rather conventional. Artists do not make a copy of their own perceptions, but, ac- cording to Leont’ev (1997, p. 287), they set themselves the task of realizing the existence of human objective reality and its position in the universe. Concepts (secondary images; see Gostev, 1998) – that is, images of fan- tasy or memory – appear in a person’s mind by means of imagination and have no physical stimulus. Th e transitional position from image to concept is ill-studied in the psychology of perception. Th is fi eld of psychology is almost unknown, but the heuristic approach used in its research is based on holographic models of consciousness and memory. Th e concept, a virtual and invisible material, makes an artist create on a canvas. Just as a musician composes music using the “mute” piano, so an artist paints a picture without using brushes, but in his or her own mind. 532 Viktor F. Petrenko, Evgeniya A. Korotchenko Even if artists create their paintings in the open air, they do not copy reality but seek harmony between their thoughts and their emo- tional state. Scenery is a refl ection of the artist’s mind (see Petrenko & Кorotchenko, 2008). Both consciousness and imagination run through the works of both writers and artists. “Art is creative thinking, in other words, it is thinking through images” (Potebnya, 1990, p. 163). Discussions of issues regarding the image in art are found in Arn- heim (1973, 1974, 1994, 2004), Basin, Prangishvili, & Sherozia (1978), Mol’ (1966), Petrenko (1988, 1997, 2005), Rappoport (1978), Ruuber (1985), Yarbus (1965), Zinchenko (2001, 2005), Znakov (2005). An artist is as refl ective as a writer who creates narratives or a philo- sopher who uses general categories. If an artist starts from consciousness of the plot and determination of the semantics and then goes for an imme- diate creation on a canvas, a spectator gets the artist’s semantics and plot, gets a perception of the visual pictorial idea. A spectator’s perception of paintings requires mutual action just as a writer’s words require correction and comprehension of the text’s plot by readers (see Leont’ev, 1997; Ushakova, 2006). On looking at a canvas cov- ered with watercolors (in Ferdinand de Saussure’s terms, a plan of expres- sion), a viewer comprehends the plot and the spirit of the creator; the visual perception of color patterns helps the viewer realize the concepts that the artist had in mind. In his lectures on general psychology, A. Luria used to tell his stu- dents about the simultaneousness of the image and the successiveness of speech (text), seeing them as basic contrasts (Luria, 2004). But here, in our opinion, the distinction between an image and a text is not abso- lute. Melchuk (1974) developed a model for formalizing the meaning of the text; this model compares the content, a sequence of the text, to the “ima ge,” to the simultaneous connected and oriented semantic graph that has the basic meanings (the words of the language) and the genera- lized relations (the predicates of the language). Th e simultaneous lan- guage of meaning, in our opinion, is extremely promising in psychology, where it could be used to study holistic insight reproductions of gestalts in Dunker-type mental tasks. Th e use of the analogy of an image and a text allowed us to defi ne “the image as a perceptive statement about the world” (Petrenko, 1976, p. 270) and makes it possible to use the methods of psychosemantics and linguistics in the analysis of visual art (see Petrenko, 1998, 2005). Metaphor as a Basic Mechanism of Art (Painting) 533 Paintings, as a rule, have a literary subject, simply represented in the title, which provides the literary discourse, the direction for asso- ciations. Th is is true primarily about classical painting, which tends to have development, but development beyond the art work. “[A] liter- ary subject necessarily takes us beyond the picture, requires develop- ment” (Ingarden, 1962, p. 281). To understand what is depicted in the painting, it is necessary to refer to its literary aspect (to its literary subject). According to Ingarden (1962, p. 283): If we leave aside the whole legend of Jesus and turn it off in our minds while looking at the picture [Picture 1], the picture... will probably be something entirely diff erent from what it should represent in relation to its title. We would not see Jesus and his disciples gathered for a last meal and would not relate the eating of bread and the drinking of wine to Christian doc- trine, but we would see just a group of men of diff erent ages around the table and would not or would hardly understand their gestures and facial expressions. But even though the picture would contain a specifi c literary Picture 1. Leonardo da Vinci, Th e Lord’s Supper 534 Viktor F. Petrenko, Evgeniya A. Korotchenko topic, although quite diff erent from what is expressed in it, when we know the story about the Jesus, the name of the picture draws our attention to a specifi c point in history. An artistic image is symbolic by nature. “Th e artistic image, devoid of a generalizing character and a powerful symbolic picture of this life, is always only a weak naturalistic copy of life” (Losev, 1991, p. 251). Th e transition from an image to a symbol, according to Bakh tin, “makes it semanically deep and gives a semantic perspective. ...Th e origi- nal symbol is compared with the idea of the global totality by content, having space and the human universe” (Bakhtin, 1986, pp. 381-382). Understanding the symbolic meaning of a work of art, according to Arnheim (1994), is the main task of a viewer who looks at a picture. Con- templating the work, the viewer is experiencing the atmosphere depicted in the painting: a misty river arouses feelings of neglect and sedation, a mountain arouses the feeling of grandeur. Each work of art or visual sym- bol used in the genre of landscape has its own interpretation and is as- sociated with its own meaning (see Petrenko & Korotchenko, 2008). For example, peacefulness can be depicted as a serene sea and a bright sky, but it can hardly be depicted as a crowd of people in an urban context. As an element of art language, the artistic image in each work of art is unique. Th e artistic symbol is multidimensional: it arouses various feelings and not just serenity. It can give a feeling of cool detachment and sadness, and it can create a sensation of time dilation or other feelings; the symbol can correlate the viewer’s state with his or her thinking. Com- plex emotional responses of the viewer to a work of art are the result of the successful use of the means of expression, particularly tropes, which serve to create an artistic image. One of the defi nitions of tropes was given in ancient times by the great Roman orator Quintilian: “A trope is a change of the meaning of a word into another one, enriching its semantics” (quoted in the Yar- tseva, 1990, p. 520). In the theory of rhetoric there is another defi nition of tropes, according to which a trope (from the Greek tropos) is “a word or a phrase in a fi gurative meaning, a fi gurative expression, a shift in the semantics of a word from the direct meaning to the fi gurative, such as metaphor, metonymy, allegory, litotes, hyperbole” (Alexandrov, 1999, p. 45). Most trope constructions are based on “a semantic incompatibil- ity. Creating a ‘semantic paradox situation,’ tropes make the boundaries Metaphor as a Basic Mechanism of Art (Painting) 535 between the possible and the impossible in a language, providing the conditions to get into the deep structure of reality (Naer, 1976, p. 77). Metaphor Metaphor is traditionally defi ned as a type of trope, a transmission of the properties of one object (or phenomenon or aspect of life) to an- other because of their similarity in any aspect or by contrast (in Greek, metaphora is a fi gurative meaning). Examples of metaphors: fatal fi re of life (Alexander Blok); Russia – a kiss in the cold (Velimir Khlebnikov) (quoted in Zaretskaya, 2002, p. 261). A number of authors – for example, Timofeev and Turaev (1978), Zaretskaya (2002) – defi ne metaphor as a hidden comparison in which the words like and as if are omitted but implied. Metaphor is remarkable for its conciseness and reticence; thus, it activates the reader’s perception. Unlike comparison, in which both of the objects that are being compared remain independent – even though the degree of independence diff ers (Chernets, 2000a) – metaphor creates a single image – in other words, it reduces the diff erence between objects or concepts (Chernets, 2000b). “In relation to metaphor such methods of expression as allegory, personifi cation, synesthesia can be regarded as its variations (Arutyunova, 1979, p. 130). From the perspective of psychology, the words that constitute a met- aphorical pair are connotative (semantic) synonyms – for example, in the well-known poem by Mikhail Lermontov: Clouds in the sky are eternal wanderers Along the sky-blue steppe like a chain of pearl Rushing like me, the exiled From dear North to southward. By means of Charles Osgood’s semantic diff erential we analyzed (by scale model) the image of the “clouds” and the image of “the exiled,” and even though these concepts belong to completely diff erent conceptual classes (in the space of the semantic diff erential by a number of basic factors), they have similar positions (which means they are connotative synonyms). Indeed, what do a traveler and clouds have in common? Accor ding to the archaic anthropomorphism of inanimate objects (“the wind blows,” “the rain pours,” “the cloud runs”), we can give the elements of a meta- 536 Viktor F. Petrenko, Evgeniya A. Korotchenko phorical pair similar psychological sensations, and, having established their identity by a number of factors, we can make transmit the prop- erties of one object to the other. For example, having set the similarity between “clouds” and “a traveler” according to the quality of loneliness, we defi ne both of them as being rejected. On the basis of metaphoric expression mythological thinking is possib le. So, in the 1990s, in the discussions about the possibility of the private ownership of land, the following argument was used: Our land feeds us, it gives us life, it is our mother, and a mother may not be sold. So, from connotation synonymy (one of the common meanings: life crea tion) the quality of one object (the mother) is transmitted to another (land) – in particular, the impossibility of selling property. Metaphors appear in dreams, poetry, the individual and collective unconscious. Th us, the presence of aff ect decreases the dimension of se- mantic space (see Petrenko, 2005), and categorization of objects trans- mits a large number of highly diff erentiated subject-denotative charac- teristics to a limited number of basic underlying connotative factors. Th e objects belong to diff erent semantic areas in the ordinary state of consciousness and have nothing in common in the object plan; when the semantic space is fl attened, the objects become close because of their po- sition in connotative space, and thus they become connotative synonyms and can be used as metaphors. Metaphor and metonymy are used by a number of well-known re- searchers in semiotics and cultural studies of visual arts like fi lm (Aru- tyunova, 1979, 1990; Ivanov, 1973, 1981, 1998; Lotman, 1973; Shklovsky, 1983). Visual comparisons in which metaphor, metonymy, contrast, and other literary techniques and tropes are used are quite common in me- dieval and modern paintings. Pictorial metaphor as well as “an artistic image” are concepts that are well known by art critics but are hardly used in psychology. We quote here intuitional descriptions of metaphorical painting from an Internet article dedicated to the anniversary exhibition of works by Dmitry Zhilinsky (Khachaturov, 2002, p. 1): Th e angels by Zhilinsky are metaphors. Th e language of metaphors in sec- ular painting (sacred one does not count, because it is a window, opened from where metaphors become Revelation) is appropriate when the in- terpretation is optional. Th is option illustrates the biblical saying “Th e Metaphor as a Basic Mechanism of Art (Painting) 537 wind blows where it wishes.” Here, an example from the distant past is illustrated in the painting Arnolfi ni Portrait by Jan van Eyck. We see a brilliant portrait. Wow! It makes a heart pound. Sweat comes off on the forehead. And only then, in our mind, do we realize that the usual order is no longer possible, that before us is not the everyday chaos but a cosmic mystery. We take a volume of Erwin Panofsky and eagerly look for confi r- mation of our guess. We start interpreting hidden emblems and symbols in everyday life. Here is an example from the recent past – the portraits of Valentine Serov. Th e portraits are gorgeous. However, they do not claim to be Borges’s “drop,” on which the universe shines and shakes. Th e hid- den metaphors in Serov’s works become an ingenious scenic pantomime. Th ere is no more subtle sacral symbolism. But visual associations are suc- cessfully found: a – peaches – freshness, the princess – a vase – luxury, and so forth. In the fi rst (van Eyck) and in the second (Serov) paintings a viewer has a choice: either look without “translating” into the metaphori- cal language or guess and compare. Th e construction of a metaphor is supposed to unite dissimilar im- ages, creating poetic expressiveness. “Th e two points that it (a metaphor) consists of, aesthetically, are quite equal. And this equality makes both points single and undividable” (Losev, 1991, p. 59). “Metaphor does not allow an object to belong to the class which it is actually a part of but tries to make it a part of the category to which it cannot be assigned on a rational basis. Metaphor is a challenge to nature. Th e source of meta- phor is a deliberate error in the taxonomy of objects. Metaphor works as a categorical shift . Metaphor is not a reduced comparison, as it was defi ned in the time of Aristotle, but reduced contrasting” (Arutyunova, 1990, pp. 17-18). In contemporary articles it is possible to fi nd several defi nitions of visual metaphors. Film theorist Carroll (1996) believes that a visual im- age cannot be considered a metaphor if there is no merger of the two diff erent areas of experience that form a new, spatially limited reality. Metaphor is formed by substituting unexpected visual elements for ex- pected ones (in this case there should not be an existing, conventional connection) (Forceville, 1994, 1995, 1996). Such defi nitions clarify the nature of visual metaphors; however, they are private descriptions of visual metaphors. According to Arutyunova (1990, p. 22): 538 Viktor F. Petrenko, Evgeniya A. Korotchenko Picture 2. Frida Kahlo, Broken Column Picture 3. Salvador Dali, Th e Persistence of Memory Metaphor as a Basic Mechanism of Art (Painting) 539 Graphical metaphor is quite diff erent from verbal metaphor. It creates nei- ther new meanings nor new synonyms; it does not go beyond its context and does not have a stable position in the language of painting or fi lm; it has no prospects for existence beyond the work of art in which it exists. Th e mechanism of creating pictorial metaphor is entirely diff erent from the mechanism for verbal metaphor, a prerequisite of which is that both its sub- jects (denotations) belong to diff erent categories: the basic subject (which is characterized by the metaphor) and the auxiliary subject (which implies its direct meaning). Pictorial metaphor lacks a double subject. It is nothing more than an image, which acquires in one or another artistic context a symbolic (key) value, a broader, generalizing meaning. Metaphor in painting is a source of bright ideas; it creates fi gurative works. Visual and verbal metaphors should be distinguished on the basis of their diff erent representations – that is, both visual and verbal meta- phors are two ways of expressing the same meaning. Th e meaning and the metaphor in images can also be comprehended if the idea is given verbally (Refaie, 2003). “We read the literary text as a code. ...Charac- ter, symbol, metaphor, and allegory indeed have more or less intelligible verbal and semantic meanings” (Arabov, 2003, p. 30). Most verbal meta- phors can be extended into a visual plan – that is, they can be depicted in a picture or in a painting. However, it is better (easier) to express actions and chronology verbally, and spatial relationships visually. Pictures 2, 3, and 4 are examples of visual metaphors. In the self- portrait Broken Column, Frida Kahlo substitutes an ancient column broken in several places for her spine; the pain is depicted as nails cov- ering her body. Kahlo feels like a broken column, which is a metaphor for her feelings or sensations. In visual metaphors the various objects and their properties are oft en combined in unexpected ways, making new meanings. A visual metaphor is always a mystery for a viewer. It oft en combines incongruous attributes of various objects, immediately reversing the usual perception. A verbal metaphor can be refl ected in visual terms and can be easily recognized, but a purely artistic visual metaphor is more diffi cult to recognize. Salvador Dali’s Th e Persistence of Memory (Picture 3) is a visual me- ta phor. Generally, we can say that this picture is a metaphor for time fl exi bility, time relativity; the image of the metal pocket watch next to 540 Viktor F. Petrenko, Evgeniya A. Korotchenko the “soft ” one suggests that time may move diff erently: fl owing slowly or speeding sharply. Another example of visual metaphor is the painting Th e Last Leaf by Ilya Glazunov (Picture 4). An open cage having no bird inside is a meta- phor for the soul escaped from the body. A lone leaf on the tree portrays the moments of life slipping away. Th e bust standing on the window sill and a sick man create a contrast: life vs. death, eternal vs. temporal. A viewer can see the “autumn” mood in the painting through the clouds, the last leaf on a dry tree, the empty birdcage, the bust: a human life is about to break off as soon as that last leaf falls off the branch. Th is paint- ing is an example of a visual citation; it illustrates the story Th e Last Leaf by O. Henry. Like a literary text, a painting oft en has interlocking sets of expres- sion. Th e painting by Glazunov is a good example. In this painting we can see two visual metaphors, a contrast and a synecdoche, creating a complete artistic image. Other Tropes Metonymy (in Greek metonymia, renaming) in its linguistic mea- ning is a trope based on the principle of contiguity. An object gets the name of another related object. Th e phenomena, connected through Picture 4. Ilya Glazunov, Th e Last Leaf Metaphor as a Basic Mechanism of Art (Painting) 541 metonymy and forming “a subject pair,” can be connected in various ways: for example, the object and the material (have not eaten from the silver but from the gold – Alexandr Griboyedov), (All in tulle and panne, Helen entered the room – Alexander Galich); the content and the container (Th e burnt furnace is crackling – Alexander Pushkin); the property holder and the property (Courage conquers cities); the creation and the creator (A man... will take Belinsky and Gogol from the market – Nikolay Nekrasov); the place and the people residing in the place (All of Moscow speaks about it). Metonymy as the transmission of a name is based on the contiguity of meanings, mostly spatial, temporal, and causal. Specifi cally, in metonymy the object’s name exists irrespective of the subject, and they do not make a single object (Zaretskaya, 2002). Metonymy is a bright, symbolic trope. It creates and enhances the visu- ally perceptible representation, describing the phenomenon indirectly. Lotman and the Tartu-Moscow Semiotic School (Ju.M. Lotman i tar- tusko-moskovskaja semioticheskaja shkola, 1994) defi ne metonymy as a trope that distinguishes substantial and specifi c aspects and excludes nonessential aspects. We can see metonymy in the painting Th e Doll by Glazunov (Picture 5). A doll, not a child, is portrayed in the painting, but the doll reminds the viewer of a child; here is the analogue of metonymy in a picture. Picture 5. Ilya Glazunov, Th e Doll 542 Viktor F. Petrenko, Evgeniya A. Korotchenko Visual metonymy works diff erently from verbal metonymy: no names are given to objects, only the connection between them remains – for example, the child who was playing with the doll. Th us, the image of the doll refers the viewer to a child, denoting a retrospective focus of the story. A viewer seeing the doll visualizes and creates in his or her mind a story (even a most horrifi c one) about the child who was playing with the doll. In paintings metonymy may be used as a hidden citation: for examp- le, the French Impressionists oft en used the plots, themes, pain tings of Picture 6a. Francisco Goya, Th e Naked Maja Picture 6b. Edouard Manet, Olympia Metaphor as a Basic Mechanism of Art (Painting) 543 Picture 6c. Titian, Danae Picture 6d. Titian, Venus of Urbino the great Renaissance masters to depict eternal human problems in con- temporary time and to give their own work a historical context (although at that time the correlation of the classical images of the great masters with the Impressionists, who eventually also became great, shocked the audience). In the paintings by Francisco Goya (Th e Naked Maja, Picture 6a) and by Edouard Manet (Olympia, Picture 6b) one can see citations to the famous Danae and Venus of Urbino by Titian (pictures 6c and 6d). Venus of Urbino, Olympia, and Maja are portrayed in domestic sur- roundings; both Venus of Urbino and Olympia have the same posture, 544 Viktor F. Petrenko, Evgeniya A. Korotchenko leaning on the right hand; both women have a bracelet on the right arm and glance at the viewer. Both Venus of Urbino and Olympia have a kit- ten or a puppy at their feet and a servant nearby. Th e glance of Olympia is as straight and open as that of Maja. Such visual citations, like those in literature, introduce a new work in a familiar context. Specifi cally, meanings are transferred onto the canvas; the new is comprehended within the established. Related citations are found not only in paintings and literature but also in shows and concert performances (for example, performing the song “Live to Tell,” Madonna appears crucifi ed on a cross wearing a crown of thorns). A special type of metonymy is synecdoche. Synecdoche (in Greek synecdoche is correlation) is defi ned by linguists (such as Rosenthal & Telenkova, 1976; Reformatsky, 1999; Dibrova, Kosatkin, & Scheboleva, 1997) as the transmission of meaning from one object to another, from one phenomenon to another, on the basis of the quantitative similarity between them. For example: Hey, beard! How do you get to Plyushkin’s from here? (Nikolai Gogol), where “a man with a beard” and “beard” are correlated; And you, blue uniforms, and you, the people obedient to them (Mikhail Lermontov), referring to gendarmes. Synecdoche diff ers from Picture 7. A. Eisenstadt. Feast in the Camp (Holiday in the Camp) Metaphor as a Basic Mechanism of Art (Painting) 545 metonymy in that both subjects have some unity, are related as a part of the whole, and do not exist independently (Zaretskaya, 2002). Glazunov’s Th e Last Leaf (Picture 4), portraying the legs of a man lying in bed, is an analogue of a synecdoche in visual terms. Th e legs refer to a whole image of the man. A painting by A. Eisenstadt (Picture 7) portrays the hands of diff e- rent people. A viewer can see here multiple meanings. On the one hand, these hands belong to diff erent people with diff erent characters (diff e rent gestures). On the other hand, these people are experiencing the extreme hardship of prison life. Th ey have a diff erent destiny, but they have the same fork, cup, bottle – and the same dark lot. Exaggeration (hyperbole) is widely used in both art and literature, as is understatement or some other change of the dimension. In pain- tings, as Alexander Herzen wrote, “to sharpen angles and convexity thick paint is used” (Russkie pisateli o literaturnom trude, 1955, p. 38). Hyper- bole (from the Greek hyperbole, exaggeration) is traditionally defi ned in linguistics as an “excessive exaggeration of certain properties of the depicted object or phenomenon” (Aksenova, 1974a, p. 59). Th is device is used to make the impression stronger. Mikhail Lomonosov gave the following defi nition: “Hyperbole is used when a positive notion makes a tension or passion stronger or weaker, e.g.: run quicker than a whirlwind; stars touching Atlas; temples made from the mountain” (Lomonosov, 1952, p. 54). A visual analogue of hyperbole is also used to strengthen or weaken a “passion” – that is, to enhance the emotional impressions of an object or phenomenon. In Russian literature hyperbole was widely used by Gogol, Mikhail Saltykov-Shchedrin, and especially Aleksey Tolstoy: My love, wide as the sea, cannot be accommodated by the coast of life. An example of hyper- bole in painting is the image of a gigantic fi gure of a Bolshevik moving with a red banner across the city in the painting Bolshevik by Boris Kus- todiev (Picture 8). Very oft en methods of expressiveness are interconnected in the text as well as in the painting. Bolshevik depicts a Russian urban area, a meta- phor for Russia during the Revolution (Sandomirsky, 2007). Th e giant fi gure of the Bolshevik moves along the street through a crowd of small people, inevitably crushing someone with each step; his next step can easily destroy the church. Th is is the way unbridled power and fear are portrayed. Without reference to critics’ and biographers’ opinions it is 546 Viktor F. Petrenko, Evgeniya A. Korotchenko Picture 9. Hieronymus Bosch, Garden of Earthly Delights, a central part of the triptych Picture 8. Boris Kustodiev, Bolshevik Metaphor as a Basic Mechanism of Art (Painting) 547 diffi cult to appraise Kustodiev’s work. How consciously did he depict the fear of the irresistible force of Bolshevism? Or was he full of ambivalent feelings of admiration for national power and unconscious fear of this force? Litotes (from the Greek Litotes) is “a trope, the opposite of hyper- bole. ...It is a phrase that contains an artistic understatement of the value, strength, semantics of a portrayed object or phenomenon” (Trofi mov, 1974, p. 197), such as a small mouth that cannot chew more than two pieces (Gogol). Here, we can use as an example a painting by Hieronymus Bosch (Picture 9). Th e image of small human fi gures portrays the insig- nifi cance, restlessness, sinfulness of human life. Each fi gure is busy with its own business, pottering. Th e painting creates the impression of chaos, confusion; it is like a look from heaven at people’s lives. Personifi cation (from the Latin prozopopy; Greek pροσωποποια) is “an image of an inanimate or an abstract object possessing the qualities of living beings” (Aksenova, 1974d, p. 252). Th e inanimate objects can possess human qualities or they can possess the qualities of a mentioned concept: Bullets were singing, machine guns were beating, the wind was helping to lean palms on chests... more cheerlessly, stronger the wind rips the years from shoulders (Nikolai Aseev). Th e characters of the cartoon “Moidodyr” are visual analogues of personifi cation (Picture 10). Th e Picture 10. Prokofi ev I. Moidodyr (Soyuzmultfi lm, 1954, from a tale by Kornei Chukovsky) 548 Viktor F. Petrenko, Evgeniya A. Korotchenko main character of the cartoon (and the fairytale on which it is based) – a wash basin – possesses human qualities: it can speak, sigh, move, and see. In addition, personifi cation is always used in painting ancient gods and objects as human beings. In Picture 11 the wind has the appearance of a human being. When an object is personifi ed, viewers get a chance to represent the object brighter and stronger in their minds. Allegory (from Greek allos, diff erent; agoreuo, say) is “a fi gurative portrayal of abstract concepts expressed through specifi c, living images: in fables and fairy tales cunningness is portrayed as a fox, greed as a wolf, insidiousness as a snake, etc.” (Rosenthal & Telenkova, 1976, p. 19). “Allegory is a specifi c depiction of an object or phenomenon of reality, replacing the abstract concept or idea. A green twig in the hands of a man has long been the allegorical depiction of peace, the hammer is an allegory of labor, etc.” (Krupchanov, 1974a, p. 12.). “Allegory is a formal- logical unit” (Losev, 1995, p. 152) – that is, an author using an allegory does not identify the allegorical image and depicted phenomenon: “a fabulist does not believe that animals speak like human beings” (Losev, 1995, p. 152). Picture 11. J. Battista Tiepolo, Wind (part of a mural) Metaphor as a Basic Mechanism of Art (Painting) 549 “Th e origin of most allegorical images can be found in the cultural traditions of tribes, people, and nations: they can be seen on the fl ags, emblems, badges and become sustainable. Many allegorical images date back to Greek and Roman mythology. Th us, the image of a blindfolded female having scales in her hands is the goddess Th emis, an allegory of justice; the image of a snake and chalice is an allegory of Medicine” (Yartseva, 1990, p. 35). Th e goddess Psyche is oft en depicted as a but- terfl y or as being accompanied by one (Picture 12). Psyche, according to Greek mythology, is “mortal; [she] gained immortality, became a symbol of the soul, seeking her ideal” (Godefroy, 1992, pp. 83-84). Numerous examples of allegories can be found in medieval paintings. Allegory as a way to enhance poetic expression is widely used in lite rature. It is based on the convergence of correlation eff ects and their essen tial aspects, qualities, or functions and refers to a group of meta- pho rical tropes (Riesel & Schendels, 1975, p. 220). In a psychological sense, an allegory is an opportunity to experience some “inspiration,” Picture 12. E. J. Poynter, Psyche in the Temple of Love 550 Viktor F. Petrenko, Evgeniya A. Korotchenko the experience of discovery, when an idea is presented by means of un- expected tools. In a painting such “inspiration” is reserved and weak be- cause the viewer is generally aware of the fact that the Greek gods are oft en portrayed as human beings. Oxymoron (in Greek, oxymoron, acute stupidity) in the linguistic sense is a “combination of opposite defi nitions, concepts resulting in a new semantic quality” (Aksenova, 1974b, p. 252); it is a deliberate com- bination of contradictory notions: Look, she is being cheerfully sad. So smartly nude (Anna Akhmatova). An oxymoron is based on the unex- pected combination of objects or concepts. “If [we] introduce logically incompatible things at the same time, the mechanism of conscious- ness begins to look for a way to bind them into a consistent unit. … Consciousness is trying to get rid of ambiguities” (Allakhverdov, 2001, pp. 66, 72). We can exemplify an oxymoron with a Soviet-era joke. For a compe- tition on the anniversary of Lenin’s birth, various industrial enterprises produced commemorative products: a furniture factory made a king- size bed with the slogan “Lenin with us”; a bath and laundry enterprise made a bass with the motto “Following Lenin’s path”; a clock plant pro- duced a cuckoo clock – at twelve o’clock sharp a tiny fi gure of Lenin in an armored car popped out; he was making a specifi c gesture and saying “coo-coo.” Th e combination of incompatible images in an oxymoron and the combination of two opposite parts in one, as in physics, creates the an- nihilation of particles and antiparticles, accompanied by the release of energy. Th e combination of the sacred (the image of the Great Leader) and the profane (the cuckoo clock) arouses a number of ambivalent emotions and reduces the initial energy of the emotionally signifi cant object. Apparently, this is a fairly universal trope in carnival culture (Bakhtin, 1965) and in satire; it does not necessarily imply sacrilege. In deeply religious medieval Spain during carnival churchgoers might make a parody of bishops and make fun of high society using vulgar jokes, and in contemporary Catholic Spain one can easily buy toy monks and priests lift ing a huge penis when a rear button is pressed. During Boris Yeltsin’s presidency a TV show, Th e Dolls, used folk characters (like Vasi- ly Ivanovich, Petka, and Anka the Machine-Gunner) to mock political leaders, thus making them recognized and popular with the audience. Metaphor as a Basic Mechanism of Art (Painting) 551 Picture 13. Francisco Goya, Old Women Looking in a Mirror In the 1990s, when a government helicopter with senior government of- fi cials on board landed in some remote outback of Russia, the locals ran up to the helicopter shouting with a joy, “Th e Dolls have arrived!” Another example of an oxymoron is Goya’s painting Old Women Looking in a Mirror (or Time or Las Viejas – the painting has diff erent names) (Picture 13). Th e painting has satirical irony. In it an elderly woman wears bright makeup, makes a typical fl irty gesture, and has a smiling facial expres- sion. Th e clothing, the accessories, the hairstyle do not suit her face or her age. Th e grotesque exaggeration is evident to the viewer; such a por- trait is interpreted on the one hand as deeply psychological and on the other hand as humorous. Paraphrase (in Greek perifrasis, a descriptive expression) is another trope in linguistics; it “replaces the name of an object or person with their attributes” (Aksenova, 1974c, p. 267); it is “a stylistic device that gives the objects and phenomena an indirect and attributive descrip- tion” (Yartseva, 1990, p. 371): young favorite of Th alia and Melpomene, 552 Viktor F. Petrenko, Evgeniya A. Korotchenko Picture 15. Eugène Delacroix, Tiger Attacking a Horse Picture 14. Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin, Th e Attributes of the Arts and the Rewards Which Are Accorded Th em Metaphor as a Basic Mechanism of Art (Painting) 553 Picture 16a. Hieronymus Bosch, Garden of Earthly Delights Picture 16b. Icon of St. Sergius and his hagiography 554 Viktor F. Petrenko, Evgeniya A. Korotchenko generously gift ed by Apollo (a young, talented actress) (Pushkin). A vi- sual analogue of this trope requires the action and the attributes and the symbols of the action to be understood in the painting, although they are not portrayed in it. Other examples of a paraphrase are the il- lustrations on pages or covers of literature books that depict a pen, ink, paper lit by a candle. An example of a visual analogue of the trope is a well-known painting by Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin, Th e Attributes of the Arts and the Rewards Th at Are Accorded Th em (Picture 14). Th ere is no artist in the painting, but all the objects refer to an artist who is painting a still life. Antithesis (from the Greek antithesis, contrast) is “a contrast of con- cepts and phenomena” (Krupchanov, 1974b, p. 18). We can see an anti- thesis in Tiger Attacking a Horse (Picture 15), a painting by Eugène Dela- croix. Th e coloring also creates a contrast: the two characters face each other, the hunter and the prey. A triptych (for example, Picture 16a) or an icon with a hagiography (Picture 16b) consists of parts of a single idea that represent a type of story; such a “serial” is a device for making an image expressive. When viewers contemplate one picture of a triptych aft er another, they can trace the change in the plot. A triptych or a hagiography is a kind of a fi lm that shows a story through plot changes. Some of the stylistic devices used in painting have no analogues in literature – for example, using contradictions in the logic of objects; compare the image of the violin in diff erent projections by Pablo Pica- sso (Picture 17). Th e portrayal of an object in diff erent projections is a technique that allows one to go beyond stereotypes, to have a diff erent image to compare and contrast. Such an image gives new meaning to the object. In painting, unlike in literature, an observer inevitably has a per- spective; it is usually similar to the artist’s. In a literary text the narrator can have several possible perspectives; the narrator can be either an author or a protagonist and also can change perspective in the course of the narration. For example, the main character becomes an insect and begins to see the world diff erently in Th e Metamorphosis (1915) by Franz Kafk a and in the short story “Th e Granton Star Cause” (1994) by Irvine Welsh. In a literary text, the change of perspective takes a long time, whereas in a painting it is simultaneous. So, an image of a mirror Metaphor as a Basic Mechanism of Art (Painting) 555 Picture 17. Pablo Picasso, Violin and Grapes provi des an observer with multiple possible perspectives simultane- ously; see, for example, the painting Laughing Couple (Joking Couple) by Hans von Aachen (Picture 18). Th e man, holding a mirror, is gaz- ing with passion at a young woman. Th e woman is admiring herself in the mirror. Th e painting (like a polyphonic novel by Bakhtin) gives an observer multiple perspectives: that of the gazing man, that of the young woman; the viewer’s perspective apparently agrees with that of the artist. An image of a mirror is a typical method of visual semantics; it is like a Russian doll: a portrayal of space inside space. A story is always given to the audience from a certain perspective: “Th e objects... depic- ted in the picture can be visible to us only from a particular side and distance from the side, which [are]... chosen and captured by the artist in his paintings” (Ingarden, 1962, p. 280); using a mirror an artist can portray additional perspectives. In paintings such techniques make it possible to consider the object from diff erent perspectives and to open 556 Viktor F. Petrenko, Evgeniya A. Korotchenko up additional dimensions in the picture. Here we have symbolism: the ability to see something implicit, to understand the secret. Th is device introduces a viewer to something implicit. Th e more perspectives in a work of art (in painting as well as in literature), the more multidimen- sional the work is. In painting, the viewer’s perspective is more essen- tial than it is in literature. A similar method in literature is a hypertext, which is a text within a text. Th e painting Slave Market with the Invisible Bust of Voltaire by Dali (Picture 19) exemplifi es the psychological method of background change, in which the viewer alternately sees two nuns (another interpretation is “ladies wearing Dutch dresses”) or a bust of Voltaire (by Jean-Antoine Houdon). In addition to the psychological method of background change, which creates various semantic meanings (gestalts), perception is also infl uenced by eye movements over the painting. Focusing attention on one element of the painting aft er another creates a semantic contrast or, Picture 18. Hans von Aachen, Laughing Couple (Joking Couple) Metaphor as a Basic Mechanism of Art (Painting) 557 Picture 19. Salvador Dali, Slave Market with the Invisible Bust of Voltaire on the contrary, stresses their semantic similarity. Th is characteristic of human perception is used in still lifes, landscapes, and fi lm. Analysis of a picture by an unknown Korean artist (Picture 20) ex- emplifying fi gurative opposition reveals a semantic contrast: stable and permanent (houses on a rocky stronghold) vs. ever-changing, soft , and rolling (mountain stream); but there is also another contrast: man-made, vulnerable to decay and breakup (the dwellings) vs. natural, ever-chang- ing, but eternal (mountain stream). Special methods of fi lmmaking, such as editing and close shots, should be mentioned. A series of fi lm shots makes the content com- prehensible, aff ects the emotional state of the viewer (the Kuleshov ef- fect), and ultimately makes comprehension easy. Film structure is more essential and more expressive than “one point” structure (Eisenstein, 1938). A painting (an image) is like a text to be read. A successfully used trope in a text is a source of its fi gurativeness and gives it new meaning. Tropes can also change the perception of the text’s content by encourag- 558 Viktor F. Petrenko, Evgeniya A. Korotchenko Picture 20. Painting by an unknown Korean artist ing the use of imagination and guesses or by developing the plot, when- ever possible, on the basis of comparison or metaphor (or other tropes). Each method of expression somehow modifi es the image. Such methods and techniques encourage viewers to use their imaginations and to al- ter their emotional states (the psychological method). Using direct and inverse perspective, the method of the mirror, and background change; altering viewers’ perspectives; changing focus; editing; and so forth are obviously widely examined in the semiotics of art. Metaphor as a Basic Mechanism of Art (Painting) 559 Conclusion When the elder of the coauthors of this article was a student, the renowned scientist Alexander Luria used to give lectures on psychology; he clearly distinguished the cognitive unit, which includes the work of memory, mental processes, and speech, from the emotional and energy unit of the human psyche, which includes needs, emotions, and mo- tives. For Luria this contrast was not absolute; so he quoted L. Vygotsky and S. Rubinstein sympathetically on the “connection of emotional and cognitive processes” and the “unity of aff ect and intelligence.” Neverthe- less, nowadays the connection of these mental spheres (perceptional and emotional) remains ill-researched, and issues about will, action, lan- guage, creativity, and emotional state are very rarely researched in com- bination. A detailed article by Schultz and Lyubimova analyzes W. Humboldt’s idea of the internal energy of language and its involvement in action. “Expressing the will, language becomes action. Th e origin of language, according to [Humboldt], is in people’s strength and will. It is prospec- tive action, which has verbal form and expresses the past will, [and] structures and defi nes reality. Th is thesis by M. Foucault... goes back to Humboldt (Schultz & Lyubimova, 2008, p. 45). Th e original interpretation of Humboldt’s ideas led to the “philoso- phy of the name,” a distinctive movement in Russian philosophy in the 1910s and 1920s, developed in the works of P. Florensky, S. Bulgakov, and A. Losev. According to Losev, the inner core of a name is formed by a certain power or energy. A word gets energized through its inher- ence in diff erent positions in various levels of life. Schultz and Lyubimo- va cite Cassirer: “Th e ability to comprehend names means to think and act magically” (2008, p. 42). “A magical word does not describe objects and the relations between objects; it aims to produce actions and change natural phenomena, and the magical function of a word dominates the semantic function” (Cassirer). Th e worldview of the German Roman- ticists, the French symbolists, the above-mentioned Russian Orthodox existentialist philosophers of the magic of words, of the symbolic im- age as a refl ection of the spiritual, is expressed in the Russian poetry of the Symbolists and Acmeists of the Silver Age (Blok, Nikolay Gumilev, Akhmatova). 560 Viktor F. Petrenko, Evgeniya A. Korotchenko In that day when the world is new When God bowed his face, Th e Sun was stopped by a word, Th e word of destroying the city. And the eagle was not fl apping its wings, Th e stars huddled to the Moon in horror Like a pink fl ame Th e word fl oated in the sky. . . . We have not forgotten the sowed Only the word among the earthly troubles, And in the Gospel of John Was said, the word is God. (Gumilev, 1990, p. 201) Understanding the text and fi gurative art, carrying internal energy and changing emotional states not only of the creator of a work of art but also of the spectator, or, even more broadly, transforming the energy of an area and a society inspired us to write this text. “Art... has such high artistic images, which aim to be not only a self-suffi cient object of love for pleasure [and]... instruments of human orientation in the vast sea of reality, but also an instrument for its creative remake” (Losev, 1995; italics added) . Having analyzed the problems of metaphor and similar tropes, we have tried in this article to extend this philological perspective to a broader semiotic area, including visual art; we have provided in the text numerous illustrations to show the application of these tropes to artistic intuition from the perspective of the reader and the viewer. Th ere is nothing new in this world; deep thoughts and observations on this subject have already been provided by Arutyunova (1990), Ivanov (1973, 1981), Lakoff & Johnson (1987), Lotman (1973; Ju.M. Lotman i tartusko- moskovskaja semioticheskaja shkola, 1994). Our specifi c approach to this theme is the following: being professional psychologists, we analyzed tropes, primarily through a mental operation that constructs a psycho- logical image, introducing it in a holistic context (discourse), defi ning its emotional attitude, generating and stressing its meanings. For example, psychological analysis of the communicative impact of neurolinguistic programming (NLP) (Bandler & Grinder, 1995) has Metaphor as a Basic Mechanism of Art (Painting) 561 revealed behavioral methods ranging from Pavlov’s conditioned refl ex to light hypnotherapy and works by the hypnotherapist Milton Erickson. One of the major works of Bandler and Grinder is reasonably called Th e Structure of Magic (1975a, 1975b), as in this approach the verbal text, having aspects mentioned in the quote from Cassirer above, is regarded as a magical act. Unlike a psychoanalyst, who serves as an interpreter of messages of the unconscious (dreams, slips of the tongue, inappropriate actions, and so forth) and thereby completely overhauls the repressed past in the pa- tient’s memory, an NLP practitioner can (and even should) be interested in the content of the traumatic experiences of the patient. Th e patient is asked to make in his or her mind (but not to reveal) a picture of the stress- ful situation arousing negative emotions, to observe the situation, and to become a spectator. Th e patient may set the situation closer or remove it; may make it duller or brighter; may change the sharpness, and so forth. In any case, the patient switches from being a suff erer, who experienced the trauma, to being an observer and a researcher, realizing the situation to be just another life experience. It is not only self-refl ection can change a personal trauma into a general case of human experience. Th e use of mental operations changes emotional and mental states (for example, from an emotionally depressed state into a state of spiritual peace or even a creative upsurge, when self-refl ection needs a keen dialogue). In literature the method of “detachment” is widely used; for example, in the novels of Albert Camus, the events of a character’s life are depicted as if from the outside and are completely detached from emotions. In Camus’s novel A Stranger the main character, describing his upcom- ing death, which is the penalty for a murder he committed, switches to emotionally neutral, “behavioral” language: “Th e French government should cut off my head,” etc. One of Gogol’s stories, about receiving a long-awaited offi cial award, is narrated from a dog’s perspective; the dog has no understanding of the whole social order and evaluates the award as being edible or not edible. In Kafk a’s novel Th e Metamorphosis, the narrator is a predatory in- sect, which one of the characters turned into. If the method of “detach- ment” allows release of the emotional tension in a perceived situation by depersonalizing it, then perception from a diff erent point of view – from the perspective of a foreign-language speaker, a native of a foreign cul- 562 Viktor F. Petrenko, Evgeniya A. Korotchenko ture, an alien (as in Solaris by S. Lem) – allows one to go beyond the ste- reotyped categorization of the situation, of one’s own self, of the world. Such detachment allows one not only to see in a diff erent way but to con- struct other worlds of existence; according to Castaneda, it gives “other points for unity.” Analysis of poetry and painting through the use of mental opera- tions and ways of working with meanings (particularly as expressed by tropes) requires an extended conceptual thesaurus of philological and semiotic terms and the introduction of defi nitions for such concepts as energy, representation, empathy and synchronicity, modifi ed forms of consciousness, the magic of a word and the magic of an image, think- ing – action, idea – image, “objectifying” of imagination, construction of artistic possible worlds. According to Gostev (1998, p. 6), “Most people do not realize that their fate depends on the content of their imagina- tion; imagination can fortunately or unfortunately get realized sponta- neously.” Th e point is that images create a unique “matrix” that attracts human psychic energy; it is fi lled with “a living material.” Th e result is the creation of a program to realize the wanted or the unwanted. Th is new fi eld of study of the communicative impact of energy, of energy and information, arises at the intersection of art, poetry, the hu- manities, philosophy, semiotics, linguistics, psychology, communication theory, and the natural sciences (physics, information theory, proxemics, synergetics); it is awaiting its pioneers and researchers. Acknowledgement Th is study was supported by grant № 11-06-00242-а from the RHSE. References Aksenova, E. (1974a). Giperbola [Hyperbole]. In Slovar' literaturovedcheskih ter- minov [Dictionary of literary terms]. Moscow: Prosveshchenie. 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work_yhxp7da7bfho7jij23vg5bwfdq	----	© Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2017 DOI: 10.1163/22134913-00002064 Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 Medialness and the Perception of Visual Art Frederic Fol Leymarie1,2,* and Prashant Aparajeya1,2 1 Goldsmiths, University of London, UK 2 DynAikon Ltd., UK Received 5 January 2017; accepted 14 April 2017 Abstract In this article we explore the practical use of medialness informed by perception studies as a rep- resentation and processing layer for describing a class of works of visual art. Our focus is towards the description of 2D objects in visual art, such as found in drawings, paintings, calligraphy, graffiti writing, where approximate boundaries or lines delimit regions associated to recognizable objects or their constitutive parts. We motivate this exploration on the one hand by considering how ideas emerging from the visual arts, cartoon animation and general drawing practice point towards the likely importance of medialness in guiding the interaction of the traditionally trained artist with the artifact. On the other hand, we also consider recent studies and results in cognitive science which point in similar directions in emphasizing the likely importance of medialness, an extension of the abstract mathematical representation known as ‘medial axis’ or ‘Voronoi graphs’, as a core feature used by humans in perceiving shapes in static or dynamic scenarios. We illustrate the use of medialness in computations performed with finished artworks as well as artworks in the process of being created, modified, or evolved through iterations. Such computations may be used to guide an artificial arm in duplicating the human creative performance or used to study in greater depth the finished artworks. Our implementations represent a prototyping of such applica- tions of computing to art analysis and creation and remain exploratory. Our method also provides a possible framework to compare similar artworks or to study iterations in the process of producing a final preferred depiction, as selected by the artist. Keywords Medialness, medial axis, shape, visual art, perception, computations, tension field, visual cortex, Picasso, Matisse *To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: ffl@gold.ac.uk, ffl@dynaikon.com 170 F. F. Leymarie, P. Aparajeya / Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 1. Introduction Consider a trace being drawn on a blank canvas and an observer contemplat- ing it. How to characterize the changes introduced by the lines as they are drawn, painted or written on the surface? If we think of the perceptual visual interface (Hoffman, 2009) as a tension field (Zhu, 2016) (Note 1), as proposed for example in the Gestalt school tradition, then the focus of attention of the observer appears to be attracted by certain regions and spots which depend on the interplay between the traces and canvas boundaries (Albertazzi, 2006; Arnheim, 1974). Not all positions on the canvas are seen as equal, and the apparent tension field will keep evolving as an artist creates additional traces or as the observer’s gaze scans over different parts of a large artifact. One particular notion which proves useful in characterizing the shape (Note 2) of the traced outlines of objects as well as the shape of the ‘negative space’ in between these is that of medialness: the ridges of intensity of interactions between elementary trace fragments, typically considered by pairs. We later provide a more formal definition of medialness, which can then guide us to implement and test its validity in mimicking humans’ visual appreciation and understanding of the shape of the depicted objects. Medialness proves a powerful tool for shape understanding in different applications (Leymarie and Kimia, 2008) and for different fields of study. In this communication we highlight the relations and background in fields we see as complementary to each other under the umbrella of medialness (Fig. 1): (i) the visual arts, (ii) perception and vision science, and (iii) math- ematical models and computing. By the ‘visual arts’ we refer to the tradition of classic training and practice in sketching, drawing, painting, sculpting, calligraphy writing. Artists contribute their technical skills and visual exper- tise and are good at over-emphasizing certain visual cues, and even manipu- late these to explore otherwise known concepts and provide new visualities (e.g., consider caricatures or cubism). Perception and vision science provide insights in how the wetware is processing information and creating an under- standing of our environment. The language of mathematics then can be used to study and hopefully improve our understanding of the perceptual and the visual arts while permitting computational implementations, to test and ulti- mately extend our knowledge and reach (feeding back into the perceptual and artistic). Having explored medialness under the scrutiny of these three disciplines in Sects 2 (Visual Arts), 3 (Perception and Vision), 4 (Maths and Computing), we will then briefly present a computational framework for medialness we have recently developed (summarized in Sect. 5) and illustrate its potential by studying a series of graphical works (in Sect. 6) by two of the most gifted art- ists of the 20th century: Picasso and Matisse (Note 3). Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 171 2. Medialness and the Visual Arts Medialness appears in various guises in the visual arts. We focus our atten- tion to its use with 2D artifacts such as when painting or drawing on a can- vas, laying out forms on a wall in street art, describing main attitudes and movements in animation or preparatory sketches, or when designing a garden layout and horizontally positioning various elements sharing certain symme- try relationships. When learning to draw, a basic technique to render animal forms is to ap- proximate their skeleton via stick figures, over which ‘flesh’ or structure can be added (Hogarth, 1984; Williams, 2009). Stick figures are also used by in- fants and primitive cultures in early representations of human or other animal forms (Arnheim, 1974; Gombrich, 2000). The stick figure helps rapidly speci- fying a pose, balance, movement or action (Hahn et al., 2015). Also, the sim- plified form permits to decide on the body structure without being bothered by details. Joints can then be indicated, for example with small disks. Body parts can then be imagined as generic cylinders where only the contours need be drawn loosely connecting the joints (Fig. 2). Another related technique is to draw approximate simple primitive outlines, such as rough disks, ovals, elongated slabs and cylinders, and position and Figure 1. Visual Arts–Perception/Vision–Computing/Maths: These are the three main domains we consider. We will describe how they can come together when focusing on medialness for shape. 172 F. F. Leymarie, P. Aparajeya / Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 combine these to create a first fleshed out version of the complete form; by placing and centering these primitives near joints, an animal form can then be rapidly sketched for various poses (Loomis, 1951), and thus create in a series the illusion of an articulated and natural movement (Fig. 3). Rather than using only a few primitives and their approximate linkage to create a rough fleshed out draft of a form, we can also more systematically sweep a primitive (such as a disk of varying radius) along sets of medial curves (connected or not) to synthesize geometrically well segmented forms, such as black patterns on a white background, with sharp boundaries (Harries and Blum, 2010). Another basic technique used in sketching is to outline a region and fill it with textures rendered by a gesture that follows a principal medial axis of that region (Tresset and Leymarie, 2005). One draws across the axis (which may be explicitly drawn or left to the imagination of the artist) with rapid gestures with a pen or brush. By controlling the pressure, speed and curvature of the rendering, various styles are obtained (Fig. 4). In animation the Line of Action (LoA) is a single curve running through the ‘middle’ of the character, which represents an overall force and direction of movement for the character. In the early days of the Walt Disney studio, before drawing a full character, an animator would frequently draw in a LoA to help determine the main pose of the character. By simply changing the LoA, e.g., curving or bending it in a different direction, the entire qualitative impres- sion of the drawing can be controlled. A related technique used in sketching Figure 2. Example of using a stick figure as an approximate skeleton to decide on body pose (left), then adding joints (middle) before fleshing out the body by linking the joints with contour outlines loosely defining the main body parts. Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 173 when doing a study of the articulated movement of a body, is to overlay on the same canvas the multiple positions of a body in movement by simplifying it to its essence in terms of a medial set of skeletal curves perhaps augmented with rough outlines of body primitives, but without any filling or shading. Figure 4. Example of defining a main medial axis (left) for a region to be filled by a shading function built as a set of drawing gestures across the axis in possibly different styles—second from left to right: single lines, zigzag, random zigzag with a thick brush, random and curvy lines. Figure 3. Three stages of an artistic way to draw animal shapes. Top row: An artist represents an animal character as the combination of loosely drawn primitives of varying size (e.g., in its simplest form as a series of ovals of varying sizes positioned at important junctions and capturing some of the main body parts). The particular orientations and combinations of these primitives indicate different body poses and leads to an animation (of natural-looking movements). Middle row: Details are added, some shading is shown. Bottom row: Some of the initial drawn primitive outlines are erased, while other details are added as well as shadows. (Artist: Mr. Kelvin Chow, with permission) 174 F. F. Leymarie, P. Aparajeya / Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 The artist faces the challenge of representing on the same canvas the essential information about the articulated movement under study, while minimizing the masking effects of overlapping body parts. This struggle was also at the birth of the basic technique defining today’s motion capture systems, in the early days of photography, as invented by Etienne-Jules Maray in the late 19th century (Kovács, 2010). Maray eventually discovered he could outlay on the same photographic plate the reflecting medial traces of subjects in movement. A human subject would be wearing black clothes to which one would attach reflecting dots at joints and reflecting lines to connect these; then the subject would perform a movement in a room with black backgrounds which could be captured by one of Maray’s photographic gun designs (Note 4). Maray was essentially drawing in space-time using his innovative photographic systems, as an experienced animator might draw on the blank canvas a succession of skeletal traces to rapidly study and refine a complete articulated movement of a character. Another use for medialness in drawing practices is by considering its complementary role in representing the voids of space in between structures or drawn primitives, such as when considering the ‘negative spaces’ in ar- chitectural designs (Leymarie and Kimia, 2008). An interesting example of this approach in landscaping designs was uncovered by Van Tonder et al. in analyzing famous 15th century Japanese gardens. When contemplating a garden, we often select what we feel are better viewpoints to admire the structure and layout of the landscape, its plants, flowers, rocks, sculptural elements, and so on. Van Tonder et al. have shown that a class of ancient garden layouts can be well modeled by a set of connected medial traces in 2D which represents a perceptual (visual) tension flow field in between the garden’s main elements and lying in an horizontal plane parallel to that of the garden (Van Tonder et al., 2002; Van Tonder, 2006). In particular, the design of the Ryōan-ji garden had been a long lasting mystery; Van Tonder et al. have shown how by using the rock and plant structures of such a garden as the generators of an imaginary wave propagation, an approxi- mate oriented flow field they call the Hybrid Symmetry Transformation (or HST—Van Tonder and Ejima, 2003) indicates the best viewing loci for the human observer as well as for a now bygone statue of the Buddha (Fig. 5). A possible interpretation is that the original master designer did conceive of a plan of the garden’s main element positioned according to their medialness relationships (as recovered by Van Tonder et al.). This type of approximate flow field which highlights medialness has also become a subject of study of growing interest in recent years in cognitive science and visual perception, as well as brain physiology studies (focused on the visual cortex) which we highlight next. Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 175 3. Medialness in Human Perception and Vision Medialness in human perception studies appears in one form or another since the infancy of the field. For example, notions of symmetry—of individual objects as well as arrangements of plurality of objects—are proposed as be- ing the source of fundamental principles of perception by the German Gestalt school in the 1930s. In the 1950s, Rudolph Arnheim, himself a graduate of the same school, intuitively arrives at a notion akin to a field of medialness and talks of the ‘structural skeleton’ of a canvas and its object traces (Alber- tazzi, 2006; Arnheim, 1974). Also in the 1950s, Fred Attneave studies and shows the importance of curvature features when observing 2D objects or Figure  5. Example of medialness field computation specifying the intrinsic design of old Japanese gardens (with permission from Gert van Tonder). At the top is shown a side view of the Ryōan-ji garden (15th century) with the superimposed and projected global medial graph (here taking the form of a tree structure). A local and the global medial trees (A1 and A2, respectively) in the Ryōan-ji temple garden are shown in an ‘aerial’ view at the bottom-left (Van Tonder et al., 2002). At the bottom-right is a similar global medial tree of the Zakkein temple garden (in B1), no longer in existence, and a non-realized garden (in B2), conceived and sketched by Japanese garden connoisseur, Akisato Ritoh (1799). The conceptual garden shares key features with Ryōan-ji and Zakkein, but lacks the finer aspects seen in the dichotomous trees of the Ryōan-ji (Van Tonder, 2006). 176 F. F. Leymarie, P. Aparajeya / Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 2D views of 3D objects. He proposes to represent a perceptual encoding of the outline of an object as being summarized by information stored at or in relation to curvature extrema, i.e., in relation to corners, convexities or con- cavities (Attneave, 1954) (Note 5). Through the 1960s and 1970s Harry Blum and his collaborators elaborated a new shape representation in terms of a class of symmetry graphs named ‘medial axis’ (denoted MA) and distance propagation fields (aka grassfire propagations) (Blum, 1967, 1973; Kotelly, 1963) (Note 6). Such early ideas on curvature, intrinsic axial symmetry and field propagations have since stimulated more interest and research in the closely related fields of human visual perception and human brain understand- ing and functional modeling. We summarize such important lines of work in the following sub-sections focused around (i) Arnheim’s structural skeleton, (ii) geons and codons (primitives and contour segments), (iii) point-based medialness, and (iv) vision (brain) substrates for medialness. 3.1. Arnheim’s Structural Skeleton As we saw earlier in Sect. 2, one way to use and think of medialness in the context of artistic creation is as a locus of tension between rendered primi- tives. This idea was perhaps first explored to provide a theoretic framework of art and perception in the works of Denman Ross (Ross, 1907) and Rudolph Arnheim (Arnheim, 1974) in the first part and middle of the 20th century. Arnheim, who was a member of the first generation of students of the German Gestalt school, was trying to extend ideas from physics, such as known at the time from electromagnetism, to the study of perception when applied to the visual arts; he also had carefully read the works of Ross (McManus et al., 2011). In the opening stage of his monograph on Art and Visual Perception, first published in 1954, Arnheim proposed to model the creation and percep- tion of visual pieces via a tension field (Note 7) whose main force lines con- stitute what he calls the ‘structural skeleton’ of a painting, drawing, or sketch (Albertazzi, 2006; Arnheim, 1974; Zhu, 2016). Some empirical evidence in support of the ability of humans to detect an induced structural skeleton in paintings has since been reported by Locher (Locher, 2003). The associated notion of pre-eminence of the center (of a canvas) also presented by Arnheim in various monographs is however less clear and possibly weak or non-existent (McManus et al., 2011). 3.2. Geons and Codons Since the 1980s, Irving Biederman and his collaborators have developed a rep- resentational theory of shape based on a notion of parts as elementary geomet- ric primitives they refer to as geons. Such object primitives are summarized by their MA and associated sweep functions, and thus can be seen as descendants Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 177 of the generalized cylinders approach (sometimes referred to as generalized cones) as first explored in mathematics and early computational approaches to pattern recognition. The motivation is different however: Biederman et al. conducted over the years many psychophysical studies to show how humans tend to partition and recognize more complex objects in terms of parts which can be built from geons. The geon family is the basis of the ‘Recognition By Components’ (RBC) theory which postulates that (at least) a large percentage of human-made objects can be understood as being composed by hierarchies of parts modeled by geons and their relationships (Bieder- man,  1987, 2000). Other evidence for a structurally-based shape theory of perception that is pointed at by Biederman comes from the importance of ‘non-accidental features’ such as corners and main axial symmetries. This follows from earlier intuitions and initial work, for example by Fred Attneave (Attneave, 1954). Also in the 1980s, a perceptual model in support of a class of non- accidental features of generic smooth contours was proposed by Richards and Hoffman (Richards and Hoffman, 1985) and defined as: sequences of pairs of significant concavities (measured as extrema of negative curvature) bounding a significant convexity (measured as a positive extremum of cur- vature). Such triples, aka codons (Note 8), for smooth bounding contours, tend to define useful local parts of 2D objects and can even be used to ex- plain some visual illusions including figure–ground reversals, such as Edgar Rubin’s faces–vase ambiguous figure (Gregory, 2009). Later this theory was extended to 3D volumetric objects, where lines of negative curvature (or concave creases) were proposed as good loci to separate 3D objects in parts (Hoffman, 2001): such a partitioning corresponds to the parts and joints favored under the RBC theory. In the recent perception literature, similar notions of curvature linked to medial axes for shape segmentation into parts have been studied extensively, in particular by De Winter and Wagemans (De Winter and Wagemans, 2006). Geons themselves are also interesting in relation to drawing techniques often used as teaching devices. The human figure (and other animals) is often first sketched on the basis of a series of connected generalized cylinders, a technique referred to as ‘geometric drawing’ (Simmons and Winer, 1977) or ‘analytic’ or ‘schematic drawing’ (Simmons, 1994). For example, the head modeled as an ovoid or elongated box can be fit on a series of cylinders modeling the neck, torso, limbs, defining a first sketch of a manikin, and each body part can be fleshed out and refined in succes- sive sketches (Loomis, 1951; Simmons and Winer, 1977). Such sketches of characters can then be further modified as wholes, e.g., using the previously described Line of Action (LoA) technique from animation (Bregler et al., 2002). 178 F. F. Leymarie, P. Aparajeya / Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 3.3. Point-Based Medialness By the 1990s other psychologists and cognitive scientists had started to explore in greater detail the potential of medialness as a substrate for the hu- man perception of objects. Back at Rutgers University a team led by Béla Julesz and Ilona Kovács was focusing on how humans have their visual per- ception of the shape of animals in movement modified by change in contrast, thus providing a way to measure the influence of shape (Kovács and Julesz, 1993, 1994). Kovács, Julesz and Feher derived differential contrast sensitivity maps (Note 9) for 2D objects that were consistent with a medialness func- tion (called Dε-function) representing the cumulated amount of boundary loci equidistant from the observation point within a tolerance (width) of ε (Kovács et al., 1998). This leads them to hypothesize a medial-based shape process- ing method for human vision, which is in part inspired by the original pro- posal made by Harry Blum (Blum, 1973). This Dε-function makes explicit certain medial points located in the vicinity of a corresponding MA, predict- ing where contrast sensitivity should be maximal, and potentially leading to a more compact representation. Ilona Kovács refers to such loci of high me- dialness as ‘hot spots’ and hypothesizes that they are likely to play a key role in rapid form analysis by humans, in particular when considering articulated movement (Kovács, 2010). Such hot spots are also possibly related to the way the 19th century chrono-photographer Etienne-Jules Maray was studying the movement of humans and animals by highlighting a series of reflective dots along straight skeletal lines (Kovács, 2010). Another line of evidence is being provided by studies on human-driven attention when presented with simple static shapes, such as rectangles, ovals, with perturbations and parts added. In such studies, the naive human subjects are presented with unexpected shapes and their task is to indicate which areas of the canvas or screen is of greater interest. In an early study in the late 1970s, Psotka showed that when humans are asked to place dots within the outline of various 2D objects, the resulting cumulative pattern that emerges closely resembles Blum’s MA loci (Psotka, 1978). Recently, this study has been re- visited and verified with strength using a computerized tablet as an interface and asking random people on the street (of NYC) to perform a similar task (Firestone and Scholl, 2014). We note that, similarly to the results of Kovács et al. the sampling of the MA observed in these studies tends to highlight ‘hot spots’: i.e., the MA trace is not sampled uniformly, but instead the samples tend to be focused in fewer small regions of attraction, often near convexities and corners, but also near object centers and some other few MA loci. 3.4. Vision (Brain) Substrates of Medialness Perhaps one of the earliest hypotheses that the visual neural system may be processing incoming light as to emphasize a medialness map is to be found Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 179 in the works of J. Anthony Deutsch who, in the early 1960s, thought of shape being characterized as a function of distance between contour loci. Deutsch proposes that ‘distance in space’ can be computed by wetware as ‘distance in time’ and that such a computation can be performed as a ‘wave of excitation propagated by the contours of the [object] itself’ (Deutsch, 1962) (Note 10). Deutsch goes further and hypothesizes that the anatomical layered arrangements of nervous fibers found in the optic lobes of bees is consistent with a computation of pairwise distances between contour points, and he then proposes two possible mechanisms which could exploit this architecture, one based on direct distance mapping via time simultaneity (or neural length), and one mimicking wavelet propagation of pairs of contour traces (Note 11). Deutsch also gives some basic criteria that a wetware-based system for shape recognition ought to have: invariance to (i) translation and (ii) rotation, (iii) asymmetric invariance to scaling (where it is easier (‘more efficient’) to match a smaller version—which may capture less details—to a larger template, than vice-versa), and finally (iv) invariance to mirror symmetries. In recent years, evidence that the brain performs computations analogous to a medialness recovery has been cumulating. A good survey and summary of the state of the art circa 2003 can be found in the detailed manuscript by Ben Kimia (Kimia, 2003). Kimia, in collaboration with his colleagues and students, has developed an approach to shape analysis directly inspired by the early works of Blum and others. In particular, the computational scheme of Kimia et al. based on shock graphs (in 2D) and scaffolds (in 3D) supports the speculation of Kovács et al. that a ‘sparse skeleton representation of shape is generated early in visual processing’ (Kimia, 2003). Kimia et al. extend the traditional model of the MA to represent images, where each MA segment models a region of the image and is called a visual fragment. They present- ed a unified theory of 2D perceptual grouping and object recognition where through various sequences of transformations of the MA representation, visual fragments are grouped in various configurations to form object hypotheses, are related to stored models, and are also consistent with the formation of cer- tain illusory contours (Tamrakar and Kimia, 2004); an equivalent effort for 3D percepts and objects remains largely to be explored—but there is recent work on the medial scaffold for some early steps (Leymarie, 2003, 2006a; Leymarie and Kimia, 2007; Leymarie et al., 2004), as well as work on approximating a 3D curve-based skeleton by combining information from 2D views (Livesu et al., 2012; Telea and Jalba, 2012; Yasseen et al., 2015). Perhaps the earliest work that focused on the likeliness of neurons and neural networks in primates being used to explicitly evaluate medialness is by Lee et al. (Lee et al., 1998) published in the same 1998 issue of Vision Research as Kovács et al. (Kovács et al., 1998), where they showed the potential for neurons in the primary visual cortex (aka V1) of monkeys to be computing medialness. They observed high response for certain medial 180 F. F. Leymarie, P. Aparajeya / Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 locations—e.g., ‘center of mass’ were found for ‘compact’ objects such as circles, diamonds and squares, while ‘central response peaks were found along the entire axis only for elongated strips and rectangle’. That is, Lee et al. found that medialness is made available in the neural substrate (in their case in a network of V1 monkey neural responses) and is emphasized at particular loci along the theoretical MA, in the spirit of Kovács et al. proposed ‘hot spots’. More recent studies include work by Lescroart and Biederman who indicate that parts representations and relative orientation of object parts can be en- coded in V3 and higher visual stages and are in support of a coding of shape by the MA (Lescroart and Biederman, 2013). Hung, Carlson and Connor have further demonstrated ‘for the first time explicit coding of MA shape in high- level object cortex’ (aka as IT or inferotemporal cortex). Interestingly, they also report that such IT neurons simultaneously encode (2D) MA and contour components, what they refer to as ‘external shape’ or ‘surface features’ (Hung et al., 2012). A similar coding for 3D objects is possible and work in that direction is being pursued, in particular by the team lead by Charles Connor at John Hopkins University which has identified 3D complex surface shape tuning, also in IT (Yamane et al., 2008). Hatori and Sakai have also recently presented a scheme for coupling cells found in V1 and V2 that are selective for boundary ownership (necessary for figure–ground identification) which can provide 2D MA computations as a coupled network (Hatori and Sakai, 2014). Their results further suggest that V1 cells receive feedback from V2 as well as higher levels of the visual cortex such as V3 and V4; they also note that intercortical connections are much faster than lateral connections, and that MA responses from V1 can themselves be seen as local primitives made available back to these higher cortical areas for integration, for example by IT neurons and model at once objects represented by multiple axes (or multiple axis seg- ments). Recently, a possible wetware architecture, exploiting in particular glial cells, for the computation of distance-based fields (which can support MA responses) has been proposed by S.W. Zucker (Zucker, 2012, 2015). Evidence for curvature computations and representations in the visual cor- tex has also been mounting over the years. Perhaps one of the earliest works is the model of Dobbins, Zucker and Cynader (from the late 1980s) on the use of so-called endstopped neurons (aka as hypercomplex) for computing curva- ture (Dobbins et al., 1987, 1989). They were able to show that in particular ‘endstopped cells in area 17 of the cat visual cortex are selective for curvature, whereas non-endstopped cells are not, and that some are selective for the sign of curvature’ (which implies figure–ground segmentation). A computational framework for end-stopping and curvature measures was recently elaborated on the basis of Differences of Gaussians at varying orientations and scales to model simple neurons of V1, while more elaborate combinations of such Gaussian responses are used to approximate complex and hypercomplex Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 181 neurons (Rodriguez-Sanchez and Tsotsos, 2012). Potential support for the co- don representation of series of curvature peaks (minima and maxima) along 2D object contours has also emerged in reported neural population responses from area V4 of macaque monkeys, where the ‘strongest peaks in the popula- tion response were those corresponding to sharper convex and concave bound- ary features’ (Pasupathy and Connor, 2002). 4. Medialness via Mathematical and Computational Shape Probing Medialness is characterized by the interaction of two fragments of an object, typically contour segments or outline traces, which share a spatial symmetry relation: e.g., think of the vertical axis of a pot wheel and the surface ele- ments of the pot or of the finger tips of the pot maker which trace in time surfaces of symmetry (of revolution in this case). The axial curves of tubular structures are direct examples of medialness—reduced to its simplest ex- pression—a subject formally studied by the famed French geometer Gaspard Monge (late 18th century) at the onset of modern mathematical studies in descriptive and differential geometries, and since applied in computer vision theories of shape representation by pioneers such as Thomas Binford (gen- eralized cylinders) and David Marr (hierarchies of parts). A true visionary in the history of pattern recognition at the infancy of computing was Harry Blum who introduced and developed in the early 1960s with colleagues at the Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratories a graph-theoretic notion of ‘medial axis’ (MA) aka ‘skeleton’ or ‘symmetry axis’ (Blum, 1962a, b, 1967; Kotelly, 1963). Blum was interested in developing a mathematics for biol- ogy that would provide a process-based view on symmetry to study growth, movement, as well as static shape descriptions. Blum often would use simple drawn figures (line drawings) from which a flow would ignite at their outline and propagate over the horizontal space as a grass fire: fire fronts would quench by pair defining a medial trace of axial symmetries which could then be associated to implicit shape features of the original object; ‘medial’ here refers to the location of a symmetry axis being ‘in-between’ initial con- tour outline segments at the origin of the quenching (imaginary) fire. This fire analogy is one of space occupation or partitioning, i.e., every drawn or observed segment is affiliated with a zone of influence or distance field surrounding it (Fig. 6): where two such zones meet indicates a local line of symmetry between a pair of segments (a pair of object’s outline, drawn, observed or hallucinated). We note here that via this propagation process an explicit tension field is provided as a directed distance map, such that every point of empty space is oriented towards its ‘source’—a boundary segment or line trace—except for those loci at equal distance from multiple sources— which are precisely located on the trace of the MA. 182 F. F. Leymarie, P. Aparajeya / Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 Blum’s proposal is an attempt to unify notions of geometry with topology: e.g., the hole of the handle of a cup manifests itself as a resulting loop in the MA graph for the interior of the object and as an MA sub-structure oriented perpendicularly to the plane of the handle and through the center of the hole for the exterior space (alike a local pot wheel axis). Each MA locus can be linked to curvatures at the boundary of the object, hence unifying local dif- ferential structure with global topological properties (Siddiqi and Pizer, 2008). In 2D an MA branch always terminates in relation to either a curvature extrema or a circular arc on the object’s boundary. Hence, a corner of a 2D object is well demarcated by a terminating MA branch. The dual of this obser- vation is that concavities or inlands of an object are typically characterized by a terminating MA branch for the exterior space (aka negative space). In theory, there is a duality between the MA structure and the original outline of an ob- ject, such that by inflating the MA trace with a set of chosen primitives, the original outline can be recovered precisely. For general forms, the primitive is a disk (in 2D, a sphere in 3D) whose radius is specified by the generated dis- tance field (or time of fire quenching) (Fig. 6); for special object classes such as tubular forms or generalized cylinders, the ‘primitive’ is a varying radius function which is swept along the axial graph. Recent extensions of Blum’s MA—which remains an active topic of re- search after more than 50 years since Blum’s original ideas first appeared— include (i) the use of Bayesian modeling to integrate 2D properties such as grouping, convexity and curvature, figure–ground dichotomy (Feldman and Singh, 2006; Froyen et al., 2015), (ii) in 3D, work focused on efficient point- based modeling inspired by the computer graphics community (Delame Figure 6. Adapted and augmented from Van Tonder et al., 2003, Fig. 3: The 2D Medial Axis (MA) of Blum: (a) for two sample points considered as sources of propagating wave fronts, where the MA is obtained as the loci of meeting Euclidean wave fronts; the (central) cross indicates the initial shock when the fronts first meet, and the arrows indicate the direction of growth or flow of the MA segments; (b) as the loci of centers of maximal contact disks (a dual view to propagating wave fronts such as in (a); (c) derived from a distance map computed for a humanoid outline, as the ridge lines of the corresponding height field, (d), where the (signed) distance from the outline maps to a height value, such that a direction is associated to each point of space, thus defining a vector field regular almost everywhere except at (singular) MA loci. (a) (b) (c) (d) Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 183 et al., 2016; Tagliasacchi et al., 2016), as well as the work on shock scaffolds as an extension of earlier work on 2D shock graphs, based on results from (mathematical) singularity theory (Chang et al., 2009; Leymarie, 2003; Ley- marie and Kimia, 2007), and (iii) at the junction of 2D and 3D, the work on the recovery of approximate 3D MA information from a plurality of 2D MA obtained from a series of view points taken around a given object of interest (Yasseen et al., 2015, 2017). Here we note that Arnheim’s structural skeleton (Sect. 3.1) can be approxi- mated as Blum’s MA for the exterior of the depicted objects’ traces, within the limits of a canvas, i.e., the symmetry curves indicating the lines of balance between the canvas’ frame—delimiting the outward boundary of the painting or sketch—and the pictorial elements imposed by the creator, the artist—such as the outlines of objects being depicted (Note 12). Furthermore, the generated distance field obtained when computing Blum’s grassfire propagation is di- rectional: every point of space is oriented towards its closest source (here part of a drawn segment). Together with the lines of symmetry this field gives an explicit representation of Arnheim’s structural skeleton and notion of tension. The concept of (medial) lines of forces used either by an artist or designer in conceiving an artifact or by the observer in interpreting the composition of an artwork has been revisited by Michael Leyton since the later part of the 20th century. Leyton has mainly considered the interiors of drawn and painted forms with a notion of an extended 2D MA where branches are oriented to indicate growth patterns (e.g., of arms and fingers) and exterior pressures (Leyton, 2006) (Note 13). A recent review of such ideas that may support a theory of visual tension when applied to the visual arts is given by Ling Zhu (Zhu, 2016). Also recently, a theory of graffiti generation, which shows similitudes with some of the ideas of Leyton, can be found developed in the manuscript by the Italian artist Dado (Ferri, 2017). In the following paragraphs we summarize a number of illustrative projects in computing which use variants of Blum’s MA as a key component in design- ing computerized drawing systems. 4.1. Use of the MA in Computerized Drawing Systems Using an approximate medial curve to indicate a movement plan for the arm to move along and perform across it drawing gestures has been explored in some computerized systems that aim at approximating an artistic rendering style. In automatic painterly rendering, Gooch et al. use the 2D MA to define brush strokes, i.e., their direction and size. They first segment an image in ho- mogeneous color patches, and then capture the main axial directions of each such patch via an approximate MA (Gooch et al., 2002). In automatic por- trait generation, Tresset and Leymarie use the 2D MA to define main gesture 184 F. F. Leymarie, P. Aparajeya / Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 lines to follow when mimicking the artist’s hand (Tresset and Leymarie, 2005) (Figs 7 and 8); this is similar to the shading technique used in rapid sketch- ing techniques (Fig. 4). These ‘gesture lines’ drive the drawing device, e.g., an ink plotter in simpler systems or a robotic arm which mimics a human’s gestures holding a pen or brush in more recent and sophisticated implemen- tations (Tresset and Leymarie, 2013). In automatic surface shading to pro- duce illustrations and engravings, Deussen et al. use the 3D MA to provide the main axial directions from which to derive perpendicular intersection planes to draw hatching strokes on the object’s surface (Deussen et al., 1999). A computational system based on generalized cylinders connected via an MA Figure  7. Example of MA-based sketching (adapted from Tresset and Leymarie, 2005). (a) Automatically segmented face region. (b) Gray-level segmentation in interest regions (using k-means clustering after blurring). (c) Binary map representing two of the gray levels in b. (d) Approximate MA map obtained from c, which provides a set of gesture lines (as directional guides). (e) Example of sketching executed using the gestures lines (obtained in d) with ‘zigzag’ shading (as in Fig. 4) limited to the regions obtained in c. (f) Example of a similar sketching process using a larger set of regions (from b), with same gesture lines (from d), but with a more ‘random zigzag’ shading. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 185 graph, named ROSE (Representation Of Spatial Experience), was developed in the mid-1990s by Ed Burton to model young children’s drawings (Burton, 1995). Bregler et al. have investigated capturing a ‘Line of Action’ (LoA)—in the form of an approximate main medial line running through an articulated form—as the source of the movement of a drawn character to animate and re- targeting it to other characters in other media (Bregler et al., 2002). Although there is not enough information in this single curve to solve for more complex motion, such as how the hands move relative to each other, the investigators discovered that a surprising amount of information comes from this LoA: the essence of the motion is still present in the re-targeted output (Bregler et al., 2002). More recently a team at the INRIA in France has been exploring the use and advantages of the LoA in designing graphical interfaces to better con- trol characters performing 3D motions, such as in dance (Guay et al., 2013, 2015). Related work in Zurich at the ETH and at Disney Research, in which a set of loosely defined medial curves is used to create a type of stick figure, has led to the design of a computerized drawing interface to permit an artist to rap- idly specify the main poses of a character, which can then be interpolated into dense animation sequences (Hahn et al., 2015). The use of a simplified MA in the form of a stick figure as a drawing interface has been proposed before, for example to access large datasets of human motion data (Choi et al., 2012). Alternatively, from a drawn 2D cartoon character, a simplified MA can be automatically recovered and then used to deform and animate a corresponding Figure  8. Use of approximate medial axes to drive rapid sketching gestures mimicking a shading style made of varying random zigzags (as in Fig. 4); here the portraits of two famous computing pioneers are illustrated: Ada Lovelace and Alan Turing (as drawn by the AIkon-1 system; Tresset and Leymarie, 2005). 186 F. F. Leymarie, P. Aparajeya / Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 3D extruded version (Igarashi et al., 1999) or even generate a 3D character proxy which can then be further manipulated by the artist (Bessmeltsev et al., 2015). We emphasize that many of the above computational systems can be used to study how humans perceive and draw artistic pieces, perhaps even how they learn to draw. Alternatively, such systems can be used as extensions to the artistic practice: the artist can augment their creative frontiers by using such systems as a test bed for explorations in a ‘morphospace’ of possible render- ings or animations. The challenge of exploring a morphospace in search of new styles and ideas of forms is perhaps best exemplified in the practice of contemporary visual artists such as William Latham. Latham, who was trained in established art schools (Oxford, Royal College of Arts), decided early (in the mid-1980s) to project his artistic practice into ‘algorithms’. He decided to blend evolution- ary schemes inspired by the principles of Darwin and Wallace, as well as the then very recent work by Dawkins on biomorphs (Dawkins, 1986), and explore morphospaces of rapidly evolving forms in sculpting and in drawings (Latham, 1989). This lead him later to join forces with computer scientists at the IBM Research Centre near Winchester in England to produce some of the first and most sophisticated 3D interactive graphics softwares in the late 1980s (Todd and Latham, 1992). These are implicitly built around notions of medial graphs and generalized cylinders branching out and fleshed with various 3D primitives and sweep functions. Latham developed a characteristic style in producing such patterns, animated or not, which have a clear ‘organic’ stylistic signature (Lambert et al., 2013). There are a number of limitations in this notion of medialness for the de- scription, analysis and genesis of the traces of objects (such as their outlines) which have been the source of numerous attempts in the computing literature to augment the original contributions of Blum et al. and try to remedy such limits. Because medialness is defined on the basis of a differential structure, leading to an abstract mathematical entity, that of a graph (made of nodes linked by curve segments and hyper-segments in higher dimensions) it suf- fers from some of the limitations of traditional differential geometry: it fa- vors smooth outlines, can be responsive to small deviation (in curvature) and can lead to ill-defined behaviors under perturbations of boundary segments. On the other hand, Blum’s concept provides a number of original features in comparison to traditional geometry-based viewpoints as the MA transform can be applied to open segments—such as separated drawn line segments or non-closed boundaries or objects other than solids—as well as to objects with finitely many discontinuous curvature points, such as the corners of a rectan- gle where curvature is undefined (or assumed infinite). The MA also does not require a priori coordinate frames attached to the trace of the object’s outlines, Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 187 a traditional necessary step when computing with calculus as a framework (Leymarie, 2006b). In the next section we summarize our computational scheme for medialness which removes some of the limitations of Blum’s MA, and which is further better adapted to the approximate use of medialness found in the visual arts, in drawing practices, as well as found in emerging results from visual perception and studies from brain science on neural correlates. 5. Beyond the MA, Towards P-Medialness: A Computational Scheme for Medialness Informed by Visual Perception We have designed in recent years a computational scheme which brings to- gether the two main representations of 2D objects known to play an impor- tant role in visual perception, in the understanding of human vision neural correlates, and which are relevant to many procedural techniques found in the making of visual art pieces. In the following we summarize our proposed computational scheme to systematically map visual contour traces to a medi- alness map which is then further processed to identify feature points of three types: (i) ‘hot spots’ of the interior medial map as dominant points (i.e., domi- nant in medial value); (ii) significant concavities represented by loci near the exterior side of a contour; and (iii) significant convexities represented by loci near (the interior of) the contour. According to Kovács et al., the definition of medialness of a point in the image space is given by the accumulation of sets of boundary segments falling into an annulus of thickness parameterized by a tolerance value (ε) and with interior radius taken as the minimum radial distance of a point from boundary (Kovács et al., 1998) (Fig. 9). This process maps an image (of the interior of an object) to a gray-level 2D map where grayness is a direct measure of accumulated medialness measure for each point of the original image under consideration. One noticeable drawback of this defi- nition when seeking to retrieve dominant points is that it does not make a distinction with neighboring boundary segments constitutive of separate object parts and which ought not to be considered in the support annulus zone; e.g., this is the case when the fingers of one’s hand are kept near each other (Fig. 10). We improve on this definition by introducing orientation to the boundary points and then use this readily available information (e.g., from a gradient filter) to modify accordingly the medialness function, resulting in Dε ∗ (eqn. A1.1, Appendix 1). This not only reduces the impact of neighboring parts on medialness measurements, but also emphasizes the sharpness of medialness at the tips of ridges hence helping improve the localization of associated con- vexities—and concavities when processing the exterior area. 188 F. F. Leymarie, P. Aparajeya / Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 5.1. Hot Spots as Interior Medial Dominant Points Medialness increases with ‘grayness’ in our transformed images (for the purpose of visualizing medialness, similarly to Kovács et al.). In order to identify hot spots at positions of high level of medialness, let us consider the medialness map as a landscape upon which we can walk and climb up to its ridges. Once on a ridge, we can walk in either (i) one climbing direction, or (ii) move ahead or behind in order to stay at high positions along a ridge and Figure  9. Top: Adapted from (Kovács et al., 1998, Fig. 2) with permission (from the lead author: I. Kovács): the Dε function for a simple shape defined as an accumulation of curve segments falling inside the annulus neighborhood of thickness ε (thick boundary segments within the gray hashed ring) centered around the circle (with center p). M(p) is taken as the minimum radial distance from point p to the nearest contour point. Bottom: Illustration of our modified Dε ∗ function (refer to Appendix  1 for details), such that the associated orientation vector has a scalar product with the unit radius vector [taken in the direction of the line from b(t) to p[which is positive. R(p) is taken as the minimum radial distance from p to the nearest contour point. Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 189 take notice of local peaks: these will be candidate (interior) medial dominant points. In terms of implementation, we first filter the medialness map to iso- late ridges and then apply some heuristics to localize peaks with some degree of tolerance—function of the same ε used in the definition of medialness (Fig. 11). We then walk along ridge regions (typically thick traces around ridge lines of the medialness landscape) to locate its peaks: these are then kept as interior medial dominant points or hot spots. Some of the technical details are provided in Appendix 1; a more complete view on the algorithmic imple- mentation is available in other recent publications (Aparajeya and Leymarie, 2016; Leymarie et al., 2014b). We introduce now a novel visualization of primitives of the original depict- ed object’s 2D traces based on hot spots, which proves useful when analyzing art pieces. To each hot spot is associated an annulus with a specific radius and thickness ε. We use the following heuristic to evaluate the association of hot Figure  10. Comparison of the results of computing medialness functions on the image of a human hand. Top: the result of applying the original Dε function as proposed by Kovács et al. (1998). Bottom: the result of our proposed improved method applying Dε ∗. In computing Dε, the medialness at a point p may take support from neighboring fingers, while when using the proposed Dε ∗, such extraneous information can be discarded using a scalar product—here illustrated (bottom left) by considering the scalar product of vectors associated to facing contours from one object part (a finger under scrutiny in this case) with respect to radial vectors pointing to the center of the annulus, hence creating a likely medial symmetry, versus vectors pointing away (from the annulus center) which are likely due to nearby object parts (other nearby fingers in this case). 190 F. F. Leymarie, P. Aparajeya / Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 spots to define larger neighborhoods via their respective annuli: when a pair of annuli of thickness ε1 and ε2 significantly overlap (as medial disks), combine these into a new ‘sausage-like’ neighborhood obtained by a set sum of both annuli, and make the boundary of that sausage region of average thickness [i.e., ε = 0.5(ε1 + ε2)]. This process can be iterated until no new disk region as- sociated to a nearby hot spot overlaps enough with an already paired annulus. ‘Significance’ of overlap is currently a decision left to the human observer and taken as a parameter; we use a minimum of 33% of overlaps in our examples when building sausages. In the proposed visualization we do not allow for crossings over junctions (i.e., where more than two ridges used to find peaks Figure 11. Illustration of the successive steps in isolating internal dominant points as hot spots: (a) medialness representation of (the interior of) a standing dog; (b) corresponding extracted significant ridges using a morphological top-hat transform (Aparajeya and Leymarie, 2016; Serra, 1988; Vincent, 1993); (c) internal dominant points illustrated as dark gray dots together with the original object’s boundary; and (d) possible visualization of shape primitives as ‘sausages’ obtained by connecting adjacent and sufficiently overlapping interior medial annuli. (b) (c) (d) (a) Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 191 of medialness identifying hot spots come together). In effect we are applying a reverse transform to identify shape primitives as (interior) sausage regions. An example of such a ‘reconstruction’ of the original approximate shape is given in Fig. 11d; notice the thick traces of the sausages’ boundaries, and the fact that some of these primitives further overlap. We leave refinements of this procedure to future work, such as the specification of the overlap parameter via machine learning (on multiple training examples). We also note here a possible relationship with a recent analysis performed by Oliver Layton et al. in their study of figure–ground segregation (Layton et al., 2014). In their model, the annuli of Kovács et al. map to on-surround receptive fields (RFs); feedback from families of such RFs can emphasize an interior MA to indicate closure (of figure versus ground). Furthermore they propose to combine series of annuli responses for varying radii resulting in a ‘teardrop’ model that can emphasize closure along parts and corners. Our sausage region computation offers a pos- sible simple approximation and implementation of their teardrop model. 5.2. External Concave and Interior Convex Dominant Points Medialness is not in theory only restricted to be evaluated for the interior of an object (Note 14). Mapping an image of contour traces to medialness for the exterior of an object’s outline provides another field along which we can also follow ridges. Those that end near the contour segments are indicative of negative curvature extrema or concavities (Note 15). We use such ends of exterior medialness ridges as candidate concavities; we rank order such candidates by a significance measure representing their contour support: i.e., we estimate how much of the boundary trace is represented by the associated local end of a medialness ridge point—this is to discard curvature extrema due to noise or very small features along a contour (Fig. 12, top). If we look at the dual image, i.e., the medialness map for the interior of the object, then end of ridges are indicative of positive curvature or convexities. We apply a similar method (to that for concavities) to extract the most significant convexi- ties (Fig. 12, bottom). 5.3. P-Medialness: Perception-Based Medial Feature Point Set Together, the three types of points derived from medialness—interior, concave and convex—form a rich description of the shape of an object’s image (Fig. 13). We have recently built systems on the basis of this tri-partite feature set to ad- dress problems of information retrieval with applications to environmental data sets (biological shapes, static or in movement) (Aparajeya and Leymarie, 2014, 2016), movement computing (Leymarie et al., 2014b) and gesture trans- fer between human artists and potential robotic simulators and collabora- tors (Leymarie et al., 2014a). In Fig. 13, bottom row, we illustrate the use 192 F. F. Leymarie, P. Aparajeya / Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 of sausage region retrieval, based on interior hot spot association, to obtain a description in terms of shape primitives of a cat in movement. This is to be compared with the use of primitives by a draughtsman, illustrated in Fig. 3, to create this particular cat series. The primitives recovered via hot spots are not exactly the same, but (we claim) are of similar type and illustrate Figure  12. Top: External medialness processing on a humanoid object. The articulated movement of the left arm changes the location and orientation of the associated external dominant point (near the concave curvature peak). If the external dominant point is reasonably far from the object’s boundary, then it proves difficult to retrieve a (shape-based) match with the modified form. We instead use the intersection of the main ridge orientation with the boundary (i.e., extrapolating the ridge orientation until it crosses the nearby object’s boundary) to identify a more robust (under deformations) representative locus for the concavity; details in (Aparajeya and Leymarie, 2016). Pairs of dark arrows along the contour illustrate the local support for concavity while the arrow along the medial ridge (dark with white pointy head) indicates the direction of flow of medialness (away from the concavity). Bottom: Similar illustration of interior medialness processing on a humanoid object to identify significant convexities in the vicinity of ends of medialness (ridge) trace. Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 193 a similar use of topology to connect these and of morphology to capture the main body parts and limbs and other features. Note that we do not here use the additional information provided by retrieved significant convex and concave features (Fig. 13, middle row) which should be useful to help further charac- terize parts (Hoffman, 2001); we leave this potential for further studies. 5.4. P-Medialness versus Blum’s MA We emphasize here the similarities and differences between the original ideas of Harry Blum and their continuing development and multiple applications since, and the concept of perception-based medialness (or p-medialness). In essence, Blum’s MA is a generic representation for shape that maps to an ab- stract oriented graph: a connected diagram with flows along its trace with possible associated singularities or shocks. We emphasize the ‘abstract’ nature of the MA as a representation: it is a mathematical entity; it has no materiality, no width. It also provides for uniqueness thanks to its precision: for a given set of (abstract) sources of propagation (e.g., the mathematical curves delimit- ing a 2D object, or a point sampling of such a boundary), the resulting MA is unique, in terms of the combined trace of the graph and its associated radii Figure 13. Top: The Dε ∗ -function (interior) for a sequential set of frames of the movement of a drawn cat (from Fig. 3). Middle: Our proposed shape representation in terms of a selection of internal dominant medial (in light gray) and contour (convex and concave in dark gray) points. Bottom: A possible visualization of primitives obtained by connecting adjacent and overlapping interior medial annuli (sausage-like regions). It is instructive to compare these object parts and relationships with the choices made by the artist who drew the originals (Fig. 3). 194 F. F. Leymarie, P. Aparajeya / Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 function creating a flow along this graph (Leymarie, 2006b). The MA offers a number of interesting additional features which explain in part its success in computational fields since its introduction in the 1960s; we mention a few here (for a more complete treatment of the subject, refer for example to the mono- graph edited by Siddiqi and Pizer (Siddiqi and Pizer, 2008)): the topology of the object is reflected in the topology of the MA graph (e.g., a hole maps to a loop); significant curvature extrema map to MA branch end points; curvature breaks map to branch ending on the original contour; the original set of sourc- es is recoverable by reversing the wave propagation starting from the MA trace and limiting in time the propagation using the associated radii function; most small deviations, protrusions, indentations, of a smooth boundary are captured by the MA (sometimes seen as a high sensitivity problem or limitation); any gap along a contour is represented as an MA feature (usually a neck or source of the bidirectional flow along an MA branch). We could add to this list, but these features should give some appreciation for the potential of Blum’s MA as a shape representation in the computational disciplines. P-medialness as we have presented it, and as we think of it, can be seen as a generalization of the abstract nature of Blum’s MA towards a physically (and biologically) plausible representation which could be computed and held in a (real) neural network (by contrast with an artificial neural network which can process and sustain a purely abstract mathematical representation). While the evidence for a medialness operation in the visual neural system is mounting, and its usefulness in cognition is also becoming apparent (Sect.  3), its rela- tion to artistic techniques and practices also appears promising. Noticeably, p-medialness removes the constraint of uniqueness associated to Blum’s MA: slightly different loci of the sources of propagation can result in the same or similar medialness fields. In particular, a series of similar dominant points can then be obtained for various, but sufficiently closely related line drawings. ‘Sufficiently’ close would need a further analysis to more precisely character- ize which line drawings can be considered equivalent. We have yet to perform such an analysis. We consider p-medialness as a generalization of Blum’s MA because it includes it, or reduces to it: as we let the annuli width vanish (ε → 0) the resulting medialness field becomes equivalent to a classic distance map used to evaluate the MA (Note 16). 6. Using P-Medialness to Study Works of Art We now explore in this penultimate section the application of medialness as a representation substrate for a class of works of (visual) art. Our study is only meant as an entry into the subject and thus clearly not exhaustive. We focus on works from two important 20th century artists—Picasso and Matisse. For all our observations, we provide commentaries derived from a (non-artist) Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 195 reading of medialness maps and features. We propose that such detailed analy- sis is made more explicit and obvious by using the information present in the medialness maps and recovered feature points. 6.1. Picasso In Fig. 14 we first segment the color photo of the famous ‘Les Demoiselles d’Avignon’ painting by Picasso (a) (Note 17), isolating the five female figures in the piece (b) which we refer to by numerals 1–5 from left to right (from the observer’s vantage point). In (c) we show the medialness field in between the bounding canvas rectangular limits and the regions exterior to the female figures. Such a medialness field can be used to study the spatial relations be- tween the female figures. For example, an apparent first dichotomy is observed between two groups of figures: Demoiselles 1, 2 and 3 have very little medi- alness field left in-between them, in the form of elongated inroads; a similar situations (with no intermediate space) is observed for the second group of Demoiselles 4 and 5. However, the medialness region in between the two groups is wider and rich in its shape features with multiple hot spots and ridge ends (Note 18). Also the two groups are entirely separated by medialness (from top to bottom), while within each group figures come in close contacts. Yet another interpretation could be of two bordering groups: Demoiselle 1 on the left, and Demoiselles 4 and 5 together on the right, with the 3rd group made by the ‘couple’ of Demoiselles 2 and 3 (the background and skin colorations and textures seems to emphasize this partitioning as well). Indeed, Demoiselle 1 is almost entirely separated from Demoiselle 2 by a thin elongated region of exterior medialness. The central couple also share some strong pose features (folded arms above head), which is made apparent when also considering the interior medialness. We also exploit the exterior medialness field for each figure individually, such as illustrated in Fig. 14d. This field is used to retrieve significant con- cavities (of the body; or by duality, significant convexities of the background) located at the tip of medial ridges that end near the body. This process is repeated for each body individually. In (e) we show the medialness field for the interior of all five female figures and in (f) the result of our recovery of the three types of feature points based on medialness (a visualization we refer to as ‘vis. #1’). We propose that such feature maps and their underlying me- dialness fields can be used to conduct careful studies of artworks composed of distinct objects such as Les Demoiselles. The five figures occupy similar amount of space (in terms of retrieved medial disk areas). Some of the Dem- oiselles share similar parts indicated by local groupings of medial features: e.g., the folded ‘arm and elbow’ of Demoiselles 2 and 3 which is repeated in the folded ‘leg and knee’ of Demoiselle 4. The convex and medial hot 196 F. F. Leymarie, P. Aparajeya / Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 Figure 14. (a) Les Demoiselles d’Avignon, Pablo Picasso, 1907. (b) Approximate segmentation (using skin colors from the original). (c) Exterior medialness field. (d) Exterior medialness for Fig. 4. (e) Interior medialness fields. (f) Feature points retrieved for the five Demoiselles (vis. #1). (a) (c) (e) (f) (d) (b) Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 197 spots of the breasts of the Demoiselles 1, 2, 3 and 5, in profile or facing the observer, are also highlighted. In Fig. A1 (Appendix 3) we show our feature point analysis of ‘Les Demoi- selles d’Avignon’ for the interior and exterior medialness fields, where we only illustrate as hot spots (with associated medial radius) those medial points with the highest 80–100% values of maximum medialness. We also approximate ridge following on the medialness field (thick paths) to link the various feature points. In this visualization (we refer to as ‘vis. #2’), we show significant con- vexities with interior arrows (single headed) and significant concavities with exterior arrows (double headed); the orientation of these arrows corresponds to the direction of the associated end of ridges of medialness. We note that our choices of parameters and thresholds remain purely experimental and can only be used with care as a more in depth study over series of works will be required, to provide perhaps some systematic methods of parameter selection. Nevertheless, such visualization choices are useful we propose for at least some interactive modes of analysis of such an artwork. The three main modes of visualization we have introduced (‘sausages’, ‘vis. #1’ and ‘vis. #2’) will be used in the remaining of this experimental section. The specifics of the para- metric choices are detailed in Appendix 2. These three visualization modes are also juxtaposed in the next figure to illustrate their differences and similarities. In Fig. 15 we discover Picasso’s lithographs of the ‘Rites of Spring’ and a ‘Bullfight’ explicitly available as (segmented) figure–ground images with superposed main medialness information added: feature points and associated medial disks, vis. #1. Below is shown the use of vis. #2, which emphasizes the relationships amongst medial features, while at the bottom we see the sausage regions that can be used to identify the main sub-parts of the drawn figures and surrounding objects. In the Rites of Spring we see two human figures with similar arm structures while the horns of the goat mimic (or respond to) these arms in extension and general orientation pointing upward and curving. Also, the leg and knee of the dancing human figure appear also repeated (mir- rored) in the front leg structures of the goat. In the Bullfight, the horns of the bull respond in medialness structure to the spades of the toreador. The overall toreador body is vertically stretched and slightly curved upward and seems to respond and mimic the bull’s horizontal own stretch, also slightly curv- ing; both poses can be captured via a LoA or simplified MA. We note that in such simplified depictions the meaning of drawn forms may remain ambigu- ous: the ‘smallest units of meaning’ are ‘the shapes of the regions (round or long) together with secondary properties such as being bent or being pointed’ (Willats, 2006). Such ambiguity creates a tension that may augment the inter- est of the observer in the overall art piece. In particular, in the Rites of Spring the volumes at the end of the human arms can represent various types of instruments, and might in this instance either represent flat ‘slabs’ or elongated 198 F. F. Leymarie, P. Aparajeya / Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 Figure  15. Top row: Rites of Spring and Bullfight, lithographs by Picasso, circa 1959, with superimposed feature points (vis. #1). Middle row: alternate visualization of medialness features (vis. #2) emphasizing the connectivity amongst medial features. Bottom row: Visualization of the sausage regions derived from sufficiently overlapping hot spot domains. Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 199 generalized cylinders or ‘lumps’ (Willats, 1992) perhaps interpreted as differ- ent categories of percussive instruments. In Fig. A2 (Appendix 3) we only highlight the eight face-like forms found in the famous depiction by Picasso of the massacre of Guernica: six of humans, one of a bull and one of a horse. The human faces have very similar medial- ness structures and recovered feature points descriptions, with protuberances highlighting the nose, mouth and chin which are used to emphasize a sense of orientation in space: crying towards the sky, gaping towards the massacre. In Fig. A3 (Appendix 3), in the top part, the exterior medialness for the eight faces makes explicit their relative position on the canvas and their approximate zones of influence. The boundaries between these zones also highlight the relationships between each face/character (Note 19). In Fig. A4 (Appendix 3) we discover a study of the Bull form performed by Picasso between December 5, 1945 and January 17, 1946, where the artist progressively simplifies the form of a bull seen in profile, to finally converge on a compromise between the last penultimate two stages. In our analysis of the same series, Fig. A5 (Appendix 3), we notice that some structures are kept throughout the series: e.g., the head’s main convexities, while the main body (frame) of the bull is gradually simplified [with a diminishing number of hot spots (interior medial points)]. A similar simplification process occurs with the legs (noticeable in terms of medialness as the legs are eventually reduced to simple curves). The tail is eventually made clearly separated from the main body (rather than overlapping as in the initial sketches), and it too is simplified into an elongated curve; this is made more explicit in the analysis of the exte- rior medialness (Fig. A7, Appendix 3). From the exterior medialness we also can observe how the backbone and overall dorsal region is made smoother (rounder, upwards, with no concavities left). The artist finally converges on an ultimate version (January 17, 1946) which appears to represent a compro- mise by combining elements of the two penultimate stages (January 5 and 10, 1946), preserving the simplest structures for the legs and tail (January 10) and head and main body (January 5), while deciding to go for the more elaborate reproductive system and inner body lines of January 10. Both the interior and exterior medialness analyses (Figs A6 and A7, Appendix 3) make explicit the exploration of form Picasso underwent and help show how he simplified cer- tain aspects of the body’s overall form and refined certain parts (in particular the legs, tail, head). In Fig. 16 is illustrated a series of three Picasso drawings from the 1940s, mainly centered around the female form (originals can be found in the 1950 book by Jean Bouret—Bouret, 1950). These three drawings were used by Ko- enderink, Van Doorn and Wagemans in their extensive study on cartoon-style line drawings (Koenderink et al., 2012). They produced different analyses of these three drawings, and in particular tried to capture the 3D percepts that 200 F. F. Leymarie, P. Aparajeya / Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 human observers report in filling-in the body surfaces in between Picasso’s well-delineated bounding contours. One of their analyses is based on contour fitting (of drawn strokes) and further analyses of curvature and pairings indi- cating strong MA cues and significant circular primitives (such as associated to the buttocks of the female bodies, Fig. 16, middle row). Our results are in  general agreement with theirs. We provide finer detailed analyses as we Figure 16. Top row: Three 1940s Picasso drawings of the female form (adapted from Koenderink et al., 2012). Middle row: Contour-based analysis highlighting certain pairings (resulting in medial axis segments) and important circles of curvature (convexities) and external concavities (shown as darken small disks, where the size reflects the significance of the concavity, while the shade/color reflects the type); adapted, with permission from the authors (Koenderink et al., 2012, Fig. A2)—originals in color. Bottom row: Visualization of the sausage regions derived from overlapping hot spot domains in p-medialness. Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 201 compute medialness for a larger set of line traces since we do not require to carefully represent drawn strokes (our medialness can be computed from par- tial data, points or line segments). In these drawings, the long linear structures of the arms are made explicit by the ridges of medialness, while important body parts (e.g., buttocks, bulging knees, breasts) are well captured as hot spots with associated medial disks, bottom of Fig. 16 (refer to Fig. A8 in Ap- pendix 3 for the use of the other visualization modes). 6.2. Matisse Starting with Fig. 17, we consider some works by Henri Matisse, another important artist of the 20th century. Matisse was part of the same group as Picasso of visual artists who emerged on the art scene of Paris in the early 1900s and had a major impact throughout their lifetime, often re-inventing their style and practice, all the while influencing each other as well as their contempo- raries. In this figure, we have three examples of the famous series of blue cuts Figure  17. Women Cut-Outs series, Matisse, 1952. Top row: Our medialness analysis is shown, superimposed (vis. #1). Bottom row: Visualization of the sausage regions derived from overlapping hot spot domains. 202 F. F. Leymarie, P. Aparajeya / Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 in which Matisse explored the female form. In terms of medialness structures, we can observe very similar limbs and body descriptions (alike generalized cylinders); breasts are singled out, the head plays a dominant role (with one or very few hot spots) but its pose varies. The foldings of the arms and legs are similar, and represent an exploration of various possible solutions in terms of occlusions, orientations and foldings (of hand and foot), which is made more apparent in the visualization of sausage regions (bottom row of Fig. 17). In Figs A10 to A15 (Appendix 3), we perform a comparison of a series on female reclining nudes by Matisse who explored various changes in positions and slight deformation of body parts, while the background contexts progres- sively become more abstract. This series was photographed by Matisse during a period of six months in 1935 when he explored various changes in pose and parts, which lead to a finished piece, the Large Reclining Nude (or Pink Nude, Fig. A9). We study 16 of the original 22 photographs in the series here (the original photographs are part of the Baltimore Museum of Art collection). If we consider the interior medialness information (Figs A10 to A13), the final version represents a more symmetric pause (legs versus arms and head); the dorsal line is smoother, the large buttocks lead towards a finer waist line (cre- ating an approximate triangular flow as a generalized cylinder, oriented from the buttocks towards the breasts). The legs are more neatly aligned, one (the left) leading to the end of the other (right) which is otherwise largely occlud- ed. The knee is folding in response to the (right) arm over the head creating a (mirrored) symmetrical pause (left legs vs. right arm). Also, one hand leads to the bottom of the canvas in response to one foot (a possibility explored in a few previous frames). In this last iteration, the head is re-oriented straight up alike the breasts (main convexities closely aligned in orientation). When con- sidering the exterior medialness information (Figs A14 and A15), we notice that by the ultimate stage, the negative space under the body has now taken the form of a clean ‘V’ shape (Fig. A15, bottom right), which underlines the smooth way the buttocks link to the back line up to the rest of the body on one side, and to the folded leg on the other side. By comparing the evolution of the main negative space above the reclining female body, we discover that it has become more rectangular in form and that various options were explored by the artist, with slight changes in relative positions of legs and arms and breasts. Finally, in the last frame by observing either the interior or exterior medialness, we see the final solution selected by the artist, where the body oc- cupies space in a more rectangular format, where the arms and top parts of the legs are nearly parallel and oriented vertically. 6.3. Picasso and Matisse For our final experiment, in Fig. 18, we compare a piece by Picasso, The Acrobat, with one by Matisse, Flowing Hair. Both illustrate the use of long Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 203 Figure 18. Picasso and Matisse. Left: Acrobat by Pablo Picasso, oil on canvas, 1930. Right: Flowing Hair (La Chevelure) by Henri Matisse, 1952, gouaches on paper, cut and pasted on paper. Top row: Vis. #1, interior medialness overlain on photograph of originals. Middle row: Visualization of the sausage regions derived from overlapping hot spot domains. Bottom row: Vis. #2 for the exterior medialness fields. 204 F. F. Leymarie, P. Aparajeya / Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 cylindrical parts to convey movement on a static canvas. Both artists give a main overall vertical orientation to the ‘body’, but all limbs and head and neck are oriented at uncomfortable angles, yet giving a strong sense of the move- ment and pose reached by the subject. From the interior medialness depictions we see a similar use of sausage regions. The head is given more details (con- vexities and concavities) for the Acrobat, while the breasts are made explicit for the female figure in Flowing Hair. From the exterior medialness depic- tions, we see that Matisse uses parallelism repetitively, with the arms, hair strokes, and neatly aligned legs, while Picasso, instead forces the extruding body parts of his Acrobat to explore a rectangular frame at various angles and folds, where no two parts is in parallel. Matisse use of medialness suggests flow lines, while Picasso’s evokes the stillness of the acrobat’s body obtained via contortions. 7. Conclusion Medialness is shown to have deep roots in perception and cognition, the arts as well as computational models of shape understanding. More recently, evi- dence is mounting in the literature that parts of the visual cortex are likely involved in some forms of medialness computations and uses. Much remains to be explored however before we have a clear understanding of the various layers of representations and processing involved, in particular as complex feedback loops are integrated by our nervous system. Inspired by such evidence emerging in these various disciplines, we have engaged in developing a computational framework on the basis in particular of the models proposed by, on one hand, Kovács et al. (Kovács et al., 1998) (me- dialness and hot spots) and, on the other hand, Hoffman and Richards (Rich- ards and Hoffman, 1985) (contour codons), themselves inspired by the early work and proposal of Attneave (Attneave, 1954). Our combination of these two apparently different representations (one of regions, the other of contours) can be unified—a concept we refer to as p-medialness (for perception-based medialness)—as shown in our recent work (Aparajeya and Leymarie, 2016; Leymarie et al., 2014b), by relating medialness to contour features by identi- fying end of medial ridges to so-called ‘curvature extrema’. As indicated by recent studies in perception and cognition models, such extrema are better thought of as combining significant curvature peaks with regional support (De Winter and Wagemans, 2008), rather than referring to the traditional math- ematical definition biased towards a purely local concept and analysis. Our present study using medialness is mainly applied to solid shapes (i.e., with a defined interior) and their associated negative space (i.e., exteriors) (Note 20). One line of extension is to consider imprecise regions and forms with no well defined interior-exterior relationship, i.e., no clearly delineated Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 205 boundaries (Koenderink et al., 2016). The original definition of medialness by Kovács et al. may come to our rescue as it is not dependent on having solids (as it does not rely on a strict segmentation of interiors via its lack of exploi- tation of a consistent orientation along contours). Implementing medialness and its representation in terms of hot spots and significant representatives of extrema of curvature, for this important more general type of forms present in artistic renderings, remains to be explored and we leave it as future work (Note 21). We think of visual artists as experts in perception who, in order to explore novel visual representations, need to incorporate in their practice a deep, although often intuitive, understanding of how humans perceive and repre- sent the shape of objects. This intuitive knowledge, apparent for example in drawing techniques, once made explicit can be used to guide more elaborate computational models and perception studies (Koenderink et al., 2012; Tresset and Leymarie, 2013). Our exploration of the use of medialness to study some well-known art works from the 20th century, by Picasso and Matisse, repre- sents an initial step. More careful studies are needed to specify useful para- metric ranges, useful visualization modes, and have artists, art historians, and other specialists use and comment on the framework when seen as a toolbox for exploring the works of other artists or of one’s own art. Other topics can also be studied using the current framework, including figure–ground com- pletion (Layton et al., 2014), the relationship with attention (Bertamini and Wagemans, 2013), as well as the perception of movements (Leymarie et al., 2014b), which was the initial motivation behind Kovács et al.’s work (Kovács et al., 1998). Such topics are relevant to the disciplines that have inspired our study, from the arts, to perception, via mathematical and computational mod- els of shape understanding. Notes 1. Tension field: At every position in the visual space a tension gauge is assumed to exists which can take different values and have different ori- entations, possibly many. Mathematically speaking, one can think of the tension gauge as a vector of vectors or as a tensor, which can be associated to every spatial locus of interest. The tension gauge can reduce to a single vector, e.g., where the amplitude represents a force measurement, or even reduce to a single value, without any designated orientation (aka as a sca- lar), e.g., the nearest distance to a contour or drawn line. 2. Shape is the structure of the generated field surrounding an object’s trace (Leymarie, 2006b). This field typically refers to geometric entities—such as curvatures, singularities (of some appropriate mappings), other gauge figures—which may exist in association with each sample of the object 206 F. F. Leymarie, P. Aparajeya / Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 being scrutinized. In order to identify or measure such entities, we will have to ‘probe’ the field. In this communication the geometric entities we use will be expressed by probing a medialness field. 3. In this work by ‘shape’ we refer to the descriptive features characterizing an object being depicted, for example on a 2D canvas, and by ‘form’ we refer to a class of shapes sharing important similarities. For example, a particular triangular object will see its shape described by three corners (with given angles), a circumcenter and three edge segments. The trian- gular form will refer to a class of similar objects sharing the same shape description, but possibly with varying parameters (angles) and qualities (curved versus straighten edges). This is a computational point of view on the distinction between shape and form (Leymarie, 2006b). For some in the visual arts or in architecture, ‘form’ refers to descriptive features of a 3D depiction of an object, while ‘shape’ refers to the 2D case. Note to the reader: in this article we adopt the computational point of view that proves useful for the context of our study. 4. This invention of Maray was rediscovered in the early 1970s by G. Jo- hansson (Johansson, 1973; Kovács, 2010) in his dot pattern studies on human and animal movement. Maray’s invention is nowadays commonly implemented in commercial systems using multiple camera sensors that follow reflective patterns (usually made of dots) worn by actors in studios built with matte uniform backgrounds. These systems are often referred to as Computerized Movement Capture (aka mo-cap) and are used to trans- fer movement and animation sequences, e.g., for producing moving vir- tual characters in films and games (Amor et al., 2009). 5. Such curvature extrema are closely related to medialness as the loci of terminations when following ridges in the medialness field, a notion we exploit in our proposed computational scheme presented in Sect. 5. 6. The medial axis or MA is defined as loci at equal and minimum distance from two or more sources usually taken as contours or edge points. In 2D applications these points generate a graph made of branches (or axes) corresponding to loci at equal minimum distance from pairs of sources. Such axes can meet at junctions corresponding to loci at equal minimum distance from three or more sources (Blum, 1973). NB: there is close relationship between the medial axis of Blum and the (generalized) Vor- onoi graph (Okabe et al., 2000) made popular in computational geometry (Leymarie, 2003). 7. In Arnheim’s description, the field is typically computed over the empty spaces left between the outward boundaries (of a canvas) and the traces of drawn or painted lines (Arnheim, 1974). 8. Named ‘codons’ by analogy with the term used in genomics to describe triplets of nucleotides as basic coding units. Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 207 9. Differential contrast sensitivity maps: given a boundary of an object in an image sampled by Gabor patches together with numerous additional ran- dom (in location and orientation) Gabor patches as distractors, decrease gradually the contrast and notice those loci which remain above detection thresholds the longest (Kovács and Julesz, 1994). 10. Historical note—This exploration by Deutsch of a possible neural mecha- nism to study shape was being elaborated at the same time Harry Blum was independently developing his own related similar ideas from a com- putational perspective and inspired by his early work in radio engineering (Blum, 1962a, b). 11. This set of two ‘dual’ approaches mimics the wave-particle thinking in classic physics when describing propagation of information (in the con- text of geometric optics): particles moving along rays (such as in Fermat’s optical pathways) versus moving envelopes of wavelets (as in Huygen’s principle of wave propagation). 12. More precisely, Arnheim is thinking of an approximate full symmetry set (SymSet) for the space between the canvas and the drawn outlines (e.g., see Arnheim, 1974, Fig. 3, p. 13). The SymSet is obtained by trac- ing every possible pairwise symmetries between outline fragments under consideration; it includes and extends Blum’s MA; e.g., for a rectangle it includes the entire vertical and horizontal main central axes (Siddiqi and Pizer, 2008). 13. This dynamic view of the 2D MA is called by Leyton the ‘Process Infer- ring Symmetry Axis’ (or PISA). Many of the theoretical ideas of Leyton have yet to be implemented and tested on real images; e.g., how to retrieve robustly a plausible history or sequence of PISA traces from an image of a real painting remains unanswered. It is interesting however to notice that practicing artists often themselves talk about the recovery of the traces (e.g., of a painting brush) as a way to characterize one artist’s production from another. 14. Historical note—This generality in the application of medialness to both the interior and exterior of an object, or even to the traces of segments not necessarily delimiting closed contours, was already known and used by Harry Blum and his collaborators from the 1960s (Blum, 1962a, b, 1967). This is to be found in early papers from that period and in particular in his long manuscript (alike a manifesto and main thesis, rich in concepts and with an extended bibliography) published in the Journal of Theoretical Biology (Blum, 1973). Unfortunately, the original idea of Blum’s MA as applicable to the interior and exterior of objects, or even to open contour segments or point distributions, has often been forgotten or ignored since the early ground work was done. Too often the MA is presented, even recently, as defined only for the interior of closed contours (i.e., for the 208 F. F. Leymarie, P. Aparajeya / Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 interior of solids), what we can only qualify as a mistake and historical oversight. 15. This can be proven (mathematically) in the case of the MA proper, i.e., when we let the tolerance ε go to zero. 16. Historical note—Such a notion of medialness as an alternative to Blum’s MA has been proposed in the past in a few variants (we are aware of), in- cluding the works of: (i) Pizer et al. on ‘cores’ and multiscale skeletons de- rived from gray-scale images (Pizer et al., 2003; Siddiqi and Pizer, 2008), (ii) Levine and Kelly on annuli computations (Kelly and Levine, 1995), (iii) Van Tonder and his HST (Hybrid Symmetry Transformation) model (used in particular for landscaping depiction) (Van Tonder and Ejima, 2003; Van Tonder and Lyons, 2005), and (iv) the concept of fuzzy skel- etons (Bloch, 2008) and other probabilistic field computations, including the more recent work on Bayesian modeling (Feldman and Singh, 2006; Froyen et al., 2015). We note that the focus of these other approaches is towards the retrieval of an abstract graph or mathematical equivalent to Blum’s MA. 17. We use a color-based segmentation built from the watershed technique of mathematical morphology (Bloch, 2008; Serra, 1988). 18. The roles of exterior and interior regions can be interchanged, e.g., if the focus is on the ‘negative spaces’ (such as in architecture (Leymarie and Kimia, 2008)). 19. Formally speaking, these zones of influence are alike generalized Voronoi cells, a concept well studied in computational geometry and often applied in computer vision and graphics for space partitioning problems (Okabe et al., 2000; Siddiqi and Pizer, 2008). 20. Although most of the examples provided in this article are for well seg- mented figure–ground objects, we have some flexibility already built-in the computational framework, by allowing for open ended lines and con- tours to also be considered: e.g., this is visible in our treatment of breasts in some of Picasso’s female bodies (Figs 14 and 16). A more complete approach to be able to process general line drawings, without well defined boundaries or explicit figure–ground segmentation (Koenderink et al., 2016), will require a more ambitious method and implementation, which we leave for future investigations. 21. With no well defined closed boundary, the distinction between convex and concave disappears, and we are left with the sole notion of local re- gions of high curvatures and bends which can still be characterized by how a ridge of medialness points and end in their vicinity. Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 209 References Albertazzi, L. (2006). 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Zucker, S. W. (2015). Border inference and border ownership. The challenge of integrating geometry and topology, in: The Oxford Handbook of Perceptual Organization, J. Wagemans (Ed.), ch. 18, pp. 363–388, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Appendix 1. Technical Details The medialness at a point p in the image space is defined by computing the modified Dε function as a distance metric Dε ∗ (to boundary segments). This is a sampling function constrained to annular sectors. Given a minimum radius function R(p) with center locus p which defines the interior shell of the an- nulus, and Rmax(p) = R(p) + ε the exterior shell, a given sector Si is specified by an angular opening θi (in radians) with bounding segments defined by the intercepts ti and ti+1. The area of the sector is then: Ai = θi(R + 0.5ε) × ε. In prac- tice the intercepts bounding a sector [ti, ti+1] are given by the extremal points of contour or edge segments entering and exiting the annulus, i.e., crossing either of its interior or exterior shells (Fig. 9 right). The medialness measure is then taken as a sampling over the sum of two or more annular sectors containing boundary information (i.e., with contour or edge segments). What is actually measured in each sector is application dependent; in our case one can count the amount of boundary information present in each sector, e.g., the number of edge pixels, or the contour segment length or a binary counter for fixed-length elementary sub-sectors (or bins for fixed sub-tended elementary angular steps, δθ), or simply compute the area of the sector, Ai. We denote the measure taken over an annular sector Si : Si. Then, we can express the medialness measure first proposed by Kovács et al. (1998) in a general form as: D ε = ∑ k=0 k=n S i , i = 2k + 1, n ≥ 1 This formulation implies that at least two separate annular sectors are tra- versed by boundary information. Notice that when the tolerance value ε reduc- es to zero, Dε reduces to a maximal inscribed disk and leads to the traditional medial axis (MA) graph measure. One noticeable drawback of this definition } } Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 215 when seeking to retrieve dominant points is that it does not make a distinction with neighboring boundary segments part of separate object parts and which ought not to be considered in the support annular zones; e.g., this may be the case with the fingers of one’s hand when these are kept near each other (Fig. 10). This imprecision in Dε can be remedied by introducing a measure of orientation at boundary points when assuming figure–ground segmentation (i.e., when knowing the interior versus the exterior of an object); we use such information (e.g., when obtained from a traditional gradient boundary filter) to modify the medialness function, resulting in Dε ∗ as follows. D ε * = ∑ k=0 k=n { S i | → υ b • ⟶ υ (b,p) ≥ 0} , i = 2k + 1, n ≥ 1 (8.1) for a point p = [xp,yp], vector b(t) = [x(t),y(t)] describing the 2D bounding con- tour (B) of the object, and such that → υ b is the orientation of the boundary point b(t), ⟶ υ (b,p) is the orientation of the line joining b(t) to p. The non-negativeness [of the scalar product → υ b . ⟶ υ (b,p) ] is used to rule out boundary pixels which are oriented away from the given annulus center. We do not consider the geometry (differential continuity) of a contour other than provided by that gradient ori- entation. NB: this criterion is efficient if we have reliable figure–ground infor- mation. This is a limit of the modified gauge Dε ∗; however we can always fall back on the original gauge Dε if object segmentation is not reliable. The metric R(p) (minimum radial distance) is taken as the smallest distance between p and the bounding contour: R (p) = { min t (|p − b(t)|) | → υ b • ⟶ υ (b,p) ≥ 0} (8.2) The medialness of a point p depends on two parameters: R(p) and ε, where R(p) is the minimum radial distance between p and bounding contour, and ε is the width of the annulus region (capturing object trace or boundary informa- tion). We can think of the width of the annulus as dictated by ε as an equiva- lent to a scaling parameter: the larger the width, the more averaging of nearby contour information is considered. How to set the tolerance ε in order to have desirable scaling properties thus needs to be addressed. We have argued else- where in setting ε as a logarithmic function of R(p) with a logarithmic base of value x = 1.5 (Aparajeya and Leymarie, 2016): ε p = log x (R (p) + 1) (8.3) To select points of internal dominance, a ‘black’ top-hat transform (Serra, 1988; Vincent, 1993) is applied, resulting in a series of dark areas which typically correspond to peaks, ridges and passes of the medialness map when considered as a height field. Figure 11b shows the result obtained after apply- ing the black top hat transform on a medialness image. } 216 F. F. Leymarie, P. Aparajeya / Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 We still require processing further the output of the top-hat transform to isolate the most dominant points amongst the remaining selected medialness loci. We also consider the cases where the resulting ridges are more like pla- teaus and thus rather flat at their top. In order to identify isolated representa- tive dominant points for such plateaus we ‘pull-up’ such flatten regions and map the central locus of a plateau to the highest local peak value (Aparajeya and Leymarie, 2016). To provide some control on the possible clustering of dominant points, a flat circular structuring element of radius εp (but of at least two pixels in width) is also applied over the output of a top-hat transform to pick maxima. We also impose that no remaining points of locally maximized medialness are too close to each other; this is currently implemented by im- posing a minimum distance of length 2εp is taken between any pair of selected points. An example of applying these steps to identify interior dominant points in medialness is given in Fig. 11c. Appendix 2. Visualization Modes We illustrate the choices that can be made in visualizing the medialness in- formation with three modes in this article, for which we summarize the main features. A2.1. First Mode: Vis. #1 • The minimum separation between selected hot spots (dominant medial- ness loci) is set to 2 × ε (twice the annulus operator’s width). • We indicate an associated medial disk (radius + annular width) using a thick circle. The center is differently shaded and the corresponding dot size reflects the medialness value. • Both concavities and convexities measures are performed by doing con- tour analysis. To do such an analysis, we used two operators: (i) length of support—this basically avoids small bumpy regions in the shape; and (ii) threshold angle—this limits the angle (of opening) of the concavity or convexity. • Detected concavities and convexities are projected on the contour. NB: This approach works well in detecting sharp concavity/convexity, but it fails in those cases where the region of support of a concavity/convexity is relatively small or very large. For example small bumps and large circular structures will be ignored by this method to be counted as the candidates of concavity/convexity. Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 217 A2.2. Second Mode: Vis. #2 • The minimum separation between selected hot spots (dominant medial- ness loci) is set to ε (the annulus operator’s width). This tends to generate more dominant points (hot spots) than for vis. #1. It brings us closer to a medial axis graph structure (as ε becomes smaller). The center is shaded and the corresponding dot size reflects the medialness value. • Again, we indicate an associated medial disk (radius + annular width) using a thick circle, but we do this only for those hot spots whose medial- ness value is equal or more than 80% of the maximum value (for a given image). Thus only the top 20% of hot spots having contour support are illustrated. • Both concavities and convexities measures are done by analyzing medi- alness values (concavity via external medialness, convexity via internal medialness). Only ends of medialness ridges are considered as candidate convexities/concavities. The equivalent of ‘length of support’ in terms of medialness is used to decide on which candidates to keep. • We use arrows to indicate the orientations of concave and convex domi- nant points. • The ridge trace left from the hat transform filters is thinned downed and showed as a trace of varying thickness (still reflective of the local medial- ness values). This visualizes an approximate path of medialness linking the various features. A2.3. Third Mode: Sausage Regions • Given a set of retrieved hot spots, a first corresponding annulus is selected (typically: one of the highest peak in medialness). • Nearest neighboring hot spots along a connecting ridge are checked. • If the corresponding annulus of a nearest neighbor sufficiently overlaps, then combine into a larger sausage region**. • Iterate until no more nearest neighboring hotspots are found along a given ridge; then move on to check another significant hot spots not yet consid- ered (typically located on a different medialness ridge). ** A sausage is obtained by combining overlapping selected annuli, such that a minimum amount of the area of the disk—associated to the annulus last se- lected—sufficiently overlaps with the current sausage region (in our examples, we use a threshold of 33% minimum overlap). The arcs of overlapping annuli that are interior to the combined region are removed, resulting in more or less elongated ovals and other tubular forms. The resulting thickness of the 218 F. F. Leymarie, P. Aparajeya / Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 final sausage region boundary is taken as the average of the combined annuli widths (ε values). Appendix 3. Additional Pictures This Appendix list a number of additional figures referenced to in the main part of the article: • Figure A1: Les Demoiselles d’Avignon by Picasso: Visualization of inte- rior and exterior p-medialness features. • Figure A2: Guernica by Picasso: visualization of interior p-medialness features of faces. • Figure A3: Guernica by Picasso: visualization of exterior and interior medialness fields. • Figure A4: Study of the form of a bull by Pablo Picasso. • Figures A5 to A7: Study of the form of a bull by Pablo Picasso: visualiza- tion of interior and exterior p-medialness features. • Figure A8: Women series drawn by Picasso: visualization of interior p- medialness features. • Figure A9: Series of 22 reclining nude female forms by Matisse. • Figures A10 to A15: Series of reclining nude female forms by Matisse: visualizations of interior and exterior p-medialness. Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 219 Figure A1. Les Demoiselles d’Avignon, Pablo Picasso, 1907. Top: Selective feature points analysis, where (interior) ridge (medialness) following is also displayed (vis. #2). Bottom: equivalent analysis for the exterior medialness field. 220 F. F. Leymarie, P. Aparajeya / Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 Figure A2. Guernica, by Pablo Picasso, 1937; we focus on the eight ‘faces’ found in this painting (six of humans, one of a horse, one of a bull): at the top, we use vis. #1 overlaid on a photo of the original, and at the bottom we show only the faces using vis. #2. Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 221 Figure A3. Guernica, ‘faces’: Exterior and interior medialness fields; note that the exterior medialness as the top indicates main zones of influence for each face object. Figure A4. Eleven lithographs by Pablo Picasso: a study of the form of a bull, late 1945 to early 1946. 222 F. F. Leymarie, P. Aparajeya / Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 Figure A5. Bull series processed: Visualization of interior medialness and feature points (vis. #1). Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 223 Figure A6. Bull series processed: Visualization of interior medialness and feature points (vis. #2). 224 F. F. Leymarie, P. Aparajeya / Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 Figure A7. Bull series processed: Visualization of exterior medialness and feature points (vis. #2). Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 225 Figure A8 . Women Drawn series processed; top row: vis. #1, middle and bottom rows: vis. #2 with and without heads and details. 226 F. F. Leymarie, P. Aparajeya / Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 Figure A9. Twenty-two steps by Matisse towards producing the final Large Reclining Nude, now part of the Baltimore Museum of Art collection. Matisse explored various possibilities of the female reclining nude over a period of half a year in 1935. Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 227 Figure A10. Matisse (1935): (16/22) Women Reclining series (part 1) with our interior medialness analysis shown superimposed (vis. #1). 228 F. F. Leymarie, P. Aparajeya / Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 Figure A11. Matisse (1935): (16/22) Women Reclining series (part 2) with our interior medialness analysis shown superimposed (vis. #1). Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 229 Figure A12. Matisse: (16/22) Women Reclining series (part 1): visualization of interior medialness and feature points (vis. #2). 230 F. F. Leymarie, P. Aparajeya / Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 Figure A13. Matisse: (16/22) Women Reclining series (part 2): visualization of interior medialness and feature points (vis. #2). Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 231 Figure A14. Matisse: (16/22) Women Reclining series (part 1). Medialness description of exteriors with respect to each female nude figure (vis. #2). 232 F. F. Leymarie, P. Aparajeya / Art & Perception 5 (2017) 169–232 Figure A15. Matisse: (16/22) Women Reclining series (part 2). Medialness description of exteriors with respect to each female nude figure (vis. #2). Medialness and the Perception of Visual Art 
work_yk37cduk4fexpneedscyp5bh2i	----	Educatio Siglo XXI, Vol. 38 nº 3 · 2020, pp. 393-396 393 © Copyright 2020: Servicio de Publicaciones de la Universidad de Murcia. Murcia (España) ISSN edición impresa: 1699-2105. ISSN edición web (http://revistas.um.es/educatio): 1989-466X Díaz Olaya, A.M., Alonso Calero, J.M., y Llorens Gómez, J.B. (Eds.) Comunicar en Danza Editorial Libargo, 2020 Comunicar en danza es un claro ejemplo del devenir inherente al fenómeno artístico que, en su bús- queda constante de la creación, no vacila en sobrepasar los lími- tes de las disciplinas para arribar a puertos antaño considerados espurios. Son poliédricos los enfo- ques y miradas que emanan de la danza en la obra, no solo desde esta disciplina, sino también des- de la educación; la comunicación; la imagen; la tecnología; la perfor- matividad… todas ellas urdidas por el hilo conductor invisible de la pasión por la danza que, a modo de leitmotiv, impregna táci- tamente todos sus capítulos. Si bien es imposible delimitar los ámbitos temáticos del libro, pues, claramente, la filosofía del mismo aboga por la conexión e interrelación de las artes, a nivel operativo se articulan tres secciones cuyos títulos dejan muy clara dicha filosofía: Una travesía a través de la imagen en Comunicar en Danza Díaz Olaya, a.M., alOnsO CalerO, J.M., y llOrens GóMez, J.B. (eDs.) 394 Educatio Siglo XXI, Vol. 38 nº 3 · 2020, pp. 393-396 movimiento; Aproximación multidisciplinar a la danza como entidad desgenerizada, visual y performativa; y Transgresiones pedagógicas en torno a la danza. En la primera sección se incardinan la danza y el cine, en la que se indaga sobre las nuevas formas de pensamiento y de relación de ambas artes, unas veces partiendo de presupuestos heurísticos y semióticos que analizan la desmaterialización del cine y la danza para emerger como un nuevo pensamiento y en otras analizando la performance, el cine y la danza para crear nueva entidades significantes entendidas desde la hibridación entre humano y tecnología. También se incluyen en esta sección diversos análisis de las fórmulas visuales especiales, narrativas o estéticas para justificar la vinculación postmodernista de una obra cine- matográfica o la relación existente entre dichas fórmulas y determinadas puestas de escena en los videoclips del flamenco. Se inicia la segunda parte con una reflexión muy interesante sobre la presencia (liveness) en la performance y la mediación tecnológica del cuerpo, seguida de un estudio sobre el cuerpo transculturado que aborda nociones de género, la masculinidad y el flamenco como ejes para una inspiración performativa. Algunos capítulos profundizan en los procesos de escenificación en la danza contemporánea y su procesos creativos, mientras que otros examinan el vestuario de la danza española como elemento escénico dotado de contenido simbólico e identitario, capaz de transmitir una cultura determinada. Haciendo honor al título de esta sección desgenerizada, se han incluido trabajos que suponen un incursión en múltiples ámbitos de conocimiento como son: la antro- pología y la etnodanza, para acercar al lector a danzas prohibidas en el pasado; la historiografía, que analiza la gestación del Ballet Nacional de España, aportando claves para entender el panorama actual de la danza en nuestro país; la pintura, que permite configurar una iconografía del arte flamenco a través de la obra de Pablo Picasso; o en el ámbito de la intervención comunitaria, en donde el lenguaje del cuerpo es entendido como elemento generador de cambio social. La última sección del libro es la más dilatada y está dedicada a la educación y pedagogía de la danza. Unos capítulos se centran más en planteamientos analíticos y críticas de corte teórico, mientras que otros presentan un nivel de concreción mayor y descienden a las aulas con sus propuestas prácticas. Un primer grupo de gira en torno a aspectos pedagógicos como pueden ser las reflexiones sobre la didáctica de Comunicar en Danza Díaz Olaya, a.M., alOnsO CalerO, J.M., y llOrens GóMez, J.B. (eDs.) Educatio Siglo XXI, Vol. 38 nº 3 · 2020, pp. 393-396 395 la danza desde una perspectiva de la teoría de la comunicación, la revisión teórica de la literatura acerca de la metodología de la inves- tigación en el ámbito didáctica del flamenco o una aproximación a la danza integrada como elemento transformador desde una perspectiva aglutinadora de la misma, que no solo integra personas, sino nuevos puntos de vista y contenidos. También se abordan aspectos más técni- cos de la danza como son el análisis de los códigos de comunicación en el flamenco entre bailaores y músicos o las ventajas y desventajas del acompañamiento musical en vivo durante las clases de danza clá- sica. Atendiendo al título Comunicar en Danza, no es extraño que la tec- nología sea una temática recurrente a lo largo de la obra. De esta forma, encontramos revisiones sobre las aportaciones de la tecnología a la pe- dagogía de la danza y el potencial de la colaboración multidisciplinar entre ambas, o los recursos didácticos que las nuevas tecnologías y materiales audiovisuales pueden aportar al baile flamenco. Asimismo, se analizan propuestas de talleres performativos en Educación Supe- rior, a partir de experiencias heterogéneas dentro del universo de la performance audiovisual y corporal o se presentan audiovisuales para el aprendizaje de la notación del ritmo y mecanismos del zapateado flamenco. Por último, son varias las experiencias prácticas que concurren en esta sección del libro, entre las que destacan las siguientes: un progra- ma de intervención fundamentado en la danza integrada; propuestas de percusión corporal para acercar la danza al ámbito escolar y au- mentar la motivación hacia este arte; diseños de propuestas didácticas aplicables en los centros educativos para mejorar la formación en ex- presión corporal del profesorado de Educación Primaria; estudios que ponen de manifiesto la validez del cuento como recurso para la sen- sibilización y difusión de la Danza Española en el ámbito educativo; o experiencias en conservatorios superiores de danza para concienciar de la necesidad de proteger las obras coreográficas y el repertorio de danza como patrimonio cultural inmaterial, fundamentada en una re- lación dinámica, el respeto a las diferentes interpretaciones y el com- promiso social. Auguro que las experiencias, disertaciones, debates y argumentacio- nes expuestas en este libro serán un aliciente para que profesionales de diversas disciplinas contribuyan con sus aportaciones a la recuperación Comunicar en Danza Díaz Olaya, a.M., alOnsO CalerO, J.M., y llOrens GóMez, J.B. (eDs.) 396 Educatio Siglo XXI, Vol. 38 nº 3 · 2020, pp. 393-396 del espacio perdido del cuerpo en movimiento y la danza, como instru- mento de expresión y comunicación en la sociedad, en el arte y en la educación. g R e g o R i o v i c e n t e n i c o l Á s gvicente@um.es Universidad de Murcia, España 
work_ynav7roqqnglbizhvc5ihhjlx4	----	Reflectance imaging spectroscopy and synchrotron radiation X-ray fluorescence mapping used in a technical study of The Blue Room by Pablo Picasso Favero et al. Herit Sci (2017) 5:13 DOI 10.1186/s40494-017-0126-5 R E S E A R C H A R T I C L E Reflectance imaging spectroscopy and synchrotron radiation X-ray fluorescence mapping used in a technical study of The Blue Room by Pablo Picasso Patricia A. Favero1*, Jennifer Mass2, John K. Delaney3, Arthur R. Woll4, Alyssa M. Hull5, Kathryn A. Dooley3 and Adam C. Finnefrock6 Abstract The existence of a portrait hidden beneath The Blue Room (1901) by Pablo Picasso prompted a comprehensive techni- cal study of this early Blue period painting. Microanalysis of paint samples was combined with reflectance imaging spectroscopy (RIS) and synchrotron radiation X-ray fluorescence (SR-XRF) mapping to characterize the materials and structure of the paint layers and to understand the artist’s palette and use of color in both paintings. Microanalysis of paint samples provided detailed information about pigment mixtures and paint stratigraphy while the complemen- tary data sets provided by RIS and SR-XRF yielded important information about pigment distribution in both pictures and clarified details of the underlying painting. Overall, the comprehensive study increased understanding of both pictures and added to the growing body of knowledge about Picasso’s early experimentation and evolving technique. Keywords: Picasso, Pigment identification, Infrared reflectography, Imaging spectroscopy, Multispectral, Synchrotron, X-ray fluorescence, Reflectance © The Author(s) 2017. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/ publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated. Background The Blue Room (Fig.  1) was painted by Pablo Picasso in 1901 during his second stay in Paris and depicts a bath- ing nude figure in a bedroom that has been identified as Picasso’s studio at the time, at 130ter Boulevard de Cli- chy in Montmartre. The painting is widely regarded as an important early example of the young Spanish artist’s transition into his Blue period and has been included in a number of scholarly exhibitions and publications focus- ing on Picasso’s early years [1–6]. The composition pays homage to a number of influences, including Vincent van Gogh, Edgar Degas, and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, whose famous poster of the dancer May Milton is promi- nently featured on the wall over the bed. When the painting is viewed in raking light (Fig.  2), distinct surface texture and craquelure patterns that do not match the visible composition are evident. As early as 1954, a conservator’s report noted: “The paint layer is extremely thick, owing in part to the fact that the fab- ric is supporting two compositions, with the outlines of the first showing clearly on the present paint surface.” [7]. These suggestions of another composition beneath The Blue Room encouraged the technical study of this painting. Upon close visual examination, one sees that The Blue Room is actually thinly painted and surface brushstrokes skip over the heavier texture of underlying paint layers, leaving voids in many areas through which color is visible (Fig.  3). In addition to adding visual interest to the sur- face composition, the underlying colors suggest Picasso painted over another composition without applying an intermediate ground layer. Paint losses and raised cracks reveal additional areas of underlying color. A number of cases of Picasso reusing canvases are known, particularly in his early works and many have Open Access *Correspondence: pfavero@phillipscollection.org 1 The Phillips Collection, 1600 21st Street NW, Washington, DC 20009, USA Full list of author information is available at the end of the article http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/ http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/ http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1186/s40494-017-0126-5&domain=pdf Page 2 of 18Favero et al. Herit Sci (2017) 5:13 been documented and discussed by conservators, art historians, and scientists [8–18]. Many more potential instances remain unexamined or unpublished. The pre- sent study was undertaken to learn as much as possible about Picasso’s materials and his approach to painting in both The Blue Room and the underlying composi- tion, with an aim to contribute to the increasing body of technical knowledge about Picasso’s early work. Methods Infrared reflectography (IRR) Infrared reflectography was performed in multiple spec- tral regions of the near infrared (NIR). The painting was examined using an InGaAs camera (Sensors Unlimited, Princeton, NJ; SU-320  M-1.7RT, detector wavelength 1000–1650  nm) with a Nikon AF Micro Nikkor 60  mm 1:2.8 lens, first with no spectral filters, then subse- quently using a longwave pass interface filter [Spectro- gon US, Inc., Mountain Lakes, NJ; LP filter (~1500 to 3000 nm)] to limit the spectral range to 1500–1650 nm. The NIR range was extended using a high-resolution, liquid nitrogen-cooled analog InSb 640 × 512 array with 24-micrometer pixels band pass limited by a cold fil- ter that passes 1000–2450  nm (SBF-193, Santa Barbara Focal Plane, CA). The camera was used with a custom 55  mm lens optimized for the near infrared (Stingray NH) and three astronomy interference filters, J (1100– 1400  nm); H (1500–1800  nm); and K (2100–2400  nm) [Barr Associates, MA]. The diffuse illumination system consists of two, 150  W tungsten halogen lamps (Lowel Pro-light with Osram FVM bulbs) with ground glass windows, placed 50° from the painting normal. The light levels are controlled by a rheostat and illuminance at the artwork is 50 lx. Portable X‑ray fluorescence spectroscopy (pXRF) Portable X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy analysis was performed with the handheld KeyMaster TRACeR III-V XRF spectrometer using a rhodium tube (40  kV volt- age, 1.2 μA current, 180 s live time irradiation, no filter). The instrument was supported on a tripod for port- able analysis. Spectra were interpreted using the PXRF1 software. Microanalysis of paint samples Small paint samples (approximately 100 microns in size) were taken from the edges of the painting and areas of prior loss. Samples were removed with a size 11, steel micro-scalpel blade and cast separately in mini-cube molds, approximately half-inch width each, suspended in polyester resin (Extec polyester clear resin with methyl ethyl ketone peroxide catalyst, Extec Corpora- tion®, Enfield, CT). The resin cured for 24  h at room temperature and under ambient light before the sam- ples were removed. Excess casting medium was removed from the cube just up to the surface of the paint sam- ple with a jeweler’s saw (Rio Grande saw blades, laser gold). The cubes were hand-polished successively with 400- and 600-grit Buehler Carbimet paper (silicon car- bide) and 1500- to 12,000-grit Micro-Mesh Inc. polish- ing cloths (silicon carbide) to expose the paint layers in cross-section. Fig. 1 The Blue Room (Le Tub) 1901, Oil on canvas, 50.5 × 61.6 cm. The Phillips Collection, Washington D.C. Acquired 1927. ©2016 Estate of Pablo Picasso/Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York. The Pablo Picasso work may not be used outside of the context of this article. Reproduction of the work is prohibited by copyright laws and inter- national conventions without the express written permission of ARS (www.arsny.com). Locations of detail images shown in Figs. 3 and 15 are outlined and labeled Fig. 2 The Blue Room photographed in raking light shows inconsist- encies between the surface texture and the visible composition http://www.arsny.com Page 3 of 18Favero et al. Herit Sci (2017) 5:13 Light microscopy All resin-cast cross-sections were examined and digi- tally photographed using a Nikon Eclipse 80i binocu- lar microscope (4×, 10× and 20× objectives with 10× ocular) equipped with a Nikon Excite 120 mercury lamp for reflected visible and ultraviolet light. The samples were viewed using the Nikon BV-2A cube (excitation 400–440  nm, barrier 470  nm, dichroic mirror 455  nm) (violet)/Nikon B-2A cube (excitation 450–490  nm, bar- rier 520 nm, dichroic mirror 505 nm) (blue)/Nikon G-1B cube (excitation band pass 545/10  nm, barrier 590  nm, dichroic mirror 575  nm) (green). Digital images were taken with the Digital Eclipse DXM 1200f Nikon Camera in conjunction with the Automatic Camera Tamer (ACT- 1) control software. SEM‑EDX Scanning electron microscopy-energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDX) was performed on five resin- cast cross-sections (X2, X4, X6, X12, and X14; cross- sections are illustrated in Additional file  1: Table S1) using the Topcon ABT-60 SEM system (variable pres- sure mode, 20 kV acceleration voltage for electron beam, 120 μA beam current, 22 mm stage height) with a Bruker Quantax EDX detector. Images of the cross-sections were captured with back-scattered electron (BSE) imag- ing using Bruker QUANTAX 200 ESPRIT 1.8.2 software. This software was also used to create elemental maps of elements of interest for each of the cross-sections. A sec- ond group of cross-sections (samples X17, X19, and X21) were analyzed on Zeiss Evo MA15 SEM with a Bruker Quantax EDX detector. µRaman Micro-Raman spectroscopy was performed on cross- sections using a Renishaw inVia Raman microscope (300 mW, 785  nm diode laser) with a spectral resolution of 3 cm−1 over a spectral range of 100–2500 cm−1. A nomi- nal laser power of 2.5  mW was used. Analysis of spectra was performed using the WiRE 2.0 software and Thermo OMNIC 8.0.342 software. Material identification is based on known references [19]. µFT‑IR Several milligram-sized paint samples were not cast as cross-sections and were instead analyzed in paint flake Fig. 3 Details of The Blue Room showing colors from an underlying composition revealed by voids and cracks in surface paint layers. See Fig. 1 for detail locations. a Green, yellow, and red paint visible beneath white near the foot of the bed (×2.5 magnification); b red and yellow seen through voids and cracks in blue and white at the center of the bed (×3.2 magnification); c detail of a loss in The Blue Room, in an area of the rug, exposing dark blue underlying paint; dark blue can also be seen through skips in the lighter blue surface brushstrokes (×4.1 magnification) Page 4 of 18Favero et al. Herit Sci (2017) 5:13 form, in transmission mode, with micro-Fourier trans- form-infrared (micro-FT-IR) spectroscopy on a Nicolet 6700 FT-IR spectrometer with a Nicolet Contiuµm FT-IR microscope (15X IR objective). A spectral range of 4000– 650 cm−1 was used with a spectral resolution of 4 cm−1. Each scan is the sum of 128 spectra. The spectra were interpreted using the Thermo OMNIC 8.0.342 software, and material identification based on known references [20, 21]. Reflectance imaging spectroscopy (RIS) and luminescence imaging spectroscopy Hyperspectral reflectance image cubes were collected with optimized whiskbroom line-scanning imag- ing spectrometers (Surface Optics Corporation). The first spectrometer utilized an EMCCD detector (Cas- cade II, Photometrics) operating from 380 to 1000 nm with 5  nm sampling, at an illuminance of 1100  lx and integration time of 50  ms per line. The second spec- trometer utilized an InGaAs array (SUI 640SDV, Sen- sors Unlimited) operating from 967 to 1680  nm with 3.4  nm sampling, 650  lx, and integration time of 100 ms per line. The image cubes were dark-corrected, flat-fielded, and calibrated to apparent reflectance using diffuse reflectance standards (Labsphere Inc.). The calibrated image cubes were spatially registered using a point-based algorithm [22]. Image processing to find spectral endmembers was done using the com- mercial software package ENVI. Maps of the various pigments detected were made using the spectral angle mapper algorithm. Luminescence imaging was carried out to map the use of cadmium yellow in The Blue Room. As previously described [23], a custom illumination and multispec- tral camera system, operating from 650 to 950  nm, was used to obtain image cubes calibrated to the relative radiance of test panels and paintings. Excitation of the paintings was done using a Kodak Ektagraphic III AT carousel slide projector (OSRAM 300  W EXP bulbs) equipped with F/D 2.5 152  mm Buhl Optical lenses set up at 45 degrees from the normal of the painting. The excitation bandpass was 380–520 nm defined by 50 mm2 Kron/Cousins B astronomy filter. The multispectral camera system consists of a low-noise, 4 megapixel Si CCD camera (Qimaging Retiga 4000TR) outfitted with a 35  mm Schneider lens. Spectral interference band- pass filters (FWHM 40  nm, 50  nm spacing, Andover Corp) were used to create the image cube of seven spec- tral bands. An in-scene calibration method was used to convert the image intensities to relative spectral radi- ance, using a cadmium pigment target whose spectral emission had been previously measured using the ASD spectroradiometer. Synchrotron radiation X‑ray fluorescence mapping (SR‑XRF) Synchrotron radiation X-ray fluorescence mapping was performed at the G3 station of the Cornell High Energy Synchrotron Source (CHESS) in Ithaca, NY, using a pro- totype (model 384B) Maia X-ray detector system. Mon- ochromatic X-rays (ΔE/E  ~  10−2) were selected using a W/B4C multilayer monochromator, and a beam size of 0.2  ×  0.2  mm2 was selected using motorized slits. The detector was developed jointly at Brookhaven National Laboratory (Upton, NY) and CSIRO (Clayton, VIC, Australia) and is described in detail elsewhere [24, 25]. Previous models of this detector have been successfully applied to elemental mapping of other works of art [26, 27]. To proactively test for the possibility of X-ray induced changes to the painting, prior to performing XRF, one paint sample from The Blue Room was exposed to an approximate dose of 105 Grays. Prior studies have found the fading of Prussian blue, the pigment thought most likely to be sensitive to X-rays, to be 108 Grays [28]. After irradiation at 105 Grays, far above the estimated dose required for XRF mapping, no fading or other effects of the dose could be seen on the sample. As anticipated, the actual dose to the painting during XRF mapping, includ- ing both scans (described below), was less than 10 Grays. An HVAC unit, freezer flaps, portable humidifiers and sensors were installed to maintain and record environ- mental conditions inside the hutch during the run, and showed that stable temperature and humidity were main- tained at 70 ± 2 °F and 50 ± 5%, respectively. The paint- ing was mounted on a motorized, three-axis translation stage to enable automated motion during the scan, and allowing the distance from the painting to detector be carefully controlled. During scanning, the Maia detec- tor was positioned 3–5 mm from the paint surface. Scans were performed in an “on-the-fly” mode, in which data are collected continuously while the sample moves in a raster-pattern across the incident beam. The integration time per 0.2 mm pixel was 0.005 s. Despite the detector’s large count rate, the total X-ray intensity available, approximately 1012 photons/second, was high enough that fluorescence from the painting far exceeded the detector count rate. Aluminum metal was used to reduce the incident beam intensity to approxi- mately 109 photons/second, resulting in a typical, total fluorescence count rate at the detector of 4  ×  106 pho- tons/second or less. An incident beam X-ray energy of 12.59  keV was selected for the first scan of the painting. This energy was selected to be sufficiently high to excite fluorescence from the L-lines of mercury (Hg), an elemental compo- nent of the pigment vermilion (HgS), but sufficiently low Page 5 of 18Favero et al. Herit Sci (2017) 5:13 to avoid exciting fluorescence from Pb, an expected com- ponent of the ground. This energy would also be below the Pb L3 edge to minimize the X-ray Raman scattering signal. In this configuration, the fluorescence signal was strongly dominated by that of Zn, owing to the use of zinc white as a primary pigment in the palette of both the upper and lower paintings. In order to eliminate the Zn fluorescence and so obtain improved maps of lower Z elements such as Fe, Cu, and Mn, a second scan of the painting was undertaken at a lower energy, 9.37  keV. Approximately the upper two- thirds of the picture was successfully scanned in this way, at which point the scan was aborted due to an unplanned interruption to synchrotron operation. Fluorescence data from the Maia detector were ana- lyzed using the dynamic analysis (DA) method to obtain elemental maps using the software GeoPIXE v6.6 [29]. We make use of the SR-XRF data obtained here to report qualitative elemental distributions, rather than reporting absolute elemental concentrations. Results and discussion The multiple methods described above were employed to provide a better understanding of The Blue Room and the underlying composition. Broad-spectrum IRR (970– 1700 nm) confirmed but did not give a clear picture of the composition hidden beneath The Blue Room. However, IRR in the 1500–1650 nm spectral range clearly revealed a portrait of a man in turn-of-the-century Parisian dinner attire, slouched against a cushion or banquette with his head resting on his right hand and rings adorning his fin- gers (Fig.  4a). Based on the style of the portrait and the handling of the paint, it is hypothesized that the hidden painting is also by Picasso and was also painted in 1901. The clarity of the IRR image in the 1500–1650 nm spec- tral band suggested Prussian blue is the primary blue pigment in the surface composition, as it becomes more transparent around 1300–1500  nm [30]. High resolu- tion IRR subsequently performed in the ranges 1100– 1400  nm, 1500–1800  nm, and 2100–2400  nm provided more detailed images of the hidden painting. The clearly visible texture of brushstrokes, particularly at 2100– 2400 nm (Fig. 4b), strongly suggests that the portrait was a finished work when it was painted over, despite no evi- dence of a signature. Moreover the distinct and different brush strokes suggest the earlier composition was dry before it was painted over. Preliminary pXRF analysis was used to guide sampling and for SR-XRF planning. pXRF sites and results are detailed in Additional file 2: Table S2. Paint samples were analyzed using SEM-EDX, µFT-IR and µRaman spec- troscopy to confirm the presence of some pigments and to better understand paint composition, distribution of pigments and fillers, and layering structure in both pic- tures. Additional file  1: Table S1 summarizes results for all cross-section (X) samples mentioned in the discus- sion. Additional file 3: Table S3 details µRaman data dis- cussed below. Additional file 4: Table S4 provides µFT-IR Fig. 4 Filtered IRR images of the entire hidden composition at a 1500–1650 nm and detail at b 2100–2400 nm, with visible brushstroke textures, suggesting the portrait was fully executed before being painted over Page 6 of 18Favero et al. Herit Sci (2017) 5:13 data for pigments identified using this method. Further phase identification on micro-samples and cross-sections with µXRPD (micro X-ray powder diffraction) will be examined in future studies. Finally, reflectance imaging spectroscopy (RIS), luminescence imaging spectroscopy, and synchrotron radiation X-ray fluorescence (SR-XRF) elemental mapping were used to identify and qualita- tively chart distribution of pigments throughout the two paintings. The success of previous studies using these non-invasive analytical techniques to reveal details of underlying paintings encouraged their use in this study [31–35]. Paint layers vary in thickness between 3.5  µm to over 25  µm, with no highly pastose regions visible. Examina- tion of paint layering structure in cross sections found no evidence of an intermediary ground layer between the two paintings, confirming that The Blue Room was painted directly on top of the hidden portrait. A lack of varnish or dirt between paint layers supports the hypoth- esis that The Blue Room was painted within a relatively short time after the portrait. With one exception (sam- ple X2; see Additional file 1: Table S1 for discussion), the cross-sectional data show clear stratigraphy and no mix- ing between upper and lower paint layers. This strongly suggests the underlying painting had time to dry before The Blue Room was painted on top of it. This can be seen in sample X10 taken from the center of the bed (see detail, Fig. 3b), where the border between the buried red/yellow layer and white surface layers is distinct, with no bleed- ing of the underlying colors into the upper layer. A stun- ning example of the difference between the two paintings is seen in sample X21, where the layers of the hidden painting are variegated mixtures of yellow, blue, green, and white, mixed wet-into-wet on the canvas. These are topped by a thin, smooth, blue surface layer that is a well- blended mixture with zinc white and Prussian blue. In general, one finds more wet-into-wet mixing in the under- lying layers and more blended paint mixtures in the sur- face layers. These differences are discussed in more detail below, in the section “Picasso’s palette and use of color”. The canvas Picasso used was commercially prepared with a uniform white ground consisting of lead white with gypsum filler. In the portrait, paint mixtures appear heterogeneous in photomicrographs as well as the SEM- EDX elemental maps, which show pigment distribution. Consistent features of pigment mixtures and morphol- ogy between the upper and lower paint layers point to a common paint source for both paintings. The green areas of the SEM-EDX maps, illustrated in Fig. 5d–f, identify a zinc (Zn)-rich white pigment being used in both paint- ings, both on its own and mixed with other pigments. White paint layers of sample X12 (layer 4) and sam- ple X14 (layer 3) contain mostly Zn with larger, distinct barium (Ba) particles or agglomerates (seen as purple in SEM-EDX maps). These are sparsely distributed through- out all layers. It is inferred the Zn-rich white pigment is Fig. 5 Samples X6 (a), X12 (b), and X14 (c) with detail EDX elemental maps showing distribution of zinc (green) and barium (magenta). White boxes on cross-sections show area of EDX details (d–f, respectively). See Additional file 3: Table S3, for corresponding μ-Raman spectra Page 7 of 18Favero et al. Herit Sci (2017) 5:13 a mixture of zinc white (zinc oxide) and barium sulfate (BaSO4), a common colorless extender. Peaks at 991 cm −1 in X14, layer 3, and 457, 652, and 990 cm−1 in X12, layer 4, confirm barium sulfate; a peak at 440  cm−1 in X14, layer 3 points to zinc white [19] (see Additional file  3: Table S3, for μ-Raman spectra). Both Zn and Ba are mapped in layer 1 (light blue) of X14; the μ-Raman spectra for this layer also indi- cates Prussian blue, with peaks at 280, 540, 2096, and 2160 cm−1 [19]. The light blue and medium blue layers of sample X6 (layers 1 and 2, Fig. 5a) are also Zn-rich, with large Ba particles. In addition, iron (Fe) particles (orange areas in the EDX map, Fig.  5d), which indicate Prussian blue, are also dispersed within the Zn (green) matrix. Only one or two Fe particles are detected in layer 1, while layer 2 is a more even mixture of Fe and Zn particles. The similarities seen between these blue paint layers suggest Picasso mixed Prussian blue, a strongly tinting pigment, and zinc white to achieve the variety of blue tones seen in The Blue Room. Varying amounts of this same Zn/Ba mixture are found in all paint layers shown in Fig.  5 except lead (Pb)-rich (red) layers in samples X6 (layer 4) and X14 (layer 2). In sample X12 (Fig.  5b and e), Zn (green) and Ba (purple) particles are seen with SEM-EDX in all layers. In the light red layer (layer 2), an almost even ratio of Zn (green) par- ticles mixed with Hg (blue) particles indicate a mixture of vermilion red (HgS) and zinc white. The continuity of Zn/Ba mixtures in both upper and lower paint layers sug- gests the same brand of zinc white paint with barium sul- fate filler may have been used in both pictures. Similarly, small red particles are found evenly distrib- uted throughout both surface and buried paint layers containing Prussian blue, such as in the topmost layer of light blue paint, from The Blue Room, in sample X7, and the darker blue layer directly beneath it, from the hidden portrait (Fig. 6a). Peaks at 254, 284, and 345 cm−1 in the μ-Raman spectra (Fig.  6b and c) of these layers identify these particles as the red pigment vermillion [19]. Simi- lar mixtures of Prussian blue with vermilion are found in other samples as well, such as X1, X2, and X6, in both The Blue Room and the hidden portrait. The small amount, scale, and even distribution of vermilion particles within layers containing Prussian blue suggest the red pigment was added by the paint manufacturer. In the early twen- tieth century, Prussian blue was one of the least expen- sive blue pigments, and blue paints containing Prussian blue were sold by paint manufacturers under a variety of names and in a variety of hues [36]. Picasso’s palette and use of color Pigment identification is based on combined informa- tion from pXRF spot analysis and microanalysis of paint samples. Additional file  1: Table S1 summarizes findings for cross-section samples mentioned in the text, Addi- tional file  2: Table S2 details pXRF results, Additional file 3: Table S3 details µRaman data discussed below, and Additional file  4: Table S4 provides µFT-IR data for pig- ments identified using this method. Table  1, below, compares and illustrates the similar- ity of Picasso’s palette in The Blue Room and the hidden portrait. It lists the principal pigments (in italics) identi- fied in each picture along with less-prevalent pigments and fillers. For reference, common chemical formulas for each pigment are provided; further discussion about spe- cific pigments is found in the sections below. Additional knowledge about pigment distribution on a macroscale comes from SR-XRF and RIS mapping. SR- XRF and RIS pigment distribution maps, seen in Figs.  7 and 8, respectively, provide clues not only about Picas- so’s palette for the two works, but also illustrate how he used his colors differently in each painting. Endmember and reference spectra associated with the RIS maps are shown in Fig. 9. Table 1 Summary of  pigments and  other materials used in The Blue Room and in the hidden portrait Principal pigments are italicized. Common chemical formulas are provided for reference a SEM-EDX b µRaman c µFT-IR d XRF e RIS f Commercially prepared canvas The Blue Room Portrait Groundf Lead white (2PbCO3∙Pb(OH)2) a,b,d with gypsum (CaSO4·2H2O) 2 fillerb Fillers Barium white (BaSO4) a,b,c,d; silica (quartz) (SiO2) a Blue Prussian blue (Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3) a,b,d Ultramarine (synth.) (Na6- 10Al6Si6O24S2-4) b,e Prussian blue (Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3) a,b,d Black Carbon black (C)b Bone black (C+Ca3(PO4)2) a White Zinc white (ZnO)a,b,d Zinc white (ZnO)a,b,d Lead white (2PbCO3∙Pb(OH)2) e Green Emerald green (3Cu(AsO2)2·Cu(CH3COO)2) a,d Viridian (Cr2O3·2H2O) a,d,e Compound green-chrome or cadmium yellow mixed with Prussian blue and bone black Yellow Chrome yellow (PbCrO4) a,b,c,d Cadmium yellow (CdS)a,b,d Chrome yellow (PbCrO4) a,b,c,d Red Vermilion (HgS)a,b,d Other Acrylic resin varnish (from later conservation treatment)c Page 8 of 18Favero et al. Herit Sci (2017) 5:13 Blue Prussian blue is the primary blue pigment in both paint- ings. As stated above, very small amounts of vermilion red were found uniformly mixed into all Prussian hues. Chrome or cadmium yellow particles are also found mixed into Prussian blue paint in some samples (sample X2, X14). In the hidden portrait, Prussian blue is mixed with a carbon-based black (see, for example, sample X7, layer 2). The dark blue color resulting from the mix- ture can be seen where a loss in the surface paint layers exposes the underlying paint near the sitter’s right elbow (see detail, Fig.  3c). Carbon-based black, mixed with Prussian blue in sample X4 and used pure in sample X6, layer 3, was identified as bone black due to the detec- tion of calcium and phosphorus by SEM-EDX analysis. In another sample—X1, layer 6—µFT-IR spectra iden- tifies barium sulfate mixed with black (see Additional file 4: Table S4). A small but sharp peak around 985 cm−1 is indicative of barium sulfate, although the combina- tion of pigments appears to create a broad peak from 1250 to 900  cm−1 which masks adjacent barium sulfate peaks. While corresponding peaks at  ~1100  cm−1 and between  ~1400 and 1750  cm−1 in the sample suggest bone black, a smaller peak at  ~2150  cm−1 is shifted too far from the standard for a positive assignment in this sample. Fig. 6 a Red particles are visible scattered throughout layers 1 (light blue) and 2 (dark blue) of sample X7. Micro-Raman spectra for b the dark blue and c light blue paint layers of sample X7 identify these red particles as the red pigment vermilion Page 9 of 18Favero et al. Herit Sci (2017) 5:13 Dark areas of the XRF map for iron (Fe) indicate where one might expect to find Prussian blue in the portrait, such as the sitter’s jacket (his right arm and left shoul- der), the bold outlines of the cushion behind his head, the contours of his hair, and fine lines defining his hand, bow tie, and facial features. Because the blue is mixed with carbon-based black, which strongly absorbs infrared wavelengths, these features show up clearly in the filtered near-IR images (Fig. 4a). However, these lines fail to reg- ister in the RIS map for Prussian blue because the black in the mixture shifts the spectra away from the character- istic reflectance of pure Prussian blue. Fig. 7 Synchrotron radiation X-ray fluorescence (SR-XRF) elemental maps for iron, zinc, arsenic, copper, chromium, and mercury. Lighter areas indi- cate a higher concentration of the element being mapped Page 10 of 18Favero et al. Herit Sci (2017) 5:13 Ultramarine blue is challenging to identify with XRF techniques due to beam attenuation of the low-energy fluorescence of the lighter elements in air. Analysis of the RIS image cube, however, revealed spectra con- sistent with ultramarine blue with a strong absorp- tion at 600  nm with a transition to high reflectance at  ~700  nm (see Fig.  9). The hyperspectral map for ultramarine blue shows Picasso selectively used this pigment in The Blue Room for the sea in the small Mediterranean seascape (thought to be a representa- tion of one of his own paintings) on the back wall of the studio [5]. Fig. 8 Reflectance imaging spectroscopy (RIS) maps for Prussian blue, ultramarine blue, lead white, zinc white, viridian green, and vermilion red. Lighter areas show where the reflectance spectrum of the pigment in question can be detected Page 11 of 18Favero et al. Herit Sci (2017) 5:13 Fig. 9 Endmember and reference reflectance spectra corresponding to Prussian blue, zinc white and lead white, and ultramarine blue, vermilion red, and viridian green Page 12 of 18Favero et al. Herit Sci (2017) 5:13 White In both The Blue Room and the portrait, zinc white appears to be the primary white pigment. It is used in the windows, the bed sheets, and in the bathing figure, and mixed primarily with Prussian blue throughout the upper paint layers. No lead white pigment was found in The Blue Room. The only instance of lead white used outside of the ground occurs in the portrait, where the RIS map reveals Picasso’s selective use of lead white for the sit- ter’s bow tie and areas of the shirt directly below the tie. This was determined from a narrow absorption feature at 1447 nm attributed to the hydroxyl group of hydro-cerus- site (see Fig. 9). In the rest of the shirt and in the sitter’s hand, zinc white was used instead. The RIS map for zinc white is complicated by the presence of the pigment in both paint layers; however, cross-sectional analysis finds zinc in the layer corresponding to the sitter’s shirt, such as the white layer of sample X14. While both zinc and barium are both present in white paint layers, the barium exists as large discrete particles and not as an intimate co-precipitate with the zinc, as would be expected for the presence of lithopone, which is ZnS co-precipitated with BaSO4 rather than ZnO. Further- more, the Raman spectra collected in the white paint lay- ers do not show evidence of lithopone peaks. Barium white has Raman bands at 453, 461, 616, 647, and 988 cm−1. Zinc white has Raman bands at 331, 383, and 438 cm−1. Litho- pone has bands at 216, 276, and 342  cm−1 that were not observed in the white paint spectra. As a result, both from a morphological and spectroscopic perspective, lithopone is not present in the white paints of The Blue Room. Yellow Visual examination and SR-XRF mapping suggested chrome yellow is the principal pigment used for the cush- ion behind the sitter in the portrait. This was confirmed via microanalysis of underlying yellow layers in sample X5, taken from the top edge of The Blue Room in the area of the cushion. The pigment is also found mixed with red in sample X10 in the center of the sitter’s shirt, below the bowtie. In The Blue Room, chrome yellow is used for May Milton’s hair in the Toulouse-Lautrec poster and for highlights in the hair of the bathing figure. Agreement between the near infrared luminescence image originating from deep trap states in cadmium based pigments (Cd/Zn/Se/S) (Fig.  10a) and the cad- mium (Cd) SR-XRF elemental map (Fig.  10b) suggests that cadmium yellow was the primary yellow used for the bathing figure’s hair and for the rocks in the seascape painting on the back wall of the studio. Cadmium yellow also appears to contribute to the brown color of the cir- cular tabletop and the table legs at right. Cadmium yellow pigments commonly exist as solid solutions where zinc, mercury, or selenium substitutions can be used to change the pigment’s hue. Yellow cad- mium sulfides most frequently occur as a solid solution with zinc sulfide as Cd(1−x)ZnxS [37]. Micro-Raman spec- troscopy has been used to identify these solid solutions, which can have implications about the pigment’s stability. The poorly crystalline nature of the cadmium yellow pig- ments in this work, and the fluorescence of the oil binder led to cadmium yellow pigments being inferred by the presence of cadmium in yellow regions (SEM-EDX and XRF mapping) and the pigment’s characteristic infrared luminescence. Further work by µXPD could be used to determine the lattice parameters indicating the degree of Zn substitution into the crystal lattice. Similarly, chrome yellow exists in solid solutions rang- ing from PbCrO4 to PbCr1−xSxO4. These phases can be identified using µRaman spectroscopy and µXPD [38, 39]. The chromate stretching band at 841 cm−1 increases as the amount of sulfate in the pigment increases, along with changes in the intensities of the chromate bend- ing modes. The sulfate band similarly shifts from 971 Fig. 10 Areas of overlap between a Luminescence imaging (750–850 nm) of cadmium yellow (CdS) and b SR-XRF mapping of cadmium (Cd) Page 13 of 18Favero et al. Herit Sci (2017) 5:13 to 980  cm−1 as the sulfate component of the pigment increases. Chrome yellow pigments were identified in three of the paint cross-sections studied by µRaman spectroscopy, X3, X4, and X5 (Fig.  11). In sample X5 a sulfate band was identified at 973  cm−1, which is con- sistent with the chromate stretching band in this sam- ple being shifted to 846  cm−1. Sample X3 has a sulfate band at 978 cm−1, and also a chromate band at 846 cm−1, also consistent with a PbCr1−xSxO4 formulation (this, in addition to the presence of barium sulfate in the sample, may also account for a larger peak in the µFT-IR spectra at ~1050  cm−1; see Additional file  4: Table S4). Sample X4, however, has no visible sulfate bands, and chromate stretching bands between 842 and 844 cm−1. As a result, it can be ascertained that Picasso used two different shades of chrome yellow, with the sulfate-rich shade being a paler form of the pigment. Scanning electron microscopy-energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy analysis suggests chrome yellow is also mixed with cadmium yellow in the yellow layer of sample X12, taken from the edge of the striped sofa under the window in The Blue Room. In the EDX map, chromium (Cr) is mapped in the yellow layer as orange (Fig.  12b) and cadmium (Cd) is mapped in the same layer as red (Fig.  12c). However, it is unclear whether this layer cor- responds with the yellow in the sofa (a yellow stripe covered by a red stripe) or comes from the underlying composition. The bottom layer is identified as zinc white mixed with barium sulfate. Green In the portrait, microanalysis found mainly compound greens, blended mixtures of ivory black and chrome yel- low with some Prussian blue. These mixtures can be seen in layer 2 of sample X3 and layer 3 of sample X19, both taken from the background along the top edge of the portrait. The difference in size of the chrome yellow and ivory black pigment particles and mixture of pigments present elsewhere as pure color suggest color mixed on the artist’s palette rather than a commercial mixture. The appearance may have been similar to the unevenly- blended green background of Picasso’s Woman in Blue (Museo Nacional Centro de Arte, Reina Sofia), painted in Madrid in the spring of 1901. This is an exception to the pure color or wet-into-wet mixing generally seen in the underlying paint layers; for example, see sample X20, taken from an area of the portrait where the edge of the sitter’s jacket meets the yellow cushion behind him. Streaks of blue (mixed with large black pigment par- ticles) and yellow in layer 2 indicate mixing of adjacent colors directly on the canvas, rather than blending on the palette. Picasso’s use of copper acetoarsenite, or emerald green, in The Blue Room is illustrated by the SR-XRF maps for copper (Cu) and arsenic (As) (Fig.  7). The maps overlap Fig. 11 µRaman spectra detailing sulfate bands (973, 978 cm−1) and chromate stretching bands (846 and 842–844 cm−1) for chrome yel- low in samples X3, X4, and X5 Fig. 12 a Sample X12 with area of EDX map indicated. b EDX map with chromium (Cr) mapped in orange. c EDX map with cadmium (Cd) mapped in red Page 14 of 18Favero et al. Herit Sci (2017) 5:13 strongly, indicating that Picasso used emerald green in the light green stripes of the sofa and the highlights on the legs of the bathing figure in The Blue Room. Emerald green is also used in the small painting above the vase of flowers. When the Cu and As maps are compared with the Fe SR-XRF map, a mixture of emerald green and Prussian blue in the background of the Toulouse-Lautrec poster and in the undertone for the bouquet of flowers is indicated (Fig.  7). This mixture is also suggested for the brown wardrobe behind the central figure; however, a thick green layer (layer 2) under a blue surface layer in sample X17, taken from the background just above the bathing figure’s shoulder, suggests there may alternately be an unidentified aspect of the hidden painting or Picas- so’s process in this area. Finally, in a few green areas of The Blue Room, chro- mium is strongly indicated by the brightest—or most highly concentrated—regions of the SR-XRF elemental map (Fig.  13a), specifically the leaves at the base of the bouquet of flowers and areas of the small painting above the head of the bed. These areas overlap with the bright- est regions of the RIS map for viridian, a hydrated version of chromium oxide (Fig.  13b). RIS analysis of the image cube revealed green spectra having a shoulder at 650 nm and a sharp transition at  ~750  nm consistent with virid- ian green (Fig.  9). The overlap between the RIS and SR- XRF maps shows Picasso’s highly selective use of viridian in The Blue Room. Red Vermilion is the only red pigment found in either paint- ing. In The Blue Room, pure vermilion is used primar- ily as an accent in the sofa, rug, and flowers. It is also blended with zinc white in the pink tones of the bath- ing figure’s torso and May Milton’s skirt, rather than the more expected use of a lake pigment in these regions. RIS analysis was used to assign vermilion based upon spectra having a sharp transition edge at ~590 nm (Fig. 9). Red paint in the portrait is visible in a few areas through the surface layers of The Blue Room, such as below the signature at lower left and in the center, near the foot of the bed. In these and other areas, the mercury (Hg) elemental map (Fig.  14) faintly indicates the use of vermilion for (a) a region in the background of the por- trait at upper left; (b) for the sitter’s lips and fingertips; (c) the lapel of his jacket; and (d) for an oval shape in a region of the man’s shirt, which appears white overall in the infrared reflectograms. The oval shape on the front of the man’s shirt cor- responds with the center of the bed in The Blue Room. Here, both red and yellow paint are visible beneath the surface paint layers (see details, Figs.  3b, 15a). Sample X10 taken from this area reveals a relatively thick, var- iegated layer of vermilion and chrome yellow, mixed wet-into-wet, beneath white and blue layers of the sur- face composition. In this same area, in the RIS map for lead white, one observes a distinct void indicating an absence of white. When compared with the original infrared image (Fig.  4a), a shape corresponding to this void becomes clear. The handling of paint in this area revealed with high-resolution IRR (see detail, Fig.  15b) recalls the flowers in Picasso’s Peonies (National Gallery of Art, Washington), painted in Paris in early summer of 1901. However, instead of pink or white, as in Peonies, the ‘flower’ in The Blue Room’s hidden portrait is primar- ily red. Figure 16 shows a colorized estimation of the area created in Photoshop. The Hg and Cr SR-XRF maps were registered with the IRR image. Areas of interest in the Hg and Cr SR-XRF maps were selected and converted to red and yellow, respectively. The colorized layers were super- imposed on the IRR image to visualize color in the area of the flower. Fig. 13 Direct comparison between a SR-XRF map for Cr and b RIS map for viridian Page 15 of 18Favero et al. Herit Sci (2017) 5:13 Conclusions The tandem use of microanalytical methods, SR-XRF, and RIS revealed important information about The Blue Room and the untitled portrait beneath it that would have been inaccessible to any one of the single techniques described above. In the case of these two paintings, no individual technique could completely characterize Picasso’s palette or completely reconstruct the underlying portrait. Sampling and microanalysis were necessary to obtain detailed information about pigment mixtures, additives, and paint stratigraphy. The presence of nearly identical pigment mixtures and fillers in both paintings strongly supports the hypothesis, based on stylistic qualities, that Picasso painted both pictures. The absence of a varnish or dirt layer between the two compositions similarly sup- ports the suggestion that Picasso painted The Blue Room within only a few months of the portrait. Picasso’s prac- tice of reusing canvases is discussed by Hoenigswald [10] and McCully [16], and an increasing number of works from this transitional stage of Picasso’s early career are known to be painted over another composition– some within only a short period of time. For example, Scène de la Rue (San Francisco Museum of Modern Art), dated 1900, is painted over a version of Le Moulin de la Galette [13]. The known work, in the collection of the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, is dated autumn 1900. Microanalysis of paint samples also provided the first clues to Picasso’s different approaches in painting the portrait and The Blue Room. Variegated color in the underlying paint layers suggested Picasso used a more direct approach in painting the portrait, applying rela- tively pure color and mixing paint wet-into-wet on the canvas. A very different approach is observed in The Blue Room. Here, while some direct wet-into-wet mix- ing of color is observed in the bouquet of flowers on the table, in general, uniformly blended surface paint layers imply Picasso deliberately mixed colors on the palette. Fig. 14 SR-XRF mercury (Hg) map. Areas of vermilion in the hidden portrait are outlined in blue Fig. 15 Detail images of the same area in the center of The Blue Room (rotated 90° clockwise) showing the oval object in the center of the man’s shirt. a The area seen in visible light; b the IRR K-filter image (2100–2400 nm); and c the SR-XRF Hg map Page 16 of 18Favero et al. Herit Sci (2017) 5:13 In particular, the use of zinc white throughout The Blue Room, whether on its own or mixed with other colors, with the consistent presence of barium sulfate filler, sug- gests Picasso mixed the various shades of blue, green, pink, and white himself. This is in agreement with Sabar- tes’ description of Picasso’s Blue period palette: “As a rule, the palette was on the floor. White, heaped in the center, constituted the basis of that type of mixture, which he prepared especially with blue. The other colors bright- ened the contours” [40]. The similarities in materials between The Blue Room and its underlying portrait presented a challenge for the non-invasive RIS and SR-XRF techniques. Both mapping techniques captured data from both paintings simultane- ously, with differing transparencies and signal for each pigment in each technique. The absence of an interme- diary ground layer, in part, complicated interpretation of the RIS results, while the amount and thickness of zinc white pigment throughout the surface layers was the big- gest limitation for obtaining better SR-XRF results for the underlying painting. However, the complementary nature of SR-XRF map- ping and RIS techniques, which has been previously eval- uated [41], proved beneficial to this study in the end. The combination of elemental mapping from SR-XRF and molecular mapping from RIS facilitated the identification of pigments and an understanding of Picasso’s process in this complex work. For example, where the SR-XRF map for chromium indicates areas where chrome yellow, virid- ian, or chromium oxide green could be present individu- ally or in combination, the RIS map for viridian specifically highlighted areas where the spectral endmembers for the pure, hydrated chromium oxide pigment were found. RIS was also able to identify pigments with only low-Z elements (e.g., ultramarine blue) that have weak signals in XRF tech- niques. Where RIS was limited in identifying mixtures, SR- XRF mapping was able to differentiate between elemental components. For example, comparing the SR-XRF maps for iron, copper, and arsenic shows that all three elements are present in the background of the Toulouse-Lautrec poster, which suggests the artist used a mixture of Prussian blue and emerald green in these regions. Results from both mapping techniques combined with targeted microanalysis led to a better understanding of Picasso’s evolving use of color in the two paintings and added to the body of technical information about Picas- so’s early work. In addition, all methods of examination and analysis were necessary to the discovery a red flower on the front of the man’s white shirt in the portrait, a sig- nificant compositional element that, with its odd place- ment (in the center of the shirt rather than on the lapel of the jacket), may aid researchers in eventually identifying the man in the portrait and possibly his significance, if any, in Picasso’s early career. Authors’ contributions PF examined the painting, collected and processed InGaAs IRR, and docu- mented painting history. JLM and AMH took paint samples and performed pXRF and microanalysis. JKD and KD collected and processed InSb IRR, RIS, and infrared luminescence data. AW led SR-XRF data collection, which included JLM, AMH, AF, and PF. AF, AMH, and AW analyzed SR-XRF data. All authors were involved in drafting and revising the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Author details 1 The Phillips Collection, 1600 21st Street NW, Washington, DC 20009, USA. 2 Conservation Department, Rijksmuseum Amsterdam, Postbus 74888, Amsterdam 1070 DN, The Netherlands. 3 Scientific Research Department, National Gallery of Art, 4th and Constitution Ave NW, Washington, DC 20565, USA. 4 Cornell High Energy Synchrotron Source, Rte. 366 & Pine Tree Road, Additional files Additional file 1: Table S1. Summary of findings of cross-sectional analysis. Additional file 2: Table S2. Summary of pXRF results. Additional file 3: Table S3. μRaman spectra, samples X6, X12, and X14 Colored peaks are as labeled. Numbered black peaks are unassigned. Additional file 4: Table S4. μFT-IR spectra, samples X1 (black) and X3 (yellow). Fig. 16 IRR image (1500–700 nm) with estimated colorization in the region of interest. Using Photoshop CS5, areas of interest in the Hg and Cr SR-XRF maps were selected and converted to red and yellow, respectively. The registered colorized layers were superimposed on the IRR image to visualize color in the area of the flower http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s40494-017-0126-5 http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s40494-017-0126-5 http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s40494-017-0126-5 http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s40494-017-0126-5 Page 17 of 18Favero et al. Herit Sci (2017) 5:13 Ithaca 14853, NY, USA. 5 Department of Chemistry, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA. 6 Scientific Analysis of Fine Art, LLC, Philadelphia, USA. Acknowledgements The authors wish to acknowledge Robin Kirkham, Gareth Moorhead, and Chris Ryan of CSIRO, Australia, and Anthony Kuczewski and Peter Siddons of Brookhaven National Laboratory for traveling to CHESS and providing access to and sharing their expertise with the Maia detector; Catherine Matsen and Gwénaëlle Kavich (Winterthur Museum) for assistance with microanalysis of paint samples; Damon Conover (George Washington University) for process- ing and registration of images; and Elizabeth Steele, Susan Behrends Frank, Eliza Rathbone, Dorothy Kosinski (The Phillips Collection), Ann Hoenigswald (National Gallery of Art), and Marilyn McCully (independent scholar) for con- sultation and continuing support of the project. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Funding JKD and KAD acknowledge support from the Andrew W. Mellon and Samuel H. Kress Foundations and the National Science Foundation (1041827). 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Raman study of different crystalline forms of PbCrO 4 and PbCr 1 − x S x O 4 solid solutions for the noninvasive identification of chrome yellows in paintings: a focus on works by Vincent van Gogh. J Raman Spectrosc. 2014;45(11–12):1034–45. 39. Monico L, Janssens K, Miliani C, Brunetti B, Vagnini M, Vanmeert F, et al. Degradation process of lead chromate in paintings by vincent van gogh studied by means of spectromicroscopic methods. 3. synthesis, characterization, and detection of different crystal forms of the chrome yellow pigment. Anal Chem. 2013;85(2):851–9. 40. Sabartés J, Flores A. Picasso, an intimate portrait. New York: Prentice-Hall; 1948. p. 78. 41. Dooley K, Conover D, Glinsman L, Delaney J. Complementary standoff chemical imaging to map and identify artist materials in an early italian renaissance panel painting. Angew Chem. 2014;126(50):13995–9. Reflectance imaging spectroscopy and synchrotron radiation X-ray fluorescence mapping used in a technical study of The Blue Room by Pablo Picasso Abstract Background Methods Infrared reflectography (IRR) Portable X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (pXRF) Microanalysis of paint samples Light microscopy SEM-EDX µRaman µFT-IR Reflectance imaging spectroscopy (RIS) and luminescence imaging spectroscopy Synchrotron radiation X-ray fluorescence mapping (SR-XRF) Results and discussion Picasso’s palette and use of color Blue White Yellow Green Red Conclusions Authors’ contributions References 
work_yrpwjvnrknfwvcjx7malbhbxc4	----	_____________________________________________________________________________________ Akademik Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi, Yıl: 6, Sayı: 85, Aralık 2018, s. 456-467 Yayın Geliş Tarihi / Article Arrival Date Yayınlanma Tarihi / The Publication Date 30.11.2018 26.12.2018 Öğr. Gör. Mutlu SEVEN Atatürk Üniversitesi, Tortum MYO, Grafik Tasarım mutluseven@atauni.edu.tr SANATÇI VE MARKA DEĞERİ BAĞLAMINDA BİR ÖRNEK: DAMIEN HIRST Öz 19. yüzyıldan itibaren Modernizm Sanat Akımı ile birlikte Batı toplumunda geniş kapsamlı kültürel eğilimler ve dönüşümler ortaya çıkmıştır. Modern endüstriyel toplumların gelişimi neticesinde şehirler hızlı büyümüştür. 20. yüzyılın ortalarında ise dünya savaştan çıkmış ve yıkımın ardından yeni bir yapılanma süreci başlamış- tır. Bu değişim ve dönüşüm kendisini kültürel alanda da göstermiştir. Sanatta gele- neksel pratiklerin yerini farklı eğilimler ve materyaller almıştır. Postmodernizmin getirdiği liberal sistemin oluşmasıyla birlikte ekonomik açıdan yeni alanlar oluş- turma noktasında sanat etkin bir rol oynamıştır. İngiltere’de işadamı ve koleksiyo- ner Charles Saatchi, genç sanatçılar keşfedip onları teşvik ederek iktisadi yönden bir teşebbüs oluşturma yoluna gitmiştir. Genç İngiliz Sanatçılar (YBA) grubu üyesi İngiliz sanatçı Damien Hirst yaptığı sıra dışı çalışmalarla Saatchi’nin dikkatini çekmiştir. Böylece yapıtlarının hem alıcısı olmuş hem de sponsorluğunu yaparak ticari bir iş birliği sağlamıştır. Bu çalışmada Damien Hirst’ün sanat tarihi içerisinde sansasyonel ve spekülatif yönüyle oluşturduğu marka değeri üzerinden bir incele- me yapılması amaçlanmıştır. Ortaya koyduğu üretimler ve sanat pazarında oluştur- duğu ticari değer, örneklerle ve rakamsal değerlerle ortaya koyulmuştur. Anahtar kelimeler: Güncel Sanat, Damien Hirst, İngiliz Sanatı, Marka, Pazar Sanatçı ve Marka Değeri Bağlamında Bir Örnek: Damıen Hırst The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl:6, Sayı: 85, Aralık 2018, s. 456-467 457 AN EXAMPLE IN THE CONTEXT OF THE ARTIST AND BRAND VALUE: DAMIEN HIRST Abstract From the nineteenth century onwards, with the Modernism Art Movement, a wide range of cultural trends and transformations emerged in Western society. As a re- sult of the development of modern en- tries societies, cities grew rapidly. In the mid-20th century, the world was out of the war and a new construction process be- gan after the destruction. This change and transformation has shown itself in the cultural field. Traditional practices in art have been replaced by different trends and materials. With the formation of the liberal system of postmodernism, art has pla- yed an active role in creating new eco-nomic spaces. In England, the businessman and collector Charles Saatchi have made an economic attempt by discovering and encouraging young artists. British artist Damien Hirst, a member of the Young Bri- tish Artists (YBA) group, attracted Saatchi's attention with his extraordinary work. Thus, he became a buyer of his works and sponsored a commercial cooperation. In this study, it is aimed to make an examination on the brand value created by Da- mien Hirst in sensational and speculative aspects of art history. The products pro- duced and the commercial value it creates in the art market have been demonstra- ted with examples and numerical values. Keywords: Contemporary Art, Damien Hirst, British Art, Brand, Market GİRİŞ: Modernizm, 19. yüzyılın sonlarına doğru başlayıp 20. yüzyılın ortalarına kadar devam eden, Avrupa’daki geleneksel kültürden bir dizi kopuşu içeren ve çeşitli sanat dallarında ortaya çıkan öncü hareketleri kapsar. Modernizmle birlikte düşünce sistemi de değişmeye başlamıştır. Sanatçılar geleneksel sanat anlayışını yıkıp, ortaya Avangard ruhu taşıyan, yenilikçi bir sanat anlayışı koymuşlardır. Mehmet Yılmaz kitabında bu konu ile ilgili şu ifadelere yer verir; “Modern sanatçı, geleneklere bağlı çalışan sanatçılara iyi gözle bakmaz. Önemli olan, sanatçının doğayı eskimiş kurallara göre değil, çağın gereklerine göre yo- rumlaması ve ayrıca bilinmeyeni keşfe çıkmasıdır, risk almasıdır. Bu ise öncü ruha sa- hip olmakla mümkündür. Bugün sanatçının eleştirel ve muhalif tavrından söz edenler, ilhamını büyük ölçüde öncü ve ilerici gibi kavramlardan alırlar” (Yılmaz, 2013: 25). 19. yüzyılın ortalarından sonra ressamlar dünyayı olduğu gibi görmekten ziyade farklı arayışlara yönelmişlerdir. Bu arayış aynı zamanda modern sanatın da başlangıcı olmuştur. Emp- resyonistler, fovistler, kübistler, dadaistler, sürrealistler, kontrüktivistler ve fütüristler sanatta yeni yaklaşımlar ortaya koymuştur. 20. yüzyıl başlarında ortaya çıkan Fütürizm geçmişe, şimdiki zamana ve geleceğe ait duyumları aynı anda anlatmaya çalışmıştır. Fransa’nın en çok satan gazetesi Le Figaro’nun ilk sayfasında yayımlanan Fütürizm Manifestosu ile hayata geçirilmiştir. Yeni bir dünya için yeni bir sanat önerisi ortaya koyulur. Fütürizm; savaşı, tehlikeyi, makine çağını, faşizm teorisini be- nimseyen bir sanat okulu olarak İtalya’da gelişti. Radikal bir dönüşümü ifade eden akım, geçmi- şin köhneleşmiş birikimine karşı yeni bir toplumsal dinamizmin heyecanını yansıtıyordu Hız Sanatçı ve Marka Değeri Bağlamında Bir Örnek: Damıen Hırst The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl:6, Sayı: 85, Aralık 2018, s. 456-467 458 estetiği, dinamizm ve harekete görsel bir ifade kazandırılmak istenmiştir. Zamanla radikal bir karşı çıkıştan ‘geleceğin tasarlanması’ çabasına dönüşen akım, bilim ve sanat dünyasında etki- sini sürdürmüştür (istanbulsanatevi.com). 1. Dünya Savaşı ile birlikte İtalya’da son bulan Fütü- rizm gelecekte modernizme ışık tutmuştur (Antmen, 2016: 70). Resim 1. U. Boccioni, ‘Kent Uyanıyor’, 1910 Fütürizm gibi modernizmi etkileyen bir diğer öncü sanatsal oluşum ise Dada’dır. Dada, 20. yüzyılın başlarında yenilikçi ve öncü bir sanat akımı olarak Avrupa’da ortaya çıktı. Önce İsviçre’de daha sonra 1920’lerde Paris’te yayıldı. Akım öncelikle 1. Dünya Savaşı’na tepki ola- rak gelişti. Akım, modern kapitalist toplumun estetiği yerine anlamsızlığı ve mantıksızlığı vur- gulayarak, antikapitalist ve anti-burjuva tepkileri dile getirmeye çalıştı. Sanatçılar kolaj, ses, yazı ve heykel gibi her türlü materyali eserlerinde kullanmayı denediler. Bu modernizm ve son- rası için de kullanılan materyal ve plastik söylem bakımından da bir öncü nitelik oluşturmuştur (istanbulsanatevi.com). 1918 yılında Tristan Tizara’nın kaleme aldığı Dada Manifestosu yıkıcı bir eylem ve protesto olarak mantığının alt üst edildiği, geleceğin yıkılmasının ön görüldüğü ve bu sayede özgürlüğü vaat eden bir eyleme dönüştüğü bir akımdır. Karşıtlıkların birlikteliği ve tutarsızlıkla- rın ortaya koyulmasıyla yaşamın kendisini ifade etmiştir (Antmen, 2016: 122). Sanatçılar tara- fından muhalif bir yaklaşım ve kuralsızlık ilkesi ile tepkilerin dile getirildiği bir özgürlük alanı olarak algılanmıştır. Anlamsız sözcükler, tuhaf söz dizgeleri kuralsız yapılarıyla oluşturulan kolajlar ve asamblajlar bu sanatın ifade biçimleri olarak belirlenmiştir. Sanatla yaşam arasındaki sınırların kaldırılması arzusu, burjuva değerlerine ve politik yapıya karşı oluşturulan tutum Da- dacı’ların kavramsal alt yapısını oluşturmuştur. Anti-sanat terimini ilk olarak kullanan Marcel Duchamp’ın hazır-nesneleri, sanat dışı bir tavır olarak Dada’nın en etkili eylem ve söylemini yansıtır (Antmen, 2016: 124). Sıradan hazır bir nesneyi kullanarak yaşamla sanat arasındaki sınırları kaldırması bakımından oldukça etkilidir. Bir sanat nesnesinin üretimi, içeriği ve sunumu dikkate alındığında, alışılagelmiş olanı ters yüz eden radikal tavrıyla ardıllarına önemli bir kaynak teşkil etmiştir. Ne var ki 1960 sonra- sı sanatsal oluşumların içerisindeki pek çok kavramsal yönelime ışık tutmuştur (Antmen, 2016: 126). Farklı disiplinlerin bir aradalığı, sanatı yaşam alanına dahil eden, alımlayıcısını bire bir etkileşimle sürece dahil eden bu akım, 20. yüzyılda pek çok sanatçının ilham kaynağı olmuştur. Sanatçı ve Marka Değeri Bağlamında Bir Örnek: Damıen Hırst The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl:6, Sayı: 85, Aralık 2018, s. 456-467 459 Resim 2. M. Duchamp, ‘Pisuvar’, 1917 1. POSTMODERNE DOĞRU: 20. yüzyıl Batı sanatını biçimlendiren unsurlar özellikle 18. ve 19. yüzyıldaki siyasi, toplumsal, bilimsel ve kültürel gelişmelerden kaynaklanır. İki taraflı değişim sürecinin ilki 1789 Fransız Devrimi, ikincisi ise 18. yüzyılda İngiltere’de yaşanan Sanayi Devrimi’dir. Sanatçılar aristokrat ya da monarşik toplum içerisinde sarayın hizmetindeydi. Ticari bir değer olarak ta burjuvaziye hizmet etmekteydi. Sanayi Devrimi’nden sonra ise aristokrat saray sanatı yeri- ni, burjuva estetik kıstaslarına bırakarak kapitalist estetik anlayışına uygun yeni formlar oluş- turmaya başlamıştır. İngiltere’de buhar makinasının icadıyla ortaya çıkan Sanayi Devrimi, Avrupa ve Ame- rika’ya kadar yayılmıştır. Bu sayede pek çok iş sahası oluşmuş, hızlı üretimin yanı sıra ürünler- de çeşitlilik ve artış sağlanmıştır. Ulaşım ve haberleşme ağının genişlemesiyle yeni şirketler kurulmuş, küresel boyutta bir pazar oluşmuştur. Bu gelişmelerin doğal sonucu olarak; nüfus artışı, kentleşme, kırsaldan kente göç, el sanatları yerine fabrikasyon üretim modeli gerçekleş- miştir. Bu olumsuzluklarla birlikte kapitalist üretim modelinin sonucu olarak işçi sınıfının üze- rinde yol açtığı eşitsizlikler Sosyalizmi öne çıkarmıştır. Küresel boyuttaki tüm bu gelişmelerden sanat alanı da etkilenmiştir. Teknoloji ve ileti- şim sahasındaki gelişmeler bilgi akışını hızlandırmış, üretim fazlası mallar ise reklamcılık sek- törünü canlandırmıştır. Afiş tasarımı bu dönemde büyük önem kazanmış, sanatçılara üretim ve gelir noktasında katkı sağlamıştır. Uluslararası nitelik kazanan sanat, geniş kitlelere hızla yayıl- ma fırsatı bulmuştur. Modern kavramı 19. yüzyıldan itibaren yaşam standardını belirleyici temel bir kavram olarak hayatımıza girmiştir. Sanat ve kültür olguları toplumsal düzeyde yer almaya başlayan katmanlar halini almıştır. Sermaye odakları bu durumdan istifade ederek sanatı, toplumun her kesimine pazarlanabilecek bir araç haline getirmiştir. Yeniden üretilen resimler orta ve alt ke- simdeki insanların da satın alabileceği bir statü ve tüketim nesnesine dönüşmüştür. Modern çağda küreselleşen kapitalizm ile birlikte metropollerde yalnız kalmış ve gü- vensiz yaşayan bireyler, tüketime endeksli bir toplum, tüm değerlere yabancılaşma gibi unsurlar öne çıkmıştır. Sanatçı hem ruhsal açıdan hem de üretimine kaynak oluşturma açısından bu or- tamdan etkilenmiştir. Bunun yanı sıra sanat nesnesi aurasını kaybetmiş, biricikliği göz ardı Sanatçı ve Marka Değeri Bağlamında Bir Örnek: Damıen Hırst The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl:6, Sayı: 85, Aralık 2018, s. 456-467 460 edilmiştir. Pazara sürülen yeni üretimlerle birlikte hem sanatçı açısından ve hem de destekleyi- cisi açısından sanat, ekonomik bir güç kaynağına evrilmiştir. Sanatta; bireyselliğin ön plana çıktığı, iç deneyimlerin önem kazandığı, disiplinler arası etkileşimlerin görüldüğü, konu alanla- rının alabildiğince genişlediği, materyallerin ve üretim modellerinin zenginleştiği bir döneme doğru yol alınmaya başlanmıştır. 2. Dünya Savaşı’nın ardından özellikle Amerika başta olmak üzere dünyada yeni sanat- sal oluşumlar kendini göstermeye başlamıştır. Soyut Dışavurumculuk, Kavramsal Sanat gibi yeni ifade biçimleri sanat alanına hızla girmeye başlamıştır. Postmodern sanatla birlikte gittikçe artan malzeme çeşitliliği ile birlikte bu malzemelerin kural tanımayan biçimlendirilişi söz konu- su olmuştur. 1960’lı ve 1970’li yıllara dek postmodern terimi, kültür teorisi alanında modernizmden sonra gelen ve/ya modernizme karşı çıkan eserleri betimlemek üzere yaygın bir şekilde kulla- nılmamıştır. Bu dönem boyunca birçok kültür ve toplum teorisyeni, modernizm kültüründen radikal kopuşları ve yeni postmodern sanat biçimlerinin ortaya çıkışını tartışmaya başlamıştır (Best ve Kellner, 1998: 24). Postmodern sanatçı, her malzeme ve nesneyi sanat yapıtı olarak ele alabilmektedir. Sa- natçı atölyeden dışarı çıkmıştır. Sokak gündelik yaşamın kitsch, kaotik, sıradan ve yüzeysel mekânı olarak sanatın da temsil mekânına dönüşmüştür. Sadece mekânına değil aynı zamanda gündelik yaşamın sıradan konuları da temsile girmiştir. Böylece gündelik yaşam estetikleşir. Ancak gündelik yaşamın her türlü malzeme ve teknik ile estetik bir imaja dönüşmesi, yani her türlü imaj ve nesnenin estetikleşmesi ile sunulan temsil, bir bakıma sanatın ve estetiğin de sonu- nu getirmiştir (Koçak, 2012: 111). Postmodern sanat homojen olmayan çoğulcu temsil biçimlerini içermektedir. Kısaca temsil doğadan kopmuş, kavramsal temsil biçimleri yaygınlaşmıştır. Temsilin sunum biçimleri değişerek, tuval, boya ve geleneksel malzemeler yerine her türlü malzeme temsilde kullanılma- ya başlanmıştır. Zaman-mekân birbirinden ayrılarak, mekân temsilin sunum aracı olmaktan çıkarak, temsilin paydaşı olmuştur. Her türlü nesne sanat yapıtı olma özgürlüğünü elde etmiştir. Popüler, kitsch ve gündelik olan sanat nesnesi ya da konusu, temsil özelliği kazanmıştır. Temsil sürekli, şimdi ve anı içeren bir süreç olmuştur. Bu bakımdan gerçeklik algısı temsile indirgen- miştir. Simülasyon gerçekliğin yerine geçerek alıcı üzerinde anlam ertelenmesi ya da anlamın kurulamamasına neden olmuştur. Anlam yapıt üzerinden değil, alıcı üzerinden temsil edilir ol- muştur (Alp, 2013: 58). Postmodernizmle beraber estetik sınırlar tamamıyla değişmiş, tüm karşıtlıklar bir yan- yanalık haline dönüşmüştür. Modern sanatın ince işçiliğinin, biçimsel bilgiçliğinin ve estetik talepkarlığının aksine, ‘yüksek kültür’ ve ‘popüler kültür’ biçimlerini karıştıran, estetik sınırları altüst eden, sanatın alanının, reklam imgelerini kapsayacak kadar genişleten postmodern sanat, bölük pörçük ve eklektiktir. 2. SANAT PAZARI, GÜNCEL SANAT VE DAMIEN HIRST: Postmodern kuramların yaygınlaştığı dönemlerde önem kazanan Yeni Kavramsalcılık sanatsal nesneden ziyade toplumsal olana odaklanan, ırk ve cinsiyet ayrımcılığına, medya eleşti- risinden sanat kuramları eleştirisine uzanan, özellikle güç ilişkilerinin şekillendirdiği toplumsal kodları irdeleyen sanatçıların pratikleriyle şekillenmiştir. Sanatçılar toplumsal düzeni belirleyen göstergeler sistemi ile oynamayı, onları dönüştürmeyi ve bilindik imgelere yeni anlamlar yük- Sanatçı ve Marka Değeri Bağlamında Bir Örnek: Damıen Hırst The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl:6, Sayı: 85, Aralık 2018, s. 456-467 461 lemeyi gerçekleştirerek sorgulama sürecine girmişlerdir. Bu nedenle sanat eleştirmeni Hal Fos- ter postmodern sanatçıyı bir tür “gösterge manipülatörü” olarak adlandırır (Antmen, 2016: 277). Yapısökümcü bir yaklaşımla konuyu ele alan Yeni Kavramsalcı sanatçılar, kapitalist düzenin kitle iletişim araçları ile toplumsal düzeye taşınmış ve yaşam biçimine dönüştürmüştür. Bu sa- yede yeni bir okuma biçimi olarak ele alınan konular yeni yaklaşım biçimlerini oluşturmuştur (Antmen, 2016: 278). Günümüz kavramsalcı yaklaşımları ile dikkat çeken yeni sanatçılardan birisi de Da- mien Hirst’dür. Kendisinin de içinde yer aldığı İngiliz sanatçılar resimden heykele, performans- tan enstalasyona kadar uzanan ifade çeşitliliği içinde çalışmalar üretmiştir. Köpek balığı, inek, kuzu gibi hayvan ölüleri kullanarak gerçekleştirdiği enstalasyonlar, değerli taşlar kullanarak oluşturduğu yapıtlar, sanat yapıtının değerini belirleyen olguları sorgulamaya yönelik yeni yak- laşım ve ifade biçimlerini yansıtmaktadır (Antmen, 2016: 281). İçinde yaşadığımız çağda doğru olana ya da olmayana ilişkin normları sanat piyasası be- lirlemektedir. Bu piyasa alt/üst kültür, kitch, avangard, popüler gibi kavramlar arasındaki farklı- lıkları göz ardı etmiştir. İşin ticari değeri onun popüler, güzel veya üst kültürel bir nesne oluşu- nu belirler. En önemli husus satış işidir. Sanat adı altında neyi satarsanız, o sanattır. Eserin sembolik değeri aynı zamanda marka değerini belirler (Türkdoğan, 2014: 117). Çağdaş sanatçı bu pazar içerisinde -üretim bağlamında- oldukça özgürdür. Tarih, eleştiri, biçem, estetik gibi konular bağlayıcı nitelik olarak değer yargısı taşımaz. Sanatla ilgili enformatik güç, piyasanın denetimine bağlanmıştır. Sanat pazarı sanatçıyı özgürleştirmiş ve daha yaratıcı olmaya zorunlu kılmıştır. Andy Warhol’un ardılı olan Jeff Koons ve Damien Hirst gibi sanatçılar birer reklam yıldızı olarak markalaşma yönünde önemli mesafe kat etmişlerdir (Türkdoğan, 2014: 119). Hirst’ün eserlerine verdiği isimler de bu pazarlama sürecine büyük katkı sağlamıştır. 1965 do- ğumlu Hirst, 1986-89 yılları arasında Goldsmith Londra Üniversitesi’nde güzel sanatlar eğitimi almıştır. Jeff Koons gibi Damien Hirst’te Olympia & York, BT, Haagen-Dazs, Becks, Şirketle- rinin sponsorluğunda kariyerini oldukça geliştirmiştir (Yüksel, 2012: 163). 1980’den sonra Britanya’da “Genç İngiliz Sanatçılar” (YBA Grubu) olarak nitelendiri- len bir sanatçı grubu ortaya çıkmıştır. Belli bir sanatsal oluşuma ya da anlayışa bağlı kalmayan bu grup; ressam, heykeltıraş, fotoğrafçı, video kurgucu gibi farklı alanlarda çalışan sanatçılar- dan oluşmaktaydı. YBA grubu, 1990’lar İngiliz sanatını ve piyasasını şekillendiren, heyecan- landıran bir grup olarak görülür. Bu grubun üyesi olarak Damien Hirst ile birlikte Jack&Dino Chapman, Tracey Emin, Sarah Lucas, Chris Ofili, Sam Taylor-Wood, Tacita Dean, Jenny Savil- le, Liam Gillick, Angus Fairhurst, Gavin Turk, Fiona Rae, Michael Landy gibi sanatçılar san- sasyonel işleri ve sanat piyasasını şekillendiren satışlarıyla oldukça dikkat çekmiştir (Dönmez, 2013:78). Genç İngiliz Sanatçılar üç önemli sergi ile ilgi odağı olmuştur. Goldsmiths College’de öğrenci olan Damien Hirst’ün küratörlüğünde gerçekleştirilen Freeze (Donma) 1981, Modern Medicine (Modern Tedavi) 1990 ve Royal Academy’de gerçekleştirilen Sensation (Duyum) 1997 sergileridir. 1988 yılındaki sergiden sonra reklamcı ve koleksiyoner Charles Saatchi grubun destek- çiliğini üstlenmiş ve akabinde tanınmalarına önemli katkı sağlamıştır. Grubun yaptığı işler ve kullandıkları materyaller, geleneksel anlayışın ve malzemenin aksine son derece spekülatif ve sansasyoneldir. Beton yapılar, ezilmiş malzemeler, kan pıhtıları gibi sıra dışı malzemelerin kul- lanıldığı görülmektedir. Bu malzemelerle oluşturulan imgeler ve yaptıkları göndermeler de dik- Sanatçı ve Marka Değeri Bağlamında Bir Örnek: Damıen Hırst The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl:6, Sayı: 85, Aralık 2018, s. 456-467 462 kat çekicidir. Nesne ve imge ilişkisi kendi bağlamından koparılmış, ifade açısından temsilin sıra dışı dilini yansıtmıştır. C. Saatchi, Freeze sergisinde Damien Hirst’ün “A Thousand Years” (Bin Yıl) adlı yapıtını satın almış ve onu yatırım yapabileceği çarpıcı ve sıra dışı bir eser olarak de- ğerlendirmiştir. 1990’lı yıllar grubun sanat piyasasındaki etkinliği gittikçe artmaya başlamış, Saatchi grup için özel sergiler organize etmeye başlamıştır. 1992 ile 1996 yılları arasında ger- çekleştirilen bu sergiler grubu uluslararası boyutta üne kavuşturmuştur. Resim 3. D. Hirst, “Bin Yıl”, 1990 Resim 3. D. Hirst, “Bin Yıl”, 1990 1995 yılında Kuzey Amerika’da bulunan Minneapolis’teki Walter Sanat Müzesi’nde yenilikçi İngiliz Sanatı açısından öncü nitelik taşıyan bir sergi gerçekleştirilmiştir. “Brillant” adlı bu sergide D. Hirst “Yaşayan Birinin Zihninde Ölümün Fiziksel İmkânsızlığı” isimli yapı- tıyla sıra dışı bir üretim gerçekleştirmiştir. Resim 4. D. Hirst, “Yaşayan Birinin Zihninde Ölümün Fiziksel İmkânsızlığı”, 1991 Resim 4. D. Hirst, “Yaşayan Birinin Zihninde Ölümün Fiziksel İmkânsızlığı”, 1991 Sanatçı ve Marka Değeri Bağlamında Bir Örnek: Damıen Hırst The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl:6, Sayı: 85, Aralık 2018, s. 456-467 463 Hirst’ün en ünlü çalışmalarından birisi olan bu çalışma koruyucu sıvı içinde yüzen ölü bir kaplan köpek balığından oluşur. Köpekbalığı öyle dengelenmiştir ki, tankın tam ortasında yer alır; sanki hala canlıymış, doğal ortamında yüzüyormuş gibidir. Bu çalışmada sanatçının gönderme yaptığı bir kaç nokta vardır. Biri, yalnızca bir zamanlar kültürel ve sosyal bakımdan canlı olan şeylere yer veren ve onları camlı ortamlarda yalıtan müze kültürüne yapılmış bir gön- dermedir. Diğeri ise ölümün kendisidir. Bu noktada yalıtılmış nesnenin bir zamanlar bir ölüm makinesi olan bir canlının cesedi olması da önemlidir: Ölüm saçan ölmüştür (Lucie-Smith, 2004: 377). Ölü hayvan bedenlerini teknik olarak ayakta tutabilecek araçlarla 'ölüm' kavramı üzerine sorgulamalar yapan sanatçı bir yandan ölmüş hayvan bedenlerini sanki hala yaşıyorlar- mış gibi teşhir etmekte, bir yandan da sanat piyasasının kutsallaştırdığı sanat yapıtlarının doku- nulmaz varlığına göndermeler yapmaktadır (Bulduk, 2014: 40). Andy Warhol’un öncüsü olduğu “girişimci sanatçı” profilinin yeni temsilcisi olan Da- mien Hirst katıldığı sergilerde hayvan hakları savunucularının yoğun eleştirilerine maruz kal- mış, sanatla vahşet arasında ince bir çizgide gidip gelmiştir. Tüm bunlara rağmen Sanatçı eko- nomik boyutuyla hatırı sayılır bir üne kavuşmuştur. Pek çok yatırımcının da dikkatini bu alana çekmeye başarmıştır. İzleyicide şaşkınlık ve tepki çeken işler art arda gelmeye başlamıştır. Sa- nat objesini sponsorlar aracılığıyla ticari bir meteya dönüştürmüş ve sanatın ne olup ne olmadığı konusunda paradoksal bir alan açmıştır. Reklam kampanyalarıyla desteklenen bu aktivasyonlar, sanat pratiği açısından geleneksel yapıyı tamamıyla alt üst etmiştir. Bu bağlamda estetik obje, estetik yargı ve estetik değer kavramları da eserin maddi yapısı ve değeri karşısında anlamını yitirmiştir. Toplumsal, ahlaksal ve sanatsal değerler farklı bir bakış açısıyla alımlayıcıya sunul- muştur. Önemli olan burada ticari başarının sanatsal bir değerle olan birlikteliğidir. Çağdaş sa- natın popülerleşmesi ile birlikte yatırımcılar çağdaş sanatı bir yatırım aracına dönüştürmüştür. Gerçekliğin yerini yeni imgelerin aldığı bilgi toplumunda; gösterge gösterilene, kopya orijinale, temsil gerçeğe tercih edilerek, üretimden çok pazara yönelik bir anlayış sanatçıların yapıtlarında görsel halini almıştır (Antmen, 2016: 279). Pazarlama ekseninde ilerleyen sanat, kendi ortamını oluşturmuş ve reklam aracılığıyla şekillenen yeni dünyanın yeni imgelerini oluşturmuştur. Sanatsal protestolar, manipülasyonlar ve spekülatif yaklaşımlar reklamın içeriğini belirlemiştir. Sanatçı eliyle oluşturulan bu reklam imgeleri aynı zamanda sanatçının marka değerini ve pazardaki konumunu belirleyici bir rol üstlenmiştir. 3. MARKA DEĞERİ OLARAK DAMIEN HIRST: 2008 yılında Sotheby’de (Londra’da) düzenlenen müzayede ile doğrudan sanat alımla- yıcısı ile buluşan Damien Hirst, yaptığı satışlarla 111.464 milyon sterlinlik bir rakam elde et- miştir. 1993 yılında Sotheby’s New York’ta Pablo Picasso müzayedesinden elde edilen (11,3 milyon sterlin) rakamın 10 katına ulaşmıştır. Bu başarı onu dünyanın yaşayan en zengin sanatçı- sı yapmıştır. Tek bir sanatçı adına elde edilen en yüksek müzayede rekorunu elde etmiştir. Aynı zamanda bu küresel boyutta bir marka kültürünün sanatçı üzerinden nasıl gerçekleştiğini de gözler önüne sermektedir. Kuşkusuz bu başarıda sansasyonel yapıtların yanı sıra destekçisi Charles Saatchi’nin ve kamusal müze olarak sanatçıyı onaylayan Tate’nin büyük payı bulun- maktadır (Bayrak, 2012: 241). Sanatçı ve Marka Değeri Bağlamında Bir Örnek: Damıen Hırst The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl:6, Sayı: 85, Aralık 2018, s. 456-467 464 Çağdaş sanat eserlerinin müzayedelerde sanat tacirleri tarafından birer yatırım aracı ola- rak değerlendirilmek üzere spekülatif şekilde yüksek fiyatlara alınıp satılması sanat açısından da ciddi bir pazar oluşturmuştur. Damien Hirst’ün “Tanrı Aşkına” adlı yapıtı bir kafatasına 8000’den fazla elmasın işlenmesiyle oluşturulmuştur. Bu yapıt hammaddesi itibariyle maddi değerinden öte, sanatçısı ve onun temsil edildiği galeri, koleksiyoncusu, dönemsel eğilimler gibi dış etkenlerle şeffaf olmayan ve heterojen bir pazar kavramı oluşturmuştur. Resim 5. D. Hirst, “For The Love of God”, 2007 Marka sanatçı olma noktasında sanatçıları finanse eden ticari güç; güncel, çarpıcı (san- sasyonel) ve revaç kavramları ile kültürel bir sektörü de var etmiştir. Sanat ile iktisadi teşebbüsü bütünleyen tüm kurumlar (sponsorlar, tacirler, müzayedeler, koleksiyonerler vb. gibi) kendi içerisinde işleyen bir çark oluşturmuştur. Bu yeni düzen şöhreti besleyen, marka değerler oluş- turan ekonomik bir itici güç halini almıştır. Sanatçı da bu durumdan istifade eden en önemli aktörlerden birisi olmuştur. Kalıcılığını ortaya koyarak marka değeri kazanmış ve ticari boyu- tuyla da bu durumdan faydalanmıştır. Uluslararası düzeyde sanatçıları destekleyen Katar gibi zengin ülkeler son dönemlerde sanat eserlerinin de alıcısı konumuna gelmiştir. Bunun sonucu olarak modern sanat eserlerinin Sanatçı ve Marka Değeri Bağlamında Bir Örnek: Damıen Hırst The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl:6, Sayı: 85, Aralık 2018, s. 456-467 465 çeşitli mecralarda sergilendiği görülmektedir. Sanat eserlerini kamusal alanda değerlendirmekle birlikte bir takım eleştiri ve tepkilere de maruz kalmıştır. Toplumun kendi ahlaki değerlerine göre sansasyonel sayılabilecek nitelikteki bu tür çalışmalar, sanatın varoluşsal dinamiklerinin topluma doğru bir şekilde aksettirilmesiyle normalleşme ve onama düzeyine taşınmıştır. İngiliz sanatçı Damien Hirst’ün, Katar'ın başkentindeki bir hastanede 2013 yılında yap- mış olduğu ve ‘Mucizevi Yolculuk’ (The Miraculous Journey)” adını verdiği heykel serisi Orta- doğu’da kamusal alanda sergilenen ilk çıplak heykeller olduğu için oldukça tepki görmüş ve yapıtların üzeri örtülmüştür. Ancak Kasım 2018 tarihinde bu heykeller başkent Doha'daki Sidra Hastanesi'nin Kadın ve Çocuk Sağlığı Merkezi’nde izleyici ile yeniden buluşturulmuştur. 14 metre uzunluğunda 14 bronz heykelden oluşan bu çalışmalar hastane bahçesine yerleştirilmiş ve kentte açılan modern sanat sergisinin de en önemli eserlerinden biri olmuştur. Ayrıca Sidra Has- tanesi’ndeki bu merkezde, Damien Hirst dışında uluslararası alanda ün kazanmış sanatçılara ait toplam 65 modern sanat eseri de bulunmaktadır. Bir fetüsün oluşumundan doğuşuna kadar geçirdiği evreleri anlatan bu heykeller hasta- nenin resmi açılışı ile yeniden gündeme gelmiş ve böylece 5 yıllık aradan sonra örtülerinden sıyrılarak kamusal sanatın göstergesi olarak varlığını göstermiştir. Katar Müzeler Direktörü ve Katar Prensesi Sheikha Al Mayassa yaptığı açıklamada, heykellere gösterilen tepkinin “çok ilginç” ve “yeni yaşamın mucizesinin çarpıcı tasvirine yönelik çok güç- lü bir destek olduğunu” söyleyerek “Herkesin kamusal sanatımıza aynı şekilde tepki vermesini beklemiyoruz. İşte bu noktada kamusal sanatı herkesin hayatına taşıyarak, her bireyin farklı tepki vereceğini umuyoruz” açıklamasında bulunmuştur (https://news.artnet.com). Resim 6, 7, 8, 9., D. Hirst, “The Miraculous Journey”, 2013 (Sidra Hastanesi, Doha - Katar, 2018) Sanatçı ve Marka Değeri Bağlamında Bir Örnek: Damıen Hırst The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl:6, Sayı: 85, Aralık 2018, s. 456-467 466 Sonuç: 20. yüzyıl geleneksel anlayışın tüm sanat pratiklerini reddeden, kendi ifade biçimlerini adeta kutsayan bir süreci içinde barındırır. Dolayısıyla, sanatın araçsallaştığı bir dönemi söz konusudur. Güncel sanat uygulamaları ile birlikte üst kültürel yapıtlar finansal araçlara evrilerek potansiyel bir pazara zemin hazırlamıştır. Bütün bunlar bilinçli hatta kasıtlı bir politikayla des- teklenmiş bulunmaktadır. Koleksiyonerlerin, müzelerin ve özel kuruluşların çabalarıyla sanat, spekülatif ve manipülatif ticari hamlelerin aracılığıyla reklam ve finans malzemesi haline geti- rilmiştir. Adorno sanat nesnesi ile tüketim nesneleri arasında özellikle ticaretin geliştiği dönemde bir benzerliğin ortaya çıktığına dikkat çeker. Öyle ki, Leonardo Da Vinci'nin ‘Mona Lisa’ eseri yüksek bir fiyata karşılık bulması insanları şaşırtmazken, sigara izmaritlerinin ve boş şişelerden oluşan bir düzenlemenin yüksek fiyatlarla değer kazanması ve sanat olması pek çok insanı şaşır- tabilecek niteliktedir (Türkdoğan, 2014: 135). Walter Benjamin sanatın büyüleyici havasını yitirdiğini savunur. Sanat eseri biriciklik özelliğini kaybetmiştir. Sanatsal imge yerini reklam imgesine bırakmıştır. Sanatçı endüstriyel dünyanın koşullarına uygun olarak üretimler gerçekleştirmek zorunda kalmıştır. Ölçüt, rekabet yönüyle belirlenir. Sanatçılar ölümü, şiddeti, cinselliği ve çirkin olanı ele alır. Bu da norm ta- nımayan ve sınırları olmayan bir alan oluşturmuştur. Sanat politik söylemlerin, kapitalist düşün- cenin egemen olduğu ve yönlendirdiği bir sahada varlığını sürdürmektedir (Türkdoğan, 2014: 132). Küresel sermayenin hizmetindeki sanatçı ise bu pastadan kendine düşen payı markalaşma ve onun getirisi olan ticari şöhret ile elde etmiştir. İşte böyle bir ortamda İngiliz sanatçı Damien Hirst de sanat pazarında önemli bir marka değeri haline gelmiştir. Yapıtları kışkırtıcı ve rahatsız edici olsa da, kendisine yöneltilen bütün eleştirilere rağmen, sanat pazarındaki “değer” üzerin- den değerlendirildiğinde, güncel sanatın ilk akla gelen isimlerinden birisi olmuştur. KAYNAKLAR Alp, K. Özlem, (2013), “Sanatın Temsili ve Postmodern Sanatta Temsil”, Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi Güzel Sanatlar Dergisi, ART-E Sayı: Kasım-Aralık 2013, Sayfa: 40-61 Antmen, A., (2016), “20. Yüzyıl Batı Sanatında Akımlar”, İstanbul: Sel Yayıncılık Bayrak, B., “Çağdaş Sanat Pazarında Bir Marka Olmak: Bir Vaka İncelemesi Olarak Damien Hirst”, NEÜ Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi 2 (2012) 240-255 Best S., Kellner D., (1998), “Postmodern Teori”, Çeviren: Mehmet Küçük, İstanbul: Ayrıntı Yayınları Bulduk, B., “Yeni Kavramsalcılık: Jeff Koons, Damien Hirst, Sherrie Levine, Cindy Sherman”, Ulakbilge, Cilt 5, Sayı 18, Volume 5, Issue 18 2017:1943 Dönmez, İ., “Guncel Sanat: Genç Britanyalı Sanatçılar (Yba-Young British Artists) İçin Tanım- lama”, Sanat Tasarım Ve Manipülasyon Sempozyum Bildiri Kitabı, 21-23 Kasım 2013, sayfa: 77-82 Koçak, D. Özhan, (2012), “Sinemada Postmodernizm”, İstanbul: Beykent Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi Lucie-Smith, E., (2004), “20. Yüz Yılda Görsel Sanatlar”, Türkçesi: Ebru Kılıç ve diğerleri, Akbank Kültür ve Sanat Dizisi, İstanbul Sanatçı ve Marka Değeri Bağlamında Bir Örnek: Damıen Hırst The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl:6, Sayı: 85, Aralık 2018, s. 456-467 467 Türkdoğan, T., (2014), “Sanat Kültür Politika - Modernizm Sonrası Tartışmalar”, Ankara: No- bel Akademik Yayıncılık Yılmaz, M., (2013), “Modernden Postmoderne Sanat”, Ankara: Ütopya Yayıncılık. Yüksel, M., “Damien Hirst’ün Sanat Pazarı”, Atatürk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi 2012 16 (3): 159-170 Dijital Kaynaklar: https://www.istanbulsanatevi.com/resim-ekolleri/futurizm-nedir-ne-demektir/ https://www.istanbulsanatevi.com/resim-ekolleri/dadaizm-sanat-akimi-ve-temsilcileri/ https://news.artnet.com/art-world/damien-hirst-public-fetus-works-go-back-up-in-doha- 1398895 https://www.istanbulsanatevi.com/resim-ekolleri/futurizm-nedir-ne-demektir/ https://www.istanbulsanatevi.com/resim-ekolleri/dadaizm-sanat-akimi-ve-temsilcileri/ https://news.artnet.com/art-world/damien-hirst-public-fetus-works-go-back-up-in-doha-1398895 https://news.artnet.com/art-world/damien-hirst-public-fetus-works-go-back-up-in-doha-1398895 
work_yysmmqftrfcl5irddrjvdhcqxy	----	ULUSLARARASI HAKEMLİ TASARIM VE MİMARLIK DERGİSİ INTERNATIONAL REFEREED JOURNAL OF DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURE Ocak / Şubat / Mart / Nisan 2014 Sayı: 01 Cilt: 01 İlkbahar Dönemi January / February / March / April 2014 Issue: 01 Volume: 01 Spring Semester ID:11 K:16 MODERN KENT KAVRAMININ PLASTİK SANAT ESERLERİNE ETKİSİ Tolga AKALIN Gazi Üniversitesi. Eğitim Fakültesi Güzel Sanatlar Eğitimi Bölümü Resim-İş Anabilim Dalı Özet: 20. yüzyılın başlarına gelindiğinde pek çok sanatçı modernleşmeyi kentsel gelişimin hızı ve endüstrinin getirdiği ürünlerde aramıştır. Bu arayışlara destek veren sanatçıların yansıra, bu kentsel gelişmeye ve endüstrileşmeye karşı duran pek çok sanatçıda olmuştur. Sanatçıların bu karşı duruşlarına rağmen, günümüz dünyasında modern kentlerin daha çok geliştiği, insanların rahat etmesi adına konforun abartıldığı ürünlerin ortaya çıktığı görülmektedir. Bu gelişimin ve konforun beraberinde getirdiği hızlı ve marjinal yaşam tarzlarının, insani değerleri dejenerasyona uğratıp uğratmadığı, onları toplumsal bir varlık olmaktan çıkarıp çıkarmadığı üzerine derin tartışmalar başlamıştır. Bu tartışmalara haliyle sanatçılarda dâhil olmuşlar ve bu durumun olumlu ya da olumsuz getirilerini eserlerine konu edinmişlerdir. Bu araştırmada hangi sanatçının kentsel gelişimi destekler nitelikte çalışmalar ürettiği, hangisinin ise tam tersi bir tavır sergilediği eserleri üzerinden incelenmiştir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Modernizm, Post-Modern Sanat, Şehir ve Sanat, Otto Dix, Pablo Picasso THE EFFECT OF THE PLASTIC ART WORKS TO THE MODERN CITY CONCEPTS Abstrack: Many artists looked for modernization in the products which urban development speed and industry have brought at the beginnings of 20th century. In addition to the artists supporting these searches, there have been many artists opposite to this urban development and industrialization. Despite these oppositions of the artists, it is observed that modern cities developed more products in which comfort has been exaggerated in. Deep discussions started on whether fast and marginal life styles coming with this development and comfort caused degeneration and it caused in individuals any anti social beings. So the artists were included in these discussions and they made the positive and negative aspects of this subject as subject of their own products In this research, it has been ULUSLARARASI HAKEMLİ TASARIM VE MİMARLIK DERGİSİ INTERNATIONAL REFEREED JOURNAL OF DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURE Ocak / Şubat / Mart / Nisan 2014 Sayı: 01 Cilt: 01 İlkbahar Dönemi January / February / March / April 2014 Issue: 01 Volume: 01 Spring Semester ID:11 K:16 examined that which artist produced studies with the quality of supporting urban development, which of them exhibited just an opposite attitude. Key Words : Modernization, Post-Modern Arts, City and Arts, Otto Dix, Pablo Picasso 1.YÖNTEM Bu makalede literatür tarama yöntemi, nitel araştırma yöntemlerinden olan betimsel analiz ve içerik analizi yöntemleri kullanılmıştır. Betimsel analiz yöntemine göre; literatür tarama yöntemiyle elde edilen veriler daha önceden belirlenen temalara göre özetlenir ve yorumlanır. İçerik analizi yöntemine göre ise verilerin önce kavramsallaştırılması, daha sonra da ortaya çıkan kavramlara göre mantıklı bir biçimde düzenlenmesi ve buna göre veriyi açıklayan temaların saptanması gerekmektedir(Yıldırım ve Şimşek,2011:227). 2.GİRİŞ Kent : “Mal ve hizmetlerin; üretim, dağıtım ve tüketimi sürecinde toplumun sürekli olarak değişen gereksinimlerini karşılamak için ortaya çıkan bir ekonomik mekanizmadır” (Sağlam, 1995: 5). Bu mekanizma beş bin yıl öncesine dayanmaktadır. Benolovo, ilk kentlerin, M.Ö. 3 ve 2 binlerde Mezopotamya’nın, Nil, İndus, Sarı ırmak gibi büyük nehirlerin vadilerinde tarım ürünlerinin biriktirildiği ve takas edildiği bir çeşit ticari yöntemin uygulandığı merkezler olarak ortaya çıktığını söylemektedir. Bu yerleşkelerin daha sonra Yunan ve Roma uygarlıklarına kentsel anlamda kaynak oluşturdukları da bilinmektedir (Benelovo, 1995: 19- 21). Modern uygarlıklar dünyasında ise; yukarıda bahsedilen kent kavramının değişime uğradığı ve daha kapsamlı bir hal aldığı görülmektedir. Kentler, artık basit tarım ticareti yapılan küçük yerleşkeler değil, daha devasa kuruluşların bulunduğu ve içerisinde kalabalık insan topluluklarının hayatlarını idame ettirdikleri yerler haline gelmişlerdir. Bu yerleşkelerde insanlar hayatlarını sürdürmekle kalmayıp, ortak bir kültür ve yaşam tarzı oluşturmuşlardır. Kalabalık insan yığınlarının barınması ve yaşamlarını devam ettirebilmesi için modern binalar, parklar, bahçeler ve iş alanlarının inşası da kaçınılmaz olmuştur. Konforları düşünülerek inşa edilen bu mimari öğeler, insanların yaşam biçimlerini etkilemiş ve onları geleneksel kent kültüründen uzaklaştırmıştır. Yaşamakta olduğumuz dönemde, bu modern kentlerin daha da geliştiği görülmektedir. Bu gelişimin beraberinde getirdiği hızlı ve marjinal yaşam tarzlarının, insani değerleri dejenerasyona uğratıp uğratmadığı, ULUSLARARASI HAKEMLİ TASARIM VE MİMARLIK DERGİSİ INTERNATIONAL REFEREED JOURNAL OF DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURE Ocak / Şubat / Mart / Nisan 2014 Sayı: 01 Cilt: 01 İlkbahar Dönemi January / February / March / April 2014 Issue: 01 Volume: 01 Spring Semester ID:11 K:16 onları toplumsal bir varlık olmaktan çıkarıp çıkarmadığı üzerine derin tartışmalar başlamıştır. Bu tartışmalara sanatçılar da dâhil olmuşlardır. Aynı zamanda sanatçılar, durumun olumlu- olumsuz yönlerini eserlerine konu edinmişlerdir. 3.SANATÇILARIN ESERLERİNDE MODERNLEŞME VE KENT KAVRAMI 20. yüzyılın başlarına gelindiğinde, pek çok sanatçı, modernleşmeyi kentsel gelişimin hızı ve endüstrinin getirdiği ürünlerde aramıştır. Bu arayışlara destek veren sanatçıların yanı sıra kentsel gelişmeye ve endüstrileşmeye karşı şiddetli tepki duyan pek çok sanatçı da olmuştur (Antmen, 2008: 34). Bu gelişmelere karşı duran sanatçılar kendi eserlerinde, Cervantes’in “Don Kişot” adlı eserindeki Alonso Quijano (Don Kişot) isimli kahramanın yel değirmenlerine karşı verdiği savaşta okuyucuya yansıtılan, romantik ve aynı zamanda mücadeleci ruhu ortaya çıkarmışlardır. Bu sanatçıların tavırlarında ‘Primitif’ 1 olarak adlandırılan eğilimi görmek mümkündür. Bu tavrın öne çıkan isimleri arasında Picasso gösterilebilir. Sanatçının, ilkel kabilelerin kullandıkları masklardan esinlendiği ve bazı resimlerinde bu imgeleri kullandığı bilinmektedir. ‘Avignonlu Kızlar’ 1 Ket vurulmamış her türlü ifadeyi kapsar. Bir çocuğun veya akıl hastasının yapmış olduğu kuralsız resimler gibi. (Resim 1) adlı eserinde bu maskların etkisi açıkça görülmektedir. Uzun bir yaradılış dönemine rağmen bu resim, günümüzde hala bitmemiş gibi algılanmaktadır. Ayrıca bu resmin üzerine; yapım aşamasından, hangi teknikle yapıldığına, ne anlatmak istediğine, hangi akımın başlangıcı olduğuna dair tartışmalar söz konusu olmuştur. Sanatçının bu resminde kullanılan deforme edilmiş kadın figürlerinin, Avignon’daki bir genel evde çalışan hayat kadınları olduğuna dair bilgiler bulunmaktadır. Peki, Picasso neden hayat kadınlarını resminde kullanmıştır? Estetik birer obje oldukları için mi yoksa kendi cinsel gücünü ve iktidarını yansıtmak için mi? Bu sayılan sebepler gibi, yüzlercesinin sayılabileceği düşünülebilir. Bu sebeplerin birçoğu da resmin ortaya çıkmasında etken olmuştur denilebilir. Ancak başta belirtiğimiz gibi; kentsel gelişime karşı duran sanatçıların başında Picasso’da yer almaktadır. Sanatçı kentsel gelişim ve sanayinin ilerlemesiyle insanlığın yozlaşacağını önceden bilmektedir. Sanayi demek; büyük yerleşim yerlerinin oluşması (kentlerin) ve endüstriyel üretime yönelik ham madde ihtiyacı demektir. Bu ihtiyaç da; sömürgeciliğin ve savaşın ortaya çıkması sonucunu doğurur. Bu tip savaş durumlarında hayli yaygınlaşan mesleğin ‘hayat kadınlığı’ olduğunu günümüzde bilmeyen kalmamıştır. Ayrıca; bu resimde kullanılan figürler, Afrika ilkel sanatındaki figürlerde kullanılan deformasyonlarla örtüşmektedir. ‘Bu durumda batının ULUSLARARASI HAKEMLİ TASARIM VE MİMARLIK DERGİSİ INTERNATIONAL REFEREED JOURNAL OF DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURE Ocak / Şubat / Mart / Nisan 2014 Sayı: 01 Cilt: 01 İlkbahar Dönemi January / February / March / April 2014 Issue: 01 Volume: 01 Spring Semester ID:11 K:16 sömürgeci tarafına bir gönderme olabilir mi?’ sorusu akıllara gelebilir. Sanatçının, izleyiciye; yaşamın gereği olarak kabul ettiği kentsel ve endüstriyel gelişimin sonuçlarını bu resim üzerinden anlattığı görülmektedir. Resim 1: Pablo Picasso “Avignon’lu Kızlar” 1907 Museum of Modern Art, New York. Picasso’nun yaşadığı dönemde, çalışmalarında dolaylı aktarım anlamında sıklıkla başvurduğu kentsel kültürün olumsuz etkilerine, çağdaşlarının hemen hemen hiçbirisi değinmeyi tercih etmemiştir. Aksine kentlerin, sanayileşmenin etkisiyle, baş döndürücü bir hızla gelişmesini övgüyle karşılamışlardır. Özellikle; sanayi gelişimini, hızı ve geleceği kendilerine konu edinen İtalyan Fütüristleri, modern kent kavramını, hızla gelişen sanayiyi ve kalabalıkları övmüşlerdir. Buna karşılık, Alman Dışavurumcuların tepkileri daha karmaşık ve farklı yönlerde olmuştur. Dışavurumcu ressamların da aralarında bulunduğu çevrelerde bulunan şair, yazar ve düşünürler, kentsel yabancılaşmanın gün geçtikçe daha çok farkına varmışlardır. ‘Berlin Alexander Meydanı’ adlı romanında dışavurumcu öğelere ağırlık veren, Alfred Döblin modern kent insanının bilinçliliğine canlılık kazandıran telaş ve kaygı gibi etkenleri dile getirmeye koyulmuştur(Lloyd, 2000: 104). Bu etkileri görsel öğelerle anlatan önemli ressamlardan birisi de Kirchner’dir. Sanatçı; 28 Temmuz 1914’te I. Dünya Savaşı’nın patlak vermesinin ardından, Berlin sokaklarında gezinen fahişeleri konu ULUSLARARASI HAKEMLİ TASARIM VE MİMARLIK DERGİSİ INTERNATIONAL REFEREED JOURNAL OF DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURE Ocak / Şubat / Mart / Nisan 2014 Sayı: 01 Cilt: 01 İlkbahar Dönemi January / February / March / April 2014 Issue: 01 Volume: 01 Spring Semester ID:11 K:16 edindiği resimlerinde, adeta bu kadınların ruhsal durumlarının karmaşasıyla kent hayatının karmaşasını birbirine entegre etmiş gibidir. Resim 2: Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, “Postzdamer Meydanı” 1914. Neue Nationelgalerie Berlin. Sanatçı, ‘Potzdamer Meydanı’(Resim 2) adlı yapıtında, kent kalabalığının gizil yabanıllığı ve saldırganlığını akla düşüren, canlı renkler ve gözü pek fırça vuruşlarıyla, geometrik, iç içe geçmiş kompozisyonun ortaya koyduğu düzen ve denetim duygusunu belirtmiştir (Lloyd,2000:104). Bu resimde, Berlin sokaklarında gezinen fahişeleri görmekteyiz. Resmin sol tarafında bulunan kadının yüzündeki peçeden dolayı savaşta kocasını kaybetmiş bir dul olduğunu anlayabiliyoruz. Bu peçe ayrıca kadının güzelliğini gölgelemiş ve ürkütücü bir hale sokmuştur. Ülkelerin gelişmek adına çıkarttıkları savaşlarda erkekler cepheye gitmektedir. Eşleri ise kentlerde kalmaktadır. Kentlerde kalan, kocalarını savaşta kaybetmiş ve maddi yoksulluk içinde yaşamlarını devam ettirmek zorunda kalan bayanların durumlarını sanatçının resimlerinde acı bir şekilde görmekteyiz. Bu duyguyu diğer bir alman sanatçı olan Otto Dix’in resimlerinde de görmek mümkündür. Sanatçı 1.Dünya Savaşı sırasında çeşitli cephelerde görevler almış ve bu görevler esnasında da pek çok yara almıştır. Sanatçı’nın eserlerinde savaşın acımasız ve ölümcül yanlarını ULUSLARARASI HAKEMLİ TASARIM VE MİMARLIK DERGİSİ INTERNATIONAL REFEREED JOURNAL OF DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURE Ocak / Şubat / Mart / Nisan 2014 Sayı: 01 Cilt: 01 İlkbahar Dönemi January / February / March / April 2014 Issue: 01 Volume: 01 Spring Semester ID:11 K:16 görmek mümkündür. Ancak Dix, sadece cephede olup bitenleri resmetmekle kalmamış, cephenin dışında kentlerde yaşamını devam ettirmek zorunda kalan sakat askerlerin, yoksul dilencilerin ve müşterilerini bekleyen fahişelerin resimlerini de yapmıştır. Resim 3: Otto Dix, 1927, Salon, Tuval Üzerine Yağlıboya, Galeri Staatsgalerie, Stutugart,Germany. Sanatçının, Salon (Resim 3) adlı eserinde müşteri bekleyen kadınlarının yüzlerindeki ifadeler çok manidardır. Soldaki kadının yalancı gülüşü ve kendini pazarlamaya çalışan edası, diğer kadınların yüzlerindeki düşünceli ifadeler; resme bakan insanlarda acaba ülkelerin gelişmek, modernleşmek ve kentsel yaşam alanlarının kalitesini artırmak için verdikleri savaş bu kadınların ve diğer canlıların hayatlarını mahvetmeye değer mi? Sorusunu akıllara getirmektedir. Bu resimde kentsel gelişmenin ve modernleşmenin olumsuz etkileri açıkça görünmektedir. Birinci dünya savaşı sonrası ile ikinci dünya savaşı öncesindeki ara dönemde en sık rastlanan terimlerden birisi Konstrüksiyon ’dur. Bu terim; Rusya’da Konstrüktivizm akımı, Almanya’da ise Bauhaus okulu olarak karşımıza çıkar. Bu iki anlayışta yeni bir dünyanın inşasını bir gereklilik olarak görür. Bu düşüncenin içine yer alan sanatçılar giderek tasarıma yöneldikleri bir süreç içinde sanatı alışılagelmiş işlevinin dışında, toplumsal bir zeminde anlam ifade etmesi gereken bir olgu olarak düşünmeye başlamışlardır(Antmen,2008:103). Rusya’daki ve Almayandaki büyük ULUSLARARASI HAKEMLİ TASARIM VE MİMARLIK DERGİSİ INTERNATIONAL REFEREED JOURNAL OF DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURE Ocak / Şubat / Mart / Nisan 2014 Sayı: 01 Cilt: 01 İlkbahar Dönemi January / February / March / April 2014 Issue: 01 Volume: 01 Spring Semester ID:11 K:16 yıkımların sonucunda bu ülkelerin yeniden toparlanabilmesi, inşası ve insanların yaşam alanlarını kalitesinin ve işlevselliğinin artırılması adına Konstrüktivizm(Yapısalcılık) akımı işe koyulmuştur. Bu akımın önemli Rus, tasarımcılarından birisi Vlademir Tatlin’dir. ‘Eyfel’ (La tour Eiffel) kulesine rakip olarak düşündüğü ‘3. Enternasyonal Anıtı’ ile tanınmıştır. Bu anıt resim, heykel ve mimarinin benzersiz bileşenlerinden oluşmaktadır. Anıt Rusya’nın maddi imkânsızlıklarından dolayı uygulamaya geçememiş ahşap maket olarak kalmıştır. Resim 4: Vlademir Tatlin, 3. Enternasyonel Anıtı,1917-1920 Ahşap Maket. Tatlin bu anıtta; gelecekteki uzay çağının dinamizmini yansıtmak adına dev spiral yapının içindeki silindir, küp ve küreyi rotasyonla hareket ettirmeyi hayal etmiş böylece kinetik heykel ve mimari fikrinin öncülüğünü yapmıştır. Sanatçının 1917-1920 yılları arasında ahşap bir modelini yaptığı anıt, Sovyet Devriminin hemen ertesinde yeni bir toplumun inşa edilmesi sürecinde Rus sanatçıların nasıl bir gelecek tasarladığına önemli bir ipucudur(Antmen,2008:102). Tasarlanan bu gelecek; insanların yaşam alanlarını değiştirmeye, onları doğadan kopararak konfora ve teknolojiye sahip binaların içine yerleştirmek suretiyle kolektif bir yaşam alanına doğru ULUSLARARASI HAKEMLİ TASARIM VE MİMARLIK DERGİSİ INTERNATIONAL REFEREED JOURNAL OF DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURE Ocak / Şubat / Mart / Nisan 2014 Sayı: 01 Cilt: 01 İlkbahar Dönemi January / February / March / April 2014 Issue: 01 Volume: 01 Spring Semester ID:11 K:16 sürüklemektedir. Tatlin’in belki de insanlığın faydası için düşündüğü bu masumane eserinin daha sonraki mimarlara esin kaynağı olacağını ve doğadan uzak abartılı binaların yapılacağını düşündürmemiştir. Ancak Tatlin’den daha önce sadece geleceğin binasını değil komple bir şehri tasarlayan İtalyan, Fütürist Antonio Sant’Elia, adındaki sanatçıyı anmadan geçmek olmaz. Resim 5: Antonio Sant’Elia, Part of La Citta Nuova 1914, Kâğıt Üzerine Kara Kalem, Sant’Elia Ailesi Özel Koleksiyonu. Elia, bulunduğu dönemden adeta geleceğin beton yığınlarını, daralmış yaşam alanlarını ve insanların içinde kaybolduğu devasa binaları hissetmiş ve onların çizimlerini yapmıştır (Resim 5). Sanatçının hiçbir zaman uygulamaya geçiremediği bu konforlu kentleri çizim dışında gerçek yaşamda oluşturabilmek kolay olmamıştır. Bu yaşam alanlarını oluşturabilmek için yine endüstriyel hammaddeye ihtiyaç duyulmuştur. Bu hammadde arayışı beraberinde savaşı getirmiştir. Bu eserin ortaya çıkış tarihiyle birinci dünya savaşının çıkış tarihi aynı zamana denk gelmektedir. Gelişmek, güçlenmek ve vatandaşlarının refahını düşünmek adına savaşa giren ulusların kayıplarından etkilen sanatçılar, bu durumlara karşı tepkilerini yaptıkları eserlerle ve davranışlarla ifade etmişlerdir. Bu davranışlar bazen ULUSLARARASI HAKEMLİ TASARIM VE MİMARLIK DERGİSİ INTERNATIONAL REFEREED JOURNAL OF DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURE Ocak / Şubat / Mart / Nisan 2014 Sayı: 01 Cilt: 01 İlkbahar Dönemi January / February / March / April 2014 Issue: 01 Volume: 01 Spring Semester ID:11 K:16 döneminin sanatsal üsluplarından farklı olmuş ve sanat ortamına yeni bir soluk getirmiştir. Bu farklılık getiren sanatsal üsluplardan birisi de Dada hareketidir. George Grosz, bu hareketi; “Uzun zamandır duyduğumuz rahatsızlığın, mutsuzluğun ve alaycılığın bir ifadesiydi.(…) Her şeye hakaret ediyor, hiçbir şeye saygı duymuyor, her şeye tükürüyorduk: işte bu Dada’ydı. Mistisizm değildi, Komünizm değildi, Anarşizm de değildi. Bütün bu saydığım hareketlerin bir planı, programı vardı. Bizse tam anlamıyla nihilisttik, simgemiz hiçlikti, boşluktu, boş bir delikti. ”(Antmen,2008:131). Sanatçının ifadesinden yola çıkarsak; aslında toplumsal gelişmenin ve bunun hızlı bir şekilde yayılmasının sonucu olarak insan ruhunda açtığı hiçlik duygusunun, kafa karışıklığının ve boşluğa düşme eğilimini rahatça görebiliriz. Bu duyguları sanatçının yapmış olduğu, şehir hayatının yoğunluğunu ve karmaşasını anlatan resimlerinde görmek mümkündür. Resim 6: George Grosz, Metropolis, 1916, Museo Thyssen-Bornemisza, Madrid. Özellikle, ‘Metro Polis’ (Resim 6) adlı çalışması; düzenli bir kent görüntüsün içinde üst üste binmiş kalabalık insan yığınlarından oluşmuştur. Bu yığın görüntüsü oldukça ürkütücü bir halde betimlenmiştir. Amaçsızca bir yerlere yetişmeye çalışan insanlar; bunlar devlet çalışanları, polisler, işsizler, fahişeler veya sıradan insanlar olabilirler. Bu insanların birbirleriyle çok yakın ve sık resmedilmesi aralarında bir ilişki varmış etkisi yaratmaktadır. Ancak resim ULUSLARARASI HAKEMLİ TASARIM VE MİMARLIK DERGİSİ INTERNATIONAL REFEREED JOURNAL OF DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURE Ocak / Şubat / Mart / Nisan 2014 Sayı: 01 Cilt: 01 İlkbahar Dönemi January / February / March / April 2014 Issue: 01 Volume: 01 Spring Semester ID:11 K:16 dikkatli bir şekilde incelendiğinde bu insanların birbirlerinden haberdar olmadıklarını, hatta birbirlerinin farkında bile olmadıklarını anlarız. Bu resimdeki bireyler, şehrin yaşantısına ve hızına kendilerini o kadar kaptırmıştır ki kent yaşamının içerisinde varlık olmaktan çıkmış ve her türlü egemenlik haklarının sömürüldüğü bir nesne haline dönüşmeye başlamıştır. Egemen olan yönetici sınıfın küçümsediği, istediği zaman oraya buraya çekiştirdiği ve kendi çıkarları için kullanabildiği birer araç haline gelmiştir. Grosz ve diğer belli akımlarla ilişkilendirilen sanatçılar gibi yaşadığı ülke ve tarih itibariyle resimlerimi güncel bir akım içerisinde değerlendiremesem de modern kent kavramının yarattığı insan formlarını ve yaşam tarzlarını, Benim yaptığım resimlerde de görmek mümkündür. Kent tasarımı De Stjil gibi gruplarca ele alınmış, Walter Gropius gibi mimarlar ve Mondrian gibi Neo-Plastik sanatın öncü isimleri tarafından da uygulanmıştır. Bu sanatçılar ortak alanları, geleneksel formlardan uzak, basit, dikey ve yatay hatlardan oluşan geometrik formlarla betimlemişlerdir. Bunların eserlerinde sadelik ve işlevsellik ön planda yer almıştır. Bu sanatçılar için, ele aldıkları konuların çoğaltılabilirliği, geliştirilebilirliği ve ekonomik çözümler için uygun olması gerekmektedir. Ayrıca Post-Modern düşünceye sahip mimarlara göre; geniş insan topluluklarının şehirlere göç etmesi kent alanlarının küçülmesine, insanların yaşam alanlarının kısıtlanmasına sebep olmuştur. Bu kısıtlanmayla birlikte aklın dışlandığı, çok parçalı acil yaşam alanları oluşturmak adına güzel süslenmiş kandırmaca kurgulardan oluşan yerleşkelerin ortaya çıktığını savunmuşlardır. Günümüz kent yaşam tarzına ve mimarisine baktığımız zaman bu düşüncenin yanlış olduğunu söyleyemeyiz. Bu düşüncenin yansımalarını benim resimlerimde de görmek mümkündür. Yaptığım resimlerin yüzeyleri geniş bölmelerle ayrılmış, belli yerlerde ise küçük küçük ve farklı renklerle bölünmüştür. Bu geniş yüzey bölmeleri Post-Modern düşünceye sahip mimarları destekler niteliktedir: ayrıca yaptığım resimlerin yüzeylerinin bu şekilde bölmelere ayırmamın sebebi, izleyiciye dış mekân hissinden ziyade, apartman dairelerindeki, ofislerdeki veya buna benzer insanların yoğun olarak yaşadıkları yerlerdeki iç mekân hissini vermek içindir. Bu mekânların içerisinde konumlandırdığım stilize edilmiş insan formlarını, çoğunlukla durağan halde resmettim. ‘Modern Mekân İçlerinden’ (Resim 7) adlı resmime bakıldığında Grosz’un, ‘Metropolis’ adlı çalışmasındaki, insanların birbiriyle olan ilişkisinin etkisindeki benzer bir anlatım dilini bu resimde görselleştirmeye çalıştım. Ayrıca bu ULUSLARARASI HAKEMLİ TASARIM VE MİMARLIK DERGİSİ INTERNATIONAL REFEREED JOURNAL OF DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURE Ocak / Şubat / Mart / Nisan 2014 Sayı: 01 Cilt: 01 İlkbahar Dönemi January / February / March / April 2014 Issue: 01 Volume: 01 Spring Semester ID:11 K:16 resimdeki figürlerde sadece birbirlerine karşı değil, aynı zamanda bulundukları mekanlara karşı yabancılaşmalar da söz konusudur. Resim 7: Tolga Akalın, “Modern Mekân İçlerinden” 160 x 120, 2014 Özellikle bölmelerin içine sıkışan insan yığınlarının bulundukları yerleşkelerin renklerini güzel ve gösterişli seçtim. Post-Modern şekilde oluşturulan yerleşkelerin dışları güzel ve gösterişli olmasına rağmen, alt yapı sorunları ve enerji tüketimi konusundaki savrukluğu yaşanılan çevrenin olumsuz etkilenmesini sağlayarak, canlıların beden sağlığını bozduğu gibi, ruhsal durumlarını da olumsuz etkilediği ve toplumsallaşmadan çok bireyselleşmeyi artırdığını, yaşadığımız sosyal çevre içerisinde bulunan insanları gözlemleyerek de görebilmemiz mümkündür. Bu resimdeki figürlerin kollarının olmayışı, bedenlerin zayıf ve uzamış olması Post-Modern yaşam alanlarının birey üzerinde yapmış olduğu olumsuz etkilerin göstergeleridir. Oluşturulan bu hızlı yaşam alanları, bireyin toplum içerisinde yalnız kalmasına, bunun sonucunda ise sinir yorgunluğuna, işinin gerektirdiği hareket alanları içinde kalması da tek tip davranış geliştirmesine, başka insanlarla fazla iletişime geçememesi ise asosyal bir duruş sergilemesine neden olmaktadır. Benim resimlerimde ele aldığım insan figürlerinde bu tek tip davranışı, iletişim kopukluğunu açıkça görmek mümkündür. SONUÇ Özellikle sanayi devriminden sonra ortaya çıkan gelişmeler ve bunun doğal ULUSLARARASI HAKEMLİ TASARIM VE MİMARLIK DERGİSİ INTERNATIONAL REFEREED JOURNAL OF DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURE Ocak / Şubat / Mart / Nisan 2014 Sayı: 01 Cilt: 01 İlkbahar Dönemi January / February / March / April 2014 Issue: 01 Volume: 01 Spring Semester ID:11 K:16 sonucu olarak karşılaştığımız makinalaşmanın getirdiği tekdüze yaşam biçimi, bireylerin sosyal varlık olma biçiminden, herkese, hatta kendine bile yabancı bireyler konumuna gelmesine sebep olmuştur. Birçok farklı ulus ve toplumda görmeye alışık olduğumuz dayanışma kültürü ve insan ilişkileri, yerini kent kültürlerinin vazgeçilmez simgeleri konumunda olan, çok katlı apartmanlara ve dört duvar arasına sıkışmış AVM’lere bırakmıştır. İşte bu sosyal sanrılar, bir takım duyarlı sanatçıları derinden etkilemiş ve bu etkileşim bir ruh yansıması olarak tuval yüzeylerinde olanca çıplaklığıyla ifadesini bulmaya başlamıştır. Her sanatçının ait olduğu toplumdan ve onun yaşayış biçiminden etkilenmesi elbette kaçınılmaz bir gerçekliktir. Ancak farklı toplumların sanatçılarının, konuyu ele alış biçimlerinde benzer bir dil kullanması, sorunun ulusal değil, aksine evrensel bir sorun olduğunun bir belgesi konumunda olması açısından önemli bulunmuştur. KAYNAKLAR ANTMEN, A., (2008). “ 20. Yüzyıl Batı Sanatında Akımlar”, İstanbul: Sel Yayıncılık. BENEVOLO, L., (1995). “Avrupa Tarihinde Kentler”, Çev. Nur Nirven, İstanbul: Afa Yayınları. SAĞLAM. A., (1995). “Çevre ve Görsel Etkileşim”, Yayınlanmamış Sanatta Yeterlilik Eseri Raporu, Hacettepe Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. SUDJIC, D., (2006). “Modernizm Kolay Kolay Çekip Gitmeyecek”, Çev. Şevin Yıldız, Gülin Şenol, Guardian. LLOYD, J., (2000). “Sanatsal ve Toplumsal Bir Başkaldırı Dışavurumculuk”, Çev. Celal Üster, Sanat Kültür Antika P Magazin Sayı:16. YILDIRIM, A., ŞİMŞEK, H., (2011). “Sosyal Bilimlerde Nitel Araştırma Yöntemleri”, Ankara: Seçkin Yayınları. 
work_z2a7yo6a4nbyrgkk4h7j4aq5w4	----	Revista Vectores de Investigación Journal of Comparative Studies Latin America ISSN 1870-0128 ISSN online 2255-3371 Miguel-Héctor Fernández-Carrión No-violencia, conflicto, guerra y paz NON-VIOLENCE, CONFLICT, WAR AND PEACE Vol. 7 No. 7, 19-36 pp. CIECAL/Revista Vectores de Investigación Journal of Comparative Studies Latin America Vol. 7 No. 7 SEGUNDA EDICIÓN Vectores 18 18 CIECAL/Revista Vectores de Investigación Journal of Comparative Studies Latin America Vol. 7 No. 7 SEGUNDA EDICIÓN Vectores de investigación 19 19 1 No-violencia y paz versus conflicto, guerra y violencia A lo largo de la historia, con las obvias diferencias culturales y las características propias de las prácticas cotidianas habidas en los distintos países, han coexistido na- ciones más violentas que otras, así como existen personas menos violentas que otros coetáneos. Grosso modo se puede indicar que la civilización ha pasado de un estadio más violento a otro menos, o siquiera más sofisticado en la práctica puntual de acciones violentas a gran escala (guerras internacionales). Éstas se cambian por las llamadas “guerras humanitarias”, se acogen a las recomendaciones de los derechos humanos, por lo que este nuevo tipo de guerras se inicia con una “declaración de intenciones” humanitarias y con la defen- sa de una agresión internacional (véanse los conflictos bélicos ini- ciados en el siglo XX por Estados Unidos en el mundo árabe, empe- zada con primera invasión de Irak, del 20 de marzo al 1 de mayo de 2003), mientras que de forma clásica se hacía con la simple “decla- ración de guerra”, para atemorizar primero y destruir después al “enemigo” (caso, por ejemplo, de la segunda guerra mundial, en la No-violencia, conflicto, guerra y paz NON-VIOLENCE, CONFLICT, WAR AND PEACE ENVIADO 26-6-2013 REVISADO 26-8-2013 ACEPTADO 30-8-2013 Miguel-Héctor Fernández- Carrión Centro de Inves- tigación de Es- tudios Compa- rados de Améri- ca Latina, Méxi- co Palabras claves: No-violencia, conflicto, guerra, paz Key Words: Non-violence, conflict, war, peace MONOGRAFÍA NO-VIOLENCIA CIECAL/Revista Vectores de Investigación Journal of Comparative Studies Latin America Vol. 7 No. 7 SEGUNDA EDICIÓN Vectores 20 20 que Alemania nazi inicia la contienda invadiendo Polonia, el 1 de septiembre de 1939). Las políticas nacionales se mantienen en la mayoría de los países, tanto en los que no imperan regímenes dictatoriales declarados (China, por ejemplo), como en los que se encuentran en persisten- te guerra civil (algunos países de África, véanse los casos de Sierra Leona, República Democrática del Congo (antigua Zaire), Ruanda, Burundi, entre otras). Al mismo tiempo algunos ciudadanos por razones fundamentalmente políticas son violentados físicamente (en gran parte de los casos torturados) de forma oculta en las co- misarias de policías o espacios reservados de forma espontánea o establecidos para estas prácticas, en Estados Unidos, por ejemplo, se tortura a espalda de la opinión pública (se intenta por todos los recursos que no se haga eco de estos actos delictivos en los me- dios de comunicación o se argumenta actuar de “acuerdo con la defensa nacional”, como en Guantánamo). Actualmente la acción delictiva del Estado en esta materia se intenta valer de unas decla- raciones oficiales victimitas en favor de una supuesta “defensa nacional”, sin que con ello éticamente dejen de actuar delictiva- mente los políticos y la administración implicada. Históricamente existen países que han mostrado mayor interés por la expansión nacional, de forma bélica a corta y larga distancia, con naciones fronterizas o no. La cultura nacional china se ha expandi- do por el continente asiático, así como también lo ha hecho el imperio zarista y la URSS de Stalin, por Europa, el imperio romano 1 , la expansión musulmana o del islam del 622, iniciada por Mahoma en Medina hasta la caída de Constantinopla en 1453, extendiéndo- se por el Mediterráneo a lo largo de todo el “mundo conocido” en la época, comprendiendo varios continentes. Otro tipo de conquis- ta es la iniciada por España medieval 2 que tiende a ampliar su in- fluencia política de forma militar por el “mundo desconocido” (de- nominado entonces “Nuevo mundo”). De la misma manera que se ha expuesto de forma somera los dife- rentes tipos de expansión nacional y desarrollo de la tortura habi- da a lo largo de los tiempos, se puede señalar la acción seguida por los movimientos de protesta. 1 “Imperium Romanum”, del 27 a. C. al 476 se extiende principalmente en torno al Mediterráneo, bajo la idea de “Mare Nostrum”. 2 Se aluden a los desembarcos vikingos, del 793 al 1085. CIECAL/Revista Vectores de Investigación Journal of Comparative Studies Latin America Vol. 7 No. 7 SEGUNDA EDICIÓN Vectores de investigación 21 21 2 Movimientos sociales violentos o no-violentos a lo largo de la historia Cuando la crítica de los movimientos sociales a la administración adquiere una dimensión política deberían pasar a ser denomina- dos, como así lo hace algunos investigadores e historiadores, mo- vimientos de protesta. Estos movimientos desde la antigüedad (aunque aún están poco estudiados) hasta la Edad Media eran gremiales, en la Edad Moderna con el desarrollo del mundo rural y en la Edad Contemporánea con el inicio de la industrialización ad- quieren la forma de movimientos campesinos y del proletariado en los distintos países industrializados europeos. Todos ellos o al me- nos casi en su totalidad actúan con acciones violentas, de forma general se puede decir que hasta el siglo XX no se entiende un movimiento de protesta, huelga o lucha campesina o del proleta- riado industrial sin empleo de violencia. Ésta es usada normalmen- te por las dos partes involucradas en el conflicto: el Estado a través de su aparato militar o “represor”; el movimiento de protesta o huelguistas recurren a las armas que pueden conseguir en cada momento para “defenderse” con una acción igualmente violenta. En todos estos siglos, hasta la segunda mitad del siglo XX, no se cree en el diálogo, ni en la palabra para resolver un conflicto en paz. A partir de la publicación del Manifiesto comunista, por parte de Karl Marx y Engels, en 1848, con la defensa de la revolución del proletariado en armas, unido al movimiento anarquista violento en el sur de Europa a lo largo del siglo XIX y primer tercio del siglo XX, logra tomar el poder el partido bolchevique, con la revolución rusa en 1917, y la revolución cubana, en 1959, entre otros, fomenta la formación de movimientos revolucionarios nacionales armados. Junto a la defensa de la “revolución nacional”, por parte de Lenin, Fidel Castro…, otros políticos como Troski o Che Guevara defien- den la internacionalización de los conflictos armados. De igual manera que se ha perpetuado la violencia se ha desarro- llado un movimiento de no-violencia. 3 Teoría general sobre la no-violencia Desde la antigüedad clásica algunos autores, principalmente filóso- fos y literatos, han defendido una postura no beligerante (no- violenta) ante el poder. Aristófanes en Lisistrata, Sófocles en Antí- CIECAL/Revista Vectores de Investigación Journal of Comparative Studies Latin America Vol. 7 No. 7 SEGUNDA EDICIÓN Vectores 22 22 gona, Marco Aurelio en Pensamientos, Jonathan Swift en Los viajes de Gulliver, John Rawls en Teoría de la justicia (1971, proseguido teóricamente por Daniel Markovitst en Desobediencia democráti- ca) o Gene Sharp en The Politics of Nonviolent Action (1973) 3 , por ejemplo, pasando por León Tolstói, Russell, Chomsky… y Henry David Thoreau en Desobediencia civil (1849) 4 , así como autores del siglo XX: Clarence Marsh Case (1923), Richard Gregg (1935), Wil- fred H. Crook (1931), Bartelemy De Ligt (1935), Krishnalal Shrid- harani (1939), Aldo Capitini (1949), Joan Valérie Bondurant (1958), Adam Roberts (1969), Johan Galtung (1976), Jean-Marie Muller (1983), Theodor Ebert (1984), Alberto L’Abate (1985), Jacques Sémelin (1989), Brian Martin (1993 y 2001) y Peter Ackerman (2000), entre otros. A la par de un desarrollo teórico se ha iniciado una postura activa no-violenta en las personalidades políticas públicas como Gandhi (con satyagraha: la fuerza y la persistencia en la verdad, en Satya- graha in South Africa -1928-), Martin Luther King Jr. (con idea de libertad, igualdad y lucha no-violenta, evidenciada en el pronun- ciamiento titulado “Tengo un sueño” -1963- o el “Discurso de aceptación del Premio Nobel” –1964-) o Petra Karin Kelly, por ejemplo. Artísticamente también hay evidencias de la crítica a la violencia, por parte de Francisco de Goya en Los desastres de la guerra, Pa- blo Picasso con el Guernica, Vasily Vereshchagin en Supression of the Indian Revolt by the English, entre otros. La teoría de la guerra está muy defendida teóricamente y sobre todo ha sido practicada por numerosas naciones del mundo a lo largo de la historia. Es importante traer a colación en este sentido como un contrapunto los trabajos teóricos desarrollados por Marc Howard Ross con el título de La cultura del conflicto: las diferen- cias interculturales en la práctica de la violencia (1995), la resolu- 3 Defensor de “jujitsu” político y “jjitsu” social que alude a los efectos morales y psicológicos de la persistencia de la no-violencia sobre los “agentes represores”. 4 Parte de las conferencias que imparte con el título “La relación entre el individuo y el Estado”, en enero y febrero de 1848 en el Liceo de Concord, Massachusetts, y que publica inicialmente en 1849 bajo el título de Resis- tencia al gobierno civil, en el cual defiende que las minorías pueden y deben generar sanciones, fricciones y presiones contra las políticas de las mayorías, aun de gobiernos surgidos de las urnas. CIECAL/Revista Vectores de Investigación Journal of Comparative Studies Latin America Vol. 7 No. 7 SEGUNDA EDICIÓN Vectores de investigación 23 23 ción de conflictos dentro de una cultura de la paz propuesto por Viçenç Fisas en Cultura de paz y gestión de conflictos (1998), “Vio- lence, peace and peace research” de Johan Galtung (1969), La médiation de Michèle Guillaume-Hofnung (1995) hasta ultimar con la defensa directa de la no-violencia expuesta en La non-violence, de Christian Mellon y Jacques Semelin (1994) o El coraje de la no violencia de Jean-Marie Muller (2001). En la práctica, las protestas no-violentas se desarrollan por un lado antagónicas a las situaciones de colonización de terceros países; por otro, surgen en los propios países como un acto de protesta contra las autoridades establecidas. En el primer caso, muchas luchas por la independencia se llevaban a cabo a través de guerras cruentas entre los colonizados y los países conquistadores (euro- peos principalmente: España, Francia… e Inglaterra) hasta finales del siglo XX (América Latina, etc.) y en la segunda mitad del siglo XX, especialmente tras la segunda guerra mundial, se produce un proceso de descolonización no siempre violento favorecido por la política expansionista norteamericana con el apoyo de la ONU, contra terceros países (Alemania, Gran Bretaña… y Francia) sobre todo en África, donde en muchos casos se impone la diplomacia internacional sobre la guerra de descolonización; después se cam- bia la lucha militar entre países por una resolución de conflictos vía diplomática, y entre ambos casos no puede dejarse de mencionar la resistencia civil no-violenta habida en algunos países a lo largo del siglo XX, en unos casos casi anecdótica y en otros logrando una resolución práctica del conflicto, como sucede en la India, por ejemplo, el 14 de agosto de 1947. Internamente, en las propias naciones, ha perdurado la protesta armada y las reivindicaciones pacíficas de sumisión al poder, como la lucha de los pueblos indígenas contra el establecimiento del nuevo mando criollo, tras su independencia, en Chile y Argentina por ejemplo, a lo largo de todo el siglo XIX (anteriormente sucede de forma parecida en los Estados Unidos). En cambio la corriente feminista se muestra no violento desde sus inicios, a principios del siglo XX, unido al movimiento sufragista en Estados Unidos, en 1913 (aunque el sufragio de la mujer se lleva a la práctica antes y durante esta fecha en los países nórdicos: Finlandia -1906-, Norue- ga -1913-, Dinamarca e Islandia -1915-), más tarde, en la décadas de los sesenta y setenta se centra en torno a la “liberación” de la CIECAL/Revista Vectores de Investigación Journal of Comparative Studies Latin America Vol. 7 No. 7 SEGUNDA EDICIÓN Vectores 24 24 mujer y a finales del siglo XX y principios del XXI se inicia el proceso de acceso al poder de la mujer en el mundo occidental 5 . Existen autores que inician la polémica sobre la igualdad y diferencias de la mujer como hace Poullain de la Barre, en 1673 y sobre todo Vindi- cación de los derechos de la mujer presentada por Mary Wollsto- necraf en 1792. Asimismo los movimientos de protesta contra políticas internacionales o que afectan a los derechos de ciudada- nos, independientemente de su nacionalidad, como las campañas no violentas ejercidas por el END (European Nuclear Disarmament, 1970-1980) o las que están en contra de la instalación de bases americanas en Europa (España, Francia, Gran Bretaña, 1970-1980), etc., hasta ultimar con el movimiento de protesta contra las políti- cas nacionales, como la revolución naranja en Ucrania (2004- 2005), la revolución de los cedros en el Líbano (2005), la primavera árabe en Túnez… y Egipto (2011) o el movimiento 15M en España (2011, que perdura hasta el momento presente). 4 Concepción de los movimientos sociales, no-violencia, violen- cia… Habría que diferenciar etimológicamente entre los términos que aluden o se contraponen a los conceptos de no-violencia y violen- cia, así como entre movimientos sociales, movimientos de protes- ta, resistencia y protesta, la no-violencia y el pacifismo y la violen- cia o acción armada. Los movimientos sociales consisten en una agrupación libre y es- pontánea de individuos u organizaciones afines en ideología, ideas programáticas o reivindicaciones movidas por un cambio social, fundamentalmente de carácter político y/o económico 6 , confor- man lo que se podría denominar movimientos de protesta. En oca- siones se subclasifica en movimientos obreros y movimientos es- tudiantiles para referirse a un colectivo concreto protagonista de dichas reivindicaciones. En la segunda mitad del siglo XX surge un nuevo tipo de protesta con distintas reivindicaciones y modos de acción, por lo general presentan demandas postmaterialistas (Ro- nald Ingleheart) tendentes a cambios culturales (ecologistas, femi- 5 Analizado por Fernández-Carrión en “La mujer en la sociedad red”, Fa- milias, poderes, instituciones y conflictos (2011a). 6 El término de movimientos sociales es ideado por Lorenz von Stein (1850). CIECAL/Revista Vectores de Investigación Journal of Comparative Studies Latin America Vol. 7 No. 7 SEGUNDA EDICIÓN Vectores de investigación 25 25 nistas, etc.), por ello se habla del movimiento feminista, movimien- to ecologista, etc. Existe un posicionamiento intermedio en el tipo de reivindicación, que es el protagonizado por el llamado movi- miento antiglobalización y el movimiento antisistema, de princi- pios del siglo XXI, el cual conjuga la demanda de un cambio total del sistema económico, político, financiero, etc. del mundo actual y al mismo tiempo pretende un cambio de actitud o comporta- miento social (pretensión inmaterial). Los movimientos sociales están constituidos por individuos o co- lectivos con afinidad de oficio, situación laboral, ideología o grado de inconformidad, protestan con una reivindicación social, laboral, política, etc., movilizándose, agitándose o resistiendo de forma violenta, no-violenta, pacifista o intimidatoria (semi violenta o semi no violenta, dependiendo de quien la analiza). La protesta es la acción de proclamar, declarar o expresar una que- ja, oposición o disconformidad de forma pública y airada por me- dio de una manifestación, carta o declaración pública, etc., mien- tras que la movilización, agitación o marcha es la puesta en prácti- ca de una protesta colectiva en la calle. Este tipo de protesta pue- de ser activa o pasiva, la segunda es la llamada “huelga de brazos caídos” (no trabajar en modo de protesta), hacer público oralmen- te una oposición a una situación que se critica, etc., mientras que la activa implica el desarrollo de una acción directa reivindicativa. La protesta activa desde la perspectiva de la no-violencia se deno- mina, en ocasiones indistintamente (aunque en un posterior estu- dio se intentará diferenciar etimológicamente), como resistencia no violenta, acción no violenta, no-violencia activa o resistencia pacífica, entendida normalmente como no-violencia o nonviolence, conlleva una desobediencia civil activa que propugna un cambio político, social o cultural con resistencia, pero sin empleo de vio- lencia alguna, como lo entiende en la práctica Gandhi (quien se inspirara previamente en León Tolstoi y Henry D. Thoreau –según Grinberg, 1999-), la llama satyagraha. La no-violencia es más que una simple práctica, táctica o estrategia reivindicativa, es una ideología, conjuga la acción política, cultural y/o religiosa a la vez sin empleo y contraria a la violencia. Los métodos no violentos están constituidos por la desobediencia civil, la huelga de hambre, el boicot a un producto, empresa o política, la manifestación pacífica, el bloqueo con humanos o con el empleo CIECAL/Revista Vectores de Investigación Journal of Comparative Studies Latin America Vol. 7 No. 7 SEGUNDA EDICIÓN Vectores 26 26 de algunos objetos, la no colaboración y el fomento de una acción contraria de la esperada por una política, mientras que los meca- nismos internos empleados por la no-violencia consisten en la con- cientización individual y/o colectiva de acuerdo con los preceptos establecidos por el método no violento en busca de la cohesión social crítica, la construcción de la figura del enemigo subordinado (para transgredir las relaciones de subordinación impuestas), des- taca la importancia de la inclusión (frente a la exclusión oficial) y la legitimidad frente a la legalidad y la verdad por encima de las con- veniencias, convencionalismos y creencias preestablecidas o ma- yoritarias. En ocasiones se tiende a confundir no-violencia con pacifismo y antimilitarismo, pero se tratan de conceptos distintos. El pacifismo es una actitud, aunque existen teóricos e incluso la RAE que lo consideran como un conjunto de doctrinas encaminadas a mante- ner la paz entre las naciones, las teorías o las acciones tendentes a la defensa de una situación de paz permanente (FC), contraria a cualquier guerra o formas violentas, mientras que la no-violencia es una acción, práctica o ideología que conjuga la acción política… y cultural, sin empleo de violencia y contraria a ésta (como se ha expuesto anteriormente), y el antimilitarismo o antibelicismo es una actitud contra una problemática específica bélica. El pacifismo es defendido teóricamente por filósofos y literatos principalmente, a partir del siglo XVIII, como son Leibniz, Voltaire, Rousseau, Saint-Simón; en el siglo XIX, por Tolstoi, Wells, entre otros y en el siglo XX lo lleva a la práctica –según algunos autores– Gandhi, Martin Luther King Jr… y Mandela, aunque estos últimos más que pacifistas practican la acción no-violenta. 5 Práctica de la no-violencia Los movimientos sociales se han modificado a lo largo de los tiem- pos, se puede generalizar de alguna forma señalando que de las revueltas gremiales y campesinas de la Edad Media y Moderna se da paso a las revueltas campesinas decimonónicas 7 , se dirigen principalmente contra los terratenientes y posteriormente contra la mecanización de la agricultura; las revueltas obreras (anarquis- 7 Protagonizadas, por los anarquistas y campesinos en España, por ejem- plo. CIECAL/Revista Vectores de Investigación Journal of Comparative Studies Latin America Vol. 7 No. 7 SEGUNDA EDICIÓN Vectores de investigación 27 27 tas y socialistas) del XIX que luchan contra sus propios empresarios y empresas y el mundo capitalista en general por la “explotación” a la que es sometida la clase proletaria en su propio país. Esta locali- zación geográfica en las reivindicaciones se reitera en el siglo XX con un movimiento más ecléctico ideológicamente, ejercido en los 60 por los jóvenes hippie pacifistas contra la guerra del Vietnam en Estados Unidos, en 1968; las revueltas estudiantiles unidas a obre- ros en el mayo 68 francés (donde se conjunta la teoría marxista ortodoxa con ideas filosóficas de izquierdas de la Escuela de Frank- furt), y los movimientos vecinales (de barrios), estudiantes y obre- ros en España durante la dictadura de Franco 8 , con la pretensión, en este último caso, de lograr una política “popular” frente a la política oficial representada provincialmente y local, por los gober- nadores y alcaldes, respectivamente 9 . En el siglo XXI, con el desarrollo de la sociedad red, el cibernauta o el ciudadano a título personal o en colectividad de forma casual o puntual es el que se enfrenta a las organizaciones de poder global, a la superpotencia mundial y al sistema capitalista desde todos los países posibles del mundo, en la red o desde la calle globalizando la protesta. La acción colectiva gremial propia de la Edad Media, o la lucha de clases desarrollada en los siglos XIX y XX, en una localidad primero y después con repercusión nacional, ha dado paso a otra acción reivindicativa muy distinta en el siglo XXI en la que por una parte se impone el individuo como actor (más que sujeto) social que a título personal coincidirá con otros en la red o en la calle, indistin- tamente, formando un colectivo por lo general ecléctico que pro- testa de forma no violenta contra el sistema globalizado y contra los poderes supranacionales (FMI, BM, G4, G20, principalmente, aunque la cabeza directriz de esta globalización se encuentra de- ntro de algunas organizaciones secretas supranacionales respalda- das por la ONU, con apoyo de empresas de nuevas tecnologías de la información y gran parte de sus miembros residen en Estados 8 Dirigidos mayoritariamente por el PCE, en España. 9 Para el caso de América Latina lo estudia Gerardo Caetano –compilador– en Sujetos sociales y nuevas formas de protesta en la histo- ria reciente de América Latina (2006). CIECAL/Revista Vectores de Investigación Journal of Comparative Studies Latin America Vol. 7 No. 7 SEGUNDA EDICIÓN Vectores 28 28 Unidos 10 . El pacifismo se ha evidenciado históricamente, en la Grecia clásica, en algunas de las obras dramáticas de Aristófanes: Los acarnienses, La paz y Lisístrada 11 , por ejemplo; más tarde la deflagración de las bombas atómicas de los norteamericanos contra Japón en Hiros- hima y Nagasaki, en agosto de 1945, consigue que once científicos redacten y firmen la primera declaración abierta contra el uso de las armas de destrucción masiva, en Londres, en 1955, conocida como Manifiesto Russell-Einstein. Posteriormente, se produce una serie de protestas juveniles contra la guerra de los norteamerica- nos en el Vietnam, con el lema “Haz el amor y no la guerra”, enca- bezados por el activista y cantante John Lennon. En el siglo XXI, Estados Unidos (con el apoyo intencionado de Israel) inicia una guerra contra el mundo árabe, en “búsqueda de petróleo” para una economía nacional en plena crisis, con la primera invasión de Irak en 2003 (propuesta por Estados Unidos como una “guerra contra el terrorismo”) a la que prosiguen otras guerras e invasio- nes militares hasta la fecha, siendo contestada esta primera por miles de personas en todo el mundo, convocados simultáneamen- te por medio de internet (email) y sms, bajo el lema “No a la gue- rra”, logrando organizar una marcha por la paz, en los países impli- cados en la “invasión” (Estados Unidos, Gran Bretaña, Francia… y España), en algunos de estos países (Gran Bretaña, Estados Unidos, España e Italia) este movimiento internacionalista se implica igualmente en la “mala política” nacional 12 . El pacifismo como una política antibelicista es ampliada, en los ejemplos expuestos anteriormente, por el movimiento de no- violencia, el cual además de las metas bélicas añade otras de carácter político, social, cultural, religioso, etc. Por ello, las mues- tras históricas de la no-violencia se extienden a muchos más ejem- plos que logran el pacifismo, como es la huelga de los plebeyos 10 Como es analizado por Fernández-Carrión en “Movimientos de pobla- ción y movimientos de protesta antiglobalización: Población, control social y protesta” en Historia social, movimientos sociales y ciudadanía (2011b). 11 Donde plantea la huelga sexual de las mujeres contra la guerra. 12 Contribuyendo por ejemplo en España “al vuelco electoral” a favor de la oposición socialista contra uno de los “tríos de las Azores”, Cumbre de las Azores que reúne a George W. Bush, Tony Blair y José María Aznar, el 15 de marzo de 2003. CIECAL/Revista Vectores de Investigación Journal of Comparative Studies Latin America Vol. 7 No. 7 SEGUNDA EDICIÓN Vectores de investigación 29 29 (Secessio plebis), en el 494 a. C.; Finlandia en 1905 contra la Rusia zarista; Gandhi en la India contra Gran Bretaña en 1940; Martin Luther King en Estados Unidos en 1955; la revolución de los clave- les en Portugal en 1974 13 , Walesa en Polonia en 1980 o Mandela en Sudáfrica contra el apartheid en 1994 14 . El pacifismo fomenta igualmente la creación de movimientos de protesta no violentos- pacifistas como Peace Brigades International (1981), Witness for Peace (1981), 15M (en España, en 2011), 15O (por diferentes paí- ses en 2011), entre otros. Un ejemplo singular, reciente de movimiento de no-violencia, es el iniciado en España con el llamado 15M (movimiento 15M), movi- miento de los “indignados” o “Spanish revolution”, iniciada el 15 de mayo de 2011, convocada por la plataforma “¡Democracia real ya¡ y otros colectivos (como la plataforma de coordinación de gru- pos pro-movilización ciudadana, etc.) en cerca de sesenta ciudades españolas a la vez (hasta agosto de 2011 se movilizaron entre seis y ocho millones de “indignados”), posteriormente, el 15 de octu- bre presenta repercusión y “movilización” mundial (15O), en Esta- dos Unidos, Israel, México, entre otros países. La acampada en Sol (Puerta del Sol, en el centro de Madrid), el 17 de mayo, se establece como centro de las movilizaciones. Las asambleas populares se estructuran en torno a una serie de “co- misiones” (Legal, Comunicación, Acción, Actividades, Barrios, Esta- tal e Internacional, Información, Infraestructuras y Lenguas de Signos) y grupos de trabajo (Cultura, Educación, Política, Economía, Medio Ambiente, Trabajo social, Feminismo, Transmaricabollo, Ciencia y Tecnología, Diálogo entre religiones, migración y movili- dad, y pensamiento). Está caracterizado por ser un movimiento apartidista (sin afiliación a ningún partido político ni sindicato), no violento, horizontal (asambleario) y “transparente” (sin estar suje- to a ningún tipo de registro interno y externo). Como antecedentes inmediatos del 15M se puede aludir a la movi- 13 Con igual resultado nefasto para la dictadura imperante en el país, que sucediera en El Salvador, en 1944 y posteriormente las jornadas del 19 y 20 de diciembre de 2001 en Buenos Aires, concluyen con la caída del gobierno de Fernando de la Rúa. 14 Con una larga lucha con el Partido del Congreso Africano –ACP–, Con- greso Nacional Africano –ANC–, con Mandela y Movimiento de Concien- cia Negro, con Steve Biko. CIECAL/Revista Vectores de Investigación Journal of Comparative Studies Latin America Vol. 7 No. 7 SEGUNDA EDICIÓN Vectores 30 30 lización ciudadana en Islandia, en octubre 2008, en rechazo al pago de la deuda externa; la publicación del libro-manifiesto de Stépha- ne Hessel ¡Indignaos!, el 21 de octubre de 2010; la “primavera árabe”, iniciada el 4 de enero de 2011 en Túnez; así como el fenó- meno WikiLeaks 15 ; el blog “Manifiesto juventud” borrador del ma- nifiesto denominado “Mayo del 68 en España” 16 que convoca a los jóvenes a la protesta pública (9 de febrero de 2011), de entre to- dos ellos destacan las consignas teóricas establecida por Hessel, que propone un alzamiento contra la indiferencia y a favor de la insurrección no violenta (“pacífica”), con los siguientes términos: ¿Cómo concluir este llamado a la indignación? *…+ Convoque- mos una verdadera insurrección pacífica contra los medios de comunicación de masas que no propongan como horizonte pa- ra nuestra juventud otras cosas que no sean el consumo de masa, el desprecio hacia los más débiles y hacia la cultura, la amnesia generalizada y la competición excesiva de todos con- tra todos (2011, “Conclusión”). Sigue el criterio plateado por Gandhi en su “Programa constructivo de la India”, al señalar que: Un estudio superficial de la historia inglesa nos ha hecho pen- sar que todo el poder llega al pueblo por los parlamentos. La verdad radica en que el poder está en la gente y es confiado momentáneamente a quienes ella pueda elegir como repre- sentantes propios (2014, 306). Por ello, el 15M proclama “No nos representan” 17 los políticos y da 15 Como apunta la CNN, el 17-5-2011. 16 Ambos manifiestos son elaborados presumiblemente por Pablo Galle- go, al menos el primero está firmado por este autor. En una parecida línea política al “Manifiesto juventud” se muestra el “Manifiesto juventud necesaria” propuesto por el Consejo de la Juventud de España (*2013+), mientras que con otra pretensión “a favor de los intereses actuales nor- teamericanos en el mundo” (FC) se aprecia el contenido del “Manifiesto de la juventud para el siglo XXI”. 17 Con este mismo título, pero con interrogante, se cuestiona Joan Subi- rats (2011) el proceso de desarrollo del movimiento de protesta 15M, que encabeza teóricamente Pablo Gallego y Fabio Gándara entre otros, como queda recogido en el libro de dicha autoría bajo el título de Noso- tros, los indignados: Las voces comprometidas del #15-M (2011). Movi- miento que es estudiado desde su inicio por Zea y Abril en el diario ABC CIECAL/Revista Vectores de Investigación Journal of Comparative Studies Latin America Vol. 7 No. 7 SEGUNDA EDICIÓN Vectores de investigación 31 31 pie al comunicado de prensa de la plataforma “Democracia real ya”: Nosotros los desempleados, los mal remunerados, los subcon- tratados, los precarios, los jóvenes… queremos un cambio y un futuro digno [contraria a ser parte de la “generación ni-ni”+. Es- tamos hartos de reformas antisociales, de que nos dejen en el paro, de que los bancos que han provocado la crisis nos suben las hipotecas o se quedan con nuestras viviendas, de que nos impongan leyes que limitan nuestra libertad en beneficio de los poderosos [mundo financiero, empresarial y administración pública]. Acusamos a los poderes políticos y económicos [fi- nancieros] de nuestra precaria situación y exigimos un cambio de rumbo [ahora y ya] (17-5-2011). Este movimiento está constituido no sólo por jóvenes “indigna- dos”, sino por ancianos desahuciados y con bajas pensiones, pre- jubilados sin derecho al desempleo, parados, y un largo etcétera, son millones de personas en España y en muchas más partes del mundo. No son correctas las proclamas como “La revolución será feminista o no será”, pues esta actitud es partidista de un colectivo (legal- mente es más favorecido que el hombre en el mundo occidental), sino las otras que defienden “No somos marionetas (o mercancía) en manos de políticos y banqueros”. 6 Definición de no-violencia Es importante diferenciar entre pacifismo y no-violencia, por en “Así nació el 15-M” (22-5-2011), o Garlio y Barroso en el diario El País en “Los indignados salen a la calle” (16-5-2011), por ejemplo; además, es recogido en youtube diferentes momentos y acciones del 15M, en “Que no¡ Que no nos representan” (19-5-2011), “Movimiento 15-M. 20 mayo Puerta del Sol. Recopilación de cánticos y eslóganes” (20-5-2011) o “La Puerta del Sol llena la protesta del 150” (20-5-2011). Protestas que desde el 15 de marzo de 2011 prosigue hasta la actualidad, aunque con aspec- tos diferenciales a lo largo del tiempo, como se aprecia por ejemplo en las “Noticias del día 20 de enero de 2014” (El País) o “Movimientos 15-M” (El País, 2015a). CIECAL/Revista Vectores de Investigación Journal of Comparative Studies Latin America Vol. 7 No. 7 SEGUNDA EDICIÓN Vectores 32 32 ejemplo, como se ha hecho antes, pues aunque parecen sinónimos no significan en la práctica lo mismo, y lo saben ciertamente las agencias secretas internacionales y organismos multinacionales como la ONU, por ejemplo, esta última ha proclamado como “día internacional de la no-violencia” el 2 de octubre, y no hace lo mis- mo con el pacifismo (que se tenga constancia hasta el momento), pues están conscientes de que la crítica contra la guerra desde un posicionamiento pacifista puede plantearse con una acción no violenta, o por el contrario, con una violencia estructural (límite para la consideración teórica de la no-violencia e inicio de una aparente violencia, o posición de fuerza). Igualmente llama la atención que en los buscadores de Internet como google es fácil rastrear información sobre no-violencia, pero en cambio es difícil que suceda lo mismo con el término de violencia, e incluso la búsqueda de información sobre movimientos violentos en la histo- ria, aunque sean parte de una investigación teórica pueden causar problemas con la justicia o con el espionaje internacional, como ha hecho público el exespía norteamericano Edward Snowden, quien defiende su actitud delatora contra el espionaje masivo norteame- ricano o “vigilancia secretas de las comunicaciones” en la red, di- ciendo “no quiero un mundo en el que se grabe todo lo que digo y hago” (El País, 6-17-2013) 18 . Dentro del movimiento del 15M se conforman las asambleas cons- tituyentes de ciudadanos locales y estatales que aluden a la “crisis institucional: soberanía de los ciudadanos/soberanía de los pue- blos. El derecho a decidir, a decidirlo todo”, segunda propuesta del “orden del día” de la 3 Asamblea Estatal, celebrada en Barcelona, el 9 de febrero de 2013, presenta tres problemas: por una parte, se entra a debatir de forma directa el sistema político que rige actualmente España, la monarquía, lo cual está penado; en segun- do lugar, la convocatoria se hace vía email y está controlada por los servicios secretos nacionales e internacionales, conociéndose de esta forma el nombre, texto (información) y correo electrónico de los cibernautas interesados en esta iniciativa y en tercer lugar detrás de esta propuesta se mueven políticos convencionales favo- 18 Todo el proceso de espionaje global protagonizado a principios del siglo XXI por parte de los Estados Unidos es recogido en el “Caso espionaje EEUU” (2015b) y que ha evidenciado públicamente Snowden, recopilado igualmente por El País con el título de “Edward Snowden” (2015c). CIECAL/Revista Vectores de Investigación Journal of Comparative Studies Latin America Vol. 7 No. 7 SEGUNDA EDICIÓN Vectores de investigación 33 33 rables del cambio constituyente, por una federación o indepen- dencia nacional (en Cataluña, etc.). Hay movimientos no violentos que en algún momento de su desa- rrollo se muestran o aparecen como violentos o se dan brotes con- cretos de violencia, según el Secretario de Estado de Seguridad Francisco Martínez se debe a que “es habitual que en las protestas se infiltren violentos para desvirtuarlas” (El País, 20-1-2014), pero en ocasiones es causado porque “la paciencia tiene un límite”, pues algunos de los que inician un movimiento no violento termi- nan con violencia en algún momento del proceso reivindicativo. Asimismo, los manifestantes de un movimiento no violento apro- vechan el inicio de la protesta para “culminarla” ellos de manera violenta, a veces es consecuencia de un grupo de infiltrados o po- licías que provocan la desacreditación de dicho movimiento, y en otras, las personas pueden reaccionar con o sin violencia según las circunstancias y el cariz que tomen en cada momento del proceso de protesta. Al final, la no-violencia se puede definir –según Fernández-Carrión- como una forma de pensar y de actuar de acuerdo con una ideo- logía que está caracterizada por ser demanda de justicia y dere- chos en igualdad para la sociedad en general, sin atender a los particularismos diferenciables entre los seres, con una actitud beli- gerante no violenta. Bibliografía ALCUBIERREDELVALLERO (2011) Que no¡ Que no¡ Que no nos re- presentan, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r-RVGXzukk (subido 19-5-2011). 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work_z4gvkva5pvf2tkm5ssuhe4k7g4	----	Çağdaş Sanat Yapıtlarında Fraktal Geometri Etkileri Üzerine Bir Değerlendirme Kafkas Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi Kafkas University Journal of the Institute of Social Sciences Sonbahar Autumn 2020, Sayı Number 26, 563-576 DOI:10.9775/kausbed.2020.031 Gönderim Tarihi: 07.02.2020 Kabul Tarihi: 11.11.2020 ÇAĞDAŞ SANAT YAPITLARINDA FRAKTAL GEOMETRİ ETKİLERİ ÜZERİNE BİR DEĞERLENDİRME1 An Evaluation of the Effects of Fractal Geometry on Contemporary Artworks Özgür CENGİZ Dr. Öğr. Üyesi, Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi, Güzel Sanatlar Fakültesi, Seramik Bölümü, ocengiz1@gmail.com ORCID ID 0000-0002-8075-7470 Deniz ULUIŞIK Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Sanat ve Tasarım Anabilim Dalı deniz.uluisik@icloud.com ORCID ID 0000-0003-3728-0504 Fevzi Nuri KARA Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi, Güzel Sanatlar Fakültesi, Resim Bölümü, fnurikara@hotmail.com ORCID ID 0000-0003-0813-1550 Çalışmanın Türü: Araştırma Öz Doğa, kendi içinde bir düzene ve dizilime sahip, sınırlı alanda sonsuz ve eşsiz oluşumlar barındırmaktadır. Bu dizilimlerin pek çoğu cebirsel ve geometrik çözümlemeler ile zaman içinde ifade edilebilir olmuştur. Doğanın bu geometrisi, fraktal geometri olarak tanımlanmıştır. Fraktallar, simetri, kaos ve altın oran içeren; sonsuz bir döngüde kendini tekrar edebilen dizilimlerdir. Ancak bu yapılar, evrenin bir parçasında her gün yeni bir formda keşfedilmeye açık olduklarından şaşırtıcı biçimde hala gizemini korumaktadır. Doğanın bu gizemi ve fraktallar, doğayı bir malzeme olarak ele alan sanatçılar için esin kaynağı olmaktadır. Bu kapsamda, geçmişten günümüze çağdaş sanat yapıtlarında fraktal geometriyi yorumlamaları ile bilinen bazı sanatçılar değerlendirilmiştir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Fraktal Geometri, Çağdaş Sanat, Doğayı taklit. Abstract Every creation of nature is systematically arranged and has a sequence with singularity and infinity in a finite space. Most of these sequences have been decribed by mathematical systems and geometrical analysis. The geometry of the nature was defined as fractal 1 Bu makale, Deniz Uluışık’a ait “Çağdaş Seramik Sanatında Fraktal Geometri ve 3 Boyutlu (3D) Yazıcıların Kullanımı” başlıklı, Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Sanat ve Tasarım Anabilim Dalı, 2019 künyeli yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezinin bir bölümünün yeniden düzenlenmesi ile oluşturulmuştur. Yazarlar, aynı başlıklı ve 17.SOSBIL.01 numaralı araştırma projesini destekleyen AKUBAPK-Bilimsel Araştırma Projeleri Koordinatörlüğü’ne teşekkür etmektedir. mailto:ocengiz1@gmail.com https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8075-7470 mailto:deniz.uluisik@icloud.com https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8075-7470 mailto:fnurikara@hotmail.com https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8075-7470 Ö.CENGİZ-D.ULUIŞIK-F.N.KAYA / KAÜSBED, 2020; 26; 563-576 564 geometry. Fractals are self-replicating repeated sequences in an infinite loop that include symmetry, chaos and golden ratio. However, these structures surprisingly remain their mystery owing to readiness to be discovered in new shape as a part of the universe. The mystery of nature and the fractals have been source of inspiration for the artists who consider the nature as an instrument. Within this context, some specified artists who are known with their implementations of fractal geometry on their contemporary artworks from past to present were evaluated in some aspects. Keywords: Fractal Geometry, Contemporary Art, Biomimetic. 1. GİRİŞ Sanat, ilk çağlardan günümüze doğayı taklit etme (biomimetic) olgusu ile ortaya çıkarak gelişim göstermiştir. İlk olarak doğayı, avladıkları hayvanların resimleri ile mağara duvarlarına yansıtan insanoğlunun, bir estetik kaygı ile birlikte gelecek nesillere bu bilgi ve deneyimleri aktarmak istediği tahmin edilmektedir. Bu olgu kendini geliştirerek estetik biçimlere yol açmış ve insan gelişimi ile birlikte sanat gelişimi de gerçekleşmiştir. Bu sayede oranların önemli olduğu varsayılmıştır ve geometrinin önemi ön plana çıkmıştır. Zaman içerisinde doğayı taklit ederek üretilen yapıtlarda, en iyiye ulaşma çabasıyla geometriden yararlanılmaya devam edilmiştir. Sanat yapıtı oluşturma sürecinde sanatçılar için matematik ve geometrinin sağladığı olanaklar göz ardı edilemez. Plastik sanatlardaki bir yapıt için çoğunlukla göze hoş gelen biçimlerin elde edilebilmesi için bilinen oranlardan faydalanmak gerekmektedir. Bu aşamada matematik veya geometriyi kullanarak, fraktal yapıların da dahil olduğu biçimlere doğru yönelerek yapıtın gelişimini izlemek mümkündür. Fraktal geometri ile sanat yapıtının kesişmesi geçmişe; ismi konulmasa dahi altın oran, Fibonacci sayı diziliminin görsel yapısını veya fraktal yapıların çeşitli biçimlerini barındıran eserlerin üretilmesine dayanmaktadır. Bu sanat anlayışının geometrinin kullanılmasıyla gelişen bir anlayış olduğu görülmektedir. Bu anlayış ayrıca, birçok sanatçı tarafından benimsenip plastik sanatlar kapsamında ve mimari alanda farklı yapı biçimlerinde karşımıza çıkmaktadır. Sanat eserinde kullanılan geometri ile amaç, yapıtı doğru bir kurguya yönlendirerek oluşturmaktır. Bu bağlamda geometrinin bütün sanat eserleri üzerindeki etkisi yadsınamaz. 2. GEOMETRİ VE SANAT İLİŞKİSİ Doğada görülen biçimler, estetik algılarımızı etkilemektedir. Bu biçimler, matematik ile doğrudan ilişkilendirilebilir. Örneğin sayılar, estetik biçimlerle alakalı görünmemelerine rağmen yakından ilgilidir. Estetik yargılarımız zamanla, matematik ile de ifade edilebilen, doğadaki canlı veya cansız oluşumların biçimsel algıları ile şekillenmektedir. Doğada bu O.CENGIZ-D.ULUISIK-F.N.KAYA / KAUJISS, 2020; 26; 563-576 565 oluşumlara bal petekleri veya fasulye bitkisinin büyürken oluşturduğu eğri örnek olarak verilebilir. Sanatın temelini tasarım, düzen, güzellik ve estetik gibi kavramlar oluşturmaktadır. Bu kavramların algoritma ile ilgisi olmadığı düşünülmektedir ancak gerçekte bu kavramların temelde matematik ve geometriyle doğrudan ilişkisi bulunur. Özünde sanatçının bir sanat eserini oluştururken düşündüğü temel kavramların tümü, matematik kavramını içermektedir. Güzellik kavramı, matematik ile ilişkilendirilmeden tanımlanamaz. Diğer taraftan, bir matematik bilimi uzmanı için de yaratıcı biçimleri oluşturmak son derece önemlidir. Bu bağlamda, yaratıcı düşünce biçimi içermesi gereken matematik alanının da sanat ile iç içe olduğu görülmektedir. Sanat ve matematiğin ortak noktalarından biri gözleme dayalı olmalarıdır. Doğanın bir düzeni olduğu düşünülmektedir ve matematikte ve geometride olgular, doğayı gözlemekle başlar. Matematik, gözleme dayalı olmasının yanında kesinlik de belirtir. Sanatta ise sanatçı doğayı gözlemleyerek algı biçiminde oluşanları veya gördüklerini kendi penceresinden düşüncelere, renklere, şekillere veya sözcüklere aktararak imgeler ve bir biçim oluşturur. Bu imgeler plastik sanatlarda görsel bir biçimde aktarılırken; matematikte bu yaklaşım yerini sayılara ve matematik kavramları ile ifadeye bırakır. Aritmetik ve geometrik yani sayılabilir ve ölçülebilir olmak üzere, doğadaki ardıl oluşumlar veya oluşturulan kompoziyonlardaki dizilimler, ayrıştırılarak Fibonacci sayı dizilimi ile tanımlanmış ve aralarındaki oran ve ilişki, altın oran olarak kullanılmaya başlamıştır. 2.1. Fibonacci Sayı Dizisi Geometri ile hayatın her alanında karşılaşmak olasıdır. Geometri, sanat yapıtını oluşturan sanatçı tarafından da önemsenir ve oluşturulan kompozisyon, geometrideki temel kurallar kullanılarak ilerler. Bu bağlamda, geometrinin sanatın temelinde olduğu söylenebilir. Figürlerin veya yapıttaki şekil veya şekiller düzeninin aralarındaki ilişki, geometriyle kolaylıkla açıklanabilmektedir. Algoritmanın ve bilgisayar kullanımının gelişimi ve yaygınlaşması ile doğadaki geometrik oluşumların cebirsel ifadeleri üzerinde durulmuş; 1990’lı yıllarda eğrelti otunun fraktal geometriye örnek oluşturduğu ilk kez ortaya atılarak doğanın geometrisi yani fraktallar ifade edilmiştir (Cengiz ve Uluışık, 2020). Fraktal yapılardaki sarmalları Fibonacci sayı dizilimi ve altın oran ile anlatmak mümkündür. Fibonacci sarmalları matematikte önemli bir Ö.CENGİZ-D.ULUIŞIK-F.N.KAYA / KAÜSBED, 2020; 26; 563-576 566 ifade aracıdır. Bu sarmalları kainattaki düzende; doğadaki deniz kabukları, bitkiler, salyangoz ve hayvan boynuzlarında görmek mümkündür. Leonardo Fibonacci veya Pisa’lı Lolarak da anılan, gerçek adı ile Leonardo Pisano Bigollo tarafından 1202 yılında yayımlanan Liber Abaci isimli cebir ve hesaplama kitabında ilk olarak tanımlanmış olan bu sayı dizilimi, başlangıçta matematik eğitiminde kullanılmakta iken, 17. yüzyıl başlarında altın oran kavramına kaynak oluşturması dolayısı ile yeniden değerlendirilmiş ve irdelenmiştir (Bergil, 1993). Fibonacci dizisi; 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377, 610, 987… sayı dizilimi olarak tanımlanmaktadır. Bu dizinin sayısal anlamdaki en belirgin özelliği, kendinden önceki iki ardışık sayının toplamının kendisinden sonraki sayıya eşit olmasıdır. Bir Fibonacci sayısı, kendinden bir önceki sayıya bölündüğünde, altın oran olarak tanımlanan bir sabit orana; 1,618 sayısına ulaşılan bir dizilimin elemanıdır (Resim 1). Fibonacci sayı dizilimi, doğadaki en küçük yapılarda bile görülen bir ardıl yapıyı matematiksel olarak açıklamaya olanak sağlamaktadır. Fibonacci sayı dizilimi sayıları, canlı ve cansız yapılardaki dizilimde rastlanılan altın oranı kapsamaktadır. Örneğin, insanın işaret parmağındaki kemiklerin oranı, fibonacci sayı dizilimini vermektedir. Tüm insan vücudundaki yapılar da simetrik özelliktedir ve altın oranı barındırmaktadır. Doğa oluşumları ve galaksideki gezenlerin hareketleri de fibonacci sayı diziliminin geometrik biçimi olan sarmalla açıklanabilmektedir. Doğanın içindeki bütünlük, fraktal yapılarla tanımlanabilmekte ve ifade edilebilmektedir. Bu bağlamda, sanatın doğayı taklit eden yönü, doğanın geometrisini de temel alan bir esinlenmedir. 2.2. Altın Oran Kavramı Tarih boyunca ve günümüzde de insanların Kaizen felsefesine yakın doğrultuda en güzeli, en iyiyi arayışı devam etmektedir. Bir biçimdeki orantısızlık, insanda çirkin algılama olarak yorumlanırken; biçimin orantılı olması ise güzel algılama olarak yorumlanmıştır. Bu biçimdeki nesnelerin birbiri ile orantıları, simetrileri, dengesi gibi kavramların, sanatçı kompozisyonunda yer teşkil ettiğini söylemek mümkündür. Doğadaki tüm canlıların biçimlerini, örgülerini ve büyüdükçe şekillenen biçimlerini araştırmaya başlayarak içinde bulundurduğu uyumu ve düzeni keşfetmeye çalışan sanatçı; Leonardo da Vinci’nin de “Ey değerler arayan adam, doğanın meydana getirdiği biçimleri oldukları gibi tanımak, kabullenmekle yetinme; kendi halinde beliren biçimlerin kökünü araştır” O.CENGIZ-D.ULUISIK-F.N.KAYA / KAUJISS, 2020; 26; 563-576 567 olarak ifade ettiği gibi doğayı ve belki de kendini anlamak ve araştırmaktadır. Bilindiği kadarıyla, Altın Oran’a ilişkin matematik bilgisi ilk kez M.Ö. 3. yüzyılda “aşıt ve ortalama oran” adıyla nitelendirmiştir. Fakat bazı bilgiler Altın oranın ilk kez ortaya atılması Pisagor tarafından M.Ö. 3000 yılına kadar uzanmaktadır. İlk kez aynı yüzyılda Öklid’in Ögeler adlı yapıtında tanımlandığı bilinmektedir. (Bergil, 1993; Kara, 2000). Orta Çağdaki düşünürler ve sanatçılar, insan yapısının düzenine de dikkat ederek, bitkilerin gelişmesinde bir düzen olduğunu gözlemlemişlerdir. Sanatçılar bunu, 15. yüzyılda yaşayan bilgin Pacionelli’nin ilahi oran yapıtıyla ve orantısız hiçbir sanat eseri yoktur sözleriyle yorumlamaktadır. Bu ölçü ve oran, altın oran (1,618 değeri) olarak ifade edilmiş; araştırılarak uygulamaya başlanmıştır. Plastik sanatlarda sanatçılar tarafından mimari, heykel ve resimde kullanılan bu oran, canlı varlıkların düzenli ve çoğunlukla ardıl gelişmelerinin zaman ve uzunluk farklarının birbirine oranı ile ifade edilmiştir. Sanatçıların tüm eserlerinde dikkat ettikleri ve etkin bir biçimde kullandıkları ölçü birimidir. Bunu ünlü düşünürlerden Dante; “Doğa tanrının bir eseri, sanatıdır. Altın oran konusunda Leonardo da Vinci, Dürer gibi birçok sanatçı insan vücudu ve yüz kesitleri arasındaki farkı inceleyerek ve orantılayarak altın oran biçimlerini çizerek tanımlamıştır” sözleriyle anlatmaktadır (Çağlarca, 1997). 3. SANAT YAPITI VE FRAKTAL GEOMETRİ İLİŞKİSİ Sanatçılar, doğayı ve evreni gözlemleyerek kendi imgelerini, duygu ve düşüncelerini yapıtları ile ortaya çıkarmaktadır. Bu süreçte oluşturulmak istenen kompozisyonun kurgulanması, matematik denklemlerden ve geometriden faydalanılarak gerçekleştirilebilir. Oluşturulmak istenen düzen ve denge, matematiksel kurallara uyularak oluşturulduğunda, izleyicide oluşan estetik algılamayı doğrudan etkilemekte ve eserin niteliğini estetik bakımdan artırmaktadır. Bilimsel olarak karşılaştırmalı bir yorum getirmek istenirse, matematik sayıların bilimi iken; sanatın görsel yapılar bilimi olduğu yorumu getirilebilir ve bu iki bilim, birbiri ile bağlantılı ve tamamlayıcıdır. Matematik ve doğadaki geometri diye ifade edebileceğimiz fraktal yapılardan, sanatçılar yıllarca esinlenmiştir. Fraktal yapılar, doğada sınırsız ve eşsiz bir örüntüye sahiptir. Bu örüntüler, biçimleri bazen farklı olsa da temelde fraktal yapı özelliklerini göstermektedir. Hücresel boyuttan kainata uzanan geniş bir ölçekte, fraktal biçimler ile karşılaşmak olasıdır. Fraktal geometri kuralları, anlaşılması ve derinliklerine kadar öğrenilmesi zor olan Ö.CENGİZ-D.ULUIŞIK-F.N.KAYA / KAÜSBED, 2020; 26; 563-576 568 doğayı anlamaya ve çözmeye yarayacak önemli bir yere sahiptir. Bunu günümüzde geliştirmek amacıyla günümüzde dijital teknolojilerden de yararlanılarak algoritma ve geometrik açılımlar geliştirilmiştir. Fraktal geometrinin ayrıca mimari yapılar, sanat yapıtları, şehir planlaması gibi çok geniş ölçekli kullanım alanı bulunmaktadır. Günümüzde örnek bir uygulama olarak fraktal örüntüler; bir şehrin trafik yoğunluğunu eşit bir biçimde dağıtılması bakımından kullanılabilirlikleri ile tercih edilmektedir. Topluma ayna tutan ve toplum ile sanat aracılığıyla diyalog kuran sanatçı; geçmişten günümüze her alanda insanları geliştirmeyi amaçlamaktadır. Tanrıya yaklaşmak için veya egemen olmak için ya da meydan okumak için sanatçı, hayatının içeriğini daima kalıcı bir evrene dönüştürebilmeyi amaçlamaktadır. Bu nedenle yapıtını oluştururken doğayı duygularının süzgecinden geçirir, değiştirir ve böylece onu yeni bir varlık biçimine dönüştürür. Ancak sanat yapıtında doğadaki biçimlerden değil, onların aralarındaki ilişkiler önemlidir. Böylece doğanın sonsuz sayıdaki ilişkilerinin aktarıldığı sanat yapıtı, doğanın yanında ona eşdeğerli olarak bulunan ama doğadan bağımsız bir organizma olarak var olan bir evrendir (Worringer, 1997). Örneğin bir resimde sanatçı, ışığı ve renkleri kullandığı gibi altın oran, matematik ve fraktal örüntülerin görsel biçimlerini kullanarak eserlerini geliştirmeye devam etmiştir. Sanatsal etkinlikler, tüm diğer insan etkinlikleri gibi çağlara ve toplumsal içeriklere göre evrilir. Sanatçının doğaya bakışı ve ondan aldıkları zamanla değişikliğe uğramaktadır. Sanat icra eden insan olarak sanatçı ile elinde bir malzeme niteliği taşıyan doğa arasındaki ilişkide en temel varsayım, sanatçının gözleriyle gördüğü dış dünyayı yani doğayı temsil etmekte olduğudur. Sanatçının tek hedefi doğa ile kurduğu öznel ilişki ise; farklı tarihsel dönemlerde yaşamış her bir sanatçının çalışmalarında farklı doğa tasarımları olduğu söylenebilir (Oğuz, 2013: 20). Geçmişte sanatçının doğayı taklit etme veya ondan esinlenmesinin sonucu olarak yapıtına yansıttığı üslup, geometrik temeller üzerine kurulmuş; zamanla evrildiği ve taşındığı hali ile günümüz çağdaş sanat yapıtlarına aktarılmıştır. 4. FRAKTAL GEOMETRİNİN ÇAĞDAŞ SANAT YAPITLARINA ETKİLERİ Doğayı anlamak ve taklit etmek ile birlikte gelişen görsel sanat çalışmaları, geçmişte Roma ve Yunan mimarisinden günümüze, yararlanılan geometri kavramları ile oluşturulan örnek modeller aracılığı ile gelmiştir. Görsel sanatlardaki problemlerin tanımı ve çözümüne katkıda bulunan sanatçılar; Vitruvius’tan Dürer’e, Da Vinci’den Escher’e kadar çalışmalarını O.CENGIZ-D.ULUISIK-F.N.KAYA / KAUJISS, 2020; 26; 563-576 569 geometri ile desteklemişler; altın dikdörtgen, perspektif, Öklid geometrisi, tipografi ve düzeni; harmoni ve denge ile oluşturmuşlardır (Alptekin ve Güney, 1994; Kuzu, Dağtekin ve Bozan, 2017). Sanatçılar doğadan esinlenerek veya doğayı taklit ederek düşüncelerini eserlerine aktarırken matematiksel kavramları, özellikle de altın oranı, izleyicinin estetik algısına hitap etmek amacı ile kullanmışlardır. Bu matematik ve sanat ilişkisi, en belirgin şekilde Leonardo da Vinci’nin eserlerinde görülmektedir. Yapıtlarında göze çarpan birim artı sistem, kendine benzerlik ve fraktal örüntüler; doğadaki hayvan ve bitkileri inceleyerek oluşturduğu eskizlerde dahi ayırt edilebilir. Doğanın bir sistematiği olduğunu keşfeden Da Vinci, çalışmalarında insan vücudunun ve hayvanların altın orana sahip çizimlerini yaparken geometriden ve fraktal örüntülerden yararlanmış ve temelde yapıların oluşum biçimlerini çözümleyerek izleyiciye aktarmıştır (Resim 2). Geometri kullanımının en çarpıcı örneklerine Pablo Picasso yapıtlarında rastlanılır. Sanatçı, yapıtlarını geometrik biçimde çözümleyerek oluşturmuş ve kübizm olarak adlandırılan akımın öncüsü olmuştur. Picasso, resimlerinde oluşturduğu figürleri, geometrik yapılara dönüştürerek kompozisyonlarına aktarmıştır (Resim 3). Vincent Van Gogh, objelerinin etrafına işlediği enerji dolu renk ve hareketin betimlenmesi ve yoğun girdapların aktarımı ile; Jackson Pollock, damlalı ve karışık soyutlamaları, Paris Opera Binası için gerçekleştirdiği ayrıntı motifli Barok tasarımı ile ve Gotik katedrallerde rastlanılan değişik ölçeklerde tekrarlı kemerlerin tümü fraktal geometri ve kaos teorileri tam olarak ifade edilmeden önce tasarlanan ve inşa edilen kaotik form örneklerini oluşturmaktadır (Resim 4, 5) (Alptekin, H. ve Güney, T., 1994). 19. yüzyılda yaşanan endüstriyel gelişmeler ve toplumsal sınıf ayrılıklarının oluşumu, sanat anlayışında da köklü değişikliklere yol açmıştır. Romantizm anlayışına karşı oluşan realizm akımı ile başlayan gerçeklik arayışı, dönemin sanat anlayışının yapısal bir değişikliğe ihtiyaç duyduğunu göstermektedir. Bu dönemde çalışmalarını birim tekrarıyla oluşturan Hollanda doğumlu ünlü sanatçı Maurits Cornelis Escher, gerçek arayışını bir adım öteye taşıyarak eserlerinde, simetri, boyutlar ve boyutlar arası geçişlerde sonsuzluk kavramını kullanarak oluşturmuştur (Resim 6). Olayları ve süreçleri somutlaştırarak çalışmalarının gerçeği yansıtmasını amaçlayan Escher, yapıtlarında, doğayı derinlemesine incelemiş; engebeli alanlardan esinlenerek fraktal yüzey incelemelerini ve izlenimlerini çizimlerine aktarmıştır. Bir çember içinde sonsuz bir şekilde azalan ve Ö.CENGİZ-D.ULUIŞIK-F.N.KAYA / KAÜSBED, 2020; 26; 563-576 570 tekrarlayan şekiller ile, sınırlı bir alanda sonsuzluğu yakalayarak; devam eden zamanlardaki sanat yapıtlarına bir esin kaynağı oluşturmuştur (Schattschneider, 2010; Haak, 1976). Escher, eserlerinde yansımalara, sonsuzluğa, paradoks ve metamorfozlara yer vermiş; iç içe geçmiş örüntülerle fraktallar oluşturmuştur. Yüzeyleri düzenli bölerek kendine benzerlik ve altın oran yakalamış olan sanatçı, eserlerinde ağırlıklı olarak sonsuzluk kavramını sorgulamaktadır. Bunu yaparken de kullandığı ögeleri belli ölçekte küçülterek tekrarlı bir düzen kurgulamıştır. Escher’in “Day and Night” isimli bilinen çalışmasında da, Öklid geometrisinin kesin boyut anlayışının dışında başkalaşım yaşayan ara formları bulunmaktadır (Resim 7). Sanatçının oluşturduğu sonsuzluk algısında kendini tekrar eden düzen, kaos ile ilişkilendirilebilir. 1960’lı yıllardan sonra tanınmaya başlamış sanatçılardan biri olan Amerika doğumlu Sol LeWitt, yapıtlarında en temel şekil ve renklere indirgenmiş strüktürler ve biçimler oluşturmuş sanatçıların başında gelmektedir. Bu yıllarda ağırlık kazanan minimalizm kavramı, sanatçının öncülüğünde sanat algısında olması gerekenlerini yeniden tanımlamaya yardımcı olmuştur. Sanatçı sanatın yalın, sade ve kolay anlaşılabilir olması gerektiğini vurgulamıştır. Yapıtlarını da sadeliğin önemine vurgu yaparak ve bu yalınlığa bağlı kalarak oluşturmuştur (Resim 8). Sol LeWitt, Escher gibi fraktal geometriyi kullanmış; birçok eserinde birim artı sistem yapıları kompozisyonuna aktarmıştır. Yapıtlarında matematik, geometri, fizik ve estetiği harmanlamış bir diğer sanatçı; Türkiye doğumlu ünlü heykeltıraş İlhan Koman, iç içe geçmiş birim artı sistemlerini temel almıştır. Malzeme kullanımı bakımından özgür olan; konstrüktif akımın etkileri ile eserlerinde sonsuzluk ve fraktal kavramlarına yer veren sanatçı, yapıtları ile günümüzde de örnek alınmaktadır. Eserlerinde birim artı sistemini kullanan sanatçının, “Sonsuzluk eksi bir” isimli serisinde organik ve dinamik bir yapıyla karşılaşılmaktadır. Birim tekrarları, yapıta bir derinlik katarak perspektif oluşturmuştur. Ayrıca, fraktal yapılarda görülen kendine benzerlik kuramının da kullanıldığı görülmektedir (Resim 9). Geometrik yapıları, sanatında ustaca kullanan sanatçılardan Nabil Nahas, Beyrut doğumlu, Lübnan'ın en tanınmış yaşayan ressamlarındandır. Soyut sanat üzerine yoğunlaşarak İslam sanatında geometrik yapıları kullanmıştır. Nahas, Orta doğudaki çağdaş sanat yapıtlarından önce, New York sanat çevrelerinde renk, doku ve soyut resim alanlarında tanınmıştır. Batı soyut resminde yapıtları ile iz bırakan Nahas, çalışmalarında soyut geometrik yapılar kullanmakta ve doğadan ve deniz yaşamından esinlendiği O.CENGIZ-D.ULUISIK-F.N.KAYA / KAUJISS, 2020; 26; 563-576 571 için özgün doku ve renkleri kendi üslubu ile kompoze etmektedir. İslam sanatında da geometrik formlardan esinlenen bir sanatçı olarak bilinen Nahas, fraktal yapılarda bulunan kendine benzerlik kuramını kullanmaktadır. Bu yapılar deniz yaşamındaki mercan resif yapılarına benzerlik göstermektedir. Eserlerinde farklı malzemelerin kullanımı ile katman oluşturan yüzeyler yapılandırmakta ve bu yüzeylere boyut kazandırmaktadır. En bilinen yapıtlarında kullandığı tekniklerde, kalın renklerle kaplı denizyıldızı, fraktal tabloları, ponza ile karıştırılmış akrilik boya tabakaları, canlı renklerle kaplanmış katmanları ve sedirlerin etkileyici portreleri olan manzaraları göze çarpmaktadır (Resim 10). 5. SONUÇ VE DEĞERLENDİRME İnsanoğlu doğayı taklit etmeyi, doğadan öğrenerek ve yaşayarak öğrenmiştir. İnsanlık tarihinde kendini, doğadan kopmayarak onun bir parçası olarak görmüştür. Doğayı kendine rehber olarak gören ve bu sayede kendini geliştiren insanoğlu, meydana getirdiği her eserde, doğadan ve kendinden izler bırakmıştır. Alt benlikteki estetik kaygı ve en iyiye ulaşma isteği, kompozisyonunu oluşturma aşamasındaki sanatçıyı etkilemiş; tanımlanmış ve bilinen geometrik oranların istemli ve istemsiz kullanımı ile de istenilen netice elde edilmiştir. Doğanın geometrisini gözlemleyen ve çözümleyen sanatçılar, yapıtlarını kurgularken doğadan esinlenmekte; geçmişten bugüne gelişen bilgisayar algoritmalarının da katkısı ile kompozisyonlarında etkin bir biçimde geometrik yapılara yer vermekte; günümüz çağdaş sanat yapıtlarına bu kurguları özgün üslupları ile aktarmaktadır. 6. KAYNAKLAR Alptekin, H. & Güney, T. (1994). Fraktal oluşumun grafik açılımı. Arredamento Dekorasyon, 5(53), 108-111. Bergil, M. S. (1993). Doğada, bilimde, sanatta altın oran. İstanbul: Arkeoloji ve Sanat Yayınları. Cengiz, Ö. & Uluışık, D. (2020). Doğanın geometrisi “fraktallar” ve sanat, Güzel Sanatlar Alanında Akademik Çalışmalar, Ankara: Gece Kitaplığı. Çağlarca, S. (1997). Altın oran. İstanbul: İnkılap Kitabevi. Haak, S. (1976). Transformation geometry and the artwork of MC Escher. Mathematics Teacher, 69(8), 647-652. Kara, F.N. (2000). Plastik sanatlarda matematik. Yayımlanmamış Sanatta Yeterlik Tezi, Marmara Üniversitesi, İstanbul. Kuzu, Ç. İ., Dağtekin, E. & Bozan, S. (2017). Geometrinin resim sanatına yansımaları, Uluslararası Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi, 10(49), 212-218. Oğuz, D. (2013). Çağdaş sanatta doğa, Yayımlanmamış Sanatta Yeterlik Tezi, Gazi Üniversitesi, Ankara. Ö.CENGİZ-D.ULUIŞIK-F.N.KAYA / KAÜSBED, 2020; 26; 563-576 572 Schattschneider, D. (2010). The mathematical side of MC Escher. Notices of the AMS, 57(6), 706-718. Worringer, W. (1997). Abstraction and empathy: A contribution to the psychology of style. Chicago: Elephant Paperbacks. EKLER Resim 1: Fibonacci Sarmalı. Kaynak: Cengiz ve Uluışık, 2020. Resim 2: Leonardo Da Vinci, “Ağaçların Kuralı”. Kaynak: ISNS, Erik Jacobson Erişim Adresi: https://phys.org/news/2011-11-uncovering-da-vinci-trees.html Erişim Tarihi: 21.06.2020 https://phys.org/news/2011-11-uncovering-da-vinci-trees.html O.CENGIZ-D.ULUISIK-F.N.KAYA / KAUJISS, 2020; 26; 563-576 573 Resim 3: Pablo Picasso, “Guernica”, 1937. Kaynak: Reina Sofia Museum, Madrid. Resim 4. Vincent Van Gogh, “De sterrennacht (Yıldızlı Gece)”, 1889. Kaynak: Museum of Modern Art, New York. Ö.CENGİZ-D.ULUIŞIK-F.N.KAYA / KAÜSBED, 2020; 26; 563-576 574 Resim 5: Paul Jackson Pollock, “Autumn Rhythm (Sonbahar Ritmi)”,1950. Kaynak: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Resim 6: Maurits Cornelis Escher, “Reptiles (Sürüngenler)”, 1943. Erişim Adresi: https://rawalternative.files.wordpress.com/2012/08/escher-reptiles- medium.jpg Erişim Tarihi: 29.09.2018 https://rawalternative.files.wordpress.com/2012/08/escher-reptiles-medium.jpg https://rawalternative.files.wordpress.com/2012/08/escher-reptiles-medium.jpg O.CENGIZ-D.ULUISIK-F.N.KAYA / KAUJISS, 2020; 26; 563-576 575 Resim 7: Maurits Cornelis Escher, “Day and Night (Gündüz ve Gece)”, 1938. Kaynak: Cornelius Van S. Roosevelt Collection, National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C. Resim 8:. Sol Lewitt, “Whirls And Twirls-MTA”, 2004. Kaynak: Princeton University, New Jersey. Erişim Adresi: http://res.cloudinary.com/simpleview/image/upload/c_fill,f_ auto,q_75/crm/ccsb/Pic28_545b1db4-5056-a36a-063e9ccbfddc7719.jpg Erişim Tarihi: 10.10.2018 http://res.cloudinary.com/simpleview/image/upload/c_fill,f_ Ö.CENGİZ-D.ULUIŞIK-F.N.KAYA / KAÜSBED, 2020; 26; 563-576 576 Resim 9: İlhan Koman, “Sonsuzluk Eksi Bir”, 1979. Erişim Adresi: http://www.leblebitozu.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/ilhan- koman-to-infinity-1986-2.jpg Erişim Tarihi: 12.11.2018 Resim 10: Nabil Nahas, “Mashallah”, 2013. Erişim Adresi: http://islamicartsmagazine.com/magazine/view/nabil_nahas/ Erişim Tarihi: 28.11.2018 http://islamicartsmagazine.com/magazine/view/nabil_nahas/ 
work_z6m6ionjdfev3d5xnaezqnhkee	----	Picasso’s Acrobat Family in focus: an investigation of materials and techniques of an iconic work in the collection of the Gothenburg Museum of Art Vol.:(0123456789) SN Applied Sciences (2020) 2:1411 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-3168-3 Research Ar ticle Picasso’s Acrobat Family in focus: an investigation of materials and techniques of an iconic work in the collection of the Gothenburg Museum of Art David Buti1,4  · Mariateresa Pullano2  · Eleonora Papa3 · Eva Nygårds2 · Loa Ludvigsen1  · Jørgen Wadum1,5 Received: 18 December 2018 / Accepted: 2 July 2020 / Published online: 22 July 2020 © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 Abstract The Acrobat Family is one of Pablo Picasso’s highly rated works from his Rose Period. The painting was one of the first two works by the artist acquired by the Stein’s, and in 1922 it came to Gothenburg Art Museum. In catalogues, the materi- als used for the work are described as a mix of gouache, pastel, watercolour and Indian ink on cardboard; however, the information is often contradictory and inaccurate. An extensive scientific investigation of the painting was carried out to unravel Picasso’s technique, materials and the object’s condition. The results indicate that the cardboard is of an acidic nature and the techniques used by the artist are based on different binding media, possibly oil, wax and polysaccharides. Interesting results have been achieved on the discoloured blue areas, where ultramarine blue and Prussian blue are the main components. Keywords Rose period · Cardboard · Material characterization · Fading · Ultramarine blue · Prussian blue 1 Introduction In February 1905, Pablo Picasso exhibited 33 works and some drawings at the Galerie Serrurier in Paris. The first eight works in the exhibition were listed under the com- mon title ‘Les Saltimbanques’, Acrobat Family was most likely one of the eight works [1]. From a review of the poet Guillaume Apollinaire in La Plume in May 15, 1905 it is possible to identify Acro- bat Family, poetically described as: “Primiparous mother no longer expect the baby to arrive, perhaps because of certain ill-omened, chattering ravens. Miracle! They give birth to future acrobats in the midst of pet monkeys […]” [2]. Since all the works in Serruries’s exhibition did not have any other significant description apart from ‘Les Saltimbanques’, by reading the review written by Apolli- naire, it is possible to identify most of them [3]. Among the works exhibited two themes can be distin- guished, one focused on the family, depicting the father- hood of the harlequin, and the second emphasizing the circus where the harlequin is associated with the acrobats. In Acrobat Family Picasso merges these themes in a pyram- idal composition comparable to the depiction of the holy family in renaissance art. In October 1905 the famous collector and art patron Leo Stein bought it together with the Girl with a Basket of Flowers, something that helped launching Picasso’s career. Looking at the catalogue “Steins Collect: Mat- isse, Picasso, and the Parisian Avant-Garde” there are two pictures recording the display of the painting in * David Buti, david.buti@ispc.cnr.it | 1Centre for Art Technological Studies and Conservation, Statens Museum for Kunst, Sølvgade 48-50, 1307 Copenhagen, Denmark. 2Göteborgs Konstmuseum, Götaplatsen, 412 56 Göteborg, Sweden. 3Moderna Museet, Box 16382, 103 27 Stockholm, Sweden. 4Present Address: Istituto di Scienze del Patrimonio Culturale – Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (ISPC-CNR), Via Madonna del Piano, 10 - 50019, Sesto Fiorentino, Firenze, Italy. 5Present Address: Wadum Art Technological Studies (WATS), Åløkkevej 24, 2720 Vanløse, Denmark. http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1007/s42452-020-3168-3&domain=pdf http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6347-6506 http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5714-4409 http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9133-1379 http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7215-5509 Vol:.(1234567890) Research Article SN Applied Sciences (2020) 2:1411 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-3168-3 1907 and in 1908 on the north wall of the apartment of Michael Stein, Leo and Gertrude’s older brother [4]. Leo Stein left Paris in 1916, leaving his Picasso collection behind, including Acrobat Family, which by now was sold to Walter Halvorsen, a Norwegian artist, art dealer and a student of Matisse. He offered the work to the National Museum in Stockholm but the institution had to decline the opportunity to buy it. Halvorsen contacted Conrad Pineus, a businessman and art collector from Gothenburg, at the time one of the greatest art patrons in Sweden. He established an exten- sive collection of Nordic contemporary art, enriched with a quite important number of French modern artworks. Due to an unfortunate stock investment in 1920, Pineus was forced to sell his French collection, offering the Acrobat Family to the Gothenburg Museum of Art in 1922. From that moment the Acrobat Family became, and still is, one of the highlights of the museum [5, 6]. In his turbulent and early creative period Picasso experimented with his materials and tried to explore new painting techniques. Looking at many of the works from this period, the artist seems to strive to create an opaque appearance on the pictorial surface. This effect is highly achieved in Acrobat Family, where the surface is left unvarnished, the figures are drawn with a thick black contour and the brushstrokes of paint are bold and perfectly balanced between dense and transparent colours. It is remarkable how Picasso intentionally leaves the yellow-brownish colour of the cardboard unpainted in large areas in order to achieve a result of a magnificent level of harmony between the rose, the blues and the earthy tones. From different catalogue sources, the most common medium used in the artist’s production on cardboard between 1905 and 1906 appears to be gouache. In the Acrobat Family this is also suggested by: (1) the general matt appearance of the unvarnished surface, (2) the look of the pigments under magnification, which appear poorly bounded and embedded into the fibres and (3) the pres- ence of holes left by evaporated water bubbles (Fig. 2a–f ). However, under reflected and raking light some areas appear shiny, suggesting the use of different binders and thus different painting techniques (Fig. 2g). There are several works from this period that can be compared to Acrobat Family in terms of style and topic. In two of them, the Saltimbaque in Profile and Girl in a Che- mise, it is reported that Picasso used a technique called ‘essence’, which is oil paint that has been heavily diluted with turpentine, causing the leaching of much of the oil and thus attaining a semi-transparent matte wash [7, 8]. The essence technique could be the clue to explain the different visual appearance (opaque vs. shiny) of the paint layer. Because of the work’s particularly sensitive materials (the reason why the museum has always been restrictive in terms of loans) and the lack of documentation about the condition of the painting, recently, a more thorough examination was initiated to research its current state. The first step was a visual examination to compare the present appearance with archival photo documenta- tion and old catalogue pictures [9]. Here it became clear that many areas have faded over the years and some now appear severely discoloured (Fig. 1a, b). The images reported in Fig. 1 cannot be considered reliable in terms of colour rendering since they were taken almost 50 years apart with different set-ups, but can still be used to docu- ment the degree of discolouration of certain areas. The most faded paints seem to be the blue of the curtain on the right side of the painting and the greenish blue background. Technical photography (infrared, infrared false colour, microphotography) provided valuable information about the materials distribution and together with fibre analy- ses showed also a plausible relation between the degra- dation of the cardboard and the pigment discolouration [9]. From the mechanical point of view the most sensi- tive and degraded areas are the edges and corners of the board, which show a delamination in the layered structure (Fig. 2h), probably also related to handling. This delamina- tion has probably played a role in the mechanical loss of colour together with the discolouration. Lately, analyses by X-ray Fluorescence (XRF), Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR), and Fibre Optics Reflectance Spectroscopy (FORS) were carried out to achieve a better understanding of the painting technique, identify the materials composition, and provide explanations for the discolouration. 2 Experimental 2.1 Optical microscopy and technical photography Microphotographs were taken with a Leica M80 stereo microscope, using 10x, 25x, and 60x magnification. Visible and infrared imaging was carried out using a modified Canon EOS 5D Mark II camera, with an EF50mm f/2,5 Compact Macro Lens, and B + W 77  mm UV/IR Cut MRC 486 M and RG830 filters. For illumination tungsten- halogen lamps were positioned at ca. 20º to the painting. Near infrared false colour images (IRFC) were obtained fol- lowing the protocol in the AIC guide [10]. Vol.:(0123456789) SN Applied Sciences (2020) 2:1411 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-3168-3 Research Article 2.2 XRF Elemental analysis was carried out using the Elio portable X-ray fluorescence system from XGlab X and Gamma Ray Electronics. Measurements were conducted at 40 kV and 100 µA with an integration time of 120 s. The spatial reso- lution was about 1 mm2. 2.3 FORS FORS was performed with an FS4 Spectroradiometer (Mal- vern Panalytical). Spectra were collected in the range of 350–2500 nm, with a resolution of 3 nm (UV–Vis) and 10 nm (NIR). The light probe was set at 45° from the surface normal, while the collecting fibre was held perpendicularly to the sample. The sampling area was about 3 mm ⌀. 64 spectra were averaged for each sample. The geometry adopted for the acquisition of the spectra is reported in Aceto et al. [11]. 2.4 FTIR FTIR spectra were recorded in reflection mode using the Alpha spectrometer (Bruker Optics). The measurements were carried out in the 7000–375 cm−1 range at a resolution of 4 cm−1 with 128 scans. The spatial resolution is about 28 mm2 and the probe head-to-surface distance is higher than 1 cm. 3 Results and discussion 3.1 Support and painting technique The XRF spectra of the cardboard support contain iron (Fe) and calcium (Ca) as the main elements, together with minor amounts of barium (Ba), zinc (Zn), sulphur (S), cop- per (Cu), lead (Pb) and strontium (Sr), and traces of potas- sium (K), silicon (Si) and aluminium (Al). Variable amounts Fig. 1 Pablo Picasso, Acrobat Family, 1905, 104 × 75 × 0.3  cm, GKM699. Current state of the artwork (a), compared to a printed archival document from 1964 (b). © of the reproductions of works by Pablo Picasso: Pablo Picasso’s Estate. VEGAP. Madrid, 2020. Per- mission to reproduce courtesy of VEGAP Vol:.(1234567890) Research Article SN Applied Sciences (2020) 2:1411 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-3168-3 of Zn can be detected everywhere and the peak intensity in the painted areas is always weaker than in the card- board. Therefore, Zn detected in the paint layer presum- ably comes from the cardboard support, rather than being associated with zinc-containing pigments (e.g. zinc white or lithopone). FTIR and FORS spectra show signals of cellulosic mate- rial and kaolinite, the latter being commonly used as a filler [12]. In Fig. 3 a FTIR spectrum recorded of the cardboard support is compared to reference spectra of cellulose and kaolinite; the attribution of the diagnostic bands can be found in Cael et al. and Frost et al. [13, 14]. In addition, the presence of a carbonyl peak around 1727 cm−1 col- lected where the paint layer is absent, might indicate the presence of a sizing material. Although the position of the band suggests the use of a resin [15], the strong cellulose signals that dominate the spectrum preclude a more pre- cise attribution. Fibre analysis indicated that the cardboard is made of highly lignified mechanical wood pulp, with some traces of wool and cotton, as was typical of low-quality cardboard [9]. The board is slightly acidic, with a pH level of 5.5-6. Historically, much of the paper that was manufactured between 1820 and 1990 is acidic because of the additives used during the manufacture [16]. Furthermore, fibres have a high lignin content which easily degrades into acidic products, speeding up the degradation process of the paper material [17, 18]. Concerning the painting technique, differences in the C-H signals shapes and positions—sometimes in associa- tion with a carbonyl band—indicate at least three different types of binding media. Two of them can be connected with the variable appearance of the paint layer: the matt surface shows strong and very sharp C-H signals at 2849, 2923 and 2954 (shoulder) cm−1 possibly indicating a waxy compound; and the shiny surface shows quite broad C-H signals at 2831 and 2954 cm−1 (medium intensity), pos- sibly suggesting drying oil (Fig. 4a) [15]. The third type of binder seems associated to the faded blue paint of the curtain (spectrum not shown) and has been possibly iden- tified as a polysaccharide compound (e.g. gum). Because the non-invasive identification of binders and varnishes Fig. 2 Macrophotographs of details from the painting (a–f); image of the painting under reflected light (g); detail of the corner show- ing delamination of the cardboard (h) Fig. 3 Reflection FTIR spectrum of the cardboard support com- pared to reference spectra of kaolinite (blue line) and cellulose (red line) in transmission Vol.:(0123456789) SN Applied Sciences (2020) 2:1411 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-3168-3 Research Article by reflection FTIR is often challenging, conclusive indica- tions about the essence technique cannot be given. At the same time, even the presence of other organic compounds cannot be excluded. 3.2 White paint The analyses carried out on the white areas revealed the presence of two different types of paint (Fig. 4a, b): • White I: lead white (mainly cerussite with small quanti- ties of hydrocerussite), very small amounts of Ba, prob- ably barium sulphate, and possibly mixed with lead sulphate; • White II: lead white (mainly hydrocerussite with small quantities of cerussite), large amounts of Ba, probably barium sulphate, and possibly mixed with lead sul- phate; The two types of white paints were used by Picasso in combination with other pigments and can be detected in other areas all over the painting. The attribution of the FTIR bands are based on Miliani et al. [19] and the refer- ences therein. 3.3 Red and pink paint The presence of large amounts of mercury (Hg) and an inflection point around 591 nm in the FORS spectra (due to an electronic transition from the valence to the con- duction band) (Fig. 5a) indicate that vermilion was used to paint the majority of the red areas (Red I) [20]. The only exceptions are two dark red areas at the back of the mon- key (Red II), where FORS spectra show two minima at ca. 519–22 and 551–55 nm (Fig. 5b) due to electronic transi- tions among delocalised molecular orbitals, indicating the Fig. 4 Reflection FTIR (a) and XRF (b) spectra of White I and II. (* Lead escape peaks) Fig. 5 FORS spectrum of Red I and its first derivative (a); FORS spectrum of Red II (b) Vol:.(1234567890) Research Article SN Applied Sciences (2020) 2:1411 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-3168-3 presence of an anthraquinone-derived lake (very likely of animal origin, such as carmine, kermes, lac etc.) [11]. Very small amounts of Hg have been detected almost every- where, also in areas that are not red, suggesting the sparse use of vermilion or unintentional contamination. Variable amounts of lead white and vermilion were mixed together to create different shades of pink, which were used to paint the flesh tone, the shoes of the woman and other details. 3.4 Black, grey and brown paint Mainly two pigments were used to paint black, grey and brown areas: bone/ivory black (infrared peak at 2015 cm−1, sometimes accompanied by features attributed to phos- phate compounds and associated with large amounts of Ca together with small amounts of phosphorous (P)) and Prussian blue (C-N band around 2096 cm−1 [21–23]). Some areas (Black I, Grey I, Brown I) are painted using both pigments, while in others (Black II, Grey II, Brown II) only Prussian blue has been detected. The presence of lead white in all the above-discussed areas (high amounts of Pb and specific FTIR bands, not showed) plausibly indicates that this pigment was added to achieve different tonalities. Variable amounts of Hg can be found everywhere as well, although FORS possibly suggests the presence of vermil- ion only in the brown hues. The complex composition of this neutral-brownish hue shows the wish of Picasso to mix different pigments to obtain a final desired chromatic effect. This ability has been also reported in paintings of his early career, previous to the Rose period [24]. An impor- tant aspect of Picasso`s technique in Acrobat Family is the occurrence of bone/ivory black and Prussian blue which are often used in mixtures. As reported by Sessa et al. this fact seems to be a common feature of Picasso’s early works [24]. 3.5 Green paint Two types of “greenish” paint have been identified on the painting: the first, detected on the dress of the woman and the face of the child (Green I); the second, detected on the background (Green II). In both greens, FTIR spectra show a strong C-N band around 2096 cm−1 and FORS detects a vis- ible absorption band between 600 and 800 nm indicative of Prussian blue (Fig. 6a, b) [23, 25]. A yellow component that is most probably yellow ochre, absorbs below 600 nm and is characterized by an inflection point at ca. 545 nm; this has been detected by FORS only in Green I [11]. This component induces a blue shift of the Prussian blue min- imum of absorption from 680 to 660  nm. On the other hand, no yellow colorants have been clearly detected in Green II, which was probably produced by applying a diluted blue paint to the cardboard. The colour of Green II is therefore achieved by playing with the transparency of the paint and the yellowish colour of the support. How- ever, the additional presence of a tiny amount of a yellow dye in Green II cannot be totally excluded, but the detec- tion and identification of this type of compound by non- invasive means is difficult to achieve. 3.6 Blue paint Two blue pigments were used by Picasso to paint the cur- tain, which is the area mostly affected by discolouration (Fig. 7a, b): the dark compound, highly absorbing in the IR image and appearing green in IRFC, is Prussian blue (Blue I); the compound transparent in IR, which turns pink/red in IRFC, is ultramarine blue (Blue II) (Fig.  7a). The former is characterized by a band around 2100 cm−1 in the FTIR spectrum and by a broad minimum around 700  nm in the visible spectrum due to an electron charge transfer between FeII and FeIII bridged by the cyano ligand; the Fig. 6 Reflection FTIR (a) and FORS (b) spectra of Green I and II Vol.:(0123456789) SN Applied Sciences (2020) 2:1411 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-3168-3 Research Article latter can be easily identified thanks to a FORS absorp- tion band around 600 nm ascribed to the S3 − radical anion trapped in the sodalite cage framework and to FTIR bands at 450 and 980–998  cm−1 attributed to Si–O vibrations (Fig. 7b, c) [19, 23, 25, 26]. The two pigments are often found together in the lower part of the curtain, suggesting that Picasso mixed them in various proportions to create different shades (the relative intensities of the respective Vis–NIR bands correspond to the relative amounts of the two blues) (Fig. 7c). Conversely, ultramarine blue is the main pigment in the upper part of the curtain, whereas Prussian blue is negligible. Weak signals of ultramarine blue in the FORS spectra are still detected even in the most faded areas, where the pigment is barely visible by the naked eye (Fig. 7d, e). Both pigments are known to be characterized by fading and discolouration problems. The poor light- fastness of Prussian blue has been observed since late mid-nineteenth century. The pigment was reported to have the tendency to fade upon exposure to light when mixed with white pigments [27, 28]. The fading is due to a photo-redox process that breaks the electron transfer FeII–CN–FeIII pathway and it can be variably affected by the compresence of other compounds (extenders, fillers, Fig. 7 Detail of the lower part of the curtain (a). FTIR (b) and FORS (c) spectra of blue areas painted with different mixtures of Blue I and II. FORS spectra of blue faded areas (d). Detail of the upper part of the curtain (e) Vol:.(1234567890) Research Article SN Applied Sciences (2020) 2:1411 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-3168-3 pigments), the substrates (canvas, paper), the environ- mental conditions and the manufacturing procedure [29–31]. The discolouration of ultramarine blue can be gener- ated either by micro-fissures around the pigment particles in the paint layer (resulting from the disintegration of the binder), which scatter the light and make the paint surface appear patchy and whitish [32], or by the destruction of the sodalite cage framework (caused by both alkaline and acidic environment), which in turn triggers the release of the chromophores responsible for the colour [33–35]. 4 Conclusions The non-invasive analytical campaign provided valuable information on the material composition of the Acrobat Family, unveiling Picasso`s palette and helping clarify some of the uncertainties about his painting technique. The latter aspect still presents open questions (i.e. essence, gouache and/or other binders) and further research, including the possibility of sampling for specific analyses, will be pursued. From the conservation point of view, this study proved that several concurrent factors are probably responsible for the discolouration of the Acrobat Family. The main extrinsic one is excessive light exposure, mainly affecting the Prussian blue. The intrinsic ones are the paint compo- sition itself (fillers, extenders, other pigments) and, espe- cially for the ultramarine blue, the acidity of the support. The acidity of the cardboard cannot be controlled or mitigated in this specific case. Due to the presence of the paint layer, de-acidification procedures of the support can- not be carried out. De-acidification is a common strategy to block the chemical mechanism of hydrolysis of cellulose and to slow down the rate of paper degradation [36, 37]. However, in the case of the Acrobat Family, because of the importance of the artwork, introducing alkaline agents that could interfere with the chemical stability of the pig- ments was considered too risky. The external factors, on the other hand, can be con- trolled to preserve the materiality and the identity of this masterpiece. Until 2008, the room where the painting is on display received indirect day light from a small rooftop window covered with a grey curtain. After the roof had been renovated, the window was removed and lighting was obtained with halogen lamps. In 2010, halogen lamps were replaced by LEDs. Therefore, controlled lighting in the exhibition rooms, in house and during loans, is a policy already adopted by the museum. In addition, a microcli- mate frame has now been built to protect the painting from fluctuations of the outside RH-conditions and from mechanical damages. Finally, to reduce levels of gases and particulate air pollution, active carbon cloth could be added to the enclosure. Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the Musée d’Orsay and Fondation Beyeler for helping to fund the project, Hos- sein Sehatlou for his collaboration in the photo documentation, Susanne Stenbäcken and Anders Hammarstrand for assistance in the conservation of the original frame. Sponsorship from the Museu Picasso, Barcelona, to cover permission fees for the reproduction of works by Picasso is gratefully acknowledged. Compliance with ethical standards Conflict of interest statement On behalf of all authors, the corre- sponding author states that there is no conflict of interest. References 1. Gothenburg Museum of Art (2019) The Picasso Room. https ://goteb orgsk onstm useum .se/en/the-colle ction /the-picas so-room/ 2. 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National gallery of art, New York, pp 37–62 36. Baty JW, Maitland CL, Minter W, Hubbe MA, Jordan-Mowery SK (2010) Deacidification for the conservation and preservation of paper-based works: a review. BioResources 5(3):1955–2023 37. Zervos S, Alexopoulou I (2015) Paper conservation methods: a literature review. Cellulose 22(5):2859–2897 Publisher’s Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2008.05.006 https://doi.org/10.1039/c3ay40583d Picasso’s Acrobat Family in focus: an investigation of materials and techniques of an iconic work in the collection of the Gothenburg Museum of Art Abstract 1 Introduction 2 Experimental 2.1 Optical microscopy and technical photography 2.2 XRF 2.3 FORS 2.4 FTIR 3 Results and discussion 3.1 Support and painting technique 3.2 White paint 3.3 Red and pink paint 3.4 Black, grey and brown paint 3.5 Green paint 3.6 Blue paint 4 Conclusions Acknowledgements References 
work_z7cd2swfefcphjsbu62fnexlyu	----	544 www.e-neurospine.org An Age-old Debate: Anterior Versus Posterior Surgery for Ossification of the Posterior Longitudinal Ligament Ali Moghaddamjou1,2, Michael G. Fehlings1,2 1Division of Neurosurgery and Spine Program, Department of Surgery, Toronto Western Hospital, Toronto, ON, Canada 2Division of Neurosurgery, Department of Surgery, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada Ossification of the posterior longitudinal ligament (OPLL) is a disease characterized by heterotopic bone formation classically occurring in the cervical spine. The compression from the ossified mass is one cause of cervical spondylotic myelopathy (CSM) and predis- poses patients to spinal cord injury (SCI).1,2 This special issue of Neurospine focuses on the management of OPLL and CSM, addressing some controversies that surround the optimal surgical approach to OPLL. OPLL is more common in East Asian populations with incidence rates from 1.9% to 4.3%3 compared to 0.1%–1.7% in the Caucasian population.4 The exact cause of OPLL remains to be determined. Given that there is a significant recurrence risk in parents (26.1%) and sib- lings (28.9%) of OPLL patients, a genetic link has been long postulated.5 Extensive linkage and genetic studies have identified rare variants of 11 genes associated with OPLL.6 Addi- tional studies are needed to further establish the genetic role in the pathogenicity of OPLL. The neurological dysfunction from the compressive effect of OPLL is often progressive and irreversible.7-9 Surgery is currently the only effective treatment option in patients with advanced CSM from OPLL.10 The role of surgery in the management of patients with mi- nor symptoms or mild CSM from OPLL remains controversial and these patients are often managed conservatively.11 In the most recent guidelines on the management of CSM, the expert opinion based on the current body of evidence advises against prophylactic surgery in asymptomatic patients with cervical cord compression.1 We suspect that early surgery will have an expanded role in the management of OPLL as more is discovered about the natural history of OPLL and mild CSM and their association with subsequent SCI. The optimal surgical approach in the treatment of OPLL has been a topic of great discus- sion amongst spinal surgeons for decades. Laminoplasty through a posterior approach has historically been the most common method since it was first described in 1973.12 In recent years, the anterior approaches to OPLL are gaining momentum due to their improved safe- ty profile. The fundamental principles of surgical treatment for OPLL are to decompress the spinal cord from the ossified lesions, maintain or restore normal stability of the spine and release compressed nerve roots. In the posterior approach, the decompression is achieved indirect- ly by increasing the canal space whereas anterior surgery allows for direct decompression via the removal of the ossified mass. Furthermore, an anterior construct is optimal in re- Neurospine 2019;16(3):544-547. https://doi.org/10.14245/ns.19edi.014 Neurospine eISSN 2586-6591 pISSN 2586-6583 This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecom- mons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Copyright © 2019 by the Korean Spinal Neurosurgery Society Editorial Corresponding Author Michael G. Fehlings E-mail: michael.fehlings@uhn.ca https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5722-6364 Division of Neurosurgery and Spinal Program, Department of Surgery, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada See the article “The Clinical Implications and Complications of Anterior Versus Posterior Surgery for Multilevel Cervical Ossification of the Posterior Longitudinal Ligament; An Updated Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis” on page 530. https://doi.org/10.14245/ns.1938326.163 https://doi.org/10.14245/ns.1938326.163 https://doi.org/10.14245/ns.1938326.163 https://doi.org/10.14245/ns.1938326.163 https://doi.org/10.14245/ns.1938326.163 https://doi.org/10.14245/ns.1938326.163 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.14245/ns.19edi.014&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2019-09-30 Anterior vs. Posterior Surgery for OPLLMoghaddamjou A, et al. https://doi.org/10.14245/ns.19edi.014 www.e-neurospine.org 545 storing the physiological lordosis of the cervical spine. Theoretically, the anterior approach should be superior in terms of neurological outcomes given that it achieves decom- pression directly. Furthermore, anterior surgery achieves supe- rior post operative alignment of the spine when compared to posterior approaches.13 Despite these benefits, anterior decom- pression is less often utilized as it is technically demanding and associated with serious complications. Removing the ossified lesion in OPLL is challenging as it is frequently adhered to a calcified or thinned dura. As such, an anterior approach is sus- ceptible to iatrogenic durotomies and intraoperative SCI. The discussion around the optimal surgical approach is, hence, a balance of the risks of an anterior approach compared to its relative benefit over a posterior decompression. In this issue of Neurospine, a meta-analysis on anterior vs. posterior surgery for OPLL from the Seoul National University provides valuable data on this balance of risks and benefits for spinal surgeons.14 Based on our assessment, this meta-analysis is the most com- prehensive when compared to other analyses,15-20 with 21 stud- ies including 2 recent large series from Morishita et al.21 and Hou et al.13 Furthermore, the authors have provided extensive analyses on the complications of the 2 surgical approaches that are crucial in clinical decision making. In keeping with previous studies, the results of this meta-anal- ysis revealed that surgery for OPLL had a significant improve- ment in the postoperative Japanese Orthopedic Association scores with the anterior approach having a greater impact (dif- ference of 1.30) when compared to posterior decompression. On the contrary, anterior procedures had a higher rate of post- operative neurological deficits (2.17% vs. 1.11%) and iatrogenic durotomy (3.74% vs. 0.96%). The authors concluded that, in general, the small improvement in postoperative clinical out- comes do not justify the potentially serious complications that are associated with anterior approaches for OPLL. The final decision on the approach needs to be individualized to patient-specific factors. There are some instances in which the advantages provided through the anterior approach justify the small increase in the probability of complication. A posteri- or approach allows for limited indirect decompression, which might not be sufficient in cases of severe OPLL. Anterior sur- gery is, hence, recommended in OPLL with canal occupancy ratios of greater than 50%.13,22,23 The curvature of the spine needs to be taken into consideration as there is evidence against pos- terior approaches in rigid kyphotic spines.24 Key measures of alignment such as C2–7 Cobb angle, sagittal vertical axis and the modified K-line should be used in the decision making on the approach. The comfort level of the surgeon with the technique is critical on the choice of the approach. A surgeon experienced in ante- rior approaches in OPLL can further justify that approach given its superiority in outcomes. Laminoplasty is the most common posterior operation in OPLL partly because of its comfort amongst surgeons in East Asia where OPLL is common. Other techni- ques such as laminectomy and fusion can also be utilized. In a multicentre prospective AOSpine study, the major outcomes of laminectomy and fusion and laminoplasty were comparable in CSM.24 However, laminectomy and fusion can provide superior deformity correction potentially avoiding the progressive ky- photic deformity which is a downfall of posterior laminoplasty as a treatment for OPLL.25 Further data comparing the two pos- terior approaches in the context of OPLL are required to deter- mine the superior posterior technique in long term outcomes.26 The topic of anterior vs. posterior surgery for all causes of CSM has been studied separately. In a propensity-scored matched analysis using prospective multicentre data, the AOSpine group reported overall similar postoperative outcomes and complica- tions between the two groups.27 With the current body of evi- dence a guideline or algorithm on the optimal approach to CSM cannot be established and the final decision should be made on a case-by-case basis.24 A randomized control trial to determine the optimal surgical approach to CSM is currently underway.28 The results of this unique study in which experts vote for the eligibility of randomization would address the current lack of high-quality evidence. Overall, the comprehensive meta-analysis on anterior vs. pos- terior approaches to OPLL in this issue of Neurospine provides surgeons essential information to aid in choosing the optimal surgical approach. The posterior approach is generally preferred due to its safety profile; however, in severe OPLL (occupancy ratio > 50%) and cases with kyphotic deformity the superior outcomes of the anterior approach may justify its use. The final decision on the approach will be dependent on patient specific factors as well as the experience of the surgeon on the different approaches. Further international multicentre studies are re- quired to have enough evidence in supporting a unifying con- clusion on the optimal approach. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS MGF is supported by the Halbert Chair in Neural Repair and Regeneration. Anterior vs. Posterior Surgery for OPLLMoghaddamjou A, et al. https://doi.org/10.14245/ns.19edi.014546 www.e-neurospine.org REFERENCES 1. Fehlings MG, Tetreault LA, Riew KD, et al. A clinical prac- tice guideline for the management of patients with degener- ative cervical myelopathy: recommendations for patients with mild, moderate, and severe disease and nonmyelopath- ic patients with evidence of cord compression. Global Spine J 2017;7(3 Suppl):70S-83S. 2. Wu JC, Chen YC, Liu L, et al. Conservatively treated ossifi- cation of the posterior longitudinal ligament increases the risk of spinal cord injury: a nationwide cohort study. J Neu- rotrauma 2012;29:462-8. 3. Matsunaga S, Sakou T. Ossification of the posterior longitu- dinal ligament of the cervical spine: etiology and natural history. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 2012;37:E309-14. 4. Yan L, Gao R, Liu Y, et al. The pathogenesis of ossification of the posterior longitudinal ligament. Aging Dis 2017;8:570- 82. 5. Terayama K. Genetic studies on ossification of the posterior longitudinal ligament of the spine. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 1989; 14:1184-91. 6. Chen X, Guo J, Cai T, et al. Targeted next-generation sequenc- ing reveals multiple deleterious variants in OPLL-associated genes. Sci Rep 2016;6:26962. 7. Murakami M, Seichi A, Chikuda H, et al. Long-term follow- up of the progression of ossification of the posterior longitu- dinal ligament. J Neurosurg Spine 2010;12:577-9. 8. Schmidt MH, Quinones-Hinojosa A, Rosenberg WS. Cervi- cal myelopathy associated with degenerative spine disease and ossification of the posterior longitudinal ligament. Se- min Neurol 2002;22:143-8. 9. Sakou T, Matsunaga S, Koga H. Recent progress in the study of pathogenesis of ossification of the posterior longitudinal ligament. J Orthop Sci 2000;5:310-5. 10. Wu JC, Chen YC, Huang WC. Ossification of the posterior longitudinal ligament in cervical spine: prevalence, manage- ment, and prognosis. Neurospine 2018;15:33-41. 11. Matsunaga S, Sakou T, Taketomi E, et al. Clinical course of patients with ossification of the posterior longitudinal liga- ment: a minimum 10-year cohort study. J Neurosurg 2004; 100(3 Suppl Spine):245-8. 12. Oyama M, Hattori S, Morikawa N. A new method of cervi- cal laminectomy. Central Jpn J Orthop Traumat Surg 1973; 16:792-4. 13. Hou Y, Liang L, Shi GD, et al. Comparing effects of cervical anterior approach and laminoplasty in surgical management of cervical ossification of posterior longitudinal ligament by a prospective nonrandomized controlled study. Orthop Trau- matol Surg Res 2017;103:733-40. 14. Kim DH, Lee CH, Ko YS, et al. The clinical implications and complications of anterior versus posterior surgery for multi- level cervical ossification of the posterior longitudinal liga- ment; an updated systematic review and meta-analysis. Neu- rospine 2019;16:530-41. 15. Feng F, Ruan W, Liu Z, et al. Anterior versus posterior ap- proach for the treatment of cervical compressive myelopa- thy due to ossification of the posterior longitudinal ligament: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Surg 2016;27: 26-33. 16. Nayak NR, Piazza M, Milby A, et al. Surgical approaches for the treatment of multilevel cervical ossification of the poste- rior longitudinal ligament: results of a decision analysis. World Neurosurg 2018;112:e375-84. 17. Zhu B, Xu Y, Liu X, et al. Anterior approach versus posterior approach for the treatment of multilevel cervical spondylot- ic myelopathy: a systemic review and meta-analysis. Eur Spine J 2013;22:1583-93. 18. Qin R, Sun W, Qian B, et al. Anterior cervical corpectomy and fusion versus posterior laminoplasty for cervical op- pressive myelopathy secondary to ossification of the poste- rior longitudinal ligament: a meta-analysis. Orthopedics 2019;42:e309-16. 19. Chen Z, Liu B, Dong J, et al. Comparison of anterior cor- pectomy and fusion versus laminoplasty for the treatment of cervical ossification of posterior longitudinal ligament: a meta-analysis. Neurosurg Focus 2016;40:E8. 20. Chen TP, Qian LG, Jiao JB, et al. Anterior decompression and fusion versus laminoplasty for cervical myelopathy due to ossification of posterior longitudinal ligament: A meta- analysis. Medicine (Baltimore) 2019;98:e13382. 21. Morishita S, Yoshii T, Okawa A, et al. Perioperative compli- cations of anterior decompression with fusion versus lami- noplasty for the treatment of cervical ossification of the pos- terior longitudinal ligament: propensity score matching anal- ysis using a nation-wide inpatient database. Spine J 2019;19: 610-6. 22. An HS, Al-Shihabi L, Kurd M. Surgical treatment for ossifi- cation of the posterior longitudinal ligament in the cervical spine. J Am Acad Orthop Surg 2014;22:420-9. 23. Fujimori T, Iwasaki M, Okuda S, et al. Long-term results of cervical myelopathy due to ossification of the posterior lon- gitudinal ligament with an occupying ratio of 60% or more. Anterior vs. Posterior Surgery for OPLLMoghaddamjou A, et al. https://doi.org/10.14245/ns.19edi.014 www.e-neurospine.org 547 Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 2014;39:58-67. 24. Kato S, Ganau M, Fehlings MG. Surgical decision-making in degenerative cervical myelopathy - Anterior versus poste- rior approach. J Clin Neurosci 2018;58:7-12. 25. Ma L, Liu FY, Huo LS, et al. Comparison of laminoplasty versus laminectomy and fusion in the treatment of multi- level cervical ossification of the posterior longitudinal liga- ment: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Medicine (Bal- timore) 2018;97:e11542. 26. Singhatanadgige W, Limthongkul W, Valone F 3rd, et al. Out- comes following laminoplasty or laminectomy and fusion in patients with myelopathy caused by ossification of the pos- terior longitudinal ligament: a systematic review. Global Spine J 2016;6:702-9. 27. Kato S, Nouri A, Wu D, et al. Comparison of anterior and posterior surgery for degenerative cervical myelopathy: an MRI-based propensity-score-matched analysis using data from the prospective multicenter AOSpine CSM North Amer- ica and international studies. J Bone Joint Surg Am 2017;99: 1013-21. 28. Ghogawala Z, Benzel EC, Heary RF, et al. Cervical spondy- lotic myelopathy surgical trial: randomized, controlled trial design and rationale. Neurosurgery 2014;75:334-46. Title: The Accordionist Artist: Pablo Picasso Year: 1911 The Accordionist is a 1911 painting by Pablo Picasso. As stated by the title, the painting is meant to portray a man playing an accordion. The division of three-dimensional forms into a two-dimensional plane indicate that the painting is in the style of analytic cubism, which was developed by Picasso and Georges Braque between 1907 and 1914. The onset of cubism is possibly due to Picasso and Braque rebelling against centuries of traditional, realistic art that imitates the natural world. More information: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Accordionist © 2019 - Succession Pablo Picasso - SACK (Korea) 
work_zazrv4zhefcq3g772konheryvi	----	334 www.e-neurospine.org Epidemics Over the Centuries J.C. Le Huec1, L. Boué1, S. Bourret1, M. Saffarini2, M. Le verge3 1Polyclinique Bordeaux Nord, Bordeaux Université, Vertebra Center, Bordeaux, France 2Resurg SA, Geneve, Switzerland 3 Université Droit Economie Gestion Angers, Angers, France The history of pandemics goes back a long way and has been marked by many mistaken beliefs,1 some of which have led to massacres of innocent people, blamed for plagues whose true origin has only recently been discovered.2 If we disregard the first epidemic in the 5th century BC, known as the Athens Plague,3 and of which little is known, the first recorded epidemic was the Justinian plague which started in 540 AD, lasted for 2 centuries, and un- doubtedly precipitated the fall of the Roman Empire.3 This was followed by the Black Death in the Middle Ages.4-6 which also originated in Asia, and lastly the bubonic plague pan- demic, the third largest recorded, which originated in Yunnan during the 19th century, and spread from China to pose new epidemiological threats to humanity. Every pandemic has a point of origin and its spread owes as much to globalization as to related migrations. Microbes, viruses, and rumours contaminated firm beliefs that exotic Chinese food was the root cause of the crisis or that the virus in question was created artifi- cially for commercial exploitation. This is a classic popular reaction. For example, during the 16th century, the French called syphilis ‘Spanish smallpox,’ the Spanish called it the ‘mal- ady of Naples’ and for the English it was a ‘French Pox.’3 The spread of epidemics had long remained a mystery. In 1346, the Black Death bacillus was inoculated as an entomological weapon by the Mongol Khan, who threw the corpses of the infested Mongols over the walls of the besieged city of Caffa, a Venetian trading post on the Black Sea.2 The plague took advantage of the Genoese galleys’ return to Europe to infest Venice. From that European entry point, pilgrims and merchant travellers spread the epidemic, eventually killing-off nearly half the population of Europe. Where does the term quarantine derive from?7 It was a health measure implemented in the Middle Ages in Dubrovnik and then in Venice to isolate ships suspected of being carri- ers of the plague. According to Hippocrates, after 40 days of isolation acute illness did not manifest itself. In Venice, the ships were isolated at the shores of the island of Santa Maria di Nazareth, and because of the connection between Nazareth and Lazarus (the leper of the gospel), leper colonies were thereafter called “lazarets.” This 40-day isolation period during Lent came from the Latin Quadragesima (fortieth), which also refers to the 40 days that Je- sus spent in the desert, as well as the 40 years of wilderness that the Israelites endured fol- lowing their exodus from Ancient Egypt. Confinement is not a new measure? It is an ancient practice of grouping the citizens of a city or a region in a contained zone.8 It has proven to be effective and has enabled the restric- tion of pandemics close to their origin. King Louis XV of France was the first to impose it Neurospine 2020;17(2):334-336. https://doi.org/10.14245/ns.2040248.124 Neurospine eISSN 2586-6591 pISSN 2586-6583 This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (https://creativecom- mons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Copyright © 2020 by the Korean Spinal Neurosurgery Society Editorial Corresponding Author J.C. Le Huec https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0463-6706 Polyclinique Bordeaux Nord, Bordeaux Université, Vertebra Center, 15 rue C Boucher, 33000 Bordeaux, France E-mail : jclehuec1@aol.com http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.14245/ns.2040248.124&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2020-06-30 The Origins of Quarantine, Confinement, Masks…Le Huec JC, et al. https://doi.org/10.14245/ns.2040248.124 www.e-neurospine.org 335 on Marseilles5 in an effort to curb the Black Death which deci- mated more than 50,000 people in that city alone (Fig. 1). Contact between healthy and infected people generally results in a public health catastrophe. In fact, only isolation at home limits the spread of an epidemic and was gradually adapted, with- out understanding the underlying reasons, from the Roman times of Justinian to the end of the 19th century. Confinement ends only when the pathogen is seen to have stopped transmit- ting or when a new means of treatment is discovered, such as a vaccine or an antibiotic. The use of masks is recent. The first mask was used by a French doctor, Charles de L’Orme,1 (Fig. 2) appointed to the court of King Louis XIII, and was developed during the plague of 1619 which decimated Paris. In the 1890s the use of surgical masks and gloves was introduced by surgeons, unrelated to any epi- demic episodes, to fight against postoperative infections. At the beginning of the 20th century, an Asian doctor, Wu Liande, the first Chinaman admitted to study medicine at Cambridge, was sent by his country in 1910 to help confine the so-called “Man- churian” plague. This plague, with a mortality rate close to 100%, was a resurgence of the 1894 Hong Kong plague which gave the Frenchman Alexandre Yersin an opportunity to discover the bacillus of the disease almost concomitantly with the Japanese Kitasato Shibasaburo. Dr. Wu Liande confirmed the value of the mask by equipping all Chinese doctors in Manchuria, and in 1918, the Spanish flu definitively consecrated the wearing of masks in Japan. Photos published in the press of American health corps wearing masks in the streets of San Francisco completed their promotion as a means of protection. In France, Dr. Hya- cinthe Vincent, despite popular reluctance, recommended wear- ing masks as protection against the Spanish flu, although its vi- ral origin was not confirmed until 1933. How is an epidemic stopped? There are 2 radical methods: finding an effective antibiotic treatment when the origin is bac- terial or a vaccine when the origin is viral. In a viral epidemic which is not 100% fatal, when 60% or more of the population is infected, the disease ceases to spread because the vector no lon- ger finds enough subjects to be infected (“herd immunity”). How- ever, controlling an epidemic is eminently political. Nobody imagined that we would have to return to quarantine and isola- Fig. 1. Autorisation to circulate outside the epidemic zone, delivered by the royal attorney for the commune of Remoulin, during the plague of Marseille in 1720. Fig. 2. First mask used during the plague of Paris in 1619. The mask is filled with aromatic herbs to help the wearer bear bad smell. The doctor also has a stick to examine patients without touching them. The Origins of Quarantine, Confinement, Masks…Le Huec JC, et al. https://doi.org/10.14245/ns.2040248.124336 www.e-neurospine.org Title: Cat Catching a Bird Artist: Pablo Picasso Year: 1939 Is this an image of the war in Spain, or a premonition of even worse things to come? During the first three months of 1939, the cities of Madrid, Barcelona and Valencia fell into the hands of Franco’s troops, while Hitler was making inroads into Eastern Europe. Picasso’s mother died on 13 January. Political and personal events combined in his imagination to find expression in tormented pictures full of allegorical resonances. Picasso explained: “I did not paint the war because I am not the kind of painter who sets out looking for subjects, like a photographer. But there is no doubt that the war is present in the paintings that I did at the time. Later, perhaps, a historian will demonstrate that my work changed under the influence of the war.” From pictures of women mourning the war victims in Spain, Picasso turned to visions of animals with ferocious expressions. More information: https://www.pablopicasso.org/cat-catching-a-bird.jsp © 2019 - Succession Pablo Picasso - SACK (Korea) tion in the 21st century. These measures, first adopted by the Chinese and then by a large majority of the countries hit by coro- navirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), have brought us back to the times when there were no vaccines or antibiotics to fight infec- tious diseases.9,10 Today, faced with coronaviruses, we have no medication. We are therefore returning to old methods in an effort to slow the spread of the epidemic. Controlling an epi- demic is also political because in democratic regimes contain- ment is less effective than in those that are authoritarian. In the 19th century the great cholera epidemics prompted politicians to take hygiene measures.9 Great advances were made in hous- ing, especially for the working class, sewage systems were de- veloped and access to drinking water provided.11 In hospitals, surgical instruments were sterilized, and infected patients iso- lated. In 1920, after the Spanish flu epidemic, France established a ministry of health, which was called the ministry of hygiene, and the League of Nations started to think about international cooperation to manage epidemics. Historically, epidemics have decimated populations, some- times over long periods of time, but they have also facilitated discoveries, essentially for diagnosis and treatment, which have led to an improvement in the well-being of humanity. Hopeful- ly, the COVID-19 epidemic will also lead to scientific progress in terms of viral disease management and that the economic consequences of confinement will lead to political and environ- mental decisions that ensure a better future for all. REFERENCES 1. Fabre G. Épidémies et contagions. L’imaginaire du mal en Occident, Paris: PUF; 1998. 2. Hildesheimer F. Fléaux et société. De la Grande Peste au chol- éra (XIVe-XIXe siècle). Paris: Hachette supérieur; 1993. 3. Castex D, Cartron I. Épidémies et crises de mortalité du pas- sé, Paris: Ausonius Editions; 2007 4. Dedet JP. Les épidémies, de la peste noire à la grippe A/H1N1, Paris: Dunod; 2010. 5. Signoli M. La peste noire. Paris: Presses universitaires de France; 2018. (Que sais-je?; 4148). 6. Vitaux J. Histoire de la peste. Paris: Presses universitaires de France; 2010. 7. Bouhdiba S. Pavillon Jaune. Histoire de la quarantaine, de la peste à Ebola. Paris: L’Harmattan; 2016. 8. Hildesheimer F, Gut C. L’assistance hospitalière en France. Paris: Publisud; 1992. 9. Delaunay P. Le corps médical et le choléra en 1832. extrait de La Médecine internationale illustrée (oct. 1931–oct. 1933). Tours: Imprimerie Tourangelle; 1933 10. Rieumes AAJ. Episode du choléra-morbus de 1832. Thèse, Médecine, Montpellier; 1843. 11. Bourdelais P, Raulot JY. Histoire du choléra en France : une peur bleue, 1832 et 1854. Paris: Payot; 1987. 
work_zevsqc3i5vfptlkhhpzztyrxhm	----	12=(130429-005)윤영범.hwp http://dx.doi.org/10.5392/JKCA.2013.13.07.110 다다이즘과 포토몽타주에 대한 고찰 A Study on Dadaism and Photomontage 윤영범 * , 김성현 ** 경남정보 학교 * , 건국 학교 ** Young-Beam Yoon(10457@naver.com) * , Sung-Hyun Kim(shhkim@kku.ac.kr) ** 요약 매체와 양식, 기술과 표 사이의 고정 념에서 벗어나는 창작의 본질을 추구하는 창의 실험을 한 노력은 미술과 사진을 기반으로 20세기 반 이후 끊임없이 이어져 왔다. 새로운 표 을 한 술 시도 로서 포토몽타주는 탄생했다. 본질 으로 다른 이미지들의 결합으로 새로운 의미를 만들어내는 작업으로 서 포토몽타주는 의도 으로 선택한 다양한 이미지를 조합하고 합성하는 방식으로 메시지를 강조하여 시 각 으로 구성된다. 이미지와 텍스트의 변증법 시각 술로서 기존의 술 개념을 벗어나 새로운 형식 을 추구하며 발 해온 포토몽타주는 그 개념이 의 다원 술과 유사하다. 포토몽타주의 가치는 사진의 표 역을 사실의 묘사와 재 에 국한하지 않고 상상력을 자유롭게 표 할 수 있는 데포르마시옹으로서 새로운 가능성을 모색하고 일상의 경험을 창의 으로 표 하는 작업을 한 기법의 구 에 있다. ■ 중심어 :∣영상∣다다이즘∣다다∣포토몽타주∣ Abstract Since the early 20th century photo based art and effort to creative experiment, to pursue the essence of creation to escape from stereotypes between form and media, expression and technology, has been continued persistently. Photomontage was born as an artistic attempt for the new representation. Basically photomontage is configured to visually emphasize the message as a work to produce new meaning by combining the various images that are intentionally selected. The photomontage as a visual art, dialectic of text and image that is to pursue a new format to be out the concept already existing, have been developed, the concept is similar to the modern multiple art. The value of photo montage is to explore of the photo, not limited to describe or reproduce as a deformation, the new possibilities for creative expression and the experience of the day-to-day operation for the implementation of the scheme. ■ keyword :∣Image∣Dadaism∣Dada∣Photomontage∣ 수일자 : 2013년 04월 29일 수정일자 : 2013년 06일 11일 심사완료일 : 2013년 06월 12일 교신 자 : 김성 , e-mail : shhkim@kku.ac.kr Ⅰ. 서론 회화와 사진은 불가분의 계를 형성하고 있으며, 어로 'picture'라는 단어는 사진과 회화를 통칭한다. 사 진이 등장한 이래부터 재까지 사진은 회화에 향을 주고 받으며 발 해 왔다. 디지털 시 의 사진은 미술 의 범주에서 논의되고 있으며 미술작가들이 사진을 작 품의 매개로 사용하며 술 실험을 시도하고 있다. 다다이즘과 포토몽타주에 대한 고찰 111 시각 한계를 넘는 사진의 재 능력은 사진의 핵심이 되는 특성으로 사진과 타 매체의 혼용 극 인 변 용을 통해 그 역을 확장하고 있다. 많은 작가들에게 사진은 새로운 표 재료가 되었다. 본 연구에서는 사진 과 미술의 경계를 아우르는 디지털 로세스 기반의 디 지털 이미지를 기반으로 하는 다양한 시각 표 가능 성에 주목하고 사진과 회화의 다원성을 심으로 사진 이미지를 매개로하여 표 의 역을 확장하려는 술 시도와 픽토리얼리즘, 포토몽타주 기법을 탄생시킨 다다이즘에 한 분석을 한 문헌연구와 선행연구조 사를 수행하 으며 새로운 시각 표 기법의 모색을 한 작품제작을 병행하여 사진과 회화의 융합가능성 을 고찰하 다. Ⅱ. 사진역사 초기의 이미지 합성 사진의 이미지들을 선택하여 오려내고 조합하거나 사진이나 사진 원 을 합성하여 새로운 이미지와 의미 를 창조하는 기법은 '회화 ' 문맥에서 등장했다. 풍경 사진에 인물을 합성하거나 다른 배경으로 수정하여 인 화하는 합성인화는 재 사용하는 아도비 포토샵 (adobe photoshop) 등의 이미지합성 소 트웨어에서 일반 으로 사용되고 있는 방법이다. 사진역사의 기에 이미지 합성기법은 사진인화과정 에서 리 사용되었는데, 이는 정교한 이미지를 얻기 해 여러 번의 노출작업이 필요했기 때문이다. 사진을 한 고기능의 인화재료가 개발되어 이미지 합성기법 이 사진인화에 필요하지 않게 된 후에도 이미지 합성은 많은 작가들에 의해 시도되었으며 새롭게 등장한 화 를 한 시각 효과를 표 하기 한 기법이 되었다. 다다이스트들의 포토몽타주 작업은 기존의 콜라주와 차별 인 요소를 가지고 있었으나, 콜라주의 개념을 벗 어나지 못하 으며 포토몽타주의 정의에 해 미술가 들 사이에서 거의 일반 인 합의가 이 지지 않았다. 최근 포토몽타주의 개념은 최 의 다다 포토몽타주 기 법과 같이 사진을 잘라내어 조합하는 기법보다는 여러 장의 음화를 인화하는 암실기법이나 사진제 법의 한 종류로서 활용되고 있다. 다다이스트들은 그들의 작업과 콜라주와의 차별성을 부각하기 해 포토몽타주라는 명칭을 사용했으며 포 토몽타주 기법을 발 시켰다. 랑스의 실주의 시 인 루이 아라공(Louis Aragon, 1897-1982)은 콜라주를 ‘재 특성과 재료 특성’의 두 개 범조로 구분했다. 그림 1. Camera Obscura[13] 사진의 효시인 카메라 옵스큐라는 처음부터 회화를 해 사용되었다. 특히 르네상스 시 에 이탈리아의 화 가 오나르도 다빈치(Leonardo da Vinci)가 1519년에 카메라 옵스큐라를 드로잉에 최 로 이용하기 시작하 여, 사실 인 표 과 원근법을 쉽게 할 수 있는 그림 그 리는 도구로 화가들이 많이 사용하 다. 카메라 루시다 (Camera Lucida)는 리엄 울러스턴(William Wollaston)이 1807년 특허를 획득한 기구로서 카메라 옵스큐라보다 사용법이 어려워 일반인들이 쉽게 이용 할 수는 없었으나, 평면 에 공간과 입체를 재 시키기 한 보조수단으로 많이 활용되었다. 특히 서투른 화가 들에게 술 결함을 메워 으로서 실을 포착하고 사실 인 묘사를 가능하게 해주는 데 도움을 주었다. 사진이라는 것은 한 순간에 일어나는 상황을 빛의 활동 에 따라 민감히 반응하는 물질 에 고착시키는 것인데 카메라 옵스큐라에서 사실재 은 가능했지만 그 상을 그 로 고정시킬 방법이 없었다. 그러나 은염류에 빛을 비추면 격한 반응을 보인다는 것을 밝 내고 이를 이 용하여 상을 고정시키려는 일련의 노력은 끊임없이 이 어졌다. 1727년 독일의 해부학 교수인 요한 하인리히 슐츠는 16세기 이 에 알려진 은염류(銀鹽類)가 열에 의해서가 아니라 빛에 의해 어두워진다는 사실을 밝 한국콘텐츠학회논문지 '13 Vol. 13 No. 7112 내어 카메라 옵스큐라와 병행하여 사진에 필요한 기본 인 기술을 제공하 고 1802년 국의 토마스 웨지우 드는 빛의 작용을 이용하여 카메라에 잡힌 상을 기록하 려 했던 최 의 인물로서 질산은을 이용하여 상화를 만들며 사진술의 기술과 정의를 정립하 다. 1826년 랑스의 조셉 니세포르 니에 스(Joseph Nicephone Niepce)는 세계 최 의 사진 ‘창밖의 풍경’을 8시간의 노출을 통한 헬리오그래피1 기법으로 태양의 선으로 이미지를 촬 하고 사진을 보존 가능한 상태로 제작하 다. 그림 2. 세계 최초의 사진‘르그라의 집 창에서 내다본 조망’ 1826년 랑스의 조세 니세포르 니에 스(Joseph Nicephone Niepce 1765～1833)가 세계 최 의 사진촬 에 성공한 이후, 사진은 매체로서의 기술발 과 함께 속히 확산되었다. 1880년 까지 사진의 역사는 사진 기술의 역사이며 이후 사진이 독자 인 역으로 개척 한 것이 사진, 술사진, 고사진 등의 분야이다. 사진의 보 과 화는 작업을 한 노출시간의 단 축과 함께 이루어졌다. 1839년 랑스의 미술가이자 사 진가인 루이 다게르(Louis Jacques Mandé Daguerre) 가 은 사진술(daguerreotype)을 발명하여 8시간이 소 요되었던 사진노출시간을 30분 이내로 획기 으로 단 축하며 세계 최 의 풍경사진을 촬 하 다. 1851년 1. Heliography：그리스어로 '태양 선(Helio)으로 그린 그림(Graphy)' 이라는 뜻이다. 빛에 노출되면 굳어지는 '역청'이라는 물질을 이용 한 기법으로, 빛의 강함에 따라 역청이 굳어지는 정도가 달라져 물체 의 상이 맺히는 원리다. 다만, 상이 맺히는 시간이 자그마치 8시간에 달했다. 국의 F.S.아처(Frederick Scott Archer)에 의해 개발된 습 사진술(collodion process)은 사진노출시간을 5 로 단축시키며 인화과정의 단순화를 이루어낸 발명이 었으며 사진술이 리 보 되는 계기가 되었다. 기의 사진들은 유럽 역에 상사진의 수요와 함 께 리 보 되었으며 미술의 조형 원칙을 시하며 회화양식을 모방하 다. 19세기는 회화 사진의 시 다. 실을 정확히 포 착하여 기록으로 남기는 사진의 기능은 사회 으로 모 든 분야 특히 회화 술의 역에 커다란 향과 함께 논쟁을 불러일으켰다. 특히 사물을 기록하는 사진은 술작품이 아니며, 사진을 이용하는 삼류화가들이 회화 의 수 을 해한다는 부정 인 평가도 있었다. 사진의 술성을 추구하기 한 기의 노력 하나가 학 (academism) 사진이다. 오스카 구스타 일랜더 (Oscar Gustar Rejlander)나 헨리 피치 로빈슨(Henry Peach Robinson) 등의 작가들은 여러 장의 사진을 어 조합하여 한 장의 작품으로 만드는 조합사진을 발표 하며 시의성과 작가의식을 표 하 다. ‘픽토리얼리즘’ (pictorialism)은 19세기 후반부터 20 세기 반까지 세계 으로 유행했던 독특한 사진경향 으로 회화 표 기법과 감성을 사진에 용한 회화주 의 술사진을 의미하며, '회화주의사진' 는 살롱사 진(salon picture)이라고도 불린다. 회화주의 작가들은 이와 같은 시도를 통하여 사진의 단순한 기록성을 월 하는 회화 감성을 사진으로 표 하고자 하 다. 그러나 픽토리얼리즘은 사진고유의 사실 이고 즉물 인 묘사를 버리고, 회화의 표 기법과 질감을 추구 하 기 때문에 미디어로서 사진의 독창성은 사라지고 술 으로 경시되었다[1]. 보들 르(Charles-Pierre Baudelaire)는 사진에 의해 촬 된 ‘자연의 완벽한 복 사’란 창조 이지 않은 한낱 산업기술의 한 분야 라고 비 하 다. 보들 르는 이런 사진술을 회화와 같 은 술에 도입하는 것은 술가의 상상력을 해한다 고 간주하면서 사진을 본떠 사실을 그 로 묘사하려 한 당시의 사실주의 경향을 격렬하게 비 하 다[2]. 단순 히 이미지를 기록하는 매체로서 사진을 폄하하는 비 과 사진은 술이 아니라는 비평 속에서 많은 사진작가 다다이즘과 포토몽타주에 대한 고찰 113 들은 사진을 수정하고 합성하는 방법을 통해 회화와 비 슷한 표 을 할 수 있는 사진의 술성을 보여주고자 하 다. 표 인 작품은 헨리 피치 로빈슨과 오스카 일랜더의 작품이다. 오스카 일랜더는 그림을 그 린 후 여러 부분을 나 어서 한 장씩 사진을 고 음화 들을 인화지 에 올려놓은 후 빛을 주는 방식으로 차 례차례 30장을 한 장의 인화지에다 인화한 ‘인생의 두 갈래 길’(1857)에서 하나의 화면 안에 삼십 장의 음화를 합성하여 시간의 흐름을 표 하고, 통 인 고 회화 의 도덕 인 의미와 종교 인 상징을 사진작품으로 묘 사했다. 그림 3. Two Ways of Life, 1857 (Oscar Gustav Rejlander) 로빈슨의 첫 합성사진 ‘Fading Away(1858)’는 다섯 장의 음화를 따로 어 조합해서 만든 작품으로서 비탄 에 잠긴 부모와 언니가 지켜보는 가운데 폐병에 걸려 죽어가는 소녀를 재 한 것이며, 그 목 은 당시의 아 카데믹한 회화의 기 에 맞추어 술사진을 제작하는 데 있었고, 사진에서 회화의 독특한 효과를 내려고 한 것이다[3]. 이 사진의 경우, 창문 밖의 밝은 부분과 방안 의 어두운 부분의 명암 차이가 무 커서 한 번의 촬 으로는 표 할 수 없었다. 조합인화는 이러한 사진기 술의 한계를 넘어서기 해서도 이용되었다. 그림 4. Fading Away, 1858 (Henry Peach Robinson) 사진의 이미지들을 선택하여 오려내고 조합하거나 사진이나 사진 원 을 합성하여 새로운 이미지와 의미 를 창조하는 기법은 '회화 ' 문맥에서 등장했다. 사진 역사의 기에 이미지 합성방식은 사진인화과정에서 리 사용되었는데, 이는 정교한 이미지를 얻기 해 여러 번의 노출작업이 필요했기 때문이다. 사진을 한 고기능의 인화재료가 개발되어 이미지 합성기법이 사 진인화에 필요하지 않게 된 후에도 이미지 합성은 많은 작가들에 의해 시도되었으며 새롭게 등장한 화를 한 시각 효과를 표 하기 한 기법이 되었다. 특히 픽토리얼리즘 작가들은 사진을 통해 상징 인 모티 를 표 하고자 하 다. 카메라를 통해 상을 정확한 기록하는 것보다 다양한 유제와 즈를 사용하고 특수 효과를 이용하여 상을 회화 요소와 문학 의미를 담은 새로운 이미지로 재창조하려는 시도에 주력했다. 특히 의도 으로 흐려진 연 , 합성사진, 인화과정에 서의 극단 인 수정 등이 화 되었다. Ⅲ. 다다이즘과 포토몽타주 3.1 다다이즘의 등장 1910년을 후로 사진은 회화주의를 벗어나기 시작 하 다. 유럽의 사진작가들은 사진의 기계 묘사를 벗 어나는 것에서 술 미를 추구하 고, 세계 이 발 생하자 술의 사회 역할에 한 성찰과 함께 실 한국콘텐츠학회논문지 '13 Vol. 13 No. 7114 이고 사회 인 근을 시도하 다. 특히 사진을 다른 술장르와 연계하려는 시도가 유럽 각국의 실에 따 라 다른 경향을 보이며 나타났다. 미국의 사진작가들은 사진의 기계 특성을 극 화 하여 이미지의 경과 후경에 모두 을 맞추고 디테 일하게 묘사하여 원래 상과는 다르게 보이는 이미지 로 인간의 감성을 표 하고자 했다. 미국의 형식주의 사진은 사진만의 순수한 역을 모색하고 자율성을 확 보하고자 한 에서 모더니즘 술의 시작으로 분류되 는데, 모더니즘은 사진이라는 매체의 순수성을 확보하 고, 철 한 형식주의와 제도 완비를 실행했으며, 술 가라는 주제를 확립한다는 특징을 가진다[4]. 서유럽에서는 통의 해체하고 거부하는 ‘다다이즘 (dadaism)’이 일어났다. 다다이즘은 1915년부터 1924년 에 걸쳐 유럽과 미국에서 일어난 반문명, 반 통, 허무 주의 인 술운동이다. 1916년 스 스 취리히에서 시 작해서 독일을 거쳐 부 유럽으로 퍼져 나갔으며, 1920년과 1923년 사이 랑스 리에서 성기를 맞이 했다. 이 운동에 참여한 여러 사람들이 '다다(dada)'라 는 이름을 갖게 된 이유로 리 알려진 설에 따르면, 1916년 취리히에 후고 발(Huge Ball)이 운 하는 볼테 르 카바 (카페)에서 장 아르 , 리하르트 휠젠베크, 트 리스탄 차라, 마르셀 장코, 에미 헤닝스를 비롯한 은 술가와 반 주의자들이 모임을 가지곤 했는데 한번 은 랑스어-독일어 사 에 끼워져 있던 종이 자르는 칼이 우연히 'dada'라는 단어를 가리키고 있어 모임에 참석한 사람들은 이 단어가 정통주의 미학에 반기를 든 자신들의 술활동과 반 운동을 가장 하게 표 하고 있다고 생각하여 이를 채택했다고 한다. 다다라는 말은 장난감 말에 한 유아기 언어라고 하는데, 이것은 특정한 것이 아닌 모든 것들을 의미할 수 있다[5]. 다다는 서구의 술과 사상에 한 무정부주의 인 반항심을 기반으로 하는 작가들의 태도 다. 그 원인은 세계 1차 에 한 강한 자성과 분노 비 의식이 었다. ‘다다이스트(dadaist)’로 일컬어지는 이들 작가들 은 기성의 술, 권 , 자본주의 가치, 제도, 사상을 부정하고 개인의 원 인 욕구를 시했다. 베를린 다다이스트들은 세계 1차 이후의 사회 인 혼란 속에서 선과 부정에 해 냉소 이고 비 이었으 며 개인의 권리를 시하는 무정부주의 인 성향을 보 다. 이들은 도발 이고 격 인 상상력과 언어를 추 구하여 의 시선을 사로잡았으며 큰 사회 반향을 일으켰다. 다다이즘 술가들은 립국인 스 스를 심으로 활동하 으며 다다이즘의 특징은 [표 1]과 같다. 표 1. 다다이즘의 특징 다다는 양식이 아니라 술에 한 하나의 태도 1 매체로서의 예술장르를 해체하고 융합 시도 2 기술적복제와 패러디를 통해 예술작품의 Aura 해체시도 3 주체로서 예술가의 위치 부정 4 일상과 인간의 원초적 욕구 등 다양한 주제 창작 모색 5 예술의 도식화 거부하며 사회적 접근 추구 6 기성의 모든 사회적·도덕적 속박에서 정신 해방 추구 7 개인의 진정한 근원적 욕구에 충실 8 “예술은 죽었다”는 선언 ‘반(反) 예술’성 지향 9 자본주의사회와 부르주아 예술의 파괴 지향 10 무정부주의적이며 허무주의적인 경향 11 조형 예술, 문학, 음악, 연극 등의 영역 포괄 12 상품과 예술작품 사이의 경계 파괴 3.2 다다이즘과 오브제 다다이즘이 활용한 오 제는 술과 계가 없는 물 건이나 한 부분을 본래의 일상 인 용도에서 낯선 곳으 로 옮겨 놓고 보는 사람에게 잠재된 욕망과 상상을 불 러일으키는 상징 기능의 물체나 의미를 말한다. 이러 한 오 제의 개념은 실주의의 조형 역과 사상 에 커다란 변화를 가져왔으며 회화도 조각도 아닌 새로 운 조형의 개념을 탄생시켰다. 실제 사물을 화면에 부 착시키는 피에 콜 (papier coll) 기법은 피카소의 ‘등 나무 의자가 있는 정물’에 등장한다. 피카소는 몬, 오 이, 유리잔, 이 , 신문 등이 나오는 이 정물화에 등나 무 의자 무늬가 인쇄된 천 조각을 붙인다. 손으로 그려 지거나 만들어지지 않는 미술작품이 등장한 것이 서양 다다이즘과 포토몽타주에 대한 고찰 115 미술사에 최 로 등장하는 인 오 제이다. 손으 로 그리지 않고 주 의 사물들을 임의로 선택해서 화면 에 부착시켜 작품을 만든다는 이 생각은 그 뒤의 미래 주의, 다다 등에 지속 인 향을 미친다. 그림 5. Still Life with Chair-Caning, 1912 (Pablo Picasso) 피카소의 작품 ‘등나무 의자가 있는 정물’은 등나무 의자 이미지를 복사한 유포를 캔버스에 콜라주한 최 의 회화작품이다. 통 인 회화의 표 의 역을 확장 하여 화폭에 재 의 상을 유화물감으로 그리지 않고 복사해서 부착한 것이다. 오 제(objet)는 본래 물건, 물체, 객체 등의 의미와 이의를 제기하다 등의 뜻을 가진 지닌 랑스어이나, 실주의에서는 이것을 용, 독특한 표 개념을 부 여하여 구체 인 술의 방법으로 삼았다. 실주의는 오 제를 도입, 이를 조각과 등한 치에 올려놓았으며 이에 조각은 오 제를 기 로 하여 스스로 새롭게 규정하지 않을 수 없게 되었다. 에 도 오 제의 애호가는 있었지만 그것은 골통품이나 유 물에 국한된 것이었지만 실주의자들은 처음엔 풍 자 인 목 을 추구하다가 그들은 순수한 상상의 산물 과 비시켜 일상 인 오 제의 효용성에, 그리고 술 오 제의 가치에 의문을 제기하게 된다[6]. 술에 있어서 오 제의 특징은 사물을 일상 인 의미에서 떼 어놓는 것으로 피카소, 라크, 뒤샹 등의 작가들은 일 상 인 사물을 보편 인 이미지나 기능에서 벗어나는 낯선 곳에 배치함으로서 다른 사물들과 충돌, 결합시키 면서 새로운 의미를 창조하 다. 랑스 화가이며 다다이즘의 심 인물로 평가받는 마르셀뒤샹 (Henri-Robert-Marcel Duchamp)은 술과 사회의 통 가치를 부정하고 자유를 추구하 다. 특히 술작 품을 만드는 창조 과정이 시하고 작품의 형태나 재 료의 선택에서 격 인 작품을 선보 다. 뒤샹은 기 존의 통과 고정 술 념에 도 하 으며 술의 상을 격 으로 선택하여 기존 작가들이 묘사하지 않은 상에 심을 가지고 미술이 반드시 존재하기 해 창조되어야 하는지에 해 의문을 제기하 다. 특히 뒤샹의 디메이드로 인해 술가의 선택이 작품에 더 해져 오 제를 일반 리얼리티에서 벗어나게 하는 작 품개념의 명 변화를 가져온다[7]. 그림 6. Fountain, 1917 (Henri-Robert-Marcel Duchamp) 특히 뒤샹의 ‘샘(fountain)’이라는 디메이드 오 제 로서 도기로 만든 소변기(기성품)에 서명을 하여 출품 하고 기존의 일상 물건이 제목을 달아 으로써 그 근본의미가 변하는 것을 목표로 했는데, 이 변기가 화 랑에 놓임으로써 소변기 본래의 기능은 제거되고 시 공간에서 미 상으로서 새로운 오 제가 된다는 개 념의 변화를 보여주며, 그러한 작업 자체가 미술 에서 하나의 요한 주제가 된다는 것을 보여주었다. 한국콘텐츠학회논문지 '13 Vol. 13 No. 7116 표 2. 다다이즘의 이념과 전략 다다의 이념과 략 1 부르주아 예술의 예술적 개념과 장르를 부정 2 예술은 예술가의 독창적이고 창의적인 창조물이라는전통적 개념을 부정 3 ‘기성품(Ready-Made)를 오브제로 미학적 공격 4 ‘우연성’에 대한 의존 (자연적, 우연적인 효과를 이용) 5 유기적 통일성, 창조성, 독창성 등 예술의 구성요소 파괴 6 합리적인 가치기준을 의도적으로 무시하는 ‘무의미성’ 7 ‘무의미성’을 통한 충격 효과 의도 8 전통적 관습이나 규범에 대한 자성을 유도 9 ‘동시성’ : 서로 다른 경험을 동시에 주는 것을 시도 10 독창성과 창조성 무시 11 삶의 혼돈과 무질서한 동시성에 주목하는 신념에 기반 12 상품과 예술작품 사이의 경계 파괴 13 미적 대상이 아닌 현실을 단편화하는 읽히기 위한 이미지 14 작품을 미적 대상이 아닌 이미지 전달의 수단으로 활용 15 순수예술과 대중문화의 경계 붕괴 시도 16 전통적 예술의 순수성과 작가의 자율성을 파괴하는 시도 미술에서의 오 제는 모든 미 상 즉 작품의 소재가 될 수 있는 것을 말한다. 오 제(objet)는 물건 이나 물체 등의 의미와 이의를 제기하다 등의 뜻을 가 진 지닌 랑스어이다. 특히 술과 련 없는 물건, 사 물의 일부분을 일상 념과 용도에서 분리하여 보는 사람의 잠재된 욕망과 환상을 유발하는 상징 기능의 물체를 의미한다. 일반 으로 미술의 ‘주제’와 조 인 의미로 사용되었으며 오 제의 개념이 환 을 맞은 것은 다다이즘과 실주의에 오 제가 작품으로 등 장한 이후이다. 뒤샹의 오 제 개념에 의해 특정 사물 을 술의 소재로 차용된 물체는 일상 인 맥락의 의미 를 이탈하여 새로운 의미로 탄생하는 것이다. Ⅳ. 오브제로서의 이미지와 포토몽타주 포토몽타주 작업은 1920년 베를린 다다이스트들과 러시아 구성주의자들에 의해 새롭게 개되었다. 의 의 포토몽타주는 화편집의 '몽타주(montage)'라는 용어를 차용하지만, 본질 으로 다른 요소의 이미지들 이 혼성모방, 조합되어 새로운 의미를 갖는 합성이미지 를 만드는 작업으로서 포토콜라주(photo collage)의 개 념과 크게 다르지 않다. 콜라주는 회화기법의 한 종류로 1912년 블로 피카소와 조르주 라크 등이 화 폭 에 여러 가지 이미지를 붙 던 피에콜 에서 시 작되었고, 제 1차 세계 후 다다이즘을 통해 콜라주 개념이 확 되어 제2차 세계 후 아상블라주 (assemblage)까지 이어지게 되었다. 피카소나 라크 가 구사한 피에콜 는 화면의 미 구성을 한 조형 상의 수단이었으나, 다다이즘의 콜라주는 조합하는 물 체에 표 의 심을 두었다. 막스 에른스트(Max Ernst) 는 옛 이야기나 과학 서 의 삽화를 오려 붙이는 등 조 합된 사진 이미지를 사용한 최 의 미술가이다. 그는 서로 다른 리얼리티를 하나의 화면에 조합하는 것으로 콜라주 기법을 정의하 으며, 그가 작품제작에 사용했 던 콜라주나 로타주는 실주의의 표 인 데포 르마시옹이 되었다. 그림 7. Ti La Femme 100 Tetes, 1929 (Max Ernst) 실주의의 콜라주는 기성품에 손질을 가하지 않 고, 엉뚱한 물체끼리 조합시킴으로써 별개의 새로 운 실을 만들어 비유 , 연상 , 상징 인 효과를 노 렸다. 한편 1960년 의 팝 아트는 매체의 이미지를 차용하여 작품 속에 조합하는 콜라주 기법을 이용하 다. 술사 으로 팝아트는 실의 물체를 차용함으로 서 통 인 미술 재 의 개념을 근본 으로 변화시 킨 에서 의미가 있다[8]. 포토몽타주는 정치 포토몽타주와 실주의 포 토몽타주의 두 가지 유형으로 발 하 다. 다다이즘과 포토몽타주에 대한 고찰 117 매체의 향력이 증 하는 시기의 포토몽타주는 신 인 미술기법이었으며 시 고뇌를 표출하는 상징 구성 원리 다. 특히 사진과 포토몽타주는 새로 운 경험들과 인식을 묘사할 수 있도록 해 주는 최신의 매체로 여겨졌다. 다다이스트 작가들의 포토몽타주는 새로운 조형 구성과 격 인 형태를 통해 구 되었 으며 입체 의 미학 시도나 다다 이 의 포토몽타주 와는 거리가 먼 것이었다. 사진이나 사진 원 을 합성하여 풍경 사진에 인물을 조합하거나 다른 사진을 배경으로 하여 인화하는 기법 은 19세기에 일반 으로 사용되었으며 사진의 역사 기에 사진제작과정의 결 을 보완하기 해 사용되었 다. 한 번의 노출을 통해 섬세한 이미지를 한꺼번에 얻 는 것이 거의 불가능했기 때문이다. 모든 사진가들이 이러한 방법들을 정당한 것으로 간주하지는 않았다. 입 체주의자나 미래주의자들의 콜라주에서도 사진을 사용 한 술 시도가 존재하 으나 다다이스트들에게 사 진을 합성하는 것, 혹은 사진의 단편을 합성하는 것은 그림의 기본 인 구성 방법이 되었다. 베를린 다다이스트들은 픽토리얼리즘의 조합사진을 새로운 술 형식으로 발 시켰다. 서로 다른 객체의 사진을 단하고 작품의 체 는 일부분을 콜라주 방 식으로 조합하여 새로운 이미지2를 창조했다. 특히 그 들은 포토몽타주를 통 사고방식과 가치체계를 변 화시키는 정치 수단으로 활용하고자 하 다. 이는 사 진을 기존의 통과 습을 상징하는 매개로 규정하고 새로운 시각 실험을 시도한 것이다. 회화주의 사진작 가들과 베를린 다다이스트들이 사진을 인식하는 에 있어서 유사한 부분이 존재하는데 그것은 사진이 가 지고 있는 사실 인 재 능력을 활용한 것이다. 베를 린 다다이스트들은 화면 체를 구성하는 기본 재료로 사진의 리얼리즘을 이용하 고, 회화주의 사진작가들 의 작업은 기존의 사진이미지를 해체하고 새로운 결합 을 시도하여 세상의 질서를 해체시키려는 목 을 가지 고 있었다[9]. 다다 이 에 사진을 이용해서 만든 포토몽타주는 사 2. 다다이스들의 타이포그래 실험과 유사하며, 입체 의 콜라주 실험 과 취리히 다다이스트인 아르 의 콜라주와도 계를 맺고 있다. 진을 조합하여 회화 인 표 과 회화의 문학성을 시 하 지만 다다이스트들의 포토몽타주는 새로운 시각 표 을 통한 메시지 달을 시했다는 에서 차이가 있다. 다다이스트들의 포토몽타주는 기존의 술개념 을 괴하고, 새로운 술형식을 창조하려는 의도에서 시작되었던 것이다. 포토몽타주는 베를린 다다이스트 들에 의해 주도된 정치 포토몽타주와 무의식과 내면 의 세계를 추구하는 실주의 포토몽타주의 두 가 지 성향으로 발 하 다. 다다이스트들의 사진을 활용한 조형상의 특징과 작 업방식은 큐비즘의 콜라주와 19세기 포토몽타주와 유 사했지만, 그 결과에 있어서는 반 조형 , 반 미학 이 라는 에서 이 의 통과는 척 에 있었다[10]. 베를린 다다이스트들은 디메이드(ready-made)3 이미지를 이용해 포토몽타주를 제작했다. 신문과 잡지 에서 오려낸 조각들을 붙이고 자를 삽입하고 드로잉 을 첨가해 무질서하고 폭발 인 이미지, 실재의 자극 인 단편들을 만들어냈다. 비슷한 시기에 러시아 구성주 의자들도 사진을 활용하는 포토몽타주의 가치를 인정 했다. 다다의 포토몽타주는 콜라주와 차별 인 요소가 있었으나 넓은 의미에서 콜라주의 역에 속한 것이었 다. 포토몽타주라는 명칭은 콜라주와의 차이를 명백히 하기 해 사용되었으며 막스 에른스트는 그의 작품에 포토몽타주라는 명칭을 붙이지 않고 콜라주라고 했다. 다다는 포토몽타주 기법 안에 내재되어 있는 다른 잠재성에 주목하 다. 1920년 베를린 다다의 존 하트 필드(John Heartfield), 한나 회흐( Hannah Hoch), 게오 르그 그로츠(George grosz), 라울 하우스만(Raoul Hausmann) 등은 표 인 포토몽타주 작가들로서 당 시 독일의 상황과 정치를 비 하는 메시지를 담기 해 신문에서 잘라낸 이미지와 기사 등을 조합하여 콜라주 를 만들었다. 존 하트필드는 정치 포토몽타주를 통해 반나치, 반부르주아 등 실비 인 모티 (motif)를 가지고 사회의 혼란과 무질서한 독일을 폭로하는 메시 지와 함께 술 가능성을 보여주었으며 이미지의 모 3. 큐비즘(입체 ) 시 에 마르셀 뒤샹이 변기에 ‘ 디메이드’란 제목을 붙여 람회에 출품하여 일반화된 명칭으로 뒤샹은 “ 디메이드(기 성품)을 낯선 곳에 옮겨놓으면 본래의 목 성을 상실하고 단순히 사 물 그 자체의 무의미만이 남게 된다” 고 주장하 다. 한국콘텐츠학회논문지 '13 Vol. 13 No. 7118 호함을 극복하기 하여 사진과 활자를 결합하여 자신 의 메시지를 명확하게 달하고자 하 다. 특히 다양하 고 서로 다른 이미지를 자르고 조합하는 작업을 통해 이미지를 왜곡하고 과장하여 시각 으로 강렬한 이미 지를 창조하 다. 그림 8. Hurrah, The Butter Is All Gone, 1935 (John Heartfield) 1923년부터 1930년 에 포토몽타주는 새로운 인쇄기 술과 결합하여 단순하면서도 담하고 강렬한 디자인 으로 상업출 물과 정치선 의 역으로 속히 확장 되어, 포스터, 책 표지, 우편엽서, 잡지, 책 삽화, 시용 설치물에 활용되었다. 그러나 포토몽타주는 이질 인 요소로 구성된 매체라는 에서 형식주의라는 비난을 받았다[11]. 사진과 텍스트, 이미지와 컬러, 이미지와 드로잉 등 다양한 이질 요소를 조합하여 기존의 사진과 이미지 의 새로운 결합을 통한 다양한 작업이 포토몽타주기법 을 통해 이루어졌으며 다다이즘과 실주의의 작업 은 궁극 으로 매체의 특성을 차용하여 새로운 술의 문맥을 구축하 다. 차용, 혼성모방, 합성 등을 통한 표 기법은 술과 문화 속에서 사진과 텍스트, 이미지와 컬러, 이미지와 드로잉 등 다양한 이질 요 소를 조합하는 다양한 양상의 이미지 언어로 나타나고 있다. Ⅴ. 결론 많은 작가들은 아날로그 시 와 비교할 수 없이 다양하게 존재하는 이미지를 차용하여 사진과 회화 작 업을 하고 있다. 이미 존재하는 이미지는 본래의 상태 에서 벗어나 인공 으로 가공되어 재구성되고 있으며 이 배열과 구성은 작가의 서사와 재 의 맥락에서 새로 운 의미를 보여 다. 이는 이미지들의 차용과 조합으로 부터 생되어 나오는 의미의 생성과정의 특성이다. 커뮤니 이션의 측면에서 포토몽타주는 조형 구 성을 통해 상황과 내용을 달하는 방법 양상이 사진 과 비교할 수 없을 만큼 다양하며 장감, 실재감, 자연 감, 선명성이 있는 이미지 언어로서 표 의 역을 확 장하 다. 롤랑 바르트(Roland Barthes)는 재 은 보는 이가 상을 코드화 시키는 과정에서 이미 성립한다고 하 다. ‘재 은 리얼(real), 비슷함, 복사(copy)라는 개 념이 없이도 주체( 자, 독자, 람자)가 시선을 던지는 한 여 히 남아 있으며, 이는 재 에 있어서 필수 인 것은 유사성이 아니라, 보는 이가 상을 코드화 시키 는 과정 속에 이미 재 이 성립함을 말한다[12].’ 포토몽타주의 재 은 지각의 결과물이 아닌 하나의 기호로 인식함을 뜻하며 유사(類似)의 원리가 아닌 상 사(相似)의 원리로 구조 속에서 다른 기호들과의 계 를 통해서 존재하며, 포스트모더니즘 기반의 해체주의 작업의 목표는 통 술의 미메시스 재 에 한 해체와 다의 인 해석의 가능성을 추구하는 술 문 맥인 것이다. 술의 창조와 신은 술장르의 특성과 데포르마시옹의 문맥에 의해 만들어진다. 하나의 술 사조와 사상 기반은 언제나 변화하며 다양한 방법 양상으로 시 와 문화를 변하여 왔다. 요한 것은 술사조의 개별화와 편화를 경계하고 술의 궁극 인 본질을 체 으로 보는 안목이 더 큰 신과 창 의성으로 이어지는 것이다. 디지털 시 의 술은 개별화된 것들을 통합하고 목 을 다시 수단으로 활용할 수 있는 총체 사고를 가 진 21세기형 리콜뢰르(bricoleur)의 작업방식이 요구 되고 있다. 본 연구에서는 상을 구성하는 이미지 언어의 기능 다다이즘과 포토몽타주에 대한 고찰 119 인 측면에서 다다이즘과 포토몽타주를 고찰하 으며 디지털 시 의 포토몽타주 기법을 활용하는 창의 이 고 미학 인 콘텐츠 구 에 한 연구는 향후 과제로 남아있다. 참 고 문 헌 [1] 돈 애즈, 이윤희, “포토몽타주”, 시공사, p.7, 2003. [2] 장 뤽 다발, 사진 술의 역사, 미진사, p.66, 1991. 이찬훈, “인문학 상상력과 디지털 사진 술의 활용 가능성 연구”, 大同哲學, Vol.40, 2007재인용. [3] 김우룡, 사진과 텍스트, 빛, p.110, 2006. / 이찬 훈, “인문학 상상력과 디지털 사진 술의 활용 가능성 연구”, 大同哲學, Vol.40, 2007재인용. [4] http://blog.daum.net/ioiooioi85/12729747 [5] http://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki [6] http://blog.daum.net/chosaboo/5841583 [7] 정해남, 마르셀 뒤샹의 반 술 개념에 한 연구, 호남 학교 석사논문집, 2009. [8] 정남 , 現代美術에 있어서 꼴라쥬의 變貌에 한 硏究, 홍익 학교 석사논문집, 1990. [9] http://jklim72.blog.me/140051572280 [10] http://www.photoart.co.kr/community [11] 이토우 도시하루, “사진과 회화”, 사진과 회화, 1994, p.49. fig2. / 이찬훈, “인문학 상상력과 디 지털 사진 술의 활용 가능성 연구”, 大同哲學, Vol.40, 2007재인용. [12] 문수성, 미술에 있어서 사진이미지 차용이 지닌 시뮬라크르의 다면성 연구, 인하 학교 석 사논문집, p.13, 2011. [13] http://angran.tistory.com/ 저 자 소 개 윤 영 범(Young-Beom Yoon) 정회원 ▪2002년 9월 ～ 재 : 경남정보 학교 방송 상과 교수 < 심분야> : 상, 문화 콘텐츠 김 성 현(Sung-Hyun Kim) 정회원 ▪2000년 3월 ～ 2003년 8월 : 동 서 학교 디자인학부 조교수 ▪2003년 9월 ～ 재 : 건국 학교 산업디자인학부 교수 < 심분야> : 제품디자인 개발, 산업디자인, 컴퓨터아트 << /ASCII85EncodePages false /AllowTransparency false /AutoPositionEPSFiles true /AutoRotatePages /All /Binding /Left /CalGrayProfile (Dot Gain 20%) /CalRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1) /CalCMYKProfile (U.S. Web Coated \050SWOP\051 v2) /sRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1) /CannotEmbedFontPolicy /Warning /CompatibilityLevel 1.4 /CompressObjects /Tags /CompressPages true /ConvertImagesToIndexed true /PassThroughJPEGImages true /CreateJDFFile false /CreateJobTicket false /DefaultRenderingIntent /Default /DetectBlends true /DetectCurves 0.0000 /ColorConversionStrategy /LeaveColorUnchanged /DoThumbnails false /EmbedAllFonts true /EmbedOpenType false /ParseICCProfilesInComments true /EmbedJobOptions true /DSCReportingLevel 0 /EmitDSCWarnings false 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work_zgp3uxbaungevjyucwh7pbduoy	----	Digital Art History for Beginners: The Spreadsheet The original post can be found on Nancy Ross’s site Experiments in Art History. Digital art history is a sub-field within digital humanities (#dh). I’ve read and listened to presentations about big, well-funded digital art history projects at conferences, but I’ve been interested in teaching some of the basics of digital art history in my upper-division classes using free tools. In a previous class, I did a social networking data visualization project with my students, but I had to get some help from a visual technologies student to actually create the visualization. I am interested in using simpler tools that I can use on my own. I recently completed a small digital art history project in my Twentieth Century Art class and would like to share what we did and the (relatively simple) steps we took to get there. I was chatting to another art history professor about beginning my Twentieth Century Art class this semester and she suggested doing something with the Armory Show of 1913. I liked that idea and went about looking for resources online, particularly resources that discussed the gender and the Armory Show. I found almost nothing on gender except for two blog posts (on women as artists and women as patrons), but I did find this list of artists, titles, media, and sale prices from the exhibition catalog. I started looking through the list and realized that there was enough primary source material to do something interesting. Nancy Ross February 21, 2015 Tool http://experiementsinarthistory.blogspot.com/ http://jitp.commons.gc.cuny.edu/teaching-twentieth-century-art-history-with-gender-and-data-visualizations/ http://armory.nyhistory.org/about/ http://broadstrokes.org/2013/03/27/women-and-the-1913-armory-show-part-2-women-artists/ http://broadstrokes.org/2013/03/07/women-and-the-1913-armory-show-part-1-women-patrons/ http://armory.nyhistory.org/armory-show-1913-complete-list/ http://arthistoryteachingresources.org/authors/nancy-ross/ http://arthistoryteachingresources.org/category/tool/ I realize that the following instructions are simple, but I also think that art historians are not generally accustomed to looking at art history information in this way. Digital art history allows us to ask and answer different kinds of questions and I believe that those questions are worth addressing. In my classes, I want students to ask and answer lots of different kinds of art history questions, and I want to demonstrate that there are a variety of ways to find answers. Step 1: Find information and organize it in a spreadsheet [click to enlarge] I divided up the artists and assigned students to enter different chunks of the list into a spreadsheet in Google Docs. We added a column for gender. There are 1187 lines of data in the spreadsheet, with each line representing one work of art that appeared in the catalog for the Armory Show. Step 2: Look through your data and ask some questions As a class, we brainstormed a bunch of questions, some of which I’ve reproduced below. I’ve also added a few. How many women artists participated in the Armory Show? How does the number of women compare with the number of men? What percentage of works of art were requested vs submitted by the artist? How do the request vs submitted works of art break down by gender? Who sold their art for the most/least money? What was the role of gender in sale prices? What were the dominant media in the show? Step 3: Answer some of your questions by manipulating/rearranging the data http://arthistoryteachingresources.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/sheet.png https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1MkEf0UiGfq58TVZMdIXJlIRFOafuflChJ5LJr5u39xI/pubhtml?gid=0&single=true https://www.pinterest.com/pin/335377503475966031/ [click to enlarge] One of the easiest ways to manipulate the data is to sort the entries, meaning that you will re-arrange the lines of data by putting the entries into alpha-numeric order or reverse alpha-numeric order. I can find out which work of art sold for the most money if I sort the “Sale Price” column in reverse alpha-numeric order. To do this, I click on the column letter (“F”) above “Sale Price,” to select the column. I then right click on the column letter, and then select “Sort Sheet Z-A” from the menu that appears. Once sorted, I can see that the highest priced work of art was Paul Cezanne’s The Old Woman and the Rosary, which sold for $48,600. This will only work if you make sure that there are only numbers in the “Sale Price” column. Any other notes need to be in a different column, or the prices will not sort in a meaningful way. Step 4: Make a graph Now that I’ve collected, questioned, and organized data, I’m ready to visualize the data by making a graph. I’m interested in the sale prices for works of art by women. I sort the “Gender” column alphabetically and then highlight and copy all of the data on women. http://arthistoryteachingresources.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Screenshot-2015-02-19-at-5.17.59-PM.png http://arthistoryteachingresources.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Screenshot-2015-02-19-at-6.50.41-PM.png I want to keep this separate information separate, and so I click on the plus sign in the lower left corner, which adds another table to my spreadsheet. I can use the tabs at the bottom of the window to toggle between the tables. In this new table, I paste the data on women and then delete the extra columns so that only Artist and Sale Price remain. I delete multiple works by the same artist leaving only their highest priced work of art. I sort the prices from lowest to highest and then highlight both columns and click on the “Insert Chart” button in the toolbar. You can play around with the chart tools to get the chart you want and then customize it. If you need further instructions, YouTube is full of short video tutorials that will show you what to do if you need more help, like this one. [click to enlarge] The resulting graph shows women’s prices from low to high. There isn’t enough room to put all 50 women’s names on the bottom, but it is easy to see that the women’s prices are relatively low, with one exceptional outlier (Mary Cassatt). Step 5: Make a more complicated graph http://arthistoryteachingresources.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Screenshot-2015-02-19-at-6.59.45-PM.png https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mufDC-IBk3g http://arthistoryteachingresources.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Screenshot-2015-02-19-at-7.06.59-PM.png [click to enlarge] Now I want to understand how women’s prices compare to men’s prices. I want to create another graph that shows both so that I can see the differences at a glance. I create a new table by clicking on the plus sign and then copy and paste the data from the original sheet. I delete the extra columns, leaving Artist, Gender, and Price. I delete multiple works by the same artist leaving only their highest priced work of art. [click to enlarge] I add a new column and rename Gender so that I now have a column titled Men and another titled Women. For women’s pieces, I place the sale price in the women’s column and a zero in the men’s column. For men, I place the sale price in the men’s column and a zero in the women’s column. I’ve just created a second series that will allow the men’s and women’s prices to be represented in different colors. Cezanne, with his outlier high price, makes it difficult to see the lower prices, so I changed the max value to $20,000. You can now see Mary Cassatt’s high price in relation men’s high prices. Although the artists’ names are missing, you can easily see that the women’s prices were at the low end, while men’s work commanded the highest prices. Part of digital art history is converting elements of art history into numbers. These can be prices, as I demonstrated here, but the numbers can also come from counting similar kinds of objects, people, words, dates, or things. In my class, I assigned the data entry for homework, which took students a week to complete. Then we spent a little time in each http://arthistoryteachingresources.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Screenshot-2015-02-19-at-7.20.10-PM.png http://arthistoryteachingresources.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Screenshot-2015-02-19-at-7.15.43-PM.png class during the following week to talk about observations and then turn those observations into questions. The next week, I got students to attempt graphs and in the following week we worked on improving those graphs. Once we had more polished graphs and were more comfortable with sorting, we those tools to better understand the art market in 1913. Impressionist and Post-Impressionist paintings commanded the highest prices. Their work had been growing in favor in America. There were also many younger artists who were involved with the Armory Show who would later become famous. Pablo Picasso and Constantin Brancusi’s both sold works for $1350. Fernand Leger, an artist whose work is a staple of many European collections today, only managed a high price of $216. Examining the art market in American in 1913 tells us about how American critics and collectors viewed and valued European and American art at that time and provides insights on the role of gender in that market, both valuable learning outcomes for my students. Nancy Ross is an Assistant Professor at Dixie State University. She previously contributed a post on THATCamp. LEAVE A REPLY Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked * Previous Post Why Participation? Facilitating Student Engagement in Art History Surveys Next Post CAA Wrap Up: What Have You Done for Art History Lately? http://arthistoryteachingresources.org/2014/03/ahtr-reports-back-from-thatcamp-caa/ http://arthistoryteachingresources.org/2015/02/participation/ http://arthistoryteachingresources.org/2015/03/caa-wrap-up-what-have-you-done-for-art-history-lately/ ArtHistoryTeachingResources.org is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License. AHTR is grateful for funding from the Samuel H. Kress Foundation and the CUNY Graduate Center. Comment Name * Email * Website Post Comment Notify me of follow-up comments by email. Notify me of new posts by email. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ 
work_zokasallzza2dogjika3fj4f3u	----	Hedonic Pricing on the Fine Art Market information Article Hedonic Pricing on the Fine Art Market Anna Zhukova 1, Valeriya Lakshina 2,* and Liudmila Leonova 2 1 ASE EC JSC, Nizhny Novgorod 603006, Russia; vodopianovaana@yandex.ru 2 National Research University Higher School of Economics, Nizhny Novgorod 603155, Russia; lleonova@hse.ru * Correspondence: vlakshina@hse.ru Received: 14 April 2020; Accepted: 1 May 2020; Published: 4 May 2020 ���������� ������� Abstract: In conditions of the stock market instability the art assets could be considered as an attractive investment. The fine art market is very heterogeneous which is featured by uniqueness of the goods, specific costs and risks, various peculiarities of functioning, different effects and, hence, needs special treatment. However, due to the diversity of the fine art market’s goods and the absence of the systematic information about the sales, researchers do not come to the same opinion about the merits of the art assets conducting studies on single segments of the market. We make an attempt to investigate attractiveness of the fine art market for investors. Extensive data was collected to obtain a complete pattern of the market analyzing it within different segments. We use the Heckman model in order to estimate the art asset return and find out the most influential factors of art price dynamics. Based on the estimates obtained we construct monthly art price index and compare it with S&P500 benchmark. Keywords: investment decisions; art market; art asset return; hedonic art price index 1. Introduction Traditionally, the fine art market is supported by the interest from collectors, but the last 10 years’ buyers pay more attention to the profit to be obtained from investing in the art. Nowadays investing in the fine art is an alternative to the classical instruments of investment, especially, when the stock market falls (like in 2008). Thus, there is a certain class of the art market investors and funds shapes. Over the last ten years not only the structure of the art market participants has been changed, we can also observe the noticeable changes in taste preferences which cause new tendencies on the market. First of all, it is necessary to highlight the increase of sales on the fine art market. The world auction’s revenue has increased more than three times from $4.15 billion in 2005 to $15.2 billion in 2014. Such indicators as the number of million dollars lots and bought-in rate also indicate the positive trends on the market: in 2013 the number of million dollars sales achieved 1519 lots compared to 487 lots in 2005; the bought-in rate keeps the level of 30–35%. From the geographic point of view China has displaced the USA from the leader ’s position despite the fact that the USA along with the UK have been predominating on the global fine art market for more than 50 years. The largest art sector is the modern art: it takes more than a half of the market in terms of revenue generated by public sales. However, over the last ten years the share of the postwar art has grown up from 15% to 26% due to the growth of popularity and prices for the art works in this sector. The postwar and contemporary art sectors should be considered as the most speculative ones, the price volatility attributed to these segments is the highest on the market according to the Artprice index (www.artprice.com). Impressionists’ works retire from the turnover steadily as well as old masters’ works which attracted attention last time in 2009 when auctions had reduced the supply of the contemporary art due to the crisis. As for the form of art works, the major part of lots sold are paintings. Besides, a significant amount of drawings sales is Information 2020, 11, 252; doi:10.3390/info11050252 www.mdpi.com/journal/information http://www.mdpi.com/journal/information http://www.mdpi.com https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1447-9377 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9583-8310 http://www.mdpi.com/2078-2489/11/5/252?type=check_update&version=1 www.artprice.com http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/info11050252 http://www.mdpi.com/journal/information Information 2020, 11, 252 2 of 12 observed. Prices for the drawings rise along with the growth of popularity of Chinese art. The leaders among auctions are Christie’s and Sotheby’s, but their shares have decreased in the last decade due to the entrance of Chinese auctions on the fine art market. According to the Artprice rating of artists based on the total revenue generated by public sales of each artist’s work since 2009 the leaders on the market are modern artists: P. Picasso, M. Rothko, A. Giacometti, A. Modigliani, F. Bacon, W. de Kooning, F. Leger and others. Pablo Picasso unalterably takes the first position on the market podium. Every year there are more and more Chinese among the most prosperous artists: Qi Baishi, Zhang Daqian, Xu Beihong, Fu Baoshi, Zao Wou-Ki, Li Keran and others. Almost all auctions, which operate on the fine art market, are “English” auctions. In an English auction the bidding starts at the minimum bid and then participants raise their bids. When the bidding stops, an item is knocked down at the hammer price. According to the game theory buyers will benefit if they raise the bid until the bid announced by the previous bidder. If the hammer price on an item is less than its reserve price which is set by the seller, the item goes unsold. The percentage of unsold items is called bought-in rate. Auctioneers and sellers keep the reserve price secret, and literature in this field still does not explain exactly such strategy. Some studies disclose reasons for such behavior [1,2], and others [3,4] provide evidence that it is not an optimal strategy [5]. The reserve price of items is considered to be a little bit less than their low auction’s estimation (about 70% of the low estimation). Among other researchers Ashenfelter and Graddy [6] proved this suggestion in 2011. The high and low estimations for each item are published in an auction’s presales catalogs. It is worth mentioning that both the theory and empirical studies confirm the rightfulness of these estimations. The auction house receives commissions from both the buyer and the seller. The buyer’s premium is 10-25% of the hammer price; it is one of the main instruments of competition between auction houses [7]. However, the buyer’s premium could be much smaller for the institutional investors. The seller’s commission varies from 5 to 10% of the sale price. This commission could be negotiable. The fine art market would be characterized by certain effects. The unsold item is called burned, and some auction houses do not permit owners to sell such item immediately after the unsuccessful auction due to the belief that the failure of unsold items causes the price decrease. Beggs and Graddy [8] argue that an unsold artwork loses 13 of its final price at re-selling. The effect of “masterpiece” implies that, as a rule, dealers recommend to buy one “masterpiece” for $100,000 than 10 art works for $10,000. However, this effect is doubtful, for example, Pesando [5] did not find any evidence supporting such opinion. There is also a hypothesis about an indirect impact of the stock market on the art market via the welfare of their players — the effect of “welfare” [9]. According to the anchoring effect, past prices or auctions estimations of the item could influence the buyer’s and seller’s perceptions of the real value of an item that is reflected in the sale and reserve prices respectively [10]. Several reasons maintain interest in the art market: acknowledgment of the social status by buying a luxury item like a painting, aesthetic pleasure, and acquisition of the potential investment asset. The self-value of artworks, the ability to give an aesthetic pleasure to the buyer as well as high transaction costs for acquisition and storage (auction’s commissions, transportation and storage costs, customs fee) along with the specific risks (theft, fire, forgery) are the factors which determine lower yield compared to securities. Some researchers hold this point of view revealing and explaining a lower return on the fine art market compared to the stock one [11,12]. On the other hand, another group of experts does not share this opinion and provide evidence of a relatively high art market return along with a moderate risk [13,14]. Obviously, empirical studies apply different methods of return assessing: some authors use direct price index construction [15], the second option is the hedonic method (HM) [11,13,16,17], someone prefers repeated sales method (RSM) [12,18–21]. However, the differences between the results presented in the studies are caused by original data rather than by differences between methods applied: even if researchers use the same time interval and the same methods but make estimation on different samples, inferences will vary because the art market is extremely heterogeneous. Thus this Information 2020, 11, 252 3 of 12 paper is aimed at conducting the analysis of art assets’ prices based on the most possible complete and comprehensive dataset on oil paintings as the representative fine art asset. We collect information about oil paintings presented in auctions 2005-2015, since before 2005 the data provided is not complete. There are 536660 observations in the sample. The following information for each observation in the sample was downloaded: information about the author (name, nationality, date of birth) and the auction (date, city, and lot number), individual characteristics of oil paintings (name, height, width, signature, exhibitions, references in literature), hammer price, low and high auction’s estimations. Along with mentioned characteristics we add other indicators such as sale in the capital, macroeconomic region, author ’s nationality, art sector and artist’s rating according to Artprice, which, to the best of our knowledge, were not analyzed in the corresponding literature. As an initial step toward understanding an overall situation on the art market we provide a detailed descriptive analysis identifying key trends on the market and demonstrating its structure. Further we estimate the hedonic art price index taking into account the problem of self-selection via Heckman selection model and compare it with S&P500 benchmark. The main contribution of the paper is defining factors of oil paintings prices on the sample covering almost all public fine art auctions around the world. We embed self-selection bias correction in the estimation procedure by applying Heckman model for the price equation and add some new regressors. The rest of the article is organized as follows: Section 2 describes the data and the methodology employed in the research, Section 3 contains empirical results, Section 4 discusses findings and concludes. 2. Materials and Methods 2.1. Data and Descriptive Analysis Data for the study has been collected from Artsalesindex.artinfo using MATLAB. Prices and auction’s estimations is adjusted for inflation based on CPI index. In the descriptive analysis we focus on median prices rather than on average ones due to the fact that median prices are more informative in the case of the fine art market: from time to time paintings are sold for record prices, which biases the average prices. The descriptive analysis demonstrates the significant heterogeneity of the market, even considering only oil paintings: there is distinguished a small layer of 1-5% of “masterpieces” sold for millions dollars and other artworks the price of which is about only $10,000–50,000. This fact is illustrated in the box graph –– Figure 1, which demonstrates a lot of outside values situated higher than upper adjacent value, especially, in 2012 – year characterized by price records on the fine art market. A half of paintings, situated between higher and lower hinges, was sold for about $1000–60,000; median log price is closer to the 25th percentile. The box graph also reveals a tendency to increase of the price scattering over time reflected in the length growth of boxes and whiskers. The heterogeneity of the art market is observed at the level of countries. According to the map (see Figure 2), the U.S.A. ($15,000 million) and the U.K ($5000 million) are leaders on the market; they accumulated the biggest revenue from the public auctions for the 11 years. Apart from the USA and the UK, France and Italy cross a threshold revenue $1000 million. Such observations do not comply with a market trend regarding an important role of China. However, as we consider only oil paintings, not typical art for the Chinese, their works are represented in the sample by a small number of lots. Artsalesindex.artinfo Information 2020, 11, 252 4 of 12 0 5 1 0 1 5 2 0 lo g p ri c e 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Figure 1. Box plot for the price logarithm. Figure 2. Map of auction’s revenue distribution among countries. The major part of the art market belongs to European artists: 422,988 of 536,660 observations are European artworks. American artists are represented in the sample by 70,631 paintings. The third place goes to Russian authors −17,649 observations, remaining 25,392 artworks are distributed among Australian, Asian, Arabs, Africans and Latin Americans artists. Figures 3 and 4 represent the bought-in rate and median/average price of paintings by the artist’s nationality. The demand for Americans paintings seems to be high enough as the bought-in rate attributed to their artworks is relatively low, the moderate median price indicates a possible affordability of their paintings on the market, the highest average price reflects a big price range for the American art; apparently, relatively low bought-in rates along with high median prices of Arabs, Asian and Latin American paintings could reveal a certain fashion for such art; according to the indicators, we also assume, that the market of European art be over-saturated, and Russian paintings be overestimated. Information 2020, 11, 252 5 of 12 Figure 3. Share of bought-in paintings by the artist’s nationality. Figure 4. Distribution of prices by the artist’s nationality. The structure of the fine art market has not changed too much over 11 years. The pie chart (Figure 5) demonstrates the structure of our sample by the art sectors. The predominance of the modern art complies with the key art trend described above. According to the histograms represented on Figure 6, younger art is priced lower. We would like to point out that the financial crisis has affected the art market: the recession lasted from 2008 to 2012; especially, the contemporary art has been affected by the downturn as the most speculative art sector. The price dynamics supports a tendency to the higher volatility on the market. The evidence is provided by Figure A1 in the Appendix. Information 2020, 11, 252 6 of 12 Figure 5. Shares of sectors by year. 0 .1 .2 .3 0 .1 .2 .3 0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20 Old Masters Art Impressionism Modern Art Postwar Art Contemporary Art Density normal logprice D e n s it y logprice Figure 6. Histograms of price logarithm by sectors. 2.2. Empirical Model In this paper we exploit the hedonic approach by means of the Heckman model with sample selection. Despite having a big sample, most observations represent non-repeated sales. Thus, we have chosen the HM instead of RSM in order to avoid discarding the major part of observations. Moreover, the both methodologies bring to the similar results. Finally, Bocart and Hafner [22] in Information 2020, 11, 252 7 of 12 their recent study assume that the hedonic regression framework is an appropriate tool for analyzing heterogeneous goods. An assumption under the hedonic methodology implies that an individual optimizes the consumption of the product’s characteristics choosing a product with an optimal set of parameters subject to a budget constrain. It means that his choice depends on the income and implicit “prices” of the characteristics, which are estimations of differences between item’s qualities in value terms. We use the Heckman model, sometimes called Tobit I model, in order to estimate the return because it allows getting rid of biases caused by the fact that in the sample there are some unsold paintings whose hammer prices did not reach their reserve ones. Therefore, we should also consider the probability of sale. Including unsold paintings in the sample is necessary because it allows verifying an importance of the sample selection accounting and getting a more reliable hedonic index. The model to be estimated is presented in (1).  ln pit = A ∑ a=1 αa · Xai + T ∑ t=1 B ∑ b=1 βb · Zbit + T ∑ t=1 γt · Dit + εit, (1a) hit = A ∑ a=1 α′a · X ′ ai + T ∑ t=1 B ∑ b=1 β′b · Z ′ bit + T ∑ t=1 γt · Dit + ζit. (1b) The first equation demonstrates the impact on the logarithm of the sale price of both individual characteristics of oil paintings fixed in time and time varying (Xai ,Zbit are the vectors of such characteristics respectively), and the influence of time trend characterized by the sum of dummy-variables (Dit) constructed for each year/month. The second binary-choice equation is subject to explain the sample selection procedure as the dependent variable (hit) takes 1 if a painting was sold and 0 – otherwise. The vectors of individual characteristics in the second equation could differ from the vectors in the first one. As we have already mentioned, the art market is very heterogeneous at the price level as well as at the sector level. Hence, we estimated the model for each art sector separately. 3. Results We estimate the Heckman model for each sector on the fine art market. The results for (1a) are shown in Tables 1 and 2. Information 2020, 11, 252 8 of 12 Table 1. The results for oil paintings hedonic art price index model, (1a). The dependent variable is the logarithm of the painting price. We estimate separate equations for each of five art sectors, namely Old masters, Impressionism, Modern art, Postwar art and Contemporary art. Coefficient t-statistics are in parenthesis. Level of significance: * – 5%, ** – 1%, *** – 0.1%. Variables Sectors Old masters Impressionism Modern Art Postwar Art Contemporary Art author’s signature 0.0721*** -0.0550*** -0.1589*** -0.1127*** 0.0209 (3.67) (-3.32) (-11.32) (-4.87) (0.75) painting was exhibited 0.6013*** 0.9936*** 1.0430*** 0.8310*** 0.7093*** (15.27) (34.80) (57.72) (27.75) (19.21) painting was mentioned in literature 1.0211*** 1.3055*** 1.3373*** 1.0842*** 0.7038*** (33.90) (50.32) (73.35) (32.18) (14.93) height*width 0.0000*** 0.0001*** 0.0001*** 0.0001*** 0.0000*** (34.35) (68.41) (76.63) (70.69) (64.01) (height*width)^2 -0.0000*** -0.0000*** -0.0000*** -0.0000*** -0.0000*** (-12.92) (-38.01) (-60.93) (-41.21) (-28.63) number of lot -0.0011*** -0.0014*** -0.0016*** -0.0009*** -0.0003*** (-12.75) (-28.90) (-43.45) (-12.81) (-3.84) number of lot^2 0.0000*** 0.0000*** 0.0000*** 0.0000*** 0.0000 (12.29) (24.24) (28.02) (7.47) (0.52) top 100 1.8372*** 2.9402*** 3.2863*** 3.2977*** 3.3164*** (17.91) (86.22) (163.11) (101.47) (71.50) top 500 1.3947*** 1.6183*** 2.1460*** 2.2541*** 2.3218*** (35.87) (61.68) (144.02) (91.62) (69.26) Russian author 1.0494*** 1.0871*** 0.8660*** 1.1840*** -0.1477** (3.80) (29.88) (44.59) (27.70) (-2.60) American author -0.8156*** 0.0487* -0.0265 0.1662*** 0.3286*** (-6.46) (2.53) (-1.85) (7.58) (12.43) sale in American region 0.5617*** 0.4531*** 0.4581*** 0.4712*** 0.5358*** (15.72) (26.58) (33.78) (21.92) (18.93) sale in a capital 0.4254*** 0.4125*** 0.2687*** 0.3228*** 0.5743*** (14.79) (28.97) (27.52) (20.00) (24.78) sale in II quarter -0.0931** 0.4213*** 0.5369*** 0.4740*** 0.5039*** (-3.07) (24.45) (42.01) (22.64) (16.74) sale in III quarter 0.3378*** -0.0272 0.0234 0.0607* 0.0925** (8.82) (-1.27) (1.45) (2.36) (2.60) sale in IIII quarter -0.0998** 0.2421*** 0.3789*** 0.3994*** 0.3970*** (-3.15) (14.27) (30.41) (19.51) (13.53) 2008 0.0075 -0.0003 0.0469** 0.0393 0.0293 (0.23) (-0.02) (3.17) (1.53) (0.78) 2009 -0.2592*** -0.2840*** -0.1829*** -0.2428*** -0.4789*** (-7.76) (-13.50) (-11.80) (-8.93) (-12.19) 2010 -0.2451*** -0.3534*** -0.2445*** -0.2391*** -0.5166*** (-7.22) (-17.49) (-16.29) (-9.24) (-14.05) 2011 -0.1849*** -0.3215*** -0.1855*** -0.2409*** -0.4702*** (-5.44) (-16.30) (-12.81) (-9.68) (-13.25) 2012 -0.2096*** -0.4652*** -0.3512*** -0.3562*** -0.6105*** (-5.97) (-22.83) (-23.56) (-13.93) (-17.25) 2013 -0.0175 -0.2624*** -0.1667*** -0.1194*** -0.2900*** (-0.44) (-10.63) (-8.97) (-3.89) (-7.05) 2014 0.1658** -0.1310*** -0.0266 0.1010* 0.0677 (3.10) (-4.07) (-1.08) (2.45) (1.33) 2015 -0.0934* -0.3174*** -0.1266*** 0.2151*** -0.0646 (-2.26) (-11.18) (-5.98) (6.07) (-1.44) Continued on the next page Information 2020, 11, 252 9 of 12 Table 2. Continued from the previous page. The results for oil paintings hedonic art price index model, (1a). The dependent variable is the logarithm of the painting price. We estimate separate equations for each of five art sectors, namely Old masters, Impressionism, Modern art, Postwar art and Contemporary art. Coefficient t-statistics are in parenthesis. Level of significance: * – 5%, ** – 1%, *** – 0.1%. Variables Sectors Old masters Impressionism Modern Art Postwar Art Contemporary Art Latin American author 1.3203*** 0.1981*** 0.5163*** 0.2730*** (11.25) (6.18) (13.28) (4.72) sale in Asia region 1.2974*** 0.6799*** 0.6039*** (9.59) (14.89) (11.42) sale in Oceania region -0.7802*** 0.0975 0.3745*** (-3.97) (0.95) (3.89) Asian author 0.2177*** 0.6414*** 0.5949*** (6.76) (21.36) (17.12) Australian author 0.0328 0.1313 (0.26) (0.81) Arabian author 1.0079*** 1.1983*** (13.90) (22.86) African author 0.8342*** 0.4648*** (10.02) (5.93) sale in African region 2.0574*** 0.0728 (6.68) (0.17) Number of observations 34736 99172 194022 62755 32509 Almost all coefficients in the equation are significant and have expected signs except for the coefficient “author’s signature”, whose negative sign does not comply with theoretical promises. It could be caused by the situation when a painting without any signature is a rare or unusual (atypical) work of an artist which is evaluated at a higher price. We observe high difference between the values of coefficients between sectors. The highest contribution to the explanation of price logarithm is provided by the author’s popularity. If an author falls in the top of 100 best artists according to the Artprice review, the price for his artworks will be almost three times higher than for other paintings compared with the author’s who is not presented in the rating. The same thing can be seen with the top 500. Moreover, the younger the art sector is the higher coefficient values are attributed to these two variables. Also, it should be mentioned that the price increases as a consequence of paintings publications in the literature, exhibitions, sales in the second and fourth quarters in comparison with the first quarter and sales in a capital. Contemporary paintings are sold better among American artists in comparison with Europeans; on the other hand, the price of old American masters artworks is lower. Russian nationality of artists contributes to the higher sale price except for the Contemporary art. According to the negative signs of coefficients of dummy variables for years 2009–2013 the financial crisis of 2008–2009 had impact on the fine art market. In 2009–2013 the log price was 30% lower on average than in 2007. The contemporary art market has been affected by the crisis most of all. Further, we estimated an extended specification of the model in order to obtain a monthly hedonic index. In particular, we added dummy variables for each month of the period 2007–2015 (a basic variable is January of 2007). We consider the results obtained by estimating the model on the full sample and on a restricted one, which contains only oil paintings under $10,000. The variance of the index is too high even if we impose restrictions on paintings under $10,000. As an example, we present the art price index dynamics in comparison with S&P500 index for the largest sector – the modern art (Figure 7); the indexes constructed for other sectors demonstrate the similar behavior. Information 2020, 11, 252 10 of 12 Figure 7. Cumulative dynamics of the art price index for the modern art. It should be noted that we use different sets of explaining variables for different art sectors as robustness check and due to the low variation of some regressors (dummy-variables for the author’s nationality and the region of sales) with respect to the relatively small number of observations in some sectors (old masters, impressionism and contemporary art) we suppose that coefficients variances associated with such variables could be overestimated. 4. Discussion and Conclusions In this paper we focus on oil paintings as the most representative product on the art market, the period of observation is 2005–2015. The data analysis confirms the high level of heterogeneity even upon consideration of oil paintings only. The analysis indicates that the non-uniformity of the market is observed at the countries level and across artists’ nationalities; parameters considered in the study demonstrate a different behavior at the art sectors level; we could also provide evidence of the 2008 crisis impact on the art market. The comparison with S&P500 shows that the US market index is outperformed by the art price index during the periods of negative returns. Consequently, oil paintings can serve as a “safe haven” asset, which is in line with [23], who show that between 2000 and 2015 art assets do not underperform the market. For art price index, estimated on broad sample, the average return is about 1% above inflation, which substantially lower, than for some fast growing fine art markets such as Russia, India and China [24]. For more details on art price returns in different countries see [25]. The negative impact of 2008 crises on oil painting prices is supported by the estimation results. During four years after the crisis the coefficients of the corresponding variables are significant and negative and the contemporary art market incurred the highest losses from the crisis. The study reveals that the sample selection model allows understanding factors that drives art prices, taking into account the bias caused by the presence of unsold paintings. There are at least four factors that have the highest influence on oil paintings prices and, as a result are most important for the investors — the author’s popularity, the novelty of the art sector, mentioning the painting in literature and taking part in exhibitions. Besides, the works of Russian artists get higher sale price for all sectors except Contemporary art, in opposite to Americans, who have negative price increment in Old Masters sector. The other nationalities have significant and positive coefficients. The findings of the paper also include the quadratic relation between the size of the paintings and its price, meaning that there is some “optimal” size of the canvas, for which the highest price is given. Information 2020, 11, 252 11 of 12 To sum up, we investigate factors that influence the pricing of oil paintings on the broad worldwide sample. The results of this analysis could be applied by buyers, as well as sellers of the art assets, while making a decision on the transaction. The study can be improved by addressing the possible issues of endogeneity, adding more characteristics, describing both the artist and the paintings and examining the long-run dynamics and cointegration of fine art market sectors similarly to [26]. It’d be interesting to continue the work by adding a survival model in order to see how the time of sale affects the price. Author Contributions: Conceptualization, L.L. and A.Z.; methodology, L.L.; software, A.Z.; validation, L.L. and V.L.; formal analysis, A.Z.; investigation, A.Z., V.L. and L.L.; resources, A.Z.; writing–original draft preparation, A.Z. and L.L.; writing–review and editing, V.L.; visualization, V.L.; supervision, V.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Funding: This research received no external funding Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. Figure A1. Dynamics of prices by sectors. Information 2020, 11, 252 12 of 12 References 1. Ashenfelter, O. How auctions work for wine and art. J. Econ. Perspect. 1989, 3, 23–36. 2. Horstmann, I.; LaCasse, C. Secret reserve prices in a bidding model with a real option. Am. Econ. Rev. 1997, 87, 663–684. 3. Milgrom, P.; Weber, R. A theory of auctions and competitive bidding. Econometrica 1982, 50, 1089–1122. 4. Vincent, D. Bidding off the wall: why reserve prices may be kept secret. 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The auction market for modern prints: confirmations, contradictions, and new puzzles. Econ. Inq. 2008, 46, 149–159. 13. Chanel, O.; Gerard-Varet, L.A.; Ginsburgh, V. Prices and Returns on Paintings: An Exercise on How to Price the Priceless. The Geneva Papers on Risk and Insurance Theory 1994, 19, 7–21. 14. Mei, J.; Moses, M. Art as an investment and the underperformance of masterpieces. Am. Econ. Rev. 2002, 92(5), 1656–1668. 15. Candela, G.; Figini, P.; Scorcu, A.E. Price indices for artists - A proposal. J. Cult. Econ. 2004, 28, 285–302. 16. Buelens, N.; Ginsburgh, V. Revisiting Baumol’s ‘art as floating crap game’. Eur. Econ. Rev. 1993, 37, 1351–1371. 17. Collins, A.; Scorcu, A.E.; Zanola, R. Sample selection bias and time instability of hedonic art price indexes. Technical report, Working paper DSE, 2007. 18. Baumol, W. Unnatural value: or art investment as a floating crap game. American Economic Review 1986, 76, 10–14. 19. Francke, M.K. Repeat sales index for thin markets: a structural time series approach. J. Real Estate Financ. Econ. 2010, 41, 24–52. 20. Graddy, K.; J.Hamilton.; Pownall, R. Repeat-sales indexes: estimation without assuming that errors in asset returns are independently distributed. Real Estate Econ. 2012, 40, 131–166. 21. Goetzmann, W. Accounting for taste: art and financial markets over three centuries. Am. Econ. Rev. 1993, 83, 1370–1376. 22. Bocart, F.Y.R.P.; Hafner, C.M. Volatility of price indices for heterogeneous goods with application to the fine art market. J. Appl. Econom. 2015, 30, 291–312. 23. Shi, Y.; Conroy, P.; Wang, M.; Dang, C. The investment performance of art in mainland China. Emerg. Mark. Financ. Trade 2018, 54, 1358–1374. 24. Kraeussl, R.; Logher, R. Emerging art markets. Emerg. Mark. Rev. 2010, 11, 301–318. 25. Garay, U. Determinants of art prices and performance by movements: Long-run evidence from an emerging market. J. Bus. Res. 2019. doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2019.03.057. 26. Le Fur, E. Dynamics of the global fine art market prices. Q. Rev. Econ. Financ. 2019, doi:10.1016/j.qref.2019.05.014. c© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2019.03.057 http://creativecommons.org/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Introduction Materials and Methods Data and Descriptive Analysis Empirical Model Results Discussion and Conclusions References 
work_zot3xkc5xbdl5nz2tctrzagh2u	----	Review of e-GP British Journal of General Practice, August 2009 617 Essay As a self-confessed Luddite, I will admit to having a few reservations before trying e-GP. In addition to the hassle of dealing with temperamental software, I often find online learning to be impersonal and lacking in the satisfaction to be had from reading a book. However, six modules later, e-GP1 has challenged many of my preconceptions. E-GP is surprisingly easy to use even for those of us who think Wi-Fi and Wii Fit are interchangeable entities. The layout is clear and attractive with lots of pictures to hold the user’s attention. In addition, the first module is a very helpful and easy to understand guide to using e-GP. Pablo Picasso is quoted as having said, ‘Computers are useless. They can only give you answers.’ If used in conjunction with the online new personal evaluation program (nPEP)2 then e-GP is set to prove him wrong. To my knowledge, this is the only online learning resource that helps the user find out what they need to know as well as how to learn it. As with many online resources there is capacity to create a ‘learning path’. This is a great tool for focusing one’s study. Equally, a record of learning is available, extremely helpful in the typically last- minute panic to collate evidence for appraisal. Unusually, a record of the time spent for each module is shown, making calculation of CPD hours less arduous. My new found, revalidation-led craving for certificates is also sated by the ability to print these for completed modules. There is a handy facility to record any note-worthy thoughts during the module. I continue to prefer to scribble with pen and paper but can see the use for more computer-orientated colleagues. As a GP–mum hybrid, with a toddler who has a talent for pressing ‘off’ buttons, the facility to stop the module mid-way through and then resume is ingenious. So far I have completed a variety of modules from different subject areas: ankle pain, postnatal depression, equality legislation, allergies in children, principles of palliative care, and how to learn with e- GP. These vary slightly in duration and format, but I can honestly say I learned something new from each of them. Common to each module is an interactive format which I particularly enjoyed. Case scenarios are frequently used along with regular quizzes, which kept my mind on track. Despite this, online learning remains a solitary process and not quite a replacement for teacher–pupil interaction. However, with regular points for reflection and feedback, I felt these modules were a close second. The modules vary in depth, with one of the modules I completed being quite superficial. However, guidance is given concerning further learning resources, negating this worry. Overall, given the range of users, which will include trainees and GPs, both old and new alike, I feel the knowledge level was well pitched. If used as the starting point for learning, I feel these modules have considerable potential. To conclude, I feel this is an extremely useful tool for learning that is at least equal to its online contemporaries. It is an invaluable resource in the quest to achieve our CPD goals and, as such, I stand converted. Faye McCleery REFERENCES 1. Department of Health and NHS and RCGP. e-GP, e- Learning for General Practice. http://e- lfh.org.uk/projects/egp/index.html (accessed 6 Jul 2009). 2. Royal College of General Practitioners. RCGP Scotland Online Assessment Application for GPs. http://www.npep.org.uk//# (accessed 9 Jul 2009). DOI: 10.3399/bjgp09X453909 Review of e-GP 
work_zjihesfr2bfh3l3bkvsnqiciuq	----	Publisher’s Note In the late 1970s, I was a disc jockey (“on-air personality” is a big stretch) and music director at my college radio station. An inconsequential book-review segment, just sixty seconds, enough to keep us awash in unwanted review copies, was my only contact with the publishing world, but I see now what an impact my brief “career” in radio had. Ours was a very eclectic mix: classical in the morning, then jazz, then rock for the bulk of the day, when you might hear Nick Lowe, Nick Cave, Nick LaRocca, and Nick Drake in the same set. Most popular was a weekly folk show called, appropriately, “Music You Can’t Hear on the Radio,” whose very name illustrated our attitude about the music we presented. What most of us felt in those days was a strong sense of discovery and the desire to share it with our small, but devoted, listener base. It was a fertile time in music: New Wave and punk were changing the landscape of rock music, ditto “fusion” in jazz, and even classical seemed invigorated by minimalists like Steve Reich and Philip Glass. Each new record offered the possibility of a “find,” something we could rush onto the air, to be the first to play (and not only esoterica: we were the first in the United States to play the Police, for what that’s worth). This was in distinct contrast to commercial radio, increasingly based on market research rather than the passion of the people who chose and played the music. This naturally lead to very conservative playlists: people typically want to hear what they already know, so, to the question, which bands do you like, Led Zeppelin is certain to come out ahead of the Talking Heads, which you might not know or have ever heard. Ours was an enthusiasm born from zeal: we heard something exciting and wanted you to, as well, the same way you call a good friend and say, “I just heard an album you’ll like” or “I’m sending you a book I finished and think you’ll love too.” I see this same eagerness to share revelations in this catalog: the ideas our editors unearth and develop, lovingly designed and printed by our design and production teams, then thoughtfully launched into the world by sales and marketing. I sometimes hear the question, here and in reviews, “Who else would publish this but Princeton Architectural Press?” and take it to be a tremendous compliment, my modern-day equivalent of “Music You Can’t Hear on the Radio,” books you can’t find anywhere else. This season, these include a book on a little-known World War II unit devoted to enemy deceptions (think inflatable tanks and faux-painted village rooftops) comprising many well- known artists and designers; a book celebrating the work of designers and architects still creating in their eighth decade; a brief history of now-declassified plans for invading each other’s nation developed by both the United States and Canada; catalogs of under-published design geniuses Bruno Munari and W. A. Dwiggins; and highlights from a remarkable collection of thirty thousand sketchbooks from around the world, sitting in a storefront in Brooklyn that you can, and should, visit (after reading the book!). I’m hopeful, and confident, that you’ll discover the sense of surprise and excitement we feel here when we open a compelling manuscript proposal or develop an intriguing idea here based on an article, website, or personal interest, and that we relive when opening the finished book for the first time. It’s the same thrill, I think, we all got when we put on a new album from a favorite, or unknown, band, for the first time back in college, and still do when we read, or publish, an unexpectedly exciting book. Kevin C. Lippert Publisher Spring 2015 8 The Ghost Army of World War II 10 Artists Unframed 12 The Sketchbook Project World Tour 14 Twenty Over Eighty 16 Local Color 18 Keep the Change 20 LOST 22 War Plan Red 24 Unlearning to Draw 24 The Kitchen Art Studio 26 Balancing Acts 28 The Cognoscenti’s Guide to Florence 30 The Ladies of Letterpress 32 Graphic Design: The New Basics 34 Munari’s Books 36 Public Natures 38 Henry Howard 40 Felt 42 Designed for the Future 44 Hypernatural 46 Brodsky & Utkin 47 William Addison Dwiggins: Stencilled Ornament and Illustration 48 More Than Words 49 Inside the Rainbow 50 Slow Manifesto: Lebbeus Woods Blog 51 Architecture Oriented Otherwise 52 Pamphlet Architecture 35 53 Young Architects 16 55 Paper + Goods 78 Order Information 80 Index Pablo Picasso: Meet the Artist! hc / $24.95 / £15.99 978-1-61689-251-7 Alexander Calder: Meet the Artist! hc / $24.95 / £15.99 978-1-61689-225-8 PER ENNIAL BESTSELLERS Rural Studio pb / $34.95 / £21.00 978-1-56898-292-2 Ghostly Ruins pb / $29.95 / £17.00 978-1-56898-615-9 The Guerilla Art Kit wire-o / $19.95 / £11.99 978-1-56898-688-3 The Map as Art pb / $29.95 / £17.99 978-1-56898-972-3 America’s Other Audubon hc / $45.00 / £30.00 978-1-61689-059-9 Pattern Box 100 postcard box set $19.95 / £14.99 978-1-61689-188-6 You Are Here pb / $24.95 / £14.99 978-1-56898-430-8 Thinking with Type pb / $24.95 / £16.99 978-1-56898-969-3 Inside the Painter’s Studio pb / $35.00 / £22.50 978-1-56898-852-8 The Public Library hc / $35.00 / £21.99 978-1-61689-217-3 PER ENNIAL BESTSELLERS Drawing Techniques pb / $12.95 / £7.99 978-1-61689-054-4 Blackstock’s Collections pb / $24.95 / £14.99 978-1-56898-579-4 Hand Job pb / $35.00 / £20.00 978-1-56898-626-5 Elegantissima hc / $40.00 / £25.00 978-1-61689-097-1 A Year of Mornings pb / $24.95 / £15.99 978-1-56898-784-2 Sign Painters pb / $24.95 / £15.99 978-1-61689-083-4 The Architect Says hc / $14.95 / £8.99 978-1-61689-093-3 Woodcut hc / $29.95 / £19.99 978-1-61689-048-3 Woodcut Notecards card box / $15.95 / £11.99 978-1-61689-147-3 The Designer Says hc / $14.95 / £8.99 978-1-61689-134-3 The Filmmaker Says hc / $14.95 / £8.99 978-1-61689-220-3 The Chef Says hc / $14.95 / £8.99 978-1-61689-249-4 1 2 A S S O R T E D N O T E C A R D S A N D E N V E L O P E S B R Y A N N A S H G I L L Bestselling Titles in DESIGN & TYPOGRAPHY Graphic Design Theory pb / $24.95 / £15.99 978-1-61689-772-9 Form+Code in Design, Art, and Architecture pb / $24.95 / £16.99 978-1-56898-937-2 Grid Systems pb / $24.95 / £16.99 978-1-56898-465-0 Graphic Design The New Basics pb / $35.00 / £20.00 978-1-56898-702-6 Visual Grammar pb / $21.95 / £12.99 978-1-56898-581-7 Graphic Design Thinking pb / $24.95 / £16.99 978-1-56898-979-2 How to Be a Graphic Designer without Losing Your Soul, New Edition pb / $24.95 978-1-56898-983-9 Elements of Design pb / $24.95 / £16.99 978-1-56898-329-5 Geometry of Design Second Edition, Revised and Updated pb / $24.95 / £16.99 978-1-61689-036-0 Typography Sketchbooks pb / $40.00 978-1-61689-042-1 Thinking with Type pb / $24.95 / £16.99 978-1-56898-969-3 Type on Screen pb / $24.95 / £15.99 978-1-61689-170-1 Le Corbusier Redrawn pb / $29.95 / £18.99 978-1-61689-068-1 Modern Modular pb / $40.00 / £25.00 978-1-61689-051-3 Bestselling Titles in ARCHITECTURE Tom Kundig: Houses 2 hc / $55.00 / £35.00 978-1-61689-040-7 Theorizing a New Agenda pb / $45.00 / £26.00 978-1-56898-054-6 Constructing a New Agenda pb / $45.00 / £30.00 978-1-56898-859-7 Citizens of No Place pb / $19.95 / £12.99 978-1-61689-062-9 Generative Design hc / $100.00 / £60.00 978-1-61689-077-3 Model Making pb / $24.95 / £16.99 978-1-56898-870-2 Writing about Architecture pb / $24.95 / £15.99 978-1-61689-053-7 Digital Fabrications pb / $24.95 / £14.99 978-1-56898-790-3 Atlas of Novel Tectonics pb / $29.95 / £15.99 978-1-56898-554-1 The Greenest Home hc / $45.00 / £27.99 978-1-61689-124-4 New & Bestselling GIFT TITLES In the City hc / $22.95 / £13.99 978-1-61689-154-1 The Filmmaker Says hc / $14.95 / £8.99 978-1-61689-220-3 A Love Letter to the City pb / $24.95 / £15.99 978-1-61689-208-1 Pattern Box 100 postcard box set $19.95 / £14.99 978-1-61689-188-6 Keep Fresh, Stay Rad 100 postcard box set $19.95 / £14.99 978-1-61689-301-9 Vintage Typography Notecards card box / $14.95 / £10.99 978-1-61689-146-6 Pattern Papers stationery set / portfolio $14.95 / £10.99 978-1-61689-247-0 The Pocket Pack set of 4 notebooks $19.95 / £14.99 978-1-61689-214-2 Grids & Guides hc / Journal / $16.95 / £12.99 978-1-61689-232-6 Perfetto Pencils 12 double-sided pencils box set / $14.95 / £10.99 978-1-61689-243-2 The Chef Says pb / $14.95 / £8.99 978-1-61689-249-4 PetCam hc / 14.95 / £8.99 978-1-61689-258-6 Worn Stories hc / $24.95 / £15.99 978-1-61689-276-0 RECENT HIGHLIGHTS Studio Life pb / $35.00 / £21.99 978-1-61689-132-9 The Bike Deconstructed pb / $29.95 978-1-61689-228-9 The Book of Trees hc / $29.95 / £18.99 978-1-61689-218-0 Manhattan Classic hc / $50.00 / £30.00 978-1-61689-167-1 Who Built That? Skyscrapers hc / $16.95 / £10.99 978-1-61689-270-8 Who Built That? Modern Houses hc / $16.95 / £10.99 978-1-61689-263-0 Henri Matisse: Meet the Artist! hc / $24.95 / £15.99 978-1-61689-282-1 Nocturne hc / $19.95 / £12.99 978-1-61689-288-3 Hollywood Frame by Frame hc / $30.00 978-1-61689-259-3 The Public Library hc / $35.00 / £21.99 978-1-61689-217-3 I AM A MAN pb / Journal / $10.95 / £7.99 978-1-61689-253-1 Also Available . . . 8 Princeton Architectural Press | Spring 2015 | v i s u a l & p o p u l a r c u l t u r e Instant 978-1-61689-085-8 $24.95 / £15.99 r igh t s: w From Russia with Doubt 978-1-61689-162-6 $30.00 / £18.99 r igh t s: w April 2015 — 8 x 10 in / 20 x 25.5 cm 256 pp / 100 color / 200 b+w Hardcover 978-1-61689-318-7 $40.00 / £25.00 r igh t s: w The Ghost Army of World War II How One Top-Secret Unit Deceived the Enemy with Inflatable Tanks, Sound Effects, and Other Audacious Fakery Rick Beyer and Elizabeth Sayles Bill Blass, Ellsworth Kelly, Art Kane, and the other young artists who helped win World War II — In the summer of 1944, a handpicked group of young GIs—including such future luminaries as Bill Blass, Ellsworth Kelly, Arthur Singer, Victor Dowd, Art Kane, and Jack Masey—landed in France to conduct a secret mission. Armed with truckloads of inflatable tanks, a massive collection of sound-effects records, and more than a few tricks up their sleeves, their job was to create a traveling road show of deception on the battlefields of Europe, with the German Army as their audience. From Normandy to the Rhine, the 1,100 men of the 23rd Headquarters Special Troops, known as the Ghost Army, conjured up phony convoys, phantom divisions, and make-believe headquarters to fool the enemy about the strength and location of American units. Between missions the artists filled their duffel bags with drawings and paintings and dragged them across Europe. Every move they made was top secret and their story was hushed up for decades after the war’s end. The Ghost Army of World War II is the first publication to tell the full story of how a traveling road show of artists wielding imagination, paint, and bravado saved thousands of American lives. • Lavishly illustrated with original paintings, sketches, maps, and photographs • Presents never-before-seen artwork by some of twentieth-century America’s leading visual artists • Publication coincides with the seventieth anniversary year of the end of World War II • Bestselling author Rick Beyer’s acclaimed documentary film about the Ghost Army premiered on PBS in 2013 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 3 1 8 7 5 4 0 0 0 9v i s u a l & p o p u l a r c u l t u r e | Spring 2015 | Princeton Architectural Press Also Available . . . 10 Princeton Architectural Press | Spring 2015 | a r t s & p h o t o g r a p h y Hollywood Frame by Frame 978-1-61689-259-3 $30.00 r igh t s: n a M Worn Stories 978-1-61689-276-0 $24.95 / £15.99 r igh t s: w April 2015 — 6 x 8 in /16.8 x 20 cm 160 pp / 100 b+w Hardcover 978-1-61689-295-1 $24.95 / £15.99 r igh t s: w Artists Unframed Snapshots from the Smithsonian’s Archives of American Art Merry A. Foresta Candid snapshots of Andy Warhol, Jackson Pollock, Georgia O’Keeffe, Frida Kahlo, and other legendary artists — Tucked away among the letters, diaries, and other ephemera in the Smithsonian’s archives lies a trove of rarely seen snapshots of some of the twentieth century’s most celebrated artists. Unlike the familiar official portraits and genius-at-work shots, these humble snaps capture creative giants with their guard down, in the moment, living life. Pablo Picasso stands proudly on a balcony with young daughter Maya—a tiny, meticulously inked annotation penned by an unknown hand proclaims that “he’s very much in love.” Jackson Pollock morosely carves a turkey while his mother, Stella, and wife, Lee Krasner, look on. A young Andy Warhol clowns for the camera with college friend Philip Pearlstein, and in a later shot more closely resembles his famously enigmatic public self at a gallery opening with John Lennon and Yoko Ono. • A one-of-a-kind collection drawn from the rich holdings of the Smithsonian’s Archives of American Art • Endearingly candid images of famous artists relaxing on vacation, celebrating at parties, and hanging out with houseguests, children, pets, and friends • Lively, informative extended captions provide biographical details and anecdotes describing the people, places, and events in photos • Merry A. Foresta is an independent curator and arts writer. A former curator of photography at the Smithsonian Institution, she served as the founding director of the Smithsonian Photography Initiative from 2000 to 2010. 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 2 9 5 1 5 2 4 9 5 11a r t s & p h o t o g r a p h y | Spring 2015 | Princeton Architectural Press Artists Unframed presents more than one hundred spellbinding snapshots from the personal lives of legendary artists such as: Alexander Calder Georgia O’Keeffe Frida Kahlo and Diego Rivera Robert Rauschenberg Jasper Johns Ansel Adams Elaine de Kooning David Hockney Dizzy Gillespie Marcel Duchamp E. M. Forster Eero Saarinen David Smith John Waters and many others Also Available . . . 12 Princeton Architectural Press | Spring 2015 | v i s u a l & p o p u l a r c u l t u r e Drawing from Life 978-1-56898-445-2 $29.95 / £16.99 r igh t s: w Obsessive Consumption 978-1-56898-890-0 $19.95 / £12.99 r igh t s: w April 2015 — 8 x 10 in / 20 x 25.5 cm 224 pp / 500 color Paperback 978-1-61689-168-8 $30.00 / £18.99 r igh t s: w The Sketchbook Project World Tour Steven Peterman and Sara Elands Peterman Gorgeous and quirky sketchbooks from around the world — Destined to go down as one of the era’s most astonishing global art projects, the Brooklyn Art Library’s Sketchbook Project has, in less than a decade, amassed more than thirty thousand sketchbooks submitted by people of all ages and artistic abilities from more than 130 countries. Bursting with color, vivid imagery, and bouts of whimsy mixed with deeply intimate insights, the sketchbooks capture the texture of personal experience in a dizzying variety of illustrative styles and layouts that run the gamut from street portraits to stream-of-consciousness doodles, comics, and pop-ups. The Sketchbook Project World Tour presents the most compelling, surprising, and visually stunning examples from this one-of-a-kind artistic treasury. • Book includes a coupon for 25 percent off sketchbook subscription price • Book’s release coincides with the launch of the 2015 Sketchbook Project summer tour across America with stops in Brooklyn, Chicago, Atlanta, Austin, Los Angeles, San Francisco, Seattle, and Toronto • Organized by continent; contains mini bios of favorite contributors • The Sketchbook Project is the world’s only crowd- sourced sketchbook library • Includes a foreword by popular ThisIsColossal.com blog founder and editorial director Christopher Jobson • The Williamsburg Brooklyn–based Sketchbook Project boasts a community of seventy thousand active artists. It has been featured by the New York Times, New York Magazine, CNN, the Washington Post, Flavorpill and PBS, among others. 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 1 6 8 8 5 3 0 0 0 13v i s u a l & p o p u l a r c u l t u r e | Spring 2015 | Princeton Architectural Press Also Available . . . 14 Princeton Architectural Press | Spring 2015 | d e s i g n The Architect Says 978-1-61689-093-3 $14.95 / £8.99 r igh t s: w May 2015 — 7 x 9 in / 18 x 24.1 cm 224 pp / 175 color Paperback 978-1-61689-281-4 $35.00 / £21.99 r igh t s: w Twenty Over Eighty Conversations with Legends of Architecture and Design Aileen Kwun and Bryn Smith Leading designers discuss producing great work into their eighties and beyond — Twenty Over Eighty features profiles and interviews with twenty creative professionals over the age of eighty who have dedicated their lifetimes to design. In revealing conversations with creative minds from a broad variety of fields—from architecture and advertising to furniture, product, industrial, and graphic design—design writers Aileen Kwun and Bryn Smith spotlight makers and thinkers who continue to experiment, innovate, and make vital contributions to their disciplines well into their eighth decade. Twenty Over Eighty is not only a record of their remarkable histories and experiences, but also a source of knowledge and inspiration for contemporary creatives and generations of designers to come. • Interviews with graphic designers Seymour Chwast, Milton Glaser, Bob Gill, Richard Hollis, Lora Lamm, and Deborah Sussman; architects Kenneth Frampton, Alessandro Mendini, Ricardo Scofidio, and Beverly Willis; urbanist Jane Thompson; furniture designer Jens Risom; and textile designer Jack Lenor Larsen • Aileen Kwun is a Brooklyn-based design writer and editor whose work has appeared in Domus, Icon, Metropolis, Surface, and numerous other publications. She received the Core77 Design Award for Design Writing in 2014, and the Winterhouse Award for Design Writing & Criticism in 2010. • Bryn Smith is a graphic designer, writer, and critic. She studied journalism and new media at the University of Colorado, and received her MFA in design criticism from the School of Visual Arts. 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 2 8 1 4 5 3 5 0 0 The Designer Says 978-1-61689-134-3 $14.95 / £8.99 r igh t s: w 15d e s i g n | Spring 2015 | Princeton Architectural Press Also Available . . . 16 Princeton Architectural Press | Spring 2015 | a r t s & c r a f t s The Artist’s Eye 978-1-61689-056-8 $12.95 / £7.99 r igh t s: w e xc lu di ng ge r M a n y, aus t r i a , s w i t z e r l a n d Drawing Techniques 978-1-61689-054-4 $12.95 / £7.99 r igh t s: w e xc lu di ng ge r M a n y, aus t r i a , s w i t z e r l a n d April 2015 — 7 x 8.5 in / 18 x 22 cm 128 pp / 300 color Paperback 978-1-61689-297-5 $19.95 / £12.99 r igh t s: w Local Color Seeing Place through Watercolor 14 Daily Practices Mimi Robinson Capturing the world’s color palettes in watercolor — Whenever we first encounter a new place, whether landscape or cityscape, one of the most immediate and powerful sensations comes from its colors, or the palette of colors, which profoundly influence our reaction to and sense of a space. In Local Color, designer and educator Mimi Robinson teaches us not only how to see the colors around us but also how to capture and record them in watercolor. Regardless of your level of expertise, Robinson will quickly have you creating personal memories of time, travel, and place through a series of self-guided exercises and illustrated examples. • This instructional book includes everything you need to sharpen your powers of observation, develop your color senses, and create beautiful palettes of local color • In an age of constant visual bombardment, this Zen-like process of color observation allows you to slow down and become fully absorbed in the present moment • Mimi Robinson is an international design consultant and principal of Mimi Robinson Design. She is the founder of Bridging Cultures Through Design and an adjunct professor at California College of the Arts. 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 2 9 7 5 5 1 9 9 5 17a r t s & c r a f t s | Spring 2015 | Princeton Architectural Press Also Available . . . 18 Princeton Architectural Press | Spring 2015 | v i s u a l & p o p u l a r c u l t u r e A C O L L E C T O R ’ S TA L E S of L U C K Y P E N N I E S , C O U N T E R F E I T C-NOTES, and other CURIOUS C U R R E N C Y T H E Harley J. Spiller April 2015 — 5.5 x 8.5 in / 14 x 22 cm 112 pp / 48 color Paperback 978-1-61689-256-2 $19.95 / £12.99 r igh t s: w Keep the Change A Collector’s Tales of Lucky Pennies, Counterfeit C-Notes, and other Curious Currency Harley J. Spiller Why is money green? How do counterfeiters get away with their forgeries? — Harley J. Spiller began collecting money at the age of five when, home sick from school, his father tossed him a sack of pennies and a Whitman coin folder. In the five decades since, author Spiller has amassed one of America’s most extensive collections of unusual financial artifacts as well as a wealth of anecdotes and quirky historical details about U.S. currency. In Keep the Change, Spiller takes an irreverent look at our most uncommon coins and bills. Readers learn why greenbacks are green; what happens to worn-out bills (compost is involved); how artists navigate the fine line between art and mutilation; whether it’s ever acceptable to burn money (short answer: maybe); and how coin clippers and counterfeiters through the ages have profited by manipulating money. This highly selective tour through currency legends and lore will inspire readers to look with a new sense of wonder at the bills that pass through our hands every day. • Author Harley J. Spiller was named by Art & Antiques magazine as one of the nation’s “Top 100 Collectors” • Illustrated with forty-eight color images of items in the author’s archives, including bills with printing errors, artists’ money, and a “neutron irradiated” souvenir dime from an atomic energy exhibit for children at the 1964– 65 World’s Fair • Includes entertaining and comprehensive catalogs of slang terms for money and of the myriad methods for transforming cash, from bar tricks to folding to rubber stamping to shrinking, silk-screening, and puncturing to make jewelry • Spiller’s collections are exhibited in museums around the world 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 2 5 6 2 5 1 9 9 5 Obsessive Consumption 978-1-56898-890-0 $19.95 / £12.99 r igh t s: w Worn Stories 978-1-61689-276-0 $24.95 / £15.99 r igh t s: w 19v i s u a l & p o p u l a r c u l t u r e | Spring 2015 | Princeton Architectural Press Also Available . . . 20 Princeton Architectural Press | Spring 2015 | v i s u a l & p o p u l a r c u l t u r e Nocturne 978-1-61689-288-3 $19.95 / £12.99 r igh t s: w PetCam 978-1-61689-258-6 $14.95 / £8.99 r igh t s: w March 2015 — 5.5 x 7 in / 14 x 17.8 cm 224 pp / 110 b+w Paperback 978-1-61689-396-5 $16.95 / £10.99 r igh t s: w LOST Lost and Found Pet Posters from Around the World Ian Phillips Back by popular demand! The Fifteenth Anniversary Edition of our offbeat classic celebrating the love and devotion of pet owners — Despite all the visual distractions of the digital age, one low-tech form of mass communication remains as popular as ever: the lost pet poster. Stapled to telephone poles and bulletin boards in cities and suburbs worldwide, these often hastily made signs are quirky combinations of hand-drawn illustration, emotional longing, and surprisingly offbeat humor. For more than a decade, artist and animal lover Ian Phillips collected lost and found pet posters from around the world. LOST features the most notable selections from Phillips’s collection chosen for their cleverness, humor, sorrow, entreaties, rewards, and—in several instances— sheer outlandishness. Featuring a veritable Noah’s ark of animals—from everyday pets such as dog, cats, hamsters, and turtles to more unusual companions, including ferrets, parrots, cows, and cockatiels—these remarkable posters are their own form of folk art. Telling tales of friendship, loss, and hope, they are a powerful testament to the love and devotion shared by pet owners everywhere. • Ian Phillips is a book and magazine illustrator living in Toronto. He put up ten copies for each lost pet poster he added to his collection. “. . . elevates messages from distraught pet owners to the level of folk art.” —Publisher’s Weekly “. . . an evocative and sometimes very strange glimpse of the bond between humans and animals.” —Salon.com “Every poster is a love letter. Some also exhibit astonishing creativity. . .” —The New York Post 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 3 9 6 5 5 1 6 9 5 21v i s u a l & p o p u l a r c u l t u r e | Spring 2015 | Princeton Architectural Press Also Available . . . 22 Princeton Architectural Press | Spring 2015 | v i s u a l & p o p u l a r c u l t u r e The Toaster Project 978-1-56898-997-6 $19.95 / £12.95 r igh t s: w The Englishman Who Posted Himself and Other Curious Objects 978-1-56898-872-6 $24.95 / £14.99 r igh t s: w June 2015 — 5 x 7 in / 13 x 18 cm 128 pp / 30 color Paperback 978-1-61689-352-1 $14.95 / £ 8.99 r igh t s: w War Plan Red America’s Secret Plan to Invade Canada and Canada’s Secret Plan to Invade the U.S. Kevin Lippert A humorous look at the secret cold war between the United States and Canada — It’s known as the world’s friendliest border. Five thousand miles of unfenced, unwalled international coexistence and a symbol of neighborly goodwill between two great nations: the United States and Canada. But just how friendly is it really? In War Plan Red, the secret “cold war” between the United States and Canada is revealed in full and humorous detail. With colorful maps and historical imagery, the breezy text walks the reader through every aspect of the long-simmering rivalry—from the “Pork and Beans War” between Maine and Newfoundland lumberjacks, to the “Pig War” of the San Juan Islands, culminating with excerpts from actual declassified invasion plans the Canadian and U.S. militaries drew up in the 1920s and 1930s. A perfect gift for history buffs (and Canadians and Americans alike), War Plan Red offers up a new wrinkle in the ever-evolving history of North American continental relations. • Like the best kind of NPR story, it charts little-known historical territory with a light touch • Full of funny anecdotes, the books is a cheerful celebration of a rivalry that goes back to the founding of each nation • Declassified excerpts from each nation’s invasion plans offer unintentional silliness • A great gift for the would-be invader on either side of the border 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 3 5 2 1 5 1 4 9 5 23v i s u a l & p o p u l a r c u l t u r e | Spring 2015 | Princeton Architectural Press 24 Princeton Architectural Press | Spring 2015 | a r t s & i n s t r u c t i o n Also Available . . . The Artist’s Eye 978-1-61689-056-8 $12.95 / £7.99 r igh t s: w e xc lu di ng ge r M a n y, aus t r i a , s w i t z e r l a n d Drawing Techniques 978-1-61689-054-4 $12.95 / £7.99 r igh t s: w e xc lu di ng ge r M a n y, aus t r i a , s w i t z e r l a n d Figure Drawing 978-1-61689-049-0 $12.95 / £7.99 r igh t s: w e xc lu di ng ge r M a n y, aus t r i a , s w i t z e r l a n d Unlearning to Draw Peter Jenny Unlearning to Draw looks to the art of children and outsider artists for inspiration, advocating a return to carefree, untrained drawing and a renewed focus on the joys of making rather than on the end result. Author Peter Jenny encourages readers to use family photographs as the starting point to develop their own types of outsider art. May 2015 — 4.12 x 5.8 in / 10 x 15 cm 216 pp / 4 color / 240 b+w Paperback 978-1-61689-373-6 $12.95 / £7.99 r igh t s: w, e xc lu di ng ge r M a n y, aus t r i a , s w i t z e r l a n d, s pa i n, p or t uga l The Kitchen Art Studio Peter Jenny The Kitchen Art Studio turns the old adage “Don’t play with your food” on its head by encouraging readers to discover the creative energy hidden in their pantry. In Peter Jenny’s playful exercises, broccoli becomes material for sculpture, a cookie depicts the waning moon, cherry stems form captivating patterns, and spoons inspire performance art. May 2015 — 4.12 x 5.8 in / 10 x 15 cm 240 pp / 130 color / 50 b+w Paperback 978-1-61689-365-1 $12.95 / £7.99 r igh t s: w, e xc lu di ng ge r M a n y, aus t r i a , s w i t z e r l a n d, s pa i n, p or t uga l Praise for the Learning to See series: “They’re a quick read and really engaging; especially if you haven’t drawn for a while but would like to. It’s ‘How To Draw’ for grown ups with loads of exercises and ways to approach making marks that I’d not given any thought to since life drawing classes at college, plus loads of techniques I’ve never tried before.” —Ace Jet 170 “These handy take-along sized books are perfect for all ages interested in wanting to improve their drawing skills.” —Whipup.net 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 3 7 3 6 5 1 2 9 5 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 3 6 5 1 5 1 2 9 5 25a r t s & i n s t r u c t i o n | Spring 2015 | Princeton Architectural Press How seeing and playing like a child can transform your drawing skills — The bestselling Learning to See series offers a mix of inspiration, encouragement, and easy-to-complete exercises that will have you confidently filling the pages of your sketchbook in short order. Each pocket-sized volume begins with a short introduction by author Peter Jenny, followed by twenty-two engaging exercises that help readers discover their own individual art-making style. Jenny is professor emeritus and chair of visual design at the famous ETH Zurich in Switzerland. Also Available . . . 26 Princeton Architectural Press | Spring 2015 | a r t s & p h o t o g r a p h y Life on the Lower East Side 978-1-56898-939-6 $29.95 / £19.99 r igh t s: w Terminal Bar 978-1-61689-213-5 $35.00 / £21.99 r igh t s: w May 2015 — 6.25 x 8 in / 15.87 x 20 cm 160 pp / 100 duotone Hardcover 978-1-61689-254-8 $24.95 / £15.99 r igh t s: w Balancing Acts Three Prima Ballerinas Becoming Mothers Lucy Gray Motherhood is often difficult, especially for ballerinas. . . — There are few jobs more rarefied or as physically and mentally demanding as prima ballerina. And yet, despite very real professional risks, three dancers from the world-class San Francisco Ballet all decided to have children at the pinnacle of their careers. In Balancing Acts, photographer Lucy Gray takes readers on an unforgettable fourteen-year journey with these ballerinas, capturing their remarkable grit and determination. In dramatic black-and white photography, Gray documents their struggles to balance the demands of family and work—from their tireless preparation in rehearsals and dazzling mastery of craft displayed on stage, to their time spent relaxing at home with family and even while giving birth. In extensive interviews the dancers and their husbands discuss their stories with great candor, providing remarkable insight into the life of a ballerina and the everyday challenges and joys of mothers everywhere. • Foreword by the New Yorker theater critic Hilton Als, author of the bestselling White Girls • An intimate behind-the-scenes view of the lives of ballerinas in one of the world’s premier companies • An epilogue presents selected photographs of a fourth prima ballerina, Lorena Feijoo, who gave birth in 2012 and continues to perform with the San Francisco Ballet • Lucy Gray is an award-winning photographer whose work has been featured in numerous publications, including the New York Times, the Independent, Mother Jones, Dance Magazine, and Salon.com, as well as in exhibitions and projects across the United States 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 2 5 4 8 5 2 4 9 5 27a r t s & p h o t o g r a p h y | Spring 2015 | Princeton Architectural Press 28 Princeton Architectural Press | Spring 2015 | v i s u a l & p o p u l a r c u l t u r e Also Available . . . Grafica della Strada 978-1-61689-269-2 $40.00 / £25.00 r igh t s: w Quattro Parole Italiane Notecards 978-1-61689-279-1 $14.95 / £10.99 r igh t s: w March 2015 — 4 x 5.5 in / 10.16 x 13.97 cm 224 pp / 170 color Paperback 978-1-61689-321-7 $15.95 / £8.99 r igh t s: w The Cognoscenti’s Guide to Florence Shop and Eat like a Florentine Louise Fili and Lise Apatoff An insider’s pocket-sized guide to the best shops of Florence — Shop and eat like a Florentine with this pocket-sized guide to the best of the magnificent Tuscan city known for its art, culture, and cuisine. Celebrated graphic designer and self-described Italophile Louise Fili, with connoisseur of all things Lisa Apatoff, takes you on eight walks through Florence, discussing more than seventy of the city’s most alluring shops—some run by the same families for generations, others offering young entrepreneurs’ fresh interpretations of traditional techniques. Discerning travelers will discover rare books and charming hats; vintage Pucci and handmade shoes; cioccolata da bere (drinkable chocolate); colorful buttons; and bolts of rich silk fabric in this enchanting introduction to makers and purveyors of clothing, home decor, accessories, specialty foods, and much more. For each shop, there is a full-color photo, description of specialties, and information on location and hours of operation. • An overall map of Florence and a neighborhood map accompanying each walk help orient the traveler • Each walk features a listing of the authors’ favorite restaurants and cafes, where the intrepid shopper can pause for sustenance • Includes list of authors’ favorite shops and indexes by name and specialty • Louise Fili is director of Louise Fili Ltd, a member of the Art Directors Club Hall of Fame, a recipient of the AIGA Medal for lifetime achievement, and the author of the bestselling Elegantissima and the recently published Grafica della Strada. • Lisa Apatoff has lived on a farm in Tuscany for more than thirty-five years. She is an official guide for the city of Florence. 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 3 2 1 7 5 1 5 9 5 29v i s u a l & p o p u l a r c u l t u r e | Spring 2015 | Princeton Architectural Press Also Available . . . 30 Princeton Architectural Press | Spring 2015 | g r a p h i c d e s i g n Menus for Chez Panisse 978-1-61689-029-2 $40.00 / £25.00 r igh t s: w Sign Painters 978-1-61689-083-4 $24.95 / £15.99 r igh t s: w April 2015 — 11 x 14 in /28 x 35.6 cm 192 pp / 350 color Paperback 978-1-61689-273-9 $40.00 r igh t s: n a M The Ladies of Letterpress A Gallery of Prints with 80 Removable Posters Jessica White and Kseniya Thomas The pin-up-ready best of the 16,000 member Ladies of Letterpress — Who can resist the tactile charm of letterpress? Not many, judging by its ever-rising popularity among artists and designers working with old-school printing methods. The Ladies of Letterpress features the best work of the members of Ladies of Letterpress, an international organization that champions the work of women printers. Valuable as a handy resource, it includes a wide range of pieces, from greeting cards to broadsides and posters, printed in a variety of type and illustration styles. Each piece is accompanied by details of paper, inks, and press used in its printing, and a profile of its printer. Whether you’re drawn to elegant greeting cards, humorous note cards, or calendars and posters, you’re sure to find inspiration in this volume. And when you do, there are eighty detachable pages just begging to be pinned up. • The Ladies of Letterpress has more than sixteen thousand male and female members worldwide • Includes more than three hundred works, from greeting cards to full-size posters, featuring a cornucopia of type and illustration styles • Every piece is accompanied by details of paper, inks, and press used in its printing, and a profile of its designer/printer • Jessica White and Kseniya Thomas are cofounders of Ladies of Letterpress. White works as a studio artist and runs the Heroes & Criminals Press in Asheville, NC. Thomas runs Thomas-Printers in Carlisle, PA. 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 2 7 3 9 5 4 0 0 0 31g r a p h i c d e s i g n | Spring 2015 | Princeton Architectural Press Also Available . . . 32 Princeton Architectural Press | Spring 2015 | g r a p h i c d e s i g n Type on Screen 978-1-61689-170-1 $24.95 / £15.99 r igh t s: w Thinking with Type 978-1-56898-969-3 $24.95 / £16.99 r igh t s: w July 2015 — 8 x 9 in / 20 x 23 cm 264 pp / 400 color / 30 b+w Hardcover / 978-1-61689-325-5 $55.00 / £35.00 Paperback / 978-1-61689-332-3 $35.00 / £21.00 r igh t s: w Graphic Design: The New Basics Revised and Updated Ellen Lupton and Jennifer Cole Phillips Ellen Lupton’s bestselling graphic design primer revised and updated — Our bestselling introduction to graphic design is now available in a revised and updated edition. In Graphic Design: The New Basics, bestselling author Ellen Lupton (Thinking with Type, Type on Screen) and design educator Jennifer Cole Phillips explain the key concepts of visual language that inform any work of design, from logo or letterhead to a complex website. Through visual demonstrations and concise commentary, students and professionals explore the formal elements of two- dimensional design, such as point, line, plane, scale, hierarchy, layers, and transparency. This revised edition replaces sixty-four pages of the original publication with new content, including new chapters on visualizing data, typography, modes of representation, and Gestalt principles, and adds sixteen pages of new student and professional work covering such topics as working with grids and designing with color. • First edition sold more than 75,000 copies • Updated visual examples and demonstrations reflect recent changes in the graphic design field • Expanded pedagogical material makes the work more useful as a textbook. An accompanying website for educators can be found at www.gdbasics.com. • Ellen Lupton is the author of thirteen books with PAPress. She is senior curator of contemporary design at Cooper-Hewitt, Smithsonian Design Museum. • Jennifer Cole Phillips is principal of J. Cole Phillips Design. Lupton and Phillips are directors of the Graphic Design MFA program at the Maryland Institute College of Art and the recipient of numerous awards for their work as designers and educators. 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 3 2 5 5 5 5 5 0 0 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 3 3 2 3 5 3 5 0 0 33g r a p h i c d e s i g n | Spring 2015 | Princeton Architectural Press Also Available . . . 34 Princeton Architectural Press | Spring 2015 | b o o k a r t s By Its Cover 978-1-56898-497-1 $29.95 / £19.99 r igh t s: w Abbott Miller 978-1-56898-726-2 $60.00 / £40.00 r igh t s: w April 2015 — 9.4 x 6.5 in / 23.9 x 16.5 cm 288 pp / 332 color / 30 b+w Paperback 978-1-61689-386-6 $40.00 r igh t s: n a M Munari’s Books Giorgio Maffei Long-overdue monograph on Italian Bruno Munari’s acclaimed book designs — One of the greatest graphic designers of the twentieth century—called by Picasso “the Leonardo of our time”—Italian artist and designer Bruno Munari (1907–1998) considered the book the best medium to communicate his visual ideas, showcase his art, and convey his creative spirit. Primarily produced in large quantities for the general public, his more-than-sixty publications—from design manuals and manifestos to visionary tactile children’s books—displayed all the beauty and technical ingenuity of works of art. Munari’s Books, the first English-language monograph to focus on his remarkable achievements in publishing, examines in detail his seventy-year legacy in print, from his pioneering work as a graphic designer and collaborations with major publishers to his experimental visual projects and innovative contributions to the fields of painting, sculpture, design, photography, and teaching. Featuring critical essays and a wealth of color illustrations, this long-overdue monograph is a visually rich introduction to Munari’s remarkably multifaceted career. • First English-language monograph focusing on Bruno Munari’s book designs • Umberto Eco said of him that he “worked on the page as if tuning up a fiddle” • Giorgio Maffei is an art historian specializing in the history of twentieth-century publishing, and curates artists’ books exhibitions 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 3 8 6 6 5 4 0 0 0 35b o o k a r t s | Spring 2015 | Princeton Architectural Press Also Available . . . 36 Princeton Architectural Press | Spring 2015 | a r c h i t e c t u r e Public Natures Evolutionary Infrastructure Weiss/Manfredi Weiss/Manfredi 978-1-56898-733-0 $60.00 / £35.00 r igh t s: w Large Parks 978-1-56898-624-1 $39.95 / £18.00 r igh t s: w April 2015 — 7.5 x 9.5 in / 19 x 24 cm 304 pp / 429 color Hardcover 978-1-61689-377-4 $40.00 / £25.00 r igh t s: w Public Natures Evolutionary Infrastructure Weiss/Manfredi How infrastructure holds the key to revitalizing urban life — As elements of the built landscape, works of infrastructure are a means rather than an end. Our cities’ rail lines, bridges, highways, waterways and off-ramps are essential in a practical sense, but dead in a social one because they create boundaries that prevent one metropolis from physically connecting with another. Yet their very physical presence reveals hidden qualities key to revitalizing urban life. In Public Natures, New York City–based firm weiss/Manfredi tests such possibilities by crafting a hybrid manifesto/ monograph filled with essays, roundtable discussions, and recent projects that explore new opportunities for infrastructure. • WEISS/M A NFR EDI is an award-winning firm known for its masterful integration of architecture, infrastructure, and landscape design • Features case studies located throughout North America, including the award-winning Olympic Sculpture Park in Seattle, Brooklyn Botanic Garden Visitor Center in New York City, Krishna P. Singh Center for Nanotechnology in Philadelphia, Sylvan Theater at the Washington Monument in Washington, D.C., and additional projects in New Jersey and Toronto • Roundtable discussions include academics and educators, such as Kenneth Frampton, Preston Scott Cohen, Keller Easterling, and Paul Lewis • Marion Weiss and Michael A. Manfredi are the founders of the award-winning New York City–based firm WEISS/ M A NFR EDI. Weiss is the Graham Chair Professor of Architecture at the University of Pennsylvania. Manfredi is the Gensler Visiting Professor at Cornell University. 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 3 7 7 4 5 4 0 0 0 37a r c h i t e c t u r e | Spring 2015 | Princeton Architectural Press Also Available . . . 38 Princeton Architectural Press | Spring 2015 | a r c h i t e c t u r e April 2015 — 8.9 x 12 in / 22.5 x 30.5 cm 352 pp / 300 color Hardcover 978-1-61689-278-4 $60.00 / £37.50 r igh t s: w Colonial Revival Maine 978-1-56898-449-0 $39.95 / £28.00 r igh t s: w Southern Comfort 978-1-56898-546-6 $35.00 / £16.99 r igh t s: w Henry Howard Louisiana’s Architect Robert S. Brantley with Victor McGee The first book on the architect who shaped the look of New Orleans — Few nineteenth-century architects ventured far from the pattern-book styles of their time. One architect not constrained by tradition was the Irish-born American Henry Howard, who started as a carpenter and stair builder in 1836 New York and arrived in New Orleans the following year, soon establishing a reputation for distinctive designs that blended American and European trends. His career gained momentum as he went on to design an extraordinarily diverse portfolio of magnificent residences and civic buildings in New Orleans and its environs. Henry Howard is a lavishly produced clothbound volume featuring hundreds of contemporary and archival images and a comprehensive analysis of his built work. The first book to examine the forty-year career of the architect, Henry Howard establishes a clear lineage of his aesthetic contributions to the urban and rural environments of the South. • Copublished with The Historic New Orleans Collection • The first book to explore the history of architect Henry Howard, who shaped New Orleans’s urban landscape as well as some of the most significant residences of Louisiana’s countryside • Features a rich blend of archival images, historical documents, and beautiful contemporary photographs • Robert S. Brantley is a New Orleans–based architectural photographer whose work has appeared in numerous design magazines and books about New Orleans 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 2 7 8 4 5 6 0 0 0 39a r c h i t e c t u r e | Spring 2015 | Princeton Architectural Press Also Available . . . 40 Princeton Architectural Press | Spring 2015 | i n d u s t r i a l d e s i g n August 2015 — 7.5 x 9.5 in / 19 x 24 cm 176 pp / 300 color Hardcover 978-1-61689-280-7 $40.00 / £25.00 r igh t s: w Inside Prefab 978-1-56898-987-7 $24.95 / £15.99 r igh t s: w Materials for Design 2 978-1-61689-190-9 $50.00 r igh t s: n a M Felt The Soft Revolution Helene Renard Felt is all grown-up and being used for everything from lampshades to jewelry — Felt may be the oldest fabric known to man. Requiring heat, moisture, and pressure, but no weaving, its simple construction and versatility make it ideal for use in everything from automobiles to musical instruments. Echoing the plastics movement of the 1960s and ’70s, this humble material is now undergoing a creative renaissance. In Felt, author Helene Renard presents eleven case studies by artists and designers working with both handmade and industrially manufactured felt at a variety of scales. The ingenious projects— from interior environments and furniture to jewelry and wearable art—take full advantage of the material’s unique shape-shifting properties to create works of art that surprise and delight. • A comprehensive overview of the most innovative contemporary felt designers and artists • Case studies featuring a broad range of artists and designers, including Susanna Hohmann, Claudy Jongstra, Kathryn Walter, Janice Arnold, Anne Kyyrö Quinn, Tricia Stackle, Jorie Johnson, Aurelie Tu, Anna Gunnarsdóttir, Miriam Carter, and Lisa Klakulak • Helene Renard is an associate professor of interior design at Virginia Tech School of Architecture + Design and an artist who has exhibited worldwide 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 2 8 0 7 5 4 0 0 0 41i n d u s t r i a l d e s i g n | Spring 2015 | Princeton Architectural Press Also Available . . . 42 Princeton Architectural Press | Spring 2015 | d e s i g n Sustainable Design 978-1-56898-941-9 $24.95 / £16.99 Rights: W Small Scale 978-1-56898-975-4 $34.95 / £20.00 r igh t s: w April 2015 — 6 x 8.25 in / 15.2 x 21 cm 176 pp / 80 color Paperback 978-1-61689-300-2 $24.95 / £15.99 r igh t s: w Designed for the Future 80 Practical Ideas for a Sustainable World Jared Green Today’s brightest design minds on our best hopes for the future — Designed for the Future asks an international roster of eighty architects, landscape architects, urban designers, sustainable designers, policymakers, and writers to answer in five hundred words or less the simple yet critically important question: What contemporary or historical design represents the best hopes for our future success on earth? Their insightful responses range from the passive cooling strategies employed at Cambodia’s ancient temple city of Angkor Wat to cutting-edge eco-friendly mushroom board as a replacement for Styrofoam to shoes that respond to local culture and climate. Each offers much-needed new solutions to the complex social, economic, and environmental challenges facing twenty-first- century communities. • Features leading thinkers in the design field, including curator Barry Bergdoll, educator Alan Berger, environmentalist Lester Brown, architect Rick Cook, anthropologist Paul Farmer, critic Christopher Hume, architect Bjarke Ingels, landscape architect Mia Lehrer, architect Rob Rogers, critic Inga Saffron, and artist Janet Echelman • Compiles innovative projects that can help design leaders envision the future of cities and the built environment • Jared Green is Web content and strategy manager at the American Society of Landscape Architects (ASLA). He is editor of The Dirt blog and producer of ASLA’s sustainability toolkit, resources guides, and interview series. 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 3 0 0 2 5 2 4 9 5 43d e s i g n | Spring 2015 | Princeton Architectural Press Also Available . . . 44 Princeton Architectural Press | Spring 2015 | a r c h i t e c t u r e Material Strategies 978-1-56898-986-0 $24.95 / £16.99 r igh t s: w March 2015 — 7 x 8.5 in / 17.8 x 20 cm 176 pp / 175 color Paperback 978-1-61689-272-2 $24.95 / £15.99 r igh t s: w Hypernatural Architecture’s New Relationship with Nature Blaine Brownell and Marc Swackhamer Cutting-edge projects from the front lines of the fastest-growing movement in architecture — Despite the ever-growing sophistication of synthetic and digital tools, it’s the natural world that captures the imaginations of today’s vanguard designers. By looking to nature as a teacher rather than simply as a source for raw materials, pioneers in the emerging biomimicry movement are developing design methods and materials to create intelligent buildings that emulate life itself. In Hypernatural architecture and material experts Blaine Brownell and Marc Swackhamer present an international collection of forty-two case studies that illustrate astonishing new applications possible in this rapidly growing field, from Echoviren, a botanical pavilion that was designed to wilt into its surrounding redwood forest in Northern California, to the Mit Media Lab’s Silk Pavilion, constructed by the threads of silkworms as they passed over scaffolding. Together, these projects show that by looking to nature, design can be a tool that makes our built environment more efficient, sustainable, and, most of all, livable. • Biomimicry is the fastest-growing movement in architecture and engineering • Projects include the Truffle, a small concrete beach house in Spain that used haybales consumed by the family cow in the construction process; the Lithuanian Pavilion, an immersive environment that glows like amber; and the Rain Room, recently on view at MoMA, which allowed inhabitants to enter a downpour without getting a drop of water on them • Blaine Brownell is an associate professor of architecture and the director of the Master of Architecture program at the University of Minnesota and the author of numerous PAPress books, including Material Strategies and the Transmaterial series of sourcebooks • Marc Swackhamer is the head of the School of Architecture at the University of Minnesota 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 2 7 2 2 5 2 4 9 5 Transmaterial 3 978-1-56898-893-1 $40.00 / £25.00 r igh t s: w 45a r c h i t e c t u r e | Spring 2015 | Princeton Architectural Press Also Available . . . 46 Princeton Architectural Press | Spring 2015 | a r c h i t e c t u r e Citizens of No Place 978-1-61689-062-9 $19.95 / £12.99 r igh t s: w A Guide to Archigram 1961–74 978-1-61689-086-5 $40.00 / £25.00 r igh t s: w March 2015 — 9 x 12 in / 22.9 x 30.5 cm 80 pp / 50 b+w Hardcover 978-1-61689-316-3 $50.00 / £30.00 r igh t s: w Brodsky & Utkin Alexander Brodsky and Ilya Utkin The ultimate collection from the dynamic Soviet paper architecture duo — From 1978 to 1993, the renowned Soviet “paper architects” Alexander Brodsky and Ilya Utkin created an incredible collection of elaborate etchings depicting outlandish, often impossible, buildings and cityscapes. Funny, cerebral, and deeply human, their obsessively detailed work layers elements borrowed from Egyptian tombs, Ledoux’s visionary architecture, Le Corbusier’s urban master plans, and other historical precedents in etchings of breathtaking complexity and beauty. Back by popular demand following the sold-out original 1991 edition and 2003 reprint, Brodsky & Utkin presents the sum of the architects’ collaborative prints and adds new material, including an updated preface by the artists’ gallery representative, Ron Feldman, a new introductory essay by architect Aleksandr Mergold, visual documentation of the duo’s installation work, and rare personal photographs. • A beautifully printed collector’s edition with a cloth- covered case • Coincides with the exhibition of Alexander Brodsky and Ilya Utkin’s prints as part of the Tate Modern’s Poetry and Dream display on view until fall 2015 • Brodsky and Utkin continue to inspire artists, architects, and collectors alike 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 3 1 6 3 5 5 0 0 0 Also Available . . . 47g r a p h i c d e s i g n | Spring 2015 | Princeton Architectural Press Elegantissima 978-1-61689-097-1 $40.00 / £25.00 r igh t s: w Art Deco Bookbindings 978-1-56898-462-9 $35.00 / £25.00 r igh t s: w July 2015 — 6.75 x 9.93 in / 17.1 x 25.2 cm 112 pp / 24 color / 120 b+w Paperback 978-1-61689-375-0 $29.95 / £15.99 r igh t s: w William Addison Dwiggins: Stencilled Ornament and Illustration Expanded Edition Dorothy Abbe and Bruce Kennett A classic from the man who coined the term graphic design — There has never been anyone in the design world like William Addison Dwiggins (1880–1956). The first American to call himself a graphic designer, he applied his prodigious talents in the fields of typography, calligraphy, illustration, and even puppeteering—a more fitting title might have been Renaissance man. He is best known for his book designs, which combine his expertise in calligraphy, use of stencils, and typography. Very little has been published on Dwiggins, until now. The first of several planned volumes on his incredible legacy, this reprint of Stencilled Ornament & Illustration includes the original book, hand-set in an experimental Linotype face he designed, along with stencils and plates illustrating a dizzying array of graphical elements. A new introduction by Bruce Kennett shows how Dwiggins used ornaments, rules, and other elements in his final book and jacket designs. Originally published in a letterpress edition of 120 copies, this important book introduces the unique genius of Dwiggins to a broader audience. • Dwiggins is considered by many to be the greatest book designer of all time, yet there is nothing currently in print on his designs • In addition to the 1979 letterpress edition, the Friends of the Boston Public Library published a paperback facsimile edition in 1980 • The U.S. Postal Service will be issuing a commemorative stamp honoring Dwiggins in 2016 • Dorothy Abbe was an assistant to Dwiggins for several years up until his death in 1956, and then served as the overseer of his collected works until her death in 1999 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 3 7 5 0 5 2 9 9 5 Also Available . . . 48 Princeton Architectural Press | Spring 2015 | v i s u a l & p o p u l a r c u l t u r e Blackstock’s Collections 978-1-56898-579-4 $24.95 / £14.99 r igh t s: w Lists 978-1-56898-888-7 $24.95 / £16.99 r igh t s: w March 2015 — 8 x 10 in / 20 x 25.5 cm 272 pp / 120 color Paperback 978-1-61689-366-8 $24.95 / £14.99 r igh t s: w More Than Words Illustrated Letters from the Smithsonian’s Archives of American Art Liza Kirwin Charming and colorful correspondence from our most beloved artists — Our widely celebrated compendium of illustrated letters is now available in paperback. Drawn from the largest repository of artists’ papers in the world, More Than Words features correspondence with wives, lovers, friends, patrons, clients, and confidants by such revered artists as Winslow Homer, Frida Kahlo, Andrew Wyeth, Man Ray, Eero Saarinen, Alexander Calder, Gio Ponti, and Andy Warhol. Picturing the world around them in endearing vignettes, landscapes, portraits, and caricatures, these gorgeous letters reveal the joys and successes, loves and longings, disappointments and frustrations of their legendary lives. • Liza Kirwin is the curator of manuscripts at the Archives of American Art, Smithsonian Institution “Today, when illustrating a communication is likely to mean adding a smiley-face emoticon to an instant message, More Than Words arrives like a letter from a long-lost friend.” —The Wall Street Journal “A fascinating collection of illustrated letters from many of America’s best known artists.” —The London Review of Books 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 3 6 6 8 5 2 4 9 5 Also Available . . . 49b o o k a r t s | Spring 2015 | Princeton Architectural Press March 2015 — 7.8 x 11.8 in / 19.8 x 30 cm 320 pp / 275 color / 30 b+w Hardcover 987-1-61689-378-1 $35.00 r igh t s: x u k Once Upon a Time 978-1-56898-564-0 $35.00 / £19.99 r igh t s: w Classic Book Jackets 978-1-56898-491-9 $35.00 / £25.00 r igh t s: w Inside the Rainbow Russian Children’s Literature 1920-1935: Beautiful Books, Terrible Times Edited by Julian Rothenstein and Olga Budashevskaya The visual splendor of Soviet-era children’s picture books — Inside the Rainbow reprints for the first time in English a unique compendium of Soviet-era picture books from the 1920s and 1930s—a high point in the history of children’s literature. In the dark and dangerous world of revolutionary Petrograd, some of the greatest Russian poets and artists of the century came together to create a new kind of book for children, one that reflected the endless possibilities of a brave new world. Managing for a time to escape the scourge of state censorship, these books became a haven for learning, poetic irony, burlesque, and laughter. Showcasing more than three hundred brilliant examples from this golden age of illustration and design, Inside the Rainbow also includes translated poems, stories, and key texts by those who bore witness to the Russian revolution. • Introduction by Philip Pullman, a giant in young adult literature known for the His Dark Materials trilogy, which includes the bestseller The Golden Compass • Julian Rothenstein is the publisher and designer of Redstone Press. Olga Budashevskaya is an editor based in Russia. “Inside the Rainbow is an extraordinary compilation, a treasure-house, a monument to the free imagination and to a brief time when the avant garde and the playful were one and the same.” —The Guardian 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 3 7 8 1 5 3 5 0 0 Also Available . . . 50 Princeton Architectural Press | Spring 2015 | a r c h i t e c t u r e Slow Manifesto Lebbeus Woods Blog Edited by Clare Jacobson Radical Reconstruction 978-1-56898-286-1 $39.95 / £24.95 r igh t s: w OneFiveFour 978-0-910413-80-0 $24.95 / £16.99 r igh t s: w August 2015 — 7 x 10 in / 18 x 25.5 cm 288 pp / 75 b+w Paperback 978-1-61689-334-7 $29.95 / £18.99 r igh t s: w Slow Manifesto: Lebbeus Woods Blog Clare Jacobson, editor A meditation on the nature of architecture by a beloved visionary architect — In the fall of 2007, Lebbeus Woods (1940–2012), long admired for his visionary architecture and mastery of drawing, began a blog. Part forum and part public journal, the eclectic mix of articles, drawings, anecdotes, poetry, interviews, and photographic essays explored topics ranging from architectural theory and criticism to education and politics. Amassing more than three hundred entries by its end in the summer of 2012, it is regarded by many as the most comprehensive and accessible archive of Woods’s prodigious creativity. Slow Manifesto: Lebbeus Woods Blog, an edited volume of the blog’s centerpiece entries, stands as a fragmentary essay on the nature of architecture that will be dear to architects, students, and thinkers everywhere. • Lebbeus Woods was the author of several PAPress books, including Radical Reconstruction, OneFiveFour, The Storm and the Fall, and two volumes in the Pamphlet Architecture series • Woods’s work is held in the collections of major international museums, including MoMA, the Whitney Museum, MAK Vienna, and the Getty Research Institute • From 2012 to 2014 Lebbeus Woods, Architect, a traveling exhibition organized by the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, made stops at SFMOMA, Michigan’s Broad Art Museum, and the Drawing Center in New York City • Clare Jacobson is a Shanghai-based design writer, editor, and curator. She is the author of the PAPress book New Museums in China and has written for numerous publications. 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 3 3 4 7 5 2 9 9 5 Also Available . . . 51a r c h i t e c t u r e | Spring 2015 | Princeton Architectural Press The Landscape Imagination 978-1-61689-145-9 $60.00 / £35.00 r igh t s: w Architecture From the Outside In 978-1-56898-896-2 $40.00 / £28.00 r igh t s: w Available Now — 6 x 9 in / 15 x 23 cm 304 pp / 80 b+w Paperback 978-1-61689-302-6 $39.95 / £25.00 r igh t s: w Architecture Oriented Otherwise David Leatherbarrow A breakthrough in architectural thinking is available in paperback — Now available in paperback, renowned writer and thinker David Leatherbarrow’s groundbreaking Architecture Oriented Otherwise argues for a more profound, yet simpler, way of thinking about architecture, namely on the basis of how it performs. It’s not only about how a building functions but also how it acts, including its effects on observers and inhabitants as well as on the landscape that situates it. Drawing on an encyclopedic reading of contemporary philosophy, as well as from the work of architects whose work he admires, including Peter Zumthor, Renzo Piano, Le Corbusier, and Frank Lloyd Wright, Leatherbarrow challenges architects to think about their buildings in a vastly wider context, opening up the possibility of creating works that are richer in meaning, quality, and life. • David Leatherbarrow is professor of architecture and chairman of the PhD program at the University of Pennsylvania “. . . a volume of architectural theory that is actually exquisitely readable.” —Frieze “His writing can be dense at times, though well worth the effort for extracting the most from his intriguing ideas.” —A Daily Dose of Architecture 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 3 0 2 6 5 3 9 9 5 Also Available . . . 52 Princeton Architectural Press | Spring 2015 | a r c h i t e c t u r e Pamphlet Architecture 34 978-1-61689-173-2 $19.95 / £11.99 Pamphlet Architecture 33 978-1-61689-142-8 $19.95 / £11.99 June 2015 — 7 x 8.5 in / 17.8 x 21.6 cm 80 pp / numerous b+w Paperback 978-1-61689-361-3 $19.95 / £12.99 r igh t s: w Pamphlet Architecture 35 The legendary launching pad for visions from the architectural vanguard — For thirty-seven years, Pamphlet Architecture’s forward-thinking authors have challenged architecture’s conventional wisdom with bold ideas enhanced by visually provocative design. With far-ranging topics including building and urban form, algorithms, machines, and music, each Pamphlet is unique to the individual or group that authors it. The competition for Pamphlet Architecture 35 offered an opportunity for architects, designers, theorists, urbanists, and landscape architects to produce a small manifesto for tomorrow. The competition winner, not announced at press time, reflects the rigor and excitement found throughout the competition’s rich history. • Founded in 1977 as an alternative to mainstream architectural publishing, Pamphlet Architecture helped launch the careers of architects from Steven Holl and Lebbeus Woods to Zaha Hadid • Since 2001 the competition has attracted thousands of participants from around the world 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 3 6 1 3 5 1 9 9 5 Also Available . . . 53a r c h i t e c t u r e | Spring 2015 | Princeton Architectural Press Young Architects 15 978-1-61689-239-5 $24.95 / £16.99 r igh t s: w Young Architects 14 978-1-61689-105-3 $24.95 / £16.99 r igh t s: w April 2015 — 5 x 7 in / 13 x 18 cm 176 pp / 350 color Paperback 978-1-61689-369-9 $24.95 / £16.99 r igh t s: w Young Architects 16 Overlay The best of the next generation of architects and designers — The Architectural League Prize is an annual competition, series of lectures, exhibition, and publication organized by the Architectural League of New York. Since 2000 the Young Architects competition has identified the best of an emerging generation of architects and designers. The theme for the 2014 Architecture League Prize, Overlay, asked entrants to consider how iterative, incremental processes inform and direct their work. Competition entries reflect a diversity of approaches—from written, researched, and graphically rich interpretations to projects presenting the literal mapping of effects upon a surface. Competition winners are: • Kutan Ayata and Michael Young, Young & Ayata, Brooklyn • Claus Benjamin Freyinger and Andrew Holder, The LADG, Los Angeles • Adam Fure, SIFT Studio, Ann Arbor • Thomas Kelley and Carrie Norman, Norman Kelley, Brooklyn and Chicago • Jenny E. Sabin, Jenny Sabin Studio, Philadelphia • Geoffrey von Oeyen, Geoffrey von Oeyen Design, Los Angeles 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 3 6 9 9 5 2 4 9 5 Young Architects:16 Overlay Featuring work by the winners of the 2014 Architectural League Prize for Young Architects + Designers Young & Ayata The LADG SIFT Studio Norman Kelley Jenny Sabin Studio Geoffrey von Oeyen Design Foreward by John Author Introduction by Anne Rieselbach Princeton Architectural Press The Architectural League of New York Spring 2015 56 Paper + Goods | Princeton Architectural Press | Spring 2015 Animal Box 100 Postcards by 10 Artists Happy Menocal Cats, dogs, hens, foxes, lions, tigers, even lemurs— this character-filled collection, curated by Brooklyn- based artist and illustrator Happy Menocal, features one hundred animal postcards from ten celebrated artists: Katharine Barnwell, Ben Giles, David Howell, Charlotte Linton, Geoffrey Martin, Menocal, Alice Pattullo, Sirichai, Adrien Vermont, and Kazumi Yoshida. The colorful cards, in our popular postcard box format, are ideal for correspondence, display, or a little company. A booklet about the artists highlights their creative processes, influences, and favorite creatures. February 2015 — 4.25 x 6.25 x 3 in / 10.79 x 15.87 x 7.62 cm 100 full-color postcards, 10 tabbed dividers 24-pp booklet; shrink-wrapped 978-1-61689-348-4 $19.95 / £14.99 r igh t s: w Katharine Barnwell David Howell Ben Giles 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 3 4 8 4 5 1 9 9 5 57Spring 2015 | Princeton Architectural Press | Paper + Goods Charlotte Linton Alice Pattullo Kazumi Yoshida Geoffrey Martin Sirichai Happy Menocal Adrien Vermont 58 Paper + Goods | Princeton Architectural Press | Spring 2015 Fredericks & Mae Playing Cards Fredericks & Mae, a Brooklyn-based design duo known for their beautiful hand-crafted products, bring their love of games and color to this unique set of playing cards. Housed in a sturdy, keepsake box with foil stamping, the one-of-a-kind cards feature a full spectrum of colors, resulting in vibrant game play and artistic display. A perfect gift for aspiring card sharks and design lovers, the package also includes a mini booklet with history and lore, game instruction, and information about the artists. February 2015 — 2.875 x 3.75 x 1 in / 7.3 x 9.5 x 2.5 cm Box with lift-off lid, foil stamping 54 full-color playing cards, 32-pp booklet Shrink-wrapped 978-1-61689-359-0 $12.95 / £9.99 r igh t s: w A A 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 8 8 9 9 aj aj J J Q Q K K A A 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 8 8 9 9 aj aj J J Q Q K K Fredericks & Mae PL AY I NG C A R D S A A 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 8 8 9 9 aj aj J J Q Q K K A A 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 8 8 9 9 aj aj J J Q Q K K 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 3 5 9 0 5 1 2 9 5 59Spring 2015 | Princeton Architectural Press | Paper + Goods Perfetto Pencils Louise Fili 7.375 x 2.25 x .875 in / 18.7 x 5.7 x 2.2 cm 12 double-sided pencils Shrink-wrapped 978-1-61689-243-2 $14.95 / £10.99 r igh t s: w Also Available . . . Elegantissima 978-1-61689-097-1 $40.00 / £25.00 r igh t s: w Tutti Frutti Pencils Louise Fili Inspired by classic Italian packaging and stationery, celebrated designer Louise Fili brings her pencil collection into full color. This fun and stylish set, a companion to Fili’s Perfetto Pencils, contains twelve double-sided pencils in six tutti frutti shades, ideal for drawing or writing. February 2015 — 7.375 x 2.25 x .875 in / 18.7 x 5.7 x 2.2 cm 12 double-sided pencils, 6 colors red/green; blue/orange; yellow/purple Shrink-wrapped 978-1-61689-337-8 $14.95 / £10.99 r igh t s: w 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 3 3 7 8 5 1 4 9 5 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 2 4 3 2 5 1 4 9 5 60 Paper + Goods | Princeton Architectural Press | Spring 2015 Grids & Guides 3 Notepads for Visual Thinkers Sketch, catalog, plot, thumbnail, dream, and develop with these three distinctive, colorful tablets—a companion to our bestselling Grids & Guides Notebook. Each pad in this new format features handy scientific resources—from precise measurements to Pythagoras’s constant to the golden ratio—to spark creative thinking or aid in the design process. Whether used for list making, letter writing, imaginative doodling, or visualizing designs, this collection of portable graph-paper pads is an essential tool for right-brainers and left-brainers alike. February 2015 — 6 x 9 in / 15 x 23 cm Set of 3 notepads in green, blue, and red, each 50 sheets, bound at top, J-band, shrink-wrapped 978-1-61689-370-5 $14.95 / £10.99 r igh t s: w Grids & Guides A Notebook for Visual Thinkers 5.75 x 8.25 in / 15 x 21 cm 160 pp Hardcover, cloth-covered, with 1/2-jacket 978-1-61689-232-6 $16.95 / £12.99 r igh t s: w Also Available . . . Graphic Design Thinking 978-1-56898-979-2 $24.95 / £16.99 r igh t s: w 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 2 3 2 6 5 1 6 9 5 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 3 7 0 5 5 1 4 9 5 © 2 0 1 5 F O N D A T IO N LE C O R B U S IE R MANUFACTURED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 12345678912345678912345678912345678912345678912345678912345678912345678912345678912345678912345678912345678912345678912345678912345678912345678912345678912345678912345678912345678912345678912345678912345 102 0 3 0 12 4 0 5 0 6 0 7 0 8 0 9 0 10 0 11 0 12 0 13 0 14 0 15 0 16 0 17 0 18 0 19 0 2 0 0 2 10 2 2 0 15913172 1 2 5 2 9 3 3 3 7414 5 4 9 5 56 1 6 7 7 3 7 9 8 5 371115192 3 2 73 1 3 5 3 9 4 3 4 7 5 3 5 9 6 5717 7 8 3 515 7 6 3 6 9 7 58 1 8 7 261014182 2 2 6 3 0 3 4 3 8 4 2 4 6 5 0 5 6 6 2 6 8748 0 8 6 48162 0 2 8 3 2 4 0 4 4 5 4 6 6 7 8 5 2 5 8 6 4 7 0 7 6 8 2 8 8 0 0 2 4 3 6 4 8 6 0 7 2 8 4 61Spring 2015 | Princeton Architectural Press | Paper + Goods Le Corbusier Modulor Rule An innovative tape measure from the master of modern architecture Fondation Le Corbusier In the 1940s master architect Le Corbusier developed the Modulor, a universal system of proportion based on the measurements of the human body and the golden section found throughout nature. The Modulor Rule, a two-sided measuring tape housed in a distinctive tin container, features the renowned system in striking red and blue with inch and centimeter scales on the reverse. The package also includes an insert with a brief dual- language introduction (in English and French). The Modulor Rule is a perfect gift for architects and modern design buffs alike—an essential tool and important piece of design history, now accessible to all. May 2015 — 4 x 6.5 x 2 in / 10.2 x 16.5 x 5.1 cm Box with clear lid Tape measure: 1.5 x 90 in Lidded round tin: 1.625 in height x 1.75 in diameter Accordion-fold booklet 978-1-56898-060-7 $40.00 / £30.00 r igh t s: w 9 7 8 1 5 6 8 9 8 0 6 0 7 5 4 0 0 0 24 ,1 0 ’’9 47 14 ,9 0 ’’58 5 9,2 0 ’’36 2 5,7 0 ’’223 3,5 0 ’’138 2,2 0 ’’0 8 5 0,8 0 ’’0 33 4 ,4 0 ’’170 2,6 0 ’’10 6 1,7 0 ’’0 6 6 7,0 0 ’’276 6 3,0 2’’4 8 0 78,0 3’’0 6 6 20 3,8 8 ’’0 24 533,6 21’’0 0 8 8 6 3,4 33’’9 9 4 139 7,0 55’’0 0 4 126,0 4’’9 6 0 329,8 12’’9 8 4 4 8,2 1’’8 9 4 18,4 0 ’’724 11,4 0 ’’4 4 6 29,8 1’’170 10 1,9 4’’0 12 16 4,9 6 ’’4 9 2 26 6,8 10 ’’50 4 4 31,7 16 ’’9 9 7 6 9 8,5 27’’50 2 1130,3 4 4’’4 9 8 38,9 1’’533 1828,8 72’’0 0 0 226 0,5 8 8 ’’9 9 7 © 2 0 1 5 F O N D A T IO N LE C O R B U S IE R MANUFACTURED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 12345678912345678912345678912345678912345678912345678912345678912345678912345678912345678912345678912345678912345678912345678912345678912345678912345678912345678912345678912345678912345678912345678912345 102 0 3 0 12 4 0 5 0 6 0 7 0 8 0 9 0 10 0 11 0 12 0 13 0 14 0 15 0 16 0 17 0 18 0 19 0 2 0 0 2 10 2 2 0 15913172 1 2 5 2 9 3 3 3 7414 5 4 9 5 56 1 6 7 7 3 7 9 8 5 371115192 3 2 73 1 3 5 3 9 4 3 4 7 5 3 5 9 6 5717 7 8 3 515 7 6 3 6 9 7 58 1 8 7 261014182 2 2 6 3 0 3 4 3 8 4 2 4 6 5 0 5 6 6 2 6 8748 0 8 6 48162 0 2 8 3 2 4 0 4 4 5 4 6 6 7 8 5 2 5 8 6 4 7 0 7 6 8 2 8 8 0 0 2 4 3 6 4 8 6 0 7 2 8 4 An innovative tape measure from the master of modern architecture Le Corbusier’s Ce fut un grand privilège de pouvoir distribuer à partir de l’an 1988 le facsimilé du fameux Modulor de Le Corbusier. Le ruban comportait une graduation en centimètres et en pouces sur une face et sur l’autre, le système de mesure bicolore étalonné sur la stature idéale d’un homme d’1,75 m (« N’avez-vous pas observé dans les romans policiers anglais », note Le Corbusier, « que les « beaux hommes » un policier par exemple – ont toujours SIX PIEDS de haut ? ».) Le ruban était enfermé dans une boite d’aluminium ressemblant à l’emballage des pellicules Kodak que l’architecte avait toujours dans sa poche à partir de 1945 et dans laquelle il conservait le prototype du ruban Modulor. Cette reproduction, à la fois attrayante et utile, fut rapidement épuisée It was a great privilege to distribute in the year 1988 a facsimile edition of Le Corbusier’s famous Modulor Rule, a tape with centimeter and inch scales on one side and Le Corbusier’s colorful measuring system, based on the dimensions of an “ideal man” (six feet tall —always the height of “the good-looking men, such as the policemen” found in English detective novels, Le Corbusier notes), on the other. The tape was tucked into an aluminum can resembling the Kodak film con- tainer the architect began carrying in his pocket in 1945 to house the first proto- type of the rule. This attractive and useful reproduction quickly sold out and has become a collector’s item. We are thrilled to recreate it once again, in cooperation with the Fondation Le Corbusier in Paris. It is no surprise that Le Corbusier— an architect whose ambition was nothing less than the redefinition of architec- ture—felt compelled to create anew the most fundamental aspect of design and construction: the measuring system. Le Corbusier’s fascination with mathemat- ics, proportion, and number is well known and long-lived. His sketchbooks (the Carnets) from his student “grand tour” are filled with drawings of the starkly geo- metric forms of Greek and Roman architecture. When his first major book, the seminal Vers une architecture (Toward an Architecture), was published in 1923, he declared that “geometry is the language of man,” and the rhythms contained et devint une pièce de collection. Nous sommes enchantés de pouvoir la rééditer aujourd’hui en partenariat avec la Fondation Le Corbusier à Paris. Ce n’est une surprise pour personne que d’affirmer que Le Corbusier – architecte dont l’ambi- tion visait à redéfinir l’architecture – ne pouvait pas ne pas refonder les bases du design et de la construction par la création d’un nouveau système de mesure. On connait sa fascination constante pour les mathématiques, la proportion et les nom- bres. Les carnets du « grand tour » de 1911 sont remplis de dessins inspirés des formes géométriques dépouillées de l’architecture grecque et romaine. Quand il publie en 1923 son ouvrage fondateur Vers une architecture, il déclare que la « géométrie est le 62 Paper + Goods | Princeton Architectural Press | Spring 2015 L o c at i o n D at e im p L e m e n t a t io n p a i n t e D c a r v e D r e L i e f D i m e n s i o n a L s t o n e w o o D p L a s t i c m e ta L g L a s s n e o n D i g i ta L m u r a L b u i L D i n g v e h i c L e b i L L b o a r D o t h e rc L a s s if ic a t io n s e r i f s a n s s e r i f s c r i p t s y m b o L D e c o r at i v e r o u n D e D h a n D L e t t e r e D o t h e r Let’s Go Letter Hunting A Field Guide for Typographic Expeditions Friends of Type Letter hunting, type spotting, font finding—whatever you want to call it—designers, typographers, and hand- letterers have long taken to the streets for inspiration in the bountiful and amazing examples of type that surround us. Whether hunting for forgotten vintage signage, a perfect piece of street art, or colorful hand- painted ephemera, this lightly guided notebook from the popular design collective Friends of Type (authors of the Keep Fresh, Stay Rad Postcard Box) provides ample space to record, sketch, and riff off all the letters in the world that are fit to hunt. February 2015 — 5.75 x 8.25 inches / 15 x 21 cm / 160 pp Hardcover, blind deboss, with 1/2 jacket 978-1-61689-355-2 $16.95 / £12.99 r igh t s: w 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 3 5 5 2 5 1 6 9 5 63Spring 2015 | Princeton Architectural Press | Paper + Goods Keep Fresh, Stay Rad 100 Postcards Friends of Type 4.25 x 6.25 x 3 in / 10.79 x 15.87 x 7.62 cm 100 full-color postcards, 10 tabbed dividers 24-pp booklet, shrink-wrapped 978-1-61689-301-9 $19.95 / £14.99 r igh t s: w Also Available . . . 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 3 0 1 9 5 1 9 9 5 Typography Sketchbooks 978-1-61689-042-1 $40.00 r igh t s: n a M 64 Paper + Goods | Princeton Architectural Press | Spring 2015 NOISE Lined Journal Ed Ruscha In the early 1960s, Los Angeles–based artist Ed Ruscha started painting single words or phrases on intensely saturated solid backgrounds, creating a body of work referred to as “word pictures.” It was done in an effort to find a new way for paintings to speak. This lined journal, inspired by Ruscha’s own notebooks, features NOISE, an early work from the series that seems particularly relevant in today’s world of nonstop media noise. February 2015 — 5.5 x 5.8125 in / 15.2 x 14.6 cm 142 pp, lined Paperback, with removable sticker 978-1-61689-362-0 $12.95 / £9.99 r igh t s: w Van Gogh Repetitions Sketchbook Journals 6 x 4.8125 in / 15.2 x 12.4 cm Set of 2 blank journals 128 pp each Paperback Bellyband, shrink-wrapped 978-1-61689-277-7 $14.95 / £10.99 r igh t s: w Also Available . . . 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 3 6 2 0 5 1 2 9 5 Pablo Picasso: Meet the Artist! 978-1-61689-251-7 $24.95 / £15.99 r igh t s: w e 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 2 7 7 7 5 1 4 9 5 65Spring 2015 | Princeton Architectural Press | Paper + Goods Mark Mothersbaugh: Collected Facts & Lies Fifty Postcards 4.25 x 6.25 x 3.125 in / 10.8 x 15.9 x 7.9 cm Matchbox-style box 50 full-color postcards 978-1-61689-299-9 $17.95 / £13.99 r igh t s: w Also Available . . . Also Available . . . Mark Mothersbaugh: Myopia 978-1-61689-262-3 $40.00 / £25.00 r igh t s: w I AM A MAN Journal Glenn Ligon 4.375 x 7 in / 11 x 17.8 cm 142 pp, lined Paperback 978-1-61689-253-1 $10.95 / £7.99 r igh t s: w Sign Painters 978-1-61689-083-4 $24.95 / £15.99 r igh t s: w 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 2 9 9 9 5 1 7 9 5 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 2 5 3 1 5 1 0 9 5 66 Paper + Goods | Princeton Architectural Press | Spring 2015 Eat Sleep Read IndieBound Journal Set Eat Sleep Read, Love Your Local, and Peace Love Books: these beloved slogans, from independent bookstore champion IndieBound, are sure to inspire book—and journal—lovers everywhere. The colorful three- journal collection, featuring blank, lined, and gridded pages, is ideal for capturing favorite passages, unforgettable meals, and noteworthy dreams—all while celebrating local first. April 2015 — 5.5 x 8.5 in / 14 x 21.6 cm Set of 3 notebooks, 64 pp each (one ruled, one gridded, one plain) Paperback with sewn spine, bellyband, shrink-wrapped 978-1-61689-376-7 $14.95 / £10.99 r igh t s: w 8-pack display Discover it here Buy it here 8-pack Display Free with purchase of 8+ journal sets — 5.75 x 6 x 8.75 in / 14.6 x 15.24 x 22.23 cm Holds 8 journal sets 978-1-61689-407-8 r igh t s: w Redstone Diary 2016 The Therapeutic Diary Julian Rothenstein For more than twenty years, Redstone Press has produced a highly coveted, richly illustrated, theme-based annual diary. The 2016 weekly calendar focuses on therapy and features artwork from Damien Hirst, Ed Ruscha, Louise Bourgeois, and many more. July 2015 — 6.6 x 9.6 in / 16.8 x 24.4 cm / 160 pp Paperback, with spiral binding 978-1-61689-372-9 / $24.95 Previous isbn: 978-1-870003-78-0 r igh t s: n a M 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 3 7 2 9 5 2 4 9 5 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 3 7 6 7 5 1 4 9 5 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 4 0 7 8 9 0 0 0 0 67Spring 2015 | Princeton Architectural Press | Paper + Goods The Shirt Pocket 3.5 x 5.5 in / 8.89 x 13.97 cm Set of 3 lined notebooks 64 pp each J-band, shrink-wrapped 978-1-61689-202-9 $12.95 / £9.99 r igh t s: w The Backpack 6 x 6 in / 15.24 x 15.24 cm Set of 3 blank notebooks 64 pp each J-band, shrink-wrapped 978-1-61689-207-4 $15.95 / £11.99 r igh t s: w The Pocket Pack Set of 4 notebooks, 1 of each size Envelope: 7 x 9.25 in / 17.78 x 23.49 cm 978-1-61689-214-2 $19.95 / £14.99 r igh t s: w The Messenger Bag 5.5 x 8.5 in / 13.97 x 21.59 cm Set of 3 lined notebooks 64 pp each J-band, shrink-wrapped 978-1-61689-210-4 $16.95 / £12.99 r igh t s: w The Back Pocket 4 x 4 in / 10.16 x 10.16 cm Set of 3 blank notebooks 64 pp each J-band, shrink-wrapped 978-1-61689-199-2 $12.95 / £9.99 r igh t s: w The Pocket Dept. Notebooks Brooklyn Art Library 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 2 0 2 9 5 1 2 9 5 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 2 0 7 4 5 1 5 9 5 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 2 1 4 2 5 1 9 9 5 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 1 9 9 2 5 1 2 9 5 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 2 1 0 4 5 1 6 9 5 68 Paper + Goods | Princeton Architectural Press | Spring 2015 Pattern Roll Patterned Multipurpose Paper Textile Arts Center 2 x 2 x 12.125 in / 5.1 x 5.1 x 30.8 cm Roll: 2 double-sided sheets, each 12 x 144 in / 30.5 x 365.8 cm 12 illustrations Designer information sheet and instructional diagrams 978-1-61689-287-6 $16.95 / £12.99 r igh t s: w 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 2 8 7 6 5 1 6 9 5 69Spring 2015 | Princeton Architectural Press | Paper + Goods Pattern Box 100 Postcards by 10 Contemporary Pattern Designers Textile Arts Center 4.25 x 6.25 x 3 in / 10.79 x 15.87 x 7.62 cm 100 full-color postcards, 10 tabbed dividers 24-page booklet Shrink-wrapped 978-1-61689-188-6 $19.95 / £14.99 r igh t s: w Pattern Papers Stationery Set Textile Arts Center 8.75 x 6.125 inches / 22.2 x 15.5 cm 18 writing sheets, envelopes, and stickers 9 designs repeating 2 times 978-1-61689-247-0 $14.95 / £10.99 r igh t s: w 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 2 4 7 0 5 1 4 9 5 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 1 8 8 6 5 1 9 9 5 70 Paper + Goods | Princeton Architectural Press | Spring 2015 Birthstone Planner Elisa Werbler 5.5 x 8 in / 14 x 20 cm 144 pp / 12 full-color, fluorescent illustrations Paperback, with die-cut corners Removable sticker 978-1-61689-289-0 $14.95 / £10.99 r igh t s: w 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 January Garnet February Amethyst March Aquamarine April Diamond May Emerald June Alexandrite Dates to Remember Dates to Remember M T W T F S S Birthstone Notecards Elisa Werbler 4.75 x 6 x 1.75 in / 12.1 x 15.2 x 4.4 cm 12 full-color, fluorescent cards 12 designs and envelopes Artist bio and statement sheet Removable sticker 978-1-61689-284-5 $14.95 / £10.99 r igh t s: w 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 2 8 9 0 5 1 4 9 5 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 2 8 4 5 5 1 4 9 5 71Spring 2015 | Princeton Architectural Press | Paper + Goods What Did I Buy Today? An Obsessive Consumption Journal Kate Bingaman-Burt 5 x 7.125 in / 12.7 x 18 cm 160 pp / 50 1-color Paperback 978-1-61689-136-7 $12.95 / £9.99 r igh t s: w What Did I Eat Today? A Food Lover’s Journal Kate Bingaman-Burt 5 x 7.125 in / 12.7 x 18 cm 160 pp / 50 1-color Paperback 978-1-61689-240-1 $12.95 / £9.99 r igh t s: w Also Available . . . Obsessive Consumption 978-1-56898-890-0 $19.95 / £12.99 r igh t s: w 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 2 4 0 1 5 1 2 9 5 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 1 3 6 7 5 1 2 9 5 72 Paper + Goods | Princeton Architectural Press | Spring 2015 1 2 A S S O R T E D N O T E C A R D S A N D E N V E L O P E S B R Y A N N A S H G I L L Woodcut Notecards Bryan Nash Gill 5.25 x 6.5 x 1.75 in / 13.3 x 16.51 x 4.45 cm 12 full-color cards 6 designs, repeating 2 times, 12 envelopes Shrink-wrapped 978-1-61689-147-3 $15.95 / £11.99 r igh t s: w Woodcut Notebooks Bryan Nash Gill 5.4 x 7 in / 14 x 17.8 cm Set of 4 lined notebooks 64 pp each Paperback with sewn spine Bellyband, shrink-wrapped 978-1-61689-296-8 $16.95 / £12.99 r igh t s: w Also Available . . . Woodcut 978-1-61689-048-3 $29.95 / £19.99 r igh t s: w Also Available . . . Oak 978-1-61689-032-2 $29.95 / £19.99 r igh t s: w 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 2 9 6 8 5 1 6 9 5 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 1 4 7 3 5 1 5 9 5 73Spring 2015 | Princeton Architectural Press | Paper + Goods A-Frame Notecards and Postcards Chad Randl 6.5 x 5.5 x .75 in / 16.5 x 14 x 1.9 cm 8 full-color notecards and envelopes 4 full-color postcards portfolio enclosure 978-1-61689-293-7 $16.95 / £12.99 Paula Scher MAPS New York / Paris / London: Three Mini Journals 4.25 x 5.75 in / 10.8 x 14.6 cm Set of 3 journals (1 gridded / 1 lined / 1 blank) 64 pp each Paperback, with sewn spine and back pocket 978-1-61689-143-5 $14.95 / £10.99 r igh t s: w Also Available . . . Paula Scher MAPS 978-1-61689-033-9 $50.00 / £35.00 r igh t s: w t The package itself folds out to become its own mini A-frame dwelling, perfect for desktop (or lakeside) display 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 2 9 3 7 5 1 6 9 5 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 1 4 3 5 5 1 4 9 5 74 Paper + Goods | Princeton Architectural Press | Spring 2015 Vintage Typography Notecards 4.75 x 6 x 1.75 in / 12.1 x 15.2 x 4.4 cm 12 2-color cards 6 designs, repeating 2 times 12 envelopes 978-1-61689-146-6 $14.95 / £10.99 r igh t s: w Quattro Parole Italiane Notecards Louise Fili 4.75 x 6 x 1.75 in / 12.1 x 15.2 x 4.4 cm 12 full-color cards, 4 designs, repeating 3 times 12 printed envelopes, plus artist bio and statement sheet 978-1-61689-279-1 $14.95 / £10.99 r igh t s: w Also Available . . . Draw Your Own Alphabets 978-1-61689-126-8 $19.95 r igh t s: n a M Also Available . . . Perfetto Pencils 978-1-61689-243-2 $14.95 / £10.99 r igh t s: w 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 2 7 9 1 5 1 4 9 5 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 1 4 6 6 5 1 4 9 5 75Spring 2015 | Princeton Architectural Press | Paper + Goods Also Available . . . I Paid the Light Bill Just to See Your Face Notecards Stephen Powers 4.75 x 6 x 1.75 in / 12.1 x 15.2 x 4.4 cm 12 full-color cards 6 designs, repeating 2 times 12 printed envelopes 978-1-61689-238-8 $14.95 / £10.99 r igh t s: w Also Available . . . In the City 978-1-61689-154-1 $22.95 / £13.99 r igh t s: w Nigel Peake City and Country Notecards Nigel Peake 4.75 x 6 x 1.75 in / 12.1 x 15.2 x 4.4 cm 12 full-color cards 12 designs / 12 envelopes 978-1-61689-186-2 $14.95 / £10.99 r igh t s: w A Love Letter to the City 978-1-61689-208-1 $24.95 / £15.99 r igh t s: w 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 1 8 6 2 5 1 4 9 5 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 2 3 8 8 5 1 4 9 5 76 Paper + Goods | Princeton Architectural Press | Spring 2015 Blackstock’s Collections Notepads Gregory L. Blackstock 3.5 x 8.25 in / 8.89 x 20.95 cm Set of 3 lined notepads, each 36 sheets, bound at top Bellyband, shrink-wrapped 978-1-61689-192-3 $15.95 / £11.99 r igh t s: w Nested Notes Egg Sticky Notes 4.5 x 4.5 x 1 in / 11.43 x 11.43 x 2.54 cm Box with acetate lid 3 die-cut sticky notepads 60 sheets each 978-1-61689-194-7 $10.95 / £7.99 r igh t s: w Also Available . . . Blackstock’s Collections 978-1-56898-579-4 $24.95 / £14.99 r igh t s: w Also Available . . . America’s Other Audubon 978-1-61689-059-9 $45.00 / £30.00 r igh t s: w 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 1 9 2 3 5 1 5 9 5 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 1 9 4 7 5 1 0 9 5 77Spring 2015 | Princeton Architectural Press | Paper + Goods Bird Watching and Other Nature Observations Journal 5.75 x 8.25 in / 15 x 21 cm 144 pp / 20 color Hardcover 978-1-61689-141-1 $16.95 / £12.99 r igh t s: w dat e : l o c at ion : w e at h e r : c a r o l i n a w r e n Thryothorus ludovicianus dat e : l o c at ion : w e at h e r : Nests & Eggs Notecards 4.75 x 6 x 1.75 in / 12.1 x 15.2 x 4.5 cm 12 full-color cards 6 designs, repeating 2 times 12 envelopes 978-1-61689-138-1 $14.95 / £10.99 r igh t s: w 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 1 4 1 1 5 1 6 9 5 9 7 8 1 6 1 6 8 9 1 3 8 1 5 1 4 9 5 78 Distribution & Representation USA Chronicle Books 680 Second Street San Francisco, CA 94107 tel: 800-759-0190 fax: 800-286-9471 order.desk@hbgusa.com www.chroniclebooks.info Northern CA Anna-Lisa Sandstrum tel: 415-537-4299 fax: 415-537-4470 annalisa_sandstrum@ chroniclebooks.com Southern CA, AZ, NM, TX Dave Ehrlich tel: 323-346-7498 dave_ehrlich@ chroniclebooks.com Pacific Northwest, WA, OR, UT, AK Courtney Payne tel: 206-409-8556 fax: 206-723-3956 courtney_ payne@ chroniclebooks.com ID, MT, Northern WY David Diehl tel: 206-328-0295 fax: 206-328-0295 david_diehl@mindspring.com CO, Southern WY Jock Hayward tel: 415-383-3883 fax: 415-383-3883 handhayward@yahoo.com Midwest: IA, IL, IN, KS, KY, MI, MN, MO, ND, NE, OH, SD, WI Abraham Associates Stu Abraham, John Mesjak, Roy Schonfeld tel: 800-701-2489 fax: 952-927-8089 info@abrahamassociatesinc.com New England: CT, NH, MA, ME, RI, VT Nanci McCrackin tel: 603-924-8766 fax: 603-924-0096 mcbooks@aol.com NY Metro, NJ, selected DC & PA accounts Melissa Grecco tel: 516-827-9320 fax: 347-521-3139 melissa_grecco@ chroniclebooks.com Mid-Atlantic: DC, DE, MD, PA, WV Chesapeake & Hudson tel: 800-231-4469 fax: 800-307-5163 office@cheshud.com Southeast: AL, AR, FL, GA, LA, MS, SC, NC, OK, TN, TX, VA Southern Territory Associates tel: 806-799-9997 fax: 806-799-9777 sta77@suddenlink.net Library & Educational Accounts Anna-Lisa Sandstrum tel: 415-537-4299 fax: 415-537-4470 annalisa_sandstrum@ chroniclebooks.com Gift Representatives Pacific Northwest: ID, OR, MT, WA Bettencourt Seattle, WA, Showroom tel: 800-462-6099 fax: 206-762-2457 info@bettencourtgroup.com California & Southwest: AZ, CA, CO, HI, NM, NV, UT, WY Stephen Young & Associates Los Angeles, CA, Showroom tel: 800-282-5863 fax: 888-748-5895 Midwest: IL, IN, KY, MI, OH Kelley & Crew Inc. 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Box 8 Carlton North, Victoria 3054 Australia tel: +61 3-9380-5337 fax: +61 3-9380-5037 manicex@manic.com.au South Africa Real Books 137 Smit Street Braamfontein 2001 Johannesburg, South Africa tel: +27 11-403-3700 fax: +27 11-339-3169 info@realbooks.co.za Eastern & Western Africa: Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Ethiopia, Mauritius, Seychelles, Zambia, Malawi, Ghana, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Cameroon Anita Zih A-Z Africa Service anita.zih@azabs.nl Index A Abbe, Dorothy 47 A-Frame Notecards and Postcards 73 Animal Box 56 Apatoff, Lise 28 Architecture Oriented Otherwise 51 Artists Unframed 10 B Backpack, The 67 Back Pocket, The 67 Balancing Acts 26 Beyer, Rick 8 Bingaman-Burt, Kate 71 Bird Watching and Other Nature Observations Journal 77 Birthstone Notecards 70 Birthstone Planner 70 Blackstock, Gregory L. 76 Blackstock’s Collections Notepads 76 Brantley, Robert S. 38 Brodsky, Alexander 46 Brodsky & Utkin 46 Brooklyn Art Library 12, 67 Brownell, Blaine 44 Budashevskaya, Olga 49 C Cognoscenti’s Guide to Florence, The 28 D Designed for the Future 42 E Eat Sleep Read Journal set 66 Ed Ruscha 64 F Felt 40 Fili, Louise 28, 59 Fondation Le Corbusier 61 Foresta, Merry A. 10 Fredericks and Mae 58 Fredericks & Mae Playing Cards 58 Friends of Type 62, 63 G Ghost Army of World War II, The 8 Gill, Bryan Nash 72 Graphic Design: The New Basics 32 Gray, Lucy 26 Green, Jared 42 Grids & Guides 60 Grids & Guides: 3 Notepads 60 Grids & Guides: Notebook for Visual Thinkers 60 H Henry Howard 38 Hypernatural 44 I I Am a Man 65 IndieBound 66 Inside the Rainbow 49 I Paid the Light Bill Just to See Your Face 75 J Jacobson, Clare 50 Jenny, Peter 24 K Keep Fresh, Stay Rad 63 Keep the Change 18 Kennett, Bruce 47 Kirwin, Liza 48 Kwun, Aileen 14 L Ladies of Letterpress, The 30 Leatherbarrow, David 51 Le Corbusier 61 Le Corbusier Modulor Rule 61 Let’s Go Letter Hunting 62 Ligon, Glenn 65 Lippert, Kevin 22 Local Color 16 LOST 20 Lupton, Ellen 32 M Maffei, Giorgio 34 Mark Mothersbaugh: Collected Facts & Lies 65 McGee, Victor 38 Menocal, Happy 56 Messenger Bag, The 67 More Than Words 48 Munari’s Books 34 N Nested Notes Egg Sticky Notes 76 Nests & Eggs Notecards 77 Nigel Peake City and Country Notecards 75 NOISE 64 P Pamphlet Architecture 35 52 Pattern Box 69 Pattern Papers 69 Pattern Roll 68 Paula Scher MAPS 73 Peake, Nigel 75 Perfetto Pencils 59 Peterman, Sara Elands 12 Peterman, Steven 12 Phillips, Ian 20 Phillips, Jennifer Cole 32 Pocket Dept. Notebooks, The 67 Pocket Pack, The 67 Powers, Stephen 75 Public Natures 36 Q Quattro Parole Italianne Notecards 74 R Randl, Chad 73 Redstone Diary 2016 66 Renard, Helene 40 Robinson, Mimi 16 Rothenstein, Julian 49, 66 S Sayles, Elizabeth 8 Shirt Pocket, The 67 Sketchbook Project World Tour, The 12 Slow Manifesto: Lebbeus Woods Blog 50 Smith, Bryn 14 Spiller, Harley J. 18 Swackhamer, Marc 44 T Textile Arts Center 68, 69 The Kitchen Art Studio 24 Thomas, Kseniya 30 Tutti Frutti Pencils 59 Twenty Over Eighty 14 U Unlearning to Draw 24 Utkin, Ilya 46 V Van Gogh Repetitions 64 Vintage Typography Notecards 74 W War Plan Red 22 Weiss/Manfredi 36 Werbler, Elisa 70 What Did I Buy Today 71 What Did I Eat Today 71 White, Jessica 30 William Addison Dwiggins: Stencilled Ornament and Illustration 47 Woodcut Notebooks 72 Woodcut Notecards 72 Y Young Architects 16 53 Rights Information W World WE World English WEI World English, excluding Italy NAM North America only NSAM North and South America only US United States only XUK World English, excluding UK XUKE World English, excluding UK and Europe XUKC World English, excluding UK and Commonwealth XUKCE World English, excluding UK, Commonwealth, and Europe XEU World, excluding Europe XAUNZ World English, excluding Australia and New Zealand XJ World, excluding Japan WXS World, excluding Special Territories (please contact Chronicle Books for details) Princeton Architectural Press 37 East 7th Street, New York, New York 10003 www.papress.com | blog.papress.com isbn: 978-1-61689-401-6 printed in the united states by wor za lla 
work_ztbmh3tmarfpbmyhgxb56dczmy	----	Drawing Movements as an Outcome of the Principle of Least Action Journal of Mathematical Psychology 45, 43�52 (2001) Drawing Movements as an Outcome of the Principle of Least Action Sergey Lebedev, Wai Hon Tsui, and Peter Van Gelder Nathan S. Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research and New York University Medical Center According to the two-thirds power law the cube of the speed of a drawing movement is proportional to the radius of curvature of the trajectory, and the coefficient of proportionality has the meaning of mechanical power. We derive this empirical law from the variational principle known in physics as the principle of least action. It states that if a movement between two points of a given path obeys the two-thirds law, then the amount of work required to execute a trajectory in a fixed time is minimal. In this strict sense one may say that among infinitely many ways to execute a given path, the central nervous system chooses the most economical. We show that the kinematic equations for all drawing movements are solutions of a certain differential equation with a single (time-variable) coefficient. We consider several special cases of drawing movements corresponding to simplest forms of this coefficient. � 2001 Academic Press Drawing and handwriting involve complex movements executed as a chain of individually planned simple movements. Figure 1 provides a good example of such planning: a great artist in a signature-like movement drew a silhouette of a bird (Clark, 1993). It seems reasonable to think that an internal representation of this drawing in a form of an image or silhouette was available to the implementation stage prior to the inception of the movement.1 The segmentation into units seems to occur at the cusps, points of inflection, or contour discontinuities, and within each segment the curvature preserves its sign. It has been empirically established (Lacquaniti, Terzuolo, 6 Viviani, 1983; Viviani 6 Cenzato, 1985) that within each segment of execution a power-law doi:10.1006�jmps.1999.1287, available online at http:��www.idealibrary.com on 43 0022-2496�01 �35.00 Copyright � 2001 by Academic Press All rights of reproduction in any form reserved. All authors are at the Nathan Kline Institute and the Department of Psychiatry, New York University Medical Center. We are grateful to Professor Edgar E. Coons of the New York University for insight on how the central nervous system uses the principle of least action. We also thank the young artist Jonathan Lester for participation in a pilot experiment, which led us to fruitful ideas. Finally, we are indebted to Professor Ethibar N. Dzhafarov of Purdue University for his constructive suggestions. Address correspondence and reprint requests to Peter Van Gelder, Department of Psychiatry, Room TH-N 416, NYU Medical Center, 550 First Avenue, New York, NY 10016. E-mail: pvg�ipl.med.nyu.edu. 1 Here is how Picasso understands the process: ``Drawing is no joke. There is something very serious and mysterious about the fact that one can represent a living human being with line alone and create not only his likeness but, in addition, an image of how he really is. That is the marvel!'' (Clark, 1993). FIG. 1. Pablo Picasso, Dove, 1961, � 1999 Estate of Pablo Picasso�Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York. This drawing suggests that the entire silhouette can be decomposed into about 20 segments, and the segmentation seems to occur at the cuspids and the points of inflection. relation exists between the angular velocity of a movement and the curvature of the trajectory 0(t)=K } C(t)2�3, (1) where t denotes an instant in time, 0(t) is the angular velocity, and C(t) is the curvature. The coefficient of proportionality K is called the gain factor and remains approximately constant within each segment of execution (Viviani 6 Cenzato, 1985). This dependence has been known as the ``two-thirds power law.'' This law is also known in a different but mathematically equivalent form (Viviani 6 Cenzato, 1985), V(t)=K } R(t)1�3, (2) where V(t) and R(t) denote instantaneous values of the tangential velocity of the movement and the radius of curvature of the trajectory, correspondingly. Although a given drawing trajectory can be traced in infinitely many different ways, the nervous system effectively reduces this excess of degrees of freedom (Viviani 6 Flash, 1995; Viviani 6 Schneider, 1991). In this article we derive the two-thirds power law from the principle of least action and show the constraints imposed on the parametric equations of drawing movements. These constraints are 44 LEBEDEV, TSUI, AND VAN GELDER sufficient to characterize the control system that governs the execution of drawing movements and the reduction in the degrees of freedom that are available before the inception of such a movement. 1. TWO-THIRDS POWER LAW AND THE STRATEGY OF LEAST ACTION Equation (2) can be rewritten in the form V 3(t) R(t) =P, (3) where P=K 3=const. The left-hand side of (3) can be decomposed into V 2(t) R(t) } V(t) =An(t) } V(t), (4) where An(t) is the magnitude of the normal or centripetal acceleration, that is, an acceleration directed toward the center of the curvature of the path. The centripetal acceleration characterizes the rate of change in the direction of the velocity vector (Yavorsky 6 Detlaf, 1982). Then (3) takes the form An(t) } V(t) =P, (5) which states that in drawing movements the product of the instantaneous values of centripetal acceleration and the tangential velocity remains constant during segment execution. This product is known in physics as mechanical power, and it characterizes the amount of mechanical work per unit of time necessary to keep movement along the trajectory. The substitution into (3) R(t) = (x* 2+y* 2)3�2 x* y� &y* x� , (6) V=- x* 2+y* 2, where x=x(t), y=y(t) are the kinematic equations of movement, and x* , y* , x� , y� denote their first and second derivatives with respect to time, gives P=x* y� &y* x� , (7) which is the two-thirds power law in a differential form (see also Viviani 6 Cenzato (1985)). It is known that along a given path y=y(x), x* y� &y* x� =x* 3y"x (Bronshtein 6 Semendyayev, 1985). Thus (7) can be rewritten in the form P=x* 3y"x , (8) where y"x denotes the second derivative of y with respect to x. 45DRAWING MOVEMENTS AND THE PRINCIPLE OF LEAST ACTION The very fact that the mechanical power remains constant throughout the movement suggests that there exists a certain criterion from which the two-thirds power law can be derived. To find this criterion, consider the problem: along a given path y=f (x), find a movement whose kinematic equations require the smallest amount of mechanical work necessary to accomplish the movement between two given points M(x0 , y0) and N(x1 , y1) of a curve in a fixed time T=T1&T0 . Mathematically, this means that the kinematic equations x=x(t) and y=y(t) must minimize the integral | T1 T0 x* 3y"x dt. (9) In Appendix A we show that the necessary conditions for an extremum of (9) are relations (8), that is, x* 3y"x =const. In the field of theoretical physics the time integral of the form (9) is known as the action of the system, and the assertion that the action on an actual path is minimal is called the principle of least action (Cohen, 1981; Kompaneyets, 1961; Landau 6 Lifshitz, 1969). In this strict sense we may say that in drawing movements the central nervous system follows the strategy of least action: among infinitely many ways to execute a given path, the system chooses the most economical. In Section 4 we illustrate this statement by considering three different ways of drawing a segment of a Lissajous figure, the movement with a constant velocity, the case when the x and y coordinates oscillate independently with different angular frequencies (Lissajous motion), and the movement governed by the strategy of least action. 2. DIFFERENTIAL FORM OF THE TWO-THIRDS POWER LAW AND ITS PROPERTIES By the two-thirds power law, the mechanical power of a drawing movement remains constant during trajectory execution: x* y� &y* x� =P=const. (10) To see what kind of constraints it imposes on the parametric equations of movement we differentiate it with respect to time, x* y! &y* x! =0 (11) or x! x* = y! y* , (12) 46 LEBEDEV, TSUI, AND VAN GELDER and this is another useful form of the two-thirds power law. It states that in draw- ing movements the ratios of the third to the first derivatives of the two kinematic equations must be equal. It follows immediately from (12) that the kinematic equa- tions of movement, x(t), y(t), must simultaneously satisfy the equation u! +q(t) u* =0, (13) that is, x! +q(t) x* =0 and y! +q(t) y* =0. Equation (13) is a third-order linear ordinary differential equation. It is homo- geneous (right-hand term equals zero), and its solutions depend solely on the coefficient q(t). Thus, all drawing movements can be classified with respect to the form of this coefficient. In the next section we consider three simple special cases of q(t). It can be seen from (13) that u=const is one of its solutions. Then its general solution is of the form u=C0+C1 w1(t) +C2 w2(t), (14) where w1(t), w2(t) are any linearly independent particular solutions of (13), and C0 , C1 , C2 are arbitrary constants. Without loss of generality we assume C0=0. Then x=Cx 1 w1(t) +Cx 2 w2(t) y=Cy 1 w1(t)+Cy 2 w2(t). 3. CONSTANT-COEFFICIENT CASE: ELLIPSES, HYPERBOLAS, AND PARABOLAS The simplest case of (13) is obtained by putting q(t) =const. If this constant is nonzero, then we have (see, e.g., Korn 6 Korn, 1968) Class 1: q=|2>0 x=A1 sin(|t+.1) (15) y=A2 sin(|t+.2), Class 2: q=&|2<0 x=A1 e |t+A2 e &|t (16) y=B1 e |t +B2 e &|t. In the case when q=0, direct integration leads to Class 3: x=A0 tA1 t+A2 t 2 y=B0 tB1 t+B2 t 2. 47DRAWING MOVEMENTS AND THE PRINCIPLE OF LEAST ACTION or, by assigning the initial positions to zero, x=A1 t+A2 t 2 (17) y=B1 t+B2 t 2. The motion described by (15) is called an elliptically polarized oscillation; the term is due to the fact that the path-equation in the Cartesian coordinate system is an ellipse (Yavorsky 6 Detlaf, 1982). The path-equation of (16) is a hyperbola, and the path-equation of (17) is a parabolic path. Thus, whenever the coefficient q in (13) is a constant, the two-thirds law allows the motor planning only in terms of the second-order curves: ellipses, hyperbolas, parabolas, or their degenerated cases, e.g., straight lines. The vast majority of experimental studies exploit the elliptic trajectory. In the study of drawing movements in children, Viviani 6 Schneider (1991) con- sidered movements along an elliptic path with tangential velocity of the form V(t)=K } R(t) ;, K, ;>0. They define this class of movements as generalized Lissajous elliptic motion (GLEM model). When ;=1�3 we have the two-thirds power law movement along an elliptic trajectory, that is, mutually perpendicular harmonic oscillations of equal frequency, or our Class 1. The two other classes have never been used. 4. LISSAJOUS MOTIONS DO NOT OBEY THE TWO-THIRDS POWER LAW The class of Lissajous motions is defined as harmonic oscillations of the form x=A1 sin(| 1 t+.1) (18) y=A2 sin(|2 t+.2), with commensurable angular frequencies |1 |2 = n1 n2 , where n1 , n2 are some integers (e.g., Symon, 1953; Yavorsky 6 Detlaf, 1982). The closed paths of such motions are called Lissajous figures. Figure 2 presents one such path with |2=2|1 . By taking first and third derivatives of Eq. (18) one can see that whenever |1{|2 , Eq. (12) does not hold. Thus, with the exception of simple harmonic oscillations of equal angular frequencies, Lissajous motions do not obey the two-thirds power law. In Appendix B we derive equations necessary to draw Lissajous figures obeying the two-thirds power law, and Fig. 2 provides an example. 48 LEBEDEV, TSUI, AND VAN GELDER FIG. 2. (A) Lissajous figure: x=25 sin(0.2?t+0), y=19 sin(0.4?t+180). The figure consists of four identical, mirror-transformed segments. If a movement follows the above equations, it will have a period of 10 s. The data present counterclockwise movements along the lower right segment beginning from the center. All movements must be accomplished in 2.5 s. (B) The mechanical power of movements as a function of time for constant velocity movement (short-dashed line), Lissajous movement (long-dashed line), and the optimal, two-thirds power law movement (solid line). (C) Mechanical work as a function of time, for each of the movements. It can be seen that the integral assumes a minimum value for the two-thirds power law, and that the constant velocity strategy requires the greatest amount of mechanical work. (D) Velocities of the respective movements. 5. DISCUSSION It is generally accepted in the fields of drawing motions, handwriting, and similar movements, that motor planning takes place prior to the inception of movement: a complex trajectory is planned as a chain of concatenated segments, and each segment is executed by the two-thirds power law (Massey, Lurito, Pellitzer, 6 Georgopoulos, 1992; Schwartz, 1994; Viviani 6 Flash, 1995; Wolpert, Ghahramany, 6 Jordan, 1995). One of the articles (Massey et al., 1992) ends with this statement: ``However, the neural basis which would explain why this relation follows a power 49DRAWING MOVEMENTS AND THE PRINCIPLE OF LEAST ACTION law of relatively constant exponent remains to be explored.''2 The principle of least action is the most general principle to describe the behavior of any mechanical system (Landau 6 Lifshitz, 1969). In drawing movements we deal with a mechanical system of a special nature: it is planned and governed by the central nervous system (CNS). From the principle of least action it follows that the CNS does not impose the power law directly, but follows the strategy of accomplishing the desired goal in a preset time with the minimum mechanical work required. In drawing elliptic templates, both accuracy and consistency of drawing increase with age (Viviani 6 Schneider, 1991). Rhesus monkeys must be trained properly, with rewards, before they are able to draw a spiral, but after successful training they perform the task as humans do, in compliance with the two-thirds power law (Schwartz, 1994). These facts suggest that the two-thirds power law is the result of the principle of least action acquired through a training process: among infinitely many possible ways to move along a given path, the CNS chooses the one which minimizes the amount of mechanical work needed to perform the desired task. APPENDIX A: DERIVATION OF THE TWO-THIRDS LAW FROM THE PRINCIPLE OF LEAST ACTION We show here that if the functional I=| T1 T0 x* 3y"x dt (A1.1) is minimal, then the Lagrangian function must be a constant, or x* 3y"x=const. (A1.2) The Euler�Lagrange equation is Fx & d dt Fx* =0, (A1.3) where Fx and Fx* are partial derivatives of the Lagrangian function in (A1.1) with respect to x and x* . For the function x* 3y"x we have Fx =x* 3yx$$$ , Fx* =3x* 2y"x , and d dt Fx* =6x* x� y"x+3x* 3yx$$$; 50 LEBEDEV, TSUI, AND VAN GELDER 2 A similar question could have been applied to Kepler's famous two-thirds power law (known as Kepler's third law of planetary motion), which states that the major semiaxes of elliptic orbits of the planets are proportional to the periods of revolution of the planets around the sun to a power of two- thirds. Nobody understood why the planets follow this law until the Universal Law of Gravitation was discovered, from which all Kepler's Laws follow with necessity (Motz 6 Duveen, 1977). hence, (A1.3) is 3x* x� y"x +x* 3yx$$$=0, (A1.4) By multiplying both sides of (A1.4) by x* one gets 3x* 2x� y"x +x* 4yx$$$=0, (A1.5) which is equivalent to d dt (x* 3y"x) =0 (A1.6) or x* 3y"x=const, (A1.7) which is the two-thirds power law. APPENDIX B: DRAWING LISSAJOUS FIGURES WITH RESPECT TO THE TWO-THIRDS POWER LAW Here we derive the differential equation for drawing the Lissajous contour in Fig. 2 in accordance with the two-thirds power law (solid lines), and we explain how these lines have been obtained. By the two-thirds power law we have x* 3y"x=P=const. (A2.1) To obtain the expression for y"x , we first eliminate time from the kinematic equations of Lissajous motion (Eq. (18)), x=A1 sin(|1 t+.1) y=A2 sin(|2 t+.2). We get y=A2 sin \$ arcsin x A1 +,+ , (A2.2) where $= n2 n1 , ,=.2&$.1 . (A2.3) 51DRAWING MOVEMENTS AND THE PRINCIPLE OF LEAST ACTION Then, after differentiating (A2.2) twice with respect to x we get y"x = A2 $x (A 21&x 2)3�2 cos \$ arcsin x A1 +,+ & A2 $ 2 A 21&x 2 sin \$ arcsin x A1 +,+ . (A2.4) Equation (A2.1) can be rewritten in the form: x* = 3� P y"x . (A2.5) To produce Fig. 2 (solid lines) we integrated (A2.5) by the Runge�Kutta fourth- order method (Jeffrey, 1995). REFERENCES Bronshtein, I. N., 6 Semendyayev, K. A. (1985). Handbook of mathematics. New York: Van Nostrand. Clark, H. (Ed.) (1993). Picasso: In his words. San Francisco: Collins. Cohen, B. I. (Ed.). (1981). The conservation of energy and the principle of least action. New York: Arno. Jeffrey, A. (1995). Handbook of mathematical formulas and integrals. San Diego: Academic. Kompaneyets, A. S. (1961). Theoretical physics. New York: Dover. Korn, G. A., 6 Korn, T. M. (1968). Mathematical handbook for scientists and engineers (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw�Hill. Lacquaniti, F., Terzuolo, C., 6 Viviani, P. (1983). The law relating the kinematic and figural aspects of drawing movements. Acta Psychologica 54(1�3), 115�130. Landau, L. D., 6 Lifshitz, E. M. (1969). Mechanics. Oxford: Pergamon. Massey, J. T., Lurito, J. T., Pellizzer, G., 6 Georgopoulos, A. P. (1992). Three-dimensional drawings in isometric conditions: Relation between geometry and kinematics. Experimental Brain Research, 88(3), 685�690. Motz, L., 6 Duveen, A. (1977). Essentials of astronomy. New York: Columbia. Murdock, J. A. (1991). Perturbations: Theory and methods. New York: Wiley. Schwartz, A. B. (1994). Direct cortical representation of drawing. Science, 265, 540�542. Symon, K. R. (1953). Mechanics. Reading, MA: Addison�Wesley. Viviani, P., 6 Cenzato, M. (1985). Segmentation and coupling in complex movements. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 11(6), 828�845. Viviani, P., 6 Flash, T. (1995). Minimum-jerk, two-thirds power law, and isochrony: Converging approaches to movement planning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception H Performance, 21(1), 32�53. Viviani, P., 6 Schneider, R. (1991). A developmental study of the relationship between geometry and kinematics in drawing movements. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 17(1), 198�218. Wolpert, D. M., Ghahramani, Z., 6 Jordan, M. I. (1995). An internal model for sensorimotor integration. Science, 269, 1880�1882. Yavorsky, B. M., 6 Detlaf, A. A. (1982). A modern handbook of physics (English translation). Moscow: Mir. Received: May 12, 1998 52 LEBEDEV, TSUI, AND VAN GELDER FIG. 1 1. TWO-THIRDS POWER AND THE STRATEGY OF LEAST ACTION 2. DIFFERENTIAL FORM OF THE TWO-THIRDS POWER LAW AND ITS PROPERTIES 3. CONSTANT-COEFFICIENT CASE: ELLIPSES, HYPERBOLAS, AND PARABOLAS 4. LISSAJOUS MOTIONS DO NOT OBEY THE TWO-THIRDS POWER LAW FIG. 2 5. DISCUSSION APPENDIX A: DERIVATION OF THE TWO-THIRDS LAW FROM THE PRINCIPLE OF LEAST ACTION APPENDIX B: DRAWING LISSAJOUS FIGURES WITH RESPECT TO THE TWO-THIRDS POWER LAW REFERENCES 
work_zvufxd3ygne6raqcqlv77dzgsu	----	[PDF] Imagine a mouse and an elephant: Hemispheric asymmetries of imagination | Semantic Scholar Skip to search formSkip to main content> Semantic Scholar's Logo Search Sign InCreate Free Account You are currently offline. Some features of the site may not work correctly. DOI:10.1080/1357650X.2016.1200594 Corpus ID: 6947758Imagine a mouse and an elephant: Hemispheric asymmetries of imagination @article{Dural2017ImagineAM, title={Imagine a mouse and an elephant: Hemispheric asymmetries of imagination}, author={S. Dural and Hakan Çetinkaya and O. G{\"u}nt{\"u}rk{\"u}n}, journal={Laterality: Asymmetries of Body, Brain and Cognition}, year={2017}, volume={22}, pages={354 - 361} } S. Dural, Hakan Çetinkaya, O. Güntürkün Published 2017 Psychology, Medicine Laterality: Asymmetries of Body, Brain and Cognition ABSTRACT The present study aimed to explore the existence of an asymmetrical bias in the imagination of pairs of objects of unequal size. We assumed that such pairs are conceptualized with the smaller object being placed on the left, creating an ascending size order from left to right. Such a bias could derive from a cognitive strategy known from the mental number line. Sixty-four participants were instructed to imagine stimulus-pairs that were staggered from those showing very prominent intra… Expand View on Taylor & Francis bio.psy.rub.de Save to Library Create Alert Cite Launch Research Feed Share This Paper 1 CitationsBackground Citations 1 View All Topics from this paper Imagination Physical object Greater Small Assumed One Citation Citation Type Citation Type All Types Cites Results Cites Methods Cites Background Has PDF Publication Type Author More Filters More Filters Filters Sort by Relevance Sort by Most Influenced Papers Sort by Citation Count Sort by Recency Compatibility Between Physical Stimulus Size – Spatial Position and False Recognitions S. Dural, B. B. Burhanoglu, +4 authors H. Çetinkaya Psychology, Medicine Front. Psychol. 2018 View 2 excerpts, cites background Save Alert Research Feed References SHOWING 1-10 OF 15 REFERENCES SORT BYRelevance Most Influenced Papers Recency Number-space mapping in the newborn chick resembles humans’ mental number line R. Rugani, G. Vallortigara, Konstantinos Priftis, L. Regolin Biology, Medicine Science 2015 177 PDF View 1 excerpt, references background Save Alert Research Feed Mental Number Line M. Fischer Mathematics 2013 14 Save Alert Research Feed Development of Elementary Numerical Abilities: A Neuronal Model S. Dehaene, J. Changeux Psychology, Medicine Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 1993 585 View 1 excerpt, references background Save Alert Research Feed The Mental Number Line and the Human Angular Gyrus S. Göbel, V. Walsh, M. Rushworth Psychology, Medicine NeuroImage 2001 241 PDF Save Alert Research Feed Brain damage: Neglect disrupts the mental number line M. Zorzi, K. Priftis, C. Umilta Psychology, Medicine Nature 2002 622 Save Alert Research Feed The mental representation of parity and number magnitude. S. Dehaene, S. Bossini, P. Giraux Psychology 1993 2,033 View 1 excerpt, references background Save Alert Research Feed Interactions between number and space in parietal cortex E. Hubbard, M. Piazza, P. Pinel, S. Dehaene Psychology, Medicine Nature Reviews Neuroscience 2005 1,005 PDF Save Alert Research Feed The assessment and analysis of handedness: the Edinburgh inventory. R. Oldfield Psychology, Medicine Neuropsychologia 1971 29,377 PDF View 2 excerpts Save Alert Research Feed Preverbal and verbal counting and computation C. R. Gallistel, R. Gelman Psychology, Medicine Cognition 1992 1,131 View 1 excerpt, references background Save Alert Research Feed THE ASSESSMENT AND ANALYSIS OF HANDEDNESS R. Oldfield Psychology 1971 3,481 View 3 excerpts Save Alert Research Feed ... 1 2 ... Related Papers Abstract Topics 1 Citations 15 References Related Papers Stay Connected With Semantic Scholar Sign Up About Semantic Scholar Semantic Scholar is a free, AI-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the Allen Institute for AI. Learn More → Resources DatasetsSupp.aiAPIOpen Corpus Organization About UsResearchPublishing PartnersData Partners   FAQContact Proudly built by AI2 with the help of our Collaborators Terms of Service•Privacy Policy The Allen Institute for AI By clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our Privacy Policy, Terms of Service, and Dataset License ACCEPT & CONTINUE 
work_zqz5e5cbdbb6zcwd6zptc7aaum	----	Synergistic use of Py–THM–GCMS, DTMS, and ESI–MS for the characterization of the organic fraction of modern enamel paints Kokkori et al. Herit Sci (2015) 3:30 DOI 10.1186/s40494-015-0058-x R E S E A R C H A R T I C L E Synergistic use of Py–THM–GCMS, DTMS, and ESI–MS for the characterization of the organic fraction of modern enamel paints Maria Kokkori1*, Ken Sutherland1, Jaap Boon2, Francesca Casadio1 and Marc Vermeulen3 Abstract Introduction: In this study, mass spectrometric techniques (THM–Py–GCMS, DTMS and ESI–MS) have been used to characterize the organic fraction of early twentieth century oil-based enamel paints. Analysis has been carried out on dry and liquid samples from historical reference paints, and on color swatches from commercial paint brochures, with a special focus on Ripolin. This renowned French brand of enamel paints, manufactured for household and other uses since 1897, was reportedly used by many avant-garde artists. Confirming the presence of enamel paint such as Ripolin in early twentieth century artworks scientifically through binding medium analysis is challenging because, until the end of the Second World War, the most widely used house paints were oil-based and chemically similar to artists’ oil paints. In addition, artists often modified/reformulated materials including oils, driers, industrial and house paints to customize their handling and optical properties. The challenge of identifying oil-based enamel paints on the basis of chemical composition is illustrated by the analysis of samples from two paintings by Wassily Kandinsky and Pablo Picasso. Results: Analysis demonstrated that the organic fraction of Ripolin paints is typically composed of heat-bodied linseed oil in mixture with variable amounts of diterpene (Pinaceae) resin, in accordance with the industrial technical literature of the time. Comparative analyses of Lefranc artists’ tube paints suggested a more variable composition with respect to the type(s) of oil and their pre-treatment, and showed the presence of Pinaceae resin at trace levels only in two cases. Beeswax was detected in one of the tube paints tested. Conclusions: The results of this study indicate that complementary information can be obtained from the study of liquid paint from cans and dried paint-outs, while the media of painted brochures may differ from the original formu- lation as those were designed for expediency of drying and aesthetics. The results also elucidate how formulations and processing technology influence the physical and drying properties of oil-based enamel paints, in comparison with contemporary artists’ oil tube paints. Further research on a broader range of reference materials should help in the development of refined strategies for characterizing oil-based paints from the early twentieth century. Keywords: Ripolin, Enamel paints, Mass spectrometric techniques © 2015 Kokkori et al. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/ publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated. Introduction Ready-mixed industrial and household paints were an invention of the late nineteenth-early twentieth century [17]. Significant advances in paint technology and experi- mentation with different types of raw or heat-processed oils, resins and curing agents, provided commercial painters with products that had good hiding and level- ling properties, consistency and brushability, provided adequate protection to the surface, dried fast, and came ready-mixed in an easy-to-use can [44]. Similarly, the for- mulations of artists’ tube paints were expanded to include a variety of ingredients, with a drying oil (one rich in polyunsaturated triglycerides) or mixtures of oils as the main component, and additives such as wax, rosin or Open Access *Correspondence: mkokkori@artic.edu 1 The Art Institute of Chicago, 111 S. Michigan Ave., Chicago, IL 60603, USA Full list of author information is available at the end of the article http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/ http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/ http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1186/s40494-015-0058-x&domain=pdf Page 2 of 14Kokkori et al. Herit Sci (2015) 3:30 metal soaps. The tube paint was designed to dry through oxidative cross-linking of the oil binder upon exposure to air and in the presence of a catalyst, which could be one of the pigments themselves, in a process that could take months to achieve a dry-to-the-touch surface and decades to reach a fully cured status. The ability for the paint to retain brushstrokes was important, as well as its thixotropic properties. On the other hand, industrial and household oil-based enamel paints were applied in thin coatings and required to be dry to the touch in a few hours and cured within days. A brushless surface appear- ance was desired in most cases. In this context the term “enamel” describes the glossy, porcelain-like finish of the dried paint:  a brushless surface appearance was desired in most cases. Oil-based enamel paints soon became popular among avant-garde European painters: Pablo Picasso, Wass- ily Kandinsky, Francis Picabia, and René Magritte are among those reported to have used such paints in their works, in particular those produced by Ripolin. Ripo- lin paints were originally developed in the Netherlands in the early 1890s through the work of the chemist Carl Julius Ferdinand Riep [37], and from 1897 until the end of the Second World War Ripolin production took place on the premises of the famed fine artists’ materials manufac- turer Lefranc, in Issy-les-Moulineaux, a suburb of Paris. Ripolin paints were high grade enamels that enjoyed enormous success in commercial applications as well as with the avant-garde artists of the time [8, 15, 24, 25, 39]. Confirming the presence of enamel paint such as Rip- olin in early twentieth century artworks scientifically through binding medium analysis is challenging because, until the end of the Second World War, the most widely used house paints were oil-based and chemically simi- lar to artists’ oil paints. In addition, artists often modi- fied their paints through the mixing of colors, as well as the addition of mediums, thinners, driers, waxes etc. to customize their handling and optical properties. As a result, suppositions about the presence of house paints in artworks have typically been based on a combination of visual characteristics, anecdotal and historical references. However, a growing body of reference data on the com- position of paints from this period may help to provide more informed interpretations and distinctions between the different types of paints. While the pigments and extenders for a large part of Ripolin’s production, spanning the period 1890–1950, have been documented [19, 39], no in-depth charac- terization of the organic fraction has been published to date. Because of a growing interest in the formulations of 20th century oil paints [47], with the publication of sev- eral isolated studies of oil-based enamels of the period [1, 7, 16, 21, 45], the results of this systematic study of the composition of the most important French brand of the early 20th century and its correlation with data from con- temporary Lefranc artists’ tube paint samples represent an important benchmark. Chromatographic and mass spectrometric methods have been extensively applied for the characterization of binding media of Old Master paintings and, similarly, of acrylics and other synthetic media, but only few stud- ies to date have focused on the technology of oil-based enamel paints from the first half of the 20th century. To fill this gap, and to provide a thorough characterization of 20th century oil-based enamel paints, several mass spectrometric techniques were used: pyrolysis gas chro- matography mass spectrometry with thermally-assisted hydrolysis and methylation (Py–THM–GCMS), direct temperature-resolved mass spectrometry (DTMS) and electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI–MS). While GCMS techniques are well established for deter- mination of the molecular components of oils and res- ins, direct MS techniques such as DTMS and ESI–MS provide complementary information on paint composi- tion since they can indicate the chemical form of species such as fatty and terpene acids in the paint (i.e. free, ioni- cally or covalently bonded), and allow characterization of higher molecular weight and polymeric fractions not amenable to Py–THM–GCMS analysis. The compara- tive analysis of paint in different forms—liquid samples from cans, dried paint-outs, and color swatches in bro- chures—provided further insights into drying and ageing processes in the media, as well as the adjustments made by paint manufacturers to their formulations for different purposes. The experimental work conducted here is also important to shed light on the relative merits of these dif- ferent kinds of samples for historic paint analysis. This paper presents results from the characterization of the binding media of an extensive reference collection of early 20th century house paints, primarily Ripolin, along with paint brochures and Lefranc artists’ tube paints assembled at the Art Institute of Chicago (AIC, Fig.  1). Two analytical case studies are presented to illustrate the challenges in discriminating industrial house paints and artists’ paints in practice: Kandinsky’s Leichtes 1930 (69  ×  48  cm, AM-1974-16; Musée National d’Art Mod- erne, MNAM, Centre Georges Pompidou) and Picasso’s Pêcheur assis à la casquette, 1946 (106.5  ×  82.5  cm, Musée Picasso Antibes, MPA 1946.1.20). Experimental Samples The oil-based enamel paints, all made by Ripolin except one ultramarine blue paint made by Bengaline, another French firm; and Lefranc tube paints were applied to microscope slides using a fixed-thickness applicator Page 3 of 14Kokkori et al. Herit Sci (2015) 3:30 to achieve a uniform film of approximately 100–200 microns. For this investigation paint samples were taken from films which had been stored at ambient temperature in a variety of light conditions (dark storage and ambi- ent indoor light) for approximately 6  years. Additional liquid and dried paint samples were taken directly from paint cans for analysis: when well-sealed, some cans have preserved their content in the liquid phase for almost a century. The examined samples cover a broad range of colors and dates of manufacture. 20 Ripolin paint sample cards (“brochures”, each containing 20–86 swatches of paint), which represent the entire color range produced by the company in France and roughly cover the period 1897–1950, have been gathered and analysed as reported in an earlier study [19]; several examples are discussed here for comparison with the samples from cans. In total, 31 samples of historic reference paints were analyzed for this study. The paint sample from Kandinsky’s Leichtes 1930 (sample #1, light blue paint from drip at edge), was provided by the MNAM, Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris [32], and the sample from Picasso’s Pêcheur assis à la casquette, 1946 (sample #5 from the back: drip of gray/ white under “Antibes” in the artist’s writing) by the Musée Picasso, Antibes [7, 39]. The cold-pressed linseed oil used as a reference in the ESI–MS measurements was pre- pared by Leslie Carlyle as part of the HART (Historically Accurate Reconstructions Techniques) project [5]; linseed stand oil was Winsor and Newton, collection of AIC. Py–THM–GCMS Py–THM–GCMS analyses were performed at AIC. Sam- ples of c. 20–50 μg were placed in stainless steel sample cups (Frontier Disposable Eco-Cup LF) and 2–4 μL of tri- methylphenylammonium hydroxide (25  % in methanol), depending on the sample size, were added; after 1 min the cup was loaded into the Frontier PY-2020iD pyrolyzer. A Varian 3800 gas chromatograph was used, coupled with a 2200 ion trap mass spectrometer operated in EI positive mode (70 eV; scan range m/z 35–650). He carrier gas was used in constant flow mode (1.0  mL/min) with a 50:1 split. The pyrolyzer temperature was 600  °C, GC inlet 280  °C. The GC oven temperature was programed from 50 °C with a 2 min hold, increased at 5 °C min−1 to 260 °C, 3 min hold, and then at 20 °C min−1 to 300 °C, final hold 5.9 min; total run time 54.9 min. The Varian MS data sys- tem was used for data acquisition and processing. DTMS For DTMS analysis, an aliquot of sample is homogenized in ethanol, which is subsequently applied to a Platinum/ Rhodium filament probe (Pt/Rh 9:1, diam.100 microns) and inserted in the ionization chamber of the JEOL SX102-102A 4-sector mass spectrometer for in-source analysis. Temperature was ramped after a 10  s waiting time from room temperature to approximately 800  °C at a rate of 8 °C per second. Spectra were generated at 16 eV electron ionisation over a mass range up to 1,000 Dalton at a cycle time of 1 s and accelerating voltage of 8 kV [3]. A MP-7000 data system was used for data processing. ESI–MS ESI–MS was performed on a Thermo nano-ESI LTQ FTMS for positive ion analysis at AMOLF (Amsterdam) and a Thermo Finnigan LcQ DUO MS for negative ion analysis at the University of Lisbon. The ethanol extracts were analyses as ammoniated solutions of paint samples as described in earlier studies [53]. Aliquots of the paints were taken up in chloroform-ethanol (7:3) and centri- fuged at 20,000  rpm to remove particulate matter. The solutions were diluted and ammonium acetate was added to a final concentration of 10 mmol. Results and discussion Py–THM–GCMS: samples from cans and paint brochures Py–THM–GCMS analysis of paint samples from the cans and brochures indicated the presence of drying oil, in Fig. 1 Ripolin and other oil-based enamel paints in the Art Institute of Chicago’s reference collection. Page 4 of 14Kokkori et al. Herit Sci (2015) 3:30 most cases combined with diterpene (Pinaceae) resin, as summarised in Table  1; representative examples of data for Ripolin Blanc d’ Ivoire and Noir d’ Ivoire are shown in Fig. 2. This is in general agreement with technical litera- ture on oleoresinous paints and specific historical refer- ences where Ripolin paint is often described as a lacquer containing linseed oil, resinous materials, some solvent and pigments [26] or as a ‘peinture vernissée’ containing hard or soft resins [38, 46]. The typical compounds indicating a drying oil are fatty acids and dicarboxylic acids deriving from the triacylglyc- erols of the oil binder [33]. The ratio of palmitic to stearic acid (P/S, based on peak areas in the total ion chroma- togram) ranges from 0.87 to 1.9 for the samples tested; while most of these values fall within the range typical for linseed oil (c. 1–2), the lower values may be attribut- able to the presence of additives such as stearates. Metal stearates have been used in the paint industry to help suspend pigments in oil to prevent separation, to reduce the amount of oil needed to wet the pigment, and/or to increase the body of the paint by forming a gel with the oil thereby requiring less pigment [18]. The presence of drying oil was indicated in particular by high levels of dicarboxylic acids. These are relatively stable end-products formed upon oxidation and scis- sion of unsaturated fatty acids and are encountered in relatively high amounts in aged oil paint systems. It is thought that the ratio of the diacids suberic acid (Su, C8) to azelaic acid (Az, C9) gives an indication whether the oil has been prepolymerized by heat treatment [34, 50], since isomerization of the original double bond sys- tems during heating leads to the formation of elevated amounts of diacids other than azelaic acid. Su/Az ratios of 0.4–0.5 have been proposed as an indication of heat- processing of the drying oils, although the value will vary according to the exact nature and extent of prepolym- erization and other factors. Bodied oils such as stand oil have higher viscosity and were used in oil enamel paints to improve application and performance characteristics [9, 36]. In the dried paint samples from cans examined, the generally high Su/Az ratios of 0.36–0.59 suggest that the oil medium has undergone heat-bodying. In com- parison to the dried paint samples, the liquid samples analysed did not exhibit detectable levels of diacids and correspondingly higher levels of monounsaturated (oleic) and polyunsaturated acids (linoleic, linolenic and iso- mers) were found; this is consistent with bulk paint that has been aged in a closed container and not exposed to oxidation. Ricinoleic acid was detected in two samples, both red paints (Ripolin rouge de Chine HP016 and HP030). These paints also showed unidentified components with an anthraquinone structure suggestive of an organic pigment (positively identified as PR83, alizarin red, with Raman spectroscopy) [19, 39]. Ricinoleic acid, a mono- unsaturated hydroxy C18 fatty acid, is a characteristic bio-marker for castor oil. This oil is considered a slow- or non-drying oil as it is composed of as much as 95  % ricinoleic acid, with only a few percent each of oleic and linoleic acids [43]. Surprisingly, it was considered a suit- able painting medium by Doerner [13], although viscous and remaining wet for a long time; other authors recom- mended that it be mixed with better drying oils such as linseed [29]. It is not clear at this time whether the pres- ence of castor oil is related to the specific formulation of the Ripolin red color or to the manufactory of a specific batch of paint at a certain point in time. For example, Dredge [15] in a study of Ripolin paints used by Sidney Nolan in the context of Australian house paint produc- tion mentions castor oil as a cheap alternative to linseed oil when imports to Australia from India ceased because of World War II. Erucic acid (a monounsaturated C22 fatty acid) was detected at low levels in Ripolin samples HP087 (gris perle foncé), HP013 (bleu outremer), and HP089 (bleu turquoise). This compound is characteristic of Brassicaceae oils such as rapeseed [14], and has been observed in oil-based paints used by other 20th century artists such as Lucio Fontana [21, 55]. It may indicate the presence of this type of oil in the paint formulation as an additive or adulterant. Although traditional household paints were based on linseed oil alone soon it became common to use oils in admixture to obtain optimum results. For example, the use of tung oil in various combinations with linseed oil was recommended [2, 22] as well as the use of other dry- ing or semi-drying oils such as perilla, oiticica, soybean, fish and dehydrated castor oil [11]. However, the identifi- cation of these or other types of drying or semi-drying oil recommended in the technical literature was not possible because of the lack of specific chemical markers for these materials. The main resin components identified in the refer- ence enamel paints were abietic acid and its oxidation products including dehydroabietic acid (DHA), 7-oxo- dehydroabietic acid (7-oxo-DHA), and 15-hydroxy-7-oxo- dehydroabietic acid (15-OH-7-oxo-DHA), indicative of diterpenoid (Pinaceae) resin, most probably pine resin. As with the fatty acids, greater proportions of the unoxidised or less oxidized species, abietic acid and DHA, were found in the liquid paint samples, consistent with a scarce sup- ply of oxygen in the bulk samples in sealed historic cans. Pinaceae resins have been known and utilised through the ages as adhesives, coatings, etc. The resins are exuded from trees as balsams, which are rather viscous solutions of diterpenoid components in mono- and sesquiterpenes. Evaporation of the volatile monoterpene fraction results Page 5 of 14Kokkori et al. Herit Sci (2015) 3:30 in colophony (rosin), in the case of pine [41]. Pine coloph- ony was used extensively in the paint industry and is still a commonly used raw material for industrial purposes; its properties and durability are often improved by chemical modifications such as esterification with glycerol [30]. Natural resins were used in the paint industry to improve the rheology of paints and to produce quick-drying, high performance enamels [10, 20]. Table 1 Summary of Py–THM–GCMS data from reference paint samples and case studies of Kandinsky and Picasso paint- ings n.d. = not determined: levels too low for accurate measurement. a The numbers are Ripolin and Lefranc product numbers. b All paint cans are Ripolin brand except one Bengaline sample, HP019 Bleu Outremer. Sample Paint colora Description P/S Su/Az Pinaceae Additional components Paint from cansb HP002 Blanc de Neige 1 Dry film 1.2 0.54 – HP008 Blanc d’Ivoire 53 Dry residue 1.9 0.40 Trace HP010 Gris Perle Foncé 10 Dry film 1.3 0.50 – HP087 Gris Perle Foncé 10 Dry film 1.1 0.38 x Erucic acid Liquid 0.94 n.d. x Erucic acid; sesquiterpenes HP088 Gris Pierre Clair 76 Dry film 1.1 0.36 xx Trace sesquiterpenes HP013 Bleu Outremer 13 Dry residue 0.87 0.54 xx Liquid 0.99 n.d. xx Erucic acid; sesquiterpenes HP019 Bengaline Bleu Outremer Dry film 0.99 0.40 xxx HP089 Bleu Turquoise Moyen 69 Dry film 1.1 0.56 xx Erucic acid; trace sesquiterpenes HP060 Noire d’Ivoire 5 Dry film 1.2 0.58 xxx Sesquiterpenes HP064 Noir d’Ivoire 5 Dry medium 1.1 0.47 xx Liquid 1.1 n.d. xx Sesquiterpenes HP093 Noir d’Ivoire 5 Dry film 1.0 0.51 xx HP016 Rouge de Chine 16 Dry film 0.91 0.58 xx Ricinoleic acid; anthraquinone? HP030 Rouge de Chine 16 Dry film 0.91 0.59 xx Ricinoleic acid; anthraquinone? HP029 Vert Romain Moyen 73 Dry film 1.0 0.53 xx HP092 Vert Irlandais Clair 29 Dry film 1.0 0.41 xx Sesquiterpenes Ripolin brochures B1 Blanc de Neige 1 Color swatch 1.4 0.42 x B1 Gris Perle Foncé 10 Color swatch 1.3 0.52 xx B1 Bleu Outremer 13 Color swatch 1.1 0.36 xxx B1 Noir d’Ivoire 5 Color swatch 1.0 0.32 xx Lefranc tube paints 2009.32 Blanc de Zinc Dry film 1.7 0.14 – Erucic acid 2007.48 Blanc de Zinc Dry film 1.7 0.14 – 2009.49 Blanc de Zinc Dry film 1.1 0.16 – Erucic acid 2009.70 Blanc de Zinc Dry film 1.6 0.13 – 2009.68 Blanc d’Argent Dry film 3.9 0.12 – 2007.15 Outremer 2 Dry film 1.0 0.38 Trace 2009.66 Outremer N1 Dry film 2.7 0.43 – 2009.39 Bleu Mineral Dry film 1.1 0.23 – Erucic acid 2007.31 Black (unlabeled) Dry film 0.79 0.16 – 2007.61 Noir d’Ivoire Dry film 3.2 0.20 – 2007.58 Laque Carminée Fixe Dry film 1.5 0.30 Trace Trace ricinoleic acid 2007.04 Orange (unlabeled) Dry film 2.6 0.17 – Beeswax Samples from paintings Kandinsky Light blue Paint 1.6 0.39 xxx Picasso White Paint 1.4 0.19 Trace Page 6 of 14Kokkori et al. Herit Sci (2015) 3:30 Sesquiterpene hydrocarbons were identified in liq- uid and certain dried samples. These are rather volatile compounds expected to disappear in the aged samples, probably by evaporation or polymerization; their pres- ence in the Ripolin paint samples can be associated with the relatively young age (equal or less than 100 years old) of the examined samples that have had little exposure to air. The sesquiterpenes may be associated with the added Pinaceae resins but could also indicate the addition of turpentine to the paint, which was recommended on the labels on Ripolin cans to dilute the paints. The amount of Pinaceae resin detected in the samples was found to vary according to the color: white and light- colored paint samples contained less resin than the dark colors (see Fig.  2). In the first decades of the twentieth century, high gloss enamel paints reportedly comprised drying oils mixed with a semi-fossil resin such as Congo copal and/or a soft resin such as colophony (pine rosin) and good quality opaque pigments; though colophony was regarded as a poor and unstable paint ingredient, it was extensively used in enamel paint manufacture (Mat- tiello, 228) in mixtures with drying oils and lime or zinc white or glycerol [40]. Because of the perceived ten- dency of resins to discolor, technical manuals instructed commercial painters to make white and light-colored house paints using raw linseed oil and/or stand oil with very small quantities of resins, if any, whereas the addi- tion of resins in large quantities was strongly recom- mended for darker colored enamel paints. (Mattiello, 199–206) This is in agreement with the findings on the Ripolin paints tested. The detection of Pinaceae resin in Ripolin paints is perhaps surprising, as critical reading of period tech- nical literature seems to imply that oil-based enamels including resins in their formulations were considered of lower quality, and Ripolin cans, on the contrary, were among the first and highest quality enamel paints avail- able in the French market [39]. Historically, the highest quality enamels consisted of only stand oil as vehicle. It is important to note that in the sample set studied, the only non-Ripolin sample analysed, Bengaline bleu outremer (HP019), was the one for which the highest levels of resin diterpenes were detected. Analysis of four paint samples from a Ripolin brochure (B1, c. 1930–1946) [19, 39] revealed a composition of drying oil and Pinaceae resin similar to the correspond- ing colors from paint cans, although the levels of resin were higher in three cases (Blanc de Neige, Gris Perle Foncé and Bleu Outremer; the Noir d’Ivoire paint swatch showed similar levels of resin to the sample from the can). This finding suggests that the formulation of the paint may have been modified to achieve faster-drying samples for the brochures. Thus, while previous studies have shown the inorganic composition of paint swatches in Ripolin brochures to be highly consistent with the commercial paint in the cans [19, 35], the organic com- position of the swatches must be interpreted with cau- tion and may not give an accurate reflection of the actual formulation of the commercial products. As mentioned above, historical literature indicated that copal was a common ingredient in enamel paints. Evidence for the use of copal in Ripolin paints of British production was reported in a study of Dredge et  al., as well as in a French promotional video produced by the Ripolin company at an unknown date before 1950 (Fig. 3) Compounds characteristic for copal were not detected in the current study, however. The detection of this semi- fossil resin can be challenging because of the rapid degra- dation of its characteristic diterpenes upon heating of the oil-resin mixture and subsequent ageing. For this reason the detection of intact copal diterpenes in oil-resin paints by Dredge et  al. is unusual. The industrial literature sur- veyed [24, 25] in fact recommended the heating of copal/ oil mixtures in the presence of oxygen (a practice which may be responsible for the fire in the Ripolin factory in 1904) [28]. In earlier studies using Py–GCMS, pyroly- sis products of the polymeric phase of copal have been Fig. 2 Py–THM–GCMS data for a Ripolin Blanc d’Ivoire 53, HP008; b Ripolin Noir d’Ivoire 5, HP064; c Lefranc Noir d’Ivoire, 2007.61. P palmitic, S stearic, Su suberic, Az azelaic, Se sebacic acid, 7oxoDHA 7-oxo-dehydroabietic acid, 15OH7oxoDHA 15-hydroxy-7-oxo-DHA (all compounds detected as methyl derivatives). Page 7 of 14Kokkori et al. Herit Sci (2015) 3:30 identified as chemical markers for the aged resin, but these too may not be detectable depending on the exact heat/oxidizing treatment and ageing conditions [48–50, 52, 54]. Further research is needed on this aspect of the paint composition, to provide a better understanding of detection limits using current analytical methods for copal that has been subjected to industrial processing, and to investigate whether additional chemical markers, such as reaction products of oil and resin components, may be detectable by (GC)MS methods. Py–THM–GCMS: tube paints Analysis of Lefranc tube paint samples showed the char- acteristic components for drying oil, as discussed above; a representative example of data for Noir d’ Ivoire is shown in Fig. 2c. P/S ratios were in a broader range than for the samples from cans, from 0.79 to 3.9. Several of these values are higher than it is typical for linseed oil, suggesting that other oils are present in the tube paints; however, because of the wide range of possible oils availa- ble to manufacturers at the time it is not possible to make an identification using this parameter alone [42]. As with the Ripolin paints, the lower values may be attributed to the presence of additives such as metal stearates. Trace levels of ricinoleic acid were detected in one Lefranc tube paint, a Laque Carminée Fixe (2007.58), indicating a cas- tor oil component. Several tube paints (blanc de zinc 2009.32, blanc de zinc 2009.49, and bleu mineral 2009.39) showed trace quantities of erucic acid, suggestive of a Brassicaceae oil such as rapeseed. The Su/Az ratios for the tube paints on the whole are lower than those found for the samples from cans: 0.12–0.43. While a few of the higher values might indicate the use of heat-bodied oil, in most cases the results suggest oil with little or no heat- bodying. No evidence was found for the addition of natu- ral resins to the paint formulations, with the exception of two samples (ultramarine no 2 clair 2007.15 and Laque carminée fixe 2007.58) in which traces of Pinaceae resin were detected. Evidence for the presence of beeswax (hydrocarbons and C20-24 fatty acids) was found in an orange paint (2007.04). Case studies The new information on the organic fraction of refer- ence Ripolin and tube paints from the first half of the 20th century can be used to deepen our understanding of data obtained from specific case studies of paintings. In this work, we analyzed with Py–THM–GCMS sam- ples from two paintings showing visual characteristics of enamel paints, by Kandinsky and Picasso, artists who are documented to have used these materials. Kandinsky’s Leichtes, 1930 has been listed in the Pompidou catalogs primarily as “oil”, with occasional “oil and enamel” media identifications. Recent research identified a high amount of zinc white with little Prussian blue, trace amounts of barium sulfate and small quantities of lead and possibly cobalt driers in the paint sample of the light blue back- ground paint [32]. Given the similarity of the molecular, Fig. 3 Stills from an undated promotional film produced by Ripolin, showing suppliers of resins and manufacturing processes. Page 8 of 14Kokkori et al. Herit Sci (2015) 3:30 elemental and morphological fingerprint of the inorganic fraction in the Kandinsky sample with the formulation of the Bleu Azur Foncé paint of a Ripolin brochure predating 1946, that previous study argued for the use of Ripolin by Kandinsky in select areas of the painting [32] Py–THM– GCMS of the same sample, carried out for this project, strengthens this hypothesis, with fatty acid ratios of P/S 1.6 and Su/Az 0.39, consistent with heat-bodied linseed oil and similar to the values for paint cans determined in this work (see Fig. 4a). High levels of Pinaceae resin were also identified: these results in combination with the pub- lished analytical evidence on the inorganic fraction and the existing visual and documentary evidence support interpretation of the artist’s use of oil-based enamel paint in Leichtes [32]. A sample of whitish paint from a drip at the back of Picasso’s Pêcheur assis à la casquette, 1946 was previ- ously analyzed with FTIR spectroscopy and found to contain mostly zinc oxide white, a drying oil and metal soaps. While the FTIR data matched well with reference samples of Ripolin white paint (such as HP002, Ripolin Blanc de neige) further analysis with Py–THM–GCMS conducted for this study demonstrated values of P/S 1.4 and Su/Az 0.19, suggesting linseed oil with no heat-bod- ying; coupled with only trace levels of Pinaceae (Fig. 4b). Pentachlorophenol was also detected in the sample (as its methyl ether): this compound was widely used in the early 20th century as a preservative for wood and other materials [6], and it may therefore be associated with the plywood support for this painting, or possibly with the formulation of the paint itself. While the low levels of Pinaceae resin are consistent with results from reference house paints in light colors presented in this work, the apparent absence of heat-bodying is not consistent with data for Ripolin paints and this result remains ambigu- ous. Because several types of white oil-based enamel paints have been documented for Picasso in the collec- tion of the Antibes Museum, it is possible that the paint in 1946.1.20 may represent another brand with inorganic fraction very similar to white Ripolin paints, but differ- ences in the formulation of the medium [7]. These examples are useful to illustrate the advantages and limitations of the analytical approach. They also underscore how the positive identification of oil-based enamel paints, and especially of specific brands, can be challenging given the compositional similarities of enamel and artists’ oil paints of the time, as well as the possibility of artist’s manipulation of the original formu- lations. A reliable hypothesis on the specific type of paint used can therefore only be put forth on the basis of the results of multiple types of analysis, taking into account both the organic and inorganic components. DTMS and ESI–MS As discussed in the introduction, DTMS and ESI–MS provide information on the paint medium composition complementary to that obtained with Py–THM–GCMS. For DTMS, no sample derivatization is required, and dif- ferentiation is achieved between organic fractions in the paints: low molecular weight (volatile) species are evap- orated and detected early in the analytical temperature program, whereas cross-linked or macromolecular com- ponents are pyrolysed and analyzed later in the program. DTMS is a rapid analytical technique, with a typical cycle time of 5 min. ESI–MS is also valuable for the analysis of higher molecular weight species—triglycerides in par- ticular—that are not observed using Py–THM–GCMS, since the latter technique involves hydrolysis of the glyc- erides to produce methylated derivatives of the compo- nent fatty acids. DTMS analysis of samples from cans, paint brochures and tube paints corroborated the Py–THM–GCMS data with respect to the more volatile species: fatty acids were detected in ratios characteristic of drying oils (character- istic ions were m/z 256 for palmitic and 284 for stearic acid, with electron ionization fragment ions of saturated fatty acids at m/z 60, 73, 129, 185, 213 and 241) and oxi- dized diterpenes (ions at m/z 239, 253, 271, 299, 315 and 330; see [51] characteristic of a Pinaceae resin such as Fig. 4 Py–THM–GCMS data for a a blue paint sample from Leichtes, W. Kandinsky, 1930, Centre Georges Pompidou, AM-1974-16; b a gray/white paint sample from Pêcheur Assis à la Casquette, P. Picasso, 1946, Musée Picasso, Antibes, 1946.1.20. P palmitic, S stearic, Su suberic, Az azelaic acid, 7oxoDHA 7-oxo-dehydroabietic acid, 15OH7oxoDHA 15-hydroxy-7-oxo-DHA, PCP pentachlorophenol (all compounds detected as methyl derivatives). Page 9 of 14Kokkori et al. Herit Sci (2015) 3:30 pine resin in some of the paints from cans and brochures. In addition to fatty acids, glycerides (acylglycerols) were found preserved in about 20  % of the cases analysed (diagnostic peaks including m/z 550, 574–578 and 602– 606 indicative of diacylglyceryl ions with C16:0, C18:0, C18:1 and C18:2 fatty acids). Examination of DTMS data for the Ripolin paints from cans provided clues to the chemical form of the resin component in the paint, as illustrated in Fig.  5 for HP008 (blanc d’ ivoire) and HP013 (bleu outremer). The two upper profiles show the total ion current (TIC) for HP008 (a) and the corresponding selected ion current for m/z 253, characteristic for oxidized Pinaceae diterpenes. The 253 ion is most prominent in the later region of the temperature program corresponding to pyrolysed poly- meric material, around scans 60–75, suggesting that the resin is present in a bound/cross-linked form as a con- sequence of the heat processing used in the preparation of the oil-resin medium. These results are compared with the TIC for HP013 (d) and the selected ion current for m/z 253 for the same sample (e). In trace (e) the 253 ion appears in a broader profile, from scans 20–75, indicat- ing that some of the resin in this paint is present mixed but not chemically combined with the medium, and thus evaporates early in the temperature program. This unbound resin component is present in addition to the cross-linked resin that is released later in the run. ESI–MS analysis of Ripolin paint samples from cans provided additional indications of the chemical reac- tions undergone during heat-bodying of the paint medium. Figure 6 shows the positive ion mass spectrum of HP087 (gris perle foncé) measured over the range m/z 350–2,000, with an insert showing the distribu- tion of the ammoniated triglycerides (triacylglycerides, TAGs) in the paint medium. The most prominent mass peaks observed correspond to TAGs ranging from m/z 894–898. Table  2 lists the TAG mass peaks with their fatty acyl moiety distribution indicated as Ln (linolenic, 18:3), L (linoleic, 18:2), O (oleic, 18:1), S (stearic, C18:0) and P (palmitic, C16:0); the unsaturated fatty acids may also be present in TAGs as isomers with respect to the position and configuration of the double bonds, which cannot be determined from the ESI–MS data. A further study of the positional distribution of double bonds in the glyceride fatty acids and their extent of isomerization could be valuable to characterize oils according to the heat pretreatments they have been subjected to. Peaks above m/z 900 suggest adducts formed during processing of the oil medium involving heating. Peaks around m/z 1,750 are interpreted as two covalently-linked TAGs. A check over a larger mass range up to m/z 4,000 revealed some small intensity peaks, pointing to larger adducts, but it should be kept in mind that ion formation in ESI is strongly dependent on the polarity of the compounds, which diminishes when TAGs are covalently bound into larger complexes. Some adducts of fatty acid moieties with TAGs have been identified in frying oils [12] but a characterization of mass peaks observed in the ESI–MS data using tandem mass spectrometry (ESI–MSMS) is not straightforward, and further research is necessary for a more definitive identification of these higher mass spe- cies. Research has shown that heating periods of weeks for the preparation of stand oil were not unusual in the late 19th and early 20th century [4], and in general the process of heating with exclusion of oxygen will lead to complex reactions including free radical formation, cross-linking from radical quenching, Diels–Alder reac- tions, and isomerization (cis–trans and positional) of double bonds [23, 31]. Isomerization has been found to occur even at relatively low temperatures [53]. In Fig.  7, relative intensities of the TAG mass peaks in ESI spectra for liquid Ripolin medium samples from HP013 (bleu outremer), HP064 (noir d’ivoire) and HP087 (gris perle foncé) are plotted alongside reference data for cold pressed linseed oil and linseed stand oil. The TAGs are plotted in order of increasing saturation (see Table 2). The distribution of the TAGs in stand oil as compared to cold pressed linseed oil can be interpreted in terms of a loss of the more unsaturated TAGs as a result of the pre- polymerization treatment. The TAG profiles for the Ripo- lin media match the profile of stand oil quite closely, and although the greater age of the Ripolin samples must be borne in mind, for these bulk paints aged in a closed con- tainer with limited oxygen exposure the initial pretreat- ment is likely to have had the most significant influence on the TAG composition. This finding thus reinforces the interpretation that in Ripolin formulations the oil has undergone prepolymerization leading to a diminished concentration of the most unsaturated TAGs. Negative ion ESI mass spectra obtained from the same Ripolin paint media and stand oil reference sample show fatty acids as [M–H]− ions at m/z 255 (C16:0), 283 (18:0), 281 (18:1), 279 (18:2) and 277 (18:3). The relative inten- sities of these species are plotted in Fig.  7. Although the overall TAG distribution in the Ripolin samples shows clear similarities to that of the reference stand oil, as seen in the positive ion data in Fig.  8, analysis of the compo- nent fatty acids highlights differences that are not evident from analysis of the intact TAGs. In particular, greater intensities for the 18:1 and 18:3 fatty acids (the latter including linolenic acid, along with its positional and configurational isomers) are observed in Ripolin samples as compared to the stand oil. This could be explained, for example, by a small addition of drying oil at a late stage in the production process, after heat-bodying has taken place. In the overall TAG (positive ion) data such an Page 10 of 14Kokkori et al. Herit Sci (2015) 3:30 Fig. 5 DTMS data for Ripolin samples Blanc d’Ivoire 53, HP008 (a–c), and Bleu Outremer 13, HP013 (d–f). The total ion current (TIC) and selected ion current for m/z 253 are shown for each sample along with a summed mass spectrum for the region indicated; see text for discussion. Page 11 of 14Kokkori et al. Herit Sci (2015) 3:30 addition would be masked by the large relative amount of stand oil in the medium.a The oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids has also been shown to be reduced when ageing occurs in the presence of colophony resin [27], which could be an additional fac- tor in the greater levels of 18:3 and 18:1 acids observed in the Ripolin samples. In this first study of Ripolin paints with DTMS and ESI–MS, the mass spectrometric approaches clearly show promise for the elucidation of cross-linking and polymerisation mechanisms brought about by industrial processing of oils and resins, as well as by subsequent modification, drying and ageing of the paints, and fur- ther research using these techniques may be helpful to develop diagnostic strategies and indicate novel marker compounds for the characterization of oil media. Conclusion The analysis of the organic fraction of early 20th century oil paints, and the characterization of oil paints in works of art, poses significant challenges due to the variability and complexity of the paint formulations as well as modi- fications executed by artists. Twentieth century artists experimented with a range of materials including manu- factured artists’ paints and also modified/reformulated materials such as mixtures of oils, driers, industrial and house paints. In this study, Py–THM–GCMS demonstrated that the organic fraction of the house paints tested (primarily French oil-based Ripolin enamels) is composed of heat- bodied linseed oil in admixture with Pinaceae resin, with evidence for the addition of castor and rapeseed oil found in a few samples. The identification of other types of dry- ing oils such as soybean, perilla or fish oil recommended for industrial oil-based paints in technical literature is challenging because of similarities in their fatty acid com- position. As a comparison, the results from the tube oil paints suggested the use of more than one type of drying or semi-drying oil, as indicated by the more divergent P/S ratios and for the most part they seem to have undergone Fig. 6 ESI–MS positive ion data for Ripolin sample Gris Perle Foncé 10, HP087, with inset showing expanded region corresponding to ammoniated triglycerides as listed in Table 2. Table 2 Nominal masses of  triglyceride (TAG) ammo- nia adduct ions detected by  ESI–MS, with  their fatty acid composition [P  =  palmitic, S  =  stearic, O  =  oleic (or iso- mer), L  =  linoleic (or isomer), Ln  =  linolenic (or isomer)] and numbers of double bonds in the fatty acyl moieties Nominal mass Double bonds TAG 868 6 PLnLn 870 5 PLLn 872 4 POLn PLL 874 3 POL PSLn 890 9 LnLnLn 892 8 LnLnL 894 7 LnLnO LnLL 896 6 OLLn LLL SLnLn 898 5 OOLn OLL SLLn 900 4 SOLn OOL SLL 902 3 SSLn OOO SOL Page 12 of 14Kokkori et al. Herit Sci (2015) 3:30 little or no heat-bodying. Trace levels of Pinaceae resin were found only in a few tube paints, and beeswax was detected in one example. DTMS and ESI–MS data com- plemented the Py–THM–GCMS analyses, providing indications of the cross-linking and prepolymerization reactions occurring during processing of the oils, and as a result of reaction between the oil and resin compo- nents of the paints. Further research on a broader range of reference materials should help in the development of refined strategies for characterizing oil-based paints from the early 20th century. The results of this study indicate that complementary information can be obtained from the study of liquid paint from cans and dried paint-outs, while the media of painted brochures may differ from the original formula- tion as those were designed for expediency of drying and aesthetics. The results also elucidate how formulations and processing technology influence the physical and drying properties of oil-based enamel paints, in compari- son with contemporary artists’ oil tube paints. Endnote aAdditions of a few percent of linseed oil to a stand oil medium are still used in the artists’ oil paint industry to obtain a fast-drying surface film with enamel-like prop- erties; Langridge Artist Colors, Factory 23, 155 Hyde Fig. 7 Bar graph of the relative intensities of ions corresponding to triglycerides in positive ion ESI–MS spectra of Ripolin samples HP013, HP064 and HP087, compared with reference linseed oil samples; nominal masses correspond to Table 2. Fig. 8 Bar graph of the relative intensities of ions corresponding to fatty acids in negative ion ESI–MS Ripolin samples HP013, HP064 and HP087, compared with reference linseed stand oil. Page 13 of 14Kokkori et al. Herit Sci (2015) 3:30 Street, Yarraville, Vic. http://www.langridgecolours.com) September 2014, personal communication. Authors’ contributions MK analysed data and drafted the manuscript; KS interpreted the GCMS data and edited the manuscript; JB conducted DTMS and ESI–MS analysis; MV conducted GCMS analysis; FC supervised the project. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Author details 1 The Art Institute of Chicago, 111 S. Michigan Ave., Chicago, IL 60603, USA. 2 JAAP Enterprise for Art Scientific Studies, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. 3 IRPA-KIK Royal Institute for Cultural Heritage, Brussels, Belgium. Acknowledgements National Science Foundation, Division of Materials Research, DMR 1241609 the Grainger Foundation, the Stockman Family Foundation, and the Mellon Foun- dation. Veronique Sorano-Stedman Brigitte Léal, Sylvie Lepigeon, Géraldine Guillaume-Chavannes and Ingrid Novion at the Pompidou are also gratefully acknowledged, as well as Jean-Louis Andral at the Musée Picasso, Antibes, for supporting analysis of the samples form works in their collections; Jerre van der Horst (AMOLF, Amsterdam NL) for assistance with DTMS; Mark Duursma (AMOLF, Amsterdam NL) and Pedro Alves (University of Lisbon, Lisbon, P) for assistance with ESI–MS. Compliance with ethical guidelines Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Received: 2 April 2015 Accepted: 24 July 2015 References 1. Arslanoglu J, Centeno SA, Digney-Peer S, Duvernois I (2013) Picasso in the metropolitan museum of art: an investigation of materials and tech- niques. J Am Inst Conserv 52(3):140–155 2. Bohannon (1922) Present-day methods of varnish manufacture. The Decorator (January 22):237 3. 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International Council of Museums, Paris, p 8 Open access provides opportunities to our colleagues in other parts of the globe, by allowing anyone to view the content free of charge. Publish with ChemistryCentral and every scientist can read your work free of charge W. Jeffery Hurst, The Hershey Company. available free of charge to the entire scientific community peer reviewed and published immediately upon acceptance cited in PubMed and archived on PubMed Central yours you keep the copyright Submit your manuscript here: http://www.chemistrycentral.com/manuscript/ http://chestofbooks.com/home-improvement/repairs/painting/Paint-Making-Color-Grinding/index.html http://chestofbooks.com/home-improvement/repairs/painting/Paint-Making-Color-Grinding/index.html http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0021-9673(02)00049-3 Synergistic use of Py–THM–GCMS, DTMS, and ESI–MS for the characterization of the organic fraction of modern enamel paints Abstract Introduction: Results: Conclusions: Introduction Experimental Samples Py–THM–GCMS DTMS ESI–MS Results and discussion Py–THM–GCMS: samples from cans and paint brochures Py–THM–GCMS: tube paints Case studies DTMS and ESI–MS Conclusion Endnote Authors’ contributions Received: 2 April 2015 Accepted: 24 July 2015References 
work_zksgqxtqoffpjoe736e7lerjd4	----	T.C. İNÖNÜ ÜNİVERSİTESİ SOSYAL BİLİMLERİ ENSTİTÜSÜ ÖZNE-NESNE İLİŞKİSİ BAĞLAMINDA PSİKODİNAMİK YAKLAŞIMLARIN İMGELEM YOLUYLA GERÇEKÜSTÜ RESİMSEL ANLAMLANDIRMALARI YÜKSEK LİSANS TEZİ DANIŞMAN Prof. Dr. Yüksel GÖĞEBAKAN HAZIRLAYAN Esranur KILINÇ MALATYA-2019 Bu araştırma İnönü Üniversitesi Bilimsel Araştırma Projeleri Birimi Tarafından 2018/1310 Proje Numarası ile Desteklenmiştir. i T.C. İNÖNÜ ÜNİVERSİTESİ SOSYAL BİLİMLERİ ENSTİTÜSÜ ÖZNE-NESNE İLİŞKİSİ BAĞLAMINDA PSİKODİNAMİK YAKLAŞIMLARIN İMGELEM YOLUYLA GERÇEKÜSTÜ RESİMSEL ANLAMLANDIRMALARI YÜKSEK LİSANS TEZİ HAZIRLAYAN Esranur KILINÇ DANIŞMAN Prof. Dr. Yüksel GÖĞEBAKAN MALATYA-2019 T.C. İNÖNÜ ÜNİVERSİTESİ SOSYAL BİLİMLERİ ENSTİTÜSÜ ÖZNE-NESNE İLİŞKİSİ BAGLAMINDA PSİKODİNAMİK YAKLAŞIMLARIN İMGELEM YOLUYLA GERÇEKÜSTÜ RESİMSEL ANLAMLANDIRMALARI YÜKSEK LİSANS TEZİ DANIŞMAN HAZIRLAYAN Prof.Dr. Yüksel GÖGEBAKAN Esranur KILINÇ Jürimiz !J.S. 0$, 2.t>� .. tarihinde yapılan savunma sınavı sonucunda bu yüksek lisans tezi oybirliği /��skltığu ile başarılı bulunarak .. f2..t:Sı'Yv.J ...... Anasanat, �lrlJ. Bilim dalında yüksek lisans tezi olarak kabul edilmiştir. Jüri Üyelerinin Unvan Ad Soyadı l. Prof.Dr. Yüksel GÖÖEBAKAN (Danışman) 2. Prof.Dr. İsmail AYTAÇ (Jüri Başkanı) tarih ve ............ sayılı kararıyla bu tezin kabulü onaylanmıştır. Prof.Dr. Mehmet KUBAT Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Müdürü iii ONUR SÖZÜ Prof. Dr Yüksel GÖĞEBAKAN’ın danışmanlığında yüksek lisans tezi olarak hazırladığım “ÖZNE-NESNE İLİŞKİSİ BAĞLAMINDA PSİKODİNAMİK YAKLAŞIMLARIN İMGELEM YOLUYLA GERÇEKÜSTÜ RESİMSEL ANLAMLANDIRMALARI” başlıklı çalışmanın, bilimsel ahlak ve geleneklere aykırı düşecek bir yardıma başvurmaksızın tarafımdan yazıldığını ve yararlandığım bütün yapıtların hem metin içinde hem de kaynakçada yöntemine uygun biçimde gösterilenlerden oluştuğunu belirtir, bunu onurumla doğrularım. Esranur KILINÇ iv TEŞEKKÜR Başta bu çalışmanın g erçekleşmesinde vakit ayırarak değerli bilgilerini sabırla ve ilgiyle benimle paylaşan, yaptığı yorum ve önerileriyle olaylara bakış açımı değiştiren, akademik disiplinini ve sanatçı kişiliğini ömrüm boyunca örnek alacağım kıymetli tez danışmanım Prof. Dr. Yüksel Göğebakan’a teşekkürü bir borç bilir, saygıl arımı sunarım. Bu süreçte bana psikoloji alanında kaynak önerilerinde bulunan ve istifade ettiğim hocalarla tanışmama vesile olan Prof. Dr. Süheyla Ünal’a, çeviri anlamında bana geri dönüt sağlayan Ahmet Gül’e ve bu süreçte beni motive eden dostum Pervin Kurçeren’e şükranlarımı sunarım. Son olarak araştırmamın başlang ıcından sonuna kadar bitmeyen sabrı ile kahrımı çeken, sevgisini ve desteğini her daim hissettiğim annem Semra Kılınç’a; bana araştırma ve sorgulama yetisi kazandıran, daima öğrenme ve üretme gayretine hayran kaldığım, maddi manevi desteğini bir an olsun benden esirgemeyen babam M. İzzet Kılınç’a; her konuda üzerime titreyen ablalarım Zehra, Kübra ve Büşra’ya; hayattaki en büyük şansım olan abim İbrahim’e ve ailemizin biriciği Yusuf Bera’ya bu süreçteki sabırlarından ve anlayışlarından ötürü teşekkür ederim. Ayrıca İnönü Üniversitesi Bilimsel Araştırma Projeleri Birimi'ne desteklerinden dolayı teşekkür ederim. Esranur KILINÇ v ÖZET KILINÇ, Esranur, Özne Nesne İlişkisi Bağlamında Psikodinamik Yaklaşımların İmgelem Yoluyla Gerçeküstü Resimsel Anlamlandırmaları, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Malatya, 2019. Varoluşundan itibaren doğadaki nesne oluşumunu gözlemleyen insanoğlu, tahlil ettiği nesneye özgün anlamlar kazandırır ve bu anlamları karşılaştırarak sorgular. Birey, kendine dair ne varsa, öznelleşme evresine geçmesiyle birlikte dış dünya üzerinde kendisi dışındaki her şeyi nesne olarak algılar. Yaşamı boyunca özne, doğayı şekillendirme, yeni nesneler yaratma gayreti içindedir. O, nesneler dünyasından yola çıkarak doğadaki nesneleri içsel dünyasının imgesi ve fantazyası haline getirir. Böylece yaratım sürecine giren “sanatçı özne”, dış dünya nesnelerini zihinsel kurmacasına çekerek, nesneye getirdiği anlam ve yorumlamalar sayesinde özgün bir kişilik kazanır. Bu, onu diğer öznelerden farklı kılsa da özünü bulma, kendini keşfetme arayışı var olduğu sürece devam eder. Nesne algısı, özneden özneye farklılık gösterdiği gibi yaşanılan zamana, duruma ve mekâna göre de değişiklik arz edebilir. Öznenin hayatı boyunca dış dünyayla olan hukukunda, kurduğu ilişkilerinde, aldığı kararlarda, tercih ettiği nesnelerde olduğu gibi bir sanatçının eserinde kullandığı nesne ilişkilendirmeleri ve ifade ediş yöntemi de bilinçaltı güçler, içgüdüsel dürtüler ve zihinsel kurmacalar tarafından yönetilir. Bu anlamda Freudyen bakış açısı ile psikodinamik yapının çalışmaya dâhil edilmesi, sanatçının sanat eserinde kullandığı imgelerin ardındaki dinamik güçlerin incelenmesinde yol göstermiştir. Tezin ilk bölümünde genel anlamda bir giriş yapılmış, ikinci bölümde “Psikodinamik Yaklaşımlar” ve “Özne-Nesne İlişkileri” konu olarak ele alınmış, üçüncü bölümde dış dünyanın sanata yansıması teması işlenmiş, dördüncü bölümde sanat ile psikolojik tedavi yöntemi üzerinde durulmuş, beşinci bölümde ise, tez kapsamında ele alınan uygulama çalışmaları ve çözümlemelerine yer verilmiştir. Bu süreçte, dördü eskiz olmak üzere toplam 14 adet uygulama çalışması yapılmıştır. Bu çalışmalarda, özne-nesne ilişkisine dair dış dünya gerçekliğinin içsel dünya gerçekliğine olan etkisi konu alınmıştır. Anahtar Kelimeler: Özne-Nesne İlişkisi, Psikodinamik Yaklaşım, Bilinçaltı, Yaratma Süreci, İmgelem. vi ABSTRACT KILINÇ, Esranur, Surreal Painterly Meanings of Psychodynamic Approaches in the Context of the Subject-Object Relationship by Imagination, Master’s Thesis, Malatya, 2019. Human beings who observe the formation of objects in nature since their existence, give special meaning to objects which they encounter and question them by comparing this meanings. The individual perceives everything in the World outside of itself as objects with the transition to the phase of subjectification. Throughout life the subject is in an effort to shape nature and create new objects. Starting from the World of objects, it makes objects in nature the image and the fantasy of its in herself. “artist subject” who enters into creation process by this way gains a peculiar individuality by taking outside objects into its mental fiction, and by giving them unique meanings and explications. This process continues as long as there is a struggle self-discovery, eventhough by means of this process the subject alienates itself from other subjects. The object perception may vary from subject to subject as well as the time, situation, andplace of thesubject. The objectrelations and expression technique that an artist uses in itswork - as well as the subject’s relationship with the outside World, its decisions and objects it chooses – are governed by the subconscious forces, instictual drives and mental fictions. Inthisperspective, theinclusion of the psychodynamic structure with the Freudian perspective has shown a way to examine the dynamic forces behind the images that the artist used in his work of art. In the first part of the thesis, an introduction was made in general, in the second part, Psychodynamic Approaches and Subject-Object Relations were discussed as the subject. In the third chapter, the theme of the external world was reflected in the art, in the fourth chapter, the psychological treatment method with art was emphasized. In the scope of this study, the application studies and analyzes are discussed. Keywords: Subject-Object Relation, Psychodynamic Approach, Subconscious, Creation Process, İmagination. vii İÇİNDEKİLER KABUL ONAY SAYFASI .................................................................................... ii ONUR SÖZÜ ........................................................................................................ iii TEŞEKKÜR .......................................................................................................... iv ÖZET ...................................................................................................................... v ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................... vi İÇİNDEKİLER .................................................................................................... vii RESİMLER LİSTESİ ........................................................................................... x KISALTMALAR ................................................................................................. xv BİRİNCİ BÖLÜM 1. GİRİŞ .............................................................................................................. 1 1.1. Problem Durumu ........................................................................................ 2 1.2. Çalışmanın Kapsamı .................................................................................. 3 1.3. Önem ............................................................................................................ 4 1.4. Amaç ............................................................................................................ 4 1.5. Yöntem ........................................................................................................ 5 1.6. Problem Cümlesi ........................................................................................ 5 1.6.1. Alt Problemler ..................................................................................... 5 1.7. Sayıltılar ...................................................................................................... 6 1.8. Sınırlılıklar .................................................................................................. 6 1.9. Tanımlar ...................................................................................................... 6 İKİNCİ BÖLÜM 2. PSİKODİNAMİK YAKLAŞIM VE ÖZNE-NESNE İLİŞKİSİ .................... 9 2.1. Psikodinamik Yaklaşım ............................................................................. 9 2.1.1. Freudyen Yaklaşım ............................................................................. 9 2.1.2. Psikodinamik Kuram ........................................................................ 10 2.1.3. Topografik Model .............................................................................. 11 2.1.4. İçgüdüler ............................................................................................ 14 2.2. Özne-Nesne İlişkisi ................................................................................... 16 2.2.1. Felsefede Bilgi Arayışı ....................................................................... 16 viii 2.2.2. Özne .................................................................................................... 20 2.2.3. Nesne ................................................................................................... 28 ÜÇÜNCÜ BÖLÜM 3. DIŞ DÜNYANIN SANATA YANSIMASI .................................................... 32 3.1. Sanata İlk Yöneliş ..................................................................................... 32 3.2. Sanatçının Düşsel Algı Süreci ve Düş Nesnesi ....................................... 35 3.2.1. İmge .................................................................................................... 36 3.3. Sanatta Mantık ve Bilinç ......................................................................... 39 3.4. Dış ve İç Gerçeklik ................................................................................... 41 3.4.1. Sanat ve Dilin Ortak Paydası: “Bir ve Üç Sandalye” .................... 42 3.4.2. Zihinsel Bir Metafor: “Silencio” ...................................................... 43 3.4.3. Baş Aşağı Bir Sanat: “Çeşme” ......................................................... 44 3.4.4. Varlığın Reddi: “İmgelerin İhaneti” ............................................... 44 3.4.5. Nesne Dönüşümü: “Boğa Başı” ........................................................ 46 3.5. Yaratım Süreci .......................................................................................... 47 3.5.1. Tek Bir Nesne (Ağaç) - Farklı Yorumlar ........................................ 48 3.5.2. Pablo Picasso’nun Boğa Serisi .......................................................... 51 3.6. Zamanın Psikolojik Geçmişinin Yaratma Sürecine Etkisi ................... 56 3.7. Doğa Taklitçiliğinden Soyutlamaya ........................................................ 58 3.7.1. Nesnelerin İzlenimci Tavrı: Empresyonizm ................................... 59 3.7.2. Nesnenin Boyutsal Betimi: Kübizm ................................................. 62 3.7.3. Bilinçaltının Estetik Dili: Sürrealizm .............................................. 70 3.7.4. İçsel Gerçekliğin Sanatsal İnşası: Expresyonizm ........................... 80 DÖRDÜNCÜ BÖLÜM 4. SANAT İLE PSİKOLOJİK TEDAVİ YÖNTEMİ ...................................... 89 4.1. Bir Tedavi Aracı Olarak Sanat ............................................................... 89 4.2. Sanat Eserleri Üzerinde Psikanaliz Yöntem Uygulamaları ................. 90 4.2.1. Freud’un Mona Lisa Örneklemi ...................................................... 92 4.2.2. Deli-Dahi: Van Gogh ......................................................................... 97 ix BEŞİNCİ BÖLÜM 5. ÇALIŞMALARIM VE ÇÖZÜMLEMELERİ ............................................ 102 5.1. Çalışmaların Oluşumunu Belirleyen Eskiz Denemeleri ..................... 104 5.1.1. Eskiz I ............................................................................................... 104 5.1.2. Eskiz II .............................................................................................. 106 5.1.3. Eskiz III ............................................................................................ 108 5.1.4. Eskiz IV ............................................................................................ 111 5.2. Çalışmalar ve Yorumlamaları ............................................................... 112 5.2.1. Hamile Bakir .................................................................................... 112 5.2.2. Pijamalı İhtiyar ................................................................................ 116 5.2.3. Yasak Elma ...................................................................................... 119 5.2.4. Şuuraltı ............................................................................................. 121 5.2.5. İntihar ............................................................................................... 124 5.2.6. Toplama Kampı ............................................................................... 126 5.2.7. Anal Dönem ...................................................................................... 129 5.2.8. Tecavüz ............................................................................................. 131 5.2.9. Bu Gece ............................................................................................. 133 5.2.10. Zoraki Gelin ................................................................................... 134 TARTIŞMA ve SONUÇ .................................................................................... 138 KAYNAKÇA ..................................................................................................... 141 GÖRSELLERİN ALINDIĞI İNTERNET ADRESLERİ ............................. 147 x RESİMLER LİSTESİ Resim 1.1: Rembrand van Rijin, “Gece Devriyesi”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 363x437 cm, 1642, Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam. ............................................ 1 Resim 2.1: Sigmund Freud, “Topografik Kişilik Kuramı, Buzdağı Örneklemesi”. ...... 12 Resim 2.2: “Pişmiş Topraktan Kullanım Nesnesi”, Neolitik Dönem. ........................... 26 Resim 2.3: Çatalhöyük Neolitik Kenti, “Taş Temelli Kerpiç Duvarlı Ev”, Konya. ...... 27 Resim 3.1: Altamira Mağara Resmi, “Boğa”, İspanya. ................................................ 33 Resim 3.2: Chauvet Mağarası, “Hayvan Figürleri” , Fransa.......................................... 33 Resim 3.3: Chauvet Mağarası, “Aurignacian İnsan, Mamut”, M.Ö. 30.000 dolayları, Fransa. .......................................................................................................... 34 Resim 3.4: Altamira Mağarası, “İnsan Eli Resmi”, İspanya. ......................................... 35 Resim 3.5: Joseph Kosuth, “Bir ve Üç Sandalye”, Sandalye 82,3x37,7x53 cm, Fotoğraf Paneli 91,4x71,5 cm, Metin Paneli 61x61 cm, 1965, Modern Sanat Müzesi New York. ............................................................................. 42 Resim 3.6: Eugen Gomringer, “Silencio (Sessizlik)”, 1954. ......................................... 43 Resim 3.7: Marcel Duchamp, “Çeşme”, Yerleştirme, 61x 36x48 cm, 1917. ............... 44 Resim 3.8: Rene Magritte, “İmgelirin İhaneti”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 1928-1929, Los Angeles Sanat Müzesi. .......................................................................... 45 Resim 3.9: Pablo Picasso, “Boğa Başı”, 33,5x 43,5x19 cm. 1942, Picasso Müzesi, Paris. ............................................................................................................. 46 Resim 3.10: Pablo Picasso, “Maymun Kafası”. ............................................................. 47 Resim 3.11: Paul Cezanne, “Büyük Çam ve Kızıl Toprak”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 72x91 cm, 1890-1895, Hermitage Müzesi, St. Petersburg, Rusya. ............. 48 Resim 3.12: Paul Cezanne “Büyük Çam”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 84x92 cm, 1887-1889, Sao Paulo Sanat Müzesi, Sao Paulo, Brezilya. ......................... 49 Resim 3.13: Piet Mondrian, “Gri Ağaç”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 78.5×107.5 cm, 1911. ............................................................................................................. 50 Resim 3.14: Piet Mondrian, “Çiçekli Elma Ağacı”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 1912. 50 Resim 3.15: Pablo Picasso, “Boğa Serisi”, Taşbaskı Tekniği, 1945. ............................. 51 Resim 3.16: Pablo Picasso, “1. Boğa Levhası”, Taşbaskı Tekniği, 5 Aralık 1945. ....... 52 Resim 3.17: Pablo Picasso, “2. Boğa Levhası”, Taşbaskı Tekniği, 12 Aralık 1945. ..... 52 Resim 3.18: Pablo Picasso, “3. Boğa Levhası”, Taşbaskı Tekniği, 18 Aralık 1945. ..... 52 xi Resim 3.19: Albrecht Dürer, “Gergedan”, Ksilografi, 1515. ......................................... 53 Resim 3.20: Pablo Picasso, “4. Boğa Levhası”, Taşbaskı Tekniği, 22 Aralık 1945. ..... 53 Resim 3.21: Pablo Picasso, “5. Boğa Levhası”, Taşbaskı Tekniği, 24 Aralık 1945. ..... 53 Resim 3.22: Pablo Picasso, “6. Boğa Levhası”, Taşbaskı Tekniği, 26 Aralık 1945. ..... 54 Resim 3.23: Pablo Picasso, “7. Boğa Levhası”, Taşbaskı Tekniği, 28 Aralık 1945. ..... 54 Resim 3.24: Pablo Picasso, “8. Boğa Levhası”, Taşbaskı Tekniği, 2 Ocak 1946. ......... 55 Resim 3.25: Pablo Picasso, “9. Boğa Levhası”, Taşbaskı Tekniği, 5 Ocak 1946. ......... 55 Resim 3.26: Pablo Picasso, “10. Boğa Levhası”, Taşbaskı Tekniği, 10 Ocak 1946. ..... 56 Resim 3.27: Pablo Picasso, “11. Boğa Levhası”, Taşbaskı Tekniği, 17 Ocak 1946. ..... 56 Resim 3.28: Sandro Botticelli, “İlkbahar”, Pano Üzerine Tempera, 203x314 cm, 1480-82, Uffizi Müzesi, Floransa. ............................................................... 58 Resim 3.29: Camille Pisarro, “Hasat”, 1901, Ulusal Galeri, Kanada. ........................... 59 Resim 3.30: Monet, “Gün Doğumu”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 48x63 cm, 1872, Marmottan Monet Müzesi, Paris, Fransa. .................................................... 60 Resim 3.31: Edgar Degas, “Bale Sınıfı”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 85x75 cm, 1871-1874, Orsay Müzesi, Paris, Fransa. .................................................... 60 Resim 3.32: Pablo Picasso, “Avignonlu Kızlar”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 244x234 cm, 1907, Modern Sanat Müzesi, New York, ABD. ................................... 62 Resim 3.33: Georges Braque, “L’Estaque’da Evler”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 73x60 cm, 1908, Kunstmuseum, Basel, İsviçre. .......................................... 64 Resim 3.34: Paul Cezanne, “Sainte-Victorie Dağı”, 1885, Barnes Vakfı. ..................... 64 Resim 3.35: Juan Gris, “Gitarlı Natürmort”, Kolaj, 66x100,3 cm, 1913, Metropolitan Sanat Müzesi, New York. ............................................................................ 66 Resim 3.36: Pablo Picasso, “Meyveler, Keman ve Cam”, Kolaj, 64,8x49,5 cm, 1913, Philadelphia Sanat Müzesi, Philadelphia, ABD. ......................................... 66 Resim 3.37: Pablo Picasso, “Ağlayan Kadın”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 60x49 cm, 1937, Tate Galeri, Liverpool. ....................................................................... 67 Resim 3.38: Pablo Picasso, “Guernica”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 349,3x776,6 cm, 1937, Kraliçe Sofia Ulusal Sanat Müzesi, Paris. ......................................... 68 Resim 3.39: Francisco de Goya, “Kurşuna Dizilenler”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 266x345,6 cm, 1814, Prado Müzesi, Madrid. .............................................. 68 xii Resim 3.40: Pablo Picasso, “Kore’de Katliam”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 110x210 cm, 1951, Picasso Müzesi, Paris. .................................................. 69 Resim 3.41: Edouard Manet, “İmparator Maximilien’in Kurşuna Dizilmesi”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 252x305 cm, 1868, Kunsthalle Mannheim, Mannheim. ................................................................................................... 70 Resim 3.42: Max Ernst, “At The First Clear Word”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 1923, Sanat Koleksiyonu Kuzey Rhine - Westphalia, Dusseldorf, Almanya. ....... 71 Resim 3.43: Andre Masson, “Kaynaklar”, 1939. ........................................................... 72 Resim 3.44: Salvador Dali, “Belleğin Sürekliliği”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 24x33 cm, 1931, Museum of Modern Art, New York, ABD. .................... 72 Resim 3.45: Salvador Dali, “Haşlanmış Fasulyeli Yumuşak Yapı, İç Savaş Öngörüsü”, 1936. ......................................................................................... 73 Resim 3.46: Salvador Dali, “Bulutlarda Savaş”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 100x100 cm, 1974. ....................................................................................... 74 Resim 3.47: Salvador Dali, “Yanan Zürafa”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 1937, Sanat Müzesi Basel. ..................................................................................... 75 Resim 3.48: Salvador Dali, ''Antropomorfik Dolap'', 1939. .......................................... 76 Resim 3.49: Salvador Dali, “Düşmüş Melek”. .............................................................. 76 Resim 3.50: Salvador Dali, “Çekmeceli Kadın'', 1936. ................................................. 77 Resim 3.51: Rene Magritte, “İnsanın Oğlu”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 116x89 cm, 1964. ............................................................................................................. 78 Resim 3.52: Rene Magritte, “Tecavüz”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 73.3 x 54.6 cm, 1945, Metropolitan Müzesi, New York. ...................................................... 79 Resim 3.53: Rene Magritte, “Yatak Odasında Felsefe”, 1947. ...................................... 80 Resim 3.54: Der Sturm, Dergi Kapağı, 1923, Ocak Ayı Sayısı. .................................... 81 Resim 3.55: Erich Heckel, “Bir Masada İki Adam”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 97x120 cm, 1912, Hamburger Kuntshalle, Hamburg, Almanya. ................ 82 Resim 3.56: Erich Heckel, “Uyuyan Kadın”, 1909, Hamburger Kuntshalle, Hamburg, Almanya. ..................................................................................... 82 Resim 3.57: Henri Matisse, “Dans”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 260x391 cm, 1910, St Petersburg, The State Hermitage Museum, Rusya. ....................... 83 xiii Resim 3.58: Henri Matisse, “Müzik”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 260x285 cm, 1910, St Petersburg, The State Hermitage Museum, Rusya. ....................... 84 Resim 3.59: Vasiliy Kandinsky, “Kırmızı Oval”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 71.5×71.5 cm, 1920, New York, Solomon R. Guggenheim Müzesi. .......... 84 Resim 3.60: Paul Klee, “Senecio”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 40x38 cm, 1922. ........ 85 Resim 3.61: Paul Klee, “Balık Büyüsü”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 1925. ................. 85 Resim 3.62: James Ensor, “Ölümle Yüzleşen Maskeler”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 81x100 cm, 1888. ......................................................................................... 86 Resim 3.63: Edvard Munch, “Çığlık”, Ahşap Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 84×66 cm, 1910, Munch Müzesi, Norveç. ............................................................................... 87 Resim 3.64: Andy Warhol, “Çığlık”, 1984. ................................................................... 88 Resim 4.1: Sanat Psikoterapileri Derneği, “Sanat İle Tedavi”. ...................................... 92 Resim 4.2: Leonardo Da Vinci, “Mona Lisa”, Ahşap Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 77x53 cm, 1503-1506, Louvre Müzesi, Paris, Fransa. .................................................. 93 Resim 4.3: Leonardo Da Vinci, “Mona Lisa Detay”. .................................................... 93 Resim 4.4: Leonardo Da Vinci, “Bacchus”, Yağlı Boya, 177x115 cm, 1510-1515, Louvre Müzesi, Paris, Fransa. ...................................................................... 94 Resim 4.5: Leonardo Da Vinci, “Meryem ve Çocuk İsa Azize Anna ile”, Yağlı Boya, 168x112 cm, 1508, Louvre Müzesi, Paris, Fransa. ...................................... 95 Resim 4.6: Andrea del Verrocchio, “Tobias ve Angel”, 33x26cm, 1470-1475, London. ........................................................................................................ 95 Resim 4.7: Vincent Van Gogh, “Otoportre” Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 65x54 cm, 1889, Orsay Müzesi, Paris. .......................................................................... 98 Resim 4.8: Van Gogh, “Sargılı Kulaklı Otoportre”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 60x49 cm, 1889, Courtauld Enstitüsü, Londra. ........................................... 99 Resim 4.9: Dr. Felix Rey’den Bir Mektup, “Van Gogh’un Kesik Kulağının Çizimleri”, 1930, Bancroft Kütüphanesi, California Berkeley Üniversitesi. ............................................................................................... 100 Resim 4.10: Vincent Van Gogh, “Kargaların Olduğu Buğday Tarlası”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 50.5x103 cm, 1890, Van Gogh Müzesi, Amsterdam. ............... 100 Resim 5.1: “Eskiz I”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 20x15 cm, 2018. ........................... 104 Resim 5.2: “Eskiz II”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 20x15 cm, 2018. .......................... 106 xiv Resim 5.3: “Eskiz III”, Elektronik Çizim, 2019. ......................................................... 108 Resim 5.4: “Eskiz IV”, Kâğıt Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 20x20 cm, 2019. ......................... 111 Resim 5.5: “Hamile Bakir”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 140x100 cm, 2018. ............. 112 Resim 5.6: “Pijamalı İhtiyar”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 140x120 cm, 2018. .......... 116 Resim 5.7: “Yasak Elma”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 140x120 cm, 2018. ............... 119 Resim 5.8: “Şuuraltı”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 140x120 cm, 2018. ...................... 121 Resim 5.9: “İntihar”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 100x80 cm, 2018. .......................... 124 Resim 5.10: “Toplama Kampı”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 140x120 cm, 2019. ....... 126 Resim 5.11: “Anal Dönem”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 140x100 cm, 2019. ............ 129 Resim 5.12: “Tecavüz”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 100x80 cm, 2019. ..................... 131 Resim 5.13: “Bu Gece”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 100x100 cm, 2019. ................... 133 Resim 5.14: “Zoraki Gelin”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 140x120 cm, 2019. ............ 134 xv KISALTMALAR A.g.e. : Adı geçen eser y.y. : yüzyıl M.Ö. : Milattan Önce çev. : çeviri vb. : ve benzeri vs. : vesaire s. : sayfa ss. : sayfa aralığı cm : santimetre prof. : Profesör dr. : Doktor TDK : Türk Dil Kurumu 1 BİRİNCİ BÖLÜM 1. GİRİŞ Bitkiler, hayvanlar ve diğer canlılar arasında farklı olarak insan, doğada düşünen ve düşünmekle kalmayıp yaşadığı çevreyi değiştirmeye, kendinden iz bırakmaya çalışan bir varlıktır. Kişi, birçok alanda olduğu gibi günümüzdeki sanat sınıflandırılması içinde de ele alındığında, onun birçok eser ortaya çıkardığı ve sanatın yapılandırma aşamasında çoğu yeniliğe öncülük ettiği görülebilir. Dolayısıyla bireyin, sanat yolu ile dünya kültür mirasına katkısı yadsınamaz bir gerçekliktir. Sanatçıların genellikle soylular ya da din adamları tarafından desteklendiği devirlerde, sanatçı iç dünyasından çok kendinden istenen ya da en azından beklentilere uygun eserler üretmekteydi. Aynı durum saray ressamları için de geçerliydi (Resim 1.1). Buna bağlı olarak sanat eserine toplumun istekleri şekil veriyordu. Her ne kadar imgeleştirme sürecinde zihnin katkısı reddedilmese de, o zamanlar klasik görüneni resmetme anlayışı baskındı. Resim 1.1: Rembrand van Rijin, “Gece Devriyesi”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 363x437 cm, 1642, Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam. Rönesans dönemi itibari ile sanat ve sanatçının bireyselleşmeye başlamasıyla beraber, örgütlü akademiler etkilerini devam ettirmiştir. Özellikle romantizmle başlayan süreç; Empresyonizm (izlenimcilik), Kübizm, Sürrealizm (gerçeküstücülük) gibi 2 akımlarla devam etmiştir. Bu akımlar, akademilerin katı otoritesine bir çeşit isyan şeklinde ortaya çıkmışlardır. Geleneksel yapıya karşı çıkış, aynı zamanda modern sanatın da doğuşu olarak kabul edilebilir. Bazı ressamlar, resmedilen figürlerin olduğu gibi, standart aktarımı yerine içsel duyumsamaların ortaya çıkardığı izlenimleri resmetmeye başladılar. Ardından gelen Ekspresyonizm (dışavurumculuk) ise o zamana kadar süregelen tüm alışılmış yapıyı değiştirir. Resmin konusunun, duyularımız ile algıladığımız dış dünya yerine sanatçının tamamen kendi kurgusu olan bir gerçeklikten ya da kendi duygularından beslenebileceğini savunur. Özellikle XX. yüzyılda dünyanın içinden geçtiği savaşlar, ekonomik sorunlar gibi kaotik olayları anlamlandırmak için geleneksel, düzenli olanın yerini sıra dışı, düzensiz ve uyumsuz olan alır. Sanat alanında bu gelişmeler olurken yüzyıllardır toplumdan dışlanmış, evlerde hapis altında tutulmuş, genellikle “delilik” olarak isimlendirilen ruh hastalarına karşı da bilimsel yaklaşımlar bulunmaya başlanmıştı. Özellikle histeri alanındaki çalışmalarla başlayan ve hastanın hipnoz yardımıyla tedavisini öngören yaklaşımın yerini, öncülüğünü Freud’un yaptığı ve karşılıklı diyalog şeklinde gelişen hastanın bilinçaltına doğru bir yolculuğun hedeflendiği “psikanaliz” denilen bir yöntem geliştirilmişti. Psikanaliz yöntemi, bireyin yaşadığı olayları sınırlama olmaksızın anlatarak rahatlamalarını ve aynı zamanda bilinçaltına itilenlerin gün yüzüne çıkmasını sağlayan, ruhsal anlamda bir inceleme sürecidir. Tedavi eden kişi, tedaviye gelen kişiyi dinleyerek bilinçaltı kalıntılarına ulaşmayı hedefler. Ve böylece danışman, danışanın yaşamında kendisini etkileyen fenomenler üzerine yoğunlaşır ve çözümleme sürecine adım atar. Bu yöntem, hayatın birçok alanında ve kişinin seçimlerinde, bilinçaltı etkilerin ne derece önemli ve yönlendirici güce sahip olunduğu bilinci üzerine inşa edilmiştir. Bu bağlamda sanatçı ve sanat eseri arasındaki ilişki ele alınacak olunursa, sanatçının sanat eserine yansıttığı imgelerin, geçmiş yaşamındaki kalıcı birtakım etkilerinin getirisi sonucu oluştuğu savı öne sürülmektedir. 1.1. Problem Durumu Sanatçı öznenin, sanat eserinde kullandığı imgelerinin ardındaki gizil güç nedir? Sanat eserinde kullanılan imgeler, sanatçının çevresindeki nesnelerle olan etkileşimi 3 sonucunda nesnelerin kendilerinde bıraktığı bilinçaltı etki süreçlerine mi bağlıdır? Sanat eserleri üzerinde psikanaliz uygulama yapılarak, sanatçı öznenin nesnelere yaklaşımına ve geçmiş yaşantılarına dair bulgular elde edinilebilir mi? Sanatçı öznenin, doğaya ait nesne oluşumlarını iç dünyasında anlamlandırıp, sanat eserine yansıttığı imgelerle sanatçıya dair Psikanaliz Kuram temel alınarak bilinçaltı çözümlemesi yapılabilir mi? 1.2. Çalışmanın Kapsamı Sanatçı ve sanat eseri arasındaki diyalektik bağlantının özne-nesne ilişkileri açısından incelenmesindeki amaç, bireyin kendinden bağımsız olan dış dünyadaki nesne etkileşimlerini içe aktararak yaratım sürecine dâhil etmesidir. Sanatçı, kendi hayatının öznesidir ve kendisi dışındaki her şey onun nesnesi konumundadır. Zihin sürecine dâhil ettiği her şey, sanatçı öznenin sahip olduğu nesneler dünyasıdır. Böylece kişisel yapıt olan sanat eseri, sanatçı tarafından yorumlanan, usavurulan1, anlamlı kılınan nesneler bütünüdür. Özne-nesne ilişkisi ele alınırken, modern felsefenin kurucusu olan, özne-nesne ilişkilerini felsefeye konu ederek bilimsel yöntemi belirleyen Rene Descartes’in bu konuda öne sürdüğü düşünceleri çalışmaya dâhil edilmiştir. Dolayısıyla özne, Descartes düşüncesi ile “düşünen özne” olarak yeni bir ifade kazanmıştır. Düşünen öznenin ancak ve ancak duyularının ötesindeki zihin gücü varlığıyla açık ve seçik bilgiye ulaşacağı fikri, Descartes felsefesinde temel alınmıştır. Daha çok analitik görüş, izlenim, rüyalar, bilinç, fantazya, imajinasyon2 gibi konular üzerine yoğunlaşan Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), öznenin dünyaya geldiği andan itibaren yaşamı boyunca nesnelerle çeşitli etkileşimler sağladığı düşüncesini öne sürerek nesnelerin bilinç ötesinde yarattığı etkiyi irdelemiştir. Freud’un, öznenin bilinçaltı etki süreçlerini incelemek amacıyla kullandığı psikodinamik yapı, çalışmaya yön veren bir yaklaşım olmuştur. Sanatçının psikodinamik süreci, yaratım sürecine doğrudan dâhil olmaktadır. Geçmiş deneyimlerinden izler süren sanatçı, yaşadığı etkilerin belirtilerini sanat eserine yansıtır. Yaşam üzerindeki kalıcı etkilerin kişide 1 Usavurmak: Bilinen ya da doğru olarak kabul edilen belli önermelerden başka önermeler çıkarma. Akarsu, Bedia, “Usavurmak”, Felsefe Terimleri Sözlüğü, (7. Baskı), İnkılap Kitabevi Yayınları, Ankara 1998, s. 184. 2 İmajinasyon: Resmetmek, canlandırmak, bir görüntüyü birebir zihnimizde oluşturmak. E. Sönmez, “İmajinasyon ve Parapsikoloji Çalışmaları”, <http://www.parapsikoloji.net/imajinasyon-ve-parapsikoloji- calismalari/> (29.11.2018). http://www.parapsikoloji.net/imajinasyon-ve-parapsikoloji-calismalari/ http://www.parapsikoloji.net/imajinasyon-ve-parapsikoloji-calismalari/ 4 oluşturduğu zihinsel yapılanma, yaratım sürecindeki imge oluşumuna dönüşerek şekil alır. Sanat eseri, sanatçının kendi gayreti dışında bilinçaltında gizli tuttuğu yaşamsal etkilerin gün yüzüne çıkarıldığı zihinsel bir fenomendir. Estetik kaygıların da içinde barındığı deneyimler bütünü olan sanat eseri, sanatçının zihinsel faaliyetlerini ve fantazyalarını yansıtan önemli bir psikodinamik oluşum olarak çalışmada yerini almaktadır. 1.3. Önem Felsefedeki “Özne-Nesne İlişkisi” ile psikolojideki “Psikodinamik Kuram”ın “Güzel Sanatlar”la ilişkilendirilerek ele alındığı bu çalışmanın üç farklı alanın daha önce bir araya getirilmediği bir konu olduğundan ve biricikliğini koruması açısından literatüre katkı sağlayacağı düşünülmektedir. 1.4. Amaç Tezin içeriğinin gidişatına uygun amaç sıralaması esas alınmaktadır. 1- Sanatçı öznenin, dış dünya nesneleri ile olan etkileşiminin yaratım sürecine geçiş evresini irdelemek. 2- Dış dünya nesnesinin, sanatçının düş nesnesine dönüşüm evresine şekil veren uyarıları çözümleyerek düşsel algı süreçlerini kontrol eden mekanizmaları incelemek. 3- Doğanın nesne gerçekliği ile sanatçının nesne gerçekliği arasındaki uyumu veya uyumsuzluğunu sanat eserleri aracılığı ile anlamlandırmak. 4- Mantığın ve bilincin sanat eserleri üzerindeki varlıklarını sorgulamak. 5- Yaratma sürecinde sanatçı özne ve sanat eseri bağlantısını psikodinamik açıdan değerlendirmek. 6- Özne-nesne ilişkisinin bilinçdışı etki süreçlerine bağlı kalarak, sanatçının imgelemini plastik anlamda dışa vurulmasını incelemek. 7- İmge yaratma faaliyetinin bilinçdışı rollerini gün yüzüne çıkarmak. 8- Sanatçı öznenin resimsel unsurlar içinde kurguladığı imgenin oluşum sürecini irdelemek 5 1.5. Yöntem “Özne-Nesne İlişkisi Bağlamında Psikodinamik Yaklaşımların İmgelem Yoluyla Gerçeküstü Resimsel Anlamlandırmaları” isimli çalışmada; resim sanatı, psikoloji ve felsefe alanları disiplinlerarası bir yaklaşımla sanatçı öznenin, dış dünya nesneleri ile olan etkileşiminin yaratım sürecine geçiş evresi incelenmiş; resim sanatı, psikolojideki “Psikodinamik Yaklaşım”, felsefedeki “Özne-Nesne İlişkisi” ile bütünleştirilmiştir. Çalışma, nitel araştırma modeli tekniği kullanılarak oluşturulmuştur. Araştırmanın teorik çerçevesi; resim sanatı, psikoloji ve felsefe alanları üzerinde yapılan literatür taraması ile hazırlanmıştır. Değerlendirme bölümü, farklı alanların literatür taramasından elde edilen bulgulardan yola çıkılarak bir bütünlük içerisinde sentezlenmiştir. Son olarak araştırma sürecinde ele alınan uygulamaların çözümlemesi yapılarak, özne-nesne ilişkisine dair dış dünya gerçekliğinin içsel dünya gerçekliğine olan etkisi sonucu ortaya konulmuştur. 1.6. Problem Cümlesi Sanatçı öznenin, doğaya ait nesne oluşumlarını iç dünyasında anlamlandırarak sanat eserine yansıttığı imgeler, yaratım sürecinde ne gibi temellere bağlı kalarak şekillenir? Çalışmanın problem cümlesi, aşağıdaki alt basamaklara ayrılarak problemler üzerinde çözüme ulaşılmaya çalışılmıştır. 1.6.1. Alt Problemler 1- Sanatçıyı, sanat eserini oluşturma evresinde etkileyen unsurlar nelerdir? 2- Sanatçının düşsel algısı ve düş nesnesi sanat eserine ne denli yansımaktadır? 3- Sanatta mantık ve bilincin yeri nedir? 4- Resim sanatı, dış dünya nesnesi ile düş nesnesi arasındaki farklılıkların, geçmiş yaşantıların ve bastırılmış duyguların görüntüye bürünmüş hali midir? 5- Sanatçının resimsel imge yaratımı, doğanın gerçekliği ile sanatçının içsel gerçekliği arasındaki çatışmanın ürünü müdür? 6 1.7. Sayıltılar Birçok kaynaktan sağlanan çeşitli verilerin güvenirlik ve geçerlilik derecesinin yüksek olduğu varsayılmaktadır. 1.8. Sınırlılıklar 1- Özne-nesne ilişkileri, Descartes düşüncesi ile desteklenmiştir. 2- Psikanaliz Kuram incelemesinde, Freudyen bakış açısı temel alınmıştır. 3- Bu çalışmada, sanat, felsefe ve psikoloji alanları disipline edilmiştir. 4- Araştırma, sanat sınıflandırması içinde görsel sanatların resim alanıyla sınırlandırılmıştır. 1.9. Tanımlar Histeri: Hipokrat zamanında Yunanlılar bu bozukluğu tanımlamak için Yunanca rahim anlamına gelen "hysteira" kelimesinden köken alan histeri sözcüğünü kullanmışlardır. On dokuzuncu yüzyılda Paul Briquet çok sayıda bedensel belirtileri olan hastalarına dayanarak histerinin altında yatan nedenin temel olarak merkezi sinir siteminin işlev bozuklukları olduğunu, bunun da üzüntüler ve kayıplarla başka örseleyici olaylara bağlı olduğunu düşünmüştür. Jean-Martin Charcot’ya göre ise histeri, merkezi sinir sisteminin dejenerasyonuna bağlıdır.3 Serbest Çağrışım: Hastaları uyanık durumda, düşünce düzeni ve toplum değerlerini gözetmeksizin özgürce konuşmaya teşvik etmek. Bu yöntemle hastalar içsel engellerini yenebiliyor, unutulmuş anılarına inebiliyor ve sorunlarını açıkça tartışabiliyorlar.4 Usavurmak: Bilinen ya da doğru olarak kabul edilen belli önermelerden başka önermeler çıkarma.5 İmajinasyon: Resmetmek, canlandırmak, bir görüntüyü birebir zihnimizde oluşturmak.6 3 Baykara, Sema, Konversiyon Bozukluğu Olan Hastalarda Serellar Hacim, (Uzmanlık tezi), Fırat Üniversitesi, Ruh Sağlığı ve Hastalıkları Anabilim Dalı, Elazığ (Türkiye), 2015. 4 Geçtan, Engin, Psikodinamik Psikiyatri ve Normal Dışı Davranışlar, (13. Baskı), Remzi Kitabevi, İstanbul 1997, s. 54. 5 Akarsu, “Usavurmak”, A.g.e., s. 184. 7 Cogito: Descartes’in “Düşünüyorum, o halde varım” düşüncesidir.7 Anksiyete: Anksiyete ortaya çıktığında, insanı bir şeyler yapmaya güdüler. Bunun sonucu insan, tehdit edici durumdan kaçabilir, tehlikeli dürtülerini bastırabilir ya da vicdanının sesine uyar. Anksiyete denetlenemezse kendisini çaresiz kalmış bir çocuk gibi hisseder.8 Septik: Kuşkucu.9 Psişe: Ruh.10 Dogma: Doğruluğu sınanmadan benimsenen ve bir öğretinin ya da ideolojinin temeli yapılan sav.11 Şizoid Kişilik Bozukluğu: Yetişkinliğin ilk dönemlerinde başlayarak yapılaşan ve insanlara ilgisizlik ve duygusal yaşantılarda küntlükle belirlenen bir kişilik bozukluğudur.12 Nevroz: Freud’a göre, bedensel ya da sinirsel kökenli olmayan; gerçeklikle ilişkisi bir ölçüde çarpıtılmış olsa da henüz tümüyle yitirilmemiş olan ruhsal kökenli bozukluk.13 Fantezi: Gerçeğin ve olanağın dışında olarak, hayalin serbest işlemesi ve böylece meydana getirilen eser.14 İmgelem: Bir nesneyi, o nesne (karşımızda) olmaksızın tasarımlama yetisi.15 Homo-sapiens: Us yetisi olan insan; us sahibi yaratık. Anaksagoras'tan Hegel'e dek uzanan geleneksel insan anlayışının kavramsal formülü. Karl von Linne (İsveçli 6 “İmajinasyon ve Parapsikoloji Çalışmaları”, <http://www.parapsikoloji.net/imajinasyon-ve- parapsikoloji-calismalari/> (29.11.2018). 7 Descartes, Rene, Yöntem Üzerine Konuşma, (çev. Afşar Timuçin), Bulut Yayınları, İstanbul 2010, s. 43-44. 8 Geçtan, A.g.e., s. 64. 9 TDK (Türk Dil Kurumu), “Septik”, Tıp Terimleri Kılavuzu, Türk Dil Kurumu Yayınları, Ankara. 10 Jung, Carl Gustav, “Psişe”, Analitik Psikoloji Sözlüğü, (1. Baskı), Pinhan Yayıncılık, İstanbul 2016, s. 54. 11 Akarsu, “Dogma A.g.e., s. 56. 12 Geçtan, A.g.e., s. 262. 13 Bakırcıoğlu, Rasim, “Nevroz”, Ansiklopedik Eğitim ve Psikoloji Sözlüğü, (1. Baskı), Anı Yayıncılık, Ankara 2012. 14 TDK, “Fantezi”, Edebiyat ve Söz Sanatı Terimleri Sözlüğü, Türk Dil Kurumu Yayınları: Ankara 1948. 15 Akarsu, “İmgelem”, A.g.e., s. 102. http://www.parapsikoloji.net/imajinasyon-ve-parapsikoloji-calismalari/ http://www.parapsikoloji.net/imajinasyon-ve-parapsikoloji-calismalari/ 8 doğa araştırıcısı) "Systema naturae" yapıtında bu deyimi kültür dönemi insanı için kullanmıştır.16 Litografya: Taş baskı. Ksilografi: Ağaç baskı. 16 Akarsu, “Homo-sapiens”, A.g.e., s. 96. 9 İKİNCİ BÖLÜM 2. PSİKODİNAMİK YAKLAŞIM VE ÖZNE-NESNE İLİŞKİSİ 2.1. Psikodinamik Yaklaşım 2.1.1. Freudyen Yaklaşım Yüzlerce yıl toplum tarafından hoş bakılmayarak dışlanan, sürülen hatta içine şeytan girmiş inancı ile yakılan bazı hastaların ruhsal bozukluklarının beyin patolojisindeki değişimlerden kaynaklanabileceği savını öneren Emil Kraepelin (1856- 1926)’den sonra ilk sistematik psikiyatrik hastalık-tanı ilişkisi oluşturulmaya başlanmıştır. Kraepelin‘le başlayan çalışmalarda daha önceden şeytana atfedilen birçok hastalığın beyin patolojisiyle ilgisi ortaya konarak, ruhsal hastalıklar da bedensel fiziki hastalıklar gibi kabul edilmeye başlanmıştı. Ancak hastaların yarısından fazlasında organik bir bozukluk saptanamadığından ruhsal bozukluklar bir sebebe bağlanamıyordu. Tanımlanamayan böylesi bir problem, bu konu üzerinde daha çok çalışma yapılmasını teşvik ederek farklı alternatifler üretme nedeni olmuştur. XX. yüzyılın başında ruhsal bozuklukların fizyolojik kökenli olmayıp psikolojik nedenlerle oluştuğunu benimseyen bir görüş ortaya çıkarak, kişinin yaşamı boyunca karşılaştığı doğal engellemeleri ve çatışmaları aşılamaz görebilir olduğu ve bu durumda normal olmayan hatta sağlıksız denilebilecek yolları deneyebileceği görüşü öne sürülmüştür. Bireyin yaşamında edindiği olumsuz deneyimlerin ve bunların kalıcı etkilerinin, onun normal dışı davranışlar sergilemesine sebep olduğu düşünülmektedir. Psikanalizin temeli, histeri17 krizlerini çözmek için yapılan hipnoz ve telkin 17 Histeri: Hipokrat zamanında Yunanlılar bu bozukluğu tanımlamak için Yunanca rahim anlamına gelen "hysteira" kelimesinden köken alan histeri sözcüğünü kullanmışlardır. On dokuzuncu yüzyılda Paul Briquet çok sayıda bedensel belirtileri olan hastalarına dayanarak histerinin altında yatan nedenin temel olarak merkezi sinir siteminin işlev bozuklukları olduğunu, bunun da üzüntüler ve kayıplarla başka örseleyici olaylara bağlı olduğunu düşünmüştür. Jean-Martin Charcot’ya göre ise histeri, merkezi sinir sisteminin dejenerasyonuna bağlıdır. Baykara, Sema., Konversiyon Bozukluğu Olan Hastalarda Serellar Hacim, (Uzmanlık tezi), Fırat Üniversitesi, Ruh Sağlığı ve Hastalıkları Anabilim Dalı, Elazığ (Türkiye), 2015. 10 tedavilerine dayanır. Başlangıçta hipnoz ile tedavi yöntemini benimseyen Freud, zamanla hipnozdan vazgeçerek hastalarını hiçbir baskı ve endişe duymadan, sosyal değerleri göz ardı ederek özgürce konuşmaya yönlendirdi. Bu yaklaşıma “serbest çağrışım”18 adı verildi. Hastaların içsel dünyalarına inerek kendilerini daha iyi tanımalarına ve nevrozları19 ile başa çıkmayı öğrenmelerini sağlayan tedavi yöntemine ise “psikanaliz” ismi verildi. Psikanaliz yöntem Freud ile öylesine özleşmiştir ki “psikoterapist” denince insanların çoğunun aklına gelen imge, hastası divanda uzanmış annesinden söz ederken, sessizce oturan, gözlemleyen ve purosunu tüttüren Freud imgesidir.20 Zamanla Freud’un çevresinde toplanan meslektaşları özellikle cinselliğe dayalı açıklamaları benimsemeyerek kendi teorilerini geliştirmek üzere gruptan ayrılmışlardır. Günümüzde değişikliklere uğramış olsa da Freud’un Psikodinamik Kuram’a kattığı kavram ve yaklaşım yöntemlerinin çoğu geçerliliklerini sürdürmektedir. 2.1.2. Psikodinamik Kuram Günümüzde çoğu kişi psikodinamik ve psikanalitik terimlerini eş anlamlı olarak kullansa da dinamik psikiyatrinin Psikanalitik Kuram’dan ayırıcı özellikleri vardır. Psikodinamik psikiyatri ya da günümüzde daha sık kullanılan deyimle dinamik psikiyatrinin başlangıcı, yaklaşık yüz yıl öncesine dayanmakta. Ellenberger' e göre, ilk kez on dokuzuncu yüzyılın sonlarında Leibniz, dinamik sözcüğünü statik karşıtı olarak kullanmış ve bu terim psikiyatrik düşünce içinde bir süre daha çeşitli ve farklı amaçlarla kullanıldıktan sonra psikanalitik kuram içinde bugünkü anlamını bulmuştur (1970).21 Dinamik psikiyatri düşünce biçimi, hem tedavi edilecek olan kişi hem de tedavi eden kişi arasındaki ilişki sürecini kapsar. Bu iki kişi arasında olan bağ ve güven olgusuna dayanarak tedaviye gelen kişi; kendine ait dünyasını, yaşanmışlıklarını, hislerini karşıdakine anlatır. Tedavi eden kişi ise anlatılanların gerisindeki dinamik mekanizmalara ulaşır, çeşitli çıkarımlarda bulunur. 18 Serbest Çağrışım: Hastaları uyanık durumda, düşünce düzeni ve toplum değerlerini gözetmeksizin özgürce konuşmaya teşvik etmek. Bu yöntemle hastalar içsel engellerini yenebiliyor, unutulmuş anılarına inebiliyor ve sorunlarını açıkça tartışabiliyorlar. Geçtan, A.g.e., s. 54. 19 Nevroz: Freud’a göre, bedensel ya da sinirsel kökenli olmayan; gerçeklikle ilişkisi bir ölçüde çarpıtılmış olsa da henüz tümüyle yitirilmemiş olan ruhsal kökenli bozukluk. Bakırcıoğlu, Rasim, “Nevroz”, Ansiklopedik Eğitim ve Psikoloji Sözlüğü, (1. Baskı), Anı Yayıncılık, Ankara 2012. 20 Muckenhoupt, Margaret, Sigmund Freud Bilinçdışının Kâşifi, (çev. Füsun Akatlı), (7. Baskı), TÜBİTAK Yayınları, Ankara 2004, s. 4. 21 Geçtan, A.g.e., s. 49. 11 Dinamik psikiyatri, ilişkilerin bilinçdışındaki dünyasıyla da ilgilenir. İnsanın bilinçdışında, kendisinin ve çevresindeki diğer kişilerin yine kendisine göre yorumlanmış imgelerinden oluşan bir dünya bulunur. Bu dünya, insanın obje ilişkilerinde yaşamakta olduğu güçlükleri de yansıtır. Dinamik psikiyatriye göre, bilinç dünyamızın karışık olmasına karşılık bilinçdışı dünyamız denetleyicidir. Bir başka deyişle, bilinç dünyamızda özgürce yaptığımızı sandığımız seçimlerin önemli bir bölümü bilinçdışı güçler tarafından etkilenir. Gerçekten de yaşamımızdaki önemli kararları, çoğu zaman, karar vermekte olduğumuzu fark etmeden veririz. Ancak, bilinçdışı güçlerin belirleyici etkisi, davranışların ve ruhsal bozukluk belirtilerinin tümü için geçerli değildir. Üstelik bilinçdışının etkili gücüne rağmen, psikanaliz ve psikodinamik psikoterapi yaşantılarında olduğu gibi, yine de seçim hakkımız vardır.22 Kişi, bebeklik ve çocukluk dönemlerinde yaşantılarını yalnızca öznel algısı ile deneyimlemektedir ve yaşadığı olayların etkisine karşı yetişkinlere nazaran daha savunmasızdır. Bu nedenle Psikodinamik Kuramcılar, bebeklik ve çocukluk döneminin yetişkinlik evresinde belirleyici etkisinin büyük olduğunu savunur. Geçmiş yaşantıların gelecekteki yaşama yön vermesi durumu, dinamik psikiyatri uygulaması ile önlenebilir. Kişi, bu yöntem ile değişimlere uyum sağlayabilir, normal dışı davranışlarından kurtulabilir ve geçmiş şartlanmaları aşabilir. 2.1.3. Topografik Model Histerik hastaların tedavi süreçlerinde hipnoz yöntemini kullanan Freud ve Breuer, tedavi esnasında hastaların eski anılarını anlattıklarında rahatladıklarını gözlemleyerek bu konu üzerinde çeşitli denemelerde bulunmuşlardır. Freud, daha sonra bu konu üzerinde çalışmış ve kuramı geliştirmiştir. Daha önce ruhsal olayların beyin patolojisi ile ilişkilendirilme çabaları sonuçsuz kaldığında Freud, psikanalinizi geliştirmeye başlayınca, patoloji yerine geçecek olan kuramsal çalışmalarda öncelikle “Topografik Kişilik Kuramı” denilen bir kuram üzerinde durmuştur. Sonuç olarak ruhsal aygıtı üç bölüme ayırmış, hepsine ayrı nitelikler yüklemiştir. “Bilinçdışına bastırma” deyimi il kez bu çalışmalar sonucunda ortaya çıkmıştır. Bölümlendirdiği üç başlık; bilinç, bilinç öncesi ve bilinçdışı kavramları ile ifade edilmiştir. Geliştirdiği kuramı, beynin zihinsel aktivitelerini yükselti eğrilerine benzeterek yapılandırmaya çalışmış ve Topografik Kişilik Kuramı’nı buzdağı ile ilişkilendirmiştir (Resim 2.1). “Bilinç” deyimi ile nitelendirdiğimiz düşünceler ve algılar, buzdağının görünen ama küçük bir kısmını oluştururken; bilinç dışı bölge, çok daha büyük bir yer tutmaktadır. 22 Geçtan, A.g.e., s. 51. 12 Peki ya düşünce dediğimiz şey nedir? Başlangıçta fiziksel bir tanım yapmak zordur. Resim 2.1: Sigmund Freud, “Topografik Kişilik Kuramı, Buzdağı Örneklemesi”. Bu tanım gelip geçici olabileceği gibi üstünde hâkimiyet de kuramayız. Fakat topografik model başlıklarının içinde ele alacak olunursa, düşünce kavramının hangi sistem üzerinde var olduğu çözümlenebilir. 2.1.3.1. Bilinç Bilimsel psikolojinin tarihsel süreci, göz önünde bulundurularak incelendiğinde, ilk dönemlerden başlayarak büyük bölümünün bilinçle ilgilendiğine dikkat edilmiştir. On dokuzuncu yüzyılın sonlarına doğru deneysel psikologlar, insan zihni ile ilgili uygun olabilecek tek çalışma alanının bilincin içeriği olması gerektiğine inanmışlardır. O döneme değin davranışların bilinçdışı belirleyicileri hakkında çok az düşünce söz konusu olmuştur. Bu nedenle de psikoloji bilimi temel olarak çalışmaların odağına bilincin analizini getirmiştir.23 Beynin görevi, bilgi toplayıp bu bilgilere göre davranışları yönlendirmektir. Bu süreçte bilinç hemen hemen hiç devreye girmez. Beynin işleri arasında en küçük rol bilincindir ve bu bölge, bedenin içinden ya da dışından gelen algıları fark edebilir. Hayal ile gerçek arasındaki bu fark, algı sabitlemesi olarak nitelendirilebilir. Freud, bu konu hakkında şunları ifade etmiştir: Bilinç, gerçeklikle uyumu sağlayan ve mantıksal düşüncenin baskın olduğu bölmedir. Bu 23 Büyükkaya, İnan Tanju, Gerçeküstü Resmin Yapılanmasında Bilinçdışının Rolü, (Yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi), Işık Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Resim Anasanat Dalı, İstanbul (Türkiye), 2014. 13 sayede bilinçli eylemlerdeki düşünce ve duygular; neden, sonuç, zaman ve mekân boyutlarına uygun olarak kurulur. Burada özel bir noktaya değinmek gerekir: Çocukluğun ilk yıllarında düşünme biçimi bu özelliklerden yoksundur. Zamanla ikincil süreç de denilen bilinçli, mantıksal düşünce şekline geçilir. Bilinç öncesi ise herhangi bir anda bilincimizde bulunmasa da bir dikkat çabası ile hatırlanabilen düşünceleri içerir. Çok eski bir anının hatırlanması gibi. Bilinçdışı ise kişinin kendi özel çabası ile bilinç düzeyine çağrılmayan ruhsal süreçleri içerir. Bu bölmeye hipnoz ve serbest çağrışım gibi özel yöntemlerle ulaşılabilir.24 2.1.3.2. Bilinç Öncesi Bilinç alanında olmayan duygu, düşünce, anı, olay, istek, eğilim, dürtü gibi içeriklerin kişinin istemli gayretiyle de olsa bilinç düzeyine çıkabilen olaylar ve süreçlerin olduğu katman bilinç öncesidir. Bilinç ile bilinçaltı arasında bir köprü görevi gören bilinç öncesi, anılar ve genel bilgilerimizin bulunduğu yerdir. Bilinç öncesi, hangi içeriklerin tutulup hangilerinin bilinçdışına bastırılacağını saptayan bir süzgeç ya da otosansür düzeneği gibi işlev görür.25 Doğuştan var olmayan ve çocukluk dönemlerinde gelişen bilinç öncesi içerikler, bilince de bilinçdışına da erişim gösterebilir. 2.1.3.3. Bilinçaltı Yukarıda bahsedilen algılamaların dışında geri kalan zihinsel fenomenlerin tamamına “bilinçaltı” denilmektedir. Engellenerek yani bir nevi sansür neticesinde bilinç düzeyine çıkma imkânı olmayan, genellikle bireyin ya da toplumun genel ahlaki ya da inanışları ile uyuşmayan dürtülerdir. Tedavide amaç, hipnoz ya da telkin yoluyla bu dürtülerin bilinç seviyesine çıkarılmasını da içerir. Psikoloji bilimi 20. yüzyıla gelene kadar bilinç olaylarını, psikolojik olgularla bir saymıştır. Bilinç olaylarının tamamıyla ruhsal olguları içerdiği anlayışı 17. yüzyıldan sonra Descartes’e kadar dayanmaktadır. Descartes, “ruh kökünün” esası olarak düşünceyi ele almış ve düşünmeyi de bu günkü tanısıyla “bilinçdışı” ile aynı şey olarak kabul etmiştir. Descartes’e göre insanın bilincinde olmadığı düşüncesi yoktur, tüm düşüncelerin ana kaynağı bilinçdışı zihindir.26 Bu kişilik kuramı geçici bir model olarak kalmış gözlemlenen bazı durumları açıklayamadığından daha yeni bir modele geçilmesi gerekmiştir. Örneğin bilinçaltında baskılanan ya da daha doğru bir deyimle sansürlenen duyguların tersine, bu duyguları sansürleyen ahlaki ya da sosyolojik duyguların bilinç düzeyinde olması gerekiyordu. 24 Freud, Sigmund, Psikanaliz, (2. Baskı) Gece Kitaplığı, Ankara 2016, s. 14. 25 Freud, A.g.e., s. 16. 26 Büyükkaya, A.g.e. 14 Bilinçli duruma geldiklerinde bireyde anksiyete27 yaratacak potansiyele sahip olan istek, eğilim, dürtü, duygu, düşünce, anı, olay gibi içeriklerin itilerek tutuldukları alandır. Bu içerikler doyuma ulaşmak için sürekli olarak bilinç alanına çıkmak ister. Bunlar istemli çabayla bilince getirilemez. Bunun için özel tekniklerin kullanılması gerekir.28 2.1.4. İçgüdüler İçgüdü, nedenlerinin bilinmediği, genellikle de sadece kendi türüne özgü olup, türün tüm üyelerinde görülen karmaşık davranışlar bütününe denir. Freud, içgüdülerin doğuştan var olduğunu savunur. İçgüdülerin gelişimi altı yaşına kadar olduğundan dolayı Freud, Psikanalitik Kuramı’nda kişilik temelinin henüz çocukken atıldığı savını öne sürer. Kalıtsal kökenleri belli olmamakla birlikte içgüdüler, öğrenme sonucu edinilmiş tepkilerden farklıdırlar. Tanım, daha sonra içerik değiştirerek annelik ve korunma içgüdüleri gibi fizyolojik değil, amaca yönelik bazı davranışları açıklamak için kullanılmıştır. İçgüdüler, düşünceyle değil biyolojik uyarılma sonucu oluşurlar. Bu uyarılmanın ruhsal anlatımına “içgüdü”, içgüdüyü oluşturan uyarıcıya “ihtiyaç”, bunun psikolojik karşılığına da “istek” denir. En klasik örnek açlıktır. Aç kalmak ya da acıkmak, karnını doyurma ihtiyacı olarak ortaya çıkar ve bu ihtiyacı giderme isteği yiyecek aramayı güdülendirir. İçgüdüler, Freud tarafından yaşam içgüdüsü (eros) ve ölüm içgüdüsü (thanatos) olmak üzere ikiye ayrılmıştır. Freud, libido ile ölüm içgüdüsü arasındaki mitolojik mücadele ile büyük iç parçalanmalarını simgeleştirmek istemiştir.29 2.1.4.1. Yaşam İçgüdüsü - Libido Birey, yaşam içgüdüsü ile açlık, susuzluk, cinsellik gibi etmenleri göz önünde bulundurup kendini koruyarak ve yaşamını devam ettirerek insan ırkının sürmesine yönelik faaliyetlerde bulunur. Yaşam içgüdüsünü çalıştıran enerji türüne “libido” denir.30 Libido, bir canlı türünün öğrenme gerekmeden örgütlü, sürekli olarak bir amaca yönelik davranmasını sağlayan içsel güçtür.31 Dürtüler bütünü olarak nitelendirilen libido, cinsel dürtünün dinamik bulgusudur. 27 Anksiyete; Anksiyete ortaya çıktığında, insanı bir şeyler yapmaya güdüler. Bunun sonucu insan, tehdit edici durumdan kaçabilir, tehlikeli dürtülerini bastırabilir ya da vicdanının sesine uyar. Anksiyete denetlenemezse kendisini çaresiz kalmış bir çocuk gibi hisseder. Geçtan, A.g.e., s. 64. 28 Freud, 2016, s. 16. 29 Foucault, Michel, Deliliğin Tarihi, (çev. Mehmet Ali Kılıçbay), (4. Baskı), İmge Kitabevi Yayınları, Ankara, 2006, s. 62. 30 Geçtan, A.g.e., s. 60. 31 Freud, 2016, s. 18. 15 Freud’a göre kişinin sevdiği ve ilgi duyduğu her nesne, onun için cinsel bir nitelik barındırmaktadır. Her dürtünün amacı ve nesnesi olduğu gibi her nesnenin de insan tarafından doyuma ulaşmayı amaçladığı cinsel bir niteliği vardır. Yani birey, dış dünya nesnelerine libidinal aktarım sağlar. Kişiliğin gelişimini, bireyin bebeklik ve çocukluk yıllarına bağlayan Freud, çocuğun dünyaya geldiği andan itibaren libidonun gücü ile davranışta bulunmaya başladığını savunarak, çocuk bedeninin libidoya doyum sağlayabilecek nitelikte olduğunu ve bu doyumun birçok dönemlerden geçerek toplumsal bir nitelik kazandığını aktarmaktadır. 32 Freud’un yukarıda bahsettiği dönemler, libidonun psikoseksüel gelişim evreleri içindeki oral dönem (0-1 yaş), anal dönem (1-3 yaş), fallik dönem (4-6 yaş), latent (gizil) dönem (7-11 yaş) ve genital dönem (11-18 yaş) olmak üzere beş evreden oluşmaktadır. Bu evrelerin hepsinin kendine has yaş aralıklarının getirileri ve öğretileri vardır. Her birey, bu evreler içinde faaliyetlerde bulunarak toplumsal bir nitelik kazanmaktadır. 2.1.4.2. Ölüm İçgüdüsü Yıkıcı bir güç olarak nitelendirilen ölüm içgüdüsü, yaşam içgüdüsüne göre daha kapalı işlenmiştir. Freud, ölüm içgüdüsü kavramını Fechner tarafından geliştirilen "tüm yaşayan süreçler sonunda maddesel dünyanın sürekliliğine dönüşürler" ilkesi üzerine geliştirmiştir.33 Ölüm içgüdüsünün önemli bir türevi saldırganlık dürtüsüdür. Freud' a göre saldırganlık, aslında insanın kendine yönelik olan yıkıcı eğilimlerinin, dış dünyadaki nesnelere çevrilmesidir. İnsan, diğer insanlarla savaşır ve onlara karşı yıkıcı davranır, çünkü kendini yok etme isteği yaşam içgüdülerinin gücü tarafından engellenmiştir.34 1932 yılında Freud’un Albert Einstein’a yazdığı bir mektupta saldırganlık hakkındaki görüşü dikkat çekmektedir. Bilindiği üzere Einstein, dünya barışı ile alakalı birçok çalışmaya katkı sağlamıştır. Freud’a insanların neden savaştıkları hakkındaki görüşünü istemiş, insanlarda nefret ve yıkma arzusunun mümkün olup olmadığını sormuştur. Freud şöyle bir yanıt vermiştir: Bu tür bir içgüdünün varlığına inanıyoruz; aslında, şu son birkaç yıldır bunun tezahürleriyle ilgili çalışmalar yapmaktayız. Ölüm içgüdüsü, yıkım içgüdüsüne dönüşmektedir. Bu içgüdü 32 Freud, A.g.e., s. 18. 33 Geçtan, A.g.e., s. 60. 34 Geçtan, A.g.e., s. 60. 16 dışarıya, nesnelere doğru yönelmiştir. Deyim yerindeyse, canlı varlık, kendisine yabancı bir varlığı yok ederek, yaşamını korumaktadır.35 2.2. Özne-Nesne İlişkisi 2.2.1. Felsefede Bilgi Arayışı “Felsefe” diye telaffuz edilen kesin ve güvenilir bilgi arayışı, Eski Yunan Felsefesi ile başlamıştır. “Var olanların varlığı, anlamı ve nedeni üzerine sorularla ortaya çıkmıştır. Önceleri dinin ve söylencelerin yanıtladığı bu sorular, eleştirel bir düşüncenin ve gözlemenin konusu yapılınca felsefe doğmuştur.”36 Sorgulama yolu ile gerçeğe, kesin ve güvenilir bir bilgiye erişebilme amacı felsefenin özü olmuştur. Felsefe, bilinmeyene açıklık arayan ve bilinmeyeni çözümlemek adına üzerine yoğunlaşıp sorgulayan bir bilimdir. Bilgi toplama aracı güvenilirliği ile ulaşılan bilgi doğru orantıda güvenilirlik ve kesinlik teşkil eder. Bu nedenle bilgi edinme sürecinde bilgi toplama aracının önemli bir rolü vardır. Platon felsefesinde bilginin yolu aranırken varlık anlayışı yöntemi ön plandadır. Kişinin, kendi algısının ötesine geçmediği takdirde bilgiye erişilemeyeceğini savunan Platon, algılanmadığında hatırlanan olarak yorumlanan şeyin aslında var olabileceğini ifade eder. “Algı ile bilgi elde edilemez. Çünkü algılanmayan bir şey, algılanmadığı zaman hatırlanır. Oysa algılandığında var olan, algılanmadığında var olmayan şeyin bilgisi söz konusu olamaz. Algı ile bilgi aynı anlamda alınırsa, algılanmayan şey, bilinemez olur.”37 Aristoteles, bilgi edinme sürecinde her nesne için nedenler üzerinde durulması gerektiğini söylemiştir. “Ne için” sorusunun yöneltilmediği ve ona güvenli bir cevap almadığı sürece nesnenin bilincine varılamayacağını ifade etmiştir. “Her bir nesne oluşumunda ‘ne için’ sorusunun cevabını tam anlamıyla kavramadıkça o nesneyi bildiğimizi düşünemeyiz. Oluş, yok oluş ve her türlü doğal değişme üzerine bu yapılmalıdır ki onların ilkelerini araştırılan her nesneyi bu ilkelere götürmeyi deneyebilelim.”38 35 Freud, Sigmund, Character and Culture, New York: Collier Boks, 1963, s. 322. 36 Akarsu, “Felsefe”, A.g.e., s. 80. 37 Platon, Diyaloglar 2, (çev. Macit Gökberk), Remzi Kitabevi, İstanbul 1996, ss. 210-212. 38 Aristoteles, Fizik, (çev. Saffet Babür), Yapı Kredi Yayınları, İstanbul 1997, s. 61. 17 2.2.1.1. Descartes’in Bilgi Kuramı XVII. yüzyıl Fransız düşünürü olan Rene Descartes (1596-1650), bilimsel yöntemi belirlemesi ve felsefesini özneden hareketle inşa etmiş olması bakımından modern felsefenin kurucusu olmuştur. Descartes, felsefeye ve belirlediği metoda şüphe duygusunu sistematik bir şekilde dâhil etmiştir. Fakat şüphe, septik39 bir boyutta olmamakla beraber kendi felsefesinde bir yöntem niteliğindedir. Descartes, “Gerçeği arayanın yaşamında bir kez tüm nesnelerden gücü yettiği ölçüde şüphe duyması gerekir "40 diyerek, gerçek bilgiye ulaşma sürecinde şüphe duymanın öneminden söz etmiştir. Kendisinden en küçük bir kuşku bile duyulamayacak bir şeyin olmadığını nereden biliriz?41 Özne, eğer doğru ve güvenilir bilgiye erişmek istiyor ise tüm varlıklara şüphe ile yaklaşarak onları sorgulama evresine girmelidir. Aksi takdirde bilgiye erişilemeyeceği savunulmaktadır. Descartes, şüphe duyduğu şeyleri açık ve seçik bir şekilde arama gayreti içindedir. Çünkü bir bilgi ancak açık ve seçik olduğunda kabullenilebilir. Açık ve seçik söyleminden kastına örnek verecek olunursa; insanların dünya üzerinde var olduğu bilgisi açık bir bilgidir. İnsanın var olduğu dünyadan daha özel ve seçilmiş bir bilgiye indirgeyerek nerede, nasıl ve ne şartlarda yaşıyor olduğu bilgisi ise seçik bir bilgidir. Genel bir tavır ile ifade edilen açık bilginin aksine daha özele ulaşılması, bilginin seçikliğini göstermektedir. Şüphe ile yaklaşılan ve sorgulanan şeylerin mantıklı bir karşılığını arayan Descartes’in analitik geometri, mantık, cebir gibi ilimlerle olan ilgi ve alakası, bu ilimlerin kanıtlarının açıklığı ve seçikliği olmuştur. İlgilendiği ilimlerdeki güvenilirlikten etkilenmiş ve bunu felsefeye uyarlamak için gayret göstermiştir. Buna yönelik bir yöntem geliştirerek bilgi üzerine sağlama tekniği oluşturmuştur. Bu sağlamada olan dört kural ile açık ve seçik bilgiye ulaşmanın yollarını belirlemiştir. Oluşturduğu yönteminin dört temel kuralı şunlardır: 1) Açık ve seçik olmayan hiçbir şeyi doğru kabul etmemek, 2) Problemleri çözümleyerek analiz etmek, 39 Septik: Kuşkucu. TDK, “Septik”, Tıp Terimleri Kılavuzu, Türk Dil Kurumu Yayınları, Ankara. 40 Descartes, Rene, Felsefenin İlkeleri, (çev. Mesut Akın), Say Yayıncılık, İstanbul 2010, s. 49. 41 Descartes, Rene, Kurallar ve Meditasyonlar, (çev. Aziz Yardımlı), İdea Yayınları, 1997, s. 94. 18 3) En basit ve kesin olan önermeden yola çıkarak karmaşık olana doğru ilerlemek, 4) Bu sıralamalar esnasında herhangi bir yanılsamayı önlemek için sık sık sağlama yapmak42 Bu dört temel kuralın belirlenmesinde yukarıda da belirtildiği gibi analitik geometri, mantık ve cebir ilimlerinin etkisi olmuştur. Bu tür ilimlerin sağlama yaparak doğruya götürme durumunu kendi oluşturduğu felsefesinde de sağlama mantığıyla ele almış ve de doğru bilgiye ancak bu aşamalardan geçerek erişilebileceğine inanmıştır. Descartes’e göre açık ve seçik bilginin temel kaynağı, zihindir. Bunu "Metafizik Üzerine Düşünceler” isimli eserinde balmumu örneğiyle açıklamıştır: Descartes, eline bir balmumu alır ve ilk önce onu inceler. Balmumunun şeklini, büyüklüğünü, katılığını, sıcaklığını, rengini ve kokusunu hisseder. Ve onu ateşe yaklaştırır, böylece değişime uğradığını gözlemler. Balmumunun şekli değişerek yüzeyi farklılaşır, büyüklüğü artar, sıvılaşır, ısı oranı yükselir, rengi olduğundan daha koyu bir hal alır, farklı bir koku yayılır vb. Balmumu duyularla algılanabilecek boyutta bir değişime uğramıştır. Descartes, insanlara bu deney ile karşılaşılan balmumunun aynı olup olmadığı sorusunu yöneltir. İnsanlar, onun aynı balmumu olduğu cevabını verir. Bu cevap, duyularla algılanan bir değişimin sonucunda verilen bir cevap değildir. Çünkü duyularla algılanarak varılan bir sonuç olsaydı iki durum arasındaki değişim göz önünde bulundurulurdu. Balmumunun idrak eden fiil ne görüş, ne dokunuş, ne de tahayyüldür ve böyleymiş gibi göründüğü halde, hakikatte hiçbir zaman bunlar olmamıştır; fakat yalnız zihnin bir görüşüdür. 43 Descartes bu deney üzerine bilgi arama metodu olarak zihni temele alır. Bu ve buna benzer deneysel sonuçlar neticesinde Descartes, güvenilir ve kesin bilginin zihin olduğu kanaatine varır. Ona göre her ne kadar duyularla gözlemleyebildiğimiz, hissederek algıladığımız bir durum olsa dahi, bu yöntem gerçek bilgiye ulaşmak için doğru bir yöntem olmamıştır. Duyulardan ziyade zihnin yönünün, gerçek bilgiye erişme yolunda daha güvenli ve doğru olduğunu savunur. Descartes için 42 Descartes, Rene, Yöntem Üzerine Konuşma, (çev. Afşar Timuçin), Bulut Yayınları, İstanbul 2010, ss. 63-65. 43 Descartes, Rene, Metafizik Düşünceler, (çev. Mehmet Karasan), Milli Eğitim Basınevi, İstanbul 1997, s. 163. 19 açık ve seçik bilgiye giden yol, duyulardan öte zihinde saklıdır ve bu, Descartes’in Bilgi Kuramı’dır. 2.2.1.1.1. Descartes’e Göre Özne-Nesne İlişkisi Descartes’in ortaya koyduğu Bilgi Kuram’ı, özne-nesne ilişkisi ile ilişkilendirilecek olunursa; özne tarafından nesne bilgisinin hangi yöntem ile kazanıldığı tartışması bu kuramın getirisidir. Descartes, modern dünyanın temeline özneyi yerleştirmesi sebebi ile aydınlanma çağına temel bir nitelik teşkil eder ve bu düşüncesi, felsefe tarihinde bir kırılma noktası olarak bilinir. Doğru ve apaçık bilgiye erişmenin temel dayanağının zihin olduğunu savunarak, “özne” ve “düşünme” ikilisinin arasındaki ilişkiyi kuvvetlendirmiştir. “Düşünüyorum o halde varım” deyimi ile düşünme etkinliğini yalnızca zihinsel bir eylem olarak değil, aynı zamanda var olmanın asıl kuralı olarak görmüştür. Bu sebeple düşünmeyi ontolojik boyutta ele almıştır. “İnsanlar düşünce yaratmayı öğrenmeden, düşünce onlara gelmiştir. Düşünmüyorlar, ama zihinlerinin görevini seziyorlardı. Nesnel psişenin44 bilinçdışının kendiliğinden ve bağımsız olan faaliyetini yansıtan bir düş gibidir dogma.45”46 Özne, bilgi edinme süreci içine girmeden önce ilk olarak kendi varlığını doğru ve güvenilir bir bilgi ile ispatlamak durumunda kalır. Kendi varlığının bilgisini doğru ve güvenli bir şekilde ortaya koyamayan özne, kendi dışında kalanların varlıklarını doğru bir bilgi ile bilemez ve onları içselleştiremez. Descartes’in kesin ve güvenilir bilgiye erişme süreci olan zihin, aynı zamanda öznenin kendi varlığının bilgisini ortaya koymasında dayanak noktasıdır. Descartes, düşünen özneyi o kadar ön planda tutar ki, kendisinin var olması aşamasında anne ve babasını bir pozisyona oturtturamaz. Ve bu durumu şu şekilde ifade eder: “Ana-babama gelince, görünüşte dünyaya gelmemi onlara borçluyum, her ne kadar bu hususta bütün inandıklarım doğru olsa dahi bununla beraber bundan dolayı, düşünen bir şey olarak beni meydana getiren ve muhafaza eden ana-babam olması 44 Psişe: Ruh. Jung, “Psişe”, 2016, s. 54. 45 Dogma: Doğruluğu sınanmadan benimsenen ve bir öğretinin ya da ideolojinin temeli yapılan sav. Akarsu, A.g.e., s. 56. 46 Jung, Carl Gustav, Analitik Psikoloji, (çev. Ender Gürol), (2. Baskı), Payel Yayınları, İstanbul 2006, ss. 271-272. 20 gerekmez; çünkü düşünen bir cevherle cismani bir fiil arasında hiçbir münasebet yoktur.”47 Descartes’e göre özne, tüm doğru ve apaçık bilgilerin yapılandırıcısıdır. Bilen ve düşünen varlık olarak özne, karşılaştığı tüm nesnelerin ne olduğu sorusunu yöneltir. Özne, nesnenin ne olduğu ve onun hangi doğaya ait olduğu sorularına cevap ararken, bu sorulara yine bilen ve düşünen varlık (özne), hem açık hem de seçik bir şekilde cevap verecektir. Dolayısı ile özne, hem şüphe edip soru soran hem de doğru bilgiye ulaşıp cevap veren konumundadır. Maddesel nesnelerin varlığının nasıl kanıtlanacağı sorunu ele alınırken, onun bir töz olduğu göz önünde bulundurulmalıdır. Dolayısıyla maddesel şeylerin bilinci, zihin durumlarının bilinci ile aynı anlamda gözetilemez. Maddesel şeylerin "anlık yoluyla olmanın dışında algılanamayan özellikleri vardır.48 Descartes, maddesel nesne bilgisinin duyularla değil, anlık yollarla elde edilebileceği kanısındadır. O, ancak bu yolla kuşku duyulmaksızın doğru bilgiye erişileceğine ve kesin olarak bilineceğine inanmıştır. “Maddesel şeylerin varlığı, kuşku sürecinde anlıktan sonra ele alınır. Çünkü cogito49, düşünmenin ilk olarak gerçekleştirdiği bir bilgi deneyimidir. Tüm bilgilerin çıkış noktasının cogito oluşunun nedeni, düşünen varlığın hiçbir kuşkuya yer bırakmaksızın kesin olarak kanıtlanmasıdır.”50 2.2.2. Özne Kelime anlamı olarak özne; kendisi dışındaki her şeye (nesneye) karşıt olarak dış dünyadan bağımsız olan, gerçeği dolaysız bir şekilde kavrayan, bir nesneyi o nesne olmaksızın zihinde tasarımlayabilme yetisiyle daha önce ilişkilendirilmemiş nesneleri birbirleriyle ilişkilendirerek yeni bir şey yaratma gücüne sahip olan, üzerinde durduğu şeyin bilincine varan, nesneyi doğrudan doğruya hem kendi gerçeğiyle hem de düşsel algısı ile algılayan bireydir. 47 Descartes, Metafizik Düşünceler, 1997, s. 168. 48 Descartes, Kurallar ve Meditasyonlar, 1997, s. 99. 49 Cogito: Descartes’in “Düşünüyorum, o halde varım” düşüncesidir. Descartes, 2010, s. 43. 50 Ay, Volkan, Modern Felsefede Özne-Nesne Ayrımı ve Öznellik Kavramı, (Yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi), Ankara Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Felsefe (Sistematik Felsefe ve Mantık) Anabilim Dalı, Ankara (Türkiye), 2003. 21 Özne, epistemolojik anlamıyla “öz” (töz) deyiminden türemiştir. Spinoza’nın deyimi ile öz, “Varoluşu için başka bir şeye gereksinme duymayan şey”51 olarak ifade edilir. Varoluşun kendi kendisinde var olma halini destekleyen bir düşüncedir. Öz, başka bir şey için varlık arayışına girmeksizin yalnızca kendi içinde var olandır. “Öz” deyimi ile nitelendirilen her şey, kendi kendisine ve kendi kendisinde var olduğu haliyle kabullenilir. Öznede varlığı aranmayan öz, yalnızca kendi içinde vardır. XVII. yüzyıldan itibaren özne, kuramlaşmış hali ile “ben” anlamında kullanılır. Ben olmayana (nesneye) karşı durmakla birlikte sürekli nesneye yönelme durumu da vardır. Kendisi dışındaki her şey onun için “ben olmayan” ise, başka bir “ben” için de kendisi “ben olmayan” niteliğindedir. Yani her özne kendisi için “ben” durumundadır ve kendisi dışındaki her şey onun nesnesi yani “ben olmayan” pozisyonudur. Özne, yaşam süresince hayatına kattığı ve katacağı her durumda düşünen ve yalnızca düşünmekle yetinmeyip, kendi düşüncesini eyleme geçirerek tasarı faaliyetinde bulunan ve üreten bir yeteneğe sahiptir. Özne, kendi yaşam deneyimleri içinde, kendisini ve çevresini tanıma özelliğine sahiptir. Doğada edindiği bilgilerin, karşılaştığı görüntülerin, hislerin ve duyguların zihninde duru olarak çözümlenme sürecini yaşar. Bu durum “sezgi” olarak nitelendirilebilir. Böylece sezgi yoluyla olmuş veya olacak bir şeyi net olmasa da kestirebilme yetisine sahiptir. Bu doğrudan doğruya kavrayabilme durumu, üzerine düşündüğü şeyin özünün bilincine varması halidir. İçgüdüsel bir yol ile öznenin bilincinde uyanan sezgisel durumlar, onun karar mekanizmasına yön verir. Yaşadığı farklı deneyimleri ile bilincinin denetiminden zaman zaman uzaklaşsa dahi ondan tamamen kopması söz konusu değildir. Descartes, öznenin varlığını düşünme olarak sağladığını ve ancak bu şekilde var olacağını ortaya koyar. Düşünme eylemini sağlam ve güvenli bir yapıya ait kılarak, “düşünüyorum öyleyse varım” şeklinde bir sonuca ulaşmıştır. Descartes, “- Düşünüyorum öyleyse varım- doğrusunun, kuşkucuların tüm aşırı varsayımlarıyla sarsılmayacak kadar sağlam ve güvenli olduğunu belirlerken, bu doğruyu araştırdığım felsefenin ilk ilkesi olarak hiçbir kuşkuya düşmeden olabileceğine karar verdim”52 51 Akarsu, “Töz”, A.g.e., s. 179. 52 Descartes, 2010, s. 43. 22 demiştir. Gül ve Ünal, “Öznenin, Descartes’in ifadesiyle “düşünen şey” olmasının yanında, korku duyan, yaşayan ve arzulayan yönü, öte yandan kendi çıkarlarını koruyan ve kendisini merkeze alan konumu kısacası toplumsallığı bu düşünürler tarafından anlaşılmıştır”53 diyerek, öznenin Descartes için yalnızca düşünen şey olarak kalmadığını söylemiştir. 2.2.2.1. Öznenin Doğa İle Olan Uyumu-Uyumsuzluğu ve Anksiyetesi Yaşam boyunca her öznede farklı izler bırakan gerek sosyolojik gerek psikolojik vaziyetlerin ona yüklediği kimlik, öznenin yaşamı boyunca bilinçli karar verdiğini sandığı her durumun aslında geride duran karar mekanizmalarıdır. O, bunun farkına varmadan hayatını sürdürür ve verdiği kararların asıl sahibinin kendi bilinçli hali olduğunu savunur. Birey, bilinçaltımıza yerleşen ne varsa, verilen kararda asıl önemli kısmı onun yönettiğini düşünmez bile. Özne dünyaya geldiğinden beri yaşadığı, gördüğü, duyduğu, hissettiği tüm duygu ve düşüncelerini zihnine kodlar. Gerekli durumlarda zihninde kodladığı o yaşantılara döner ve geçmişi anımsar. O yaşantısından izler sürerek gelecek yaşantısını bilinçsizce etkiler. Örneğin; yaşadığı çevrede savaşlar, kentsel sorunlar, toplumsal, siyasal ve ekonomik sarsıntılar yaşayan özne, bu yıpratıcı çevresel etkileri kendi dünyasında psikolojik anlamda yoğun bir şekilde yaşar. Kalıcı nitelikte olma ihtimalindeki bu etkiler, onun psikolojik ruh haline olumsuz bir şekilde yansır. Öznenin istemi dışında gelişen bu durumlar, anksiyetesini arttıran etmenler arasındadır. Çevreden gelen problemlere yönelik geliştirdiği uyarıcı mekanizmanın ve küçük bir kaygının koca bir paniğe dönüşmesi hali olan anksiyete, yoğun yaşanması durumunda davranış bozuklukları yaratabilir. Özellikle çocukluk çağlarında yaşanan yıkıcı etkiler, ilerleyen yaşlarda anksiyetenin ortaya çıkmasına sebep olmaktadır. Bu hususta Geçtan, çocukluk döneminde olumsuz çevre koşullarının yarattığı engellerle karşılaşan insanın, yetişkin yaşam için gerekli yetenekleri geliştiremeyeceğini ve zorlanma durumlarına karşı geliştirmiş olduğu yöntemlerin yetersiz kalacağını ifade etmektedir.54 53 Gül, Fikri, Şükrü Mert Ünal, “Modern Özne ve Modern Düzen Algısının Uzamı Olarak Kent”, Pamukkale Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 2015 (20), ss. 70-77. 54 Geçtan, A.g.e., s. 14. 23 Öznenin yaşı ilerledikçe çevresinde yaşanan olumsuzluklara gösterdiği direnç artar ve olumsuz etkilerin kendisi üzerinde bıraktığı kalıcılığı azalır. Problemlere karşı geliştirilen savunma mekanizmaları, yaşın ilerlemesi halinde daha çok devreye girer. Böylelikle çocukluk döneminde yaşanan travmatik olaylar, erişkinlik döneminde yaşanmasına kıyasla daha kalıcı bir iz bırakır. Bu etkiler, özne var olduğu sürece devam eder. Zaman içinde özne, çevreden gelen etkilere karşı metotlar geliştirerek ona uyum sağlar. Fakat çocukluk döneminde yaşadığı olumsuz bir durumu var ise çevreden gelen etkilere davranış olarak abartılı tepkiler verir. Anksiyeteyi oluşturan durumlar, çevre ve özne uyumunda yetersizlik sağlayabilir. Oysa canlı, var olduğu sürece çevreye ve doğaya uyum sağlama gayretindedir. Anksiyete hali bu uyumu yakalayamadığından dolayı özneyi toplumsal hayatta çekingen kılar. Kaygı bozukluğu yaşayan kişiler yoğun panik halindeyken mevcut durumu olduğundan daha tehlikeli bir şekilde algılayarak o durumun hiç bitmeyeceği endişesinde olurlar. Anksiyete, fiziksel etkilere dönüşerek öznenin kontrol mekanizmasını etkisi altına alır. Nesne oluşumunun zihinsel tasarı süreci de tıpkı bunlar gibi bilinçaltı etki süreçlerine bağlıdır, ondan etkilenerek şekillenir. Her özne için farklılık göstermesindeki sebeplerden biri de budur. 2.2.2.1.1. Toplumdan Soyutlanma Hali Kendine yeni bir dünya oluşturmaya çalışan insan, iç dünyasıyla etkileşimler kurarak benliğini yeni bir zemine oturtturma cesaretinde bulunur. Bu değişimi kendini toplumdan soyutlayan farklılıklarından dolayı yapması aslında onun bir avantaj olduğunun farkına varmamasındandır. Kendi dünyasıyla bu dünya arasındaki farklılıkları en aza indirmeye çalışarak benliğinden uzaklaşıp, onu o yapan farklılıklarını yok etme gayreti içine girer. Rank, aynılık psikolojisine karşı çıkarak farklılık psikolojisini önerir. Nevrotik karakterin ya da çokluk şizoid55 de denilen tipin ortaya çıkışını şöyle anlatır: "Kişi ilk önce kendine ait bir istemin varlığının bilincine vararak diğerlerinden farklı olduğunu algılar, sonra bu farklılığı aşağı bir şey olarak yorumlar, bunun sonucunda istem gücünü ahlaksal açıdan yıpratır. İstem gücünün diğer bir istemin karşısında yitirilmesi aslında istemlerin bir mukayesesinden ve farklılığının bilincine varılmasından başka bir şey değildir." Buradaki can alıcı nokta, sorgulamanın ve lanetlemenin istemin içeriklerine değil, bizzat kendisine gelmesidir. Yani istem, karşı-isteme ve bu istemin tüm içerikleri de kötüye dönüşmüştür. Kötü olan, bu istemin engellenmesi gerekliliği.56 55 Şizoid Kişilik Bozukluğu: Yetişkinliğin ilk dönemlerinde başlayarak yapılaşan ve insanlara ilgisizlik ve duygusal yaşantılarda küntlükle belirlenen bir kişilik bozukluğudur. Geçtan, A.g.e., s. 262. 56 May, Rollo, Yaratma Cesareti, (çev. Alper Oysal), (2.Baskı), Metis Yayınları, İstanbul 1975, s. 19. 24 May, kişilerin, bu dünyada ve kendi problemleri konusunda ancak, dünyayı kendileriyle olan ilişkisi içinde yakalarlarsa bir şey yapabilir olabileceklerini ve ancak (dünyadaki) kendilerine karşı bir tavır alabilip (dünyadaki) kendilerini reddedebilecek duruma gelirlerse kendi varlıklarını olumlayabilir olacaklarını öne sürmüştür.57 Bu düşünce ile May, (dünyadaki) kendini reddetme durumunun aslında varlığını kabul edip olumladığı anlamına geldiğini söylemiştir. Burada yıkıcılığın, başkaldırının yaratıcılığa yönelen şekliyle, salt tepkisel olan hali arasında ince bir ayrım yatıyor.58 Farklı olan kişi, sıra dışılığından kurtulmak isteyerek, zihnini arkaik insanın ruhuna bürünmeye zorlar, farklılıklarını daima bir kusur olarak görür. O, öteki insanlardan kendini ayıran düşünce, his ve duygularından utanç hisseder ve bir türlü farklılığınla barışık kalamaz, kabullenemez. Farklılıklar bizim için açıktır; onları birbirine karıştıran, ayırım yapmayan bilinç, bizim üzerimizde bir cehalet etkisi yaratmaktadır.59 İlkel zihniyetin sıradanlığına, monotonluğuna ulaşma arzusuyla kendini var olmadığı bir dünyaya sıkıştıran birey, kendine tavır alır ve farklılıklarını reddeder. Kendini normalleşme evresine iter. Yaptığı değişimde zorlanır ise bu durum, kişide psikolojik probleme dönüşerek farklı bir boyut alır. Aidiyet duygusundan mahrum kalır ve kendini bir türlü hem doğaya hem de kendine ait hissedemez. Kendi içinde oluşturduğu durum, kendinin ayrıcalıklı ve farklılıklarını kabullenip onları içselleştirene kadar devam eder. Yaratıcı bir zihin, sanatı ve toplumu ileri bir düzeye taşıyarak diğer insanlardan ayrışır. Onun bu ayırıcı niteliği ve ayrıcalıklı düşünceleri sıradanlıktan uzak, normalin ötesindedir. Yeni ve biricik olanı keşfetme arzusu ile daha önce birbiriyle alakalandırılmamış olan şeyleri alakalandırarak, onlarla ilişki kurarak sanat adına özgün eserler yaratır. 2.2.2.2. Öznenin Dış Dünya Nesneleri İle Olan Etkileşimi Çevresindeki fiziksel ve duygusal anlamda her türlü uyarılardan etkilenen özne, onlara olumlu veya olumsuz yine duygusal veya fiziksel bir karşılık verir. Duygusal tepkiler gösterme hali, öznenin yaşadığı nesnel deneyimlere göre şekil alır. Henüz bilinç yüzüne çıkmayan, kendi denetimi dışındaki ve bilinç ötesindeki durumlar, uyarıya 57 May, A.g.e., s. 21. 58 May, A.g.e., s. 21. 59 Foucault, A.g.e., s. 140. 25 vereceği duygusal ve fiziksel tepkinin olumlu veya olumsuz olma kanaatindeki yönünü belirler. Bilinç faaliyetlerini etkileyebilen bu durumlar, öznenin bir nesneye veya olaya verdiği önemine, nesnenin veya olayın özne tarafından belirlenen nitelik durumuna göre farklılık gösterir. Bir nesnenin veya olayın niteliğini belirleyen şey, öznenin o şey üzerindeki düşsel edimidir. Ruhsal süreci ile fiziksel ve duygusal davranış şekillenmesi, düşünen öznenin zihinsel önermesinin davranışa dönüşmüş halidir. Öznenin etkilendiği tüm durumlar, ruhsal boyutta reaksiyon gösterir ve dış dünyaya davranışsal bir tepki olarak aktarılır. Herhangi bir nesne tarafından iç dünyasında uyandırdığı izlenimine yine kendi dünyasında yanıt verir. Özne, nesnelerin görüntülerinin haricinde, ruhsal hareketlerini ve etkinliklerini de takip eder. Nesnenin asıl görüntüleri, öznenin düş gücünde bütün olarak deformasyona uğrayarak, bambaşka bir görüntü halini alır. Öznenin kendisi dışında var olan her şey onun nesnesi pozisyonundadır. Özne, kendisi dışında varlığını sürdüren her şeyi gözlemler ve sorgular. Yukarıda belirtildiği gibi özne, kendi dünyasının merkezinde yer alır. Nesnelerin etki alanı ona zaman zaman yön verse dahi kendi dünyasını dış dünyadan soyutlar. Öznenin dış dünya nesnesiyle etkileşimi, dünyaya geldiği andan itibaren başlar ve yaşamı boyunca devam eder. Onun nesnelerle olan bağı, kendi psikolojik süreci üzerinde etkilerini göstereceği bir durumdur. Bu nedenle nesne etkileşimi özne açısından oldukça önemlidir. Varlığını sürdürdüğü sürece doğada var olan nesne oluşumunu daima gözlemleyen özne, nesneye duyusal ve sezgisel anlamda yaklaşarak onu tanımaya, çözümlemeye gayret gösterir. Özne, nesne oluşumları ile duygusal anlamda iletişim kurar, onları duyu organları ile hissetmeye çalışır. Nesnenin kendine ait anlamlarını öğrenerek, onları öznel amaçları doğrultusunda kullanır. Bu süreçte nesneyi, dış dünyanın oluşturduğu algıdan uzaklaştırarak kendi dünyasına çeker. Nesnenin kendine özgü anlamlarını sorgulayan özne, bir sonraki aşamada onu kendince anlamlandırma eğilimindedir ve dış dünyayla kendi dünyasındaki anlamları karşılaştırarak tekrardan sorgulama evresine geçer. Bu bir döngüdür ve yaşamına dâhil ettiği tüm nesnelerde aynı şekillerde fakat farklı etkilerde gerçekleşir. Kant’a göre, kendini bilme ile başlayacak olan bilgi aracılığıyla insanın, denetleyeceği doğayı da yeniden bir bilgi olarak kurmakta olduğunu söyleyen Özertürk, 26 öznenin gözlemlediği dış dünyaya farklı bir bakış açısı getirdiğini ve ona yeni anlamlar yüklediğini vurgulamaktadır.60 Bu düşünceye göre özne, doğadaki bir bilgiyi farklı boyutlara ulaştırıp bambaşka bir bilgi üretme amacı içindedir. Örneğin kil, doğada bulunan bir nesnedir. İnsanoğlu, Neolitik Çağlarda kilin yakılması ya da ısıtılması sonucunda, şekil verip sertleştirilme yöntemi ile kendisine kullanım nesnesi elde etmiştir (Resim 2.2). Doğadaki nesneyi farklı bir perspektife ulaştırması bakımından kilin, kullanım nesnesi olarak dönüştürülmesi, “bilgi nesnesi” olarak değerlendirilebilir. Resim 2.2: “Pişmiş Topraktan Kullanım Nesnesi”, Neolitik Dönem. Yine aynı çağlarda güvenli bir şekilde sığınma ihtiyacından kaynaklı taş temelli, kerpiç duvarlı evler ortaya çıkmıştır (Resim 2.3). Bu, doğaya ait nesneyi bilgi ve kullanım nesnesi evresine dönüştürme aşamasıdır. Maden devrinde bakır, tunç, kalay gibi madenlerden elde edilen tarım ve savaş aletleri, öznenin yine doğa nesnelerini dönüştürme gayreti içinde bulunduğu bir örnektir. 60 Özertürk, Saltuk, Beckett Öznesi Üzerine, Edebiyat Eleştiri Dergisi (Öznellik Sayısı), İstanbul 1994, s. 33’den aktaran, Kaplanoğlu, Özne Nesne İlişkisi Bağlamında Kübizm, Fütürizm ve Dada, (Yayınlanmamış doktora tezi), Atatürk Üniversitesi, Sanat Tarihi Anabilim Dalı, Erzurum (Türkiye), 2008. 27 Resim 2.3: Çatalhöyük Neolitik Kenti, “Taş Temelli Kerpiç Duvarlı Ev”, Konya. 2.2.2.3. Sanatçı Özne Yaşamı boyunca diğer öznelerden daha bağımsız düşünebilen, nesneleri farklı yorumlama gücüne sahip olan, onları hayal dünyasında kurgulayıp, estetik kaygılar güderek imgeleştiren, duygusal deneyimlerini kullanarak doğadaki nesnelere yeni bir boyut ve biçim kazandıran özneye “sanatçı” denir. Sanatçı özne, gerçeği dolaysız bir şekilde kavrayan, bir nesneyi o nesne olmaksızın zihinde tasarımlayabilme yetisiyle daha önce ilişkilendirilmemiş nesneleri birbirleriyle ilişkilendirerek yeni bir şey yaratma gücüne sahip olan, üzerinde durduğu şeyin bilincine varan, nesneyi doğrudan doğruya hem kendi gerçeğiyle hem de düşsel algısı ile algılayan bireydir. Var olan gerçeklik içinde kendi benliğini bulma arayışına giren sanatçı özne, zaman içinde kendi benliğini oluştururken onu diğer öznelerden ayıran bir özgünlüğe sahip olur. Sanatçı özneyi diğer öznelerden ayıran birçok özellik vardır. Diğer öznelerden farklı olarak sanatçı özne, doğaya ve nesnelere karşı diğer öznelere kıyasla daha duyarlıdır. Duygulanma ve deneyimlenme süreçleri ötekilerden daha bağımsız ve yoğundur. Bu süreç, ona ruhsal boyutta farklı etkiler yaratır. Kendi zihninde oluşanı dışa aktarma içgüdüsü ve yaratma yetisi ile duygularını amacına ulaştırma doğrultusunda dış dünya üzerinde üretmek ister. Gerek duygusal gerek sezgisel anlamda dış dünya, sanatçı özneyi diğerlerine oranla daha fazla etkisi altına alarak, ona duygusal deneyimler yaşatır. Etkilenen sanatçı özne, ruhsal durumunu entelektüel birikimleri ve geçmiş deneyimleri ile birleştirerek dış dünyaya sanat nesnesi olarak yansıtır. Sanat, nesnel gerçeklik ve öznel duyumlardan 28 oluşur. Sanat yapıtını oluşturan, insan ve gerçeklik arasındaki, “iç”-“dış”, “özne”- “nesne” etkileşimidir.61 Kendi dünyası dış dünyadan her ne kadar bağımsız olursa olsun sanatçı özne, dış dünya nesnelerinin etki alanları içinden kopamaz ve yaratma aşamasında esin duyduğu kaynağı daima doğadır. Sanatçı özne, doğada var olan nesneleri var olandan bağımsız şekliyle kurgulasa da, yeni bir şey yaratma eyleminin çıkış noktası, doğa ve doğada bulunan nesnelerdir. Yani doğadan bağımsız fakat bir o kadar da doğaya aittir. Öznenin yaşamı boyunca dış dünya nesneleriyle olan etkileşimleri onun üretme potansiyelini arttırır. Psikoloji biliminin henüz gelişmediği dönemlerde sanatçının toplumdan ayrılan tarafını anlamlandıramadıkları noktada sanatçıyı hasta olarak görmeleri şu şekilde ifade edilmiştir: Psikolojik kuramların önüne geçemedikleri eğilimlerden biri de sanatçıyı hasta ilan etmek. Normal düşkünü psikolojinin normalden sapmayı hasta görmesine karşı Rank, sanat olgusunu "psikolojinin ötesi" olarak kayda geçirdi. Psikolojinin ikiye indirgediği (normal ve nevrotik) tipler Rank’ın psikolojisinde üçe çıkıyor. Rank, sanatçıyı psikanalizin hasta yorumundan kurtarıp kendi başına yaratıcı bir tip olarak koyuyor ve en önemlisi de nevrotiğin bir yönü olacaksa bunun normale doğru aşma değil, sanatçıya (ya da yaratıcı tipe) doğru, yukarıya aşma olduğunu söylüyor.62 2.2.3. Nesne Nesne, öznenin bağlılaşık kavramı olarak özne ediminin, bilincin kendisine yöneldiği ve kendisine yönelinen, düşünülen, tasarlanan şeydir.63 Bir edim olmadan var olmayan nesne, dış dünyanın bir parçası halindedir ve hem bilincin hem de düşünme olayının karşısında durur. Özne, nesne ile gerek fiziksel gerek duygusal anlamda faaliyet içine girerek onunla olan etkileşimini arttırır. Nesne en genel tanımı ile üzerinden fikir üretilen şey, öznenin dışında olan ve onun bilmesine konu olan, karşımızda bulunan görüşümüze açık olan, düşünen özneye karşıt olarak düşünülen şey, bilgisine ulaşabileceğimiz bütün gerçeklik olarak tanımlanır.64 Psiko-analitik literatürde duygusal enerji yatırımı yapılan herhangi bir şeyin (bir insan, yer, düşünce, fantezi65 veya anı) nesne olduğunu söyleyen Güney, dış 61 Eco, Umberto, Açık Yapıt, (çev. Esen Tarım), Ayrıntı Yayınları, İstanbul 1992, s. 213. 62 May, A.g.e., s. 19. 63 Akarsu, “Nesne”, A.g.e., s. 132. 64 Timuçin, Afşar, Estetik, (2.Baskı), BDS Yayınları, İstanbul 1994, s. 185. 65 Fantezi: Gerçeğin ve olanağın dışında olarak hayalin serbest işlemesi ve böylece meydana getirilen eser. TDK, “Fantezi”, 1948. 29 nesnelerin; kişi, yer veya şeyler olduğunu, iç nesnelerin ise dış nesnelere bağlanmış düşünce, fantezi veya anılar olduğunu vurgulayarak nesnelerin bilinçli ya da bilinç dışı olabileceği düşüncesiyle nesne ilişkilerinin benlik ile iç ve dış nesneler arasındaki ilişkili olduğunu söylemektedir.66 Şeyin şeyselliğinin unutulmasının nedeni düşünceden vazgeçilmiş olmasıdır. Heidegger’e göre “şeyin şeyselliği”ne, düşüncenin otoritesi yapılan “akıl” (ratio) tarafından şiddet uygulanır ve bu yüzden de düşünce daha düşünülür hale getirilmeyip, bunun aksine düşünceden vazgeçilir. Akıl dışı ve akıl ayrımının temeli de aklın meşruyetinden kaynaklanır. Nesneyi böylece yalnızca ratio belirler. Akıl kendisini tek ölçüt olarak koyunca, bu ölçüt dışındakiler de kendilerini akla göre belirlerler ve “akıl dışı” denilen alan da tekrar akıl tarafından tanımlanır. Akıl ve akıldışı arasında yapılan ayrımın kaynağı “nesne” anlayışıdır. Nesnenin özünü belirleyen bu anlayış modern felsefenin temelini oluşturur.67 Nesnelerle çevrili olan doğada, öznenin nesnelere karşı olan algısı, ilk aşamada nesnenin kendisine ait nesnel gerçekliğidir. Bu, dış dünya nesnesinin maddesel halinin özne tarafından farkında olma durumudur. Daha sonraki aşama, öznenin nesneler dünyasından düş nesnesi boyutuna çektiği öznel nesne gerçekliğidir. Bu aşama ise, maddenin varlığının imgelem68 yolu ile zihni süreçlere dâhil olup iç dünyaya dönüştüğü faaliyettir. 2.2.3.1. Sanat Nesnesi Sanatçı özne, bir nesnenin dış dünyadaki görüntüsünden ve ondan aldığı duygusal deneyiminden yola çıkarak, kendi zihninde o görüntüye yeni bir görüntü ve anlam yükler. Sanatçının nesne üzerinde kurguladığı görüntü, bir zihin tasarısıdır ve onun düş nesnesi haline dönüşen dış dünya nesnesi, özne tarafından kendi asıl amacı dışında kullanılır. Nesne, asıl amacından uzaklaşır ve zihni boyutta özne kontrolü altına girer. Öznenin zihinsel aygıtı, bu kontrolü ele alarak nesneye görünenin ötesindeki bir perspektiften bakar. Sanatçının nesne üzerinde yaptığı şekil ve anlam deformasyonu ona özgünlük katar ve bu da sanat nesnesine doğrudan doğruya yansır. Sanatçının kendi özgünlüğü ve yorumuyla ortaya çıkan sanat nesnesi eşsizdir. “Sanat yapıtlarının ilk özellikleri, onların şeysellikleridir. Her sanat yapıtı belirli bir nesneselliği kullanır; resimde renk, dil 66 Güney, Melike, “Sanat, Benlik Nesnesi ve İlham” Klinik Psikiyatri, 1999 (1): ss. 42-45. 67 Bal, Metin, Martin Heidegger’in Sanat Anlayışında Varlık, Sanat Yapıtı ve İnsan Arasındaki İlişki, (Yayınlanmamış doktora tezi), Ankara Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Felsefe (Sistematik Felsefe ve Mantık) Anabilim Dalı, Ankara (Türkiye), 2008. 68 İmgelem: Bir nesneyi, o nesne (karşımızda) olmaksızın tasarımlama yetisi. Akarsu, “İmgelem”, A.g.e., s. 102. 30 yapıtında sözcükler, müzikte ses.”69 Eco, bir aracın şeyselliğinin ancak onun kullanılmaz hale geldiğinde keşfedileceğini ve ancak o şey iş göremez hale geldiğinde yalnızca bir alet olmaktan çıkıp bir şey olarak fark edilebileceğini söylemektedir.70 Öznenin dış dünya nesneleri ile olan etkileşimi, onu duygusal anlamda etkileyerek hayal dünyasının bir parçası haline gelir. Öznenin düş gücüne yerleştirdiği nesnenin kafasındaki görüntüsünü dışarıya yansıtma durumu, sanat eseri oluşum aşamasıdır. Daha önceden ilişkilendirilmemiş nesneleri birbirleriyle ilişkilendirerek yeni ve biricik eser yaratmak, sanatçının en temel gayesidir. İmgelemini yaratım sürecine dâhil ederek onu sanat nesnesine çeviren sanatçı özne, nesneleri kendi dünyasına çekerek onu yorumlama, kendince anlamlandırma gücüne sahiptir. Sanat nesnesinin oluşum aşaması, başlangıçta özne-nesne etkileşimi sonucunda, dış dünyaya bağımlı olarak gelişir. Öznenin dıştan içe aktardığı görüntü, artık dış dünyadan bağımsız bir hal alarak yalnızca özneye ait olur. Sanatçı özne, zihninde kurguladığı görüntüyü yaratıcı bir şekilde ortaya koyarken yine dış dünya ile bir ilişki haline girer ve zihnindekini doğaya yansıtır. Örneğin, bir sanatçının resim yapma süreci, iç dünyasını doğaya yansıtma aşaması olarak değerlendirilebilir. Dışsal olan gerçekliğin belli birikimlerle içeriye aktarılması sonucu sanatçı öznenin tekrardan kendi gerçekliğini içeriden dışarıya aktarması olayı, sanat nesnesi yaratma sürecidir. Dışarıda var olanı kendi dünyasında yorumlayan sanatçı öznenin, tekrardan dışarıya bir eser bırakırken dıştan içe, içten dışa olan bu döngüsü yaşamı boyunca sürekli olarak devam edecektir. Sanatçının kendi dünyası her ne kadar dış dünyadan bağımsız olsa da yaratım aşamasındayken, onu doğaya bağımlı kılacaktır. Bu aşamalar doğrultusunda sanat nesnesi, sanatçının özgün dünyasından koparak tekrar dış dünyaya ait olacaktır. Sürekli olarak bir döngü içinde aşamalarını tamamlayan sanat nesnesinin son durak noktası dış dünya olsa da başka bir öznenin etkileşim kurup iç dünyasına kazandırdığı, başka bir sanat nesnesi yaratması için esin duyduğu bir nesne olabilir. Sanat nesneleri, farklı sanatçıların yaratım sürecine dâhil olduklarından ötürü hiçbir zaman dış dünyaya ya da iç dünyaya ait bir nesne olarak kalmayacaktır. Bir sanat 69 Özşen, Derya, 20.Yüzyıl Sanatında Nesne Kullanımı ve İmgeye Yaklaşım, (Sanatta yeterlik eser metni), Mimar Sinan Güzel Sanatlar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Heykel Anasanat Dalı, İstanbul (Türkiye), 2013. 70 Bal, A.g.e. 31 nesnesi, başka bir sanat nesnesinin yaratım aşamasında bir esin kaynağı olabilir. Bu nedenle insanlık var olduğu sürece yukarıda tarif edilen döngü son bulmayacak ve sanat nesnesi yalnızca bir dünyaya ait olmayacaktır. 32 ÜÇÜNCÜ BÖLÜM 3. DIŞ DÜNYANIN SANATA YANSIMASI 3.1. Sanata İlk Yöneliş Öznenin sanata ilk yönelimi, doğa nesnelerini sanat nesnesine dönüştürme evresi ile ortaya çıkmıştır. İlk örnekleri tarihten önceki devirlerde görülebilir. Mağara tavanlarına ve duvarlarına, kemik üzerine, ağaç kabuklarına yapılan resimlerin, doğada bulunan tabiî renkli taşlar ile boyanarak yapıldıkları bilinmektedir. Dikkat çekici unsur olarak, ilk mağara resimlerinin çoğunluğu hayvan figürleri içermektedir. Resim sanatı serüveninin başlangıcı olarak mağara resimleri ele alınmaktadır. Mevcut konumları ve bulundukları şartlar gereği özne, çevresinde gördüğü nesneleri ve olan biten olayları konu edinmektedir. Dolayısıyla bir nesneden yola çıkılıp imgelem yoluyla ortaya koyulan sanat eserinde sanatçının kullandığı imgeler, var olan bilinçdışı etkilerin göstergesidir. Mağara resimlerinde bulunan figürler, bu düşünceyi destekleyen görüntülerdir. Paleolitik çağda yapılan ilk mağara duvar resimlerinin İspanya’nın kuzeyindeki Altamira Mağarası’nda bulunduğu bilinmektedir (Resim 3.1).71 Yaşamın her alanında kesitler taşımakla beraber insanlar, İspanya’daki mağara resimlerinden itibaren, korktuğu, beğendiği, inandığı konuları resimlerine konu etmişlerdir. Bu nedenle genellikle hayvan figürleri mağara resimlerine konu olmuştur (Resim 3.2). Özellikle yaban domuzu, geyik ve at gibi hayvanlar mağara resimlerinde fazlaca işlenmiş hayvan türleridir. Resmin ilk imgesi hayvanlardır. En baştan başlayıp Sümer, Asur, Mısır ve ilk dönem Yunan resminde devam eden çizgide bu hayvanların tasvirleri olağanüstü derecede hakikidir. İlk imge üreticileri olan ressamlar, hayatları hayvanları yakından tanımaya bağlı olan avcılardır. Ancak burada resim yapma fiili, avlanma fiili ile bir tutulmamalıdır. İkisinin arasındaki ilişki büyüseldir.72 71 Farthing, Stephen, Sanatın Tüm Öyküsü, (çev. Gizem Aldoğan, Firdevs Candil Çulcu), Hayal Perest Yayınevi, Çin 2012, s. 17. 72 Çetin, Ayhan, 19.Yüzyıldan Günümüze Plastik Sanatlarda İmgelerin Temsiliyeti, (Sanatta yeterlik eser metni), Marmara Üniversitesi Güzel Sanatlar Enstitüsü, Resim Anasanat Dalı, İstanbul (Türkiye), 2011. 33 Resim 3.1: Altamira Mağara Resmi, “Boğa”, İspanya. Resim 3.2: Chauvet Mağarası, “Hayvan Figürleri” , Fransa. Yaşam içgüdüsüne bağlı olarak varlığını sürdürmek ve aç kalmamak adına yiyeceğe ihtiyaç duyan özne, çevresindeki imkânlar dâhilinde yiyecek elde etmek için avcılığa yönelirler. Hayvan nesnesi, öznenin hayatını devam ettirebilmesi için çok önemli bir etmen haline gelmektedir. Bilinen en eski mağara resimleri M. Ö. 30.000 yılına uzanır. Bu resimlerin anlamları gizemini korusa da dinsel ve bütünsel amaçlarla yapıldıkları tahmin edilmektedir. Bu resimlerde sanatçılar, etrafında gördükleri dünyayı, hayvanları, nadiren insan benzeri biçimleri ve ruhani anlamlara sahip olduğunu düşünülen soyut işaretleri betimlemeyi seçmişlerdir. İspanya’nın Cantabria bölgesindeki Altamira mağarası, dünyadaki en muhteşem çok renkli mağara resim ve çizimlerinin bir kısmını barındırır. Bu resimlerin yapım tarihi Magdalenya dönemine (M.Ö. 16.000-10.000) uzanmaktadır ve resimler, çeşitli sembolleri, el işaretlerini, bizonları, atları, bir kuyruğu ve vahşi ayı olduğu tahmin edilen hayvan figürlerini barındırmaktadır. Resimler yalnızca Homo-sapiens73 türünün ilk sanatsal uğraşını temsil ettiği için değil, üstün sanatsal 73 Homo-sapiens: Us yetisi olan insan; us sahibi yaratık. Anaksagoras'tan Hegel'e dek uzanan geleneksel insan anlayışının kavramsal formülü. Karl von Linne (İsveçli doğa araştırıcısı) "Systema naturae" yapıtında bu deyimi kültür dönemi insanı için kullanmıştır. Akarsu, “Homo-sapiens”, A.g.e., s. 96. 34 özelliklere sahip olduğu için de mükemmel olarak nitelendirilebilir. Dahası bu resimler, çizimlere üçüncü bir boyut kazandırması için duvarların şekillerinden faydalanılarak özenli bir biçimde tasarlanmıştır.74 Eski insanlar, avcılık sürecinde hayvanların neye nasıl tepki verdiklerini öğrenmek için onları yakından gözlemleme ihtiyacı duyarlar. Avcıların yaşamları için önemli bir yere sahip olan hayvanlar, aynı zamanda onların yaratım süreçlerine dâhil edilerek resimlerine konu olmuştur (Resim 3.3). Çetin, ilkel insanlar için sanatın bir gereksinimden ibaret ve büyüsel olduğunu söyleyerek, o dönemde yaşayan insanların önceliklerinin kendi yaşamsal ihtiyaçları olduğunu vurgulamaktadır.75 Resim 3.3: Chauvet Mağarası, “Aurignacian İnsan, Mamut”, M.Ö. 30.000 dolayları, Fransa. Eski dönemlerdeki mağara resimlerinde hayvan imgelerinin dışında insan eli ifadelerinin de bulunduğu gözlemlenmiştir (Resim 3.4). Hayvan imgesi ve insan eli ifadelerinin arasındaki bağ, o dönemdeki avcılık yaşantısının insanlar üzerindeki etkisinin göstergesi olarak düşünülebilir. 74 Farthing, A.g.e., s. 17. 75 Çetin, A.g.e. 35 Resim 3.4: Altamira Mağarası, “İnsan Eli Resmi”, İspanya. 3.2. Sanatçının Düşsel Algı Süreci ve Düş Nesnesi Özne, somut olan nesneyi düşsel algısına çekerek dış dünyadan koparır ve düş nesnesi haline dönüştürür. Nesneyi gözlemler, yaşadığı deneyimlerle nesne arasında güçlü etkileşimler sağlar, geçmiş yaşantıları ile bağdaştıracak boyutlara ulaştırır. O, nesnenin kendisine anımsattığı çağrışımlar doğrusunda zihninde bir yere oturtturur ve nesneyi asıl ait olduğu doğadan koparır. O, artık yalnızca doğada var olan bir boyutta kalmayıp zihin süreçlerine dâhil edilmiştir. Sanatçının zihin sürecine yerleşen nesne, sanat nesnesine dönüşerek dış dünyaya aktarılır. Sanatçı, bambaşka anlamlar kazandırdığı nesneyi kendi dünyasına almış ve onu düş nesnesi haline getirmiştir. Bu, istem dışı olan bir durumdur, öznenin ayrıcalıklı bir çabası değildir. Doğadan yola çıkarak zihin tasarısı elde etme halidir. Nesneyi doğadan ayrıştırma durumu söz konusu olsa dahi sürecin etkilendiği ilk ve asıl yer yine doğanın kendisidir. Bu nedenle düş nesnesinin tamamıyla doğadan bağımsız olduğu düşüncesi söz konusu olamaz. Aynı nesnenin her öznedeki imgelem süreci, öznelerin bilinçaltı durumu ve geçmiş birikimlerine göre farklılık gösterir. Yani nesne aynı olsa dahi her öznenin o varlığa dair zihnindeki görüntüsü ve ona yüklenen anlamlar birbirinden ayrılır. Farklılığın sebebi, her öznenin içinde bulunduğu toplumun, kültürel değerlerinin, yaşantının, edindiği geçmiş deneyimlerinin, duygu ve düşüncelerinin aynı olmamasından ve bilinçaltı etkilerdendir. 36 3.2.1. İmge İmge, doğada var olan nesnel gerçekliğin insanın düşsel dünyası üzerinde yorumlanmış, anlamını zihninde yeniden aydınlatmış düşünce yoludur. Gerçekle ilgisi olmadan gelişen ve zihninde tasarlanıp şekillendirildiği biçim olan imge, bir nesneyi olduğunun dışında yeniden tanıtmaya yarayan zihinde canlandırma halidir.76 Özne, ruhsal anlamda olduğundan farklı bir boyuta taşıdığı nesneyi, sanatsal faaliyetine imge olarak yansıtmaktadır. İmge, aslında var olmayan şeyi varmışçasına dış dünyaya aktarınca yeni bir gerçeklik yaratmış ve ona özgü bir kimlik kazandırmış olmaktadır. Dolayısıyla varlık yokken, öznenin zihninde tasarladığı düş nesnesinin referansı olarak, dış dünyaya yansıtılan ifadeleri ve izleri vardır. “Taklit, kopya” anlamında da kullanılmış olan imge, Latince ‘imago’ sözcüğünden gelmektedir. Türkçe’de işaret anlamına gelen ‘im’ sözcüğünden türemiştir. Zihinde tasarlanan ve gerçekleşmesi özlenen şey, düş, hayal anlamına da gelen imge, duyu organlarının dıştan algıladığı bir nesnenin dilince yansıyan benzeri, hayal, imaj olarak tanımlanmıştır. Kant’a göre imgelem, bir nesneyi bulunmadığı zaman bile sezgide canlandırabilme gücüdür.77 Birey, öncelikle dış dünya nesnesi ile yüzleşir, o nesneyi gözlemler, duyu organları ile algılamaya çalışır. Sonra onu zihninde farklı anlamlara ulaştırarak canlandırır, yeni tanımlamalar geliştirir ve nesneyi düş nesnesine dönüştürür. Daha sonra zihinsel tasarısını imge olarak dış dünyaya yansıtır. İmgenin nesneleri, özneleri ve bunlar arasındaki ilişkiyi yansıtma durumu, öznenin edindiği bilgi ve deneyimler sonucu oluşur.78 İmge, özne tarafından biçimin nesnelliğinden yola çıkılarak öznel bir tavırla ifade edilir. Her öznenin yaşantısına, kendi iç dünyasına ve bilinçaltı etki süreçlerine bağlı olarak dış dünya gerçekliğini algılayış biçimi farklıdır. Bu nedenle dış dünya aracılığı ile dönüştürülen imgeler de sanat alanlarına yansıma süreçlerinde ve imge yaratma faaliyetinde kişiden kişiye değişkenlik gösterir. Bu değişken durum, imge oluşturma aşamasındaki bireysel farklılıkların olduğu anlamına gelmektedir. Yaşamsal gerçeklikle zihinsel gerçeklik arasında oluşan farklılıklar, imge oluşumunda ortaya çıkan etmenlerdir. 76 TDK, “İmge”, Güncel Türkçe Sözlük, Türk Dil Kurumu Yayınları, 2011. 76 Akarsu, “İmgelem”, A.g.e., s. 102. 77 Çetin, A.g.e. 78 Özşen, A.g.e. 37 İmgeye, felsefi yönüyle bir açıklama getiren Hançerlioğlu, insan bilgisinin ilk aşamasının duyuların getirdiği imgeler olduğunu ve imgenin sadece gözle elde edilmez olup işitme imgesi, dokunma imgesi, koklama imgesi, tatma imgesinin de var olduğunu belirtmiştir. Duyularımızın doğrudan doğruya nesnelerden etkilenerek bilinçte gerçekleştirdikleri bu edimsel imgelerden başka, eskiden edinilmiş imgelerin çağırılmalarıyla bilinçte gerçekleşen çağırılmış imgelerin de var olduğunu ifade eden Hançerlioğlu, imgenin ancak bilinçte gerçekleşebilir olacağını, bilinçdışında kalmış birçok duyumlarımızın imge meydana getirmeyeceğini, imgenin duyuların bilinçteki izi olduğunu ve bu izin aslının tümüyle aynı değil, az çok eksik bir kopyası olduğunu vurgulamıştır. Hançerlioğlu, atomculuğun babası Demokritos’in, bu bilinçsel izlere ‘Yu. Eidolôn’ dediğini ve bunların nesnelerden kalkan atomların vücudumuza girmesiyle oluştuklarını ileri sürdüğünü belirterek şunları eklemiştir; “Eytişimsel ve tarihsel özdekçiliğin kurucularından Engels, Al. Abbilder deyimiyle dile getirdiği imgeyi ‘nesnel gerçekliğin ansal tasarımı’ olarak tanımlar. Lenin de aynı anlamda kopya, fotoğraf, yansı deyimlerini kullanır.”79 İmgenin duyumsal ve rasyonel olarak iki aşaması olduğunu savunan Marksçı- Leninci düşünce, duyumsal ve rasyonel imgeleri birbirinden ayırt edilebilir olduğunu belirterek duyumsal imgelerin; duyumlar, algılar, tasarımlar; rasyonel imgelerin ise; kavramlar, önermeler ve bu önermelerden kurulmuş, teoriler, varsayımlar gibi karmaşık imgeler olduğunu ileri sürmüştür.80 Duyumsal ve rasyonel imgeler arasında hem sıkı bir bağlamlılık, hem de nitelikçe bir fark vardır. Duyumsal imgeler, özel adıyla algılar, bilgisi edinilen nesnelerin zihne dolaysız aktarılmış, duyumsal kökenli birer kopyasıdırlar. Bu kopyada, dış-görünüş, yüzeysel ilişkiler, bireysel olan ile rastlantısal olan, henüz iç, zorunlu, genel ilişkilerden ayırt edilmeden, özle birlikte yansıtılmıştır. Rasyonel imgelere gelince, bunlar dille ifade edilen, soyut birer içeriğe sahiptirler. Bunlar, bilgisi edinilen nesnelerin iç, zorunlu, genel ilişkilerinin, yani özünün, dolaylı, fikirsel kökenli birer kopyasıdırlar. Bilgi edinme sürecinde duyumsal ve rasyonel imgeler daima kopmaz bir bütünlük oluştururlar ve her ikisi de dile sıkıca bağlıdırlar.81 Sanat, simgeler aracılığıyla duygu ve düşünceleri, imge ve değerleri aktarmada önemli bir işlev üstlenebilir.82 İmgeler, plastik sanatlarda biçime, fonetik sanatlarda ritme, sahne sanatlarında harekete dönüştürülür. Dolayısıyla plastik sanatlar imgesini 79 Hançerlioğlu, Orhan, “İmge” Felsefe Ansiklopedisi, (4. Baskı), Remzi Kitapevi, İstanbul 2005, s. 74. 80 Buhr, M.ve A. Kosing, “İmge” Marksçı-Leninci Felsefe Sözlüğü, (çev. Veysel Atayman-İsmail Duman), Konuk Yayınları, İstanbul 1978, s. 131. 81 Buhr, A.g.e., s. 131. 82 Göğebakan, Yüksel, “Sanat Tarihi Öğretiminde Yöntem Karşılaştırması” İnönü Üniversitesi Sanat ve Tasarım Dergisi, 2011, 1 (1), ss. 87-100. 38 maddeye, fonetik sanatlar sese-söze, sahne sanatları harekete yansıtarak düşsel faaliyetlerini dış dünyaya aktarırlar. İmgenin yaygınlaşmasını sağlayan en önemli gelişme, 1798’de litografinin83 icadıdır. 84 Bu icat sonrası imgenin çoğaltılması için ucuz baskılar elde edilebilmiş ve baskı sayısı çoğalmıştır. John Berger’e göre, imge ortaya çıktığı andan itibaren birkaç dakikalığına ya da birkaç yüzyıl için saklanmış bir görünüm ya da görünümler düzenidir.85 Berger bu sözü ile imgenin ortaya çıktığı şartları, zamanı gibi niteliklerin göz önünde bulundurulmasını ifade etmiştir. Bir imge farklı bir yüzyılda farklı anlamlara dönüşebilir. Buradaki algı farklılığı toplumun mevcut şartlarına göre şekil alır. Tabi ki bu, toplumdan ziyade kişiden kişiye de farklılık gösterebilir. Algının yönünde çevresel ve ruhsal etkilerle değişim yaşamaktadır. Genel olarak değerler ve imgeler, dini inançlar, aile strüktürü, sosyal organizasyonlar, bireyler arasındaki sosyal ilişkiler ve yaşam şekli insanların oluşturmuş oldukları kültürel yaşam alanını ve dolayısıyla hayatını devam ettirdiği çevreyi etkileyen önemli bileşenler olarak değerlendirilmektedir. Yaşam şekli ve önemli eylemler setini tanımlayan kültürel öz, insan- çevre-kültür ekseninde belirleyici ve şekillendirici bir yapılanmaya sahiptir.86 Geleneksel anlayış biçiminde, gerçekliği olduğu gibi yansıtma düşüncesinin önüne geçen XIX. yüzyıl sanatı, öznenin öznelliğini nesnel olandan arındırmış, nesneyi kendi dünyasındaki estetik değerlerle buluşturup bir imge halinde sanat eserine yansıtmıştır. Modern sanatta özne, kendi gerçekliğini imgeye dönüştürme faaliyeti kazanmıştır. İç dünya gerçekliği, dış dünya gerçekliğinin ötesine geçerek nesnellikle olan bağlarını tamamen koparmıştır. Bu durum, sanatçının izleyen göz olmaktan uzaklaşıp ‘özne’ olmaya yönelmesiyle, nesnel bilginin peşinde değil, gerçeğin ‘öte’ yüzünü arayan özne olma süreciyle ilgili bir yaklaşımdır.87 Doğada var olan her şey, eserlerde nesne olmakla birlikte, bu nesne herkesin ortak bir noktada birleşeceği şekilde nesnenin bildik, klasik temsili ve aktarımı olmayıp ressamın algısını etkileyen ışık-gölge gibi etmenlere göre biçim almıştır. Alışılagelmiş 83 Litografya: Taş baskı. 84 Menestrier, Claude François, “İmgeler Felsefesi”, Sanat Dünyamız, 2000, (75) s. 49. 85 Berger, John, Görme Biçimleri, (çev. Yurdanur Salman), Metis Yayınları, İstanbul 2006, s. 10. 86 Göğebakan, Yüksel, “Avrupa Resim Sanatında Kültürel Mirasa Ait Unsurları Resimsel Bir İmge Olarak Kullanan Üç Sanatçı: Sandro Boticelli, Sanzio Raphael ve Jacques Louis David”, Hacettepe Üniversitesi Güzel Sanatlar Fakültesi Sanat Yazıları, 2010 (23): ss. 65-94. 87 Kahraman, H. Bülent, Sanatsal Gerçeklikler, Olgular ve Öteleri, (3. Baskı), Agora Kitaplığı, İstanbul 2005, s. 52. 39 bu düzen, sanatçının dış dünyanın değil, zihnindeki görüntünün eserine yansıması halinde farklı bir perspektife ulaşmıştır. “İzlenimcilik” olarak isimlendirilen bu akım, kuralcı akademi çevreleri tarafından kabul görmez ve sanat alanında büyük bir tartışma başlatarak kendinden sonra gelecek akımların yolunu açar. XX. yüzyılla birlikte nesne, imge ile bir araya gelmiştir ve Empresyonizm, Ekspresyonizm, Kübizm, Sürrealizm, Dada, Pop Sanat gibi ve sonrasında ortaya çıkan sanat hareketleri olarak dış dünyada yerini almıştır. Doğaya farklı bir gerçeklik anlayışı sunan Gerçeküstü akım, klasik anlayıştan kurtularak dış dünyanın özneye dayattığı nesnel gerçeklikten bağımsız bir şekilde kendine, öznenin düşsel dünyasına yönelik yeni bir yol çizmiştir. Fakat bu yüzyılın başlarındaki sanat hareketlerinde, nesne egemen gerçekliği var olduğundan dolayı imgeyle nesnenin arasındaki bağ yok edilmeden, sanatçının estetik kaygıları ile nesne yeniden anlamlandırılmıştır. XX. yüzyılın ikinci yarısında modern sanatın öznel idealist biçimine karşı ortaya çıkan birçok eğilimin ortak noktası, nesnenin bilgisine yönelik ilgidir ve bu ilgi nesneyle imgesini buluşturan bir anlayış taşır.88 Sözü geçen eğilimler, imge ve nesne arasındaki bağlantıyı daha da yakınlaştırır. 1960 sonrası Pop Sanat, Süper Gerçekçilik, Yeni Gerçekçilik, Kavramsal Sanat ve Post Modern dönem sonrasında ortaya çıkan birçok eğilim, nesnelci ve öznelci idealist anlayışlardaki bakışın (nesneye ait) görüntüsünü irdeleyen ve eleştiren bir tavır gösterirler.89 Nesneyi imge ile buluşturan Pop Sanat, öznenin doğadan alıp yeniden anlamlandırdığı nesne anlayışını ortadan kaldırarak nesneyi kendi özünden tamamen koparır ve yeniden yaratır. Pop Sanat, geleneksel temsil kavramını ortadan kaldırırken, geleneksel sanatın dünya görüşünü de tersine çevirir.90 Böylece imge, nesnel gerçekliğe değil öznel gerçekliğe ait olmuştur. Gerçeklik, nesne değil imge olmuş ve nesnel gerçeklik tümü ile geri plana atılmıştır. 3.3. Sanatta Mantık ve Bilinç Sanatın ne olduğuna değinilmek gerekirse, “Arapça’da san‘ (sun‘) “yapmak, etmek”, sana‘ “işinde mahir olmak”, san‘at ise “yapılan iş, meslek” anlamına gelir. 88 Özşen, A.g.e. 89 Özşen, A.g.e. 90 Çetin, A.g.e. 40 Terim olarak sanat, “maddî veya zihnî bir iş ve çabada izlenen düzenli ve özel yol, yöntem”91 diye tarif edilmiştir.” Sanat, insanda estetik duyguyu heyecana getirecek eserler meydana getirme işidir.92 Turani, sanatı “Yaratıcı biçimlendirme eylemi”93 olarak tanımlamışken Akarsu, sanatın “Bir şeyi kendi iç yasalarına göre, özgürce biçimlendirme yeteneği”94 olduğunu söylemektedir. Sanatın ne olduğuyla ilgili olarak daha kapsamlı bir tanım yapan Göğebakan, insanın yaratılışta kendine bahşedilen yeteneğe; eğitim, uygulama ve özel deneyim yoluyla kazanılan beceriyi de katarak, doğada görülenleri kısmen değiştirerek, çoğaltarak, yeni boyutlar kazandırarak taklit yoluyla yaptığı özel üretimin yetenek olduğunu ifade etmiştir.95 Hindular, Konfüçyüsçüler, Taoistler, Budistler gibi doğu toplumlarına ait dinlerde yaratıcılık, var olanı meydana çıkarma veya taklitçilik olarak algılanırken; batıda insanın Tanrı ile ortak özelliklere sahip olarak yaratıcı güce sahip olunduğuna inanılmaktaydı.96 Yaratıcılık, daha önce ilişkilendirilmemiş ve bir araya getirilmemiş şeyleri ilişkilendirerek yeni bir şey üretme yetisidir. Yaratıcı niteliğe sahip sanatçı ise, sanat icra etme yetisine sahip olan kişidir. Akarsu’nun yukarıda sanat üzerine ifade ettiği tanımı “sanatçı” ifadesine yöneltecek olursak; dışsal olanı, kendi iç yasalarına uygun, bağımsız bir şekilde ifade etme yeteneğine sahip olan kişiyi sanatçı olarak nitelendirebiliriz. Sanatçı, sıradan olandan soyutlanıp sınırlılıkları zorlayan, düş gücünde olanı dış dünyaya yansıtan bireydir. Bu tür genel çerçevelerle tanımladığımız sanatın bilinç düzeyindeki yerini ve sanatçının yaratım aşamasındayken zihni kontrollerini çözümlemek amacı ile bireyi nörobiyolojik anlamda incelemek gerekir. Ancak bu yöntemle sanatın bilinçli ve mantıklı bir şekilde yapılıp yapılmadığına dair bir sonuca varılabilir. 91 Koç, Turan, “Sanat”, İslam Ansiklopedisi, 2009, s. 90. 92 TDK, “Sanat”, 1948, s. 146. 93 Turani, A., “Sanat”, Güzel Sanatlar Terimleri Sözlüğü, Türk Dil Kurumu Yayınları: Ankara 1968, s. 138. 94 Akarsu, “Sanat”, A.g.e., s. 155. 95 Göğebakan, 2011. 96 Runco, Mark A., Robert S. Albert, Creativity research: A historical view. J. C. Kaufman & R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Cambridge University Press, New York 2010, ss. 3‐19’dan aktaran Özaşkın Ayşe Gül, Ahmet Bacanak, Eğitimde Yaratıcılık Çalışmaları: Neler Biliyoruz?, Eğitim ve Öğretim Araştırmaları Dergisi, 2016/5, ss. 212-226. 41 Nörobiyoloji alanında yapılan araştırmalar, bir insanın doğduğu andan başlayarak yaşadığı tüm olayları ve onlara eşlik eden duyguları, bazı beyin hücrelerindeki bellek moleküllerinde bir arşiv gibi sakladığını göstermektedir.97 Bu bağlamda öznenin yaşamı içinde biriktirdiği deneyimlerin ve izlenimlerin, kişinin gelecekteki yaşamını etkilediği düşünülmektedir. Çünkü bu izlenimlerin, davranışları sürekli olarak etkilediğini kanıtlayan belirtiler vardır.98 Kişi, bilinçli yaptığını düşündüğü şeylerin aslında bilincin ötesinde bir durum olduğunu fark etmez. Freud, kişilerin kendi yaşamının rasyonel idarecileri olmadığını savunur ve bireyin yaşamının bilinçdışı güçler tarafından kontrol edildiğini iddia eder.99 Bu düşüncesi doğrultusunda mantığın, yaşama yön veren birincil koşul olmadığını söyleyebiliriz. Eğer ki tüm duygularımızın çıkış noktasının bilinçdışı kimliğimiz olduğu konusunda anlaşmaya varırsak, mantıken zihnimize ekilen her fikrin gerçekleşme eğiliminde olduğu çıkarımına da varabiliriz.100 Çeşitli yaşanmışlıklar sonucu bilinçaltında oluşan patolojik yerleşkeler, kendini sanat eserinde istemsizce gösterir. Sanatçı bunun için gayret göstermese de nörotik davranışların kalıcı etkileri, onun sanat eserine doğrudan doğruya yansımaktadır. Bu anlamda mantık, sanata yön veren başlıca etkilerden biri değildir ve sanat eseri sanatçının bilinçli yüzü olarak tanımlanamaz. Bilincin ötesindeki ruhsal yansıma olarak nitelendirilen sanat eseri, bilinçdışı etkiler altında gerçekleşir. Beyin hücrelerinde tutulan geçmiş yaşantılar, duygular, düşünceler kısacası kişinin yaşamında edindiği deneyimler, duygusal bir eylem olarak sanata yansımaktadır. 3.4. Dış ve İç Gerçeklik Bilinçaltının etkisi ile sanatçı, dış dünyanın gündelik ve sıradanlığından koparak, iç dünyanın merak uyandıran atmosferine yönelmektedir. Bu uyum, dış gerçekliği kendi 97 Geçtan, A.g.e., s. 15. 98 Geçtan, A.g.e., s. 15. 99 Schultz, D. P. ve S. E. Schultz, Modern Psikoloji Tarihi, (çev. Yasemin Aslay), (2. Baskı), Kaknüs Yayınları, İstanbul 2002, s. 498. 100 Charles, Baudouin , Kendi Kendine Telkin, (çev., M. Reşat Güner), Ege Meta Yayınları, İzmir 2004, s.29. 42 gerçekliğine çekiş evresidir. İçe yönelen sanatçı için dışsal olanın cazibesi gittikçe azalır ve merak uyandırmaz bir boyut alır. Dış dünyadan etkilense de zaman içinde ondan kopar ve iç dünyasındaki bağımsızlığını eşsiz eserlere dönüştürür. İçe yöneliş, yaratım sürecini doğrudan doğruya etkiler. Kandinsky, dışsal olanın geleceği olmadığını, içsel olanın ise geleceğin tohumlarını içinde taşıdığını ifade ederek sanatçı ruhunun sanatına yansıtması görüşündedir. O, sanatı ruhsal yaşantının en kuvvetli unsurlarından biri olduğunu dile getirir ve ruhsal yaşantıyı ileri-yukarı doğru giden, karmaşık ama ayırt edilmesi kolay ve belirgin bir harekete benzetmektedir.101 3.4.1. Sanat ve Dilin Ortak Paydası: “Bir ve Üç Sandalye” Joseph Kosuth’un (1945-…) çalışmasında, ahşap bir sandalye, sandalyenin kendine ait fotoğrafı ve “sandalye” kelimesinin sözlük anlamı kavramsal bir ifade ile ele alınmıştır (Resim 3.5). Anlamı açık olarak bilinmeyen bir cismin pratikte işe yaramayacağı vurgusu, çalışmanın temel dayanağıdır. Dil ve sanatı ortak paydada birleştiren Kosuth, bu yapıtında sanatı dilsel araç olarak kullanmıştır. Resim 3.5: Joseph Kosuth, “Bir ve Üç Sandalye”, Sandalye 82,3x37,7x53 cm, Fotoğraf Paneli 91,4x71,5 cm, Metin Paneli 61x61 cm, 1965, Modern Sanat Müzesi New York. Görünenden dile, dilden kavrama yönelmesi ve bu durumun kendi içinde bir döngü oluşturması, düşsel süreçlerde farklı etkiler yaratmıştır. İzleyiciyi düşündürmüş ve de dışa ait olan nesneyi, zihin sürecinde farklı boyutlarla anlamlandırabilmiştir. Her 101 Kandinsky, Vassily, Sanatta Ruhsallık Üzerine, (çev. Gülin Ekinci), Altıkırkbeş Yayınları, İstanbul 2015, s. 30. 43 ne kadar dıştan yola çıksa da içe yönelmiş ve dış gerçeklikten ziyade kendi gerçekliğini dışa vurmuştur. Dış gerçeklik, sanatçıyı ilgilendirmeyi ve sanatın konusu olmayı sürdürüyordu; ama artık içsel gerçeklik kadar heyecan verici ve zorlayıcı değildi. İç gerçeklik, yaratıcılığı dış gerçeklikten daha çok kamçılıyordu. Dış gerçeklik yaratıcılığın hızını keserken iç gerçeklik yaratıcılığı yüreklendiriyordu. Dış gerçeklik algısı yaratıcılığı engelliyorken, iç gerçeklik algısı yaratıcılığı ortaya çıkarıyorsa, o zaman sanatçı için iç gerçeklik dış gerçeklikten daha önemliydi.102 3.4.2. Zihinsel Bir Metafor: “Silencio” İsviçreli şair Eugen Gomringer (1925-…), İspanyolca’da “sessizlik” anlamına gelen “silencio” kelimesini boş bir kâğıda sürekli olarak yazarak okuyucuda o kelimeye dair zihinsel bir mecaz yaratmak istemiştir (Resim 3.6). Sıradan bir dış gerçekliği okuyucunun belleğine işleyerek yarattığı etki, onun içe dönüşü ile amacına ulaşmaktadır. Resim 3.6: Eugen Gomringer, “Silencio (Sessizlik)”, 1954. Sayfanın tam ortasında yer alan beyaz boşluk ile sıradanlığı bozmuş, sessizlik kavramını farklı bir sessizlik ifadesi ile yıkmıştır. Sessizliğin bozulduğu hissini veren boşluk, kişide bir tedirginlik yaratır. Bir nevi o boşluğun asıl sessizlik olduğunu düşünmemiz gerekirken, ona bir gürültü atfederiz. Sonrasında okuyucuyu karşılayan bir dizi sessizlik ibaresi daha belirir ve sessizliğin monotonluğu devam eder. Görsel şiirin öncülerinden olan Gomringer, bu çalışmasında dili yazınsal anlamlandırmasından ziyade görsel etkisiyle ele almış ve dış gerçekliği içe yöneltmiştir. Yazın dilini görsel algı ile bütünleştiren bu resim, tıpkı Joseph Kosuth’un “Bir ve Üç Sandalye” isimli eserinde olduğu gibi dili sanatına dâhil ederek izleyicide farklı bir algı yaratmak istemiştir. 102 Kuspit, Donald, Sanatın Sonu, (çev. Yasemin Tezgiden), (3. Baskı), Metis Yayınları, İstanbul 2010, s. 112. 44 3.4.3. Baş Aşağı Bir Sanat: “Çeşme” Marcel Duchamp (1887-1968), dış dünyanın hazır yapım nesnesi olan porselen bir pisuvarı ters çevirmiş ve üzerine imzasını atmıştır (Resim 3.7). Günlük yaşamımızda kullanım nesnesi olarak değerlendirilen bu nesne, Duchamp’ın yaratım sürecine dâhil olmuş ve sanat nesnesine dönüşmüştür. Böylece pisuvar, dış dünyaya bağımlı kalan ama iç dünyası ile anlamlandırdığı bir nesneye dönüşmüştür. Resim 3.7: Marcel Duchamp, “Çeşme”, Yerleştirme, 61x 36x48 cm, 1917. Duchamp, “hazır nesne”leri ile biraz değiştirip yahut hiç değiştirmeden sergilediği, endüstriyel olarak üretilen işlevsel nesneleri-dada ikonoklazmını uç noktalara taşıdı. Bunların en ünlüsü, sıhhi tesisat ve mühendislik firması “R. Mutt” imzalı ve gider yeri yukarıda kalacak şekilde baş aşağı çevirmiş olarak sergilenen Çeşme idi. New York'taki Bağımsız Sanatçılar Topluluğu tarafından yapılan bir sergide yer alan çalışma, bir perdenin arkasına yerleştirilmiştir. Avrupa'daki dada akımı, sanatın amacını ve kültürel değerlerini sorguluyordu. Duchamp, sanat eserini materyalist bir toplumda sanat eseri yapan şeyin ne olduğunu sorguluyordu ve malzeme değeri mefhumunu ortadan kaldırıyordu.103 3.4.4. Varlığın Reddi: “İmgelerin İhaneti” Rene Magritte (1898-1967), eserlerinde dış dünya nesnelerine farklı anlamlar kazandırarak o nesneyi alışılmışın ve monotonluğun dışına çıkarmasıyla bilinir. “İmgelerin İhaneti” isimli çalışmasında bir pipoyu resmetmiştir; fakat piponun hemen altına “Bu bir pipo değildir” yazmıştır (Resim 3.8). Var olan bir dış dünya gerçekliğini 103 Farthing, A.g.e., s. 411. 45 reddederek izleyicide merak uyandırmayı başarmıştır. Resim 3.8: Rene Magritte, “İmgelirin İhaneti”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 1928-1929, Los Angeles Sanat Müzesi. Magritte, “Benim resimlerim hiçbir şey anlatmayan görsel imgelerdir. Akla gizemi getirirler. Doğrusunu isterseniz, resimlerimi gören biri kendi kendine şu basit soruyu sorar: ‘Bunun manası ne?’ O resmin bir manası yoktur. Çünkü zaten gizem de aslında hiçbir şeydir, bilinmeyendir” demiştir. Magritte, bu söylemi ile resimlerine biçtiği anlamsızlığı bir anlama sığdırmıştır. Çünkü sanat, çağlar boyu dışsal formla değil anlamla meşgul olmuştur.104 Thompson, Magritte’nin “İmgelerin İhaneti” adlı çalışmasına şöyle bir yorum getirmektedir: Magritte’in ilk pipo imgesini yaptığı yıl, 1926’dır; hemen altında “la pipe” [pipo] sözcüklerinin yazıldığı üstünkörü yapılmış bir imgedir bu. Aynı anda hem olumlu hem de tezat olan bu yaklaşım, linguistik bir çevirinin meydana gelmesini şart koşar. Sözcükler imgenin, imgeler ise sözcüklerin üzerinden okunur. 1928 itibariyle Magritte, İmgelerin İhaneti ile bu basit mekanizmayı daha da karşılaştırarak negatif bir cümle ve imge oyununu kapsayacak şekilde genişletir. Yapıtta, bir pipo imgesi yer almakta ve imgenin doğruluğu, altında yazan “ceci n'est pas une pipe” (Bu bir pipo değildir) ifadesiyle yalanlanmaktadır. Dolaylı olarak anlatılan şey, imgelerin hayali birer iz olduğu ve cisimlerle karşılaştırılmaması gerektiğidir. Dahası, sözcükler ya da daha kesin konuşmak gerekirse yazılı dilin hükmü –doğruluğu- imgenin aldatıcı doğasıyla geçersiz kılınabilir.105 104 Kandinsky, A.g.e., s. 71. 105 Thompson, Jon, Modern Resim Nasıl Okunur, (çev. Firdevs Candil Çulcu), Hayal Perest Yayıncılık, İstanbul, 2014, s. 178. 46 3.4.5. Nesne Dönüşümü: “Boğa Başı” Resim 3.9: Pablo Picasso, “Boğa Başı”, 33,5x 43,5x19 cm. 1942, Picasso Müzesi, Paris. Pablo Picasso (1881-1973), 1930’ların başında var olan nesneleri birbirine dönüştürmeye başladı. 1942 yılında bir bisiklet selesini ve gidonunu dönüştürerek boğa başı görüntüsü elde etmiştir (Resim 3.9). Nesneler arasında bu yanılsama, bilinen bir nesnenin farklı bir boyutta algılanmasına sebep olmuş ve doğanın sunduğu anlam yitirilmiş, sanatçının düşsel algısı ile bütünleşmiştir. Bu tür çalışmalarla asıl olanın doğa taklitçiliği değil, sanatçının kendi yorumu olduğu düşüncesi belirginleşmiştir. Picasso, nesne dönüşümü olan bu çalışması dışında oyuncak bir arabayı maymun yüzüne (Resim 3.10), tahta kesitlerini insan görüntüsüne dönüştürdüğü çalışmaları da olmuştur. 47 Resim 3.10: Pablo Picasso, “Maymun Kafası”. 3.5. Yaratım Süreci Nesneyi dış dünyadan koparıp kendi dünyasının nesnesi haline getirerek zihninde oluşan tasarısını, entelektüel birikim ve deneyimlerini doğaya aktarma içgüdüsü, sanatçının temel gayesidir. Sanatçı, kendi düşsel kurgularını ve tasarladığı soyut nesnelerini somut bir hale getirerek doğaya aktarma arzusu içindedir. Jung'a göre, sanatın yaratım süreci, ilk örnek imgenin bilinçdışında eyleme geçmesi ve bu imgenin özenle işlenip, tamamlanmış bir çalışma olarak biçimlendirilmesiyle ortaya çıkmaktadır. Ona biçim veren sanatçı, onu var olan dile çevirmekle, yaşamın en derin kaynaklarına uzanma olanağı kazandırmakta bizlere. Sanatın böylelikle çağın ruhunu sürekli olarak eğitmekte olduğunu düşünen Jung, sanatın en büyük yokluğu olan biçemleri uyandırmak olduğunu söylemiştir.106 Sanatçı, iç dünyasındaki düş nesnesini dışa vurmak, onun doğayla nüfuz etmesini sağlamak, daha önce üzerinde durulmayan fikirleri, görüntüleri, melodileri yaratım aşamasına katarak, bunu sanatın farklı alanları ile doğaya aktarmak için gayret gösterir. Farklı alanlarda olsa dahi tüm sanatçıların amacı, duygu ve düşüncelerinin bir şekilde doğayla nüfuz etmesini sağlamaktır. Sanatçı içinde yaşadığı duygusal ruh halini doğaya aktararak biricik eserler ortaya koyma hazzını yaşar. Bu haz, onun yaratıcılığını tetikleyici bir unsurdur. 106 Jung, Carl Gustav, Ulysses ve Picasso Üzerine Denemeler, (çev. Mazhar Candan), Düşün Yayıncılık, İstanbul, 1995, s. 13. 48 Yaşamı boyunca doğadaki varlıkları herhangi duyusuyla kaydeden özne, yaşama olan duyarlılığı arttıkça biriktirdiği varlıkları yeni anlamlarla buluşturduğu zihninden boşaltarak, oluşturduğu kurmacayı eserine yansıtır. Varlık üzerinden oluşturduğu imgelemi ve fantazyası eserine yansıtırken kullandığı imgeler, zihnin ötesinde oluşturulan nesnenin öznede bıraktığı katıksız algıdır. Nesne birikintilerinin kişide bıraktığı algılar, onun zaman içinde eserlerindeki kurmaca bir karaktere bürünür. Şöyle ki, sanatçının eseri onun karakteridir. Galuszka, yaşanan deneyimin, yaratılan eserde sanatçının o anki duyguların dışa vurumu olduğunu ifade ederek sanatçı ve sanat eseri arasındaki diyalektik bağlantının varlığından söz etmektedir.107 3.5.1. Tek Bir Nesne (Ağaç) - Farklı Yorumlar 3.5.1.1. Paul Cezanne’nın Ağacı Paul Cezanne (1839-1906), doğada nesnel bir özellik taşıyan ağaç nesnesini kendi yaratım sürecinde özgün bir nesneye çevirerek, zihinsel varlığa ulaştırdığı tasarısını eşsiz bir görüntüye dönüştürür ve dış dünyaya imge olarak yansıtır (Resim 3.11). Resim 3.11: Paul Cezanne, “Büyük Çam ve Kızıl Toprak”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 72x91 cm, 1890-1895, Hermitage Müzesi, St. Petersburg, Rusya. 107 Galuszka, Frank, “Art and İnspiration”, Adolesc Psychiat, 1988, ss. 134-147. 49 Cezanne, sonradan yaratıcılık fikrini soranlara şöyle derdi: “Sanat işçiliğinin dayandığı üç esas vardır: tereddüt, dürüstlük ve itaat. Fikirler karşısında tereddüt, nefse karşı dürüstlük ve çevredeki eşyaya itaat.” Ne var ki Paul Cezanne’nin büyük bir disipline dayanan bu gerçek yaratma çağına girebilmesi için daha mücadelelerle dolu uzun yılların geçmesi gerekecekti.108 Ağacın doğada var olan monoton görüntüsünün ötesine geçen Cezanne, onu baştan yaratarak var olanın dışında bir ağaç görüntüsü elde etmiştir (Resim 3.12). Cezanne’nin ağaçlarını doğadaki ağaçlardan ayıran birçok nitelik bulunmaktadır. Bunların hepsi Cezanne’nin doğadaki nesnelere olan kendi içsel yaklaşımlarının ürünüdür. Altuna, Cezanne’nin eserlerinin taşıdığı ifade tarzının tamamen ona özel olduğunu söyleyerek şunları eklemiştir: “Resimleri konu yönünden çoğu zaman önemsiz olduğu halde, öylesine usta bir tarzla ele alınmışlardır ki, ölçülü yapısı karşısında insan hürmetle eğilir.”109 Resim 3.12: Paul Cezanne “Büyük Çam”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 84x92 cm, 1887- 1889, Sao Paulo Sanat Müzesi, Sao Paulo, Brezilya. May, Cezanne’nin doğadaki ağaç nesnesine olan bu özgün yaklaşımını şu ifadelerle yorumlamıştır: Cezanne bir ağaç görüyor. Ağacı daha önce kimsenin görmediği bir biçimde görüyor. Kendisinin söylediği gibi hiç şüphesiz, “ağaç tarafından ele geçirilmeyi yaşamakta. Ağacın kemerlenen ihtişamı, kucaklayıcı yayılışı, toprağı kavrayışındaki narin denge, tüm bunlar ve ağacın daha birçok özelliği, onun algısı tarafından emiliyor ve sinirsel yapısı boyunca hissediliyor. Bunlar onun yaşadığı görünün parçaları. Bu görü, sahnenin bazı yanlarının dışarıda bırakılmasını, diğer bazılarına daha fazla vurgu getirilmesini ve sonra bütünün yeniden 108 Altuna, Sadun, Ünlü Ressamlar-Hayatları ve Eserleri, Hayal Perest Yayınevi, İstanbul 2013, s. 240. 109 Altuna, A.g.e., s. 240. 50 düzenlenmesini içeriyor; ama tüm bunların toplamından da fazla. Evvela, bu artık bir ağacın görüsü değil, ağacın görüsü; Cezanne'ın bakmakta olduğu somut ağaç, ağacın özü biçimini alıyor. Görüsü her ne kadar özgün ve tekrarlanamaz olsa da, onun o özel ağaçla karşılaşmasından doğan tüm ağaçların görüsü yine de.110 3.5.1.2. Piet Mondrian’ın Ağacı Resim 3.13: Piet Mondrian, “Gri Ağaç”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 78.5×107.5 cm, 1911. Piet Mondrian'ın (1872-1944) doğanın zemin biçimlerini bulmak için daha derin bir çabaya girdiğini görürüz; artık ağaç, daha az ağaçtır; daha çok, tüm gerçekliğin altında yatan kalıcı geometrik biçimlerdir.111 Mondrian’ın ağacı, Cezanne’nin ağaç imgesine göre daha belirsiz haldedir. Doğa nesnesine kattığı bu yorumu (Resim 3.13) ile Mondrian’ın Kübizm’den etkilendiği düşünülmektedir. Bu resim de etkilenme sürecinin başlangıcı olarak değerlendirilebilir. Resim 3.14: Piet Mondrian, “Çiçekli Elma Ağacı”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 1912. 110 May, A.g.e., s. 95. 111 May, A.g.e., s. 72. 51 Doğanın alışılagelmiş nesne biçimini bozarak kendi dünyasının ağaç imgelemini yansıtan Mondrian, bu resminde (Resim 3.14) ağacı sistematik bir sıra içinde yerleştirdiği çizgisel ifadelerle resmetmiştir. Bir önceki resminde belirtilerini hissettiren geometrik soyutlama, bu çalışmada kendini daha yoğun hissettirmiştir. Her ikisi de ağaç figüründen yola çıkmış olsa da Cezanne’nin ağacı ile Mondrian’ın ağacı benzerlik göstermemektedir. 3.5.2. Pablo Picasso’nun Boğa Serisi Sanatçı, varlıktan yola çıkar ve varlığı varlığın olmadığı zihinsel eylemlere dönüştürüp yeniden kurgulayarak ona kendilik anlamlarını atfedip, zihinsel kurmacası içinde içselleştirip, anlamlandırarak farklı bir boyutta esin duyduğu varlıktan bambaşka ve biricik bir varlık yaratandır. Eserlerine kendilik duygularını işleyen sanatçı, onu eşsiz niteliğe taşır. Picasso, 1945 yılında seri halinde yaptığı boğa figürlü taşbaskı eskizlerinde, kendi yaratım sürecindeki gelişim evrelerini sıralamıştır (Resim 3.15). Dış dünyadaki boğaya yakın bir izlenimle başladığı ilk eskizini, diğer eskizlerinde daha fazla soyutlama yaparak farklı anlatıma taşımıştır. Boğa görüntüsünün iç dünyasındaki biçimsel farklılıklarını gün geçtikçe var olan gerçeklikten kopartan Picasso, son eskizlerinde imgelemini daha çok sanatına yansıtarak boğa figürünü özgün bir niteliğe ulaştırmıştır. Resim 3.15: Pablo Picasso, “Boğa Serisi”, Taşbaskı Tekniği, 1945. 52 Resim 3.16: Pablo Picasso, “1. Boğa Levhası”, Taşbaskı Tekniği, 5 Aralık 1945. Picasso serinin ilk çalışmasında (Resim 3.16), boğa figürünü gerçekçi bir üslupla ele almış, doğanın nesne öğretisinden çok kopmamıştır. Dolayısıyla nesneyi yaratım sürecine çok fazla dâhil etmeden dış dünya nesnesini yine dış dünyaya sanat yoluyla aktarmıştır. Resim 3.17: Pablo Picasso, “2. Boğa Levhası”, Taşbaskı Tekniği, 12 Aralık 1945. Picasso, taşbaskısının ikinci aşamasında (Resim 3.17) boğanın etkisini kuvvetlendirmiş ve ifade gücünü arttırmıştır. Doğada, boğaya yüklenen güç algısını yansıtma gayretinde bulunmuştur. Resim 3.18: Pablo Picasso, “3. Boğa Levhası”, Taşbaskı Tekniği, 18 Aralık 1945. Çalışmasının bir diğer aşamasında (Resim 3.18) boğayı daha efsanevi bir boyuta taşıyarak ona ait olan fiziksel yapıyı, kas şekillenmelerini ve iskeletini keskin ifadelerle 53 ön plana çıkaran Picasso’nun bunu yaparken boğayı çizgileri ile yavaş yavaş parçalamaya başladığı görülmektedir. Genel ifade etme biçimi olarak Dürer'in Gergedan ksilografisini112 (Resim 3.19) anımsatmaktadır. Resim 3.19: Albrecht Dürer, “Gergedan”, Ksilografi, 1515. Resim 3.20: Pablo Picasso, “4. Boğa Levhası”, Taşbaskı Tekniği, 22 Aralık 1945. Sanatçı, aşamanın 4. boyutunda (Resim 3.20) iskelet ve kas yapılandırmasının genel hatlarını basitleştirerek parçalara ayırmıştır. Parçaladığı bölümlere ışık ve gölgeyi daha sert bir geçiş ile yerleştirmiştir. Resim, parçayı bir diğer parçadan ayıran sert kenar çizgileri ile oluşturulmuştur. Böylelikle bu aşamada boğa imgesini soyutlamaya başlamıştır. Resim 3.21: Pablo Picasso, “5. Boğa Levhası”, Taşbaskı Tekniği, 24 Aralık 1945. 112 Ksilografi: Ağaç baskı. https://www.google.com.tr/search?q=Albrecht+D%C3%BCrer&stick=H4sIAAAAAAAAAOPgE-LUz9U3SMvOs7BQYgcxq8zytGSzk630yzKLSxNz4hOLSvSBuDy_KNsKSGcWlwAAPPgkIzUAAAA&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwikm7myj9fcAhUC2qQKHanQAboQmxMoATARegQICBAZ 54 Boğa imgesini kas ve iskelet oluşumundan olabildiğince kopararak sadeleştiren Picasso, boğanın kafasını daha küçük, gözlerini ve boynuzunu ise daha büyük bir şekilde ele almıştır (Resim 3.21). Ayrıca boynuza estetik bir anlam yüklemek adına kıvrımını arttırmış, kenar çizgilerini hafifletmiştir. Boğanın sırt bölgesini yükseltmiş, baş kısmını vücuda ait kılmaya çalışmıştır. Bu, tamamen doğadan koparak kendi imgelemini yansıttığı bir görüntüdür. Resim 3.22: Pablo Picasso, “6. Boğa Levhası”, Taşbaskı Tekniği, 26 Aralık 1945. Bu aşamada (Resim 3.22), boğaya diğerlerinden farklı bir kafa ve kuyruk yaratan sanatçı, parçaların keskin oluşumunu daha oval çizgilere dönüştürerek resmi hafifletmiştir. Bir önceki aşamada olan sırt yüksekliğini, boyun kısmından kuyruğa doğru uzanan bir yay şeklinde çizgi ile yok etmiştir. Ayrıca boğanın baş kısmındaki göz, burun, ağız gibi detayları resme dâhil etmeyerek daha sade bir ifade kullanmıştır. Resim 3.23: Pablo Picasso, “7. Boğa Levhası”, Taşbaskı Tekniği, 28 Aralık 1945. Picasso, parçalanmayı sadeleştirerek daha geniş parçalarla boğayı şekillendirmiştir (Resim 3.23). Dış hat olarak daha düz ve dikdörtgene yakın bir şema oluşturarak resimdeki birçok detayı ve kıvrımı yok etmiştir. 6. aşamadaki resimde, gövdeye ait olmayan kafayı bu aşamada gövdeyle bütünleştirecek biçimde boyun çizgisi 55 eklemiştir. Resimdeki düzeni bozmamak adına kuyruğa eklediği tamamlayıcı çizgiler de kuyruğun keskin yapısını hafifletmiş ve gövdeye dâhilmiş gibi bir izlenim yaratılmıştır. Resim 3.24: Pablo Picasso, “8. Boğa Levhası”, Taşbaskı Tekniği, 2 Ocak 1946. Picasso, kafayı ve kuyruğu yeniden yapılandırarak resmin kendi içindeki düzenini devam ettirmiştir (Resim 3.24). Bacaklar, boyutunu kaybederek daha basit bir ifade ile ele alınmış, kafaya tekrardan göz, burun ve ağız yapıları sade bir şekilde eklenmiş, kuyruk form kazanmıştır. Resim 3.25: Pablo Picasso, “9. Boğa Levhası”, Taşbaskı Tekniği, 5 Ocak 1946. 9. aşamada (Resim 3.25) resim, tüm tonları silinerek çizgisellik kazanır. Boğanın cinsiyetini vurgulamak adına yalnızca üreme organında gölge bulunduran Picasso, boğayı önceki aşamalardaki değişim aralıklarına nazaran daha gözle görülür bir farkla değişime uğratır. Boğanın bir öncekinde sağ tarafa dönük olan kafası bu resimde bize dönüktür ve genel olarak bir öncekinin tertibine kıyasla daha dağınıktır. 56 Resim 3.26: Pablo Picasso, “10. Boğa Levhası”, Taşbaskı Tekniği, 10 Ocak 1946. Sona yaklaşan bu aşamada (Resim 3.26) sanatçı, çizgileri sadeleştirerek sadece temel yapılandırma çizgilerini resme dâhil etmiştir. Bu aşamada kafa, bacaklar ve kuyruk da büyük bir değişime uğrayarak minimal bir şekle bürünmüştür. Bu aşamada bir diğerinde olduğu gibi en dikkat çekici yer, boğanın üreme organıdır. Bu bölgede herhangi bir sadeleştirme söz konusu değildir. Resim 3.27: Pablo Picasso, “11. Boğa Levhası”, Taşbaskı Tekniği, 17 Ocak 1946. Son aşamada (Resim 3.27) ise artık tüm yapılarını kaybeden boğa imgesi, yalnızca dış çizgilerinin varlığı ile kendini göstermektedir. Picasso bu taslağında, doğada var olan boğa görüntüsünün sanata dönüşüm aşamasında en öz ve katıksız hali ile sunmuştur. Doğada var olanın tüm kalabalıklığından arınarak, boğayı kendi iç dünyasındaki boğa görünüşünün sadeliği ile buluşturmuştur. Yaratım sürecindeki oluşum evresine ve düş nesnesinin sanat eserine dönüşüm aşamalarına iyi bir örnek teşkil eden Picasso’nun boğa serisi, sanatçının dış dünya nesneleri ile iç dünya nesneleri arasındaki geçiş evresini özetlemektedir. Kandinsky, her sanat eserinin çağının çocuğu ve çoğu zaman duygularımızın kaynağı olduğunu söylemektedir.113 Duyguların kaynağı olan sanat ise sanatçının bir nevi zihnindeki görüntüsüdür. 3.6. Zamanın Psikolojik Geçmişinin Yaratma Sürecine Etkisi May, Yaratma Cesareti isimli kitabında ele aldığı yaratma yetisini bilinç ile ilişkilendirdiği bölüme şu şekilde bir giriş yapmıştır: 113 Kandinsky, A.g.e., s. 27. 57 Herkes zaman zaman "kafamda bir şimşek çaktı", "birden içime doğdu", "o an uyandım”, "bende şafak söktü", "kafama dank etti" gibi ifadeleri kullanır durur. Bunlar yaygın bir yaşantıyı anlatmanın değişik yolları: farkındalık düzeyimizin altındaki bir derinlikten fikirlerin fırlayıp gelmeleri. Bu diyarı; bilinçaltının, bilinç öncesinin ve farkındalığın altındaki diğer düzeyleri barındıran bir çanta gibi görüp "bilinçdışı" diye adlandıracağım. … Bilinçdışını, bireyin gerçekleyemeyeceği veya gerçeklemeyeceği eylem ve farkındalık gizilgüçleri olarak tanımlıyorum. Bu gizilgüçler "özgür yaratıcılık" diye adlandırabileceğimiz şeyin kaynağıdır. Bilinçdışı fenomenlerin keşfedilip açımlanmasının yaratıcılıkla çarpıcı bir ilişkisi var.114 May, aynı zamanda bilinç eşiği ve bilinçdışından gelen yaratıcılığın sadece sanat için değil, uzun vadede bilim için de aslolduğunu ileri sürmektedir.115 Kişi, kendilik durumuna erişebilmek için geçmiş yaşantısında edindiği tüm deneyim ve tecrübelerinin neticesinde mevcut durumunu şekillendirir. Böylece geleceğe, geçmişten gelen durumu göz önünde bulundurarak hazırlanır ve geçmişi tamamen ötekileştirmez. Geçmiş deneyimleriyle geleceğini ve kararlarını şekillendiren birey, geçmişin geleceğe bu denli etki yaptığının farkına varmadan hareket eder ve kendi yaşantısında bilinç dışı kararlar verir. Kendine yitik bir birey özgünlük ve kendilikten mahrum olarak yaşantısını sürdürür. Bu durum, onun kişilik merkezini kaybetmesine yol açar. Fakat bu demek değildir ki birey geçmişiyle geleceğini sürdürür ve tamamıyla ona bağlı kalır. Yaşamı boyunca birçok değişim yaşayan bireyler, geleceklerini şekillendirirken geçmişlerini eleştirebilir, saplanıp kalmaz ama reddetmezler. Çünkü geride bıraktıkları varlığı, karar mekanizmalarının odak noktası olarak kendileriyle yaşarlar. Bugünün öğretisi olan zamanın psikolojik geçmişi, kişinin yaşamında aldığı kararlarıyla, seçimleriyle ve zevkleriyle aslında sürekli kendinde tuttuğu, benliğinde biriktirdiği bir durumdur. Geçmişin varlığı son buldu sanılsa bile esasında onu görünür kılan birçok gizil sebeple karşılaşırız. Yaşadığımız her deneyim, kişinin duygu ve düşüncelerine yeni bir kimlik kazandırır ve bu oluşum hayatta kaldığımız sürece devam eder. Biriktirdiğimiz her deneyimle birlikte psikolojik ruh halimizin yönü değişebilir, güncel bir vaziyete ulaşabilir. Dostoyevski, insanın psikolojik bir değişim geçirmesi için uzun bir soyutlamaya girmesi gerektiğini söylemiştir. 114 May, A.g.e., s. 75. 115 May, A.g.e., s. 75. 58 3.7. Doğa Taklitçiliğinden Soyutlamaya Soyluların veya din adamlarının sanatçıları desteklediği dönemlerde sanatçılar, iç dünyalarını yansıtmak yerine kendinden beklenen şekilde eserler ortaya koymaktaydılar. Sanata dair estetik değerlerin neredeyse tamamı soyluların önerdiği dinsel konulara yönelik olmuştur. Bu nedenle sanatçılar, dış dünyadan bir türlü kopamamışlar ve sanat eserlerine yaratım süreçlerini dâhil edememişlerdir. Kendilerinden istenen şekilde sanat icraatlarını gerçekleştiren sanatçıların eserlerine toplumun ileri gelenleri şekil vermekteydi. Sanatçının hayal dünyası toplum tarafından ötekileştirilerek yorumlama kabiliyeti geri plana atılmaktaydı. Böylece sanatçı, doğa taklitçiliğinden öteye geçemeyip klasik görüneni resmetse de, onun kendi eserleri üzerindeki zihnin katkısı reddedilemez bir gerçekliktir. Sanatçı, Orta Çağ’ın sona ermesiyle ve Rönesans döneminin başlangıcıyla birlikte bireyselleşmeye başlamıştır. “Rönesans” terimi “yeniden doğuş” anlamına gelir ve antik Yunan-Roma kültürlerinin entelektüel ve sanatsal hazinelerine duyulan ilginin dirilişini ifade eder.116 Bu dönem, onlar için yeni bir sanat yaklaşımının ortaya çıkmasına katkı sağlayıp toplumun sanatçılar üzerindeki etkisinin azalmasına neden olmuştur. Günlük konuları pek fazla resmetmeyen Rönesans dönemi sanatçıları, eserlerinde daha çok din ve mitoloji koularını işlemekteydiler (Resim 3.28). Resim 3.28: Sandro Botticelli, “İlkbahar”, Pano Üzerine Tempera, 203x314 cm, 1480- 82, Uffizi Müzesi, Floransa. 116 Farthing, A.g.e., s. 150. 59 Daha sonra Romantizmle başlayan süreç Empresyonizm, Kübizm, Sürrealizm, Ekspresyonizm, Kavramsal Sanat gibi akımlarla devam etmiştir. Sanatçıların düş dünyalarına getirilen sınırlılıklar tamamen ortadan kaldırılarak, onun içsel dünyası sanat eserlerine dâhil edilmiştir. Sanatçılar, sıradanlığın ötesinde yepyeni bir düşünce oluşturarak, eserlerinde dış dünyayı olduğu gibi yansıtma kaygısından uzaklaşmışlar, kendi içsel yorumlarını esere yansıtarak biricik yapıtlar ortaya koymuşlardır. Bu durum bir başkaldırı olup modern sanatın doğuşu olarak kabul edilmektedir. Soyutlamaya giden bu süreçte, sanatçının eserlerinde bilinçaltının yansımaları belirginleşmiş ve mantık geri plana atılmıştır. 3.7.1. Nesnelerin İzlenimci Tavrı: Empresyonizm Rönesans’tan beri süregelen natüralist sanat, XIX. yüzyılda Empresyonizm ’in açık hava ressamlığıyla son aşamasına varmıştı.117 Bütün sanat dallarını etkileyen, sanatçının kendi duyum ve izlenimlerini yansıttığı bu sanat akımı, 1870’lerde Fransa’da ortaya çıkmıştır. Bu yıllarda Empresyonist resimler ilk kez Paris’te sergilenmiştir. Boyanın açık renklerle ve kesik fırça darbeleri ile uygulanılıyor olmasından kaynaklı bitmemiş gibi görünmesi sebebi ile tepki toplanmış, aşağılanmıştır. Empresyonizm akımının en yaşlı ve yöntemli savunucularından birisi Camille Pissarro’ (1830- 1903) dur. Konularının seçiminde uzun uzun düşünmüş ve ekilmiş tarlaların, köylerin, çayırların, giden kır yollarının, meyve bahçelerinin resmini yapmayı yeğlemiş, renk etkilerinden çok, yapı ve biçim üzerinde de durmuştur (Resim 3.29). Empresyonist devrimin ateşli bir destekçisi olarak 1874’ten 1886’ya kadar açılan sessiz serginin tümüne katılan biricik sanatçıdır.118 Resim 3.29: Camille Pisarro, “Hasat”, 1901, Ulusal Galeri, Kanada. 117 İpşiroğlu, N. ve M. İpşiroğlu, Sanatta Devrim, (5. baskı), Hayalperest Yayınevi, İstanbul 2011, s.19. 118 İpşiroğlu, N. ve M. İpşiroğlu, A.g.e., s. 19. 60 Bu yaklaşım, başlarda her ne kadar yadırgansa da zaman içinde sanatçılar tarafından kabullenilmiştir. “Empresyonist” (izlenimci) terimi ilk ortaya çıktığı dönemde aslında aşağılayıcı bir anlam taşıyordu. Eleştirmen Louis Leroy (1812-85), Claude Monet'nin (1840-1926) yaptığı “İzlenim, Gün Doğumu” (Resim 3.30) isimli deniz manzarası için şu yorumda bulundu: “En ham haldeki bir duvar kâğıdı deseni bile bu deniz manzarasından daha tamamlanmış ve bitmiştir.” Leroy, iğneleyici makalesine “Empresyonistlerin Sergisi” ismini verdi ve böylece “Empresyonizm” sözcüğüne kötü bir anlam yüklemiş oldu.119 Resim 3.30: Monet, “Gün Doğumu”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 48x63 cm, 1872, Marmottan Monet Müzesi, Paris, Fransa. Resim 3.31: Edgar Degas, “Bale Sınıfı”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 85x75 cm, 1871- 1874, Orsay Müzesi, Paris, Fransa. 119 Farthing, A.g.e., s. 316. 61 Edgar Degas’ın (1834-1917) “Bale Sınıfı” isimli eseri (Resim 3.31), 1874’te açılan ilk empresyonist sergide sergilenmiştir. Çalışmalarının çoğunda Paris Operası’ndaki baletleri konu almış olan Degas, onların sahne üzerindeki veya provadaki hallerini resmetmiştir. Edgar Degas, “Güzel dokuların resmini yapmak ve hareketi çizgiyle aktarmak için dansçıları kullanıyorum” diyerek dansçıların hareketlerini kendi çalışmalarında bir ritim olarak kullandığını söylemiştir.120 Empresyonizm, göz duyarlığına dayanan duyumcu bir sanattı. Çevremizde yer alan nesneleri, kavramlarından sıyırarak anlık bir görüntü, bir izlenim olarak sanata yansıtıyordu. Empresyonistlerle yeni bir dünya ortaya çıkmıştı. Batı sanatının her döneminde olduğu gibi, bu döneminde de alışılagelen dünya yeni bir görünüm kazanıyordu.121 Empresyoizm ile gelen nesne yorumlaması, varlığa yeni bir yaklaşım kazandırmıştır. Kendinden önce gelen akımların objeyi ele alış biçimini kendi görme biçimi ile yıkmış, ışığa, renge ve ana farklı nitelikler yükleyerek sanat eserine yansıtmıştır. Empresyonist sanatçılar üzerinde yeni bulunmuş bir teknik olarak fotoğraf sanatı, modern görüntüyü saptama açısından önemli rol oynamıştır ve hızla gelen anı-ışığı yakalayan enstantane çekim gibi fotoğraf teknikleri, sanatçılara resimlerinde de aynı şeyi yapma düşünüsünü getirmiştir.122 Bu anlık etkiler, sanatçıları objeye yaklaşım aşamasında etkisi altına almış ve bakış açılarına yön vermiştir. Işığın titreşimli etkilerini ve sayısız dans eden renk lekelerini daha önceden sezinleyen hem çok eskiden hem de yakın geçmişten birçok sanatçı vardır.123 Perdahcı, “Doğa ile bağlarını koparan sanat, yaratma özgürlüğüne kavuşarak teknoloji çağının getirdiği olanaklarla bu özgürlüğü sonuna değin ‘Parçalanan ışığı toplama peşinde’ kullanır. Zaten ‘ışık’ Empresyonizm ile birlikte sanatçı tarafından bir amaç olarak ele alınmaya başlanmıştır” diyerek Empresyonizm’de ışığın resmin aracı değil de amacı olduğunu vurgulamıştır.124 Empresyonizm’in bir getirisi olan “yeni görme” anlayışı ile sanatçılar, XX. yüzyılda eserlerinde soyutlama evresine ulaşmışlardır. 120 Farthing, A.g.e., s. 320. 121 İpşiroğlu, N. ve M. İpşiroğlu, A.g.e., s. 19. 122 Perdahcı, Nurcan, Işığın Yeniden Keşfi, Empresyonizm ve Sonrası İçin Bir Yaklaşım, (Sanatta yeterlik eser metni), Marmara Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Resim Anasanat Dalı, İstanbul (Türkiye), 1999. 123 Perdahcı, A.g.e. 124 Perdahcı, A.g.e. 62 3.7.2. Nesnenin Boyutsal Betimi: Kübizm Fotoğrafın gelişim göstererek görüntünün dünyaya yayılması sonucu, her alanda olduğu gibi resim alanında da tarz değişiklikleri olmuştur. XX. Yüzyılın başlarında gün yüzüne çıkan Kübizm, kendinden önce gelen sanat akımlarının ardından yeni bir biçim dili ile ortaya çıkmıştır. Bu nedenle sanat tarihinde Kübizm, kırılma noktası olarak algılanmaktadır. Bu akımın öncüleri, Pablo Picasso ve Georges Braque (1882-1963)’dir. Natüralizm geleneği içinde sanatın olanakları, gerçeği yansıtmaktan öteye geçemiyordu. Sanatın, büyük toplumlara yaşam alanı açacak olan yeni bir dünyanın kurulmasına katılabilmesi için, Natüralizm geleneğinin yıkılması ve yeni bir biçim-dilinin yaratılması gerekiyordu. Sanat alanında bu büyük devrim 1910'larda Kübizm'le başlıyor ve onu izleyen soyut sanatla tamamlanıyor. Braque, Picasso, Rus ve Hollandalı Konstruktivistler bu devrimin öncüleridir. Mondrian'ın denge ve oran araştırmaları ve Maleviç'in “nesnesiz-sanat” denemeleriyle natüralist sanatın son kalıntıları da temizlenmiş ve endüstri dünyasını biçimlendirecek olan evrensel bir sanat dili yaratılmıştır.125 Kübizm, Empresyonizm’e tepki olarak doğmuştur. Bu durum, eski düzene ayak uydurmayarak, bambaşka bir düşünce ile ortaya koydukları eserlerden anlaşılabilir. Kübizm, sanat tarihine XX. yüzyılın ilk avangard bakış açısını getirmiştir.126 Sanatçıların nesneye yaklaşımları ve bakış açıları tamamen değişmiş, o güne kadar gelen geleneksel tavır ortadan kalkmıştır. Resim 3.32: Pablo Picasso, “Avignonlu Kızlar”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 244x234 cm, 1907, Modern Sanat Müzesi, New York, ABD. 125 İpşiroğlu, N. ve M. İpşiroğlu, A.g.e., s. 9. 126 Kaplanoğlu, Lütfü., Özne Nesne İlişkisi Bağlamında Kübizm, Fütürizm ve Dada, (Yayınlanmamış doktora tezi), Atatürk Üniversitesi, Sanat Tarihi Anabilim Dalı, Erzurum (Türkiye), 2008. 63 Picasso’nun 1907 yılında yaptığı “Avignonlu Kızlar” (Resim 3.32) isimli çalışma, dönemin ilk kübist resmi olarak bilinmektedir. Sanatçı, Barselona’nın Calle Avinyo’da bulunan bir genelevde çalışan kadınları resmine konu etmiştir. Şair ve eleştirmen Guillame Apollinaire (1880-1918), Andre Derain (1880-1954), Georges Braque (1882- 1963) ve Henri Matisse (1869-1954) resmi ilk görmeye geldiklerinde, Picasso’nun bu çalışmasını yadsımışlar ve “bir tür şaka” olduğunu düşünmüşlerdir.127 Bu resim, sanat dünyasına bambaşka bir bakış açısı getirerek Kübizm’i şekillendiren bir yapıt niteliğini taşımaktadır. Başta birçok eleştiri alsa da “Avignolu Kızlar”, XX. Yüzyılda inşa edilen tüm sanat akımlarını etkileyen bir yapıt olmuştur. Resimdeki geometrik formların çalışmanın tamamında hâkim olması, arka planın derinlik algısından uzak bir şekilde ifade edilmesi, olağan perspektifin yıkıcı görüntüsü, yüzleri Afrika masklarını anımsatan köşeli hatlara sahip çıplak figürlerin rahatsız edici ifadeleri ve duruş şekilleri, izleyiciyi olumsuz tepki vermeye itmiştir. Resim, renk çeşitliliğinden ziyade birkaç rengin versiyonlarından meydana gelmiş, keskin formların ön plana çıkmasını sağlamak adına belirgin çizgilerle tamamlanmıştır. Hacmin gerçekçi halinden hayli uzak olan formların yapısı, çeşitli geometrik şekiller ve fırça darbeleriyle çarpıcı bir hal almakla birlikte dışavurumcu bir etki yaratmıştır. Yapıtın enerjik fırça darbeleri ile pekiştirilen gizli bir cinsel anlamı ve akışının olduğunu ifade eden Farthing, Picasso’nun daha önceki yapıtlarıyla ve sanat tarihiyle bağı olmayan bu resminin, XX. yüzyıl sanatının çoğunda görülen “parçalama” yaklaşımının ve kolaj gibi yeni tekniklerin ön bildirimi niteliğinde olduğunu söylemiştir.128 127 Farthing, A.g.e., s. 388. 128 Farthing, A.g.e., s. 392. 64 Resim 3.33: Georges Braque, “L’Estaque’da Evler”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 73x60 cm, 1908, Kunstmuseum, Basel, İsviçre. Kübizm, XX. yüzyılın ilk yirmi yıllık diliminde Picasso ve üslubu kısa sürede benimseyip kullanmaya başlayan Braque tarafından Paris’te geliştirildi. Her iki ressam da Fransız Post-Empresyonistlerinden Paul Cezanne’ın son derece albenili buldukları düz ve soyut geç dönem eserlerinden etkilenmişlerdi (Resim 3.33).129 Cezanne, Picasso ve Braque’den çok önce silindir, küre ve koni gibi geometrik formları resimlerinde kullanıyordu. Resim 3.34: Paul Cezanne, “Sainte-Victorie Dağı”, 1885, Barnes Vakfı. 129 Farthing, A.g.e., s. 388. 65 Kübizm’in gelişmesinde Picasso ve Braque’a esin kaynağı olan Cezanne, resimsel perspektifi ortadan kaldırarak, resimde kullandığı ifade biçimini geometrize ederek Kübizm’in mantığına öncü olmuştur (Resim 3.34). Cezanne’ın bu etkilerinden sonra bazı ressamlar, resimlerinde geometrik yapıları ön plana çıkarıp perspektifi ortadan kaldırarak ve bir nesneyi farklı bakış noktaları ile birlikte resmederek “Kübizm” adı altında toplanmışlardır. Cezanne, dış dünyanın nasıl kavranması gerektiğini, öğrencisi Emile Bernard’a yazdığı ve sonra bir dönem sanatının görme ve düşünme mantığını belirleyen şu sözlerle anlatır: ≪Emile Bernard’a, Aixen Provence, 15 Nisan 1904. Doğayı; silindir, koni ve küre gibi ele al ve bütünü öyle doğru bir perspektif içine koy ki, bir objenin, bir düzlemin her yanı bir merkez noktasına götürsün.≫ Doğanın, nesnelerin küplere, silindir ve konilere göre ele alınması da, doğanın, görünen bir dünya, duyusal bir dünya olmaktan çıkarılıp, düşünülen bir doğa haline getirilmesini ifade eder.130 John Berger, Kübist devrimin hazırlıklarının XIX. yüzyılda iki sanatçı tarafından yapıldığını belirterek, bunlardan ilkinin Gustave Courbet (1819-1877), ikincisinin ise Paul Cezanne (1839-1906) olduğunu ifade etmektedir. Berger, Courbet’nin, maddeciliğiyle, Cezanne’ın doğaya bakma sürecini diyalektik açıdan görmesiyle ressamların doğaya yaklaşım vurgusunu değiştirmiş olduğunu düşünmektedir. Apollinaire, Cezanne’ın resimlerinin bir kısmının Kübizm’in öncüsü olabileceğini fakat yeni ressamların babası olarak Courbet’yi gördüğünü söyler.131 Kübizm’in gelişiminde katkısı bulunan en önemli ressamlardan biri olan Picasso, bu akım ile ilgili düşüncelerini şu şekilde ifade etmektedir: Doğrusunu söylemek gerekirse, kübizmi yapıyorduk yapmasına da, keşke ne olduğunu bilebilseydik! Gerçekte, neyin nesi olduğunu kimse bilmiyordu. Biz bilseydik herkes, bilmiş olurdu. Einstein bile bilmiyordu. Keşfetme koşulları dışımızdadır. Buna rağmen - ne acıdır ki sadece bildiğimizi bulabiliriz. Kübizm bir sabır işidir, üstelik oldukça karmaşıktır. Böyle bir işi meydana getirmek için binlerce işçiye gerek vardır. İşte, asıl hikâye budur.132 Bunun üzerine Ashton, ilk başta ne yaptığının çokta farkında değilmiş gibi atılan adımların sonucunda durumun gittikçe bilimsel bir hal aldığını ve teknik farklılıkları, yüzey değişikliklerinin olduğunu, kolajın tuvalde yer edindiğini söylemiştir (Resim 3.35-36).133 130 Tunalı, İsmail, Felsefenin Işığında Modern Resim, (9. Baskı), Remzi Kitabevi, İstanbul, 2013 s. 123. 131 Berger, John, Picasso’nun Başarısı ve Başarısızlığı, (çev. Yurdanur Salman-Müge Gürsoy Sökmen), İstanbul 2003, ss. 60-62. 132 Ashton, Dore, Picasso, (çev. Mehmet Yılmaz), Ankara 2001, s. 85. 133 Ashton, A.g.e., s. 84. 66 Resim 3.35: Juan Gris, “Gitarlı Natürmort”, Kolaj, 66x100,3 cm, 1913, Metropolitan Sanat Müzesi, New York. Resim 3.36: Pablo Picasso, “Meyveler, Keman ve Cam”, Kolaj, 64,8x49,5 cm, 1913, Philadelphia Sanat Müzesi, Philadelphia, ABD. Kübizm, doğal bir nesneden yola çıksa da, sanatçının görme biçimine önem vermesi açısından bilinçaltı etkiler taşımaktadır. Nesnelere yüklenen anlamlarda sanatçının düşsel izleri vardır. Bu akımın gelişmesi ile doğal ve geleneksel formlar gittikçe kaybolmaya, yalnızca doğaya ait olmaya başlamıştır. Sanatçılar yaratım sürecinde temsile başvurmaksızın sanat eserleri oluşturmuşlardır. Nesnelerin kendi görüntü ve anlamları ile tatmin olmayan sanatçı, Kübizm ile içsel duygularını dışa vurma gayreti içine girmiş, sanatına nesnelere dair kendi biçimlendirdiği anlamları 67 yansıtmıştır. Böylece nesneler sanatçıları değil, sanatçılar nesneleri şekillendirmeye başlamıştır. Resim 3.37: Pablo Picasso, “Ağlayan Kadın”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 60x49 cm, 1937, Tate Galeri, Liverpool. “Bilinçdışı” dediğimiz zaman, akla ilk gelen akım, içsel sürecin önemli olduğu ekspresyonizm olsa da, biraz irdelediğimizde 20. yüzyıla adını altın harflerle yazmış Kübizm’in de bilinçdışına yer verdiğini görürüz. … Bu konuda örnek verilecek olursa; Picasso’nun “Ağlayan Kadın” adlı portresi, kübizm kurallarını taşımakla birlikte, dışavurumcu fırça sürüşüne de yer vermiştir. Tam bu noktada resim, usun ötesine geçerek, fırçaların hırçınlığıyla dışavurumun tam da içinde bulur kendini ve resim artık sadece aklın değil, aynı zamanda bilinçdışının bir ürünü de olur. Picasso’nun bu portresi, Kübizm değerlerini taşımakla birlikte, fırçaların hissettirdiği dışavurum, portrenin iç gerçekliğini en keskin şekilde açığa çıkarmaktadır. Bu da bize iç ve dış gerçekliğin aynı eserde barınabileceğini gösterir.134 Picasso, bu eserinde (Resim 3.37) acı duygusunu yansıtırken, İspanyol İç Savaşı’nın yıkıcı tesirlerini dolaysız bir biçimde resmetmek yerine, kendi içsel dünyasındaki ifadelerini kadın figürü üzerinde dışa vurmak istemiştir. Bunu yaparken hem Kübizm’in belirli kurallarını taşımış hem de dışavurumcu bir tavır sergilemiştir. 134 Karaca, H. Esila, Resimde Bilinçdışı Anlatımın Raslantısal ve Deneysel Süreci, (Yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi), Gazi Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Resim Anasanat Dalı, Ankara (Türkiye), 2010. 68 Resim 3.38: Pablo Picasso, “Guernica”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 349,3x776,6 cm, 1937, Kraliçe Sofia Ulusal Sanat Müzesi, Paris. Picasso, “Guernica” (Resim 3.38) isimli eserini de “Ağlayan Kadın” resminde olduğu gibi İspanyol İç Savaşı’nın etkisinde kalarak ve o savaşa içgüdüsel bir tepki olarak yapmıştır. Savaşın ve dönemin yıkıcı etkilerinin izlerini taşıyan bu eser, o savaşın dehşet verici atmosferine tanıklık etmektedir. Hükümetin isteği üzerine Paris’teki uluslararası bir sergi için yapılan bu çalışmanın tamamı grinin tonlarıyla oluşmuş ve Kübizm’in izlerini taşıyan geometrik formlarla resmedilmiştir. Resim 3.39: Francisco de Goya, “Kurşuna Dizilenler”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 266x345,6 cm, 1814, Prado Müzesi, Madrid. Francisco de Goya (1746-1828) da tıpkı Picasso gibi demokrasiye destek veren resimler üretmiştir. Fransa’nın İspanya’yı işgal etmesini konu eden Goya, savaşın olduğu günden altı yıl sonra yapılan “Kurşuna Dizilenler” (Resim 3.39) eserini, katliamın içinde o ana şahit olmuşçasına, ayrıntıları ile resmetmiştir. Bu ayrıntıcı üslubu 69 ile olayın geçtiği döneme dair çıkarımlar yapmamıza olanak sağlamıştır. Resim, Fransız askerlerinin çaresizce isyan eden İspanyol halkın kurşuna dizmesini konu almıştır. Buradaki önemli unsur, aynı dönemde yaşanan savaşı ele almalarına rağmen, resimsel anlamda farklı yorumlamalar yapılmasıdır. Goya, bir olayı doğadaki görüntüye yakın ve olağan bir şekilde ifade ederken; Picasso, olayın kendinde bıraktığı etkileri dışavurumcu ve sıra dışı bir ifade ile yorumlamıştır. Yaratıcılığın ve dışavurumun yoğun hissedildiği “Guernica” eserinde, sanatçının yaşanan savaşa dair içsel dünyasındaki oluşum ve bilinçaltı etkileri resme imge olarak yansımıştır. Bu eserde izleyiciye yansıyan vahşet etkisi “Kurşuna Dizilenler” eserine nazaran daha yoğundur. “Kurşuna Dizilenler” resminde Goya, izleyicinin zihninde yalnızca olayın görsel anlamda canlandırılmasını sağlamıştır. Ayrıca Picasso’nun “Kore’de Katliam” (Resim 3.40) resmi ve Manet’nin “İmparator Maximilien’in Kurşuna Dizilmesi” (Resim 3.41) eseri her ne kadar Goya’nın “Kurşuna Dizilenler” eserindeki şemanın benzer kurguları olsalar da, yine yukarıda belirtildiği üzere bu eserler farklı yaratma becerilerine sahip yorumlamalardır. Resim 3.40: Pablo Picasso, “Kore’de Katliam”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 110x210 cm, 1951, Picasso Müzesi, Paris. 70 Resim 3.41: Edouard Manet, “İmparator Maximilien’in Kurşuna Dizilmesi”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 252x305 cm, 1868, Kunsthalle Mannheim, Mannheim. Kübizm’in gelmesi ile sanat, eskisine nazaran daha ruhsal bir nitelik kazanmış ve sanat eserlerinde madde, mantıksal olarak yıkıma uğramıştır. Maddenin formu ve rengi doğanın öğrettiği, akla ilk gelen görüntüsü ile değil, sanatçının zihnindeki görüntüsü ile sanata yansımıştır. Kübizm ile başlayan maddi olmayana ulaşma arzusu, kendinden sonra gelecek olan sanat akımlarını doğrudan doğruya etkilemiş ve bu düşünsel sistem üzerine birçok akım kendini göstermiştir. 3.7.3. Bilinçaltının Estetik Dili: Sürrealizm 1920’de Paris’te doğan Sürrealizm, sanatçının zihninde tasarladığı imgelemini doğrudan doğruya dışa vuran bir sanat akımı olması nedeniyle yüzyılın önemli hareketlerinden biri olmuştur. Salvador Dali (1904-1989), Max Ernst (1891-1976) (Resim 3.42), Andre Masson (1896-1987), bu akımın önemli öncülerindendir. 71 Resim 3.42: Max Ernst, “At The First Clear Word”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 1923, Sanat Koleksiyonu Kuzey Rhine - Westphalia, Dusseldorf, Almanya. Sürrealist sanatçılar, iç dünyaya ait olarak ve dış dünya gerçekliğini reddederek, mantığın sanat ile ayrıştırdığı bir noktada sanat eserlerini üretirler. Psikanalist Sigmund Freud'un bilinçdışı teorisinden esinlenen Gerçeküstücüler, yaratım sürecinde akıl ve mantığa bağlı kalmadan hareket etmeyi arzu ederler, bunun için de düşlerden, içgüdüsel davranışı uyarıcı dürtülerden, özellikle de bilinçdışı dünyasının kolay anlaşılamayan fakat özü barındıran doğasından coşkulu devinimlerle faydalanmaya çabalarlar (Resim 3.43).135 135 Büyükkaya, A.g.e. 72 Resim 3.43: Andre Masson, “Kaynaklar”, 1939. Sürrealist eserler, sanatçıların bilinçaltının görüntüleridir. Sanatçı, bilinçaltını farkında olmadan sanatına yansıtırken, dış dünya nesnelerini dış dünyaya ait olmaksızın kendi dünyalarındaki anlamlandırmaları ile ele alır. Mantık ve iradenin devre dışı olduğu bu akımda, sanatçıların eserlerinde kullandıkları imgelerden yola çıkılarak onların bilinç ötesi mekanizmalara ulaşılabilirliği diğer akımlara nazaran daha belirgindir. Resim 3.44: Salvador Dali, “Belleğin Sürekliliği”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 24x33 cm, 1931, Museum of Modern Art, New York, ABD. Sanat tarihinde önemli bir yere sahip olan “Belleğin Sürekliliği” (Resim 3.44) isimli çalışmada Dali, zihninde tasarladığı dünyayı ikna edici bir yorum ile izleyiciye sunmuştur. Resimde, nesneler çeşitli dönüşümlere uğrayarak mantık dışı bir şekilde kurgulanmıştır. Bu kurguda dikkatleri üzerine toplayan cep saatleri, resmin en güçlü 73 nesnesi niteliği taşır. Farklı saat dilimlerini gösteren cep saatlerinin eriyip, yer çekimi ile kendini tıpkı bir kumaş gibi yere bırakması, o nesneye yumuşak bir doku hissi vermiştir. 1920’de yayımlanan ve yerçekimin etkisi ile zamanın nasıl büküldüğünü anlatan, Einstein’in yazdığı “Genel İzafiyet Teoremi” adlı makale karşısında hayrete düşmüştür ve bu durumda şu soruyu sormak onun için son derece mantıklıdır: “Zaman bükülüyorsa saatler neden bükülmesin?”136 Metal saatlerin ve içlerindeki hassas mekanizmanın gevşeyip eriyebileceği fikrini öne süren Dali, gerçek dünyayı algılama şeklimize adeta meydan okumuş, zaman kavramının doğasına ilişkin yeni bir yorum getirmiştir.137 Dali, zamanın kendisinde bıraktığı psikolojik etkiyi ve imgelemini açık bir şekilde resimsel ifadeler ile yansıtmıştır. Ayrıca Farthing, saatlerin hepsi farklı anlarda durmuş olsa da, ölümün herkesi beklediği gerçeğine gönderme yapıldığını ifade eder. Resim 3.45: Salvador Dali, “Haşlanmış Fasulyeli Yumuşak Yapı, İç Savaş Öngörüsü”, 1936. Dali, “Haşlanmış Fasulyeli Yumuşak Yapı, İç Savaş Öngörüsü” isimli resmi (Resim 3.45) İspanya İç Savaşı’ndan altı ay önce yapmıştır. Fakat sonradan ismini “İç Savaş Öngörüsü” koymuştur. Savaşın habercisi olduğuna dair bir hava taşıyan bu resimdeki fantastik figürün, ayakları ve kolları haşlanmış fasulye formuyla 136 Farthing, A.g.e., s. 430. 137 Farthing, A.g.e., s. 430. 74 yapılandırılmıştır. Bu resimde, bulunduğu mekâna nazaran büyük bir yer kaplayan ve kendi kendini boğmaya çalışan bir figür betimlemesi yapılmıştır. Figürde hem kendini boğan hem de boğulmaktan kurtulmaya çalışan bir hareket vardır. Bu çatışma, çalışmaya izleyiciyi düşündüren gizemli bir hava katmış ve Dali’nin o dönemdeki çatışmasını açık bir şekilde ortaya çıkarmıştır. Resim 3.46: Salvador Dali, “Bulutlarda Savaş”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 100x100 cm, 1974. Eserlerinde dış dünya nesnelerini ait olmadıkları yerlerde ve düşsel mekânlarda resmederek izleyicide farklı etkiler yaratan Dali, “Bulutlarda Savaş” adlı resminde (Resim 3.46) sağ köşede oturan figürün bulutlar üzerinde olan savaşları seyre daldığı görülmektedir. Dali, resimlerinde bazı uğraşları eleştirel ve alaycı bir tavır ile gerçeküstü bir anlatımla aktarmaktadır. Bu resim de ona örnek teşkil eder niteliktedir. 75 Resim 3.47: Salvador Dali, “Yanan Zürafa”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 1937, Sanat Müzesi Basel. “Yanan Zürafa” (Resim 3.47) isimli eser, Dali’nin yine İspanyol İç Savaşı’nın kendinde bıraktığı etkileri yansıtan bir eserdir. Resimde iki tane kadın figür var olup bu iki figürün arkasında resme yatay şekilde yerleştirilmiş iskelet formunu anımsatan ve figürü destekleyen ifadeler vardır. Bu ifadeler, toplumun aksayan ve eksik yönleri olarak ele alınabilir. Önde duran figürün göğsünde ve bacağının üzerinde açılan çekmeceler, resmin en dikkat çekici kısmıdır. Açılan çekmecelerin, kişilerin bilincinin gerisinde gizlediği duygu ve düşünceleri, psikanalizi imgelediği düşünülmektedir. Dali, resimlerinde sıkça insan vücudunda yerleştirilmiş çekmece imgesini insan ve bilinçaltı anlamlandırması ile ele almış bu imgeleri kullanarak psikanalize verdiği önemi resimsel anlatımı ile vurgulamıştır (Resim 3.48-49-50). https://www.google.com.tr/search?q=kunstmuseum+basel&stick=H4sIAAAAAAAAAOPgE-LUz9U3SDGsKMxQ4gIxjTPSjQvLtOSzk630yzKLSxNz4hOLSvSBuDy_KNsqJz85sSQzPw8A8Vb4dDoAAAA&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiZxZ2r_fzdAhUSDOwKHSFYBG8QmxMoATAYegQICBAd 76 Resim 3.48: Salvador Dali, ''Antropomorfik Dolap'', 1939. Resim 3.49: Salvador Dali, “Düşmüş Melek”. 77 Resim 3.50: Salvador Dali, “Çekmeceli Kadın'', 1936. Salvador Dali, bir zamanlar şu yorumu yapmıştır: “Resim konusunda tüm arzum, mantıksızlığın somut imgelerine mutlak olanın yayılmacı öfkesiyle birer cisim verebilmektir.” Dali, kurgusal bir endişe ve sıkıntı üretiyordu. Kendisini sık sık ölü böceklerle ve kirpilerle korkutarak hayal ettikleri ile gerçeklik arasındaki farkı muğlaştırmaya çalışıyordu. İçinde bulunduğu paronoid ruh hali sayesinde hayal gücünün dizginlerini bırakacağına ve gerçek nesnelere dayanan farklı yorumlara açık imgeler yaratabileceğine inanıyordu. 138 Sürrealizmle birlikte bilinçdışının açıkça tek ilham kaynağı olarak görülmeye başlamasıyla, bilinçdışı kavrayış ile bilinçli algı arasındaki ayrım yaratıcı bir biçimde ortadan kalkmıştır.139 Kuspit, rüyanın içinde her ikisinden de unsurların olduğunu, bu nedenle rüya, imge ve düşünceleri görünüşte rastlantısal bir biçimde birbiriyle bağdaştırdığından, Freud'un ifadesiyle, bilinçdışına giden en meşru yoldu.140 Rüyalar da tıpkı sürrealist eserler gibi kişinin bilinçdışında olan şeyi kapalı şekilde gün yüzüne çıkarmaktadır. Zihnin ürettiği iadeleri algılamak amacıyla sürrealistler uyuşturucu madde kullanmak, alkol tüketmek, ruh çağırma seansları düzenlemek, hipnoz ve transa geçme çalışmaları gibi deneysel girişimlerde bulundular. Ayrıca hızlı kelime oyunları oynayarak gizli kalmış çağrışımları ortaya çıkardılar ve “otomatik yazım” oturumlarıyla daha önce üzerinde düşünülmemiş şiirler yazdılar. Bununla birlikte rüyalarını yazdılar ve toplanıp Sigmund Freud’un psikanalizle ilgili metinlerini okuyarak bu rüyaları analiz ettiler.141 138 Farthing, A.g.e., s. 430. 139 Kuspit, A.g.e., s. 116. 140 Kuspit, A.g.e., s. 116. 141 Farthing, A.g.e., s. 426. 78 Gerçeküstücülüğün gelmesiyle ruh halinin sanata yansıması, imgelere psikodinamik açıdan anlamlar kazandırmıştır. İmge, artık bir bilincin ardındaki dünyanın anlamlandırması içinde yer almıştır. Böylece sanatçının sanat eserinde kullandığı imgeden yola çıkarak sanatçıya dair çıkarımlar yapılması mümkün hale gelmiştir. Resim 3.51: Rene Magritte, “İnsanın Oğlu”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 116x89 cm, 1964. Sürrealistlere göre, "esrarengiz" demek, bilinçdışı demekti.142 Magritte, sanat yaşamı boyunca “gizem” kavramını sanatında kullandığı imgelerle başarılı bir şekilde bütünleştirmiş ve böylece sanat dünyasında bambaşka bir felsefi tavır geliştirmiştir (Resim 3.51). Nesneleri sıradanlıktan çıkararak alışık olunmayan mekânlarda ve alakasız nesne ilişkilendirmeleri ile resmetmiştir. Dış dünyanın alışılagelmiş düzenine bir tepki olarak sanat camiasında önemli bir yer e sahip olmuştur. Magritte, kadın figürünü çoğu kez resimlerine konu etmiştir. Kadına dair toplumsal algıyı kendi fantazyasında kurgulayarak, gizemli bir şekilde ve gerçeküstü bir tavır ile yansıtmıştır. 142 Kuspit, A.g.e., s. 113. 79 Resim 3.52: Rene Magritte, “Tecavüz”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 73.3 x 54.6 cm, 1945, Metropolitan Müzesi, New York. 1947 yılında yaptığı “Tecavüz” (Resim 3.52) isimli eserinde Rene Magritte, bir kadın portresine kadının vücudunu yerleştirmiştir. Kadın cinsel organlarının oluşturduğu bir yüz ifadesi ile toplumsal hayatın kadını cinsel bir obje olarak gördüğü vurgulanmak istemiştir. Toplumun kadın algısı sorunsalı, Magritte’nin bu yorumu ile resimsel anlamda farklı bir bakış açısı kazanmıştır. Magritte’nin “Yatak Odasında Felsefe” (Resim 3.53) isimli eserinde de kadın giysisinin kadının göğsüne dönüştüğü görülür. Tıpkı “Tecavüz” eserinde olduğu gibi bu eserinde de Magritte, kadının cinsel meta olarak algılanması ve erkeğin cinsel ihtiyaçlarını karşılayan köle pozisyonunda görülmesini ele almıştır. Bu eserde de sanatçının bilinçaltı yerleşkesinin sanat eserine yansıdığı gerçeği ortaya çıkmıştır. 80 Resim 3.53: Rene Magritte, “Yatak Odasında Felsefe”, 1947. 3.7.4. İçsel Gerçekliğin Sanatsal İnşası: Expresyonizm Ekspresyonizm’i diğer akımlardan (Empresyonizm, Kübizm, Sürrealizm vb.) ayıran en önemli özellik, diğerleri gibi tek bir sanat akımına veya belirli bir sanatçı topluluğuna ait olmamasıdır. Ekspresyonizm, farklı akımları da içinde barındırarak sanatçının duygularını dışa vurmasını amaçlayan bir ifade biçimidir. Terim olarak ilk kez 1912’de yenilikçi sanat dergisi Der Sturm’un (Fırtına) sahibi Herwath Walden tarafından kullanıldı.143 Der Sturm dergisinde (Resim 3.54), Ekspresyonizm’in ilk yıllarından itibaren bu oluşuma dair fikirler paylaşıldı. 143 Farthing, A.g.e., s. 378. 81 Resim 3.54: Der Sturm, Dergi Kapağı, 1923, Ocak Ayı Sayısı. Nietzsche, “Yaratıcı olmak isteyen önce her şeyi yıkmakla işe başlamalı, eski değerleri yerle bir etmelidir” gibi sözleriyle, özellikle Alman Dışavurumcular üzerinde yoğun bir etki bırakmış ve Alman gençliğinin Birinci Dünya Savaşı yıllarında bunalım ve isyan çığlığı olarak ortaya çıkmıştır.144 XIX. yüzyılın sonlarına doğru Almanya’da doğan dışavurumculuk, sanatçının içinde bulunduğu şahsi ruh halini, duygu ve düşüncelerini sanatıyla buluşturmasını sağlar. Dışavurumcular, eserlerini çarpıcı ve etkili kılabilmek için renkleri ve formları doğanın görüntüsünden uzak bir şekilde, abartılı kullanmaktadırlar. Erich Heckel’in (1883-1970) yaptığı “Bir Masada İki Adam” (Resim 3.55) adlı resim, Fyodor Dostoyevsky’nin “Budala” isimli romanından etkiler taşıyordu. Heckel, kâbus benzeri bir sahne yaratmak için soluk renkler ve açılı tasarımlar kullanmıştır.145 144 Akkuş, Yudum, Dışavurumculuk ve 1980 sonrası Türk Resim Sanatındaki Yayılımı, (Yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi), Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi, Güzel Sanatlar Enstitüsü, İzmir (Türkiye), 2011. 145 Farthing, A.g.e., s. 378. 82 Resim 3.55: Erich Heckel, “Bir Masada İki Adam”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 97x120 cm, 1912, Hamburger Kuntshalle, Hamburg, Almanya. Resim 3.56: Erich Heckel, “Uyuyan Kadın”, 1909, Hamburger Kuntshalle, Hamburg, Almanya. Heckel, genellikle doğa çalışmaları yapan bir sanatçıdır. “Uyuyan Kadın” (Resim 3.56) isimli eserinde, sanatçının coşkusunu ve duygularını kullandığı çarpıcı renkler hissettirmektedir. Sanatçının bu yorumu ile resimde sadece uyuyan kadın figürü değil, ötesinde anlamlandırdığı hislerin var olduğu apaçık görülmektedir. Dışavurumcular, görmeye yeni bir boyut getirerek pasif olan görmeyi aktifleştirmişler ve algıyı biçimlendirmede bireysel bir yorumu ve müdahaleyi ön plana 83 çıkarmışlardır.146 Resme bakan kişi ile sanatçı arasında ruhsal bir etkileşim yaratan bu yaklaşım, izleyicinin kendine ait sezgileri ile birleşerek daha geniş anlamlara ulaşır. Ekspresyonizm’in yayılmasında önemli bir katkısı olan Herwarth Walden, dışavurumculuk algısını şu şekilde izah eder: “Ressamın yaptığı resim, en içsel duyularıyla algıladığıdır, varlığının anlamıdır, dışavurumudur; geçici olan her şey onun için sadece simgesel bir görüntüdür; kendisi için en önemli düşünce kendi yaşamıdır; dış dünyanın kendi üstünde bıraktığı izlenimleri o kendi içinden geçirerek dışavurur. O, gördüklerini içindeki doğa görünümlerini iletir.”147 Matisse ise bu anlayış üzerine notlarına şunu ekler: “Her şeyin üzerinde kendimi dışavurum için bir yol arıyorum.”148 Dolayısıyla Matisse’nin kurduğu bu cümle ile Dışavurumculuğu, sanatçının kendi duygularını, imgelemini ve fantazyasını dış dünyaya aktarmaya yarayan bir araç olarak nitelendirilebilir. Matisse, duygularındaki coşkuyu, oldukça canlı ve zıt renklerle ve dikkat çekici figürlerle resmine yansıtmıştır. Resim 3.57: Henri Matisse, “Dans”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 260x391 cm, 1910, St Petersburg, The State Hermitage Museum, Rusya. Matisse’nin mavi, yeşil ve kırmızı tonlarının zıtlıklarla hâkimiyet kurduğu “Dans” (Resim 3.57) isimli eserinde, mavi renk gökyüzünün, yeşil renk ise yeryüzünün temsili olarak nitelendirilebilir. Figürlerin, bu iki renk içinde Pagan dönemlerinden kalma ritüelleri anımsatan hareketler içinde yarattığı ritim ve enerji, izleyicide şiddetli bir etki uyandırmaktadır. 146 Akkuş, A.g.e., 147 Richard, Lionel, Ekspresyonizm, (çev. Beral Madra), Remzi Kitabevi, İstanbul, 1984, s. 8. 148 Richard, A.g.e., s. 8. 84 Resim 3.58: Henri Matisse, “Müzik”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 260x285 cm, 1910, St Petersburg, The State Hermitage Museum, Rusya. Matisse’nin “Dans” resmine eşlik eden ve Altın Çağına bir gönderme yapan “Müzik” (Resim 3.58) isimli eseri de plastik anlamda Dans resmindeki Fovist renkleri ve etkileri yansıtmaktadır. Fakat “Müzik” tablosundaki arkaik insan tiplemesindeki figürler, ötekinde olduğu kadar ritmik ve hareketli olmadıkları için yalnızca renklerin şiddetinden söz edilebilir. Ekspresyonist ressamların çekirdeğini oluşturan kişi olarak bilinen Vasiliy Kandinsky (1866-1944) ve Paul Klee (1879-1940), kendi yorumları ile bu oluşuma önemli katkılarda bulunmuşlardır. Resim 3.59: Vasiliy Kandinsky, “Kırmızı Oval”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 71.5×71.5 cm, 1920, New York, Solomon R. Guggenheim Müzesi. Doğaya ait bir mekân algısı olmadan tasarlanan ve tamamen doğa dışı bir görüntüye sahip olan Kandinsky’nin “Kırmızı Oval” (Resim 3.59) isimli eserinde oluşturduğu imgeler, perspektiften hayli uzaktır. Resim, derinlik algısı üzerine 85 kurulmuştur. Çeşitli form ve renkler ile dikkat çekici bir özelliğe sahip olan bu resimde, isminin de verildiği üzere kırmızı oval form, rengiyle etkili, espası ile öne çıkan bir ifade haline gelmiştir. Resme bakan kişi tarafından sanatçının coşkusu hissedilir boyuttadır. Resim 3.60: Paul Klee, “Senecio”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 40x38 cm, 1922. Dışavurumculuk, Kübizm, Gerçeküstücülük gibi çoğu akımda kendi tarzını sınırlandırmayarak, sanat camiasında önemli bir yere sahip olan Klee, renk teorisi hakkındaki ilgisi ve deneyimleri sonucu edindiği tecrübelerini sanatına yansıtarak, renkleri izleyicide etkili kılmayı başarmıştır. “Senecio” (Resim 3.60) resminde olduğu gibi çoğu eserinde de renkleri kullanış ve imgeleri ifade ediş biçimi ile dışavurumcu bir izlenim yakalamıştır. Resim 3.61: Paul Klee, “Balık Büyüsü”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 1925. 86 Klee’nin “Balık Büyüsü” (Resim 3.61) isimli eserinde koyu zemin üzerinde kurguladığı, kozmik bir mekân ve farklı imgelerin bulunduğu büyülü âlem, tüm ihtişamıyla gizemli bir ifade ile ele alınmıştır. Bu kurgu, her ne kadar doğadan kopuk olsa da yine de sanatçının yaşanmış bir gerçekliği, içsel dünyasındaki fantazyasını ve gizil duygularını anlattığı gerçekliği öne sürülmektedir. Dolayısıyla Dışavurumcular için esas olan şey, resim yüzeyinde yer alan görüntüsünün ötesindekidir.149 Klee de dışavurumcu mantığı ile resimlerinde görüntünün ötesine ulaşma gayreti içindedir ve ruhsal halini yansıtan eserler ortaya koymuştur. Freud, Dışavurumculuğu, “Uygarlıkla gelen rahatsızlık duygusunun ürünü”150 olarak ifade etmiştir. Van Gogh’un canlı renkleri, Ensor’un hayaletleri (Resim 3.62) andıran maske gibi yüzleri hepsinden de çok Munch’un “Çığlık” (Resim 3.63) adlı resmi, bu insanı haber veren ipuçlarıdır.151 Resim 3.62: James Ensor, “Ölümle Yüzleşen Maskeler”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 81x100 cm, 1888. 149 Akkuş, A.g.e., 150 Sağlam, Gülay, Batı Avrupa ve Türk Resminde Yeni Dışavurumculuk, (Yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi), Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, İzmir (Türkiye), 1992. 151 Sanat Tarihi Ansiklopedisi, Görsel Yayınları, 1983, s. 659. 87 Resim 3.63: Edvard Munch, “Çığlık”, Ahşap Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 84×66 cm, 1910, Munch Müzesi, Norveç. Munch, “Çığlık” tablosunda kasvetli bir görüntü olarak yansıyan sarı, kırmızı ve turuncu ile boyanmış gökyüzünün altında, bir köprünün üzerinde cinsiyeti tam olarak belli olmayan bir insan figürünü betimlemiştir. Figür, iki eliyle kafasını tutmuş, yüzünde donuk ve çarpıcı bir ifade ile çığlık atmaktadır. Resimde, öndeki figür ve gökyüzündeki kasvetli hava dışında her şey olağan haldedir. Gerek arkadaki figürler, gerekse görünen gemi, resme normallik havası katmaktadır. Sanatçının bu resme yansıttığı hem görsel hem de psikolojik çatışma, dışavurumcu bir ifadenin sembolü olmuş ve sanat tarihinde Leonardo Da Vinci’ye (1452-1519) ait “Mona Lisa” eserinin ardından gelen ikinci en ünlü sanat eseri olarak nitelendirilmiştir. Andy Warhol, 1984’te Munch’un “Çığlık” adlı eserinden aldığı ilham ile resmi, farklı ve canlı renklerle yeniden basmıştır (Resim 3.64). 88 Resim 3.64: Andy Warhol, “Çığlık”, 1984. 89 DÖRDÜNCÜ BÖLÜM 4. SANAT İLE PSİKOLOJİK TEDAVİ YÖNTEMİ 4.1. Bir Tedavi Aracı Olarak Sanat Freud, nevrozu savunma mekanizmaları ve travmatik nevroz olarak ikiye ayırmıştır. Savunma mekanizmaları, insanın geçmiş yaşantılarını engelleyen psikolojik bir kalkandır. Travmatik nevroz ise geçmişin geleceği etki altına aldığı bir durumdur. Geçmişte yaşaması gereken bir şeyi tam anlamıyla yaşayamayıp bastırdığı ve ötekileştirdiği için bu durum daha sonra travmatik bir hale dönüşür ve etkisini sonradan hissettirir. Freud'a göre, bir sanatçının, nevrotik materyalini bir sanat eserine dönüştürebilmesi; ondaki nevrotikliğin patolojik seviyede olmadığını; yani nevrozunun hâlâ ego kontrolünde olduğunu gösterir. Sanatçının estetik becerisi, gizli arzularını şekillendirmesini sağladığı için, onu nevroza saplanmaktan kurtarır. Bu noktada başka bir soru ortaya çıkar: sanat eseri, nevrozdan garanti bir kurtuluş sağlıyorsa, nevrotik bireyleri sanat ile iyileştirmek mümkün değil midir? Bu sorudan hareketle sanatı psikanaliz alanında iyileştirici bir pratik olarak kullanan birçok uygulama türemiştir.152 Sanatın nevrotik hastalıklar için bir tedavi yöntemi olarak görülmesinin yanı sıra, bir grup insan da sanatın bir tür nevroz olduğu fikrini öne sürmüştür. Whinnie, sanatçının işi, yaşam tarzı ve toplumdaki pozisyonu dolayısıyla kendine özgü problemlere sahip olduğunu düşünmektedir. Kariyeri, bir sanatçınınki kadar iç dünyaya bağlı olmayan mesleklerde çalışanların aksine, sanatçının duygusal varlığı, onun başarısının merkezini oluşturduğunu söyleyen Whinnie, sanatçının çoğu zaman sürdürdüğü yaşam ve kimlik mücadelesinin, sanat kariyeri ile özel hayatını entegre edememesinin kurbanı olduğunun farkına varmadığını ekleyerek; bu durumların sanatçıda devamlı huzursuzluk, depresyon, düşmanca hisler, yorgunluk, içe kapanma, uyku ve cinsel veya bedensel rahatsızlıklar olarak geri döndüğünü ifade eder.153 152 Wollheim, Richard, Neurosis and the Artist, MIT Press, 1975, s. 2’den aktaran, Saldıran, Anıl, Psikanaliz Başlığı Altında Freud'un Leonardo ve Mona Lisa Analizi Özelinde İmge Oluşumu, (Yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi), Yeditepe Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, İstanbul (Türkiye), 2012. 153 Whinnie, Harold J., "Review: The Artist in Society. Problems and Treatment of Creative Personality by Lawrence J. Hatterer" The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 1968/26 (3): ss. 400-401. 90 Sanatın bir tür nevroz olduğu fikrine ise en çok itiraz eden Freud olmuştur; "Büyük bir başarı öyküsünün söz konusu olduğu durumlarda, nevrozu ön plana almanın haksızlık olduğunu çok çabuk unutuyoruz."154 Freud'a göre dehayı ve hastalığı, yani sanatı ve nevrozu, birbirinden ayrılamayacak iki şey olarak görmek; ancak hastalık ve nevroz kavramlarının yeniden değerlendirilmesiyle mümkün olabilir. Bir yazarı yazar yapan özellikler, başka bir insanda patolojik olarak yorumlanabilecekken, aynı özellikler yazarın yaratım sürecinde ona fayda sağlayabilirler. Her şeyden evvel nevrotik ve nevroz arasındaki farkı düşünmek gerekir.155 Wollheim, Freud'a göre nevrozun kendine has bir yapıya sahip olduğunu, köklerinin geçmiş zamanda yattığını ve bu yüzden şimdiki zamanın ona etki etmeyeceğini belirterek nevrozun bir; arzular, inançlar, meyiller kümesi olduğunu ve nevrotik olmanın derecelerinin var olduğunu ifade etmiştir. “Freud, nevrotik olmayı derecelendirirken bireyin, nevrotik durumu yüzünden, aşk hayatında ve işinde yoksun kalıp kalmadığına bakmıştır” diyen Wollheim, Freud’un başka durumlarda, örneğin daha felsefî konuşmalarında; hepimizin nevrotik, hepimizin hasta olduğunu da söylediğini vurgulamıştır. Bunun bizi önemli bir noktaya getirdiğini; nevroz durumunu oluşturan arzuların, inançların ve meyillerin hepimizde bulunduğunu iddia eden Wollheim, nevrozu oluşturmadıklarında, bir bir ele alındıklarında, her birinin kuvveti ve üzerimizdeki etkisinin farklı olacağını; nevroz durumunda çok daha kuvvetli olmalarının sebebinin; nevrozun, akıl gelişimini sekteye uğratabilecek bir yapıda olduğunu aktarmıştır. Wollheim, nevrotik insanın şimdiki zamanda takıldığını veya geçmişteki bir noktaya döndüğünü söyleyerek son olarak; Freud'un, sanatı incelerken eserin içeriğine veya içeriğinin bir parçasına odaklandığını, oradan da sanatçının aklındaki gizli bir arzunun, inancın veya arzu-inanç birleşiminin izini sürdüğünü belirtmektedir. Rüya ve semptom üzerine olan çalışmaları Freud'a; içeriği, içerikte gizli olanı anlamada kullanabileceği bir teşhis aleti sunduğunu ifade eden Wollheim, Freud’un da bu aletin çözüm sunabileceğini düşündüğü anlarda onu kullanmaktan kaçınmadığını söylemiştir.156 4.2. Sanat Eserleri Üzerinde Psikanaliz Yöntem Uygulamaları “Psikanaliz kısa sürede pek çok alanda etkileşime girmiştir, bunlardan biri de sanattır. Freud'un Leonardo Da Vinci ve diğer ünlü isimler üzerinde teorilerini denemesi 154 Saldıran, Anıl, Psikanaliz Başlığı Altında Freud'un Leonardo ve Mona Lisa Analizi Özelinde İmge Oluşumu, (Yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi), Yeditepe Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, İstanbul (Türkiye), 2012. 155 Saldıran, A.g.e. 156 Wollheim, A.g.e. 91 dikkat çekmiş ve psikanalize ivme kazandırmıştır.”157 Freud’un, Leonardo’nun eserinde kullandığı ifadelere yaptığı sanat alanında ilk psikanaliz yorumu, sanatın bir tedavi aracı olarak kullanıldığı gerçeğini ortaya koymaktadır. Sanatçının dış dünyaya yansıttığı eserlerindeki imge oluşumunun aslında o kişinin bilinçaltında var olanın yaratım sürecine dâhil edildiği kanısına varılmaktadır. Psikanaliz ve sanatı ortak paydada buluşturan Freud, sanatçıların çocukluk veya geçmiş dönemlerde yaşadıkları baskın olayları, bilincin gerisinde biriktirerek sanat eserlerine farkında olmadan işledikleri tezini savunmuş ve de sanat eserlerini psikanaliz yöntemi ile incelemiştir. Sanat ve psikanaliz ikilisinin tedavi alanına olan katkısı, sanat eserlerindeki imge oluşumlarının bilinçaltı getirisi olup ve incelemeler sırasında çeşitli bulgulara ulaşılması anlamında kaçınılmaz bir gerçektir. Sanat ve psikanaliz ilişkileri yöntemi günümüze kadar uzanmaktadır (Resim 4.1). İlk analizinin yayımlanmasıyla birlikte uyanan yankıların gittikçe büyüdüğünü ve Freud'un kuramlarının pek çok karşıt ve yandaş bulduğunu belirten Saldıran, günümüze dek incelenmeye ve yorumlanmaya devam edilen bu analizlerin güncelliklerinden bir şey kaybetmemiş olduğunu ifade etmektedir. Saldıran, Freud'un analizleriyle birlikte sanat ve psikanalizin etkileşime girmesinin, psikanalizde sanat ile tedavi imkânı üzerine de gelişmeler yaşanmasını sağladığını vurgulayarak, nevrotik rahatsızlıklara sahip bireylerin sanat uygulamalarıyla tedavi edilmeye çalışılması ve psikanaliz öğrencilerine zihinsel gelişimlerini teşvik etmek amacıyla sanat ödevleri verilmesinin bu etkileşimin bir sonucu olduğu savını öne sürmektedir. Saldıran, bu uygulamalarla sanatın zihin geliştirici yönlerinden faydalandığını; ayrıca eğitim alanında "görsel hafıza" gibi farklı öğretim modellerinin de ortaya çıktığını vurgulamıştır.158 157 Saldıran, A.g.e. 158 Saldıran, A.g.e. 92 Resim 4.1: Sanat Psikoterapileri Derneği, “Sanat İle Tedavi”. Hastanın, yarattığı sanatsal süreç; örneğin resmi hakkındaki yorumu, resimdeki unsurlarla ve terapistle olan ilişkisi, hem bilinçdışı çatışmaları hakkında ipuçları vererek psikopatoloji düzeyini değerlendirebilmeyi sağlar hem de bilinçdışı çatışmaların farkındalığını arttırarak psikoterapötik bir süreci başlatır. Bu aynı zamanda, hasta ve terapist arasındaki ilişkiyi oluşturmaya yardımcı, taşıyıcı ve değiştirici bir araç olarak işlev görür. Bilinçdışındaki temel düşünce ve duygular, kelimeler yerine imajlar (görüntüler) olarak ortaya çıkar. Bu ürünler, doğası ne olursa olsun emosyonel bir katarsis sağlar ve hastanın korkularını, istek ve arzularını açığa vurmasına araç oluşturur. Resim aracılığıyla, hasta ve terapist arasında sembolik bir dil gelişir.159 Emiroğlu, bu konuya konuşması bloke olan veya serbestçe kendini ifade etmekte zorlanan hastaların, çizim ya da boyama yoluyla, düşünce ve duygularını kelimelere aktarabileceği örneğini vererek geçmişteki birçok otoriteye göre sanatla tedavinin işlevi, hastanın ürünlerini yorumlamakla değil, hastanın bilinçaltındaki fenomenleri sembolik bir yolla, anlamı olan çizimleri aracılığıyla kendisinin anlaması, keşfetmesi ve yeniden onarması ile ilgili olduğunu ifade etmiştir.160 4.2.1. Freud’un Mona Lisa Örneklemi Freud, sanatı tedavi yöntemi olarak görmüştür. Bu sebeple Leonardo’ya ilgi duymuş ve Leonardo’nun sanatını, yaşanılmış travmaya verilen bir yanıt olarak incelemiştir.161 Freud, Leonardo Da Vinci’nin sanatında yer verdiği imgeleri, üzerinde çalıştığı Psikanaliz Kuramı ile çözümlemeye çalışmıştır. Bu çözümlemede sanatçının hayatı göz önünde bulundurulmuştur. 159 B. Emiroğlu, “Psikiyatri’de Sanat Psikoterapisinin Gelişimi”, Sanat Psikoterapileri Derneği, <http://www.sanatpsikoterapileridernegi.org/psikiyatride-sanat-psikoterapisinin-geli351imi> (08.02.2019). 160 Emiroğlu, A.g.e. 161 Saldıran, A.g.e. 93 Resim 4.2: Leonardo Da Vinci, “Mona Lisa”, Ahşap Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 77x53 cm, 1503-1506, Louvre Müzesi, Paris, Fransa. Freud, Mona Lisa (Resim 4.2) ’nın yüzünde beliren tebessümün üzerinde çok fazla durmuş, psikanaliz yöntemi ile incelemelerde bulunmuştur. Bu çalışmadan yola çıkan Freud, Leonardo’nun hayatındaki anne nesnesine ulaşmış, annesiyle olan ilişkisinin yaratım sürecine ve sanat eserlerine ne denli etki ettiği konusunda düşünceler geliştirmiştir. Resim 4.3: Leonardo Da Vinci, “Mona Lisa Detay”. Bu gülümseme (Resim 4.3) birçok insan için birçok anlam ifade etmiş, ona her bakanın farklı yorumlamasına sebep olmuştur. Saldıran, Freud’un Mona Lisa’nın gülümsemesi üzerindeki görüşünü şu şekilde ifade etmiştir: 94 Freud, Mona Lisa'nın gülümsemesini Leonardo'nun takıldığı bir imge olarak görür. Sanatçı, yaşamının son yıllarında ürettiği çalışmalarında bu gizemli gülümsemeyi hep kullanmıştır; ancak belki de en etkilisi Mona Lisa'nın suratına yerleşmiş hâlidir. Freud'a göre bu gülümseme imgesi, çocukluğunda Leonardo'nun bilinçaltına yerleşmiş bir imgedir. Yaşamının olgunluk çağında bu imgeyle tekrar karşılaşmış ve bu karşılaşma ondaki hatırayı alevlendirmiştir. Bu derin etkilenmeyle son yıllarında büyük bir ilham kaynağına kavuşan Leonardo, imgeyi doyurmak istercesine peş peşe Bacchus (Resim 4.4) ve St. Anne (Resim 4.5) gibi eserler üretmeye başlamıştır; Mona Lisa da bu yeniden alevleniş döneminin eserlerinden biridir.162 Resim 4.4: Leonardo Da Vinci, “Bacchus”, Yağlı Boya, 177x115 cm, 1510-1515, Louvre Müzesi, Paris, Fransa. 162 Saldıran, A.g.e. 95 Resim 4.5: Leonardo Da Vinci, “Meryem ve Çocuk İsa Azize Anna ile”, Yağlı Boya, 168x112 cm, 1508, Louvre Müzesi, Paris, Fransa. Kim olduğu insanlar tarafından tartışmalara sebep olan Mona Lisa eserinin yapımı dört yıl sürmüştür. Freud’un üzerinde durduğu Mona Lisa’nın yüzünde beliren gülümsemesi, Leonardo’nun küçüklükten beri yanında yetiştiği ustası Andrea del Verrocchio’nun (1435-1488) sanatında (Resim 4.6) da rastlanılan bir durumdur. Leonardo’nun birçok kadın figürüne yansıttığı gizemli tebessümlerin Verrocchio’nun etkisi olabileceğine de ihtimal verilmiştir. Resim 4.6: Andrea del Verrocchio, “Tobias ve Angel”, 33x26cm, 1470-1475, London. 96 Leonardo’nun, Verrocchio’nun sanatından etkilendiği için kendisinin kadın figürlerinde de Verrocchio’nun figürlerine benzer bir tebessümün olduğu düşünülmektedir. Freud, bu düşüncelerin aksine birçok eserinde olduğu gibi Mona Lisa’nın gülümseme ifadesini de sanatçının annesi ile bağdaştırmıştır. O, Leonardo’nun annesinden ilham alarak Mona Lisa eserini oluşturduğu kanısındadır. Leonardo’nun Mona Lisa’yı gördüğünde onun yüzünde beliren gülümsemesini öz annesiyle çağrıştırdığını düşünen Freud, Leonardo’nun bilinçaltına ittiği baskın duygularının etkisi ile bu gülümsemenin ona ilham vermiş olduğunu ve bu nedenle Mona Lisa’yı tablolaştırdığını savunmaktadır.163 Freud, Leonardo’nun annesine erotik bir özlem duyduğunu düşünmüştür ve bu düşüncesini üzerinde çalıştığı çocuk cinselliği kuramı ile açıklamıştır. Leonardo'nun annesi, kocasının eksikliği sebebiyle çocuğuna yoğunlaşmış, aşırı sevgisiyle çocuğun zamanından erken olgunlaşmasına sebep olmuştu ve Leonardo, emzirme döneminde aklına kazınan, bu kuvvetli anne imgesiyle yaşamış ve hayatı boyunca bu imgenin izlerini taşımıştı.164 Freud, Leonardo’nun annesine olan erotik özlemini şu sebeplerle açığa çıkarmaktadır: Böylece tüm doyum bulmamış anneler gibi oğlunu kocasının yerine aldı ve oğlunun erotizminin fazla erken olgunlaşması, onun erilliğinin bir kısmını çaldı. Bir annenin emzirdiği ve bakımını üstlendiği çocuğa sevgisi, onun büyümüş olan çocuğa yönelik daha sonraki duygusundan çok daha derin bir şeydir. Yalnızca her zihinsel isteği değil, aynı zamanda her fiziksel gereksinimi de doyuran, tümüyle doyurucu aşk-ilişkisi doğasını taşır ve eğer ulaşılabilir insan mutluluğu biçimlerinden birini temsil ederse, bu büyük ölçüde bastırılmış ve sapık olarak adlandırılması gereken istekli itkileri kınamaksızın doyurma olasılığını sunması sayesindedir. En mutlu genç evliliklerde baba, bebeğin, özellikle de erkekse, kendisine rakip olduğunun farkındadır ve bu gözdeye yönelik olarak bilinçdışında derinlemesine kök salmış bir düşmanlığın başlangıç noktasıdır.165 Sonuç olarak Freud, sanatçıların sanat eserlerine dâhil ettikleri imgeleri, onların çocukluk veya geçmiş yaşantılarındaki deneyimlere bağlamaktadır. Aradan yıllar geçse de kişinin, bilinçaltına yerleştirdiği yaşantıları sanat eserinde gün yüzüne çıkardığı savını öne süren Freud, sanat eserlerinde kullanılan imge ile sanatçının bilinçaltı arasında güçlü bir bağ olduğunu savunur. Bu nedenle Psikanaliz Kuramı’nı birçok sanatçı ve onun yapıtları üzerinde uygulamıştır. 163 Freud, Sigmund, Sanat ve Edebiyat, (çev. Ayşen Tekşen Kapkın, Emre Kapkın), (1. Baskı), Payel Yayınları, İstanbul 1999. 164 Saldıran, A.g.e. 165 Freud, 1999, s. 22. 97 4.2.2. Deli-Dahi: Van Gogh 1853 yılında dünyaya gelen Vincent Van Gogh (1853-1890), resim yapmaya başlamadan önce birçok şey denedi. Ailenin galeri işinde başarısız olmuş, bir öğretmen olarak da verimli olamamış, aşkta kaybetmiş ve misyonerlikte de başarılı olamadığından “Her şeye rağmen tekrar yükseleceğim” diyerek sanatçı olmaya karar vermiştir.166 Vincent, sanat hayatı boyunca geçimi için ailesine ve arkadaşlarına bağlıydı. 28 yaşındayken kendisine ekonomik olarak destek olacağını söyleyen kardeşi Theo sayesinde resim yapmayı öğrenmeye karar vermişti. Bu destek, Vincent’in ölümüne kadar devam etti. Vincent’in resme olan ilgisi, tıpkı kiliseyle ve kadınlarla olan talihsiz ilişkileri gibi yoğun ve acılıydı.167 Resim kariyerine 28 yaşında başlayan Van Gogh, Paris’teyken İzlenimcilik akımı ile tanışmıştır. Resimlerinde kullandığı üslup, onu birçok sanatçıdan ayırarak ön plana çıkarmıştır. Tabi ki bu ün, onu yaşarken değil, vefatından sonra yakalamıştır. Henüz 37 yaşında vefat eden Van Gogh, 10 yıllık sanatçılık dönemine binlerce eser sığdırmıştır. Sanatçı, günümüzde popülasyonu en yüksek eserlerini ölümünün son iki yılında ortaya koymuştur. Son dönemlerinde epilepsi ile mücadelede bulunan sanatçı, Teo’ya yazdığı mektuplarda sanata olan gayretini ve hayatın ona getirdiği zorlukları depresif bir şekilde yansıttığı görülmektedir. Sanatçı, mektuplarında Teo’ya hastalığının belirtilerini ifade etmiştir. Tıp uzmanları sonradan bu belirtileri gözeterek Van Gogh’un rahatsızlığının portfiri olabileceğini düşünmüşlerdir. Şüphe duyulan bu hastalık, onun hayaller ve halüsinasyonlar görmesine sebep olan genetik bir hastalıktır. Rahatsızlığı ile birlikte sesler ve görüntülerle tamamlanan sanrılar gördüğü uzun dönemler ortaya çıkmış, bu krizler olmadığında da Vincent tamamen iyi durumda oluyordu ve bu durumunun da farkındaydı.168 Belirli aralıklarla nöbetler geçirmiş, ani psikolojik değişiklikler yaşamıştır. Van Gogh’un hastalığı sırasında uygulanan tedavilerde aldığı ilaçlar, resimlerinde etkisini göstermektedir. Vincent Arles’e taşındığında bir sanatçı topluluğu kurmayı umuyordu. Kendisine katılmak için yanına gelen yakın arkadaşı Gauguin ile tartışınca, Aralık 1888'e kadar bütün umutları söndü. Yine yalnız kalan, depresyondan muzdarip olan ve gerçek bir sinir krizi yaşayan Vincent, kardeşi Theo’nun parasını ödediği iki odada yaşayarak, St. Remy’deki akıl hastanesine kendi isteğiyle yattı. Vincent, hayatının sonuna kadar sinir krizleri geçirmeye devam etti. Sanrılarının 166 Spence, David, Van Gogh, (çev. İlker Sevinç), (2. Baskı), Koleksiyon Yayınevi, İstanbul 2012, s. 4. 167 Spence, A.g.e., s. 8. 168 Spence, A.g.e., s. 12. 98 arasındaki dönemlerinde resim yapmaya çabalarken, duygusal yoğunluklu resimler yapmıştır.169 Resim 4.7: Vincent Van Gogh, “Otoportre” Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 65x54 cm, 1889, Orsay Müzesi, Paris. Vincent “Otoportre” adlı resmi (Resim 4.7), 1889’da, kendi deyimi ile “su yeşili” rengi duvar kâğıdı ve perdeleri olan akıl hastanesinin yatak odasında yapmıştır. Arka planda dönen mavi ve beyaz çizgiler, Vincent’in içinde bulunduğu durumu hissettiği istikrarsızlık deryasını, varlığının karmaşasını işaret etmektedir.170 Bu otoportrede ilk olarak delici ve rahatsız edici bakışlar göze çarpmaktadır. Resimde Van Gogh’un içinde bulunduğu buhran ve depresyon apaçık hissedilmektedir. 4.2.2.1. Van Gogh’un Kesik Kulağı Sanatçı, 1888’de meslektaşı ve dostu Gauguin ile tutuştuğu bir kavgadan dolayı sinir krizi geçirerek sol kulağının bir kısmını kesmiştir. Kesik kulağını bir mendile sarmış ve bu tuhaf hediyeyi, bölgedeki randevu evinde bulunan bir hayat kadınına 169 Spence, A.g.e., s. 18. 170 Spence, A.g.e., s. 19. 99 verdikten sonra eve dönüp kendinden geçmiştir.171 Daha sonra kendisinin kulağı sargılı halde otoportresini yapmıştır (Resim 4.8). Resim 4.8: Van Gogh, “Sargılı Kulaklı Otoportre”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 60x49 cm, 1889, Courtauld Enstitüsü, Londra. Van Gogh’un kulağını kesip kesmediği veya ne kadarını kestiği üzerine tartışmalar başlamış ve ardından birçok farklı yorumlar getirilmiştir. Bu tartışmalara cevap bulmak adına Irvin Stone, Van Gogh’un doktoru Felix Rey’den, kulağın kesilen kısmını çizmesini rica etmiştir. Bunun Üzerine Dr. Rey, bir reçete kâğıdına o günün tarihini atarak, sanatçının kesilen kulağının görüntüsünü resmetmiştir (Resim 4.9). 171 Spence, A.g.e., s. 24. 100 Resim 4.9: Dr. Felix Rey’den Bir Mektup, “Van Gogh’un Kesik Kulağının Çizimleri”, 1930, Bancroft Kütüphanesi, California Berkeley Üniversitesi. 4.2.2.2. Van Gogh’un Ölümü Resim 4.10: Vincent Van Gogh, “Kargaların Olduğu Buğday Tarlası”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 50.5x103 cm, 1890, Van Gogh Müzesi, Amsterdam. Vincent, Theo’ya yakın olmak için Mayıs 1890'da Paris yakınlarındaki Auvers- sur-Oise’ye taşınmış ve burada intihar etmeden birkaç gün önce, kargaların fırtınalı gökyüzünde mücadele ettiği bu koyu, mutsuzluk ifade eden resmi yapmıştır (Resim 101 4.10).172 Sanatçı, bu resim için şöyle bir yazı yazmıştır: “Bir kafesteyim, bir kafesteyim ve ihtiyacım olan her şey var, aptallar! İsteyebileceğim her şey var! Ah Tanrım, özgürlük, tıpkı diğer kuşlar gibi kuş olmak.” Van Gogh, 1889 yılının Eylül ayında Theo’ya, “Krizden önce acıdan ziyade korku hissediyorum… Tıpkı intihar etmeyi düşünen ve suyu soğuk bulup tekrar kıyıya çıkmak isteyen biri gibi tüm gücümle iyileşmeye çalışıyorum”173 ifadeli bir mektup yollamıştır. Mektuptaki bu cümleler adeta ölümünün bir habercisi olmuştur. 27 Temmuz 1890 yılında Van Gogh, kendisini vurduktan iki gün sonra hayatını kaybetmiştir. Theo’ya yazmaya başladığı ve cesedinin üzerinde bulunan yarım kalmış mektubunda şöyle demektedir: “Sırf kendi sanatım uğruna hayatımı tehlikeye atıyorum…”174 Bazıları sırf eserlerinin değerini arttırmak için kendi ölümünü planladığını ve böylece 1884’ten beri her ay para yollaması karşılığında yaptığı bütün resimlerini verdiği kardeşine olan borcunu ödeyeceğini düşünebilir. Sebebi ne olursa olsun Theo olaya “Dünyada hiçbir zaman bulamadığı huzuru buldu” diye bakmıştır.175 172 Spence, A.g.e., s. 18. 173 Spence, A.g.e. 174 “Van Gogh’un Sanatı ve Tutkusu”, Sanat Karavanı, <https://sanatkaravani.com/van-goghun-sanati-ve- tutkusu/> (12.01.2019). 175 A.g.e. https://sanatkaravani.com/van-goghun-sanati-ve-tutkusu/ https://sanatkaravani.com/van-goghun-sanati-ve-tutkusu/ 102 BEŞİNCİ BÖLÜM 5. ÇALIŞMALARIM VE ÇÖZÜMLEMELERİ Tez kapsamında ele alınan yağlı boya çalışmalar, özne nesne ilişkisi bağlamında, bireyin dış dünya nesneleriyle olan etkileşimini konu almıştır. Özne-nesne arasındaki diyalektik ve kolektif bağlantılar, resimde kütlesel olarak ifade edilen figür ve imge görüntüsüne yansıtılmıştır. Temel çıkış noktası olarak ele alınan özne-nesne ilişkisinin yanında bilinçaltının da bu anlamda devreye girdiği söylenebilir. Şöyle ki; tezin temel dayanağı olarak, bir öznenin bilincinin şekillenmesindeki ana etken, dış dünya nesnelerinin onun üzerindeki ruhsal etkileri ile ilintilidir. Etkilenen öznenin deneyimlediği ve duyularla algıladığı nesneler ile olan etkileşimi, onun bilinçaltı etki süreçlerini oluşturmaktadır. Dolayısı ile öznenin yaşamı boyunca istekleri, kararları ve fantazyası bilinçli olarak yönetilmez. Bunu yönlendiren şey, öznenin kendisi değil, doğadaki nesnelerin kişide bıraktığı bilinçaltı etkilerdir. Freudyen kuram, bastırılmış zihinsel olaylardan, özellikle cinsel özlemlerden oluştuğunu ifade eder.176 Bilinçdışına sürülen oluşumların tamamı öznenin yaşamının çoğu yerinde karşısına çıkmaktadır. Öznenin yaşamı boyunca istek ve kararları nasıl bilinçaltı etkiler ile yönetiliyorsa, sanatçının da eserlerinin yaratım aşamasında oluşturduğu imgeler bilinçaltı etkiler ile şekillenmektedir. Doğanın nesne görüntüsünden uzak olarak, sanatçının kendi özgün yorumunun daha fazla hissedildiği eserlerde, kişinin içsel dünyası daha belirgin hale gelmekte ve bilinçaltına dair daha net bulgulara ulaşılmaktadır. Soyutlamalı tavrın kullanıldığı eserlerdeki sanatsal kurmaca, sanatçının dış dünya nesnelerinden etkilenerek düş nesnesi pozisyonuna getirdiği bir yaratım ürünüdür. Sanatçı, doğaya ait olan nesneyi kendi dünyasında fantezileriyle buluşturarak kendine özgü bir imgelem yaratır. Deneyimlediği fenomenlerin etkisi ile anlamlandırdığı nesneyi önce içselleştirir, kendine ait kılar, daha sonra bunu estetiksel kaygılarla yeniden kurgular. Zihninde yeni bir anlam kazanıp, sanatçının dünyasında bambaşka bir 176 Barrett, Terry, Sanatı Eleştirmek, (çev. Gökçe Metin), (2. Baskı), Hayalperest Yayınevi, İstanbul 2014, s. 64. 103 boyutla şekillenen nesne, artık doğanın imajından sıyrılmış, sanatçının imajinasyonuna ait olmuştur. Sanatçı, düş nesnesini estetik kaygılarla sanatsal uğraşına dâhil eder ve doğanın gerçeklik gibi görünen yüzünün altında yatan zihinsel gerçekliği sanatıyla buluşturur. Sanatçının imgeleminin sanat eserine aidiyetinin temel çıkış noktası olan doğa, eserde kendi görüntüsünden bir hayli uzak olsa dahi, sanatçının esin duyduğu bir niteliğe sahiptir. Bu esin aracı ile sanatçı, duygusal birikimlerini imge olarak sanatına yansıttığında biricik eserler yaratır. Sanat eseri, ne doğadan çok kopuk, ne de doğa ile bir bütün olur. Doğa, sanatçının yaratım sürecinin şekillenmesindeki iteleyici güçtür. O, doğaya ait bu gücü kullanarak eserlerinde doğanın reddi doyumuna ulaşır. Bu bilgilerin ışığında çalışılan tezin uygulama aşamasında ele alınan eserlerde, öznenin dış dünya gerçekliği ile iç dünya gerçekliği arasında nesne ile kurduğu bağ, çalışmaların ana temasını oluşturmaktadır. Resimlerde genel anlamda kullanılan metafizik ortam, öznenin yaratım sürecindeki dış dünyayla olan kopukluğunu ifade etmektedir. Mekânın bazı bölümlerinde kullanılan doku çalışmaları, resimde kozmik bir imaj yaratmaktadır. Çalışmaya kütlesel olarak yerleştirilen ve özneyi işaret eden figürler, çeşitli formlarla ve farklı desenlerle ifade edilerek, öznenin kendi yaşamındaki dinamizmi vurgulamaktadır ve plastik anlamda resmin ritmini sağlayan niteliktedir. Resme dâhil olarak dış dünyaya ait nesneleri vurgulayan, yine kütlesel formlarla ifade edilen imgeler, figürün sağında veya solunda yer almaktadır. Esas vurgulanmak istenen küre formundaki asıl nesne, çoğunda yukarıdan bir uzantı şeklinde gelen farklı bir nesne ile öne çıkarılmıştır. Nesneyi vurgulama yöntemi ile izleyici, ilk olarak nesne odaklı bir görüntü elde etmektedir ve resme bakan kişinin gözü ilk önce küçük olmasına rağmen şiddetli bir etki ile ifade edilen küre formunu algılamaktadır. Odaklanılmasını istenen ve bir nesne ifadesi olan kürenin, figür ile diyalektik bir bağlantı içinde olduğu öne sürülebilir. Asıl nesne imgesi ile figürün baş kısmını oluşturan yapı, farklı büyüklüklerde olsa da aynı formları taşımaktadır. Bu iki yapının da küre formunda olması, öznenin nesneler dünyası ile olan etkileşimine bir gönderme yapmaktadır. Özne, yaşamı içinde yer alan nesnelerle edindiği deneyimler sonucu nesneyi o nesne olmaksızın kendi içsel dünyasının nesnesi haline getirir. Böylece 104 öznenin duyguları, düşünceleri ve hayata karşı olan tutumu, nesneler dünyasının getirisidir. Öznenin karar mekanizması, tamamen nesneler dünyasıyla olan deneyimlerin ürünüdür. Dolayısıyla nesne, özneyi şekillendiren ana unsurdur. Bu düşünce, uygulama çalışmalarındaki asıl nesnenin ve figürün baş kısmının aynı formda ifade edilmesi ile vurgulanmak istenmiştir. 5.1. Çalışmaların Oluşumunu Belirleyen Eskiz Denemeleri 5.1.1. Eskiz I Resim 5.1: “Eskiz I”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 20x15 cm, 2018. Dikey dikdörtgen bir yapı ile dizayn edilerek kapalı kompozisyon olarak kurgulanmış bu yağlı boya eskiz (Resim 5.1), 20x15 cm ölçülerine sahiptir. Geometrik ifadelerle oluşturulan bu resimde mavi, sarı ve turuncu tonların varyasyonları hâkimdir. Yatay, dikey, diyagonal ve dairesel formlarla resmin dinamizmi sağlanmıştır. Fonda kullanılan açık mavi rengine gazete kâğıtları aracılığı ile uygulanan doku çalışması, resmin sol kısmındaki figürün hareketliliğini dengeleyen bir niteliktedir. Kullanılan bu doku çalışmaları resmin ritmik unsuru olmuştur. 105 Sarı kütlenin ayak kısımlarının temas ettiği zeminde kullanılan doku çalışması, üzerindeki mavi fondaki dokularla bir bütünlük kazanmıştır. Mekân, dikey ve yatay olmak üzere bölmelere ayrılmış, toplam dört ayrı bölüm olarak tasarlanmıştır. Sol altta yer alan turuncu tonlarındaki zemin yüzeyi, renk olarak yine kendisine benzeyen sağ alttaki zemin bölmesiyle ayrılmıştır. Sağ alttaki zeminin üzerinde bulunan dikey dikdörtgen fon turuncunun daha sıcak tonlarının kullanıldığı bir diğer mekân bölümüdür. Turuncu fonun önüne kontrastı olan mavi renkte kütlesel yapının gelmesi, renk olarak çarpıcı bir etki uyandırmaktadır. Ayrıca bu fon, turuncunun kırmızıya yakın bir tonu olduğundan dolayı yeşil küreyle de bir zıtlık yaratmaktadır. Genel renk armonisinde mavi ve turuncunun kontrast yaratan çarpıcılığı ön plana çıkmaktadır. Kütlesel olarak geometrik formlarla soyutlama yapılan imgeler, resme bir düzen içerisinde yerleştirilmiştir ve resme bakan kişiyi yanıltan bir perspektif ile kurgulanmıştır. Figür olarak nitelendirilen ve sola dikey yerleştirilen kütle, soğuk renklerle betimlenmiştir. Sağ tarafta oluşturulan mavi fon, soldaki mavi kütlenin soğukluğunu destekler niteliktedir. Genel anlamda çizgilerin, daireselliğin, renklerin ve dokuların kalabalık bir şekilde var olduğu bu resimde, kütlesel yapılar tuval üzerine bir düzen içerisinde yerleştirilmiştir. Figür betiminin yapıldığı soldaki kütlenin baş kısmı olan küre formu, üstten görünen gövde kısmının koyu mavi yüzeyine ortalı bir halde konumlandırılmıştır. Modle ile yuvarlak formu hissedilen yeşil kürenin, sağdan aldığı sarı ışığı sola gölgeli yansıması ile altındaki yüzeyle olan teması hissedilmektedir. Ayrıca resimde yeşil küreden daha küçük ve farklı renkte ele alınan bir imge daha vardır. Mor renkli küre formundaki imge, yeşil küre gibi sağdan ışık alarak gölgesini sola yansıtmıştır. Boyutu diğerine göre daha küçük olsa da mor küre, altında bulunan kütlenin sarı rengine olan kontrastlığı ile göze çarpmaktadır. Mor kürenin altında sandık etkisi veren yapı, hiçbir karışıma girmeyen şiddetli sarı renkte uygulanmıştır. Cepheden görünen bu sarı kütlede yatay fırça darbe etkileri görülmektedir. Figür olarak tanımlanan yapının gövde kısmında oluşturulan mavi renkli dikey sütunlar, resmin ritmik elemanı olmuştur. Gövde kısmı, aşağıya doğru daralarak kendisini yine kendi cinsine ve formuna benzer bir kütleye bağlamıştır. Fakat bu kütlede bulunan çizgiler, gövde kısmında bulunan çizgilerden farklı olarak yatay bir şekilde 106 sıralanmıştır. Figürün görünen cephesini bel ile bağlayan keskin dönüşü ve geriye doğru uzanan perspektifi, bir kâğıdın kırk beş derecelik açı ile katlanması görüntüsünü anımsatmaktadır. İçi görülen, geriye doğru uzanan katlanmış form; derinliği hissettirmek amaçlı daha koyu bir ton ile ifade edilmiştir. Figür tasvirinin bacak kısmını anımsatan kütle, aşağıya doğru daralarak belli bir noktadan sonra sola uzayan bir ayak etkisi yaratmıştır. Kütlenin gövde ve bacak kısmının ortasında sağa yatkın konumlandırılmış ten renginde yarım daire formu bulunmaktadır. Bu form ile hamile bir kadının karın şeklini anımsatan bir imaj yaratılmıştır. 5.1.2. Eskiz II Resim 5.2: “Eskiz II”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 20x15 cm, 2018. Kapalı kompozisyon olarak kurgulanmış, dikey dikdörtgen yapısındaki bu yağlı boya eskiz (Resim 5.2), 20x15 cm ölçülerine sahiptir. Özne ve dış dünya nesnesinin geometrik formlarla soyutlaması yapılmıştır. Çalışmada baskınlık derecesine göre renkler kırmızı, kahverengi, yeşil, eflatun, sarı ve siyah olarak sıralanabilir. Yatay, dikey ve dairesel formlar, resmin genel itibari ile kompozisyonunu oluşturan elemanlardır. Metafizik bir mekân içinde sağ tarafta diğer resimlerden farklı olarak dört figür etkisi yaratan bir kütle kullanılmıştır. Dört kütlenin ve bir kürenin yer aldığı 107 mekânın zemin kısmı kahverengi olarak resmedilmiştir. Bu ince, yatay zeminde kazıma tekniği ile doku oluşturulmuştur. Zeminin altında kalan bölge, kırmızının koyu tonunda olup kabartma hissi yaratan bir doku çalışması ile oluşturulmuştur. Mekânda ışık-gölge ve artistik perspektif gibi unsurlara yer verilmemiştir. Arka planda yeşil dokulu bir alan bulunmaktadır. Bu doku, yeşilin varyasyonlarının gazete kâğıtları aracılığıyla uygulandığı bir teknikle meydana gelmiştir. Resmin sol tarafında figür niteliğinde boyutları, tonları ve dokuları farklı; yönleri aynı dört kütle yer almaktadır. En solda yer alan kütle, diğerlerine göre uzunluk açısından ikinci sırada yer almaktadır ve gövde kısmı kazıma tekniği ile dikey çizgilerle oluşmaktadır. Bir figürde baş kısmını anımsatan, gövdenin üzerinde sola yakın konumlandırılmış küre, kahverenginin açık bir tonuyla resmedilmiş, sağdan aldığı ışıkla modle edilmiştir. Çizgili gövdenin üzerinde bulunan form resimde en büyük boyuttaki küredir. Bu kütlenin hemen arkasında yer alan en uzun kütle, eflatun renkli bir gövdeye sahiptir. Gövdenin üzerinde sola doğru konumlandırılmış kahverengi bir küre bulunmaktadır. Geride bulunan iki kütlenin hemen önünde onlardan daha kısa, ikisine ortalı bir şekilde yer alan yatay çizgili gövdesi olan kahverengi bir kütle bulunmaktadır. Bu gövdenin üzerinde yine sola doğru konumlandırılmış, pembe tonlarında küre bulunmaktadır. Resmin sol tarafında yer alan yapıların en önünde ve en sağında kahverengi bir kütle daha bulunmaktadır. Bu kütle, en kısa boylu ve en koyu renkli bir gövdeye sahiptir. Gövde üzerinde kazıma tekniği kullanılarak karmaşık bir ifadeyle doku oluşturulmuştur. Üzerinde yer alan koyu kırmızı küre diğer yapılarda olduğu gibi sola meyilli konumlandırılmıştır. Küre, renk itibari ile resimde baskın olarak bulunan kırmızının tonunu taşıdığı için dengeleyici bir niteliğe sahiptir. Resimde kullanılan kürelerin hepsi sağdan ışık alarak modle edilmiştir. Figür tasvirlerinin baş kısmının sola meyilli olması, izleyiciyi sol tarafa yönlendirmektedir. Sol tarafta kırmızı bir küre bulunmaktadır. Bu küre, zeminin altında bulunan kırmızı tonunu resimsel kompozisyon içinde tamamlayan ve dengeleyen bir elemandır. Fondaki yeşil ton, önüne aldığı kırmızı küreyi daha çarpıcı bir niteliğe ulaştırmıştır. Kürenin üst kısmında yukarıdan sarkıtılan, idam ipini anımsatan, sarı- siyah renkli bir imge bulunmaktadır. Bu imge, resmin sağındaki hareketliliği sola taşıyan ve resmin dinamizmini sağlayan bir elemandır. 108 Bu resimde figür etkisi yaratan kütleler diğer resimlerden farklı olarak daha fazladır. Artarda sıralanmış kütleler, insan topluluğu algısı uyanmaktadır. Buna bağlı olarak bir de resimde idam ipi nesnesinin kullanılması “ölüm” kavramını çağrıştırmaktadır. Resim içerik olarak ele alındığında yine diğer resimlerden farklı olarak sol alt köşede bulunan kırmızı küre, insanın benliğine vurgu yapan bir betimdir. Öznenin benliği dışında kalan tüm resimsel elemanlar dış dünya nesnesi olarak nitelendirilebilir. Dolayısıyla bu resim, özne-nesne ilişkileri göz önünde bulundurularak inşa edilmiştir. Plastik anlamda birbiriyle bağlantılı olan tüm resimsel elemanlar, özne- nesnenin güçlü etkileşimi olarak düşünülebilir. 5.1.3. Eskiz III Resim 5.3: “Eskiz III”, Elektronik Çizim, 2019. Açık kompozisyon olarak kurgulanmış dikey dikdörtgen yapısındaki bu çalışmada (Resim 5.3), özne ve dış dünya nesnesinin geometrik formlarla soyutlaması yapılmış olup birçok rengin farklı varyasyonları hâkimdir. Yatay, dikey ve dairesel formlar resmin dinamizmini sağlayan unsurlardır. Metafizik bir mekân içinde tek figür etkisi 109 yaratan bir kütle ile kullanılmıştır. Mekânın taban kısmında siyah-beyaz renkte küçük karo taşlar kullanılmıştır. Işık-gölge ve artistik perspektifin kullanılmadığı bu taşların genel görünümü cepheden bakıştır. Arka planda grinin açık ve koyu tonlarında düşey çizgiler sıralı bir şekilde yer almaktadır. Resmin sağ tarafında, bir bölümü resmin dışında kalmış, cepheden görülen ahşap görünümlü, dört çekmeceli bir dolap yer almaktadır. Kahverengi tonlarındaki bu ahşap dolap, çatlamış hissi veren hareketli bir dokuya sahiptir. Doku, koyu rengin üzerine açık, açık rengin üzerine koyu çatlaklar oluşturularak resmedilmiştir. Yukarıdan ilk üçünün göründüğü çekmecelerin orta kısımlarında bulunan tutaç, yuvarlak formundadır ve tutaca modle verilerek hacim kazandırılmıştır. Fondan ve zeminden sonra resmin en büyük bölümünü kapsayan ahşap dolap, bütünlük açısından resmin önemli bir unsurudur. Resmin sol tarafında yer alan figür niteliğindeki kütlenin baş kısmı, farklı renkleri içinde barındıran bir küre formundadır. Canlı renklerle ifade edilerek resimde doğrudan göze çarpan küre, sağdan ışık alarak gölgesini sola vermiştir. Verilen modle ile küreyi resimde kullanılan diğer yapılara nazaran daha çok ön plana çıkarmaktadır. Bu küre, gövdenin yukarı tarafı görülen açık gri yatay dikdörtgen yüzey üzerine, ortalı bir şekilde yerleştirilmiştir. Kürenin yüzeye olan teması, yüzeyin sol tarafına yansıyan kürenin gölgesi ile hissedilmektedir. Figür betimiyle resme dâhil edilen yapının bitiş noktasına kadar aynı genişlikle devam eden gövde kısmı, yeşil ve turuncunun sırasıyla kullanıldığı dikey şeritlerden oluşmaktadır. Dikey şeritler kendi içerisinde küçük karelere bölünüp gövdenin orta kısmına doğru canlılığını yitirerek daha flu bir görünüme sahip olmaktadır. Yukarıda canlı renklerin kullanıldığı pikselli dikeyler orta kısımda renk canlılığını kaybeder ve aşağıya doğru turuncu dikey yeşile, yeşil dikey turuncuya dönüşerek tekrar canlı bir görünüm kazanır. Böylelikle tek bir dikeyde hem netlik dönüşümü hem de renk geçişi gözü yormadan sağlanmaktadır. Figür sağa dönmüş bir hal alarak solda bulunan koyu gri yapı ile boyutlandırılmıştır. Gövdenin sol üst tarafında içi boşaltılmış bir küp formu yer almaktadır. Gövde, zemin üzerinde sola doğru gölge oluşturmaktadır. Resmin sağ tarafında bulunan ahşap dolabın önünde, pürüzsüz bir şekilde kullanılan turuncu renkli kutu görünümünde, içinin bir kısmı görülen bir biçim yer 110 almaktadır. Bu biçim, hafif sağa dönük resmedilerek sol tarafında verilen koyu turuncu yapı ile hacimlenmekte ve kendisine ait iki tane ayak görülmektedir. Bu yapı, zemin üzerinde sola doğru gölge oluşturmuştur. Böylece turuncu form hem renk hem de gölgelendirme itibari ile ön plana çıkmaktadır. Turuncu renkli kutu, resimsel bir kompozisyon içinde denge sağlamıştır. Kutunun içerisinden değişik doku ve renklere sahip farklı formlar çıkmaktadır. Birçok rengi ve farklı biçimi içinde barındıran bu bölge, izleyicinin resme baktığında odağına aldığı ilk yerdir. Öncelikle aşağıya doğru sarkan, sarı-yeşil tonlarında uzun bir geçişi olan, görüntüsü itibariyle lambayı anımsatan form göze çarpmaktadır. Sağa meyilli bu form, turuncu ön yüzeye gölgesini vererek öne çıkmaktadır. Bu formun solunda, siyah-beyaz dikey çizgileri olan dikey dikdörtgen bir form bulunmaktadır. Siyah-beyaz şeritler, yerdeki karo taşları ritim ve renk olarak tamamlar niteliğe sahiptir. Onun hemen sol arkasında ip yumağı etkisi yaratan kırmızı oval form bulunmaktadır. Bu formdan ince, kırmızı ve kıvrımlı bir çizgi, gölgesiyle birlikte turuncu formun önüne geçmektedir. Formun hemen yanında kırmızı-mavi yatay çizgilerin bulunduğu farklı bir biçim yer almaktadır. Onun yanında ise bir yay görüntüsünü anımsatan kıvrımlı bir yapı bulunmaktadır. Solda bulunan dikey kütle öznenin benliği, mekân ise öznenin düşsel dünyası olarak tanımlanabilir. İçi boş olan turuncu kutu ve çekmeceli ahşap dolapla bilinçaltı tasviri yapılmaktadır. Çekmecelerin kapalı olması, kişinin bilinçaltına ittiği gizil duygu ve düşünceleri olarak betimlenirken, turuncu kutunun içerisinden çıkan düş nesnesi olarak ifade edilen renkli formlar ise, bilinçaltının gün yüzüne çıkardığı yönler olarak değerlendirilir. Böylece, özneye dair geçmiş deneyimlerin bilinçaltı etki süreçlerinin gün yüzüne çıktığı vurgusu yapılmaktadır. 111 5.1.4. Eskiz IV Resim 5.4: “Eskiz IV”, Kâğıt Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 20x20 cm, 2019. Kapalı kompozisyon olarak kurgulanmış bu çalışmada (Resim 5.4), özne ve dış dünya nesnesinin geometrik formlarla soyutlaması yapılmıştır. Resimde siyah, beyaz, kırmızı ve mavi renkleri hâkimdir. Yatay, dikey ve dairesel formlar, resmin dinamizmini sağlayan unsurlardır. Bir mekân içinde tek figür etkisi yaratan bir kütle ve bir küre formu vardır. Mekânın taban kısmında siyah-beyaz renkte karo taşlar resmedilmiştir. Işık-gölge ve artistik perspektifin kullanılmadığı bu taşların genel görünümü cepheden bakıştır. Arka plan, grinin koyu tonuyla resmedilmiştir. Resmin sol tarafında yer alan figür niteliğindeki kütle, iki küpün aynı hizada üst üste konulmuş görüntüsünü yansıtmaktadır. Yukarıdaki küp koyu kırmızı rengindedir. Alta yer alan küp daha açık ve canlı bir kırmızı ile işlenmiştir. İkisinin üst üste gelmesiyle bu kütle, dikey dikdörtgen olarak nitelendirilebilir. Dikey dikdörtgenin yukarı tarafı ile sağ kenar kısmı resmedilerek kütleye boyut kazandırılmıştır. Bu dikey dikdörtgen yapı, zemindeki siyah-beyaz yüzeye soldan gölgesini yansıtmıştır. Çalışmanın sağ tarafında mavi renkli bir küre yer almaktadır. Dış dünya nesnesi olarak betimlenen mavi küre, soldan ışık alarak gölgesini yine siyah-beyaz yüzey 112 üzerinde sola yansıtmaktadır. Bu fiziksel çelişki nesneler dünyası ile düş nesnesi arasındaki zıtlığa ve karmaşaya vurgu yapmaktadır. 5.2. Çalışmalar ve Yorumlamaları 5.2.1. Hamile Bakir Resim 5.5: “Hamile Bakir”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 140x100 cm, 2018. Dikey dikdörtgen bir yapı ile dizayn edilerek kapalı kompozisyon olarak kurgulanmış “Hamile Bakir” (Resim 5.5) ismindeki bu yağlı boya çalışma, 140x100 cm ölçülerine sahiptir. Geometrik ifadelerle oluşturulan bu resimde mavi, sarı ve turuncu tonlarının varyasyonları hâkimdir. Yatay, dikey, diyagonal ve dairesel formlarla resmin dinamizmi sağlanmıştır. Fonda kullanılan açık mavi rengine gazete kâğıtları aracılığı ile uygulanan doku çalışması, resmin sol kısmındaki figürün hareketliliğini dengeleyen bir niteliktedir. Kullanılan bu doku çalışmaları resmin ritmik unsuru olmuştur. 113 Mavi renkli doku içinde bulunan sarı renkli ifadeler, zeminde duran sandık şeklindeki nesnenin şiddetli sarı tonunu hafifleterek bir geçiş sağlamıştır. Genel renk armonisinde mavi ve turuncunun kontrast yaratan çarpıcı hali ön plana çıkmaktadır. Kütlesel olarak geometrik formlarla soyutlama yapılan imgeler, resme tertibince yerleştirilmiştir ve resme bakan kişiyi yanıltan bir perspektif ile kurgulanmıştır. Bu çalışmada, kozmik bir mekân içinde tek figür kullanılmış ve resme birkaç nesne dâhil edilmiştir. Figür olarak nitelendirilen ve sola dikey yerleştirilen kütle, soğuk renklerle betimlenmiştir. Sağ tarafta oluşturulan mavi fon, figürün soğukluğunu renk olarak desteklemiştir ve hafif bir geçiş sağlamıştır. Genel anlamda çizgilerin, daireselliğin, renklerin ve dokuların kalabalık bir şekilde var olduğu bu resimde, kütlesel yapılar tuval üzerine bir düzen içerisinde yerleştirilmiştir. Figür betiminin yapıldığı soldaki kütlenin baş kısmı olan küre formu, perspektif olarak üstten görünen gövde kısmının üst yüzeyine ortalı bir halde konumlandırılmıştır. Modle ile yuvarlak formu hissedilen yeşil kürenin, sağdan aldığı ışığı sola gölgeli yansıması ile altındaki yüzeyle olan teması hissedilmektedir. Ayrıca resimde yeşil küreden daha küçük ve farklı renkte ele alınan bir imge daha vardır. Turuncu renginde bu küre formundaki imge, yeşil küre gibi sağdan ışık alarak gölgesini sola yansıtmıştır. Boyutu diğerine göre daha küçük olsa da sıcak bir tonla resmedilen turuncu küre, renk ve gölge bakımından daha çarpıcıdır. Kürenin altındaki sandık etkisi veren yapı, şiddetli sarı renginde ve cephesinde keskin ve kabarık hissi veren motifler ile resmedilmiştir. Hiçbir karışıma girmeden uygulanan sarı rengindeki sandık dokusunun keskin görüntüsüyle, üzerinde duran kürenin yumuşak etkisi arasında bir zıtlık yaratılmıştır. Resimde turuncu renkli küreyi ön plana çıkaran bir unsur daha bulunmaktadır; kürenin üzerinde kırmızı bir iple yukarıdan sarkıtılmış şakulün sivri kısmı küreyi işaret etmektedir. Kullanılan ip ve şakul, resme plastik anlamda bir dinamizm kazandırmıştır. Ayrıca şakulü tutan ip, solundaki dikey inen mekân çizgisine ve figürün gövde kısmında bulunan dikey elemanlara bir destek unsuru olmuştur. Dış dünya nesnesi olan kürenin figürün baş kısmı ile aynılık ilişkisi; özne-nesne arasındaki zihinsel bağlantıyı ifade etmektedir. Dış dünya nesneleriyle duyusal ve duygusal etkileşimler sağlayan özne, nesneyi kendi dünyasına çeker ve ona yeni bir anlam kazandırır. Zihninde oluşan nesneler dünyasının yeni ve öznel anlamlandırmaları ile yaşamına dair kararlar alan öznenin hayatına vereceği yön, nesnelerden edindiği 114 deneyimlere bağlıdır ve kendi isteği dışında gerçekleşir. Bu mantık, çalışmaya nesnesel bir imge olan turuncu kürenin ve figürün zihnine vurgu yapan yeşil kürenin aynı formlarla ifade edilmesi şeklinde yansımıştır. Ayrıca perspektifin ve ışık-gölgenin çoğu yerde izleyiciyi yanılttığı bu resimde, iki kürenin de ışığı aynı yerden alması ve aynı tarafa gölge düşürmeleri, öznenin nesneden etkilenip onunla olan deneyimine göre şekil aldığı gerçekliğini ortaya koymaktadır. Örnek verilecek olunursa; figürün üzerinde bulunan dikey ve yatay çizgiler, ışığı soldan almıştır. Çalışmada form, ışık, gölge anlamında birbirini destekleyen tek resimsel unsur resimdeki kürelerdir. Figür olarak tanımlanan yapının gövde kısmında modle etkisi ile oluşturularak ele alınan mavi renkli dikey sütunlar, kişinin aşamadığı engellerini betimleyen bir zindanın parmaklığı etkisini taşımaktadır. Mavi dikey sütunların ardında beliren ve yeşil etkisi tonu ile bir boşluk hissi yaratan plan, öznenin geride bıraktığı ve bilinçaltına yerleştirdiği geçmiş deneyimlerini ifade etmektedir. Böylece, geçmiş yaşantı ve deneyimlerin öznenin gelecekteki hayatı üzerinde aşılamayacak bir niteliğe sahip olduğu vurgulanmak istenmiştir. Yaşamını sürdüren birey, farkında olmasa dahi geleceğinin tasarısını, geçmiş deneyimlerinin ışığında yapmaktadır. Dolayısıyla öznenin geçmiş yaşantısı, benliğinden çıkarıp atamadığı, içinde hapsolan bir deneyimdir. Bu nedenle zindan ve boşluk betimi, aşılamayan geçmiş yaşantı ve deneyimlere bir vurgudur. Gövde kısmının hemen aşağısında, sağa yatkın bir pozisyon alan ten rengindeki daire formu, sağda bulunan dokulu mavi fonla figür arasında bir geçiş sağlamıştır. Bu kısım ile hamile kadının karnının şeklini anımsatan bir imaj yaratılmıştır. Aslında hamilelik görüntüsü, bir ifade veya fikir olarak ele alınırsa; yukarıda belirtilen geçmiş yaşantıların bilinçaltı yerleşkesinin, öznenin günlük yaşamında gün yüzüne çıkma olayı olarak ifade edilebilir. Yukarıdaki bastırılan ve benliğe hapsolan geçmiş yaşantılarla oluşan bilinçaltı, hamile görüntüsü altında öznede patlak veren bir ifadeye dönüşmüştür. Figürün belden aşağısına genel anlamda bir çerçeve çizilmiş; ince, yatay ve koyu mavi çizgiler figürün ayak kısmına kadar devam etmiştir. Figürün karın çizgisi ile görünen cephesini bel ile bağlayan keskin dönüşü ve geriye doğru uzanan perspektifi, bir kâğıdın kırk beş derecelik açı ile katlanması görüntüsünü anımsatmaktadır. İçi görülen, geriye doğru uzanan katlanmış form; derinliği hissettirmek amaçlı daha koyu 115 bir ton ile ifade edilmiştir. Bu kütledeki yatay çizgiler, figürün gövdesinde yer alan geniş ve dikey mavi çizgileri plastik anlamda destekler niteliktedir. Mavi çizgilerin aralarında bulunan ince transparan geçişler ise, hamileliğe vurgu yapan dairesel formun rengini kırmak amaçlı benzer bir tonda kullanılmıştır. Kütlenin bel kısmının genişliği, ayak bileği kısmına doğru incelerek kendi içinde keskin bir ifade oluşturmuştur. Figürün ayak kısmında kullanılan dairesel yükselme, palyaço ayakkabılarını anımsatan bir imajdır. Ayakkabının yönünün perspektif açısından zıt verilmesi, figürün diz kapağı üzerine çökmüş edası yaratmaktadır. Çalışmanın “Hamile Bakir” olarak nitelendirilen isminde de belirtildiği üzere, hamile olan kişiye “bakir” sıfatı kullanılarak, çalışmada var olan çatışma eserin ismine yansımaktadır. “Hamile” terimi toplumda kadına atıf edilen bir kelime iken, “bakir” terimi erkek için kullanılan bir ifadedir. Böylesi karşıt bir ilişkilendirme, eserdeki cinsiyetsizliğin bir sembolü halindedir. Bir cinsiyete tabi tutulmadan, yalnızca öznenin benliğinin yansıtıldığı bu resimde hamile yaftasının erkek için kullanılması gayet olağandır. Cinsiyetten ziyade, “bakir” ve “hamile” terimlerinin de kendi içinde anlam ve mantık bakımından zıtlık teşkil ettiği görülmektedir. “Cinsel anlamda el değmemiş erkek” şeklinde tanımlanan “bakir” kelimesinin “hamile” terimi ile nitelendirilmesi, mantığa ters gelen bir durumdur. Bu, çalışmadaki parmaklık ifadesi ile bilinçaltına hapis olma olayının hamile ifadesi ile bilinçaltının patlak verme olayı kadar zıtlık teşkil eden bir durumdur. Bu zıtlık, “hamile bakir” nitelendirilmesi ile hem cinsiyet hem de anlam bakımından eserin ismine yansımıştır. 116 5.2.2. Pijamalı İhtiyar Resim 5.6: “Pijamalı İhtiyar”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 140x120 cm, 2018. Dikey dikdörtgen bir yapıya sahip olan kapalı kompozisyon olarak kurgulanmış “Pijamalı İhtiyar” (Resim 5.6) ismindeki bu yağlı boya çalışma, 140x120 cm ölçülerine sahiptir. Resim, geometrik formlarla oluşturularak özne-nesne temasının kütlesel olarak soyutlaması yapılmıştır. Bir önceki resimde olduğu gibi yatay, dikey, diyagonal ve dairesel formlar, resmin dinamizmini sağlayan unsurlardır. Resimde bir mekân içerisinde tek figür kullanılmıştır. Mekânın taban kısmında ışık-gölge gözetilmeksizin siyah-beyaz karo taşlar kullanılmıştır. Karo taşlar, resme renk açısından ritmik bir hareket kazandırmıştır. Arka planda, sağa doğru girintisi bulunan geniş bir kolon yer almaktadır. Kolon, içinde yeşil, sarı, mavi ve turuncu renklerinin bulunduğu bir dokuya sahiptir ve resmin kompozisyonunun dengesi için oldukça önemli bir öğedir. Kontrollü bir şekilde yukarıdan aşağıya ve soldan sağa doğru boya akıtma yöntemi ile oluşturulan doku üzerindeki renkler, ön planda olan figür ve nesneleri renk açısından destekler niteliktedir. Kolonun solunda yeşilin tonları ile geometriksel boyutlandırma yapılarak kolona bir hacim kazandırılmıştır. Resmin sol, arka kısmında kalan bölme ise siyah 117 renginden ötürü bir boşluk, uçurum, derinlik ve belirsizlik hissi uyandırmaktadır. Bu kısım figürün tam arkasında bulunduğundan ötürü kişinin geçmiş deneyimleri ve bilinçaltı olarak nitelendirilebilir. Figür etkisi yaratan soldaki kütlenin baş kısmındaki küre formu, grinin tonlarından oluşmaktadır. Küre, yerdeki karo taşlarının renk değerlerini yukarıya taşıması açısından özellikle grinin tonu ile resmedilmiştir. Kullanılan gri ton, “kır saç” algısı uyandırdığından ötürü, öznenin ihtiyar olduğu vurgusu yapılmak istenmiştir. Sağdan ışık alarak yuvarlak hissini uyandıran ve ışık-gölge yapılandırılması ile resmedilen bu form, kendisinden daha koyu gri ile ifade edilen bir parça ile figürün gövdesine bağlanmıştır. “T” şeklindeki bu parça, figürün boyun kısmıdır ve gövdenin yukarısını görülen koyu kırmızı rengindeki dairesel bölme üzerine oturtturulmuştur. İhtiyar figürün gövde kısmında, turuncu ve sarı renklerinin varyasyonları hâkimdir. Gövde, yukarıdan bel kısmına doğru incelen kütlesel bir formun ışık-gölge vurguları ile boyut kazanmıştır. Bu kısımda oluşturulan pürüzsüz modle, parlak ve göz alıcı bir özellik kazanmıştır. Yukarıdan başlayarak aşağıya doğru genişleyen ve belin soluna doğru bir dönüş ile devam eden keskin yapı, figürün kol kısmını betimlemektedir. Kol olarak nitelendirilen form, gövdeye nazaran daha koyu bir turuncu ile resmedilmiştir. Figür betiminin bacak kısmı, yatay gri ve beyaz çizgilerden oluşmuştur. Bu çizgilere hacim ve ışık-gölge boyutlandırılması yapılmamıştır. Yalnızca gri çizgilerin içinde eskimiş ve solmuş hissi veren beyaz dokular vardır. Gri ve beyaz çizgiler belden aşağıya doğru incelmektedir ve alt kısımdan sola devam edip katlanarak sağa çapraz bir şekilde uzamıştır. Bu çizgisel hareketle, dizlerinin üzerine çökmüş bir ihtiyar figür görüntüsü ortaya çıkmaktadır. Ayrıca yatay çizgilerde bulunan solmuş gri ve beyaz renginden ötürü resme bakan kişide pijama algısı oluşmaktadır. Bu algının sebebiyeti ile resmin ismi “Pijamalı İhtiyar” olarak nitelendirilmiştir. Figürün önünde kırmızı tonlarının hâkim olduğu, ışık-gölge kullanılarak boyut kazandırılan, dört ayaklı olması gerekirken üç ayaklı olarak resmedilen bir sehpa resmi vardır. Nesnenin özne üzerinde aksayan, yıkıcı ve yanıltan hallerini vurgulamak amaçlı sehpa, bir ayağı eksik olarak ele alınmış ve dikkatli bakıldığında yanıltıcı bir denge ile ayakta durmuştur. Kırmızı rengi ile sehpa, arkasındaki yeşil ağırlıklı kolona karşıt bir 118 renk olduğundan dolayı resimde göze çarpan bir eleman olarak yer almaktadır. Sehpanın üzerinde sol tarafı oval biçimde kesik olan mavi bir küp ve turuncu bir küre bulunmaktadır. Bu nesneler renk ve form açısından plastik anlamda kontrastlık yaratmıştır. Keskin formlara sahip olan kesik küp ile kendi içinde dokulu, oval küre sehpanın üzerinde bitişik konumlandırılmıştır. Mavi nesnenin resme yerleştirilme amacı; renk ve form anlamında kompozisyonu zenginleştirmek ve asıl vurgu yapılmak istenen turuncu küreyi ön plana çıkarmaktır. Turuncu kürenin üzerinde, yukarıdan aşağıya doğru sarkıtılan bir ipe bağlı tek taraflı bir kanca vardır. İp, kesik beyaz ve kırmızı yatay şeritlerden oluşturmuştur. Bu çizgilerin ritmik sıralanması, yerde bulunan karoların dinamiğini taşımakta ve tamamlayıcı bir unsur olarak kullanılmaktadır. Dikey biçimde sarkıtılan kanca, kürenin tam üzerinde olarak ona vurgu yapmaktadır. Bir önceki resimde olduğu gibi bu resimde de nesne niteliği taşıyan küre formunun vurgulanması, figürün bir parçası olan küre ile ilişkilendirme yapmaktır. “Özne-nesne” mantığı içinde bir ilişkiye tabi tutulan iki imge, resmin önemli bir parçasıdır. Dış dünya nesnelerinin özne ile olan uyumu bu yöntem ile öne çıkarılmak istenmiştir. Bu mantık çerçevesinde arka plana yerleştirilen siyah renkli alan aracılığıyla, özne-nesne ilişkilerine bağlı olarak gelişen bilinçaltı fenomenlere vurgu yapmıştır. 119 5.2.3. Yasak Elma Resim 5.7: “Yasak Elma”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 140x120 cm, 2018. Kapalı kompozisyon olarak kurgulanmış, dikey dikdörtgen yapısındaki “Yasak Elma” (Resim 5.7) ismindeki bu yağlı boya çalışma, 140x120 cm ölçülerine sahiptir. Özne ve dış dünya nesnesinin geometrik formlarla soyutlaması yapılmıştır. Çalışmada beyaz, kırmızı, sarı, turuncu gibi renkler kullanılsa da, resme kahverengi ve yeşilin tonları hâkimdir. Yatay, dikey, diyagonal ve dairesel formlar, resmin dinamizmini sağlayan unsurlardır. Diğer çalışmalarda olduğu gibi metafizik bir mekân içinde tek figür etkisi yaratan bir kütle ile kullanılmıştır. Mekânın taban kısmında bordo-beyaz renkte küçük karo taşlar kullanılmıştır. Işık-gölge ve artistik perspektifin kullanılmadığı bu taşların genel görünümü cepheden bakıştır. Arka planda koyu yeşil tonlarında düz ve geniş bir alan bulunmaktadır. Bu alanın önünde bir kalıp halinde arka planın sadeliğini yıkan, açık yeşil bir kolon vardır. Tek bir kolon olmasına rağmen üç parçaya bölünerek farklı plastik unsurlar içermektedir. Soldaki ahşap görünümlü içi boş merdivenin üzerinden yukarı doğru uzayan koyu yeşil tonlarındaki kolon, kahverengi ve turuncunun tonlarını taşıyan dokulu bir yapı ile kolonu sağ tarafa bağlamıştır. Doku, kontrollü bir şekilde yukarıdan aşağı, soldan sağa 120 doğru boya akıtma tekniği ile oluşturulmuştur ve sağındaki diğerlerine nazaran daha açık tonlara sahip olan hacimli bir kolona bağlanmıştır. Yeşilin dinginliğini bozan dokulu bölge, sahip olduğu canlı renklerden ötürü bir pencere edası yaratmaktadır. Resmin sağ tarafında yer alan figür niteliğindeki kütlenin baş kısmı turuncu renkli bir küre formundadır. Canlı renklerle ifade edilerek resimde doğrudan göze çarpan küre, sağdan ışık alarak gölgesini sola vermiştir. Verilen modle, küreyi resimde kullanılan diğer yapılara nazaran daha çok ön plana çıkarmaktadır. Bu küre, gövdenin yukarı tarafı görülen koyu kahverengi yatay dikdörtgen bölme üzerine, ortalı bir şekilde yerleştirilmiştir. Figür betimiyle resme dâhil edilen yapı, bileğine kadar aynı kütle ile devam eden gövde kısmı, kahverenginin açık ve koyu tonlarının sırasıyla kullanıldığı dikey şeritlerden oluşmaktadır. Açık tondaki dikey şeritler, kendi içerisinde bulunan yatay çizgilerle bir ritim oluşturmuştur. Koyu renkli dikey şeritler ise kendi içerisinde ince yatay çizgilerle ifade edilmiştir. Figür sola dönmüş bir hal alarak sağında bulunan koyu yapı ile boyutlandırılmıştır. Gövdenin sağ üst tarafında içi boşaltılmış bir küp formu, sol kısmında ise dikey yerleştirilmiş dairesel bir metal formu yer almaktadır. Metal form, ışık-gölge yapılandırması ile boyut kazanmıştır. Metal, maddesel yapısından dolayı figüre ait olmayan bir görüntüye sahiptir. Dolayısıyla metal parçası, özneye ait olmayan dış dünya nesnesi olarak düşünülebilir. Figüre yerleştirilen bu uyumsuz parça, dış dünyanın özneye koyduğu yasak ve engelleri ifade eden bir anlam taşımaktadır. Resmin sol tarafında ahşap görünümlü basamaklar, resimde hem merdiven hem de içi boşaltılmış bir kutu olarak nitelendirilebilir. Cephe kısmında ahşabın dokusu hissedilen merdiven, perspektif temelli kurgulanmıştır. Basamaklar, figürün gövdesinde kullanılan renkleri dengelemek amaçlı kahverengi tonlarında resmedilmiştir. Ayrıca figürde ve basamakta bulunan tonları yukarıya taşıyan dokulu bölme, yoğun kullanılan kahverenginin keskinliğini alarak resimsel bir kompozisyon içinde dengelenmesini sağlamıştır. İçi boş kutular, bilinçaltına vurgu yapmaktadır, merdiven mantığı ise “geçmiş” ifadesi ile anlamlandırılmış. Böylece, özneye dair geçmiş deneyimlerin bilinçaltı etki süreçlerinin gün yüzüne çıktığı vurgusu yapılmaktadır. Özneye yüklenen bu anlamdan ötürü merdiven yapısı ve figürün gövde kısmı birbirini tamamlayan renklerle ifade edilmiştir. 121 Ahşap dokunun önünde bulunan dikey dikdörtgen yapı, aydınlatıcı saf sarı rengi ve pürüzsüz yapısı ile kendini ön plana çıkarmaktadır. Sarı rengi, resmin hareketini sağlayan bir niteliktedir ve üzerinde bulunan kırmızı küreyi daha çarpıcı hale getirmek amaçlı kullanılmıştır. Turuncu küre gibi sağdan ışık alarak sola yansıttığı gölge ile daha çok boyut kazanan kırmızı küre, küçük bir imge olmasına rağmen renk ve ifade olarak güçlü bir görüntüye sahiptir. Yukarıdan sarkıtılan ipin ucundaki çift taraflı kanca, dış dünya nesnesi temsili olan kırmızı küreyi vurgulamıştır. Barikat bandı şeritlerini anımsatan ipin kesik turuncu ve beyaz renkleri, resme uyarıcı bir anlam yüklemiştir. Elma olarak anlamlandırılan kırmızı küre, yukarıdan aldığı uyarıcıyla ve ipin ucundaki çift taraflı kancanın tehlike uyandıran hissi ile dokunulmaz bir imge olarak düşünülebilir. Bu nedenle resme “Yasak Elma” ismi verilmiştir. Figürün üzerinde uyumsuz bulunan metal kısım, “dış dünyanın özneye koyduğu yasak ve engel” betimlemesi ile “Yasak Elma” ismindeki içeriği destekleyen bir ifadedir. 5.2.4. Şuuraltı Resim 5.8: “Şuuraltı”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 140x120 cm, 2018. Dikey dikdörtgen bir yapı ile kurgulanan kapalı kompozisyon tekniği ile resmedilmiş “Şuuraltı” (Resim 5.8) ismindeki bu yağlı boya çalışma, 140x120 cm 122 ölçülerine sahiptir ve resimde geometrik formlar hâkimdir. Özne ve dış dünya nesnesinin resimsel temsili, geometrik formlarla oluşturulmuştur. Renk anlamında zengin bir kompozisyona sahiptir. Kullanılan renkler dışında yatay, dikey, diyagonal ve dairesel formlar resmin dinamizmini oluşturmaktadır. Diğer çalışmalarda olduğu gibi metafizik bir mekân içinde tek figür kullanılmıştır. Mekânın taban kısmı, ışık-gölgenin ve perspektifin kullanılmadığı siyah-beyaz renginde küçük karo taşlardan oluşmaktadır. Arka planda canlı renklerle ve çeşitli motiflerle oluşturulan dokulu bir yüzey bulunmaktadır. Doku içinde kullanılan bu renkler, önde yer alan nesnelerin rengini kompozisyon olarak dengelemektedir. Renkli fonun önünde, yatay ve dikey çizgilerin oluşturduğu şeritler yer almaktadır. Tel örgü olarak betimlenen gri şeritler, geride kalanın canlılığını engelleyen bir parmaklık etkisi uyandırmaktadır. Gerideki renkli plan, öznenin zihin dünyası olarak düşünüldüğünde, tel örgü olarak simgelenen şeritler, onun zihin dünyasına konulan dış dünyanın engelleyici faktörleridir. Çekmecelerin tel örgüler arasından şiddetli çıkışı, zihin dünyasındaki bilinçaltının kişi yaşamında patlak verdiğinin temsilidir. Bu çalışmada öznenin, hayatı boyunca bilinçaltındaki yerleşkelerinden kurtulamayarak, yaşamının çoğu yerinde karşılaşacağı gerçeği ele alınmıştır. Dali’nin resimlerinde figür üzerine yerleştirdiği çekmece formları, bu resimde esin kaynağı olmuştur. Fakat “Şuuraltı” isimli çalışmada çekmeceler, Dali’nin eserlerindeki gibi figür üzerine yerleştirilmeyip mekâna dâhil edilmiştir. Tellerin arasından öne doğru açılan yeşil, mavi ve sarı renkli çekmeceler, resmin merkezinde yer alarak güçlü bir hareket sağlamıştır. Çekmecelerin görünen sol kısmı dikey çizgilerle taranarak bir ritim kazandırılmıştır. Çekmecenin ön yüzü, net ve pürüzsüz bir şekilde boyanmıştır. Yeşil ve mavi çekmecenin cephesinde kullanılan dairesel boşluk, izleyiciyi yanıltan bir ifadedir; boşluğun gerisinde, çekmecenin iç kısmı görünmesi gerekirken fondaki renkli kısım görülmektedir. Ayrıca çekmecelerin açılma yönlerinden ötürü resim, optiksel bir görüntü kazanmıştır. En altta yer alan sarı renkli çekmecenin içerisine doluşan, değişik formlara ve motiflere sahip olan imgeler, öznenin zihnindeki düş nesnelerini vurgulamaktadır. Bilinçaltı olarak nitelendirilen çekmecenin içerisinde bulunan düş nesnelerinin çekmeceden çıkarak mekâna dâhil olması; öznenin iç dünya gerçekliğinin dış dünya ile nüfuz ettiği anlamını taşımaktadır. 123 Çekmecenin hemen önünde bulunan mor küre, fırça darbelerinin oluşturduğu titrek bir dokuya sahiptir. Işığı soldan alan kürenin, modle verilerek ön plana çıkması sağlanmıştır. Ayrıca arkasında sarı çekmecenin bulunduğu küre, mor rengi ile bir kontrastlık yaratmıştır ve bu karşıt ifade, resme bakan kişiyi ilk olarak kendine çekmektedir. Kürenin, keskin formlara sahip olan karo taşların üzerinde kusursuz bir dairesel formu ile yer alması, form açısından da zıtlık oluşturmaktadır. Resmin solunda bulunan ve öznenin temsili olan figür etkisi veren form, resimde kütle olarak en fazla yer kaplayan bir elemandır. Baş kısmı, ışık-gölge ile hacim kazandırılmış ve bir bölümü kesilmiş küre formu ile ifade edilmiştir. İçi boş olan turuncu tonlarındaki kesilmiş kafanın kenarlarından akışkan bir sıvı dökülmektedir. Baş kısmı, gövdeye bağlanan bir yay formu aracılığı ile aşağıya doğru eğilmiştir. Figüre yüklenen bu hareket, aşağıdaki nesnelere vurgu yaparak bir gizem oluşturmuştur. Dolayısıyla figür, aşağıya doğru olan meraklı bakışlarına resme bakan kişiyi de ortak eder. Figürün gövde kısmında, optiksel bir daire içine yerleştirilmiş, formun yapısına uygun şekil alan koyu gri çizgiler vardır. Çizgilerin arasında kalan kısım ten renginde ele alınmıştır. Gövdede verilen çizgisel açık-koyu renk, karo taşların ritmini yukarı taşıyarak kompozisyonu dengelemiştir. Figürün bacak kısmı, bileğe doğru incelen oval bir kütle şeklindedir. Bu kütle kahverenginin çarpıcı bir tonu ile ele alınıp, ışık-gölge unsurları göz önünde bulundurularak resmedilmiştir. Bir önceki resimde olduğu gibi bu resimde de figür üzerinde metal bir yapı kullanılmıştır. 124 5.2.5. İntihar Resim 5.9: “İntihar”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 100x80 cm, 2018. Kapalı kompozisyon olarak kurgulanmış, dikey dikdörtgen yapısındaki “İntihar” (Resim 5.9) ismindeki bu yağlı boya çalışma, 100x80 cm ölçülerine sahiptir. Özne ve dış dünya nesnesinin geometrik formlarla soyutlaması yapılmıştır. Çalışmada baskınlık derecesine göre renkler sarı, siyah, kırmızı, mavi ve yeşil olarak sıralanabilir. Diğer resimlerde de olduğu gibi yatay, dikey, diyagonal ve dairesel formlar, resmin dinamizmini sağlayan elemanlardır. Metafizik bir mekân içinde tek figür etkisi yaratan bir kütle kullanılmıştır. Mekânın taban kısmı sarı-siyah renkte çizgisel olarak resmedilmiştir. Siyah ve sarı çizgiler eşit aralıklara sahiptir. Mekânda ışık-gölge ve artistik perspektif gibi unsurlara yer verilmemiştir. Soldaki kütlenin ayak kısmının ve mavi kürenin bulunduğu, çizgileri sağa yatık uzayan düzlem, aşağıda belli bir yatay çizgide kırılmış ve dik bir şekilde aşağıya uzamıştır. Bu kırılma, yerdeki düzleme hacim kazandırmıştır. Ayrıca sarı çizgilerde hafif bir etki ile doku çalışması yapılmış böylece sarının siyaha sert geçişi az da olsa hafifletilmiştir. Arka planda siyah, düz ve geniş bir alan bulunmaktadır. Bu alanın sağ tarafında yine sarı, siyah dikey çizgilerle oluşturulmuş, kolonu anımsatan bir kütle vardır. Bu 125 kütle, sola yakın tarafın ortasından hafif sağa doğru kesilmiş olarak resmedilmiştir. Kütlenin sol tarafında kalan kısmına kırmızının tonları ile boyut kazandırılmıştır. Resmin sol tarafında yer alan figür niteliğindeki kütlenin baş kısmı yeşil renkli bir küre formundadır. Altındaki kırmızı rengine olan kontrastlığı ile resimde göze çarpan küre, sağdan ışık alarak gölgesini sola vermiştir. Küreye verilen modle, küreyi resimde kullanılan diğer yapılara nazaran daha çok ön plana çıkarmaktadır. Kürenin aldığı ışığın sarı tonları ile modle edilmesi, kendisini mekândaki yoğunlukla kullanılan sarı ifadelerden koparmamasını sağlamaktadır. Bu küre, gövdenin yukarı tarafı görülen koyu kırmızı oval yapı üzerine, sağa yakın hizalı bir şekilde yerleştirilmiştir. Figür betimiyle resme dâhil edilen yapının gövde kısmı yine sağa yatık bir pozisyonda yerleştirilmiştir. Dokulu kırmızı kütlenin alta doğru daralan gövde kısmı, belli bir sıra ile dilimlenmiş etkisi uyandırmaktadır. Kırmızının daha açık bir tonu ile yapıya yerleştirilen çizgiler, resimde bulunan sarı ve siyah çizgilerin devamlılığını sağlayan bir elemandır. Yapının diyagonal olarak yerleştirilmesi figürün öne doğru eğildiği etkisini yaratmaktadır. Gövde kısmı, üst tarafını gördüğümüz açık yeşil renkli bir oval yüzey üzerine yerleştirilmiştir. Açık yeşil yüzey, kütlenin üzerinde bulunan yeşil küre ile bir uyum içerisindedir. Gövdeyi taşıyan sarı renkli kütle, aşağıya doğru daralmaktadır. Ayrıca sol kenar çizgisinin tuvale paralel, sağ kenar çizgisinin diyagonal olması, yine kütlenin sağa doğru eğimli ifadesini güçlendirmektedir. Resim gerek çizgilerin ritmiyle gerek çarpıcı renklerle genel anlamda hareketli bir niteliğe sahip olmasına rağmen izleyicinin ilk olarak odağına aldığı yer mavi küredir. Mavi küre, modlesi ve rengi itibariyle resimde canlılığını koruyan en belirgin imgedir. Yukarıdan sarkıtılan urgandan idam ipinin ve soldaki figürün aşağıya yönelir şekilde sağa yatık konumlandırılması izleyicinin görme odağını istemsizce mavi küreye yönlendirmektedir. Dolayısıyla idam ipi ve figürün hareketi mavi kürenin göze çarpmasını sağlayan elemanlardır. Yukarıdan aşağıya doğru sarkıtılan kırmızı urgandan idam ipi ifadesi, kürenin hizasına gelecek şekilde konumlandırılmıştır. İp, arkasındaki siyah düzlem üzerine soldan aldığı gölge ile öne çıkmıştır. Ayrıca ipin dik bir şekilde resme yerleştirilmesi sağındaki sarı, siyah çizgilere, figür etkisi yaratan kütlenin sol tarafındaki kenar çizgisine ve de zemin yüzeyinin alt tarafında kırılarak aşağıya inen dikey çizgilere 126 paralel bir nitelik taşır. Bu paralellik resme genel anlamda bütünlük kazandırmaktadır. Renk olarak ele alındığında idam ipi, figürün gövde kısmıyla ve sağdaki kolona boyut kazandıran kırmızı yüzeylerle kendini tamamlamaktadır. Resim, özne-nesne ilişkileri göz önünde bulundurularak inşa edilmiştir. Bu uygulamada resmin isminden ve resme yerleştirilen urgandan da anlaşılacağı üzere “intihar” konusu ele alınmıştır. Çalışmada var olan metafizik mekân, öznenin zihin dünyası; mekâna yerleştirilen ve figür etkisi yaratan kütle, öznenin benliği; mekândaki imgeler ise kişinin bilinçaltına çektiği dış dünya nesneleri olarak tasvir edilmiştir. Plastik anlamda birbiriyle bağlantılı olan tüm resimsel elemanlar, özne-nesnenin güçlü etkileşimi olarak düşünülebilir. 5.2.6. Toplama Kampı Resim 5.10: “Toplama Kampı”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 140x120 cm, 2019. Kapalı kompozisyon olarak kurgulanmış, dikey dikdörtgen yapısındaki “Toplama Kampı” (Resim 5.10) ismindeki bu yağlı boya çalışma, 140x120 cm ölçülerine sahiptir. Bu çalışmada özne ve dış dünya nesnesinin geometrik formlarla soyutlaması yapılmıştır. Çalışmada kahverengi tonları baskındır ve yatay, dikey, dairesel formlar 127 resmin dinamizmini sağlayan elemanlardır. Metafizik bir mekân içinde tek figür etkisi yaratan bir kütle kullanılmıştır. Mekânın taban kısmında koyu kahverengi ve kırık beyaz renkte küçük karo taşları kullanılmıştır. Mekânda ışık-gölge ve artistik perspektif gibi unsurlara yer verilmemiştir. Arka planda kahverengi, mavi ve sarı tonlarının baskın olduğu dokulu bir yüzey bulunmaktadır. Doku, geniş bir alanda kontrollü bir şekilde akıtma tekniği ile oluşturulmuştur. Bu alanın sol tarafında kahverengiyle oluşturulmuş alt alta yerleştirilen çekmeceli ahşap dolabı anımsatan kütleler vardır. Altta yer alan iki kütle öne doğru yakınlaşarak boyut kazanmıştır ve bu da bir çekmecenin açılmış hissini yaratmaktadır. En alttaki ahşap çekmece görüntüsünün içinde çeşitli formlara, dokulara ve renklere sahip nesneler yer almaktadır. Nesneler içinde insana ait bir kaç uzvun soyutlaması yapılmıştır. Bu uzuv tasvirleri; en solda bir çubuğa yerleştirilerek resmedilen göz yapısı, yine solda aşağı doğru uzanan iki el formu, kırmızı renkteki plakanın önündeki renkli çubukların üzerine asılmış göz kapakları betimi ve de sağ tarafta yer alan saç görüntüsünü anımsatan turuncu yapı olmuştur. Bunların yanı sıra çekmece görüntüsünü anımsatan kütlenin içinde resimsel anlamda zenginliği sağlamak amacı ile farklı nesneler de yer almaktadır. Bu nesneler; gözkapağı tasvirinin yapıldığı yapıyı taşıyan mor tonlarındaki iki çubuk, onun hemen arkasındaki ortası mavi renkte olan kırmızı üçgen plak, kırmızı plağın arkasında sıralı bir şekilde kırık beyaz ve kahverengi kullanılan yapı, bu yapının da gerisinde yer alan farklı renklerle doku oluşturulan boyca küçük formdur. Bu farklı şekiller resme hareket katmıştır ve sola doğru verilen gölgeleri ile daha çok öne çıkarak seyircinin odağı olmaktadır. Ahşap görünümlü yapının içinde yer alan şekiller, çeşitli form ve renklerde olmalarına rağmen resimdeki bazı unsurları desteklemektedirler. Buna örnek verilecek olunursa; ahşap çekmecenin içinde yer alan kırık beyaz ve kahverengi ile resmedilmiş yapı, yerdeki karo taşlarını hem biçim hem de renk olarak tamamlamış; yine ahşap çekmece görüntüsünün içindeki turuncu form, resmin üzerinde yer alan turuncu küreyi renk anlamında desteklemiştir. Resmin sağ tarafında yer alan figür niteliğindeki kütlenin baş kısmı, kütlenin içinden geçen çizgili uzun yatay formun üzerinde yer alan turuncu renkli küredir. Küre, sağdan ışık alarak gölgesini sola vermiştir. Küreye verilen modle onu ön plana 128 çıkarmaktadır. Turuncu kürenin aldığı ışığın sarı tonları ile modle edilmesi, kendisini mekândaki yoğunlukla kullanılan sarı dokudan koparmamasını sağlamaktadır. Bu küre, yukarı tarafı görülen yatay formun üzerine, sola hizalı bir şekilde yerleştirilmiştir. Renk açısından sol alt köşede yer alan turuncu formu destekler niteliktedir. Yatay formun içinden yine yatay olarak uzanan ve sol tarafta kırılarak aşağı doğru sarkıtılan sarı, siyah ve yeşil renkli ince bir çizgi yer almaktadır. Çanı tutan dikey çizgi, sağındaki figür etkisi yaratan kütlenin çizgilerine ve sol tarafındaki ahşap görünümlü çekmeceli dolap tasvirine paralel bir nitelik taşır. Bu paralellik resme genel anlamda bütünlük kazandırmaktadır. Ayrıca ipin ahşap görünümlü yapı üzerinde soldan gölgesi verilmiştir. Bu çizgisel yapı, çekmece görüntüsünün alttan ikinci katında bitmiş ve ucunda sarkan çan ifadesi, renkli nesnelerin hizasına gelecek şekilde konumlandırılmıştır. Çan tasviri, sağdan ışık alarak gölgesini sola vermiştir ve ışık- gölgenin işlenmesi bakımından resimde güçlü bir nesne niteliği taşımaktadır Figür betimiyle resme dâhil edilen yapının gövde kısmı, boydan boya belli bir sıra ile dilimlenmiş kahverengi dikey çizgilerle bir araya gelen kütle ile resmedilmiştir. Gövde kısmı sola dönük bir biçimde yerleştirildiği için figür görüntüsünün sağ kısmında yapının kenar kısmı görülmektedir. Kütlenin kenar yüzeyi yatay çizgilerle oluşturulmuştur. Kütledeki çizgisel unsurlar, parmaklık görüntüsünü anımsatmaktadır. Parmaklık tasvirinin içerisi, çizgileri ön plana çıkaracak açık bir ton ile resmedilmiştir. Resim gerek çizgilerin ritmiyle gerek yer yer çarpıcı renklerle genel anlamda hareketli bir niteliğe sahip olmasına rağmen izleyicinin ilk olarak odağına aldığı yer sol alttaki kütlenin içerisinden çıkan renkli biçimlerdir. Ayrıca yukarıdan sarkıtılan çan nesnesi, izleyicinin görme odağını istemsizce resmin sol alt köşesine yönlendirmektedir. Bunun yanı sıra turuncu küre, modlesi ve rengi itibariyle resimde canlılığını koruyan belirgin imgelerden biridir. Resim, özne-nesne ilişkileri göz önünde bulundurularak inşa edilmiştir. Çalışmada var olan metafizik mekân, öznenin zihin dünyası; mekâna yerleştirilen ve figür etkisi yaratan kütle, öznenin benliği; mekândaki imgeler ise kişinin bilinçaltına çektiği dış dünya nesneleri olarak tasvir edilmiştir. Plastik anlamda birbiriyle bağlantılı olan tüm resimsel elemanlar, özne-nesnenin güçlü etkileşimi olarak düşünülebilir. 129 Bu çalışmada, sol alttaki çekmece görüntüsünden taşarak çıkmış olan insan uzuvlarının da yer aldığı kalabalık görüntü betimlenmiştir. Resme dâhil edilen çan imgesi, bu kalabalıklığa vurgu yaparak algıyı karmaşıklığa yöneltmiştir. Kalabalığın içerisideki renk, doku, biçim farklılığından ve bu alana yöneltilen dikkatten ötürü bu resme “Toplama Kampı” ismi verilmiştir. 5.2.7. Anal Dönem Resim 5.11: “Anal Dönem”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 140x100 cm, 2019. Kapalı kompozisyon olarak kurgulanmış, dikey dikdörtgen yapısındaki “Anal Dönem” (Resim 5.11) ismindeki bu yağlı boya çalışma, 140x100 cm ölçülerine sahiptir. Bu çalışmada özne ve dış dünya nesnesinin geometrik formlarla soyutlaması yapılmıştır. Gri ve kırmızı renginin baskın olduğu bu çalışmada yatay, dikey ve dairesel formlar resmin dinamizmini sağlayan temel elemanlardır. Mekân içinde figür etkisi yaratan bir kütle kullanılmıştır. 130 Mekânın taban kısmı hafif dokulu siyah renk ile resmedilmiştir. Arka planda gri renginde dokulu bir yüzey bulunmaktadır. Bu alanın sol tarafında mekâna yerleştirilmiş klozet resmi yer almaktadır. Klozet, belirli hatları ile beyaz ve gri renkli parçalara ayrılıp, ışık-gölge mantığı içinde keskin ve oval çizgilerle sınırlandırılarak resme dâhil edilmiştir. Çalışmaya yerleştirilen klozet tasviri, dış dünya nesnesini vurgulamaktadır. Klozet nesnesinin üzerinde mavi renkli bir küre yer almaktadır. Mavi küre sağdan ışık alarak klozet kapağının üzerine soldan gölge bırakmıştır. Küreye verilen modle, resme bakan kişinin dikkatini üzerinde toplamaktadır. Resmin sağ tarafında yer alan figür niteliğindeki kütlenin baş kısmı, kütlenin içinden geçen çizgili uzun yatay formun üzerinde yer alan kırmızı renkli küredir. Küre, sağdan ışık alarak gölgesini sola vermiştir. Küreye verilen modle, küreyi ön plana çıkarmaktadır. Bu küre, yukarı tarafı görülen yatay formun üzerine, sola hizalı bir şekilde yerleştirilmiştir. Yatay formun içinden yine yatay olarak uzanan ve sol tarafta kırılarak aşağı doğru sarkıtılan ince, çizgisel bir yapı yer almaktadır. Bu dikey yapı; dik bir şekilde resme yerleştirilen, sağındaki figür etkisi yaratan kütlenin çizgilerine paralel bir nitelik taşır. Bu paralellik resme genel anlamda bütünlük kazandırmaktadır. Dikey çizginin klozet betimi yapılan yapı üzerinde soldan gölgesi verilmiştir. Bu çizgi, mavi kürenin üst hizasındadır ve onun ucunda kıvrılmış hissi yaratan bir eğim vardır. Böylelikle resimde modlesi ile güçlü bir niteliğe sahip olan mavi küre, bu çizginin onu vurgulaması bakımından daha da güçlü bir hale gelmiştir. Figür betimiyle resme dâhil edilen yapının gövde kısmı, boydan boya belli bir sıra ile dilimlenmiş kırmızı dikey çizgilerle resmedilmiştir. Gövde kısmı sola dönük bir biçimde yerleştirildiği için figür görüntüsünün sağ kısmından, yapının kenar kısmı görülmektedir. Kütlenin kenar yüzeyi yatay çizgilerle oluşturulmuştur. Kütledeki çizgisel unsurlar, parmaklık görüntüsünü anımsatmaktadır. Parmaklık tasvirinin içerisi, kırmızı çizgileri ön plana çıkaracak mavi renkle ile resmedilmiştir. Bu renk, klozet tasvirinin üzerindeki mavi küre ile birbirini tamamlamıştır. Resim gerek çizgilerin ritmiyle gerek renkleriyle genel anlamda hareketli bir niteliğe sahip olmasına rağmen izleyicinin ilk olarak odağına aldığı yer, sola konumlandırılmış mavi küredir. Ayrıca yukarıdan sarkıtılan ucu eğimli çizgisel form, 131 izleyicinin görme odağını istemsizce resmin solundaki küreye yönlendirmektedir. Bunun yanı sıra kırmızı küre, modlesi ve rengi itibariyle resimde canlılığını koruyan belirgin imgelerden biridir. Resim, özne-nesne ilişkileri göz önünde bulundurularak inşa edilmiştir. Çalışmada var olan mekân, öznenin zihin dünyası; mekâna yerleştirilen ve figür etkisi yaratan kütle, öznenin benliği; mekândaki imgeler ise kişinin bilinçaltına çektiği dış dünya nesneleri olarak tasvir edilmiştir. Plastik anlamda birbiriyle bağlantılı olan tüm resimsel elemanlar, özne-nesnenin güçlü etkileşimi olarak düşünülebilir. Klozet imgesi, dışsal faktörlerin ve dış dünya nesnelerinin özne üzerinde derin ve kritik etkiler bıraktığı anal döneme vurgu yapmaktadır. 5.2.8. Tecavüz Resim 5.12: “Tecavüz”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 100x80 cm, 2019. Dikey dikdörtgen bir yapıya sahip olan kapalı kompozisyon olarak kurgulanmış “Tecavüz” (Resim 5.12) ismindeki bu yağlı boya çalışma, 100x80 cm ölçülerine sahiptir. Resimde, geometrik formlarla özne-nesne temasının kütlesel olarak soyutlaması yapılmıştır. Önceki resimlerde olduğu gibi yatay, dikey ve dairesel formlar, 132 resmin dinamizmini sağlayan unsurlar olmuştur. Resimde bir mekân içerisinde tek figür kullanılmıştır. Mekânın taban kısmında ışık-gölge gözetilmeksizin yapılan siyah-beyaz karo taşlar, cepheden görüntüsü ile ele alınmıştır. Karo taşlar, resme renk ve biçim açısından ritmik bir hareket kazandırmıştır. Arka planda, sağa doğru girintisi bulunan geniş bir kolon yer almaktadır. Kolon, içinde mor ve yeşil renklerinin bulunduğu bir dokuya sahiptir ve resmin kompozisyonunun dengesi için oldukça önemli bir öğedir. Kolonun solunda grinin tonları ile geometriksel boyutlandırma yapılarak kolona bir hacim kazandırılmıştır. Kolonun içe girintili kısmında kırmızı bir kutu bulunmaktadır. Kutunun içinde mor renkli kadın iç giyimi yer almaktadır. Resmin sol, arka kısmında kalan bölme ise siyah renginden ötürü bir boşluk, uçurum, derinlik ve belirsizlik hissi uyandırmaktadır. Bu kısım, figürün tam arkasında bulunduğundan ötürü kişinin geçmiş deneyimleri ve bilinçaltı olarak nitelendirilebilir. Figür etkisi yaratan soldaki kütlenin baş kısmındaki küre formu, dokulu bir yapıya sahiptir. Sağdan ışık alarak resmedilen bu formu, sol taraftan el görüntüsünü anımsatan bir biçim tutmaktadır. Mor küre, gövde kısmının üzerinde kalan yüzey üzerine oturtturulmuştur. Figürün gövde kısmında insan vücudunun soyutlaması yapılmıştır. Ten rengi ile işlenmiş üst gövde, sağa doğru meyilli bir küp formundadır. Işık-gölge vurguları ile boyut kazanmış olan küpün üst yüzeyi kırmızı renkle resmedilmiştir. Bu formu sağ taraftan el görüntüsünü anımsatan bir biçim tutmaktadır. El tasviri, mor küreyi tutan el formu gibi gövdeye nazaran daha koyu bir renk ile ele alınmıştır. Figüre arkadan sarılmış hissini yaratan el tasvirleriyle arkada farklı bir figürün varlığı izlenimi oluşmaktadır. Figür betiminin bacak olarak nitelendirilen kısmı yine ten renginden oluşmuş ve alta doğru daralan bir formla ifade edilmiştir. Bu forma ışık-gölge ile boyut kazandırılmıştır. Üst gövde, bacak kısmının üzerinde yer alan kırmızı renkli yüzeye yerleştirilmiştir. Geride, öndeki bacak tasvirinden bağımsız farklı bir bacak betimi vardır. Bu bağımsız yapı, yukarıda bulunan el ifadeleri ile aynı renktedir. Dolayısı ile izlenim olarak arkada yer alabilecek olan figüre ait olarak düşünülebilir. Resimde kullanılan renkler, izleyiciyi rahatsız eden kasvetli bir hava yaratmıştır. Öndeki figüre ait olmayan, kaskatı duran el ve bacak tasviri ve kırmızı kutunun içerisine 133 sıkıştırılmış iç çamaşırının varlığı, özne tarafından istenmeyen bir durumun olduğu izlenimini vermiştir. Resmin isminden de anlaşılacağı üzere bu çalışmada tecavüz konusu ele alınmıştır. Bu konunun yarattığı olumsuz etki, figürün gerisinde bulunan siyah renkli yüzey ile ifade edilmeye çalışılmıştır. 5.2.9. Bu Gece Resim 5.13: “Bu Gece”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 100x100 cm, 2019. Kapalı kompozisyon olarak kurgulanmış “Bu Gece” (Resim 5.13) ismindeki bu yağlı boya çalışma, 100x100 cm ölçülerine sahiptir. Resimde geometrik formlarla oluşturularak özne-nesne temasının kütlesel olarak soyutlaması yapılmıştır. Yatay, dikey, diyagonal ve dairesel formlar, resmin dinamizmini sağlayan unsurlardır. Resimde bir mekân içerisinde tek figür kullanılmıştır. Mekân, artistik perspektif kuralları gözetilerek kurgulanmıştır. Resimde yer alan zemin, gri renkte resmedilmiştir. Arka planda, sağa doğru girintisi bulunan yeşil renkte bir kolon yer almaktadır. Kolonun solunda yeşilin tonları ile geometriksel boyutlandırma yapılarak kolona bir hacim kazandırılmıştır. Kolonun içe girintili kısmında yeşil renkte bir küre bulunmaktadır. Bu küre, kendince bir dokuya sahip olup, sağdan ışık alarak gölgesini sola vermiştir. Yeşil kürenin yer aldığı yeşil kolonun sağ tarafında koyu yeşil renkli bir duvar bulunmaktadır. Bu duvar, mekâna yüzeysel zenginlik kazandırmıştır. 134 Figür etkisi yaratan sağdaki kütlenin baş kısmındaki küre formu, kırmızı bir renge sahip olup sağdan ışık almıştır. Kırmızı küre, gövde kısmının üzerinde kalan koyu turuncu rengindeki yüzey üzerine oturtturulmuştur. Figürün üst gövde kısmında bulunan turuncu ve sarı küp üst üste resmedilmiştir. Küplerin üst tarafına doku çalışması yapılarak, resimde dokusal farklılık oluşturulmaya çalışılmıştır. Alttaki sarı küp, gövdenin alt kısmında yeşil renkli bir kütlenin içine girmiş olarak konumlandırılmıştır. Gövdenin mavi renkli alt kısmı alta doğru daralarak farklı bir küpün içine girmiş şekilde resmedilmiştir. Bu küp kırmızı renkli olup figürün ayağı niteliğindedir. Resmin sol alt köşesinde içinden farklı iki nesne çıkan bir küp bulunmaktadır. Kırmızının ağır bastığı renkli küpün üzerinde yukarıdan dikey çizgiyle uzanan köstekli saat resmi yer almaktadır. Küpün üst tarafında mavi renkli bir yüzey bulunmaktadır. Köstekli saat ve onu tutan ip, mavi yüzey üzerine soldan gölgesini bırakarak resimsel anlamda daha güçlü bir niteliğe ulaşmıştır. Ayrıca bu sarkan imge, yere vurgu yaparak izleyicinin odağını kırmızı küpe toplamaktadır. 5.2.10. Zoraki Gelin Resim 5.14: “Zoraki Gelin”, Tuval Üzerine Yağlı Boya, 140x120 cm, 2019. 135 Dikey dikdörtgen bir yapı ile dizayn edilerek kapalı kompozisyon olarak kurgulanmış “Zoraki Gelin” (Resim 5.14) ismindeki bu yağlı boya çalışma, 140x120 cm ölçülerine sahiptir. Geometrik ifadelerle oluşturulan bu çalışmada birçok farklı rengin varyasyonları hâkimdir. Yatay, dikey, diyagonal ve dairesel formlarla resmin dinamizmi sağlanmıştır. Resmin sol üst yüzeyinde yeşil rengiyle ve sol zeminde ise mavi, sarı renkle oluşturulan doku çalışması, resmin sağ kısmındaki figürün doku hareketliliğini dengeleyen bir niteliktedir. Çalışmaya hâkim olan doku çalışmaları, resmin ritmik unsuru olmuştur. Genel renk armonisinde yeşil ve sehpa resmindeki kırmızı renginin kontrast yaratan çarpıcı hali ön plana çıkmaktadır. Kütlesel olarak geometrik formlarla soyutlama yapılan imgeler, resme bir düzen dâhilinde yerleştirilmiştir ve resme bakan kişiyi yanıltan bir perspektif ile kurgulanmıştır. Bu çalışmada, kozmik bir mekân içinde tek figür kullanılmış ve resme birkaç nesne dâhil edilmiştir. Figür olarak nitelendirilen ve sağa dikey yerleştirilen kütlenin gövde kısmında dokulu iki farklı yüzey bulunmaktadır. Üst gövde kısmı, farklı iki dokulu bölgenin sıra ile dikey bir şekilde dizilerek oluşturulmuştur. Bu, olumsuz bir etki uyandıran parmaklığı anımsatmaktadır ve bununla birlikte sağ tarafta oluşturulan gri renkli fon, figür üzerinde duygusal anlamda negatif bir algı yaratmıştır. Genel olarak çizgilerin, daireselliğin, renklerin ve dokuların kalabalık bir şekilde var olduğu bu resimde, kütlesel yapılar tuval üzerine bir düzen içerisinde yerleştirilmiştir. Figürün belden aşağısına genel anlamda bir çerçeve çizilmiş; yatay olarak açık ve koyu çizgiler figürün ayak kısmına kadar devam etmiştir. İçi boş çekmece olarak betimlenen, alt alta dizilen ve aşağıya gittikçe daralan form; kırık beyaz ve kahverengi olarak resmedilmiştir. Bu alanın ön yüzünde de doku çalışması yapılmıştır. Bu kütledeki yatay çizgiler, figürün üst gövdesinde yer alan dikey çizgilere bir zıtlık unsuru oluşturmuştur. Figür betiminin yapıldığı sağdaki kütlenin baş kısmı olan küre formu, perspektif olarak üstten görünen gövde kısmının üst yüzeyi üzerine yatay olarak yerleştirilen kırmızı forma ortalı olarak konumlandırılmıştır. Modle ile yuvarlak formu hissedilen, mavi derecesi yüksek olan soğuk mor renkli kürenin, sağdan aldığı ışığı sola gölgeli yansıması ile altındaki yüzeyle olan teması hissedilmektedir. Ayrıca resimde mor 136 küreden daha küçük ve farklı renkte ele alınan bir imge daha vardır. Kırmızı sehpanın üzerine konumlandırılmış mavi renginde bu küre formundaki imge, mor küre gibi sağdan ışık alarak gölgesini sola doğru sehpanın üzerine yansıtmıştır. Boyutu diğerine göre daha küçük olsa da canlı bir tonla resmedilen mavi küre, renk ve gölge bakımından diğerine göre daha çarpıcıdır. Resimde mavi renkli küreyi ön plana çıkaran bir unsur daha bulunmaktadır; kürenin üzerinde yukarıdan kablosu sarkıtılmış beyaz fiş tasvirinin sivri metal kısmı küreyi işaret etmektedir. Kullanılan kablo ve ucundaki fiş, resme plastik anlamda bir dinamizm kazandırmıştır. Ayrıca dikey olarak yerleştirilen kablo, sağında dikey inen çizgisel görüntüye ve figürün gövde kısmında bulunan dikey elemanlara bir destek unsuru olmuştur. Dış dünya nesnesi olan mavi kürenin figürün baş kısmı ile form olarak aynılık ilişkisi; özne-nesne arasındaki zihinsel bağlantıyı ifade etmektedir. Dış dünya nesneleriyle duyusal ve duygusal etkileşimler sağlayan özne, nesneyi kendi dünyasına çeker ve ona yeni bir anlam kazandırır. Zihninde oluşan nesneler dünyasının yeni ve öznel anlamlandırmaları ile yaşamına dair kararlar alan öznenin hayatına vereceği yön, nesnelerden edindiği deneyimlere bağlıdır ve kendi isteği dışında gerçekleşir. Bu mantık, çalışmaya nesnesel bir imge olan mavi kürenin ve figürün zihnine vurgu yapan mor kürenin aynı formlarla ifade edilmesi şeklinde yansımıştır. Ayrıca perspektifin ve ışık-gölgenin çoğu yerde izleyiciyi yanılttığı bu resimde, iki kürenin de ışığı aynı yerden alması ve aynı tarafa gölge düşürmeleri, öznenin nesneden etkilenip onunla olan deneyimine göre şekil aldığı gerçekliğini ortaya koymaktadır. Figürün sol tarafında kırmızı tonlarının hâkim olduğu, ışık-gölge kullanılarak boyut kazandırılan, dört ayaklı olması gerekirken üç ayaklı olarak resmedilen bir sehpa resmi vardır. Nesnenin özne üzerinde aksayan, yıkıcı ve yanıltan hallerini vurgulamak amaçlı sehpa, bir ayağı eksik olarak ele alınmıştır ve dikkatli bakıldığında yanıltıcı bir denge ile ayakta durmaktadır. Kırmızı rengi ile sehpa, arkasındaki yeşil ağırlıklı kolona karşıt bir renk olduğundan dolayı resimde göze çarpan bir eleman olarak yer almaktadır. Çalışmanın sağ tarafındaki figürün üst gövdesinde dokularla oluşturulan zenginliğin parmaklık biçiminde ifade edilmesi, bir anlam karmaşası yaratmaktadır. Ayrıca figürün gerisindeki yüzeyin gri renkle ele alınması resme bakan kişide olumsuz bir etki bırakmaktadır. Figürün soğuk mor rengi ile ele alınan baş kısmı, onun içinde 137 olmaktan hoşnut olmadığı kasvetli bir ortam hissini uyandırmaktadır. Bunun yanında çalışmanın sol tarafında keskin renklerle ifade edilen imgeler, dış dünyaya ait olan fiş nesnesinden bağımsız imgelerdir. Kişinin düş nesnesi içinde çiğ bir renk ile resme dâhil olan beyaz fiş, izleyicinin gözünü yormaktadır. Tüm bunlar dâhilinde resme verilen “Zoraki Gelin” ismi resimsel elemanlarla yansıtılmaya çalışan negatif hissini barındıran bir isimdir. 138 TARTIŞMA ve SONUÇ “Özne-Nesne İlişkisi Bağlamında Psikodinamik Yaklaşımların İmgelem Yoluyla Gerçeküstü Resimsel Anlamlandırmaları” adlı bu çalışmada; sanat eserlerinde kullanılan imgelerde, sanatçıya dair bilinçaltı etkilerin varlığı tartışılmıştır. Sanatçının, doğaya ait nesneleri iç dünyasında yeni bir anlama taşıyıp sanat eserine yansıttığı imgelerle, sanatçıya dair Psikanaliz Kuram temel alınarak bilinçaltı çözümlemesinin yapılıp yapılmayacağı problemi ele alınmıştır. Sorgulamada durum tespiti yapmak adına, felsefede bilgi arayışına yeni bir anlam kazandıran Descartes’in Bilgi Kuramı içerisindeki “Özne-Nesne İlişkisi” başlığı incelenmiştir. Bu başlık içerisinde; düşünme eylemini varlığın merkezine alan Descartes’in “cogito”suna yer verilerek, öznenin düşünen boyutu ele alınmıştır. Daha sonra öznenin doğa ile uyumu ve uyumsuzluğu, dış dünya nesneleri ile olan etkileşimleri analiz edilmiştir. Sanatçı, doğaya ait nesneler ile olan etkileşimleri sonucu ilham almaktadır. Dış dünya nesnesini içsel dünyasına aktaran sanatçı, ona yeni anlamlar yükler. Onun zihninde oluşturduğu nesne görüntüsü, dış dünyanın nesne görüntüsünden uzak bir imgelemdir. Çalışmada, sanatçı öznenin, doğaya ait nesneleri sanat nesnesine dönüştürme evresindeki yaratım süreci incelenmiştir. Yaratım süreci içinde olan sanatçının, dış dünya nesnelerini iç dünyasında anlamlandırma ve bunun sanat eserinde imgeye dönüşme sürecinde sanatçıya dair bilinçaltının, fantazyanın ve dürtülerin etkisinin olduğu bilgisine ulaşılmıştır. Bilinçaltı ve dürtülerin psikoloji bilimindeki pozisyonları incelenerek, Freud’un Psikodinamik Kuramı çalışmaya dâhil edilmiştir. Freud, geçmişte birçok sanat eserine psikanaliz yorumlar yaparak sanatçıların bilinçaltına inebilmeyi başarmıştır. Psikanalizin sanat eserleri üzerinde uygulandığı deneyimler sonucu, sanatın mantık ve bilincin ötesinde bir yaratım olduğu kanısına varılmıştır. Bu bağlamda sanat eseri; düşsel algının, geçmiş deneyimlerin ve bilinçaltının gün yüzüne çıkmış hali olarak nitelendirilebilir. Dış gerçekliği kendi iç gerçekliğine dönüştüren sanatçı, ancak içsel dünyasını doğrudan doğruya sanat eserine yansıttığında özgün ve biricikliği yakalayabilir. 139 Bu araştırmalar çerçevesinde ulaşılan sonuç; sanatçının özgün bir eser üretirken bilinçaltının etkisinde kalarak, zihinsel tasarısını eserinde kullandığı imgelerle sergilediği yönünde olmuştur. Bilinçaltının sanatta açık bir şekilde ortaya çıkması, psikanaliz tedavide bir araç olarak kullanılmıştır. Bu, resim sanatında da kullanılan bir analiz yöntemidir. Resimler üzerinde yapılan psikanaliz yöntem uygulamaları, tedavi gören kişinin bilinçaltına dair ipuçları vermesi açısından tedavi sürecine olumlu yönde etki yapmaktadır. Sanatçının resminde kullandığı imajlar, tedaviye gelen kişi ve tedavi eden kişi arasında bir simgesel bir dil haline gelmiştir. Temel amacı sanatçı öznenin, dış dünya nesneleri ile olan etkileşiminin yaratım sürecine geçiş evresini irdelemek olan bu tezin ilk bölümünde genel anlamda bir giriş yapılmıştır. Daha çok literatür taramasından oluşan ikinci bölümde ise “Psikodinamik Yaklaşımlar” ve “Özne-Nesne İlişkileri” konu alınmıştır. Üçüncü bölümde dış dünyanın sanata yansıması teması işlenerek yaratım sürecine değinilmiştir. Tezin dördüncü bölümünde sanat ile psikolojik tedavi yöntemi konusu üzerinde durulmuştur. Son olarak beşinci bölümde, tez kapsamında ele alınan uygulama çalışmaları ve çözümlemeleri yer almaktadır. Bu süreçte, dördü eskiz olmak üzere toplam 14 adet uygulama çalışması yapılmıştır. Bu çalışmalarda, özne-nesne ilişkisine dair dış dünya gerçekliğinin içsel dünya gerçekliğine olan etkisi konu alınmıştır. Bu etkileşim çerçevesinde öznenin deneyimlediği ve duyularla algıladığı nesneler ile olan bağı, onun bilinçaltı etki süreçlerini oluşturmaktadır. Sanatçının, sanat eseri oluşturma evresinde bilinçaltının önemi ve onun düşsel algısıyla düş nesnesinin sanat eserine doğrudan yansıdığı dikkate alınmalıdır. Resim sanatının, dış dünya nesnesi ile düş nesnesi arasındaki farklılıkların, geçmiş yaşantıların ve bastırılmış duyguların görüntüye bürünmüş hali olduğu ve sanatçının resimsel imge yaratımı, doğanın gerçekliği ile sanatçının içsel gerçekliği arasındaki çatışmanın ürünü olduğu göz önünde bulundurulmalıdır. Yapılan bu araştırma ile; sanat eseri ve sanatı icra eden bireyin psikolojik altyapısı arasındaki bağın güçlü olduğu varsayılarak, Güzel Sanatlar ve Psikoloji alanlarının disiplinlerarası ilişkilerinin arttırılıp, birbirini destekleyen ve tamamlayan unsurlar olarak değerlendirilmesi kanısına ulaşılmıştır. Bireylerin ortaya koyduğu resim uygulamalarından yola çıkarak kişiye dair psikolojik çözümlemeler yapılması 140 sonucunda, resim uygulamalarının psikiyatri merkezlerinde uygulanabilir bir çözüm yöntemi olacağı öngörülmüştür. 141 KAYNAKÇA KİTAP Altuna, S., (2013), Ünlü Ressamlar-Hayatları ve Eserleri, Hayal Perest Yayınevi, İstanbul. Aristoteles, (1997), Fizik, çev. 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(Erişim Tarihi: 09.02.2019). https://www.cermodern.org/munch--warhol.html Aurignacian İnsan, Mamut. (Erişim Tarihi: 22.12.2018). https://goo.gl/ZUYA9f http://www.psikologankara.net/terapide-serbest-cagrisim-nasil-ise-yarar.html http://www.psikologankara.net/terapide-serbest-cagrisim-nasil-ise-yarar.html https://sanatkaravani.com/van-goghun-sanati-ve-tutkusu/ https://sanatkaravani.com/van-goghun-sanati-ve-tutkusu/ https://www.google.com.tr/search?q=Albrecht+D%C3%BCrer&stick=H4sIAAAAAAAAAOPgE-LUz9U3SMvOs7BQYgcxq8zytGSzk630yzKLSxNz4hOLSvSBuDy_KNsKSGcWlwAAPPgkIzUAAAA&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwikm7myj9fcAhUC2qQKHanQAboQmxMoATARegQICBAZ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lascaux#/media/File:Lascaux_painting.jp https://historysshadow.wordpress.com/2014/02/27/preserving-the-past-to-inspire-the-future-the-cave-of-altamira/ https://historysshadow.wordpress.com/2014/02/27/preserving-the-past-to-inspire-the-future-the-cave-of-altamira/ https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1635039#/media/File:Workshop_of_Andrea_del_Verrocchio._Tobias_and_the_Angel._33x26cm._1470-75._NG_London.jpg https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1635039#/media/File:Workshop_of_Andrea_del_Verrocchio._Tobias_and_the_Angel._33x26cm._1470-75._NG_London.jpg https://goo.gl/ZUYA9f 148 Camille Pisarro, “Hasat”. (Erişim Tarihi: 12.01.2019). https://theculturetrip.com/europe/france/articles/10-artworks-by-pissarro-you- should-know/ Chauvet Mağarası Resmi, “Hayvan Figürleri”. (Erişim Tarihi: 14.02.2019). arkeofili.com/chauvet-magarasi-sanilandan-10-000-yil-daha-eski-olabilir Çatalhöyük Neolitik Kenti, “Taş Temelli Kerpiç Duvarlı Ev”. (Erişim Tarihi: 15.11.2018). http://www.kilsanblog.com/unesco-dunya-mirasi- mimari/catalhoyuk-neolitik-kenti/ Der Sturm, Dergi Kapağı. (Erişim Tarihi: 09.02.2019). https://monoskop.org/Der_Sturm Dr. Felix Rey’den Bir Mektup, “Van Gogh’un Kesik Kulağının Çizimleri”. (Erişim Tarihi: 15.11.2018). https://raffdergi.com/van-gogh-kulaginin-tamamini-mi- kesmis/ Edgar Degas, “Bale Sınıfı”. (Erişim Tarihi: 12.01.2019). https://www.tuttartpitturasculturapoesiamusica.com/2012/02/edgar-degas-1834- 1917-french.html Edouard Manet, “İmparator Maximilien’in Kurşuna Dizilmesi”. (Erişim Tarihi: 23.11.2018). http://www.wikiwand.com/tr/%C3%89douard_Manet Edvard Munch, “Çığlık”. (Erişim Tarihi: 28.12.2018). https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_Scream.jpg Erich Heckel, “Bir Masada İki Adam”. (Erişim Tarihi: 09.02.2019). https://www.wannart.com/5-tabloda-disavurumculuk-iii-die-brucke-ve-issiz- mimarlar/erich-heckel-two-men-at-a-table-1912/ Erich Heckel, “Uyuyan Kadın”. (Erişim Tarihi: 09.02.2019). http://www.visual-arts- cork.com/famous-artists/erich-heckel.htm Eugen Gomringer, “Silencio”. (Erişim Tarihi: 28.12.2018). http://www.sociedadlunar.org/blog/imagenesypalabras/tag/gomringer/ http://www.kilsanblog.com/unesco-dunya-mirasi-mimari/catalhoyuk-neolitik-kenti/ http://www.kilsanblog.com/unesco-dunya-mirasi-mimari/catalhoyuk-neolitik-kenti/ https://raffdergi.com/van-gogh-kulaginin-tamamini-mi-kesmis/ https://raffdergi.com/van-gogh-kulaginin-tamamini-mi-kesmis/ http://www.wikiwand.com/tr/%C3%89douard_Manet https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_Scream.jpg https://www.wannart.com/5-tabloda-disavurumculuk-iii-die-brucke-ve-issiz-mimarlar/erich-heckel-two-men-at-a-table-1912/ https://www.wannart.com/5-tabloda-disavurumculuk-iii-die-brucke-ve-issiz-mimarlar/erich-heckel-two-men-at-a-table-1912/ http://www.sociedadlunar.org/blog/imagenesypalabras/tag/gomringer/ 149 Francisco de Goya, “Kurşuna Dizilenler”. (Erişim Tarihi: 14.02.2019). https://www.istanbulsanatevi.com/sanatcilar/soyadi-g/goya-lucientes-francisco- de/francisco-de-goya-lucientes-madrid-ayaklanmasinda-kursuna-dizilenler-370/ Georges Braque, “L’Estaque’da Evler”. (Erişim Tarihi: 26.01.2019). https://www.istanbulsanatevi.com/sanatcilar/soyadi-b/braque-georges/georges- braque-lestaquede-evler-1429/ Henri Matisse, “Dans”. (Erişim Tarihi: 09.02.2019). https://www.henrimatisse.org/the- dance.jsp Henri Matisse, “Müzik”. (Erişim Tarihi: 12.02.2019). https://www.arthermitage.org/Henri-Matisse/Music.html James Ensor, “Ölümle Yüzleşen Maskeler”. (Erişim Tarihi: 18.02.2019). http://www.fineart-china.com/htmlimg/image-37505.html Joseph Kosuth, “Bir ve Üç Sandalye”. (Erişim Tarihi: 28.12.2018). https://www.moma.org/collection/works/81435 Juan Gris, “Gitarlı Natürmort”. (Erişim Tarihi: 27.01.2019). https://www.istanbulsanatevi.com/category/sanatcilar/soyadi-g/gris-juan/ Leonardo Da Vinci, “Bacchus”. (Erişim Tarihi: 09.01.2019). https://alchetron.com/Bacchus-(Leonardo) Leonardo Da Vinci, “Meryem ve Çocuk İsa Azize Anna ile”. (Erişim Tarihi: 02.12.2018). http://www.sanatabasla.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/074- Meryem-ve-%C3%87ocuk-%C4%B0sa-Azize-Anna-ile-Virgin-and-Child-with- St.-Anne-Leonardo-da-Vinci.jpg Leonardo Da Vinci, “Mona Lisa Detay”. (Erişim Tarihi: 09.01.2019). https://www.pivada.com/leonardo-da-vinci-mona-lisa Leonardo Da Vinci, “Mona Lisa”. (Erişim Tarihi: 09.01.2019). https://www.pivada.com/leonardo-da-vinci-mona-lisa Marcel Duchamp, “Çeşme”. (Erişim Tarihi: 12.01.2019). http://www.sanatatak.com/view/cesme-duchamp-tarafindan-yaratilmadi https://www.istanbulsanatevi.com/sanatcilar/soyadi-g/goya-lucientes-francisco-de/francisco-de-goya-lucientes-madrid-ayaklanmasinda-kursuna-dizilenler-370/ https://www.istanbulsanatevi.com/sanatcilar/soyadi-g/goya-lucientes-francisco-de/francisco-de-goya-lucientes-madrid-ayaklanmasinda-kursuna-dizilenler-370/ https://www.istanbulsanatevi.com/sanatcilar/soyadi-b/braque-georges/georges-braque-lestaquede-evler-1429/ https://www.istanbulsanatevi.com/sanatcilar/soyadi-b/braque-georges/georges-braque-lestaquede-evler-1429/ http://www.fineart-china.com/htmlimg/image-37505.html https://www.moma.org/collection/works/81435 https://www.istanbulsanatevi.com/category/sanatcilar/soyadi-g/gris-juan/ https://alchetron.com/Bacchus-(Leonardo) https://www.pivada.com/leonardo-da-vinci-mona-lisa http://www.sanatatak.com/view/cesme-duchamp-tarafindan-yaratilmadi 150 Max Ernst, “At The First Clear Word”. (Erişim Tarihi: 29.01.2019). http://www.artnet.com/artists/max-ernst/au-premier-mot-limpide- BnsA_0O8rUqbeEfTuNeL1w2 Monet, “Gün Doğumu”. (Erişim Tarihi: 28.12.2018). http://www.monetpaintings.org/impression-sunrise/ Pablo Picasso, “1. Boğa Levhası”. (Erişim Tarihi: 06.01.2019). http://www.artyfactory.com/art_appreciation/animals_in_art/pablo_picasso.htm Pablo Picasso, “10. Boğa Levhası”. (Erişim Tarihi: 06.01.2019). http://www.artyfactory.com/art_appreciation/animals_in_art/pablo_picasso.htm Pablo Picasso, “11. Boğa Levhası”. (Erişim Tarihi: 06.01.2019). http://www.artyfactory.com/art_appreciation/animals_in_art/pablo_picasso.htm Pablo Picasso, “2. Boğa Levhası”. (Erişim Tarihi: 06.01.2019). http://www.artyfactory.com/art_appreciation/animals_in_art/pablo_picasso.htm Pablo Picasso, “3. Boğa Levhası”. (Erişim Tarihi: 06.01.2019). http://www.artyfactory.com/art_appreciation/animals_in_art/pablo_picasso.htm Pablo Picasso, “4. Boğa Levhası”. (Erişim Tarihi: 06.01.2019). http://www.artyfactory.com/art_appreciation/animals_in_art/pablo_picasso.htm Pablo Picasso, “5. Boğa Levhası”. (Erişim Tarihi: 06.01.2019). http://www.artyfactory.com/art_appreciation/animals_in_art/pablo_picasso.htm Pablo Picasso, “6. Boğa Levhası”. (Erişim Tarihi: 06.01.2019). http://www.artyfactory.com/art_appreciation/animals_in_art/pablo_picasso.htm Pablo Picasso, “7. Boğa Levhası”. (Erişim Tarihi: 06.01.2019). http://www.artyfactory.com/art_appreciation/animals_in_art/pablo_picasso.htm Pablo Picasso, “8. Boğa Levhası”. (Erişim Tarihi: 06.01.2019). http://www.artyfactory.com/art_appreciation/animals_in_art/pablo_picasso.htm Pablo Picasso, “9. Boğa Levhası”. (Erişim Tarihi: 06.01.2019). http://www.artyfactory.com/art_appreciation/animals_in_art/pablo_picasso.htm http://www.monetpaintings.org/impression-sunrise/ 151 Pablo Picasso, “Ağlayan Kadın”. (Erişim Tarihi: 12.01.2019). https://www.istanbulsanatevi.com/sanatcilar/soyadi-p/picasso-pablo/pablo- picasso-aglayan-kadin-9516/ Pablo Picasso, “Avignonlu Kızlar”. (Erişim Tarihi: 27.01.2019). https://www.sanatabasla.com/2012/08/28/avignonlu-genc-kizlar-les- demoiselles-davignon-picasso/ Pablo Picasso, “Boğa Başı”. (Erişim Tarihi: 20.01.2019). http://blog.kavrakoglu.com/tag/boga-basi/ Pablo Picasso, “Boğa Serisi”. (Erişim Tarihi: 06.01.2019). http://www.artyfactory.com/art_appreciation/animals_in_art/pablo_picasso.htm Pablo Picasso, “Guernica”. (Erişim Tarihi: 27.01.2019). http://www.museoreinasofia.es/en/collection/artwork/guernica Pablo Picasso, “Kore’de Katliam”. (Erişim Tarihi: 29.01.2019). http://www.museoreinasofia.es/en/exhibitions/pity-and-terror-picasso Pablo Picasso, “Maymun Kafası”. (Erişim Tarihi: 20.01.2019). https://deskgram.net/p/1851628411609690624_12601929 Pablo Picasso, “Meyveler, Keman ve Cam”. (Erişim Tarihi: 14.02.2019). https://www.analisidellopera.it/picasso-alzata-con-frutti-violino-bicchiere/ Paul Cézanne “Büyük Çam”. (Erişim Tarihi: 29.12.2018). https://eclecticlight.co/2015/11/17/trees-in-the-landscape-6-paul-cezanne-and- constructive-strokes/ Paul Cezanne, “Büyük Çam ve Kızıl Toprak”. (Erişim Tarihi: 14.02.2019). https://eclecticlight.co/2015/11/17/trees-in-the-landscape-6-paul-cezanne-and- constructive-strokes/ Paul Cezanne, “Sainte-Victorie Dağı”. (Erişim Tarihi: 12.02.2019). https://resimbiterken.wordpress.com/2014/04/11/paul-cezannenin-montagne- sainte-victoire-eseri/ Paul Klee, “Balık Büyüsü”. (Erişim Tarihi: 12.02.2019). https://bigartshop.ru/painters/klee-paul/fish-magic-0 https://www.istanbulsanatevi.com/sanatcilar/soyadi-p/picasso-pablo/pablo-picasso-aglayan-kadin-9516/ https://www.istanbulsanatevi.com/sanatcilar/soyadi-p/picasso-pablo/pablo-picasso-aglayan-kadin-9516/ https://www.sanatabasla.com/2012/08/28/avignonlu-genc-kizlar-les-demoiselles-davignon-picasso/ https://www.sanatabasla.com/2012/08/28/avignonlu-genc-kizlar-les-demoiselles-davignon-picasso/ http://blog.kavrakoglu.com/tag/boga-basi/ http://www.museoreinasofia.es/en/collection/artwork/guernica http://www.museoreinasofia.es/en/exhibitions/pity-and-terror-picasso https://www.analisidellopera.it/picasso-alzata-con-frutti-violino-bicchiere/ https://eclecticlight.co/2015/11/17/trees-in-the-landscape-6-paul-cezanne-and-constructive-strokes/ https://eclecticlight.co/2015/11/17/trees-in-the-landscape-6-paul-cezanne-and-constructive-strokes/ https://resimbiterken.wordpress.com/2014/04/11/paul-cezannenin-montagne-sainte-victoire-eseri/ https://resimbiterken.wordpress.com/2014/04/11/paul-cezannenin-montagne-sainte-victoire-eseri/ 152 Paul Klee, “Senecio”. (Erişim Tarihi: 12.02.2019). http://www.paulklee.net/senecio.jsp Piet Mondrian, “Çiçekli Elma Ağacı”. (Erişim Tarihi: 09.01.2019). https://www.piet- mondrian.org/the-gray-tree.jsp Piet Mondrian, “Gri Ağaç”. (Erişim Tarihi: 09.01.2019). https://www.piet- mondrian.org/the-gray-tree.jsp Piet Mondrian, “Kırmızı, Sarı ve Mavili Kompozisyon”. (Erişim Tarihi: 02.12.2018). https://www.istanbulsanatevi.com/category/sanatcilar/soyadi-m/mondrian-piet/ Pişmiş Topraktan Kullanım Nesnesi. (Erişim Tarihi: 28.12.2018). https://indigodergisi.com/2014/10/toprakla-atesin-aski-seramigin-dogusu/ Rembrand van Rijin, “Gece Devriyesi”. (Erişim Tarihi: 12.02.2019). https://www.sanatabasla.com/2014/04/29/gece-devriyesi-the-night-watch- rembrandt/ Rene Magritte, “İmgelirin İhaneti”. (Erişim Tarihi: 20.01.2019). http://sanatokuma.blogspot.com/p/magritte-rene.html Rene Magritte, “İnsanın Oğlu”. (Erişim Tarihi: 05.02.2019). https://surrealismopordos.wordpress.com/2013/11/30/el-hijo-del-hombre-1964/ Rene Magritte, “Tecavüz”. (Erişim Tarihi: 05.02.2019). http://www.moderndesign.org/2010/01/rene-magritte-art-for-sale.html Rene Magritte, “Yatak Odasında Felsefe”. (Erişim Tarihi: 16.02.2019). https://eu.art.com/products/p13022339-sa-i2267408/rene-magritte-la- philosophie-dans-le-boudoir-c-1947.htm Salvador Dali, “Belleğin Sürekliliği”. (Erişim Tarihi: 06.02.2019). https://www.sanatabasla.com/2012/06/04/bellegin-azmi-the-persistence-of- memory-dali/ Salvador Dali, “Bulutlarda Savaş”. (Erişim Tarihi: 06.02.2019). https://www.istanbulsanatevi.com/sanatcilar/soyadi-d/dali-salvador/salvador- dali-bulutlarda-savas-5034/ Salvador Dali, “Çekmeceli Kadın''. (Erişim Tarihi: 08.02.2019). https://www.settemuse.it/pittori_scultori_europei/z_salvador_dali_08.htm https://www.piet-mondrian.org/the-gray-tree.jsp https://www.piet-mondrian.org/the-gray-tree.jsp https://www.piet-mondrian.org/the-gray-tree.jsp https://www.piet-mondrian.org/the-gray-tree.jsp https://indigodergisi.com/2014/10/toprakla-atesin-aski-seramigin-dogusu/ http://sanatokuma.blogspot.com/p/magritte-rene.html 153 Salvador Dali, “Düşmüş Melek”. (Erişim Tarihi: 08.02.2019). https://fineartamerica.com/featured/purgatoire-canto-1--the-fallen-angel- salvador-dali.html Salvador Dali, “Haşlanmış Fasulyeli Yumuşak Yapı, İç Savaş Öngörüsü”. (Erişim Tarihi: 07.12.2018). http://www.artnet.com/magazineus/features/finch/finch7- 12-07_detail.asp?picnum=2 Salvador Dali, “Yanan Zürafa”. (Erişim Tarihi: 08.02.2019). https://www.istanbulsanatevi.com/sanatcilar/soyadi-d/dali-salvador/salvador- dali-yanan-zurafa-8227/ Salvador Dali, ''Antropomorfik Dolap''. (Erişim Tarihi: 17.12.2018). http://arteameno.blogspot.com/2013/08/escritorio-antropomorfico-salvador- dali.html Sanat Psikoterapileri Derneği, “Sanat İle Tedavi”. (Erişim Tarihi: 08.02.2019). http://www.sanatpsikoterapileridernegi.org/ Sandro Botticelli, “İlkbahar”. (Erişim Tarihi: 09.01.2019). https://www.tarihlisanat.com/botticelli-ilkbahar-tablosu/ Sigmund Freud, “Topoğrafik Kişilik Kuramı Buzdağı Örneklemesi”. (Erişim Tarihi: 17.12.2018). https://gelisimogrenme.wordpress.com/2014/01/10/sigmund- freudun-topografik-kisilik-kurami/ Van Gogh, “Sargılı Kulaklı Otoportre”. (Erişim Tarihi: 12.01.2019). https://www.sanatabasla.com/2013/12/10/kulagi-sargili-otoportre-self-portrait- with-bandaged-ear-van-gogh/ Vasiliy Kandinsky, “Kırmızı Oval”. (Erişim Tarihi: 12.02.2019). https://www.wassilykandinsky.net/work-40.php Vincent Van Gogh, “Kargaların Olduğu Buğday Tarlası”. (Erişim Tarihi: 17.12.2018). https://www.sanatabasla.com/2014/06/24/bugday-tarlasi-ve- kargalar-wheatfield-with-crows-van-gogh/ Vincent Van Gogh, “Otoportre”. (Erişim Tarihi: 12.01.2019). http://www.wikiwand.com/tr/Van_Gogh_otoportresi_(1889) http://www.sanatpsikoterapileridernegi.org/ https://www.tarihlisanat.com/botticelli-ilkbahar-tablosu/ https://gelisimogrenme.wordpress.com/2014/01/10/sigmund-freudun-topografik-kisilik-kurami/ https://gelisimogrenme.wordpress.com/2014/01/10/sigmund-freudun-topografik-kisilik-kurami/ http://www.wikiwand.com/tr/Van_Gogh_otoportresi_(1889)