- - | - - - | - | --- | - - - - - | | - - | -| || -|- - | - State University of Iowa Libraries TT5/5 NN 2. |9| (a | O and TT515 .W2 191 ||||| Date Due 19 Ma'74 VJ - # * > *- - - * * * * * * * -> * • * * * * -) • • * * * * * £ • * , ~ * * * * * * * * * • ** * * , * * • ~ * * * • HoME ECONOMI : - - - • • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ~ * • A COMPLETE HOME-STUDY COURSE oN THE NEw PROFESSION OF HOME-MAKING AND ART of RIGHT LIV- ING: THE PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF THE MOST RECENT AD- VANCES IN THE ARTS AND SCIENCES TO HOME AND HEALTH • ; ~ * ~ * PREDARED BY TEA ("LIERS OF RECOGNIZED AUTHORITY FOR HOME-MAKERS, MOTHERS, TEACHERS, PHYSICIANS, NURSES DIETITIANS, PROFESSIONAL HOUSE MANAGERS, AND ALL INTER. ESTED IN HOME, HEALTH, ECONOMY AND CHILDREN TWELVE VOLUMES NEARLY THREE THOUSAND PAGES, ONE THOUSAND ILLUSTRATIONS TESTED BY USE IN CORRESPONDENCE INSTRUCTION REVISED AND SUPPLEMENTED CHICAGO AMERICAN SCHOOL OF HOME ECONOMICS - - - * * • ~ * Q- * * * • • • * ~ * - - * * * ~ * * , ~ * * * * * * * * ~ * * ; 1918 neauesex shuāla IIV Topuo'I II*H slauopB3S 18 pala'ug - NoLLVIoossV soiwonoog HwoPI Ag 9I61 '916I ‘i I & I ‘, 0.6 I ‘ 1u21u4d0o J. -/ • * * * * > * > * > • * • ~ * * * * a - J. > * -> -, * * • - * : : ; AUTHORS J *- ; * . : ISABEL BEVIER, Ph. M. Professor of Household Science, University of Illinois. Author U.S. Government Bulletins, "Selection and Preparation of Food,” etc. ALICE PELOUBET NORTON, M. A. Assistant Professor of Home Economics, School of Education. University of Chicago; Director of the Chautauqua School of Domestic Science. - S. MARIA ELLIOTT Assistant Professor of Home Economics, Simmons College; formerly Instructor School of Housekeeping, Boston. ANNA BARROWS Director Chautauqua School of Cookery; Instructor Teachers' Col- lege Columbia University; formerly Editor “American Kitchen Magazine;” Author "Home Science Cook Book.” ALFRED CLEVELAND COTTON, A. M., M. D. Professor Diseases of Children, Rush Medical College, University of Chicago; Visiting Physician Presbyterian Hospital, Chicago; Author of "Diseases of Children.” BERTHAM. TERRILL, M. A. Professor of Home Economics in Hartford School of Pedagogy; Author of U.S. Government Bulletins. KATE HEINTZ WATSON Formerly Instructor in Domestic Economy, Lewis Institute; Lecturer University of Chicago. MARION FOSTER WASHBURNE Editor “The Mother's Magazine;” Lecturer Chicago Froebel Asso- ciation; Author "Everyday Essays,” “Family Secrets,” etc. MARGARET E. DODD, S. B. Graduate Massachusetts Institute of Technology; Instructor in Domestic, Science, Garland Training School, Boston. AMY ELIZABETH POPE Formerly Instructor in Practical and Theoretical Nursing, Presby- terian Hospital, New York City; Author "Practical Nursing,” “Es- sentials of Dietetics,” etc. MAURICE LE BOSQUET, S. B. Director American School of Home Economics; Member American Public Health Association and American Chemical Society. 139956 CONTRIBUTORS ANI) EI) I TORS ELLEN H. RICHARDS Author “Cost of Food,” “Cost of Living,” “Cost of Shelter,” “Food Materials and Their Adulteration,” etc., etc.; First President Amer- ican Home Economics Association. MARY HINMAN ABEL Editor Journal of Home Economics; Author of U. S. Bulletins, “Practical Sanitary and Economic Cooking,” “Safe Food,” etc. THOMAS D. WOOD, M. D. Professor of Physical Education, Columbia University H. M. LUFKIN, M. D. Professor of Physical Diagnosis and Clinical Medicine. University of Minnesota. OTTO FOLIN, Ph. D. Special Investigator, McLean Hospital, Waverly, Mass. T. MITCHELL PRUDDEN, M. D., LL. D. Author "Dust and Its Dangers,” “The Story of the Bacteria,” "Drinking Water and Ice Supplies,” etc. FRANK CHOUTEAU BROWN Architect, Boston, Mass.; Author of “The Five Orders of Architec- ture,” “Letters and Lettering.” MRS. MELVIL DEWEY Secretary Lake Placid Conference on Home Ecomomics. HELEN LOUISE JOHNSON Professor of Home Economics, James Millikan University, Decatur, FRANK W. ALLIN, M. D. Instructor Rush Medical College, University of Chicago. MAN AG ING EDITOR MAURICE LE BOSQUET, S. B. Director American School of Home Economics. BOARI) () F TRUSTEES OF THE AMERICAN SCHOOL OF HOME ECONOMICS MRS. ARTHUR COURTENAY NEVILLE President of the Board. MISS MARIA PARLOA Founder of the first Cooking School, in Boston; Author of “Home Economics,” “Young Housekeeper,” U. S. Government Bulletins, etc. MRS. MARY HINMAN ABEL Co-worker in the “New # Kitchen,” and the “Rumford Food Laboratory;". Author of U. S. Government Bulletins, “Practical Sanitary and Economic Cooking,” etc. MISS ALICE RAVENHILL Special Commissioner sent by the British Government to # on the Schools of Home Economics in the United States; Fellow of the Royal Sanitary 1 nstitute, London. MRS. ELLEN M. HENROTIN Honorary President General Federation of Woman's Clubs. MRS. FREDERIC W. SCHOFF President National Congress of Mothers. MRS. LINDA HULL LARNED Past President National Household Economics Association, Author of “ Hostess of To-day.” MRS. WALTER McNAB MILLER Chairman of the Pure Food Committee of the General Federation o Woman's Clubs. MRS. J. A. KIMBERLY Vice President of National Household Economics Association. MRS. JOHN HOODLESS Government Superintendent of Domestic Science for the province ci Ontario; Founder Ontario Normal School of Domestic Science, now the MacDonald Institute. Textiles and Clothing BY KATE HEINTZ WATSON gRADUATE ARMOUR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY FORMERLY INSTRUCTOR IN DOMESTIC ART LEWIS INSTITUTE LECTURER UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO CHICAGO AMERICAN SCHOOL OF HOME ECONOMICS 1916 coPYRIGHT 1906, 1907, 1910, 1914, 1916, BY HOME ECONOMICS ASSOCIATION Entered at Stationers Hall, London All Rights Reserved T = 3 W2 | 7 ||-- CONTENTS PRIMITIVE METHODs • * WEAVING - - - FIBERs . - - . . - COTTON WOOL FLAx SILK - - - - MODERN METHODS WEAVING WEAVES - - BLEACHING AND DYEING . PRINTING FINISHING COTTON GooDs LINENS . - - - - - WOOLENS AND WORSTEDs SILKs - - - • NAMEs of FABRICs . - • • BIBLIOGRAPHY ON TEXTILEs . - HAND SEwING . - - • - ORNAMENTAL STITCHES . • HEMs - - - - - • TUCKS AND SEAMs . - - - PLACKETs . - - - • SEWING ON BANDS - - - FASTENINGs PATCHING DARNING - - - - - MITERING EMBROIDERY, Join ING LACE MACHINE SEwING - - - • I4 29 29 37 43 53 59 69 72 8 I 83 85 86 88 9o 94 Io.3 Io.7 II.4 I 23 I 28 I35 138 I4 I I49 I55 158 162 iii iv CONTENTS DRESSMAKING . - • - - • • PATTERNS . - - • - • • SKIRT MAKING - - • - • • MAKING SHIRT WAISTS • • • o FITTED LININGS - - • • - • SLEEVES • • • • • • o CoLLARS • • • • • • • SEAMLEss YokEs • • • • - PRESSING - • • • - - - CoNSTRUCTION AND ORNAMENT IN DRESS • ORNAMENT OF TEXTILES . - • • - CoLoR • - • . . - • CHILDREN's CLOTHES • • • - • CARE OF CLOTHING - • • - • CLEANING - - - • - - - REPAIRING . • • - - • BIBLIOGRAPHY ON SEWING AND DRESSMAKING REFERENCES: HISTORY OF COSTUME; ORNAMENT DESIGN . - - - - - • PROGRAM FoR SUPPLEMENTAL STUDY - - INDEX • • • • • • - 167 171 172 182 185 I94 198 2OO 2OI 2O3 212 2I4 216 2I9 22I 225 229 234 236 24 I “THE THREAD OF LIFE” Spinning with the Distaff and Spindle. From a Painting. TEXTILES AND CLOTHING PINNING and weaving are among the earliest arts. In the twisting of fibers, hairs, grasses, and sinews by rolling them between the thumb and fingers, palms of the hands, or palms and naked thigh, we have the original of the spinning wheel and the steam-driven cotton spindle; in the roughest plaiting we have the first hint of the finest woven cloth. The need of securing things or otherwise strengthening them then led to binding, fastening, and sewing. The wattle- work hut with its roof of interlaced boughs, the skins sewn by fine needles with entrails or sinews, the matted twigs, grasses, and rushes are all the crude beginnings of an art which tells of the settled life of to-day. Origin of Textile Arts Nothing is definitely known of the origin of these- * arts; all is conjecture. They doubtless had their be- ginning long before mention is made of them in his- tory, but these crafts—spinning and weaving—modi- fied and complicated by inventions and, in modern times transferred largely from man to machine, were distinctively woman's employment. The very primitive type of spinning, where no spindle was used, was to fasten the strands of goats’ hair or wool to a stone which was twirled round until Methods | ITALIAN WOMAN SPINNING FLAX Spindle and Distaff. From Hull House Museum. (In This Series of Pictures the Spinners and Weavers Are in Native Costume. RUSSIAN SPINNING Flax Held on Frame, Leaving Both Hands Free to Manage the Thread - and Spindle From Hull House Museum. 6 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Spinning with the Spindle ry Spindle Whori the yarn was sufficiently twisted when it was wound upon the stone and the process repeated over and over. & The next method of twisting yarn was with the spindle, a straight stick eight to twelve inches long on which the thread was wound after twisting. At first it had a cleft or split in the top in which the thread was fixed; later a hook of bone was added to the upper end. The spindle is yet used by the North American Indians, the Italians, and in the Orient. The bunch of wool or flax fibers is held in the left hand; with the right hand the fibers are drawn out several inches and the end fastened securely in the slit or hook on the top of the spindle. A whirling motion is given to the spindle on the thigh or any convenient part of the body; the spindle is then dropped, twisting the yarn, which is wound on the upper part of the spindle. Another bunch of fibers is drawn out, the spindle is given another twirl, the yarn is wound on the spindle, and so on. A spindle containing a quantity of yarn was found to rotate more easily, steadily and continue longer than an empty one, hence the next improvement was the addition of a whorl at the bottom of the spindle. These whorls are discs of wood, stone, clay, or metal which keep the spindle steady and promote its rota- tion. The process in effect is precisely the same as the spinning done by our grandmothers, only the spin- ning wheel did the twisting and reduced the time required for the operation. SPINNING WITH CRUDE WHEEL AND DISTAFF Distaff Thrust Into the Belt. Th COLONIAL WOOL WHEEL e Large Wheel Revolved by Hand Thus Turning the Spindle and Twisting the Yarn, Which Is Then Wound on the Spindle; Intermittent in Action. COLONIAL FLAX WHEEL Worked by a Foot Treddle; Distaff on the Frame of the Wheel; “Fliers” on the Spindle, Continuous in Action; Capacity Seven Times That of Hand Spindle. DUTCH WHEEL - Spinner Sits in Front of '. Wheel-Spinning Flax at Hull Ouse. 12 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Distaff Wheel Bpinning Later the distaff was used for holding the bunch of wool, flax, or other fibers. It was a short stick on one end of which was loosely wound the raw material. The other end of the distaff was held in the hand, under the arm or thrust in the girdle of the spinner. 2000 B.C. Birth of Christ 1500 A.D. : Time during which the hand spindle was the only form of spindle known. 2. E= Spinning wheel also known. Steam has been applied to spinning. Graphic Diagram Showing Time During which Different Methods of Spinning Has Been Used. When held thus, one hand was left free for drawing out the fibers. On the small spinning wheel the distaff was placed in the end of the wheel bench in front of the “fillers”; this left both hands free to manage the spindle and to draw out the threads of the fibers. The flax spinning wheel, worked by means of a treadle, was invented in the early part of the sixteenth - - - - SYRIAN SPINNING Spinner Sits on the Floor, Wheel Turned by a Crank; Spindle Held in Place by Two Mutton Joints Which Contain Enough Oil for Lubrication. At Hull House. I4 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING century and was a great improvement upon the dis- taff and spindle. This it will be seen was a compara- tively modern invention. The rude wheel used by the natives of Japan and India may have been the progenitor of the European wheel, as about this time intercourse between the East and Europe increased. These wheels were used for spinning flax, wool, and afterwards cotton, until Hargreaves’ invention super- seded it. WEAVING Someone has said that “weaving is the climax of textile industry.” It is an art practiced by all savage | wit, in "' -2%. , Il. ''< * w" J - | III, tº |||| | '' | % '', 'll | 4 4. "'>+. - ..",". #2 7. "'> PUEBLO WOMAN WORKING HEDDLE IN WEAVING A BELT tribes and doubtless was known before the dawn of history. The art is but a development of mat-making and basketry, using threads formed or made by spin- ning in place of coarser filaments. In the beginning of the art the warp threads were stretched between convenient objects on the ground .#- | - s | | %2.* A NAVAJO BELT WEAVEB | WEAVING 17 or from horizontal supports. At first the woof or filling threads were woven back and forth between the warp threads as in darning. An improvement was the device called the “heald” or “heddle,” by means of which alternate warp threads could be drawn away from the others, making an opening through which the filling thread could be passed quickly. One form £ £ | PRIMITIVE HEDDLES | £ | £ | | | | | of the heddle was simply a straight stick having loops of cord or sinew through which certain of the warp threads were run. Another form was a slotted frame having openings or “eyes” in the slats. This was carved from one piece of wood or other material or made from many. Alternate warp threads passed through the eyes and the slots. By raising or lower- ing the heddle frame, an opening was formed through which the filling thread, wound on a rude shuttle, was thrown. The next movement of the heddle frame The Heddla NAVAJO LOOM - One of the Earliest Types of Looms. At Hull House. WEAVING I9 crossed the threads over the filling and made a new opening for the return of the shuttle. At first the filling thread was wound on a stick making a primi- tive bobbin. Later the shuttle to hold the bobbin was devised. SIMPLE COLONIAL LOOM Before the “reed” was invented, the filling threads were drawn evenly into place by means of a rude comb and driven home by sword-shaped piece of wood or “batten.” The reed accomplished all this at one time. It is probable that the European looms were de- 1ived from those of India as they seem to be made on the same principle. From crude beginnings, the hand loom of our grandmothers’ time developed. A loom The Reed 56 90 6 e 1. * - •3 • | -> . *- - : ing Wool at Hull House. TYPICAL COLONIAL HAND LOOM Weav Harnesses in Use TWO WEAVING 23 has been defined as a mechanism which affects the following necessary movements: 1. The lifting of the healds to form an opening, Definition or shed, or race for the shuttle to pass through. of a Loom TÉ's is: == | es S s' S. s DIAGRAM OF A HAND LOOM A-Warp Beam; B-Cloth Beam; D D-Lees Rods; H-Harness, T-Treddle. | 2. The throwing of the weft or filling by means of a shuttle. 3. The beating up of the weft left in the shed by the shuttle to the cloth already formed. This thread may be adjusted by means of the batten, needle, comb, or any separate device like the reed. 4 & 5. The winding up or taking up of the cloth as it is woven and the letting off of the warp as the cloth is taken up. SWEDISH HAND LOOM Norwegian Woman Weaving Linen at Hull House. WEAVING 25 No essential changes have been made since our grandmothers made cloth a hundred years ago. The “harnesses” move part of the warp now up, now down, and the shuttle carries the weft from side to side to be driven home by the reeds to the woven cloth. Our grandmothers did all the work with swift movements DIAGRAM OF THE workING PARTs oF A LooM. S-Suttle for £ woof; R-Reed for beating up the woof; OlC11 A-Frame ng heddles, with pullies (P) making the harness; T-Treddles for moving the harness. of hands and feet. The modern weaver has her loom harnessed to the electric dynamo and moves her fin- gers only to keep the threads in order. If she wishes to weave a pattern in the cloth, no longer does she pick up threads of warp now here, now there, accord- ing to the designs. It is all worked out for her on the loom. Each thread with almost human intelli- gence settles automatically into its appointed place, and the weaver is only a machine tender. Colonial Loom FLY SHUTTLE HAND LOOM The Pulling of the Reed Automatically Throws the Shuttle Back and Forth and Works the Harness, Making a Shed at the Proper Time. & - - WEAVING 27 No textiles of primitive people were ever woven in “pieces” or “bolts” of yards and yards in length to be cut into garments. The cloth was made of the size and shape to serve the particular purpose for which it was designed. The mat, robe, or blanket had tribal outlines and proportions and was made according to the materials and the use of common forms that pre- vailed among the tribes. The designs were always conventional and sometimes monotonous. The decora- tion never interfered with its use. “The first beauty of the savage woman was uniformity which belonged to the texture and shape of the product.” The uni- formity in textile, basketry, or pottery, after acquiring a family trait, was never lost sight of. Their designs were suggested by the natural objects with which they were familiar. Primitive Fabrics 30 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Native IHome Sea Island Cotton Upland Cotton four or five pounds of the fiber could be separated by hand from the seed by a week's labor. The modern saw gins turn out over five thousand pounds daily. Cotton is the white downy covering of the seed of several species of cotton plant. It is a native of many parts of the world, being found by Columbus growing in the West Indies and on the main land, by Cortez in Mexico, and Pizarro in Peril. The value of cotton depends upon the strength, and evenness of the fiber. In ordinary cotton the individual fiber is about an inch in length. The sea island cot- ton grown chiefly on the islands off the coast of Georgia, Carol in a, and Florida is the most valu- able variety, having a fine fiber, one and one-half to two inches in length. Some of the Egyptian cotton be- longs to this species. Sea island cotton is used chiefly for fine laces, thread and knit goods and for the finest lawns and musiins. COTTON FIBER ATTACHED TO SEED The short fiber or upland cotton is the most common and useful variety. It is grown in Georgia, North and South Carolina and Alabama. Texas cotton is similar to upland, but sometimes is harsh with shorter fiber. Gulf cotton occupies a position between upland and sea island cotton. The Brazilian and Peruvian cotton yields a long staple and is sometimes used to adulterate silk and TJPLAND COTTON PLANT WITH FULLY DEVELOPED BOLES From Bulletin No. 31, Georgia Experiment Station. BOLE OPENED, COTTON READY FOR PICKING Year Book of 1903. 34 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Nankin Cotton other fibers. Some varieties of this cotton are harsh and wooly and are prized for use in mixing with wool. The Nankin cotton grown in China and India and in the southwestern part of Louisiana is characterized by its yellow color. It is used in weaving cloth of various kinds in the “fireside industries” which have become popular in the United States and England. Spinning Qualities COTTON FIBERS A A–Unripe Fibers; B B—Half-ripe Fibers; C C-Ripe Fibers. Very fine yarn can be spun from cotton because of the spiral character of the fibers. This twist of the fibers is peculiar to cotton, being present in no other animal or vegetable fiber. On account of this twist, cotton cloths are much more elastic in character than those woven from linen, the fibers of which are stiff and straight. - After the removal of the seed, no other fiber is so free from impurities—5 per cent is the loss sustained COTTON 35 by cleaning and bleaching. In its natural condition, cotton will not dye readily because of a waxy sub- stance on the surface of the fibers. This must be removed by washing. Cotton should be picked only when it is fully ripe when the pods are fully burst and the fibers expanded. The unripe fiber is glassy, does not attain its full #:: # *: #: £ #: £ #: - '' *::::: - *#): *" £, £ #: '' % # * - COTTON BALES strength and resists the dye. After picking, the cotton is sent to the ginning factory to have the seed removed. It is then pressed into bales by hydraulic presses, five hundred pounds being the standard bale in the United States. - Purified bleached cotton is nearly pure cellulose. It resists the action of alkalis well, but is harmed by hot, strong acids, or if acid is allowed to dry on the fabric. It is not harmed by high temperature, and so may be ironed with a hot iron. Picking and Ginning Physical Character- istics WOOL FIBER AND SUBSTITUTES 1, South American Wool; 2, Noil from the Same; 3, Tangled Waste, 4, Waste Combed Out; 5, Lap Waste; 6, Shoddy. WOOL 37 WOOL Wool is the most important animal fiber. Strictly speaking the name applies only to the hairy covering of sheep, but the hair of certain goats and of camels is generally classified under the same terms. The wool fiber is distinguished by its scale-like surface which gives it its felting and spinning properties. Hair MICROSCOPIC APPEARANCE OF WOOL FIBERS as distinguished from wool has little or no scaly struc- ture being in general a smooth filament with no felting. properties and spinning only with great difficulty. Fur is the undergrowth found on most fur-bearing animals and has in a modified way the scaly structure and felt- ing properties of wool. The great value of wool as a fiber lies in the fact that it is strong, elastic, soft, very susceptible to dye stuffs and being woven, furnishes a great number of Character of Fiber Value for Clothing 38 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING air spaces, rendering clothing made from it very warm and light. £ t Climate, breed, and food influence the quality of the wool. Where the pasturage is barren and rocky, the wool is apt to be coarse. MERINO RAMS The Wariety of Sheep Giving the Finest Wool. #: There are supposed to be about thirty distinct varie- ties of sheep, nearly half of which are natives of Asia, one-third of Africa, and only four coming from Eu- rope, and two from America. Wool is divided into two general classes—long and short staple, according JAZOOL 39 to the average length of fiber. The long fiber wool is commonly carded, combed and spun into worsted yarn. The short fiber is usually carded and spun into woolen yarn. The short fiber obtained in combing long staple wool is called “noil.” It is used for woolens. Alpaca, Vicuna and Llama wools are obtained from Goat animals which are native to the mountains of Peru " ANGORA GOATS and Chile. The Angora goat, originally from Asia Minor, furnishes the mohair of commerce. This fiber does not resemble the hairs of common goats in any respect. It is a very beautiful fiber of silky luster, which constitutes its chief value. 40 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Sorting Wool Scouring Wool The fur of beavers and rabbits can be and is used in manufacture, either spun into yarn or made into felt. The fibers of both animals enter largely into the manufacture of felt hats. The fleece of sheep after being sheared is divided into different parts or sorted, according to to the qual- a. b C WOOL FIBERS a—Medium Wool; b—Camel's Hair; c-Diseased Fiber; d-Merino Wool; e-Mohair. ity of the wool, the best wool coming from the sides of the animal. As it comes from the sheep, the wool contains many substances besides the wool fiber which must be re- moved before dyeing or spinning. This cleansing is called scouring. Before scouring, the wool is usually dusted by machines to remove all loose dirt. The scouring must be done by the mildest means possible in order to preserve the natural fluffiness and bril- liancy of the fiber. The chief impurity is the wool 42 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Hydroscopic Moisture of wash water is never allowed to go above 120° F. The scoured wool weighs from a little over a half to one-third or less of the weight of the fleece. Wool has the remarkable property of absorbing up to 30 per cent or more of its weight of water and yet not feel perceptibly damp to the touch. This is called * 2. * *)\! >) WOOL SORTING “hydroscopic moisture.” To this property wool owes its superiority as a textile for underclothing. The thoroughly cleansed fiber is made up chiefly of the chemical substance keratin, being similar in com- position to horn and feathers. In burning it gives off a characteristic disagreeable odor. It is a substance very weakly acid in its nature, for which reason it combines readily with many dyes. Wool resists the action of acids very well, but is much harmed by the alkalis, being dissolved completely by a warm solution of caustic soda. High temperature harms wool. FLAX 45 woody portion of the stem. This consists of steeping the stalks in water. (1) Cold water retting, either running or stagnant Retting Water. (2) Dew retting. (3) Warm water retting. | |- O O | # # - ~ |: Ż --~~~~~~~ s - - - - " --> - RETTING TANK A-Inlet; B-Undisturbed Water; C-Bundles of Flax. <- Cold water retting in running water is practiced in Belgium. Retting in stagnant water is the method usually employed in Ireland and Russia. The retting in stagnant water is more rapidly done, but there is danger of over-retting on account of the organic mat- ter retained in the water which favors fermentation. In this case the fiber is weakened. In dew retting, the flax is spread on the field and exposed to the action of the weather for several weeks From the Government Bulletin, “Flax for Seed and Fiber.” FLAX 47 without any previous steeping. This method of retting is practiced in Germany and Russia. Warm water retting and chemical retting have met with limited SU1CCeSS. - When the ret- ting is complete, the flax is set up in sheaves to dry. The next operations con- sist of “break- ing,” “scutch- ing,” a n d “hackling” and are now done by - machinery. - FIBERS OF FLAX JBreaking removes the woody center from the retted and dried flax by being passed through a series of fluted rollers. The particles of woody matter adher- ing to the fibers are detached by scutching. Hackling or combing still further separates the Hackling fibers into their finest filaments—“line” and “tow.” The “flax line” is the long and valuable fiber; the tow, the short coarse tangled fiber which is spun and used for weaving coarse linen. When freed from all impurities the chief physical character. - - - • - - istics of characteristics of flax are its snowy whiteness, silky £" luster and great tenacity. The individual fibers may - HACKLING FLAX BY HAND The “Tow” Is Seen at the Left and a Bunch of “Flax line” on the Bench. (Photograph of C. R. Dodge, Special Agent U. S. Department of Agriculture.) 50 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Ramie Jute &n Hemp be from ten to twelve inches in length; they are much greater in diameter than cotton. It is less pliant and elastic than cotton and bleaches and dyes less readily. Linen cloth is a better conductor of heat than cotton and clothing made from it is cooler. When pure, it is, like cotton, nearly pure cellulose. Besides the linen, there is a great number of bast fibers fit for textile purposes, some superior, some in- ferior. India alone has over three hundred plants that are fiber yielding. One-third of these furnish useful fibers for cordage and fabrics. The next in importance to linen is ramie or rhea, and China grass. China grass comes from a different plant but is about the same as ramie. The staple is longer and finer than linen. The great strength of yarn made from it is due to length of the staple. The variety and great value of the ramie fibers has long been recognized, but difficulties attending the separation and degumming of the fibers have pre- vented its employment in the manufactures to any great extent. The native Chinese split and scrape the plant stems, steeping them in water. The common retting process used for flax is not effective on account of the large amount of gummy matter, and although easy to bleach it is difficult to dye in full bright shades without injuring the luster of the fibers. Jute and hemp belong to the lower order of bast fibers. The fiber is large and is unfit for any but the - A. N A. I S I U O : # : : ' # # R G E. JUT . Department of Report of U. S. Y'rom Culture of Hemp and Jute SILK - 53 coarsest kind of fabrics. Jute is mainly cultivated in Bengal. The fiber is separated from the plant by retting, beating, etc. Olona, the textile fiber of Hawaii, is found to have promising qualities. This plant resembles ramie and belongs to the nettle family also, but it is without the troublesome resin of the ramie. The fiber is fine, light, strong, and durable. The Philippines are rich in fiber producing plants. The manila hemp is the most prominent, of which coarse cloth is woven, besides the valuable cordage. The sisal hemp, pineapple, yucca, and a number of fiber plants growing in the southern part of the United States are worthy of note. These fiber industries are conducted in a rude way, the fiber being cleaned by hand, except the pineapple. SILK The silk fiber is the most perfect as well as the most beautiful of all fibers. It is nearly faultless, fine and continuous, often measuring from 1000 to 4000 feet long, without a scale, joint, or a blemish, though not of the same diameter or fineness throughout its entire length, as it becomes finer as the interior of the cocoon is approached. Silk differs from all other vegetable or animal fibers by being devoid of all cellular structure. Olona Southern Europe leads in the silk worm culture—where Italy, southern France, and Turkey, with China and India. Several species of moths, natives of India, China, and Japan, produce the wild silk. The most Produced SILK 55 terial of our mills. The cocoons are thrown into warm water mixed with soap in order to dissolve the gum. The outer or coarser covering is brushed off down to - s's" SILK:—CATERPILLAR, COCOON, CHRYSALIS, MOTH the real silk and the end of the thread found. Four or five cocoons are wound together, the sticky fibers clinging to each other as they pass through the various guides and are wound as a single thread on the reels. 56 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Organize and Tram Boiling Off Loading Silk The silk is dried and tied into hanks or skeins. As the thread unwinds from the cocoon, it becomes smaller, so other threads must be added. At the mill the raw silk goes to the “throwster” who twists the silk threads ready for the loom. These threads are of two kinds—“organize” or warp and “tram” or filling. The warp runs the long way of woven fabric or parallel with the selvage and it must be strong, elastic, and not easily parted by rubbing. To prepare the warp, two threads of raw silk are slightly twisted. Twist is always put into yarn of any kind to increase its strength. These threads are united and twisted together and this makes a strong thread capable of withstanding any reasonable strain in the loom and it will not roughen. For the woof or tram which is carried across the woven cloth on the shuttle, the thread should be as loose and fluffy as possible. Several threads are put together, subjected to only a very slight twist—just enough to llold the threads together so they will lie evenly in the finished fabric. * After the yarn leaves the spinners it is again run off on reels to be taken to the dye house. First the yarn is boiled off in soapy water to remove the remaining gum. Now the silk takes on its luster. Before it was dull like cotton. The silk is now finer and harder and is known as “souple.” The silk fiber has a remarkable property of absorb- ing certain metallic salts, still retaining much of its SILK 57 luster. This process is known as “loading” or “weight- ing,” and gives increased body and weight to the silk. Silk without weighting is known as “pure dye,” of which there is little made, as such goods take too much silk. REELING SILK For the weighting of white or light colored silk goods, tin crystals (stanous chloride) are used and for dark shades and black, iron salts and tannin. By this means the original weight of the fiber may be increased three or four hundred per cent. This result is not attained, however, except through the weakening of the fiber. 58 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Action of Common Salt Artificial Silk Character- istics of Silk Value of Raw Fibers Common salt has a very curious action on weighted silk. It slowly weakens the fiber. A silk dress may be ruined by being splashed with salt water at the sea- shore. Most often holes appear after a dress comes back from the cleaners; these he may not be to blame for, as salt is abundant in nearly all the bodily secre- tions,—tears, perspiration, urine. Artificial silk is made by dissolving cellulose ob- tained from cotton. It is lacking in strength and water spoils all kinds manufactured at present. Silk, like wool, has the property of absorbing con- siderable moisture without becoming perceptibly damp. Like wool and all the animal fibers, it is harmed by alkalis. The important physical properties of silk are its beautiful luster, strength, elasticity and the readi- ness with which it takes dyes. Silk combines well with other fibers, animal and vegetable. A comparison of the relative value of textile fibers may be seen from the following approximate prices: Cotton—$o7 to $.14 per pound; loss in cleaning and bleaching 5 per cent. Flax—$.12 to $30 per pound; loss in cleaning and bleaching about 20 per cent. Wool—$.15 to $.30 per pound; loss in scouring 20 to 60 per cent. - Raw Silk—$7.00 to $10.00 per pound; loss in “boiling off” about 30 per cent which is made up and much more by “loading.” MODERN METHODS All the complex processes and machinery of the textile industry are but developments of the old-time methods of the home. Brief outlines only will be given here for the processes are most intricate in detail. SPINNING The spinning of cotton yarn (thread) is typical of all the fibers. The stages may be divided into— Opening and picking. Carding. Combing. Drawing. Spinning. : The picking and carding have for their object the removal of all foreign substances with as little damage to the fiber as possible. The foreign substances in cotton are sand, dirt, pieces of leaves, seed, husk, etc., which have become mixed with the fiber during the process of growing, ginning and transportation. The cotton bales are opened and thrown into the automatic feeder which carries up a layer of cotton on a spiked apron from which it is removed by a rapidly revolving “doffer” underneath which is a screen which catches some of the dirt. It is next fed between rolls in front of a rapidly revolving blunt-edged knife which throws out more of the dirt through a screen. There is a suction of air through the screen which helps remove the foreign substances. The cotton passes Picking and Carding Cleaning 69 60 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Carding Combing through several of such machines, being formed into a soft web or “lap” which is wound into a roll. The carding machine further cleans the fibers and lays them in a general parallel position. From this machine the web is formed into “sliver,” a loose rope COTTON OPENER AND PICKER The cotton from the bale is thrown into A, carried #. the spiked aprons R and C, evened by E, removed from the apron by F (some of the dirt falls through the screen into box C) is beaten by the revolving “knife,” N. P. more dirt being removed through screen N, then goes through the flue c.to the next machine. of cotton fiber about two inches in diameter. This is received in circular cans. The combing is omitted for short fiber cotton, but is used in worsted spinning and with long staple cotton to remove the short fibers. Cotton to be used for SPINNING 61 making yarn suitable for hosiery, underwear, sewing thread, lace, and for very fine cotton fabrics is carded. In drawing, from six to sixteen “slivers” are run together and the fibers drawn out in several stages until the soft rope is about an eighth of an inch in diameter, called “roving.” This tends to get rid of any unevenness and makes the fibers all parallel. From this machine the roving is wound on a bobbin ready for the spinning frame. COTTON CARD The roll of webbing A is, beaten and transferred to the cylinder H. H. carded by the spiked belt. E, removed by the “doffer” and forme into a “sliver” which runs into the can M. The spinning frame may have a hundred spindles or more, each one of which is drawing out its supply of “roving” to the required size of yarn and giving it the twist necessary to bind the fibers together. The yarn to be used for the warp is given a harder twist so that it may be strong enough to stand the strain in weaving. The yarn for filling is usually left soft. Spinning RECEIVING THE “SLIVER” AT THE BACR OF THE DRAW- ING FRAME. # A FLY SPINNING FRAME The Spools of Roving Above Are Being Drawn . Out, Given the Twist by the Fliers, and Wound on Bobbins Below. MULE DRAWING AND SPINNING FRAME' Always used for wool, Part of the machine moves away from the frame, thus drawing out the thread, which is then twisted. WEAVING 69 The yarn for warp is now usually given a coating or “sizing” of starch and gums so that the thread may not become unwound and break during weaving. The process of spinning is much the same for flax and for wool, although somewhat differently con- structed machines must be used. Flax is usually spun Wet. WEAVING The modern power driven loom is a wonderful piece of machinery. The principle of its operation is essen- tially the same as the hand loom, but it is almost per- fectly automatic in its action, a man or woman being able to tend from ten to fifteen looms weaving plain cotton goods. The yarn coming from the spinning frame is some- times dyed before weaving. The warp is formed by winding as many threads as the width of the fabric is to contain on a slowly revolving drum, called a “beam,” in the same relative position in which they are to ap- pear in the finished cloth. From its position on the beam at the back of the loom, each thread is brought through its particular loop or eye with the heddle, then passes through its own slot in the reed, and down to the roller or “cloth beam” that is to take up the woven cloth. This is called “drawing in the warp.” If there is a piece of cloth coming from the loom, the work is very simple, for the ends of the new warp are tied to the ends remaining from the warp that has been woven out. Modern Loom Warping 7o TEXTILES AND CLOTHING. The shuttle with its bobbin, containing the yarn of the filling, is much the same as is used in the hand looms, except for form and size, which varies accord- ing to the requirements and size of the warp being used. At first only one shuttle was used, but in 1760 Robert Kay invented a mechanism by which several shuttles containing different grades or colors of yarn might be used. Each throw of the shuttle across the width of the goods is called a “pick.” *: In making a cloth with plain weave, that is, with every thread interlacing with every other, as in darn- ing, only two harnesses are required, but the modern loom may have up to about twenty-four harnesses so that an infinite variety of weaves may be obtained. Various cams and levers move the harness frame and so raise or lower the threads required for the design. Jacquard The Jacquard loom is arranged on a different prin- Loom - - - ciple. In this loom, all kinds of fancy weaves may be obtained as in table linen, tapestries and carpets. Each warp thread is supplied with a separate hook and by means of perforated card the desired threads are raised or depressed at each throw of the shuttle. The cards are worked out by the designer. A set of a thousand or more cards may be required to produce the desired design. Jacquard looms are sometimes to be seen at fairs and expositions weaving handkerchiefs with some picture design. JACQUARD HAND LOOM Weaving Ingrain Carpet at Hull House. WEAVES The great variety of weaves found in the textiles of to-day are modifications of a few fundamental weaves invented in the earliest times. The chief fundamental weaves are: (I) Plain weave. (2) Twills. (3) Sateen. To which may be added the derivatives— (4) Rib weave. (5) Basket weave. These do not include the many fancy weaves, too "'" # H # #. | # '#' # ##########, ########### ############## UU 88U U U UU BU * D1AGRAM OF FANCY KNIT GOODS numerous to classify, and the open work weaves, made in the Leno loom, in which some of the threads are crossed. Knit goods are made by the interlooping of a single thread, by hand or on circular knitting ma-. 72 WEAVES 73 chines and lace by an analogous process, using severa' systems of threads. Felt is made up of matted fibers of fur and wool and has no thread structure. *… % 'w - ****T* Cessimere Twill |- 12), "... Aft| "... Till Mill ill- !...". "I'll "... .IM|| || |- ): ...". L.').", III | | : !'...". | "... […]." # 4 × 2 % 2 "… Lyle". All I'... I | ". || ". - l, Lil % s | %| #22% Z|Z **** * Ż'z < * | # 2. Saúeen WEAWE DIAGRAMS The plain weave is the mo st common, nearly all light weight goods being thus woven. In plain weav- ing, each thread of both warp and filling passes alter- nately over and under the threads at right angles. This makes a comparatively open cloth, requiring the Plain Weave 74 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Twills smallest amount of yarn for the surface covered. This weave is used in nearly all cotton goods, as in muslins, sheetings, calicoes, ginghams, and thin woolen goods. Even in the plain weave variety is obtained by having d SECTIONS OF WEAVES a--Plain weave; b–Prunella twill; c-Cassimere twill; d-Swans. own twill. | some of the threads larger than others, either in warp or filling or both, thus producing stripes and checked effects. After the plain weave the twill is the most common, being much used for dress goods, suitings, etc., as well as some of the thicker cottons. In this weave the intersections of the threads produce characteristic lines diagonally across the fabric, most often at an angle of 45°. The twill may be hardly visible or very WEAVES' 75 pronounced. The simplest twills are the so-called “doeskin" and “prunella.” In the doeskin the filling threads pass over one and under two of the warp threads and in the prunella twill over two and under one. The most common twill is the cassimere twill in which both the warp and filling run over two and under two of the threads at right angles. Double Cloth. Be-sket DLAGRAM OF RIB AND BASKET WEAVE AND DOUBLE CLOTH A twill made by running both warp and filling under one and over three threads is called a swansdown twill and the reverse is known as the crow weave. In these the diagonal twilled effect is much more marked. Various twills are often combined with each other and with plain weave, making a great variety of texture. Numerous uneven twills are made, two over and three under, etc., etc. Uneven Twills 76 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Sateen In the sateen weave, nearly all of either the warp or weave the filling threads are on the surface, the object being to produce a smooth surface fabric like sateen. With TEXTILE DESIGN A-On cross-section paper; B–Graphic diagram. this weave it is possible to use a cotton warp and silk filling, having most of the silk appear on the surface of the fabric. *: # The rib and basket weaves are derivatives of the 8, Ske weaves plain weave, two or more threads replacing the single WEAVES 77 strand. In the rib weave, either the warp or the fill- ing threads run double or more, thus making a corded effect. In the basket weave, both warp and filling are run double or treble, giving a coarse texture. This weave is sometimes called the panama weave. In the thicker fabrics like men's suitings and over- coatings, there may be a double series of warp threads, only one series appearing on the face of the goods, and in the still thicker fabrics, there may be a double set of both warp and filling threads, making double cloth, the two sides of which may be entirely different in color and design. In weaving plush, velvet and velveteen, loops are made in the filling or warp threads which are after- wards cut, producing the pile. Double Cloth Velvet Madder Bleach Singeing all Bhearing BLEACHING, DYEING, PRINTING, FINISHING When the cloth comes from the loom it is by no means ready for the market. Nearly all kinds are washed and pressed and in some classes of goods the finishing process is very elaborate. BLEACHING AND DYEING The fiber may be dyed in a loose or unspun state, as is customary with wool; after it has been spun and is in the form of yarn, as in the case of silk and linen; and when it has been woven to form cloth, as is most commonly the case with cotton. The bleaching of cotton involves a number of steps, the most thorough process being called the “madder bleach,” in which the cloth is (1) wet out, (2) boiled with lime water, (3) rinsed, (4) treated with acid, (5) rinsed, (6) boiled with soap and alkali, (7) rinsed, (8) treated with bleaching powder solution, (9) rinsed, (10) treated with acid, (11) finally rinsed again. All this is done by machines and hundreds of yards go through the process at a time. The product is a pure white cloth suitable for dyeing light shades and for white goods. When cloth is to be dyed a dark shade the treatment is less elaborate. If the cloth is to be printed for calicoes, before bleaching it is singed by passing through gas flames or over a red hot plate and then sheared in a shearing machine constructed somewhat on the principle of the 78 DYEING 79 lawn mower, the cloth being run close to the rapidly revolving knives. Although cotton is usually dyed in the piece, it may be dyed in the form of yarn, as for ginghams, and sometimes before being woven, in the loose state. Cotton is more difficult to dye than wool or silk. Although there are now what are called “direct” cotton colors, the usual process is to first treat the cotton goods with a “mordant”—various salts of aluminum, chromium, iron, tin and copper, fixing these on the fiber by means of tannin or alkali. The mordanted cloth is then entered into the dye bath and boiled for an hour or longer, until the desired shade is obtained or the dye bath exhausted. The salts of aluminum are used as mordants for the lighter shades, the salts of chromium for the medium shades, and iron for the dark shades. In general, chromium mordants give the fastest dyes. The discovery of the so-called aniline dyes has greatly increased the variety of colors available. Al- though some of the first aniline dyes to be made were not fast to washing or to light and they thus received a bad reputation, they are now to be obtained which compare favorably in fastness with the natural dye stuffs such as cochineal, madder, etc., provided suf- ficient time and care are given to dyeing. The chief trouble is that in the endeavor to furnish cheap goods, processes are hurried and results are unsatisfactory. Mordant Colors Aniline Dyes 80 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Home IDyeing Natural Dyestuffs Dyeing Woolen and Silk Home dyeing is practically confined to the use of direct aniline colors. These are put up in small quan- tities and sold in many places. Directions for their use are given on the packages. The chief precautions are to have the goods perfectly clean and thoroughly wet before entering into the dye bath (this is by no means as easy as one might think), and to keep the goods in motion while dyeing so as to prevent un- evenness of shade. Wool and silk dyes cannot be used for cotton and linen, nor the reverse. Of course cloth already colored cannot be dyed a lighter shade of the same color and the original shade must be very light to enable one to change the color, say from red to blue, etc. The original color always modifies that of the dye somewhat and it is best to experiment first with a small portion of the dye and cloth. Rather dark shades are apt to be most successful. Indigo for blue, madder for Turkey red, logwood with fustic for black, cutch or gambia for browns on cotton are about all the natural dyestuffs which are used to any extent commercially at the present time. The artificial product alizerin, the active principle of madder, has about superseded the natural dyestuff, and artificial indigo is gaining on the natural product. Linen is bleached and dyed in much the same man- ner as cotton. This weakens linen more than cotton and the finest table linens are whitened by grass bleaching or a combination of grass and chemical bleach. Woolen and silk may be dyed directly with a great variety of dyes without the addition of a mordant, FINISHING 83 FINISHING The finishing of woolen and worsted goods has much to do with their appearance. No cloth comes from the loom in a perfect condition, therefore inspection is the first process. Loose threads and knots are carefully cut off by the “burler” and imperfections in the weav- ing rectified by the “menders.” The goods may now be singed and sheared. Woolens, and sometimes worsteds, are next “fulled” or felted by being run round and round in a machine while moistened with soap. The friction of the cloth on itself produces some heat which, with the mois- ture and soap, causes the goods to shrink in length and width while increasing in thickness. During this proc- ess, “flocks” are often added, especially for smooth finished woolen goods. These flocks are fine fibers of wool obtained from the shearing machine or made by cutting up old woolen cloth. They are felted with the fibers of the goods and add weight and firmness. After the fulling, the goods is washed to remove the soap, dyed, if desired, and often “speck dyed” with a special dye which colors the bits of burs, remaining in the cloth, but not the wool. The next process is the “gigging” which raises the nap. The cloth is run close to rapidly revolving “teazels” and also may be run through a napping machine. It may be sheared again and then steamed and pressed. This is but a brief outline; there are generally more processes. Woolen cloth coming from the loom may be so Burling and Mending Fulling Flocks Raising the Nap 84 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING treated in the finishing room as to produce fabrics entirely different in appearance. One of the chief ob- jects of the finishing is to give to the cloth as fine an appearance as possible to attract the buyer. Much of the fine finish disappears through wear, especially with inferior goods made from poor materials. The wear- ing quality of the goods is primarily dependent upon the strength and quality of the fibers of which it is made, so that the yarn of the filling and the warp should be examined when selecting materials. In gen- eral, hard twisted yarn will give the better wearing cloth. FABRICS The present day shops offer such a great variety of fabrics that only a few of the most important can be mentioned here. COTTON GOODS Cotton is cool and heavy, is a non-conductor of heat, crushes easily, but like all vegetable fibers it may be laundered without injury to the fibers. Cotton does not take the darker dyes as well as animal fibers and for this reason it does not combine satisfactorily with wool. As an adulterant it wears shabby and loses its brightness. It is only when cotton does not pretend to be anything else that it is our most useful and dur- able textile. The readiness with which cotton takes the lighter dyes and improved methods of ginning, spinning, and weaving have made cotton goods supe- rior to any other for summer use. Muslin, calico, and gingham must always head the list of cotton goods. Muslin is coarse and fine, bleached, unbleached, and half bleached, twilled or plain weave. Under the head of muslin brought to a high degree of perfection in weave and finish will be found dimity, mull, Indian lawn, organdie, Swiss, and Madras, and a host of others equally beautiful. Mad- ras muslin has a thin, transparent ground with a heav- ily raised pattern woven of a soft, thick thread unlike the ground work. Waste is used for the pattern. Or- gandie muslin is soft, opaque, white, or colored, with Muslin 85 86 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING raised dots of pattern and plain weave. Dimity has a fine cord running with the selvage. Gingham is a smooth, close cotton usually woven in checks or stripes. The yarn is dyed before being woven, making the cloth alike on both sides, and the weave is either plain or twilled. Ginghams are also woven of silk and cotton mixed or of silk and ramie. Cretonne, chintz, dress linings, crape, velveteen, and lace are made of cotton. Flannelette, which is woven to imitate flannel, is soft and light and is preferred by many who find woolen irritating. It does not shrink as woolen does and is made in beautiful, soft colors and the best grades do not fade. For nightdresses, underwear, and sheets, during cold weather this inexpensive fabric is unequaled. Among the heavier cotton fabrics may be mentioned denim and ticking which are now printed in beautiful designs and colors and used for interior decoration as well as for clothing and bedding. The great variety of fibers, the many different ways of preparing each for manufacture, the differences in the preparatory processes in spinning, weaving, or in any of the later processes of finishing produce the varied appearance of the finished product in cotton as in other fabrics. LINENS Linen is one of the oldest textiles; it was used by the early Egyptians for the priests' garments and for LINENS 87 the wrappings of mummies. Many housekeepers think that there is no material for sheets and pillow cases comparable to linen, but it is not an ideal dressing for beds, for in spite of its heavier body, it wrinkles and musses much more readily than good cotton. For table service, however, for the toilet, and for minor ornamental purposes linen has no equal. Its smooth- ness of texture, its brilliancy which laundering in- creases, its wearing qualities, its exquisite freshness, make it the one fabric fit for the table. Table linen is woven plain and figured, checked and diapered. In the figured or damask cloth the patterns stand out distinctly. This is due to the play of light and shade on the horizontal and vertical lines. In some lights the pattern is scarcely noticeable. When buy- ing a cloth, let it be between the observer and the light, for in this position the pattern will show to the best advantage. There is a certain amount of shade on all horizontal lines or of shadow cast by them, while the vertical lines are illuminated, thus although the warp and woof threads are of the same color, the pattern seems to stand out from the background. Linen should not be adulterated. It should be for use and not for show, for use brightens and whitens it. Linen adulterated with cotton becomes fuzzy through wear because of the much shorter cotton fibers. The tendency can often be seen by rolling the goods between the thumb and fingers. Table Linen 88 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Standard Goods Tweeds Crash of different widths and quality furnishes tea towels, “huck,” damask and other weaves come in vari- ous widths and may be purchased by the yard. Russia crash is best for kitchen towels. WOOLENS AND WorSTEDS The many grades of wool with the great variety of weaves and finish make an almost infinite variety of woolen and worsted fabrics. New goods are con- stantly being put upon the market, or old goods with new names. Standard goods, such as serges, cashmere, Henrietta cloth, and covert cloth, are always to be found in the shops. These are all twilled goods. The serges are woven of combed wool and are harsh, tough, springy, worsted fabrics of me- dium and heavy weight, with a distinct twill, rather smooth surface, and plainer back. There are also loosely woven serges. Cashmere and Henrietta cloth have a fine, irregular twill—the finest made. They are woven with silk, wool, and cotton warp, but the latter gives an inferior textile. Tweeds and homespuns are names given to coarse cloth of which the wool is spun by hand and woven on hand looms. These goods vary according to the lo- cality in which they are made. The wool is mixed without regard to color, the yarn being spun and twisted in the most primitive manner, giving the cloth an uneven, unfinished appearance. These are among the best wearing cloths on the market and are espe- WOOLENS AND WORSTEDS 89 cially suitable for suits that will receive hard wear. Scotland and Ireland are famous for their tweeds and homespuns and what are known as the “cottage indus- tries” have been recently revived in those countries as the products of their hand looms have become de- servedly popular abroad. The “Harris Tweeds,” made on the Island of Lewis and Harris, north of Scotland, are in the old style by the “crofters.” After weaving the goods are “waulked”—milled or felted—with the bare feet, ac- companied by singing the waulking song and beating time with the feet. The dyeing is done in pots in the old-fashioned way and until recently the dyestuffs were obtained from mosses, lichens, heather, broom, and other plants. Now, however, some of the best aniline dyes are being used. A peculiar characteristic of the Harris tweed is the peat smoke smell caused by the fabric being woven in the crofters' cottages, where there is always a strong odor of peat “reek” from the peat which is burned for fuel. The ordinary so-called Harris tweeds sold in this country are made on the southern border of Scotland, in factories, and are but imitations of the real Harris tweeds. The light colored tweeds—natural color of wool— come from the island of St. Kilda. This island stands out in mid ocean, barren and wild, devoid of plants or shrubs of any kind for making dyes. The crofters content themselves without dyestuffs. The industry Harris Tweeds 90 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Mohair Alpaca Loading Silk is maintained by nobility to help the islanders and the fabrics are fashionable and high priced. The foregoing represent the worsteds. Among the heavy woolens are covert cloth, a twilled fabric of hard finish and great durability, melton, doeskin, broadcloth and cassimeres. The light weight woolen goods are represented by crepe cloth, with crinkled, rough surface, nun's veiling, flannel, which is woven in many ways and given various names, wool canvas, and poplins. The list might be extended, but these fabrics are always to be found in the shops of good color and are the best of the all wool fabrics for wear. Mohair is a material made from the hair of the angora goat, woven with silk, wool, worsted, or cotton warp. It is a dust-shedding material, does not shrink, and bears hard wear well. Alpaca, on account of its softness, elasticity, and exemption from shaggy defects, combines admirably with cotton in the manufacture of fine goods, which attains almost the glossy brightness of silk. The yarn is used for weaving alpaca linings and light coatings for warm climates. SILKS Many silks can be washed without injury to the fi- bers, but they cannot be boiled without destroying the luster. Silks may be had in various widths and end- less variety of weaves. Many are reversible. Silks are adulterated with cotton and ramie fibers. The chemicals used in “loading” or “dynamiting” to give the weight lost by cleaning or removing the gum SILKS 9I from the raw silk give to the cheaper grades the stiff, harsh feeling and cause the splitting and cracking of the silk, hence the quality of the fiber should be con- sidered when selecting a silk, not the weight. Taffeta is often heavily loaded. Foulard and surah are twilled silks. Corded silks are woven with a cord running from selvage to selv- age. To this class belong the grosgrains, Ottoman, faille Francaise—a silk resembling grosgrain, but softer and brighter. Irish poplins and bengalines have wool for the filling instead of silk. Great improvement has been made in the manufac- ture of wash silks. They are fine in color and have a glossy surface. Pongee is a beautiful, durable silk in different shades of natural color. It is woven in dif- ferent widths. This silk is especially valuable for un- derwear. The first cost is greater, but it outwears muslin or linen. It is also used for children's gar- ments and for outside wraps. For many purposes, no better textile can be found. Crepe de Chine is an incomparable textile possess- ing as much softness as strength. It is always supple, never creases, launders well, and comes in the most beautiful soft shades as well as in black and dark colors. Satin is distinguished by its glossy, lustrous surface, obtained in the weaving. | Piled fabrics are rich, thick materials made of silk, wool, mohair, and cotton, comprising the velvets, vel- veteens, plushes, corduroys, and wilton and velvet car- Wash |Silks Piled Fabrics FABRICS 93 than silk velvet, are fine and silky, excellent in color and sheen, launder well, and do not press-mark as does silk velvet. Velveteen takes the dye so beautifully and finishes so well that it has taken rank with our best standard fabrics. It is made entirely of cotton. It varies in width but is always wider than velvet. A knowledge of the various widths of textiles is im- portant in buying. Transparent fabrics are usually wider than heavier goods made of the same fiber. Muslin is wider than calico, or ordinary print, and thin silk fabrics such as mull and chiffon are wider than velvet. In wool dress goods various distinct widths are known as single—thirty and thirty-six inches—double fold (forty-five and fifty-four inches), etc. Silk, vel- vet, and velveteen are single width. The velvet ranges from eighteen to twenty-four inches in width and vel- veteen twenty-seven. Bodice linings vary from thirty- five to thirty-eight inches; skirt linings come in both single and double fold. Household linen including bedding varies in width from one yard to two and one-fourth and two and one- half yards for sheeting and from thirty-eight to fifty- four inches for pillow case muslin. Table linen is woven in both square and circular cloths of various sizes, and napkins vary in width from the small sizes to a yard square. No fixed widths can be given for any textile as width often changes with the weave. Widths of Fabrics FABRICS 95 for her beautiful textiles, outstripped all other places for beauty of design and gave the Damascen or da- mask, so we have in modern times all fabrics whether of silk, cotton, wool, or linen, curiously woven and designed, known as damask, and diaper, which means pattern, is almost forgotten, or only a part of the elab- orate design on damask. Bandekin, a costly cloth, took its name from Bagdad. Dorneck an inferior damask woven of silk, wool, linen, thread and gold, was made in Flanders at the city of Dorneck. From the Asiatic city Mosul came the muslin used then as it is now throughout the world. So skilled were its weavers that the threads were of hair-like fineness. This was known as the invisible muslin, the weaving of which has become a lost art. To this beau- tiful cloth were given many fanciful and poetic names. It was woven with strips of gold and silver. Calico derives its name from the city of Calicut in India. The city is scarcely known to-day; it was the first Indian city visited by Europeans. In the thirteenth century Arras was famous for its areste or tapestry, “the noblest of the weaving arts”; in it there is nothing mechanical. Mechanical weaving repeats the pattern on the cloth within comparatively narrow limits and the number of colors is in most cases limited to four or five. * . . Silks and cottons are distinguished through their colors and shades. Tarsus was a purple silk. Other cities gave their name to various shades, according as Muslin Calico 96 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING they were dyed at Antioch, Alexandria, or at Naples. Watered or moire silk takes its name from the finish. From “canabis,” the Latin name for hemp or flax, we have the word “canvas” to mean any texture woven of hempen thread. To this list of fabrics might be added many others of cotton, linen, wool, and silk with new names, closely resembling the old materials, having greater or less merit. The following lists of fabrics and terms may be help- ful for reference: Art linen—With round, hard twisted threads. “Albert cloth”—Named for England's prince, is a reversible all-wool material each side of different colors and so finished that no lining is required. It is used chiefly for overcoats and better known as “golf cloth,” “plaid back,” etc. Armure—A cloth woven in miniature imitation of feudal metal armor plates, heraldic devices, diamonds, birdseye, and seeded effects. Astrakhan—A woolen or silk material with a long and closely curled pile in imitation of the fur from which it is named. Backed-cloth worsteds or other fabrics which are woven with an extra layer of warp or other filling underneath the face, usually for increased weight and bulk. Batiste—The French word for lawn, fine white cotton or linen fabric. Sometimes printed. Batting or padding, cotton or wool prepared in sheets for quilting or interlining. Beaver—Similar to Kersey, but with a longer nap, soft, thick nap inside. Bedford cord—A closely woven woolen or cotton cloth having a raised corded surface similar to pique, used for women's suits. Bonde—A loosely woven fabric with a curly, hairy surface, usually made with a jersey or stockinet body. FABRICS 97 Bourette—An effect of weaving produced by fancy yarns showing in lumps at intervals over the face of the cloth; used for women's and children's suits. Beverteen—A heavy cotton cloth used for men's hunting garments. - Broadcloth—A fine woolen cloth with a glossy finished surface, the better grades being woven with a twilled back. It takes its name from its width. It is used for men's and women's wear. Buckram—A coarse, heavy, plain-woven linen or cotton ma- terial used for stiffening. Buckskin—A stout doe skin with a more defined twill. Butternut—The coarse brown twilled homespun cloth woven of wool prior to the Civil War—colored brown with dye from the butternut or walnut tree; used for men's wear and for decorative purposes. Cambric—Fine white linen, also made in cotton in imitation. Camel's hair—A beautiful, soft, silky fabric, usually woven like cheviot of hair of camel and goat. Canvas—A linen, cotton, silk, or wool cloth of different weaves and widths, used for many purposes—clothing, as a background for embroidery, hangings, spreads, etc. Canton flannel—A stout, twilled cotton cloth with a nap on one or both sides, used for clothing and decorative pur- pOSes. Cassimere—A general term for all-wool fabrics woven either plain or twilled, coarse or fine, of woolen yarn. The pat- tern is always woven plain and distinct and the cloth is never napped. Castor Beaver—A heavy, milled, face-finished, all-wool cloth lighter in weight than ordinary beaver. Chinchilla—A thick, heavy, double woven fabric with a long napped surface curled up into little tufs in imitation of chinchilla fur; used for coats. Clan Tartan—The plaids of the various highland clans of Scotland. Clay—A name given to serges, worsteds, and diagonals woven after a process of J. & P. Clay of Haddersfield, Eng- land. Coating—Those woolen and worsted fabrics most especially adapted to men's dress and overcoats. 98 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Corduroy—A thick cotton pile material, corded or ribbed on the surface; used for men's, women's, and children's wear. Corkscrew-worsted goods—So-called from its fancied re- semblance to the twists of the corkscrew. C'. worsted—All cotton or part cotton worsted-wove cloth. Cottonade—Stout cotton cloth in imitation of woolen or worsted cloth; used for men's trousers. Covert—A twill-woven cloth sometimes with full face, some- times sheared to imitate whipcord. Crape cloth—A stout worsted fabric with surface in imitation of silk crape, used for dress coats. Crash—A strong, coarse linen cloth of different widths, used for towels, suits, table linen, hangings, bed spreads; in fact, there is no end to the uses to which this textile can be adapted. Cravenette—Cloths treated and finished before weaving by an improved process which renders them rainproof. A secret process owned by the Cravenette Company and by Priestly & Company of England and the United States. Crepe—A light weight silk, silk and wool, or all wool or cot- ton cloth of irregular weave. Diagonal—A worsted cloth with prominent diagonal ridges. Doeskin—A compact twilled woolen, soft and pliable. Drap D'Alma—A fine, close, flat-ribbed, twilled fabric of wool or silk and wool, finished on but one side. Drap D’Ete—A fine, light worsted fabric woven in longitudi- nal cords. Drilling—General term for various twilled cotton stuffs used for lining, men's wear, and general purposes. Empress cloth—A heavy dress goods with napped or corded surface, named for the Empress Eugenia; sometimes called Electrol cloth or Beretz. Etamine—A light woolen cloth similar to batiste and n:n’s cloth, used for women's and children's wear. * Faille Francaise—A soft, lustrous silk of wider cord than grosgrain, but narrower than ottoman. Farmer satin—A lining of cotton chain or warp and wool filling, finished with high lustre, also called Italian cloth. Flannel–A soft, light weight woolen fabric of which the yarn is but lightly twisted, plain weave or twilled; used for clothing, etc. FABRICS 99 Flannelette—A half cotton or all cotton flannel-like fabric. Frieze—A thick, shaggy, heavy nap woolen overcoat cloth. Gingham was first manufactured in Gonghamp in France and was known as Madras gingham. Seersucker’gingham was originally a thin linen fabric made in the East Indies. Zephyr gingham is a soft fine variety of Scotch and French ginghams, are superior qualities, heavier in weight. Fur Beaver—A long napped cloth imitation fur. Grass cloth—A fine, smooth, linen woven in checks of blue and white, red and white, etc., used for dish towels; also a thin dress material of ramie and cotton, etc. 3renadine—A thick silk gauze, either plain with a solid design or pattern upon it or combined in stripes with other weaves, as satin, moire, etc. Grosgrain—A close-woven, finely ribbed or corded silk with but little lustre. Haircloth—A cloth woven of horse hair, from which it takes its name, for weft with cotton or linen warp; used for facings, linings, furniture cover, etc. Holland—A stout, plain-woven, unbleached, linen cloth used for linings, window shades, etc. Homespun—A cloth woven on hand looms or made in imita- tion of such cloth for both men's and women's wear. Hop-sacking—A plain woven canvas dress fabric of wool. Huchaback—A corruption of huckster-back, meaning orig- inally pedler's ware—Toweling made of all linen, linen and cotton, cotton and wool, either by the yard or as separate towels; the part wool huck always separate towels. Irish linen—Full bleached, fine, plain woven linen used for shirts, collars, cuffs, etc., of different widths. Jersey cloth—Woolen stockinette. Kaikai—A thin Japanese silk. Kersey—A heavy, closely woven cloth with a smooth face and glossy finish. Kerseymere—A fine, twilled, woolen cloth of peculiar tex- ture, one thread of warp and two of woof being always above. Khaki—A light, yellow-brown colored cotton cloth used for army service in hot countries. Ladies' cloth—A fine, wide, wool flannel, slightly napped, similar to broadcloth. FABRICS IOt Satin—A silk fabric having a high lustre on its face. Satinet—A cheap clothing material similar to cassimere, made with a cotton warp and a filling of short, inferior, shoddy wool which is mixed with enough long wool to enable it to be spun and woven in a way to bring that filling to the surface of the cloth; afterwards fulled, sheared, and the pattern printed on the face. Serge—A lining of cotton or linen warp and a wool, or mohair filling, woven three-leaf twill. Serge—A fine, diagonal, twilled, worsted—both all worsted and with a worsted warp and woolen filling; used for men's and women's suits. Shetlands—Very shaggy overcoatings, named from the Shet- land pony, the coat of which it is supposed to imitate in appearance. Shoddy—Waste thrown off in spinning—shredded rags, and bits of cloth manipulated into new cloth. Sicilian—A mohair fabric. Silesia—A light, close-woven, fine twilled cotton fabric used for dress linings, etc. Stockinet—A plain, elastic texture made on a knitting frame, used for underwear, etc. Surah—A twilled silk similar to serge; first made in Surat, India. Tricot—A double-twill cloth having both a warp and filling effect. Tweed—Much like homespun in appearance, both being either twilled or plain. They are made from rough worsted yarn spun at home. In tweed the yarn is harder twisted, giving a more distinct twill. It is generally more compact, less rough, and better finished than homespun. Uniform cloth—Cloth suitable for uniforms, usually a stout, fulled, woolen cloth, similar to kersey. Venetian—A cloth milled and cropped bare in finish. Vicuna—A soft twilled cloth similar to cheviot, made of the Andes vicuna, hence its name. Whipcord—A worsted cloth having a small, prominent twill. Yacht cloth—A flannel heavier than ordinary serge or flan- nel. IO2 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Cord–The general term is applied to any fabric in which the lines run in the same direction as the selvage. Count—In spinning, the number given to any thread or yarn, except silk, to indicate its relative fineness, based on the number of yards required to weigh one pound. Felt—A cloth of wool, hair, fur, etc., not woven, but felted together; used for hats, slippers, boot tops, etc. Flock—Finely divided woolen waste used in finishing cheap woolens. Kemps—Fibers of hair like structure that sometimes come in wool, always in goat hair. They do not take the dye. Mercerized—A term applied to cotton fabrics of which the yarn is chemically treated with a strong solution of caustic soda, giving the appearance of silk, more or less permanent; named after Mercer, discoverer of the process. Mill ends—Trade term referring to short lengths, seconds, damaged pieces, etc., of cloth, embroideries, etc., that ac- cumulate in mills and shops and are usually sold at a nominal price. Narrow cloth—Trade term for fabrics less than 29 inches wide. Wider cloths are called broad cloths. Oil-boiled—Trade term for colors so treated to insure per- 1manence. Oiled silk—The plain silk boiled in oil. Silk boiled in oil and dried, becoming translucent and waterproof; used as a perspiration guard. Pepper-and-salt—A black and white or grayish mixture, ef- fected in weaving. Rubber cloth—Usually cotton sheeting or drilling with a coating of rubber on one side; used as protective cloth for various purposes. Shepherd check—Tiny checks, usually black and white. Twilled—Woven in such a manner as to produce lines or ribs diagonally or across the surface of the fabric. Woolens—Name of fabrics of carded wool, usually soft Woven. Worsteds–Fabrics made of combed wool, usually hard woven. The combing is the process of arranging the fibers of wool, mohair, cotton, linen, into a parallel con- dition, preparatory to spinning into a smooth, even and regular yarn. The perfected application of the combing principle. BIBLIOGRAPHY ON TEXTILES Historical and Art Arts and Crafts Essays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $1.00 Morris, Crane, et al. Postage .Io Colonial Days in Old New England . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I.25 Alice Morse Earle. Postage , 12 The Primitive Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I.25 Starcke. Postage . I2 Man Before Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I.75 Joly. Postage .I4 Origin of Inventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I.50 Mason. Postage 16 Woman's Share in Primitive Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I.75 Mason. Postage .16 Textiles—The Lesser Arts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I.OO William Morris. Postage .IO Industrial Evolution of the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . I.25 Carroll D. Wright. Postage .16 Technical Books Through a special arrangement with the American School of Correspondence we are able to lend or sell to our students some of their textile books, which are technical though simple. Price 50 cents per part, postage 4c. Textile Chemistry and Dyeing 4 Parts. Part I. Textile Fibers. Part II. Bleaching. Part III. Mordants and Natural Dyes. Part IV. Artificial Dyestuffs. Cotton Fiber. Cotton Spinning. 5 Parts. Weaving. 3 Parts. 103 IO4 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Textile Design. 5 Parts. Woolen and Worsted Spinning. 4 Parts. Woolen and Worsted Finishing. 4 Parts. Textile Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $3.50 Mathews. Postage .16 Textile Fabrics ...................................... .90 Rock. Postage .08 Dyeing of Textile Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I.75 Hummell. Postage .12 Bleaching and Calico Printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.00 Duerr. - Postage .I4 Note.—Books may be ordered through the School or may be borrowed by members for one week. Send postage with request. U. S. Government Publication Free of the Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.: Flax for Seed and Fiber, Farmers' Bulletin No. 27. Cotton Seed and Its Products, Farmers' Bulletin No. 36. Raising Sheep, Farmers' Bulletin No. 96. The Angora Goat, Farmers' Bulletin No. 137. Silk Worm Culture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 165. Essential Steps in Securing an Early Crop of Cotton, Farmers’ Bulletin No. 217. The Cotton Seed Industry, Reprint No. 239. The Hemp Industry in U. S., Reprint No. 254. Improvement of Cotton by Seed . Selection, Reprint No 279. The Growing of Long-Staple Upland Cotton, Reprint No. 314. Principal Commercial Plant Fibers, Reprint No. 321. TEXTILES AND CLOTHING I2. I3. I4. I5. I6. 17. I8. I9. 2O. 2I. (a) What is the chief constituent of the vege- table fibers? (b) How does their affinity for dyestuffs compare with wool and silk? (c) How do the alkalies affect wool? Describe the principal weaves and give examples of each. (a) How are cotton and flax bleached? (b) What is a mordant? (c) How should mate- rial be prepared for dyeing? (d) State what you know about old time methods of dyeing. How are print goods made? Name some print- ed fabrics. Define woolens and worsteds. Describe the finishing of woolen and worsted cloths. What is noil; shoddy; felt; flocks? With what dress goods have you had experience, and with what results? What factors determine the use of fabrics? Of what value is the study of textiles? What have you gained by the study of this lesson? Note.—After completing the test sign your full name. Textiles and Clothing Part II EMBROIDERED INITIALS IV and L—Sewed on initials; B-Satin stitch in wreath of feather stitches; C–Outline and seed work; D-Chain and French knots; H – Cross stitch; L–Chain; H-At the right, and the cross stitch H are made over canvas and the canvas threads drawn. IO8 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Ornamental Stitches Sasting Tucking The ornamental stitches most frequently used are (1) outline, (2) chain, (3) cat or herringbone, (4) blanket or loop, (5) feather, coral or briar, (6) hem- stitching, (7) French knots, (8) button hole, and (9) cross stitch. Excepting the cross stitch, these are all variations of the plain and button hole stitches. The plain stitches may be used for ornamental pur- poses. The basting stitch is known as Queen Anne darned work. The back stitch, known as “seed work,” is used in embroidering letters and monograms. The overhand stitch is used as an ornamental stitch for joining selvages and in hemming. The chain stitch, besides being ornamental, makes one of the best darning stitches, reproducing the stitch in knitting. The cat stitch is also useful in binding down open seams for flannel hems, patching, etc. (1) Basting proper is used only in the preparation of work to hold the stuff and lining, or any two or more parts of the work together while it is being stitched, none being left in the finished garment. It is also used as a guide for sewing, feather stitching, etc. The slanting basting stitch or “tacking” is used in dressmaking for holding linings. The needle is pointed towards the worker. Even basting is used for holding several thicknesses of cloth and if the garment is to be fitted, the stitches should be placed rather close. Un- even basting is used for hems and seams to be machine stitched. Several short stitches with one long one are STITCHES AND THEIR USES I09 used to baste crape and wiry fabrics, for this method holds them better than stitches of equal length. All basting should be fastened at start with a knot Fastening or knot and back stitch and finished with two or three "" back stitches. The length of thread may be broken or BASTING STITCHES a—Even; 5-Uneven;, c-For wiry fabrics; d-Tacking; e—Over- casting; f-Double or tailor overcasting. cut from the spool, but should always be cut from the work. Breaking weakens the fastening and biting off soils delicate work with the moisture from the breath, to say nothing of the injury to the teeth. Basting for large work should usually be done with the goods ly- ing flat on the sewing table. IIo TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Drawing For ordinary work, basting threads should be cut Basting • £ every few inches and drawn out. In velvet, every al- ternate stitch should be cut and drawn out on the right side with the pile of the goods. In the basting for vel- vet where the slanting stitch is used, only one end of the stitch touches the line of the seam—the rest is on the outside of the seam. Silk thread should be used POSITION OF THE HANDS IN RUNNING to baste velvet and gauze; fine thread should be used for basting delicate work. IRunning (2) Running is closely related to basting. It is not * used for any seams that have to bear great strain, but for joining seams in this material, gathering, tucking, making cords, etc. The stitches are usually of equal length on both sides. Take one stitch in the seam and hold the goods between the thumb and first finger of each hand, as shown in the illustration, with the back of the thimble on the eye of the needle. Then, with as free wrist motion as possible, run or shake the needle through the material. The motion of the hand should come from the elbow joint. II.4 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Position in Overhanding Overcasting Outline Stitch being in. Do not use a knot to begin sewing, but leave the knot end of the thread and sew it in with the first stitches, carrying the thread on top of the seam. To finish off the seam, overhand back over the last few stitches. In sewing this seam, the goods should be held be- tween the thumb and first finger of the left hand par- allel with the chest, not over the end of finger. Point the needle towards the left shoulder, thus giving a slanting stitch. Care should be taken not to pucker or draw the seam. When the seam is finished, it should be opened and pressed flat. (7) Overcasting is a slanting stitch used to keep raw edges from ravelling. This stitch, like oversew- ing, may be worked from right to left or from left to right. The hem stitch and blind or slip stitch will be con- sidered under hems. ORNAMENTAL STITCHES Never use a knot in any embroidery, but start by running a few stitches along the line which is to be covered. (1) The outline stitch is the simplest of all embroid- ery stitches. Take a long stitch on the surface, with the needle pointing towards the chest in the line to be covered, and a short back stitch on the under side of the material. The effect of the under or wrong side of the material is exactly that of an ordinary back stitch. The beauty of this stitch depends upon its - * - * - * - # - * - - *…* - * - - | - * - * … "… | . #** | * | - # * * - | - w - | * | - - - | -- | | | | .- ".- - . | | | | - - * | - - - | * ORNAMENTAL STITCHES a—Outline; b–Chain: c—Cat; c'—Catch; d-Single Feather; e—Double Feather; f–Tripple Feather; g–Modified Feather; h-Double Feather with Knots; i–French Knots and Outline; j—Herrine Bone; k—Fancy Feather; i-Catch Stitch with French Knots. II6 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Chain Stitch Cat Stitch Ioo Stitc # regularity and in always keeping the thread oil the same side of the needle. (2) The chain stitch when perfectly done should look like the stitch made by a single-thread machine. This stitch is made by taking the thread toward the worker, and before the needle is drawn out of the cloth the thread is held by the thumb under the point of the needle, as in a buttonhole, making a loop. The needle is inserted in the last loop for the next stitch. The chain stitch is used in modern embroidery as an outline and for darning, but in old embroidery, the outline and chain stitches were used for filling as well. They are found in Persian, Indian, and Italian Renais- sance work. Like the feather stitch, the chain stitch is worked towards the worker. (3) The cat stitch or herringbone stitch is an alter- nate slanting back stitch, the needle being placed first to the right and then to the left. This stitch must be worked evenly to be effective. It is used to finish flan- nel seams and hems, fasten down linings, opened seams, and canvas facings and featherbone, in milli- nery—in fact, this stitch is one of the most useful in sewing. The catch stitch is a variation of the cat stitch. Instead of pointing the needle towards the chest, the stitch is taken parallel with the chest. It is used for about the same purposes as the cat stitch. As with the outline stitch, the cat stitch is worked from the worker. - (4) Blanket or loop stitch, used to ornament the edge of blankets, etc., and for finishing the edge of | © // |- f A. * - A" | t * % Aft | | | # HEM STITCHING - - ; b-Ladder Stitch; e- niched with Loop end Cat Stitches. Finished Hem Stitch Work Fi * $ a Il Position of Needle Example of Draw e- II8 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Feather Stitch Hem Stitch stockinet or web material, is worked from left to right, the edge of the material being held towards the work- er. Start with three or four running stitches along the edge so the line of stitching will cover them. In- sert the needle the desired width from the edge, draw it towards you down over the thread, being careful not to draw the thread too tightly over the edge of the flannel. Fasten the thread by taking running stitches under the last blanket stitch on the wrong side. (5) Single, double, and triple feather or coral stitches may be made very ornamental and are used in all kinds of sewing and on all materials. They are al- ways made towards the worker, the stitches being taken alternately to the right and left of the line of the design. The thread should always be carried un- der the needle as in a buttonhole stitch. The design may be varied by taking the stitches diagonally or straight, by making them close or separated, etc. (6) Hemstitching is used for ornament in making hems and tucks. The first step in hemstitching is the drawing of threads. Rubbing the cloth along the line of threads to be drawn will make the drawing easier if the cloth is sized. After the threads are drawn, the hem is turned and basted even with the lowest edge of the drawn space. Insert the needle into the edge of the hem and material, taking up a cluster of threads bring the thread under the needle to form a button- hole stitch or make a simple stitch in the edge of the fold. The number of threads drawn and the number in a cluster must be determined by the coarseness or fine- ORNAMENTAL STITCHES II9 ness of the material, the greater number being drawn and taken in fine material. There are several methods of hemstitching, but the results are about the same. EMBROIDERY STITCHES Eyelet Embroidery. Embroidery Button Hole, Flat Satin Stitch. (7) French knots are used in connection with other French stitches for borders enclosed in outline and chain " stitches, in initials, centers of flowers, and as a filling- in stitch. The simplest method is of taking a small back stitch, bringing the thread from the eye of the weedle under the point from right to left and drawing I2O TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Embroidery Buttonhole Cross Stitch the needle perpendicularly from the cloth. Place the needle back of the knot and bring the point out in the place where the next knot is to be made. The size of the thread will determine the size of the knot. (8) The embroidery buttonhole stitch has many pos- sibilities and many variations. It is worked from left to right instead of from right to left as in a buttonhole. The thread from the work is carried under the point of the needle from left to right, just the reverse of the buttonhole. This stitch is used on flannel and in em- broidery of all kinds; it may be padded or worked flat and the stitches may be taken a distance apart or near together. (9) The cross stitch is worked on linen, scrim, can- was, or any open-meshed material. If done on a flat, smooth surface, it will be necessary to work over can- vas, afterwards drawing out the canvas threads. The canvas should be well basted on the material, the warp threads of the canvas lying perfectly straight on a line with the warp threads of the material on which the pattern is worked. The stitches should always run the same way. If the first ground stitches are made from left to right, from bottom towards the top, the cross stitches should be made from right to left from the top towards the bottom. All the ground stitches run one way and the cross stitches in the opposite way. This stitch is used for marking table linen, under- wear, and embroidery designs. When marking linen and unlined work, make the under side very neat by running the thread under the stitches already made, I22 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Eyelet Embroidery the stitches may be placed more closely at the inner edge and spread slightly at the outer edge. In flat work where the leaf or petal is large, two or three stitches taken in the cloth, back of the face stitch, ARRow HEAD. DOUBLE ARROW HEAD AND CROW'S FOOT. holds them even and prevents misplacement in launder- ing. (All embroidery should be ironed on the wrong side.) Eyelet embroidery is a simple over and over stitch forming a smooth, round edge. Like satin stitch, all outlines are run with an even darning stitch, except the very small eyelet holes, made with a stiletto. Long or oval openings must be cut through the center. I24 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Bias Hem Faced Hem All bias and curved edges should have the first fold basted. In cloth or silk this first basting thread should match the material and not be taken out. A facing or faced hem is also used as a protection to the edge of a garment. A true bias or fitted facing should be used for a facing if the edges of the garment are curved. An extension hem is one in which the whole width of the hem is used. HEMMING a—Shows method of cutting to do away with a clumsy corner. HEMS I25 Slip-stitching or invisible hemming is done on silk, slip-stitching wool, and thick material. The hem is pressed with an iron, a stitch as fine as possible is taken on the surface of the cloth and the needle slipped under and through the first fold, drawing the thread lightly. The needle and thread used in this stitch must be very fine. MITERED CORNERS Method of Folding and Cutting. 126 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Rolled Hem Rolled hem and whipped gathers are made with the wrong side of the material next the worker. Make a tiny roll of the edge towards the worker, using the ROLLED HEM AND WHIPPED GATHERS a—Rolled Hem Gathered; £W' Roll; £Whipped; d-Roll Hemmed; e-Gathers Sewed to Band. left thumb and index finger, rolling an inch at a time (and no more) before hemming. Make fine, even stitches in the roll and goods. Keep the hem perfectly round, firm and not too large. This hem is adapted I28 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING TUCKS Tucks are folds made on thin material for orna- ment, to shorten or to provide for lengthening a gar- ment. If done by hand, a card measure is preferable to a tape measure for marking the space and width of the tucks. The folds should be creased to a thread, basted and sewed with a running stitch showing but little on the face, or stitched on the machine. Fine thread should be used. SEAMS A seam is the line of sewing that joins material; it may be plain or ornamental. The most important are the overhand, felled, French, slot, lapped, flannel, and beaded. The overhand seam is described under the overhand stitch. - Felled A fell is a seam hemmed down to the goods to pro- " tect the raw edge. It is usually made in night dresses, drawers, corset covers, etc. Baste with the piece farthest from the worker extended one-eighth of an inch beyond the other and sewed with the grain of the goods, beginning at the widest part of any bias. Press the seam with the nail on the right side, turn the wide edge down flat to cover the raw edge and line of sewing, and hem flat either by hand or ma- chine. Care should be taken to keep the seam flat on the right as well as on the wrong side. If the felling is done with the machine hemmer, the wide edge must be on the opposite side. The seam may be basted with SEAMS b-French Screen. s—Full SEAMS I31 both edges even if preferred, cutting off one edge after stitching. A French seam is sewed twice—first on the right side as near the raw edge as possible. Cut off all frayed edges, turn the material by folding on the seam or line of sewing, so the seam is folded inside and the second sewing is on the wrong side below the raw edges. This is not a good seam for underwear worn next the body, as it leaves a ridge on the wrong side, but it is useful for skirts of thin material, etc. It is more easily made than a fell. Beaded seams used for fine white work have a line of beading overhanded between gores, hems, or gathers. The hem along the seam should be folded on the right side, leaving a perfectly flat surface to iron on the wrong side, and finished with an ornamental stitch covering the hem. The slot seam, used in cloth dresses and jackets, re- quires exact basting with silk or very fine thread with small, even stitches. If a coarse thread is used, the material will be badly marked. After basting, press the seam open as if it had been stitched, and baste the strap or under strip of the dress material (which has been cut perfectly straight and even) over the wrong side of the seam, having the center of the seam on the center of the strap. Stitch any width desired be- yond the center through the three thicknesses. This will hold the seam in position. Now remove the bast- ings from the seam and the slot effect is complete. If French Seam Beaded Seam Slot seams SEAMS 133 desired, there may be a double row of stitching, an extra row on the edge of the fold or plait. These seams may be finished at the bottom with arrow heads or stitched designs. The lines of machine stitching FLANNEL SEAMS AND HEMS Finished with various Ornamental Stitches. should not end without some ornament to appear to hold the plait. In the lapped seam the edges are folded each within Lapped the other or one over the other so that both sides are " alike. If made of heavy material, the raw edges are A-Made by folding a wide hem '' a narrow one; B-Tape faced sewing for the purpose of a gusset. PLACKETS ethod of folding the tape shown. PLACKETS I35 left unturned; in muslin or linen the edges are in- turned, lapped, basted and the hem stitched on both edges or hemmed down on both sides by hand. Flannel seams should be stitched, opened and pressed flat, either on the right or wrong side of the garment. If on the right side, taffeta ribbon should be basted over the seam, so that the raw edges of flannel will not show, and cat stitched or buttonhole stitched on both sides of the ribbon, or any fancy stitch—not too long—may be used. This is the Dorothy seam. For the seam on the wrong side, the edges should be cat stitched with fine thread. Any ornamental stitch may be used on the right side of the seam. Always press flannel seams and hems before finishing. Flannel should never be hem stitched. PLACKETS A placket is an opening in a garment allowing it to be put on. The simplesi placket is made by cutting a slit and folding a wide hem over a narrow one turned on the face of the goods; this makes a pleat below the vent. There should be a double line of stitching across the bottom of the hem to strengthen the placket. The tape faced placket is stronger and may be used in children's drawers, etc., in place of a gusset to strengthen the end of the opening. A single piece of . tape folded back as for a loop is stitched along all edges, making an opening without a lap. This offers as much resistance as a gusset and is more quickly done. Flannel Seams Tape Faced Placket FACED PLACKET A—Wrong side, opened, showing tape; B-Right side showing on-set piece; aa and bb the same ends of the tape; 1.2 method of folding and cutting end of on-set piece. PLACKETS I37 In a third kind of placket, the opening is faced with Faced a continuous piece of tape on both sides and finished Placket with a piece of material on the outside. See illustra- tion. This makes a strong and simple placket. When - SKIRT PLACKET WITH LAP a tape cannot be used, a hem or facing may be made on the under side of the opening and a facing on the upper side, over which the on-set piece is stitched. The on-set piece and facing may be cut from one piece, but the fitting is more troublesome. In figured goods, the piece set on should match the pattern exactly. 138 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Gathering A simple placket for underwear is made from a single strip of the goods put on like an extension hem. On drawers it may be turned in at the button- hole end, but not stitched down except at the band. The placket of a skirt should have an underlap ex- tending well below the opening. SEWING ON BANDS Divide the top of unhemmed edge of the garment in halves and mark with a cross stitch, notch or pin. Gather from the placket to the middle of the front gore, if a skirt, apron, or dress. Take a new thread and gather the remainder. Put in a second gathering thread one-eighth to one-fourth of an inch below the first. Two gathering threads are better than one and they should be longer than the length of space to be gathered. Stroke or lay the gathers above and below the threads. Divide the band and pin the middle to the center of the garment, placing the right side of the band on the wrong side of the garment. Pin in the middle and at each end, secure the gathering threads by winding around the pin, adjust the gathers, and baste between the gathering threads. Stitch just below the line of basting. Fold the band over on the right side, press, baste over the line of stitching, press again, then stitch on the right side after having turned in both ends and over-sewed. Turn the top of the band over on the right side one-eighth or one-fourth of an inch and stitch securely. This upper fold keeps - - |- - -- | | P | FINISHES ; 5-Band on Gathers: c-Corded edge. a-Bias Facing I40 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Drawing Tapes the edge from wearing and stretching and is a stay for children’s skirts and drawers where button holes are used and serves as a finish for the top of the band. For flannel, pleating or gathers may be used to put fullness into a band. Two rows of gathering threads DRAW TAPE FINISH FOR UNDER SKIRT should be used and the stitches should not be too fine. The band should be made of cotton or at least lined with it to avoid clumsiness and prevent shrinking. Ruffles are set in hems, etc., in the same manner. In finishing the top of an underskirt, many like to dispense with the placket and fitted band. This may be done by using drawing tapes at the back. The up- per edge is faced with a piece of material which should be bias in front to accommodate it to the curve, but may be straight across the back. Work a button hole FASTENINGS I4I at each side of the back, insert a tape through one button hole and draw it over an inch beyond the oppo- site one and fasten securely by two lines of stitching across the tape. A second tape is put through the other button hole and fastened in the same way. By pulling the tape on each side the fullness may be adjusted. All facings around curves, such as arm holes and neck, should be a true bias which is cut by holding the warp threads diagonally across the woof threads. These strips for facings, pipings, ruffles, etc., should be cut exactly even in width. All bands, ruffles, etc., of serge, twilled, or diagonal materials should be cut across the twill and not with it, in order to have the ruffle hang well. FASTENINGS The standard fastenings are buttons and button holes, hooks and eyes or hand made loops, lacings through rings and eyelet holes, loops over buttons, and fancy frogs, clasps, studs, ball and socket, “notta- hooks,” etc. Button holes should be carefully measured and marked before cutting. They should be a little longer than the diameter of the button for flat buttons and one and one-quarter the diameter for round buttons. Hav- ing decided upon the distance apart they are to be placed, cut a marker from a piece of cardboard and measure off the space, marking with pins, French chalk, pencil, or thread. The distance from the edge (one-fourth inch), as well as the length of the button Bias Facings Making Button Holes I42 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Overcasting Buttonnoles hole may also be marked with the card. The scissors should be sharp, the hand must be steady, and the cut should be made with one firm slash, not with two or three jerks. Great care must be taken that each but- ton hole is of the same length. The goods should be cut to a thread, for it is impossible to make a neat buttonhole if it is improperly cut. In cutting a round end buttonhole for thick goods, a punch may be used for the end, after which the remainder of the button- hole is cut directly on a line with the center of the circle. The same marker may be used to mark the position for the buttons. All markings for buttons and button- holes, or for hooks and eyes, should be made at one time. After cutting, the button holes are overcast. This should always be done directly after cutting, espe- cially if the goods ravels easily, otherwise it will be impossible to work a neat buttonhole. Overcasting should be done with very fine thread (No. 150 for white goods), split silk for wool and silk. Three overcast stitches on each side are sufficient for an ordi- nary size buttonhole. A very good plan to follow in cutting a buttonhole in heavy material or material that frays easily is to chalk the position and length of the buttonhole, then stitch a row of machine stitching each side of this mark, the two rows being a little more than one-eighth of an inch apart. This holds all the thicknesses to- I44 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Making IButtonholes Staying gether and the buttonhole may then be cut easily. It also serves as a guide in working the buttonhole stitches. The buttonholing is begun at the inner side of the slit. Always place the knot on the outside of the garment a short distance to the right of the buttonhole, leaving a long stitch underneath which can be cut off when the buttonhole is finished. A buttonhole should be com- pleted with one thread if possible as it is difficult to mend the thread securely and neatly. Letter D for twist is usually employed. Insert the needle in the edge of the material and when half way through, take the two threads at the eye of the needle, bringing them towards you at the right and under the point of the needle, and draw the thread from you, making the purl or loop stitch di- rectly on the edge of the buttonhole. The stitches should be about the width of the needle apart to allow for the purl. Be careful to complete each stitch with a uniform movement so that the line will be perfectly straight and not wavy. The stitches are placed more closely together in the rounded end of the buttonhole where the chief wear comes. Many workers, particularly tailors, always “stay” or “bar” around a buttonhole before working. This may be done with several threads of twist or with a cord so that the worked edge of the buttonhole will be firm and distinct. Tailors usually use a cord as this makes the edges heavier. It is always well to stay button- 146 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Cloak Buttons it. If a button is much concaved, the pin may be placed underneath. The pin is removed before winding. In sewing on a four-hole button, the stitches should be made symmetrically, either parallel or crossed, but not both. If parallel or in a two-holed button the stitches should run in the line of the buttonhole. The thread should always be fastened securely at the begin- ning and at the end of the work. Place the knot upon the outside of the garment where it may be cut off when the button is sewed securely. The knot is some- times placed under the button. In sewing buttons on a cloak or coat an extra strip of canvas or silesia over the canvas interlining should be placed the entire length of the buttoning for strength. This should be applied before the work on the garment is too far advanced and if cut sufficiently wide, will allow of any slight alteration. The sewing should go through the canvas facing and stay, but not through the under side or facing of the material. In sewing buttons on bodices a tape should be sewed over the front basting for a stay. If sufficient material has not been allowed for a lap, this should be added, as a lap is necessary under the opening of such but- tonholes. Buttons may be sewed through lining having a small button on the wrong side. This method prevents the cloth from tearing and makes an ornamental finish as well as a substantial one. FASTENINGS 147 Buttons which are supplied with wire shanks should be sewed down firmly as the shank already provided permits the buttons to set up well from the material. They should be placed in such a position that the wire shank will run parallel with the buttonhole and not cross it. - The position for hooks and eyes should be marked before sewing on. The simplest, though least desira- ble, method of sewing on these fastenings is to place the eye at the edge of the seam or facing and the hook sufficiently far back from the opposite side to give a lap. A much preferable method is to baste a bias strip of crinoline along the positions to be occupied by the hooks and eyes; this gives strength to the finish. Suf- ficient material should be allowed for folding over the shanks after the hooks and eyes have been sewed on, or they may be covered with silk ribbon, slipping the edge under the beak of each hook and then catstitched in position. - The hooks and eyes are sewed securely through the crinoline and one thickness, but the stitches should not show on the outside. Over and over stitches are taken through the small rings in the line of the full and again on each bar of the eye and on the shank of the hook so that they may be held in position securely. In many cases, it is advisable to have an underlap of the material. This should be slip-stitched in position on the garment after the eyes have been sewed in place. Hooks and Eyes | PATCHING I49 Eyelet holes are made with a stiletto which forces the threads aside, but does not cut them. The edge is finished with over and over stitches placed closely together, or with a buttonhole stitch making the purl on the outer edge of the stitches. Loops are made by buttonholing very closely over several foundation threads, making the purl on the outside edge. The needle may be run under the loop eye first if preferred. PATCHING With the underset patch have the part to be patched pressed smooth, baste the patch on the wrong side of the garment before cutting out the worn place. (If the garment or article to be mended is worn or faded and shrunken by laundering, boil the piece in soap, soda and water to fade the patch, if of cotton or linen.) After basting, cut away all the worn cloth, making a square or oblong hole. Cut to a thread. Cut each corner, diagonally, one-eighth or one-quarter of an inch, turn all four edges of the garment towards the wrong side. Begin at the center of one side and hem all around the square, taking slanting even stitches, not too close together. Remove the basting, trim the edges of the patch, press the patch on the wrong side and catch stitch to the garment. This shows less on the right side and does not make a hard line as if the patch were turned back on the edge. If the cloth has a pattern or stripe, match it perfectly, having the warp threads of both running the same way. Cut both hole and patch square. An oval or round patch is un- Eyelets Underset Patch CAT STITCHED WRONG SIDE OF PATCH I52 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING -- - - - : | - WRONG SIDE OF PATCH IN TABLE CLOTH-RAW EDGE OWERCAST workmanlike and does not wear well. Keep the cor- ners square and hem down well. The object of press- ing is to keep both garment and patch flat and even. Flannel patches should be cat-stitched on the right side. No flannel edges should ever be inturned. Onset The onset patch is used on lined garments and lin- * ings. The patch should be rectangular and larger than - CROSS STITCH INITIAL LINEN PATCH I54 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING the worn place. Fold the four edges on the wrong side of the patch, place the patch with its wrong side on the right side of the garment directly over the center of the hole. This will bring the folded edges of the | RIGHT SIDE OF FLANNEL PATCH Edge cat stitched but not turned, back cat stitched in the same way. patch between the two pieces of cloth and both right sides towards the worker. Do not baste, but pin care- fully. After the garment has been folded back until there are two folded edges side by side, overhand the 156 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Bias Darn Darning a Three Cornered Tear be darned with linen or mercerized cotton. Cotton is preferable. A long slender needle with a large eye should be used. Darning should never be commenced with a knot, nor finished with a back stitch. A bias or diagonal cut and a three-cornered tear are the most difficult to repair. If the place is badly pulled and frayed, a piece of the same material should be basted on the wrong side of the material and darned in even stitches. Always darning parallel with the warp threads and the woof threads. In the diagonal tear, as the threads are cut diagonally, to prevent draw- ing apart, the darning threads must cross each other. The stitches around any darn should not end in a stiff even line; this makes a hard edge which does not wear and is unsightly, and uncomfortable if on under- Wear. The three-cornered tear may be darned in two ways. Begin by darning diagonally through the center, darn- ing back and forth towards the end of the tear until one-half has been finished; then begin at the center and work in the opposite direction. At the corner, the stitches should form the shape of a fan. The other method, which is the stronger, is done by darn- ing a square in the angle, first with the warp threads, then with the woof threads and finishing each end across the tear. Stocking darning may be done on the right side. Begin by picking up the stitches and drawing the 158 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Machine Darning chain stitch, thus imitating the knitting stitch. This should be done on the right side of the garment. If the hole is to be filled in with the interlaced stitches, draw the edges together, darn beyond the thin places lengthwise of the knitted garment, making each line of stitches longer until the center of the hole is reached, then decrease in the same manner, making a diamond in shape. Darn across the hole in the same way, taking up every alternate stitch as in weaving. Leave a tiny loop at the end of each row of darning, so that the threads will not draw. Darning, satisfactory for some purposes, may be done quickly on a double thread sewing machine. It is best done in an embroidery ring, first drawing the edges together. Loosen the tension on the presser foot, use fine thread with light tension. Sew back and forth, first along the warp threads and then at right angles along the woof threads. The machine will be sewing backwards part of the time, but if the pressure is light, there will be no difficulty. For large holes, paper may be placed underneath. MITERING EMBROIDERY OR LACE The mitering of lace or embroidery is often neces- sary in making collars and in finishing corners. Be- fore applying, plan carefully and select a scallop or portion of the embroidery which will produce the best effects when finished. This can be accomplished by folding the embroidery over at various portions of the 160 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING pattern until a suitable point is found. Fold over at right angles and mark along the line to be mitered. The triangle may now be cut, but an extra width must always be allowed for the seam, as there is frequently a slight unevenness and one side may have to be held a little full or stretched to make a perfect match. The mitered seam is over-sewed. - : After the corner is properly made, cut away the cloth of the embroidery, allowing only enough for an inturned seam on the edge. This seam may be stitched on the machine on both edges, or oversewed to the goods, or the embroidery may be securely sewed on the plain part, after which the underlying cloth may be cut away. This will make an almost perfect corner. Lace may be matched and mitered in a similar way. MATCHING AND JOINING LACE In joining lace, avoid a seam if possible. Select por- tions of the design that will match, placing one pat- tern of the same design over the other. Cut away a portion of the thick part of the pattern underneath and hem the edges and inner part of the design down with fine thread. Smyrna or Torchon lace is more difficult to hem or join when very open or very fine. A small, felled seam is better than lapping and trying to match the pattern. Embroidery can be matched in the same way. Never let two heavy designs lap over each other. The one MATCHING AND MITERING 16I INSERTION WITH MITRED CORNER, TAPED AND FACED; EMBROIDERY ROLLED WHIPPED AND GATHERED on the wrong side should be cut out and the edge sewed securely to the upper part of the design. The plain material above the embroidery can be joined by a lapped seam, turning first the right side and then the wrong side and hemming on both sides of the seam. MACHINE SEWING Types of Machines ( re of the Machine The sewing machine has taken away much of the drudgery of home sewing, but its use does not lessen the need of skill in hand work. No machine can finish ends of belts, collars, sew on trimming, fastenings, and like work and the finish has much to do with the gen- eral appearance of a garment. All the prominent makes of sewing machines were invented in the decade following Howe's patent in 1846. The two chief types of machines are the lock stitch, using double thread, and the chain or loop stitch, using a single thread. Whatever the make of machine it should be run in accordance with the rules accom- panying it. The worker should familiarize herself with the directions for setting and threading the needle, winding the bobbin, regulating the tension and the stitch and all other technicalities of the particular ma- chine she has to operate. Agencies of the various machines usually have skilled workers to give instruc- tion to beginners. While it is not always an economy of time to use the attachments for hemming, tucking, etc., unless much work is to be done, it is worth while to know how to use them if desired. As much or more skill is required for neat machine work as for hand sewing. Results will not be satisfactory without careful basting. The machine should be kept well oiled, free from dust and gum and it should be run evenly. In case it becomes “gummed” a drop of kerosene on the parts 162 MACHINE SEWING 163 that have been oiled will cut the gum. Remove the shuttle and run the machine rapidly for a moment, then wipe off all the kerosene and oil the machine carefully with good machine oil—only the best should be used. A machine should always be wiped thoroughly before any work is placed upon it. As in hand sewing, needles and thread should be selected with care. A blunt or bent needle should never be used, it should have a fine sharp point and the eye should be sufficiently large to carry the thread easily. The needle and thread should be suitable for the material to be sewed. Glazed thread should never be used in a machine. The best quality of thread and silk should be purchased but only enough for imme- diate use, as it loses strength with age, chiefly because of the action of the dyes and chemicals. Even white thread may become “tender” from the chemicals used in bleaching it. Sewing silk and cotton should be kept in a closed box to exclude the light and air. For sewing cotton or linen the best cotton thread should be used. Woolen, silk, and velvet should be stitched with the best machine silk. The thread should match the material in color. Cotton thread fades or loses its brightness when exposed to the light, there- fore for stitching that will show it is always better to use silk. The thread on the bobbin should be wound evenly and carefully to insure an even stitch and the tension of both threads should be equal, otherwise the stitch will not be perfect. As a lock stitch machine Needles Thread 164 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Fastening Threads Bias Side Next Feed requires two threads while in hand sewing only one is used, the two need not be as coarse as the single thread. For ordinary home sewing, underwear, thin gowns and the like, No. 70 to No. 100 will be found satisfactory Finer thread may be used when the ma- terials demand it, but no coarser than No. 50 should be used in the machine and this only with the coarsest material. Much time may be saved in fastening the threads at the ends of tucks, hems on sheets, towels, etc., by careful manipulation of the machine. For example, on sheets begin to stitch along the hem at the selvage, or if the end of the hem is over-sewed, begin an inch from the edge and stitch the hem towards the selvage, then lift the presser-foot so as to turn the work, and retrace the bit of stitching, continuing across the whole hem. When the end is reached, release the presser- foot, turn the work, and stitch back for an inch or more in the same line, as was done at the beginning of the hem. By this method the threads are fastened much more easily and quickly than by drawing them through on to the wrong side and tying or sewing them by hand and, of course, it is more satisfactory than the “shop” way of cutting them off short. Tucks or seams may be fastened in the same way. If fine thread is used the double stitching at the ends is hardly noticeable. When stitching a seam having one bias and one straight side, let the bias side come next to the feed, TEXTILES AND CLOTHING II. III. MODELS, FIRST SERIES STITCHES. On a piece of cotton about 4 by 6 inches, make with colored thread (1) a line of even basting stitches, (2) uneven basting stitches, (3) tacking, (4) running, (5) back stitch, (6) running and back, (7) half back. With embroidery silk make a row each of (I) cat stitch, (2) single feather, (3) double feather, (4) chain, (5) rows of French knots with border of outline stitch. Make your initial in one corner, using any stitch preferred. Overcast one long edge of the model, double overcast the opposite side, finish one end with plain loop or blanket stitch, and the other end with some fancy loop stitch. Fasten all threads as described in the text. SEAMS AND HEMS. (a) Join two pieces of fine cotton with a French seam at the long edge, about 2 by 5% inches, with warp running lengthwise. (b) Cut a piece of muslin on a true bias and attach the bias edge to a with a felled seam. (c) Trim the model and hem all sides so that the finished model may measure 4 by 6 inches. DARNING AND PATCHING. (a) In gingham or figures cotton, make an underset patch of a square hole, matching the goods. (b) Darn a three-cornered tear. FASTENINGs. The proper distance from the edge of folded goods make (a) button hole, one end rounded and the other finished with a bar tack. (b) Under it make a partly fin- Textiles and Clothing Part III TEXTILES AND CLOTHING PART III DRESSMAKING The greatest obstacle to home sewing of any kind is the failure to provide suitable materials with which to do the work. To do good work—to make attractive gowns—the simple tools which the work requires must be provided. First, there should be needles and pins of the best quality and make. They should be fine and well pointed. The needle should be suitable to the material to be sewn and sufficiently large to carry the thread easily. A blunt or bent needle should never be used. Long or milliner's needles are preferred by many for basting. A good supply of thread should be kept on hand— not too great a quantity, but the stock should be added to as it is used. There should be both silk and col- ored cotton, also twist for button holes, loops and arrow heads and knitting silk to sew on and finish feather bone. Two pairs of scissors are required—one with long, sharp blades, and a pair of medium sizes for snipping machine stitches. Among the other necessary articles are a tape meas- ure, cake of wax, pencils or tailor's chalk, tracing wheel, emery, lap board. Good Tools Necessary Thread Scissors PADDED BUST FORM (From Dressmaking Up-to-Date, Butterick Co.) 169 170 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING almost a necessity for one who does much home dress- ing. These may be purchased at department stores. Some kinds are adjustable, but it is always best to make a carefully fitted lining for it and pad out to the correct shape and size. The pattern should be one that extends well over the hips and heavy unbleached muslin may be used. After padding firmly, the front opening should be oversewed. Special care should be taken with shoulders and neck and the neck band should be carefully adjusted on the figure. A padded sleeve lining is also very useful in mak- ing sleeves. Dressmaking never should be begun until each needed article required for the work has been pur- chased. The sewing room should be in order; the machine well oiled and wiped before any work is un- dertaken. Skill If the finished garment is to be perfect, careful at- r: tention must be given to every detail of the cutting and making up. To possess mechanical skill alone is not sufficient. A successful garment depends not only upon the dexterity with which the worker manipulates the actual tools of her craft, but upon all her faculties and her power of applying them. She must have a comprehension of the laws of beauty in dress, con- struction, ornament, color, selection, economy. The artisan knows the technical part only, and looks upon each dress—each piece of lace and velvet—as so much material to be snipped and cut and sewed, copying from the fashion plate, making gown after gown alike. The artist, on the other hand, makes the gown PATTERNS 171 to suit the individual wearer, considering each dress no matter how simple—and the simpler, the more art- istic—as a creation designed to suit the woman for whom it was planned. People who study economy from principle will never adopt anything extreme in weave, or color, or make. These extreme fashions are never lasting; they are too conspicuous and are vulgarized by bad copies, while a thing which is known to be good and heautiful once will remain so for all time. Those who are beginners in the art of dressmaking should select plain designs until skill is acquired. The making up and finishing of new fabrics and new or untried meth- ods are problems that often dismay even the most experienced dressmaker. PATTERNS * The makers of good and reliable patterns are many. Always buy patterns of firms that make proportion of figure as well as fashion a study. These patterns state length of skirt, waist and hip measure and quan- tity of material required in all widths. Buy a skirt pattern with correct hip size, as it is much more diffi- cult to change this than to alter the dimensions of a waist. Adjust the pattern to the figure for which the garment is to be cut and see that it is right in all of its proportions. Always follow the notches indicated in the seams of the pattern, and thus avoid putting wrong pieces together. Be sure that the pattern is Selection of Patterns 172 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING What the Pattern Gives placed correctly upon the material with the straight grain or warp threads of the goods running directly on a line with the straight perforations indicated in the pattern. Lay the entire pattern upon the cloth. This gives an idea just where every piece is to come Out. In symmetrical dresses the pattern gives one-half of the waist and the skirt, from center of back to center of front. The number of pieces in a plain pat- tern vary according to styles. The sleeve may be cut in one piece with the waist, as in kimona sleeves; the back of the waist may be all in one piece or have a side back when fitted waists are in vogue. Likewise skirts may have few or many gores. Most patterns allow for seams and state what that allowance is. All pieces are notched to show how they should go together. On the skirt pieces the front gore has one notch, the front side of the next gore one notch, the back side two notches, etc. The best patterns now are accompanied by charts showing the different pieces and the method of put- ting them together. Directions are given which, if followed carefully, enable one to cut and make the garment correctly. SRIRT MAKING Fashions in skirts vary greatly, but a well-fitted skirt should hang in graceful folds, be even around the bottom, should fit easily without being strained and without defining the figure too closely. The object of goring the skirt at the top is, of SKIRT MAKING 173 course, to take out unnecessary fullness. In draped skirts this fullness is partly taken care of by the folds. Skirts should allow perfect freedom in walk- ing, but prevailing styles do not always permit this. A skirt for street wear should be short enough not to pick up the dirt of the street—the narrow skirt may be longer than the wide one without becoming a “street sweeper.” PLAN OF SKIRT MAKING Shortening or lengthening of pattern if neces- sary. Placing of goods. Pinning on of pattern so there is no waste. Cutting. - Removing and care of patterns. Finishing placket hole. Basting seam-fitting. Stitching. Pressing. Finishing of seams. Making and putting on waist-band. Marking length and finishing the bottom. Fastenings, loops, braids, hooks and eyes. To lengthen or shorten a skirt pattern, measure the figure and regulate the length of the patterns by mak- ing a fold in each gore two-thirds of the way from the top of the pattern if too long. This is for the simplest skirt pattern. The shape of the skirt may re- quire two folds, one two-thirds from the top and a small fold near the bottom to preserve the outline. If too short, pin the pattern on the material, cut Iengthening or Shortening Patterns 176 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Placing Patterns Pinning Patterns Cutting Out If the material is plain, has no nap, or if the de- sign is perfectly symmetrical, the gores may be alter- nated, the top of one gore coming opposite the bot- tom of the next. The half pattern of the front gore is always laid on a lengthwise fold of the goods. If the goods is wide, the other gores may be cut double with the cloth folded lengthwise. With narrow goods the cloth may be folded end to end after the middle gore has been cut out, and the other gores cut double. Care should be taken that the line of holes in the middle of the gores runs exactly in a line with the warp of the material—i.e., parallel to the selvage. If the goods has a figure, the design should run up- wards. Any nap should run downward, except with velvet or velveteen, in which it should run upwards. With such goods, the gores if cut double must be placed on a lengthwise fold, with the lengths running the same way. If the goods is narrow, the gores may have to be cut single, reversing the pattern (turning it over), so that both pieces may not be for the same side. - If piecing is necessary on wide gores, it should always be done along the warp thread, with the usual care that any figure be made to match perfectly. Pin the middle of the pattern to the goods and smooth towards each end, pinning securely at top and bottom. Avoid too many pins and pin carefully, otherwise the pattern will be displaced. After the pattern is securely pinned, cut out the gores, using long, sharp shears. Care should be taken , not to lift the material from the table, not to have SKIRT MAKING 177 jagged, uneven edges, as both time and material will be wasted in straightening them. Open the shears as wide as possible, taking a long sweep of the mate- rial, and do not allow the points of the shears to come together. Mark all notches with basting thread, tailor's chalk, or notch the goods if it does not ravel. Now remove the pattern, pin carefully all pieces to- gether and fold as little as possible. The trinity—pin, baste, press—should be written in large letters in every sewing room, for much of the beauty of the gown de- pends upon these three. The placket, which may be at the back, side or front, may be finished before the gores are put to- gether. The placket is easier to finish in this way, may be pressed better, and the other gores are not crushed. On the left side of the opening sew an underlap of sufficient length to extend well below the end of the opening. Face the right side of the open- ing with a piece of the goods, or tape not too wide, hem or cat-stitch to the skirt, and finish with hooks and eyes, loops, or any fastening that will secure the placket. To join the skirt, pin the side gores to the front gores, beginning at the top, with pins running across the seams, then begin at the top of the skirt and baste downward, allowing all unevenness to come out at the bottom. Baste straight and evenly, with the gores laid flat on the table, taking one stitch at a time. Several stitches should never be taken at once on thick or piled goods, as the side next to the sewer is apt to be fuller in that case. When all seams are Making Placket Joining the Skirt 178 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Lined Skirt Stitching Skirts Finishing Seams Stiffening basted, try on the skirt and make all changes neces- sary before stitching. Both the outside skirt and any under or “drop” skirt should be fitted as carefully as a waist. - If the skirt is to be lined the lining should be made and fitted first, then ripped and the outside carefully basted on the lining, being well stretched over the lin- ing, care being taken to have the warp of the outside and the lining run the same way. This will prevent the lining from drawing the goods. A stitch of medium length should be used on all seams whether white goods or cloth. If the stitch is too long, the seam will “gap” and will show the thread; if too short, the seam is apt to draw. The line of stitch- ing must be absolutely parallel inside or outside of the basting or the curve will be ruined. Use silk or the best cotton for stitching skirts and be sure that the needle is not too coarse. After stitching, all bastings along the seams should be taken out by cutting the thread in several places. Never pull a basting the length of the skirt. The seams should be opened and pressed according to direc- tions. The seams may be finished with a taffeta bind- ing, overcast, stitched flat or notched, as the case de- mands. Fashion at times calls for lined skirts with stiffen- ing at the bottom. In such skirts the stiffening should be fitted to each lining gore separately and securely stitched before the lining and outside are put to- . gether. Heavy cloth skirts with rows of stitching at the bottom should have a light canvas stitched in. SKIRT MAKING I79 The skirt is now ready for the band, which should be narrow. Always cut parallel with the selvage and the length of the underlap longer than the waist meas- ure, allowing for turning at the ends. The band should never be thick and clumsy and not too tight. Excellent webbing bands which are ready to be put on the skirt may be purchased—these are firm and not clumsy. Try on the skirt and fit the band carefully, mark- 1ng the seam with pins, a line of basting, or chalk. Hold the skirt easy on the band and baste with small stitches, then stitch on the machine. If the skirt is too tight around the hips, it will draw. If the skirt is stretched on the band, the seams will not fall in a straight line. For a high-waisted skirt without a band use a firm piece of belting one and one-half to two inches wide. Sew hooks and eyes on this belt, then baste skirt carefully to the top of the belt; try on. Stitch about one-fourth of an inch from the top, being sure that the skirt conceals the belt. Fasten skirt and belt separately, leaving the skirt free from the belt except at the top. Before finishing the seams be sure that the skirt fits the figure smoothly but does not draw anywhere; that the seams fall in a straight line, and that gathers and draping take graceful lines becoming to the figure. The draped skirt requires skill in handling material and is more difficult to make than the fitted skirt. While patterns may be followed in draping, the best results are obtained when it is done on the figure. Putting on Band Fitting Draping 18O TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Finishing the Bottom Allowance or Shrinkage After the band is securely stitched and finished with hooks and eyes, adjust the length by turning under at the bottom and pinning, after which baste all around and try on again to make sure that the length is correct. In finishing the bottom of the skirt a hem is used in narrow or moderately full skirts in all materials. Care must be taken that any fullness in the hem is laid in smooth folds, where it seems to fall naturally. It is best to baste a hem on a flat surface. A bias facing may be used on any skirt, and is desirable on heavy materials when the skirt is at all full. Fitted facings are also used, but the bias one answers all purposes. Braid may be used to strengthen the edge of the hem and should be shrunken before using, then basted with care that it neither draws nor puckers on the skirt. Braid should be sewed at the top by hand, and usually again near the bottom. Velveteen is used when skirts are lined and have canvas in the bottom. It may be used as a binding, an inch or so wide, or as a facing—in either case the upper edge is usually cat- stitched down. Skirts of wash material are better if the material is shrunk; even then it may continue to shrink with each washing. Some materials—notably heavy linens— shrink across the warp. To allow for shrinkage in both directions extra width of hem and extra material at the seams over the hips is advisable. In wash skirts of medium weight material a six-inch hem is advisable. If desired, the bias seam down the back of the skirt 182 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Trace Seams IBaste Lavishly Altering aist IPatterns careful fitting, good lines, an even bottom, are to be desired, whatever the style. Extreme styles should be avoided not only for economy's sake but because they make one conspicuous. The home dressmaker should attempt only those things in which she feels moderately sure of success. A well-made skirt in a simple style is far more to be desired than an elab- orate one poorly made. SHIRT WAISTS In planning a waist the same rules should be ob- served in placing patterns, etc., as described for skirts, except that the lines and seams should be traced with a tracing wheel or marked carefully. In making a waist of any kind care must be taken to cut all the pieces the proper way of the material. The difficulty of putting garments together after they have been cut properly is due to undue haste, lack of care in details and insufficient pressing. The ap- parently simple act of basting is really of primal im- portance, particularly in the making of a waist. One need never be afraid of basting too much or too care- fully. Economize cloth and time in cutting, but use basting lavishly. The waist pattern may be made shorter by laying folds across both back and front. The fold across the back should be two inches above the waist line and across the front two inches below the arm's eye (in the back). Securely pin or baste the folds in the pattern. If the pattern is of nearly the correct size it may be only necessary to make the waist shorter and smaller. The neck and arm's eye will seldom need altering. SHIRT WAISTS 183 The sleeves may be shortened in the same way by lay- ing folds in the pattern, above and below the elbow. PLAN FOR MAKING A SHIRT WAIST After the waist is cut, remove and care for the pattern. Make the sleeves, cuffs and collar band first. Make box plait on right or left side as liked by - the wearer and hem or face the other side. Put in tucks if desired. Baste shoulders and under-arm seams. Try on the waist, making all changes necessary by enlarging or taking up seams. Pin for neck band and mark for seams. Fit sleeves and mark places for seams. Arrange fullness and place tape at back of waist line. If the pattern is for a plain, one-seam sleeve with the cuff opening at the end of the seam, hem each side of the opening one or two inches from the bottom, gather the bottom between the notches, lay the gath- ers, baste the wrong side of the sleeve band or cuff to the wrong side of the sleeve, stitch and press, fold in a hem on all edges of the cuff, fold the cuff over on the right side of the sleeve, baste, oversew the ends of the cuff, press and stitch the cuff close to all edges. After thus attaching the cuff, baste and stitch the long seam of the sleeve and gather at the top between notches. The cuff is usually cut in the direction of the warp of the goods. The sleeve described is the simplest that can be made. If the sleeve is to open at the back and finished Making Plain Sleeve 186 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Material for Lining Pattern for Waist Cutting which to fasten the yoke, the draped waist, the girdle and the skirt. In home dressmaking a well-fitted lin- ing may be put on the dress form, the outside draped on and the trimmings adjusted. With some practice very good results may be obtained in this way. When fashion makes use of thin materials, chiffons and the like, a second and loose lining is put over the fitted one. When the styles are extreme in looseness, the fitted lining is omitted entirely. The material used for the lining will vary with the richness of the gown. White India linon is very satis- factory for a great many kinds of dresses. Silk will be substituted in the more expensive one. The mate- rial must be firm enough to stand fitting and not heavy enough to be uncomfortably warm. While white next the skin shows soil more quickly than a color, it seems more desirable; a net slip which is easily washed may be worn inside the lining to take the soil. In making the lining the first requisite is a good pattern. If it is possible, have a pattern drafted to one's own measure, as a good foundation is essential to a well-fitted dress. If one cannot have a drafted pattern, buy a standard pattern with front, under-arm, back and side back pieces as shown in the illustra- tion. For a slender person the back and side back are sometimes cut in one, but this does not fit as perfectly as the two-piece back. In cutting allow liberal seams and be sure that the warp thread is parallel to the perforations. In a fitted lining this will be perpendicular to the waist line in LINED WAISTS 187 each piece. All seams and darts should be traced care- fully and all notches put in. Careful basting is necessary in all closely-fitted gar- ments. Short stitches which will not pull, exactness in putting the pieces together and careful following of the tracings are all essential. The front shoulder TYPICAL LINING PATTERNS (a) Front. (b) Under Arm Piece. (c) Side of Back. (d) Back. (e) Collar. (f) Outside Sleeve. (g) Inside Sleeve. seam should be a little shorter than the back, and stretched when basting to it, because the front of the shoulder hollows slightly, while the back is full and the waist must follow these curves. The center back seam of the waist should be basted up, and the center front left open for fitting later. This may be changed if the opening is desired in the back. The seams may be basted on the right side to facilitate fitting and the waist should not be fitted wrong side out, as few peo- ple are exactly symmetrical, and trouble results when the waist is turned. Basting 188 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Fitting Stitching Before trying on, gash the seams at the waist curve to prevent drawing. Then put the waist lining on, pin together carefully from neck to waist line, pulling until it fits snugly. Smooth the waist down at the waist line and if there seems to be too much length take it up at the shoulder. If the waist is inclined to draw from neck to shoulder, at the base of the neck, slip the front shoulder up on the back; if the neck is too loose, slip the other way at the shoulder. Gash the neck and armholes for cutting out. Alterations should be made at shoulder and underarm seams, and not on the curved back seam. A tuck may be taken across the top of the corset, or up and down at the waist line in front or back if necessary. Always fit the lining up to the neck, even though it may be cut out later for a yoke or low neck. If the waist is to be opened in the back, leave the front pinned securely and open the back seam. Take off, baste any places that have been pinned, trim neck and armholes if necessary, and slip on again to be sure all is right. If the seams have been basted on the right side, mark them carefully, pull out bastings and reverse them. If the pattern is drafted to one's measure, it is not necessary to baste seams on the right side, but when much fitting is to be done this is easier. The seams should be stitched in the line of basting, for a tight lining, and just outside it when more freedom is desired. The basting will always give more than the stitching, and this should be considered. The hems in front or back should be so turned as to LINED WAISTS 189 make the waist just meet, not lap. A good method is to turn the hem only once, stitch near the edge and then again the width of the hook away. After the hooks and eyes have been sewed on, the edge is turned back and hemmed down over them. This method is simpler than putting an extra strip on to cover the hooks and eyes. The seams may be trimmed even but left rather wide, notched and opened. Feather bone is cat- WAIST LINING BASTED, SEAMS OUT stitched on each seam to the height of the corset, or just below the fullness of the bust. An inside belt of firm webbing may be caught to back or front and underarm seams, according to where waist opens. The bottom of the lining may be notched, bound or left to be finished with the outside. The sleeves are usu- ally made with the outside sleeves and will be dis- cussed later, as will the finish for neck and armhole. With the completion of such a lining one has an excellent beginning for a successful dress, but the real taste and skill of the dressmaker is shown in the Finishing and Boning 190 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Draping Waist manner of draping the outside onto the lining and adjusting the trimmings. MAKING LINED DRESS The materials used and the fashions determine the method used in adjusting the outside to the lining. When tight-fitting basques are in vogue, the outside is cut after the lining has been fitted and sewed into the seams with it. Careful fitting, basting, pressing and finishing are then all essential for good results. Bias strips of crinoline are used to make the bottom of waist and sleeves, and the edges to be fastened firm—and to prevent wrinkling. When two layers of material are put over the lining, the first one usually fits plainly at shoulder and neck, but is gathered in at the waist line, instead of being fitted in—this interlining should be carefully adjusted and fastened to the fitted lining at the waist and basted around the arm and neck. With veiled effects, the trimming is also applied to this second lining and finally the outside is put on. The inexperienced dressmaker will need a pattern from which to cut the waist, but the more experienced one, after putting the lining on a form, will drape the outside on, basting and pinning in place, and then cutting it out at the arm, neck and at the waist. If a yoke is to be used, that should be put on first, stretched tight on the fitted lining and sewed fast—the lining afterwards being cut out from under it. The collar should next be adjusted, before the neck has oppor- tunity to stretch. In draping the outside on, folds and gathers are laid I92 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Kinds of Sleeves Kimona Sleeves Finish of Sleeves on the outside separate from the lining. On lace yoke and collar small hooks and eyes should be set quite close together. A gap detracts very much from the appearance of a dress. Sleeve and armhole finishes differ greatly in dif- ferent seasons. When the kimona sleeve, or the very long shoulder effect is used, the sleeve lining will be sewed into the waist lining and the outside left en- tirely free. Lace undersleeves may be sewed to this lining, or, if no lining is required throughout the whole length, only a short lap, the depth of the dress shield, may be substituted. A normal sleeve and its lining may be gathered or basted together at the top, and both sewed into the lining and outside of the waist. Sometimes the sleeves are both sewed into the lining only, and the outside drapery extends over the sleeve top. The armhole is finished by binding or overcasting. The latter method avoids clumsiness and is neat and strong enough in most cases. In the kimona sleeve the pattern which gives a gore in the sleeve under the arm is less likely to prove troublesome. In any case there must be some freedom in the waist or it will tear. The long shoulder also requires more room under the arm. There are many finishes for the bottoms of sleeves, but, whether the sleeve be long, short or medium length, the finish should correspond with the rest of the waist. The bottom of the sleeve, like the neck, offers many possibilities for individual touches, and may give a note of character to the whole dress. Con- I94 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING COAT OR TIGHT FITTING SLEEVES Altering If it is necessary to lengthen the sleeve, say two Patterns inches, cut the pattern at right angles to the lines in- dicated by the dots, above and below the elbow. The slashing should be done exactly at the same distance apart in the upper and under portions of the sleeve in order to retain the proper shape and size of the top and bottom. Separate the parts, allowing one inch above and one inch below the elbow. To shorten the sleeve, lap the slashed part or lay a . fold in the pattern instead of slashing. In either case, care should be taken that the fold or lap is of even width all the way across, so that the original shape of the sleeve will not be lost. of # Too much care cannot be taken in arranging the pattern of the sleeve according to the thread of the goods. Especially is this the case in the two-piece or coat sleeve. Generally the top part of the outside seam and the lower part of the same side should be placed at the edge or fold of the goods, so that the two run in the same straight line. In all cases, the foundation sleeve or lining should be cut and fitted before the outer portion is adjusted. Ample time should be given to the fitting and basting of the sleeve. The “set” of the sleeve is very often unsatisfactory because the cut- ting and original basting was done in a careless man- ner. Remember that greater care is required in sleeve making than in any part of the garment. Each sleeve is complete in itself and one must not deviate from the COAT SLEEVES I95 other in size, arrangement or ornament, or general ap- pearance. They should be cut, basted and fitted alike and if the arms differ in size or length the sleeves must be so adjusted as to conceal the inequality. The sleeves should be made at the same time and before the cuffs, then the cuffs, puffs, or whatever spe- cial trimming is to be applied to them should be put on both sleeves at the same time. If the second sleeve is not made or trimmed until after the first is finished, it will be much more difficult to secure exactly the same effect. If it is impossible to complete both sleeves at one time, make the sleeves one day and the cuffs or trimming the next day. In making the coat sleeves the general methods are the same, but each season brings out new styles which the maker will have to understand before proper mak- ing and finishing can be acquired. Always master the simple and standard patterns and the minor changes dictated by fashion—new fancies and effects—will not be difficult to acquire after a little experience has been gained. The lining for both sleeves should be fitted and the outside cut by them. After economical cutting, trace the seams carefully, and baste the outside to the lining, basting both uppers before the under sections. Join the under and upper parts by pinning and basting, the outside seam first, be- ginning in the middle of the sleeve and working toward each end. The outside seams should be begun at the Joining the Partr 196 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Adding Cuffs notchat the elbow, working towardeach end. Where the sleeve calls for gathering the fullness should be dis- tributed between the notches and the two portions of the sleeve should be secured at this point, before or after basting the upper or lower portions of each sleeve. FINISHING OF SEAMS Notched at Curves and Bound or Overcast. Stitch the seams just outside the basting, then re- move the line of basting along the seam and press. Trim off all rough edges. The inside seam is opened and notched at the bend of the elbow and an inch or two above and below and bound with silk binding ribbon or evenly overcast with twist or mer- cerized cotton. If an elaborate cuff or trimming is to be added to the sleeve, whether full or plain, it should be made sepa- rately and blind stitched to the faced sleeve. In case 200 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Battern for Yoke SEAMLESS YOKES To make a pattern for a seamless yoke baste to- gether the shoulder seams of the fitted waist pattern, place the upper part of the pattern on cambric or stiff paper, with the front of waist on straight edge or fold of paper, trace the shape of the neck yoke any desired depth below the neck line. The lower edge can be cut in any shape, the neck either high or low, round or square. This perfectly fitted yoke pattern can be used for a foundation for lace, velvet, ribbon, net, or any thin material. The circular yoke made of lace and rib- bon or bias strips can be made to open in front or back. The strips of inserting and ribbon should be basted on the paper pattern and joined by fancy stitches or over sewed. The parts next the neck will need to be held fuller than the outside curve of the inserting. All yokes to be worn under the gown should be made on a well-fitted lining. Never trust to pinning, basting, or hooking the yoke to the waist. The finish of collar, cuffs, girdle and placket are hall- marks of good dressmaking. Well finished ends and corners, the careful adjustment of fastenings, shields carefully fitted to the arm's eye and caught smoothly to the lining—all these are little things that count for more than money spent in expensive ornament. PRESSING 2O1 PRESSING The success of the finish of every garment depends upon the pressing, whether the material be heavy or light, cotton or wool. Garments are always pressed on the wrong side, when being made. The iron used should neither be too hot nor too heavy and the work should be done on a perfectly smooth, well-covered board. For pressing black or dark cloth, the cover of the board should be dark and free from lint, while a perfectly clean light cover should be substituted when white or light goods are to be pressed. The whole face of an iron should never be put down On a seam or any part of a waist, but the side or point should be used, care being taken not to stretch a curved seam. A small rolling pin, a broom stick, a chair rocker, or any rounded stick well covered can be used for pressing curved seams or sleeves. This lessens the danger of marking the seams on the right side. These are only makeshifts; a regular half round sleeve board should be obtained if much work is to be done. In pressing, the iron should never be shoved or pushed, as in ironing. Only heavy materials require great strength. It is possible to press too much as well as too little. Whatever the material, pressing is work that requires to be done carefully and slowly. Allow the iron to touch only the center of the seam, the edges of the seam will not then be outlined upon the goods. Piled goods require infinite care. Uncut Pressing Board Placing the Iron 2O2 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Wet Pressing velvet, crape, etc., should never be pressed with the iron flat on the seam. The seam should be opened carefully and over the rounded surface of the board, covered with very soft cotton flannel into which the pile can sink without being flattened. Run the iron with the pile, or the iron may be placed on the side or flat end and the seams drawn slowly along the edge of the iron the same way the pile runs—only the edge of the iron touching the edge of the seam. Corded seams should be pressed in the same way to avoid flattening the cord. Very heavy cloths and chinchilla should have a small stream of water carried along the seam, followed by the iron; or the seam may be dampened by a soft cloth—very wet. This is the “wet pressing” used by tailors, which is adapted to the requirements of mate- rials used by them, such as serge, tweeds, etc. Press- ing on the right side under a damp cloth is apt to give marks if the cloth gets too dry or if the iron is too hot, but is necessary on finished wool garments. Silk scorches easily and should be pressed very care- fully with a cool iron, light in weight. Some light colors fade or change in pressing. Try a piece of the goods before pressing the garment. If the color does not come back when cold or when ex- posed to the light, do not use a hot iron on the garment. CONSTRUCTION AND ORNAMENT FOR DRESS Many of the principles governing architecture and art apply equally as well to art in dress. Both in archi- tecture and dress, construction should be decorated- decoration should never be purposely constructed. It is by the ornament of a building that one can judge more truly of the creative power which the artist has brought to bear upon his work. The general propor- tion may be good, the mouldings accurate, but the in- stant ornament is attempted, the architect or the dress- maker reveals how much of an artist he is. To put ornament in the right place—where it serves a pur- pose—is indeed difficult; to render that ornament at the same time an added beauty and an expression of the desired unity is far more difficult. All decoration should be planned to enrich—not to assert. All jewelry or ornament should form a note in the general harmony of color—a decorative touch to add beauty and to be subordinated to the object deco- rated. It should serve the purpose of seeming to strengthen the whole or to protect the parts receiving most wear. Ornament is everywhere attempted. We see ornament at every turn—good and bad alike—in our homes, on clothes, linen, and kitchen utensils. Carlyle tells us that “The first want of barbarous man is decoration.” We have no record of when this need was felt first. Primitive man after supplying his ac- tual needs, seemed to develop a longing for the beauti- ful, so he ornamented his own body, scratched rude pat- terns on his tools and weapons and gradually devel- Principles of Ornament Purpose of Ornament 203 204 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Errors in Ornamentation £mbroidery oped the artistic sense. This love of ornament dates back to the beginnings of the human race and there are no records of a race or a period devoid of it. We see gowns totally lacking in good results because too much has been attempted. The wearer has not con- sidered the effect as a whole, but has gratified her lik- ing for a multiplicity of ornaments and color which, perhaps would be good in themselves, if applied sep- arately, but which becomes an incongruous mixture when brought together on one garment. Garments which seem to have required great effort in the making and which appear complex in construc- tion should be avoided, for the effect is not pleasing. The gown should set off the wearer, not the wearer the gown. To avoid committing errors against good taste it is essential first to consider the use of any garment and see if it answers the purpose for which it was designed. If any part appears meaningless, this is a sure indica- tion that it is wanting in grace and beauty. The orna- ment should harmonize with the materials, use, and construction of the object to which it is applied. The color must be massed with effect and detailed with Care. There can be no ornamentation equal to that which is worked into the material, such as embroidery. The design should be appropriate in form and color and always conventional. Flowers are used most fre- quently for embroidery and passementerie and the // ORNAMENT IN DRESS 205 simple, single flowers are the most effective, such as the daisy, the wild rose, and the flowers of the lily family. These simple flowers are the best because they radiate from a central point, have strong forms and decided proportions, can be most fully expressed in a few stitches requiring the fewest shades of color, and are admirably adapted for amateur workers. Old Indian stuffs, jewelry, and enamels are rich in suggestions of conventionalized flowers. The simple, single flowers are repeated constantly, the daisy ap- pearing to be the favorite in these beautiful ornaments. The most beautiful of all conventional flower work, jewel studded, is found in samples of work of the fif- teenth century. They simple suggest the forms of na- ture. The repetition of the same flower in all its as- pects is more pieasing and less tiresome to the eye than a variety of flowers or figures. We find upon analysis that the simple forms are the basis of all decorative art work. Geometrical designs and arabesques are the most difficult, requiring the most exacting and careful work. Narrow bands, braided, outlined, or chain-stitched in simple designs are effective, easily done, and wear well. Braids and any of these stitches may be combined, making durable and effective trimming for sleeves and neck. These simple designs are also appropriate for children's frocks. The French knots are ornamental and dura- ble. All embroidery and passementerie should be rich, close, and continuous. It should not be cut up into Flowers as Ornament Geometrical Designs 2O6 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING POOR DESIGN, WEAK CONNECTION pieces and sewed on where it does not serve, or appear to serve, a purpose. There is very little passementerie that is at all suit- able for forming edges, as it is not sufficiently substan- tial, but when it can be found firm and of the right shade it is one of the most beautiful ornaments to edge neck and sleeves. It may be allowed to extend beyond Passementerie ORNAMENT IN DRESS 207 the dress material, so that the flesh tints may show through the design, thus gradually softening the out- line. Often a narrow passementerie can be found with one strong edge and a good border can be made by joining the two. This cannot be done where the pat- tern is united by a band running through the center of the ornament. JOINING NARROW PASSEMENTERIE TO FORM A BORDER A band of velvet or cloth embroidered in outline stitch and French knots of same shade as the garment is a satisfactory edge. Except for yokes, the knots should always be held together with the outline edge. The rich silk braids and passementeries are made of silk wound or woven over cotton and should be used only on dresses which are not intended for hard wear. Such trimmings are, of course, inappropriate on serges and homespuns and soon become shabby if given much rough service. Laces, like all trimmings, have defined limits within which they should be used, though they are often worn indiscriminately. Machine made laces, often good in Bands Use of Laces 208 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Design of Lace Placing of Decorations Simplicity and Harmony The Bow make and design, are now very common, but the best machine-made laces are not cheap in price. Handsome lace should be applied rather plainly, as the pattern is often lost in the gathers. Fine laces are out of harmony with heavy or coarse materials. When lace is desired for flounces that with running patterns which neither advance nor retreat, except in the folds which may be made, will be found most pleasing. Dis- tinct objects, such as baskets, crowns, vases, etc., which suggest weight, are unsuitable patterns for so light a fabric as lace. Attention to details is essential in the placing of these decorations, as in the selection or making of them. The worker should take into consideration the shape and size of the bands or pieces of trimming and should note carefully the chief characteristics of the design and above all the junction of leaves, flowers, arabesques, especially in the finishing of the corners of collars and cuffs. Those at all skillful with the use of the needle can attain the most beautiful and artistic results if right laws in color and design are adhered to, even by the use of the simplest stitches, for the beauty of dress lies not so much in the richness and variety of material used as upon simplicity and harmony—a fact too often disregarded. Perhaps no ornament is more abused than the bow. In order not to appear intrusive, ribbons require the most delicate handling. The only excuse for a ribbon ORNAMENT IN DRESS 209 as an ornament is when it makes a pretense of tying. When used as a sash where folds or gathers are con- fined, the tone of the ribbon should, in general, vary scarcely from that of the dress. Whatever the ornament used, whether embroidered band, a ribbon, a cord that laces, a diamond pin, or a jeweled buckle, though it may possess great intrinsic value and beauty, it cannot be considered of real worth as an ornament unless it fulfills the most important condition—fitness of place. Although the art of dress admits of innumerable variations, like all other arts it is subject to the three rules of beauty—order, proportion and harmony. Ornaments are appropriate on the hems or edges of garments where it serves the purpose of strengthen- ing and protecting the parts most worn, and not sim- ply where fancy or fashion dictates. The natural fastenings and fold centers should be along the axis or center of the body. Any jewelry, buckle, brooch, or ornament used to fasten, secure, or strengthen these centers or to hold bands of embroid- ery, collar, or folds together should be sufficiently strong to serve the purpose. There must be a reason for position and the purpose of its use must be ap- parent to satisfy the eye. The eye is unconsciously and irresistibly drawn to these natural centers and demands some object there on which to rest—some substance from which the fold emanate—some reason for their detention. If this ornament at the throat or waist Fitness of Place Natural Centers ORNAMENT IN DRESS 2II in fullness; it has no use on a close-fitting, plain waist. No draperies should be invisibly held; supply some ap- parent means of confining the gathers. Ornament may be used to emphasize the good lines and proportions of a figure or to conceal the poor ones. Breadth across the shoulder and chest are given by proper arrangement of folds, placing of orna- ment, or by merely raising or lowering the line of the armhole. The waist may be made to appear shorter or longer by raising or lowering the girdle, or by changing the lines of the trimming in the waist. The extremely short person will look better if the eye is drawn toward up and down lines rather than cross lines. The very tall person may not wear stripes up and down her skirt, but bands around will appar- ently decrease her height. Trimming around or even on the hips emphasizes the size of the large woman. Extremely close-fitting skirts, especially those which grow smaller at the bot- tom, make some women look positively deformed. To preserve the lines of the figure there should be unity in dress, correspondence in color, in material, in lines or in ornament between the waist and skirt. This is lacking in the combination of shirt waist and skirt, but even then the neck bow or the belt may sug- gest the color of the skirt. For convenience in sports, and in business, appropriateness to need must come first, and the shirt waist fills a great need of the practical woman, Use of Ornament Unity in Dress 2I2 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING ORNAMENT OF TEXTILES ln addition to ornament added to garment, the orna- ment in the textile itself must be considered. Appropriate Textiles may be beautiful in weave, but spoiled by " the design. Quite as important as intrinsic beauty is appropriateness of pattern. How often do we see woven on our curtains, carpets, and garment materials fans, bunches of roses tied with ribbons—bows with long, fluttering ends—landscapes, snow scenes, etc. Nothing is beautiful out of its place. A fan suggests coolness and grace of motion, but woven in our tex- tiles it gives the same impression as a butterfly mounted on a pin—something perverted, imprisoned, or robbed of its natural use. Nothing is or ever can be beauti- ful without use—without harmony. Decorations on textiles are not to tell stories. There is a difference between landscape painting and using landscapes as a motive for decorating textiles or pottery. In one case the aim is to annihilate surface by producing the im- pression of distance; in the other, the object is to glor- ify the surface only. Advantage For the woman of limited income it is wiser to se- £ lect plain material of good texture and weave. Such material is never conspicuous, can be made over, and is always restful and may be interesting. Any good textile must impress itself upon the mind by its sug- gestiveness and beauty of color. There is a difference between what may be called artistic and decorative COLOR 215 Some women maintain that they cannot wear green, but nearly all can dress becomingly in this color if the shade and texture is selected carefully. The same may be said of other colors for the many variations should be taken into consideration. The average woman in selecting materials for gowns or house furnishings is apt to be influenced too much by details, as she would judge the merits of a fine piece of needlework, hence the value of good, broad color schemes fails to appeal to her. The chenille curtain, perhaps, suits her because it is full of complex decoration. After having determined the prevailing color of a costume, the details should be in harmony, rather than in contrast with it. Different tones of one color are more satisfactory than striking contrasts, and even strong patches of light and shade of the same color should be avoided, as well as patches of crude and vivid color. The pleasing contrasts found in nature cease to be happy when attempted in textiles. Use few colors, avoid bright shades except in small quantities. All bright colors should be placed near the face, rather than on or near the bottom of skirts or the edge of sleeves. Avoid strong contrasts; the brighter the color and the greater the contrast with other colors, the louder and cruder will be the effect. “No color harmony is of a high order unless it involve indescribable tints.” Harmony o Contrast 218 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING With the proper kind of frock a child can indulge in any game without becoming in the least disordered. Dresses for little girls may have drawers made of the same material, thus permitting them the same freedom as the boys. The life of the child is play. Unfortu- nate is the child whose clothing is too good to play in. Of course there should be frocks for gala occasions. Children are sensitive to color and receive much inno- cent enjoyment from being prettily dressed. A child may be made unhappy and timid by ugly clothes, but plainness need not mean ugliness. There are many artistic and simple patterns now being put on the mar- ket and many of the ready-made frocks found in the best shops are satisfactory. 220 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Ruffled Skirts Packing Away Clothing Folding Garments cared for are far preferable to twice the number of inferior quality and make. Skirts of thin material having ruffles around the bot- tom should be hung upside down by loops sewed under the ruffles at the seams. By hanging in the opposite di- rection from which they fall when worn, ruffles regain their freshness. All clothing for the season should be put away in perfect order to be ready for any sudden emergency which may arise. No clothing of any kind should be stored for the season without thorough cleaning and repairing where necessary. Garments that are out- grown should be disposed of, instead of packing them away. Wool garments should be carefully brushed and hung in the sun to remove and destroy any eggs of moths which may be present. They may be hung in tight cotton bags or packed in tight boxes with all openings posted over as a protection against moths. Tailors' boxes which come flat are not expensive and are useful for this. They should be plainly labeled with their contents. To fold, lay all articles on the bed or table and fold on the seams if possible. Particular attention should be given to sleeves and collars. Coat lapels should be turned to lie flat, collars turned up, and the coat folded directly through the center seam. Skirts and coats with bias seams are not improved by hanging as the bias parts are apt to stretch out of shape. CLEANING 221 No clothing should be put away for the night, even, without first removing all steel pins, as the least damp- ness may cause rust spots. Clothes forms and hangers are so inexpensive that every gown and coat should have its own. Skirts should be hung exactly on the form and no part of the band should be allowed to sag. If fancy waists are put in drawers or boxes, they should have the sleeves filled with tissue paper and the collars and bows should be pulled straight. CLEANING Large garments require the greatest care in hand- ling and in order to be done successfully, they should be sent to the professional cleaner. All stains and spots should be removed as soon as possible. Fruit and wine stains may be removed by stretching the fabric over a vessel and pouring boiling water through the cloth from a height of a foot or two. The water must be boiling. Ink stains can be taken out of clothing by dipping the cloth in milk, squeezing the blackened milk into one dish and dipping immediately into clear milk until the stain has disappeared. Then finish by washing the cloth in warm water and in soapy water to remove the fat in the milk. Iron rust may be removed from linen and cotton by using lemon juice and salt. Wet the spot with the juice of a lemon, cover with salt and lay in the sun, Remove Pins Hangers Fruit and Wine Stains Ink Stains Iron Rust 222 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Grease Spots 18lood 8tains Solvents repeating the operation until the stain is removed, then rinse out the lemon and salt thoroughly. This of course cannot be used on colored fabrics, as it fades the color. Grease is one of the worst foes to garments and the greatest care is needed to remove such spots from delicate fabrics. If not done at once, the dust and grease together often prove ruinous. When the color and fabric will not be injured by it, warm water and soap is the best agent, otherwise absorbents may be used. French chalk or magnesia powdered, placed upon the spot, and allowed to remain for a time will often absorb the grease effectually. If the first appli- cation is not effective, brush off, and apply again until the spot disappears. Where water can be used without injuring the cloth, the chalk or magnesia can be made into a paste and spread over the spot. When dry, brush off with a soft brush. In removing fresh grease spots, blotting paper with a warm iron may often be used effectively. If the heat changes the color of the cloth, the iron should be held above the goods. - Blood stains may be removed by making a paste of starch and applying it to the spot. Several applica- tions may be necessary. Only the best and purest benzine, naphtha, gaso- line, and turpentine should be used for cleaning gar- ments. For removing paints from coarse cloth, pure turpentine is useful, while for silks, velvets and wool- ens, benzine, naptha and gasoline are to be preferred. CLEANING 223 The secret of success in the use of any of these cleans- ing agents lies in immersing the garments in large quantities of the liquid. Not less than a gallon should be used for a waist and two gallons will do the work far more satisfactorily. An effort should be made to remove all the worst spots before immersing the whole garment. Those which have not disappeared should then be marked with white thread, colored thread may leave a mark. It is a good plan to enclose the spot with a line of basting. Soak the garment for some time in the liquid, then soap all spots thoroughly and rub gently between the hands until they disappear. Finally wash and rinse the garment in clear liquid and hang in the open air until all odor has passed away. Soap may be used freely with gasoline with good ef- fect. Some professional cleaners use a little of the strongest ammonia in their gasoline tanks. The goods should be shaken well and all folds pulled out straight with the threads of the goods. Velveteen, corduroy, and like piled fabrics can be cleaned successfully if not too much worn, but no amount of cleaning will restore the pile that is worn off. If allowed to stand until the impurities have settled and the clear liquid poured into clean bottles, it may be used for a number of times. This should always be done in the open air. Chloroform may be used for cleaning the most deli- cate silks, though this is rather expensive. Whenever any of these liquids are used to remove spots alone, the spots should be placed upon a soft pad of several thicknesses of old cloth or blotting paper to Cleaning Garments Soap and Ammonia with Gasoline Absorbing Pad 224 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Cleaning Velvet Before Sending to Cleaners absorb the surplus liquid and the spot should be rubbed from the outside towards the center. A hole may be cut in very soft cloth or blotting paper and placed around the spot to absorb the solvent around the stain and prevent the dark ring being formed. The cloth should be rubbed lightly and briskly until it is dry. If the fabric is light colored, a sponge or a soft piece of light cloth should be used, while for dark fabrics, the cloth used for rubbing the spot should also be dark and free from lint. The rubbing should be done light- ly so as not to wear or injure the texture of the fabric. The blotting paper or cloth underneath should be changed frequently until the spot has entirely disap- peared. - Velvet hats and bonnets, after all trimming is re- moved, may be cleaned by repeated dippings in benzine or gasoline. The vessel used should be large enough to hold a sufficient quantity of the liquid to completely cover the hat. Of course all dust should be carefully brushed off and all folds ripped and loosened before putting the hat into the liquid. The secret of success lies in having the article entirely free from dust and using a large quantity of the benzine or gasoline. Before sending out garments to be dyed or cleaned, be sure that they are in good condition. All worn places should be mended carefully and all buttons should be removed. Garments that are ripped should have all cut threads pulled out and be free from dust. Dust silk fabrics with a piece of clean flannel and woolen material with a brush or broom. REPAIRING 225 REPAIRING Fabrics are so much cheaper and so much easier to obtain that patching has almost become one of the lost arts. The twentieth century woman feels that her time is too valuable to be spent in mending the old clothes and that she can better afford to buy new. However that may be, no one disputes the utility of mending. Like so many other duties, mending is half done when well begun. A well made garment of good material should not be discarded when slightly worn, for a patch well put in or a neat piece of darning de- tracts in no way from the value of a garment and may even be a work of art. The children's clothes particu- larly should be kept in good order, for they are made uncomfortable by wearing garments that are out of re- pair, to say nothing of the demoralizing effect upon their characters. Laundering is the great ally to tears and not only doubles the size of the hole, but pulls the threads apart so that it is impossible to make the mended place neat and smooth, therefore all clothing should be mended before washing. Stockings and woven underwear are much worn by the rubbing on the washboard and thin places going into the washing frequently come out as holes, so that it is true economy of effort and time to “run” or darn the thin places before they are worn through. It requires much less time and the garments last longer. Economical Mending Laundering and Repairs 226 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING Boys' Trowsers Sleeves Table Cloths Lengthening Garments It is a good plan, especially in knees of stockings and knitted underwear, to baste a piece of fine net over a worn or broken place and darn over it. (See Darn- ing.) Thread used for darning should be as near as possible the size of the threads in the garment. Darn- ing cotton, linen, wool, and silk of all shades can be bought, so that the problem of matching is no longer a difficult one. In mending the knees of boys’ trousers a round patch should never be used. The seams should be ripped and the piece set in then, if the seams are pressed well, the patch will scarcely be noticeable. When bodices are worn under the arm, rip the seams and set in a new “under arm” piece. A good plan for one whose dresses are apt to wear through quickly is to have the under arm pieces and the adjacent parts of the front made of two thicknesses of the goods; then, as the outside wears through, the edges can be hemmed down or taken into the seam. When table cloths begin to wear in the middle fold or along the edge of the table, a few inches cut off one end and one side of the cloth will change the fold and the place where it falls over the table and give it a new lease of life. If the hem is turned down once and cat stitched, it will resemble the selvage more than a twice turned hem. In repairing or lengthening garments that have be- come too short, much can be done by adding to the bottom of the skirt and sleeves material of different 228 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING economy. Never attempt cleaning and making over old clothes unless the material is good enough to make it worth while to do the work well. • Mending The mending basket is an important adjunct of * mending and should be well supplied with darning cot- ton of all colors and sizes, good English tape, black and white, of different widths, linen tape, bias tape, differ- ent kinds and sizes of needles,—sewing, darning, shoe, carpet, and tape needles. Use of For repairing bands and facings, where buttons have * been torn off by wringer or iron, and for strengthen- ing weak places, tape is invaluable. It saves the time required to turn in the edges of the cloth and is less clumsy and bungling. TJse of The mender should use good judgment as to the *# amount of work to be applied to each garment. She should substitute the machine needle whenever possible and not put tiny stitches by hand into half worn gar- ments or in unseen places. Ripped tucks and bands can be sewed in a few minutes on the machine. Serv- iceable darning can be done on the machine. - Before putting away freshly laundered clothes it is a good plan to take out the clothes already in the draw- ers and lay the ones washed last on the bottom. thus all garments will wear alike, each article in its regular turn. TEST QUESTIONS The following questions constitute the “written recitation” which the regular members of the A. S. H. E. answer in writing and send in for the correc- tion and comment of the instructor. They are in- tended to emphasize and fix in the memory the most important points in the lesson. TEXTILES AND CLOTHING PART III Read Carefully. To make this test of greatest value to ou, write fully from your personal standpoint and experience. ry as many methods given in the text as your time will allow so that you may ask for explanation if the descriptions are not clear to you. Methods are many; if you do not agree with these given, suggest better ones. I. (a) What are the requisites for good dress- making? (b) How does dressmaking dif- fer from white sewing in make, finish, and ornamentation? 2. From your point of view what do you consider a successful garment? 3. Give methods of altering patterns. 4. Give briefly the method of cutting and making from patterns; (a) a shirt waist, with cuff open opposite seam: (b) a woolen skirt, including method of stitching, pressing, and finishing. 5. How may pressing be done to give the best re- sults? What garments require little or no pressing, and why? 6. (a) State some of the principles and purposes of ornament. (b) What is your idea of orna- ment applied to garments? (c) Give some errors in ornamentation not named in text. 231 232 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING IO. II. I2. I3. I4. I5. Cut from magazines illustrations showing your idea of good and faulty ornamentation in dress. Give reason for your opinion. Illustrate in some way, either by picture, draw- ing, embroidery, braid, or stitching, some de- sign appropriate for ornament work on neck or sleeve. Where should ornament be placed, and why? (a) Give your idea of appropriate design on tex- tiles. (b) The advantage and disadvantage of plain materials. Make a color card of silk, wool, paper or raffia showing colors that contrast, (b) Colors that harmonize. What colors do you find satisfactory for your own wear, and why? What materials are best suited for infants' gar- ments? (b) What can you say in regard to children's clothing? What is your opinion of the care of clothing? (b) What experience have you had in clean- ing (a) cotton, (b) wool, (c) linen, (d) silk, (e) velvet? Do you consider it economy to repair garments? Can you suggest better methods than those given in the text? TEXTILES AND CLOTHING 233 I6. 17. I8. 19. 2O. 2I. 22. If possible make some garment, shirt waist, skirt, or simple dress while studying this les- son and describe in detail how you went about it, the result, time taken, total cost. Tell why you selected the design, the color, the mate- rial. Have you found the ready made garments satis- factory in underwear and dresses? Tell of some of your failures in dressmaking and give the reasons for your lack of success. What methods, new to you, have you tried in connection with this lesson? What questions have you to ask? Can you add any suggestions that would be help- ful to others in this work? Wherein have the lessons been of practical value to you? For Teachers. Draw up an outline for a course in sewing to combine two considerations: (a) adaptability to the child's interests and capaci- ties, (b) orderly sequence in the technical part. Note: After completing the answers, sign your full name. SUPPLEMENTARY PROGRAM ARRANGED FOR CLASS STUDY ON TEXTILES AND CLOTHING MEETING I (Study pages 1–59) Primitive Methods Endeavor to obtain a Colonial spinning-wheel in working order, and get some one to operate it. If possible, obtain samples of weaving done on a hand loom. Examine a hand-loom if possible. They may be seen at the manufacturers of rag and remade carpets. References: Woman's Share in Primitive Culture, Mason, Chapter III, The Weaver. ($1.75, postage 16c.) Colonial Days in Old New England, by Earle. ($1.25, postage 12c.) Textile Fibres Collect an exhibit of raw fibres and fibres in process of manu- facture. Send to the U. S. Department of Agriculture, Department of Botany, Washington, D.C., for small sam- ples; to manufacturers of thread; to friends in manufac- turing towns. Test the various fibres by burning. Examine under a mi- croscope with a small hand-glass, if greater power cannot be obtained. Try warm acid—sulphuric, hydrochloric, or oxalic—on the fibres; let the fibres dry. Also try a solu- tion of caustic soda on the fibres. w References: The Textile Fibres, by Matthews. ($3.50, postage 16c.) Textile Fibres and Cotton Fibre, pamphlets of the American School of Correspondence. (5oc. each, postage 4c. each.) 236 238 TEXTILES AAWD CLOTHING Test some of the samples of wash goods for fastness to wash- ing and light, by washing in warm water and soap (or boiling in the soap and water) and expose to sunlight all day for three or four days. Keep a part of each sample for comparison. (Select a composite set of answers to the Test Questions on Part I and send to the School, with report on the supple- mental work done and Meetings I and II.) MEETING III (Study pages 107–123) Sewing: Plain Stitches Send to manufacturers for samples showing the process of manufacture of pins, needles, etc. 1Demonstrate different ways of making the same stitches; discuss best methods. Embroidery Show how all the embroidery stitches are made. Get up an exhibit of all kinds of embroidery, including Oriental, Japanese, old samplers, etc. Have members make Model I, First Series. References: Home and School Sewing, by Patton. ($0.60, postage 6c.) School Needlework, by Hapgood. ($o.75, post- age 6c.) Manual of Exercise in Hand Sewing, by Blair. ($1.25, postage Ioc.) Topic: Educational Value of Sewing in the Public Schools. Methods. See “A Sewing Course,”by Mary S. Woolman, Introduction ($3.5o, post- age 20c.), and “The Teaching of Domestic Science in the United States of America,” by Alice Ravenhill, pages 9-1o, 43–46. ($o.75, postage 12c.) AROGRAM 239 MEETING IV (Study pages 123–165) Hems, Seams, Fastenings, Darning, Patching Have all members make models II, III, IV, and V. Previously assign members to furnish models or examples of all other hems, seams, fastenings, patches, darns, etc., illustrated or described in the text, and as many more as possible. Machine Sewing Get the local sewing machine agent to give a demonstration of the workings of the attachments of the machine. (Select models and answers to Test Questions on Part II and send them to the School, with a report of Meetings III and IV.) MEETING V (Study pages 167–200) Dressmaking Get the local dry-goods or department store to lend different kinds of dress forms. Collect patterns from different makers. Show how patterns are altered to suit the figure. (See text and “Dressmaking Up to Date.”) As many as possible cut out and begin making a simple shirt- waist or skirt. Show finished garment at next meeting, giving accurate account of cost and time spent. References: Dressmaking Up to Date, The Butterick Co. ($o.25, postage 8c.) Sewing and Garment Drafting, by Margaret L. Blair. ($1.25, postage 12c.) 24O TEXTVLES AAWD CLOTHING MEETING VI (Study pages 205–228) Construction and Ornament in Dress; Color Collect illustrations showing good and faulty ornamentation. Procure samples of fabrics showing good and faulty orna- mentation. Make a color card showing contrast and harmony of color. (See Question 11.) References: See list on pages 234 and 235. Children's Clothing Get up an exhibit of simple and satisfactory clothing for children, including color, material, style and make. Discuss children's clothes in reference to laundering. Care and Repair of Clothes Show examples of successful repairing. Try some of the methods of cleaning. (See, also Chemistry of the Household pages 73–84.) (Select answers to Test Questions on Part III and send them to the School, with report on Meetings V and VI.) Adulteration of linen, 87 Alpaca, 9o Altering sleeve patterns, 194 INDEX Cotton goods, 85 home of, 30 Nankin, 34 sea island, 3o upland, 30 Cross stitch, 120 Cuffs, 196 Cutting table, 168 Darning, 155 Angora wool, 39 Aniline dyes, 79 Arrow heads, 123 Aack stitch, 1 12 Basting, 108 Bibliography, to 3, 229 Bleaching, 78 Bobbin, 19 Boning waist, 192 Bow, the, 208 Burling, 83 Bust form, 168 Button holes, 141 large, 145 making, 144 Buttons, sewing on, 145 Carding, 59 Care of clothing, 2.19 Cassimere twills, 73, 75 Cat stitch, I 16 Catch stitch, I 16 Chain stitch, I 16 Checks, 213 Children's clothes, 216, 217 Cleaning, 59, 221 Collars, 198 putting on, 1.99 Color in dress, 214 Colors, mordant, 79 Combing, Öo Conventional designs, 213 Costumes, references, 234 Cotton, 29 boles, 32 fibers, 34 on machine, 158 over net 157 Decorations, placing, 208 Distaff, 12 Double cloth, 77 Draped waist, 192 Drawing tapes, 140 Dressmaking, 167 Dyeing, 78 home, So Dyes, aniline, 79 Dyestuffs, natural, 8o Embroidery, 204 as Ornament, 204 eyelet, 122 shadow, 123 stitches, 114 Extension hem, 227 Eyelet embroidery, 122 Eyelets, 149 Fabrics, 85 list of, 96 – 102 names of, 94 primitive, 27 width of, 93 Facing, bias, 141 skirt, 179 Fastening the thread, Io9 Fastenings, 141 24I Hems, rolled, 126 Herringbone stitch, 116 Home dyeing, 8o Hook and eyes, 147 Hydroscopic moisture, 42 acquard loom, 7o oining lace, 160 Jute, 5o Knit goods, 72 242 TEXTILES AAWD CLOTHIAWG - Feather stitch, 118 Fibers, 29 cotton, 29 flax, 43 silk, 53 wool, 37 Finishes, 139 Finishing skirt, 179 seams, 196 waist, 192 Finishing, woolens, 83 Fitting, 173, 193 sleeves, 190 waists, 190 Flax, 43 fibers, 47 hackling, 44, 47 Flocks, 83 Folding garments, 220 French hem, 127 knots, 119 seam, 131 Fulling, 83 Fur, 40 Gathering, I I I, 138 Gathers, whipped, 127 Gauging, 112 Gigging, 83 Gingham, 86 Grease spots, 122 Hand sewing, Io.7 Harmony in dress, 215 Harness, the, 70 Heddle, 17 Hemp, 5o Hem stitch, 118 Hems, 123 bias, 124 faced, 124 flannel, 127 French, 127 folding, 123 Lace, design of, 208 Laces, use of, 207 Laundering, 225 Lengthening garments, 226 Linen, 86 - adulteration of, 87 characteristics of, 47 Lining, cutting, 188 Loading silk, 56 Looms, 17 Colonial, 19, 21, 22 development of, 19 diagram of, 23 fly shuttle, 26 four harness, hand, 21 acquard, 7o apanese, 20 modern, 25, 69 Navajo, 18 Swedish hand, 24 Loop stitch, 116 Madder bleach, 78 Machine darning, 158 sewing, 162 Mending, 83, 225 Mitering embroidery, 58 Modern methods, 59 Mohair, 9o Mordant colors, 79 Muslin, 85 Nankin cotton, 34 Natural dyestuffs, 80 AVD.E.X. 243 Olona, 53 Ornament, 203 embroidery as, 204 fitness of, 209 flowers as, 205 of textiles, 212 Ornamental stitches, Io8, 114 Ornamentation, errors in, 2.04 Outline stitch, I 14 Overcasting, I 14, 142 Oversewing, 113 Packing clothing, 220 Passementerie, 206 Patching, 149 Patterns, 171 altering, 173 cloth, 174 lengthening, 173 pinning, 176 placing, 176 selection of, 171 testing, 174 use of, 172 Picking, 59 Piled fabrics, 91 Plackets, 135 faced, 137 Plaids, 213 Plain material, 212 Plush, 77 Pressing, 201 board, 168, 201 wet, 2 oz Primitive methods, 3 Printing, 81 block, 81 machine, 81 warps, 82 Ramie, 5o Raw silk, 56 Reed, 19 Reeling silk, 54 Repairing, 225 Retting flax, 45 Roving, 61 Running stitch, 1 Io Sateen weave, 79 Satin, 91 stitch, 121 Scouring agents, 41 Sea island cotton, 3o Seams, 128 beaded, 131 felled, 128 flannel, 135 French, 131 lapped, 133 slot, 131 Serges, 88 Seven-gored skirt, 172 Sewing, hand, 107 machine, 162 Sewing machines, 162 care of, 162 types of, 162 use of, 164 Shadow embroidery, 123 Sheep, 39 Shirt waists, cutting, 182 plan for making, 183 Shuttle, 19 Silk, 53 artificial, 58 boiling off, 56 fiber, 53 loading, 56, 9o production, 53 raw, 56 twilled, 91 Silk, wash, 91 Silk worm, 54 # 9o ingeing, 78 Skirt, 172 band, 179 **